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4,900 | Hormone | Epinephrine (adrenaline), a catecholamine-type hormone Hormones (from Greek ὁρμή - "impetus") are chemicals released by cells that affect cells in other parts of the body. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. It is essentially a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to another. All multicellular organisms produce hormones; plant hormones are also called phytohormones. Hormones in animals are often transported in the blood. Cells respond to a hormone when they express a specific receptor for that hormone. The hormone binds to the receptor protein, resulting in the activation of a signal transduction mechanism that ultimately leads to cell type-specific responses. Endocrine hormone molecules are secreted (released) directly into the bloodstream, while exocrine hormones (or ectohormones) are secreted directly into a duct, and from the duct they either flow into the bloodstream or they flow from cell to cell by diffusion in a process known as paracrine signalling. Hormone signaling Hormonal signaling across this hierarchy involves the following: Biosynthesis of a particular hormone in a particular tissue Storage and secretion of the hormone Transport of the hormone to the target cell(s) Recognition of the hormone by an associated cell membrane or intracellular receptor protein. Relay and amplification of the received hormonal signal via a signal transduction process: This then leads to a cellular response. The reaction of the target cells may then be recognized by the original hormone-producing cells, leading to a down-regulation in hormone production. This is an example of a homeostatic negative feedback loop. Degradation of the hormone. As can be inferred from the hierarchical diagram, hormone biosynthetic cells are typically of a specialized cell type, residing within a particular endocrine gland, such as thyroid gland, ovaries, and testes. Hormones exit their cell of origin via exocytosis or another means of membrane transport. The hierarchical model is an oversimplification of the hormonal signaling process. Cellular recipients of a particular hormonal signal may be one of several cell types that reside within a number of different tissues, as is the case for insulin, which triggers a diverse range of systemic physiological effects. Different tissue types may also respond differently to the same hormonal signal. Because of this, hormonal signaling is elaborate and hard to dissect. Interactions with receptors Most hormones initiate a cellular response by initially combining with either a specific intracellular or cell membrane associated receptor protein. A cell may have several different receptors that recognize the same hormone and activate different signal transduction pathways, or alternatively different hormones and their receptors may invoke the same biochemical pathway. For many hormones, including most protein hormones, the receptor is membrane associated and embedded in the plasma membrane at the surface of the cell. The interaction of hormone and receptor typically triggers a cascade of secondary effects within the cytoplasm of the cell, often involving phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of various other cytoplasmic proteins, changes in ion channel permeability, or increased concentrations of intracellular molecules that may act as secondary messengers (e.g. cyclic AMP). Some protein hormones also interact with intracellular receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus by an intracrine mechanism. For hormones such as steroid or thyroid hormones, their receptors are located intracellularly within the cytoplasm of their target cell. In order to bind their receptors these hormones must cross the cell membrane. The combined hormone-receptor complex then moves across the nuclear membrane into the nucleus of the cell, where it binds to specific DNA sequences, effectively amplifying or suppressing the action of certain genes, and affecting protein synthesis. However, it has been shown that not all steroid receptors are located intracellularly, some are plasma membrane associated. An important consideration, dictating the level at which cellular signal transduction pathways are activated in response to a hormonal signal is the effective concentration of hormone-receptor complexes that are formed. Hormone-receptor complex concentrations are effectively determined by three factors: The number of hormone molecules available for complex formation The number of receptor molecules available for complex formation and The binding affinity between hormone and receptor. The number of hormone molecules available for complex formation is usually the key factor in determining the level at which signal transduction pathways are activated. The number of hormone molecules available being determined by the concentration of circulating hormone, which is in turn influenced by the level and rate at which they are secreted by biosynthetic cells. The number of receptors at the cell surface of the receiving cell can also be varied as can the affinity between the hormone and its receptor. Physiology of hormones Most cells are capable of producing one or more molecules, which act as signaling molecules to other cells, altering their growth, function, or metabolism. The classical hormones produced by cells in the endocrine glands mentioned so far in this article are cellular products, specialized to serve as regulators at the overall organism level. However they may also exert their effects solely within the tissue in which they are produced and originally released. The rate of hormone biosynthesis and secretion is often regulated by a homeostatic negative feedback control mechanism. Such a mechanism depends on factors which influence the metabolism and excretion of hormones. Thus, higher hormone concentration alone cannot trigger the negative feedback mechanism. Negative feedback must be triggered by overproduction of an "effect" of the hormone. Hormone secretion can be stimulated and inhibited by: Other hormones (stimulating- or releasing-hormones) Plasma concentrations of ions or nutrients, as well as binding globulins Neurons and mental activity Environmental changes, e.g., of light or temperature One special group of hormones is the tropic hormones that stimulate the hormone production of other endocrine glands. For example, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland, the thyroid, which increases output of thyroid hormones. A recently-identified class of hormones is that of the "hunger hormones" - ghrelin, orexin and PYY 3-36 - and "satiety hormones" - e.g., leptin, obestatin, nesfatin-1. In order to release active hormones quickly into the circulation, hormone biosynthetic cells may produce and store biologically inactive hormones in the form of pre- or prohormones. These can then be quickly converted into their active hormone form in response to a particular stimulus. Effects of hormone Hormones have the following effects on the body: stimulation or inhibition of growth mood swings induction or suppression of apoptosis (programmed cell death) activation or inhibition of the immune system regulation of metabolism preparation of the body for fighting, sex, fleeing, mating, and other activity preparation of the body for a new phase of life, such as puberty, caring for offspring, and menopause control of the reproductive cycle A hormone may also regulate the production and release of other hormones. Hormone signals control the internal environment of the body through homeostasis. Chemical classes of hormones Vertebrate hormones fall into three chemical classes: Amine-derived hormones are derivatives of the amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan. Examples are catecholamines and thyroxine. Peptide hormones consist of chains of amino acids. Examples of small peptide hormones are TRH and vasopressin. Peptides composed of scores or hundreds of amino acids are referred to as proteins. Examples of protein hormones include insulin and growth hormone. More complex protein hormones bear carbohydrate side chains and are called glycoprotein hormones. Luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone are glycoprotein hormones. Lipid and phospholipid-derived hormones derive from lipids such as linoleic acid and arachidonic acid and phospholipids. The main classes are the steroid hormones that derive from cholesterol and the eicosanoids. Examples of steroid hormones are testosterone and cortisol. Sterol hormones such as calcitriol are a homologous system. The adrenal cortex and the gonads are primary sources of steroid hormones. Examples of eicosanoids are the widely studied prostaglandins. Pharmacology Many hormones and their analogues are used as medication. The most commonly prescribed hormones are estrogens and progestagens (as methods of hormonal contraception and as HRT), thyroxine (as levothyroxine, for hypothyroidism) and steroids (for autoimmune diseases and several respiratory disorders). Insulin is used by many diabetics. Local preparations for use in otolaryngology often contain pharmacologic equivalents of adrenaline, while steroid and vitamin D creams are used extensively in dermatological practice. A "pharmacologic dose" of a hormone is a medical usage referring to an amount of a hormone far greater than naturally occurs in a healthy body. The effects of pharmacologic doses of hormones may be different from responses to naturally-occurring amounts and may be therapeutically useful. An example is the ability of pharmacologic doses of glucocorticoid to suppress inflammation. Important human hormones See: List of human hormones See also Endocrinology Endocrine system Neuroendocrinology Plant hormones or plant growth regulators Autocrine signaling Paracrine signaling Intracrine Cytokine Growth factor Hormone disruptor References External links The Hormone Foundation Hormones and Nutrition | Hormone |@lemmatized epinephrine:1 adrenaline:2 catecholamine:2 type:5 hormone:94 greek:1 ὁρμή:1 impetus:1 chemical:4 release:6 cell:31 affect:2 part:1 body:6 small:2 amount:3 require:1 alter:2 metabolism:4 essentially:1 messenger:2 transport:4 signal:15 one:4 another:3 multicellular:1 organism:2 produce:6 plant:3 also:7 call:2 phytohormone:1 animal:1 often:4 blood:1 respond:2 express:1 specific:4 receptor:20 bind:5 protein:10 result:1 activation:2 transduction:5 mechanism:5 ultimately:1 lead:3 response:6 endocrine:6 molecule:8 secrete:3 directly:2 bloodstream:2 exocrine:1 ectohormones:1 duct:2 either:2 flow:2 diffusion:1 process:3 know:1 paracrine:2 signalling:1 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class:4 hunger:1 ghrelin:1 orexin:1 pyy:1 satiety:1 leptin:1 obestatin:1 nesfatin:1 active:2 quickly:2 circulation:1 store:1 biologically:1 inactive:1 pre:1 prohormones:1 convert:1 stimulus:1 stimulation:1 inhibition:2 mood:1 swing:1 induction:1 suppression:1 apoptosis:1 program:1 death:1 immune:1 system:3 preparation:3 fight:1 sex:1 fleeing:1 mating:1 new:1 phase:1 life:1 puberty:1 care:1 offspring:1 menopause:1 reproductive:1 cycle:1 internal:1 environment:1 homeostasis:1 vertebrate:1 fall:1 amine:1 derive:4 derivative:1 amino:3 acid:5 tyrosine:1 tryptophan:1 thyroxine:2 peptide:3 consist:1 chain:2 trh:1 vasopressin:1 compose:1 score:1 hundred:1 refer:2 bear:1 carbohydrate:1 side:1 glycoprotein:2 luteinizing:1 follicle:1 lipid:2 phospholipid:2 linoleic:1 arachidonic:1 main:1 cholesterol:1 eicosanoids:2 testosterone:1 cortisol:1 sterol:1 calcitriol:1 homologous:1 adrenal:1 cortex:1 gonad:1 primary:1 source:1 widely:1 study:1 prostaglandin:1 pharmacology:1 analogue:1 use:4 medication:1 commonly:1 prescribe:1 estrogen:1 progestagens:1 method:1 contraception:1 hrt:1 levothyroxine:1 hypothyroidism:1 autoimmune:1 disease:1 respiratory:1 disorder:1 diabetic:1 local:1 otolaryngology:1 contain:1 pharmacologic:4 equivalent:1 vitamin:1 cream:1 extensively:1 dermatological:1 practice:1 dose:1 medical:1 usage:1 great:1 naturally:2 occur:2 healthy:1 dos:2 therapeutically:1 useful:1 ability:1 glucocorticoid:1 inflammation:1 human:2 see:2 list:1 endocrinology:1 neuroendocrinology:1 autocrine:1 cytokine:1 disruptor:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 foundation:1 nutrition:1 |@bigram epinephrine_adrenaline:1 multicellular_organism:1 signal_transduction:5 negative_feedback:4 feedback_loop:1 endocrine_gland:4 gland_thyroid:2 thyroid_gland:1 transduction_pathway:3 hormone_receptor:9 plasma_membrane:2 cyclic_amp:1 thyroid_hormone:2 metabolism_excretion:1 stimulate_hormone:4 thyroid_stimulate:2 amino_acid:3 acid_tyrosine:1 peptide_hormone:2 follicle_stimulate:1 linoleic_acid:1 arachidonic_acid:1 steroid_hormone:3 adrenal_cortex:1 hormone_estrogen:1 hormonal_contraception:1 autoimmune_disease:1 external_link:1 |
4,901 | Newton's_method | In numerical analysis, Newton's method (also known as the Newton–Raphson method, named after Isaac Newton and Joseph Raphson) is perhaps the best known method for finding successively better approximations to the zeroes (or roots) of a real-valued function. Newton's method can often converge remarkably quickly, especially if the iteration begins "sufficiently near" the desired root. Just how near "sufficiently near" needs to be, and just how quickly "remarkably quickly" can be, depends on the problem. This is discussed in detail below. Unfortunately, when iteration begins far from the desired root, Newton's method can easily lead an unwary user astray with little warning. Thus, good implementations of the method embed it in a routine that also detects and perhaps overcomes possible convergence failures. Given a function ƒ(x) and its derivative ƒ'(x), we begin with a first guess x0 . A better approximation x1 is An important and somewhat surprising application is Newton–Raphson division, which can be used to quickly find the reciprocal of a number using only multiplication and subtraction. The algorithm is first in the class of Householder's methods, succeeded by Halley's method. Description of the method alt Illustration of Newton's method|An illustration of one iteration of Newton's method (the function f is shown in blue and the tangent line is in red). We see that xn+1 is a better approximation than xn for the root x of the function f. The idea of the method is as follows: one starts with an initial guess which is reasonably close to the true root, then the function is approximated by its tangent line (which can be computed using the tools of calculus), and one computes the x-intercept of this tangent line (which is easily done with elementary algebra). This x-intercept will typically be a better approximation to the function's root than the original guess, and the method can be iterated. Suppose f : [a, b] → R is a differentiable function defined on the interval [a, b] with values in the real numbers R. The formula for converging on the root can be easily derived. Suppose we have some current approximation xn. Then we can derive the formula for a better approximation, xn+1 by referring to the diagram on the right. We know from the definition of the derivative at a given point that it is the slope of a tangent at that point. That is Here, f ' denotes the derivative of the function f. Then by simple algebra we can derive We start the process off with some arbitrary initial value x0. (The closer to the zero, the better. But, in the absence of any intuition about where the zero might lie, a "guess and check" method might narrow the possibilities to a reasonably small interval by appealing to the intermediate value theorem.) The method will usually converge, provided this initial guess is close enough to the unknown zero, and that f(x0) ≠ 0. Furthermore, for a zero of multiplicity 1, the convergence is at least quadratic (see rate of convergence) in a neighbourhood of the zero, which intuitively means that the number of correct digits roughly at least doubles in every step. More details can be found in the analysis section below. Application to minimization and maximization problems Newton's method can also be used to find a minimum or maximum of a function. The derivative is zero at a minimum or maximum, so minima and maxima can be found by applying Newton's method to the derivative. The iteration becomes: History Newton's method was described by Isaac Newton in De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas (written in 1669, published in 1711 by William Jones) and in De metodis fluxionum et serierum infinitarum (written in 1671, translated and published as Method of Fluxions in 1736 by John Colson). However, his description differs substantially from the modern description given above: Newton applies the method only to polynomials. He does not compute the successive approximations , but computes a sequence of polynomials and only at the end, he arrives at an approximation for the root x. Finally, Newton views the method as purely algebraic and fails to notice the connection with calculus. Isaac Newton probably derived his method from a similar but less precise method by François Viète. The essence of Viète's method can be found in the work of the Persian mathematician, Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi, while his successor Jamshīd al-Kāshī used a form of Newton's method to solve to find roots of N (Ypma 1995). A special case of Newton's method for calculating square roots was known much earlier and is often called the Babylonian method. Newton's method was used by 17th century Japanese mathematician Seki Kōwa to solve single-variable equations, though the connection with calculus was missing. Newton's method was first published in 1685 in A Treatise of Algebra both Historical and Practical by John Wallis. In 1690, Joseph Raphson published a simplified description in Analysis aequationum universalis. Raphson again viewed Newton's method purely as an algebraic method and restricted its use to polynomials, but he describes the method in terms of the successive approximations xn instead of the more complicated sequence of polynomials used by Newton. Finally, in 1740, Thomas Simpson described Newton's method as an iterative method for solving general nonlinear equations using fluxional calculus, essentially giving the description above. In the same publication, Simpson also gives the generalization to systems of two equations and notes that Newton's method can be used for solving optimization problems by setting the gradient to zero. Arthur Cayley in 1879 in The Newton-Fourier imaginary problem was the first who noticed the difficulties in generalizing the Newton's method to complex roots of polynomials with degree greater than 2 and complex initial values. This opened the way to the study of the theory of iterations of rational functions. Practical considerations Newton's method is an extremely powerful technique -- in general the convergence is quadratic''': the error is essentially squared at each step (that is, the number of accurate digits doubles in each step). However, there are some difficulties with the method. First, Newton's method requires that the derivative be calculated directly. In most practical problems, the function in question may be given by a long and complicated formula, and hence an analytical expression for the derivative may not be easily obtainable. In these situations, it may be appropriate to approximate the derivative by using the slope of a line through two points on the function. In this case, the Secant method results. This has slightly slower convergence than Newton's method but does not require the existence of derivatives. Secondly, if the initial value is too far from the true zero, Newton's method may fail to converge. For this reason, Newton's method is often referred to as a local technique. Most practical implementations of Newton's method put an upper limit on the number of iterations and perhaps on the size of the iterates. Thirdly, it is clear from the formula for Newton's method that it will fail in cases where the derivative is zero. Similarly, when the derivative is close to zero, the tangent line is nearly horizontal and hence may "shoot" wildly past the desired root. Lastly, if the root being sought has multiplicity greater than one, the convergence rate is merely linear (errors reduced by a constant factor at each step) unless special steps are taken. When there are two or more roots that are close together then it may take many iterations before the iterates get close enough to one of them for the quadratic convergence is apparent. Since the most serious of the problems above is the possibility of a failure of convergence, Press et al. (1992) present a version of Newton's method that starts at the midpoint of an interval in which the root is known to lie and stops the iteration if an iterate is generated that lies outside the interval. Developers of large scale computer systems involving root finding tend to prefer the secant method over Newton's method because the use of a difference quotient in place of the derivative in Newton's method implies that the additional code to compute the derivative need not be maintained. In practice, the advantages of maintaining a smaller code base usually outweigh the superior convergence characteristics of Newton's method. Analysis Suppose that the function f has a zero at α, i.e., f(α) = 0. If f is continuously differentiable and its derivative is nonzero at α, then there exists a neighborhood of α such that for all starting values x0 in that neighborhood, the sequence {xn} will converge to α. If the function is continuously differentiable and its derivative is not 0 at α and it has a second derivative at α then the convergence is quadratic or faster. If the second derivative is not 0 at α then the convergence is merely quadratic. If the derivative is 0 at α, then the convergence is usually only linear. Specifically, if f is twice continuously differentiable, and , then there exists a neighborhood of α such that for all starting values x0 in that neighborhood, the sequence of iterates converges linearly, with rate log10 2 (Süli & Mayers, Exercise 1.6). Alternatively if and elsewhere, in a neighborhood U of α, α being a zero of multiplicity r and if then there exists a neighborhood of α such that for all starting values x0 in that neighborhood, the sequence of iterates converges linearly. However, even linear convergence is not guaranteed in pathological situations. In practice these results are local and the neighborhood of convergence are not known a priori, but there are also some results on global convergence, for instance, given a right neighborhood U+ of α, if f is twice differentiable in U+ and if , in U+, then, for each x0 in U+ the sequence xk is monotonically decreasing to α. Examples Square root of a number Consider the problem of finding the square root of a number. There are many methods of computing square roots, and Newton's method is one. For example, if one wishes to find the square root of 612, this is equivalent to finding the solution to The function to use in Newton's method is then, with derivative, With an initial guess of 10, the sequence given by Newton's method is Where the correct digits are underlined. With only a few iterations one can obtain a solution accurate to many decimal places. Solution of a non-polynomial equation Consider the problem of finding the positive number x with cos(x) = x3. We can rephrase that as finding the zero of f(x) = cos(x) − x3. We have f(x) = −sin(x) − 3x2. Since cos(x) ≤ 1 for all x and x3 > 1 for x > 1, we know that our zero lies between 0 and 1. We try a starting value of x0 = 0.5. (Note that a starting value of 0 will lead to an undefined result, showing the importance of using a starting point that is close to the zero.) The correct digits are underlined in the above example. In particular, x6 is correct to the number of decimal places given. We see that the number of correct digits after the decimal point increases from 2 (for x3) to 5 and 10, illustrating the quadratic convergence. Counterexamples Newton's method is only guaranteed to converge if certain conditions are satisfied, so depending on the shape of the function and the starting point it may or may not converge. Bad starting points In some cases the conditions on function necessary for convergence are satisfied, but the point chosen as the initial point is not in the interval where the method converges. In such cases a different method, such as bisection, should be used to obtain a better estimate for the zero to use as an initial point. Iteration point is stationary Consider the function: It has a maximum at x=0 and solutions of f(x) = 0 at x = ±1. If we start iterating from the stationary point x0=0 (where the derivative is zero), x1 will be undefined: The same issue occurs if, instead of the starting point, any iteration point is stationary. Even if the derivative is not zero but is small, the next iteration will be far away from the desired zero. Starting point enters a cycle The tangent lines of x3 - 2x + 2 at 0 and 1 intersect the x-axis at 1 and 0 respectively, illustrating why Newton's method oscillates between these values for some starting points. For some functions, some starting points may enter an infinite cycle, preventing convergence. Let and take 0 as the starting point. The first iteration produces 1 and the second iteration returns to 0 so the sequence will oscillate between the two without converging to a root. In general, the behavior of the sequence can be very complex. (See Newton fractal.) Derivative issues If the function is not continuously differentiable in a neighborhood of the root then it's possible that Newton's method will always diverge, unless the solution is guessed on the first try. In such cases a different method should be used. Derivative does not exist at root A simple example a function where Newton's method diverges is the cubic root, which is continuous and infinitely differentiable with continuity, except for x = 0, where its derivative is undefined (this, however, does not affect the algorithm, since it will never require the derivative if the solution is already found): For any iteration point xn, the next iteration point will be: The algorithm overshoots the solution and lands on the other side of the y-axis, farther away than it initially was; applying Newton's method actually doubles the distances from the solution at each iteration. In fact, the iterations diverge to infinity for every , where . In the limiting case of (square root), the iterations will oscillate indefinitely between points x0 and −x0, so they do not converge in this case either. Discontinuous derivative If the derivative is not continuous at the root, then convergence may fail to occur in any neighborhood of the root. Consider the function Its derivative is: Within any neighborhood of the root, this derivative keeps changing sign as x approaches 0 from the right (or from the left) while f(x)≥x-x²>0 for 0<x<1. So f(x)/f'(x) is unbounded near the root, and Newton's method will diverge almost everywhere in any neighborhood of it, even though: the function is differentiable (and thus continuous) everywhere; the derivative at the root is nonzero; f is infinitely differentiable except at the root; and the derivative is bounded in a neighborhood of the root (unlike f(x)/f'(x)). Non-quadratic convergence In some cases the iterates converge but do not converge as quickly as promised. In these cases simpler methods converge just as quickly as Newton's method. Zero derivative If the first derivative is zero at the root, then convergence will not be quadratic. Indeed, let then and consequently . So convergence is not quadratic, even though the function is infinitely differentiable everywhere. Similar problems occur even when the root is only "nearly" double. For example, let Then the first few iterates starting at x0 = 1 are 1, 0.500250376, 0.251062828, 0.127507934, 0.067671976, 0.041224176, 0.032741218, 0.031642362; it takes 6 iterations for to reach a point where the convergence appears to be quadratic. No second derivative If there is no second derivative at the root, then convergence may fail to be quadratic. Indeed, let Then And except when where it is undefined. Given , which has approximately 4/3 times as many bits of precision as has. This is less than the 2 times as many which would be required for quadratic convergence. So the convergence of Newton's method (in this case) is not quadratic, even though: the function is continuously differentiable everywhere; the derivative is not zero at the root; and is infinitely differentiable except at the desired root. Generalizations Complex functions Basins of attraction for x5 − 1 = 0; darker means more iterations to converge. When dealing with complex functions, Newton's method can be directly applied to find their zeroes. Each zero has a basin of attraction, the set of all starting values that cause the method to converge that particular zero. These sets can be mapped as in the image shown. For many complex functions, the boundary of the basins of attraction is a fractal. In some cases the are regions in the complex plane which are not in any of these basins attraction, meaning the iterates do not converge. Nonlinear systems of equations One may use Newton's method also to solve systems of k (non-linear) equations, which amounts to finding the zeroes of continuously differentiable functions F : Rk → Rk. In the formulation given above, one then has to left multiply with the inverse of the k-by-k Jacobian matrix JF(xn) instead of dividing by f '(xn). Rather than actually computing the inverse of this matrix, one can save time by solving the system of linear equations for the unknown xn+1 − xn. Again, this method only works if the initial value x0 is close enough to the true zero. Typically, a region which is well-behaved is located first with some other method and Newton's method is then used to "polish" a root which is already known approximately. Nonlinear equations in a Banach space Another generalization is the Newton's method to find a zero of a function F defined in a Banach space. In this case the formulation is , where is the Fréchet derivative applied at the point . One needs the Fréchet derivative to be invertible at each in order for the method to be applicable. See also Root-finding algorithm Secant method Euler method Integer square root Methods of computing square roots Fast inverse square root References Tjalling J. Ypma, Historical development of the Newton-Raphson method, SIAM Review 37' (4), 531–551, 1995. . P. Deuflhard, Newton Methods for Nonlinear Problems. Affine Invariance and Adaptive Algorithms. Springer Series in Computational Mathematics, Vol. 35. Springer, Berlin, 2004. ISBN 3-540-21099-7. C. T. Kelley, Solving Nonlinear Equations with Newton's Method, no 1 in Fundamentals of Algorithms, SIAM, 2003. ISBN 0-89871-546-6. J. M. Ortega, W. C. Rheinboldt, Iterative Solution of Nonlinear Equations in Several Variables. Classics in Applied Mathematics, SIAM, 2000. ISBN 0-89871-461-3. W. H. Press, B. P. Flannery, S. A. Teukolsky, W. T. Vetterling, Numerical Recipes in C: The Art of Scientific Computing, Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-521-43108-5 (available free online, with code samples: ), sections 9.4 and 9.6 . W. H. Press, B. P. Flannery, S. A. Teukolsky, W. T. Vetterling, Numerical Recipes: The Art of Scientific Computing, Cambridge University Press, 2007. ISBN 0-521-88068-8 (available for a fee online, with code samples ). W. H. Press, B. P. Flannery, S. A. Teukolsky, W. T. Vetterling, Numerical Recipes in Fortran, Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-521-43064-X (online, with code samples: ) Endre Süli and David Mayers, An Introduction to Numerical Analysis'', Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-00794-1. . External links Stanford Computer Science lecture on Newton's method Animations for Newton's method by Prof. John H. Mathews Animations for Newton's method by Yihui Xie using the R package animation Newton-Raphson Method Notes, PPT, Mathcad, Maple, Matlab, Mathematica at Holistic Numerical Methods Institute Module for Newton’s Method by John H. 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4,902 | Democritus | Democritus (, "chosen of the people") (c. 460 BCE – c. 370 BCE) was an Ancient Greek philosopher born in Abdera in the north of Greece. Bertrand Russell, "A History of Western Philosophy", Simon & Schuster, 1972, p.64-65 He was the most prolific, and ultimately the most influential, of the pre-Socratic philosophers; his atomic theory may be regarded as the culmination of early Greek thought. Jonathan Barnes, Early Greek Philosophy, 1987 His exact contributions are difficult to disentangle from his mentor Leucippus, as they are often mentioned together in texts. Their hypothesis on atoms is remarkably similar to modern science, and avoided many of the errors found in their contemporaries. Largely ignored in Athens, Democritus was nevertheless well-known to his fellow northern-born philosopher Aristotle. Plato is said to have disliked him so much that he wished all his books burnt. Bertrand Russell, "A History of Western Philosophy", Simon & Schuster, 1972, p.64-65 Many consider Democritus to be the "father of modern science". Pamela Gossin, Encyclopedia of Literature and Science, 2002 Life Democritus was born in the city of Abdera in Thrace, an Ionian colony of Teos, Aristote, de Coel. iii. 4, Meteor. ii. 7 although some called him a Milesian. Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 34, etc. His year of birth was 460 BCE according to Apollodorus, who is probably more reliable than Thrasyllus who placed it ten years earlier. Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 41 John Burnet has argued that the date of 460 is "too early", since according to Diogenes Laertius 9.41 Democritus said that he was a "young man (neos)" during Anaxagoras' old age (circa 440-428). p. 194, Greek Philosophy: Thales to Plato, London: Macmillan, 1955. It was said that Democritus' father was so wealthy that he received Xerxes on his march through Abdera. Democritus spent the inheritance which his father left him on travels into distant countries, to satisfy his thirst for knowledge. He travelled to Asia, and was even said to have reached India and Ethiopia. Cicero, de Finibus, v. 19; Strabo, xvi. We know that he wrote on Babylon and Meroe; he must also have visited Egypt, and Diodorus Siculus states that he lived there for five years. Diodorus Siculus, i. 98 He himself declared, Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, i. that among his contemporaries none had made greater journeys, seen more countries, and met more scholars than himself. He particularly mentions the Egyptian mathematicians, whose knowledge he praises. Theophrastus, too, spoke of him as a man who had seen many countries. Aelian, Varia Historia, iv. 20; Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 35. During his travels, according to Diogenes Laërtius, he became acquainted with the Chaldean magi. A certain "Ostanes", one of the magi accompanying Xerxes was also said to have taught him. Tatian, Orat. cont. Graec. 17. "However, this Democritus, whom Tatian identified with the philosopher, was a certain Bolos of Mendes who, under the name of Democritus, wrote a book on sympathies and antipathies" - Owsei Temkin, 1991, Hippocrates in a World of Pagans and Christians, page 120. JHU Press. After returning to his native land he occupied himself with natural philosophy. He travelled throughout Greece to acquire a knowledge of its culture. He mentions many Greek philosophers in his writings, and his wealth enabled him to purchase their writings. Leucippus, the founder of the atomism, was the greatest influence upon him. He also praises Anaxagoras. Diogenes Laërtius, ii. 14; Sextus Empiricus, adv. Math. vii. 140. The tradition that he was friends with Hippocrates seems to have been based on spurious letters. Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 42 He may have been acquainted with Socrates, but Plato does not mention him and Democritus himself is quoted as saying, "I came to Athens and no one knew me." Diogenes Laertius 9.36 and Cicero Tusculanae Quaestiones 5.36.104, cited in p. 349 n. 2 of W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 2, Cambridge 1965. . Though Aristotle viewed him as a pre-Socratic Aristotle, Metaph. xiii. 4; Phys. ii. 2, de Partib. Anim. i. 1 , it should be noticed that since Socrates was born in ca. 469 BC (about 9 years before Democritus), it is very possible that Aristotle's remark was not meant to be a chronological one, but directed towards his philosophical similarity with other pre-Socratic thinkers. The many anecdotes about Democritus, especially in Diogenes Laërtius, attest to his disinterestedness, modesty, and simplicity, and show that he lived exclusively for his studies. One story has him deliberately blinding himself in order to be less disturbed in his pursuits; Cicero, de Fin. v. 29; Aulus Gellius, x. 17; Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 36; Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones v. 39 it may well be true that he lost his sight in old age. He was cheerful, and was always ready to see the comical side of life, which later writers took to mean that he always laughed at the foolishness of people. Seneca, de Ira, ii. 10; Aelian, Varia Historia, iv. 20. He was highly esteemed by his fellow-citizens, "because," as Diogenes Laërtius says, "he had foretold them some things which events proved to be true," which may refer to his knowledge of natural phenomena. According to Diodorus Siculus, Diodorus Siculus, 14.11.5 Democritus died at the age of 90, which would put his death around 370 BC, but other writers have him living to 104, Lucian, Macrobii 18 or even 109. Hipparchus ap. Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 43 Popularly known as the Laughing Philosopher, the terms Abderitan laughter, which means scoffing, incessant laughter, and Abderite, which means a scoffer, are derived from Democritus. Philosophy and science Democritus followed in the tradition of Leucippus, who seems to have come from Miletus, and he carried on the scientific rationalist philosophy associated with that city. They were both strict determinists and thorough materialists, believing everything to be the result of natural laws, and they will have nothing to do with chance or randomness. Unlike Aristotle or Plato, the atomists attempted to explain the world without the presuppositions of purpose, prime mover, or final cause. For the atomists questions should be answered with a mechanistic explanation ("What earlier circumstances caused this event?"), while their opponents searched for teleological explanations ("What purpose did this event serve?"). The history of modern science has shown that mechanistic questions lead to scientific knowledge, while the teleological question does not. The atomists looked for mechanistic questions, and gave mechanistic answers. Their successors until the Renaissance became occupied with the teleological question, which ultimately hindered progress. Bertrand Russell, "A History of Western Philosophy", Simon & Schuster, 1972 Democritus meditating on the seat of the soul by Léon-Alexandre Delhomme, 1868 Atomic hypothesis The hypothesis of Leucippus and Democritus held everything to be composed of atoms, which are physically, but not geometrically, indivisible; that between atoms lies empty space; that atoms are indestructible; have always been, and always will be, in motion; that there are an infinite number of atoms, and kinds of atoms, which differ in shape, size, and temperature. Of the weight of atoms, Democritus said "The more any indivisible exceeds, the heavier it is." But their exact position on weight of atoms is disputed. Bertrand Russell, "A History of Western Philosophy", Simon & Schuster, 1972, p.64-65 Leucippus is widely credited with being the first to develop the theory of atomism. Nevertheless, this notion has been called into question by some scholars. Newton, for instance, credits the obscure Moschus the Phoenician (whom he believed to be the biblical Moses) as the inventor of the idea. Derek Gjertsen, The Newton Handbook, 1986, p.468 The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy notes that "This theologically motivated view does not seem to claim much historical evidence, however." http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atomism-ancient/#1 Aristotle criticized the atomists for not providing an account for the cause of the original motion of atoms, but in this they have been vindicated as more scientific than their critics. Even if a prime mover or creator is supposed, that force remains unaccounted for. The theory of the atomists is, in fact, more nearly that of modern science than any other theory of antiquity. However, their theories were not wholly empirical, and their belief was devoid of any solid foundation. The atomists can be viewed as having hit on a hypothesis for which, two thousand years later, some evidence happened to be found. Bertrand Russell, "A History of Western Philosophy", Simon & Schuster, 1972, p.66 Void hypothesis The void hypothesis was a response to the paradoxes of Parmenides and Zeno, the founders of metaphysical logic, who put forth difficult to answer arguments in favor of the idea that there can be no movement. They held that any movement would require a void — which is nothing — but a nothing cannot exist. The Parmenidean position was "You say there is a void; therefore the void is not nothing; therefore there is not the void." The position of Parmenides appeared validated by the observation that where there seems to be nothing there is air, and indeed even where there is not matter there is something, for instance light waves. The atomists agreed that motion required a void, but simply ignored the argument of Parmenides on the grounds that motion was an observable fact. Therefore, they asserted, there must be a void. On this point Aristotle was in agreement, and it survived in a refined version as Newton's theory of absolute space, which met the logical requirements of attributing reality to not-being. Einstein's theory of relativity provided the final definitive answer to Parmenides and Zeno, with the insight that space by itself is relative and cannot be separated from time as part of a generally curved space-time manifold. Consequently, Newton's refinement is now considered superfluous. Bertrand Russell, "A History of Western Philosophy", Simon & Schuster, 1972, p.69-71 Epistemology The knowledge of truth according to Democritus is difficult, since the perception through the senses is subjective. As from the same senses derive different impressions for each individual, then through the sense-impressions we cannot judge the truth. We can only interpret the sense data through the intellect and grasp the truth, because the truth (aletheia) is at the bottom (en bythoe). And again, many of the other animals receive impressions contrary to ours; and even to the senses of each individual, things do not always seem the same. Which then, of these impressions are true and which are false is not obvious; for the one set is no more true than the other, but both are alike. And this is why Democritus, at any rate, says that either there is no truth or to us at least it is not evident.”(Aristotle, Metaphysics IV, 1009 b 7). Democritus .. says: By convention hot, by convention cold, but in reality atoms and void, and also in reality we know nothing, since the truth is at bottom.” (Fr. 117, Diogenes Laertius IX, 72). There are two kinds of knowing, the one he calls “legitimate” (gnesie: genuine) and the other “bastard” (skotie: obscure). The “bastard” knowledge is concerned with the perception through the senses, therefore it is insufficient and subjective. The reason is that the sense-perception is due to the effluences of the atoms (aporroai) from the objects to the senses. When these different shapes of atoms come to us, stimulate our senses according to their shape, and there from arise our sense-impressions. (Fr. 135, Theophrastus De Sensu 49-83). The second sort of knowledge, the “legitimate” one, can be achieved through the intellect, in other words, all the sense-data from the “bastard” must be elaborated through reasoning. In this way one can get away from the false perception of the “bastard” knowledge and grasp the truth through the inductive reasoning. Therefore, the man after taking into account the sense-impressions, can examine the causes of the appearances, draw conclusions about the laws that govern the appearances, and find out the causality (aetiologia) by which they are related. This is the procedure of thought from the parts to the whole or else from the apparent to non-apparent (inductive reasoning). “ But in the Canons Democritus says there are two kinds of knowing, one through the senses and the other through the intellect. Of these he calls the one through the intellect ‘legitimate’ attesting its trustworthiness for the judgement of truth, and through the senses he names ‘bastard’ denying its inerrancy in the discrimination of what is true. To quote his actual words: Of knowledge there are two forms, one legitimate, one bastard. To the bastard belong all this group: sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch. The other is legitimate and separate from that. Then, preferring the legitimate to the bastard, he continues: When the bastard can no longer see any smaller, or hear, or smell, or taste, or perceive by touch, but finer matters have to be examined, then comes the legitimate, since it has a finer organ of perception.” (Fr. 11 Sextus, Adv. Math. VII, 138). “ In the Confirmations .. he says: But we in actuality grasp nothing for certain, but what shifts in accordance with the condition of the body and of the things (atoms) which enter it and press upon it.” (Fr. 9 Sextus Adv. Math. VII 136). “ Democritus used to say that 'he prefers to discover a causality rather than become a king of Persia'.” (Fr.118) (Excerpt from Democritus' Gnoseology 'Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments', Nikolaos Bakalis, Trafford Publishing 2005, ISBN 1-4120-4843-5. Ethics & politics The ethics and politics of Democritus come to us mostly in the form of maxims. He says that "Equality is everywhere noble," but he is not encompassing enough to include women or slaves in this sentiment. Poverty in a democracy is better than prosperity under tyrants, for the same reason one is to prefer liberty over slavery. Those in power should "take it upon themselves to lend to the poor and to aid them and to favor them, then is there pity and no isolation but companionship and mutual defense and concord among the citizens and other good things too many to catalogue." Money when used with sense leads to generosity and charity, while money used in folly leads to a common expense for the whole society— excessive hoarding of money for one's children is avarice. While making money is not useless, he says, doing so as a result of wrong-doing is the "worst of all things." He is on the whole ambivalent towards wealth, and values it much less than self-sufficiency. He disliked violence but was not a pacifist: he urged cities to be prepared for war, and believed that a society had the right to execute a criminal or enemy so long as this did not violate some law, treaty, or oath. Bertrand Russell, "A History of Western Philosophy", Simon & Schuster, 1972, p.69-71 Jonathan Barnes, Early Greek Philosophy, 1987 Goodness, he believed, came more from practice and discipline than from innate human nature. He believed that one should distance oneself from the wicked, stating that such association increases disposition to vice. Anger, while difficult to control, must be mastered in order for one to be rational. Those who take pleasure from the disasters of their neighbors fail to understand that their fortunes are tied to the society in which they live, and they rob themselves of any joy of their own. He advocated a life of contentment with as little grief as possible, which he said could not be achieved through either idleness or preoccupation with worldly pleasures. Contentment would be gained, he said, through moderation and a measured life; to be content one must set their judgment on the possible and be satisfied with what one has — giving little thought to envy or admiration. Democritus approved of extravagance on occasion, as he held that feasts and celebrations were necessary for joy and relaxation. He considers education to be the noblest of pursuits, but cautioned that learning without sense leads to error. Bertrand Russell, "A History of Western Philosophy", Simon & Schuster, 1972, p.69-71 Jonathan Barnes, Early Greek Philosophy, 1987 Mathematics A right circular cone and an oblique circular cone Democritus was also a pioneer of mathematics and geometry in particular. We only know this through citations of his works (titled On Numbers, On Geometrics, On Tangencies, On Mapping, and On Irrationals) in other writings, since most of Democritus' body of work did not survive the Middle Ages. Democritus was among the first to observe that a cone or pyramid has one-third the volume of a cylinder or prism respectively with the same base and height. Also, a cone divided in a plane parallel to its base produces two surfaces. He pointed out that if the two surfaces are commensurate with each other, then the shape of the body would appear to be a cylinder, as it is composed of equal rather than unequal circles. However, if the surfaces are not commensurate, then the side of a cone is not smooth but jagged like a series of steps. Fragment 9, The Pre-Socratics, Philip Wheelwright Ed., Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1966, p.183 Anthropology, biology, and cosmology His work on nature is known through citations of his books on the subjects, On the Nature of Man, On Flesh (two books), On Mind, On the Senses, On Flavors, On Colors, Causes concerned with Seeds and Plants and Fruits, and Causes concerned with Animals (three books). Jonathan Barnes, Early Greek Philosophy, 1987 He spent much of his life experimenting with and examining plants and minerals, and wrote at length on many scientific topics. Petronius. Satyricon. Trans. William Arrowsmith. New York: A Meridian Book, 1987. Democritus thought that the first humans lived an anarchic and animal sort of life, going out to forage individually and living off the most palatable herbs and the fruit which grew wild on the trees. They were driven together into societies for fear of wild animals, he said. He believed that these early people had no language, but that they gradually began to articulate their expressions, establishing symbols for every sort of object, and in this manner came to understand each other. He says that the earliest men lived laboriously, having none of the utilities of life; clothing, houses, fire, domestication, and farming were unknown to them. Democritus presents the early period of mankind as one of learning by trial and error, and says that each step slowly lead to more discoveries; they took refuge in the caves in winter, stored fruits that could be preserved, and through reason and keenness of mind came to build upon each new idea. Jonathan Barnes, Early Greek Philosophy, 1987 Diodorus, Universal History I viii 1-7 Democritus held that the earth was round, and stated that originally the universe was comprised of nothing but tiny atoms churning in chaos, until they collided together to form larger units — including the earth and everything on it. Jonathan Barnes, Early Greek Philosophy, 1987 He surmised that there are many worlds, some growing, some decaying; some with no sun or moon, some with several. He held that every world has a beginning and an end, and that a world could be destroyed by collision with another world. His cosmology can be summarized with assistance from Shelley: Worlds rolling over worlds; From creation to decay; Like the bubbles on a river; Sparkling, bursting, borne away. Bertrand Russell, "A History of Western Philosophy", Simon & Schuster, 1972, p.71-72 Democritus was depicted on the reverse of the Greek 10 drachmas coin of 1976-2001. Bank of Greece. Drachma Banknotes & Coins: 10 drachmas. – Retrieved on 27 March 2009. Bibliography Ethics: Pythagoras, On the Disposition of the Wise Man, On the Things in Hades, Tritogenia, On Manliness or On Virtue, The Horn of Amaltheia, On Contentment, Ethical Commentaries. Natural Science: The Great World-ordering (may have been written by Leucippus), Cosmography, On the Planets, On Nature, On the Nature of Man or On Flesh (two books), On the Mind, On the Senses, On Flavors, On Colors, On Different Shapes, On Changing Shape, Buttresses, On Images, On Logic (three books). Nature: Heavenly Causes, Atmospheric Causes, Terrestrial Causes, Causes Concerned with Fire and Things in Fire, Causes Concerned with Sounds, Caused Concerned with Seeds and Plants and Fruits, Causes Concerned with Animals (three books), Miscellaneous Causes, On Magnets. Mathematics: On Different Angles or O contact of Circles and Spheres, On Geometry, Geometry, Numbers, On Irrational Lines and Solids (two books), Planispheres, On the Great Year or Astronomy (a calendar), Contest of the Waterclock, Description of the Heavens, Geography, Description of the Poles, Description of Rays of Light. Literature: On the Rhythms and Harmony, On Poetry, On the Beauty of Verses, On Euphonious and Harsh-sounding Letters, On Homer, On Song, On Verbs, Names. Technical works: Prognosis, On Diet, Medical Judgment, Causes Concerning Appropriate and Inappropriate Occasions, On Farming, On Painting, Tactics, Fighting in Armor. Commentaries: "On the Sacred Writings of Babylon, On Those in Meroe, Circumnavigation of the Ocean, On History, Chaldaean Account, Phrygian Account, On Fever and Coughing Sicknesses, Legal Causes, Problems. Jonathan Barnes, Early Greek Philosophy, 1987 p.245-246 Notes See also Atom John Dalton References Bailey C. (1928) The Greek Atomists and Epicurus. Oxford Bakalis Nikolaos (2005) Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 Barnes J. (1982) The Presocratic Philosophers, Routledge Revised Edition Burnet J. (2003) Early Greek Philosophy, Kessinger Publishing Guthrie W. K. (1979) A History of Greek Philosophy – The Presocratic tradition from Parmenides to Democritus, Cambridge University Press. Kirk G. S., Raven J. E. and Schofield M. (1983) The Presocratic Philosophers, Cambridge University Press, Second edition. Ancilla To The Pre-Socratic Philosophers, translated by Kathleen Freeman. Pyle, C. M. (1997). 'Democritus and Heracleitus: An Excursus on the Cover of this Book,' Milan and Lombardy in the Renaissance. Essays in Cultural History. Rome, La Fenice. (Istituto di Filologia Moderna, Università di Parma: Testi e Studi, Nuova Serie: Studi 1.) (Fortuna of the Laughing and Weeping Philosophers topos) Petronius. Satyricon. Trans. William Arrowsmith. New York: A Meridian Book, 1987. External links Democritus in The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Democritus and Leucippus Democritus in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Democritus on Greek 100 Drachma banknote. | Democritus |@lemmatized democritus:39 chosen:1 people:3 c:5 bce:3 ancient:2 greek:19 philosopher:10 bear:4 abdera:3 north:1 greece:3 bertrand:9 russell:9 history:15 western:9 philosophy:28 simon:9 schuster:9 p:13 prolific:1 ultimately:2 influential:1 pre:5 socratic:4 atomic:2 theory:7 may:5 regard:1 culmination:1 early:14 thought:3 jonathan:7 barnes:8 exact:2 contribution:1 difficult:4 disentangle:1 mentor:1 leucippus:7 often:1 mention:4 together:3 text:1 hypothesis:6 atom:15 remarkably:1 similar:1 modern:4 science:7 avoid:1 many:9 error:3 find:3 contemporary:2 largely:1 ignore:2 athens:2 nevertheless:2 well:2 know:7 fellow:2 northern:1 born:1 aristotle:8 plato:5 say:21 dislike:2 much:4 wish:1 book:12 burn:1 consider:3 father:3 pamela:1 gossin:1 encyclopedia:4 literature:2 life:7 city:3 thrace:1 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4,903 | Bodmin | Bodmin () is a town in Cornwall, United Kingdom, with a population of 12,778 (2001 census). It was the county town of Cornwall, until the Crown Courts moved to Truro, which is also the administrative centre. Bodmin still is the county town: many people, including those of Bodmin, believed it had lost the title of County Town when Truro had the Crown Courts. It was in Triggshire and the district of North Cornwall. Its mayor is Cllr Robert "Bob" Micek. Bodmin Town Councillor profiles (Before 1835 the county town was at Launceston.) Situation and origin of the name Bodmin lies in the centre of Cornwall, south-west of Bodmin Moor. It has been suggested that the town's name comes from an archaic word in the Cornish "bod" (meaning a dwelling; the later word is "bos") and a contraction of "menegh" (monks). It may however refer to an earlier monastic settlement instituted by St. Guron, which St. Petroc took as his site. Guron is said to have departed to St Goran on the arrival of Petroc. History St. Petroc founded a monastery in Bodmin in the 6th century and gave the town its alternative name of Petrockstow. The monastery was deprived on some its lands at the Norman Conquest but at the time of Domesday still held 18 manaors, including Bodmin, Padstow and Rialton. Thorn, C. et al. (eds.) (1979) Cornwall. Chichester: Phillimore; entries 4,3-4.22 Bodmin is one of the oldest towns in Cornwall, and the only large Cornish settlement recorded in the Domesday Book of the late 11th century. In the 15th century the Norman church of St. Petroc was largely rebuilt and stands as one of the largest churches in Cornwall (the largest after the cathedral at Truro). Also built at that time was an abbey, now mostly ruined. For most of Bodmin's history, the tin industry was a mainstay of the economy. An inscription on a stone built into the wall of a summer house in Lancarffe furnishes proof of a settlement in Bodmin in the early Middle Ages. It is a memorial to one "Duno[.]atus son of Me[.]cagnus" and has been dated from the sixth to eighth centuries. Discussion, photo and bibliography in Okasha, Elisabeth (1993). Corpus of early Christian inscribed stones of South-west Britain Leicester: University Press, pp. 126-128 Rebellions Bodmin was the centre of three Cornish uprisings. The first was the Cornish Rebellion of 1497 when a Cornish army, led by Michael An Gof, a blacksmith from St. Keverne. and Thomas Flamank, a lawyer from Bodmin, marched to Blackheath in London where they were eventually defeated by 10,000 men of the King's army under Baron Daubeny. Then, in the Autumn of 1497, a man named Perkin Warbeck tried to usurp the throne from Henry VII. Warbeck was proclaimed King Richard IV in Bodmin but Henry had little difficulty crushing the uprising. Finally, in 1549, Cornishmen rose once again in rebellion when the staunchly Protestant Edward VI tried to impose a new Prayer Book. Cornish people were still strongly attached to the Catholic religion and again a Cornish army was formed in Bodmin which marched across the border to lay siege to Exeter in Devon. This became known as the Prayer Book Rebellion. Proposals to translate the Prayer Book into Cornish were suppressed and in total 4,000 people were killed in the rebellion. Sturt, John (1987) Revolt in the West: the Western Rebellion of 1549. Exeter: Devon Books Parish Church of St Petroc The existing church building is dated 1469-72 and was until the building of Truro Cathedral the largest church in Cornwall. The tower which remains from the original Norman church and stands on the north side of the church (the upper part is 15th century) was until the loss of its spire in 1699 150 ft high. The building underwent two Victorian restorations and another in 1930. It is now listed Grade I. There are a number of interesting monuments, most notably that of Prior Vivian which was formerly in the Priory Church (Thomas Vivian's effigy lying on a chest: black Catacleuse stone and grey marble). The font of a type common in Cornwall is of the 12th century: large and finely carved. Pevsner, N. (1970) Cornwall, 2nd ed. Penguin Books Sedding, Edmund H. (1909) Norman Architecture in Cornwall: a handbook to old ecclesiastical architecture. London: Ward & Co.; pp. 21-36 Archdeaconry of Bodmin The archdeaconry is one of two in the Anglican Diocese of Truro and includes the eastern part of the diocese. The following deaneries are within the archdeaconry: Bodmin, East Wivelshire, Stratton, Trigg Major, Trigg Minor and West Wivelshire. It was established in 1878 when the Archdeaconry of Cornwall was divided. Sites of interest Bodmin Gaol, operational for over 150 years but now a semi-ruin, was built in the late 18th century, and was the first British prison to hold prisoners in separate cells (though often up to 10 at a time) rather than communally. Over fifty prisoners condemned at the Bodmin Assize Court were hanged at the prison. It was also used for temporarily holding prisoners sentenced to transportation, awaiting transfer to the prison hulks lying in the highest navigable reaches of the River Fowey. Also, during World War I the prison held some of Britain's priceless national treasures including the Domesday Book, the ring and the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom. Shire Hall Other buildings of interest include the former Shire Hall, now a tourist information centre, and the Regimental Barracks of the now defunct Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry, now a regimental museum. It includes the history of the regiment from 1702, plus a military library. The original barracks house the regimental museum and it was founded in 1925. There is a fine collection of small arms and machine guns, plus maps, uniforms and paintings on display. Churches The Chapel of St Thomas Becket is a ruin of a 14th century building in Bodmin churchyard. The holy well of St Guron is a small stone building at the churchyard gate. The Berry Tower is all that remains of the former church of the Holy Rood and there are even fewer remains from the substantial Franciscan Friary established ca. 1240: a gateway in Fore Street and two pillars elsewhere in the town. The Roman Catholic Abbey of St Mary and St Petroc was built in 1965 next to the already existing seminary. Pevsner, N. (1970) Cornwall, 2nd ed. Penguin Books. The Roman Catholic parish of Bodmin includes a large area of North Cornwall and there are churches also at Wadebridge, Padstow and Tintagel. Bodmin County Lunatic Asylum Bodmin workhouse, later St Lawrence's Hospital (Illustration) (Peter Higginbotham's Workhouse website - accessed 16 Oct 2007) Middlesex University index of County Asylums. Accessed 16 Oct 2007 History of St Lawrence's Hospital, after its closure. Accessed 29 November 2007 was designed by John Foulston and afterwards George Wightwick. The Bodmin Beacon Local Nature Reserve is the hill overlooking the town. The reserve has 83 acres (33.6 ha) of public land and at its highest point it reaches 162 metres with the distinctive landmark at the summit. The 44-metre tall monument to Sir Walter Raleigh Gilbert Chichester, H. M. (2004) ‘Gilbert, Sir Walter Raleigh, first baronet (1785–1853)’, rev. Roger T. Stearn, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 accessed 1 Jan 2008 was built in 1857. Other sites In 1966, the "Finn VC Estate" was named in honour of Victoria cross winner James Henry Finn who once lived in the town. Langdon (1896) records six crosses in the parish of which the finest is at Carminow. An ornate granite drinking bowl which serves the needs of thirsty dogs at the entrance to Bodmin’s Priory car park was donated by Prince Chula Chakrabongse of Thailand who lived at Tredethy. Education There are no independent schools in the area. St Petroc's Primary School St. Petroc's Voluntary Aided Church of England Primary School Athelstan Park, Bodmin, Cornwall was given this title in September 1990 after the amalgamation of St. Petroc's Infant School and St. Petroc's Junior School. St. Petroc's is a large school with some 440 pupils between the ages of four and eleven. Eight of its fourteen governors are nominated by the Diocese of Truro or the Parochial Church Council of St. Petroc's, Bodmin. Bodmin College Bodmin College is a large state comprehensive school for ages 11–18 on the outskirts of the town and on the edge of Bodmin Moor. Its headmaster is Mr Robert Mitchell. The College is home to the nationally acclaimed "Bodmin College Jazz Orchestra", run by former Director of Music at the school Adrian Evans. In 1997, Systems & Control students at Bodmin College constructed Roadblock, a robot which entered and won the first series of Robot Wars and was succeeded by "The Beast of Bodmin". Transport Bodmin General railway station Bodmin Parkway railway station is served by main line trains and is situated on the Cornish Main Line about 3½ miles (5½ km) south-east from the town centre. A heritage railway, the Bodmin and Wenford Railway, runs from Bodmin Parkway station via Bodmin General railway station to Boscarne Junction where there is access to the Camel Trail. The bus link to Bodmin, Wadebridge and Padstow starts from outside the main entrance of Bodmin Parkway. Bus and coach services connect Bodmin with other districts of Cornwall and Devon. Media Cornish Guardian is a weekly newspaper: it is published in 7 separate editions, including the Bodmin edition. Notable people Chula Chakrabongse Thomas Flamank, lawyer, leader of the Cornish Rebellion James Henry Finn Saint Petroc Thomas Vivian, Prior of Bodmin, titular Bishop of Megara Town twinning Bederkesa, Germany Grass Valley, California Ar Releg-Kerhuon, Brittany See also Bodmin Riding List of topics related to Cornwall Bodmin NHS Treatment Centre (Bodmin Hospital) Bodmin manumissions Beast of Bodmin Bodmin Gaol Notes External links (includes a good view of the church) | Bodmin |@lemmatized bodmin:49 town:15 cornwall:18 united:2 kingdom:2 population:1 census:1 county:6 crown:3 court:3 move:1 truro:6 also:6 administrative:1 centre:6 still:3 many:1 people:4 include:9 believe:1 lose:1 title:2 triggshire:1 district:2 north:3 mayor:1 cllr:1 robert:2 bob:1 micek:1 councillor:1 profile:1 launceston:1 situation:1 origin:1 name:5 lie:3 south:3 west:4 moor:2 suggest:1 come:1 archaic:1 word:2 cornish:11 bod:1 mean:1 dwelling:1 late:3 bos:1 contraction:1 menegh:1 monk:1 may:1 however:1 refer:1 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4,904 | ColecoVision | The ColecoVision is Coleco Industries' second generation home video game console which was released in August 1982. The ColecoVision offered arcade-quality graphics and gaming style, the ability to play Atari 2600 video games, and the means to expand the system's basic hardware. Released with a catalog of twelve launch titles, with an additional ten games announced for 1982, approximately 125 titles in total were published as ROM cartridges for the system between 1982 and 1984. History Coleco licensed Nintendo's Donkey Kong as the official pack-in cartridge for all ColecoVision consoles, and this version of the game was well received as a near-perfect arcade port, helping to boost the console's popularity. By Christmas of 1982, Coleco had sold 500,000 units, largely on the strength of its bundled game. The ColecoVision's main competitor was the arguably more advanced but less commercially successful Atari 5200. The ColecoVision was distributed by CBS Electronics outside of the United States, and was branded the CBS ColecoVision. Sales quickly passed one million in early 1983, before the video game crash of 1983. The ColecoVision was discontinued in the spring of 1984. In 1986, Bit Corporation produced a ColecoVision clone called the Dina, which was sold in the United States by Telegames as the Telegames Personal Arcade. Hardware The main console unit consists of a 14x8x2 inch rectangular plastic case that houses the motherboard, with a cartridge slot on the right side and connectors for the external power supply and RF jack at the rear. The controllers connect into plugs in a recessed area on the top of the unit. The design of the controllers is similar to that of Mattel's Intellivision — the controller is rectangular and consists of a numeric keypad and a set of side buttons. In place of the circular control disc below the keypad, the Coleco controller has a short, 1.5-inch joystick. The keypad is designed to accept a thin plastic overlay that maps the keys for a particular game. Each ColecoVision console shipped with two controllers. All first-party cartridges and most third-party software titles feature a twelve-second pause before presenting the game select screen. This delay results from an intentional loop in the console's BIOS to enable on-screen display of the ColecoVision brand. Companies like Parker Brothers, Activision, and Micro Fun bypassed this loop, which necessitated embedding portions of the BIOS outside the delay loop, further reducing storage available to actual game programming. Technical specifications CPU: Zilog Z80A @ 3.58 MHz Video processor: Texas Instruments TMS9928A 256x192 resolution 32 sprites 16 colors Sound: Texas Instruments SN76489A 3 tone generators 1 noise generator VRAM: 16 KB RAM: 1 KB Storage: Cartridge: 8/16/24/32 KB Expansion modules Expansion Module #2 Super Action Controller From its introduction, Coleco had touted a hardware add-on called the Expansion Module #1 which made the ColecoVision compatible with the industry-leading Atari 2600. Functionally, this gave the ColecoVision the largest software library of any console of its day. The expansion module prompted legal action from Atari, but Atari was unable to stop sales of the module because the 2600 could be reproduced with standard parts. Coleco was also able to design and market the Gemini game system which was an exact clone of the 2600, but with combined joystick/paddle controllers. Expansion Module #2 is a driving controller expansion that consists of a steering wheel, gas pedal and the pack-in game Turbo. The driving controller is also compatible with the games Destructor and Dukes Of Hazzard. Expansion Module #3, the final hardware expansion module, was released in the summer of 1983. Module #3 converts the ColecoVision into a full-fledged computer known as the Coleco Adam, complete with keyboard and digital data pack (DDP) cassette drives. Module #3 was originally conceived to be the ColecoVision Super Game Module using game wafers as the storage medium. Although Coleco presented a mock-up of the SGM at the 1983 New York Toy Show, that product was never manufactured. There were also rumors that Expansion Module #3 was to have incorporated an RCA CED player to store larger amounts of data. Coleco prototyped a fourth expansion module intended to provide compatibility with Mattel's Intellivision, but this was never released. Two controller expansions were also available. First was the Roller Controller, a trackball packaged with a port of the arcade game Slither, a Centipede clone and meant to be used with some dedicated games like Victory or to enhance the gameplay of previously published cartdriges which benefitted from its trackball system (like Wargames (game)!Wargames. The second was the Super Action Controller Set, resembling a pair of boxing gloves each with joystick and numeric keypad on top and a series of buttons along the grip. It came with the game Super Action Baseball and saw later release of the Rocky-inspired Super Action Boxing and a port of Front Line. Similarities to other platforms The ColecoVision contains the same CPU and graphics chip as the MSX and Sega SG-1000/SC-3000. It also shares a sound chip with Sega consoles (including the Master System), making them identical in hardware capabilities. The MSX contains a different sound chip that is very similar in capabilities, the General Instruments AY-3-8910. For this reason it is very easy to port games between the three systems. Games Coleco's software approach was to license arcade games that Atari had not. Realizing that Atari had firm support from Namco (the creators of Pac-Man and many other hits), Coleco entered into contracts with companies such as Sega, Konami, and Universal. Given that the ColecoVision could produce near arcade-quality ports, industry magazines like Electronic Games were unanimous in their enthusiasm over the console. Some of the more popular games include Donkey Kong (the pack-in), Donkey Kong Junior, Carnival, Lady Bug, Mouse Trap, and Zaxxon. Coleco also popularized lesser known arcade games, such as Venture, Cosmic Avenger, and Mr. Do!. In some cases, the console versions were arguably superior to the arcade versions, as seen in Space Panic. Later Coleco continued adapting newer succesful arcade games like Subroc, Time Pilot and Frenzy, the company also made inferior ports of many of these games for the Atari 2600 and Intellivision, in an effort to broaden its market. Compared to arcade ports, the ColecoVision did not offer many games original to the console, though a few notable releases are Smurf: Rescue in Gargamel's Castle, War Room, Illusions, and Fortune Builder, an early milestone in the style of SimCity. Coleco was infamous for its vaporware offerings. An example of such was to be an adaptation of Tunnels and Trolls. It is not known whether the game's printed screen shots were from an actual prototype or were merely pre-development illustrations. The ColecoVision's box itself bears several other examples, among them Chess Challenger, Side Trak, Rip Cord, Horse Racing, and Mr. Turtle. Legacy In 1996, programmer Kevin Horton released the first homebrew game for the ColecoVision, a Tetris clone entitiled Kevtris. http://www.mobygames.com/game/colecovision/kevtris http://www.gooddealgames.com/interviews/int_horton.html Dozens of homebrew games, as well as programming tools to aid development, have since been released. In 1997, Telegames released Personal Arcade Vol. 1, a collection of ColecoVision games for Microsoft Windows, http://www.mobygames.com/game/personal-arcade-volume-one and a 1998 follow-up, Colecovision Hits Volume One. http://www.mobygames.com/game/classic-gamer-colecovision-hits-volume-one The value of the ColecoVision as an 1980s pop culture icon was discussed on VH1's I Love The 80's Strikes Back. http://www.vh1.com/shows/dyn/i_love_the_80s_strikes_back/series_about.jhtml Several television series have aired episodes that reference or parody the console: South Park, "Chickenpox", Season 2 Episode 23, Production no. 210 Family Guy, "I Take Thee Quaqmire", Season 4 Episode 21, Production no. 4ACX23 and Everybody Hates Chris. http://www.bullz-eye.com/television_reviews/2005/everybody_hates_chris_1.htm Musicians, such as Jay Z, http://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/jayz/imadeit.html The Fugees, http://www.musicsonglyrics.com/F/fugeeslyrics/fugeeshowmanymicslyrics.htm Dr Dre, http://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/drdre/housewife.html Del The Funky Homosapien, http://www.stlyrics.com/songs/d/delthefunkyhomosapien6367/protoculture509948.html and Buck 65, http://www.amazon.com/Man-Overboard-Buck-65/dp/B00007H02M have also referenced the console in song titles and lyrics Drew Barrymore can be seen playing a ColecoVision console in the 1984 Dino De Laurentiis film Firestarter River West Brands currently owns the ColecoVision brand name. Trademark Registration for River West Brands References External links | ColecoVision |@lemmatized colecovision:26 coleco:14 industry:3 second:3 generation:1 home:1 video:4 game:35 console:14 release:9 august:1 offer:2 arcade:12 quality:2 graphic:2 style:2 ability:1 play:2 atari:8 mean:1 expand:1 system:6 basic:1 hardware:5 catalog:1 twelve:2 launch:1 title:4 additional:1 ten:1 announce:1 approximately:1 total:1 publish:2 rom:1 cartridge:5 history:1 license:2 nintendo:1 donkey:3 kong:3 official:1 pack:4 version:3 well:2 receive:1 near:2 perfect:1 port:7 help:1 boost:1 popularity:1 christmas:1 sell:2 unit:3 largely:1 strength:1 bundled:1 main:2 competitor:1 arguably:2 advanced:1 less:2 commercially:1 successful:1 distribute:1 cbs:2 electronics:1 outside:2 united:2 state:2 brand:5 sale:2 quickly:1 pass:1 one:4 million:1 early:2 crash:1 discontinue:1 spring:1 bit:1 corporation:1 produce:2 clone:4 call:2 dina:1 telegames:3 personal:3 consist:3 inch:2 rectangular:2 plastic:2 case:2 house:1 motherboard:1 slot:1 right:1 side:3 connector:1 external:2 power:1 supply:1 rf:1 jack:1 rear:1 controller:12 connect:1 plug:1 recessed:1 area:1 top:2 design:3 similar:2 mattel:2 intellivision:3 numeric:2 keypad:4 set:2 button:2 place:1 circular:1 control:1 disc:1 short:1 joystick:3 accept:1 thin:1 overlay:1 map:1 key:1 particular:1 ship:1 two:2 first:3 party:2 third:1 software:3 feature:1 pause:1 present:2 select:1 screen:3 delay:2 result:1 intentional:1 loop:3 bios:2 enable:1 display:1 company:3 like:5 parker:1 brother:1 activision:1 micro:1 fun:1 bypass:1 necessitate:1 embed:1 portion:1 far:1 reduce:1 storage:3 available:2 actual:2 programming:2 technical:1 specification:1 cpu:2 zilog:1 mhz:1 processor:1 texas:2 instrument:3 resolution:1 sprites:1 color:1 sound:3 tone:1 generator:2 noise:1 vram:1 kb:3 ram:1 expansion:11 module:13 super:5 action:5 introduction:1 tout:1 add:1 make:3 compatible:2 lead:1 functionally:1 give:2 large:2 library:1 day:1 prompt:1 legal:1 unable:1 stop:1 could:2 reproduce:1 standard:1 part:1 also:8 able:1 market:2 gemini:1 exact:1 combined:1 paddle:1 drive:3 steering:1 wheel:1 gas:1 pedal:1 turbo:1 destructor:1 duke:1 hazzard:1 final:1 summer:1 convert:1 full:1 fledge:1 computer:1 know:3 adam:1 complete:1 keyboard:1 digital:1 data:2 ddp:1 cassette:1 originally:1 conceive:1 use:2 wafer:1 medium:1 although:1 mock:1 sgm:1 new:1 york:1 toy:1 show:2 product:1 never:2 manufacture:1 rumor:1 incorporate:1 rca:1 ced:1 player:1 store:1 amount:1 prototyped:1 fourth:1 intend:1 provide:1 compatibility:1 roller:1 trackball:2 package:1 slither:1 centipede:1 meant:1 dedicated:1 victory:1 enhance:1 gameplay:1 previously:1 cartdriges:1 benefit:1 wargames:2 resemble:1 pair:1 box:2 glove:1 series:2 along:1 grip:1 come:1 baseball:1 saw:1 later:2 rocky:1 inspire:1 boxing:1 front:1 line:1 similarity:1 platform:1 contain:2 chip:3 msx:2 sega:3 sg:1 sc:1 share:1 include:2 master:1 identical:1 capability:2 different:1 general:1 ay:1 reason:1 easy:1 three:1 approach:1 realize:1 firm:1 support:1 namco:1 creator:1 pac:1 man:2 many:3 hit:3 enter:1 contract:1 konami:1 universal:1 magazine:1 electronic:1 unanimous:1 enthusiasm:1 popular:1 junior:1 carnival:1 lady:1 bug:1 mouse:1 trap:1 zaxxon:1 popularize:1 venture:1 cosmic:1 avenger:1 mr:2 superior:1 see:2 space:1 panic:1 continue:1 adapt:1 newer:1 succesful:1 subroc:1 time:1 pilot:1 frenzy:1 inferior:1 effort:1 broaden:1 compare:1 original:1 though:1 notable:1 smurf:1 rescue:1 gargamel:1 castle:1 war:1 room:1 illusion:1 fortune:1 builder:1 milestone:1 simcity:1 infamous:1 vaporware:1 offering:1 example:2 adaptation:1 tunnel:1 troll:1 whether:1 print:1 shot:1 prototype:1 merely:1 pre:1 development:2 illustration:1 bear:1 several:2 among:1 chess:1 challenger:1 trak:1 rip:1 cord:1 horse:1 racing:1 turtle:1 legacy:1 programmer:1 kevin:1 horton:1 homebrew:2 tetri:1 entitiled:1 kevtris:2 http:11 www:11 mobygames:3 com:11 gooddealgames:1 interview:1 html:4 dozen:1 tool:1 aid:1 since:1 vol:1 collection:1 microsoft:1 window:1 volume:3 follow:1 classic:1 gamer:1 value:1 pop:1 culture:1 icon:1 discuss:1 love:1 strike:1 back:1 dyn:1 jhtml:1 television:1 air:1 episode:3 reference:3 parody:1 south:1 park:1 chickenpox:1 season:2 production:2 family:1 guy:1 take:1 thee:1 quaqmire:1 everybody:1 hat:1 chris:1 bullz:1 eye:1 htm:2 musician:1 jay:1 z:1 azlyrics:2 lyric:3 jayz:1 imadeit:1 fugees:1 musicsonglyrics:1 f:1 fugeeslyrics:1 fugeeshowmanymicslyrics:1 dr:1 dre:1 drdre:1 housewife:1 del:1 funky:1 homosapien:1 stlyrics:1 song:2 buck:2 amazon:1 overboard:1 dp:1 draw:1 barrymore:1 dino:1 de:1 laurentiis:1 film:1 firestarter:1 river:2 west:2 currently:1 name:1 trademark:1 registration:1 link:1 |@bigram rom_cartridge:1 donkey_kong:3 commercially_successful:1 cartridge_slot:1 numeric_keypad:2 kb_ram:1 ram_kb:1 full_fledge:1 atari_intellivision:1 http_www:11 microsoft_window:1 everybody_hat:1 dr_dre:1 draw_barrymore:1 de_laurentiis:1 external_link:1 |
4,905 | Go_Down_Moses | "Go Down Moses" is an American Negro spiritual. It describes events in the Old Testament of the Bible, specifically Exodus 5:1: "And the Lord spoke unto Moses, go unto Pharaoh, and say unto him, thus saith the Lord, Let my people go, that they may serve me", in which God commands Moses to demand the release of the Israelites from bondage in Egypt. The opening verse as published by the Jubilee Singers in 1872: When Israel was in Egypt's land: Let my people go, Oppress'd so hard they could not stand, Let my People go. Go down, Moses, Way down in Egypt land, Tell old Pharaoh, Let my people go. In the song "Israel" represents the African-American slaves while "Egypt" and "Pharaoh" represent the slavemaster. "Oh! Let My People Go" {{Infobox Standard |title=Oh! Let My People Go |comment=(The Song of the Contrabands)|image=LetMyPeopleGo1862.jpg |image_size= |caption=Cover of sheet music, 1862 |writer= |composer=Traditional |lyricist= |published=1862 |written= |form=Negro spiritual |original_artist=Contrabands |recorded_by= |performed_by= }} Although usually thought of as a spiritual, the earliest recorded use of the song was as a rallying anthem for the Contrabands at Fort Monroe sometime before July 1862. Early authorities presumed it was composed by them. The Continental Monthly, Vol II, pp. 114-113, "We are indebted to Clark's School-Visitor for the following song of the Contrabands, which originated among the latter, and was first sung by them in the hearing of white people at Fortress Monroe, where it was noted down by their chaplain, Rev. L.C. Lockwood." Sheet music was soon after published, titled "Oh! Let My People Go: The Song of the Contrabands" and arranged by Horace Waters. L.C. Lockwood, chaplain of the Contrabands, stated in the sheet music the song was from Virginia, dating from about 1853. Lockwood, "Oh! Let My People Go", p. 5: "This Song has been sung for about nine years by the Slaves of Virginia." The opening verse, as recorded by the Lockwood, is:The Lord, by Moses, to Pharaoh said: Oh! let my people go.If not, I'll smite your first-born dead—Oh! let my people go.Oh! go down, Moses,Away down to Egypt's land,And tell King PharaohTo let my people go.Incidentals The song was made famous by Paul Robeson whose voice, deep and resonant as it was, was said by some to have attained the status of the voice of God. On February 7, 1958, the song was recorded in New York City, and sung by Louis Armstrong with Sy Oliver's Orchestra. It is also one of the spirituals used in the oratorio A Child of Our Time by the English composer Michael Tippett. William Faulkner titled his novel Go Down, Moses after the song. A Hebrew translation of the song is a common element in the Passover seder in Israel. A reference is made to the song in the film Ferris Bueller's Day Off when a bed-ridden Cameron sings, "When Cameron was in Eygpt land, let my Cameron go!" Sung by Will Smith's character to Carlton Banks (played by Alfonso Ribeiro) in an episode of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air (Smith sang the first two lines, Banks sullenly providing the refrain, then a prisoner scares them both by singing the final four lines in an operatic voice.) Also sung by Gregory Miller (played by Sidney Poiter) in the 1955 film Blackboard Jungle. References BibliographyThe Continental Monthly''. Vol. II (July-December, 1862). New York. Lockwood, L.C. "Oh! Let My People Go: The Song of the Contrabands". New York: Horace Waters (1862). External links Sweet Chariot: The Story of the Spirituals, particularly their section on "Freedom" (Web site maintained by The Spirituals Project at the University of Denver) | Go_Down_Moses |@lemmatized go:18 moses:7 american:2 negro:2 spiritual:6 describe:1 event:1 old:2 testament:1 bible:1 specifically:1 exodus:1 lord:3 speak:1 unto:3 pharaoh:4 say:3 thus:1 saith:1 let:13 people:13 may:1 serve:1 god:2 command:1 demand:1 release:1 israelite:1 bondage:1 egypt:5 opening:2 verse:2 publish:3 jubilee:1 singer:1 israel:3 land:4 oppress:1 hard:1 could:1 stand:1 way:1 tell:2 song:13 represent:2 african:1 slave:2 slavemaster:1 oh:8 infobox:1 standard:1 title:3 comment:1 contraband:6 image:1 jpg:1 caption:1 cover:1 sheet:3 music:3 writer:1 composer:2 traditional:1 lyricist:1 write:1 form:1 contrabands:1 although:1 usually:1 think:1 early:2 record:3 use:2 rally:1 anthem:1 fort:1 monroe:2 sometime:1 july:2 authority:1 presume:1 compose:1 continental:2 monthly:2 vol:2 ii:2 pp:1 indebted:1 clark:1 school:1 visitor:1 following:1 originate:1 among:1 latter:1 first:3 sing:4 hearing:1 white:1 fortress:1 note:1 chaplain:2 rev:1 l:3 c:3 lockwood:5 soon:1 arrange:1 horace:2 water:2 state:1 virginia:2 date:1 p:1 nine:1 year:1 smite:1 bear:1 dead:1 away:1 king:1 pharaohto:1 incidental:1 make:2 famous:1 paul:1 robeson:1 whose:1 voice:3 deep:1 resonant:1 attain:1 status:1 february:1 new:3 york:3 city:1 sung:2 louis:1 armstrong:1 sy:1 oliver:1 orchestra:1 also:2 one:1 oratorio:1 child:1 time:1 english:1 michael:1 tippett:1 william:1 faulkner:1 novel:1 hebrew:1 translation:1 common:1 element:1 passover:1 seder:1 reference:2 film:2 ferris:1 bueller:1 day:1 bed:1 ridden:1 cameron:3 sings:1 eygpt:1 smith:2 character:1 carlton:1 bank:2 play:2 alfonso:1 ribeiro:1 episode:1 fresh:1 prince:1 bel:1 air:1 sang:1 two:1 line:2 sullenly:1 provide:1 refrain:1 prisoner:1 scar:1 final:1 four:1 operatic:1 gregory:1 miller:1 sidney:1 poiter:1 blackboard:1 jungle:1 bibliographythe:1 december:1 external:1 link:1 sweet:1 chariot:1 story:1 particularly:1 section:1 freedom:1 web:1 site:1 maintain:1 project:1 university:1 denver:1 |@bigram saith_lord:1 jpg_caption:1 paul_robeson:1 william_faulkner:1 passover_seder:1 bed_ridden:1 external_link:1 |
4,906 | Freyr | "Frey" redirects here. For other uses of Frey and Freyr, see Frey (disambiguation). "Freyr" (1901) by Johannes Gehrts. Freyr (sometimes anglicized Frey, from *frawjaz "lord" The name Freyr is believed to be cognate to Gothic frauja and Old English frēa, meaning lord. It is sometimes anglicized to Frey by omitting the nominative ending. In the modern Scandinavian languages the name can appear as Frej, Frö, Frøy or Fröj. In Richard Wagner's Das Rheingold the god appears as Froh. See also Ingunar-Freyr. ) is one of the most important gods of Norse paganism. Freyr was highly associated with agriculture, weather and, as a phallic fertility god, Freyr "bestows peace and pleasure on mortals". Freyr, sometimes referred to as Yngvi-Freyr, was especially associated with Sweden and seen as an ancestor of the Swedish royal house. In the Icelandic books the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda, Freyr is presented as one of the Vanir, the son of the sea god Njörðr, brother of the goddess Freyja. The gods gave him Álfheimr, the realm of the Elves, as a teething present. He rides the shining dwarf-made boar Gullinbursti and possesses the ship Skíðblaðnir which always has a favorable breeze and can be folded together and carried in a pouch when it is not being used. He has the servants Skírnir, Byggvir, and Beyla. The most extensive surviving Freyr myth relates Freyr's falling in love with the giantess Gerðr. Eventually, she becomes his wife but first Freyr has to give away his magic sword which fights on its own "if wise be he who wields it". Although deprived of this weapon, Freyr defeats the giant Beli with an antler. However, lacking his sword, Freyr will be killed by the fire giant Surtr during the events of Ragnarök. Adam of Bremen Written around 1080, one of the oldest written sources on pre-Christian Scandinavian religious practices is Adam of Bremen's Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum. Adam claimed to have access to first-hand accounts on pagan practices in Sweden. He refers to Freyr with the Latinized name Fricco and mentions that an image of him at Skara was destroyed by a Christian missionary. His description of the Temple at Uppsala gives some details on the god. In hoc templo, quod totum ex auro paratum est, statuas trium deorum veneratur populus, ita ut potentissimus eorum Thor in medio solium habeat triclinio; hinc et inde locum possident Wodan et Fricco. Quorum significationes eiusmodi sunt: 'Thor', inquiunt, 'praesidet in aere, qui tonitrus et fulmina, ventos ymbresque, serena et fruges gubernat. Alter Wodan, id est furor, bella gerit, hominique ministrat virtutem contra inimicos. Tertius est Fricco, pacem voluptatemque largiens mortalibus'. Cuius etiam simulacrum fingunt cum ingenti priapo. Gesta Hammaburgensis 26, Waitz' editionIn this temple, entirely decked out in gold, the people worship the statues of three gods in such wise that the mightiest of them, Thor, occupies a throne in the middle of the chamber; Wotan and Frikko have places on either side. The significance of these gods is as follows: Thor, they say, presides over the air, which governs the thunder and lightning, the winds and rains, fair weather and crops. The other, Wotan—that is, the Furious—carries on war and imparts to man strength against his enemies. The third is Frikko, who bestows peace and pleasure on mortals. His likeness, too, they fashion with an immense phallus. Gesta Hammaburgensis 26, Tschan's translation Later in the account Adam states that when a marriage is performed a libation is made to the image of Fricco. Historians are divided on the reliability of Adam's account. Haastrup 2004, pp. 18-24. While he is close in time to the events he describes he has a clear agenda to emphasize the role of the Archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen in the Christianization of Scandinavia. His timeframe for the Christianization of Sweden conflicts with other sources, such as runic inscriptions, and archaeological evidence does not confirm the presence of a large temple at Uppsala. On the other hand, the existence of phallic idols was confirmed in 1904 with a find at Rällinge in Södermanland. "Rällinge-Frö". Prose Edda When Snorri Sturluson was writing in 13th century Iceland the indigenous Germanic gods were still remembered though they had not been openly worshiped for more than two centuries. Gylfaginning In the Gylfaginning section of his Prose Edda, Snorri introduces Freyr as one of the major gods. Njörðr í Nóatúnum gat síðan tvau börn, hét sonr Freyr en dóttir Freyja. Þau váru fögr álitum ok máttug. Freyr er hinn ágætasti af ásum. Hann ræðr fyrir regni ok skini sólar, ok þar með ávexti jarðar, ok á hann er gott at heita til árs ok friðar. Hann ræðr ok fésælu manna. Gylfaginning 24, EB's editionNjördr in Nóatún begot afterward two children: the son was called Freyr, and the daughter Freyja; they were fair of face and mighty. Freyr is the most renowned of the Æsir; he rules over the rain and the shining of the sun, and therewithal the fruit of the earth; and it is good to call on him for fruitful seasons and peace. He governs also the prosperity of men. Gylfaginning XXIV, Brodeur's translation Several Scandinavian gold plaques have been interpreted as showing a meeting between Freyr and Gerðr. This description has similarities to the older account by Adam of Bremen but the differences are interesting. Adam assigns control of the weather and produce of the fields to Thor but Snorri says that Freyr rules over those areas. Snorri also omits any explicitly sexual references in Freyr's description. Those discrepancies can be explained in several ways. It is possible that the Norse gods did not have exactly the same roles in Icelandic and Swedish paganism but it must also be remembered that Adam and Snorri were writing with different goals in mind. Either Snorri or Adam may also have had distorted information. The only extended myth related about Freyr in the Prose Edda is the story of his marriage. Þat var einn dag er Freyr hafði gengit í Hliðskjálf ok sá of heima alla. En er hann leit í norðrætt, þá sá hann á einum bœ mikit hús ok fagrt, ok til þess húss gekk kona, ok er hon tók upp höndum ok lauk hurð fyrir sér þá lýsti af höndum hennar bæði í lopt ok á lög, ok allir heimar birtusk af henni. Gylfaginning 37, EB's editionIt chanced one day that Freyr had gone to Hlidskjálf, and gazed over all the world; but when he looked over into the northern region, he saw on an estate a house great and fair. And toward this house went a woman; when she raised her hands and opened the door before her, brightness gleamed from her hands, both over sky and sea, and all the worlds were illumined of her. Gylfaginning XXXVII, Brodeur's translation The woman is Gerðr, a beautiful giantess. Freyr immediately falls in love with her and becomes depressed and taciturn. After a period of brooding, he consents to talk to Skírnir, his foot-page. He tells Skírnir that he has fallen in love with a beautiful woman and thinks he will die if he cannot have her. He asks Skírnir to go and woo her for him. Þá svarar Skírnir, sagði svá at hann skal fara sendiferð en Freyr skal fá honum sverð sitt. Þat var svá gott sverð at sjálft vásk. En Freyr lét eigi þat til skorta ok gaf honum sverðit. Þá fór Skírnir ok bað honum konunnar ok fekk heitit hennar, ok níu nóttum síðar skyldi hon þar koma er Barey heitir ok ganga þá at brullaupinu með Frey. Gylfaginning 37, EB's editionThen Skírnir answered thus: he would go on his errand, but Freyr should give him his own sword-which is so good that it fights of itself;- and Freyr did not refuse, but gave him the sword. Then Skírnir went forth and wooed the woman for him, and received her promise; and nine nights later she was to come to the place called Barrey, and then go to the bridal with Freyr. Gylfaginning XXXVII, Brodeur's translation The loss of Freyr's sword has consequences. According to the Prose Edda, Freyr had to fight Beli without his sword and slew him with an antler. But the result at Ragnarök, the end of the world, will be much more serious. Freyr is fated to fight the fire-giant Surtr and since he does not have his sword he will be defeated. The final battle between Freyr and Surtr, illustration by Lorenz Frølich Even after the loss of his weapon Freyr still has two magical artifacts, both of them dwarf-made. One is the ship Skíðblaðnir, which will have favoring breeze wherever its owner wants to go and can also be folded together like a napkin and carried in a pouch. The other is the boar Gullinbursti whose mane glows to illuminate the way for his owner. No myths involving Skíðblaðnir have come down to us but Snorri relates that Freyr rode to Baldr's funeral in a wagon pulled by Gullinbursti. Skaldic poetry Freyr is referred to several times in skaldic poetry. In Húsdrápa, partially preserved in the Prose Edda, he is said to ride a boar to Baldr's funeral. Ríðr á börg til borgar böðfróðr sonar Óðins Freyr ok folkum stýrir fyrstr enum golli byrsta. Húsdrápa 7, FJ's editionThe battle-bold Freyr rideth First on the golden-bristled Barrow-boar to the bale-fire Of Baldr, and leads the people. Húsdrápa 7, Brodeur's translation In a poem by Egill Skalla-Grímsson, Freyr is called upon along with Njörðr to drive Eric Bloodaxe from Norway. The same skald mentions in Arinbjarnarkviða that his friend has been blessed by the two gods. [E]n Grjótbjörn of gæddan hefr Freyr ok Njörðr at féar afli. Arinbjarnarkviða 17, FJ's editionFrey and Njord have endowed rock-bear with wealth's force. Arinbjarnarkviða 17, Scudder's translation Nafnaþulur In Nafnaþulur Freyr is said to ride the horse Blóðughófi (Bloody Hoof). Poetic Edda A detail from a rune- and picture stone from Gotland, in the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities in Stockholm. The three men are interpreted as Odin, Thor, and Freyr. Freyr is mentioned in several of the poems in the Poetic Edda. The information there is largely consistent with that of the Prose Edda while each collection has some details not found in the other. Völuspá Völuspá, the best known of the Eddic poems, describes the final confrontation between Freyr and Surtr during Ragnarök. Surtr fer sunnan með sviga lævi, skínn af sverði sól valtíva. Grjótbjörg gnata, en gífr rata, troða halir helveg, en himinn klofnar. Þá kømr Hlínar harmr annarr fram, er Óðinn ferr við úlf vega, en bani Belja bjartr at Surti, þá mun Friggjar falla angan. Völuspá 51–52, EB's editionSurtr moves from the south with the scathe of branches: A kenning meaning "fire". there shines from his sword the sun of Gods of the Slain. Stone peaks clash, and troll wives take to the road. Warriors tread the path from Hel, and heaven breaks apart. Then is fulfilled Hlín's second sorrow, when Óðinn goes to fight with the wolf, and Beli's slayer, bright, against Surtr. Then shall Frigg's sweet friend fall. Völuspá 50–51, Dronke's translation Some scholars have preferred a slightly different translation, in which the sun shines "from the sword of the gods". The idea is that the sword which Surtr slays Freyr with is the "sword of the gods" which Freyr had earlier bargained away for Gerðr. This would add a further layer of tragedy to the myth. Sigurður Nordal argued for this view but the possibility represented by Dronke's translation above is equally possible. Grímnismál Grímnismál, a poem which largely consists of miscellaneous information about the gods, mentions Freyr's abode. Alfheim Frey gáfu í árdaga tívar at tannféi. Grímnismál 5, GJ's editionAlfheim the gods to Frey gave in days of yore for a tooth-gift. Grímnismál 5, Thorpe's translation A tooth-gift was a gift given to an infant on the cutting of the first tooth. Since Alfheimr or Álfheimr means "World of Álfar (Elves)" the fact that Freyr should own it is one of the indications of a connection between the Vanir and the obscure Álfar. Grímnismál also mentions that the sons of Ívaldi made Skíðblaðnir for Freyr and that it is the best of ships. Lokasenna In the poem Lokasenna, Loki accuses the gods of various misdeeds. He criticizes the Vanir for incest, saying that Njörðr had Freyr with his sister. He also states that the gods discovered Freyr and Freyja having sex together. The god Týr speaks up in Freyr's defense. Freyr er beztr allra ballriða ása görðum í; mey hann né grætir né manns konu ok leysir ór höftum hvern. Lokasenna 37, GJ's editionFrey is best of all the exalted gods in the Æsir's courts: no maid he makes to weep, no wife of man, and from bonds looses all. Lokasenna 37, Thorpe's translation Lokasenna also mentions that Freyr has servants called Byggvir and Beyla. They seem to have been associated with the making of bread. Skírnismál "The Lovesickness of Frey" (1908) by W.G. Collingwood. The courtship of Freyr and Gerðr is dealt with extensively in the poem Skírnismál. Freyr is depressed after seeing Gerðr. Njörðr and Skaði ask Skírnir to go and talk with him. Freyr reveals the cause of his grief and asks Skírnir to go to Jötunheimr to woo Gerðr for him. Freyr gives Skírnir a horse and his magical sword for the journey. Mar ek þér þann gef, er þik um myrkvan berr vísan vafrloga, ok þat sverð, er sjalft mun vegask ef sá er horskr, er hefr. Skírnismál 9, GJ's editionMy steed I lend thee to lift thee o'er the weird ring of flickering flame, the sword also which swings itself, if wise be he who wields it. Skírnismál 9, Hollander's translation When Skírnir finds Gerðr he starts by offering her treasures if she will marry Freyr. When she declines he gets her consent by threatening her with destructive magic. Ynglinga saga Yngvi-Freyr constructs the Temple at Uppsala in this early 19th century artwork by Hugo Hamilton. "In Freyr's Temple near Uppsala" (1882) by Friedrich Wilhelm Heine. Snorri Sturluson starts his epic history of the kings of Norway with Ynglinga saga, a euhemerized account of the Norse gods. Here Odin and the Æsir are men from Asia who gain power through their prowess in war and Odin's skills. But when Odin attacks the Vanir he bites off more than he can chew and peace is negotiated after the destructive and indecisive Æsir-Vanir War. Hostages are exchanged to seal the peace deal and the Vanir send Freyr and Njörðr to live with the Æsir. At this point the saga, like Lokasenna, mentions that incest was practised among the Vanir. Þá er Njörðr var með Vönum, þá hafði hann átta systur sína, því at þat váru þar lög; váru þeirra börn Freyr ok Freyja. En þat var bannat með Ásum at byggja svá náit at frændsemi. Ynglinga saga 4, Schultz's editionWhile Njord was with the Vanaland people he had taken his own sister in marriage, for that was allowed by their law; and their children were Frey and Freya. But among the Asaland people it was forbidden to intermarry with such near relations. Ynglinga saga 4, Laing's translation Odin makes Njörðr and Freyr priests of sacrifices and they become influential leaders. Odin goes on to conquer the North and settles in Sweden where he rules as king, collects taxes, and maintains sacrifices. After Odin's death, Njörðr takes the throne. During his rule there is peace and good harvest and the Swedes come to believe that Njörðr controls these things. Eventually Njörðr falls ill and dies. Freyr tók þá ríki eptir Njörð; var hann kallaðr dróttinn yfir Svíum ok tók skattgjafir af þeim; hann var vinsæll ok ársæll sem faðir hans. Freyr reisti at Uppsölum hof mikit, ok setti þar höfuðstað sinn; lagði þar til allar skyldir sínar, lönd ok lausa aura; þá hófst Uppsala auðr, ok hefir haldizt æ síðan. Á hans dögum hófst Fróða friðr, þá var ok ár um öll lönd; kendu Svíar þat Frey. Var hann því meir dýrkaðr en önnur goðin, sem á hans dögum varð landsfólkit auðgara en fyrr af friðinum ok ári. Gerðr Gýmis dóttir hét kona hans; sonr þeirra hét Fjölnir. Freyr hét Yngvi öðru nafni; Yngva nafn var lengi síðan haft í hans ætt fyrir tignarnafn, ok Ynglingar váru síðan kallaðir hans ættmenn. Freyr tók sótt; en er at honum leið sóttin, leituðu menn sér ráðs, ok létu fá menn til hans koma, en bjoggu haug mikinn, ok létu dyrr á ok 3 glugga. En er Freyr var dauðr, báru þeir hann leyniliga í hauginn, ok sögðu Svíum at hann lifði, ok varðveittu hann þar 3 vetr. En skatt öllum heltu þeir í hauginn, í einn glugg gullinu, en í annan silfrinu, í hinn þriðja eirpenningum. Þá hélzt ár ok friðr. Ynglinga saga 12, Schultz's editionFrey took the kingdom after Njord, and was called drot by the Swedes, and they paid taxes to him. He was, like his father, fortunate in friends and in good seasons. Frey built a great temple at Upsal, made it his chief seat, and gave it all his taxes, his land, and goods. Then began the Upsal domains, which have remained ever since. Then began in his days the Frode-peace; and then there were good seasons, in all the land, which the Swedes ascribed to Frey, so that he was more worshipped than the other gods, as the people became much richer in his days by reason of the peace and good seasons. His wife was called Gerd, daughter of Gymis, and their son was called Fjolne. Frey was called by another name, Yngve; and this name Yngve was considered long after in his race as a name of honour, so that his descendants have since been called Ynglinger. Frey fell into a sickness; and as his illness took the upper hand, his men took the plan of letting few approach him. In the meantime they raised a great mound, in which they placed a door with three holes in it. Now when Frey died they bore him secretly into the mound, but told the Swedes he was alive; and they kept watch over him for three years. They brought all the taxes into the mound, and through the one hole they put in the gold, through the other the silver, and through the third the copper money that was paid. Peace and good seasons continued. Ynglinga saga 12, Laing's translation Þá er allir Svíar vissu, at Freyr var dauðr, en hélzt ár ok friðr, þá trúðu þeir, at svá mundi vera, meðan Freyr væri á Svíþjóð, ok vildu eigi brenna hann, ok kölluðu hann veraldar goð ok blótuðu mest til árs ok friðar alla ævi síðan. Ynglinga saga 13, Schultz's editionWhen it became known to the Swedes that Frey was dead, and yet peace and good seasons continued, they believed that it must be so as long as Frey remained in Sweden; and therefore they would not burn his remains, but called him the god of this world, and afterwards offered continually blood-sacrifices to him, principally for peace and good seasons. Ynglinga saga 13, Laing's translation Freyr had a son named Fjölnir, who succeeds him as king and rules during the continuing period of peace and good seasons. Fjölnir's descendants are enumerated in Ynglingatal which describes the mythological kings of Sweden. Ögmundar þáttr dytts The 14th century Icelandic Ögmundar þáttr dytts contains a tradition of how Freyr was transported in a wagon and administered by a priestess, in Sweden. Freyr's role as a fertility god needed a female counterpart in a divine couple (McKinnell's translation 1987 Heinrichs, Anne: The Search for Identity: A Problem after the Conversion, in alvíssmál 3. pp.54-55. ): In this short story, a man named Gunnar was suspected of manslaughter and escaped to Sweden, where Gunnar became acquainted with this young priestess. He helped her drive Freyr's wagon with the god effigy in it, but the god did not appreciate Gunnar and so attacked him and would have killed Gunnar if he had not promised himself to return to the Christian faith if he would make it back to Norway. When Gunnar had promised this, a demon jumped out off the god effigy and so Freyr was nothing but a piece of wood. Gunnar destroyed the wooden idol and dressed himself as Freyr, and then Gunnar and the priestess travelled across Sweden where people were happy to see the god visiting them. After a while he made the priestess pregnant, but this was seen by the Swedes as confirmation that Freyr was truly a fertility god and not a scam. Finally, Gunnar had to flee back to Norway with his young bride and had her baptized at the court of Olaf Tryggvason. Other Icelandic sources Worship of Freyr is alluded to in several Icelanders' sagas. The protagonist of Hrafnkels saga is a priest of Freyr. He dedicates a horse to the god and kills a man for riding it, setting in motion a chain of fateful events. In Gísla saga a chieftain named Þorgrímr Freysgoði is an ardent worshipper of Freyr. When he dies he is buried in a howe. Varð og sá hlutur einn er nýnæmum þótti gegna að aldrei festi snæ utan og sunnan á haugi Þorgríms og eigi fraus; og gátu menn þess til að hann myndi Frey svo ávarður fyrir blótin að hann myndi eigi vilja að freri á milli þeirra. - Gísla saga Súrssonar And now, too, a thing happened which seemed strange and new. No snow lodged on the south side of Thorgrim's howe, nor did it freeze there. And men guessed it was because Thorgrim had been so dear to Frey for his worship's sake that the god would not suffer the frost to come between them. - Northvegr - The Story Of Gisli The Outlaw Hallfreðar saga, Víga-Glúms saga and Vatnsdœla saga also mention Freyr. Other Icelandic sources referring to Freyr include Íslendingabók, Landnámabók, and Hervarar saga. Íslendingabók, written around 1125, is the oldest Icelandic source to mention Freyr, including him in a genealogy of Swedish kings. Landnámabók includes a heathen oath to be sworn at an assembly where Freyr, Njörðr, and "the almighty áss" are invoked. Hervarar saga mentions a Yuletide sacrifice of a boar to Freyr. Gesta Danorum The 12th Century Danish Gesta Danorum describes Freyr, under the name Frø, as the "viceroy of the gods". Frø quoque deorum satrapa sedem haud procul Upsala cepit, ubi veterem litationis morem tot gentibus ac saeculis usurpatum tristi infandoque piaculo mutavit. Siquidem humani generis hostias mactare aggressus foeda superis libamenta persolvit. Gesta Danorum 3, Olrik's editionThere was also a viceroy of the gods, Frø, who took up residence not far from Uppsala and altered the ancient system of sacrifice practised for centuries among many peoples to a morbid and unspeakable form of expiation. He delivered abominable offerings to the powers above by instituting the slaughter of human victims. Gesta Danorum 3, Fisher's translation That Freyr had a cult at Uppsala is well confirmed from other sources. The reference to the change in sacrificial ritual may also reflect some historical memory. There is archaeological evidence for an increase in human sacrifices in the late Viking Age Davidson 1999, Vol. II, p. 55. though among the Norse gods human sacrifice is most often linked to Odin. Another reference to Frø and sacrifices is found earlier in the work, where the beginning of an annual blót to him is related. King Hadingus is cursed after killing a divine being and atones for his crime with a sacrifice. Siquidem propitiandorum numinum gratia Frø deo rem divinam furvis hostiis fecit. Quem litationis morem annuo feriarum circuitu repetitum posteris imitandum reliquit. Frøblot Sueones vocant. Gesta Danorum 1, Olrik's edition[I]n order to mollify the divinities he did indeed make a holy sacrifice of dark-coloured victims to the god Frø. He repeated this mode of propitiation at an annual festival and left it to be imitated by his descendants. The Swedes call it Frøblot. Gesta Danorum 1, Fisher's translation The sacrifice of dark-coloured victims to Freyr has a parallel in Ancient Greek religion where the chthonic fertility deities preferred dark-coloured victims to white ones. In book 9, Saxo identifies Frø as the "king of Sweden" (rex Suetiae): Quo tempore rex Suetiae Frø, interfecto Norvagiensium rege Sywardo, coniuges necessariorum eius prostibulo relegatas publice constuprandas exhibuit. Gesta Danorum 9, Olrik's editionAbout this time the Swedish ruler Frø, after killing Sivard, king of the Norwegians, removed the wives of Sivard's relatives to a brothel and exposed them to public prostitution. Gesta Danorum 9, Fisher's translation The reference to public prostitution may be a memory of fertility cult practices. Such a memory may also be the source of a description in book 6 of the stay of Starcatherus, a follower of Odin, in Sweden. Mortuo autem Bemono, Starcatherus ab athletis Biarmensibus ob virtutem accitus, cum plurima apud eos memoratu digna edidisset facinora, Sueonum fines ingreditur. Ubi cum filiis Frø septennio feriatus ab his tandem ad Haconem Daniae tyrannum se contulit, quod apud Upsalam sacrificiorum tempore constitutus effeminatos corporum motus scaenicosque mimorum plausus ac mollia nolarum crepitacula fastidiret. Unde patet, quam remotum a lascivia animum habuerit, qui ne eius quidem spectator esse sustinuit. Adeo virtus luxui resistit. Gesta Danorum 6, Olrik's editionAfter Bemoni's death Starkather, because of his valour, was summoned by the Biarmian champions and there performed many feats worthy of the tellings. Then he entered Swedish territory where he spent seven years in a leisurely stay with the sons of Frø, after which he departed to join Haki, the lord of Denmark, for, living at Uppsala in the period of sacrifices, he had become disgusted with the womanish body movements, the clatter of actors on the stage and the soft tinkling of bells. It is obvious how far his heart was removed from frivolity if he could not even bear to watch these occasions. A manly individual is resistant to wantonness. Gesta Danorum 6, Fisher's translation Yngvi Map showing regional differences in Norse worship c. 900, as determined by place-names and archaeological data. Blue denotes areas primarily worshipping the Vanir, red areas are where worship of Thor, Odin, and other Aesir predominate. Purple indicates areas where both cults coexisted. Green dots indicate Odin-place names. A strophe of the Anglo-Saxon rune poem (c. 1100) records that: Ing was first among the East Danes seen by men This may refer to the origins of the worship of Ingui in the tribal areas that Tacitus mentions in his Germania as being populated by the Inguieonnic tribes. A later Danish chronicler lists Ingui was one of three brothers that the Danish tribes descended from. The strophe also states that "then he (Ingui) went back over the waves, his wagon behind him" which could connect Ingui to earlier conceptions of the wagon processions of Nerthus, and the later Scandinavian conceptions of Freyr's wagon journeys. Ingui is mentioned also in some later Anglo-Saxon literature under varying forms of his name, such as "For what doth Ingeld have to do with Christ", and the variants used in Beowulf to designate the kings as 'leader of the friends of Ing'. The compound Ingui-Frea (OE) and Yngvi-Freyr (ON) likely refer to the connection between the god and the Germanic kings' role as priests during the sacrifices in the pagan period, as Frea and Freyr are titles meaning 'Lord'. The Swedish royal dynasty was known as the Ynglings from their descent from Yngvi-Freyr. This is supported by Tacitus, who wrote about the Germans: "In their ancient songs, their only way of remembering or recording the past they celebrate an earth-born god Tuisco, and his son Mannus, as the origin of their race, as their founders. To Mannus they assign three sons, from whose names, they say, the coast tribes are called Ingaevones; those of the interior, Herminones; all the rest, Istaevones". Archaeological record A Viking Age statuette believed to depict Freyr. Rällinge statuette In 1904, a Viking Age statuette identified as a depiction of Freyr was discovered on the farm Rällinge in Lunda parish in the province of Södermanland, Sweden. The depiction features a cross-legged seated, bearded male with an erect penis. He is wearing a pointed cap and stroking his triangular beard. The statue is 9 centimeters tall and is displayed at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities. Swedish Museum of National Antiquities inventory number 14232. Viewable online: Skog Church Tapestry This part of the Skog Church Tapestry, a Viking Age Swedish tapestry, is interpreted to show, from left to right, the one-eyed and tree flanked Odin, the hammer-wielding Thor and Freyr holding up an ear of corn. A part of the Swedish 12th century Skog Church Tapestry depicts three figures often interpreted as allusions to Odin, Thor, and Freyr. Leiren, Terje I. (1999). From Pagan to Christian: The Story in the 12th-Century Tapestry of the Skog Church. Published online: http://faculty.washington.edu/leiren/vikings2.html The figures coincide with 11th century descriptions of statue arrangements recorded by Adam of Bremen at the Temple at Uppsala and written accounts of the gods during the late Viking Age. The tapestry is originally from Hälsingland, Sweden but is now housed at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities. Parallels Traditions related to Freyr are also connected with the legendary Danish kings named Fróði, especially Frotho III or Peace-Fróði. He is especially treated in Book Five of Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum and in the Ynglinga saga. His reign was a golden age of peace and prosperity and after his death his body was drawn around in a cart. In Catholic Christianity several saints have domains and rites similar to those of Freyr. In some areas of Western-Europe, Saint Blaise was honored as the patron saint of plowmen and farmers. The benediction of grain prior to seeding was associated with him and on Saint Blaise's Day, February 3, a procession was held in his honor. In the procession, a man representing the saint was drawn on a cart throughout the countryside. In some villages, Saint Blaise was also considered a patron of human fecundity and young women wishing to marry prayed before his statue. Berger 1985, pp. 81-84. Also noteworthy in this context are the phallic saints who were patrons of human fertility. In Scandinavia and England, Saint Stephen may have inherited some of Freyr's legacy. His feast day is December 26 and thus he came to play a part in the Yuletide celebrations which were previously associated with Freyr, such as the consumption of the traditional Christmas ham. Spears, James E. Folklore, Vol. 85, No. 3. (Autumn, 1974), pp. 194-198. JSTOR In old Swedish art, Stephen is shown as tending to horses and bringing a boar's head to a Yuletide banquet. Berger 1985, pp. 105-112. Both elements are extracanonical and may be pagan survivals. Christmas ham is an old tradition in Sweden and may have originated as a Yuletide boar sacrifice to Freyr. Another saint with a possible connection to Freyr is the 12th century Swedish King Eric. The farmers prayed to St. Eric for fruitful seasons and peace and if there was a year of bad harvest they offered a corn ear of silver to him or gave horses to the church. At May 18, his feast day, the relics of St. Eric were drawn in a cart from Uppsala to Gamla Uppsala. The cult of St. Eric was the only cult of a saint which was allowed after the reformation. Thordeman 1954. Notes References Adam of Bremen (edited by G. Waitz) (1876). Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum. Berlin. Available online Translation of the section on the Temple at Uppsala available at http://www.northvegr.org/lore/gesta/index.php Adam of Bremen (translated by Francis Joseph Tschan and Timothy Reuter) (2002). History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-12575-5 Ásgeir Blöndal Magnússon (1989). Íslensk orðsifjabók. Reykjavík: Orðabók Háskólans. Berger, Pamela (1985). The Goddess Obscured: Transformation of the Grain Protectress from Goddess to Saint Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-6723-7. "BookRags Biography on Freyr." BookRags. Retrieved 8 September 2007, from the World Wide Web. http://www.bookrags.com/biography-freyr-eorl-05/index.html A copyright statement seems to indicate the origin of the article: "Freyr from Encyclopedia of Religion. Copyright © 2001-2006 by Macmillan Reference USA, an imprint of the Gale Group. All rights reserved." Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist (tr.) (1916). The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation. Available online Davidson, Hilda Ellis and Peter Fisher (1999). Saxo Grammaticus : The History of the Danes : Books I-IX. Bury St Edmunds: St Edmundsbury Press. ISBN 0-85991-502-6. First published 1979-1980. Dronke, Ursula (ed.) (1997) The Poetic Edda: Mythological Poems. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198111819. Dumézil, Georges (1973). From Myth to Fiction : The Saga of Hadingus. Trans. Derek Coltman. Chicago: U. of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-16972-3. Eysteinn Björnsson (ed.) (2005). Snorra-Edda: Formáli & Gylfaginning : Textar fjögurra meginhandrita. Published online: http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ Finnur Jónsson (1913). Goðafræði Norðmanna og Íslendinga eftir heimildum. Reykjavík: Hið íslenska bókmentafjelag. Finnur Jónsson (1931). Lexicon Poeticum. København: S. L. Møllers Bogtrykkeri. Guðni Jónsson (ed.) (1949). Eddukvæði : Sæmundar Edda. Reykjavík: Íslendingasagnaútgáfan. Haastrup, Ulla, R. E. Greenwood and Søren Kaspersen (eds.) (2004). Images of Cult and Devotion : Function and Reception of Christian Images of Medieval and Post-Medieval Europe. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 87-7289-903-4 Hollander, Lee M. (tr.) (1962). The Poetic Edda: Translated with an Introduction and Explanatory Notes. (2nd ed., rev.). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-76499-5. (Some of the translations appear at Wodensharrow: Texts). Leiren, Terje I. (1999). From Pagan to Christian: The Story in the 12th-Century Tapestry of the Skog Church. Published online: http://faculty.washington.edu/leiren/vikings2.html Lindow, John (2001). Handbook of Norse mythology. Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio. ISBN 1-57607-217-7. Olrik, J. and H. Ræder (1931). Saxo Grammaticus : Gesta Danorum. Available online "Rällinge-Frö" Historiska museet. Retrieved 6 February 2006, from the World Wide Web. http://www.historiska.se/collections/treasures/viking/frej.html Thordeman, Bengt (ed.) (1954) Erik den helige : historia, kult, reliker. Stockholm: Nordisk rotogravyr. Thorpe, Benjamin (tr.) (1866). Edda Sæmundar Hinns Froða : The Edda Of Sæmund The Learned. (2 vols.) London: Trübner & Co. 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4,907 | Critical_theory | In the humanities and social sciences, critical theory is the examination and critique of society and literature, drawing from knowledge across social sciences and humanities disciplines. The term has two quite different meanings with different origins and histories, one originating in social theory and the other in literary criticism. Though until recently these two meanings had little to do with each other, since the 1970s there has been some overlap between these disciplines. This has led to "critical theory" becoming an umbrella term for an array of theories in English-speaking academia. This article focuses primarily on the differences and similarities between the two senses of the term critical theory. Two primary definitions There are two meanings of critical theory which derive from two different intellectual traditions associated with the meaning of criticism and critique. Both derive ultimately from the Greek word kritikos meaning judgment or discernment, and in their present forms go back to the 18th century. While they can be considered completely independent intellectual pursuits, increasingly scholars are interested in the areas of critique where the two overlap. To use an epistemological distinction introduced by Jürgen Habermas in 1968 in his Erkenntnis und Interesse (Knowledge and Human Interests), critical theory in literary studies is ultimately a form of hermeneutics, i.e. knowledge via interpretation to understand the meaning of human texts and symbolic expressions. Critical social theory is, in contrast, a form of self-reflective knowledge involving both understanding and theoretical explanation to reduce entrapment in systems of domination or dependence, obeying the emancipatory interest in expanding the scope of autonomy and reducing the scope of domination. From this perspective, much literary critical theory, since it is focused on interpretation and explanation rather than on social transformation, would be regarded as positivistic or traditional rather than critical theory in the Kantian or Marxian sense. Critical theory in literature and the humanities in general does not necessarily involve a normative dimension, whereas critical social theory does, either through criticizing society from some general theory of values, norms, or oughts, or through criticizing it in terms of its own espoused values. In social theory The initial meaning of the term critical theory was that defined by Max Horkheimer of the Frankfurt School of social science in his 1937 essay Traditional and Critical Theory: Critical theory is a social theory oriented toward critiquing and changing society as a whole, in contrast to traditional theory oriented only to understanding or explaining it. Horkheimer wanted to distinguish critical theory as a radical, emancipatory form of Marxian theory, critiquing both the model of science put forward by logical positivism and what he and his colleagues saw as the covert positivism and authoritarianism of orthodox Marxism and communism. Core concepts are: (1) That critical social theory should be directed at the totality of society in its historical specificity (i.e. how it came to be configured at a specific point in time), and (2) That Critical Theory should improve understanding of society by integrating all the major social sciences, including geography, economics, sociology, history, political science, anthropology, and psychology. Although this conception of critical theory originated with the Frankfurt School, it also prevails among other recent social scientists, such as Pierre Bourdieu, Louis Althusser and arguably Michel Foucault, as well as certain feminist theorists and social scientists. The Praxis school was a Marxist humanist philosophical movement. It originated in Zagreb and Belgrade in the SFR Yugoslavia, during the 1960s that in many ways closely linked to Frankfurt School and Critical theory. Prominent figures among the school's founders include Gajo Petrović and Milan Kangrga of Zagreb and Mihailo Marković of Belgrade. From 1964 to 1974 they published the Marxist journal Praxis, which was renowned as one of the leading international journals in Marxist theory. This version of "critical" theory derives from Kant's (18th-century) and Marx's (19th Century) use of the term "critique", as in Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Marx's concept that his work Das Kapital (Capital) forms a "critique of political economy". For Kant's transcendental idealism, "critique" means examining and establishing the limits of the validity of a faculty, type, or body of knowledge, especially through accounting for the limitations imposed by the fundamental, irreducible concepts in use in that knowledge system. Early on, Kant's notion associated critique with the disestablishment of false, unprovable, or dogmatic philosophical, social, and political beliefs, because Kant's critique of reason involved the critique of dogmatic theological and metaphysical ideas and was intertwined with the enhancement of ethical autonomy and the Enlightenment critique of superstition and irrational authority. Marx explicitly developed this notion into the critique of ideology and linked it with the practice of social revolution, as in the famous 11th of his "Theses on Feuerbach," "Philosophers have only interpreted the world in certain ways; the point is to change it". In the 1960s, Jürgen Habermas raised the epistemological discussion to a new level in his Knowledge and Human Interests, by identifying critical knowledge as based on principles that differentiated it either from the natural sciences or the humanities, through its orientation to self-reflection and emancipation. The term critical theory, in the sociological or philosophical and non-literary sense, now loosely groups all sorts of work, including that of the Frankfurt School, Michel Foucault, Pierre Bourdieu, disability studies and feminist theory, that has in common the critique of domination, an emancipatory interest, and the fusion of social/cultural analysis, explanation, and interpretation with social/cultural critique. Postmodern critical theory While modernist critical theory (as described above) concerns itself with “forms of authority and injustice that accompanied the evolution of industrial and corporate capitalism as a political-economic system,” postmodern critical theory politicizes social problems “by situating them in historical and cultural contexts, to implicate themselves in the process of collecting and analyzing data, and to relativize their findings” (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002, p. 52). Meaning itself is seen as unstable due to the rapid transformation in social structures and as a result the focus of research is centered on local manifestations rather than broad generalizations. Postmodern critical research is also characterized by what is called, the crisis of representation, which rejects the idea that a researcher’s work is considered an “objective depiction of a stable other” (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002, p. 53). Instead, in their research and writing, many postmodern scholars have adopted “alternatives that encourage reflection about the ‘politics and poetics’ of their work. In these accounts, the embodied, collaborative, dialogic, and improvisational aspects of qualitative research are clarified” (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002, p. 53). For an example of postmodern critical work, see Rolling’s (2008) piece, entitled Secular Blasphemy: Utter(ed) Transgressions Against Names and Fathers in the Postmodern Era. Critical ethnography Critical ethnography is "a type of reflection that examines culture, knowledge, and action...Critical ethnographers describe, analyze, and open to scrutiny otherwise hidden agendas, power centers, and assumptions that inhibit, repress, and constrain" (Thomas, 1993, pp. 2–3). While "conventional ethnography" "describes what is", critical ethnography "asks what could be"….Conventional ethnographers study culture for the purposes of describing it; critical ethnographers do so to change it" (Thomas, 1993, p. 4). In literary criticism The second meaning of critical theory is that of theory used in literary criticism ("critical theory") and in the analysis and understanding of literature. This is discussed in greater detail under literary theory. This form of critical theory is not necessarily oriented toward radical social change or even toward the analysis of society, but instead specializes on the analysis of texts. It originated among literary scholars and in the discipline of literature in the 1960s and 1970s, and has really only come into broad use since the 1980s, especially as theory used in literary studies has increasingly been influenced by European philosophy and social theory. This version of "critical" theory derives from the notion of literary criticism as establishing and enhancing the understanding and evaluation of literature in the search for truth. Some consider literary theory merely an aesthetic concern, as articulated, for example, in Joseph Addison's notion of a critic as one who helps understand and interpret literary works: "A true critic ought to dwell rather upon excellencies than imperfections, to discover the concealed beauties of a writer, and communicate to the world such things as are worth their observation." This notion of criticism ultimately goes back to Aristotle's Poetics as a theory of literature. This meaning of "critical theory" originated entirely within the humanities. There are works of literary critical theory that show no awareness of the sociological version of critical theory. Overlap between the two versions of critical theory Nevertheless, a certain amount of overlap has come about, initiated both from the critical social theory and the literary-critical theory sides. It was distinctive of the Frankfurt School's version of critical theory from the beginning, especially in the work of Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, Herbert Marcuse, and Leo Lowenthal, because of their focus on the role of false consciousness and ideology in the perpetuation of capitalism, to analyze works of culture, including literature, music, art, both "high culture" and "popular culture" or "mass culture." Thus it was to some extent a theory of literature and a method of literary criticism (as in Walter Benjamin's interpretation of Baudelaire and Kafka, Leo Lowenthal's interpretations of Shakespeare, Ibsen, etc., Adorno's interpretations of Kafka, Valery, Balzac, Beckett, etc.) and (see below) in the 1960s started to influence the literary sort of critical theory. Within social theory In the late 1960s Jürgen Habermas of the Frankfurt School, redefined critical theory in a way that freed it from a direct tie to Marxism or the prior work of the Frankfurt School. In Habermas' epistemology, critical knowledge was conceptualized as knowledge that enabled human beings to emancipate themselves from forms of domination through self-reflection and took psychoanalysis as the paradigm of critical knowledge. This expanded considerably the scope of what counted as critical theory within the social sciences, which would include such approaches as world systems theory, feminist theory, postcolonial theory, critical legal theory, critical race theory, performance studies, transversal poetics, queer theory, social ecology, the theory of communicative action (Jürgen Habermas), structuration theory, psychoanalysis and neo-Marxian theory. Within literary theory From the literary side, starting in the 1960s literary scholars, reacting especially against the New Criticism of the previous decades, which tried to analyze literary texts purely internally, began to incorporate into their analyses and interpretations of literary works initially semiotic, linguistic, and interpretive theory, then structuralism, Lacanian psychoanalysis, post-structuralism, and deconstruction as well as Continental philosophy, especially phenomenology and hermeneutics, and critical social theory and various other forms of neo-Marxian theory. Thus literary criticism became highly theoretical and some of those practicing it began referring to the theoretical dimension of their work as "critical theory", i.e. philosophically inspired theory of literary criticism. And thus incidentally critical theory in the sociological sense also became, especially among literary scholars of left-wing sympathies, one of a number of influences upon and streams within critical theory in the literary sense. Furthermore, along with the expansion of the mass media and mass/popular culture in the 1960s and 1970s and the blending of social and cultural criticism and literary criticism, the methods of both kinds of critical theory sometimes intertwined in the analysis of phenomena of popular culture, as in the emerging field of cultural studies, in which concepts deriving from Marxian theory, post-structuralism, semiology, psychoanalysis and feminist theory would be found in the same interpretive work. Both strands were often present in the various modalities of postmodern theory. Language and construction The two points at which there is the greatest overlap or mutual impingement of the two versions of critical theory are in their interrelated foci on language, symbolism, and communication and in their focus on construction. Language and communication From the 1960s and 1970s onward, language, symbolism, text, and meaning became foundational to theory in the humanities and social sciences, through the short-term and long-term influences of Ludwig Wittgenstein, Ferdinand de Saussure, George Herbert Mead, Noam Chomsky, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Roland Barthes, Jacques Derrida and other thinkers in the traditions of linguistic and analytic philosophy, structural linguistics, symbolic interactionism, hermeneutics, semiology, linguistically oriented psychoanalysis (Jacques Lacan, Alfred Lorenzer), and deconstruction. When, in the 1970s and 1980s, Jürgen Habermas also redefined critical social theory as a theory of communication, i.e. communicative competence and communicative rationality on the one hand, distorted communication on the other, the two versions of critical theory began to overlap or intertwine to a much greater degree than before. Construction Both versions of critical theory have focused on the processes of synthesis, production, or construction by which the phenomena and objects of human communication, culture, and political consciousness come about. Whether it is through the transformational rules by which the deep structure of language becomes its surface structure (Chomsky), the universal pragmatic principles through which mutual understanding is generated (Habermas), the semiotic rules by which objects of daily usage or of fashion obtain their meanings (Barthes), the psychological processes by which the phenomena of everyday consciousness are generated (psychoanalytic thinkers), the episteme that underlies our cognitive formations (Foucault), and so on, there is a common interest in the processes (often of a linguistic or symbolic kind) that give rise to observable phenomena. Here there is significant mutual influence among aspects of the different versions of critical theory. Ultimately this emphasis on production and construction goes back to the revolution wrought by Kant in philosophy, namely his focus in the Critique of Pure Reason on synthesis according to rules as the fundamental activity of the mind that creates the order of our experience. See also Lists Information criticism List of basic critical theory topics List of major critical theorists List of works in critical theory Related subjects American Studies in Britain Comparative Literature Continental philosophy Critique of technology Cultural studies Culture theory Critical management studies Literary theory Perestroika Movement (political science) Political philosophy Social criticism Cultural Marxism Hermeneutics Critical ethnography Critical pedagogy Critical philosophy Critical legal studies Journals related and/or dedicated to Critical Theory Constellations Representations Critical Inquiry Telos Theory and Society Law & Critique Footnotes References An accessible primer for the literary aspect of critical theory is Jonathan Culler's Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction ISBN 0-19-285383-X Another short introductory volume with illustrations: "Introducing Critical Theory" Stuart Sim & Borin Van Loon, 2001. ISBN 1-84046-264-7 A survey of and introduction to the current state of critical social theory is Craig Calhoun's Critical Social Theory: Culture, History, and the Challenge of Difference (Blackwell, 1995) ISBN 1-55786-288-5 Problematizing Global Knowledge. Theory, Culture & Society. Vol. 23 (2–3). (Sage, 2006) ISSN 0263-2764 Raymond GeussThe Idea of a Critical Theory. Habermas and the Frankfurt School. (Cambridge University Press,1981) ISBN 0521284228 Charles Arthur Willard Liberalism and the Problem of Knowledge: A New Rhetoric for Modern Democracy. University of Chicago Press. 1996. Charles Arthur Willard, A Theory of Argumentation. University of Alabama Press. 1989. Charles Arthur Willard, Argumentation and the Social Grounds of Knowledge. University of Alabama Press. 1982. Harry Dahms (ed.) No Social Science Without Critical Theory. Volume 25 of Current Perspectives in Social Theory (Emerald/JAI, 2008). Charmaz, K. (1995). Between positivism and postmodernism: Implications for methods. Studies in Symbolic Interaction, 17, 43–72. Conquergood, D. (1991). Rethinking ethnography: Towards a critical cultural politics. Communication Monographs, 58, 179–194. Lindlof, T. R., & Taylor, B. C. (2002). Qualitative Communication Research Methods, 2nd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. An example of critical postmodern work is Rolling, Jr., J. H. (2008). Secular blasphemy: Utter(ed) transgressions against names and fathers in the postmodern era. Qualitative Inquiry, 14, 926–948. Thomas, J. (1993). Doing Critical Ethnography. pp. 1–5 & 17–25 An example of critical qualitative research is Tracy, S. J. (2000). Becoming a character for commerce: Emotion labor, self subordination and discursive construction of identity in a total institution. Management Communication Quarterly, 14, 90–128. External links Critical Theory, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy "Death is Not the End" N+1 magazine's short history of academic critical theory. 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4,908 | Frédéric_Chopin | The only known photograph of Chopin (taken by Bisson in 1849, the year of Chopin's death) Chopin's autograph, stylised as a quarter note Frédéric Chopin (; ; surname in English; ; 1 March 1810 Some sources give 22 February; please see Life for details. – 17 October 1849) was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist. p. 141 He was one of the great masters of Romantic music. Arthur Hedley et al., "Chopin, Frédéric (François), Encyclopaedia Britannica, p. 263. Chopin was born in the village of Żelazowa Wola, in the Duchy of Warsaw, to a French-expatriate father and Polish mother, and in his early life was regarded as a child-prodigy Gerald Abraham, "Chopin, Frédéric," Encyclopedia Americana, p. 627. pianist. In November 1830, at the age of twenty, he went abroad; following the suppression of the Polish November Uprising of 1830–1831, he became one of many expatriates of the Polish "Great Emigration." In Paris, Chopin made a comfortable living as a composer and piano teacher, while giving few public performances. Though an ardent Polish patriot, David Ewen, p. 164. Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris, pp. 12, 404. in France he used the French versions of his names and eventually, to avoid having to rely on Imperial Russian documents, became a French citizen. Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris, p. 69: "Chopin of course had not been deported and was not a political refugee, but the French granted him permission to stay in Paris indefinitely 'to be able to perfect his art'. Four years later, Frédéric became a French citizen and a French passport was issued to him on 1 August 1835." French passport: http://diaph16.free.fr/chopin//chopin7.htm Encyclopaedia Britannica, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9082338/Frederic-Chopin After some ill-fated romantic involvements with Polish women, from 1837 to 1847 he had a turbulent relationship with the French writer George Sand (Aurore Dudevant). Always in frail health, he died in Paris in 1849, at the age of thirty-nine, of chronic pulmonary tuberculosis. A more recent theory about Chopin's death is reported in a 23 June 2008 Times of India article: Polish cystic fibrosis specialist Wojciech Cichy says that the symptoms Chopin suffered throughout his life were typical of cystic fibrosis, a genetic illness which clogs the lungs with excess thick, sticky mucus. "From childhood he was weak, prone to chest infections, wheezing, coughing." As an adult weighing 40 kg at a height of five feet, seven inches, Chopin was chronically underweight—another symptom of cystic fibrosis. It has been proposed that Chopin's heart be retrieved from its alcohol-filled crystal urn, which reposes inside a pillar at Warsaw's Holy Cross Church, and be tested for the CFTR gene that is a marker for cystic fibrosis. Chopin's extant compositions were written primarily for the piano as a solo instrument. Though they are technically demanding, Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris, pp. 197–98. his style emphasises nuance and expressive depth. Chopin invented musical forms such as the ballade Scholes, Percy (1938), The Oxford Companion to Music, "Ballade". and was responsible for major innovations in forms such as the piano sonata, mazurka, waltz, nocturne, étude, impromptu and prélude. His works are masterpieces and mainstays of Romanticism in 19th-century classical music. Life Childhood Chopin birthplace at Żelazowa Wola, now a venue for piano recitals Frédéric Chopin was born in Żelazowa Wola in Sochaczew County, some fifty kilometers west of Warsaw, in what was then part of the Duchy of Warsaw. His father, Mikołaj Chopin, originally a Frenchman from Lorraine, had emigrated to Poland in 1787 at the age of sixteen and had served in Poland's National Guard during the Kościuszko Uprising. The elder Chopin subsequently worked in Żelazowa Wola as a tutor to children of the aristocracy, which included the Skarbeks—one of whose poorer relations, Justyna Krzyżanowska, he married. Zdzisław Jachimecki, "Chopin, Fryderyk Franciszek," Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. III, 1937, p. 420. Justyna's brother would become the father of American Union General Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski. Wladimir B. Krzyzanowski Jarosław Krawczyk, "Wielkie odkrycia ludzkości. Nr 17," Rzeczpospolita, June 12, 2008. Mikołaj and Justyna were married in the 16th-century basilica in Brochów, where Frédéric Chopin would be baptised. According to family records, the couple's second child (and only son), christened "Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin", was born on 1 March 1810. A parish church document found in 1892 gives his birth date as 22 February 1810 but he usually gave March 1 as his date of birth. In 1817–27 Chopin's family lived adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace in this Warsaw University building, now adorned (center) with Fryderyk's profile In October 1810, when the infant was seven months old, the family moved to Warsaw, where his father took a position as French-language teacher at a school in the Saxon Palace. The Chopin family lived on the palace grounds. In 1817, Mikołaj Chopin began work, still teaching French, at the Warsaw Lyceum, housed in Warsaw University's Kazimierz Palace. The family lived in a spacious second-floor apartment in an adjacent building. The son himself would attend the Warsaw Lyceum from 1823 to 1826. Despite Mikołaj Chopin's occupation, Polish spirit, culture and language pervaded the Chopins' home, and as a result the son would never, even in Paris, perfectly master the French language. Benita Eisler, Chopin's Funeral, Abacus, 2004, p. 29: "Language was another matter, rooted in anxiety passed from father to son. A foreigner concerned with shrouding his origins and proving his Polishness, Nicolas was as cautious as a spy dropped behind enemy lines; he never seems to have mentioned his French family to his Polish children. French was the lingua franca of the nobility and the subject Nicolas taught to others' sons—but not to his own. (Did he fear that the accents of a former vineyard laborer would betray him at home?) Consequently Fryderyk's grasp of French grammar and spelling would always remain shaky. Surprising for one blessed with an extraordinary 'ear' and famed from earliest childhood as an extraordinary mimic, his pronunciation, too, was poor. More telling was his own unease in his adopted tongue: half-French, living in Paris, the paradise of expatriates, Chopin would always feel twice exiled—from his country and from his language. Imprisoned by foreign words, the expressive power of his music unbound him." Louis Enault, a biographer, borrowed George Sand's phrase to describe Chopin as being "more Polish than Poland". Music Through the Ages - A Narrative for Student and Layman by Marion Bauer, available at Google Books All the family had artistic leanings. Chopin's father played the flute and violin; the mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys in the elite boarding house that the Chopins operated. Thus the boy early became conversant with music in its various forms. Jachimecki, p. 420. Józef Sikorski, a musician and Chopin's contemporary, recalls in his Memoir about Chopin (Wspomnienie Chopina) that, as a child, Chopin wept with emotion when his mother played the piano. By six, he was already trying to reproduce what he heard or to make up new melodies. Hedley, Encyclopaedia Britannica, p. 263. He received his earliest piano lessons not from his mother but from his older sister Ludwika (in English, "Louise"). Mikołaj Chopin, by Mieroszewski, 1829 Chopin's first professional piano tutor, from 1816 to 1822, was the respected, elderly Czech, Wojciech Żywny. Ambroży Mieroszewski's portrait of Wojciech Żywny, 1829. Though the youngster's skills soon surpassed his teacher's, Chopin later spoke highly of Żywny. Seven-year old "little Chopin" (Szopenek) began giving public concerts that soon prompted comparisons with Mozart as a child and with Chopin's older contemporary, Beethoven. That same year, seven-year old Chopin composed two Polonaises, in G minor and B-flat major. The first was published in the engraving workshop of Father Izydor Józef Cybulski (composer, engraver, director of an organists' school, and one of the few music publishers in Poland); the second survives as a manuscript prepared by Mikołaj Chopin. These small works were said to rival not only the popular polonaises of leading Warsaw composers, but the famous Polonaises of Michał Kleofas Ogiński. A substantial development of melodic and harmonic invention and of piano technique was shown in Chopin's next known Polonaise, in A-flat major, which the young artist offered in 1821 as a name-day gift to Żywny. Justyna Chopin, by Mieroszewski, 1829 About this time, at the age of eleven, Chopin performed in the presence of Alexander I, Tsar of Russia, who was in Warsaw, opening the Sejm (Polish parliament). As a child, Chopin showed an intelligence that was said to absorb everything and make use of everything for its development. He early showed remarkable abilities in observation and sketching, a keen wit and sense of humor, and an uncommon talent for mimicry. A story from his school years recounts a teacher being pleasantly surprised by a superb portrait that Chopin had drawn of him in class. Described in the Polish Wikipedia article on "Fryderyk Chopin." In those years, Chopin was sometimes invited to the Belweder Palace as playmate to the son of Russian Poland's ruler, Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia, and charmed the irascible duke with his piano-playing. (A few years later, the Grand Duke would flee the Belweder, just in the nick of time, at the very opening of the November 1830 Uprising, escaping the Polish officer cadets who rode up through the Royal Baths Park from their barracks in an effort to capture him.) Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz attested to "Little Chopin's" popularity in his dramatic eclogue, "Nasze Verkehry" ("Our Intercourse," 1818), in which the eight-year old Chopin features as a motif in the dialogues. While in his mid-teens, during vacations spent at the village of Szafarnia (where he was a guest of Prince Antoni Radziwiłł), Chopin was exposed to folk melodies that he would later transmute into original compositions. His letters home from Szafarnia (the famous "Szafarnia Courier" letters) amused his family with their spoofing of the Warsaw newspapers and demonstrated the youngster's literary talent. An anecdote describes how Chopin helped quiet rowdy children by first improvising a story and then lulling them to sleep with a berceuse (lullaby) — after which he woke everyone with an ear-piercing chord. Education Józef Elsner, by Fajans, after 1853 Chopin, tutored at home until he was thirteen, enrolled in the Warsaw Lyceum in 1823, but continued studying piano under Żywny's direction. In 1825, in a performance of the work of Ignaz Moscheles, he entranced the audience with his free improvisation, and was acclaimed the "best pianist in Warsaw." In the autumn of 1826, Chopin began a three-year course of studies with the Polish composer Józef Elsner at the Warsaw Conservatory, which was affiliated with the University of Warsaw (hence Chopin is counted among that university's alumni). Chopin's first contact with Elsner may have been as early as 1822; it is certain that Elsner was giving Chopin informal guidance by 1823 and, in 1826, Chopin officially commenced the study of music theory, figured bass, and composition with Elsner. In year-end evaluations, Elsner noted Chopin's "remarkable talent" and "musical genius." As had Żywny, Elsner observed, rather than influenced or directed, the development of Chopin's blossoming talent. Elsner's teaching style was based on his reluctance to "constrain" Chopin with "narrow, academic, outdated" rules, and on his determination to allow the young artist to mature "according to the laws of his own nature." Jachimecki, p. 421. In 1827, the family moved to lodgings just across the street from Warsaw University, in the Krasiński Palace at Krakowskie Przedmieście 5 (in what is now the Warsaw Academy of Fine Arts). Chopin would live there until he left Warsaw in 1830. (In 1837-39, artist and poet Cyprian Norwid would study painting there; later he would pen the poem, "Chopin's Piano," about Russian troops' 1863 defenestration of the instrument. Jan Zygmunt Jakubowski, ed., Literatura polska od średniowiecza do pozytywizmu (Polish Literature from the Middle Ages to Positivism), pp. 514–15. ) In 1829, Polish portraitist Ambroży Mieroszewski executed a set of five portraits of Chopin family members (the youngest daughter, Emilia, had died in 1827): Chopin's parents, his elder sister Ludwika, younger sister Izabela, and, in the first known portrait of him, the composer himself. (The originals perished in World War II; only black-and-white photographs remain.) In 1913, historian Édouard Ganche would write that this painting of the precocious composer showed "a youth threatened by tuberculosis. His skin is very white, he has a prominent Adam's apple and sunken cheeks, even his ears show a form characteristic of consumptives." Chopin's younger sister Emilia had already died of tuberculosis at the age of fourteen, and their father would succumb to the same disease in 1844. According to musicologist and Chopin biographer Zdzisław Jachimecki, comparison of the juvenile Chopin with any earlier composer is difficult because of the originality of the works that Chopin was composing already in the first half of his life. At a comparable age, Bach, Mozart and Beethoven had still been apprentices, while Chopin was perceived by peers and audiences to be already a master who was pointing the path of the coming age. Chopin himself never gave thematic titles to his instrumental works, but identified them simply by genre and number. Jachimecki, p. 421. Hedley, Encyclopaedia Britannica, p. 264: "He valued [sensuous beauty] throughout life as much as he abhorred descriptive titles or any hint of an underlying 'program.'" Programmatic titles were given to some of his works, against his wishes, by others, including opportunistic music publishers. His compositions were, however, often inspired by emotional and sensual experiences in his own life. One of his first such inspirations was a beautiful young singing student at the Warsaw Conservatory and later a singer at the Warsaw Opera, Konstancja Gładkowska. In letters to his friend Tytus Woyciechowski, Chopin indicated which of his works, and even which of their passages, were influenced by his erotic transports. His artist's soul was also enriched by friendships with such leading lights of Warsaw's artistic and intellectual world as Maurycy Mochnacki, Józef Bohdan Zaleski and Julian Fontana. Jachimecki, pp. 421–22. Young man |Chopin, by Mieroszewski, 1829 In September 1828, Chopin struck out for the wider world in the company of a family friend, the zoologist Feliks Jarocki, who planned to attend a scientific convention in Berlin. There, Chopin enjoyed several unfamiliar operas directed by Gaspare Spontini, went to several concerts, and saw Carl Friedrich Zelter, Felix Mendelssohn and other celebrities. On his return trip, he was the guest of Prince Antoni Radziwiłł, governor of the Grand Duchy of Posen — himself an accomplished composer and aspiring cellist. For the Prince and his piano-playing daughter Wanda, Chopin composed his Polonaise for Cello and Piano, in C major, Op. 3. Jachimecki, p. 422. Back in Warsaw, in 1829, Chopin heard Niccolò Paganini play and met the German pianist and composer Johann Nepomuk Hummel. In August the same year, three weeks after completing his studies at the Warsaw Conservatory, Chopin made a brilliant début in Vienna. He gave two piano concerts and received many favorable reviews — in addition to some that criticized the "small tone" that he drew from the piano. This was followed by a concert, in December 1829, at the Warsaw Merchants' Club, where Chopin premièred his Piano Concerto No. 2 in F minor, Op. 21, and by his first performance, on March 17, 1830, at the National Theater, of his Piano Concerto No. 1 in E minor, Op. 11. In this period he also began writing his first Études (1829–1832). National Theater, Warsaw, where Chopin premièred his Piano Concerto No. 2 in F minor, Op. 21, in December 1829. Chopin's successes as a performer and composer opened the professional door for him to western Europe, and on 2 November 1830, seen off by friends and admirers, with a ring from Konstancja Gładkowska on his finger and carrying with him a silver cup containing soil from his native land, Chopin set out, writes Jachimecki, "into the wide world, with no very clearly defined aim, forever." Later that month, in Warsaw, the November Uprising broke out, and Chopin's friend and traveling companion, Tytus Woyciechowski, returned to Poland to enlist. Chopin, now alone in Vienna, writes Jachimecki, "afflicted by nostalgia, disappointed in his hopes of giving concerts and publishing, matured and acquired spiritual depth. From a romantic... poet... he grew into an inspired national bard who intuited the past, present and future of his country. Only now, at this distance, did he see all of Poland from the proper perspective, and understand what was great and truly beautiful in her, the tragedy and heroism of her vicissitudes." When in September 1831 Chopin learned, while traveling from Vienna to Paris, that the uprising had been crushed, he poured "profanities and blasphemies" in his native Polish language into the pages of a little journal that he kept secret to the end of his life. These outcries of a tormented heart found musical expression in his Scherzo in B minor, Op. 20, and his "Revolutionary Étude", in C minor, Op. 10, No. 12. Paris Chopin's Polonaise, by Kwiatkowski, depicting a ball at Count Czartoryski's Hôtel Lambert in Paris. National Museum, Poznań. Chopin arrived in Paris in late September 1831, still uncertain whether he would settle there for good. With a view to easing his entry into the Parisian musical community, he began taking lessons from the prominent pianist Friedrich Kalkbrenner. In February 1832 Chopin gave a concert that garnered universal admiration. The influential musicologist and critic François-Joseph Fétis wrote in Revue musicale: "Here is a young man who, taking nothing as a model, has found, if not a complete renewal of piano music, then in any case part of what has long been sought in vain, namely, an extravagance of original ideas that are unexampled anywhere..." Jachimecki, pp. 422–23. Only three months earlier, in December 1831, Robert Schumann, in reviewing Chopin's Variations on "La ci darem la mano", Op. 2 (from Mozart's opera Don Giovanni), had written: "Hats off, gentlemen! A genius." Sheppard, Linda. "Frédéric Chopin's Résumé". Musical overview (1600–2000): from the History à la carte series. Canada: Longbow Publishing Ltd, 2006. After his Paris concert début in February 1832, Chopin realised that his light-handed keyboard technique was not optimal for large concert spaces. However, later that year he was introduced to the wealthy Rothschild banking family, whose patronage opened doors for him to other private salons. In Paris, Chopin found artists and other distinguished company, as well as opportunities to exercise his talents and achieve celebrity, and before long he was earning a handsome income teaching piano to affluent students from all over Europe. Jachimecki, p. 423. Chopin formed friendships with Hector Berlioz, Franz Liszt, Vincenzo Bellini, Ferdinand Hiller, Felix Mendelssohn, Heinrich Heine, Eugène Delacroix, Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, Alfred de Vigny, and Charles-Valentin Alkan. However, Chopin seldom performed publicly in Paris. In later years he would generally give only a single annual concert at the Salle Pleyel, a venue that could seat an audience of three hundred. He played more frequently at salons — social gatherings of the aristocracy and artistic and literary elite of the period — but preferred to play, in his own Parisian apartment, for small circles of friends. His precarious health prevented his touring extensively as a traveling virtuoso, and beyond playing once in Rouen, he seldom ventured out of the capital. His high income from teaching and composing freed him from the strains of concert-giving, to which he had an innate repugnance. Arthur Hedley has observed that "As a pianist Chopin was unique in acquiring a reputation of the highest order on the basis of a minimum of public appearances—few more than thirty in the course of his lifetime." Hedley, Encyclopaedia Britannica, p. 264. Maria Wodzińska. Self-portrait. In 1835, Chopin went to Carlsbad, where, for the last time in his life, he met with his parents. En route through Saxony on his way back to Paris, he met old friends from Warsaw, the Wodzińskis. He had met their daughter Maria, now sixteen, in Poland five years earlier, and fell in love with the charming, artistically talented, intelligent young woman. She "made sketches of Chopin's head as he played the piano and talked, then sat him down in an armchair to paint his portrait in watercolors. It is one of the best portraits of Chopin extant—after that by Delacroix—with the composer looking relaxed, pensive, and at peace." Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris, p. 137. The following year, in September 1836, upon returning to Dresden after having vacationed with the Wodzińskis at Marienbad, Chopin proposed marriage to Maria. She accepted, and her mother Countess Wodzińska approved in principle, but Maria's tender age and Chopin's tenuous health (in the winter of 1835–1836 he had been so ill that word had circulated in Warsaw that he had died) forced an indefinite postponement of the wedding. The engagement remained a secret to the world and never led to the altar. Chopin finally placed the letters from Maria and her mother in a large envelope, on which he wrote the Polish words "Moja bieda" ("My sorrow"). Delfina Potocka Chopin's feelings for Maria left their traces in his Waltz in A-flat major, La Valse de l'Adieu ("The Farewell Waltz") Op. 69, No. 1, written on the morning of his September departure from Dresden. On his return to Paris, he composed the Étude in F minor, the second in the Op. 25 cycle, which he referred to as "a portrait of Maria's soul." Along with this, he sent Maria seven songs that he had set to the words of Polish Romantic poets Stefan Witwicki, Józef Zaleski and Adam Mickiewicz. Jachimecki, p 423. After Chopin's matrimonial plans ended, Polish countess Delfina Potocka appeared episodically in Chopin's life as muse and romantic interest. For her he composed his Waltz in D flat major, Op. 64, No. 1 — the famous "Minute Waltz." During his years in Paris, Chopin participated in a small number of public concerts. The list of the programs' participants provides an idea of the richness of Parisian artistic life during this period. Examples include a concert on 23 March 1833, in which Chopin, Liszt and Hiller performed J. S. Bach's concerto for three harpsichords; and, on 3 March 1838, a concert in which Chopin, his pupil Adolphe Gutman, Alkan, and Alkan's teacher Pierre Joseph Zimmerman performed Alkan's arrangement, for eight hands, of Beethoven's 7th symphony. Chopin was also involved in the composition of Liszt's Hexaméron; Chopin's was the sixth (and last) variation on Bellini's theme. George Sand George Sand, by Auguste Charpentier In 1836, at a party hosted by Countess Marie d'Agoult, mistress of friend and fellow composer Franz Liszt, Chopin met French author and feminist Amandine Aurore Lucille Dupin, the Baroness Dudevant, better known by her pseudonym, George Sand. Sand's earlier romantic involvements had included Jules Sandeau, Prosper Mérimée, Alfred de Musset, Louis-Chrystosome Michel, Charles Didier, Pierre-François Bocage and Félicien Mallefille. Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris, pp. 160, 165, 194–95. Chopin initially felt an aversion for Sand. He declared to Ferdinand Hiller: "What a repulsive woman Sand is! But is she really a woman? I am inclined to doubt it." Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris, p. 146. Sand, however, in a candid thirty-two page letter to Count Wojciech Grzymała, a friend to both her and Chopin, admitted strong feelings for the composer. In her letter she debated whether to abandon a current affair in order to begin a relationship with Chopin, and attempted to gauge the currency of his previous relationship with Maria Wodzińska, which she did not intend to interfere with should it still exist. André Maurois, Léila: the Life of George Sand, trans. by Gerard Hopkins, Penguin, 1980 (c 1953), pp. 317-20. By the summer of 1838, Chopin's and Sand's involvement was an open secret. A notable episode in their time together was a turbulent and miserable winter on Majorca (8 November 1838 to 13 February 1839), where they, together with Sand's two children, had gone in the hope of improving Chopin's deteriorating health. However, after discovering the couple were not wed, the deeply religious people of Majorca became inhospitable, making accommodations difficult to find; this compelled the foursome to take lodgings in a scenic yet stark and cold former Carthusian monastery in Valldemossa. Chopin, by Delacroix, 1838. Part of joint portrait with George Sand. Chopin also had problems having his Pleyel piano sent to him. It arrived from Paris on 20 December but was held up by customs. (Chopin wrote on 28 December: "My piano has been stuck at customs for 8 days... They demand such a huge sum of money to release it that I can't believe it.") In the meantime Chopin had a rickety rented piano on which he practiced and may have composed some pieces. On 3 December, he complained about his bad health and the incompetence of the doctors in Majorca: "I have been sick as a dog during these past two weeks. Three doctors have visited me. The first said I was going to die; the second said I was breathing my last; and the third said I was already dead." On January 4, 1839, George Sand agreed to pay 300 francs (half the demanded amount) to have the Pleyel piano released from customs. It was finally delivered on 5 January. From then on Chopin was able to use the long-awaited instrument for almost five weeks, time enough to complete some works: some Preludes, Op. 28; a revision of the Ballade No. 2, Op. 38; two Polonaises, Op. 40; the Scherzo No. 3, Op. 39; the Mazurka (Op. 41); and he probably revisited his Sonata No. 2, Op. 35. The winter in Majorca is still considered one of the most productive periods in Chopin's life. During that winter, the bad weather had such a serious effect on Chopin's health and chronic lung disease that, in order to save his life, the entire party were compelled to leave the island. The beloved French piano became an obstacle to a hasty escape. Nevertheless, George Sand managed to sell it to a French couple (the Canuts), whose heirs are the custodians of Chopin's legacy on Majorca and of the Chopin cell-room museum in Valldemossa. Stylized rendition of Delacroix's joint portrait of Chopin and Sand. She sews as he plays. The party of four went first to Barcelona, then to Marseille, where they stayed for a few months to recover. In May 1839, they headed to Sand's estate at Nohant for the summer. In autumn they returned to Paris, where initially they lived apart; Chopin soon left his apartment at 5 rue Tronchet to move into Sand's house at 16 rue Pigalle. The four lived together at this address from October 1839 to November 1842, while spending most summers until 1846 at Nohant. André Maurois, Léila, pp. 333, 337-8. In 1842, they moved to 80 rue Taitbout in the Square d'Orléans, living in adjacent buildings. Jachimecki, p. 424. It was around this time that we have evidence of Chopin's playing an instrument other than the piano. At the funeral of the tenor Adolphe Nourrit, who had jumped to his death in Naples but whose body was returned to Paris for burial, Chopin played an organ transcription of Franz Schubert's lied Die Gestirne. Krzysztof Rottermund: Chopin and Hesse: New Facts About Their Artistic Acquaintance trans. in The American Organist, March 2008 Sand—the other half of Delacroix's joint portrait. During the summers at Nohant, particularly in the years 1839 through 1843, Chopin found quiet but productive days during which he composed many works. They included his great Polonaise in A flat major, Op. 53, the "Heroic", one of his most famous pieces. It is to Sand that we owe the most compelling description of Chopin's creative processes, of the rise of his inspirations and of their painstaking working-out, sometimes amid real torments, amid weeping and complaints, with hundreds of changes in the initial concept and finally a return to the first idea. She describes an evening with their friend Delacroix in attendance: As the composer's illness progressed, Sand gradually became less of a lover and more of a nurse to Chopin, whom she called her "third child." But the nursing began to pall on her. In the years to come she would keep up her friendship with Chopin, but she often gave vent to affectionate impatience, at least in letters to third parties, in which she referred to Chopin as a "child," a "little angel," a "sufferer" and a "beloved little corpse." In 1845, even as a further deterioration occurred in Chopin's health, a serious problem emerged in his relations with Sand. Those relations were further soured in 1846 by problems involving her daughter Solange and the young sculptor Jean Baptiste Auguste Clésinger. In 1847, Sand published her novel Lucrezia Floriani, whose main characters — a rich actress and a prince in weak health — could be interpreted as Sand and Chopin; the story was uncomplimentary to Chopin, who could not have missed the allusions as he helped Sand correct the printer's galleys. In 1847, he did not visit Nohant. Mutual friends attempted to reconcile them, but the composer was unyielding. Pauline Viardot One of these friends was the mezzo-soprano Pauline Viardot. Sand had based her 1843 novel Consuelo on Viardot, and the three had spent many hours at Nohant. As well as being an outstanding opera singer, Viardot was also an excellent pianist, who had initially wanted the piano to be her career and had taken lessons with Liszt and Anton Reicha. Her friendship with Chopin was based on mutual artistic esteem and similarity of temperament. She and Chopin had often played together; he had advised her on piano technique and had even assisted her in writing a series of songs based on the melodies of his mazurkas. He in turn had gained from Viardot some first-hand knowledge of Spanish music. The Music Salon of Pauline Viardot, Rachel M. Harris The year 1847 brought to an end, without any dramatics or formalities, the relations between Sand and Chopin that had lasted ten years, since 1837. Count Wojciech Grzymała, who had followed Chopin's romance with George Sand from the first day to the last, would later opine: "If he had not had the misfortune of meeting G.S. [George Sand], who poisoned his whole being, he would have lived to be Cherubini's age." Chopin died at thirty-nine; his friend Cherubini had died at Paris in 1842 at age eighty-one. Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris, p. 403. The two composers repose four meters apart at Père Lachaise Cemetery. Final years Chopin's public popularity as a virtuoso waned, as did the number of his pupils. In February 1848, he gave his last Paris concert. In April, with the Revolution of 1848 underway in Paris, During which, to Chopin's dismay, some of George Sand's radical political friends briefly came to power: Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris, pp. 366–73. he left for London, where he performed at several concerts and at numerous receptions in great houses. Toward the end of the summer he went to Scotland, staying at the castle of his former pupil and great admirer Jane Wilhelmina Stirling and her elder sister, the widowed Mrs. Katherine Erskine. Miss Stirling proposed marriage to him; but Chopin, sensing that he was not long for this world, set greater store by his freedom than by the prospect of living on the generosity of a wife. In late October 1848 in Edinburgh, at the home of a Polish physician, Dr. Adam Łyszczyński, Chopin was very pleased to spend several days with the doctor, as he was always looking for someone with whom he could speak Polish—particularly now, as he knew no English. Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris, p. 382 and passim. Chopin wrote out his last will and testament—"a kind of disposition to be made of my stuff in the future, if I should drop dead somewhere," he wrote his friend Wojciech Grzymała. In his thoughts he was now constantly with his mother and sisters, and conjured up for himself scenes of his native land by playing his adaptations of its folk music on cool Scottish evenings at Miss Stirling's castle. Ludwika Jędrzejewicz, née Chopin, by Mieroszewski, 1829 Chopin made his last public appearance on a concert platform at London's Guildhall on 16 November 1848, when, in a final patriotic gesture, he played for the benefit of Polish refugees. His appearance on this occasion proved to be a well-intentioned mistake, as most of the participants were more interested in the dancing and refreshments than in Chopin's piano artistry, which cost him much effort and physical discomfort. Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris, p. 383. At the end of November, Chopin returned to Paris. He passed the winter in unremitting illness, but in spite of it he continued seeing friends and visited the ailing Adam Mickiewicz, soothing the Polish poet's nerves with his playing. He no longer had the strength to give lessons, but he was still keen to compose. He lacked money for the most essential expenses and for his physicians. He had to sell off his more valuable furnishings and belongings. Feeling ever more poorly, Chopin desired to have one of his family with him. In June 1849 his sister Ludwika Jędrzejewicz, who had given him his first piano lessons, agreed to come to Paris. He had lately taken up residence in a very beautiful, sunny apartment at Place Vendôme 12. It was there, a few minutes before two o'clock on the morning of Wednesday, October 17, 1849, that Chopin died. Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris, p. 400. Later, many persons who had not been present at Chopin's death would claim to have been there. "Being present at Chopin's death," writes Tad Szulc, "seemed to grant one historical and social cachet." Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris, p. 399. Those actually around his bed appear to have included his sister Ludwika, Princess Marcelina Czartoryska, George Sand's daughter Solange and her husband Auguste Clésinger, and Chopin's friend and former pupil Adolf Gutmann, his friend Thomas Albrecht, and his confidant, Polish Catholic priest Father Aleksander Jełowicki. Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris, p. 400. Cast of Chopin's left hand Later that morning, Auguste Clésinger made Chopin's death mask and casts of his hands. Before the funeral, pursuant to Chopin's dying wish (which stemmed from a fear of being buried alive), his heart was removed and preserved in alcohol, perhaps brandy. His sister later took it in an urn to Warsaw, where it was sealed within a pillar of the Holy Cross Church on Krakowskie Przedmieście, beneath an inscription from Matthew VI:21: "For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also." Chopin's heart has remained there—except for a period during World War II, when it was removed for safekeeping—within the church that was rebuilt after its virtual destruction during the 1944 Warsaw Uprising. The church stands only a short distance from Chopin's last Polish residence, the Krasiński Palace at Krakowskie Przedmieście 5. The funeral was held at the Church of the Madeleine, in Paris, on 30 October 1849 and was attended by nearly three thousand people. Chopin had requested that Mozart's Requiem be sung at his funeral. The Requiem had major parts for female voices, but the Church of the Madeleine had never permitted female singers in its choir. The funeral was delayed for almost two weeks until the Church relented, on condition that the female singers remain behind a black velvet curtain. The soloists in the Requiem included the bass Luigi Lablache – who had sung the same work at Beethoven's funeral and had also sung at Vincenzo Bellini's funeral – and Chopin's and George Sand's friend, the mezzo-soprano Pauline Viardot. Frederick Niecks, The Life of Chopin, vol. II, London, Novello, Ewers & Co., 1888, p. 325. Also played were Chopin's Préludes No. 4 in E minor and No. 6 in B minor. George Sand did not attend the funeral. Chopin was buried, in accordance with his wishes, at Père Lachaise Cemetery. At the graveside, the Funeral March from his Sonata No. 2 in B flat minor, Op. 35 was played, in Napoléon Henri Reber's instrumentation. Fryderyk Chopin 1810–1849: A Chronological Biography Chopin's grave, with its monument carved by Clésinger, attracts numerous visitors and is consistently decorated with flowers, even in winter. In 2008, a controversy arose over whether Chopin died of tuberculosis or cystic fibrosis, an incurable genetic disease whose complete clinical spectrum was not recognised until the 1930s, almost a century after his death. The Polish government declined to allow scientists to remove Chopin's heart from its repository for DNA testing. http://www.news24.com/News24/Technology/News/0,,2-13-1443_2364582,00.html Home is where the heart'll stay Memorials and tributes Chopin statue, Warsaw's Royal Baths Park In 1909, to celebrate Chopin's centenary, the Russian composer Sergei Lyapunov wrote a "symphonic poem in memory of Chopin", titled Zhelazova Vola, Op. 37 (), a reference to Chopin's birthplace. Crocks Newsletter In 1926, a bronze statue of Chopin designed by sculptor Wacław Szymanowski in 1907, was erected in the upper part of Warsaw's Royal Baths (Łazienki) Park, adjacent to Ujazdów Avenue (Aleje Ujazdowskie). The statue was originally to have been erected in 1910, on the centenary of Chopin's birth, but its execution was delayed by controversy about the design, then by the outbreak of World War I. On 31 May 1940, during the German occupation of Poland in World War II, the statue was destroyed by the Nazis. It was reconstructed after the war, in 1958. Since 1959, free piano recitals of Chopin's compositions have been performed at the statue's base on summer Sunday afternoons. The stylized willow over Chopin's seated figure echoes a pianist's hand and fingers. Until 2007, the statue was the world's tallest monument erected to Chopin. A 1:1-scale replica of Szymanowski's Art Nouveau statue is found in Warsaw's sister city of Hamamatsu, Japan. There are also preliminary plans to erect another replica along Chicago's lakefront in addition to a different sculpture commemorating the artist in Chopin Park for the 200th anniversary of Chopin's birth. There are numerous other monuments to Chopin around the world. The most recent, and by a small margin taller than the Warsaw statue, is a modernistic bronze sculpture by Lu Pin in Shanghai, China, that was unveiled on 3 March 2007. The world's oldest monographic music competition, the International Frederick Chopin Piano Competition, founded in 1927, is held every five years in Warsaw. Periodically the Grand prix du disque de F. Chopin is awarded for notable Chopin recordings, both remastered and newly recorded work. Named for the composer are the largest Polish music conservatory, the Fryderyk Chopin Music Academy; Warsaw Frederic Chopin Airport; and asteroid 3784 Chopin. Music Chopin, according to Arthur Hedley, "had the rare gift of a very personal melody, expressive of heart-felt emotion, and his music is penetrated by a poetic feeling that has an almost universal appeal.... Present-day evaluation places him among the immortals of music by reason of his insight into the secret places of the heart and because of his awareness of the magical new sonorities to be drawn from the piano." Hedley, Encyclopaedia Britannica, p. 264. It is very difficult to briefly characterise Chopin's œuvre. Robert Schumann, speaking of Chopin's Sonata in B-flat minor, wrote that "he alone begins and ends a work like this: with dissonances, through dissonances, and in dissonances," and in Chopin's music he discerned "cannon concealed amid blossoms." Franz Liszt, in the opening of his biography about Chopin (Life of Chopin), termed him a "gentle, harmonious genius." Thus disparate have been the views on Chopin's music. The first systematic, if imperfect, study of Chopin's style came in F. P. Laurencin's 1861 Die Harmonik der Neuzeit. Laurencin concluded that "Chopin is one of the most brilliant exceptional natures that have ever stridden onto the stage of history and life, he is one who can never be exhausted nor stand before a void. Chopin is the musical progone A "progone" is the opposite of an "epigone"—the latter being "an undistinguished imitator or follower of an important writer, painter, [composer] etc." The word "progone" (also written "progon") comes from the Greek progonos, meaning "born before." of all progones until now." Chopin's grave, with monument by Clésinger, at Paris' Père Lachaise Cemetery Chopin's music for the piano combined a unique rhythmic sense (particularly his use of rubato), frequent use of chromaticism, and counterpoint. This mixture produces a particularly fragile sound in the melody and the harmony, which are nonetheless underpinned by solid and interesting harmonic techniques. He took the new salon genre of the nocturne, invented by Irish composer John Field, to a deeper level of sophistication. Three of Chopin's twenty-one Nocturnes were only published after his death in 1849, contrary to his wishes. Letter of 12 December 1853 from Camille Pleyel to Chopin's sister, Louise Jedrzejewicz, cited in Chopin — Nocturnes, with note by Ewald Zimmermann, winter 1979/1980, published by G. Henle Verlag (ISM N M-2018-0185-8). He also endowed popular dance forms, such as the Polish mazurek and the Viennese waltz, with a greater range of melody and expression. Chopin was the first to write ballades and scherzi as individual pieces. He also took the example of Bach's preludes and fugues, transforming the genre in his own Préludes. Chopin reinvented the étude, Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris, pp. 112–13. expanding on the idea and making it into a gorgeous, eloquent and emotional showpiece. He also used his Études to teach his own revolutionary style, for instance playing with the weak fingers (3, 4, and 5) in fast figures (Op. 10, No. 2) and playing black keys with the thumb (Op. 10, No. 5). Influence Several of Chopin's pieces have become very well known—for instance the Revolutionary Étude (Op. 10, No. 12), the Minute Waltz (Op. 64, No. 1), and the third movement of his Funeral March Sonata No. 2 (Op. 35), which is often used as an iconic representation of grief. Chopin himself never named an instrumental work beyond genre and number, leaving all potential extra-musical associations to the listener; the names by which we know many of the pieces were invented by others. Jachimecki, p. 421. Hedley, Encyclopaedia Britannica, p. 264. The Revolutionary Étude was not written with the failed Polish uprising against Russia in mind; it merely appeared at that time. The Funeral March was written before the rest of the sonata within which it is contained, but the exact occasion is not known; it appears not to have been inspired by any specific personal bereavement. Kornel Michałowski, Grove Other melodies have been used as the basis of popular songs, such as the slow section of the Fantaisie-Impromptu (Op. posth. 66) and the first section of the Étude Op. 10 No. 3. These pieces often rely on an intense and personalised chromaticism, as well as a melodic curve that resembles the operas of Chopin's day — the operas of Gioachino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti, and especially Vincenzo Bellini. Hedley writes: "From the great Italian singers of the age he learned the art of 'singing' on the piano, and his nocturnes reveal the perfection of his cantabile style and delicate charm of ornamentation." Hedley, Encyclopaedia Britannica, p. 264. Chopin used the piano to re-create the gracefulness of the singing voice, and talked and wrote constantly about singers. Chopin's style and gifts became increasingly influential. Robert Schumann was a huge admirer of Chopin's music, and he used melodies from Chopin and even named a piece from his suite Carnaval after Chopin. This admiration was not generally reciprocated, although Chopin did dedicate his Ballade No. 2 in F major to Schumann. Franz Liszt was another admirer and personal friend of the composer, and he transcribed for piano six of Chopin's Polish songs. However, Liszt denied that he wrote Funérailles (subtitled "October 1849", the seventh movement of his piano suite Harmonies Poétiques et Religieuses of 1853) in memory of Chopin. Though the middle section seems to be modeled on the famous octave trio section of Chopin's Polonaise in A flat major, Op. 53, Liszt said the piece had been inspired by the deaths of three of his Hungarian compatriots in the same month. Pillar in Warsaw's Holy Cross Church, containing Chopin's heart (at bouquet near bottom) Johannes Brahms and the younger Russian composers, too, found inspiration in Chopin's examples. Chopin's technical innovations became influential. His Préludes (Op. 28) and Études (Opp. 10 and 25) rapidly became standard works, and inspired both Liszt's Transcendental Études and Schumann's Symphonic Études. Alexander Scriabin was also strongly influenced by Chopin; for example, his 24 Preludes, Op. 11, are inspired by Chopin's Op. 28. Jeremy Siepmann, in his biography of the composer, lists pianists whose recordings of Chopin are generally acknowledged to be among the greatest Chopin performances ever preserved: Vladimir de Pachmann, Raoul Pugno, Ignacy Jan Paderewski, Moriz Rosenthal, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Alfred Cortot, Ignaz Friedman, Raoul Koczalski, Arthur Rubinstein, Mieczysław Horszowski, Claudio Arrau, Vlado Perlemuter, Vladimir Horowitz, Dinu Lipatti, Vladimir Ashkenazy, Martha Argerich, Maurizio Pollini, Murray Perahia, Krystian Zimerman, Evgeny Kissin. Arthur Rubinstein said the following about Chopin's music and its universality: Style Although Chopin lived in the 1800s, he was educated in the tradition of Beethoven, Haydn, Mozart and Clementi; he used Clementi's piano method with his own students. He was also influenced by Hummel's development of virtuoso, yet Mozartian, piano technique. Chopin cited Bach and Mozart as the two most important composers in shaping his musical outlook. The series of seven Polonaises published in his lifetime (another nine were published posthumously), beginning with the Op. 26 pair, set a new standard for music in the form, and were rooted in Chopin's desire to write something to celebrate Polish culture after the country had fallen into Russian control. Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris, p. 115. The Polonaise in A major, Op. 40, No. 1, the "Military," and the Polonaise in A-flat major, Op. 53, the "Heroic," are among Chopin's best-loved and most-often-played works. Rubato Chopin's music is well known for benefiting from rubato (which was how he himself performed his music ), as opposed to a strictly regular playing. Yet there is usually call for caution when the music is performed with wobbly, over-exaggerated, inappropriate "rubato" (e.g. attempting to justify insecure playing, with reference to expressive rubato). However, while some can provide restrictive quotes about Chopin such as the above, often to the effect that "the accompanying hand always played in strict tempo", these quotes need to be considered in better context in terms both of the time when they were made and of the situations that may have prompted the original writer to set down the thoughts. Constantin von Sternberg (1852-1924) has written: There are also views of contemporary writers such as Hector Berlioz. This suggests that Chopin is not to be found at commonly encountered one-sided extremes. The unbalanced views are: that Chopin requires metronomic rhythm in the left hand; that insecure performances of Chopin can be justified with reference to rubato. that performances with particular inflections, that result from technical limits/insecurities rather than a performer's intentions, can be justified with reference to rubato. Some performers' (and piano-schools') "too-strongly-held one-sided views on Chopin's way of playing rubato" may account for some unsatisfactory interpretations of his music. Romanticism Chopin regarded most of his contemporaries with some indifference, although he had many acquaintances associated with romanticism in music, literature, and the arts (many of them via his liaison with George Sand). Chopin's music is, however, considered by many to epitomise the Romantic style. See e.g. Charles Rosen, The Romantic Generation, chapters 5-7, Harvard University Press 1995. ISBN 9780674779334 The relative classical purity and discretion in his music, with little extravagant exhibitionism, partly reflects his reverence for Bach and Mozart. Chopin also never indulged in explicit "scene-painting" in his music, or used programmatic titles, castigating publishers who renamed his pieces in this way. Polish heritage Zdzisław Jachimecki notes that "Chopin at every step demonstrated his Polish spirit — in the hundreds of letters that he wrote in Polish, in his attitude to Paris's [Polish] émigrés, in his negative view of all that bore the official stamp of the powers that occupied Poland." Likewise Chopin improvised music to accompany Polish texts Jachimecki, pp. 425–26. but never musically illustrated a single French or German text, even though he numbered among his friends several great French and German poets. According to Arthur Hedley, Chopin "found within himself and in the tragic story of Poland the chief sources of his inspiration. The theme of Poland's glories and sufferings was constantly before him, and he transmuted the primitive rhythms and melodies of his youth into enduring art forms." Hedley, Encyclopaedia Britannica, p. 264. In asserting his own Polishness, Chopin, according to Jachimecki, exerted "a tremendous influence [toward] the nationalization of the work of numerous later composers, who have often personally — like [the Czech Bedřich] Smetana and [the Norwegian Edvard] Grieg — confirmed this opinion..." Works Over 230 of Chopin's works survive; some manuscripts and pieces from his early childhood have been lost. He created approximately 80 opuses, all of which involve the piano. Only a few of them ranged beyond solo piano music — as chamber music or concertos for piano and orchestra. Chopin composed: 58 mazurkas 27 études (twelve in the Op. 10 cycle, twelve in the Op. 25 cycle, and three in a collection without an opus number) 26 preludes 21 nocturnes (see Chopin nocturnes) 20 waltzes 17 polonaises (one with orchestral accompaniment, and one for cello with accompanying piano) 5 rondos 4 ballades 4 impromptus 4 scherzos 4 sets of variations 3 piano sonatas, Opp. 4, 35, and 58 3 écossaises 2 concertos for piano and orchestra, Opp. 11 and 21 He also composed a barcarolle, a fantasia for piano, a berceuse, a bolero, a tarantella, a contredanse, a fugue, a cantabile, and a lento. For solo piano Chopin also wrote an Andante spianato (for the Grande Polonaise in E-flat major, Op. 22); a Funeral March; a Souvenir de Paganini; a Feuille d'album; and an Allegro de concert (possibly the remnant of an incomplete 3rd concerto). Chopin's other works include a trio for violin, cello and piano; a sonata for cello and piano, Op. 65 (Chopin's last composition published in his lifetime); a fantasia on themes from Polish songs with accompanying orchestra; a Grand Duo on themes from Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera Robert le diable for cello and piano; a krakowiak for piano and orchestra; and 19 Polish songs for solo voice with accompanying piano. Jachimecki, p. 425. Fictional treatments Possibly the first venture into fictional treatments of Chopin's life was a fanciful operatic version of some of its events. This opera, entitled Chopin, was written by Giacomo Orefice and produced in Milan in 1901. Orefice incorporated Chopin's music, arranged as arias; the operatic arrangements have been described as "coarse". Answers.com Various arias have been recorded by well-known singers, but the opera has long been out of the repertoire. Orefice also applied an operatic treatment to one of George Sand's novels, Consuelo. Chopin's life and his relations with George Sand have been fictionalized in film. The 1945 biopic A Song to Remember earned Cornel Wilde an Academy Award nomination as Best Actor for his portrayal of the composer. Other film treatments have included Impromptu (1991), starring Hugh Grant as Chopin; La note bleue (1991); and Chopin: Desire for Love (2002). Chopin is also the main character in the role-playing video game Eternal Sonata (2007). Eternal Sonata Official Website - http://eternalsonata.namcobandaigames.com/ The game is set in a dream world created by a fictional Chopin on his deathbed. Its story line refers to Chopin's life and music, and many of his works are heard on the soundtrack. See also Maria Kalergis Salon Frédéric Chopin in Paris Toruń gingerbread (young Chopin's enthusiasm for the Polish confection). Notes References Chopin and Other Musical Essays (1889) by Henry T. Finck Michałowski, Kornel, and Jim Samson, Chopin, Fryderyk Franciszek, Grove Music Online, edited by L. Macy (accessed October 31, 2006) (subscription access) Adam Zamoyski, Chopin: a Biography, New York, Doubleday, 1980, ISBN 0-385-13597-1. Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris: the Life and Times of the Romantic Composer, New York, Scribner, 1998, ISBN 0-684-82458-2. Zdzisław Jachimecki, "Chopin, Fryderyk Franciszek," Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. III, Kraków, Polska Akademia Umiejętności, 1937, pp. 420–26. Arthur Hedley et al., "Chopin, Frédéric (François)," Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed., 2005, vol. 3, pp. 263–64. Gerald Abraham, "Chopin Frédéric," Encyclopedia Americana, 1986 ed., vol. 6, pp. 627–28. Selected Correspondence of Fryderyk Chopin, collected and annotated by B.E. Sydow, translated and edited by Arthur Hedley, London, 1962. Chopin's Letters, collected by Henryk Opieński, translated by E.L. Voynich, New York, 1973. George Marek R. and Maria Gordon-Smith, Chopin: A biography, New York, Harper & Row, 1978. André Maurois, Leila: the Life of George Sand, translated by Gerard Hopkins, Penguin, 1980 (c 1953). David Ewen, Ewen's Musical Masterworks: The Encyclopedia of Musical Masterpieces, 2nd ed., New York, ARCO Publishing Company, 1954. Benita Eisler, Chopin's Funeral, Abacus, 2004. Krystyna Kobylańska, Chopin in His Own Land: Documents and Souvenirs, Kraków, P.W.M., 1955. The Book of the First International Musicological Congress Devoted [to] the Works of Frederick Chopin, Warsaw, 16-22 February 1960, edited by Zofia Lissa, Warsaw, PWN, 1963. [The Book of the Second International Musicological Congress, Warsaw, 10-17 October 1999:] Chopin and His Work in the Context of Culture, studies edited by Irena Poniatowska, vols. 1-2, Warsaw, 2003. Jean-Jacques Eigeldinger, Chopin: Pianist and Teacher, as Seen by His Pupils, Cambridge University Press, 1989, ISBN 0521367093. Jan Zygmunt Jakubowski, ed., Literatura polska od średniowiecza to pozytywizmu (Polish Literature from the Middle Ages to Positivism), Warsaw, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1979, ISBN 83-01-00201-8. External links Klasikal.com - Website dedicated to classical music. Includes video performances and sheet music of every composition of Frederic Chopin. Chopin Music - Website and forum dedicated to the music of Chopin, including recordings, sheet music and image galleries. The Chopin Project - A guide to Chopin's solo keyboard music, with individual entries, on-demand audio, essays, quotes, references, biographies, and abundant links. The Chopin Society - The website of the Chopin Society in London provides information about their monthly concerts, membership of the Society, and offers insights into the life of the composer. Chopin: the poet of the piano - A favourite Chopin place since 1999 with biography, images, complete music and score, discussion forum, work list and analysis, quizzes and contests, noted interpreters/great pianists... Internet Chopin Information Centre, Chopin portal including calendar, catalogues, other information about Chopin, Chopin on the Web, and pianists' biographical notes. Biographies Online biography of Chopin Frédéric Chopin biography Brief Chopin essay at Classical Music Pages The Fryderyk Chopin Society in Warsaw. Contains a biography, an outline of Chopin's works and musical style and pictures of original manuscripts. [http://www.chopinmusic.net/en/biography/ Biography] with Image Gallery and Citations from Chopin Music Biographies (Project Gutenberg e-texts): Life of Chopin, book by his friend Franz Liszt Frederick Chopin as a Man and Musician, by Frederick Niecks Chopin: The Man and his Music, by James Huneker Music scores Chopin Free Sheet Music Site, a collection of all the musical compositions by Frédéric Chopin ever published. Chopin's complete piano score in PDF Link to complete Chopin music: recordings, scores, and analyses at Chopin: the poet of the piano Chopin's Complete piano sheet music (www.kylesproject.com Free scores by Fryderyk Chopin (www.freestave.com) Public domain scores Printable Chopin's Scores + Audio Chopin Complete Piano Works Free Public Domain Scores in PDF Free Sheet Music from Chopin Music www.kreusch-sheet-music.net Chopin's complete piano works Chopin scores from Mutopia Project Chopin Early Editions, a collection of over 400 first and early printed editions of musical compositions by Frédéric Chopin published before 1881. French website with free Chopin's scores : good website with free Chopin's scores in the public domain. Chopin's First Editions Online features an interface that allows three navigable scores to be open simultaneously in frames to facilitate comparison. Recordings Performances by Daniel Wnukowski: 'Heroic' polonaise, 2 nocturnes, 1 scherzo, 1 prelude Performances by Michael Sayers: Preludes Op. 28 Nos. 1 and 20 Performances by Donald Betts: 3 ballades, 3 études, 2 nocturnes, 1 mazurka Performances by Paul Cantrell from In the Hands Performances by Alberto Cobo: Sonata #3, Ballade #1 & Fantasie-Impromptu, Sonata #2, Scherzo #2, Prelude #16 Free MIDI Downloads from Chopin Music Various performers from PianoParadise (some links are broken) MIDI files from Kunst der Fuge Preludes No. 4 and No. 6 arranged for voices, guitar, and bass by the John Link Project Performances of works by Frédéric Chopin in MP3 and MIDI formats at Logos Virtual Library Free Chopin Downloads (MP3 and WMA) the original Chopin Chopin as played by Angela Lear from autograph manuscripts. "Hear what Chopin really intended" BBC Music Magazine; "...Her Chopin recitals were altogether exceptional for perfect interpretation and maximum faithfulness to Chopin's intentions " Le Matin. Chopin selected works (MP3) Miscellaneous Narodowy Instytut Fryderyka Chopina, Warsaw, Poland Memorial Page at FindaGrave University of Michigan Chopin Project Chopin Works Review International Fryderyk Chopin Piano Competition Chopin2010 a/k/a "The Chopin Currency" - a daily compendium of Chopiniana: news, reviews, videos, blogs, and more leading up to the Chopin Bicentennial in 2010 Valldemossa, Majorca small town whose major asset is the remains of The Royal Chartreuse of Jesus Nazareth where Chopin lived for a short period with George Sand (the memories of this period are recorded in her book "Winter in Majorca") in 1838-39. The International Foundation Can Mossenya - Friends of Jorge Luis Borges Historic estate, a significant part of The Royal Chartreuse of Jesus of Nazareth. The safekeeping of a large collection of original Chopin manuscripts, including Concerto in F-minor among a total of 49 compositions and other priceless Polish art treasures in Canada during World War II, is documented by new research in 2004–2005 which was published in Chopin in the World''. 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4,909 | Enver_Hoxha | (, 16 October 1908 11 April 1985) was the Communist leader of the People's Republic of Albania from the end of World War II until his death in 1985, as the First Secretary of the Albanian Party of Labour. He was also Prime Minister of Albania from 1944 to 1954 and Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1946 to 1953. Hoxha's leadership was characterized by "isolation" from the rest of Europe and his proclaimed firm adherence to anti-revisionist Marxist-Leninism. After his break with Maoism in the late 1970s and early 1980s, numerous Maoist parties declared themselves Hoxhaist. The International Conference of Marxist-Leninist Parties and Organizations (Unity & Struggle) is the most well known collection of these parties today. Biography Hoxha was born in Gjirokastër, a city in southern Albania that has been home to many prominent families. He was the son of a Bektashi Biography of Baba Rexheb: "[Enver Hoxha was] from the Gjirokastër area and [he] came from [a family] that [was] attached to the Bektashi tradition. In fact, before Enver set off for France to study fourteen years earlier, his father brought him to seek the blessing of Baba Selim. The baba was not one to refuse the request of a petitioner and made a benediction over the boy." Muslim Tosk cloth merchant who traveled widely across Europe and the United States of America, and the major influence on Enver during these years was his uncle, Hysen Hoxha (). Hysen Hoxha was a militant who campaigned vigorously for the independence of Albania, which occurred when Enver was four years old. Enver took to these ideas very strongly, especially after King Zog came to power in 1928. At age 16 he helped found and became secretary of the Students Society of Gjirokastër, which protested against the monarchist government. After the Society was closed down by the government, he left his hometown and moved to Korçë, continuing his studies in a French high school. Here he learned French history, literature and philosophy. In this city he read for the first time the Communist Manifesto allegedly given to him by a worker named Koçi Bako, though this has never been substantiated by any independent source. In 1930, Hoxha went to study at the University of Montpellier in France on a state scholarship given to him by the Queen Mother for the faculty of natural sciences. He attended the lessons and the conferences of the Association of Workers organized by the French Communist Party, but he soon dropped out because he wanted to pursue a degree in either philosophy or law. After a year, not having much interest in biology he left Montepellier to go to Paris, hoping to continue his university studies. He took courses in the faculty of philosophy at the Sorbonne and, in the Marxist environment of the French capital, he collaborated with L'Humanité, writing articles on the situation in Albania under the pseudonym Lulo Malessori, but he soon dropped out once more. From 1934 to 1936 he was a secretary at the Albanian consulate in Brussels, attached to the personnel office of Queen Mother Sadia. He was dismissed after the consul discovered that his employee had deposited Marxist materials and books in his office. He returned to Albania in 1936 and became a grammar school teacher in Korçë. As a result of his extensive education, Hoxha was fluent in French and had a working knowledge of Italian, Serbo-Croatian, English and Russian. As a leader, he would often reference Le Monde and the International Herald Tribune. A Coming of Age: Albania under Enver Hoxha, James S. O'Donnell, New York 1999, p. 196. He is described as "by far the best-read head of state in Eastern Europe." Hoxha was dismissed from his teaching post following the 1939 Italian invasion for refusing to join the Albanian Fascist Party. He opened a tobacco shop in Tirana called Flora where soon a small communist group started gathering. Eventually the Fascist government closed it down. Partisan life On 8 November 1941, the Communist Party of Albania (later renamed the Albanian Party of Labor in 1948) was founded. Hoxha was chosen as one of 7 members of the provisional Central Committee. After the September 1942 Conference at Pezë, the National Liberation Army was founded. Its purpose was to unite the anti-Fascist Albanians regardless of ideology or class. By March 1943, the first National Conference of the Communist Party elected him formally as First Secretary. During the war, the Soviet Union's role was an advisory one, which makes Albania the only nation occupied during World War II whose independence was not determined by a great power. Of Enver Hoxha And Major Ivanov, New York Times, April 28, 1985 Communist partisans in Yugoslavia had a much more practical role, helping to plan attacks and exchanging supplies, but communication between them and the Albanians was limited and letters would often arrive late, sometimes well after a plan had been agreed upon by the National Liberation Army without consultation from the Yugoslav partisans. In August, a secret meeting was held at Mukjë between the Balli Kombëtar (National Front), which was both anti-Communist and anti-Fascist, and the Communist Party. The result of this was an agreement to fight together against the Italians. In order to encourage the Balli Kombëtar to sign, a Greater Albania was agreed to, which included Kosovo (part of Yugoslavia) and Çamëria (part of Greece). A situation soon developed however when the Yugoslav Communists disagreed with the goal of a Greater Albania and asked the Communists in Albania to withdraw their agreement. According to Hoxha, Josip Broz Tito had agreed that "Kosovo was Albanian" but that Serbian opposition made transfer an unwise option. Nora Beloff, Tito's Flawed Legacy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1985), 192. After the Albanian Communists repudiated the Greater Albania agreement, the Balli Kombëtar condemned the Communists, who in turn accused the Balli Kombëtar of siding with the Italians. The Balli Kombëtar, however lacked support from the people. After judging the communists as an immediate threat to the country, the Balli Kombëtar sided with the Germans, fatally hurting its image among those fighting the Fascists. The Communists quickly added to its ranks many of those disillusioned with the Balli Kombëtar and took center stage in the fight for liberation. The Permet National Congress held during that time called for a "new democratic Albania for the people." King Zog was prohibited from visiting Albania ever again, which further increased the Communists control. The Anti-Fascist Committee for National Liberation was founded, with Hoxha at the chairman. On 22 October, the Committee became the provisional government of Albania after a meeting in Berat and Hoxha was chosen as interim Prime Minister. Tribunals were set up to try alleged war criminals who were designated "enemies of the people" and were presided over by Koçi Xoxe. After liberation from the fascist occupation on 29 November 1944, several Albanian partisan divisions crossed the border into German occupied Yugoslavia and there contributed to the chasing out of the last pockets of German resistance alongside Tito's partisans and the Soviet Red Army. Marshal Tito, during a Yugoslavian conference in his later years, thanked Hoxha for the assistance the Albanian partisans had given during the War for National Liberation (Lufta Nacionalçlirimtare). Albanians celebrate their independence day on November 28 (which is the date on which they declared their independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912), while in the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia the National Liberation festivity date is 29 November. The Democratic Front succeeded the National Liberation Army in August 1945 and the first elections in post-war Albania were held on 2 December. Only members of the Communist Party were allowed to stand, and the government reported that 90% of Albanians voted for it. Early leadership Enver Hoxha and Kim Il-sung (left and right to the old man in the center, respectively) in the 1950s Hoxha declared himself a Marxist-Leninist and strongly admired the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. During the period of 1945–1950, the government adopted policies which were intended to consolidate power. The Agrarian Reform Law was passed in August 1945. It confiscated land from beys and large landowners giving it without compensation to peasants. 52% of all land was owned by large landowners before the law was passed; it declined to 16% after the laws passage. Ramadan Marmullaku, Albania and the Albanians, trans. Margot and Bosko Milosavljević (Hamden, Connn.: Archon Books, 1975, 93-94. Hoxha believed that the Albanian population should increase and as a result the government banned abortion except in the case of rape or danger to the mother's life. Illiteracy, which was 90-95% in rural areas in 1939 went down to 30% by 1950 and by 1985 was equal to that of the United States of America. Library of Congress Country Studies The Enver Hoxha University was established in 1957, which was the first of its kind in Albania. The Medieval Gjakmarrja (blood feud) was banned. Malaria, the most widespread disease, was successfully fought through advances in health care and through the draining of swamplands. By 1985 a case had not been heard of in the past twenty years whereas previously Albania had the greatest number of patients infected in Europe. Cikuli, Health Care in the People's Republic of Albania, p. 33. A case of syphilis had not been recorded for 30 years. Ibid., p. 72. In order to solve the Gheg-Tosk divide, books were written in the Tosk dialect, and a majority of the Party came from southern Albania where the Tosk dialect is spoken. By 1949 the United States and British intelligence organizations were working with King Zog and the mountain men of his personal guard. They recruited Albanian refugees and émigrés from Egypt, Italy, and Greece; trained them in Cyprus, Malta, and the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany); and infiltrated them into Albania. Guerrilla units entered Albania in 1950 and 1952, but Albanian security forces killed or captured all of them. Kim Philby, a Soviet double agent working as a liaison officer between the British intelligence service and the United States Central Intelligence Agency, had leaked details of the infiltration plan to Moscow, and the security breach claimed the lives of about 300 infiltrators. Relations with Yugoslavia At this point, relations with Yugoslavia had begun to change. The roots of the change began on October 20, 1944 at the Second Plenary Session of the Communist Party of Albania. The Session concerned the problems that the new Albanian government would face following Albania's independence. However, the Yugoslav delegation led by Velimir Stoinić accused the party of "sectarianism and opportunism" and blamed Hoxha for these errors. He also stressed the view that the Yugoslav Communist partisans spearheaded the Albanian partisan movement. Anti-Yugoslav members of the Albanian Communist Party had begun to think that this was plot by Tito intended to destabilize the Party. Koçi Xoxe, Sejfulla Malëshova and others who supported Yugoslavia were looked upon with deep suspicion. Tito's position on Albania was that it was too weak to stand on its own and would do better as a part of Yugoslavia. Hoxha alleged that Tito had made it his goal to get Albania into Yugoslavia, firstly by creating the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Aid in 1946. Although the treaty was seen as beneficial to both sides, over time Albania began to feel that it was heavily slanted towards Yugoslav interests, much like the Italian agreements with Albania under Zog that made the nation dependent upon Italy. The first issue was that the Albanian lek became revalued in terms of the Yugoslav dinar as a customs union was formed and Albania's economic plan was decided more by Yugoslavia. See Nicholas C. Pano, The People's Republic of Albania (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1968), 101. Albanian economists H. Banja and V. Toçi stated that: Hoxha then began to accuse Yugoslavia of misconduct. Joseph Stalin gave advice to Hoxha and stated that Yugoslavia was attempting to annex Albania. "We did not know that the Yugoslavs, under the pretext of 'defending' your country against an attack from the Greek fascists, wanted to bring units of their army into the PRA [People's Republic of Albania]. They tried to do this in a very secret manner. In reality, their aim in this direction was utterly hostile, for they intended to overturn the situation in Albania." Enver Hoxha, With Stalin (Tirana: 8 Nëntori Publishing House, 1979, 92. By June 1947, the Central Committee of Yugoslavia began publicly condemning Hoxha, accusing him of talking an individualistic and anti-Marxist line. When Albania responded by making agreements with the Soviet Union to purchase a supply of agricultural machinery, Yugoslavia said that Albania could not enter into any agreements with other countries without Yugoslav approval. Koçi Xoxe tried to stop Hoxha from improving relations with Bulgaria, reasoning that Albania would be more stable with one trading partner rather than with many. Nako Spiru, an anti-Yugoslav member of the Party, condemned Xoxe and Xoxe condemned him. With no one coming to Spiru's defense, he viewed the situation as hopeless and that Yugoslav domination of his nation was imminent, causing him to commit suicide in November. In the Eighth Plenum of the Central Committee of the Party which lasted from February 26-March 8, 1948, Xoxe was implicated in a plot to isolate Hoxha and consolidate his [Xoxe's] own power. He accused Hoxha of being responsible for the decline in relations with Yugoslavia, and stated that a Soviet military mission should be expelled in favor of a Yugoslav counterpart. Hoxha managed to remain firm and his support had not declined. When Yugoslavia publicly broke with the Soviet Union, Hoxha's support base grew stronger. Then, on July 1, 1948, Tirana called on all Yugoslav technical advisors to leave the country and unilaterally declared all treaties and agreements between the two countries null and void. Xoxe was expelled from the party and on June 13, 1949 he was executed by a firing squad. Relations with the Soviet Union After the break with Yugoslavia, Hoxha aligned himself with the Soviet Union, for which he had a great admiration. From 1948–1960, $200 million in Soviet aid would be given to Albania for technical & infrastructural expansion. Albania was admitted on February 22, 1949, to the Comecon and Albania remained important both as a way to both put pressure on Yugoslavia and serve as a pro-Soviet force in the Adriatic Sea. A submarine base was built on the island of Sazan near Vlorë, posing a possible threat to the United States' Sixth Fleet. Relations continued to remain close until the death of Stalin on March 5, 1953. His death was met with national mourning in Albania. Hoxha assembled the entire population in the capital's largest square, requested that they kneel, and made them take a two-thousand word oath of "eternal fidelity" and "gratitude" to their "beloved father" and "great liberator" to whom the people owed "everything." The Economist 179 (June 16, 1956): 110. Under Nikita Khrushchev, Stalin's successor, aid was reduced and Albania was encouraged to adopt Khrushchev's specialization policy. Under this policy, Albania would develop its agricultural output in order to supply the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact nations while these nations would be developing specific resource outputs of their own, which would in theory strengthen the Warsaw Pact by greatly reducing the lack of certain resources many of the nations faced. However, this also meant that Albanian industrial development, which was stressed heavily by Hoxha, would have to be significantly reduced. From May 16 – June 17, 1955, Bulganin and Mikoyan visited Yugoslavia and Khrushchev renounced the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the Communist bloc. Khrushchev also began making references to Palmiro Togliatti's polycentrism theory. Hoxha had not been consulted on this and was offended. Yugoslavia began asking for Hoxha to rehabilitate the image of Koçi Xoxe, which Hoxha steadfastly rejected. In 1956 at the Twentieth Party Congress of the Soviet Communist Party, Khrushchev condemned the cult of personality that had been built up around Stalin and also accused him of many grave mistakes. Khrushchev then announced the theory of peaceful coexistence, which angered Hoxha greatly. Hoxha believed that the U.S.S.R. was becoming social-imperialist and would not operate as a beacon of hope for the world Communist movement, but rather as another capitalist state, especially after Khrushchev's economic reforms. The Institute of Marxist-Leninist Studies, led by Hoxha's wife Nexhmije, quoted Lenin: "The fundamental principle of the foreign policy of a socialist country and of a Communist party is proletarian internationalism (The official definition of proletarian internationalism is 'the alliance with the revolutionaries of the advanced countries and with the oppressed peoples against the imperialists of all hues.'); not peaceful coexistence." The Institute of Marxist-Leninist Studies at the Central Committee of the Party of Labour of Albania, 296. Hoxha now took a more active stand against perceived revisionism. Unity within the Albanian Party of Labour began to decline as well, with a special delegate meeting held at Tirana in April, 1956, composed of 450 delegates having unexpected results. The delegates... Hoxha called for a resolution which would uphold the current leadership of the Party. The resolution was accepted, and all of the delegates who had spoken out were expelled from the party and imprisoned. Hoxha stated that this was yet another of many attempts to overthrow the leadership of Albania organized by Yugoslavia. This incident further consolidated Hoxha's power, effectively making Khrushchev-esque reforms nearly impossible. In the same year, Hoxha went to the People's Republic of China, then enduring the Sino-Soviet Split, and met with Mao Zedong. Relations with China improved, as evidenced by Chinese aid to Albania being 4.2% in 1955 before the visit, and rising to 21.6% in 1957. Elez Biberaj, Albania and China (Boulder: Westview Press, 1986), p. 27. In an effort to keep Albania in the Soviet sphere, increased aid was given but the Albanian leadership continued to move closer towards China. During the Hungarian Revolution, Hoxha condemned the Soviets although also condemning Imre Nagy. Regardless, relations with the Soviet Union remained at the same level until 1960, when Khrushchev met with Sophocles Venizelos, a left-wing Greek politician. Khrushchev sympathized with the concept of an autonomous Greek North Epirus. Hoxha had accused the minority of having petty-bourgeois nationalist views that would harm the national unity of the nation. He also claimed that many separatists conducted terrorist acts. Relations between Albania and Greece were extremely strained until some improvement was made in the 1980s. Relations with the Soviet Union began to decline rapidly. A hardline policy was adopted and the Soviets reduced aid shipments, specifically grain, at a time when Albania needed them due to flood-induced famine. In July 1960, a plot to overthrow the government was discovered. It was to be organized by Soviet-trained Rear Admiral Teme Sejko. After this, the two pro-Soviet members of the Party, Liri Belishova and Koço Tashko, were both expelled, with a humorous incident involving Tashko pronouncing tochka (Russian for "period.") In August, the Party's Central Committee sent a letter of protest to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, stating the displeasure of having an anti-Albanian Soviet Ambassador in Tirana. The Fourth Congress of the Party held from February 13-20, 1961, was the last meeting Soviet or other East European nations would attend in Albania. During the congress, the Soviet Union was condemned while China was praised. Mehmet Shehu stated that while many members of the Party were accused of tyranny, this was a baseless charge and unlike the Soviet Union, Albania was composed of genuine Marxists. The Soviet Union retaliated by threatening "dire consequences" if the condemnations were not retracted. Days later, Khrushchev and Antonin Novotny, President of Czechoslovakia (which was Albania's largest source of aid besides the Soviets) threatened to cut off economic aid. In March, Albania was not invited to attend the meeting of the Warsaw Pact nations (Albania had been one of its founding members in 1955) and in April all Soviet technicians were withdrawn from the nation. In May nearly every Soviet submarine at Sazan was withdrawn; dispute still exists in regards to the actual number of remaining submarines. On November 7, 1961, Hoxha made a speech in which he called Khrushchev a "revisionist, anti-Marxist and a defeatist." Hoxha portrayed Stalin as the last Communist leader of the Soviet Union and began to stress Albania's independence. By November 11, the USSR and every other Warsaw Pact nation broke relations with Albania. Albania was unofficially excluded (by not being invited) from both the Warsaw Pact and Comecon. The Soviet Union had also attempted to claim control of the Vlorë port due to a lease agreement; the Albanian Party then passed a law prohibiting any other nation from owning a port through lease or otherwise. Later rule As Hoxha's leadership continued he took on an increasingly theoretical stance. He would write criticisms based both on current events at the time and on theory; most notably his condemnations of Maoism post-1978. One major achievement under Hoxha was the advancement of women's rights. Albania had been one of the most, if not the most, patriarchal countries in Europe. The Code of Lekë, which regulated the status of women, states that "A woman is known as a sack, made to endure as long as she lives in her husband's house." Kanuni i Lekë Dukagjinit [The Code of Lekë Dukagjini] (Prishtinë, Kosove: Rilindja, 1972): bk. 3, chap. 5, no. 29, 38. Women were not allowed to inherit anything from their parents and discrimination was even made in the case of death. Women were absolutely forbidden from getting a divorce, and the parents were obliged to return the daughter to the husband or else suffer shame from the entire tribe which could even culminate into a generations-long blood feud. During World War II, the Albanian Communists encouraged women to join the partisans Harilla Papajorgi, Our Friends Ask (Tirana: The Naim Frashëri Publishing House, 1970), 130. and following the war, women were encouraged to take up menial jobs due to education being out of most women's reach. In 1938, 4% worked in various sectors of the economy. In 1970 this was 38% and in 1982 46%. Ksanthipi Begeja, The Family in the People's Socialist Republic of Albania, (Tirana: 8 Nëntori Publishing House, 1984), 61. During the Cultural and Ideological Revolution (discussed below), women were encouraged to take up all jobs, including government posts, which resulted in 30% of the Central Committee being composed of women by 1985. In 1978, 15.1 times as many females attended 8 Year schools as in 1938 and 175.7 times as many females attended secondary schools as in 1938. 101.9 times as many women attended higher schools in 1978 as in 1957. The Directorate of Statistics at the State Planning Commission, 35 Years of Socialist Albania (Tirana: 8 Nëntori Publishing House, 1981), 129. In 1969, direct taxation was abolished An Outline of the People's Socialist Republic of Albania. Tirana: The 8 Nëntori Publishing House, 1978. and during this period the quality of schooling and health care continued to improve. An electrification campaign was begun in 1960 and the entire nation was expected to have electricity by 1985. Instead, it achieved this on October 25, 1970, making it one of the first nations with complete electrification. Pollo and Puto, The History of Albania, p. 280. During the Cultural & Ideological Revolution of 1967–1968, military ranks were abolished, uniforms were made simple, and saluting was rare, although military ranks were reintroduced by 1985 in a reduced fashion. Pill boxes in Albania built during Hoxha's rule to avert possible external invasion. Over half a million were built. Hoxha's legacy also included a complex of 750,000 one-man concrete bunkers across a country of 3 million inhabitants, to act as look-outs and gun emplacements along with chemical weapons. Albania's Chemical Cache Raises Fears About Others - Washington Post, Monday 10 January 2005, Page A01 The bunkers were built strong and mobile, with the intention that they could be easily placed by a crane or a helicopter in a previously dug hole. The types of bunkers vary from machine gun pillboxes, beach bunkers, to naval underground facilities, and even Air Force Mountain and underground bunkers. Over 700,000 pillboxes were built and around 500,000 pillboxes were reported to still be in good condition and ready to serve as shelters in case of war. Hoxha's internal policies were true to Stalin's paradigm which he admired, and the personality cult developed in the 1970s organized around him by the Party also bore a striking resemblance to that of Stalin. At times it was even at a status similar to Kim Il Sung (whose personality cult Hoxha condemned<ref>RADIO FREE EUROPE Research 17 December 1979 quoting Hoxha's Reflections on China Volume II: "In Pyongyang, I believe that even Tito will be astonished at the proportions of the cult of his host, which has reached a level unheard of anywhere else, either in past or present times, let alone in a country which calls itself socialist."</ref>) with Hoxha being portrayed as a genius commenting on virtually all facets of life from culture to economics to military matters. Each schoolbook required one or more quotations from him on the subjects being studied. Kosta Koçi, interview with James S. O'Donnell, A Coming of Age: Albania under Enver Hoxha, Tape recording, Tirana, 12 April 1994. The Party honored him with titles such as Supreme Comrade, Sole Force and Great Teacher. Relations with China In Albania's Third Five Year Plan, China promised a loan of $125 million to build twenty-five chemical, electrical and metallurgical plants called for under the Plan. However, the nation had a difficult transition period, as Chinese technicians were of a lower quality than Soviet ones and the distance between the two nations, plus the poor relations Albania had with its neighbors, further complicated matters. Unlike Yugoslavia or the U.S.S.R., China had the least influence economically on Albania during Hoxha's leadership. The previous twelve years (1946–1961) had at least 50% of the economy under foreign commerce. Elez Biberaj, Albania and China (Boulder: Westview Press, 1986), 40. By the time the 1976 Constitution prohibited foreign debt, aid and investments, Albania had basically become self-sufficient although lacking in modern technology. Ideologically, Hoxha found Mao's initial views to be in line with Marxism-Leninism. Mao condemned Khrushchev's alleged revisionism and was also critical of Yugoslavia. Aid given from China was interest-free and did not have to be repaid until Albania could afford to do so. China never intervened in what Albania's economic output should be, and Chinese technicians worked for the same wages as Albanian workers, unlike Soviet technicians who sometimes made more than three times the pay of Hoxha. Harry Hamm, Albania: China's Beachhead in Europe (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1963), 45. Albanian newspapers were reprinted in Chinese newspapers and on radio. Finally, Albania led the movement to give the People's Republic of China a seat in the United Nations, an effort made successful in 1971 and thus replacing the Republic of China's seat. During this period, Albania became the second largest producer of chromium in the world, which was considered an important export for Albania. Strategically, the Adriatic Sea was also attractive to China, and the Chinese leadership had hoped to gain more allies in Eastern Europe with the help of Albania, although this failed. Zhou Enlai visited Albania in January 1964. On January 9, "The 1964 Sino-Albanian Joint Statement" was signed in Tirana. Biberaj, 48. Like Albania, China defended the "purity" of Marxism by attacking both "U.S. imperialism" as well as "Soviet and Yugoslav revisionism", both equally as part of a "dual adversary" theory. Yugoslavia was viewed as a "special detachment of U.S. imperialism" and a "saboteur against world revolution." These views however began to change in China, which was one of the major issues Albania had with the alliance. Biberaj, 49. Also unlike Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, the Sino-Albanian alliance lacked "...an organizational structure for regular consultations and policy coordination, and was characterized by an informal relationship conducted on an ad hoc basis." Mao made a speech on November 3, 1966 which claimed that Albania was the only Marxist-Leninist state in Europe and that "an attack on Albania will have to reckon with great People's China. If the U.S. imperialists, the modern Soviet revisionists or any of their lackeys dare to touch Albania in the slightest, nothing lies ahead for them but a complete, shameful and memorable defeat." Hamm, 43. Likewise, Hoxha stated that "You may rest assured, comrades, that come what may in the world at large, our two parties and our two peoples will certainly remain together. They will fight together and they will win together." Biberaj, 58. China entered into a four-year period of relative diplomatic isolation following the Cultural Revolution and at this point relations between China and Albania reached their zenith. On August 20, 1968, the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia was condemned by Albania, as was the Brezhnev doctrine. Albania then officially withdrew from the Warsaw Pact on September 5. Relations with China began to deteriorate on July 15, 1971, when United States' President Richard Nixon agreed to visit China to meet with Zhou Enlai. Hoxha felt betrayed and the government was in a state of shock. On August 6 a letter was sent from the Central Committee of the Albanian Party of Labour to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, calling Nixon a "frenzied anti-Communist." The result was a 1971 message from the Chinese leadership stating that Albania could not depend on an indefinite flow of further Chinese aid and in 1972 Albania was advised to "curb its expectations about further Chinese contributions to its economic development." Biberaj, 90. By 1973, Hoxha wrote in his diary Reflections on China that the Chinese leaders: In response, trade with COMECON (although trade with the Soviet Union was still blocked) and Yugoslavia grew. Trade with Third World nations was $0.5 million in 1973, but $8.3 million in 1974. Trade rose from 0.1% to 1.6%. Biberaj, 98.99. Following Mao's death on September 9, 1976, Hoxha remained optimistic about Sino-Albanian relations, but in August 1977, Hua Guofeng, the new leader of China, stated that Mao's Three Worlds Theory would become official foreign policy. Hoxha viewed this as a way for China to justify having the U.S. as the "secondary enemy" while viewing the Soviet Union as the main one, thus allowing China to trade with the U.S. "...the Chinese plan of the 'third world' is a major diabolical plan, with the aim that China should become another superpower, precisely by placing itself at the head of the 'third world' and 'non-aligned world.' Enver Hoxha, Reflections on China, vol. 2: (Toronto: Norman Bethune Institute, 1979), 656. From August 30-September 7, 1977, Tito visited Beijing and was welcomed by the Chinese leadership. At this point, the Albanian Party of Labour had declared that China was now a revisionist state akin to the Soviet Union or Yugoslavia and that Albania was the only Marxist-Leninist state on earth. On July 13, 1978, China announced that it was cutting of all aid to Albania. For the first time in modern history, Albania did not have an ally. Human Rights According to a landmark Amnesty International report published in 1984, Albania's human rights record was dismal under Hoxha. The regime denied its citizens freedom of expression, religion, movement, and association although the constitution of 1976 ostensibly guaranteed each of these rights. In fact, certain clauses in the constitution effectively circumscribed the exercise of political liberties that the regime interpreted as contrary to the established order. O'Donnell, op. cit., p. 129. In addition, the regime denied the population access to information other than that disseminated by the government-controlled media. The Sigurimi (Albanian secret police) routinely violated the privacy of persons, homes, and communications and made arbitrary arrests. Internally, the Sigurimi made sure to replicate the repressive methods of the NKVD, MGB, KGB, and Stasi. Its activities permeated Albanian society to the extent that every third citizen had either served time in labor camps or been interrogated by Sigurimi officers. To eliminate dissent, the government imprisoned thousands in forced-labour camps or executed for crimes such as alleged treachery or disrupting the proletarian dictatorship. Travel abroad was forbidden after 1968 to all but those on official business. West European culture was looked upon with deep suspicion, resulting in arrests and bans on unauthorized foreign material. Dance fever reaches Albania "The former student, now the mayor of Tirana, said that he would cower beneath the bedclothes at night listening to foreign radio stations, an activity punishable by a long stretch in a labour camp. He became fascinated by the saxophone. Yet, as such instruments were considered to be an evil influence and were banned, he had never seen one. " Art was made to reflect the styles of socialist realism. Keefe, Eugene K. Area Handbook for Albania. Washington, D.C.: The American University (Foreign Area Studies), 1971. Beards were banned as unhygienic and to curb the influence of Islam (many Imams and Babas had beards) and the Orthodox faith. Leo Paul Dana, "Albania in the Twilight Zone: The Perseritje Model and Its Impact on Small Business" Journal of Small Business Management #34 (1996): "Hoxha was perhaps the most eccentric dictator of Eastern Europe. He banned bananas, beards, bright colors, foreign journalists, most imports, and religion." All Albanians were required to obtain permits for the ownership of cars (which did not fall under private property Joseph W. Harrison, "Albania begins the long road back from serfdom; mineral resources might pave the road to the West, with contributions from tourism and food processing." Business America (Jan 27, 1992): " Albania prohibited the private ownership of virtually anything: there was simply no such thing as private property. Until 1991, there were absolutely no privately-owned cars, trucks, or any other vehicle. As a result, there are very few cars--or even bicycles--on Albania's roads." ), refrigerators and typewriters among other things. O'Donnell, op. cit., p. 131. The justice system regularly degenerated into show trials. "...[The defendant] was not permitted to question the witnesses and that, although he was permitted to state his objections to certain aspects of the case, his objections were dismissed by the prosecutor who said, 'Sit down and be quiet. We know better than you.'." Minnesota International Human Rights Committee, Human Rights in the People's Socialist Republic of Albania. (Minneapolis: Minnesota Lawyers International Human Rights Committee, 1990), 46. In order to lessen the threat of political dissidents and other exiles, relatives of the accused were often arrested, ostracized, and accused of being "enemies of the people." James S. O'Donnell, "Albania's Sigurimi: The ultimate agents of social control" Problems of Post-Communism #42 (Nov/Dec 1995): 5p. Torture was often used to obtain confessions: "There were six institutions for political prisoners and fourteen labor camps where political prisoners and common criminals worked together. It has been estimated that there were approximately 32,000 people imprisoned in Albania in 1985." O'Donnell, op. cit., p. 134. Article 47 of the Albanian Criminal Code stated that to "escape outside the state, as well as refusal to return to the Fatherland by a person who has been sent to serve or has been permitted temporarily to go outside the state" is a crime of treason which is punishable by a minimum sentence of ten years or even death. Ibid., p. 136. Religion Albania, being the most predominantly Muslim nation in Europe due to Turkish influence in the region, had, like the Ottoman Empire, merged religion with ethnicity. In the Ottoman Empire, Muslims were viewed as "Turks," Eastern Orthodox as Greeks and Catholics as "Latins." Hoxha believed this was a serious issue, feeling that it both gave further legitimacy to the Greek separatists in North Epirus and also divided the nation in general. The Agrarian Reform Law of 1945 confiscated much of the church's property in the country. Catholics were the earliest religious community to be targeted, since the Vatican was seen as being an agent of Fascism and anti-Communism. Anton Logoreci, The Albanians: Europe's Forgotten Survivors (Boulder: Worldview Press, 1977), 154. In 1946 the Jesuit Order and in 1947 the Franciscans were banned. Decree No. 743 (On Religion) sought a national church and forbade religious leaders from associating with foreign powers. The Party focused on atheist education in schools. This tactic was effective, primarily due to the high birthrate policy encouraged after the war. During holy days such as Ramadan or Lent, many forbidden foods (dairy products, meat, etc.) were distributed in schools and factories, and people who refused to eat those foods were denounced. Starting on February 6, 1967, the Party began a new offensive against religion. Hoxha, who had declared a "Cultural and Ideological Revolution" after being partly inspired by China's Cultural Revolution, encouraged communist students and workers to use more forceful tactics to promote atheism, although so-called "excessive violence" was condemned. According to Hoxha, the surge in anti-religious activity began with the youth. The result of this "spontaneous, unprovoked movement" was the closing of all 2,169 churches and mosques in Albania. State atheism became official policy, and Albania was declared the world's first atheist state. Religiously-based town and city names were changed, as well as personal names. During this period Greek names were also made illegal. The Dictionary of People's Names, published in 1982, contained 3,000 approved, secular names. Monsignor Dias, the Papal Nuncio for Albania appointed by Pope John Paul II, said that of the three hundred Catholic priests present in Albania prior to the Communists coming to power, only thirty survive. Henry Kamm, "Albania's Clerics Lead a Rebirth," New York Times, 27 March 1992, p. A3. Final years Hoxha was exhumed in 1992 and informally reburied. The picture shows his second grave. A new Constitution was decided on by the Seventh Congress of the Albanian Party of Labour from November 1-7, 1976. According to Hoxha, "The old Constitution was the Constitution of the building of the foundations of socialism, whereas the new Constitution will be the Constitution of the complete construction of a socialist society." Enver Hoxha, Report on the Activity of the Central Committee of the Party of Labour of Albania (Tirana: 8 Nëntori Publishing House, 1977), 12. Self-reliance was now stressed more than ever. Citizens were encouraged to train in the use of weapons, and such activity was also taught in schools. This was to encourage the creation of quick partisans. Letter from Albania: Enver Hoxha's legacy, and the question of tourism: "The bunkers were just one component of Hoxha's aim to arm the entire country against enemy invaders. Gun training used to be a part of school, I was told, and every family was expected to have a cache of weapons. Soon, Albania became awash in guns and other armaments and the country is still dealing with that today, not just in its reputation as a center for weapons trading but in its efforts to finally decommission huge stockpiles of ammunition as part of its new NATO obligations." Borrowing and foreign investment were banned under Article 26 of the Constitution, which read: "The granting of concessions to, and the creation of foreign economic and financial companies and other institutions or ones formed jointly with bourgeois and revisionist capitalist monopolies and states as well as obtaining credits from them are prohibited in the People's Socialist Republic of Albania." Elez Biberaj, Albania and China (Boulder: Westview Press, 1986), 162n. See also The Albanian Constitution of 1976 Albania was very poor and backward by European standards and had the lowest standards of living in Europe. On Eagle's Wings: The Albanian Economy in Transition, p. vii Telephone communication, long established in every household in Albania's neighboring countries, was rare in most areas. Very few Albanians other than higher-echelon party apparatchiks had access to such services despite Communist party claims that telephones were present across Albania. As a result of autarky, Albania had very little foreign debt. In 1983, Albania imported goods worth $280 million but exported goods worth $290 million, producing a trade surplus of $10 million. The Directorate of the Intelligence of the Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1986), 3. In 1981, Hoxha ordered the execution of several party and government officials in a new purge. Prime Minister Mehmet Shehu was reported to have committed suicide following a further dispute within the Albanian leadership in December 1981, but it is widely believed that he was killed. Diplomatic relations with Italy and Greece improved during the 1980s. Hoxha also wrote a large assortment of books during this period, resulting in over 65 volumes of collected works, condensed into 6 volumes of selected works. http://www.nytimes.com/1987/10/18/books/the-truest-believer.html?sec=&spon= "Hoxha, who died in 1985, was one of the most verbose statesmen of modern times and pressed more than 50 volumes of opinions, diaries and dogma on his long-suffering people, the poorest in Europe." 20 February 1990. People of Tirana tearing down and demolishing a statue of Enver Hoxha. Later, Hoxha withdrew into semi-retirement due to failing health, having suffered a heart attack in 1973 from which he never fully recovered. He turned most state functions over to Ramiz Alia. In his final days he was confined to a wheelchair and was suffering from diabetes, which he had suffered from since 1980, and cerebral ischemia, which he had suffered from since 1983. Hoxha's death on 11 April 1985 left Albania with a legacy of isolation and fear of the outside world. Despite some economic progress made by Hoxha O'Donnell, op. cit., p. 186. "On the positive side, an objective analysis must conclude that Enver Hoxha's plan to mobilize all of Albania's resources under the regimentation of a central plan was effective and quite successful... Albania was a tribal society, not necessarily primitive but certainly less developed than most. It had no industrial or working class tradition and no experience using modern production techniques. Thus, the results achieved, especially in the phases of initial planning and construction of the economic base were both impressive and positive. , the country's economy was in stagnation; Albania had been the poorest European country throughout much of the Cold War period. As of the early 21st century, very little of Hoxha's legacies are still in place in today's Albania since the collapse of Communism in 1991. References Further readingA Coming of Age: Albania under Enver Hoxha, James S. O'Donnell, New York 1999, ISBN 0-88033-415-0Albania in Occupation and War, Owen S. Pearson, I.B. Tauris, London 2006, ISBN 1-84511-104-4Albanian Stalinism, Pipa, Arshi, Boulder: East European Monographs, 1990, ISBN 0-88033-184-4 See also History of Albania Religious persecution External links Enver Hoxha Reference Archive at marxists.org English collection of some of Hoxha's works Another English collection of some of Hoxha's works A Russian site with the works of Enver Hoxha Enver Hoxha tungjatjeta Albanian.com article on Hoxha "Albania: Stalin's heir", Time'', 22 December 1961 | Enver_Hoxha |@lemmatized october:4 april:6 communist:32 leader:7 people:23 republic:13 albania:127 end:1 world:15 war:12 ii:5 death:7 first:10 secretary:4 albanian:45 party:45 labour:9 also:19 prime:3 minister:4 foreign:13 affair:1 hoxha:92 leadership:11 characterize:2 isolation:3 rest:2 europe:14 proclaimed:1 firm:2 adherence:1 anti:13 revisionist:5 marxist:13 leninism:2 break:4 maoism:2 late:3 early:4 numerous:1 maoist:1 declare:7 hoxhaist:1 international:5 conference:5 leninist:6 organization:2 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4,910 | Hispaniola | Hispaniola (from Spanish, La Española) is the second-largest and most populous island of the Antilles, lying between the islands of Cuba to the west, and Puerto Rico to the east. It is located directly within the hurricane belt. The Republic of Haiti occupies the western third and the Dominican Republic the eastern two-thirds of the island. Christopher Columbus first arrived on the island in western Hispaniola (present day Haiti), on December 5, 1492, and on his second voyage in 1493 to eastern Hispaniola, founded the first Spanish colony (present day Dominican Republic) in the New World on it. Names of the island The island bears many Amerindian names that supposedly originated from the Taíno that once populated the island. Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo and Bartolomé de las Casas documented that the island was called Haití ("Mountainous Land") by the Taíno inhabitants. Peter Martyr d'Anghiera added another name, Quizqueia (supposedly "Mother of all Lands") however later research shows that the word doesn't seem to have derived from the original Arawak language. Although Haití was the Taíno name verified to be used by the Amerindians on the island and was subsequently used by all three historians, evidence suggests that it probably was not the Taíno name of the whole island. Haití was the Taíno name of a region in what is now the northeastern section of present day Dominican Republic (now known as Los Haitises). In the oldest documented map of the island, created by Andrés de Morales, that region is named Montes de Haití ("Haiti Mountains"). Las Casas apparently named the whole island Haití on the basis of that particular region; d'Anghiera said that the name of one part was given to the whole island.. In the present day both terms are used to refer to their respective countries. The name "Haïti" was adopted as the official name of the republic of the same name by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines as an ode of tribute to the Amerindian predecessors. The word Quisqueya (from Quizqueia) is used to refer to the Dominican Republic. When Columbus took possession of the island, he named it La Española, meaning "The Spanish (Island)". When d'Anghiera detailed his account of the island in Latin, he translated the name as Hispaniola. Because Anghiera's literary work was translated into English and French in a short period of time, the name "Hispaniola" is the most frequently used term in English-speaking countries regarding the island in scientific and cartographic works. The colonial terms Saint-Domingue and Santo Domingo are sometimes still applied when referring to the whole island when both names factually refer to their respective countries. History Christopher Columbus arrived at the island during his first voyage to America in 1492. During his arrival he founded the settlement of La Navidad on the north coast of present day Haiti. On his return the subsequent year, following the disbandment of La Navidad, Columbus quickly founded a second settlement farther east in present day Dominican Republic, La Isabela, which became the first permanent European settlement in the Americas. Early map of Hispaniola The island was inhabited by the Taínos, one of the indigenous Arawak peoples. The Taino were at first tolerant of Columbus and his crew, and helped him to construct La Navidad on what is now Môle Saint-Nicolas, Haiti, in December 1492. European colonization of the island began earnestly the following year, when 1,300 men arrived from Spain under the watch of Bartolomeo Columbus. In 1496 the town of Nueva Isabela was founded. After being destroyed by a hurricane, it was rebuilt on the opposite side of the Ozama River and called Santo Domingo. It is the oldest permanent European settlement in the Americas. The Taino population of the island was rapidly decimated, owing to a combination of disease and harsh treatment by Spanish overlords. In 1501, the colony began to import African slaves, believing them more capable of performing physical labor. The natives lacked immunity to smallpox and entire tribes were extinguished. "History of Smallpox - Smallpox Through the Ages". Texas Department of State Health Services. From an estimated initial population of 250,000 in 1492, the Arawaks had dropped by 1517 to 14,000. As Spain conquered new regions on the mainland of the Americas, its interest in Hispaniola waned, and the colony's population grew slowly. By the early 17th century, the island and its smaller neighbors (notably Tortuga) became regular stopping points for Caribbean pirates. In 1606, the king of Spain ordered all inhabitants of Hispaniola to move close to Santo Domingo, to avoid interaction with pirates. Rather than secure the island, however, this resulted in French, English and Dutch pirates establishing bases on the now-abandoned north and west coasts of the island. In 1665, French colonization of the island was officially recognized by King Louis XIV. The French colony was given the name Saint-Domingue. In the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, Spain formally ceded the western third of the island to France. Saint-Domingue quickly came to overshadow the east in both wealth and population. Nicknamed the "Pearl of the Antilles," it became the richest and most prosperous colony in the West Indies and one of the wealthiest in the world, cementing its status as the most important port in the Americas for goods and products flowing to and from Europe. Geography Hispaniola is the second-largest island in the Caribbean (after Cuba), with an area of 76,480 km². The island of Cuba lies 80 km to the northwest across the Windward Passage; to the southwest lies Jamaica, separated by the Jamaica Channel. Puerto Rico lies east of Hispaniola across the Mona Passage. The Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands lie to the north. Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico are collectively known as the Greater Antilles. The Greater Antilles are made up of continental rock, as distinct from the Lesser Antilles, which are mostly young volcanic or coral islands. The island has five major mountain ranges: The Central Range, known in the Dominican Republic as the Cordillera Central, spans the central part of the island, extending from the south coast of the Dominican Republic into northwestern Haiti, where it is known as the Massif du Nord. This mountain range boasts the highest peak in the Antilles, Pico Duarte at 3,087 meters (10,128 ft) above sea level. The Cordillera Septentrional runs parallel to the Central Range across the northern end of the Dominican Republic, extending into the Atlantic Ocean as the Samaná Peninsula. The Cordillera Central and Cordillera Septentrional are separated by the lowlands of the Cibao Valley and the Atlantic coastal plains, which extend westward into Haiti as the Plaine du Nord (Northern Plain). The lowest of the ranges is the Cordillera Oriental, in the eastern part of the country. The Sierra de Neiba rises in the southwest of the Dominican Republic, and continues northwest into Haiti, parallel to the Cordillera Central, as the Montagnes Noires, Chaîne des Matheux and the Montagnes du Trou d'Eau. The Plateau Central lies between the Massif du Nord and the Montagnes Noires, and the Plaine de l'Artibonite lies between the Montagnes Noires and the Chaîne des Matheux, opening westward toward the Gulf of Gonâve. The southern range begins in the southwestern most Dominican Republic as the Sierra de Bahoruco, and extends west into Haiti as the Massif de la Selle and the Massif de la Hotte, which form the mountainous spine of Haiti's southern peninsula. Pic de la Selle is the highest peak in the southern range and the second highest peak in the Antilles and consequently the highest point in Haiti, at 2,680 meters (8,793 ft) above sea level. A depression runs parallel to the southern range, between the southern range and the Chaîne des Matheux-Sierra de Neiba. It is known as the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac in Haiti, and Haiti's capital Port-au-Prince lies at its western end. The depression is home to a chain of salt lakes, including Lake Azuei in Haiti and Lake Enriquillo in the Dominican Republic. Ecology The climate of Hispaniola is generally humid and tropical. The island has four distinct ecoregions. The Hispaniolan moist forests ecoregion covers approximately 50% of the island, especially the northern and eastern portions, predominantly in the lowlands but extending up to 2100 meters elevation. The Hispaniolan dry forests ecoregion occupies approximately 20% of the island, lying in the rain shadow of the mountains in the southern and western portion of the island and in the Cibao valley in the center-north of the island. The Hispaniolan pine forests occupy the mountainous 15% of the island, above 850 meters elevation. The Enriquillo wetlands are a flooded grasslands and savannas ecoregion that surround a chain of lakes and lagoons that includes Lake Enriquillo, Rincón Lagoon, and Lake Caballero in the Dominican Republic and Lake Azuei and Trou Caïman in Haiti. See also List of divided islands Geography of Haiti Geography of the Dominican Republic References External links Google maps | Hispaniola |@lemmatized hispaniola:12 spanish:4 la:10 española:2 second:5 large:2 populous:1 island:40 antilles:7 lie:9 cuba:4 west:4 puerto:3 rico:3 east:4 locate:1 directly:1 within:1 hurricane:2 belt:1 republic:15 haiti:17 occupy:3 western:5 third:3 dominican:13 eastern:4 two:1 christopher:2 columbus:6 first:5 arrive:3 present:6 day:6 december:2 voyage:2 found:4 colony:5 new:2 world:2 name:17 bear:1 many:1 amerindian:3 supposedly:2 originate:1 taíno:5 populate:1 gonzalo:1 fernández:1 de:13 oviedo:1 bartolomé:1 casas:2 document:1 call:2 haití:5 mountainous:3 land:2 inhabitant:2 peter:1 martyr:1 anghiera:4 add:1 another:1 quizqueia:2 mother:1 however:2 later:1 research:1 show:1 word:2 seem:1 derive:1 original:1 arawak:3 language:1 although:1 verify:1 use:4 subsequently:1 three:1 historian:1 evidence:1 suggest:1 probably:1 whole:4 region:4 northeastern:1 section:1 know:5 los:1 old:2 documented:1 map:3 create:1 andrés:1 morale:1 monte:1 mountain:4 las:1 apparently:1 basis:1 particular:1 say:1 one:3 part:3 give:2 term:3 refer:4 respective:2 country:4 haïti:1 adopt:1 official:1 haitian:1 revolutionary:1 jean:1 jacques:1 dessalines:1 ode:1 tribute:1 predecessor:1 quisqueya:1 take:1 possession:1 mean:1 detail:1 account:1 latin:1 translate:2 literary:1 work:2 english:3 french:4 short:1 period:1 time:1 frequently:1 used:1 speaking:1 regard:1 scientific:1 cartographic:1 colonial:1 saint:4 domingue:3 santo:3 domingo:3 sometimes:1 still:1 apply:1 factually:1 history:2 america:5 arrival:1 settlement:4 navidad:3 north:4 coast:3 return:1 subsequent:1 year:2 follow:1 disbandment:1 quickly:2 farther:1 isabela:2 become:3 permanent:2 european:3 early:2 inhabit:1 taínos:1 indigenous:1 people:1 taino:2 tolerant:1 crew:1 help:1 construct:1 môle:1 nicolas:1 colonization:2 begin:3 earnestly:1 following:1 men:1 spain:4 watch:1 bartolomeo:1 town:1 nueva:1 destroy:1 rebuild:1 opposite:1 side:1 ozama:1 river:1 population:4 rapidly:1 decimate:1 owe:1 combination:1 disease:1 harsh:1 treatment:1 overlord:1 import:1 african:1 slave:1 believe:1 capable:1 perform:1 physical:1 labor:1 native:1 lack:1 immunity:1 smallpox:3 entire:1 tribe:1 extinguish:1 age:1 texas:1 department:1 state:1 health:1 service:1 estimate:1 initial:1 drop:1 conquer:1 mainland:1 interest:1 wan:1 grow:1 slowly:1 century:1 small:1 neighbor:1 notably:1 tortuga:1 regular:1 stopping:1 point:2 caribbean:2 pirate:3 king:2 order:1 move:1 close:1 avoid:1 interaction:1 rather:1 secure:1 result:1 dutch:1 establish:1 base:1 abandon:1 officially:1 recognize:1 louis:1 xiv:1 treaty:1 ryswick:1 formally:1 cede:1 france:1 come:1 overshadow:1 wealth:1 nickname:1 pearl:1 rich:1 prosperous:1 indie:1 wealthy:1 cement:1 status:1 important:1 port:2 good:1 product:1 flow:1 europe:1 geography:3 area:1 km:1 northwest:2 across:3 windward:1 passage:2 southwest:2 jamaica:3 separate:2 channel:1 mona:1 bahamas:1 turk:1 caicos:1 collectively:1 great:2 make:1 continental:1 rock:1 distinct:2 less:1 mostly:1 young:1 volcanic:1 coral:1 five:1 major:1 range:9 central:7 cordillera:6 span:1 extend:5 south:1 northwestern:1 massif:4 du:5 nord:3 boast:1 high:4 peak:3 pico:1 duarte:1 meter:4 ft:2 sea:2 level:2 septentrional:2 run:2 parallel:3 northern:3 end:2 atlantic:2 ocean:1 samaná:1 peninsula:2 lowland:2 cibao:2 valley:2 coastal:1 plain:2 westward:2 plaine:3 low:1 oriental:1 sierra:3 neiba:2 rise:1 continue:1 montagnes:4 noires:3 chaîne:3 matheux:3 trou:2 eau:1 plateau:1 l:1 artibonite:1 des:2 open:1 toward:1 gulf:1 gonâve:1 southern:6 southwestern:1 bahoruco:1 selle:2 hotte:1 form:1 spine:1 pic:1 consequently:1 depression:2 cul:1 sac:1 capital:1 au:1 prince:1 home:1 chain:2 salt:1 lake:7 include:2 azuei:2 enriquillo:3 ecology:1 climate:1 generally:1 humid:1 tropical:1 four:1 ecoregions:1 hispaniolan:3 moist:1 forest:3 ecoregion:3 cover:1 approximately:2 especially:1 portion:2 predominantly:1 elevation:2 dry:1 rain:1 shadow:1 center:1 pine:1 wetland:1 flooded:1 grassland:1 savannas:1 surround:1 lagoon:2 rincón:1 caballero:1 caïman:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 divided:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 google:1 |@bigram la_española:2 puerto_rico:3 dominican_republic:13 christopher_columbus:2 bartolomé_de:1 la_casas:1 las_casas:1 jean_jacques:1 jacques_dessalines:1 saint_domingue:3 santo_domingo:3 la_navidad:3 immunity_smallpox:1 smallpox_smallpox:1 louis_xiv:1 treaty_ryswick:1 west_indie:1 mona_passage:1 turk_caicos:1 caicos_island:1 cordillera_central:3 massif_du:2 du_nord:3 pico_duarte:1 meter_ft:2 atlantic_ocean:1 samaná_peninsula:1 cibao_valley:2 coastal_plain:1 plaine_du:2 cordillera_oriental:1 de_neiba:2 montagnes_noires:3 l_artibonite:1 la_selle:2 du_cul:1 cul_de:1 lake_enriquillo:2 humid_tropical:1 forest_ecoregion:2 external_link:1 |
4,911 | Kalevala | Kalevala. The national epic of Finland John Martin Crawford, 1888 The Kalevala is a book and epic poem which Elias Lönnrot compiled from Finnish and Karelian folklore in the nineteenth century. It is held to be the national epic of Finland and is traditionally thought of as one of the most significant works of Finnish literature. Karelian citizens and other Balto-Finnic speakers also value the work. The Kalevala is credited with some of the inspiration for the national awakening that ultimately led to Finnish government's independence from that of Russia in 1917. The name can be interpreted as the "lands of Kaleva" (by the Finnish suffix -la/lä for place). The epic consists of 22,795 verses, divided into fifty cantos or "chapters" (Finnish runo). Compilation Elias Lönnrot (1802–84) was a scholar and a district health officer in Kainuu, an eastern region of Finland which in his time was an autonomous Grand Duchy. The son of a tailor in the village of Sammatti, he entered the University in Turku (the successor of which is the University of Helsinki) in 1822 and started his poem collection journeys in 1827. He made a total of eleven field trips during a period of fifteen years. The poetry The statue of Väinämöinen by Robert Stigell (1888) decorating the Vanha Ylioppilastalo (Old Studenthouse) built in 1870 in Helsinki, Finland. Finnish folk poetry was first written down in the 1670s, and collected by a few hobbyists during the next centuries. In the 17th century, folk poetry vanished from Western Finland, when the European rhyme poetry displaced it. In the 19th century, collecting became more extensive and systematic. Altogether, almost two million verses were collected during this time. Of these, about 1,250,000 have been published; some 500,000 remain unpublished in the archives of the Finnish Literature Society and the collections in Estonia and the Republic of Karelia and other parts of Russia. By the end of the nineteenth century this pastime and the cumulating orientation towards eastern lands had become a fashion called Karelianism. Lönnrot and his contemporaries (e.g. A.J. Sjögren and D.E.D. Europaeus) collected most of the poem variants (one poem might have up to two hundred variants) scattered across rural areas of Karelia and Ingria. They carefully noted the name of the poem singer, its age, the place of performance, and the date. During his fourth field trip, in September 1833, Lönnrot got the idea that the poems might represent a wider continuity when poem entities were performed to him along with comments in normal speech connecting them. The poetry was usually sung to tunes built on a pentachord, sometimes assisted by the kantele (a five-string zither of a kind). The rhythm could vary but the tunes were arranged in either two or four lines consisting of five beats each. Sometimes the poems were performed antiphonally, sometimes they were a part of a "singing-match" between knowers of the tradition. Despite the vast geographical distance and customary spheres separating the individual singers, the poetry was always sung in the same metre, the so-called archaic trochaic tetrameter (usually called "Kalevala meter"). Its other formal features are alliteration, parallel sentences, and also inversion into chiasmus. The chronology of this oral tradition is uncertain. The seemingly oldest themes (the origin of Earth) have been interpreted to have their roots in distant, unrecorded history while the seemingly latest events (e.g. the arrival of Christianity) seem to be from the Iron Age. According to Finnish folklorist, Kaarle Krohn, some 20 poems of the Kalevala could be of Ancient Estonian origin or at least deals with a motif of Estonian origin. Lauri Honko, Religion, Myth, and Folklore in the World's Epics: The Kalevala and Its Predecessors, Published by Walter de Gruyter, 1990, ISBN 3110122537 Of the dozens of poem singers who contributed to the Kalevala, significant ones are: Arhippa Perttunen (1769–1840) Matro Ontrei Malinen (1780–1855) Vaassila Kieleväinen Soava Trohkimainen Lönnrot’s contribution to Kalevala Lönnrot arranged the collected poems into a coherent whole. In this process he merged poem variants and characters together and left out verses that did not fit in or composed lines of his own in order to connect certain passages into a logical plot. He even invented a few names which could be used for a character throughout the whole story. It has been estimated that the Kalevala comprises: one third of word for word recordings by the collectors, 50% of material that Lönnrot adjusted slightly, 14% of verses he wrote himself based on poem variants and 3% of verses purely of his own invention. What can be thought to be Lönnrot's most significant contribution is the arrangement of the poems. In the preface of Old Kalevala (signed on February 28, 1835), Lönnrot highlights the possibility that somebody other than he could select different poems variants and that Kalevala would still be as genuine as it was on the day of its completion. As a matter of fact, Lönnrot added some 3,000 verses of poem variants in the end of the Old Kalevala for others to compare. Publishing The first version of Lönnrot's compilation, Kalewala, taikka Wanhoja Karjalan Runoja Suomen Kansan muinoisista ajoista (The Kalevala, or old Karelian poems about ancient times of the Finnish people), also known as simply the Old Kalevala, came out in two volumes in 1835–1836. The Old Kalevala consisted of 12,078 verses or thirty-two poems. Lönnrot continued to collect new material, which he integrated into a second edition, Kalevala (the Kalevala), published in 1849. This "new Kalevala" contains fifty poems, and is the standard text of the Kalevala read now. Translations Of the five full translations into English, the older translations by John Martin Crawford (1888), William Forsell Kirby (1907) and the more recent Eino Friberg translation (1989) follow the original rhythm (Kalevala meter) of the poems. The Canadian, Edward Taylor Fletcher, also translated selections of the Kalevala in 1869, reading them before the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec on 17 March of the same year. Fletcher, E. T. Esq. "The Kalevala, or National Epos of the Finns." Transactions of the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec NS 6 (1869): 45-68. The scholarly translation by Francis Peabody Magoun Jr. (1963) is an attempt to keep the literal meaning of the poem intact for study and preservation reasons and is written in prose; the appendices of this version also contain many notes on the history of the poem, comparisons between the original Old Kalevala and the currently most well-known version, and a detailed glossary of terms and names used in the poem. The most recent version by the poet Keith Bosley (1998) is written in a more fluid linguistic style. A notable partial translation of the German translation (by Franz Anton Schiefner published in 1852) was made by Prof. John Addison Porter in 1868 and published by Leypoldt & Holt. An article on this version is available here. So far the Kalevala has been translated into forty-nine languages. Parts of the book have been translated to sixty languages. Partial list of translations in chronological order by language (Based partially on the list made by Rauni Puranen): Language Year Translator Remark Swedish 1841 M. A. Castrén old Kalevala (original of 1835) 1864–1868 Karl Collan new Kalevala (original of 1849) 1884 Rafaël Hertzberg free translation 1944 Olaf Homén abridged Swedish edition 1948 Björn Collinder entire Kalevala 1999 Lars Huldén and Mats Huldén entire Kalevala French 1845 and 1867 Louis Léouzon le Duc 1927 Jean Louis Perret 1991 Gabriel Rebourcet entire Kalevala translated using old French vocabulary German 1852 Franz Anton Schiefner 1885-1886 H. Paul 1967 Lore Fromm, Hans Fromm 2004 Gisbert Jänicke English 1868 John Addison Porter Partial translation, via Franz Anton Schiefner's version 1869 Edward Taylor Fletcher Partial translation directly from Finnish (with a lengthy essay) 1888 John Martin Crawford Full translation, via Franz Anton Schiefner's version 1907 William Forsell Kirby Second full translation. Directly from Finnish. Imitates the Kalevala meter. 1963 Francis Peabody Magoun, Jr. Prose translation 1989 Eino Friberg Editing and introduction by George C. Schoolfield. Imitates the Kalevala meter selectively. 1998 Keith Bosley Uses a syllabic verse form to allow for accuracy and metrical variety. Hungarian 1871 Ferdinánd Barna translated from Schiefner's German version 1909 Béla Vikár 1971 Kálmán Nagy 1976 István Rácz 1987 Imre Szente Russian 1888 Leonid Petrovic Belsky Estonian 1891–1898 M. J. Eisen Czech 1894–1895 J. Holeček original rhythm; the first complete Slavic translation Ukrainian 1901 E. Timcenko Danish 1907 Ferdinand Ohrt selected parts 1994 Hilkka and Bent Søndergaard Italian 1909 Igino Cocchi 1910 Paolo Emilio Pavolini Lithuanian 1922 Adolfas Sabaliauskas Japanese 1937 Kakutan Morimoto 1976 Tamotsu Koizumi Hebrew 1954 Saul Tschernichovsky 1978 Sarah Tubia Yiddish 1954 Hersh Rosenfeld Romanian 1959 Iulian Vesper Chinese 1962 Shih Hêng 1985 Sun Yong Esperanto 1964 Johan Edvard Leppäkoski Turkish 1965 Hilmi Ziya Ülken 1982 Lale and Muammar Oğuz Norwegian 1967 Albert Lange Fliflet "i attdiktning ved" (nynorsk) Polish 1974 Józef Ozga-Michalski based on the work of Karol Laszecki Full text translation 1998 Jerzy Litwiniuk Full text translation Fulani 1983 Alpha A. Diallo Dutch 1985 Mies le Nobel Tulu 1985 Amrith Someshwar Latin 1986 Tuomo Pekkanen Vietnamese 1986 Cao Xuân Nghiêp 1991 Hoàng Thái Anh 1994 Búi Viêt Hòa's Hindi 1990 Vishnu Khare Arabic 1991 Sahban Ahmad Mroueh Slovene 1991 Jelka Ovaska Novak Partial translation 1997 Jelka Ovaska Novak Full text translation Swahili 1991 Jan Knappert Bulgarian 1992 Nino Nikolov Greek 1992 Maria Martzouk Faroese 1993 Jóhannes av Skarði Tamil 1994 R. Sivalingam (Uthayanan) Full translation. Introduction by Asko Parpola. Available online. Catalan 1997 Ramon Garriga i Marquès, Pirkko-Merja Lounavaara Full translation directly from Finnish. In verse.Portuguese 2007 Orlando Moreira Full text in verse. (Partial version available online) The Story Synopses "Aino-Taru" (The Aino Story) by Akseli Gallen-Kallela 1891 Cantos 1–10: The first Väinämöinen cycle: origin of Earth; the first man; Väinämöinen and Joukahainen’s encounter; Joukahainen promises his sister’s hand to Väinämöinen in exchange for his life; Aino (Joukahainen’s sister) walks into the sea; Joukahainen’s revenge; the wounded Väinämöinen floats into Pohjola (Northland); Väinämöinen encounters the Maid of the North and promises the Mistress of the North the Sampo in exchange for her daughter; Väinämöinen tricks the smith Ilmarinen into Pohjola where he forges the Sampo. Cantos 11–15: The first Lemminkäinen cycle: Lemminkäinen steals the maid Kyllikki of the Island; they make a vow; she forgets her vow; Lemminkäinen travels to Pohjola to propose to the Maid of the North; deeds Lemminkäinen must accomplish: ski for the Demon’s elk, bridle the Demon’s horse and shoot the Swan of Tuonela (the land of the dead); a herdsman kills Lemminkäinen and throws him into the River of Tuonela; Lemminkäinen’s mother awakens him into life. Cantos 16–18: The second Väinämöinen cycle: Väinämöinen' travels to Tuonela and to meet Antero Vipunen in order to get spells for boat building and sails to Pohjola; Ilmarinen and Väinämöinen compete for the hand of the Maid of the North. Cantos 19–25: Ilmarinen's wedding: Ilmarinen accomplishes the needed deeds with the help of the Maid: ploughing the viper-field, quelling of the wolves of Tuonela and catching the pike out of the River of Tuonela; the wedding of Ilmarinen and the Maid of the North. The story of the brewing of the ale. Cantos 26–30: The second Lemminkäinen cycle: Lemminkäinen is resentful for not having been invited to the wedding; he travels to Pohjola and wins the duel with the Master of Northland; an army is conjured to get back at Lemminkäinen; at his mother’s advice he flees to the Island of Refuge; returning home he sees that his house is burned down; he goes to Pohjola with his companion Tiera to get revenge but the Mistress of the North freezes the seas and Lemminkäinen has to return home. "Sammon puolustus" (The defence of the Sampo) by Akseli Gallen-Kallela 1895 Cantos 31–36: The Kullervo cycle: Untamo kills his brother Kalervo’s people except for the wife who begets Kullervo; Untamo gives Kullervo several tasks but he sabotages them all; Kullervo is sold as a slave to Ilmarinen; after being tormented by Ilmarinen’s wife, he exacts revenge and the wife gets killed; Kullervo runs away and finds his family unharmed near Lapland; Kullervo seduces a maiden and later finds out she is his sister; Kullervo destroys Untamola (the realm of Untamo) and upon returning home finds every one killed; Kullervo kills himself. Cantos 37–38: The second Ilmarinen cycle: Ilmarinen forges himself a wife out of gold and silver but finds her to be cold and discards her; Ilmarinen then robs the sister of the Maid of the North from Pohjola; she insults him so he discards her; Ilmarinen tells Väinämöinen of the carefree life of Pohjola because of the Sampo. Cantos 39–44: The plunder of the Sampo (third Väinämöinen cycle): Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen and Lemminkäinen sail to get the Sampo; they kill a great pike out of whose jaw bone the first kantele is made; Väinämöinen lulls everyone in the hall of Pohjola to sleep with his singing and the Sampo is stolen; the Mistress of the Northland conjures a great army, turns herself into an eagle and fights for the Sampo; the Sampo falls into the sea. Cantos 45–49: Louhi's revenge on Kalevala: The Mistress of the North sends the people of Kaleva diseases and a bear to kill their cattle; she hides the sun and the moon and steals fire from Kaleva; Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen restore fire and Väinämöinen forces the Mistress to return the Sun and the Moon to the skies. Canto 50: The Marjatta cycle: Marjatta gets impregnated from a berry she ate and begets a son, an allusion to Mary and Jesus Christ; Väinämöinen orders the killing of the boy; the boy starts to speak and reproaches Väinämöinen for ill judgement; he is then baptised king of Karelia; Väinämöinen sails away. Characters The main character of the Kalevala is Väinämöinen, a shamanistic hero with the magical power of songs and music. He is born of the primeval Maiden of the Air and contributes to the origin of Earth. Many of his travels resemble shamanistic journeys, most notably the one where he visits the belly of a ground-giant, Antero Vipunen, to find the words of boat generation. He plays the kantele, a Finnish stringed instrument that resembles and is played like a zither. One of his kanteles is made of the jaw-bone of a giant pike. His search for a wife is a central element in many stories; he never finds one, though. For example one of the brides, Joukahainen's sister Aino, drowns herself instead of marrying him. He is also part of the group who steals the Sampo, a magical mill, from the people of Pohjola. Seppo Ilmarinen, a heroic artificer-smith (comparable to the Germanic Weyland and perhaps the Greek Daedalus) who crafted the sky dome, the Sampo and more. Ilmarinen is also one of the group who steal the Sampo. Louhi the Hag of the North, is a shamanistic matriarch of a people rivalling those of Kalevala who at one stage pulls the sun and the moon from the sky and steals the fire away from the people of Kalevala. She rules Pohjola alone after Lemminkäinen has killed her husband, Master of Pohjola. She promises her daughter to Ilmarinen in exchange for him building a Sampo. Väinämöinen's young rival Joukahainen promises his sister Aino to Väinämöinen when he loses a singing contest. When Joukahainen attempts to gain his revenge on Väinämöinen by killing him with a crossbow, he fails, but his actions lead to Väinämöinen promising to build a Sampo in return for Louhi rescuing him. Vengeful, self-destructive Kullervo who is born as a slave, sold to Ilmarinen and given work by Ilmarinen's wife whom he later kills. Kullervo is a misguided and troubled youth often at odds with himself and his situation. He often goes into berserk rage and in the end commits suicide. Handsome but arrogant Lemminkäinen, whose mother must rescue him from the river of Death which runs through Tuonela, and bring him to life, echoing the myth of Osiris. Lemminkäinen is the third member of the group which steals the Sampo from Pohjola. Some of the chapters describe ancient origin-myths, a long wedding ceremony, and the right words for magical spells of healing and craftsmanship. The last chapter, Son of Marjatta, is an allegory of Christianization of Finland. Maid Marjatta becomes pregnant after eating a lingonberry (allusion of Maria to marja (Finnish for berry) and gives birth to a son. Since the son has been born out of wedlock, Väinämöinen sentences him to be killed. The infant boy then begins to speak and demands Ukko as his judge. After the infant has witnessed sad details of Väinämöinen's own past and of Väinämöinen's own culpability, Ukko declares the young infant boy as the King of Karelia. In the end Väinämöinen exits the material world, but leaves his kantele (symbol for poetry and literary arts) as heirloom for Finns. List of characters People and things in the Kalevala GodsUkko (Jumala) | Tapio (Kuippana) | Ahto | Ilmatar (Luonnotar) | Tuoni (Mana, Kalma) Surma | Kuutar | Melatar | Suonetar | Suvetar | Syöjätär | Loviatar | Tammatar | Terhenetar | Tuometar | Manalatar | Päivätär | Tuonetar | Vammatar | Vellamo | Untamo (Unto) HeroesVäinämöinen (Väinö, Osmoinen, Suvantolainen, Uvantolainen) | Lemminkäinen (Ahti, Kauko, Kaukomieli) | Ilmarinen (Ilmari) | Osmotar (Kalevatar) | Kullervo | VillainsHiisi (Juutas, Keitolainen, Lempo, Pahalainen) | Louhi (Ilpotar) | Joukahainen (Jouko) | Untamo | OthersAino | Kyllikki (Kylli) | Kauppi (Lyylikki, Vuojalainen) | Mielikki (Mimerkki, Tellervo) | Nyyrikki | Tiera | Antero Vipunen | Ainikki | Annikki | Iku-Turso (Tursas) | Kalervo | Kiputyttö | Tiera (Kuura) | Lokka | Marjatta | Märkähattu | Pakkanen | Tuuri | Sampsa Pellervoinen | Piltti | Suovakko | PlacesKalevala (Väinölä, Suvantola) | Tuonela (Manala, Ulappala) | Suomi | Pohjola (Pimentola, Sariola) | Tapiola | Ahtola | Hiitola | Horna | Ilma | Karjala | Metsola | Osmo | Saari | Savo | Untamola (Untola) | Viro | ThingsKantele | Musti | Kemi | Otava | Pisa | Turja | Sampo | Sima | Vuoksi | Otso | Contents Birth of Väinämöinen. Väinämöinen's Sowing. Väinämöinen and Joukahainen. The Fate of Aino. Väinämöinen's Fishing. Joukahainen's Crossbow. Väinämöinen Meets Louhi. Väinämöinen's Wound. Origin of Iron. Ilmarinen Forges the Sampo. Lemminkäinen and Kyllikki. Kyllikki's Broken Vow. The Elk of Hiisi. Lemminkäinen's trials and death. Lemminkäinen's Restoration. Väinämöinen's Boat-building. Väinämöinen and Antero Vipunen. Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen, Rival Suitors. Ilmarinen's trials and betrothal. The Brewing of Beer. Ilmarinen's Wedding-feast. The Tormenting of the Bride. Osmotar Advises the Bride. The departure of the bride and bridegroom. The homecoming of the bride and bridegroom. Lemminkäinen's journey to Pohjola. The duel at Pohjola. Lemminkäinen's mother. The Isle of Refuge. Lemminkäinen and Tiera. Untamo and Kullervo. Kullervo As A Shepherd. The Death of Ilmarinen's Wife. Kullervo finds his family. Kullervo finds his sister. Kullervo's Victory and Death. Ilmarinen's Bride of Gold. Ilmarinen's Fruitless Wooing. The Expedition Against Pohjola. The Pike and The Kantele. Väinämöinen's Music. The Recovery of the Sampo. The Sampo Lost In the Sea. The Birth of the Second Harp. Louhi's Pestilence on Kalevala. Otso, the Bear. The Robbery of the Sun, Moon and Fire. Capture of the Fire-fish. Restoration of the Sun and Moon. Marjatta. Influence of the Kalevala As a major part of Finnish culture and history the influence of the Kalevala is widespread in Finland from music to fine arts. The Kalevala's influence has also been felt in other cultures around the world although to a lesser degree. The ill-fated Kullervo has been a source of inspiration for several authors. Celebration The Kalevala Day is celebrated in Finland on the 28th of February, which is how Elias Lönnrot dated his first version of the Kalevala in 1835. Several of the names in Kalevala are also celebrated as Finnish name days, although this has no direct relationship with the Kalevala itself. Art-work Several artists have been influenced by the Kalevala, most notably Akseli Gallen-Kallela who has painted many pieces relating to the Kalevala. One of the earliest artists to depict a scene from the Kalevala is Robert Wilhelm Ekman. One drawing from 1886 depicts Väinämöinen playing his kantele. Aarno Karimo was a Finnish artist who illustrated the beautiful Kuva Kalevala (Published by Pellervo-Seura in 1953). He died before completing it. Hugo Otava finished it using original sketches as a guide. In 1989 the fourth full translation of Kalevala into English was published, richly illustrated by Björn Landström. Literature The Kalevala has not only been translated into over forty-five forms of speech but it has also been retold in many speeches and adapted to different situation. The most famous example of the Kalevala's influence upon another author is most likely with J.R.R. Tolkien. He claimed the Kalevala as one of his sources for the writings which became the Silmarillion. For example, the story of Kullervo has been extensively used in the Silmarillion (including the sword that speaks when the anti-hero uses it for a suicide) as the basis of Túrin Turambar in Narn i Chîn Húrin. Echoes of the Kalevala's characters, Väinämöinen in particular, can also be found in the wizards of The Lord of the Rings. The German translation of the epic was an inspiration for Longfellow's 1855 poem, The Song of Hiawatha, which is written in the same metre (trochaic tetrameter), and also inspired the British science fiction writer Ian Watson to write the Books of Mana duology: Lucky's Harvest and The Fallen Moon. It is often claimed that the Estonian national epic Kalevipoeg (compiled and written by Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, first published 1853) was somewhat inspired by the Kalevala. Mainly because both Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen are mentioned in the poem and that the overall story of the Kalevipoeg (Kalev's son) bears some major similarities with the Kullervo story. Another famous book is the children's book Koirien Kalevala (The Canine Kalevala) written and illustrated by Mauri Kunnas. (Translated into English by Tim Steffa). This book inspired the American (US) cartoonist Keno Don Rosa to draw a Donald Duck (both of whom enjoy a widespread popularity in Finland) story based on the Kalevala, called The Quest for Kalevala. The Neustadt Prize winning poet and playwright Paavo Haavikko who is regarded as one of Finland's finest writers, is also known to have taken a lot of influence from the Kalevala. Emil Petaja (1915 - 2000) - an American science fiction and fantasy author of Finnish descent - is best known for his series inspired by the Kalevala. In each of the books which comprise the "Otava Series" - Saga of Lost Earth's (Ace Books, 1966), Star Mill (Ace Books, 1966), The Stolen Sun (Ace Books, 1967), and Tramontane (Ace Books, 1967), an Earth descendant of one of the four main heroes of the Kalevala is reborn into an avatar's role in order to re-enact adventures on Otava, the planet of origin of the Kalevala pantheon. Petaja's Otava series brought him readers from around the world Steinberg, David. "Sci-fi writer's fame reached to Siberia." San Francisco Examiner, December 20, 1997. , while his mythological approach to science fiction was discussed in scholarly papers. Kailo, Kaarina. "Spanning the Iron and Space Ages: Emil Petaja's Kalevala-based fantasy tales". Kanadan Suomalainen, Toronto, Canada: Spring, 1985. A fifth book in the cycle, Return to Otava (1970), is unpublished. Another Petaja novel unconnected with the series but related to the Kalevala is The Time Twister (Dell, 1968). Kullervo is one the major influences on British fantasy author Michael Moorcock's sword and sorcery anti-hero, Elric of Melniboné. Parts of the Kalevala are recited by Colonel Vereshchagin in Robert Frezza's A Small Colonial War and by Michael Havel in S.M. Stirling's Dies the Fire. Music Music is probably the area which has the richest influence from the Kalevala, which is fitting because of the nature that the original folk singers would perform the poems. Because of the folk music history of the Kalevala there have been a few folk music records and anthologies based upon or claiming inspiration from the Kalevala. The most famous music inspired by the Kalevala is probably that of the classical composer Jean Sibelius. Twelve of Sibelius' best known works are based upon and influenced by the Kalevala, including his Kullervo, a symphony for soprano, baritone, chorus and orchestra that he composed in 1892. There are also three contemporary operas based on the Kalevala (Sammon ryöstö, Marjatta and Thomas) composed by Einojuhani Rautavaara. Classical music is however not the only area of influence. There was a Finnish progressive rock band called Kalevala in the seventies. They made three albums, which are not currently available as CDs, however an anthology set was published in 2004. The Finnish metal band Amorphis have based several concept albums on the Kalevala using the original translation as lyrics. The band are well known for their use of the Kalevala as a source for their lyrics. Their albums specifically inspired by the Kalevala are Tales from the Thousand Lakes, Elegy, Eclipse and Silent Waters. Also, Finnish Folk metal band Ensiferum have based several songs such as "Old Man" and "Little Dreamer" on the Kalevala as well. On Ensiferum's 2006 EP, Dragonheads, the third track, entitled "Kalevala Melody" is an instrumental version of "Vaka vanha Väinämöinen". The Finnish folk metal band Turisas used a section of runo 9 "The Origin of Iron" nearly verbatim for the lyrics of their song "Cursed Be Iron" (on The Varangian Way). Also, Finnish female-fronted metal band Amberian Dawn used Kalevala in their album "River Of Tuoni". In 2003, the Finnish progressive rock quarterly Colossus and French Musea Records convinced 30 progressive rock groups from all over the world to compose musical pieces based on assigned parts of the Kalevala. The result was a three-disc, multilingual, four hour epic of the same name, and can be regarded as one of the most ambitious musical projects ever. See: Kalevala (project) Film In 1959 a joint Finnish/Soviet production entitled Sampo (aka The Day the Earth Froze) was released, inspired by the story of the Sampo from the Kalevala. The martial arts film Jadesoturi (aka Jade Warrior), released in Finland on October 13, 2006, is based upon the Kalevala and set in Finland and China. Historic interpretations of Kalevala Several interpretations for the themes in Kalevala have been put forward. Some parts of the epic have been perceived as ancient conflicts between Finnics and Samis. In this context, the country of Kalevala could be understood as Southern Finland and Pohjola as Lapland. However, the place names in Kalevala seem to transfer the Kalevala further south, which has been interpreted as reflecting the Finnic settlement expansion from the South that came to push the Samis further to the north. Some scholars locate the lands of Kalevala to East Karelia, where most of the Kalevala stories were written down. In 1961 a small town of Uhtua in the Soviet Republic of Karelia was renamed "Kalevala," perhaps to promote that theory. Proponents of a Southern Kalevala argue that the name Kaleva probably was first recorded in an atlas of al Idrisi in the year 1154, where a town of qlwny (or tlwny) is recorded. This is probably present-day Tallinn, the capital of Estonia, known in old East Slavic sources as Kolyvan. The Finnish word Kalevan ("of Kaleva") has almost the same meaning as Kalevala. The Saari (literally "the Island") might be the island of Saaremaa in Estonia, while the people of Väinölä might have some resemblance with the Livonian tribe of Veinalensis in present-day Latvia, mentioned in the 13th century chronicle connected to Henry of Livonia. Ancient Finns, Estonians and Livonians spoke similar Finnic dialects and are thought to share common ancestry. However, Matti Kuusi and Pertti Anttonen state in their book "Kalevala Lipas" (Finnish Literary Society, 1985) that such terms as "the people of Kalevala" or "the tribe of Kalevala" are made up out of whole cloth by Elias Lönnrot. Moreover, they contend that the word "Kalevala" is very rare in traditional poetry and that by emphasizing dualism (Kalevala vs. Pohjola) Elias Lönnrot created the required tension that made the Kalevala dramatically successful and thus fit for a national epic. Lastly, in common with loan words from Indo-European — in particular, the North Germanic languages — the Sampo cycle is considered to be a borrowing from Scandinavian cultures to the west. See also Finnish mythology Pohjola Kalevipoeg References Sample Articles and Papers Kalevala at Virtual Finland 16th edition of the Folklore Fellows Network has a few articles about the Kalevala Juminkeko, information centre for Kalevala and Karelian culture The Kalevala metre Songlands of the Kalevala Article at Virtual Finland Article in Finnish Article from the New Englander and Yale review about the partial translation by Prof. John Addison Porter Books Translations The Kalevala: The Epic Poem of Finland, translations by John Martin Crawford, ISBN 0-7661-8938-4 The Kalevala: Or the Land of Heroes, translations by William Forsell Kirby, ISBN 1-85810-198-0 The Kalevala: Or Poems of the Kaleva District, translations by Francis Peabody Magoun, ISBN 0-674-50010-5 The Kalevala: Epic of the Finnish People, translations by Eino Friberg, Björn Landström, George C. Schoolfield, ISBN 951-1-10137-4 The Kalevala: Or the Land of Heroes, translations by Keith Bosley, foreword by Albert B. Lord (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), ISBN 0-19-283570-X Retellings The Canine Kalevala Tim Steffa (Translator), Mauri Kunnas, ISBN 951-1-12442-0 The Kalevala Graphic Novel, a complete comic book version of the 50 chapters of the Kalevala by Finnish artist Kristian Huitula, translation by Eino Friberg, ISBN 952-99022-1-2 The Magic Storysinger: A Tale from the Finnish Epic Kalevala, M. E. A. McNeil, a retelling in a style friendly to children, ISBN 0-88045-128-9 The Old Kalevala and Certain Antecedents, Francis Peabody Magoun, Jr, A translation of the original Old Kalevala by Elias Lönnrot, ISBN 0-674-63235-4 The Quest for Kalevala, Uncle Scrooge #334, by Keno Don Rosa, A story in tribute to the Kalevala featuring Scrooge McDuck and some characters from Kalevala, ISBN 0-911903-55-0 The Wizard of the North : A Tale From the Land of Heroes By Parker Hoysted Fillmore, (1923) Epic of the North by John Ilmari Kolehmainen (1973) Analysis The Kalevala and the World's Traditional Epics, edited by Lauri Honko (2002) ISBN 9517464223 A History of Finland's Literature, ed. by George C. Schoolfield (1998) ISBN 0803241895 Finland: a cultural encyclopedia, ed. by Olli Alho (1997) ISBN 9517178859 Finland: A Cultural Outline by Veikko Kallio (1994) ISBN 9510194212 The Uses of Tradition : a Comparative Enquiry Into the Nature, Uses and Functions of Oral Poetry in the Balkans, the Baltic and Africa, ed. by Michael Branch and Celia Hawkesworth (1994) ISBN 0903425386 Religion, Myth, and Folklore in the World's Epics, ed. by Lauri Honko (1990) ISBN 0899256252 Kalevala Mythology by Juha Y. Pentikäinen (1999) ISBN 0253336619 The Key to the Kalevala, by Pekka Ervast, John Major Jenkins, Tapio Joensuu, ISBN 1-57733-021-8 Studies in Finnish Folklore by Felix J. Oinas (1985) ISBN 9517173156 Finnish Folk Poetry, ed. by Matti Kuusi et al. (1977) ISBN 9517170874 Folklore and Nationalism in Modern Finland by William A. Wilson (1976) ISBN 0253323274 Väinämöinen, Eternal Sage by Martti Henrikki Haavio (1952) Sammon Arvoitus (The Riddle of the Sampo) by E.N. Setälä (1932) Women of the Kalevala by Mary Caraker (1997) ISBN 0878391061 Movies The Day the Earth Froze (1959). (Finnish title Sampo). Rauta-Aika (1982), a mini series produced by YLE. Jade Warrior (2006). (Finnish title Jadesoturi.) Notes External links Online versions of the Kalevala Illustrated English Kalevala The Quest for Kalevala, A Scrooge McDuck comic drawn and written by Keno Don Rosa A free online edition in Finnish John Martin Crawford's English translation (1888). Hosted at Project Gutenberg John Martin Crawford's English translation (1888). Hosted at Sacred Texts William Forsell Kirby's English translation (Volume 1 of 2) (1907). Hosted at Project Gutenberg The Kalevala's Contents Online versions of the Kalevala in other languages The Kalevala in Chinese The Kalevala in Hungarian The Kalevala in Italian The Kalevala in Portuguese The Kalevala in Russian The Kalevala in Tamil script The Kalevala version in Spanish with photographs of Playmobil | Kalevala |@lemmatized kalevala:133 national:6 epic:16 finland:20 john:11 martin:6 crawford:6 book:15 poem:27 elias:4 lönnrot:16 compile:2 finnish:37 karelian:4 folklore:6 nineteenth:2 century:6 hold:1 traditionally:1 think:3 one:18 significant:3 work:6 literature:4 citizen:1 balto:1 finnic:4 speaker:1 also:17 value:1 credit:1 inspiration:4 awakening:1 ultimately:1 lead:2 government:1 independence:1 russia:2 name:9 interpret:3 land:7 kaleva:6 suffix:1 la:1 lä:1 place:3 consist:3 verse:10 divide:1 fifty:2 canto:11 chapter:4 runo:2 compilation:2 elia:2 scholar:2 district:2 health:1 officer:1 kainuu:1 eastern:2 region:1 time:4 autonomous:1 grand:1 duchy:1 son:6 tailor:1 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4,912 | Macedonia_(region) | Topographical map of Macedonia Macedonia is a geographical and historical region of the Balkan peninsula in southeastern Europe. Its boundaries have changed considerably over time, but the region is generally held to include parts of five Balkan countries: Greece, the Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria, Albania and Serbia. It covers approximately 67,000 square kilometers (km2) and has a population of 4.76 million. This arbitrary territory corresponds to the basins of (from west to east) the Aliákmon, Vardar/Axios, Struma/Strymon and Mesta/Nestos rivers (of which the Axios/Vardar drains by far the largest area) and the plains around Thessaloniki and Serres. According to geographer H.R. Wilkinson, "it defies definition". Its current 'geographical' limits are nonhomogeneous - either ethnically or geographically - and they were established only in 1899, by the Greek cartographer C. Nicolaides for political purposes. His map took hold a few years later Wilkinson, H.R. 1951. Maps and Politics (a review of the ethnographic cartography of Macedonia), p120. Liverpool University Press The map area was adopted by Bulgarian geographers V. Kancev, in 1900 and D.M.Brancoff in 1905. (Wilkinson 1951:130,136). The perception of the 'division' of a single area emerged as a historical hindsight. Boundaries and definitions The themata were administrative units of the medieval Byzantine Empire. Here thema Macedonia in 1045 CE is in present-day Bulgaria, while the thema Bulgaria includes present day Western Bulgaria, Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo and parts of Serbia. Borders of Macedonia according to different authors (1843–1927) The Roman province of Macedonia consisted of what is today Northern and Central Greece, the geographical area of the present-day Republic of Macedonia and southeast Albania. Simply put, it covered a much larger area than ancient Macedon. In late Roman times, the provincial boundaries were reorganised to form the Diocese of Macedonia, consisting of most of modern mainland Greece plus Crete, southern Albania and parts of modern-day Bulgaria and the Republic of Macedonia. In the Byzantine Empire a province under the name of Macedonia was carved out of the original Thema of Thrace, which was well east of the Struma River. This thema variously included parts of Eastern Rumelia and western Thrace and gave its name to the Macedonian dynasty. Hence, Byzantine documents of this era that mention Macedonia are most probably referring to the Macedonian thema. The region of Macedonia, on the other hand, which was ruled by the First Bulgarian Empire throughout the 9th and the 10th century, was incorporated into the Byzantine Empire in 1018 as the Thema of Bulgaria. With the gradual conquest of southeastern Europe by the Ottomans in the late 14th century, the name of Macedonia disappeared for good as an administrative designation for several centuries and was rarely displayed on maps. The name was again revived to mean a distinct geographical region with roughly the same borders as today by European cartographers in the 20th century. Demographics During medieval and modern times, Macedonia was known as a Balkan region inhabited by ethnic Greeks, Albanians, Vlachs, Serbs, Bulgarians, Jews, and Turks. “Macedonia Redux”, Eugene N. Borza, The Eye Expanded: Life and the Arts in Greco-Roman Antiquity . Today as a frontier region where several very different cultures meet, Macedonia has an extremely diverse demographic profile. Distribution of races in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor in 1910, Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, New York Distribution of races in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor in 1918, National Geographic 1926 League of Nations map showing settlements of the Christian refugees from Asia. Over half were settled in Greek Macedonia Macedonian Greeks, ethnic Greeks that self-identify as "Macedonians" (Greek: Μακεδόνες, Makedónes) regionally, form the majority of the region's population (~51%). They number approximately 2,500,000 and live almost entirely in Greek Macedonia. The Greek Macedonian population is mixed, with indigenous and a large influx of Greek refugees descending from Asia Minor, Pontic Greeks, and East Thracian Greeks in the early 20th century. This is due to the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, during which over 1.2 million Christian refugees from Turkey were settled in Greece, 638,000 of whom were settled in Macedonia. Educational Institute of Greece (in Greek) . Smaller Greek minorities exist in Bulgaria and the Republic of Macedonia, although their numbers are difficult to ascertain. In official census results, only 86 persons declared themselves Greeks in Bulgarian Macedonia (Blagoevgrad Province) in 2001, out of a total of 3,408 in all Bulgaria; while 442 described themselves as Greeks in the 2002 census in the Republic of Macedonia. Ethnic Macedonians, self-identifying as "Macedonians" (Macedonian: Македонци, Makedonci) in an ethnic and not only regional sense, are the second largest ethnic group in the region. Because of their primarily Slavic origin they are also known as "Macedonian Slavs". They form the majority of the population in the Republic of Macedonia where according to the 2002 census, approximately 1,300,000 people declared themselves as Macedonians. According to the latest Bulgarian census held in 2001, there are 3,117 people declaring as ethnic Macedonians in the Blagoevgrad Province of Bulgaria (Pirin Macedonia). The official number of ethnic Macedonians in Bulgaria is 5,071. A relativelly small number of ethnic Macedonians exists among the Slavic-speakers of Greek Macedonia that is difficult to assert. There hasn't been a census in Greece on the question of mother tongue since 1951 when the census recorded 41,017 Slavic-speakers mostly in the West Macedonia periphery of Greece. The linguistic classification of the Slavic dialects spoken by these people can be either Bulgarian or Macedonian, although the people themselves call their language "Slavic". Most of these people declare themselves as ethnic Greeks (Slavophone Greeks), although there are small groups espousing ethnic Macedonian "Northwestern Greece is home to an indeterminate number of citizens who speak a Slavic dialect at home, particularly in Florina province. Estimates ranged widely, from under 10,000 to 50,000. A small number identified themselves as belonging to a distinct ethnic group and asserted their right to "Macedonian" minority status" and Bulgarian national identities. In Albania, approximately 5,000 Albanian citizens declared themselves Macedonians in the 1989 Albanian census. Macedonian Bulgarians, ethnic Bulgarians that self-identify as "Macedonians" (Bulgarian: Mакедонци, Makedonski) regionally, represent the bulk of the population of Bulgarian Macedonia (also known as "Pirin Macedonia"). They number approximately 370,000 in the Blagoevgrad Province where they are mainly situated. There are small Bulgarian-identifying groups in Albania, Greece and the Republic of Macedonia with an uncertain size. In the Republic of Macedonia, 1,417 people claimed a Bulgarian ethnic identity in the 2002 census. Paradoxically, during the last few years there has been around 60,000 Macedonians applying for Bulgarian citizenship and some 10,000 ethnic Macedonians have already obtained Bulgarian passports. Bulgaria's admission to the European Union is evidently a powerful motivation factor. In order to obtain it they must sign a statement proving they are Bulgarian by origin, effectively not recognising their rights as a minority http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/12/13/news/macedonia.php http://www.vmacedonianews.com/2006/07/macedonias-former-pm-ljubco.html http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/23/world/europe/23bulgaria.html?_r=1&oref=slogin . http://www.bnr.bg/RadioBulgaria/Emission_English/News/B-11+1712.htm http://www.sofiaecho.com/article/60-000-macedonians-wait-for-bulgarian-citizenship---ambassador/id_26703/catid_66 Albanians are also a major ethnic group in the region. Ethnic Albanians make up the majority in certain northern and western parts of the Republic of Macedonia, and account for 25.2% of the total population of the Republic of Macedonia, according to the last census held in 2002. Smaller numbers of Turks, Bosniaks, Roma, Serbs, Vlachs (Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians), Egyptians, Armenians and Jews (Sephardim and Romaniotes) are also be found in Macedonia. Religion Most of the inhabitants of the regions are Christians of the Eastern Orthodox rite (principally the Greek Orthodox, the Bulgarian Orthodox, and the Serbian Orthodox Churches, as well as the unrecognized Macedonian Orthodox Church). There is, however, a substantial Muslim minority - principally among the Albanians, Pomaks (Bulgarian Muslims), Torbeshi (Macedonian Muslims), Bosniaks, and Turks. History Prehistoric Macedonia Macedonia lies at the crossroads of human development between the Aegean and the Balkans and the earliest signs of human habitation date back to the palaeolithic period. At different periods strong links can be seen in different directions. K.A. Wardle, The Prehistory of Northern Greece: A geographical perspective, Aphieroma ston N.G.L. Hammond, 509-541 1997 With the introduction of farming at the beginning of the Neolithic period c. 7000 BC, human settlement rapidly spread through the region from the mountains of the Pindus to the coastal strip along the northern Aegean shore. Early Neolithic Nea Nikomedeia is one of the earliest known settlements R.J. Rodden and K.A. Wardle, Nea Nikomedia: The Excavation of an Early Neolithic Village in Northern Greece 1961-1964, Vol I, The Excavation and the Ceramic Assemblage, British School at Athens Supplementary Volume 25, 1996 The houses at Nea Nikomedeia were constructed - in the same way as most structures throughout the Neolithic in northern Greece - of wattle and daub on a timber frame. The cultural assemblage includes well-made pottery in simple shapes with occasional decoration in white on a red background, clay female figurines of the 'rod-headed' type known from Thessaly to the Danube Valley, stone axes and adzes, chert blades, and ornaments of stone including curious 'nose plugs' of uncertain function. The assemblage of objects associated differs from one house to the next, suggesting some degree of craft specialisation had already been established from the beginning of the site's history. The farming economy was based on the cultivation of cereal crops such as wheat and barley and pulses and on the herding of sheep and goats, with some cattle and pigs. Hunting played a relatively minor role in the economy. This Early Neolithic settlement was occupied for over a thousand years from c 7000 to c 5500 BC. Middle Neolithic The Middle Neolithic period (c 5500 to 4500 BC) is at present best represented at Servia in the Haliacmon Valley in western Macedonia where the typical red on cream pottery in the Sesklo style emphasises the settlement's southern orientation. Pottery of this date has been found at a number of sites in Central and Eastern Macedonia but so far none has been extensively excavated. Late Neolithic The Late Neolithic period (c 4500 to 3500 BC) is well represented by both excavated and unexcavated sites throughout the region (though it should be noted that in Eastern Macedonia levels of this period are still called Middle Neolithic according to the terminology used in the Balkans which which there are many cultural links). Rapid changes in pottery styles and the discovery of fragments of pottery showing trade with quite distant regions, indicate that society, economy and technology were all changing rapidly. Amongst the most important of these changes were the start of copper working, convincingly demonstrated by Renfrew to have been learnt from the cultural groups of Bulgaria and Roumania to the North. A.C. Renfrew, The autonomy of the south-east European Copper Age, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 35 1969: 12-47. Principal excavated settlements of this period include Makryialos Stella G. Souvatzi, A Social Archaeology of Households in Neolithic Greece: An Anthropological Approach Series: Cambridge Studies in Archaeology, 2008, 166-178 and Paliambela near the western shore of the Thermaic gulf, Thermi to the south of Thessaloniki and Sitagroi Colin Renfrew, Marija Gimbutas and Ernestine S. Elster 1986. Excavations at Sitagroi, a prehistoric village in northeast Greece. Vol. 1. Los Angeles : Institute of Archaeology, University of California, 1986, Monumenta archaeologica 13; E. Elster and C. Renfrew, Prehistoric Sitagroi: Excavations in Northeast Greece, 1968-1970, vol. 2: The Final Report, Monumenta Archaeologica 20 (Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA, 2003), ISBN 931745-03-X and Dikili Tas in the Drama plain. Some of these sites were densly occupied and formed large mounds (known to the local inhabitants of the region today as 'toumbas'. Others were much less densely occupied and spread for as much as a kilometer (Makryialos). Both types are found at the same time in the same districts and it is presumed that differences in social organisiation are reflected by these differences in settlement organisation. Some communities were clearly concerned to preotect themselves with different kinds of defensive arrangements - ditches at Makryialos and concentric walls at Paliambela. The best preserved buildings were discovered at Dikili Tas, where long timber-framed structures had been organised in rows and some had been decorated with bulls' skulls fastened to the outside of the walls and plastered over with clay. Remarkable evidence for cult activity has been found at Promachonas-Topolnica which straddles the Greek Bulgarian border to the north of Serres. Here a deep pit appeared to have been roofed to make a subterranean room and in it were successive layers of debris including large numbers of figurines, bulls skulls and pottery, including several rare and unusual shapes. Stella G. Souvatzi, A Social Archaeology of Households in Neolithic Greece: An Anthropological Approach Series: Cambridge Studies in Archaeology, 2008, 217-220 The farming economy of this period continued the practices established at the beginning of the Neolithic, although sheep and goats are less dominant among the animals than formerly and the cultivation of vines (Vitis vinifera) is well attested. Only a few burials have been discovered from the whole of the Neolithic period in northern Greece and no clear pattern can be deduced. Grave offerings, however, seem very limited. Ancient Macedonia (500 BC to 146 BC) Classical Macedonia and environs, from Alexander G. Findlay's Classical Atlas to Illustrate Ancient Geography, New York, 1849 Macedonia, as a region, is known to have been inhabited since Paleolithic times. In classical times, Macedonia was border zone where Thracian, Illyrian and Hellenic peoples intermingled. Prior to the Macedonian ascendancy, large parts of Macedonia was populated by the Bryges, Thucydides. The Peloponnesian War,2.99. a Thracian people, whilst western, ie Upper Macedonia, was inhabited by Illyrian tribes. Whilst numerous wars are later recorded between the Illyrian and Macedonian Kingdoms, the Bryges might have co-existed peacefully with the Macedonians .Borza, Eugene N. In the Shadow of Olympus: the Emergence of Macedon. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1990, ISBN 0691008809, p. 65. "There is no record of conflict between the Bryges and the local population; they are described as synoikoi ("fellow inhabitant" or neighbors) of the Macedonians." Some time between 1200 and 800 BC Borza, Eugene N. In the Shadow of Olympus: the Emergence of Macedon. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1990, ISBN 0691008809, p.65 , a portion of the Bryges migrated to Anatolia and became known as the Phrygians. In the time of Classical Greece, Paionia, the exact boundaries of which, like the early history of its inhabitants are obscure, originally included the whole Axius River valley and the surrounding areas, in what is now the northern part of the Greek region of Macedonia, most of the Republic of Macedonia, and a small part of western Bulgaria. Encyclopedia Britannica online - Paeonia.Paeonia By 500 BC, the ancient kingdom of Macedon, centred somewhere between the southern slopes of Lower Olympus and the lowest reach of the Haliakmon River, N.G.L. Hammond, "Connotations of 'Macedonia' and of 'Macedones' Until 323 B. C.", The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 45, No. 1, (1995), p. 122 expanded into the territories of its neighbours, absorbing them into the kingdom. Yet, the Macedonians found themselves subject to the Persian Empire in 500 BC, but played no significant part in the wars between the Persians and the Greeks. King Alexander I of Macedon (died 450 BC) was the first Macedonian king to play a significant role in Greek politics, promoting the adoption of the Attic dialect and culture. Macedonia continued to converge culturally with its southern neighbours over the next century until, under the rule of Philip II of Macedon, Macedon extended its power in the 4th century BC over the rest of northern Greece. Philip's son Alexander the Great created an even bigger empire, not only conquering the rest of Greece but also seizing control of the Persian Empire, Egypt and lands as far east as the fringes of India. Much of the impetus towards the creation of common Greek identity was provided by Alexander the Great. Alexander's conquests produced a lasting extension of Greek culture and thought across the ancient Near East, but his empire broke up on his death. His generals divided the empire between them, founding their own states and dynasties - notably Antigonus I, Antipater, Lysimachus, Perdiccas, Ptolemy I, and Seleucus I. Macedon itself was taken by Cassander, who ruled it until his death in 297 BC. Antigonus II took control in 277 BC following a period of civil strife. During his long reign, which lasted until 239 BC, he successfully restored Macedonian prosperity despite losing many of the subjugated Greek city-states. His successor Antigonus III (reigned 229 BC-221 BC) re-established Macedonian power across the region. This period also saw several Celtic invasions into Macedonia. However, the Celts were each time successfully repelled by Cassander, and later Antigonus, leaving little overall influence on the region The Celts. A history. Daithi O Hogain. Boydell Press. ISBN 0 -85115-923-0 . Macedon sovereignty was brought to an end at the hands of the rising power of Rome in the 2nd century BC. Philip V of Macedon took his kingdom to war against the Romans in two wars during his reign (221 BC-179 BC). The First Macedonian War (215 BC-205 BC) was fairly successful for the Macedonians but Philip was decisively defeated in the Second Macedonian War in (200 BC-197 BC). Although he survived war with Rome, his successor Perseus of Macedon (reigned 179 BC-168 BC) did not; having taken Macedon into the Third Macedonian War in (171 BC-168 BC), he lost his kingdom when he was defeated. Macedonia was initially divided into four republics subject to Rome before finally being annexed in 146 BC as a Roman province. Around this time, vulgar Latin was introduced in the Balkans by Latin speaking colonists and military personnel. Medieval Macedonia With the division of the Roman Empire into west and east in 298 AD, Macedonia came under the rule of Rome's Byzantine successors. The population of the entire region was, however, depleted by destructive invasions of various Gothic and Hun tribes c. 300 - 400s AD. Despite this, other parts of the Byzantine empire continued to flourish, in particular some coastal cities such as Thessaloniki became important trade and cultural centre. Despite the empire's power, from the beginning of the 6th century the Byzantine dominions were subject to frequent raids by various Slavic tribes which, in the course of centuries, eventually resulted in drastic demographic and cultural changes in the Empire's Balkan provinces. Sklaviniae in Medieval Macedonia c. 700 AD. The Slavic settlements organized themselves along tribal and territorially based lines which were referred to by Byzantine Greek historians as "Sklaviniai". The Sklaviniai continued to intermittently assault the Byzantine Empire, either independently, or aided by Bulgar or Avar contingents. Around 680 AD a "Bulgar" group (which was largely composed of the descendants of former Roman Christians taken captive by the Avars), led by khan Kuber (theorized to have belonged to the same clan as the Danubian Bulgarian khan Asparukh), settled in the Pelagonian plain, and launched campaigns to the region of Thessaloniki. When the Empire could spare imperial troops, it attempted to regain control of its lost Balkan teritories. By the time of Constans II a significant number of the Slavs of Macedonia were captured and transferred to central Asia Minor where they were forced to recognize the authority of the Byzantine emperor and serve in its ranks. In the late 7th century Justinian II organized again a massive expedition against the Sklaviniai and Bulgars of Macedonia. Launching from Constantinople, he subdued many Slavic tribes and established the Theme of Thrace in the hinterland of the Great City, and pushed on into Thessaloniki. However, on his return he was ambushed by the Slavo-Bulgars of Kuber, losing a great part of his army, booty, and subsequently, his throne The Early Medieval Balkans. John Fine. Page 71: "In 688/89 the emperor Justinian II marched through Thrace where at least enough Byzantine rule had been restored for a theme administration to be established.... The purpose of the campaign was to punish the Bulgars and Slavs. Justinian successfully subdued many Slavs (taking many captives) and reached Thessaloniki. On his return toward Constantinople in 689 he was ambushed by the Bulgars who wiped out most of his army" . Despite these temporary successes, rule in the region was far from stable since not all as the Sklaviniae were pacified, and those that were often rebelled. The emperors rather resorted to withdrawing their defensive line south along the Aegean coast, until the late 8th century. Although a new theme- that of "Macedonia" was subsequently created, it did not correspond to today's geographic territory, but one farther east (centred on Adrianople), carved out of the already existing Thracian and Helladic themes. There are no Byzantine records of "Sklaviniai" after 836/837 as they were absorbed into the expanding First Bulgarian Empire. Slavic influence in the region strengthened along with the rise of this state, which incorporated parts of the region to its domain in 837 AD. In the early 860s Saints Cyril and Methodius, Byzantines born in Thessaloniki, created the first Slavic Glagolitic alphabet in which the Old Church Slavonic language was first transcribed, and are thus are commonly referred to as the apostles-christianizators of the Slavic world. Their cultural heritage was acquired and developed in medieval Bulgaria, where after 885 the region of Ohrid (present-day Republic of Macedonia) became a significant ecclesiastical center with the nomination of the Saint Clement of Ohrid for "first archbishop in Bulgarian language" with residence in this region. In conjunction with another disciple of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Saint Naum, Clement created a flourishing Bulgarian cultural center around Ohrid, where pupils were taught theology in the Old Church Slavonic language and the Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabet at what is now called Ohrid Literary School. The Bulgarian-Byzantine boundary in the beginning of 10th century passed approximately 20 km north of Thessaloniki according to the inscription of Narash. According to Byzantine author John Kameniat at that time the neighbouring settlements around Thessaloniki were inhabited by "Scythians" (Bulgarians) and the Slavic tribes of Druguvites and Sagudates in addition to Greeks. At the end of the 10th century what is now the Republic of Macedonia became the political and cultural heartland of the First Bulgarian Empire after Byzantine emperors John I Tzimiskes and Basil II conquered the eastern part of the Bulgarian empire. The Bulgarian capital Preslav and the Bulgarian Tsar Boris II were captured in 972. A new capital was established at Ohrid, which also became the seat of the Bulgarian Patriarchate. Tsar Samuil and his successors continued resistance against the Byzantines for several more decades, before also succumbing in 1018. The Balkans: from Constantinople to Communism. Dennis P Hupchick. New York Basil II became known as the 'Bulgar slayer' after he captured and blinded 14,000 Bulgarian soldiers in 1014. The western part of Bulgaria including Macedonia was incorporated into the Byzantine Empire as the province of Bulgaria (Thema Bulgaria) and the Bulgarian Patriarchate was reduced in rank to an Archbishopric. Intermittent Slavic uprisings continued to occur, often with the support of the Serbian princedoms to the north. Any temporary independence that might have been gained was usually crushed swiftly by the Byzantines. It was also was marked by periods of war between the Normans and Byzantium, who were bitter enemies. The Normans launched offensives from their lands acquired in southern Italy, and temporarily gained rule over small areas in the northwest coast. From the 12th century, parts of Macedonia were concurred by the Serbian kingdom of Raska. The zenith of the Serbian empire was in the 14th century when it conquered all of Macedonia, northern and central Greece - excluding Thessaloniki, Athens and the Peloponessus. In 1346, King Stefan Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia was crowned Tsar (Emperor) of the Serbs and Greeks. His empire broke up shortly after his death in 1355. At this time, the Ottoman threat was looming in the Balkans, as the Ottomans defeated the Christian coalition of Serbs, Bulgarians and Greeks. After the Ottoman victory in the Battle of Maritsa in 1371, most of Macedonia accepted vassalage to the Ottomans and by the end of the 14th century the Ottoman Empire fully annexed it. Macedonia remained a part of the Ottoman Empire for nearly 500 years, during which time it gained a substantial Turkish minority. Thessaloniki later become the home of a large Jewish population following the expulsions of Jews after 1492 from Spain. Emergence of a Macedonian region Map of the region contested by Serbia and Bulgaria and subject to the arbitration of the Russian Tsar After the revival of Greek, Serbian, and Bulgarian statehood in the 19th century, the Ottoman lands in Europe that became identified as "Macedonia", were contested by all three governments, leading to the creation in the 1890s and 1900s of rival armed groups who divided their efforts between fighting the Turks and one another. The most important of these was the Bulgarian Macedonian-Adrianople Revolutionary Committee (BMARC, SMARO from 1902) (an alternative version says that it consisted of the Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (MRO, TMORO from 1902)), under Gotse Delchev who in 1903 rebelled in the so-called Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising, fighting for an autonomous or independent Macedonian state (before 1902 only Bulgarians could join, but afterward, it invited "any Macedonian or Odrinian, irrespective of nationality, to join together"), and the Greek efforts from 1904 until 1908 (Greek Struggle for Macedonia). Diplomatic intervention by the European powers led to plans for an autonomous Macedonia under Ottoman rule. It is often claimed that macédoine, the fruit or vegetable salad, was named after the area's very mixed population, however it seems more likely that it was inspired by the diversity of Alexander the Great's domains, as the term dates to France in the 18th century, when Macedonia's ethnic composition was not widely known. see the Macedonia (food) article for bibliography The birth of nationalism and of Macedonian identities Over the centuries Macedonia had become a multicultural region. The historical references mention Greeks, Bulgarians, Turks, Albanian, Gypsies, Jews and Vlachs. Fraser, John Foster. London, New York: Cassell and company, 1912, p. 5 .From the Middle Ages to 20th century the Slav-speaking population in Macedonia was identified mostly as Bulgarian or Greek and occasionally as Serbian. Cousinéry, Esprit Marie. Voyage dans la Macédoine: contenant des recherches sur l'histoire, la géographie, les antiquités de ce pay, Paris, 1831, Vol. II, p. 15-17, one of the passages in English - , Engin Deniz Tanir, The Mid-Nineteenth century Ottoman Bulgaria from the viewpoints of the French Travelers, A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate School of Social Sciences of Middle East Technical University, 2005, p. 99, 142,Kaloudova, Yordanka. Documents on the situation of the population in the southwestern Bulgarian lands under Turkish rule, Военно-исторически сборник, 4, 1970, p. 72 Pulcherius, Receuil des historiens des Croisades. Historiens orientaux. III, p. 331 – a passage in English -http://promacedonia.org/en/ban/nr1.html#4 During the period of Bulgarian National Revival many Bulgarians from these regions supported the struggle for creation of Bulgarian cultural educational and religious institutions, including Bulgarian Exarchate. Journal Bulgarski knizhitsi, Constantinople, No. 10 May, 1858, p. 19, in English - , From a letter of Georgi Gogov, Voden, to G.S. Rakovski, Belgrade, regarding the abuses perpetrated by the Greek bishop Nikodim and his persecution of Bulgarian patriots,Newspaper Makedonia, Constantinople, No. 26, May 27th, 1867, Vacalopulos, Konstandinos A. Modern history of Macedonia, Thessaloniki 1988, p. 52, 57, 64 Eventually, in the 20th century, 'Bulgarians' came to be understood as synonymous with 'Macedonian Slavs' and, eventually, 'ethnic Macedonians'. Krste Misirkov, a philologist and publicist, mostly known for his work "On the Macedonian Matters" (1903), heralded by Macedonians as one of the “founders of the Macedonian nation”, stated: The restricted borders of the modern Greek state at its inception in 1830 disappointed the inhabitants of northern Greece (Epirus and Macedonia). Addressing these concerns in 1844, the Greek Prime Minister Kolettis addressed the constitutional assembly in Athens that "the kingdom of Greece is not Greece; it is only a part, the smallest and poorest, of Greece. The Greek is not only he who inhabits the kingdom, but also he who lives in Ioannina (Epirus), or Thessaloniki (Macedonia), or Serres (Macedonia), or Odrin (Thrace)" . He mentions cities and islands that were under Ottoman possession as composing the Great Idea (Greek: Μεγάλη Ιδέα) which meant the reconstruction of the classical Greek world or the revival of the Byzantine Empire. The important idea here is that for Greece, Macedonia was a region with large Greek populations expecting annexation to the new Greek state. At this time, the region which today is the Republic of Macedonia was known as the "fief (vilayet) of Skopje" . Ethnic map of the Balkans prior to the First Balkan War. Ethnic map of the Balkan Peninsula from 1877, by A.Synvet Ethnic representation of Central Europe and the Balkans in 1918, French view. The 1878 Congress of Berlin changed the Balkan map again. The treaty restored Macedonia and Thrace to the Ottoman Empire. Serbia, Romania and Montenegro were granted full independence, and some territorial expansion at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. Russia would maintain military advisors in Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia until May 1879. Austria-Hungary was permitted to occupy Bosnia, Herzegovina and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. The Congress of Berlin also forced Bulgaria, newly given autonomy by the 1878 Treaty of San Stefano, to return over half of its newly gained territory to the Ottoman Empire. This included Macedonia, a large part of which was given to Bulgaria, due to Russian pressure and the presence of significant numbers of Bulgarians and adherents to the Bulgarian Exarchate. The territorial losses dissatisfied Bulgaria; this fuelled the ambitions of many Bulgarian politicians for the following seventy years, who wanted to review the treaty - by peaceful or military means and to reunite all lands which they claimed had a Bulgarian majority. Besides, Serbia was now interested in the Macedonian lands, until then only Greece was Bulgaria's main contender, which after the addition of Thessaly to Greece in (1881) was bordering Macedonia. Thus, the Berlin Congress renewed the struggle for Turkey in Europe, including the so-called Macedonia region, rather than setting up a permanent regime. In the following years, all of the neighboring states struggled over Turkey in Europe; they were only kept at bay by their own restraints, the Ottoman Army and the territorial ambitions of the Great Powers in the region. Serbian policy had a distinct anti-Bulgarian flavor, attempting to prevent the Bulgarian influencing the inhabitants of Macedonia. On the other hand, Bulgaria was using the power of its religious institutions (Bulgarian Exarchate established in 1870) to promote its language and make more people identify with Bulgaria. Greece, in addition, was in an advantageous position for protecting its interests through the influence of Patriarchate of Constantinople which traditionally sponsored Greek-language and Greek-culture schools also in villages with few Greeks. This put the Patriarchate in dispute with the Exarchate, which established schools with Bulgarian education. Indeed, belonging to one or another institution could define a person's national identity. Simply, if a person supported the Patriarchate they were regarded as Greek, whereas if they supported the Exarchate they were regarded as Bulgarian. Locally, however, villagers were not always able to express freely their association with one or the other institution as there were numerous armed groups trying to defend and/or expand the territory of each. Some were locally recruited and self-organized while others were sent and armed by the protecting states. The aim of the adversaries, however, was not primarily to extend their influence over Macedonia but merely to prevent Macedonia succumbing to the influence of the other. This often violent attempt to persuade the people that they belonged to one ethnic group or another pushed some people to reject both. The severe pressure on the peaceful peasants of Macedonia worked against the plans of the Serbians and Bulgarians to make them adopt their ethnic idea and eventually a social divide became apparent. The British Ambassador in Belgrade in 1927 said: "At present the unfortunate Macedonian peasant is between the hammer and the anvil. One day 'comitadjis' come to his house and demand under threat lodging, food and money and the next day the gendarm hales him off to prison for having given them; the Macedonian is really a peaceable, fairly industrious agriculturist and if the (Serbian) government give him adequate protection, education, freedom from malaria and decent communications, there seems no reason why he should not become just as Serbian in sentiment as he was Bulgarian 10 years ago". As a result of this game of tug-of-war, the Slavs of Macedonia did not have any national identity. Moreover, when the imperialistic plans of the surrounding states made possible the division of Macedonia, some Macedonian intellectuals such as Misirkov mentioned the necessity of creating a Macedonian national identity which would distinguish the Macedonian Slavs from Bulgarians, Serbians or Greeks. Baptizing Macedonian Slavs as Serbian or Bulgarian aimed therefore to justify these countries' territorial claims over Macedonia. The Greek side, with the assistance of the Patriarchate that was responsible for the schools, could more easily maintain control, because they were spreading Greek identity. For the very same reason the Bulgarians, when preparing the Exarchate's government (1871) included Macedonians in the assembly as "brothers" to prevent any ethnic diversification. On the other hand, the Serbs, unable to establish Serbian-speaking schools, used propaganda. Their main concern was to prevent the Slavic-speaking Macedonians from acquiring Bulgarian identity through concentrating on the myth of the ancient origins of the Macedonians and simultaneously by the classification of Bulgarians as Tatars and not as Slavs, emphasizing their 'Macedonian' characteristics as an intermediate stage between Serbs and Bulgarians. To sum up the Serbian propaganda attempted to inspire the Macedonians with a separate ethnic identity to diminish the Bulgarian influence. This choice was the 'Macedonian ethnicity'. The Bulgarians never accepted an ethnic diversity from the Slav Macedonians, giving geographic meaning to the term. In 1893 they established the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (VMRO) aiming to confront the Serbian and Greek action in Macedonia. VMRO hoped to answer the Macedonian question through a revolutionary movement, and so they instigated the Ilinden Uprising (1903) to release some Ottoman territory. Bulgaria used this to internationalize the Macedonian question. Ilinden changed Greece's stance which decided to take Para-military action. In order to protect the Greek Macedonians and Greek interests, Greece sent officers to train guerrillas and organize militias (Macedonian Struggle), known as makedonomahi (Macedonian fighters), essentially to fight the Bulgarians. After that it was obvious that the Macedonian question could be answered only with a war. The rise of the Albanian and the Turkish nationalism after 1908, however, prompted Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria to bury their differences with regard to Macedonia and to form a joint coalition against the Ottoman Empire in 1912. Disregarding public opinion in Bulgaria, which was in support of the establishment of an autonomous Macedonian province under a Christian governor, the Bulgarian government entered a pre-war treaty with Serbia which divided the region into two parts. The part of Macedonia west and north of the line of partition was contested by both Serbia and Bulgaria and was subject to the arbitration of the Russian Tsar after the war. Serbia formally renounced any claims to the part of Macedonia south and east of the line, which was declared to be within the Bulgarian sphere of interest. The pre-treaty between Greece and Bulgaria, however, did not include any agreement on the division of the conquered territories - evidently both countries hoped to occupy as much territory as possible having their sights primarily set on Thessaloniki. Boundaries on the Balkans after the First and the Second Balkan War (1912–1913) In the First Balkan War, Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro occupied almost all Ottoman-held territories in Europe. Bulgaria bore the brunt of the war fighting on the Thracian front against the main Ottoman forces. Both her war expenditures and casualties in the First Balkan War were higher than those of Serbia, Greece and Montenegro combined. Macedonia itself was occupied by Greek, Serbian and Bulgarian forces. The Ottoman Empire in the Treaty of London in May 1913 assigned the whole of Macedonia to the Balkan League, without, specifying the division of the region, in order to promote problems between the allies. Dissatisfied with the creation of an autonomous Albanian state, which denied her access to the Adriatic, Serbia asked for the suspension of the pre-war division treaty and demanded from Bulgaria greater territorial concessions in Macedonia. Later in May the same year, Greece and Serbia signed a secret treaty in Thessaloniki stipulating the division of Macedonia according to the existing lines of control. Both Serbia and Greece, as well as Bulgaria, started to prepare for a final war of partition. In June 1913, Bulgarian Tsar Ferdinand, without consulting the government, and without any declaration of war, ordered Bulgarian troops to attack the Greek and Serbian troops in Macedonia, initiating the Second Balkan War. The Bulgarian army was in full retreat in all fronts. The Serbian army chose to stop its operations when achieved all its territorial goals and only then the Bulgarian army took a breath. During the last two days the Bulgarians managed to achieve a defensive victory against the advancing Greek army in the Kresna Gorge. However at the same time the Romanian army crossed the undefended northern border and easily advanced towards Sofia. Romania interfered in the war, in order to satisfy its territorial claims against Bulgaria. The Ottoman Empire also interfered, easily reassuming control of Eastern Thrace with Edirne. The Second Balkan War, also known as Inter-Ally War, left Bulgaria only with the Struma valley and a small part of Thrace with minor ports at the Aegean sea. Vardar Macedonia was incorporated into Serbia and thereafter referred to as South Serbia. Southern (Aegean) Macedonia was incorporated into Greece and thereafter was referred to as northern Greece. The region suffered heavily during the Second Balkan War. During its advance at the end of June, the Greek army set fire to the Bulgarian quarter of the town of Kilkis and over 160 villages around Kilkis and Serres driving some 50,000 refugees into Bulgaria proper. The Bulgarian army retaliated by burning the Greek quarter of Serres and by arming Muslims from the region of Drama which led to a massacre of Greek civilians. Macedonia's division in 1913 In September 1915, the Greek government authorized the landing of the troops in Thessaloniki. In 1916 the pro-German King of Greece agreed with the Germans to allow military forces of the Central Powers to enter Greek Macedonia in order to attack Bulgarian forces in Thessaloniki. As a result, Bulgarian troops occupied the eastern part of Greek Macedonia, including the port of Kavala. The region was, however, restored to Greece following the victory of the Allies in 1918. After the destruction of the Greek Army in Asia Minor in 1922 Greece and Turkey exchanged most of Macedonia's Turkish minority and the Greek inhabitants of Thrace and Anatolia, as a result of which Aegean Macedonia experienced a large addition to its population and became overwhelmingly Greek in ethnic composition. Serbian-ruled Macedonia was incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) in 1918. Yugoslav Macedonia was subsequently subjected to an intense process of "Serbianization" during the 1920s and 1930s. During World War II the boundaries of the region shifted yet again. When the German forces occupied the area, most of Yugoslav Macedonia and part of Aegean Macedonia were transferred for administration to Bulgaria. During the Bulgarian administration of Eastern Greek Macedonia, some 100,000 Bulgarian refugees from the region were resettled there and perhaps as many Greeks were deported or fled to Greece. Western Aegean Macedonia was occupied by Italy, with the western parts of Yugoslav Macedonia being annexed to Italian-occupied Albania. The remainder of Greek Macedonia (including all of the coast) was occupied by Nazi Germany. One of the worst episodes of the Holocaust happened here when 60,000 Jews from Thessaloniki were deported to extermination camps in occupied Poland. Only a few thousand survived. Macedonia was liberated in 1944, when the Red Army's advance in the Balkan Peninsula forced the German forces to retreat. The pre-war borders were restored under U.S. and British pressure because the Bulgarian government was insisting to keep its military units on Greek soil. The Bulgarian Macedonia returned fairly rapidly to normality, but the Bulgarian patriots in Yugoslav Macedonia underwent a process of ethnic cleansing by the Belgrade authorities, and Greek Macedonia was ravaged by the Greek Civil War, which broke out in December 1944 and did not end until October 1949. After this civil war, a large number of former ELAS fighters who took refuge in communist Bulgaria and Yugoslavia and described themselves as "ethnic Macedonians" were prohibited from reestablishing to their former estates by the Greek authorities. Most of them were accused in Greece for crimes committed during the period of the German occupation. Macedonia in the Balkan Wars, World War I and II The Balkan Wars The imminent collapse of the Ottoman Empire was welcomed by the Balkan states, as it promised to restore their European territory. The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 proved a nationalistic movement thwarting the peoples' expectations of the empire's modernization and hastened the end of the Ottoman occupation of the Balkans. To this end, an alliance was struck among the Balkan states in Spring 1913. The First Balkan War, which lasted six weeks, commenced in August 1912, when Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire, whose forces ultimately engaged four different wars in Thrace, Macedonia, Northern and Southern Albania and Kosovo. The Macedonian campaign was fought in atrocious conditions. The retreat of the Ottoman army from Macedonia succeeded the desperate effort of the Greek and Bulgarian forces to reach the city of Thessalonica, the "single prize of the first Balkan War" for whose status no prior agreements were done. In this case possession would be equal to acquisition. The Greek forces entered the city first liberating officially, a progress only positive for them. Glenny says: "for the Greeks it was a good war". The first Balkan War managed to liberate Balkans from Turks and settled the major issues except Macedonia. In the spring 1913 the Serbs and Greeks begun the 'Serbianization' and the 'Hellenization' of the parts in Macedonia they already controlled, while Bulgarians faced some difficulties against the Jews and the Turkish populations. Moreover, the possession of Thessalonica was a living dream for the Bulgarians that were preparing for a new war. For this, the Bulgarian troops had a secret order in June 1913 to launch surprise attacks on the Serbs. Greece and Serbia signed a previous bilateral defensive agreement (May 1913) . Consequently, Greece and Serbia decided to attack Bulgaria in its moment of maximum weakness, exhausted by its sacrifice the previous winter. Besides, they had to fight also the Romanians who were claim Bulgarian lands. The Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913) took off most of the Bulgarian conquests of the previous years. Large part of Macedonia became Southern Serbia, including the territory of what today is the Republic of Macedonia and Aegean Macedonia became Northern Greece. Greece almost doubled its territory and population size and its northern frontiers remain today, more or less the same since the Balkan Wars. However, when Serbia acquired 'Vardarska Banovina' (the present-day Republic of Macedonia), it launched having expansionist views aiming to descend to the Aegean, with Thessalonica as the highest ambition. However, Greece after the population exchange with Bulgaria, soon after its victory in the Balkan wars, managed to give national homogeneity in the Aegean and any remaining Slavic-speakers were absorbed. Many volunteers from Macedonia joined Bulgarian army and participated in the battles against Bulgarian enemies in these wars - on the strength of the Macedonian-Adrianopolitan Volunteer Corps and other units. World War I After the World War I Macedonian Campaign the status quo of Macedonia remained the same. The establishment of the 'Kingdom of Serbians, Croats and Slovenes' in 1918, which in 1929 was renamed 'Yugoslavia' (South Slavia) predicted no special regime for Skopje neither recognized any Macedonian national identity. In fact, the claims to Macedonian identity remained silent at a propaganda level because, eventually, north Macedonia had been a Serbian conquest. The situation in Serbian Macedonia changed after the Communist Revolution in Russia (1918–1919). According to Sfetas, Comintern was handling Macedonia as a matter of tactics, depending on the political circumstances. In early 1920s it supported the position for a single and independent Macedonia in a Balkan Soviet Democracy. Actually, the Soviets desired a common front of the Bulgarian communist agriculturists and the Bulgarian-Macedonian societies in order to destabilize the Balkan Peninsula. The Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO), under the protection of Comintern, promoted the idea of an independent Macedonia in a Federation of Balkan states, unifying all Macedonians. However, the possible participation of Bulgaria in a new war, on the Axis side, ended the Soviet support some years later. World War II Bulgaria was forced to join the Axis powers in 1941, when German troops prepared to invade Greece from Romania reached the Bulgarian borders and demanded permission to pass through Bulgarian territory. Threatened by direct military confrontation, Tsar Boris III had no choice but to join the fascist block, which officially happened on 1 March 1941. There was little popular opposition, since the Soviet Union was in a non-aggression pact with Germany. On April 6, 1941, despite having officially joined the Axis Powers, the Bulgarian government maintained a course of military passivity during the initial stages of the invasion of Yugoslavia and the Battle of Greece. As German, Italian, and Hungarian troops crushed Yugoslavia and Greece, the Bulgarians remained on the side-lines. The Yugoslav government surrendered on April 17. The Greek government was to hold out until April 30. On April 20, the period of Bulgarian passivity ended. The Bulgarian Army entered the Aegean region. The goal was to gain an Aegean Sea outlet in Thrace and Eastern Macedonia and much of eastern Serbia. The so-called Vardar Banovina was divided between Bulgaria and Italians which occupied West Macedonia. During the German occupation of Greece (1941–1944) the Greek Communist Party-KKE was the main resistance factor with its military branch EAM-ELAS (National Liberation Front). Although many members of EAM were Slavic-speaking, they had either Bulgarian, Greek or distinct Macedonian conscience. To take advantage of the situation KKE established SNOF with the cooperation of the Yugoslav leader Tito, who was ambitious enough to make plans for Greek Macedonia. For this he established the Anti-Fascistic Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia (ASNOM) giving an actual liberating character to the whole region of Macedonia. Besides, KKE was very positive to the option of a greater Macedonia, including the Greek region, since it realized that a victory in the Greek Civil War was utopic. Later EAM and SNOF disagreed in issues of policy and they finally crashed and the latter was expelled from Greece (1944). Post-World War II The end of the War did not bring peace to Greece and a strenuous civil war between the Government forces and EAM broke out with about 50,000 casualties for both sides. The defeat of the Communists in 1949 forced their Slav-speaking members to either leave Greece or fully adopt Greek language and surnames. The slav minorities were discriminated against, and not even recognised as a minority. Since 1923 the only internationally recognized minority in Greece are the Muslims in Western Thrace. Yugoslav Macedonia was the only region where Yugoslav communist leader Josip Broz Tito had not developed a Partisan movement because of the Bulgarian occupation of a large part of that area. To improve the situation, in 1943 the Communist Party of 'Macedonia' was established in Tetovo with the prospect that it would support the resistance against the Axis. In the meantime, the Bulgarians' violent repression led to loss of moral support from the civilian population. By the end of the war "a Macedonia national consciousness hardly existed beyond a general conviction, gained from bitter experience, that rule from Sofia was as unpalatable as that from Belgrade. But if there were no Macedonian nation there was a Communist Party of Macedonia, around which the People's Republic of Macedonia was built". Tito thus separated Yugoslav Macedonia from Serbia after the war. It became a republic of the new federal Yugoslavia (as the Socialist Republic of Macedonia) in 1946, with its capital at Skopje. Tito also promoted the concept of a separate Macedonian nation, as a means of severing the ties of the Slav population of Yugoslav Macedonia with Bulgaria. Although the Macedonian language is very close to Bulgarian, the differences were deliberately emphasized and the region's historical figures were promoted as being uniquely Macedonian (rather than Serbian or Bulgarian). A separate Macedonian Orthodox Church was established, splitting off from the Serbian Orthodox Church, but it has not been recognized by any other Orthodox Church, including the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. The Communist Party sought to deter pro-Bulgarian sentiment, which was punished severely; convictions were still being handed down as late as 1991. Tito had a number of reasons for doing this. First, as an ethnic Croat, he wanted to reduce Serbia's dominance in Yugoslavia; establishing a territory formerly considered Serbian as an equal to Serbia within Yugoslavia achieved this effect. Secondly, he wanted to sever the ties of the Macedonian Slav population with Bulgaria because recognition of that population as Bulgarian would have undermined the unity of the Yugoslav federation. Third of all, Tito sought to justify future Yugoslav claims towards the rest of Macedonia (Pirin and Aegean), in the name of the "liberation" of the region. The potential "Macedonian" state would remain as a constituent republic within Yugoslavia, and so Yugoslavia would manage to get access to the Aegean Sea. Tito's designs on Macedonia were asserted as early as August, 1944, when in a proclamation he claimed that his goal was to reunify "all parts of Macedonia, divided in 1912 and 1913 by Balkan imperialists". To this end, he opened negotiations with Bulgaria for a new federal state, which would also probably have included Albania, and supported the Greek Communists in the Greek Civil War. The idea of reunification of all of Macedonia under Communist rule was abandoned as late as 1949 when the Greek Communists lost and Tito fell out with the Soviet Union and pro-Soviet Bulgaria. Across the border in Greece, Slavophones were seen as a potentially disloyal "fifth column" within the Greek state by both the US and Greece, and their existence as a minority was officially denied. Greeks were resettled in the region many of whom emigrated (especially to Australia) along with many Greek-speaking natives, because of the hard economic conditions after the Second World War and the Greek Civil War. Although there was some liberalization between 1959 and 1967, the Greek military dictatorship re-imposed harsh restrictions. The situation gradually eased after Greece's return to democracy, although even as recently as the 1990s Greece has been criticised by international human rights activists for "harassing" Macedonian Slav political activists, who, nonetheless, are free to maintain their own political party (Rainbow). Elsewhere in Greek Macedonia, economic development after the war was brisk and the area rapidly became the most prosperous part of the region. The coast was heavily developed for tourism, particularly on the Halkidiki peninsula. Under Georgi Dimitrov, Soviet loyalist and head of the Comintern, Bulgaria initially accepted the existence of a distinctive Macedonian identity. It had been agreed that Pirin Macedonia would join Yugoslav Macedonia and for this reason the population declared itself "Macedonian" in the 1946 census. This caused resentment and many people were imprisoned or interned in rural areas outside Macedonia. After Tito's split from the Soviet bloc this position was abandoned and the existence of a Macedonian nation or language was denied. Attempts of Macedonian historians after the 1940s to claim a number of prominent figures of the 19th century Bulgarian cultural revival and armed resistance movement as Macedonians has caused ever since a bitter resentment in Sofia. Bulgaria has repeatedly accused the Republic of Macedonia of appropriating Bulgarian national heroes and symbols and of editing works of literature and historical documents so as to prove the existence of a Macedonian Slav consciousness before the 1940s. The publication in the Republic of Macedonia of the folk song collections 'Bulgarian Folk Songs' by the Miladinov Brothers and 'Songs of the Macedonian Bulgarians' by Serbian archaeologist Verkovic under the "politically correct" titles 'Collection' and 'Macedonian Folk Songs' are some of the examples quoted by the Bulgarians. The issue has soured the relations of Bulgaria with former Yugoslavia and later with the Republic of Macedonia for decades. Foundation of the Republic of Macedonia as an independent state Kiro Gligorov, the president of Yugoslav Macedonia, sought to keep his republic outside the fray of the Yugoslav wars in the early 1990s. Yugoslav Macedonia's very existence had depended on the active support of the Yugoslav state and Communist Party. As both began to collapse, the Macedonian authorities allowed and encouraged a stronger assertion of Macedonian Slav national identity than before. This included toleration of demands from Macedonian Slav nationalists for the reunification of Macedonia. The Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia were unhappy about an erosion of their national rights in the face of a more assertive Macedonian Slav nationalism. Some nationalist Serbs called for the republic's re-incorporation into Serbia, although in practice this was never a likely prospect, given Serbia's preoccupation with the wars in Bosnia and Croatia and the relatively small number of Serbs in the Republic of Macedonia compared to Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. As communism fell throughout Eastern Europe in the late 20th century, Macedonia followed its other federation partners and declared its independence from Yugoslavia in late 1991. In 1991, the (then Socialist) Republic of Macedonia held a referendum on independence which produced an overwhelming majority in favor of independence. The referendum was boycotted by the ethnic Albanians, although they did create ethnic political parties and actively contributed in the Macedonian government, parliament etc. The republic seceded peacefully from the Yugoslav federation, declaring its independence as the Socialist Republic of Macedonia. Bulgaria was consequently the first country to officially recognize Republic of Macedonia's independence - as early as February 1992, followed by other countries as well. The new Macedonian constitution took effect November 20, 1991 and called for a system of government based on a parliamentary democracy. Kiro Gligorov became the first President of the new independent state, succeeded by Boris Trajkovski. In early January 2001 armed conflict took place between the ethnic Albanian National Liberation Army (UÇK) militant group and the Republic of Macedonia's security forces. The conflict partially ended with the signing of the Ohrid Framework Agreement by the government of the Republic of Macedonia and Albanian representatives on August 13, 2001 which provided for greater rights for Macedonian Albanian population. In January 2002, the Macedonian conflict ended when the amnesty was announced to Albanian irregulars and rebels. Occasional unrest continued throughout 2002. Controversy between the Republic of Macedonia and Greece A controversy exists in regard to whether or not any parts of the historic region of Macedonia are incorporated in the present-day Republic of Macedonia, as very little if any of the ancient Macedonian kingdom is. There is also controversy, however, with regard to the Slavic peoples who are concentrated in less than half of the region. They first arrived in the late 6th and early 7th centuries AD when Slavic-speaking populations overturned Macedonia's Greek ethnic composition. Macedonia. (2006). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved June 16, 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service: As a result, the appropriation by the "Republic of Macedonia" of what Greece held as its "Greek symbols", raised concerns in Greece as well as fuelling nationalist anger. Floudas, Demetrius Andreas; This anger was reinforced by the legacy of the Civil War and the view in some quarters, that members of Greece's Slavic-speaking minority were pro-Yugoslavian and presented a danger to its borders. The status of the Republic of Macedonia became a heated political issue in Greece where demonstrations took place in Athens while one million Macedonian Greeks took to the streets in Thessaloniki in 1992, under the slogan: "Macedonia is Greek", referring to the name and ancient history of the region, not posing a territorial claim against their northern neighbor. Initially, the Greek government objected formally to any use of the name Macedonia (including any derivative names) and also to the use of symbols such as the Vergina Sun. On the other hand, also in 1992, demonstrations by more than 100,000 ethnic Slav Macedonians took place in Skopje, the capital of the Republic of Macedonia, over the failure to receive recognition and supporting the constitutional name of the country. The controversy was not just nationalist, but it also played out in Greece's internal politics. The two leading Greek political parties, the ruling conservative New Democracy under Constantine Mitsotakis and the socialist PASOK under Andreas Papandreou, sought to outbid each other in whipping up nationalist sentiment and the long-term (rather than immediate) threat posed by the irredentist policies of Skopje. To complicate matters further, New Democracy itself was divided; the then prime minister, Mitsotakis, favored a compromise solution on the Macedonian question, while his foreign minister Adonis Samaras took a hard-line approach. The two eventually fell out and Samaras was sacked, with Mitsotakis reserving the foreign ministry for himself. He failed to reach an agreement on the Macedonian issue despite United Nations mediation; he fell from power in October 1993, largely as a result of Samaras causing the government's majority of one, to fall, in September 1993. When Andreas Papandreou took power following the October 1993 elections, he established a "hard line" position on the issue. The United Nations recommended recognition of the "Republic of Macedonia" under the temporary name of the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" (or FYROM for short), which would be used internationally while the country continued to use "Republic of Macedonia" as its constitutional name. The United States and European Union (therefore, including Greece) agreed to this proposal and duly recognized the Republic of Macedonia. This was followed by new, though smaller demonstrations in Greek cities against what was termed a "betrayal" by Greece's allies. Papandreou supported and encouraged the demonstrations, boosting his own popularity by taking the "hard line" against the Republic of Macedonia. In February 1994, he imposed a total trade embargo on the country, with the exception of food, medicines and humanitarian aid. The effect on the Republic of Macedonia's economy was limited, namely because the real damage to its economy had been caused by the collapse of Yugoslavia and the loss of central European markets due to the war. Also, many Greeks broke the trade embargo by entering through Bulgaria. However, the embargo had bad impact on the Republic of Macedonia's economy as the country was cut-off from the port of Thessaloniki and became landlocked because of the UN embargo on Yugoslavia to the north, and the Greek embargo to the south. Later, the signing of the Interim accord between Greece and the Republic of Macedonia marked the increased cooperation between the two neighboring states. The blockade had a political cost for Greece, as there was little understanding or sympathy for the country's position, and exasperation over what was seen as Greek obstructionism from some of its European Union partners. Athens was criticized in some quarters for contributing to the rising tension in the Balkans, even though the wars in the former Yugoslavia were widely seen as having been triggered by the premature recognition of its successor republics, a move to which Greece had objected from the beginning . It later emerged that Greece had only agreed to the dissolution of Yugoslavia in return for EU solidarity on the Macedonian issue . In 1994, the European Commission took Greece to the European Court of Justice in an effort to overturn the embargo, but while the court provisionally ruled in Greece's favor, the embargo was lifted by Athens the following year before a final verdict was reached. This was for the "Republic of Macedonia" and Greece to enter into an "interim agreement" in which the Republic of Macedonia agreed to remove any implied territorial claims to the greater Macedonia region from its constitution and to drop the Vergina Sun from its flag. In return, Greece lifted the blockade. Most of the countries have recognized the Republic of Macedonia under its constitutional name, notably the United States, Republican-controlled federal government: See also: Democratic-controlled Congress uses the designation "Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)": NATO the People's Republic of China and Russia, and also its neighbours Bulgaria, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Bulgaria, Diplomatic Missions, Macedonia. Retrieved on 2007-01-25 Serbia, Croatia, 23 29.03.1993 Odluka o osnivanju Veleposlanstva Republike Hrvatske u Republici Makedoniji, sa sjedištem u Skopju Slovenia, Uradni list RS 21/1992, Uredbeni del Turkey etc, "New Draft Resolution Won't Change US Position Towards Macedonia - Foreign Ministry", MIA news agency, Skopje. 9 August 2007 although as the country is referred in the UN only under the provisional reference the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia", the constitutional name is generally used only in bilateral relations and in relations where a state not recognizing the constitutional name is not a party. Discussions continue over the Greek objection regarding the country's name, but without any resolution so far. Floudas, Demetrius Andreas; The Greek government have linked progress on this issue to the Republic of Macedonia's accession to the European Union and NATO (for more on this, see Accession of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia to the European Union). Republic of Macedonia, Croatia and Albania were qualified to join NATO and an invitation for those three countries was planned to be issued on the NATO summit in Bucharest (Romania), in April 2008. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2008/02/mil-080221-afps03.htm . Before the beginning of the summit, the American president Bush said that NATO will make a historic decision on the admission of three Balkan nations: Croatia, Albania and Macedonia and that United States strongly support inviting these nations to join NATO. http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/4/2/worldupdates/2008-04-02T203446Z_01_NOOTR_RTRMDNC_0_-328122-1&sec=Worldupdates However, during the summit NATO leaders decided not to extend a membership invitation to Macedonia because Greece vetoed the move after the dispute over the name issue. The Macedonian representative and negotiator with Greece in the name issue complained that the Republic of Macedonia was punished not because it had failed to fulfill NATO accession criteria, but because it had been trying to defend its national identity. http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=91875 The NATO leaders agreed to extend a membership invitation for Macedonia as soon as the name issue with Greece is resolved, but until now no progress has been made in the negotiations between the Republic of Macedonia and Greece in order to resolve the name issue. In November 2008, Republic of Macedonia filed a lawsuit against Greece before the International Court of Justice in The Hague accusing Athens that it violated the Interim Accord by blocking its NATO membership. http://www.france24.com/en/20081117-macedonia-sues-greece-blocking-nato-entry-membership-name . In 1995, the two countries signed an agreement by which Macedonia agreed to use the provisional reference in international organizations, while Greece pledged not to block Macedonia's integration into the European Union and NATO. In March 2009 the European Parliament expressed support for the Republic of Macedonia’s EU candidacy and asked the EU to grant the country a date for the start of accession talks by the end of 2009, regretting that the country is waiting three years after the country was granted a candidate status, which makes a demoralizing effect on Macedonia and brings risks of destabilizing the whole region. The parliament also recommended a speedy lifting of the visa regime for the country citizens. http://balkaninsight.com/en/main/news/17331/ Controversy between the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria The number of ethnic Macedonians in Bulgaria is controversial as several Bulgarian censuses showed conflicting numbers of ethnic Macedonians living in that country. As the Bulgarian authorities did not publish the results of the 1946 census regarding the number of ethnic Macedonians in Bulgaria, Yugoslav sources claimed that some 252 000 people declared themselves as Macedonians in that census. Bulgarian embassy in London in 1991 stated that some 169 000 people were recorded as Macedonians on the same census. Poulton, Hugh (2000). Who are the Macedonians?. C. Hurst and co. Publishers, p.148. ISBN 1850655340. The census in 1956 registered 187 789 ethnic Macedonians in Bulgaria. Bates, Daniel. 1994. “What's in a Name: Minorities, Identity and Politics in Bulgaria,” Identities, Vol.1, No.2, May 1994 During this period the Macedonian Language was to be the official language of Pirin Macedonia. Poulton, Hugh (2000). Who are the Macedonians?. C. Hurst and co. Publishers, p.107. ISBN 1850655340. In 1992 the number of the ethnic Macedonians was 10,803 Center for Documentation and Information on Minorities in Europe - Southeast Europe, Macedonians of Bulgaria and in 2001 only 5,071 citizens declared as ethnic Macedonians. Bulgarian governments and public opinion throughout the period continued their policy of non-recognition of Macedonians as a distinct ethnic group. The recent Bulgarian view on the issue is that the Bulgarian policy after the Second world war regarding the Macedonians in Bulgaria was conducted despite the unwillingness of the local population to co-operate, in the conditions of the pressure and reprisals by the Bulgarian communists authorities against the Bulgarians in Pirin Macedonia. Ангелов, Веселин. Хроника на едно национално предателство, София 1999, p. 298-302 After 1958 when the pressure from Moskow decreased, Sofia turned back to the view that the separate Macedonian language did not exist and that the Macedonians in Blagoevgrad province (Pirin Macedonia) were actually Bulgarians. There are several ethnic Macedonian organizations in Bulgaria: "Traditional Macedonian Organization Ilinden", later renamed the "IMRO independent - Ilinden", registered in 1992 at the Sofia City Court. Later, in 1998, the organization was registered as a public NGO. The "United Macedonian Organization (UMO) - Ilinden" is another organization. In 1990, the Blagoevgrad District Court refused to register this organization as some parts of the organization statute weren't in accordance with the Bulgarian Constitution. In October 1994 this association split up on three different factions. Later two wings were unified under the "UMO Ilinden - PIRIN" organization. In 1998 the European Commission of Human Rights gave admissibility to two out of five complaints of Macedonians from Pirin Macedonia. After the Bulgarian Electoral Committee endorsed in 2001 the registration of a wing of UMO Ilinden, which had dropped separatist demands from its Charter, the mother organization became largely inactive. In 2007, the Sofia City Court refused registration of UMO Ilinden Pirin organization, despite an October 2005 ruling by the European Court of Human Rights that a previous ban of the party violated rights to freedom of association and assembly. In November the European Parliament Rapporteur on Bulgaria and the Enlargement Commissioner of the European Commission urged the government to register the organization. Amnesty International Report 2007 - Bulgaria There were repeated complaints of official harassment of ethnic Macedonian activists in the 1990s. Attempts of ethnic Macedonian organization UMO Ilinden to commemorate the grave of revolutionary Yane Sandanski throughout the 1990s were usually hampered by the Bulgarian police. Several incidents of mobbing of UMO Ilinden members by Bulgarian Macedonian organization IMRO activists were also reported. There is a newspaper published by the Macedonian organizations in Bulgaria: Narodna Volja (People's Will) which is printed in 2,500 copies. http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/cedime-se-bulgaria-macedonians.PDF Some cases of harassment of organizations of the Bulgarians in Republic of Macedonia and activists have been reported. In 2000 several teenagers threw smoke bombs at the conference of Bulgarian organization Radko in Skopje causing panic and confusion among the delegates. The Macedonian Constitutional Court annulled the status and program of the organization (hence terminating its existence), as those documents question the constitutional establishment of Macedonia and creating national and religious hatred and intolerance. MILS NEWS: Constitutional court abrogates registration of Radko association Since then, apparently there are very little or not reported public activities of that organization. Front cover of Songs of the Macedonian Bulgarians by Stefan Verkovic, first edition (1860) In 2001 Radko issued in Skopje the original version of the folk song collection Bulgarian Folk Songs by the Miladinov Brothers (issued under an edited name in the Republic of Macedonia and viewed as a collection of Slav Macedonian lyrics). The book triggered a wave of other publications, among which the memoirs of the Greek bishop of Kastoria, in which he talked about the Greek-Bulgarian church struggle at the beginning of the 20th century, as well the Report of the Carnegie Commission on the causes and conduct of the Balkan Wars from 1913. Neither of these addressed the ethnic Macedonian population of Macedonia as Macedonians but as Bulgarians. Being the first publications to question the official Macedonian position of the existence of a distinct Macedonian identity going back to the time of Alexander the Great (Macedonism), the books triggered a reaction of shock and disbelief in Macedonian public opinion. The scandal after the publication of Bulgarian Folk Songs resulted in the sacking of the Macedonian Minister of Culture, Dimitar Dimitrov. Revision of the language and history of Macedonia, Christian Foss, published in "Kultura" newspaper, 8 ed., August, 2001 As of 2000, Bulgaria started to grant Bulgarian citizenship to members of the Bulgarian minorities in a number of countries, including the Republic of Macedonia. The vast majority of the applications have been from Macedonian citizens. As of May 2004, some 14,000 Macedonians had applied for a Bulgarian citizenship on the grounds of Bulgarian origin and 4,000 of them had already received their Bulgarian passports. According to the official Bulgarian sources, in the period between 2000 to 2006 some 30 000 Macedonian citizens applied for Bulgarian citizenship, attracted by the Bulgaria's recent positive development and the opportunity to get European Union passports after Bulgaria joined EU on the beginning of 2007. In 2006 the former Macedonian Premier and chief of IMRO-DPMNE Ljubčo Georgievski became a Bulgarian citizen. The rules governing good neighbourly relations agreed between Bulgaria and the Republic of Macedonia were set in the Joint Declaration of February 22, 1999 reaffirmed by a joint memorandum signed on January 22, 2008 in Sofia. Bulgarian Policies on the Republic of Macedonia: Recommendations on the development of good neighbourly relations following Bulgaria's accession to the EU and in the context of NATO and EU enlargement in the Western Balkans. Sofia: Manfred Wörner Foundation, 2008. 80 pp. (Trilingual publication in Bulgarian, Macedonian and English) ISBN 978-954-92032-2-6 There are regular contacts between the Macedonian and Bulgarian officials, confirming the relatively good relationships between the two neighboring countries. Macedonian Radio Television:PM Gruevski visits Bulgaria, November 2007 Macedonian Information Agency:Bulgarian Prime Minister Stanishev visits Macedonia, December 2008 See also Macedonia (terminology) Demographic history of Macedonia Macedonia (Greece) Republic of Macedonia Blagoevgrad Province History of Europe History of the Balkans History of Greek Macedonia History of the Republic of Macedonia History of Greece History of Bulgaria History of Serbia Irredentism List of homonymous States and Regions References External links General Herodotus on the origins of the Makednoí History of Macedon General info - Macedonia Ancient Macedonia Museums of Macedonia Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki History of Macedonia since his création, at the end of kingdom in 148 BC Bulgarian perspective On-line books about Macedonia Ethnic Macedonian perspective History of Macedonia Ethnic Macedonian Minority in Greece Greek perspective Macedonia, The Historical Profile Pan Macedonian Association, Inc 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4,913 | List_of_kings_of_Persia | The following is a comprehensive list of kings of Persia, which includes all of the empires ruling over geographical Iran and their rulers. Early realms in Iran Elamite Kingdom, 3000–660 BC The Elamites were a people located in Susa, in what is now Khuzestan province. Their language was neither Semitic nor Indo-European, and they were the geographic precursors of the Persian/Median empire that later appeared. Some have offered evidence for a linguistic kinship between Elamite and the modern Dravidian languages of Southern India (see "Elamo-Dravidian languages") but this is not universally accepted. The proto-Elamites lived far back as 7,500 years ago in Iran. See remains here. Avan Dynasty (precise dates unknown) Peli (fl. c. 2500 BC) Tata (precise dates unknown) Ukku-Takhesh (precise dates unknown) Khishur (precise dates unknown) Shushun-Tarana (precise dates unknown) Napil-Khush (precise dates unknown) Kikku-Sive-Temti (precise dates unknown) Lukh-Ishshan (fl. c. 24th century) Khelu (fl. c. 24th century) Khita (fl. c. 23rd century) Kutik-Inshushinnak (fl. c . 2240) Simash Dynasty (precise dates unknown) Gir-Namme (fl. c. 2030) Enpi-Luhhan (fl. c. 2010) Khutran-Temtt (precise dates unknown) Kindattu (precise dates unknown) Indattu-Inshushinnak I (precise dates unknown) Tan-Rukhurater (precise dates unknown) Indattu-Inshushinnak II (precise dates unknown) Indattu-Napir (precise dates unknown) Indattu-Tempt (precise dates unknown) Eparti Dynasty (precise dates unknown) Eparti I (precise dates unknown) Eparti II (precise dates unknown) Eparti III (fl. c. 1850) Shilkhakha (precise dates unknown) Attakhushu (fl. c. 1830) Sirukdukh (fl. c. 1792) Shimut-Wartash (c. 1772 – c. 1770) Igehalkid Dynasty (c. 1350 – c. 1200 BC) Ige-Halki (c. 1350 – c. 1330) Pakhir-Ishshan (c. 1330 – c. 1310) Attar-Kittakh (c. 1310 – c. 1300) Khuman-Numena (c. 1300 – c. 1275) Untash-Naprisha (c. 1275 – c. 1240) Unpatar-Naprisha (c. 1240 – c. 1235) Kiddin-Khutran (c. 1235 – c. 1210) Shutrukid Dynasty (c. 1205 – c. 1100 BC) Khallutush-In-Shushinak (c. 1205 – c. 1185) Shutruk-Nahhunte (c. 1185 – c. 1155) Kutir-Nahhunte III (c. 1155 – c. 1150) Shilkhak-In-Shushinak (c. 1150 – c. 1120) Khutelutush-In-Shushinak (c. 1120 – c. 1110) Shilhana-Hamru-Lagamar (c. 1110 – ????) Late Elam Dynasty (743–644) Khumbanigash I (743–717) Shuttir-Nakhkhunte (717–699) Khallushu (699–693) Kutir-Nakhkhunte (693–692) Khumma-Menanu (692–689) Khumma-Khaldash I (689–681) Khumma-Khaldash II (681–680) Khumma-Khaldash II & Shilhak-In-Shushinak (680–676) Shilhak-In-Shushinak & Urtaku (676–664) Shilhak-In-Shushinak & Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak (664–653) Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak & Khumbanigash II (653–651) Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak & Tammaritu (651–649) Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak & Indabigash (649–648) Indabigash (648–647) Khumma-Khaldash III (647–644) Empires of Iran Median Empire, 728–550 BC Deioces,. 728–675 Phraortes, 675–653 Madius the Scythian, 653–625 Cyaxares, 625–585 Astyages, 585–550 The Medes were an Iranian people. The Persians, a closely related and subject people, revolted against the Median empire during the 6th century BC. Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BC پادشاهان هخامنشی Achaemenes, founder of the dynasty, king of Persia. Teispes of Anshan, his son, king of Persia, king of Anshan, died 640. Line of Cyrus Line of Ariaramnes Cyrus I of Anshan, son of Teispes, king of Anshan 640–580. Cambyses I of Anshan, his son, king of Anshan 580–559. Cyrus II the Great, his son, king of Anshan 559–529. He conquered the Median Empire in 550 and established the Persian Empire. Ariaramnes of Persia, son of Teispes, king of Persia. His reign is doubtful. Arsames of Persia, son of Ariaramnes, king of Persia until 550, died after 520. His reign is doubtful. His son Hystaspes was Satrap of Parthia under Cambyses II, Smerdis and his son Darius. Cyrus II the Great, established the Persian Empire and ruled it from 550–530. Cambyses II, his son, ruled 530–522. Smerdis, his alleged brother, ruled 522. Darius I the Great, son of Hystaspes, ruled 521–486. Xerxes the Great, his son, ruled 486–465. Artaxerxes I Longimanus, his son, ruled 464–424. Xerxes II, his son, ruled 424. Sogdianus, his half-brother, ruled 424–423. Darius II Nothus, his half-brother and rival, ruled 423–404. Artaxerxes II Memnon, his son, ruled 404–358 (see also Xenophon). Artaxerxes III Ochus, his son, ruled 358–338. Artaxerxes IV Arses, his son, ruled 338–336. Darius III Codomannus, great-grandson of Darius II, ruled 336–330. Artaxerxes V Bessus, a usurper who murdered Darius and continued the resistance against Alexander III the Great from 330–329. The epigraphic evidence for ancestors of Darius I the Great is highly suspect and might have been invented by that king. Macedonian rulers Argead Dynasty, 330–310 BC Alexander III the Great (330 BC–323) Philip III Arrhideus (323 BC–317) Alexander IV (323 BC–310) Seleucid dynasty, 305–164 BC Seleucus I Nicator (312/305–281) Antiochus I Soter (co-ruler from 291, ruled 281–261) Antiochus II Theos (261–246) Seleucus II Callinicus (246–225) Seleucus III Ceraunus (225–223) Antiochus III the Great (223–187) Seleucus IV Philopator (187–175) Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164) Antiochus V Eupator (164–162) Demetrius I Soter (162–150) Alexander Balas (150–145) Demetrius II Nicator (145–139) The Seleucid Dynasty gradually lost control of Persia. In 253, the Arsacid Dynasty established itself in Parthia. The Parthians gradually expanded their control, until by the mid 2nd century BC, the Seleucids had completely lost control of Persia. There were more Seleucid rulers of Syria and, for a time, Babylonia, after Antiochus IV, but none had any effective power in Persia). Iranian Empires of Iran Parthian Empire (Arsacid Empire), 247 BC – AD 224 There were various regional client dynasties, often with significant autonomy. Like the Elymais client Kingdom that occupied the area of ancient Elam, and kingdoms of Mesene in Lower Mesopotamia and Persis (Fars) in Central Iran, as well as Adiabene in Northern Mesopotamia.. Sassanid Empire, AD 224–651 Ardashir I, 224 to 241 Shapur I, 241–272, the first to claim universal rule: King of Iran and Aniran, (Aniran means the world of non-Iranians) Hormizd I, 272–273 Bahram I, 273–276 Bahram II, 276–293 Bahram III year 293 Narseh, 293–302 Hormizd II, 302–310 Shapur II, 310–379 Ardashir II, 379–383 Shapur III, 383–388 Bahram IV, 388–399 Yazdegerd I, 399–420 Bahram V, 420–438 Yazdegerd II, 438–457 Hormizd III, 457–459 Peroz I, 457–484 Balash, 484–488 Kavadh I, 488–531 Djamasp, 496–498 Khosrau I, 531–579 Hormizd IV, 579–590 Khosrau II, 590–628 Bahram VI, 590–591 Bistam, 591–592 Hormizd V year 593 Kavadh II, 628 Ardashir III, 628–630 Peroz II, 629 Shahrbaraz, 630 Boran (Purandokht) and others, 630–631 Hormizd VI (or V), 631–632 Yazdegerd III, 632–651 Arab caliphs rule All Persian provinces served under The Arabic Caliphate from 661 to 867. Umayyad dynasty, 661–750 Abbasid dynasty, 750–867 divided, 867–1029 Persian post-Islamic Empires of Persia Tahirids in Khorasan, 821–872 Taher ebne Hosein ebne Mos'ab, Emir 821–822 Talhat ebne Taher, 822–828 Abdollah ebne Taher, 828–844 Taher ebne Abdollah, 844–862 Muhammad of Khorasan, 862–872 Alavids, 864–928 Hasan ebne Zeid Hasani, Emir 864–884 Mohammad ebne Zeid, 884–900 Hasan ebne Ali Hoseini, 913–916 Hasan ebne Ghasem Hasani, 916–928 Ziyarids, 928–1043 Abolhojaj Mardavij ebne Ziyar, Emir 928–934 Abu Taher Voshmgeer ebne Ziyar, 934–967 Zahir-ol-doleh Behsotoon, 967–976 Shams ol Mo'ali Abol-hasan Ghaboos, 976–1012 Falak ol Mo'ali Manuchehr ebne Ghabus, 1012–1031 Anushiravan ebne Manuchehr, 1031–1043 Buyyids, 932–1056 Diylamids of Fars Emad o-dowleh Abol Hasan, Emir 932–939 Azad o-dowleh, 939–982 Sharaf o-dowleh, 982–989 Samsam o-dowleh, 989–998 Baha o-dowleh, 998–1012 Soltan o-dowleh, 1012–1024 Emad o-dowleh Abu Kalijar, 1024–1048 Malek Rahim Abu Nasr Khosrow Firuz, 1048–1055 Diylamids of Khuzestan and Kerman Mo'ez o-dowleh, 932–966 Azad o-dowleh, Bakhtiar 966–977 Azado o-dowleh Abu Shoja', 977–982 Baha o-dowleh, 989–1012 Soltan o-dowleh, 1012–1021 Abu Kalijar Marzban, 1043–1048 Ghavam o-dowleh, 1012–1028 Abu Mansur Fulad sotoon, 1048–1056 Diylamids of Rey, Isfahan, and Hamedan Rokn o-dowleh, Sultan 932–976 Mo'ayyed o-dowleh, 976–983 Fakhr o-dowleh, 976–997 Majd o-dowleh, 997–1029 Shams o-dowleh, 997–1021 Sama o-dowleh, 1021–1023 Saffarids in Seistan and beyond, 861–1002, Yagub Leith Saffar Abu Yusef Yaqub ebne Lais, surnamed "the coppersmith", Emir 861–878 Amr o ebne Lais, 878–900 Abol Hasan Taher ebne Mohammad ebne Amro ebne Lais, 900–908 Lais ebne Ali ebne Lais, 908–910 Abu Ali Mohammad ebne Ali ebne Lais, 910–910 Abu Jafar Ahmad ebne Mohammad ebne Khalf, 923–963 Abu Ahmad Khalf ebne Ahmad, 963–1002 Samanids (Proto-Tajiks), 892–998 Adel; Amir Mazi Abyu Ebrahim Esmail ebne Ahmad, Emir 892–907 Shaheed; Abu Nasr Ahmad ebne Esmail, 907–913 Saeed; Abol Hasan Nasr ebne Ahmad, 913–942 Hamid; Abu Mohammad Nuh ebne Nasr, 942–954 Rashid; Abul Foares Abdolmaleh ebne Nuh, 954–961 Mo'ayyed; Amir Sadeed Abu Saleh Mansur ebne Nuh, 961–976 Radhi; Shahanshah Abolqasem Nuh ebne Mansur, 976–996 Abol Hareth; Mansur ebne Nuh, 996–998 Abol Foares; AbdolMalek ebne Nuh, 998–998 Iraniate dynasties of Persia (Iran) Ghaznavids, 997–1186 Yameen o-dowleh AbolQasem Mahmud ebne Saboktekeen, Sultan 997–1030 Jalal o-dowleh Abu Ahmad Mohammad ebne Mahmud, 1030–1030 Shahab o-dowleh Abu Sa'd Masud ebne Mahmud, 1030–1040 Shahab o-dowleh Abolfath Modud ebne Masud, 1040–1049 Baha o-dowleh Abol Hasan Ali ebne Masud, 1049–1049 Azad o-dowleh Abu Mansur Abdol Rashid ebne Mahmud ebne Saboktekeen, 1049–1052 Jamal o-dowleh Abolfazl Farrokhzaad ebne Masud ebne Mahmud, 1052–1059 Zaheer o-dowleh Abol Mozaffar Ebrahim, 1059–1098 Ala o-dowleh Abu Saeed Masud ebne Ebrahim, 1098–1115 Soltan o-dowleh Abol-fath Arsalan Shah, 1115–1117 Yameen o-dowleh Abol Mozaffar Baharm Shah ebne Masud, 1117–1153 Taj o-dowleh Abol Shoja Khosro Shah ebne Bahram Shah, 1153–1160 Saraj o-dowleh Abolmolook Khosrow Malek ebne Khosro Shah, 1160–1186 Seljuks, 1029–1194 Toğrül bin Mikail (Tughril Beg), Sultan 1037–1063 Alp Arslan bin Chaghri 1063–1072 Jalal ad-Dawlah Malik Shah I 1072–1092 Nasir ad-Din Mahmud I 1092–1094 Rukn ad-Din Barkiyaruq 1094–1105 Mu'izz ad-Din Malik Shah II 1105 Ghiyath ad-Din Mehmed I Tapar (Muhammad) 1105–1118 Mu'izz ad-Din Ahmed Sanjar 1097–1157 Mahmud II 1118–1131 Dawud (David) 1131–1132 Toğrül II (Tughril Beg) 1132–1134 Mesud I 1134–1152 Malik Shah III 1152–1153 Mehmed II (Muhammad II) 1153–1160 Süleyman Shah (Sulaiman Shah) 1160–1161 Arslan Shah 1161–1176 Toğrül III (Tughril Beg III) 1176–1194 divided, 1194–1256 Khwarazmids, 1096–1230 An empire built from Azerbaidjan, covering part of Iran and neighbouring Central Asia. Ghotb-al-Din Muhammad I of Khwarazm ebne Anushtekeen Gharajeh, Shah (1096–1128) Ala-al-Din Abol Mozaffar Aziz ebne Ghotb-al-Din ebne Mohammad (1128–1156) Taj-al-Din Abolfath IlIl-Arslan (1156–1171) Jalal-al-Din Mahmud Soltanshah ebne Il Arsalan (1171–1172) Muhammad II of Khwarezm (Ala-al-Din Takesh ebne Il Arsalan) (1172–1199) Soltan Jalal-al-Din Mohammad ebne Aladdin Takesh (1199–1220) Jalal-al-Din Mingburnu ebne Ala-al-Din Mohammad (1220–1230) Permanently destroyed by Mongol empire. Ilkhans, 1256–1380 The preceding era of disunity, also called First era of fragmentation, was ended through conquest by the Ilkhans, a Mongol khanate, nominally subject to the Great Khan. (Ilkhan means governor of an il, i.e. province). Hülëgü Khan ebne Tulay ebne Genghis, Ilkhan 1256–1265 Abaqa Khan ebne Hulegu, 1265–1282 Sultan Ahmad Tekuder ebne Hulegu, 1282–1284 Arghun Khan ebne Abaqa, 1284-1291 Gaikhatu ebne Abaqa, 1291–1295 Baidukhan ebne Toghay ebne Hulegu, 1295 Ghazan Khan ebne Arghun, 1295–1304 Öljeitü Khoda bandeh ebne Arghun, 1304–1316 Abu Sa'id Bahador Khan ebne Oljeitu, 1316–1335 (last of Chinggisid il-khans) Arpa Ke'un, 1335–1336 Musa Khan ebne Ali, 1336–1353 Muhammad Khan ebne Mangu, 1337–1338 Sati beg, daughter of Oljeitu, 1338–1340 Shah Jahan Teimoor ebne Alafarang, 1338–1339 Soleiman Khan, 1340–1344 Togha Teimoor Khan, 1335–1352 Anushiravan e Adel, 1343–1355 The Second era of fragmentation begins in 1343, as remnants of the Hordes competed with local dynasts for authority. This era ends with the conquests by Timur, around 1380 Muzaffarid Dynasty, 1314–1393 Mubariz ad-Din Muhammad ibn al-Muzaffar, Emir 1314–1358 Abu'l Fawaris Djamal ad-Din Shah Shuja (at Yazd, 1353 at Shiraz), 1335–1364 with... Qutb Al-Din Shah Mahmud (at Isfahan) ( d. 1375), 1358–1366 Abu'l Fawaris Djamal ad-Din Shah Shuja (at Yazd, 1353 at Shiraz), 1366–1384 Mujahid ad-Din Zain Al-Abidin 'Ali, 1384–1387 In 1387 Timur captured Isfahan. Imad ad-Din Sultan Ahmad (at Kerman), 1387–1391 with... Mubariz ad-Din Shah Yahya (at Shiraz), 1387–1391 and... Sultan Abu Ishaq (in Sirajan), 1387–1391 Shah Mansur (at Isfahan), 1391–1393 Timurid dynasty, 1380–1507 Timur ("Tamerlane"), 1369–1405, nominally under the authority of the Chagatai Khanate The third era of fragmentation follows, as Timur's Empire loses cohesion and local rulers strive against each other. Pir Muhammad, grandson of Timur, 1392-1407, effectively ruled from Qandahar Djalal Ud-Din Miran Shah, son of Timur, 1405–1408, ruled Azerbaijan Rustam, 1405–1409, ruled Arabistan Khalil Sultan (Timurid dynasty), son of Miran Shah, 1405–1409, ruled in Samarkand, surrendered to Shah Rukh, became governor of Rayy until his death in 1411 Shah Rukh, son of Timur, 1405–1447, ruled first in Transoxiana Ayyal, 1414, opposed Shah Rukh Ailankar, 1414–1415, opposed Shah Rukh Bayqara, 1409–1412, ruled in Fars Iskandar, 1412–1414, ruled first in Fars, then Azerbaijan & Arabistan In 1410 the Turcoman horde Kara Koyunlu (Black Sheep) captured Baghdad and their leaders ruled the western parts of the Timurid realm. In the East however, Shah Rukh was able to secure his rule in Transoxiana and Fars. Ulugh Beg, son of Shah Rukh, 1447–1449 Rulers in Transoxiana: 'Abd al-Latif, son of Ulugh Beg, 1449–1450 ‘Abdullah Mirza, grandson of Shah Rukh, 1450–1451 Abu Sa'id ibn Muhammad, grandson of Miran Shah, 1451–1469, conquered Khurasan in 1459 Rulers in Khurasan: Babur Ibn-Baysunkur, grandson of Shah Rukh, 1449–1457 Shah Mahmud, son of Babur, 1457 Ibrahim, 1457 Jahan Shah, leader of the Black Sheep Turcomans, 1457–1458 Abu Sa'id, agreed to divide Iran with the Black Sheep Turcomans under Jahan Shah, but the White Sheep Turcomans under Uzun Hassan defeated and killed first Jahan Shah and then Abu Sa'id. After Abu Sa'id's death a fourth era of fragmentation follows. While the White Sheep Turcomans dominated in the western parts until the ascent of the Safavid dynasty, the Timurides could maintain their rule in Samarkand and Herat. Rulers in Samarkand: Sultan Ahmad, son Abu Sa'id, 1469–1494 Sultan Mahmud, son of Abu Sa'id, 1494–1495 Masud, 1495 Sultan Baysunghur, 1495–1497 Sultan Ali Mirza 1495–1500 conquered by the Uzbeks Rulers in Herat: Sultan Mahmud, son of Abu Sa'id, 1469 Husayn Bayqarah, 1469–1506 Badi' al-Zaman, son of Husayn, 1506–1507, fled to the court of Ismail I conquered by the Uzbeks, later recaptured by the Safavids Iranian Shahs of modern Persia The modern Iranian monarchy was established in 1502 after the Safavid Dynasty came to power under Shah Ismail I, and ended the so-called "fourth era" of political fragmentation. Safavid dynasty, 1502–1736 Safavi Line Ismail I 1501–1524 Tahmasp I 1524–1576 Ismail II 1576–1578 Mohammed Khodabanda 1578–1587 Abbas I 1587–1629 Safi 1629–1642 Abbas II 1642–1666 Suleiman I 1666–1694 Sultan Hoseyn I 1694–1722 Tahmasp II 1722–1726 First Time Marashi-Safavi Line Shah Ahmad Marashi 1726–1728 Safavi Line Tahmasp II 1728–1732 Abbas III 1732–1736 Marashi-Safavi Line Suleiman II 1749–1750 Sultani-Safavi Line Ismail III 1750 First Time Unknown House Mohammad Hossain Shah III 1750 –175] in Mazandaran. Deposed 1757. Sultani-Safavi Line Ismail III 1752–1761 Second Time Unknown-Sultani-Safavi Line Mohammad Shah 1786 He married the daughter of Ismail III and was installed by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar Quyunlu. From his descendants come the Beys of Tunisia (through his daughter). Hotaki dynasty, 1722-1729 Mir Mahmud Hotaki 1722–1725 Ashraf Khan Hotaki 1725–1729 Afsharid dynasty, 1736–1797 Nader Shah, 1736–1747 Adil Shah, 1747–1748 Ebrahim Afshar, 1748 Shah Rukh, 1748–1797, he lost power in 1750 but nominally remained Shah. Zand dynasty, 1750–1794 Here begins the modern history of the nation-state Iran. After the fall of the Afsharids, the eastern lands of Persia were lost to Pashtun tribes who created their own independent kingdom, which later became known as Afghanistan, however still a great portion of Afghanistan was a part of Persia, which was separated from Persia at the time of Qajars. For more information, see History of Afghanistan. The Zand kings never styled himself as "shah" or king, and instead used the title President (Vakil ar-Ra'aayaa وکیل الرعایا). Karim Khan, 1750–1779 Abol Fath Khan, 1779 Mohammad Ali Khan, 1779 Sadiq Khan, 1779–1782 Ali Murad Khan, 1782–1785 Jafar Khan, 1785–1789 Lotf Ali Khan, 1789–1794 Qajar dynasty, 1794–1925 دودمان قاجار Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, 1794–1797 Fath Ali Shah, 1797–1834 Ali Mirza Qajar, usurper, 1834 (40 days) Mohammad Shah Qajar, 1834–1848 Nasser-al-Din Shah, 1848–1896 Mozzafar-al-Din Shah, 1896–1907 Mohammad Ali Shah, 1907–1909 Ahmad Shah Qajar 1909–1925 Pahlavi dynasty, 1925–1979 دودمان پهلوی Reza Shah Pahlavi, 15 December 1925 – 16 September 1941 (crowned 25 April 1926) Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, 16 September 1941 – 11 February 1979 (crowned 26 October 1967) and his wife Empress Farah Pahlavi (born 14 October 1938). In 1979 a revolution led by Ayatollah Khomeini forced Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi into exile, and established an Islamic Republic on 1 April 1979. See also History of Iran Persian Empire Shahzada | List_of_kings_of_Persia |@lemmatized following:1 comprehensive:1 list:1 king:13 persia:16 include:1 empire:18 rule:27 geographical:1 iran:12 ruler:9 early:1 realm:2 elamite:3 kingdom:4 bc:14 people:3 locate:1 susa:1 khuzestan:2 province:3 language:3 neither:1 semitic:1 indo:1 european:1 geographic:1 precursor:1 persian:7 median:4 later:3 appear:1 offer:1 evidence:2 linguistic:1 kinship:1 modern:4 dravidian:2 southern:1 india:1 see:5 elamo:1 universally:1 accept:1 proto:2 elamites:1 live:1 far:6 back:1 year:3 ago:1 remain:2 avan:1 dynasty:26 precise:19 date:19 unknown:21 peli:1 fl:10 c:41 tata:1 ukku:1 takhesh:1 khishur:1 shushun:1 tarana:1 napil:1 khush:1 kikku:1 sive:1 temti:1 lukh:1 ishshan:2 century:5 khelu:1 khita:1 kutik:1 inshushinnak:3 simash:1 gir:1 namme:1 enpi:1 luhhan:1 khutran:2 temtt:1 kindattu:1 indattu:4 tan:1 rukhurater:1 ii:35 napir:1 tempt:1 eparti:4 iii:23 shilkhakha:1 attakhushu:1 sirukdukh:1 shimut:1 wartash:1 igehalkid:1 ige:1 halki:1 pakhir:1 attar:1 kittakh:1 khuman:1 numena:1 untash:1 naprisha:2 unpatar:1 kiddin:1 shutrukid:1 khallutush:1 shushinak:10 shutruk:1 nahhunte:2 kutir:2 shilkhak:1 khutelutush:1 shilhana:1 hamru:1 lagamar:1 late:1 elam:2 khumbanigash:2 shuttir:1 nakhkhunte:2 khallushu:1 khumma:9 menanu:1 khaldash:4 shilhak:3 urtaku:1 tempti:1 atta:3 tammaritu:1 indabigash:2 deioces:1 phraortes:1 madius:1 scythian:1 cyaxares:1 astyages:1 medes:1 iranian:5 closely:1 related:1 subject:2 revolt:1 achaemenid:1 پادشاهان:1 هخامنشی:1 achaemenes:1 founder:1 teispes:3 anshan:7 son:26 die:2 line:9 cyrus:4 ariaramnes:3 cambyses:3 great:11 conquer:4 establish:5 reign:2 doubtful:2 arsames:1 hystaspes:2 satrap:1 parthia:2 smerdis:2 darius:7 alleged:1 brother:3 xerxes:2 artaxerxes:5 longimanus:1 sogdianus:1 half:2 nothus:1 rival:1 memnon:1 also:3 xenophon:1 ochus:1 iv:7 arses:1 codomannus:1 grandson:5 v:5 bessus:1 usurper:2 murder:1 continue:1 resistance:1 alexander:4 epigraphic:1 ancestor:1 highly:1 suspect:1 might:1 invent:1 macedonian:1 argead:1 philip:1 arrhideus:1 seleucid:3 seleucus:4 nicator:2 antiochus:6 soter:2 co:1 theos:1 callinicus:1 ceraunus:1 philopator:1 epiphanes:1 eupator:1 demetrius:2 balas:1 gradually:2 lose:5 control:3 arsacid:2 parthian:2 expand:1 mid:1 seleucids:1 completely:1 syria:1 time:5 babylonia:1 none:1 effective:1 power:3 ad:14 various:1 regional:1 client:2 often:1 significant:1 autonomy:1 like:1 elymais:1 occupy:1 area:1 ancient:1 mesene:1 low:1 mesopotamia:2 persis:1 central:2 well:1 adiabene:1 northern:1 sassanid:1 ardashir:3 shapur:3 first:7 claim:1 universal:1 aniran:2 mean:2 world:1 non:1 hormizd:6 bahram:7 narseh:1 yazdegerd:3 peroz:2 balash:1 kavadh:2 djamasp:1 khosrau:2 vi:2 bistam:1 shahrbaraz:1 boran:1 purandokht:1 others:1 arab:1 caliph:1 serve:1 arabic:1 caliphate:1 umayyad:1 abbasid:1 divide:3 post:1 islamic:2 tahirids:1 khorasan:2 taher:6 ebne:68 hosein:1 mo:6 ab:1 emir:7 talhat:1 abdollah:2 muhammad:9 alavids:1 hasan:8 zeid:2 hasani:2 mohammad:18 ali:16 hoseini:1 ghasem:1 ziyarids:1 abolhojaj:1 mardavij:1 ziyar:2 abu:28 voshmgeer:1 zahir:1 ol:3 doleh:1 behsotoon:1 sham:2 abol:13 ghaboos:1 falak:1 manuchehr:2 ghabus:1 anushiravan:2 buyyids:1 diylamids:3 emad:2 dowleh:32 azad:3 sharaf:1 samsam:1 baha:3 soltan:4 kalijar:2 malek:2 rahim:1 nasr:4 khosrow:2 firuz:1 kerman:2 ez:1 bakhtiar:1 azado:1 shoja:2 marzban:1 ghavam:1 mansur:6 fulad:1 sotoon:1 rey:1 isfahan:4 hamedan:1 rokn:1 sultan:13 ayyed:2 fakhr:1 majd:1 sama:1 saffarids:1 seistan:1 beyond:1 yagub:1 leith:1 saffar:1 yusef:1 yaqub:1 lais:6 surnamed:1 coppersmith:1 amr:1 amro:1 jafar:2 ahmad:12 khalf:2 samanids:1 tajik:1 adel:2 amir:2 mazi:1 abyu:1 ebrahim:4 esmail:2 shaheed:1 saeed:2 hamid:1 nuh:6 rashid:2 abul:1 foares:2 abdolmaleh:1 sadeed:1 saleh:1 radhi:1 shahanshah:1 abolqasem:2 hareth:1 abdolmalek:1 iraniate:1 ghaznavids:1 yameen:2 mahmud:13 saboktekeen:2 jalal:5 shahab:2 sa:9 masud:7 abolfath:2 modud:1 abdol:1 jamal:1 abolfazl:1 farrokhzaad:1 zaheer:1 mozaffar:3 ala:4 fath:3 arsalan:3 shah:52 baharm:1 taj:2 khosro:2 saraj:1 abolmolook:1 seljuk:1 toğrül:3 bin:2 mikail:1 tughril:3 beg:6 alp:1 arslan:3 chaghri:1 dawlah:1 malik:3 nasir:1 din:24 rukn:1 barkiyaruq:1 mu:2 izz:2 ghiyath:1 mehmed:2 tapar:1 ahmed:1 sanjar:1 dawud:1 david:1 mesud:1 süleyman:1 sulaiman:1 khwarazmids:1 build:1 azerbaidjan:1 cover:1 part:4 neighbouring:1 asia:1 ghotb:2 al:16 khwarazm:1 anushtekeen:1 gharajeh:1 aziz:1 ilil:1 soltanshah:1 il:4 khwarezm:1 takesh:2 aladdin:1 mingburnu:1 permanently:1 destroy:1 mongol:2 ilkhans:2 precede:1 era:7 disunity:1 call:2 fragmentation:5 end:3 conquest:2 khanate:2 nominally:3 khan:21 ilkhan:2 governor:2 e:2 hülëgü:1 tulay:1 genghis:1 abaqa:3 hulegu:3 tekuder:1 arghun:3 gaikhatu:1 baidukhan:1 toghay:1 ghazan:1 öljeitü:1 khoda:1 bandeh:1 id:8 bahador:1 oljeitu:2 last:1 chinggisid:1 arpa:1 ke:1 un:1 musa:1 mangu:1 sati:1 daughter:3 jahan:4 teimoor:2 alafarang:1 soleiman:1 togha:1 second:2 begin:2 remnant:1 horde:2 compete:1 local:2 dynast:1 authority:2 timur:7 around:1 muzaffarid:1 mubariz:2 ibn:3 muzaffar:1 l:2 fawaris:2 djamal:2 shuja:2 yazd:2 shiraz:3 qutb:1 mujahid:1 zain:1 abidin:1 capture:2 imad:1 yahya:1 ishaq:1 sirajan:1 timurid:3 tamerlane:1 chagatai:1 third:1 follow:2 cohesion:1 strive:1 pir:1 effectively:1 qandahar:1 djalal:1 ud:1 miran:3 azerbaijan:2 rustam:1 arabistan:2 khalil:1 samarkand:3 surrender:1 rukh:9 become:2 rayy:1 death:2 transoxiana:3 ayyal:1 oppose:2 ailankar:1 bayqara:1 iskandar:1 turcoman:5 kara:1 koyunlu:1 black:3 sheep:5 baghdad:1 leader:2 western:2 east:1 however:2 able:1 secure:1 ulugh:2 abd:1 latif:1 abdullah:1 mirza:3 khurasan:2 babur:2 baysunkur:1 ibrahim:1 agree:1 white:2 uzun:1 hassan:1 defeat:1 kill:1 fourth:2 dominate:1 ascent:1 safavid:3 timurides:1 could:1 maintain:1 herat:2 baysunghur:1 uzbeks:1 husayn:2 bayqarah:1 badi:1 zaman:1 flee:1 court:1 ismail:7 uzbek:1 recapture:1 safavids:1 monarchy:1 come:2 political:1 safavi:7 tahmasp:3 mohammed:1 khodabanda:1 abbas:3 safi:1 suleiman:2 hoseyn:1 marashi:3 sultani:3 house:1 hossain:1 mazandaran:1 deposed:1 marry:1 instal:1 agha:2 qajar:6 quyunlu:1 descendant:1 bey:1 tunisia:1 hotaki:3 mir:1 ashraf:1 afsharid:1 nader:1 adil:1 afshar:1 zand:2 history:3 nation:1 state:1 fall:1 afsharids:1 eastern:1 land:1 pashtun:1 tribe:1 create:1 independent:1 know:1 afghanistan:3 still:1 portion:1 separate:1 qajars:1 information:1 never:1 style:1 instead:1 use:1 title:1 president:1 vakil:1 ar:1 ra:1 aayaa:1 وکیل:1 الرعایا:1 karim:1 sadiq:1 murad:1 lotf:1 دودمان:2 قاجار:1 day:1 nasser:1 mozzafar:1 pahlavi:5 پهلوی:1 reza:3 december:1 september:2 crown:2 april:2 february:1 october:2 wife:1 empress:1 farah:1 born:1 revolution:1 lead:1 ayatollah:1 khomeini:1 force:1 exile:1 republic:1 shahzada:1 |@bigram indo_european:1 universally_accept:1 closely_related:1 achaemenid_empire:1 seleucid_dynasty:2 antiochus_iii:1 antiochus_iv:2 iv_epiphanes:1 sassanid_empire:1 shapur_ii:1 abbasid_dynasty:1 mohammad_ebne:6 abol_hasan:5 dowleh_abol:6 dowleh_abu:8 ebne_lais:5 tughril_beg:3 alp_arslan:1 malik_shah:3 ad_din:11 izz_ad:2 mehmed_ii:1 jalal_al:3 khan_ebne:7 sa_id:8 shah_jahan:1 muhammad_ibn:1 shah_shuja:2 ud_din:1 shah_rukh:9 abd_al:1 sheep_turcoman:4 safavid_dynasty:3 sultan_mahmud:2 shah_ismail:1 safavi_line:7 mir_mahmud:1 mahmud_hotaki:1 nader_shah:1 pashtun_tribe:1 mohammad_ali:2 qajar_dynasty:1 ahmad_shah:1 reza_shah:2 mohammad_reza:2 ayatollah_khomeini:1 reza_pahlavi:1 |
4,914 | Infinite_product | In mathematics, for a sequence of numbers a1, a2, a3, ... the infinite product is defined to be the limit of the partial products a1a2...an as n increases without bound. The product is said to converge when the limit exists and is not zero. Otherwise the product is said to diverge. The value zero is treated specially in order to obtain results analogous to those for infinite sums. If the product converges, then the limit of the sequence an as n increases without bound must be 1, while the converse is in general not true. Therefore, the logarithm log an will be defined for all but a finite number of n, and for those we have with the product on the left converging if and only if the sum on the right converges. This allows the translation of convergence criteria for infinite sums into convergence criteria for infinite products. For products in which each , written as, for instance, , where , the bounds show that the infinite product converges precisely if the infinite sum of the pn converges. The best known examples of infinite products are probably some of the formulae for , such as the following two products, respectively by Viète and John Wallis (Wallis product): Product representations of functions One important result concerning infinite products is that every entire function f(z) (that is, every function that is holomorphic over the entire complex plane) can be factored into an infinite product of entire functions, each with at most a single root. In general, if f has a root of order m at the origin and has other complex roots at u1, u2, u3, ... (listed with multiplicities equal to their orders), then where λn are non-negative integers that can be chosen to make the product converge, and φ(z) is some uniquely determined analytic function (which means the term before the product will have no roots in the complex plane). The above factorization is not unique, since it depends on the choice of values for λn, and is not especially elegant. However, for most functions, there will be some minimum non-negative integer p such that λn = p gives a convergent product, called the canonical product representation. This p is called the rank of the canonical product. In the event that p = 0, this takes the form This can be regarded as a generalization of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, since the product becomes finite and φ(z) is constant for polynomials. In addition to these examples, the following representations are of special note: Sine functionEuler - Wallis' formula for π is a special case of this.Gamma functionSchlömilchWeierstrass sigma functionHere is the lattice without the origin.Riemann zeta function<td> Here pn denotes the sequence of prime numbers. Note that the last of these is not a product representation of the same sort discussed above, as ζ is not entire. See also Infinite products in trigonometry Infinite series Continued fraction Iterated binary operation External links Infinite products from Wolfram Math World | Infinite_product |@lemmatized mathematics:1 sequence:3 number:3 infinite:12 product:24 define:2 limit:3 partial:1 n:3 increase:2 without:3 bound:3 say:2 converge:2 exists:1 zero:2 otherwise:1 diverge:1 value:2 treat:1 specially:1 order:3 obtain:1 result:2 analogous:1 sum:4 converges:4 must:1 converse:1 general:2 true:1 therefore:1 logarithm:1 log:1 finite:2 left:1 converging:1 right:1 allow:1 translation:1 convergence:2 criterion:2 write:1 instance:1 show:1 precisely:1 pn:2 best:1 known:1 example:2 probably:1 formula:2 follow:1 two:1 respectively:1 viète:1 john:1 wallis:3 representation:4 function:7 one:1 important:1 concern:1 every:2 entire:4 f:2 z:3 holomorphic:1 complex:3 plane:2 factor:1 single:1 root:4 origin:2 list:1 multiplicity:1 equal:1 λn:3 non:2 negative:2 integer:2 choose:1 make:1 φ:2 uniquely:1 determine:1 analytic:1 mean:1 term:1 factorization:1 unique:1 since:2 depend:1 choice:1 especially:1 elegant:1 however:1 minimum:1 p:4 give:1 convergent:1 call:2 canonical:2 rank:1 event:1 take:1 form:1 regard:1 generalization:1 fundamental:1 theorem:1 algebra:1 become:1 constant:1 polynomial:1 addition:1 following:1 special:2 note:2 sine:1 functioneuler:1 π:1 case:1 gamma:1 functionschlömilchweierstrass:1 sigma:1 functionhere:1 lattice:1 riemann:1 zeta:1 td:1 denote:1 prime:1 last:1 sort:1 discuss:1 ζ:1 see:1 also:1 trigonometry:1 series:1 continue:1 fraction:1 iterate:1 binary:1 operation:1 external:1 link:1 wolfram:1 math:1 world:1 |@bigram uniquely_determine:1 riemann_zeta:1 zeta_function:1 external_link:1 |
4,915 | Harald_Tveit_Alvestrand | Harald Tveit Alvestrand (born 29 June, 1959) is a Norwegian computer scientist. He was the chairman of the Internet Engineering Task Force from 2001 until 2005. He is an author of several important RFCs, many in the general area of Internationalization and localization. He was born in Namsos, Norway, received his education from Bergen Katedralskole and the Norwegian Institute of Technology, and has worked for Norsk Data, UNINETT, EDB Maxware and Cisco Systems, Inc.. He currently (2008) lives in Trondheim, Norway, and works for Google. At the end of 2007 Harald Alvestrand was selected for the ICANN Board. In 2001 he became a member of the Unicode Board of Directors. He is a co-Chair of the IETF EAI and USEFOR WGs. Harald Alvestrand is the Executive Director of the Linux Counter Organization. , He is a member of the Norid Board. Publications Best Current Practices RFC 2148 (BCP 15) Deployment of the Internet White Pages Service RFC 2277 (BCP 18) IETF Policy on Character Sets and Languages RFC 5226 (BCP 26) Guidelines for Writing an IANA Considerations Section in RFCs RFC 2438 (BCP 27) Advancement of MIB specifications on the IETF Standards Track RFC 1766 + RFC 3066 Tags for the Identification of Languages (was BCP 47) RFC 3932 (BCP 92) The IESG and RFC Editor Documents: Procedures RFC 3935 (BCP 95) A Mission Statement for the IETF Other important RFCs RFC 2130 (this memo prepared the UTF-8 50-years plan in RFC 2277) RFC 2157 Mapping between X.400 and RFC-822/MIME Message Bodies RFC 3282 Content Language Headers (draft standard) RFC 4450 Getting Rid of the Cruft (major RFC cleanup work) RFC 5242 A Generalized Unified Character Code: Western European and CJK Sections (with John Klensin) April 1 2008 References External links Alvestrand home page Harald Alvestrand's IETF activities (by Alvestrand, last updated 2002) Portrait | Harald_Tveit_Alvestrand |@lemmatized harald:4 tveit:1 alvestrand:6 born:1 june:1 norwegian:2 computer:1 scientist:1 chairman:1 internet:2 engineering:1 task:1 force:1 author:1 several:1 important:2 rfcs:3 many:1 general:1 area:1 internationalization:1 localization:1 bear:1 namsos:1 norway:2 receive:1 education:1 bergen:1 katedralskole:1 institute:1 technology:1 work:3 norsk:1 data:1 uninett:1 edb:1 maxware:1 cisco:1 system:1 inc:1 currently:1 live:1 trondheim:1 google:1 end:1 select:1 icann:1 board:3 become:1 member:2 unicode:1 director:2 co:1 chair:1 ietf:5 eai:1 usefor:1 wgs:1 executive:1 linux:1 counter:1 organization:1 norid:1 publication:1 best:1 current:1 practice:1 rfc:17 bcp:7 deployment:1 white:1 page:2 service:1 policy:1 character:2 set:1 language:3 guideline:1 write:1 iana:1 consideration:1 section:2 advancement:1 mib:1 specification:1 standard:2 track:1 tag:1 identification:1 iesg:1 editor:1 document:1 procedure:1 mission:1 statement:1 memo:1 prepare:1 utf:1 year:1 plan:1 mapping:1 x:1 mime:1 message:1 body:1 content:1 header:1 draft:1 get:1 rid:1 cruft:1 major:1 cleanup:1 generalize:1 unified:1 code:1 western:1 european:1 cjk:1 john:1 klensin:1 april:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 activity:1 last:1 updated:1 portrait:1 |@bigram internationalization_localization:1 rfc_bcp:6 rfcs_rfc:2 rfc_rfc:2 rfc_mime:1 external_link:1 |
4,916 | MATLAB | MATLAB is a numerical computing environment and fourth generation programming language. Maintained by The MathWorks, MATLAB allows easy matrix manipulation, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs in other languages. Although it is numeric only, an optional toolbox uses the MuPAD symbolic engine, allowing access to computer algebra capabilities. An additional package, Simulink, adds graphical multidomain simulation and Model-Based Design for dynamic and embedded systems. In 2004, MathWorks claimed that MATLAB was used by more than one million people across industry and the academic world. Richard Goering, "Matlab edges closer to electronic design automation world," EE Times, 10/04/2004 History MATLAB (meaning "matrix laboratory") was invented in the late 1970s by Cleve Moler, then chairman of the computer science department at the University of New Mexico. He designed it to give his students access to LINPACK and EISPACK without having to learn Fortran. It soon spread to other universities and found a strong audience within the applied mathematics community. Jack Little, an engineer, was exposed to it during a visit Moler made to Stanford University in 1983. Recognizing its commercial potential, he joined with Moler and Steve Bangert. They rewrote MATLAB in C and founded The MathWorks in 1984 to continue its development. These rewritten libraries were known as JACKPAC. In 2000, MATLAB was rewritten to use a newer set of libraries for matrix manipulation, LAPACK Note from Cleve Moler in a Mathworks newsletter . MATLAB was first adopted by control design engineers, Little's specialty, but quickly spread to many other domains. It is now also used in education, in particular the teaching of linear algebra and numerical analysis, and is popular amongst scientists involved with image processing. Syntax MATLAB, the application, is built around the MATLAB language. The simplest way to execute MATLAB code is to type it in at the prompt, >> , in the Command Window, one of the elements of the MATLAB Desktop. In this way, MATLAB can be used as an interactive mathematical shell. Sequences of commands can be saved in a text file, typically using the MATLAB Editor, as a script or encapsulated into a function, extending the commands available. MATLAB technical documentation Variables Variables are defined with the assignment operator, =. MATLAB is dynamically typed, meaning that variables can be assigned without declaring their type, except if they are to be treated as symbolic objects sym function Documentation for the MATLAB Symbolic Toolbox , and that their type can change. Values can come from constants, from computation involving values of other variables, or from the output of a function. For example: >> x = 17 x = 17 >> x = 'hat' x = hat >> x = [3*4, pi/2] x = 12.0000 1.5708 >> y = 3*sin(x) y = -1.6097 3.0000 Vectors/Matrices MATLAB is a "Matrix Laboratory", and as such it provides many convenient ways for creating vectors, matrices, and multi-dimensional arrays. In the MATLAB vernacular, a vector refers to a one dimensional (1×N or N×1) matrix, commonly referred to as an array in other programming languages. A matrix generally refers to a 2-dimensional array, i.e. an m×n array where m and n are greater than or equal to 1. Arrays with more than two dimensions are referred to as multidimensional arrays. MATLAB provides a simple way to define simple arrays using the syntax: init:increment:terminator. For instance: >> array = 1:2:9 array = 1 3 5 7 9 defines a variable named array (or assigns a new value to an existing variable with the name array) which is an array consisting of the values 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9. That is, the array starts at 1 (the init value), increments with each step from the previous value by 2 (the increment value), and stops once it reaches (or to avoid exceeding) 9 (the terminator value). >> array = 1:3:9 array = 1 4 7 the increment value can actually be left out of this syntax (along with one of the colons), to use a default value of 1. >> ari = 1:5 ari = 1 2 3 4 5 assigns to the variable named ari an array with the values 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, since the default value of 1 is used as the incrementer. Indexing is one-based MATLAB , which is the usual convention for matrices in mathematics. This is atypical for programming languages, whose arrays more often start with zero. Matrices can be defined by separating the elements of a row with blank space or comma and using a semicolon to terminate each row. The list of elements should be surrounded by square brackets: []. Parentheses: () are used to access elements and subarrays (they are also used to denote a function argument list). >> A = [16 3 2 13; 5 10 11 8; 9 6 7 12; 4 15 14 1] A = 16 3 2 13 5 10 11 8 9 6 7 12 4 15 14 1 >> A(2,3) ans = 11 Sets of indices can be specified by expressions such as "2:4", which evaluates to [2, 3, 4]. For example, a submatrix taken from rows 2 through 4 and columns 3 through 4 can be written as: >> A(2:4,3:4) ans = 11 8 7 12 14 1 A square identity matrix of size n can be generated using the function eye, and matrices of any size with zeros or ones can be generated with the functions zeros and ones, respectively. >> eye(3) ans = 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 >> zeros(2,3) ans = 0 0 0 0 0 0 >> ones(2,3) ans = 1 1 1 1 1 1 Most MATLAB functions can accept matrices and will apply themselves to each element. For example, mod(2*J,n) will multiply every element in "J" by 2, and then reduce each element modulo "n". MATLAB does include standard "for" and "while" loops, but using MATLAB's vectorized notation often produces code that is easier to read and faster to execute. This code, excerpted from the function magic.m, creates a magic square M for odd values of n (MATLAB function meshgrid is used here to generate square matrices I and J containing 1:n). [J,I] = meshgrid(1:n); A = mod(I+J-(n+3)/2,n); B = mod(I+2*J-2,n); M = n*A + B + 1; Semicolon Unlike many other languages, where the semicolon is used to terminate commands, in MATLAB the semicolon serves to suppress the output of the line that it concludes. That is to say: if a statement is not terminated with a semicolon, then the result of the statement is displayed. A statement that does not explicitly return a result, for instance 'clc', will behave the same whether or not a semicolon is included. The MathWorks, MATLAB Function Reference, accessed 12 October, 2006. Additionally, a semicolon may be used within a vector or matrix declaration in order to separate rows (as opposed to a comma which separates columns within the same row). For example, a row vector will be declared as r = [1,2,3]. On the other hand a column vector will be <code>c = [1;2;3]<code>. Graphics Function plot can be used to produce a graph from two vectors x and y. The code: x = 0:pi/100:2*pi; y = sin(x); plot(x,y) produces the following figure of the sine function: Three-dimensional graphics can be produced using the functions surf, plot3 or mesh. [X,Y] = meshgrid(-10:0.25:10,-10:0.25:10); f = sinc(sqrt((X/pi).^2+(Y/pi).^2)); mesh(X,Y,f); axis([-10 10 -10 10 -0.3 1]) xlabel('{\bfx}') ylabel('{\bfy}') zlabel('{\bfsinc} ({\bfR})') hidden off [X,Y] = meshgrid(-10:0.25:10,-10:0.25:10); f = sinc(sqrt((X/pi).^2+(Y/pi).^2)); surf(X,Y,f); axis([-10 10 -10 10 -0.3 1]) xlabel('{\bfx}') ylabel('{\bfy}') zlabel('{\bfsinc} ({\bfR})') This code produces a wireframe 3D plot of the two-dimensional unnormalized sinc function: This code produces a surface 3D plot of the two-dimensional unnormalized sinc function:Image:MATLAB mesh sinc3D.svg Image:MATLAB surf sinc3D.svg Object-Oriented Programming MATLAB's support for object-oriented programming includes classes, inheritance, virtual dispatch, packages, pass-by-value semantics, and pass-by-reference semantics. MATLAB Class Overview classdef hello methods function doit(this) disp('hello') end end end When put into a file named hello.m, this can be executed with the following commands: >> x = hello; >> x.doit; hello Limitations For a long time there was criticism that because MATLAB is a proprietary product of The MathWorks, users are subject to vendor lock-in. Jan Stafford, "The Wrong Choice: Locked in by license restrictions," SearchOpenSource.com, 21 May 2003 Richard Goering, "Matlab edges closer to electronic design automation world," EE Times, 10/04/2004 Recently an additional tool called the MATLAB Builder under the Application Deployment tools section has been provided to deploy MATLAB functions as library files which can be used with .NET or Java application building environment. But the drawback is that the computer where the application has to be deployed needs MCR (MATLAB Component Runtime) for the MATLAB files to function normally. MCR can be distributed freely with library files generated by the MATLAB compiler. MATLAB, like Fortran, Visual Basic and Ada, uses parentheses, e.g. y = f(x), for both indexing into an array and calling a function. Although this syntax can facilitate a switch between a procedure and a lookup table, both of which correspond to mathematical functions, a careful reading of the code may be required to establish the intent. Many functions have a different behavior with matrix and vector arguments. Since vectors are matrices of one row or one column, this can give unexpected results. For instance, function sum(A) where A is a matrix gives a row vector containing the sum of each column of A, and sum(v) where v is a column or row vector gives the sum of its elements; hence the programmer must be careful if the matrix argument of sum can degenerate into a single-row array. MATLAB Function Reference - SUM While sum and many similar functions accept an optional argument to specify a direction, others, like plot, plot :: Functions (MATLAB Function Reference) do not, and require additional checks. There are other cases where MATLAB's interpretation of code may not be consistently what the user intended (e.g. how spaces are handled inside brackets as separators where it makes sense but not where it doesn't, or backslash escape sequences which are interpreted by some functions like fprintf but not directly by the language parser because it wouldn't be convenient for Windows directories). What might be considered as a convenience for commands typed interactively where the user can check that MATLAB does what the user wants may be less supportive of the need to construct reusable code. Array indexing is one-based which is the common convention for matrices in mathematics, but does not accommodate any indexing convention of sequences that have zero or negative indices. For instance, in MATLAB the DFT (or FFT) is defined with the DC component at index 1 instead of index 0, which is not consistent with the standard definition of the DFT in any literature. This one-based indexing convention is hard coded into MATLAB, making it difficult for a user to define their own zero-based or negative indexed arrays to concisely model an idea having non-positive indices. Code written for a specific release of MATLAB often does not run with earlier releases as it may use some of the newer features. To give just one example: save('x','filename') saves the variable x in a file. The variable can be loaded with load('filename') in the same MATLAB release. However, if saved with MATLAB version 7 or later, it cannot be loaded with MATLAB version 6 or earlier. As workaround, in MATLAB version 7 save('x','filename','-v6') generates a file that can be read with version 6. However, executing save('x','filename','-v6') in version 6 causes an error message. Interactions with other languages MATLAB can call functions and subroutines written in the C programming language or Fortran. A wrapper function is created allowing MATLAB data types to be passed and returned. The dynamically loadable object files created by compiling such functions are termed "MEX-files" (for Matlab EXecutable). Libraries written in Java or ActiveX can be directly called from MATLAB and many MATLAB libraries (for example XML or SQL support) are implemented as wrappers around Java or ActiveX libraries. Calling MATLAB from Java is more complicated, but can be done with MATLAB extension MathWorks: MATLAB Builder JA , which is sold separately by MathWorks. Through the MATLAB Toolbox for Maple, MATLAB commands can be called from within the Maple Computer Algebra System, and vice versa. Alternatives MATLAB has a number of competitors. There are free open source alternatives to MATLAB, in particular GNU Octave, FreeMat, and Scilab which are intended to be mostly compatible with the MATLAB language (but not the Matlab desktop environment). Among other languages that treat arrays as basic entities (array programming languages) are APL and its successor J, Fortran 95 and 2003, as well as the statistical language S (the main implementations of S are S-PLUS and the popular open source language R). There are also several libraries to add similar functionality to existing languages, such as Perl Data Language for Perl and SciPy together with NumPy and Matplotlib for Python. Release history version release name Year MATLAB 1.0 R? 1984 MATLAB 2 R? 1986 MATLAB 3 R? 1987 MATLAB 3.5 R? 1990 MATLAB 4 R? 1992 MATLAB 4.2c R7 1994 MATLAB 5.0 R8 1996 MATLAB 5.1 R9 1997 MATLAB 5.1.1 R9.1 MATLAB 5.2 R10 1998 MATLAB 5.2.1 R10.1 MATLAB 5.3 R11 1999 MATLAB 5.3.1 R11.1 MATLAB 6.0 R12 2000 MATLAB 6.1 R12.1 2001 MATLAB 6.5 R13 2002 MATLAB 6.5.1 R13SP1 2003 MATLAB 6.5.2 R13SP2 MATLAB 7 R14 2004 MATLAB 7.0.1 R14SP1 MATLAB 7.0.4 R14SP2 2005 MATLAB 7.1 R14SP3 MATLAB 7.2 R2006a 2006 MATLAB 7.3 R2006b MATLAB 7.4 R2007a 2007 MATLAB 7.5 R2007b MATLAB 7.6 R2008a 2008 MATLAB 7.7 R2008b MATLAB 7.8 R2009a 2009 See also P-code machine Psychtoolbox References Further reading External links MATLAB overview, at The MathWorks website Information about the history of and inspiration for MATLAB, written by Cleve Moler comp.soft-sys.matlab LiteratePrograms (MATLAB) Official blogs | MATLAB |@lemmatized matlab:97 numerical:2 computing:1 environment:3 fourth:1 generation:1 program:6 language:16 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increment:4 terminator:2 instance:4 defines:1 name:5 exist:2 consisting:1 start:2 step:1 previous:1 stop:1 reach:1 avoid:1 exceed:1 actually:1 leave:1 along:1 colon:1 default:2 ari:3 assigns:1 since:2 incrementer:1 indexing:4 usual:1 convention:4 atypical:1 whose:1 often:3 zero:6 separate:3 row:10 blank:1 space:2 comma:2 semicolon:7 terminate:3 list:2 surround:1 square:4 bracket:2 parenthesis:2 subarrays:1 denote:1 argument:4 index:6 specify:2 expression:1 evaluate:1 submatrix:1 take:1 columns:1 write:5 identity:1 size:2 generate:5 eye:2 respectively:1 accept:2 apply:1 mod:3 j:7 multiply:1 every:1 reduce:1 modulo:1 include:3 standard:2 loop:1 vectorized:1 notation:1 produce:6 read:3 fast:1 excerpt:1 magic:2 odd:1 meshgrid:4 contain:2 b:2 unlike:1 serve:1 suppress:1 line:1 conclude:1 say:1 statement:3 result:3 display:1 explicitly:1 return:2 clc:1 behave:1 whether:1 reference:5 october:1 additionally:1 may:6 declaration:1 order:1 oppose:1 column:5 r:7 hand:1 graphic:2 plot:6 graph:1 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4,917 | Gospel | In Christianity, a gospel (from Old English, gōd spell "good news") is to be generally one of the first four books of the New Testament that describe the birth, life, ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection of Jesus. The four canonical texts are the Gospel of Matthew, Gospel of Mark, Gospel of Luke and Gospel of John, probably written between 65 and 100 AD. Marcus J. Borg, Reading the Bible Again for the First Time: Taking the Bible Seriously But Not Literally, (HarperSanFrancisco, 2002) page 189. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. They appear to have been originally untitled; they were quoted anonymously in the first half of the second century (i.e. 100 - 150) but the names by which they are currently known appear suddenly around the year 180. E P Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus, (Penguin, 1995) page 63 - 64. The first canonical gospel written is thought by most scholars to be Mark (c 65-70), which was according to the majority used as a source for the gospels of Matthew and Luke. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. In modern source criticism, Matthew and Luke are generally thought to have used a common source, the Q document, Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. These first three gospels are called the synoptic gospels because they share similar incidents, teachings, and even much language. The last gospel, the gospel of John, presents a very different picture of Jesus and his ministry from the synoptics. In differentiating history from invention, historians interpret the gospel accounts skeptically. Sanders, E. P. The historical figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993. The synoptic evangelists demonstrated reserve in altering or inventing stories about Jesus, and historians regard the synoptic gospels as including significant amounts of historically reliable information about Jesus. Scholars maintain that the gospels and all the books of the New Testament were written in Greek, see also Greek primacy. The synoptic gospels are the source of many popular stories, parables, and sermons, such as Jesus' humble birth in Bethlehem, the Sermon on the Mount, the Beatitudes, the Last Supper, and the Great Commission. John provides a theological description of Jesus as the eternal Word, the unique savior of humanity. All four attest to his Sonship, miraculous power, crucifixion, and resurrection. Portions of the gospels are traditionally read aloud during church services as a formal part of the liturgy. More generally, gospels compose a genre of Early Christian literature. Peter Stuhlmacher, ed., Das Evangelium und die Evangelien, Tübingen 1983, also in English: The Gospel and the Gospels Gospels that did not become canonical likely also circulated in early Christianity. Some, such as the Gospel of Thomas, lack the narrative framework typical of a gospel. Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, unspecified article These gospels probably appeared later than the canonical gospels, though in the case of Thomas, scholarship is divided on the exact date. Etymology The word gospel derives from the Old English god-spell (rarely godspel), meaning "good tidings" or "good news". It is a calque (word-for-word translation) of the Greek word , euangelion (eu- "good", -angelion "message"). The Greek word "euangelion" is also the source of the term "evangelist" in English. The authors of the four canonical Christian gospels are known as the four evangelists. Originally, the "gospel" was the glad tidings of redemption through the expiatory offering of Jesus Christ for one's sins, the central Christian message. Note: John 3:16. "Gospel." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Before the first gospel was written (Mark, c 65-70) Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. , Paul the Apostle used the term "gospel" when he reminded the people of the church at Corinth "of the gospel I preached to you" (1 Corinthians 15.1). Paul averred that they were being saved by the gospel, and he characterized it in the simplest terms, emphasizing Christ's appearances after the Resurrection (15.3 – 8): The earliest extant use of "gospel" to denote a particular genre of writing dates to the 2nd century. Justin Martyr (c 155) in 1 Apology 66 wrote: "...the apostles, in the memoirs composed by them, which are called Gospels". Henry Barclay Swete's Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, pages 456-457 states: in the LXX occurs only in the plural, and perhaps only in the classical sense of 'a reward for good tidings' ( [also , , , ]); in the N.T. it is from the first appropriated to the Messianic good tidings (, ), probably deriving this new meaning from the use of in , , , . In the New Testament, evangelion meant the proclamation of God's saving activity in Jesus of Nazareth, or the agape message proclaimed by Jesus of Nazareth. This is the original New Testament usage (for example or ; see also Strong's G2098). The peculiar situation in the English language of an obsolete translation persisting into current usage harks back to John Wycliffe who already had gospel, and whose usage was adopted into the King James Version. The short o in the modern word gospel is due to mistaken association with the word god. Old English gōd-spell had a long vowel and would have become good-spell in Modern English. Canonical Gospels Of the many gospels written in antiquity, only four gospels came to be accepted as part of the New Testament, or canonical. An insistence upon there being a canon of canonical four, and no others, was a central theme of Irenaeus of Lyons, c. 185. In his central work, Adversus Haereses Irenaeus denounced various early Christian groups that used only one gospel, such as Marcionism which used only Marcion's version of Luke, or the Ebionites which seem to have used an Aramaic version of Matthew as well as groups that embraced the texts of newer revelations, such as the Valentinians (A.H. 1.11). Irenaeus declared that the four he espoused were the four Pillars of the Church: "it is not possible that there can be either more or fewer than four" he stated, presenting as logic the analogy of the four corners of the earth and the four winds (3.11.8). His image, taken from Ezekiel 1, or Revelation 4:6-10, of God's throne borne by four creatures with four faces—"the four had the face of a man, and the face of a lion, on the right side: and the four had the face of an ox on the left side; they four also had the face of an eagle"—equivalent to the "four-formed" gospel, is the origin of the conventional symbols of the Evangelists: lion, bull, eagle, man. Irenaeus was ultimately successful in declaring that the four gospels collectively, and exclusively these four, contained the truth. By reading each gospel in light of the others, Irenaeus made of John a lens through which to read Matthew, Mark and Luke. By the turn of the 5th century, the Catholic Church in the west, under Pope Innocent I, recognized a biblical canon including the four gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, which was previously established at a number of regional Synods, namely the Council of Rome (382), the Synod of Hippo (393), and two Synods of Carthage (397 and 419). This canon, which corresponds to the modern Catholic canon, was used in the Vulgate, an early 5th century translation of the Bible made by Jerome under the commission of Pope Damasus I in 382. Gospel according to Matthew Gospel according to Mark Gospel according to Luke Gospel according to John There was also another order, the "western order of the Gospels", so called because it is typical for the manuscripts which are usually a representative of the Western text-type. Gospel according to Matthew Gospel according to John Gospel according to Luke Gospel according to Mark This order is found in the following manuscripts: Bezae, Monacensis, Washingtonianus, Tischendorfianus IV, Uncial 0234. Medieval copies of the four canonical gospels are known as Gospel Books or also simply as Gospels (in Greek as Tetraevangelia). Notable examples include the Lindisfarne Gospels (c 700), the Barberini Gospels, Lichfield Gospels and the Vienna Coronation Gospels (8th century), the Book of Kells and the Ada Gospels (ca. 800) or the Ebbo Gospels (9th century). Origin of the canonical Gospels The dominant view today is that Mark is the first Gospel, with Matthew and Luke borrowing passages both from that Gospel and from at least one other common source, lost to history, termed by scholars 'Q' (from German: Quelle, meaning "source"). This view is known as the "Two-Source Hypothesis". For a dissenting view, seeMark Goodacre. .John was written last and shares little with the synoptic gospels. The gospels were apparently composed in stages. Mark's traditional ending (Mark 16:9-20) was most likely composed early in the second century and appended to Mark in the middle of that century. May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. "Mark" p. 1213-1239 The birth and infancy narratives apparently developed late in the tradition. Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Birth & Infancy Stories" p. 497-526. Luke and Matthew may have originally appeared without their first two chapters. The general consensus among biblical scholars is that all four canonical Gospels were originally written in Greek, the lingua franca of the Roman Orient. Dating Estimates for the dates when the canonical Gospel accounts were written vary significantly; and the evidence for any of the dates is scanty. Because the earliest surviving complete copies of the Gospels date to the 4th century and because only fragments and quotations exist before that, scholars use higher criticism to propose likely ranges of dates for the original gospel autographs. Scholars variously assess the consensus or majority view as follows: Mark: c. 68–73, Raymond E. Brown. An Introduction to the New Testament. c 65-70 Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. Matthew: c. 70–100. c 80-85. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. Some conservative scholars argue for a pre-70 date, particularly those that do not accept Mark as the first gospel written. Luke: c. 80–100, with most arguing for somewhere around 85,, c 80-85 Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. John: c 90-100, Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. c. 90–110, C K Barrett, among others. The majority view is that it was written in stages, so there was no one date of composition. Traditional Christian scholarship has generally preferred to assign earlier dates. Some historians interpret the end of the book of Acts as indicative, or at least suggestive, of its date; as Acts does not mention the death of Paul, generally accepted as the author of many of the Epistles, who was later put to death by the Romans c. 65. Acts is attributed to the author of the Gospel of Luke, and therefore would shift the chronology of authorship back, putting Mark as early as the mid 50s. Here are the dates given in the modern NIV Study Bible (for a fuller discussion see Augustinian hypothesis): Mark: c. 50s to early 60s, or late 60s Matthew: c. 50 to 70s Luke: c. 59 to 63, or 70s to 80s John: c. 85 to near 100, or 50s to 70 Such early dates are not limited to conservative scholars. In Redating the New Testament John A. T. Robinson, a prominent liberal theologian and bishop, makes a case for composition dates before the fall of Jerusalem. Location Matthew was probably written in Syria, perhaps in Antioch, an ancient Christian center. Mark has traditionally been associated with Peter's preaching in Rome, and it is well-suited to a Roman audience. Various cities have been proposed for the origin of Luke, but there is no consensus on the matter. Ephesus is a popular scholarly choice for the place of origin for the Gospel of John. Oral tradition The oral traditions that the evangelists drew on were transmitted by word of mouth for decades. (However, it should be noted that traditionally both Matthew and John were eyewitnesses of the events recorded.) This oral tradition consisted of several distinct components. Parables and aphorisms are the "bedrock of the tradition." Pronouncement stories, scenes that culminate with a saying of Jesus, are more plausible historically than other kinds of stories about Jesus. Other sorts of stories include controversy stories, in which Jesus is in conflict with religious authorities; miracles stories, including healings, exorcisms, and nature wonders; call and commissioning stories; and legends. Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. Introduction, p. 1-40 Content of the Gospels The four gospels present different narratives, reflecting different intents on the parts of their authors. Ehrman. Misquoting Jesus. All four gospels portray Jesus as leading a group of disciples, performing miracles, preaching in Jerusalem, being crucified, and rising from the dead. The synoptic gospels represent Jesus as an exorcist and healer who preached in parables about the coming Kingdom of God. He preached first in Galilee and later in Jerusalem, where he cleansed the temple. He states that he offers no sign as proof (Mark) or only the sign of Jonah (Matthew and Luke). Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. In Mark, apparently written with a Roman audience in mind, Jesus is a heroic man of action, given to powerful emotions, including agony. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. In Matthew, apparently written for a Jewish audience, Jesus is repeatedly called out as the fulfillment of Hebrew prophecy. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. In Luke, apparently written for gentiles, Jesus is especially concerned with the poor. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. Luke emphasizes the importance of prayer and the action of the Holy Spirit in Jesus' life and in the Christian community. Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Luke, Gospel of St Jesus appears as a stoic supernatural being, unmoved even by his own crucifixion. Like Matthew, Luke insists that salvation offered by Christ is for all, and not the Jews only. St. Matthew , "The Thompson Chain-Reference Study Bible New King James Version", (B.B. Kirkbride Bible Co. Inc., 1997) p. 1258 verse 12:21, p.1274, verse 21:43. The Gospel of John represents Jesus as an incarnation of the eternal Word (Logos), who spoke no parables, talked extensively about himself, and did not explicitly refer to a Second Coming. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. Jesus preaches in Jerusalem, launching his ministry with the cleansing of the temple. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. He performs several miracles as signs, most of them not found in the synoptics. Non-canonical gospels In addition to the four canonical gospels, early Christians wrote other gospels that were not accepted into the canon. Generally these were not accepted due to doubt over the authorship, the time frame between the original writing and the events described, or content that was at odds with orthodoxy. For example, if a gospel claimed to be written by James, yet was authored in the second century, clearly authorship was not authentic. This differs from the four canonical gospels which historians agree were authored before 100. For this reason, most of these non-canonical texts were only ever accepted by small portions of the early Christian community. Some of the content of these non-canonical gospels (as much as it deviates from accepted theological norms) is considered heretical by the leadership of mainstream churches, including the Vatican. The sayings gospel Q The hypothetical gospel Q comprised mostly sayings of Jesus with little narrative. It is presumably the source for many of Jesus' sayings in Matthew and Luke, and accordingly must have preceded these gospels. Its first edition was written c 50-60. Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. "Stages in the Development of Early Christian Tradition" p. 128 Mark Goodacre and other scholars have questioned this hypothetical document. Gospel of Thomas Like Q, the gospel attributed to Thomas is mostly wisdom without narrating Jesus' life. A few scholars argue that its first edition was written c 50-60, but that the surviving edition was written in the first half of the second century. This would mean that its first edition was contemporary with the earliest letters of Paul the Apostle. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church says that the original may date from c. 150. "Thomas, Gospel of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 It may represent a tradition independent from the canonical gospels, but that developed over a long time and was influenced by Matthew and Luke. While it can be understood in Gnostic terms, it lacks the characteristic features of Gnostic doctrine. The Jesus Seminar identified two of its unique parables, the parable of the empty jug and the parable of the assassin. Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. "The Gospel of Thomas," p 471-532. It had been lost but was discovered, in a Coptic version dating from c. 350, at Nag Hammadi in 1945-6, and three papyri, dated to c. 200, which contain fragments of a Greek text similar to but not identical with that in the Coptic language, have also been found. Gospel of Peter The gospel of Peter was likely written in the first half of the second century. "Peter, Gospel of St.." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 It seems to be largely legendary, hostile toward Jews, and including Docetic elements. "Peter, Gospel of St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 It had been lost but was rediscovered in the 19th century. "Peter, Gospel of St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Infancy Gospels A genre of "Infancy gospels" (Greek: protoevangelion) arose in the 2nd century, such as the Gospel of James, which introduces the concept of the Perpetual Virginity of Mary, and the Infancy Gospel of Thomas (not to be confused with the absolutely different sayings Gospel of Thomas), both of which related many miraculous incidents from the life of Mary and the childhood of Jesus that are not included in the canonical gospels, but which have passed into Christian lore. Harmonies Another genre is that of Gospel harmonies, in which the four canonical gospels were selectively recast as a single narrative to present a consistent text. Very few fragments of harmonies have survived. The Diatessaron was such a harmonization, compiled by Tatian around 175. It was popular for at least two centuries in Syria, but eventually it fell into disuse. Marcion's gospel of Luke Marcion of Sinope, c. 150, had a version of the Gospel of Luke which differed substantially from that which has now become the standard text. Marcion's version was far less Jewish than the now canonical text, and his critics alleged that he had edited out the portions he didn't like from the canonical version, though Marcion argued that his text was the more genuinely original one. Marcion also rejected all the other gospels, including Matthew, Mark and especially John, which he alleged had been forged by Irenaeus. Gospel of Judas The Gospel of Judas is another controversial and ancient text that purports to tell the story of the gospel from the perspective of Judas, the disciple who is usually said to have betrayed Jesus in most versions of the Bible. It paints an unusual picture of the relationship between Jesus and Judas. The text was recovered from a cave in Egypt by a thief and thereafter sold on the black market until it was finally discovered by a collector who, with the help of academics from Yale and Princeton, was able to verify its authenticity. The document itself does not claim to have been authored by Judas (it is, rather, a Gospel about Judas), and dates no earlier than the second century. See also List of Gospels Toledoth Yeshu - an anti-gospel Agrapha are the collection of religious sayings attributed to Jesus Christ that are not found in the canonical gospels. Godspell is a musical based on the gospels of Jesus Christ. Godspell is archaic English for Gospel. Good news (Christianity) concerning the content of the Bible's message about Jesus Christ Gospel harmony Gospel (liturgy) Gospel (stage play) Gilyonim Injil Four Evangelists The Four Gospels Bodmer Papyri Acts of the Apostles (genre) Apocalyptic literature References External links BibleGateway.com has the text of the New Testament Gospels in various translations and versions A detailed discussion of the textual variants in the Gospels — covering about 1200 variants on 2000 pages. Greek New Testament — the Greek text of the New Testament: specifically the Westcott-Hort text from 1881, combined with the NA26/27 variants. Introduction to The Complete Gospels — an excerpt and information about this compilation of canonical and non-canonical gospels in translation. Tessarôn Euaggeliôn Sumphônia - The Greek harmony of the Gospels Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia - The Latin harmony of the Gospels (1) Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia - The Latin harmony of the Gospels (2) Catholic Encyclopedia article Gospel in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament: Unhistorical Character of the Gospels Study regarding the Injeel (Gospel) The Case against Q collects resources for considering the Q hypothesis and evidence that Luke used Matthew be-x-old:Дабравесьце | Gospel |@lemmatized christianity:3 gospel:136 old:5 english:8 gōd:2 spell:4 good:8 news:3 generally:6 one:6 first:16 four:30 book:5 new:22 testament:12 describe:2 birth:4 life:4 ministry:3 crucifixion:3 resurrection:3 jesus:43 canonical:25 text:14 matthew:22 mark:21 luke:24 john:17 probably:4 write:22 ad:1 marcus:1 j:1 borg:1 read:4 bible:22 time:3 take:2 seriously:1 literally:1 harpersanfrancisco:6 page:4 harris:13 stephen:13 l:20 understand:14 palo:13 alto:13 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4,918 | Maze | A maze is a complex tour puzzle in the form of a complex branching passage through which the solver must find a route. In everyday speech, both maze and labyrinth denote a complex and confusing series of pathways, but technically the maze is distinguished from the labyrinth. The labyrinth has a single through-route with twists and turns but without branches; it is not designed to be as difficult to navigate as a maze is. The pathways and walls in a maze or labyrinth are fixed (pre-determined). Maze-type puzzles where the given walls and paths may change during the game are covered under the main puzzle category of tour puzzles. The Cretan maze is the oldest. http://www.ams.org/featurecolumn/archive/octo-cretan.html Maze construction Mazes have been built with walls and rooms, with hedges, turf, corn stocks, hay bales, books or with paving stones of contrasting colors or designs, or in fields of crops such as corn or, indeed, maize. Maize mazes can be very large; they are usually only kept for one growing season, so they can be different every year, and are promoted as seasonal tourist attractions. Indoors, Mirror Mazes are another form of maze, where many of the apparent pathways are imaginary routes seen through multiple reflections in mirrors. Another type of maze consists of a set of rooms linked by doors (so a passageway is just another room in this definition). Players enter at one spot, and exit at another, or the idea may be to reach a certain spot in the maze. Mazes can also be printed or drawn on paper to be followed by a pencil or fingertip. One of the short stories of Jorge Luis Borges featured a book, called The Garden of Forking Paths, that was a literary maze. Generating mazes Maze generation is the act of designing the layout of passages and walls within a maze. There are many different approaches to generating mazes, where various maze generation algorithms exist for building them, either by hand or automatically by computer. There are two main mechanisms used to generate mazes. "Carving passages" is where one marks out the network of available routes. "Adding walls" is where one lays out a set of obstructions within an open area. Most mazes drawn on paper are where one draws the walls, where the spaces in between the markings compose the passages. Solving mazes Maze solving is the act of finding a route through the maze from the start to finish. Some maze solving methods are designed to be used inside the maze by a traveler with no prior knowledge of the maze, whereas others are designed to be used by a person or computer program that can see the whole maze at once. The mathematician Leonhard Euler was one of the first to analyze plane mazes mathematically, and in doing so made the first significant contributions to the branch of mathematics known as topology. Mazes containing no loops are known as "standard", or "perfect" mazes, and are equivalent to a tree in graph theory. Thus many maze solving algorithms are closely related to graph theory. Intuitively, if one pulled and stretched out the paths in the maze in the proper way, the result could be made to resemble a tree http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k1tSK5V1pds . Mazes in psychology experiments Mazes are often used in psychology experiments to study spatial navigation and learning. Such experiments typically use rats or mice. Examples are the Barnes maze the Morris water maze the radial arm maze. Mazes in computer games Mazes have long been a staple element in video games (e.g. the 80's classic Maziacs). In some games the entire objective of the game is to navigate mazes, while in other games the mazes are incorporated as only one element of the gameplay. Other types of maze A plan of a Loops and Traps maze, Ridgewood, NJ Logic mazes See Logic maze. These are like standard mazes except they use rules other than "don't cross the lines" to restrict motion. Mazes in higher dimensions It is possible for a maze to have three or more dimensions. A maze with bridges is three dimensional, and some natural cave systems are three dimensional mazes. The computer game Descent utilized fully three dimensional mazes. Any maze can be topologically mapped onto a three-dimensional maze. Picture maze See Picture maze. A maze that forms a picture when solved. Dead end maze A maze game where the route creates the dead ends. Turf mazes and Mizmazes A pattern like a long rope folded up, without any junctions or crossings. Loops and Traps Maze A maze that features one-way doors. The doors can lead to the correct path or create traps that divert you from the correct path and lead you to the starting point. You may not return through a door which you have entered. The path is a series of loops interrupted by doors. The maze is not created with dead ends, but dead ends are created by doors that only open from the other side. The Halloween Maze in Ridgewood NJ is an example of this type of maze. Through the use of reciprocal doors, the correct path can intersect the incorrect path on a single plane. Publications about mazes Numerous mazes of different kinds have been drawn, painted, published in books and periodicals, used in advertising, in software, and sold as art. In the 1970s there occurred a publishing "maze craze" in which numerous books, and some magazines, were commercially available in nationwide outlets and devoted exclusively to mazes of a complexity that was able to challenge adults as well as children (for whom simple maze puzzles have long been provided both before, during, and since the 1970s "craze"). Some of the best-selling books in the 1970s and early 1980s included those produced by Vladimir Koziakin, Rick and Glory Brightfield, Dave Phillips, Larry Evans, and Greg Bright. Koziakin's works were predominantly of the standard two-dimensional "trace a line between the walls" variety. The works of the Brightfields had a similar two-dimensional form but used a variety of graphics-oriented "path obscuring" techniques - although the routing was comparable to or simpler than Koziakin's mazes, the Brightfield's mazes did not allow the various pathway options to be discerned so easily by the roving eye as it glanced about. Greg Bright's works went beyond the standard published forms of the time by including "weave" mazes in which illustrated pathways can cross over and under each other. Bright's works also offered examples of extremely complex patterns of routing and optical illusions for the solver to work through. What Bright termed "mutually accessible centers" (The Great Maze Book, 1973) also called "braid" mazes, allowed a proliferation of paths flowing in spiral patterns from a central nexus and, rather than relying on "dead ends" to hinder progress, instead relied on an overabundance of pathway choices. Rather than have a single solution to the maze, Bright's routing often offered multiple equally valid routes from start to finish, with no loss of complexity or diminishment of solver difficulties because the result was that it became difficult for a solver to definitively "rule out" a particular pathway as unproductive. Some of Bright's innovative mazes had no "dead ends" - although some clearly had looping sections (or "islands") that would cause careless explorers to keep looping back again and again to pathways they had already travelled. The books of Larry Evans focused on 3-D structures, often with realistic perspective and architectural themes, and Bernard Meyers (Supermazes No. 1) produced similar illustrations. Both Greg Bright (The Hole Maze Book) and Dave Phillips (The World's Most Difficult Maze) published maze books in which the sides of pages could be crossed over and in which holes could allow the pathways to cross from one page to another, and one side of a page to the other, thus enhancing the 3-D routing capacity of 2-D printed illustrations. Adrian Fisher is both the most prolific contemporary author on mazes, and also one of the leading maze designers. His book The Amazing Book of Mazes (2006) contains examples and photographs of numerous methods of maze construction, several of which have been pioneered by Fisher; The Art of the Maze (Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1990) contains a substantial history of the subject, whilst Mazes and Labyrinths (Shire Publications, 2004) is a useful introduction to the subject. A recent book by Galen Wadzinski (The Ultimate Maze Book) offers formalized rules for more recent innovations that involve single-directional pathways, 3-D simulating illustrations, "key" and "ordered stop" mazes in which items must be collected or visited in particular orders to add to the difficulties of routing (such restrictions on pathway traveling and re-use are important in a printed book in which the limited amount of space on a printed page would otherwise place clear limits on the amount of choices and pathways that can be contained within a single maze). Although these innovations are not all entirely new with Wadzinski, the book marks a significant advancement in published maze puzzles, offering expansions on the traditional puzzles that seem to have been fully informed by various video game innovations and designs, and adds new levels of challenge and complexity in both the design and the goals offered to the puzzle-solver in a printed format. Mazes open to the public Africa Serendipity Maze, Mouille Point, Cape Town, South Africa. Hedge maze by the sea. Soekershof Walkabout Mazes and Botanical Gardens, Robertson, Western Cape, South Africa. 13870 m² net area Asia Gardens Shopping Mall, Dubai (World's Largest Indoor Maze http://www.ameinfo.com/45024.html ) Hikimi no Meiro, Masuda, Shimane, Japan Kodama no Mori, Kiso, Nagano, Japan Kyodai Meiro Palladium, Nikkō, Tochigi, Japan Sendai Hi-Land, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan Shirahama Energy Land, Shirahama, Wakayama, Japan Australia The Maze, Perth, Western Australia Europe Greece Palace of KnossosPublic hedge maze in the "English Garden" at Schönbusch Park, Aschaffenburg, Germany Austria Schönbrunn Palace, Austria (small entrance fee, tower at the center to overlook the hedge maze) Germany Altjeßnitz, Germany, Sachsen-Anhalt, near Dessau (hedge maze, c.1750) () Aschaffenburg (Park Schönbusch), Germany, Bavaria (hedge maze, c.1829) Berlin (Erholungspark Marzahn), Germany (hedge maze) Erlebniswelt Hortus Vitalis - Der Irrgarten, Bad Salzuflen, Germany, North-Rhine-Westphalia (hedge maze) Italy Villa Pisani, Stra, near Venice Porsenna's Maze, Chiusi, Tuscany (see Pliny's Italian labyrinth) Inside the labyrinth of villa Pisani Portugal Parque de São Roque, District of Porto Parque do Arnado, Ponte de Lima, District of Viana do Castelo Reserva Florestal de Recreio do Pinhal da Paz, São Miguel Island, Azores Spain Amaze'n Laberintos, Spain, Majorca, Alcudia, Playa de Muro (wooden maze, 1998) Parc del Laberint d'Horta, Barcelona, Spain (hedge maze) Labyrinth in the Way of Santiago - Spain Laberinto del Camino de Santiago - España. Scandinavia The Labyrinth in Moomin World, Finland Labyrinthia, Silkeborg, Denmark Samsø, Denmark UK Alnwick Castle Water Gardens Bamboo Maze, Northumberland. Designed by Adrian Fisher Blackpool Pleasure Beach Hedge Maze, Lancashire, England. Designed by Adrian Fisher Blake House Craft Centre, Braintree, Essex, England (Open July-Sept) Blenheim Palace Hedge Maze, Oxfordshire, England. Designed by Minotaur Designs, Adrian Fisher, Randoll Coate and Graham Burgess., 1991 St. Catherine's Hill, Hampshire old miz-maze, near Winchester. Castlewellan, Northern Ireland, world's largest permanent hedge maze Chatsworth House, England (hedge maze) The Crystal Palace, England. A hedge maze built into a copse Greys Court 'Archbishop's Maze', Oxfordshire, England. Designed by Adrian Fisher, 1981 Hampton Court Palace, England (hedge maze) Hoo Hill Maze, Shefford, Bedfordshire, England Kentwell Hall, Long Melford, Suffolk, England. Designed Minotaur designs, Adrian Fisher, Randoll Coate and Graham Burgess. Leeds Castle, Maidstone, Kent, England. Designed by Minotaur Designs Randoll Caote , Adrian Fisher and Graham Burgess. Longleat, Wiltshire, England: hedge maze, designed by Greg Bright, 1978, and mirror maze, designed by Adrian Fisher; Labyrinth of Love, Renaissance style Rose garden labyrinth designed by Graham Burgess. Sun and Moon Maze designed by Randoll Coate.* Murray Star Maze, Scone Palace, Perth, Scotland (hedge maze). Designed by Adrian Fisher Noah's Ark Zoo Farm, Bristol, England (longest hedge maze in the world, planted 2003) Oak Lane Labyrinth, nr Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk. Open all year round. Free entry. Paulton's Park, Hampshire, England (hedge maze) Richings Park Amazing Maize Maze, Richings Park, near Heathrow, England (Open July-Sept) Saffron Walden, Essex, England (hedge maze) (The town also has an historic turf maze) Symonds Yat, Herefordshire, England Worden Park, Leyland, Lancashire, England North America Public maze at Wild Adventures theme park, Valdosta, Georgia Maze at St. Louis Botanical Gardens Amazing Chicago's Funhouse Maze, Navy Pier, Chicago, Illinois, USA. Designed by Jack Rouse Associates and Adrian Fisher America's Largest Corn Maze Shakopee, Minnesota, USA Sever's Corn Maze Children's maze (made out of packs of hay), Ashland Berry Farm, Ashland, Virginia, USA. Davis' Mega Maze, Sterling, Massachusetts USA (3-D adventure corn maze). Designed by Adrian Fisher Dole Plantation, Wahiawa, Hawaii, () home to the World's Largest Maze. Labyrinthe du Hangar 16, Montreal, Canada. Magnolia Plantation and Gardens (Charleston, South Carolina), USA Maize Quest Fun Park is the "Largest Collection of People-Sized Mazes in the World" with mazes made of Fence, Rope, Stone, Turf, Corn, Invisible Dog Fencing, Straw Bales, Tiles, Living Bamboo, and Earthen Mounds. New Park, Pennsylvania, USA Mall of Georgia Paving Mazes, Atlanta, Georgia, USA. Designed by Adrian Fisher Maze Mania, Garden City, South Carolina USA (Interchangeable fence Maze appropriate for children and adults) Mohonk Mountain House hedge maze, New Paltz, New York Mystery Maze Mystery Maze , Wild Adventures theme park, Valdosta, Georgia - manufactured by Amazin' Mazes Noah's Ark Water Park Mirror Maze, Wisconsin Dells, USA. Designed by Adrian Fisher Norton Museum of Art West Palm Beach, USA. Pavement Maze, Serpent Mound and Turf Labyrinth. Designed by Adrian Fisher. Ridgewood Halloween Maze, Ridgewood, New Jersey, USA (Month of October, Loops and Traps halloween themed maze. Designed by Tyler Stewart.) Free attraction. Saunders Farm, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. The largest collection of full-sized hedge mazes and labrynths in North America (11). Skyline Caverns Mirror Maze, Front Royal, Virginia, USA. Designed by Adrian Fisher. The Maze at the Governor's Palace, Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia, USA The Maze on Centre Island, Toronto, Ontario, was a Centennial gift to the city by its Dutch-Canadian community in 1967 (Topiary maze, open to public, free, year-round) Trail of Terror, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA (Annual event, 3/4 mile indoor Halloween themed maze) http://www.trailofterrorfest.com/home.htm Further reading H. Abelson and A. diSessa, Turtle Geometry: The Computer as a Medium for Exploring Mathematics, MIT Press (1980) Adrian Fisher, The Amazing Book of Mazes, Thames & Hudson, London / Harry N Abrams Inc, New York (2006) ISBN 978-0500512470 Adrian Fisher, Armchair Puzzlers: Mad Mazes, University Books, San Francisco, USA (2005) ISBN 978-1575289786 Adrian Fisher, Mazes and Follies, Jarrold Publishing, UK (2004) ISBN 978-1841651422 Adrian Fisher, Mazes and Labyrinths, Shire Publications, UK (2003) ISBN 978-0747805618 Adrian Fisher and Howard Loxton, Secrets of the Maze, Thames & Hudson, London (1997) / Barron’s Educational Series Inc, New York (1998) ISBN 978-0500018118 Adrian Fisher and Jeff Saward, The British Maze Guide, Minotaur Designs, St Albans, UK (1991) - the definitive guide to British Mazes Adrian Fisher and Georg Gerster, The Art of the Maze, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London (1990) ISBN 0-297-83027-9 Adrian Fisher and Georg Gerster, Labyrinth - Solving the Riddle of the Maze, Harmony Books USA, New York (1990) ISBN 978-0517580998 W.H. Matthews, Mazes and Labyrinths: Their History and Development (1927). Includes Bibliography. Dover Publications (1970) ISBN 0-486-22614-X Jeff Saward, Magical Paths, Mitchell Beazley (2002) ISBN 1-84000-573-4 See also Celtic maze Corn maze Crop circle Garden mazes (article in German Wikipedia) Hedge Maze Logic Quest 3D Pac-Man References External links Maze Blog Learn how to draw and solve mazes. Stay current with a maze blog. Download printable mazes. Mazes on Silent animation's site (eng.) Briefing Room CNN's Barry Neild offers escape routes cornmazedir.com Directory of hundreds of mazes in the USA and Canada Images Mazes Real mazes that look like an inkblot portrait Labyrinth Society Labyrinthos Jeff Saward's website Learn how to draw mazes W.H. Matthews, Mazes and Labyrinths (1922) online version of W.H. Matthew's classic book Maze Algorithms This site explains the different types of mazes and how to generate and solve them Multiplayer Maze Game Flash-based free maze game in 2D 4D Maze Game John McIntosh's Java-based free maze game in 3D and 4D first-perspective Times Online: Britain's best mazes Ink Blot Mazes Maze Artist, Yonatan Frimer's page of image mazes that mix art and mazes. | Maze |@lemmatized maze:187 complex:4 tour:2 puzzle:8 form:5 branching:1 passage:4 solver:5 must:2 find:2 route:8 everyday:1 speech:1 labyrinth:18 denote:1 confusing:1 series:3 pathway:11 technically:1 distinguish:1 single:5 twist:1 turn:1 without:2 branch:2 design:29 difficult:3 navigate:2 wall:7 fix:1 pre:1 determine:1 type:5 give:1 path:11 may:3 change:1 game:13 cover:1 main:2 category:1 cretan:2 old:2 http:4 www:4 org:1 featurecolumn:1 archive:1 octo:1 html:2 construction:2 build:3 room:4 hedge:23 turf:5 corn:7 stock:1 hay:2 bale:2 book:19 paving:2 stone:2 contrast:1 color:1 field:1 crop:2 indeed:1 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4,919 | Biomedical_engineering | A JARVIK-7 artificial heart, an example of a biomedical engineering application of mechanical engineering with biocompatible materials for cardiothoracic surgery using an artificial organ. Example of an approximately 40,000 probe spotted oligo microarray with enlarged inset to show detail. Biomedical engineering (BME) is the application of engineering principles and techniques to the medical field. It combines the design and problem solving skills of engineering with medical and biological sciences to improve healthcare diagnosis and treatment. Biomedical engineering has only recently emerged as its own discipline, compared to many other engineering fields; such an evolution is common as a new field transitions from being an interdisciplinary specialization among already-established fields, to being considered a field in itself. Much of the work in biomedical engineering consists of research and development, spanning a broad array of subfields (see below). Prominent biomedical engineering applications include the development of biocompatible prostheses, various diagnostic and therapeutic medical devices ranging from clinical equipment to micro-implants, common imaging equipment such as MRIs and EEGs, biotechnologies such as regenerative tissue growth, and pharmaceutical drugs & biopharmaceuticals. Subdisciplines within biomedical engineering Biomedical engineering is a highly interdisciplinary field, influenced by (and overlapping with) various other engineering and medical fields. This often happens with newer disciplines, as they gradually emerge in their own right after evolving from special applications of extant disciplines. Due to this diversity, it is typical for a biomedical engineer to focus on a particular subfield or group of related subfields. There are many different taxonomic breakdowns within BME, as well as varying views about how best to organize them and manage any internal overlap; the main U.S. organization devoted to BME divides the major specialty areas as follows: , About BMES - Specialty Areas within BME Bioinstrumentation Biomaterials Biomechanics Cellular, Tissue, and Genetic Engineering Clinical Engineering Medical Imaging Orthopaedic Bioengineering Rehabilitation Engineering Systems Physiology Sometimes, disciplines within BME are classified by their association(s) with other, more established engineering fields, which can include: Chemical engineering - often associated with biochemical, cellular, molecular and tissue engineering, biomaterials, and biotransport. Electrical engineering - often associated with bioelectrical and neural engineering, bioinstrumentation, biomedical imaging, and medical devices. This also tends to encompass Optics and Optical engineering - biomedical optics, imaging and related medical devices. Mechanical engineering - often associated with biomechanics, biotransport, medical devices, and modeling of biological systems. Biotechnology and Pharmaceuticals Biotechnology can be a somewhat ambiguous term -- in its broadest form occasionally encompassing all of BME; however, it more typically denotes specific products which use "biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof." Even some complex "medical devices" (see below) can reasonably be deemed "biotechnology" depending on the degree to which such elements are central to their principal of operation. Biologics/Biopharmaceuticals (e.g., vaccines, stored blood product), genetic engineering, and various agricultural applications are some major classes of biotechnology. Pharmaceuticals are related to biotechnology in two indirect ways: 1) certain major types (e.g. biologics) fall under both categories, and 2) together they essentially comprise the "non-medical-device" set of BME applications. (The "Device - Bio/Chemical" spectrum is an imperfect dichotomy, but one regulators often use, at least as a starting point.) Tissue engineering Tissue Engineering is a major segment of Biotechnology. One of the goals of tissue engineering is to create artificial organs (via biological material) for patients that need organ transplants. Biomedical engineers are currently researching methods of creating such organs. In one case bladders have been grown in lab and transplanted successfully into patients. Doctors grow organs from patients' own cells, CNN, April 3, 2006 Bioartificial organs, which use both synthetic and biological components, are also a focus area in research, such as with hepatic assist devices that use liver cells within an artificial bioreactor construct. Trial begins for first artificial liver device using human cells, University of Chicago, February 25, 1999 Micromass cultures of C3H-10T1/2 cells at varied oxygen tensions stained with Alcian blue. Genetic engineering Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM) and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct manipulation of an organism's genes.[1] Genetic engineering is different from traditional breeding, where the organism's genes are manipulated indirectly. Genetic engineering uses the techniques of molecular cloning and transformation to alter the structure and characteristics of genes directly. Genetic engineering techniques have found some successes in numerous applications. Some examples are in improving crop technology, the manufacture of synthetic human insulin through the use of modified bacteria, the manufacture of erythropoietin in hamster ovary cells, and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the oncomouse (cancer mouse) for research. Pharmaceutical engineering Pharmaceutical Engineering is sometimes regarded as a branch of biomedical engineering, and sometimes a branch of chemical engineering; in practice, it is very much a hybrid sub-discipline (as many BME fields are). Aside from those pharmaceutical products directly incorporating biological agents or materials, even developing chemical drugs is considered to require substantial BME knowledge due to the physiological interactions inherent to such products' usage. Medical devices This is an extremely broad category -- essentially covering all healthcare products that do not achieve their intended results through predominantly chemical (e.g., pharmaceuticals) or biological (e.g., vaccines) means, and do not involve metabolism. A medical device is intended for use in: the diagnosis of disease or other conditions, or in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease, A pump for continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion, an example of a biomedical engineering application of electrical engineering to medical equipment. Some examples include pacemakers, infusion pumps, the heart-lung machine, dialysis machines, artificial organs, implants, artificial limbs, corrective lenses, cochlear implants, ocular prosthetics, facial prosthetics, somato prosthetics, and dental implants. Biomedical instrumentation amplifier schematic used in monitoring low voltage biological signals, an example of a biomedical engineering application of electronic engineering to electrophysiology. Stereolithography is a practical example of medical modeling being used to create physical objects. Beyond modeling organs and the human body, emerging engineering techniques are also currently used in the research and development of new devices for innovative therapies, treatments, patient monitoring, and early diagnosis of complex diseases. Medical devices are regulated and classified (in the US) as follows (see also Regulation): Class I devices present minimal potential for harm to the user and are often simpler in design than Class II or Class III devices. Devices in this category include tongue depressors, bedpans, elastic bandages, examination gloves, and hand-held surgical instruments and other similar types of common equipment. Class II devices are subject to special controls in addition to the general controls of Class I devices. Special controls may include special labeling requirements, mandatory performance standards, and postmarket surveillance. Devices in this class are typically non-invasive and include x-ray machines, PACS, powered wheelchairs, infusion pumps, and surgical drapes. Class III devices generally require premarket approval, a scientific review to ensure the device's safety and effectiveness, in addition to the general controls of Class I. Examples include replacement heart valves, silicone gel-filled breast implants, implanted cerebellar stimulators, implantable pacemaker pulse generators and endosseous (intra-bone) implants. Medical imaging Medical/Biomedical Imaging is a major segment of Medical Devices. This area deals with enabling clinicians to directly or indirectly "view" things not visible in plain sight (such as due to their size, and/or location). This can involve utilizing ultrasound, magnetism, UV, other radiology, and other means. An MRI scan of a human head, an example of a biomedical engineering application of electrical engineering to diagnostic imaging. Click here to view an animated sequence of slices.Imaging technologies are often essential to medical diagnosis, and are typically the most complex equipment found in a hospital including: Fluoroscopy Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Nuclear Medicine Positron Emission Tomography (PET) PET scansPET-CT scans Projection Radiography such as X-rays and CT scans Tomography Ultrasound Electron Microscopy Implants An implant is a kind of medical device made to replace and act as a missing biological structure (as compared with a transplant, which indicates transplanted biomedical tissue). The surface of implants that contact the body might be made of a biomedical material such as titanium, silicone or apatite depending on what is the most functional. In some cases implants contain electronics e.g. artificial pacemaker and cochlear implants. Some implants are bioactive, such as subcutaneous drug delivery devices in the form of implantable pills or drug-eluting stents. Artificial limbs: The right arm is an example of a prosthesis, and the left arm is an example of myoelectric control. A prosthetic eye, an example of a biomedical engineering application of mechanical engineering and biocompatible materials to ophthalmology. Clinical engineering Clinical engineering is the branch of biomedical engineering dealing with the actual implementation of medical equipment and technologies in hospitals or other clinical settings. Major roles of clinical engineers include training and supervising biomedical equipment technicians (BMETs), selecting technological products/services and logistically managing their implementation, working with governmental regulators on inspections/audits, and serving as technological consultants for other hospital staff (e.g. physicians, administrators, I.T., etc). Clinical engineers also advise and collaborate with medical device producers regarding prospective design improvements based on clinical experiences, as well as monitor the progression of the state-of-the-art so as to redirect procurement patterns accordingly. Their inherent focus on practical implementation of technology has tended to keep them oriented more towards incremental-level redesigns and reconfigurations, as opposed to revolutionary research & development or ideas that would be many years from clinical adoption; however, there is a growing effort to expand this time-horizon over which clinical engineers can influence the trajectory of biomedical innovation. In their various roles, they form a "bridge" between the primary designers and the end-users, by combining the perspectives of being both 1) close to the point-of-use, while 2) trained in product and process engineering. Clinical Engineering departments will sometimes hire not just biomedical engineers, but also industrial/systems engineers to help address operations research/optimization, human factors, cost analysss, etc. Also see safety engineering for a discussion of the procedures used to design safe systems. Schematic representation of a normal ECG trace showing sinus rhythm; an example of widely-used clinical medical equipment (operates by applying electronic engineering to electrophysiology and medical diagnosis.) Regulatory issues Regulatory issues are of particular concern to a biomedical engineer; it is among the most heavily-regulated fields of engineering, and practicing biomedical engineers must routinely consult and cooperate with regulatory law attorneys and other experts. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the principal healthcare regulatory authority in the United States, having jurisdiction over medical devices, drugs, biologics, and combination products. The paramount objectives driving policy decisions by the FDA are safety and efficacy of healthcare products. In addition, because biomedical engineers often develop devices and technologies for "consumer" use, such as physical therapy devices (which are also "medical" devices), these may also be governed in some respects by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. The greatest hurdles tend to be 510K "clearance" (typically for Class 2 devices) or pre-market "approval" (typically for drugs and class 3 devices). Implants, such as artificial hip joints, are generally extensively regulated due to the invasive nature of such devices. Most countries have their own particular mechanisms for regulation, with varying formulations and degrees of restrictiveness. In most European countries, more discretion rests with the prescribing doctor, while the regulations chiefly assure that the product operates as expected. In European Union nations, the national governments license certifying agencies, which are for-profit companies. Technical committees of engineers write recommendations which incorporate public comments, and these can be adopted as regulations by the European Union. These recommendations vary by the type of device, and specify tests for safety and efficacy. Once a prototype has passed the tests at a certification lab, and that model is being constructed under the control of a certified quality system, the device is entitled to bear a CE mark, indicating that the device is believed to be safe and reliable when used as directed. The different regulatory arrangements sometimes result in particular technologies being developed first for either the U.S. or in Europe depending on the more favorable form of regulation. While nations often strive for substantive harmony to facilitate cross-national distribution, philosophical differences about the optimal extent of regulation can be a hindrance; more restrictive regulations seem appealing on an intuitive level, but critics decry the tradeoff cost in terms of slowing access to life-saving developments. Training and Certification Education Biomedical engineers require considerable knowledge of both engineering and biology, and typically have a Masters (M.S., M.S.E., or M.Eng.) or a Doctoral (Ph.D.) degree in BME or another branch of engineering with considerable potential for BME overlap. As interest in BME is increasing, many engineering colleges now do have a Biomedical Engineering Department or Program, with offerings ranging from the undergraduate (B.S. or B.S.E.) to the doctoral levels. As noted above, biomedical engineering has only recently been emerging as its own discipline rather than a cross-disciplinary hybrid specialization of other disciplines; now, BME programs of study at all levels are becoming more widespread, including the Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering which actually includes so much biological science content that many students use it as a "pre-med" major in preparation for medical school. The number of biomedical engineers is expected to rise as both a cause and effect of improvements in medical technology. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics - Profile for Engineers In the U.S., an increasing number of undergraduate programs are also becoming recognized by ABET as accredited bioengineering/biomedical engineering programs. Over 40 programs are currently accredited by ABET. Accredited Biomedical Engineering Programs ABET List of Accredited Engineering Programs As with many degrees, the reputation and ranking of a program may factor into the desirability of a degree holder for either employment or graduate admission. The reputation of many undergraduate degrees are also linked to the institution's graduate or research programs, which have some tangible factors for rating, such as research funding and volume, publications and citations. With BME specifically, the ranking of a university's hospital and medical school can also be a significant factor in the perceived prestige of its BME department/program. Graduate education is a particularly important aspect in BME. While many engineering fields (such as mechanical or electrical engineering) do not need graduate-level training to obtain an entry-level job in their field, most BME positions do prefer or even require them. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics - Job Outlook for Engineers Since most BME-related professions involve scientific research, such as in pharmaceutical and medical device development, graduate education is highly desirable (as undergraduate degrees typically do not involve sufficient research training and experience). This can be either a Masters or Doctoral level degree; while in certain specialties a Ph.D. is notably more common than in others, it is hardly ever the majority (except in academia). In fact, the perceived need for some kind of graduate credential is so strong that some undergraduate BME programs will actively discourage students from majoring in BME without an expressed intention to also obtain a masters degree or apply to medical school afterwards. Graduate programs in BME, like in other scientific fields, are highly varied, and particular programs may emphasize certain aspects within the field. They may also feature extensive collaborative efforts with programs in other fields (such as the University's Medical School or other engineering divisions), owing again to the interdisciplinary nature of BME. M.S. and Ph.D. programs will typically require applicants to have an undergraduate degree in BME, or another engineering discipline (plus certain life science coursework), or life science (plus certain engineering coursework). Education in BME also varies greatly around the world. By virtue of its extensive biotechnology sector, its numerous major universities, and relatively few internal barriers, the U.S. has progressed a great deal in its development of BME education and training opportunities. Europe, which also has a large biotechnology sector and an impressive education system, has encountered trouble in creating uniform standards as the European community attempts to supplant some of the national jurisdictional barriers that still exist. Recently, initiatives such as BIOMEDEA have sprung up to develop BME-related education and professional standards. BIOMEDEA Other countries, such as Australia, are recognizing and moving to correct deficiencies in their BME education. Biomedical Engineering Curriculum: A Comparison Between the USA, Europe and Australia Also, as high technology endeavors are usually marks of developed nations, some areas of the world are prone to slower development in education, including in BME. Licensure/Certification Engineering licensure in the US is largely optional, and rarely specified by branch/discipline. As with other learned professions, each state has certain (fairly similar) requirements for becoming licensed as a registered professional engineer ("PE"), but in practice such a license is not required to practice in the majority of situations (thanks to an "exception" known as the private industry exemption -- which effectively applies to the vast majority of American engineers). This is notably not the case in many other countries, where a license is as legally necessary to practice engineering as it is for law or medicine. Biomedical engineering is regulated in some countries, such as Australia, but registration is typically only recommended and not required. National Engineering Registration Board - Areas Of Practice - NPER Areas In the UK, mechanical engineers working in the areas of Medical Engineering, Bioengineering or Biomedical engineering can gain Chartered Engineering status through the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. The intuition also runs the Medical Engineering Division. http://www.imeche.org/industries/medical/ The Fundamentals of Engineering exam -- the first (and more general) of two licensure examinations for most U.S. jurisdictions -- does now cover biology (although technically not BME). For the second exam, called "Part 2" or the "Professional Engineering" exam, candidates may select a particular engineering discipline's content to be tested on; there is currently not an option for BME with this, meaning that any biomedical engineers seeking a license must prepare to take this examination in another category (which does not affect the actual license, since most jurisdictions do not recognize discipline specialties anyway). However, the Biomedical Engineering Society (BMES) is, as of 2009, exploring the possibility of seeking to implement a BME-specific version of this exam to facilitate biomedical engineers' pursuing licensure. Beyond governmental registration, certain private-sector professional/industrial organizations also offer certifications with varying degrees of prominence. One such example is the Certified Clinical Engineer (CCE) certification for Clinical engineers. Founding figures Leslie Geddes - Professor Emeritus at Purdue University, electrical engineer, inventor and educator of over 2000 biomedical engineers, received a National Medal of Technology in 2006 from President George Bush YouTube - Leslie Geddes - 2006 National Medal of Technology for his more than 50 years of contributions that have spawned innovations ranging from burn treatments to miniature defibrillators, ligament repair to tiny blood pressure monitors for premature infants, as well as a new method for performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Y. C. Fung - professor emeritus at the University of California, San Diego, considered by many to be the founder of modern Biomechanics YC “Bert” Fung: The Father of Modern Biomechanics (pdf) Robert Langer - Institute Professor at MIT, runs the largest BME laboratory in the world, pioneer in drug delivery and tissue engineering Colleagues honor Langer for 30 years of innovation, MIT News Office Nicholas A. Peppas - Chaired Professor in Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, pioneer in drug delivery, biomaterials, hydrogels and nanobiotechnology. Otto Schmitt (deceased) - biophysicist with significant contributions to BME, working with biomimetics Ascher Shapiro (deceased) - Institute Professor at MIT, contributed to the development of the BME field, medical devices (e.g. intra-aortic balloons) John G. Webster - Professor Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, a pioneer in the field of instrumentation amplifiers for the recording of electrophysiological signals U. A. Whitaker (deceased) - provider of The Whitaker Foundation, which supported research and education in BME by providing over $700 million to various universities, helping to create 30 BME programs and helping finance the construction of 13 buildings The Whitaker Foundation Alfred E. Mann - Physicist, entrepreneur and philanthropist. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_E._Mann A pioneer in the field of Biomedical Engineering. http://www.aemf.org/The Alfred E. Mann Foundation for Scientific Research (AMF) See also List of biomedical engineering topics Bioengineering Medical device Notes Further reading Bronzino, Joseph D. (2000). The Biomedical Engineering Handbook - Second Edition. CRC Press. Volume 1. ISBN 0-8493-0461-X. Volume 2. ISBN 0-8493-0462-8. External links Organizations American College of Clinical Engineering (ACCE) Association of Institutions concerned with Medical Engineering (UK) IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society Biomedical Engineering Career Alliance Biomedical engineering at the NIH Biomedical Engineering website Danish Society for Biomedical Engineering EBME - Biomedical and Clinical Engineering The Whitaker Foundation The Biomedical Engineering Network The Biomedical Engineering Society (US) The Canadian Medical and Biological Engineering Society Thai Biomedical Engineering Research Society (ThaiBME) The Turkey Biomedical Engineering (Turkey) the Arabic biomedical engineering source (arabic BME) Malaysian Society of Medical and Biological Engineering (MSMBE) Australian Biomedical Engineering Community Imperial College London, Institute of Biomedical Engineering (IBE) Job finders Biomedical Engineering Jobs Biomedical and Clinical Engineering Jobs Biomedical Engineering Internships, Co-op's and entry level positions Other sites List of Biomedical Engineering Companies and Organizations at the Open Directory Project | Biomedical_engineering |@lemmatized jarvik:1 artificial:10 heart:3 example:14 biomedical:60 engineering:105 application:11 mechanical:6 biocompatible:3 material:5 cardiothoracic:1 surgery:1 use:18 organ:8 approximately:1 probe:1 spot:1 oligo:1 microarray:1 enlarged:1 inset:1 show:2 detail:1 bme:37 principle:1 technique:4 medical:40 field:18 combine:2 design:4 problem:1 solve:1 skill:1 biological:12 science:5 improve:2 healthcare:4 diagnosis:5 treatment:4 recently:3 emerge:4 discipline:11 compare:2 many:11 evolution:1 common:4 new:5 transition:1 interdisciplinary:3 specialization:2 among:2 already:1 establish:2 consider:3 much:3 work:4 consist:1 research:14 development:9 span:1 broad:3 array:1 subfields:2 see:5 prominent:1 include:12 prosthesis:2 various:5 diagnostic:2 therapeutic:1 device:38 range:3 clinical:17 equipment:8 micro:1 implant:14 image:4 mri:3 eeg:1 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4,920 | Ludwig_Ritter_von_Köchel | Ludwig Alois Ferdinand Ritter von Köchel (; January 14, 1800 – June 3, 1877) was a musicologist, writer, composer, botanist and publisher. He is best known for cataloguing the works of Mozart and originating the 'K-numbers' by which they are known (K for Köchel). Born in the town of Stein, Lower Austria, he studied law in Vienna, and for fifteen years was tutor to the four sons of Archduke Charles of Austria. Köchel was rewarded with a knighthood and a generous financial settlement, permitting him to spend the rest of his life as a private scholar. Contemporary scientists were greatly impressed by his botanical researches in North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, the United Kingdom, the North Cape, and Russia. In addition to botany, he was interested in geology and mineralogy, but also loved music, and was a member of the Mozarteum Salzburg. Köchel catalogue In 1862 he published the Köchel catalogue, a chronological and thematic register of the works of Mozart. This catalogue was the first on such a scale and with such a level of scholarship behind it; it has since undergone revisions. Mozart's works are often referred to by their K-numbers (c.f. opus number); for example, the "Jupiter" symphony, Symphony No. 41 K. 551. Moreover, Köchel arranged Mozart's works into twenty-four categories, which were used by Breitkopf & Härtel when they published the first complete edition of Mozart's works from 1877 to 1910, a venture partly funded by Köchel. He also catalogued the works of Johann Fux. Brook, Barry S.; Viano, Richard J. (1997) . Pendragon Press. page 146. ISBN 091872886X. Ludwig Ritter von Köchel died at age 77 in Vienna. Notes References External links | Ludwig_Ritter_von_Köchel |@lemmatized ludwig:2 alois:1 ferdinand:1 ritter:2 von:2 köchel:8 january:1 june:1 musicologist:1 writer:1 composer:1 botanist:1 publisher:1 best:1 know:2 catalogue:5 work:6 mozart:5 originate:1 k:4 number:3 born:1 town:1 stein:1 low:1 austria:2 study:1 law:1 vienna:2 fifteen:1 year:1 tutor:1 four:2 son:1 archduke:1 charles:1 reward:1 knighthood:1 generous:1 financial:1 settlement:1 permit:1 spend:1 rest:1 life:1 private:1 scholar:1 contemporary:1 scientist:1 greatly:1 impress:1 botanical:1 research:1 north:2 africa:1 iberian:1 peninsula:1 united:1 kingdom:1 cape:1 russia:1 addition:1 botany:1 interested:1 geology:1 mineralogy:1 also:2 love:1 music:1 member:1 mozarteum:1 salzburg:1 publish:2 chronological:1 thematic:1 register:1 first:2 scale:1 level:1 scholarship:1 behind:1 since:1 undergone:1 revision:1 often:1 refer:1 c:1 f:1 opus:1 example:1 jupiter:1 symphony:2 moreover:1 arrange:1 twenty:1 category:1 use:1 breitkopf:1 härtel:1 complete:1 edition:1 venture:1 partly:1 fund:1 johann:1 fux:1 brook:1 barry:1 viano:1 richard:1 j:1 pendragon:1 press:1 page:1 isbn:1 die:1 age:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram ritter_von:2 iberian_peninsula:1 breitkopf_härtel:1 external_link:1 |
4,921 | Jet_Li | Li Lianjie (born April 26, 1963), better known by his stage name Jet Li, is a Chinese martial artist, actor, wushu champion, and international film star. After three years of intensive training with Wu Bin, Li won his first national championship for the Beijing Wushu Team. After retiring from wushu at age 17, he went on to win great acclaim in China as an actor making his debut with the film Shaolin Temple (1982). He went on to star in many critically acclaimed martial arts epic films, most notably the Once Upon A Time In China series, in which he portrayed folk hero Wong Fei Hung. His first role in a Hollywood film was as a villain in Lethal Weapon 4 (1998), but his first Hollywood film leading role was in Romeo Must Die (2000). He has gone on to star in many Hollywood action films, most recently starring beside Jackie Chan in The Forbidden Kingdom (2008), and as the titular villain in The Mummy: Tomb Of The Dragon Emperor (2008) opposite Brendan Fraser. He is set to star in the upcoming film The Expendables. Early life and martial arts career Li was born Li Lianjie in Beijing, People's Republic of China. Li's father died when he was two, leaving the family to struggle on its own, with Li being the youngest of two boys and two girls. When Li was eight his talent for wushu was noticed at a summer course at school, and he began his practice there. Li participated in the sport of wushu in the non-sparring event. He began his wushu on the Beijing Wushu Team, an athletic group organized to perform martial arts forms during the All China Games. As a member of the team, he received wushu training and went on to win fifteen gold medals and one silver medal in Chinese wushu championships. According to Li, once, as a child, when the Chinese National Wushu Team went to perform for President Richard Nixon in the United States, he was asked by Nixon to be his personal bodyguard. Li replied, "I don't want to protect any individual. When I grow up, I want to defend my one billion Chinese countrymen!" which earned him much respect in his homeland. "Jet Li Essays." The Official Jet Li Website. 13 Feb 2007 After almost nine years of training, Li has studied some styles of wushu, especially Changquan (Northern Longfist Style). He has also studied other arts including Baguazhang (Eight trigram palm), Taijiquan (Tai chi), Xingyiquan (Shape intent fist), Zuiquan (Drunken fist), and Tang lang quan (Praying mantis fist). He didn't learn Nanquan (Southern fist), because they're focusing only in the Northern Shaolin Styles. He has also studied some of wushu's main weapons, such as San jie gun (Three sectional staff), Gun (Staff), Dao (Broadsword), Jian (Straight sword) and many more. Acting career Chinese films Jet Li's hand print and autograph at the Avenue of Stars in Hong Kong. The fame gained by his sports winnings led to a career as a martial arts film star, beginning in mainland China and then continuing into Hong Kong. Li acquired his screen name in 1982 in the Philippines when a publicity company thought his real name was too hard to pronounce. They likened his career to an aircraft, which likewise "takes-off" as quickly, so they placed the name Jet Li on the movie posters. Soon everybody was calling him by this new name, which was also based on the nickname, "Jet," given to him as a young student, due to his speed and grace when training with the Beijing Wushu team. He made his debut with the 1982 film Shaolin Temple. Some of his more famous Chinese films include: The Shaolin Temple series (1, 2 and 3), which are considered to be the films which sparked the rebirth of the real Shaolin Temple in Dengfeng, China; The Once Upon a Time in China series (Chinese title: Wong Fei Hung), about the legendary Chinese folk hero Master Wong Fei Hung. Fist of Legend (Chinese title: Jing Wu Ying Xiong), a remake of Bruce Lee's Fist Of Fury. The Fong Sai Yuk films about another Chinese folk hero. Li starred in the 1995 film High Risk, where Jet Li plays a Captain who becomes disillusioned after his wife is murdered by crime lords. Along the way, he pairs up with a wacky sell-out actor, Frankie (played by Jacky Cheung), and proceeds to engage in a series of violent battles in a high-rise building. The setting is similar to that of Die Hard and both their Chinese film titles. This movie is notable in that director Wong Jing had such a terrible experience working with Jackie Chan in Jing's previous film City Hunter that he chose to make Cheung's character a biting satire of Chan. Jet Li would later publicly apologize to Chan for taking part in it. American films In 1998, he made his American film debut in Lethal Weapon 4 which also marked the first time he had ever played a villain in a film. He agreed to do Lethal Weapon 4 after the producer Joel Silver promised to give him the leading role in his next film, Romeo Must Die (2000) which was a box office hit. Li turned down Chow Yun-Fat's role in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000) because he promised his wife that he would not make any films during her pregnancy. Burr, Martha. "Kiss of the Dragon." Kung Fu Magazine June 2001 13 Feb 2007 . He also turned down the role of Seraph in The Matrix trilogy, based on his belief that the role was not one which required his skills and that the films were iconic and stunning enough without adding his name to the cast list. In 2001, he appeared in two more Hollywood films: The One and Kiss Of The Dragon opposite Bridget Fonda which did moderately well at the box office. In July 2001, Li agreed to produce and star in an action film with Jackie Chan which was to be released in 2002 or 2003, but no further news of their collaboration surfaced until 2006. In 2002, the period martial arts epic film Hero was released in the Chinese market. This film was both a commercial and critical success. In 2003 he reunited with producer Joel Silver for the action thriller film Cradle 2 The Grave where he starred alongside rapper DMX and fellow martial artist Mark Dacascos. In 2004, Li lent his likeness, voice and provided motion capture work for the video game Jet Li: Rise to Honor. Li departed from his usual martial arts action films with the 2005 dramatic film, Unleashed (a.k.a. Danny the Dog), where he portrays an adult with the mentality of a child who has been raised like an animal. Although his martial arts skills were utilized extensively, it was a somber film with more depth than had been previously seen in Li's films, and co-starred dramatic actors Bob Hoskins and Morgan Freeman. In 2006, the martial arts film epic Fearless, was released worldwide. Although he will continue to make martial arts films, Fearless is his last wushu epic. In Fearless, he played Huo Yuanjia, the real-life founder of Chin Woo Athletic Association, who reportedly defeated foreign boxers and Japanese martial artists in publicized events at a time when China's power was seen as eroding. Together with the film Fist of Legend, Li has portrayed both Chen Jun, the student and avenger of Huo Yuanjia (aka Fok Yun Gap), as well as Huo Yuanjia himself. Fearless was released on January 26, 2006 in Hong Kong, followed by a September 22, 2006 release in the United States where it reached second place in its first weekend. Li has stated in an interview with the Shenzhen Daily newspaper that this will be his last martial arts epic, which is also stated in the film's television promotions. However, he plans to continue his film career in other genres. Specifically, he plans to continue acting in action and martial arts films; epic films deal more with religious and philosophical issues. Li's 2007 Hollywood film, War, was released in August of that year, and re-teamed him with actor Jason Statham, who previously starred with him in The One, and action choreographer Corey Yuen. War raked in a disappointing $23 million at the box office, becoming one of Li's lowest grossers in America; however, it was a hit on video, accumulating nearly $52 million in rental revenue, more than doubling its box office take. War Rental Revenue With the exception of Romeo Must Die and the worldwide release of Hero, most of Li's American films have been only modest hits like Kiss Of The Dragon, The One, Unleashed, Cradle 2 the Grave, and the worldwide release of Fearless. In late 2007, Li returned again to China to participate in the China/Hong Kong co-production of the period war film The Warlords with Andy Lau and Takeshi Kaneshiro. This film with its focus on dramatics rather than martial arts netted Li the Hong Kong Film Award for Best Actor. Li and fellow martial arts veteran Jackie Chan appeared together onscreen for the first time in The Forbidden Kingdom, which began filming in May 2007 and was released to critical and commercial success on April 18, 2008. The film was based on the legend of the Monkey King from the Chinese folk novel Journey to the West. Jackie and Jet Li Will Begin Filming of The Forbidden Kingdom in May Forbidden Kingdom Facts Li also starred as the lead villain in the fantasy action film The Mummy: Tomb Of The Dragon Emperor with actors Brendan Fraser, Isabella Leong and Michelle Yeoh. Chung, Philip W. (2008-08-01). "Jet Li and Michelle Yeoh: From ‘Tai Chi Master’ to ‘The Mummy’". AsianWeek. Retrieved on 2008-08-04. After an one-year hiatus from filmmaking, Jet Li returned to acting in 2009, portraying a mercenary in the film The Expendables, teaming up with action stars Sylvester Stallone, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Jason Statham, Dolph Lundgren, and Mickey Rourke. Personal life Li is a practitioner of Tibetan Buddhism. The Official Jet Li Website - How did you come to follow Tibetan Buddhism? His master is Lho Kunsang The Official Jet Li Website - Jet's teacher of the Drikung Kagyu lineage of the Kagyu school. Official Website of Drikung Kagyu Order of Tibetan Buddhism - Most Venerable Lho Kunsang Rinpoche In 1987, Li married Beijing Wushu Team member and Shaolin Temple series co-star Huang Qiuyan, "Huang Qiu Yan." Hong Kong Cinemagic. 13 Feb 2007. with whom he had two daughters. They divorced in 1990, Since 1999, he has been married to Nina Li Chi (born Li Zhi), a Shanghai-born, Hong Kong-based actress. He has two daughters with her as well, Jane (born 2000) and Jada (born 2002). Li was in the Maldives when the tsunami hit during the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. Although it was widely reported at the time that he had died during the disaster, "Asian Blog Entry ." Blog Critics ~ About Tsunami. he only suffered a minor foot injury, caused by a piece of floating furniture, while he was guiding his 4-year-old daughter Jane to safety. The two were by the pool and slightly above the beach when the wave came ashore. "My Turn: The Tsunami That Changed My Life." Newsweek.com. Oct 6, 2008 Philanthropy Li has been a "philanthropic ambassador" of the Red Cross Society of China since January 2006. He contributed 500,000 yuan (US$62,500) of box office revenues from his film Fearless to the Red Cross' psychological sunshine project, which promotes mental health. "Jet Li Becomes 'Philanthropic Ambassador' of Red Cross." Xinhua News Agency. 23 January 2006. In April 2007, touched by his near-death experience in the Maldives during the 2004 tsunami, Li formed his own non-profit foundation called The One Foundation. "Interview with Jet Li." CNN. 25 January 2008. The One Foundation The One Foundation supports international disaster relief efforts in conjunction with the Red Cross as well as other efforts, including mental health awareness and suicide prevention. Since the starting of the foundation, Li has been involved with seven disasters, including the Sichuan earthquake. "My Turn: The Tsunami That Changed My Life." Newsweek.com. Oct 6, 2008 Filmography {| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%;" |- bgcolor="#00FF00" ! Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes |- | 1982 || Shaolin Temple(少林寺 Shao Lin Si) || Jueh Yuan覺遠 |- | 1983 || Kids From Shaolin(少林小子 Shao Lin Xiao Zi) || San Lung三龍 |- |rowspan="2"| 1986 || Born to Defence(中華英雄 Zhong Hua Ying Xiong) || Jet小杰 || Jet Li's directorial debut |- | Martial Arts Of Shaolin(南北少林 Nan Bei Shao Lin) || Zhi Ming林智明 || aka "Shaolin Temple 3: Martial Arts Of Shaolin" |- | 1988 || Dragon Fight(龍在天涯 Long Zai Tian Ya) || Lap/Jimmy Lee李國南 |- | 1989 || The Master(龍行天下 Long Xing Tian Xia) || Kit/Jet杰 |- |rowspan="2"| 1991 || Once Upon a Time in China(黃飛鴻 Wong Fei Hung) || Wong Fei Hung黃飛鴻 |- | Swordsman II(笑傲江湖之東方不敗 Xiao Ao Jiang Hu Zhi Dong Fang Bu Bai) || Ling Hu Cong令狐沖 |- | 1992 || Once Upon a Time in China II(黃飛鴻之二男兒當自强 Huang Fei Hong 2: Nan er dang zi qiang) || Wong Fei Hung黃飛鴻 |- |rowspan="6"| 1993 || Tai Chi Master (太極張三豐 Tai Ji Zhang San Feng) || Guanbo張三丰 || aka Twin Warriors (USA) |- | Fong Sai Yuk (方世玉 Fong Sai-yuk) || Fong Sai-yuk方世玉 || aka The Legend |- | Fong Sai Yuk II (方世玉續集 Fong Sai Yuk Juk Jaap) || Fong Sai Yuk方世玉 || aka The Legend 2 |- | Kung Fu Cult Master(倚天屠龍記之魔教教主 Yi tian tu long ji zhi mo jiao jiao zhu) || Zhang Wu Ji張無忌 || aka The Evil Cultaka Lord Of The Wu Tangaka Kung Fu Master |-Twin Warriors | Last Hero In China(黃飛鴻之鐵雞斗蜈蚣 Wong Fei-Hung zhi tie ji dou wu gong) || Wong Fei Hung黃飛鴻 || aka Claws of Steelaka Deadly China Hero |- | Once Upon A Time In China III(黃飛鴻之三：獅王争霸 Huang Fei Hong 3: Si Wang Zeng Ba) || Wong Fei Hung黃飛鴻|| aka The Invincible Shaolin |- |rowspan="3"|1994 || The Bodyguard From Beijing(中南海保鑣 Zhong Nan Hai Bao Biao) || Allan Hui Ching-yeung/John Chang許正陽 || aka The Defenderaka Zhong Nan Hai bao biao |- | Fist Of Legend(精武英雄 Jing Wu Ying Xiong) || Chen Jun陳真 |- | The New Legend Of Shaolin(洪熙官之少林五祖 Hong Xi Guan Zhi Shaolin Wu Zu) || Hung Hei-Kwun洪熙官 || aka Legend Of The Red Dragon |- |rowspan="2"| 1995 || High Risk(鼠胆龍威 Shu Dan Long Wei) || Li Kit李杰 || aka Meltdown |- | My Father Is A Hero(給爸爸的信 Gei Ba Ba De Xin) || Kung Wei鞏偉 || aka The Enforceraka Letter To Daddy |- |rowspan="2"| 1996 || Black Mask (黑俠 Hei Shia) || Michael/Simon/Tsui Chik/Black Mask徐夕 || released 1999 in US |- | Dr.Wai In "The Scripture With No Words"(冒險王 Mao Xian Wong) || Chow Si-Kit周時杰 || aka Adventure Kingaka The Scripture With No Words |- | 1997 || Once Upon A Time In China And America(黃飛鴻之西域雄獅 Huang Fei Hung Zhi Xi Wa Xiong Si) || Wong Fei Hung黃飛鴻 || aka Once Upon A Time In China VI |- |rowspan="2"| 1998 || Lethal Weapon 4(致命武器4 Zhi Ming Wu Xi 4) || Wah Sing Ku |- | Hitman (殺手之王 Sha Shou Zhi Wang) || Fu小富 || aka The Hitmanaka The Contract Killer |- | 2000 || Romeo Must Die(致命羅密歐 Zhi Ming Luo Mu Ou) || Han Sing羅密歐 |- |rowspan="2"| 2001 || The One(最後一強 Zui Hou Yi Qiang) || Gabe Law/Gabriel Yulaw/Lawless羅基 |- | Kiss Of The Dragon(龍之吻 Long Zhi Wen) || Ou Yang Cui Jian鐘尼 |- | 2002 || Hero(英雄 Ying Xiong)|| Nameless無名 || Released 2004 in US |- | 2003 || Cradle 2 The Grave(同盜一擊 Tong Zhi Yi Zi) || Su蘇 |- | 2004 || Jet Li: Rise To Honour (Playstation 2 video game)||Kit Yun (voice, motion-capture actor)|| released 2004 in US |- | 2005 || Unleashed(不死狗 Bu Si Jiu) || Danny丹尼 || aka Danny The Dog |- | 2006 || Fearless(霍元甲 Huo Yuan Jia) || Huo Yuanjia霍元甲 |- |rowspan="2"| 2007 || The Warlords(投名狀 Tou Ming Zhuang) || Pang Qing Yun龐青雲 |- | War(玩命對戰 Wen Ming De Jian) || Rogue雷克 ||aka "Rogue Assassin" or "Rogue" |- |rowspan="2"| 2008 || The Forbidden Kingdom(功夫之王 Gong Fu Zhi Wang) || Sun Wukong the Monkey King/Silent Monk美猴王/默僧 |- | The Mummy: Tomb Of The Dragon Emperor(盜墓迷城3 Zi Mo Mi Cheng 3) || Emperor Han龍皇帝 |- | 2010 || The Expendables || Kong Kao |} See also Cinema of China Cinema of Hong Kong References Further reading Ducker, Chris, and Stuart Cutler. The HKS Guide to Jet Li. London: Hong Kong Superstars, 2000. Marx, Christy. Jet Li. Martial Arts Masters. Rosen Publishing Group, 2002. ISBN 0823935191. Parish, James Robert. Jet Li: A Biography''. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 2002. ISBN 1560253762. External links Official Jet Li website Jet Li's Foundation: The One Foundation Project Jet Li Biography (HKCinema) Jet Li Biography (HKFilm) Jet Li discusses The One Foundation | Jet_Li |@lemmatized li:61 lianjie:2 bear:3 april:3 well:5 know:1 stage:1 name:6 jet:27 chinese:13 martial:19 artist:3 actor:8 wushu:15 champion:1 international:2 film:49 star:15 three:2 year:6 intensive:1 training:4 wu:8 bin:1 win:3 first:6 national:2 championship:2 beijing:6 team:8 retire:1 age:1 go:5 great:1 acclaim:1 china:19 make:6 debut:4 shaolin:14 temple:7 many:3 critically:1 acclaimed:1 art:17 epic:6 notably:1 upon:7 time:11 series:5 portray:4 folk:4 hero:9 wong:12 fei:13 hung:7 role:7 hollywood:5 villain:4 lethal:4 weapon:5 lead:4 romeo:4 must:4 die:7 action:8 recently:1 beside:1 jackie:5 chan:6 forbidden:4 kingdom:5 titular:1 mummy:4 tomb:3 dragon:10 emperor:4 opposite:2 brendan:2 fraser:2 set:1 upcoming:1 expendables:3 early:1 life:5 career:5 people:1 republic:1 father:2 two:7 leave:1 family:1 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4,922 | Mackinac_Bridge | The Mackinac Bridge (, with a silent "c" at the end of the word and the last "a" pronounced as if it had a "w" after it), is a suspension bridge spanning the Straits of Mackinac to connect the non-contiguous Upper and Lower peninsulas of the U.S. state of Michigan. Envisioned since the 1880s, the bridge was completed only after many decades of struggles to begin construction. Designed by engineer David B. Steinman, the bridge (familiarly known as "Big Mac" and "Mighty Mac") connects the city of St. Ignace on the north end with the village of Mackinaw City on the south. It is the longest suspension bridge between anchorages in the Western hemisphere. Length The bridge opened on November 1, 1957, ending decades of the two peninsulas being solely linked by ferries. A year later, the bridge was formally dedicated as the world's longest suspension bridge between anchorages. This designation was chosen because the bridge would not be the world's largest using another way of measuring suspension bridges, the length of the center span between the towers; at the time that title belonged to the Golden Gate Bridge, which has a longer center span. By saying "between anchorages", the bridge could be considered longer than the Golden Gate Bridge and also longer than the suspended western section of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge. (That bridge has a longer total suspension but is a double bridge with an anchorage in the middle.) At , the Mackinac Bridge is the longest suspension bridge with two towers between anchorages in the Western Hemisphere. About the Bridge - Mackinac Bridge Authority Much longer anchorage-to-anchorage spans have been built in the Eastern Hemisphere, including the Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge in Japan (). However, because of the long leadups to the anchorages on the Mackinac, from shoreline to shoreline it is much longer at than the Akashi-Kaikyo (). The length of the bridge's main span is , which makes it the third-longest suspension span in the United States and twelfth longest worldwide. History The Algonquin Native Americans called the straits and the surrounding area "Michilimackinac", meaning "the jumping-off place" or "great road of departure". These Native Americans moved around the straits rather than crossing them. The straits were the end of the trail. As Europeans settled in the area, the straits became an important area for trade and commerce. The clean air, abundant fish, and beautiful views attracted people from all over the area to the straits. Still, the only way to cross was by ferry. Typically, a fleet of nine ferries could carry as many as 9,000 vehicles per day. Traffic backups sometimes stretched to Cheboygan, Michigan. Year-round boat service across the straits had been abandoned as impractical because of the cold winters that would often freeze the water across the entire strait. After the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883, local residents began to imagine that such a structure could span the straits. In 1884, a store owner in St. Ignace published a newspaper advertisement that included a reprint of an artist's conception of the Brooklyn Bridge with the caption "Proposed bridge across the Straits of Mackinac". The idea of the bridge was discussed in the Michigan Legislature as early as the 1880s. At the time, the area was becoming a popular tourist destination, including the creation of Mackinac National Park on Mackinac Island in 1875. Despite the perceived necessity for the bridge, several decades elapsed with no formal plan. In 1920, the Michigan state highway commissioner advocated the construction of a floating tunnel across the straits. At the invitation of the state legislature, C. E. Fowler of New York City put forth a plan for a long series of causeways and bridges across the straits from Cheboygan, southeast of Mackinaw City, to St. Ignace, using Bois Blanc, Round, and Mackinac Island as intermediate steps. A Mackinac Island ferry passing in front of the Mackinac Bridge. In 1923, the state legislature ordered the State Highway Department to establish ferry service across the strait. More and more people used ferries to cross the straits each year, and as they did, momentum to create a bridge grew even stronger. Chase Osborn, a former governor, wrote, "Michigan is unifying itself, and a magnificent new route through Michigan to Lake Superior and the Northwest United States is developing, via the Straits of Mackinac. It cannot continue to grow as it ought with clumsy and inadequate ferries for any portion of the year." By 1928, the ferry service had become so popular and so expensive to operate that Michigan Governor Fred Green ordered the department to study the feasibility of building a bridge across the strait. The department deemed the idea feasible, estimating the cost at $30 million. In 1934, the Michigan Legislature created the Mackinac Straits Bridge Authority to explore possible methods of constructing and funding the proposed bridge. The Legislature authorized the Authority to seek financing for the project. In the mid 1930s, the Authority twice attempted to obtain federal funds for the project but was unsuccessful, despite the endorsement of the United States Army Corps of Engineers and President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Nevertheless, between 1936 and 1940, a route was selected for the bridge, and borings were made for a detailed geological study of the route. The preliminary plans for the bridge featured a 3-lane roadway, a railroad crossing on the underdeck of the span, and a center-anchorage double-suspension bridge configuration similar to the design of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge. Because this would have required sinking an anchorage pier in the deepest area of the Straits, the practicality of this design may have been questionable. A concrete causeway, approximately , extending from the northern shore, was constructed in shallow water from 1939 to 1941. At that time, with funding for the project still uncertain, further work was put on hold because of World War II. The Mackinac Straits Bridge Authority was abolished by the state legislature in 1947, but the same body created a new Mackinac Bridge Authority three years later in 1950. In June 1950, engineers were retained for the project. After a report by the engineers in January 1951, the state legistature authorized the sale of $85 million in bonds for bridge construction on April 30, 1952. However, a weak bond market in 1953 forced a delay of more than a year before the bonds could be issued. G. Mennen Williams was governor during the construction of the Mackinac Bridge. He began the tradition of the governor leading the Mackinac Bridge Walk across it every Labor Day. Governor G. Mennen Williams Engineering and construction A closer look at the north tower of the bridge David B. Steinman was appointed as the design engineer in January 1953. By the end of 1953, estimates and contracts had been negotiated, and construction began on May 7, 1954. The American Bridge Division of United States Steel Corporation was awarded a contract of more than $44 million to build the steel superstructure. Construction, which utilized the 1939-41 causeway, took three and a half years (four summers, no winter construction) at a total cost of 100 million dollars and the lives of five men who worked on the bridge. It opened to traffic on schedule on November 1, 1957, and was formally dedicated on June 25, 1958. The bridge officially achieved its 100 millionth crossing exactly forty years after its dedication, on June 25, 1998. The 50th anniversary of the bridge's opening was celebrated in a ceremony hosted by the Mackinac Bridge Authority at the viewing park adjacent to the St. Ignace causeway on November 1, 2007. History of bridge design The design of the Mackinac Bridge was directly influenced by the lessons of the first Tacoma Narrows Bridge, which failed in 1940 because of its instability in high winds. Three years after that disaster, Steinman had published a theoretical analysis of suspension-bridge stability problems, which recommended that future bridge designs include deep stiffening trusses to support the bridge deck and an open-grid roadway to reduce its wind resistance. Both of these features were incorporated into the Mackinac Bridge. The stiffening truss is open to reduce wind resistance. The road deck is shaped as an airfoil to provide lift in a cross wind, and the center two lanes are open grid to allow vertical (upward) air flow, which fairly precisely cancels the lift, making the roadway stable in design in winds up to . Facts and figures View of the bridge looking north across the Straits of Mackinac Mackinac Bridge at night Mackinac Bridge during a snowstorm(Picture taken from a road that leads up to the Bridge View Park). Another picture of Mackinac Bridge at night The Mackinac Bridge is currently a toll bridge on Interstate 75. Prior to the coming of I-75, the bridge carried US 27. It is one of only two segments of I-75 that is tolled; the other is Alligator Alley in Florida. The current toll is $3.00 for automobiles and $3.50 per axle for trucks. The Mackinac Bridge Authority has proposed raising the rate to $4 for cars and $5 per axle for trucks to fund a $300 million renovation program, which would include completely replacing the bridge deck. Mackinac Bridge authority proposes raising tolls to pay for renovations, [Detroit Free Press], November 7, 2007. Every Labor Day, two of the lanes of the bridge are closed to traffic and open to walkers for the Mackinac Bridge Walk. Painting of the bridge takes seven years, and when painting of the bridge is complete, it begins again. Length from cable bent pier to cable bent pier: . Total width of the roadway: Two outside lanes: wide each Two inside lanes: wide each Center mall: Catwalk, curb and rail width: on each side Width of stiffening truss in the suspended span: . Depth of stiffening truss: Height of the roadway at mid-span: approximately above water level. Vertical clearance at normal temperature: at the center of the main suspension span. at the boundaries of the wide navigation channel. Construction cost: $99.8 million (1957 USD; adjusted for inflation, approximately $732 million, 2007 USD) Height of towers above water: Max. depth of towers below water: Total length of wire in main cables: . Total vehicle crossings, 2005: 4,236,491 (average 11,608 per day) Speed limit: for passenger cars, for heavy trucks. Heavy trucks are also required to leave spacing ahead. Work and major accident fatalities The Mackinac Bridge during a thunderstorm Five workers died during the construction of the bridge. Twenty-eight-year old Jack Baker and Robert Koppen died in a catwalk collapse near the north tower on June 6, 1956. Koppen's body was never recovered. For both it was their first day on the job. Diver Frank Pepper ascended too quickly from a depth of on September 10, 1957. Despite being rushed to a decompression chamber, the forty-six-year old died from the bends. Twenty-six-year old James LeSarge lost his balance on October 10, 1954 and fell into a caisson. He fell and likely died of head injuries caused by impact with the criss-crossing steel beams inside the caisson. Albert Abbott died on October 25, 1954. The forty-year old fell four feet (1.2 m) into the water while working on an 18 inch (46 cm) wide beam. Witnesses speculate he suffered a heart attack. All five men are memorialized on a plaque near the bridge's southern end. Contrary to folklore, no bodies are embedded in the concrete. Michigan History Magazine July/August 2007 One worker has died since the bridge was completed. Daniel Doyle fell from a scaffolding on August 7, 1997. He survived the fall but fell victim to the water temperature. His body was recovered the next day in of water. Two vehicles have fallen off the bridge. Leslie Anne Plouhar died in 1989 when her 1987 Yugo plunged over the high railing. A combination of high winds and excessive speed was blamed. In March 1997, a 1996 Ford Bronco went over the edge. It was later determined to be a suicide by driver Richard Alan Daraban. Crossing the bridge The Mackinac Bridge Authority has a Drivers Assistance Program that provides drivers for those uncomfortable with driving across the Mackinac Bridge. Those interested can arrange, either by phone or with the toll collector, to have their cars or motorcycles driven to the other end. There is no additional fee for this service. Bicycles are not permitted on the bridge; for a fee the Authority will transport bicyclists and their vehicles across the bridge. Travelers across the Mackinac Bridge can listen to an AM radio broadcast that recounts the history of the bridge and provides updates on driving conditions. WNHC787 AM 530 St. Ignace, WNHC787 AM 1610 Mackinaw City, Travelers Information Service AM Radio, Michiguide.com, retrieved 2008-09-20 Bridge Walk The Mackinac Bridge Walk has been held each year since 1958, when it was led by Governor G. Mennen Williams. The first walk was held during the Bridge's Dedication Ceremony held in late June, and has been held on Labor Day since 1959. Thousands of people, traditionally led by the Governor of Michigan, cross the five-mile (8 km) span on foot from St. Ignace to Mackinaw City since 1964. Before that, people walked the Bridge from Mackinaw City to St. Ignace. Tourism During summers, the Upper Peninsula and the Mackinac Bridge have become a major tourist destination. Michigan Tourism Business In addition to visitors to Mackinac Island, the bridge has attracted interest from a diverse group of tourists including bridge enthusiasts, bird-watchers, and photographers. Mackinac Bridge Photography In media A feature-length documentary entitled "Building the Mighty Mac" was produced by Hollywood filmmaker Mark Howell in 1997 and has been shown over the PBS network. The program features numerous interviews with the key people who built the structure and includes restored 16 mm color footage of the bridge's construction. The bridge and its maintenance crew were featured in an episode of the Discovery Channel TV show Dirty Jobs on August 7, 2007. Host Mike Rowe and crew spent several days filming the episode in May 2007. http://www.9and10news.com/category/story/?id=117043 9&10 News: Crew from "Dirty Jobs" in Northern Michigan The history and building of the bridge was featured in an episode of the History Channel TV show Modern Marvels. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0905001/ Further reading November 1, 2007-March 15, 2008: "Before the Bridge: Linking Michigan's Peninsulas Before the Mackinac Bridge", exhibit at the Clarke Historical Library, Central Michigan University. Bay City Times on Bridge exhibit. "The Mighty Mac at 50", Michigan History Magazine (Special edition), Volume 19, No. 4, July-August, 2007. References External links Official site Length Comparison Mackinac Bridge 3c Commemorative Stamp Monitoring the Mighty Mac, Point of Beginning, 2007 | Mackinac_Bridge |@lemmatized mackinac:38 bridge:97 silent:1 c:2 end:7 word:1 last:1 pronounce:1 w:1 suspension:10 span:12 strait:18 connect:2 non:1 contiguous:1 upper:2 low:1 peninsula:4 u:2 state:11 michigan:15 envision:1 since:5 complete:3 many:2 decade:3 struggle:1 begin:5 construction:11 design:8 engineer:5 david:2 b:2 steinman:3 familiarly:1 know:1 big:1 mac:5 mighty:4 city:8 st:7 ignace:7 north:4 village:1 mackinaw:5 south:1 long:10 anchorage:10 western:3 hemisphere:3 length:7 open:6 november:5 two:8 solely:1 link:3 ferry:8 year:15 later:3 formally:2 dedicate:2 world:3 designation:1 choose:1 would:4 large:1 use:2 another:2 way:2 measure:1 center:6 tower:6 time:4 title:2 belong:1 golden:2 gate:2 longer:3 say:1 could:4 consider:1 also:2 suspended:2 section:1 san:2 francisco:2 oakland:2 bay:3 total:5 double:2 middle:1 authority:11 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4,923 | Absolute_magnitude | In astronomy, absolute magnitude (also known as absolute visual magnitude when measured in the standard V phometric band) measures a celestial object's intrinsic brightness. To derive the absolute magnitude from the observed apparent magnitude of a celestial object its value is corrected for distance to the observer. Absolute magnitude then equals the apparent magnitude an object would have if it were at a standard luminosity distance (10 parsecs, 1 AU, or 100 km depending on object type) away from the observer, in the absence of astronomical extinction. It allows the true brightnesses of objects to be compared without regard to distance. Bolometric magnitude is luminosity expressed in magnitude units; it takes into account energy radiated at all wavelengths, whether observed or not. The absolute magnitude uses the same convention as the visual magnitude, with a factor of 100(0.2) (≈2.512) difference in brightness between steps in magnitude. The Milky Way, for example, has an absolute magnitude of about −20.5. So a quasar at an absolute magnitude of −25.5 is 100 times brighter than our galaxy (because (100(0.2))(-20.5-(-25.5)) = (100(0.2))5 = 100). If this particular quasar and our galaxy could be seen side by side at the same distance, the quasar would be 5 magnitudes (or 100 times) brighter than our galaxy. Stars and galaxies (M) In stellar and galactic astronomy, the standard distance is 10 parsecs (about 32.616 light years, or 3 × 1015 kilometres). A star at ten pc has a parallax of 0.1" (100 milli arc seconds). For galaxies (which are of course themselves much larger than 10 pc, and whose brightness cannot be sensibly observed from so short a distance) the definition is referred to the apparent brightness of a point-like or star-like source of the same total luminosity as the galaxy, as it would look if observed at the standard 10 pc distance. In defining absolute magnitude it is necessary to specify the type of electromagnetic radiation being measured. When referring to total energy output, the proper term is bolometric magnitude. The bolometric magnitude can be computed from the visual magnitude plus a bolometric correction, . This correction is needed because very hot stars radiate mostly ultraviolet radiation, while very cool stars radiate mostly infrared radiation (see Planck's law). The dimmer an object (at a distance of 10 parsecs) would appear, the higher its absolute magnitude. The lower an object's absolute magnitude, the higher its luminosity. A mathematical equation relates apparent magnitude with absolute magnitude, via parallax. Many stars visible to the naked eye have an absolute magnitude which is capable of casting shadows from a distance of 10 parsecs; Rigel (−7.0), Deneb (−7.2), Naos (−6.0), and Betelgeuse (−5.6). For comparison, Sirius has an absolute magnitude of 1.4 and the Sun has an absolute visual magnitude of 4.83 (it actually serves as a reference point). The Sun's absolute bolometric magnitude is 4.75. Absolute magnitudes for stars generally range from −10 to +17. The absolute magnitude for galaxies can be much lower (brighter). For example, the giant elliptical galaxy M87 has an absolute magnitude of −22. Computation One can compute the absolute magnitude of an object given its apparent magnitude and luminosity distance : where is the star's luminosity distance in parsecs, wherein 1 parsec is approximately 3.2616 light-years. For nearby astronomical objects (such as stars in our galaxy) the luminosity distance DL is almost identical to the real distance to the object, because spacetime within our galaxy is almost Euclidean. For much more distant objects the Euclidean approximation is not valid, and General Relativity must be taken into account when calculating the luminosity distance of an object. In the Euclidean approximation for nearby objects, the absolute magnitude of a star can be calculated from its apparent magnitude and parallax: where p is the star's parallax in arcseconds. You can also compute the absolute magnitude of an object given its apparent magnitude and distance modulus : Examples Rigel has a visual magnitude of and distance about 773 light-years Vega has a parallax of 0.129", and an apparent magnitude of +0.03 Alpha Centauri A has a parallax of 0.742" and an apparent magnitude of −0.01 The Black Eye Galaxy has a visual magnitude of mV=+9.36 and a distance modulus of 31.06. Apparent magnitude (Main article: apparent magnitude) Given the absolute magnitude , for objects within our galaxy you can also calculate the apparent magnitude from any distance : For objects at very great distances (outside our galaxy) the luminosity distance DL must be used instead of d. Given the absolute magnitude , you can also compute apparent magnitude from its parallax : Also calculating absolute magnitude from distance modulus : Bolometric magnitude Bolometric magnitude corresponds to luminosity, expressed in magnitude units; that is, after taking into account all electromagnetic wavelengths, including those unobserved due to instrumental pass-band, the Earth's atmospheric absorption, or extinction by interstellar dust. For stars, in the absence of extensive observations at many wavelengths, it usually must be computed assuming an effective temperature. Solar System bodies (H) For planets, comets and asteroids a different definition of absolute magnitude is used which is more meaningful for nonstellar objects. In this case, the absolute magnitude is defined as the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were one astronomical unit (au) from both the Sun and the observer and at a phase angle of zero degrees. This is physically impossible, as it requires the observer to be located at the centre of the Sun, but it is convenient for purposes of calculation. To convert a stellar or galactic absolute magnitude into a planetary one, subtract 31.57. Apparent magnitude The absolute magnitude can be used to help calculate the apparent magnitude of a body under different conditions. where is 1 au, is the phase angle, the angle between the Sun-Body and Body-Observer lines; by the law of cosines, we have: is the phase integral (integration of reflected light; a number in the 0 to 1 range) Example: (An ideal diffuse reflecting sphere) - A reasonable first approximation for planetary bodies A full-phase diffuse sphere reflects ⅔ as much light as a diffuse disc of the same diameter Distances: is the distance between the observer and the body is the distance between the Sun and the body is the distance between the observer and the Sun Example Moon = +0.25 = = 1 au = 384.5 Mm = 2.57 mau How bright is the Moon from Earth? Full Moon: = 0, ( ≈ 2/3) (Actual -12.7) A full Moon reflects 30% more light at full phase than a perfect diffuse reflector predicts. Quarter Moon: = 90°, (if diffuse reflector) (Actual approximately -11.0) The diffuse reflector formula does better for smaller phases. Meteors For a meteor, the standard distance for measurement of magnitudes is at an altitude of 100 km at the observer's zenith. See also Photographic magnitude Hertzsprung-Russell diagram - Relates absolute magnitude or luminosity versus spectral color or surface temperature. Jansky radio astronomer's preferred unit - linear in power/unit area Surface brightness- The magnitude for extended objects Notes External links Reference zero-magnitude fluxes International Astronomical Union The Magnitude system About stellar magnitudes Obtain the magnitude of any star - SIMBAD Converting magnitude of minor planets to diameter Another table for converting asteroid magnitude to estimated diameter | Absolute_magnitude |@lemmatized astronomy:2 absolute:29 magnitude:66 also:6 know:1 visual:6 measure:3 standard:5 v:1 phometric:1 band:2 celestial:2 object:19 intrinsic:1 brightness:6 derive:1 observed:1 apparent:16 value:1 correct:1 distance:26 observer:8 equal:1 would:5 luminosity:11 parsec:6 au:4 km:2 depend:1 type:2 away:1 absence:2 astronomical:4 extinction:2 allow:1 true:1 compare:1 without:1 regard:1 bolometric:7 express:2 unit:5 take:3 account:3 energy:2 radiate:3 wavelength:3 whether:1 observe:3 use:4 convention:1 factor:1 difference:1 step:1 milky:1 way:1 example:5 quasar:3 time:2 brighter:3 galaxy:13 particular:1 could:1 see:3 side:2 star:13 stellar:3 galactic:2 light:6 year:3 kilometre:1 ten:1 pc:3 parallax:7 milli:1 arc:1 second:1 course:1 much:4 large:1 whose:1 cannot:1 sensibly:1 short:1 definition:2 refer:2 point:2 like:2 source:1 total:2 look:1 define:2 necessary:1 specify:1 electromagnetic:2 radiation:3 output:1 proper:1 term:1 compute:5 plus:1 correction:2 need:1 hot:1 mostly:2 ultraviolet:1 cool:1 infrared:1 planck:1 law:2 dimmer:1 appear:1 high:2 low:2 mathematical:1 equation:1 relate:2 via:1 many:2 visible:1 naked:1 eye:2 capable:1 cast:1 shadow:1 rigel:2 deneb:1 naos:1 betelgeuse:1 comparison:1 sirius:1 sun:7 actually:1 serve:1 reference:2 generally:1 range:2 giant:1 elliptical:1 computation:1 one:3 give:4 wherein:1 approximately:2 nearby:2 dl:2 almost:2 identical:1 real:1 spacetime:1 within:2 euclidean:3 distant:1 approximation:3 valid:1 general:1 relativity:1 must:3 calculate:5 p:1 arcsecond:1 modulus:3 vega:1 alpha:1 centauri:1 black:1 mv:1 main:1 article:1 great:1 outside:1 instead:1 corresponds:1 include:1 unobserved:1 due:1 instrumental:1 pas:1 earth:2 atmospheric:1 absorption:1 interstellar:1 dust:1 extensive:1 observation:1 usually:1 assume:1 effective:1 temperature:2 solar:1 system:2 body:7 h:1 planet:2 comet:1 asteroids:1 different:2 meaningful:1 nonstellar:1 case:1 phase:6 angle:3 zero:2 degree:1 physically:1 impossible:1 require:1 locate:1 centre:1 convenient:1 purpose:1 calculation:1 convert:3 planetary:2 subtract:1 help:1 condition:1 line:1 cosine:1 integral:1 integration:1 reflected:1 number:1 ideal:1 diffuse:6 reflect:3 sphere:2 reasonable:1 first:1 full:4 disc:1 diameter:3 moon:5 mm:1 mau:1 bright:1 actual:2 perfect:1 reflector:3 predicts:1 quarter:1 formula:1 good:1 small:1 meteor:2 measurement:1 altitude:1 zenith:1 photographic:1 hertzsprung:1 russell:1 diagram:1 versus:1 spectral:1 color:1 surface:2 jansky:1 radio:1 astronomer:1 preferred:1 linear:1 power:1 area:1 extended:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 fluxes:1 international:1 union:1 obtain:1 simbad:1 minor:1 another:1 table:1 asteroid:1 estimate:1 |@bigram absolute_magnitude:26 apparent_magnitude:15 distance_parsec:5 bolometric_magnitude:6 milky_way:1 electromagnetic_radiation:1 ultraviolet_radiation:1 infrared_radiation:1 visible_naked:1 naked_eye:1 elliptical_galaxy:1 alpha_centauri:1 interstellar_dust:1 hertzsprung_russell:1 external_link:1 |
4,924 | Clade | For the novel, see Clade (novel) A clade (from ancient Greek , klados, "branch") is a term used in modern alpha taxonomy, the scientific classification of living and fossil organisms, to describe a monophyletic group, defined as a group consisting of a single common ancestor and all its descendants. The term "monophyletic group" is used in this article in the conventional sense of "an ancestor and all its descendants." A case has been made that semantically, such groups should simply be referred to as "holophyletic," but this term has not yet acquired widespread use. For more information, see Holophyletic The common ancestor of any reasonably-sized group, and most of its descendants, will usually be long dead. This may not be true in very small and recent clades, where the "last common ancestor" and all of its descendants are still living. It is not necessary for a clade to contain any living representatives. The context Ever since Darwin showed that all organisms share common ancestry, taxonomy has consistently attempted to represent and reflect the evolutionary history of organisms. The DNA and RNA analysis used in modern molecular biology has greatly helped in illuminating this history, by providing large amounts of new phylogenetic information which was previously unavailable to taxonomists. These techniques of study are known as molecular phylogenetics, and they have given rise to the modern disciplines of cladistics and phylogenetic systematics. This new information and new insights have made very clear what the limitations of the old Linnaean system of taxonomy were and are. As a result, many taxonomists are gradually revising in radical ways the taxonomy of the groups that they study. For an example of a taxonomy (in this case a taxonomy of the gastropods) which has been partially revised in order to incorporate insights from molecular work, see Taxonomy of the Gastropoda (Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005). Updating taxonomy The term "clade" did not exist in the older Linnaean taxonomy, which was by necessity based only on morphological similarities between organisms. The concept embodied by the word "clade" does not fit well into the rigid hierarchy that the Linnaean system of taxonomy uses; indeed, cladistics and Linnean taxonomy are not really compatible. Linnaean taxonomy demands that all organisms be placed neatly into a rigid, ranked, hierarchy of taxa, such that one individual kind of organism must belong in one of each of the categories: species, genus, family, order, class, phylum and kingdom. Because of this necessity to "file things away neatly", the Linnaean system is often very convenient indeed in organizing such things as large museum reference collections, however it does not represent well the process of change that actually happens over evolutionary time. Because clades can be nested at any level, they do not have to be neatly slotted into a rank in an overall hierarchy. In contrast, the Linnaean taxa of "order," "class" etc. must all be used when naming a new taxon. They cannot be avoided, and each one implies a certain (admittedly very poorly defined) level of diversity, which is supposed to be equivalent throughout the system. Species arise by gradual modification, not sudden complete changes or jumps, (although also see "punctuated equilibrium"), thus there is no sound biological basis to make a distinction between a species and its "descendant" species. This is another important area where cladistics is more valuable to biologists than Linnaean taxonomy; intermediate taxa can be named according to their relationship to named taxa using the stem group terminology. For example, the famous fossil organism Archaeopteryx has a lot of bird-like characteristics, but is not a true bird in the modern sense. It is, in effect, a 'great-aunt' of the group that contains all modern birds and their shared ancestors. The Linnean system would define the taxon 'Aves' to include all modern birds, and base this taxon on a number of shared characteristics. Since modern birds are not descended from Archaeopteryx, and Archaeopteryx has characters which no living birds possess, it could not be included within the existing taxon 'Aves'. The scientists who described the organism had to make a decision: did they erect a new taxon, which would carry no inherent relationship to Aves; or did they modify the characteristics of the existing group to include the unusual fossil? In the case of Archaeopteryx, the describers opted for the latter option. However, this approach cannot be followed ad infinitum. Each time a fossil is found to be basal to the birds, this approach would require relaxing still further the criteria for inclusion in 'Aves'. Ultimately, as more transitional forms are found, the definition of 'Aves' would become so broad as to include all dinosaurs; as basal dinosaurs are described, the definition of 'Aves' would have to be extended still further to incorporate all reptiles... and so on - the logical conclusion, in the presence of a complete fossil record, would be that the definition of 'Aves' would be relaxed so far that it would include all life. In cladistic terms, however, Archaeopteryx can be considered a stem group to the bird clade - it branched off from the bird lineage before the first member of that lineage resembled a true bird. Defining clade names Since taxonomy intends to reflect evolutionary relationships, in order to be valid in evolutionary terms a taxon must be monophyletic - that is, it must be a clade. The definition of clades differ somewhat between Linnaean and cladistic nomenclature. Linnaean units are defined by a small number of key traits. Three methods of defining clades have been proposed in cladistics: node-, stem-, and apomorphy-based: In node-based naming, taxon name A refers to the least inclusive clade containing X and Y. In stem-based naming, A would refer to the most inclusive clade containing X and Y, but not Z. In apomorphy (derived feature)-based naming, A would refer to the clade identified by a feature synapomorphic (sharing a derivation) with a feature in specimen (taxon) X. This definition is basically similar to the Linnaean system. Differences between a Linnaean or an apomorphy-based clade and a node-based one become obvious when the phylogenetic hypothesis changes. Here is an example comparing the traditional Linnaean approach to a node-based naming definition: Suppose that all we want to do is to name a clade ("A"), containing X and Y. In the Linnaean system we would assign all taxa to the relevant categories species, genus, and family, and then designate type species. No explicit reference to the actual phylogeny is made when these categories are used. The clade A would then be accompanied by a short definition of the "defining trait" (apomrphy). The node-based alternative is started with an explicit reference to evolutionary history, and nothing but the clade containing X and Y needs to be named. When the hypothesis of relationship changes, the phylogenetic alternative is cleaner and more explicit about what it refers to. See also Cladistics Phylogeny Paraphyly Polyphyly Phylogenetic nomenclature Binomial nomenclature Crown group Notes References External links Evolving Thoughts: Clade DM Hillis, D Zwickl & R Gutell. "Tree of life". An unrooted Cladogram depicting around 3000 species. Phylogenetic systematics, an introductory slide-show on evolutionary trees University of California, Berkeley | Clade |@lemmatized novel:2 see:5 clade:20 ancient:1 greek:1 klados:1 branch:2 term:6 use:7 modern:7 alpha:1 taxonomy:14 scientific:1 classification:1 living:3 fossil:5 organism:8 describe:3 monophyletic:3 group:11 define:7 consist:1 single:1 common:4 ancestor:5 descendant:5 article:1 conventional:1 sense:2 case:3 make:5 semantically:1 simply:1 refer:4 holophyletic:2 yet:1 acquire:1 widespread:1 information:3 reasonably:1 size:1 usually:1 long:1 dead:1 may:1 true:3 small:2 recent:1 last:1 still:3 live:1 necessary:1 contain:6 representative:1 context:1 ever:1 since:3 darwin:1 show:2 share:3 ancestry:1 consistently:1 attempt:1 represent:2 reflect:2 evolutionary:6 history:3 dna:1 rna:1 analysis:1 molecular:3 biology:1 greatly:1 help:1 illuminate:1 provide:1 large:2 amount:1 new:5 phylogenetic:6 previously:1 unavailable:1 taxonomist:2 technique:1 study:2 know:1 phylogenetics:1 give:1 rise:1 discipline:1 cladistics:5 systematics:2 insight:2 clear:1 limitation:1 old:2 linnaean:13 system:7 result:1 many:1 gradually:1 revise:2 radical:1 way:1 example:3 gastropod:1 partially:1 order:4 incorporate:2 work:1 gastropoda:1 bouchet:1 rocroi:1 update:1 exist:3 necessity:2 base:10 morphological:1 similarity:1 concept:1 embody:1 word:1 fit:1 well:2 rigid:2 hierarchy:3 us:1 indeed:2 linnean:2 really:1 compatible:1 demand:1 place:1 neatly:3 rank:2 taxon:13 one:4 individual:1 kind:1 must:4 belong:1 category:3 specie:7 genus:2 family:2 class:2 phylum:1 kingdom:1 file:1 thing:2 away:1 often:1 convenient:1 organize:1 museum:1 reference:4 collection:1 however:3 process:1 change:4 actually:1 happen:1 time:2 nest:1 level:2 slot:1 overall:1 contrast:1 etc:1 name:7 cannot:2 avoid:1 imply:1 certain:1 admittedly:1 poorly:1 diversity:1 suppose:2 equivalent:1 throughout:1 arise:1 gradual:1 modification:1 sudden:1 complete:2 jump:1 although:1 also:2 punctuate:1 equilibrium:1 thus:1 sound:1 biological:1 basis:1 distinction:1 another:1 important:1 area:1 valuable:1 biologist:1 intermediate:1 accord:1 relationship:4 stem:4 terminology:1 famous:1 archaeopteryx:5 lot:1 bird:10 like:1 characteristic:3 effect:1 great:1 aunt:1 would:12 aves:7 include:5 number:2 shared:1 descend:1 character:1 posse:1 could:1 within:1 scientist:1 decision:1 erect:1 carry:1 inherent:1 modify:1 unusual:1 describers:1 opt:1 latter:1 option:1 approach:3 follow:1 ad:1 infinitum:1 find:2 basal:2 require:1 relaxing:1 criterion:1 inclusion:1 ultimately:1 transitional:1 form:1 definition:7 become:2 broad:1 dinosaur:2 extend:1 far:2 reptile:1 logical:1 conclusion:1 presence:1 record:1 relax:1 life:2 cladistic:2 consider:1 lineage:2 first:1 member:1 resemble:1 intend:1 valid:1 differ:1 somewhat:1 nomenclature:3 unit:1 key:1 trait:2 three:1 method:1 propose:1 node:5 apomorphy:3 naming:4 refers:1 least:1 inclusive:2 x:5 z:1 derived:1 feature:3 identify:1 synapomorphic:1 derivation:1 specimen:1 basically:1 similar:1 difference:1 obvious:1 hypothesis:2 compare:1 traditional:1 want:1 assign:1 relevant:1 designate:1 type:1 explicit:3 actual:1 phylogeny:2 accompany:1 short:1 apomrphy:1 alternative:2 start:1 nothing:1 need:1 clean:1 paraphyly:1 polyphyly:1 binomial:1 crown:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 evolve:1 thought:1 dm:1 hillis:1 zwickl:1 r:1 gutell:1 tree:2 unrooted:1 cladogram:1 depict:1 around:1 introductory:1 slide:1 university:1 california:1 berkeley:1 |@bigram dna_rna:1 molecular_biology:1 molecular_phylogenetics:1 linnaean_taxonomy:3 morphological_similarity:1 ad_infinitum:1 external_link:1 |
4,925 | Khazars | The Khazars were a semi-nomadic Turkic people who dominated the Pontic steppe and the North Caucasus from the 7th to the 10th century CE. The name 'Khazar' Hebrew sing. "" plur. "" ; Turkish sing. "" plur. ; Russian sing. plur. ; Tatar sing. plur. ; Crimean Tatar sing. , plur. ; Greek /; Persian khazar; Latin "" or "" seems to be tied to a Turkic verb form meaning "wandering". cf. Turkish adjective 'gezer' = "mobile", verb 'gezmek' = "to walk around", 'gez-' being the root for the idea of "stroll". In the 7th century CE, the Khazars founded an independent Khaganate in the Northern Caucasus along the Caspian Sea. Although the Khazars were initially Tengri shamanists, many of them converted to Christianity, Islam, and other religions. During the eighth or ninth century the state religion became Judaism. At their height, the Khazar khaganate and its tributaries controlled much of what is today southern Russia, western Kazakhstan, eastern Ukraine, Azerbaijan, large portions of the Northern Caucasus ( Circassia, Dagestan, Chechnya), parts of Georgia and the Crimea. Between 965 and 969, their sovereignty was broken by Sviatoslav I of Kiev, and they became a subject people of Kievan Rus'. Gradually displaced by the Rus, the Kipchaks, and later the conquering Mongol Golden Horde, the Khazars largely disappeared as a culturally distinct people. Origins and prehistory The site of the Khazar fortress at Sarkel. Aerial photo from excavations conducted by Mikhail Artamonov in the 1930s. The origins of the Khazars are unclear. Following their conversion to Judaism, the Khazars themselves traced their origins to Kozar, a son of Togarmah. Togarmah is mentioned in Genesis in the Bible as a grandson of Japheth. Some scholars in the former USSR considered the Khazars to be an indigenous people of the North Caucasus. Other scholars, such as D.M. Dunlop and P.B. Golden, considered the Khazars to be connected with a Uyghur or Tiele confederation tribe called He'san in Chinese sources from the 7th-century (Suishu, 84). However, the Khazar language appears to have been an Oghuric tongue, similar to that spoken by the early Bulgars and corresponding to the modern day Chuvash dialects. The Oghuric origin hypothesis for the Khazar language has been disputed by recent scholarship; for a full discussion see Erdal (2007). Therefore, a Hunnish origin has also been postulated. Since the Turkic peoples were never ethnically homogeneous, these ideas need not be deemed mutually exclusive. It is likely that the Khazar nation was made up of tribes from various ethnic backgrounds, as steppe nations traditionally absorbed those they conquered. Their name is accordingly derived from Turkic *qaz-, meaning "to wander, flee." Armenian chronicles contain references to the Khazars as early as the late second century. These are generally regarded as anachronisms, and most scholars believe that they actually refer to Sarmatians or Scythians. Priscus relates that one of the nations in the Hunnish confederacy was called Akatziroi. Their king was named Karadach or Karidachus. Some, going on the similarity between Akatziroi and "Ak-Khazar" (see below), have speculated that the Akatziroi were early proto-Khazars. Dmitri Vasilyev of Astrakhan State University recently hypothesized that the Khazars moved in to the Pontic steppe region only in the late 500s, and originally lived in Transoxiana. According to Vasilyev, Khazar populations remained behind in Transoxiana under Pecheneg and Oghuz suzerainty, possibly remaining in contact with the main body of their people. Dr Simon Kraiz, an expert on Eastern European Jewry at University of Haifa, in September 2008, in connection with Vasilyev's findings in Samosdelka pointed out that no Khazar writings had been found: "We know a lot about them, and yet we know almost nothing: Jews wrote about them, and so did Russians, Georgians, and Armenians, to name a few. But from the Khazars themselves we have nearly nothing." Tribes The Khazars' tribal structure is not well understood. They were divided between Ak-Khazars ("White Khazars") and Kara-Khazars ("Black Khazars"). The Muslim Geographer al-Istakhri claimed that the White Khazars were strikingly handsome with reddish hair, white skin and blue eyes while the Black Khazars were swarthy verging on deep black as if they were "some kind of Indian". Dunlop, History 96. However, many Turkic nations had a similar (political, not racial) division between a "white" ruling warrior caste and a "black" class of commoners; the consensus among mainstream scholars is that Istakhri was himself confused by the name given to the two groups. Brook 3-4. Rise Formation of the Khazar state Map of the Western (purple) and Eastern (blue) Göktürk khaganates at their height, c. 600 CE. Lighter areas show direct rule; darker areas show spheres of influence. Early Khazar history is intimately tied with that of the Göktürk empire, founded when the Ashina clan overthrew the Juan Juan in 552 CE. With the collapse of the Göktürk empire due to internal conflict in the seventh century, the western half of the Turk empire split into a number of tribal confederations, among whom were the Bulgars, led by the Dulo clan, and the Khazars, led by the Ashina clan, the traditional rulers of the Gok Turk empire. By 670, the Khazars had broken the Bulgar confederation, causing various tribal groups to migrate and leaving two remnants of Bulgar rule - Volga Bulgaria, and the Bulgarian khanate on the Danube River. The first significant appearance of the Khazars in history is their aid to the campaign of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius against the Sassanid Persians. The Khazar ruler Ziebel (sometimes identified as Tong Yabghu Khagan of the West Turks) aided the Byzantines in overrunning Georgia. A marriage was even contemplated between Ziebel's son and Heraclius' daughter, but never took place. During these campaigns, the Khazars may have been ruled by Mo-ho-shad and their forces may have been under the command of his son Buri-shad. Pletneva 15-16. The Pontic steppe, c. 650, showing the early territory of the Khazars and their neighbors. During the 7th and 8th centuries the Khazar fought a series of wars against the Umayyad Caliphate, which was attempting simultaneously to expand its influence into Transoxiana and the Caucasus. The first war was fought in the early 650 and ended with the defeat of an Arab force led by Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah outside the Khazar town of Balanjar, after a battle in which both sides used siege engines on the others' troops. Near East in 800 CE, showing the Khazar Khanate at its height. A number of Russian sources give the name of a Khazar khagan, Irbis, from this period, and describe him as a scion of the Göktürk royal house, the Ashina. Whether Irbis ever existed is open to debate, as is the issue of whether he can be identified with one of the many Göktürk rulers of the same name. Several further conflicts erupted in the decades that followed, with Arab attacks and Khazar raids into Kurdistan and Iran. There is evidence from the account of al-Tabari that the Khazars formed a united front with the remnants of the Gok Turks in Transoxiana. Khazars and Byzantium Khazar overlordship over most of the Crimea dates back to the late 7th century. In the mid-8th century the rebellious Crimean Goths were put down and their city, Doros (modern Mangup) occupied. A Khazar tudun was resident at Cherson in the 690s, despite the fact that this town was nominally subject to the Byzantine Empire. They are also known to have been allied with the Byzantine Empire during at least part of the eighth century. In 704/705 Justinian II, exiled in Cherson, escaped into Khazar territory and married Theodora, the sister of the Khagan Busir. With the aid of his wife, he escaped from Busir, who was intriguing against him with the usurper Tiberius III, murdering two Khazar officials in the process. He fled to Bulgaria, whose Khan Tervel helped him regain the throne. The Khazars later provided aid to the rebel general Bardanes, who seized the throne in 711 as Emperor Philippicus. The Byzantine emperor Leo III married his son Constantine (later Constantine V Kopronymous) to the Khazar princess Tzitzak (daughter of the Khagan Bihar) as part of the alliance between the two empires. Tzitzak, who was baptized as Irene, became famous for her wedding gown, which started a fashion craze in Constantinople for a type of robe (for men) called tzitzakion. Their son Leo (Leo IV) would be better known as "Leo the Khazar". Second Khazar-Arab war Expansion of the Caliphate to 750 CE. From The Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1923 Courtesy of The General Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin Hostilities broke out again with the Caliphate in the 710s, with raids back and forth across the Caucasus but few decisive battles. The Khazars, led by a prince named Barjik, invaded northwestern Iran and defeated the Umayyad forces at Ardabil in In December 730, killing the Arab warlord al-Djarrah al-Hakami and briefly occupying the town. They were defeated the next year at Mosul, where Barjik directed Khazar forces from a throne mounted with al-Djarrah's severed head, and Barjik was killed. Arab armies led first by the Arab prince Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik and then by Marwan ibn Muhammad (later Caliph Marwan II) poured across the Caucasus and eventually (in 737) defeated a Khazar army led by Hazer Tarkhan, briefly occupying Atil itself and possibly forcing the Khagan to convert to Islam. The instability of the Umayyad regime made a permanent occupation impossible; the Arab armies withdrew and Khazar independence was re-asserted. It has been speculated that the adoption of Judaism (which in this theory would have taken place around 740) was part of this re-assertion of independence. Around 729, Arab sources give the name of the ruler of the Khazars as Parsbit or Barsbek, a woman who appears to have directed military operations against them. This suggests that women could have very high positions within the Khazar state, possibly even as a stand-in for the khagan. Although they stopped the Arab expansion into Eastern Europe for some time after these wars, the Khazars were forced to withdraw behind the Caucasus. In the ensuing decades they extended their territories from the Caspian Sea in the east (many cultures still call the Caspian Sea "Khazar Sea"; e.g. "Xəzər dənizi" in Azeri, "Hazar Denizi" in Turkish, "Bahr ul-Khazar" in Arabic, "Darya-ye Khazar" in Persian) to the steppe region north of Black Sea in the west, as far west at least as the Dnieper River. In 758, the Abbasid Caliph Abdullah al-Mansur ordered Yazid ibn Usayd al-Sulami, one of his nobles and military governor of Armenia, to take a royal Khazar bride and make peace. Yazid took home a daughter of Khagan Baghatur, the Khazar leader. Unfortunately, the girl died inexplicably, possibly in childbirth. Her attendants returned home, convinced that some Arab faction had poisoned her, and her father was enraged. A Khazar general named Ras Tarkhan invaded what is now northwestern Iran, plundering and raiding for several months. Thereafter relations between the Khazars and the Abbasid Caliphate (whose foreign policies were generally less expansionist than its Umayyad predecessor) became increasingly cordial. Khazar religion Turkic shamanism Originally, the Khazars practiced traditional Turkic shamanism, focused on the sky god Tengri, but were heavily influenced by Confucian ideas imported from China, notably that of the Mandate of Heaven. The Ashina clan were considered to be the chosen of Tengri and the kaghan was the incarnation of the favor the sky-god bestowed on the Turks. A kaghan who failed had clearly lost the god's favor and was typically ritually executed. Historians have sometimes wondered, only half in jest, whether the Khazar tendency to occasionally execute their rulers on religious grounds led those rulers to seek out other religions. The Khazars worshipped a number of deities subordinate to Tengri, including the fertility goddess Umay, Kuara, a thunder god, and Erlik, the god of death. Conversion to Judaism and relations with world Jewry Jewish communities had existed in the Greek cities of the Black Sea coast since late classical times. Chersonesos, Sudak, Kerch and other Crimean cities possessed Jewish communities, as did Gorgippia, and Samkarsh / Tmutarakan was said to have had a Jewish majority as early as the 670s. Jews fled from Byzantium to Khazaria as a consequence of persecution under Heraclius, Justinian II, Leo III, and Romanos I. Golden, "conversion" 141-145, 161; Brook passim; Graetz 139; Rossman 82; Pinkus, Benjamin. The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority, Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 2. While anti-Jewish persecutions are known to have occurred in Byzantium, scholars differ on their specific extent, nature and consistency. E.g., Angold, Michael. Church and Society in Byzantium Under the Comneni, 1081-1261, Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 508; Gil, Moshe. A History of Palestine, 634-1099, Cambridge University Press, 1992, p. 9; Haldon, John F. Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture, Cambridge University Press, 1990, 345. ISBN 052131917X. See also Scharf 97-99; Whittow, Mark. The Making of Byzantium, 600-1025, University of California Press, 1996, p. 44; Bowman, Stephen B., Ankori, Zvi The Jews of Byzantium 1204-1453 Bloch Pub Co (December 2001); Starr, Joshua, The Jews in the Byzantine Empire 641-1204 Burt Franklin (1970); R. Jenkins "Byzantium"; Ostrogorski 161; Cohen 112; Norwich 89; Geanakoplos 268; The Oxford History of Byzantium 13.; Browning 54; Cameron 272-274. These were joined by other Jews fleeing from Sassanid Persia (particularly during the Mazdak revolts), Levy ch. 4 passim; Rossman 82. and, later, the Islamic world. Jewish merchants such as the Radhanites regularly traded in Khazar territory, and may have wielded significant economic and political influence. Though their origins and history are somewhat unclear, the Mountain Jews also lived in or near Khazar territory and may have been allied with or subject to Khazar overlordship; it is conceivable that they too played a role in the conversion. At some point in the last decades of the 8th century or the early 9th century, the Khazar royalty and nobility converted to Judaism, and part of the general population followed. E.g., Brook; Dunlop; Golden, Khazar Studies passim; Christian 282-300. The extent of the conversion is debated. Ibn al-Faqih reported in the 10th century that "all the Khazars are Jews." Notwithstanding this statement, some scholars believe that only the upper classes converted to Judaism; there is some support for this in contemporary Muslim texts. Dunlop; Pritsak, "Conversion"; and Barthold passim. Essays in the Kuzari, written by Yehuda Halevi, detail a moral liturgical reason for the conversion which some consider a moral tale. Some researchers have suggested part of the reason for conversion was political expediency to maintain a degree of neutrality: the Khazar empire was between growing populations, Muslims to the east and Christians to the west. Both religions recognized Judaism as a forebear and worthy of some respect. The exact date of the conversion is hotly contested. It may have occurred as early as 740 or as late as the mid-800s. Recently discovered numismatic evidence suggests that Judaism was the established state religion by c. 830, and though St. Cyril (who visited Khazaria in 861) did not identify the Khazars as Jews, the khagan of that period, Zachariah, had a biblical Hebrew name. Some medieval sources give the name of the rabbi who oversaw the conversion of the Khazars as Isaac Sangari or Yitzhak ha-Sangari. The first Jewish Khazar king was named Bulan which means "elk", though some sources give him the Hebrew name Sabriel. A later king, Obadiah, strengthened Judaism, inviting rabbis into the kingdom and built synagogues. Jewish figures such as Saadia Gaon made positive references to the Khazars, and they are excoriated in contemporary Karaite writings as "bastards"; it is therefore unlikely that they adopted Karaism as some (such as Avraham Firkovich) have proposed. According to the Schechter Letter, early Khazar Judaism was centered on a tabernacle similar to that mentioned in the Book of Exodus. Archaeologists at Rostov-on-Don have tentatively identified a folding altar unearthed at Khumar as part of such a construct. The Khazars enjoyed close relations with the Jews of the Levant and Persia. The Persian Jews, for example, hoped that the Khazars might succeed in conquering the Caliphate. Harkavy, in Kohut Memorial Volume, p. 244. The high esteem in which the Khazars were held among the Jews of the Orient may be seen in the application to them, in an Arabic commentary on Isaiah ascribed by some to Saadia Gaon, and by others to Benjamin Nahawandi, of Isaiah 48:14: "The Lord hath loved him." "This," says the commentary, "refers to the Khazars, who will go and destroy Babel" (i.e., Babylonia), a name used to designate the country of the Arabs. Harkavy in "Ha-Maggid." 1877, p. 357. From the Khazar Correspondence it is apparent that two Spanish Jews, Judah ben Meir ben Nathan and Joseph Gagris, had succeeded in settling in the land of the Khazars. Saadia, who had a fair knowledge of the kingdom of the Khazars, mentions a certain Isaac ben Abraham who had removed from Sura to Khazaria. Harkavy, in Kohut Memorial Volume, p. 244. Likewise, the Khazar rulers viewed themselves as the protectors of international Jewry, and corresponded with foreign Jewish leaders (the letters exchanged between the Khazar ruler Joseph and the Spanish rabbi Hasdai ibn Shaprut have been preserved). They were known to retaliate against Muslim or Christian interests in Khazaria for persecution of Jews abroad. Ibn Fadlan relates that around 920 the Khazar ruler received information that Muslims had destroyed a synagogue in the land of Babung, in Iran; he gave orders that the minaret of the mosque in his capital should be broken off, and the muezzin executed. He further declared that he would have destroyed the mosque entirely had he not been afraid that the Muslims would in turn destroy all the synagogues in their lands. Similarly, during the persecutions of Byzantine Jews under Romanos I, the Khazar government retaliated by attacking Byzantine interests in the Crimea. The theory that the majority of Ashkenazic Jews are the descendants of the non-Semitic converted Khazars was advocated by various racial theorists Michael Barkun, Religion and the Racist Right: The Origins of the Christian Identity Movement, UNC Press, ISBN 0807846384, pp. 137-139. and antisemitic sources Paul F. Boller, Memoirs of an Obscure Professor and Other Essays, TCU Press, 1992, pp. 5-6. Barkun, pp.140-141. Barkun, p. 142. in the 20th century, especially following the publication of Arthur Koestler's The Thirteenth Tribe. Despite recent genetic evidence to the contrary, and a lack of any real mainstream scholarly support, this belief is still popular among groups such as the Christian Identity Movement, Black Hebrews, British Israelitists and others (particularly Arabs Lewis, Bernard. "Semites and Anti-Semites", W.W. Norton and Company, ISBN 0-393-31839-7, p. 48. Benny Morris, The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews, I.B.Tauris, 2003, ISBN 1860649890, p. 22. "Arab anti-Semitism might have been expected to be free from the idea of racial odium, since Jews and Arabs are both regarded by race theory as Semites, but the odium is directed, not against the Semitic race, but against the Jews as a historical group. The main idea is that the Jews, racially, are a mongrel community, most of them being not Semites, but of Khazar and European origin." Yehoshafat Harkabi, "Contemporary Arab Anti-Semitism: its Causes and Roots", in Helen Fein, The Persisting Question: Sociological Perspectives and Social Contexts of Modern Antisemitism, Walter de Gruyter, 1987, ISBN 311010170X, p. 424. ) who claim that they, rather than Jews, are the true descendants of the Israelites, or who seek to usurp the connection between Ashkenazi Jews and Israel in favor of their own. For more detail on this controversy, see below. Other religions Besides Judaism, other religions probably practiced in areas ruled by the Khazars included Greek Orthodox, Nestorian, and Monophysite Christianity, Zoroastrianism as well as Norse, Finnic, and Slavic cults. Al-Masu'di The Book of Golden Meadows, c. 940 CE The Khazar government tolerated a wide array of religious practices within the Khaganate. Many Khazars reportedly were converts to Christianity and Islam. (See "Judiciary", below.) A Greek Orthodox bishop was resident at Atil and was subject to the authority of the Metropolitan of Doros. The "apostle of the Slavs", Saint Cyril, is said to have attempted the conversion of Khazars without enduring results. Khazaran had a sizable Muslim quarter with a number of mosques. A Muslim officer, the khazz, represented the Muslim community in the royal court. Government Khazar kingship Khazar warrior with captive. The image is based on reconstruction by Norman Finkelshteyn of image from an 8th-century ewer found at Nagyszentmiklos in Transylvania (original at ) Khazar kingship was divided between the khagan and the Bek or Khagan Bek. Contemporary Arab historians related that the Khagan was purely a spiritual ruler or figurehead with limited powers, while the Bek was responsible for administration and military affairs. Both the Khagan and the Khagan Bek lived in Itil. The Khagan's palace, according to Arab sources, was on an island in the Volga River. He was reported to have 25 wives, each the daughter of a client ruler; this may, however, have been an exaggeration. In the Khazar Correspondence, King Joseph identifies himself as the ruler of the Khazars and makes no reference to a colleague. It has been disputed whether Joseph was a Khagan or a Bek; his description of his military campaigns make the latter probable. However, аccording to the Schechter Letter, king Joseph is identified as not Khagan. A third option is that by the time of the Correspondence (c. 950-960) the Khazars had merged the two positions into a single ruler, or that the Beks had somehow supplanted the Khagans or vice versa. The Khazar dual kingship may have influenced other people; power was similarly divided among the early Hungarian people between the sacral king, or kende, and the military king, or gyula. Similarly, according to Ibn Fadlan, the early Oghuz Turks had a warlord, the Kudarkin, who was subordinate to the reigning yabghu. Army Khazar armies were led by the Khagan Bek and commanded by subordinate officers known as tarkhans. A famous tarkhan referred to in Arab sources as Ras or As Tarkhan led an invasion of Armenia in 758. The army included regiments of Muslim auxiliaries known as Arsiyah, of Khwarezmian or Alan extraction, who were quite influential. These regiments were exempt from campaigning against their fellow Muslims. Early Rus' sources sometimes referred to the city of Khazaran (across the Volga River from Atil) as Khvalisy and the Khazar (Caspian) sea as Khvaliskoye. According to some scholars such as Omeljan Pritsak, these terms were East Slavic versions of "Khwarezmian" and referred to these mercenaries. In addition to the Bek's standing army, the Khazars could call upon tribal levies in times of danger and were often joined by auxiliaries from subject nations. Other officials Settlements were governed by administrative officials known as tuduns. In some cases (such as the Byzantine settlements in southern Crimea), a tudun would be appointed for a town nominally within another polity's sphere of influence. Other officials in the Khazar government included dignitaries referred to by ibn Fadlan as Jawyshyghr and Kundur, but their responsibilities are unknown. Judiciary Muslim sources report that the Khazar supreme court consisted of two Jews, two Christians, two Muslims, and a "heathen" (whether this is a Turkic shaman or a priest of Slavic or Norse religion is unclear), and a citizen had the right to be judged according to the laws of his religion. Some have argued that this configuration is unlikely, as a Beit Din, or rabbinical court, requires three members. It is therefore possible that as practitioners of the state religion, the Jews had three judges on the Supreme Court rather than two, and that the Muslim sources were attempting to downplay their influence. A Muslim or Christian court can function with only one or two judges. Economic position Trade Map of Eurasia showing the trade network of the Radhanites, c. 870 CE, as reported in the account of ibn Khordadbeh in the Book of Roads and Kingdoms. The Khazars occupied a prime trade nexus. Goods from western Europe travelled east to Central Asia and China and vice versa, and the Muslim world could only interact with northern Europe via Khazar intermediaries. The Radhanites, a guild of medieval Jewish merchants, had a trade route that ran through Khazaria, and may have been instrumental in the Khazars' conversion to Judaism. No Khazar paid taxes to the central government. Revenue came from a 10% levy on goods transiting through the region, and from tribute paid by subject nations. The Khazars exported honey, s, wool, millet and other cereals, fish, and slaves. D.M. Dunlop and Artamanov asserted that the Khazars produced no material goods themselves, living solely on trade. This theory has been refuted by discoveries over the last half-century, which include pottery and glass factories. Khazar coinage The Khazars are known to have minted silver coins, called Yarmaqs. Many of these were imitations of Arab dirhems with corrupted Arabic letters. Coins of the Caliphate were in widespread use due to their reliable silver content. Merchants from as far away as China, England, and Scandinavia accepted them regardless of their inability to read the Arab writing. Thus issuing imitation dirhems was a way to ensure acceptance of Khazar coinage in foreign lands. Some surviving examples bear the legend "Ard al-Khazar" (Arabic for "land of the Khazars"). In 1999 a hoard of silver coins was discovered on the property of the Spillings farm in the Swedish island of Gotland. Among the coins were several dated 837/8 CE and bearing the legend, in Arabic script, "Moses is the Prophet of God" (a modification of the Muslim coin inscription "Muhammad is the Prophet of God"). Brook ch. 5. In "Creating Khazar Identity through Coins", Roman Kovalev postulated that these dirhems were a special commemorative issue celebrating the adoption of Judaism by the Khazar ruler Bulan. Kovalev, "Creating Khazar Identity" 220-253. Extent of influence The Khazar Khaganate was, at its height, an immensely powerful state. The Khazar heartland was on the lower Volga and the Caspian coast as far south as Derbent. In addition, from the late 600s the Khazars controlled most of the Crimea and the northeast littoral of the Black Sea. By 800 Khazar holdings included most of the Pontic steppe as far west as the Dneiper and as far east as the Aral Sea (some Turkic history atlases show the Khazar sphere of influence extending well east of the Aral). During the Khazar-Arab war of the early 700s, some Khazars evacuated to the Ural foothills, and some settlements may have remained. Khazar towns Map of the Khazar Khaganate and surrounding states, c. 820 CE. Area of direct Khazar control shown in dark blue, sphere of influence in purple. Other boundaries shown in dark red. Khazar towns included: Along the Caspian coast and Volga delta: Atil; Khazaran; Samandar In the Caucasus: Balanjar; Kazarki; Sambalut; Samiran In Crimea and Taman region: Kerch (also called Bospor); Theodosia; Güzliev (modern Eupatoria); Samkarsh (also called Tmutarakan, Tamatarkha); Sudak (also called Sugdaia) In the Don valley: Sarkel A number of Khazar settlements have been discovered in the Mayaki-Saltovo region. Some scholars suppose, that on the Dnieper, the Khazars founded a settlement called Sambat, which was part of what would become the city of Kiev. Chernihiv is also thought to have started as a Khazar settlement. Tributary and subject nations Map of the Khazar Khaganate and surrounding states, c. 820 CE. Many nations were tributaries of the Khazars. A client king subject to Khazar overlordship was called an "Elteber". At various times, Khazar vassals included: Pontic steppes, Crimea and Turkestan The Pechenegs ; the Oghuz; the Crimean Goths; the Crimean Huns (Onogurs?); the early Magyars Caucasus Georgia; Abkhazia; various Armenian principalities; Arran; the North Caucasian Huns; Lazica; the Caucasian Avars; the Kassogs; and the Lezgins. Upper Don and Dnieper Various East Slavic tribes such as the Derevlians and the Vyatichs; various early Rus' polities Volga Volga Bulgaria; the Burtas; various Finno-Ugrian forest tribes such as the Mordvins and Ob-Ugrians; the Bashkir; the Barsils Decline and fall The ninth century is sometimes known as the Pax Khazarica, a period of Khazar hegemony over the Pontic steppe that allowed trade to flourish and facilitated trans-Eurasian contacts. However, in the early 10th century the empire began to decline due to the attacks of both Vikings from Kievan Rus and various Turkic tribes. It enjoyed a brief revival under the strong rulers Aaron II and Joseph, who subdued rebellious client states such as the Alans and led victorious wars against Rus invaders. A much reduced Khazaria and surrounding states, c. 950 CE Kabar rebellion and the departure of the Magyars At some point in the ninth century (as reported by Constantine Porphyrogenitus) a group of three Khazar clans called the Kabars revolted against the Khazar government. Mikhail Artamonov, Omeljan Pritsak and others have speculated that the revolt had something to do with a rejection of rabbinic Judaism; this is unlikely as it is believed that both the Kabars and mainstream Khazars had pagan, Jewish, Christian, and Muslim members. Pritsak maintained that the Kabars were led by the Khagan Khan-Tuvan Dyggvi in a war against the Bek. In any event Pritsak cited no primary source for his propositions in this matter. The Kabars were defeated and joined a confederacy led by the Magyars. It has been speculated that "Hungarian" derives from the Turkic word "Onogur", or "Ten Arrows", referring to seven Finno-Ugric tribes and the three tribes of the Kabars. In the closing years of the ninth century the Khazars and Oghuz allied to attack the Pechenegs, who had been attacking both nations. The Pechenegs were driven westward, where they forced out the Magyars (Hungarians) who had previously inhabited the Don-Dnieper basin in vassalage to Khazaria. Under the leadership of the chieftain Lebedias and later Arpad, the Hungarians moved west into modern-day Hungary. The departure of the Hungarians led to an unstable power vacuum and the loss of Khazar control over the steppes north of the Black Sea. Diplomatic isolation and military threats Svyatoslav (seated in the boat), the destroyer of the Khazar Khaganate. From Klavdiy Lebedev (1852–1916), Svyatoslav's meeting with Emperor John, as described by Leo the Deacon. The alliance with the Byzantines began to collapse in the early 900s. Byzantine and Khazar forces may have clashed in the Crimea, and by the 940s Constantine VII Porphyrogentius was speculating in De Administrando Imperio about ways in which the Khazars could be isolated and attacked. The Byzantines during the same period began to attempt alliances with the Pechenegs and the Rus, with varying degrees of success. From the beginning of the tenth century, the Khazars found themselves fighting on multiple fronts as nomadic incursions were exacerbated by uprisings by former clients and invasions from former allies. According to the Schechter Text, the Khazar ruler Benjamin ben Menahem fought a war against a coalition of "'SY, TWRQY, 'BM, and PYYNYL," who were instigated and aided by "MQDWN". MQDWN or Macedon refers to the Byzantine Empire in many medieval Jewish writings; the other entities named have been tenuously identified by scholars including Omeljan Pritsak with the Burtas, Oghuz Turks, Volga Bulgars and Pechenegs, respectively. Though Benjamin was victorious, his son Aaron II had to face another invasion, this time led by the Alans. Aaron defeated the Alans with Oghuz help, yet within a few years the Oghuz and Khazars were enemies. Ibn Fadlan reported Oghuz hostility to the Khazars during his journey c. 921. Some sources, discussed by Tamara Rice, claim that Seljuk, the eponymous progenitor of the Seljuk Turks, began his career as an Oghuz soldier in Khazar service in the early and mid-tenth century, rising to high rank before he fell out with the Khazar rulers and departed for Khwarazm. Rise of Rus Map showing Varangian or Rus' settlement (in red) and location of Slavic tribes (in grey), during the mid-9th century. Khazar influence indicated with blue outline. Originally the Khazars were probably allied with various Norse factions who controlled the region around Novgorod. The Rus' Khaganate, an early Rus polity in modern northwestern Russia and Belarus, was probably heavily influenced by the Khazars. The Rus' regularly travelled through Khazar-held territory to attack territories around the Black and Caspian Seas; in one such raid, the Khagan is said to have given his assent on the condition that the Rus' give him half of the booty. In addition, the Khazars allowed the Rus to use the trade route along the Volga River. This alliance was apparently fostered by the hostility between the Khazars and Arabs. At a certain point, however, the Khazar connivance to the sacking of the Muslim lands by the Varangians led to a backlash against the Norsemen from the Muslim population of the Khaganate. The Khazar rulers closed the passage down the Volga for the Rus', sparking a war. In the early 960s, Khazar ruler Joseph wrote to Hasdai ibn Shaprut about the deterioration of Khazar relations with the Rus: "I have to wage war with them, for if I would give them any chance at all they would lay waste the whole land of the Muslims as far as Baghdad." Map showing the major Varangian trade routes: the Volga trade route (in red) and the Trade Route from the Varangians to the Greeks (in purple). Other trade routes of the 8th-11th centuries shown in orange. The Rus warlords Oleg and Sviatoslav I of Kiev launched several wars against the Khazar khaganate, often with Byzantine connivance. The Schechter Letter relates the story of a campaign against Khazaria by HLGW (Oleg) around 941 (in which Oleg was defeated by the Khazar general Pesakh; this calls into question the timeline of the Primary Chronicle and other related works on the history of the Eastern Slavs. Sviatoslav finally succeeded in destroying Khazar imperial power in the 960s. The Khazar fortresses of Sarkel and Tamatarkha fell to the Rus in 965, with the capital city of Atil following circa 968 or 969. A visitor to Atil wrote soon after the sacking of the city: "The Rus attacked, and no grape or raisin remained, not a leaf on a branch." Khazars outside Khazaria Khazar communities existed outside those areas under Khazar overlordship. Many Khazar mercenaries served in the armies of the Caliphate and other Islamic states. Documents from medieval Constantinople attest to a Khazar community mingled with the Jews of the suburb of Pera. Christian Khazars also lived in Constantinople, and some served in its armies. The Patriarch Photius I of Constantinople was once angrily referred to by the Emperor as "Khazar-face", though whether this refers to his actual lineage or is a generic insult is unclear. Abraham ibn Daud reported Khazar rabbinical students, or rabbinical students who were the descendants of Khazars, in 12th century Spain. Jews from Kiev and elsewhere in Russia, who may or may not have been Khazars, were reported in France, Germany and England. The Kabars who settled in Hungary in the late ninth and early tenth centuries may have included Jews among their number. Many Khazar Jews probably fled foreign conquest into Hungary and elsewhere in Eastern Europe. There they likely merged with local Jews and ensuing waves of Jewish immigration from Germany and Western Europe. They most likely did not constitute the dominant group within Eastern European Jewry, as Arthur Koestler maintained (see below). Polish legends speak of Jews being present in Poland before the establishment of the Polish monarchy. Polish coins from the 12th and 13th centuries sometimes bore Slavic inscriptions written in the Hebrew alphabet Jewish Encyclopædia. Jewish Encyclopædia. though connecting these coins to Khazar influence is purely a matter of speculation. Late references to the Khazars The Pontic steppes, c.1015. The areas in blue are those possibly still under Khazar control. There is debate as to the temporal and geographic extent of Khazar polities following Sviatoslav's sack of Atil in 968/9, or even whether any such states existed. The Khazars may have retained control over some areas in the Caucasus for another two centuries, but sparse historical records make this difficult to confirm. The evidence of later Khazar polities includes the fact that Sviatoslav did not occupy the Volga basin after he destroyed Atil, and departed relatively quickly to embark on his campaign in Bulgaria. The permanent conquest of the Volga basin seems to have been left to later waves of steppe peoples like the Kipchaks. Jewish sources A letter in Hebrew dated AM 4746 (985–986) refers to "our lord David, the Khazar prince" who lived in Taman. The letter said that this David was visited by envoys from Kievan Rus to ask about religious matters — this could be connected to the Vladimir conversion which took place during the same time period. Taman was a principality of Kievan Rus around 988, so this successor state (if that is what it was) may have been conquered altogether. The authenticity of this letter, the Mandgelis Document, has however been questioned by such scholars as D. M. Dunlop. Abraham ibn Daud, a twelfth-century Spanish rabbi, reported meeting Khazar rabbinical students in Toledo, and that they informed him that the "remnant of them is of the rabbinic faith." This reference indicates that some Khazars maintained ethnic, if not political, autonomy at least two centuries after the sack of Atil. Petachiah of Ratisbon, a thirteenth-century rabbi and traveler, reported traveling through "Khazaria", though he gave few details of its inhabitants except to say that they lived amidst desolation in perpetual mourning. He further related: The account of the conversion of the "seven kings of Meshech" is extremely similar to the accounts of the Khazar conversion given in the Kuzari, and in King Joseph's Reply. It is possible that Meshech refers to the Khazars, or to some Judaized polity influenced by them. Arguments against this possibility include the reference to "seven kings" (though this, in turn, could refer to seven successor tribes or state micropolities). Muslim sources Khazar Empire and its neighbors in 1025 CE. Ibn Hawqal and al-Muqaddasi refer to Atil after 969, indicating that it may have been rebuilt. Al-Biruni (mid-1000s) reported that Atil was in ruins, and did not mention the later city of Saqsin which was built nearby, so it is possible that this new Atil was only destroyed in the middle of the eleventh century. Even assuming al-Biruni's report was not an anachronism, there is no evidence that this "new" Atil was populated by Khazars rather than by Pechenegs or a different tribe. Ibn al-Athir, who wrote around 1200, described "the raid of Fadhlun the Kurd against the Khazars". Fadhlun the Kurd has been identified as al-Fadhl ibn Muhammad al-Shaddadi, who ruled Arran and other parts of Azerbaijan in the 1030s. According to the account he attacked the Khazars but had to flee when they ambushed his army and killed 10,000 of his men. Two of the great early 20th century scholars on Eurasian nomads, Marquart and Barthold, disagreed about this account. Marquart believed that this incident refers to some Khazar remnant that had reverted to paganism and nomadic life. Barthold, (and more recently, Kevin Brook), took a much more skeptical approach and said that ibn al-Athir must have been referring to Georgians or Abkhazians. There is no evidence to decide the issue one way or the other. Kievan Rus sources According to the Primary Chronicle, in 986 Khazar Jews were present at Vladimir's disputation to decide on the prospective religion of the Kievian Rus. Whether these were Jews who had settled in Kiev or emissaries from some Jewish Khazar remnant state is unclear. The whole incident is regarded by a few radical scholars as a fabrication, but the reference to Khazar Jews (after the destruction of the Khaganate) is still relevant. Heinrich Graetz alleged that these were Jewish missionaries from the Crimea, but provided no reference to primary sources for his allegation. In 1023 the Primary Chronicle reports that Mstislav (one of Vladimir's sons) marched against his brother Yaroslav with an army that included "Khazars and Kasogs". Kasogs were an early Circassian people. "Khazars" in this reference is considered by most to be intended in the generic sense, but some have questioned why the reference reads "Khazars and Kasogs", when "Khazars" as a generic would have been sufficient. Even if the reference is to Khazars, of course, it does not follow that there was a Khazar state in this period. They could have been Khazars under the rule of the Rus. A Kievian prince named Oleg (not to be confused with Oleg of Kiev) was reportedly kidnapped by "Khazars" in 1078 and shipped off to Constantinople, although most scholars believe that this is a reference to the Kipchaks or other steppe peoples then dominant in the Pontic region. Upon his conquest of Tmutarakan in the 1080s Oleg gave himself the title "Archon of Khazaria". Byzantine, Georgian and Armenian sources Kedrenos documented a joint attack on the Khazar state in Kerch, ruled by Georgius Tzul, by the Byzantines and Russians in 1016. Following 1016, there are more ambiguous references in Eastern Christian sources to Khazars that may or may not be using "Khazars" in a general sense (the Arabs, for example, called all steppe people "Turks"; the Romans/Byzantines called them all "Scythians"). Jewish Khazars were also mentioned in a Georgian chronicle as a group that inhabited Derbent in the late 1100s. At least one 12th-century Byzantine source refers to tribes practicing Mosaic law and living in the Balkans; see Khalyzians. The connection between this group and the Khazars is rejected by most modern Khazar scholars. Western sources Giovanni di Plano Carpini, a thirteenth century Papal legate to the court of the Mongol Khan Guyuk, gave a list of the nations the Mongols had conquered in his account. One of them, listed among tribes of the Caucasus, Pontic steppe and the Caspian region, was the "Brutakhi, who are Jews." The identity of the Brutakhi is unclear. Giovanni later refers to the Brutakhi as shaving their heads. Though Giovanni refers to them as Kipchaks, they may have been a remnant of the Khazar people. Alternatively, they may have been Kipchak converts to Judaism (possibly connected to the Krymchaks or the Crimean Karaites). Khazar place names today Today, various place names invoking Khazar persist. Indeed, the Caspian Sea, traditionally known as the Hyrcanian Sea and Mazandaran Sea in Persian, came to be known to Iranians as the Khazar Sea as an alternative name. Many other cultures still call the Caspian Sea "Khazar Sea"; e.g. "Xəzər dənizi" in Azerbaijani, "Hazar Denizi" in Turkish, "Bahr ul-Khazar" in Arabic, "Darya-ye Khazar" in Persian. Debate Date and extent of the conversion The date of the conversion of the Khazars to Judaism, and whether it occurred as one event or as a sequence of events over time, is widely disputed. The issues surrounding this controversy are discussed above. The number of Khazars who converted to Judaism is also hotly contested, with historical accounts ranging from claims that only the King and his retainers had embraced Judaism, to the claim that the majority of the lay population had converted. D.M. Dunlop was of the opinion that only the upper class converted; this was the majority view until relatively recently. Analysis of recent archaeological grave evidence by such scholars as Kevin A. Brook asserts that the sudden shift in burial customs, with the abandonment of pagan-style burial with grave goods and the adoption of simple shroud burials during the mid-800s suggests a more widespread conversion. Brook, ch. 4 passim. A mainstream scholarly consensus does not yet exist regarding the extent of the conversions. Alleged Khazar ancestry of Ashkenazim The theory that all or most Ashkenazi ("European") Jews might be descended from Khazars (rather than Semitic groups in the Middle East) dates back to the racialism of late nineteenth century Europe, and was frequently cited to assert that most modern Jews aren't descended from Israelites and/or to refute Israeli claims to Palestine. It was first publicly proposed in lecture given by Ernest Renan on January 27, 1883, titled "Judaism as a Race and as Religion." Michael Barkun, Religion and the Racist Right: The Origins of the Christian Identity Movement, UNC Press, ISBN 0807846384, p. 137. It was repeated in articles in The Dearborn Independent in 1923 and 1925, and popularized by racial theorist Lothrop Stoddard in a 1926 article in the Forum titled "The Pedigree of Judah", where he argued that Ashkenazi Jews were a mix of people, of which the Khazars were a primary element. Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, Black Sun: Aryan cults, esoteric nazism, and the politics of identity, NYU Press, 2002, ISBN 0814731554, p. 237. Barkun, pp. 138-139. Stoddard's views were "based on nineteenth and twentieth-century concepts of race, in which small variations on facial features as well as presumed accompanying character traits were deemed to pass from generation to generation, subject only to the corrupting effects of marriage with members of other groups, the result of which would lower the superior stock without raising the inferior partners." Barkun, p. 139. This theory was adopted by British Israelites, who saw it as a means of invalidating the claims of Jews to be the true descendants of the ancient Israelites, and was supported by early anti-Zionists. Barkun, pp. 138-139. In 1951 Southern Methodist University professor John O. Beaty published The Iron Curtain over America, a work which claimed that "Khazar Jews" were "responsible for all of America's — and the world's — ills beginning with World War I". The book repeated a number of familiar antisemitic claims, placing responsibility for U.S. involvement in World Wars I and II and the Bolshevik revolution on these Khazars, and insisting that Khazar Jews were attempting to subvert Western Christianity and establish communism throughout the world. The American millionaire J. Russell Maguire gave money towards its promotion, and it was met with enthusiasm by hate groups and the extreme right. Paul F. Boller, Memoirs of an Obscure Professor and Other Essays, TCU Press, 1992, pp. 5-6. Barkun, pp.140-141. By the 1960s the Khazar theory had become a "firm article of faith" amongst Christian Identity groups. Barkun, p. 142. In 1971 John Bagot Glubb (Glubb Pasha) also took up this theme, insisting that Palestinians were more closely related to the ancient Judeans than were Jews. According to Benny Morris: Of course an anti-Zionist point is being made here: The Palestinians have a greater political right to Palestine than the Jews do, as they, not the modern-day Jews, are the true descendants of the land's Jewish inhabitants/owners. Benny Morris, The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews, I.B.Tauris, 2003, ISBN 1860649890, p. 22. The theory gained further support when the novelist Arthur Koestler devoted his popular book The Thirteenth Tribe (1976) to the topic. Koestler's historiography has been attacked as highly questionable by many historians; it has also been pointed out that his discussion of theories about Ashkenazi descent is entirely lacking scientific or historiographical support; to the extent that Koestler referred to place-names and documentary evidence his analysis has been described as a mixture of flawed etymologies and misinterpreted primary sources. E.g., Abramsky, Chimen. "The Khazar Myth." Jewish Chronicle (April 9, 1976): 19; Maccoby, Hyam. "Koestler's Racism." Midstream 23 (March 1977). Commentors have also noted that Koestler mischaracterized the sources he cited, particularly D.M. Dunlop's History of the Jewish Khazars (1954). McInnes, Neil. "Koestler and His Jewish Thesis." National Interest. Fall 1999. Dunlop himself stated that the theory that Eastern European Jews were the descendants of the Khazars, "... can be dealt with very shortly, because there is little evidence which bears directly upon it, and it unavoidably retains the character of a mere assumption." Klier, John D. (2005) The Slavonic and East European Review 83:4 , pp. 779-781. — Review of Victor Shnirelman, The Myth of the Khazars and Intellectual Antisemitism in Russia, 1970s-1990s (Jerusalem: Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2002) Koestler himself was pro-Zionist based on secular considerations, and did not see alleged Khazar ancestry as diminishing the claim of Jews to Israel, which he felt was based on the United Nations mandate, and not on Biblical covenants or genetic inheritance. In his view, "The problem of the Khazar infusion a thousand years ago ... is irrelevant to modern Israel". In addition, he was apparently "either unaware of or oblivious to the use anti-Semites had made to the Khazar theory since its introduction at the turn of the century." Barkun, pp. 144-145. Nevertheless, in the Arab world the Khazar theory still enjoys popularity among some anti-Zionists and antisemites; "Arab anti-Semitism might have been expected to be free from the idea of racial odium, since Jews and Arabs are both regarded by race theory as Semites, but the odium is directed, not against the Semitic race, but against the Jews as a historical group. The main idea is that the Jews, racially, are a mongrel community, most of them being not Semites, but of Khazar and European origin." Harkabi, Yehoshafat, "Contemporary Arab Anti-Semitism: its Causes and Roots", in Fein, Helen. The Persisting Question: Sociological Perspectives and Social Contexts of Modern Antisemitism, Walter de Gruyter, 1987, ISBN 311010170X, p. 424. Such proponents argue that if Ashkenazi Jews are primarily Khazar and not Semitic in origin, they would have no historical claim to Israel, nor would they be the subject of God's Biblical promise of Canaan to the Israelites, thus undermining the theological basis of both Jewish religious Zionists and Christian Zionists. In the 1970s and 80s the Khazar theory was also advanced by some Russian chauvinist antisemites, particularly the historian Lev Gumilyov, who portrayed "Judeo-Khazars" as having repeatedly sabotaged Russia's development since the 7th century. CDI. According to Bernard Lewis: This theory… is supported by no evidence whatsoever. It has long since been abandoned by all serious scholars in the field, including those in Arab countries, where the Khazar theory is little used except in occasional political polemics. DNA Evidence Modern DNA studies on the Y chromosome of Jews worldwide have largely disproven the Khazar origin theory for the vast majority of Jews, including the Ashkenazi. A 1999 study by Hammer et al., published in the Proceedings of the United States National Academy of Sciences compared the Y chromosomes of Ashkenazi, Roman, North African, Kurdish, Near Eastern, Yemenite, and Ethiopian Jews with 16 non-Jewish groups from similar geographic locations. It found that "Despite their long-term residence in different countries and isolation from one another, most Jewish populations were not significantly different from one another at the genetic level... The results support the hypothesis that the paternal gene pools of Jewish communities from Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East descended from a common Middle Eastern ancestral population, and suggest that most Jewish communities have remained relatively isolated from neighboring non-Jewish communities during and after the Diaspora." According to Nicholas Wade "The results accord with Jewish history and tradition and refute theories like those holding that Jewish communities consist mostly of converts from other faiths, or that they are descended from the Khazars, a medieval Turkish tribe that adopted Judaism." A 2001 study by Nebel et al. found Eu 19 chromosomes, which are very frequent in Eastern Europeans (54%-60%) at elevated frequency (12.7%) in Ashkenazi Jews. The authors hypothesized that these chromosomes could reflect low-level gene flow from surrounding Eastern European populations, or, alternatively, that both the Ashkenazi Jews with Eu 19, and to a greater extent Eastern European populations in general, might be descendants of Khazars. Almut Nebel, Dvora Filon, Bernd Brinkmann, Partha P. Majumder, Marina Faerman, Ariella Oppenheim. "The Y Chromosome Pool of Jews as Part of the Genetic Landscape of the Middle East", (The American Journal of Human Genetics (2001), Volume 69, number 5. pp. 1095–112). A 2005 study by Nebel et al., based on Y chromosome polymorphic markers, showed that Ashkenazi Jews are more closely related to other Jewish and Middle Eastern groups than to their host populations in Europe. However, 11.5% of male Ashkenazim were found to belong to R-M17, the dominant Y chromosome haplogroup in Eastern Europeans, suggesting possible gene flow between the two groups. The authors hypothesized that "R-M17 chromosomes in Ashkenazim may represent vestiges of the mysterious Khazars". They concluded "However, if the R-M17 chromosomes in Ashkenazi Jews do indeed represent the vestiges of the mysterious Khazars then, according to our data, this contribution was limited to either a single founder or a few closely related men, and does not exceed ~ 12% of the present-day Ashkenazim. Almut Nebel, Dvora Filon, Marina Faerman, Himla Soodyall and Ariella Oppenheim. "Y chromosome evidence for a founder effect in Ashkenazi Jews", (European Journal of Human Genetics (2005) 13, 388–391. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201319 Published online 3 November 2004). Other claims of descent Others have claimed Khazar origins for such groups as the Karaim, Krymchaks, Mountain Jews, and Georgian Jews. There is little evidence to support any of these theories, although it is possible that some Khazar descendants found their way into these communities. Non-Jewish groups who claim at least partial descent from the Khazars include the Kumyks and Crimean Tatars; as with the above-mentioned Jewish groups, these claims are subject to a great deal of controversy and debate. Fiction The Kuzari is one of most famous works of the medieval Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet Rabbi Yehuda Halevi. Divided into five essays ("ma'amarim" (namely, Articles)), it takes the form of a dialogue between the pagan king of the Khazars and a Jew who was invited to instruct him in the tenets of the Jewish religion. Originally written in Arabic, the book was translated by numerous scholars (including Judah ibn Tibbon) into Hebrew and other languages. Though the book is not considered a historical account of the Khazar conversion to Judaism, scholars such as D.M. Dunlop and A.P. Novoseltsev have postulated that Yehuda had access to Khazar documents upon which he loosely based his work. His contemporary Avraham ibn Daud reported meeting Khazar rabbinical students in Toledo, Spain in the mid-12th century. In any case, however, the book is in the main - and clearly intended to be - an exposition of the basic tenets of the Jewish religion as they were in the time of writing, rather than a historical account of the actual conversion of the Khazars to Judaism. The question of mass religious conversion is a central theme in Milorad Pavić's international bestselling novel Dictionary of the Khazars. The novel, however, contained many invented elements and had little to do with actual Khazar history. More recently, several novels, including H.N. Turteltaub's Justinian (about the life of Justinian II) and Marek Halter's Book of Abraham and Wind of the Khazars have dealt either directly or indirectly with the topic of the Khazars and their role in history. In 2007, the New York Times Magazine serialized a novel by Michael Chabon entitled Gentlemen of the Road which features 10th century Khazar characters. See also Conversion to Judaism The History of Turkish-Jewish Relations Kevin Alan Brook Gazaria (Genoese colonies) Kiev, History of Kievian Letter Khazar Correspondence Kuzari Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union, History of the Lev Gumilev List of Khazar rulers Rus'-Byzantine War (860) Rus'-Byzantine War (907) Rus'-Byzantine War (941) Rus'-Byzantine War (968-971) Rus' Khaganate Schechter Letter Turkic peoples Notes Resources Barkun, Michael. Religion and the Racist Right: The Origins of the Christian Identity Movement, UNC Press, ISBN 0807846384 Vasili Barthold. (1996). "Khazar". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Brill Online). Eds.: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. [http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/Behar_contrasting.pdf Doron M. Behar · Daniel Garrigan · Matthew E. Kaplan · Zahra Mobasher · Dror Rosengarten · Tatiana M. Karafet ·Lluis Quintana-Murci · Harry Ostrer · Karl Skorecki · Michael F. Hammer "Contrasting patterns of Y chromosome variation in Ashkenazi Jewish and host non-Jewish European populations]." Hum Genet (2004) 114 : 354–365, March, 2006. Bowman, Stephen B., Ankori, Zvi The Jews of Byzantium 1204-1453 Bloch Pub Co (December 2001). Kevin Alan Brook. The Jews of Khazaria. 2nd ed. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2006. Kevin Alan Brook. "Are Russian Jews Descended from the Khazars?" Khazaria.com Kevin Alan Brook. "Tales about Jewish Khazars in the Byzantine Empire Resolve an Old Debate". Los Muestros, No. 54, p. 27. Browning, Robert. The Byzantine Empire. Catholic University of America Press, 1992. Cameron, Averil, Byzantines and Jews: some recent work on early Byzantium, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 20 (1996): 249-274. Cohen, M. R. The Voice of the Poor in the Middle Ages: An Anthology of Documents from the Cairo Geniza, Princeton University Press (2005). Douglas M. Dunlop. The History of the Jewish Khazars, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1954. Douglas M. Dunlop. "The Khazars." The Dark Ages: Jews in Christian Europe, 711-1096. 1966. Geanakoplos, D. J. Byzantium: Church, Society, and Civilization Seen through Contemporary Eyes University Of Chicago Press; New Ed edition (1986). Peter B. Golden. Khazar Studies: An Historio-Philological Inquiry into the Origins of the Khazars. Budapest: Akademia Kiado, 1980. Peter B. Golden. "Khazar Turkic Ghulâms in Caliphal Service" (Journal Article in Journal Asiatique, 2004.) Peter B. Golden. "Khazar Turkic Ghulâms in Caliphal Service: Onomastic Notes" (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi, 1993.) Peter B. Golden. "Khazars" (Book Chapter in Turkish-Jewish Encounters: Studies on Turkish-Jewish Relations through the Ages, 2001.) Peter B. Golden, et al., eds. The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives: Selected Papers from the Jerusalem 1999 International Khazar Colloquium(Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 8 Uralic & Central Asian Studies, vol. 17, 2007). Leiden: Brill; contains, inter alia, Peter B. Golden. "The Conversion of the Khazars to Judaism." 'In: Golden et al. 2007, pp. 123–162. Marcel Erdal. "The Khazar Language". In: Golden et al. 2007, pp. 75–107. Norman Golb and Omeljan Pritsak, Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century. Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1982. Heinrich Graetz. History of the Jews, Vol. III. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1902. Arthur Koestler. (1976): The Thirteenth Tribe: The Khazar Empire and Its Heritage. Random House. ISBN 0-394-40284-7 Elli Kohen. History of the Byzantine Jews: A Microcosmos in the Thousand Year Empire. University Press of America, 2007. Roman K. Kovalev. "What Does Historical Numismatics Suggest About the Monetary History of Khazaria in the Ninth Century? – Question Revisited." Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 13 (2004): 97–129. Roman K. Kovalev. "Creating Khazar Identity through Coins: The Special Issue Dirhams of 837/8." East Central and Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages, ed. Florin Curta, pp. 220–253. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2005. Habib Levy, et al. Comprehensive History of the Jews of Iran: The Outset of the Diaspora. George W. Maschke, trans. Mazda Publishers, 1999. Logan, Donald F. (1992). The Vikings in History 2nd ed. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-08396-6 Mango, Cyril (Ed) The Oxford History of Byzantium Oxford University Press, USA (December 5, 2002). Timothy S. Miller, "The Legend of Saint Zotikos According to Constantine Akropolites." Analecta Bollandiana vol. 112, 1994, pp. 339–376. Thomas S. Noonan. "Did the Khazars Possess a Monetary Economy? An Analysis of the Numismatic Evidence." Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 2 (1982): 219-267. Thomas S. Noonan. "What Does Historical Numismatics Suggest About the History of Khazaria in the Ninth Century?" Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 3 (1983): 265-281. Thomas S. Noonan. "Why Dirhams First Reached Russia: The Role of Arab-Khazar Relations in the Development of the Earliest Islamic Trade with Eastern Europe." Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 4 (1984): 151-282. Thomas S. Noonan. "Khazaria as an Intermediary between Islam and Eastern Europe in the Second Half of the Ninth Century: The Numismatic Perspective." Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 5 (1985): 179-204. Thomas S. Noonan. "Byzantium and the Khazars: a special relationship?" Byzantine Diplomacy: Papers from the Twenty-fourth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Cambridge, March 1990, ed. Jonathan Shepard and Simon Franklin, pp. 109–132. Aldershot, England: Variorium, 1992. Thomas S. Noonan. "What Can Archaeology Tell Us About the Economy of Khazaria?" The Archaeology of the Steppes: Methods and Strategies - Papers from the International Symposium held in Naples 9-12 November 1992, ed. Bruno Genito, pp. 331–345. Napoli, Italy: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1994. Thomas S. Noonan. "The Khazar Economy." Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 9 (1995-1997): 253-318. Thomas S. Noonan. "The Khazar-Byzantine World of the Crimea in the Early Middle Ages: The Religious Dimension." Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 10 (1998-1999): 207-230. Thomas S. Noonan. "Les Khazars et le commerce oriental." Les Échanges au Moyen Age: Justinien, Mahomet, Charlemagne: trois empires dans l'économie médiévale, pp. 82–85. Dijon: Editions Faton S.A., 2000. Thomas S. Noonan. "The Khazar Qaghanate and its Impact on the Early Rus' State: The translatio imperii from Itil to Kiev." Nomads in the Sedentary World, eds. Anatoly Mikhailovich Khazanov and André Wink, pp. 76–102. Richmond, England: Curzon Press, 2001. John Julius Norwich. A Short History of Byzantium. Vintage, 1998. George Ostrogorski. History of the Byzantine State, Rutgers University Press (July 1986). Svetlana Pletneva. Khazary, 2nd ed. Moscow: Nauka, 1986. Omeljan Pritsak. "The Khazar Kingdom's Conversion to Judaism." (Journal Article in Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 1978) Omeljan Pritsak. "The Pre-Ashkenazic Jews of Eastern Europe in Relation to the Khazars, the Rus', and the Lithuanians". Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in HIstorical Perspective, ed. Howard Aster and Peter J. Potichnyj. Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, 1990. p. 7. Rossman, Vadim. Russian Intellectual Antisemitism in the Post-Communist Era, University of Nebraska Press, 2002. ISBN 0803239483 A. Scharf. Byzantine Jewry: From Justinian to the Fourth Crusade. London, 1971. Starr, Joshua, The Jews in the Byzantine Empire 641-1204 Burt Franklin (1970). Tamara Talbot Rice. The Seljuks in Asia Minor. Thames and Hudson, London, 1961. pp.18–19. Vital, David (1999): A People Apart: A History of the Jews in Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-821980-6 Zolitor, Jeff, Wolfe, Peter "The Khazars" Philadelphia: Conference of the Congress of Secular Jewish Organizations, (2002), Canadian Jewish Outlook (Sept/Oct 2002) /www.csjo.org/pages/essays/essaykhazars.htm Works written before 1915 Blind, Karl. "A Forgotten Turkish Nation in Europe". The Gentleman's Quarterly. Vol. CCXLI, No. 19. London: Chatto & Windus, 1877. pp. 439–460. Itinéraires de la Terre Sainte, Carmody, (Brussels, 1847) Sur le Khazars. Vivien St. Martin. (Paris, 1851) Ibn Dasta, translated by Daniel Chwolson, (St. Petersburg, 1869) Der khazarische Königsbrief, Cassel, (Berlin, 1877) Der Ursprung der Magyaren, Vambéry, (Leipzig, 1882) Das Buch se-Chazari, Hirschfield, (Breslau, 1885) Pre- and Proto-historic Finns, Abercromby, (London, 1898) Osteuropäische und Ostasiatische Streifzüge, Marquart, (Leipzig, 1903) Jewish Quarterly Review, Volume iii, Pages 181–219, "An Unknown Khazar Document," (n.s., Philadelphia, 1913) Accounts of Oriental writers were published at St. Petersburg by Fraehn, (1821), and by Harkavy, (1874 et seq.) External links Khazaria.com Resources > Medieval Jewish History > The Khazars The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem The Khazars by Yair Davidiy German Wikipedia map showing expansion of the Khazar Khaganate Khazar enty on Regnal Chronologies Khazar Historic Maps Norman Finkelshteyn's Jewish Warriors – The Khazar Khaganate The Kitab al-Khazari of Judah Hallevi, full English translation at sacred-texts.com Khazar and West-Turkish dining habits Article on the Khazar military for wargamers The Khazar Myth and the New Anti-Semitism by Steven Plaut 660 лет вместе и 50 лет лжи (660 Years Together and 50 Years of Lies) by Semyon Charny. Lechaim magazine, March 2003. 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4,926 | Geography_of_Grenada | Grenada - NASA NLT Landsat 7 (Visible Color) Satellite Image This article describes the geography of Grenada. Grenada is a Caribbean island (one of the Grenadines) between the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, north of Trinidad and Tobago. It is located at . There are no large inland bodies of water on the island, which consists entirely of the state of Grenada. The coastline is 121 km long. The Grenadan climate is tropical, tempered by northeast trade winds. The land is volcanic in origin with mountains in the interior. The lowest point is at sea level, and the highest is 840 m on Mount Saint Catherine. Grenada has 15 constituencies and speaks English. It is volcanic in origin and its topography/land scape is mountainous. Natural resources include timber, tropical fruit and deepwater harbors. Grenada and its largely uninhabited outlying territories are the most southerly of the Windward Islands. The Grenadine Islands chain consists of some 600 islets; those south of the Martinique Channel belong to Grenada, while those north of the channel are part of the nation of St. Vincent and the Grenadines. Located about 160 kilometers north of Venezuela, at approximately 12° north latitude and 61° west longitude, Grenada and its territories occupy a total area of 433 square kilometers. Grenada, known as the Spice Isle because of its production of nutmeg and mace, is the largest at 310 square kilometers, or about the size of Detroit. The island is oval shape and framed by a jagged southern coastline; its maximum width is thirty-four kilometers, and its maximum length is nineteen kilometers. St. George's, the capital and the nation's most important harbor, is favorably situated near a lagoon on the southwestern coast. Of all the islands belonging to Grenada, only two are of consequence: Carriacou, with a population of a few thousand, and its neighbor Petit Martinique, roughly 40 kilometers northeast of Grenada and populated by some 700 inhabitants. Part of the volcanic chain in the Lesser Antilles arc, Grenada and its possessions generally vary in elevation from under 300 meters to over 600 meters above sea level. Grenada is more rugged and densely foliated than its outlying possessions, but other geographical conditions are more similar. Grenada's landmass rises from a narrow, coastal plain in a generally north-south trending axis of ridges and narrow valleys. Mount St. Catherine is the highest peak at 840 meters. Although many of the rocks and soils are of volcanic origin, the volcanic cones dotting Grenada are long dormant. Some of the drainage features on Grenada remain from its volcanic past. There are a few crater lakes, the largest of which is Grand Etang. The swift upper reaches of rivers, which occasionally overflow and cause flooding and landslides, generally cut deeply into the conic slopes. By contrast, many of the water courses in the lowlands tend to be sluggish and meandering. The abundance of water is primarily caused by the tropical, wet climate. Yearly precipitation, largely generated by the warm and moisture-laden northeasterly trade winds, varies from more than 350 centimeters on the windward mountainsides to less than 150 centimeters in the lowlands. The greatest monthly totals are recorded throughout Grenada from June through November, the months when tropical storms and hurricanes are most likely to occur. Rainfall is less pronounced from December through May, when the equatorial low-pressure system moves south. Similarly, the highest humidities, usually close to 80 percent, are recorded during the rainy months, and values from 68 to 78 percent are registered during the drier period. Temperatures averaging 29°C are constant throughout the year, however, with slightly higher readings in the lowlands. Nevertheless, diurnal ranges within a 24-hour period are appreciable: between 26°C and 32°C during the day and between 19°C and 24°C at night. Area Total: 340 km² Land: 340 km² Maritime claims Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm Territorial sea: 12 nm Land use Arable land: 15% Permanent crops: 18% Permanent pastures: 3% Forests and woodland: 9% Other: 55% (1993 est.) Irrigated land NA km² Natural hazards Lies on edge of hurricane belt; hurricane season lasts from June to November Environment - current issues NA Environment - international agreements Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Whaling Geography - note The administration of the islands of the Grenadines group is divided between Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (northern Grenadines) and Grenada (southern Grenadines) References | Geography_of_Grenada |@lemmatized grenada:18 nasa:1 nlt:1 landsat:1 visible:1 color:1 satellite:1 image:1 article:1 describe:1 geography:2 caribbean:2 island:6 one:1 grenadine:7 sea:5 atlantic:1 ocean:1 north:5 trinidad:1 tobago:1 locate:2 large:3 inland:1 body:1 water:3 consist:2 entirely:1 state:1 coastline:2 km:1 long:2 grenadan:1 climate:3 tropical:4 temper:1 northeast:2 trade:2 wind:2 land:6 volcanic:6 origin:3 mountain:1 interior:1 low:2 point:1 level:2 high:4 mount:2 saint:2 catherine:2 constituency:1 speaks:1 english:1 topography:1 scape:1 mountainous:1 natural:2 resource:1 include:1 timber:1 fruit:1 deepwater:1 harbor:2 largely:2 uninhabited:1 outlying:2 territory:2 southerly:1 windward:2 islands:1 chain:2 islet:1 south:3 martinique:2 channel:2 belong:2 part:2 nation:2 st:3 vincent:2 kilometer:6 venezuela:1 approximately:1 latitude:1 west:1 longitude:1 occupy:1 total:3 area:2 square:2 know:1 spice:1 isle:1 production:1 nutmeg:1 mace:1 size:1 detroit:1 oval:1 shape:1 frame:1 jagged:1 southern:2 maximum:2 width:1 thirty:1 four:1 length:1 nineteen:1 george:1 capital:1 important:1 favorably:1 situate:1 near:1 lagoon:1 southwestern:1 coast:1 two:1 consequence:1 carriacou:1 population:1 thousand:1 neighbor:1 petit:1 roughly:1 populate:1 inhabitant:1 less:3 antilles:1 arc:1 possession:2 generally:3 vary:1 elevation:1 meter:3 rugged:1 densely:1 foliate:1 geographical:1 condition:1 similar:1 landmass:1 rise:1 narrow:2 coastal:1 plain:1 trend:1 axis:1 ridge:1 valley:1 peak:1 although:1 many:2 rock:1 soil:1 cone:1 dot:1 dormant:1 drainage:1 feature:1 remain:1 past:1 crater:1 lake:1 grand:1 etang:1 swift:1 upper:1 reach:1 river:1 occasionally:1 overflow:1 cause:2 flood:1 landslide:1 cut:1 deeply:1 conic:1 slope:1 contrast:1 course:1 lowland:3 tend:1 sluggish:1 meander:1 abundance:1 primarily:1 wet:1 yearly:1 precipitation:1 generate:1 warm:1 moisture:1 laden:1 northeasterly:1 varies:1 centimeter:2 mountainsides:1 great:1 monthly:1 record:2 throughout:2 june:2 november:2 month:2 storm:1 hurricane:3 likely:1 occur:1 rainfall:1 pronounced:1 december:1 may:1 equatorial:1 pressure:1 system:1 move:1 similarly:1 humidity:1 usually:1 close:1 percent:2 rainy:1 value:1 register:1 dry:1 period:2 temperature:1 average:1 c:5 constant:1 year:1 however:1 slightly:1 reading:1 nevertheless:1 diurnal:1 range:1 within:1 hour:1 appreciable:1 day:1 night:1 maritime:1 claim:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 zone:1 nm:2 territorial:1 use:1 arable:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:1 woodland:1 est:1 irrigated:1 na:2 hazard:1 lie:1 edge:1 belt:1 season:1 last:1 environment:2 current:1 issue:1 international:1 agreement:1 party:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 desertification:1 endanger:1 specie:1 law:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 whale:1 note:1 administration:1 group:1 divide:1 northern:1 reference:1 |@bigram atlantic_ocean:1 trinidad_tobago:1 coastline_km:1 timber_tropical:1 windward_islands:1 vincent_grenadine:2 square_kilometer:2 nutmeg_mace:1 elevation_meter:1 coastal_plain:1 volcanic_cone:1 flood_landslide:1 yearly_precipitation:1 moisture_laden:1 tropical_storm:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 ozone_layer:1 |
4,927 | Conspiracy_theory | A conspiracy theory is a term that has come to refer to any tentative theory which explains a historical or current event as the result of a secret plot by usually powerful Machiavellian conspirators, such as a "secret team" or "shadow government". Conspiracy theories are often viewed with skepticism because they contrast with institutional analysis of historical or current events, and are not supported by conclusive evidence. The term is therefore often used dismissively in an attempt to characterize a belief as outlandishly false and held by a person judged to be a crank or a group confined to the lunatic fringe. Such characterization is often the subject of dispute due to its possible unfairness and inaccuracy. Fenster, M. 1999. Conspiracy theories: Secrecy and power in American culture. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press. In the late 20th and early 21st century, conspiracy theories have become commonplace in mass media, which has contributed to conspiracism emerging as a cultural phenomenon. Belief in conspiracy theories has therefore become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in folklore. Barkun, Michael. 2003. A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley: Univ. of California. Terminology The term "conspiracy theory" may be a neutral descriptor for any conspiracy claim. To conspire means "to join in a secret agreement to do an unlawful or wrongful act or to use such means to accomplish a lawful end." Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, p. 243 (8th ed. 1976). However, conspiracy theory is also used to indicate a narrative genre that includes a broad selection of (not necessarily related) arguments for the existence of grand conspiracies. Ramsay, Robin (2006). Conspiracy Theories, Pocket Essentials. ISBN 190404865X. The word "theory" is in this usage is informal as in "speculation" or "hypothesis" rather than scientific. Also, the term conspiracy is typically used to indicate powerful figures, often of the Establishment, who are believed to be deceiving the population at large, as in political corruption. Although some conspiracies are not actually theories, they are often labeled as such by the general populace. The first recorded use of the phrase "conspiracy theory" dates from 1909. Originally it was a neutral term but during the political upheaval of the 1960s it acquired its current derogatory sense. "20th Century Words" (1999) John Ayto, Oxford University Press, page 15 It entered the supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary as late as 1997. Plots, paranoia and blame by Peter Knight, BBC News 7 December 2006 The term "conspiracy theory" is frequently used by scholars and in popular culture to identify secret military, banking, or political actions aimed at stealing power or money from "the people". Less illustrious uses refer to folklore and urban legend and a variety of explanatory narratives which are constructed with methodological flaws. Johnson, 1983 The term is also used in a pejorative sense to automatically dismiss claims that are deemed ridiculous, misconceived, paranoid, unfounded, outlandish or irrational. For example, the term "Watergate conspiracy theory" does not refer to the generally accepted version in which several participants actually were convicted of conspiracy, and others pardoned before any charges were filed, but to alternative and additional theories such as claims that that the source(s) of information called "Deep Throat" was a fabrication . Daniel Pipes, in an early essay "adapted from a study prepared for the CIA", attempted to define which beliefs distinguish 'the conspiracy mentality' from 'more conventional patterns of thought'. He defined them as: appearances deceive; conspiracies drive history; nothing is haphazard; the enemy always gains power, fame, money, and sex Daniel Pipes, in Orbis, Winter 1992: "Dealing with Middle Eastern Conspiracy Theories" . Conspiracism A world view that centrally places conspiracy theories in the unfolding of history is sometimes termed "conspiracism". The historian Richard Hofstadter addressed the role of paranoia and conspiracism throughout American history in his essay The Paranoid Style in American Politics, published in 1964. Bernard Bailyn's classic The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1967) notes that a similar phenomenon could be found in America during the time preceding the American Revolution. Conspiracism then labels people's attitudes as well as the type of conspiracy theories that are more global and historical in proportion.<ref>{{cite book | last = Bailyn | first = Bernard | title = The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution: | publisher = Harvard University Press | location = Cambridge | id = ASIN: B000NUF6FQ | isbn = 978-0-674-44302-0 | year = 1992 | unused_data = |origyear 1967=}}</ref> The term conspiracism was popularized by academic Frank P. Mintz in the 1980s. Academic work in conspiracy theories and conspiracism presents a range of hypotheses as a basis of studying the genre. Among the leading scholars of conspiracism are: Hofstadter, Karl Popper, Michael Barkun, Robert Alan Goldberg, Daniel Pipes, Mark Fenster, Mintz, Carl Sagan, George Johnson, and Gerald Posner. According to Mintz, conspiracism denotes: "belief in the primacy of conspiracies in the unfolding of history": "Conspiracism serves the needs of diverse political and social groups in America and elsewhere. It identifies elites, blames them for economic and social catastrophes, and assumes that things will be better once popular action can remove them from positions of power. As such, conspiracy theories do not typify a particular epoch or ideology". Throughout human history, political and economic leaders genuinely have been the cause of enormous amounts of death and misery, and they sometimes have engaged in conspiracies while at the same time promoting conspiracy theories about their targets. Hitler and Stalin would be merely the most prominent examples; there have been numerous others. In some cases there have been claims dismissed as conspiracy theories that later proved to be true. The idea that history itself is controlled by large long-standing conspiracies is rejected by historian Bruce Cumings: "But if conspiracies exist, they rarely move history; they make a difference at the margins from time to time, but with the unforeseen consequences of a logic outside the control of their authors: and this is what is wrong with 'conspiracy theory.' History is moved by the broad forces and large structures of human collectivities." The term conspiracism is used in the work of Michael Kelly, Chip Berlet, and Matthew N. Lyons. According to Berlet and Lyons, "Conspiracism is a particular narrative form of scapegoating that frames demonized enemies as part of a vast insidious plot against the common good, while it valorizes the scapegoater as a hero for sounding the alarm". Criticism Conspiracy theories are the subject of broad critique by academics, politicians, and the media. Validity Perhaps the most contentious aspect of a conspiracy theory is the problem of settling a particular theory's truth to the satisfaction of both its proponents and its opponents. Particular accusations of conspiracy vary widely in their plausibility, but some common standards for assessing their likely truth value may be applied in each case: Occam's razor - does the alternative story explain more of the evidence than the mainstream story, or is it just a more complicated and therefore less useful explanation of the same evidence? Logic - Do the proofs offered follow the rules of logic, or do they employ Fallacies of logic? Methodology - are the proofs offered for the argument well constructed, i.e., using sound methodology? Is there any clear standard to determine what evidence would prove or disprove the theory? Whistleblowers - how many people — and what kind — have to be loyal conspirators? Falsifiability - Is it possible to demonstrate that specific claims of the theory are false, or are they "unfalsifiable"? Noam Chomsky, an academic critical of the United States establishment, contrasts conspiracy theory as more or less the opposite of institutional analysis, which focuses mostly on the public, long-term behaviour of publicly known institutions, as recorded in, e.g. scholarly documents or mainstream media reports, rather than secretive coalitions of individuals. Controversy Aside from controversies over the merits of particular conspiratorial claims, the general discussion of conspiracy theory is itself a matter of some public contention. The term "conspiracy theory" is considered by different observers to be a neutral description for a conspiracy claim, a pejorative term used to dismiss such a claim without examination, and a term that can be positively embraced by proponents of such a claim. The term may be used by some for arguments they might not wholly believe but consider radical and exciting. The most widely accepted sense of the term is that which popular culture and academic usage share, certainly having negative implications for a narrative's probable truth value. Given this popular understanding of the term, it can also be used illegitimately and inappropriately, as a means to dismiss what are in fact substantial and well-evidenced accusations. The legitimacy of each such usage will therefore be a matter of some controversy. Michael Parenti, in his 1996 essay which examines the role of progressive media in the use of the term, "The JFK Assassination II: Conspiracy Phobia On The Left", states, "It is an either-or world for those on the Left who harbor an aversion for any kind of conspiracy investigation: either you are a structuralist in your approach to politics or a 'conspiracist' who reduces historical developments to the machinations of secret cabals, thereby causing us to lose sight of the larger systemic forces." , "The JFK Assassination II: Conspiracy Phobia On The Left", Michael Parenti, 1996 However, structuralist or institutional analysis shows that the term is misused when it is applied to institutions acting in pursuit of their acknowledged goals, e.g. thus, when a group of corporations engage in price-fixing in order to increase profits. Certain proponents of conspiracy claims and their supporters argue that the term is entirely illegitimate, and should be considered just as politically manipulative as the Soviet practice of treating political dissidents as clinically insane. But critics of this view claim that the argument bears little weight and that the claim itself serves to expose the paranoia common with conspiracy theorists. A similar complication occurs for terms such as UFO, which literally means "unidentified flying object" but connotes alien spacecraft, a concept also associated with some conspiracy theories, and thus possessing a certain social stigma. Michael Parenti gives an example of the use of the term which underscores the conflict in its use. He states, "In most of its operations, the CIA is by definition a conspiracy, using covert actions and secret plans, many of which are of the most unsavory kind. What are covert operations if not conspiracies? At the same time, the CIA is an institution, a structural part of the national security state. In sum, the agency is an institutionalized conspiracy." The term "conspiracy theory" is itself the object of a type of conspiracy theory, which argues that those using the term are manipulating their audience to disregard the topic under discussion, either in a deliberate attempt to conceal the truth, or as dupes of more deliberate conspirators. When conspiracy theories are offered as official claims (e.g. originating from a governmental authority, such as an intelligence agency) they are not usually considered as conspiracy theories. For example, certain activities of the House Un-American Activities Committee may be considered to have been an official attempt to promote a conspiracy theory, yet its claims are seldom referred to as such. Further difficulties arise from ambiguity regarding the term theory. In popular usage, this term is often used to refer to unfounded or weakly-based speculation, leading to the idea that "It's not a conspiracy theory if it's actually true". Study of conspiracism In 1936 American commentator H. L. Mencken wrote:The central belief of every moron is that he is the victim of a mysterious conspiracy against his common rights and true deserts. He ascribes all his failure to get on in the world, all of his congenital incapacity and damfoolishness, to the machinations of werewolves assembled in Wall Street, or some other such den of infamy. H. L. Mencken, Baltimore Evening Sun, June 15, 1936 Belief in conspiracy theories has become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in folklore since at least the 1960s, when the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy eventually provoked an unprecedented public response directed against the official version of the case as expounded in the Report of the Warren Commission. Psychological origins According to some psychologists, a person who believes in one conspiracy theory tends to believe in others; a person who does not believe in one conspiracy theory tends not to believe another. This may be caused by differences in the information upon which parties rely in formulating their conclusions. Psychologists believe that the search for meaning is common in conspiracism and the development of conspiracy theories, and may be powerful enough alone to lead to the first formulating of the idea. Once cognized, confirmation bias and avoidance of cognitive dissonance may reinforce the belief. In a context where a conspiracy theory has become popular within a social group, communal reinforcement may equally play a part. Some research carried out at the University of Kent, UK suggests people may be influenced by conspiracy theories without being aware that their attitudes have changed. After reading popular conspiracy theories about the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, participants in this study correctly estimated how much their peers' attitudes had changed, but significantly underestimated how much their own attitudes had changed to become more in favour of the conspiracy theories. The authors conclude that conspiracy theories may therefore have a 'hidden power' to influence people's beliefs. Humanistic psychologists argue that even if the cabal is almost always perceived as hostile there is, often, still an element of reassurance in it, for conspiracy theorists, in part because it is more consoling to think that complications and upheaveals in human affairs, at least, are created by human beings rather than factors beyond human control. Belief in such a cabal is a device for reassuring oneself that certain occurrences are not random, but ordered by a human intelligence. This renders such occurrences comprehensible and potentially controllable. If a cabal can be implicated in a sequence of events, there is always the hope, however tenuous, of being able to break the cabal's power - or joining it and exercising some of that power oneself. Finally, belief in the power of such a cabal is an implicit assertion of human dignity - an often unconscious but necessary affirmation that man is not totally helpless, but is responsible, at least in some measure, for his own destiny. Projection Some historians have argued that there is an element of psychological projection in conspiracism. This projection, according to the argument, is manifested in the form of attribution of undesirable characteristics of the self to the conspirators. Richard Hofstadter, in his essay The Paranoid Style in American Politics, stated that: ...it is hard to resist the conclusion that this enemy is on many counts the projection of the self; both the ideal and the unacceptable aspects of the self are attributed to him. The enemy may be the cosmopolitan intellectual, but the paranoid will outdo him in the apparatus of scholarship... the Ku Klux Klan imitated Catholicism to the point of donning priestly vestments, developing an elaborate ritual and an equally elaborate hierarchy. The John Birch Society emulates Communist cells and quasi-secret operation through "front" groups, and preaches a ruthless prosecution of the ideological war along lines very similar to those it finds in the Communist enemy. Spokesmen of the various fundamentalist anti-Communist "crusades" openly express their admiration for the dedication and discipline the Communist cause calls forth. Hofstadter also noted that "sexual freedom" is a vice frequently attributed to the conspiracist's target group, noting that "very often the fantasies of true believers reveal strong sadomasochistic outlets, vividly expressed, for example, in the delight of anti-Masons with the cruelty of Masonic punishments." Hofstadter, Richard. The Paranoid Style in American Politics. Harper's Magazine, November 1964, pp. 77-86. Epistemic bias It is possible that certain basic human epistemic biases are projected onto the material under scrutiny. According to one study humans apply a 'rule of thumb' by which we expect a significant event to have a significant cause. "Who shot the president?," The British Psychological Society, March 18, 2003 (accessed June 7, 2005). The study offered subjects four versions of events, in which a foreign president was (a) successfully assassinated, (b) wounded but survived, (c) survived with wounds but died of a heart attack at a later date, and (d) was unharmed. Subjects were significantly more likely to suspect conspiracy in the case of the 'major events' — in which the president died — than in the other cases, despite all other evidence available to them being equal. Another epistemic 'rule of thumb' that can be misapplied to a mystery involving other humans is cui bono? (who stands to gain?). This sensitivity to the hidden motives of other people may be an evolved and universal feature of human consciousness. However, this is also a valid rule of thumb for detectives to use when generating a list of suspects to investigate. Used in this way "Who had the motive, means and opportunity?" is a perfectly valid use of this rule of thumb. Clinical psychology For relatively rare individuals, an obsessive compulsion to believe, prove or re-tell a conspiracy theory may indicate one or more of several well-understood psychological conditions, and other hypothetical ones: paranoia, denial, schizophrenia, mean world syndrome. "Top 5 New Diseases: Media Induced Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (MIPTSD)," The New Disease: A Journal of Narrative Pathology 2 (2004), (accessed June 7, 2005). Socio-political origins Christopher Hitchens represents conspiracy theories as the 'exhaust fumes of democracy', the unavoidable result of a large amount of information circulating among a large number of people. Other social commentators and sociologists argue that conspiracy theories are produced according to variables that may change within a democratic (or other type of) society. Conspiratorial accounts can be emotionally satisfying when they place events in a readily-understandable, moral context. The subscriber to the theory is able to assign moral responsibility for an emotionally troubling event or situation to a clearly-conceived group of individuals. Crucially, that group does not include the believer. The believer may then feel excused of any moral or political responsibility for remedying whatever institutional or societal flaw might be the actual source of the dissonance. "Conspiracy theories explain disturbing events or social phenomena in terms of the actions of specific, powerful individuals," said sociologist Theodore Sasson at Middlebury College in Vermont. By providing simple explanations of distressing events — the conspiracy theory in the Arab world, for example, that the Sept. 11, 2001, attacks were planned by the Israeli Mossad — they deflect responsibility or keep people from acknowledging that tragic events sometimes happen inexplicably." Where responsible behavior is prevented by social conditions, or is simply beyond the ability of an individual, the conspiracy theory facilitates the emotional discharge or closure that such emotional challenges (after Erving Goffman) require. Like moral panics, conspiracy theories thus occur more frequently within communities that are experiencing social isolation or political dis-empowerment. Mark Fenster argues that "just because overarching conspiracy theories are wrong does not mean they are not on to something. Specifically, they ideologically address real structural inequities, and constitute a response to a withering civil society and the concentration of the ownership of the means of production, which together leave the political subject without the ability to be recognized or to signify in the public realm" (1999: 67). Sociological historian Holger Herwig found in studying German explanations for the origins of World War I:Those events that are most important are hardest to understand, because they attract the greatest attention from myth makers and charlatans.This normal process could be diverted by a number of influences. At the level of the individual, pressing psychological needs may influence the process, and certain of our universal mental tools may impose epistemic 'blind spots'. At the group or sociological level, historic factors may make the process of assigning satisfactory meanings more or less problematic. Alternatively, conspiracy theories may arise when evidence available in the public record does not correspond with the common or official version of events. In this regard, conspiracy theories may sometimes serve to highlight 'blind spots' in the common or official interpretations of events (Fenster, 1999). Media tropes Media commentators regularly note a tendency in news media and wider culture to understand events through the prism of individual agents, as opposed to more complex structural or institutional accounts. Ivan Emke, "Agents and Structures: Journalists and the Constraints on AIDS Coverage," Canadian Journal of Communication 25, no. 3 (2000), (accessed June 7, 2005). If this is a true observation, it may be expected that the audience which both demands and consumes this emphasis itself is more receptive to personalized, dramatic accounts of social phenomena. A second, perhaps related, media trope is the effort to allocate individual responsibility for negative events. The media have a tendency to start to seek culprits if an event occurs that is of such significance that it does not drop off the news agenda within a few days. Of this trend, it has been said that the concept of a pure accident is no longer permitted in a news item. Again, if this is a true observation, it may reflect a real change in how the media consumer perceives negative events. Fusion paranoia Michael Kelly, a Washington Post journalist and neoconservative critic of anti-war movements on both the left and right, coined the term "fusion paranoia" to refer to a political convergence of left-wing and right-wing activists around anti-war issues and civil liberties, which he claimed were motivated by a shared belief in conspiracism or anti-government views. Social critics have adopted this term to refer to how the synthesis of paranoid conspiracy theories, which were once limited to American fringe audiences, has given them mass appeal and enabled them to become commonplace in mass media, thereby inaugurating an unrivaled popular culture of conspiracism in the U.S. of the late 20th and early 21st century. Some warn that this development in conspiracy theory may have negative effects on American political life, such as producerist demagogy and moral panic influencing elections as well as domestic and foreign policy. Barkun, Michael. 2003. A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley: Univ. of California. Daniel Pipes, a Jerusalem Post journalist, wrote in the 2004 article Fusion paranoia—A new twist in conspiracy theories: Fears of a petty conspiracy – a political rival or business competitor plotting to do you harm – are as old as the human psyche. But fears of a grand conspiracy – that the Illuminati or Jews plan to take over the world – go back only 900 years and have been operational for just two centuries, since the French Revolution. Conspiracy theories grew in importance from then until World War II, when two arch-conspiracy theorists, Hitler and Stalin, faced off against each other, causing the greatest blood-letting in human history. This hideous spectacle sobered Americans, who in subsequent decades relegated conspiracy theories to the fringe, where mainly two groups promoted such ideas. The politically disaffected: Blacks (Louis Farrakhan, Cynthia McKinney), the hard Right (John Birch Society, Pat Buchanan), and other alienated elements (Ross Perot, Lyndon LaRouche). Their theories imply a political agenda, but lack much of a following. The culturally suspicious: These include "Kennedy assassinologists," "ufologists," and those who believe a reptilian race runs the earth and alien installations exist under the earth's surface. Such themes enjoy enormous popularity (a year 2000 poll found 43 percent of Americans believing in UFOs), but carry no political agenda. The major new development, reports Barkun, professor of political science in the Maxwell School at Syracuse University, is not just an erosion in the divisions between these two groups, but their joining forces with occultists, persons bored by rationalism. Occultists are drawn to what Barkun calls the "cultural dumping ground of the heretical, the scandalous, the unfashionable, and the dangerous" – such as spiritualism, Theosophy, alternative medicine, alchemy, and astrology. Thus, the author who worries about the Secret Service taking orders from the Bavarian Illuminati is old school; the one who worries about a "joint Reptilian-Bavarian Illuminati" takeover is at the cutting edge of the new synthesis. These bizarre notions constitute what the late Michael Kelly termed "fusion paranoia," a promiscuous absorption of fears from any source whatsoever. Political use In his two volume work The Open Society and Its Enemies Popper used the term "conspiracy theory" to criticize the ideologies driving fascism, Nazism and communism. Popper argued that totalitarianism was founded on "conspiracy theories" which drew on imaginary plots driven by paranoid scenarios predicated on tribalism, racism or classism. Popper did not argue against the existence of everyday conspiracies (as incorrectly suggested in much of the later literature). Popper even uses the term "conspiracy" to describe ordinary political activity in the classical Athens of Plato (who was the principal target of his attack in The Open Society & Its Enemies). In his critique of Marx and the twentieth century totalitarians, Popper wrote, "I do not wish to imply that conspiracies never happen. On the contrary, they are typical social phenomena." He reiterated his point, "Conspiracies occur, it must be admitted. But the striking fact which, in spite of their occurrence, disproved the conspiracy theory is that few of these conspiracies are ultimately successful. Conspirators rarely consummate their conspiracy." Popper proposed the term "the conspiracy theory of society" to criticize the methodology of Marx, Hitler and others whom he deemed to be deluded by "historicism" - the reduction of history to an overt and naive distortion via a crude formulaic analysis usually predicated on an agenda replete with unsound presuppositions. Examples Fiction Because of their dramatic potential, conspiracies are a popular theme in thrillers and science fiction. Complex history is recast as a morality play in which bad people cause bad events, and good people identify and defeat them. Fictional conspiracy theories offer neat, intuitive narratives, in which the conspirators' plot fits closely the dramatic needs of the story's plot. As mentioned above, the cui bono? aspect of conspiracy theories resembles one element of mystery stories: the search for a possibly hidden motive.Dr. Strangelove was a 1964 comedy about modern nuclear warfare. The end of the world is precipitated by the delusions of General Jack D. Ripper who happens to be in control of a SAC nuclear air wing. General Ripper believes there is a Communist conspiracy which threatens to "sap and impurify" the "precious bodily fluids" of the American people with fluoridated water.Conspiracy Theory is a 1997 thriller about a taxi driver (played by Mel Gibson) who publishes a newsletter in which he discusses what he suspects are government conspiracies, and it turns out that one or more of them are true.The X-Files was a popular television show during the 1990s and early 2000s, which followed the investigations of two intrepid FBI agents, Fox Mulder and Dana Scully, who were sometimes helped by a group of conspiracy theorists known as The Lone Gunmen. Many of the episodes dealt with a plot for alien invasion overseen by elements of the U.S. government, led by an individual known only as the Cigarette Smoking Man and an even more mysterious international "Syndicate". The famous tag line of the series, "The Truth Is Out There", can be interpreted as reference to the meaning-seeking nature of the genre discussed above. Umberto Eco's novel Foucault's Pendulum is a broad satire on conspiracism in which the characters attempt to construct an all-embracing conspiracy theory starting with the Templars and including the Bavarian Illuminati, the Rosicrucians, hollow Earth enthusiasts, the Cathars, and even the Jesuits. The three-part novel Illuminatus! by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson (published in 1975) is a highly satirical, psychedelic novel dealing with complex, Byzantine conspiracies nested within other larger conspiracies—with the scale of the plots and the audacity of their plotters expanding to enfold more and more minds as the story progresses, evolving to wrap itself around many extant conspiracy theories such as the ones revolving around the Bavarian Illuminati, the Masons, the Vatican, the Mafia, governments large and small, and fringe groups of both left and right-wing persuasions. Their plottings merge with the overarching plans of several fictitious organizations—and also an actual "religion" which conceives of itself as a joke (the Discordians.) In an ironic twist of fate, Illuminatus! may have even caused the development of a real-world Discordian society (which manifests in loose clusters of affiliation, rather than as any formalized group) when the novel's cult success as a countercultural mainstay brought the "holy writ" of the Discordians, the Principia Discordia, out of obscurity over the final three decades of the twentieth century. Shea and Wilson used witty quotes drawn from this comedic pamphlet glorifying Eris, the Greek goddess of chaos and discord, as opening lines for chapters of the Illuminatus! books. The 2003 novel Elvis and the Blue Moon Conspiracy by Mark McGinty tells the satirical story of the 1969 moon landing, where Elvis Presley accompanies astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin to the lunar surface and becomes the first man to walk on the moon. An accident on the surface causes NASA to abort the mission and broadcast a version of the landing without Elvis, later dubbed a "hoax" by a little known reporter named Dani Mitchell. Proving a humorous look at several conspiracy theories from the 1960s, the book ties together the assassination of JFK, the deaths of Elvis Presley and Marilyn Monroe and the first moon landing. See also 9/11 conspiracy theories Apollo Moon Landing hoax conspiracy theories Area 51 Assassination Bermuda Triangle Bilderberg Group Black helicopters Boris III of Bulgaria Council on Foreign Relations Denver International Airport Chem trails Espionage Free energy suppression Freemasons Furtive fallacy, a belief in the necessity of secret conspiracies Government Warehouse Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener Holocaust denial Illuminati Jesuits John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories Liberty Lobby (defunct) New World Order New World Order (film) Paul is dead Percy Bysshe Shelley Priory of Sion Pseudoscience Robert Anton Wilson Roswell UFO Incident Secret Team Skull and Bones Sovereign Citizen Movement Tin foil hat Trilateral Commission Vatican Secret Archives The X-Files Yitzhak Rabin assassination conspiracy theories Concepts Apophenia Cabal Clustering illusion Consensus Cock-up theory Conspiracy? (the History Channel) Conspiracy theories (fictional) Conspiracy in criminal law :Category:Conspiracy theorists List of conspiracy theories Mind Control Paranoia Paranoia (magazine) The Paranoid Style in American Politics Conspiracy theorists The following people are known to have proposed conspiracy theories: Art Bell (born 1945) - American founder and longtime host of the paranormal-themed radio program Coast to Coast AM. Jeff Rense - mainly UFO and 9-11 conspiracy theories Matthew Bellamy Peter Beter (1921 - 1987) - American lawyer and author who claimed that world events were being controlled by three factions, the Rockefeller family, the "Bolshevik-Zionist axis," and the Kremlin. Mae Brussell (1922 - 1988) - American conspiracy theorist and radio personality, focusing on the assassination of John F. Kennedy. William Guy Carr (1895 - 1959) - Canadian naval officer and author responsible for creating the American Illuminati demonology. Bill Ellis, Raising the Devil: Satanism, New Religions, and the Media. University Press of Kentucky, 2000, p. 128 Jack T. Chick (born 1924) - American publisher of comic book-style tracts, known as Chick Tracts, often depicting conspiracy theories featuring Satan, the Catholic Church, Communists, Muslims, rock musicians, scientists, and politicians, as well as other groups and subjects behind popular entertainment, role-playing games, and other perceived ills of modern culture. James Shelby Downard (1913 - 1998) - American author who perceived occult symbolism, twilight language and synchronicity behind historical events in the 20th century. David Emory - American talk radio host who asserts that an obscure, sinister, organization called the "Underground Reich" maintains the interests of the German industry, banking and finance, which survived World War II as a major part of the global capital elite. Myron C. Fagan (1887 - 1972) - American writer, producer and director for film and theatre, who wrote and produced plays and pamphlets claiming the United Nations was a Communist front for one world government. Francis E. Dec (1926 - 1996) - Disbarred American lawyer from Hempstead, New York who is today known for having in the 1970s and 80s mass-mailed various rambling flyers and rants to randomly selected addressees all across the US, in which he purported to warn the public of an omnipotent machine-entity he referred to as the "World-wide Mad Deadly Communist Gangster Computer God." Des Griffin - American author espousing a right-wing Christian view of global conspiracies and the New World Order. Patrick Haseldine (born 1942) - former British diplomat, dismissed in 1989 by the Thatcher government for writing a letter to The Guardian on 7 December 1988. His subsequent conspiracy theory seeking to incriminate apartheid South Africa over the 21 December 1988 Lockerbie bombing alleged that the aircraft was downed in order to assassinate Bernt Carlsson, UN Commissioner for Namibia. Stanley Hilton - American lawyer who filed a subsequently dismissed $7-billion lawsuit against Bush Administration officials, accusing them of complicity in the September 11, 2001 attacks. Richard Hoagland (born 1945) - American author whose books claim that advanced civilizations exist or once existed on the Moon and Mars, and NASA and the United States government are conspiring to keep this secret. Latest theories of this nature include the Jovian satellite Europa and what he claims killed the Columbia shuttle astronauts. Michael A. Hoffman II (born 1954) - American historian who posits conspiracies about Jewish control of the United States and about the Holocaust. Leonard G. Horowitz - American author, former dentist, who claimed in a book, Emerging Viruses, that HIV/AIDS was engineered by the U.S. as a biological warfare agent. Reportedly inspired Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan to caution against vaccinating children; mentioned by Rev. Jeremiah Wright in support of Wright's similar claim. David Icke (born 1952) - British writer and public speaker who claims that the world is ruled by a secret group called the "Global Elite" or "Illuminati," which he has linked to The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Alex Jones Timothy F. LaHaye (born 1926) - joint author, with Jerry F. Jenkins, of the Left Behind novels. Lyndon H. LaRouche Jr. (born 1922) - American activist and self-styled politician whose publications rail against what he calls "Synarchism" and who, in spite of having received a felony conviction for mail fraud, has repeatedly sought election—thus far, without success—to the office of President of the United States. G. Edward Griffin Rauni-Leena Luukanen-Kilde Jim Marrs Texe Marrs Ken McCarthy - Owns and operates BrasscheckTV via his AMACORD consulting business. Massive provider of conspiracy content, videos and alternative news stories. Site named for Upton Sinclair's novel the Brass Check Interivew of Ken McCarthy by Wes Unruh AlteratiJuly 9, 2007 Thierry Meyssan Gary North Roberto Pinotti Lew Rockwell Christopher W. Ruddy Ben Stein (born 1944) - former Nixon speechwriter turned actor/game show host, whose movie, "Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed" alleges a vast conspiracy among modern scientists to squelch evidence for creationism in order to promote atheism. He has also equated modern science with the eugenics movement and Nazi Germany. Stein has been condemned by the Anti-Defamation League for trivializing and mis-representing the origins of the Holocaust in order to further his conspiracy theories. Stein has responded to these criticisms by saying, "It's none of their fucking business." Oliver Stone Academy award-winning film director and screenwriter John A. Stormer Webster Tarpley Robert Anton Wilson Jerome Corsi Notes References American Heritage Dictionary, "Conspiracy theory" Barkun, Michael. 2003. A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23805-2 Chase, Alston. 2003. Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-02002-9 Fenster, Mark. 1999. Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-3243-X Goldberg, Robert Alan. 2001. Enemies Within: The Culture of Conspiracy in Modern America. New Haven & London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09000-5 Hofstadter, Richard. 1965. The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-674-65461-7 Johnson, George 1983. Architects of Fear: Conspiracy Theories and Paranoia in American Politics. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc. ISBN 0-87477-275-3 Melley, Timothy. 1999. Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8606-8 Mintz, Frank P. 1985. The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood. ISBN 0-313-24393-X Pipes, Daniel. 1997. Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes from. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-87111-4 ---. 1998. The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-17688-0 Popper, Karl R. 1945. The Open Society and Its Enemies. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01968-1 Posner, Gerald. 1993. Case Closed: Lee Harvey Oswald and the Assassination of JFK. New York: The Random House. ISBN 0-385-47446-6 Sagan, Carl. 1996. The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. New York: The Random House. ISBN 0-394-53512-X Vankin, Jonathan, and John Whalen. 2004. The 80 Greatest Conspiracies of All Time. New York: Citadel Press. ISBN 0-8065-2531-2 Further reading Conspiracism, Political Research Associates West, Harry G. and Todd Sanders (eds) Transparency and Conspiracy: Ethnographies of Suspicion in the New World Order. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0822330240 Conspiracist literature The Protocols of the Elders of Zion Balsiger, David W. and Charles E. Sellier, Jr. (1977). The Lincoln Conspiracy. Los Angeles: Schick Sun Classic Books. ISBN 1-56849-531-5 Wilson, Robert Anton (2002). TSOG: The Thing That Ate the Constitution, Tempe, AZ: New Falcon Publications. ISBN 1-56184-169-2 Yallop, David A. (1984). In God's Name: An Investigation into the Murder of Pope John Paul I. New York: Bantam Dell Publishing Group. ISBN 0-553-05073-7 York, Byron (2005). The Vast Left Wing Conspiracy: The Untold Story of How Democratic Operatives, Eccentric Billionaires, Liberal Activists, and Assorted Celebrities Tried to Bring Down a President - and Why They'll Try Even Harder Next Time. New York: Crown Forum. ISBN 1-4000-8238-2 Conspiracies, Conspiracy Theories and the Secrets of 9/11, by Mathias Bröckers. Sees conspiracy as a fundamental principle between cooperation and competition. Proposes a new science of "conspirology." External links The Economics of Conspiracy Theories An Integral Approach to Conspiracy Theory On the hunt for a conspiracy theory, CS Monitor'' article 'The Paranoid Style in American Politics' Richard Hofstadter, Harper's 1964 November Brasscheck TV - Ken McCarthy's Conspiracy journalism site, videos, e-mail subscription Amir Butler: Our Credibility Problem is a Conspiracy - A discussion of the spread of conspiracy theories in the Muslim community PanicWatch.org - Media panic, health scares, paranoia, and conspiracy theories Analysis of the appeal of conspiracy theories with suggestions for more accurate ad hoc internet reporting of them by Author Naomi Wolf Conspiracy theories --- the truth may really be out there or it might be a load of bull Article in the November 13-19, 2008 Issue of the University of Ottawa Student Newspaper | Conspiracy_theory |@lemmatized conspiracy:153 theory:99 term:33 come:2 refer:8 tentative:1 explain:3 historical:5 current:3 event:21 result:2 secret:14 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4,928 | Brunei | Brunei Darussalam, ( in English) officially the State of Brunei, Abode of Peace (, Jawi: بروني دارالسلام), is a country located on the north coast of the island of Borneo, in Southeast Asia. Apart from its coastline with the South China Sea it is completely surrounded by the state of Sarawak, Malaysia, and in fact it is separated into two parts by Limbang, which is part of Sarawak. This is odd in the fact that it is a separated country inside a separated country (the two parts of Malaysia). Brunei, the remnant of a very powerful sultanate, regained its independence from the United Kingdom on 1 January 1984 and is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. History The power of the Sultanate of Brunei was at its peak from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century. The Sultanate's suzerainty is thought to have extended over the coastal regions of modern-day Sarawak and Sabah, the Sulu archipelago, and the islands off the northwest tip of Borneo. European influence gradually brought an end to this regional power. Later, there was a brief war with Spain, in which Brunei's capital was occupied. Eventually the sultanate was victorious but lost territories to Spain. The decline of the Bruneian Empire culminated in the nineteenth century when Brunei lost much of its territory to the White Rajahs of Sarawak, resulting in its current small landmass and separation into two parts. Brunei was a British protectorate from 1888 to 1984, and occupied by Japan from 1941 to 1945 during World War II. There was a small rebellion against the monarchy during the 1960s, which was suppressed with help from the United Kingdom. This event became known as the Brunei Revolt and was partly responsible for the failure to create the North Borneo Federation. The rebellion partially affected Brunei's decision to opt out of the Malaysian Federation. Politics and government Hassanal Bolkiah, Sultan of Brunei. Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah of Brunei, whose title has allegedly passed within the same dynasty since the fifteenth century, is the head of state and head of government in Brunei. Brunei has a Legislative Council with 20 appointed members, that only has consultative tasks. Under Brunei's 1959 constitution, His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah is the head of state with full executive authority, including emergency powers since 1962. The Sultan's role is enshrined in the national ideology known as Melayu Islam Beraja (MIB), or Malay Muslim Monarchy. The country has been under hypothetical martial law since Brunei Revolt of 1962. The media is extremely pro-government and the Royal family retains a venerated status within the country. International organizations and Brunei Brunei is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ASEAN, APEC and Organization of the Islamic Conference, and other regional and international forum. Press freedom Brunei has been given "Not Free" status by Freedom House; press criticism of the government and monarchy is rare. http://www.freedomhouse.org/inc/content/pubs/pfs/inc_country_detail.cfm?country=6929&year=2007&pf Territorial disputes Brunei claims some territories in Sarawak and it is one of many nations to lay claim to some of the disputed Spratly Islands, specifically small rocks exposed at high tide on Louisa Reef. However, Kuraman Island is recognized as Malaysia territory by Brunei. The status of Limbang as part of Sarawak was disputed by Brunei since the area was first annexed in 1890. the CIA World Fact Book . Districts and mukims Districts of Brunei Brunei is divided into four districts (daerah): Belait Brunei and Muara Temburong Tutong The districts are subdivided into thirty-eight mukims. Geography Brunei Darussalam consists of two unconnected parts with a total area of 5,766 sq. kilometers (2,226 sq. miles). 97% of the population lives in the larger western part, while only about 10,000 live in the mountainous eastern part (the district of Temburong). The total population of Brunei Darussalam is about 400,000 of which around 130,000 live in the capital Bandar Seri Begawan. Other major towns are the port town of Muara, the oil producing town of Seria and its neighboring town, Kuala Belait. In the Belait district, the Panaga area is home to large numbers of expatriates due to Royal Dutch Shell and British Army housing and recreational facilities. The well-known Panaga Club is situated here. Jerudong Park, a well known amusement park, is located on the west of Bandar Seri Begawan. Climate Brunei Darussalam has a cool equatorial climate. The average annual temperature is 27.1°C (80.8°F), with the April-May average of 27.7°C (81.9°F) and the October-December average of 26.8°C (80.2°F). Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average High (°C) 27.8 27.8 29.2 29.1 29.5 28.1 28.4 28.3 28.0 27.5 27.4 28.027.9 Average Low (°C) 16.1 16.0 19.5 20.9 20.9 23.7 23.1 23.3 25.3 23.1 19.2 16.6 26.5 Average Rainfall (mm) 277.7 138.3 113.0 200.3 239.0 214.2 228.8 215.8 257.7 319.9 329.4 343.5 2873.9 Economy This small, wealthy economy is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation, welfare measures, and village tradition. Crude oil and natural gas production account for nearly half of its GDP. Substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all medical services and subsidizes rice and housing. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal social cohesion although it became a more prominent player by serving as chairman for the 2000 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. Stated plans for the future include upgrading the labour force, reducing unemployment, strengthening the banking and tourism sectors, and, in general, further widening the economic base. The national airline, Royal Brunei, is trying to make Brunei a hub for international travel between Europe and Australia/New Zealand, and also has services to major Asian destinations. Increasing amounts of Brunei's foreign imports arrive from other countries. Healthcare All Brunei citizens have access to free healthcare from public hospitals. The largest hospital in Brunei is Raja Isteri Pengiran Anak Saleha Hospital, and there is a private medical centre, the Jerudong Park Medical Centre. As of 2008, no hospitals in Brunei were undergoing international healthcare accreditation. However the health system of Brunei Darussalam was ranked fourth in the Asia-Pacific region and second in Asean after Singapore. http://www.bt.com.bn/en/home_news/2009/04/17/hrh_visits_health_promotion_centre There is currently no medical school in Brunei, and Bruneians wishing to study to become doctors must attend university overseas. However, the Institute of Medicines had been introduced at the Universiti Brunei Darussalam and a new building has been built for the faculty. The building, including research lab facilities, was completed in 2009. There has been a School of Nursing since 1951. FHA - [Nursing staff education in Brunei - Article Summary . 58 nurse managers were appointed in RIPAS to improve service and provide better medical care. http://www.bt.com.bn/en/home_news/2009/03/19/58_nurse_managers_appointed . In December 2008, The nursing college merged with the Institute of Medicines at the Universiti Brunei Darussalam to produce more nurses and midwives. http://www.bt.com.bn/en/home_news/2008/12/06/problem_needs_nursing_with_care The Health Promotion Centre opened in November 2008 and serves to educate the public on the importance of having a healthy lifestyle. http://www.bt.com.bn/en/home_news/2009/04/17/hrh_visits_health_promotion_centre Transport Brunei is accessible via sea and land travel, also by hovercraft. The main highway running across Brunei is the Pan Borneo Highway, which is a joint project with Malaysia. Besides the Pan Borneo Highway, Brunei can be accessed by air through Brunei International Airport. Royal Brunei is the main airline company in Brunei. Brunei has several sea ports, mainly to export its petroleum products, as well as for import and export purposes. Ethnicity Malay 66.3%, Chinese 11.2%, Indigenous 3.4%, Other 19.1% (2004 est.) This comes to 90%, we're not sure about the last 10%. Demographics Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque in Bandar Seri Begawan. The official language of the nation is Malay (Malay: Bahasa Melayu), although an important minority speak Chinese languages (Min Nan, Mandarin, Min Dong, Yue, Hakka). The local variety of Malay (Kedayan or Bukit Malay), spoken natively by two thirds of the population, is quite divergent from and unintelligible to Standard Malay. The most important aboriginal languages are Iban, and two languages called Tutong, each with about 20,000 speakers. English is also widely spoken and there is a relatively large expatriate community with significant numbers of British and Australian citizens. Islam is the official religion of Brunei at 67%, and the sultan is the head of the religion in the country. Other faiths practised are Buddhism 13% (mainly by the Chinese), 10% Christianity, and primarily in isolated and very small communities, indigenous religions. Traditions Food: Ambuyat Musical instrument: Gulingtangan Culture The culture of Brunei is predominantly Malay (reflecting its ethnicity), with heavy influences from Islam, but is seen as more conservative than Malaysia. For a discussion of religious freedom, see http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71334.htm (United States Department of State). Brunei also has a large number of foreign workers, including Indonesian and Filipino domestic workers, labourers from Thailand, Indonesia and the Indian subcontinent (particularly India and Bangladesh), and American and British professionals working in industry and education. Prohibition of alcohol The sale and public consumption of alcohol is banned. Brunei Tourism Website (Government appointed) Foreigners and non-Muslims are allowed to bring in 12 cans of beer and 2 bottles of other alcohol (e.g., wine or spirits; no distinction is made for alcohol content). This limit used to apply to every entry; in 2007, however, this was changed to one limit every 48 hours. After the introduction of prohibition in the early 1990s, all pubs and nightclubs were forced to close. Bruneian celebrities Wu Chun, member of Fahrenheit Zul F, winner of 2005 Brunei Idol Paula Malai Ali, television presenter for ESPN Star Sports Maria, country female singer Craig Adams, born in Brunei, professional ice hockey player for the Pittsburgh Penguins of the NHL See also Notes and references Bibliography U.S. Department of State website (2003) L. W. W. Gudgeon, British North Borneo, Adam and Charles Black: London, 1913. External links Government Government of Brunei Darussalam website Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Brunei from UCB Libraries GovPubs Business Brunei Business Directory Travel Brunei Tourism website The Daily Brunei Resources blog. Contains extra information on the country through the eyes of a Bruneian. 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4,929 | Battlecruiser | HMS Hood, the largest battlecruiser ever built, was bigger than any of Britain's battleships until the commissioning of HMS Vanguard in 1946. She was the largest warship afloat before Bismarck, in combat with which Hood was destroyed with the loss of all but three of her crew during the Battle of the Denmark Strait. Battlecruisers were large warships in the first half of the 20th century that were first introduced by the Royal Navy. The battlecruiser was developed as the successor to the armoured cruisers, but their evolution was more closely linked to that of the dreadnought battleships. The first such ship, the Invincible, was originally designated a "dreadnought cruiser". Battlecruisers shared the very large main armament of battleships, and were generally as large and costly as battleships of the same generation. They traded off armour or firepower for higher speed, which was made possible by their powerful engines and slender hulls. The earliest battlecruisers carried significantly less armour than the equivalent battleship, meaning they were not intended to stand up against the guns they themselves carried. Thus ships of this type could inflict much more punishment than they could absorb. The relationship between the battlecruiser to the battleship was never entirely clear cut. The invention of the battlecruiser in the Royal Navy was driven by Admiral Jackie Fisher, who envisaged them as a revolutionary new type of armoured cruiser which could replace the battleship as Britain's principal weapon at sea. Fisher's idea centred on battlecruisers operating for imperial defence, vectored in by a global information grid and central plotting in the Admiralty to destroy weaker vessels that would prey on merchant shipping in international waters, while engaging more powerful warships with accurate gunnery at greater ranges. However, the battleship continued to dominate naval warfare through the First World War, and the battlecruiser was principally used to provide a fast and hard-hitting addition to a battleship fleet. Battlecruisers formed part of the navies of Britain, Germany and Japan in WWI and took part in many naval battles between Britain and Germany, including the Battle of Jutland. By the end of the war, there were very few differences between the design of a battlecruiser and that of a fast battleship. Britain, Japan and the United States all designed battlecruisers after the end of World War I which were as heavily armed as a battleship, though faster and not so heavily armored. The Washington Naval Treaty, which limited capital ship construction from 1922 onwards, treated battleships and battlecruisers identically. The new generation of battlecruisers planned was scrapped under the terms of the treaty. From the 1930s, only the Royal Navy continued to use 'battlecruiser' as a classification for warships. While Japan's battlecruisers continued in service, they were re-rated as battleships Nevertheless, the fast, light capital ships developed by Germany and France of the Scharnhorst and Dunkerque classes were and are often referred to as battlecruisers. These ships were armoured as well as many battleships but carried a lighter calibre of armament. World War II saw battlecruisers in action again. However, no battlecruisers were begun during the war; battleship construction was cut back to provide resources for extra aircraft and aircraft carriers. Since the start of World War II, no battlecruisers have been built. However, a number of ships have been described thereafter as battlecruisers, such as the . First battlecruisers HMS Invincible, one of Britain's first battlecruisers The battlecruiser was a dramatic evolution of the armoured cruiser and 'second-class battleship' designs of the 1890s, principally due to the British Admiral Jackie Fisher. Sondhaus, 199. Roberts, 13 At the turn of the century, the modern armoured cruiser was a fast and powerful vessel which was capable of threatening trade routes worldwide, or of working closely with a battleship fleet. Breyer, p.47 The Royal Navy, and Fisher in particular, was concerned with the damage armoured cruisers (particularly those of the French Navy) might inflict on British trade worldwide in the event of war. Breyer, p.47; Mackay, p. 270. Mackay quotes Fisher: "The fact has been overlooked that no number of unprotected or unarmoured or smaller type of Cruiser can cope successfully with even one thoroughly powerful first-class armoured cruiser. An infinite number of ants would not be equal to one armadillo! The armadillo would eat them up one after another wholesale!" Fisher envisaged British armoured cruisers becoming faster and more heavily armed to deal with this threat. He was also very fond of the "second-class battleship" HMS Renown, a lighter, faster battleship. Roberts, p.15. Macaky, p.212-3 As early as 1901, there is confusion in Fisher's writing about whether he saw the battleship or the cruiser as the model for future developments. In the period 1902–1904 the mainstream of British naval thinking was clearly in favour of heavily armoured battleships, rather than the fast ships which Fisher favoured. However, a shift away from the mixed-calibre armament of the 1890s pre-dreadnought to an "all-big-gun" design was already being considered. Preliminary designs circulated for battleships with all 12-inch or all 10-inch guns and armoured cruisers with all 9.2-inch guns. Roberts, 16-17 In summer 1904, after Fisher's appointment as First Sea Lord, the decision was taken to use 12-inch guns for the next generation of battleships, because of their superior performance at long range. The armament of the next armoured cruiser was much more controversial. The size and cost of the next generation of armoured cruisers meant that it was very desirable that they should be able to play a role in a battleship action, and this meant 12-inch guns. Roberts, 17-18; Mackay, 324-5 This was the same logic which had led the Japanese to arm their latest cruisers with two 12-inch guns as their main armament. Breyer, p.48 However, it is also quite possible that Fisher pushed for the cruiser to have the same armament as the battleship because he held out hope that the cruiser design would be the replacement for the battleship. The decision to give the next generation of armoured cruisers an 'all-big-gun' armament was the crucial moment in the development of the battlecruiser. If the ships had been armed with only 10-inch or 9.2-inch guns, they would merely have been better armoured cruisers. Roberts, p.18 The radical changes to shipbuilding policy which Fisher was making across the board meant that he appointed a Committee on Designs in December 1904. While the stated purpose of the Committee was to investigate and report on the requirements of future ships, the key decisions had already been taken by Fisher and his associates. Roberts, p.19 . The terms of reference for the Committee were for a battleship capable of 21 knots with 12-inch guns and no intermediate calibres, capable of operating from existing docks Breyer, p.115 ; and a cruiser capable of 25.5 knots, also with 12-inch guns and no intermediate armament, armoured like HMS Minotaur, the most recent armoured cruiser, and also capable of working from the existing docks. The battleship became the revolutionary battleship HMS Dreadnought, and the cruiser became the three ships of the Invincible class. The three Invincibles were Inflexible, Invincible and Indomitable. Their construction was begun in 1906 and completed in 1908, delayed perhaps to allow their designs to learn from any problems with Dreadnought Breyer, 115; Roberts, 24-5 . The ships fulfilled the design requirement quite closely. The Invincibles had a displacement similar to that of the Dreadnought but twice the power to give a speed of . They had eight Mk X guns, compared to ten on Dreadnought. There was armour 6 or 7 inches (150 to 180 mm) thick along the side of the hull and over the gunhouses, whereas Dreadnought'''s armour was 11 inches (280 to 300 mm) at its thickest. Breyer, 114-7 The class had a very marked increase in speed, displacement and firepower compared to the most recent armoured cruisers, but no more armour. The Invincibles were to have the same role as the armoured cruisers they succeeded, but the new ships were expected to be more effective all-round. Specifically their roles were: Heavy Reconnaissance. Because of their power, the Invincibles could sweep away the screen of enemy cruisers to close with and observe an enemy battlefleet, before using their superior speed to retire. Close support for the battlefleet. They could be stationed at the ends of the battle line to stop enemy cruisers harassing the battleships, and to harass the enemy's battleships if they were busy fighting battleships. Also, the Invincibles could operate as the fast wing of the battlefleet and try to outmanouevre the enemy. Pursuit. If an enemy fleet ran, then the Invincibles would use their speed to pursue, and their guns to damage or slow enemy ships. Commerce protection. The new ships would hunt down enemy cruisers and commerce raiders. Confusion about how to refer to these new battleship-size armoured cruisers set in almost immediately. Even in late 1905, before work was begun on the Invincibles, a Royal Navy memorandum refers to "large armoured ships" meaning both battleships and large cruisers. In October 1906, the Admiralty began to classify all post-Dreadnought battleships and armoured cruisers as "capital ships", while Fisher used the term "dreadnought" to refer either to his new battleships or the battleships and armoured cruisers together. Mackay, p.325-6 At the same time, the Invincible class themselves were referred to as "cruiser-battleship", "dreadnought cruiser"; the term "battlecruiser" was first used by Fisher in 1908. Finally, on 24 November 1911, Admiralty Weekly Order No. 351 laid down the decision that "All cruisers of the Invincible and later type are, for the future, to be described and classified as battlecruisers in order to distinguish them from armoured cruisers of the older type." Admiralty Weekly Order No.351, (ADM 182/2). Quoted in Roberts, p.24-5 Battlecruisers in the Dreadnought arms race HMS Queen Mary, the third Lion Class Battlecruiser In the period from the launching of the Invincibles to just after the outbreak of the First World War, the battlecruiser played a junior role in the developing dreadnought arms race. The battlecruiser was never wholeheartedly adopted as the key weapon in British imperial defence, as Fisher had presumably desired. Britain's strategic circumstances had changed markedly between the conception of the battlecruiser and the commissioning of the first ships. While the prospective enemy for Britain had previously been a Franco-Russian alliance with many armoured cruisers, it was now clearly Germany. Diplomatically, Britain had entered the Entente cordiale in 1904 and the Anglo-Russian Entente. Furthermore neither France nor Russia posed a particular naval threat; the Russian navy had largely been sunk or captured in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5, while the French were in no hurry to adopt the new dreadnought battleship technology. Sondhaus, p.200-1 Britain also boasted very cordial relations with two of the significant new naval powers; Japan (bolstered by the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, signed in 1902 and renewed in 1905), and the USA. These changed strategic circumstances, and the great success of the Dreadnought, ensured that she rather than the Invincible became the new model capital ship. Nevertheless, battlecruiser construction played a major part in the renewed naval arms-race sparked by the Dreadnought. For the first few years after their completion, the Invincibles entirely fulfilled Fisher's vision of being able to sink any ship fast enough to catch them, and run from any ship capable of sinking them. An Invincible would also in many circumstances, be able to take on an enemy pre-dreadnought battleship. The Invincibles were so far ahead of any enemy armoured cruiser that it was difficult to justify building more or bigger cruisers. Roberts, p.25; Mackay p.324-5 This lead was extended by the surprise both Dreadnought and Invincible produced, which prompted most other navies to delay their building programmes while radically revising their designs. This was particularly true for cruisers, because the details of the Invincible class were kept secret for longer; this meant that the next German armoured cruiser, Blücher was armed with only 8.2-inch guns, and was obsolete before she was even launched. The Royal Navy's early superiority in capital ships led to the rejection of a design of 1905-6 which would essentially have fused the battlecruiser and battleship concepts. The 'X4' design combined the full armour and armament of Dreadnought with the 25-knot speed of Invincible. However, the additional cost could not be justified given the existing British lead and the new Liberal government's need for economy; the slower and cheaper Bellerophon, a relatively close copy of Dreadnought, was adopted instead. Roberts, 26 However, by 1911 Germany had built battlecruisers of her own, and the superiority of the British ships could no longer be assured. Von der Tann, begun in 1908 and completed in 1910, carried eight 11.1-inch guns but with 11.1-inch (280 mm) armour was far better protected than the Invincibles. The two Moltkes were quite similar but carried ten 11.1-inch guns of an improved design. Breyer, p.269-272 The German Navy did not share Fisher's view of what a battlecruiser should be; however, it was entitled to build armoured cruisers under the terms of the Navy Laws, and used this authority to match or better the British battlecruisers. Sondhaus, p.202-3 The next British battlecruisers were three of the Indefatigable class. These ships were slightly improved Invincibles, which corrected some flaws in the earlier ships but were built to fundamentally the same specification. The British were hampered on this occasion by the secrecy surrounding German battlecruiser construction and particularly about the heavy armour of Von der Tann. Political pressure to reduce costs also played a role in the selection of the Indefatigable design Roberts, p.28-9 , and this class is widely seen as a mistake. Brown, p.57 The next generation of British battlecruisers were markedly more powerful. By 1909-10 the political climate had changed; the desire for cost-cutting was now outweighed by a sense of national crisis about rivalry with Germany. A brief political crisis and a naval panic resulted in the approval of a total of eight capital ships in 1909-10. Sondhaus, p.203 Fisher pressed for all of them to be battlecruisers Roberts, p.32; Brown, p.58 , but was unable to force his way, and had to settle for six battleships as well as two battlecruisers of the Lion class. These carried eight 13.5-inch guns; the standard armament of the British "super-dreadnought" battleships of the same period was ten 13.5-inch. Speed increased, to 27 knots. Lion also carried better armour than previous British battleships, with 9 inches on the armour belt and barbettes; nevertheless, protection was not as good as in German designs. The two Lions were followed by the very similar Queen Mary Roberts, p. 31-33 In contrast to the British focus on increasing speed and firepower, Germany further improved the armour and staying power of their next battlecruiser. Seydlitz, designed in 1909 and finished in 1913, was a modified Moltke; speed increased by one knot to 26.5 knots, while armour was up to 12 inches thick, equivalent for the Helgoland class battleships of just one or two years earlier. Seydlitz was Germany's last battlecruiser to be completed before World War I.. Breyer, p. 267, 272 The next step in the battlecruiser design came from Japan. The Imperial Japanese Navy had been planning the Kongō class ships from 1909. The Japanese navy was determined that, since the Japanese economy could support relatively few ships, each ship would be more powerful than its likely competitors. Initially the class was planned with the Invincibles as the benchmark. However, on learning of the British plans for Lion, and the likelihood that new U.S. Navy battleships would be armed with 14-inch guns, the Japanese decided to radically revise their plans and go one better. A new plan was drawn up, carrying eight 14-inch guns, and capable of 27.5 knots, thus marginally having the edge over the British Lions in speed and firepower. The heavy guns were also better-positioned, being superfiring both fore and aft with no turret amidships. The armour scheme was also marginally improved over the Lions with 9 inches of armour on the turrets and 8 inches on the barbettes. The first ship in the class was built in Britain, and a further three constructed in Japan. Evans and Peattie, p.161-3 The next British battlecruiser, Tiger, was broadly on the model of Lion but also influenced by the design of the Japanese ships. Breyer, p.135 She retained the eight 13.5-inch guns of her predecessors, though these were positioned for better fields of fire. She was faster (making 29 knots on trials), and carried a heavier secondary armament. Tiger was also more heavily armoured on the whole; while the maximum thickness of armour was the same at 9 inches, the height of the main armour belt was increased. Roberts, p. 37-8 1912 saw work begin on three more German battlecruisers of the Derfflinger class, the first German battlecruisers to mount 12-inch guns. These ships, like the Tiger and the Kongō, had their guns arranged in superfiring turrets for greater efficiency. Their armour and speed was similar to the previous Seydlitz class. Breyer, p.277-8 In 1913, the Russian Empire also began the construction of the four-ship Borodino class, which were designed for service in the Baltic Sea. These ships were designed to carry twelve 14-inch guns, with armour up to 12 inches thick, and a speed of 26.6 knots. The heavy armour and relatively slow speed of these ships makes them more similar to German designs than to British ships; however, construction of the Borodinos was halted by the First World War and all were scrapped during the Russian Revolution. Breyer, p.399 By 1914, only Britain, Germany and Japan had battlecruisers, with Russia building some. On several occasions, it had already been possible to point to moments where the concepts of battlecruiser and battleship might be seen in the same vessel. This was true of the 1906 'X4' design Roberts, p.26 , and the Russian Borodinos. However, it was even more true of the most recent British battleship design. The Queen Elizabeth class was designed to make 25 knots, as much as the first battlecruisers had achieved, while carrying eight 15-inch guns and armour up to 15 inches thick. Breyer, p.140-1 . The Queen Elizabeths were the first true fast battleships, and could have brought the end of the development of the battlecruiser as an independent line. It was principally due to the influence of Jacky Fisher that the battlecruiser continued. Roberts, p.38-9 World War I The First World War saw British and German battlecruisers used in several theatres. Battlecruisers formed part of the dreadnought fleets which faced each other down in the North Sea, taking part in several raids and skirmishes as well as the Battle of Jutland. Battlecruisers also played an important role at the start of the War as the British fleet hunted down German commerce raiders, for instance at the Battle of the Falkland Islands, and also took part in the Mediterranean campaign. Construction For most of the combatants, capital ship construction was very limited during the War. Germany finished the Derfflinger class and began work on the Mackensen class. The Mackensens were a development of the Derfflinger class, with 14-inch guns and a broadly similar armour scheme, deigned for 27 knots. Breyer, p.283-4 In Britain, Jackie Fisher returned to the office of First Sea Lord in October 1914. His enthusiasm for big, fast ships was unabated, and he set design staff to producing a design for a battlecruiser with 15-inch guns. Because Fisher expected the next German battlecruiser to steam at 28 knots, he required the new British design to be capable of 32 knots. He planned to convert two Royal Sovereign class battleships, which were at an early stage of construction and on which work had been suspended because it was felt that the war would be over before the ships were finished. Fisher finally received approval for this project on 28 December 1914 and they became the Renown class. With six 15-inch guns but only 6-inch armour they were a further step forward from Tiger in firepower and speed but were even less well-protected. Roberts, p.46-7 At the same time, Fisher resorted to subterfuge to obtain another three fast, lightly armoured ships which could make use of the several spare 15-inch gun turrets left over from battleship construction. These ships were essentially light battlecruisers, and Fisher can occasionally be found referring to them as such, but were officially classified as "large light cruisers". This unusual designation was required because construction of new capital ships had been placed on hold, while there were no limits on light cruiser construction. They became the Courageous class, and there was a bizarre imbalance between their main armament of 15-inch (or 18-inch in 'Furious') guns and their armour, which at 3 inches thickness was on the scale of a light cruiser. The design was generally regarded as a bizarre failure, though the later conversion of the ships to aircraft carriers was very successful. Roberts, p.50-2 Brown, P.97-8 Fisher also speculated about a new mammoth but lightly built battlecruiser which would carry 20-inch guns, which he termed HMS Incomparable; however, this never got beyond the concept stage. It is often held that the Renown and Courageous classes were designed for Fisher's plan to land troops (possibly Russian) on the German Baltic coast. Specifically, they were designed with a shallow draught, which might be important in the shallow Baltic. Howevever, this is not clear-cut evidence that the ships were designed for the Baltic: it was considered that earlier ships had too much draught and not enough freeboard under operational conditions. Roberts argues that the focus on the Baltic was probably unimportant at the time the ships were designed, but was inflated later, after the disastrous Dardanelles Campaign. Roberts, p.51 The final British battlecruiser design of the war was the Admiral class, which was born from a requirement for an improved version of the Queen Elizabeth battleship. The project began at the end of 1915, after Fisher's final departure from the Admiralty. While initially envisaged as a battleship, senior sea officers felt that Britain had enough battleships, but that new battlecruisers might be required to combat German ships being built (the British overestimated German progress on the Mackensen class as well as their likely capabilities). A battlecruiser design with eight 15-inch guns, 8 inches of armour and capable of 32 knots was decided on. However, the experience of battlecruisers at the Battle of Jutland meant that the design was radically revised and transformed again into a fast battleship concept with armour up to 12 inches thick but still capable of 31.5 knots. The first ship in the class, Hood, went ahead according to this design. The plans for her three sisters, on which little work had been done, were revised once more later in 1916 and in 1917 to improve protection. Roberts, p.58-61 . The Admiral class would have been the only British ships capable of taking on the German Mackensen type; however, German shipbuilding was drastically slowed by the war, and while two Mackensens were launched, none were ever completed. Work on the three additional Admirals was suspended in March 1917 to enable more escorts and merchant ships to be built to deal with the new threat from U-boats to trade. They were finally cancelled in February 1919. Roberts, p.60-1 Operations The German battlecruiser Goeben was perhaps the ship which made the most impact early in the War. Stationed in the Mediterranean, she and her escorting cruiser evaded British and French ships on the outbreak of war, and steamed to Constantinople with two British battlecruisers in hot pursuit. Goeben was handed over to the Turkish Navy, and this was instrumental in bringing Turkey into the war on the German side. Goeben herself, renamed Yavuz Sultan Selim, saw engagements against the Russian Navy in the Black Sea and against the British in the Aegean. The original battlecruiser concept proved successful in December 1914 at the Battle of the Falkland Islands. The British battlecruisers Inflexible and Invincible did precisely the job they were intended for when they chased down and annihilated a German cruiser squadron, centered on the armoured cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, along with three light cruisers, commanded by Admiral Maximilian Graf Von Spee in the South Atlantic Ocean. Prior to the battle the Australian battlecruiser HMAS Australia had unsuccessfully searched for the German ships in the Pacific. Battle of Heligoland Bight A force of British light cruisers and destroyers entered the Heligoland Bight to attack German shipping in August 1914, the first month of World War I. When they met opposition from German cruisers, Admiral Beatty took his squadron of four battlecruisers into the Bight and turned the battle, ultimately sinking three German light cruisers and killing a German commander, Rear Admiral Leberecht Maass. Battle of the Falklands Battle of Dogger Bank SMS Seydlitz was heavily damaged in the Battle of Dogger Bank During the Battle of Dogger Bank, the after turret of the German flagship Seydlitz was pierced by a British 13.5 inch shell from HMS Lion which detonated in the working chamber. The charges being hoisted upwards were detonated, and the explosion flashed up into the turret and down into the magazine, setting fire to charges in the process of being handled. The gun crew tried to escape into the next turret, allowing the flash to spread, destroying both turrets internally. Seydlitz was saved from near-certain destruction only by emergency flooding of her after magazines. This near-disaster was due to the way that ammunition handling was arranged and was common to both German and British battleships and battlecruisers, but the lighter protection on the latter made them more vulnerable to the turret or barbette being pierced. The "working chamber" had been introduced in HMS Formidable (1898) and was intended to prevent such a dangerous flash, but instead made such an event more likely. The Germans learned from investigating the damaged Seydlitz and instituted improved measures to ensure ammunition handling was flash tight. The British remained unaware of the weakness, to their great misfortune at the Battle of Jutland. Naval Battles of the First World War, Geoffrey Bennett, Penguin Books Classic Military History, 2001, ISBN 0-14-139087-5 Apart from the cordite handling, the battle was mostly inconclusive, though both Lion and Seydlitz were severely damaged. The British flagship Lion's lost speed causing her to fall behind the rest of the battleline and Admiral Beatty was unable to effectively command for the remainder of the engagement. A British signalling error allowed the German battlecruisers to withdraw, as most of Beatty's squadron mistakenly concentrated on the crippled armoured cruiser Blücher, sinking her with great loss of life. Blücher herself was obsolete, out of all the ships in the battle, and so she had proved to be a liability to the rest of the German squadron, which was otherwise an all battlecruiser squadron. Battle of Jutland Queen Mary blows up during the Battle of Jutland At the Battle of Jutland 18 months later, both British and German battlecruisers were employed as fleet units. The British battlecruisers became engaged with both their German counterparts, the battlecruisers, and then German battleships before the arrival of the battleships of the British Grand Fleet. The result was a disaster for the Royal Navy's battlecruiser squadrons: Invincible, Queen Mary and Indefatigable exploded with the loss of all but a handful of their crews. This was due to the vulnerability of the working chamber which the Germans had discovered after the near-loss of Seydlitz at Dogger Bank and had taken preventative measures against. The British ships not only had lighter armour but also lacked flash tight ammunition handling arrangements, due in part to lack of awareness and experience, and also as it would improve their rate of fire to compensate for poor accuracy. Each was lost to a single salvo penetrating the turret and detonating in the working chamber. Beatty's flagship Lion herself was almost lost in a similar manner, save for the heroic actions of Major Harvey. The better armoured and flash-tight German battlecruisers fared better, in part due to poor performance of British fuzes (their shells exploded on impact with the ships armour instead of penetrating the armour before exploding thus causing more damage). Lützow for instance only had 117 killed despite receiving more than thirty hits, though she had sufficient flooding that she was scuttled. The other German battlecruisers, Moltke, Von der Tann, Seydlitz, Derfflinger were all heavily damaged and required extensive repairs after the battle, Seydlitz barely making it home, for they had been in the very centre of enemy fire for much of the battle. No British or German battleship was sunk during the battle with the exception of the old German pre-dreadnought Pommern, the victim of torpedoes from British destroyers. Post-war developments In the years immediately after World War I, Britain, Japan and the USA all began design work on a new generation of ever more powerful battleships and battlecruisers. The new burst of shipbuilding which each nation's navy desired was politically controversial and potentially economically crippling. This nascent arms race was prevented by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, where the major naval powers agreed to limits on capital ship numbers. The German navy was not represented at the talks; under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was not allowed any modern capital ships at all. Through the 1920s and early 1930s only Britain and Japan retained battlecruisers, often modified and rebuilt from their original World War I designs. The line between the battlecruiser and the modern fast battleship became blurred; indeed, the Japanese Kongō class were formally redesignated as battleships. 1918-1923 HMS Hood, launched in 1918, was the last First World War battlecruiser to be completed. Hood was modified during construction to feature belt armour that was thought to be capable of resisting her own weapons - the classic measure of a "balanced" battleship - and her armour weaknesses were recognized and tackled to some extent during refits. Hood was the largest ship in the Royal Navy when completed; thanks to her great displacement, she seemed to combine the firepower and armour of a battleship with the speed of a battlecruiser, causing some to refer to her as a fast battleship. The navies of Japan and the USA, seeing a threat from Hood, laid down battlecruisers to rival her. The Imperial Japanese Navy began four Amagi class battlecruisers. These vessels would have been of unprecedented size and power, being as fast and well armoured as HMS Hood whilst carrying a main battery of ten 16" guns - the most powerful armament ever proposed for a battlecruiser. The United States Navy responded with the Lexington class battlecruisers, which if completed as planned would have been exceptionally fast and well armed, but would have carried armour little better than that of the very first battlecruisers. The final stage in the post-war battlecruiser race came with the British response to the Amagi and Lexington types: four 48,000 ton G3 battlecruisers, vessels of comparable size, power and speed to the Second World War Iowa class battleships. The Washington Naval Treaty meant that none of these designs came to fruition. Those ships which had been started were either broken up on the slipway or converted into aircraft carriers. In Japan, Amagi and Akagi were taken in hand for conversion into aircraft carriers. In 1923 the Amagi was damaged beyond repair by an earthquake and was broken up on the slips, the hull of one of the proposed Tosa class battleships, Kaga, being converted in her stead. In Britain, Fisher's "large light cruisers" were converted to carriers. Furious had already been converted to an aircraft carrier during the war and Glorious and Courageous, which had no place in the post-Treaty navy, were similarly converted. The United States Navy also re-tasked two battlecruiser hulls as aircraft carriers in the wake of the Washington Treaty: USS Lexington and Saratoga were both designed as battlecruisers (the hull designations were originally CC-1 and CC-3) but converted part-way through construction, although this was only considered marginally preferable to scrapping the hulls outright (the remaining four: Constellation, Ranger, Constitution and United States were indeed scrapped). 1924-35 Repulse as she was in 1919 Renown, as reconstructed, in 1939 In total, nine battlecruisers survived the Washington Naval Treaty. Most of these ships were significantly updated before World War II, although the Royal Navy sold HMS Tiger for scrap in 1932 on the grounds that she was worn out, and in addition, the Turks did not have the means to upgrade the Sultan Yavuz Selim (ex Goeben of the Imperial German Navy). The other two Royal Navy World War I battlecruisers retained, the HMS Renown and the Repulse were modernized significantly in a series of refits between 1920 and 1939. Like several other elderly British capital ships, the Renown underwent a total reconstruction between 1937 and 1939 to make her suitable for acting as a fast heavy escort warship for aircraft carriers. Similar rebuildings planned for the Repulse and the Hood were cancelled by the events of World War II. The Kongo as she appeared during the 20s, after conversion to a fast battleship Unable to pursue new construction, the Imperial Japanese Navy also chose to improve its existing battlecruisers of the Kongō class (the Hiei, the Haruna, the Kirishima, and the Kongō) by increasing the elevation of their guns to 40 degrees, adding anti-torpedo bulges and additional armour, and building on a "pagoda" mast. The 3,800 tons of additional armour slowed their speeds, but between 1933 and 1940, replacement of heavy equipment and an increase in the length of the hull by 26 ft (8.0 m) allowed them to reach up to once again. They were reclassified as "fast battleships" and their high speed made them suitable as aircraft carrier escorts, although their armour and guns still fell short compared to surviving World War I-era battleships in the American or the British navies. Re-armament As war became more likely nations began to rebuild their forces. At first lip-service was paid to the Treaty of Versailles and the Washington Naval Treaty, but as war became more likely the designs became more ambitious. Most nations preferred to build fast battleships but Germany, Italy, France and Russia all designed new battlecruisers. Even so, most of these vessels were considerably better protected than their First World War counterparts and several were arguably genuine fast battleships. Ultimately the Italians chose to upgrade their old battleships rather than build new battlecruisers, whereas the Russians laid down the 35,000 ton Kronshtadt Class, but were unable to launch them before the Germans invaded in 1941 and captured one of the hulls. The other Soviet ship was launched and scrapped after the war. Only Germany and France actually completed any vessels. German designs The German pocket battleships (German:Panzerschiffe - armoured ship: Deutschland, Admiral Scheer, and Admiral Graf Spee), built to meet the 10,000 ton displacement limit of the Treaty of Versailles, were another attempt at a cruiser-battleship concept. The pocket battleships, despite their name which implied a scaled-down battleship, were relatively small vessels with only six 28.0 cm (11-inch) guns — essentially very large and powerfully armed heavy cruisers. However, by international treaty, the maximum-size armament for a heavy cruiser was 8.0 inches in bore. A cannon with an 11-inch bore has a much-greater hitting-power and range. Superficially, their distinctive battleship-like masts (especially in the Scheer and the Graf Spee) and larger scaled armament, compared to contemporary cruisers, earned them the name "pocket battleships" by friend and foe alike. They attained fairly high speeds of 26 knots (52 km/h), and reasonable protection, while allegedly staying close to the displacement limit by using welded rather than riveted construction, by carrying just two main turrets, and by replacing the normal steam turbine power with a pair of massive nine-cylinder diesel engines driving each propeller shaft (a reversion from turbine to reciprocating engines). After the loss of the Graf Spee, the remaining two ships were reclassified as so-called "heavy cruisers", having heavier guns and thicker armour than standard heavy cruisers, but at the cost of speed (they in fact had basic cruiser armour, except for their heavy turrets). When the "pocket battleships" were commissioned, they were hypothetically outclassed by British World War I-era true battlecruisers in speed, weaponry, and protection, but the Kriegsmarine supposedly hoped for a temporary advantage. The pocket battleships also had the advantage of superior cruising range, and being smaller, were harder to hit. Two more German heavy ships were built later in the 1930s, the Scharnhorst and the Gneisenau, which were considerably more powerful than pocket battleships - with nine heavy guns rather than just six, and they were classified as true capital ships. At 38,900 tons fully loaded, they were somewhat larger than the French Dunkerque class. The two ships of the Gneisenau class were fast and well armoured, though their armament was relatively light-weight when compared with a battleship, consisting of three triple 280 mm (11-inch) gun turrets. At the time, guns that were 305 mm (12 inches) or larger could only be produced at the rate of one per year regarding treaty restrictions, and because the Germans did not want to alarm the Allies, this led to the ships being equipped with 28.0 cm guns. Their barbettes, nonetheless, were designed to accept twin 380 mm (15 inch) turrets (six guns total) when enough became available. However, circumstances and the fates of the two ships - the Battle of North Cape where the Scharnhorst was badly damaged by shellfire and sunk by torpedo, and the Gneisenau, heavily damaged by bombs and her repair sacrificed to higher priorities - meant that this plan was abandoned. The Royal Navy categorized them as battlecruisers since they followed the Imperial German Navy design lineage of trading off gun-size for protection and speed. The German Navy nonetheless categorised them as battleships. The follow-up to the Gneisenau class was not a battlecruiser, but rather the Bismarck and the Tirpitz, each of which had an additional turret and was armed with eight 38.0 cm guns installed at the onset, making them fully fast battleships. French designs Plans of the French battlecruiser Dunkerque As a response to the German pocket battleships the French decided to build the Dunkerque class in the 1930s. They were labelled "fast battleships", being considered scaled down but still balanced versions of that type of ship, and were armed with 330 mm (13 inch) guns arranged in two quadruple turrets located forward. Considered to be true capital ships, they were considerably larger, faster and more powerfully armed than the German pocket battleships they were designed to hunt. This last design illustrated inter-war technological developments. The ultimate limit on ship speed was drag from the water displaced (which increases as a cube of speed) rather than weight, so heavier armour slowed World War II battleships by only a couple of knots (4 km/h) over their more lightly armoured brethren. Heavy guns mounted on fast and well armoured fast battleships invalidated the concept of the battlecruiser as a ship class in its own right. World War II Commerce raiding In the early years of the war the German ships each had a measure of success hunting merchant ships in the Atlantic. The pocket battleships were deployed alone and sank a number of vessels, causing disruption to the trade routes which supplied the UK. They were pursued by the Royal Navy and on one occasion, at the Battle of the River Plate in 1939, the hunter became the hunted.Admiral Graf Spee had been at sea at the start of WWII and engaged in a successful commerce raiding spree. Off the coast of South America, Admiral Graf Spee encountered the British heavy cruiser Exeter and light cruisers Achilles and Ajax. Admiral Graf Spee inflicted heavy damage on Exeter but in turn suffered considerable topside damage from the light cruisers. The pocket battleship's armour mostly held, but she sustained several critical hits which would have made the ship unseaworthy for returning to Germany, and she was forced to retire to neutral Uruguay. Unable to stay in port any longer without internment, and led to believe by the nature of British radio transmissions that aircraft carriers and gunned battlecruisers were too close to evade, her captain elected to scuttle his ship, and then accepted responsibility for its destruction by committing suicide. Allied battlecruisers such as Renown, Repulse, Dunkerque and Strasbourg were employed on operations to hunt down the commerce raiding German battlecruisers, but they rarely got close to their targets, Renown enjoying a brief clash against the German 11-inch battlecruisers, scoring three non-critical hits on Gniesenau but being unable to keep up in bad weather. The one stand-up fight was when the Bismarck was sent out as a raider and was intercepted by HMS Hood and the battleship Prince of Wales in May 1941. However, the elderly British battlecruiser was no match for the brand new German battleship and the Bismarck's 15 inch shells caused a magazine explosion in Hood reminiscent of the Battle of Jutland. Only three men survived. Gneisenau and Scharnhorst hunted together and were initially successful at commerce raiding, sinking the British armed merchant cruiser Rawalpindi in 1939. Following repairs from damage during the Norwegian campaign, the two battlecruisers set out commerce raiding once again in 1941 and sank 22 merchant ships. They returned to Brest in northern France but found this port was vulnerable to Royal Air Force attacks and were obliged to return to Germany. They did so in the Channel Dash, a daring and successful run up the English Channel. However, they were both damaged by mines and although Scharnhorst was repaired, Gneisenau was damaged again in RAF bombing raids and was eventually disarmed and sunk as a blockship. Scharnhorst was employed once more to attack commerce and attempted to raid the Arctic convoys in December 1943. However, she was surprised by the battleship HMS Duke of York with the cruisers Jamaica, Norfolk and Belfast at the Battle of North Cape and sunk on 26 December 1943. gunfire from Duke of York crippled her turrets and engine room, then the attendant British cruisers and destroyers closed in and finished her off with torpedoes. The use of battlecruisers as commerce raiders was curtailed following an attack by the Admiral Scheer on a convoy guarded by the HMS Jervis Bay, an armed merchant cruiser. It persuaded the British Admiralty that convoys had to be guarded by battleships or battlecruisers. The older R-class battleships and the un-upgraded Queen Elizabeths (Malaya and Barham) were used for this task, for which they were quite adequate despite their age, and subsequently the smaller German ships were forced away from their quarry. Additionally, the air gap over the North Atlantic closed, Huff-Duff (radio triangulation equipment) improved, airborne centimetric radar was introduced and convoys received escort carrier protection. The results of some of these developments were illustrated by the successful defence of convoys at the Battle of the Barents Sea and the Battle of the North Cape. Norwegian campaign The Royal Navy and the Kriegsmarine both deployed battlecruisers during the Norwegian campaign in April 1940. The Gneisenau and the Scharnhorst were engaged by HMS Renown > in appalling weather and although they had stronger armour than their counterpart, the British ship could hit them harder and at a longer range due to the German ships having difficulty with their radars. They disengaged after Gneisenau sustained damage. One of Renown's 15-inch shells passed through Gneisenau's director tower without exploding, severing electrical and communication cables as it went. The debris caused by the passing shell killed one officer and five enlisted men, and destroyed the optical rangefinder for the forward 150 mm turrets. Main battery fire control had to be shifted aft due to the loss of electrical power to the director tower. The second shell from Renown struck the aft turret of Gneisenau, knocking it out of action. Later in the campaign they returned and sank the light aircraft carrier HMS Glorious (a converted battlecruiser herself) and her destroyer escort. One of the destroyers (HMS Acasta) succeeded in damaging the Scharnhorst with a torpedo, and later a submarine did the same to Gneisenau, forcing both ships to spend several months in repair. The pocket battleship Lützow was similarly damaged by HMS Spearfish during the campaign. Mediterranean The French battlecruisers had fled to North Africa following the fall of France. In July 1940 Force H under Admiral James Somerville was ordered to force their surrender or destroy them. The Dunkerque was damaged by shells from HMS Hood at Mers-el-Kebir but escaped to join the Strasbourg at Toulon. Both ships were scuttled on 27 November 1942, although Strasbourg was raised and used by the Italian navy before being sunk again in an air attack on 18 August 1944. Pacific War The first battlecruiser to see action in the Pacific War was Repulse when she was sunk near Singapore on December 10 1941 whilst in company with HMS Prince of Wales. She had received a refit to give extra anti-aircraft protection and extra armour between the wars. Unlike her sister Renown, Repulse did not receive a full rebuild as planned, which would have added anti-torpedo blisters. During the Sea Battle off Malaya, her speed and agility enabled her to hold her own and dodge nineteen torpedoes. However, without aerial cover she eventually succumbed to the continuous waves of Japanese bombers, and without enhanced underwater protection she went down quickly after a few torpedo hits. The Japanese Kongō class battlecruisers were significantly upgraded and re-rated as "fast battleships", and they were used extensively as carrier escorts for most of their wartime career due to their high speed. However their World War I-era armament was weaker and their upgraded armour scheme was still not up to contemporary dreadnought standards. During the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal on 12 November the Hiei was sent out to bombard US positions. She suffered extensive topside damage from gunfire of US cruisers and destroyers, with her engine room being penetrated at close range by an 8-inch shell from San Francisco. The next day, Hiei was attacked by waves of aircraft from Guadalcanal’s American held airfield (Henderson Field), which eventually made salvage impossible, and so she was left to sink north of Savo Island. A few days later on 15 November 1942, Kirishima engaged the U.S. battleships South Dakota and Washington, and was scuttled following mortal damage from nine 16-inch hits inflicted by the Washington, which disabled her turrets and holed her below the waterline. In contrast South Dakota survived 42 hits (including only one 14-inch hit, but many 8-in. heavy cruiser shells), all to her superstructure, and was back in operation four months later. The Kongō survived the Battle of Leyte Gulf, but she was sunk on 21 November 1944 in the Formosa Strait by three torpedoes from the U.S. Navy submarine USS Sealion (SS-315). The Haruna was involved in bombardment operations at Guadalcanal, the Battle of the Philippine Sea, and the Battle of Leyte Gulf. She was attacked by American carrier aircraft of Task Force 38 and USAAF B-24 Liberator bombers while at Kure IJN naval base on 28 July 1945 and sank at her moorings. Large Cruisers or "Cruiser Killers" USS Alaska, one of the United States Navy's two "large cruisers" On the eve of World War II, there was a late renaissance in popularity of ships between battleships and cruisers. While some considered them battlecruisers, they were never classified as capital ships, and they were variously described as "super-cruisers," "large cruisers" or even "unrestricted cruisers." They were optimised as cruiser-killers, fleet scouts and commerce raiders. The Dutch, Japanese, Soviets and Americans all planned new classes specifically to counter the large heavy cruisers being built by their naval rivals - especially the Japanese Mogami class cruisers. The Germans also designed a class of lightly protected battlecruisers. The first such battlecruisers were the Dutch Design 1047. Never officially assigned names, the Dutch wanted them to protect their colonies in the East Indies in the face of Japanese aggression. Designed with the assistance of the Germans and Italians, they broadly resembled the German Scharnhorst class and had the same main battery, but would have been considerably lighter and only protected against gunfire. Although the design was completed, work on the vessels never commenced as the Germans overran the Netherlands in May 1940, while the first ship would have been laid down in June of that year. The Germans planned to build three battlecruisers of the O Class as part of the expansion of the Kriegsmarine (Plan Z). With six 15 inch (38 cm) guns, high speed, excellent range but very thin armour, they were intended as commerce raiders. Only one of these was ordered shortly before World War II broke out and no work was ever done on it. No names were assigned, and they were known as O, P, and Q. The new class was not universally welcomed in the Kriegsmarine, their abnormally light protection gaining the class the derogatory nickname Ohne Panzer Quatsch (without armour nonsense) within certain circles of the Navy. The only class of these late battlecruisers to be laid down were the United States Navy's three Alaska class "large cruisers", Alaska, Guam and Hawaii - of which only Alaska and Guam were completed. The Alaskas were classified as "large cruisers" instead of battlecruisers, and their status as non-capital ships is evidenced by the fact that they were named for territories or protectorates (as opposed to battleships, which were named after states, or cruisers, which were commonly named after cities). But with a main armament of nine twelve-inch (305 mm) guns in three triple turrets and a displacement of 27,000 tons, the Alaskas were twice the size of the preceding Baltimore class cruisers and had guns some 50% larger in diameter. However, they lacked the thick armoured belt and torpedo defense system of true capital ships and, unlike most battlecruisers, they were considered a balanced design (according to cruiser standards) as their protection could withstand fire from their own caliber of gun, albeit only in a very narrow range band. They were designed to hunt down Japanese heavy cruisers, though by the time they entered service most Japanese cruisers had been sunk by American aircraft or submarines. Like the contemporary Iowa-class fast battleships, their speed ultimately made them more useful as carrier escorts and bombardment ships than as the sea combatants they were developed to be. Hawaii was 84% complete when hostilities ceased, and was laid up for years while various plans were debated to convert her large hull into a missile ship or a command vessel; she would eventually be scrapped incomplete. Three additional hulls, to be named Philippines, Puerto Rico and Samoa, were cancelled outright. The Japanese started designing the B64 class, which were similar to the Alaska but with guns. News of the Alaskas led them to upgrade the design, creating the B65. Armed with guns, the B65's would have been the best armed of the new breed of battlecruisers, but they still would have had only sufficient protection to keep out 8-inch shells. Much like the Dutch battlecruisers, the Japanese got as far as completing the design for the B65s, but never laid them down. By the time the designs were ready the Japanese Navy recognised that they had little use for the vessels and that their priority for construction should lie with aircraft carriers. Like the Alaskas, the Japanese did not call these ships battlecruisers, referring to them instead as supersized heavy cruisers. Cold War designs In spite of the fact that World War II had demonstrated battleships and battlecruisers to be generally obsolete, Joseph Stalin's fondness for big gun armed warships caused the Soviet Union to plan several large cruiser classes in the late 1940s and early 1950s that would be a response for the Alaska class vessels. In the Soviet Union, they were called "heavy cruisers" (thyazholyi kreyser). The fruits of this program were the project 82 (Stalingrad) cruisers, with 36,500 tons standard load (42,300 tons full load), 9 guns 305 mm and a speed of . Three ships were laid in 1951–52, but after Stalin's death they were canceled in April 1953. Apart from high costs, the main reason was that gun-armed ships became obsolete with an advent of guided missiles. Only a central armoured hull section of the first cruiser Stalingrad was launched in 1954 and then used as a target for rockets. Admiral Lazarev, formerly the Frunze, the second ship of her class of battlecruiser The Soviet Kirov class of Tyazholyy Atomnyy Raketny Kreyser (Heavy Nuclear-powered Missile Cruiser), displacing approximately 26,000 tons, is classified as a battlecruiser in the 1996–7 edition of Jane's Fighting Ships, even though in actuality they are very large missile cruisers. Their classification as battlecruisers arises from their displacement, which is roughly equal to that of a World War I battleship, and the fact that they possess more firepower than nearly every other surface ship. However, the Kirov-class lacks the heavy armour that distinguishes battlecruisers from regular cruisers and they are classified as "heavy missile cruisers" in Russia. There were four members of the class completed, Kirov, Frunze, Kalinin, and Yuri Andropov. As the ships were named after Communist personalities, after the fall of the USSR they were given traditional names of the Imperial Russian Navy, respectively Admiral Ushakov, Admiral Lazarev, Admiral Nakhimov, and Petr Velikiy. Due to budget constraints two members of this class have been decommissioned, although Petr Velikiy and Admiral Nakhimov are in active service and funds are being gathered for possible repair of Admiral Lazarev. Nakhimov was returned to service early, at the beginning of 2006, possibly due to increasing tensions in the Middle East and potential Russian naval involvement therein. Problems with the idea In practice, battlecruisers rarely saw the type of independent action for which they were designed. The increase in gunnery technology was so swift in the years following 1905, that there was a blurring of the distinction between the battleship and battlecruiser. At Jutland the guns on Beatty's flagship, HMS Lion were 13.5-inch, which was larger than most German and many British battleships. The idea that battlecruisers did not have to be armored to resist other battlecruisers' fire was wishful thinking. On paper, they might be able to scout for the fleet without fear of enemy cruisers, but it was extremely short-sighted to think they wouldn't encounter other battlecruisers scouting for the enemy, and they were not armored for that task. The armour on a battlecruiser remained that of (or slightly more than) a normal cruiser and was not capable of resisting fire from other battlecruisers. British battlecruisers blew up under fire from other battlecruisers, not from battleships. (Hiei was later crippled by 8" cruiser fire, despite her modernization.) During Jutland, both British and German battlecruisers scored hits on each other. The British ships came off poorly, while the German ships fared better, due to better internal protection and poor performance of the British shells, but battlecruisers on both sides were sunk or heavily damaged. Some have often cited the weaker armour on British battlecruisers, compared to their German counterparts, as responsible for their loss. The Lion's closest contemporary was perhaps the Seydlitz. Both were similar in displacement and speed. German battlecruisers did sacrifice gun calibre for thicker armour but they were not significant such that they made the difference in battle, since both Lion and Seydlitz had their magazine armour penetrated at some point during their careers. Rather, it was the cordite handling procedures; the near destruction of the Seydlitz at the Battle of Dogger Bank had convinced the Germans that they had to take more precautions. After this battle, some of the British battlecruiser force ships began to store too many cordite charges outside the magazine, while leaving open the flash-protection doors, in the pursuit of a tactical doctrine popular in the BCF after Dogger Bank involving rapidity of fire. This practice of taking "rate of fire" ideas to excess was not practiced in the Grand Fleet. Brooks, John, Dreadnought Gunnery and the Battle of Jutland, The Question of Fire Control, Routledge, Abingdon, 2005. During World War II large-scale close range fleet actions did not occur. Battlecruisers were paired with battleships in roles such as raiding (German), convoy escort, or as part of task forces. In operations where battlecruisers did fight battleships, such as Hood and Bismarck, Scharnhorst and Duke of York, Kirishima and Washington, the battlecruiser was destroyed by gunfire. Like battleships, they were vulnerable to torpedos, as many World War I designs lacked the torpedo protection system developed for World War II capital ships, and during World War II Repulse and Kongo demonstrated this weakness. See also List of sunken battlecruisers Protected cruiser Armoured cruiser Light cruiser Cruiser Heavy cruiser List of cruisers Crossing the T Notes References Bonney, George The Battle of Jutland 1916 Sutton Publishing, 2006. ISBN 978-0750941785 Breyer, Siegfried Battleships and Battlecruisers of the World 1905-1970 trans Alfred Kurti. Macdonal and Jane's, London, 1973. ISBN 0-356-04191-3. Brooks, John, Dreadnought Gunnery and the Battle of Jutland, The Question of Fire Control,Routledge, Abingdon, 2005. Burr, Lawrence British Battlecruisers 1914- 1918 (New Vanguard) Osprey Publishing, 2006. ISBN 978-1846030086 Hough, Richard Dreadnought: A History of the Modern Battleship MacMillan Publishing Company, 1975. ISBN 978-0025544208 Ireland, Bernard, and Tony Gibbons Jane's Battleships of the 20th Century New York: HarperCollins, 1996. ISBN 0-00-470997-7 Also covers battlecruisers Lambert, Nicholas. "Sir John Fisher's Naval Revolution" (Studies in Maritime History). New Edition. (University of South Carolina Press, 2002). ISBN 978-1570034923. An important account; use with Sumida, below. Massie, Robert K, Dreadnought, Jonathan Cape, London, 1992. Mackay, Ruddock F. Fisher of Kilverstone. Oxford University Press, London, 1973. Miller, David. The Illustrated Directory of Warships: from 1860 to the Present Day. London: Salamander, 2001 ISBN 0-86288-677-5 Roberts, John Battlecruisers, Chatham Publishing, London, 1997. Staff, Gary German Battlecruisers 1914-18 (New Vanguard) Osprey Publishing, 2006. ISBN 978-1846030093 Sondhaus, Lawrence Naval Warfare 1815-1914. Routledge, London, 2001. ISBN 0-415-21478-5 Sumida, Jon T. "In Defense of Naval Supremacy: Financial Limitation, Technological Innovation and British Naval Policy, 1889-1914." (Routledge, 1993). Van Der Vat, Dan The ship that changed the world: The Escape of the Goeben to the Dardanelles in 1914'' Adler & Adler, 1986. 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4,930 | Economy_of_Hungary | Hungarian National Bank Planned general government net lending 2005-2010. The Hungarian economy is a medium-sized, structurally, politically, and institutionally open economy in Central Europe and is part of the EU single market. Like most Eastern European economies, it experienced market liberalisation in the early 1990s as part of a transition away from communism. Today, Hungary is a full member of OECD and the World Trade Organization. OECD was the first international organization to accept Hungary as a full member in 1996, after six years of successful cooperation. History of the Hungarian Economy Hungarian economy prior to the transition The Hungarian to World War II was primarily oriented toward agriculture and small-scale manufacturing. Hungary's strategic position in Europe and its relative lack of natural resources also have dictated a traditional reliance on foreign trade. For instance, its largest car manufacturer, Magomobil (maker of the Magosix), produced a total of a few thousand units. Georgano, G. N. Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886-1930. (London: Grange-Universal, 1985) In the early 1950s, the communist government forced rapid industrialization after the standard Stalinist pattern in an effort to encourage a more self-sufficient economy. Most economic activity was conducted by state-owned enterprises or cooperatives and state farms. In 1968, Stalinist self-sufficiency was replaced by the "New Economic Mechanism," which reopened Hungary to foreign trade, gave limited freedom to the workings of the market, and allowed a limited number of small businesses to operate in the services sector. Although Hungary enjoyed one of the most liberal and economically advanced economies of the former Eastern bloc, both agriculture and industry began to suffer from a lack of investment in the 1970s, and Hungary's net foreign debt rose significantly—from $1 billion in 1973 to $15 billion in 1993—due largely to consumer subsidies and unprofitable state enterprises. In the face of economic stagnation, Hungary opted to try further liberalization by passing a joint venture law, instating an income tax, and joining the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. By 1988, Hungary had developed a two-tier banking system and had enacted significant corporate legislation which paved the way for the ambitious market-oriented reforms of the post-communist years. Transition to a market economy After the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, the former Soviet satellites had to transition from a one-party, centrally-planned economy to a market economy with a multi-party political system. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Eastern Bloc countries suffered a significant loss in both markets for goods, and subsidizing from the Soviet Union. Hungary, for example, "lost nearly 70% of its export markets in Eastern and Central Europe." The loss of external markets in Hungary coupled with the loss of Soviet subsidizing left "800,000 unemployed people because all the unprofitable and unsalvageable factories had been closed." Another form of Soviet subsidizing that greatly affected Hungary after the fall of communism was the loss of social welfare programs. Because of the lack of subsidizing and a need to reduce expenditures, many social programs in Hungary had to be cut in an attempt to lower spending. As a result, many people in Hungary suffered incredible hardships during the transition to a market economy. Following privatization and tax reductions on Hungarian businesses, unemployment suddenly rose to 12% in 1991 (it was 1,7% in 1990 ), gradually decreasing till 2001. Economic growth, after a fall in 1991 to -11,9%, gradually grew until the end of the 1990s at an average annual rate of 4,2%. With the stabilization of the new market economy, Hungary has experienced growth in foreign investment with a "cumulative foreign direct investment totaling more than $60 billion since 1989." The Antall government of 1990–94 began market reforms with price and trade liberation measures, a revamped tax system, and a nascent market-based banking system. By 1994, however, the costs of government overspending and hesitant privatization had become clearly visible. Cuts in consumer subsidies led to increases in the price of food, medicine, transportation services, and energy. Reduced exports to the former Soviet bloc and shrinking industrial output contributed to a sharp decline in GDP. Unemployment rose rapidly to about 12% in 1993. The external debt burden, one of the highest in Europe, reached 250% of annual export earnings, while the budget and current account deficits approached 10% of GDP. The devaluation of the currency (in order to support exports), without effective stabilization measures, such as indexation of wages, provoked an extremely high inflation rate, that in 1991 reached 35% and slightly decreased till 1994, growing again in 1995. In March 1995, the government of Prime Minister Gyula Horn implemented an austerity program, coupled with aggressive privatization of state-owned enterprises and an export-promoting exchange raw regime, to reduce indebtedness, cut the current account deficit, and shrink public spending. By the end of 1997 the consolidated public sector deficit decreased to 4.6% of GDP—with public sector spending falling from 62% of GDP to below 50%—the current account deficit was reduced to 2% of GDP, and government debt was paid down to 94% of annual export earnings. Hungary's sovereign foreign currency debt issuance carries investment-grade ratings from all major credit-rating agencies, although recently the country was downgraded by Moody's, S&P and remains on negative outlook at Fitch. In 1995 Hungary's currency, the Forint (HUF), became convertible for all current account transactions, and subsequent to OECD membership in 1996, for almost all capital account transactions as well. Since 1995, Hungary has pegged the forint against a basket of currencies (in which the U.S. dollar is 30%), and the central rate against the basket is devalued at a preannounced rate, originally set at 0.8% per month, the Forint is now an entirely free-floating currency. The government privatization program ended on schedule in 1998: 80% of GDP is now produced by the private sector, and foreign owners control 70% of financial institutions, 66% of industry, 90% of telecommunications, and 50% of the trading sector. After Hungary's GDP declined about 18% from 1990 to 1993 and grew only 1%–1.5% up to 1996, strong export performance has propelled GDP growth to 4.4% in 1997, with other macroeconomic indicators similarly improving. These successes allowed the government to concentrate in 1996 and 1997 on major structural reforms such as the implementation of a fully-funded pension system (partly modelled after Chile's pension system but enclosing major modifications), reform of higher education, and the creation of a national treasury. Remaining economic challenges include reducing fiscal deficits and inflation, maintaining stable external balances, and completing structural reforms of the tax system, health care, and local government financing. Recently, the overriding goal of Hungarian economic policy has been to prepare the country for entry into the European Union, which it joined on May 1, 2004. Prior to the change of regime in 1989, 65% of Hungary's trade was with Comecon countries. By the end of 1997, Hungary had shifted much of its trade to the West. Trade with EU countries and the OECD now comprises over 70% and 80% of the total, respectively. Germany is Hungary's single most important trading partner. The U.S. has become Hungary's sixth-largest export market, while Hungary is ranked as the 72d largest export market for the U.S. Bilateral trade between the two countries increased 46% in 1997 to more than $1 billion. The U.S. has extended to Hungary most-favored-nation status, the Generalized System of Preferences, Overseas Private Investment Corporation insurance, and access to the Export-Import Bank. With about $18 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI) since 1989, Hungary has attracted over one-third of all FDI in central and eastern Europe, including the former Soviet Union. Of this, about $6 billion came from American companies. Foreign capital is attracted by skilled and relatively inexpensive labor, tax incentives, modern infrastructure, and a good telecommunications system. By 2006 Hungary’s economic outlook had deteriorated. Wage growth had kept up with other nations in the region; however, this growth has largely been driven by increased government spending. This has resulted in the budget deficit ballooning to over 10% of annual GDP and inflation rates predicted to exceed 6%. This prompted Nouriel Roubini, a White House economist in the Clinton administration, to state that "Hungary is an accident waiting to happen." Hungarian economy today In 2006 Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány was reelected on a platform promising economic “reform without austerity.” However, after the elections in April 2006, the Socialist coalition under Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsany unveiled a package of austerity measures which were designed to reduce the budget deficit to 3% of GDP by 2008. Hungary, as a member state of the European Union may seek to adopt the common European currency, the Euro. To achieve this, Hungary would need to fulfill the Maastricht criteria. Because of the austerity program, the economy of Hungary slowed down in 2007. However, due to many large investments, GDP growth may improve to 2.8-4.0 percent in the second half of 2008. In foreign investments, Hungary has seen a shift from lower-value textile and food industry to investment in luxury vehicle production, renewable energy systems, high-end tourism, and information technology. Physical properties Natural Resources Hungary's total land area is 93,030 km2 along with 690 km2 of water surface area which altogether makes up 1% of Europe's area. Nearly 75% of Hungary's landscape consists of flat plains. Additional 20% of the country's area consists of foothills whose altitude is 400 m at the most; higher hills and water surface makes up the remaining 5%. The two flat plains that take up three quarters of Hungary's area are the Great Hungarian Plain and the Little Hungarian Plain. Hungary's most significant natural resource is arable land. About 70% of the country's total territory is suitable for arable farming; of this portion, 72% (50% of the country's area) is covered by arable land. Hungary lacks extensive domestic sources of energy and raw materials needed for further industrial development. 19% of the country is covered by forests. These are located mainly in the foothills such as the Northern and the Transdanubian Medium Mountains, and the Alpokalja. The composition of forests is various; mostly oak or beech, but the rest include fir, willow, acacia and plane. The major rivers of Hungary are the Danube and the Tisza. The Danube also flows through parts of [[Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Serbia, and Romania. It is navigable within Hungary for 418 km. The Tisza River is navigable for 444 km in the country. Hungary has three major lakes. Lake Balaton, the largest, is 78 km long and from 3 to 14 km wide, with an area of 592 km2. Lake Balaton is Central Europe's largest lake and a prosperous tourist spot and recreation area. Its shallow waters offer summer bathing and during the winter its frozen surface provides facilities for winter sports. Smaller bodies of water include Lake Velence (26 km2) in Fejér County and Lake Fertő (82 km2 within Hungary). In European terms, Hungary's underground water reserve is one of the largest. Hence the country is rich in brooks and hot springs as well as medicinal springs and spas; as of 2003, there are 1250 springs that provide water warmer than 30 degrees. http://www.kvvm.hu/szakmai/karmentes/kiadvanyok/fav/tvkm/tvkm04.htm 90% of Hungary's drinking water is mostly retrieved from such sources. http://www.eduline.hu/segedanyagtalalatok.aspx/letolt/2971 Infrastructure Hungary has 31 058 km of roads and 11 motorways of 754 km. There are also several airports in Hungary, five of which are international. In 2006 the railroad system was 7685 km long (2791 km electrified). Sectors Agriculture Agriculture accounted for 3% of GDP in 2007 and along with the food industry occupied 11,7% of the labor force (1997). The Hungarian agriculture is virtually self-sufficient and 20-25% of exports come from agriculture and related industries. About 10% of Hungary’s total area is under cultivation due to its favourable conditions including continental climate and the plains that make up about half of Hungary’s landscape. The most important crops are wheat, corn, sunflower, potato, sugar beet, rape and a wide variety of fruits (notably apple, peach, pear, watermelon, plum etc.). Hungary has several wine regions producing among others the worldwide famous white dessert wine Tokaji and the red Bull’s Blood. Another traditional alcoholic drink is a fruit brandy called pálinka. Mainly cattle, pigs, poultry and sheep are raised in the country. The livestock includes the Hungarian Grey Cattle which is a major tourist attraction in the Hungarian National Park of Hortobágy. An important component of the country’s gastronomic heritage is foie gras with about 33000 farmers engaged in the industry. Hungary is the second largest world producer and the biggest exporter of foie gras (exporting mainly to France). Another symbol of Hungarian agriculture and cuisine is the paprika (both sweet and hot types). The country is one of the leading paprika producers of the world with Szeged and Kalocsa being the centre of production. Industry The main sectors of Hungarian industry are heavy industry (mining, metallurgy, machine and steel production), energy production, mechanical engineering, chemicals, food industry and automobile production. The industry is leaning mainly on processing industry and (including construction) accounted for 29,32% of GDP in 2008 http://www.profitline.hu/index.php/hircentrum/hir/130567/link5 . Due to the sparse energy and raw material resources, Hungary is forced to import most of these materials to satisfy the demands of the industry. Following the transition to market economy, the industry underwent restructuring and remarkable modernization. The leading industry is machinery, followed by chemical industry (plastic production, pharmaceuticals), while mining, metallurgy and textile industry seemed to be losing importance in the past two decades. Despite of a significant drop in the last decade, food industry is still giving up to 14% of total industrial production and amounts to 7-8% of the country's exports http://www.itdh.com/engine.aspx?page=Trade_Food_Industry . Nearly 50% of energy consumption is dependent on imported energy sources. Gas and oil are transported through pipelines from Russia forming 72% of the energy structure, while nuclear power produced by the nuclear power station of Paks accounts for 12%. Automobile production Hungary is a favoured destination of foreign investors of automotive industry resulting in the presence of General Motors (Szentgotthárd), Suzuki (Esztergom) and the largest Audi factory (Győr) in Central Europe. Negotiations are still going with Mercedes-Benz about the construction of a new assembly plant in Kecskemét. 17% of the total Hungarian exports comes from the exports of Audi, Opel and Suzuki. The sector employs about 90.000 people in more than 350 car component manufacturing companies. http://www.itdh.com/engine.aspx?page=Itdh_Automotive Services Currency The currency of Hungary is the Hungarian forint (HUF, Ft) A forint consists of 100 fillérs, however, these have not been in circulation since 1999, they are only used in accounting. There are five coins (5, 10, 20, 50, 100) http://www.forint.hu/engine.aspx?page=ermek1 and seven banknotes (200, 500, 1000, 2000, 5000, 10000 and 20000) http://www.forint.hu/engine.aspx?page=bankjegyek . The 1 and 2 forint coins were withdrawn in 2008, yet prices remained the same as stores follow the official rounding scheme http://english.forint.hu/engine.aspx?page=rounding for the final price. The fulfillment of the Maastricht criteria Convergence criteria Obligation to adopt 4 Target date Euro coins designCountry 1 Inflation rate² Government finances ERM II membershipInterest rate ³ set by the country recommended by the Commission annual government deficit to GDP gross government debt to GDP Reference value 5 max 3.0% max. 3% max. 60% min. 2 years max 6.4% NA NA NA NA 3.5% 2.6% 69% 0 years 7.5% yes 2010-2014 NA in progress 1 Current EU member states that have not yet adopted the Euro, candidates and official potential candidates. ² No more than 1.5% higher than the 3 best-performing EU member states. ³ No more than 2% higher than the 3 best-performing EU member states. 4 Formal obligation for Euro adoption in the country EU Treaty of Accession or the Framework for membership negotiations. 5 Values from May 2007 report . To be updated each year. The austerity measures introduced by the government are in part an attempt to fulfill the Maastricht-criteria. The austerity measures include a 2% rise in social security contributions, half of which is paid by employees, and a large increase in the minimum rate of sales tax (levied on food and basic services) from 15 to 20%. While it was widely recognised that something needed to be done, investors have levelled criticism at the program for emphasizing tax increases as opposed to spending cuts. The Hungarian Central Statistical Office reported a decrease in real wages in the first five months of 2007. Gross average income rose by 7%, while net average income increased by 1%. When adjusted for inflation, this corresponded to a 7% decline compared with real wages a year before. The drop was due mainly to the 2006 austerity package; however, state measures to combat the black economy may also have had an impact on pay developments. Hungary's low employment rate remains a key structural handicap to achieving higher living standards. The government introduced useful measures in the key areas, namely early retirement, disability and old pensions. Exchange rates $1 Hungarian Forint - $0.005 USD Socio-economic characteristics Human capital Social stratification Institutional quality State participation Fiscal policy Tax system Monetary policy External relations The EU Hungary joined the European Union on 05/01/2004 after a successful referendum http://www.valasztas.hu/hu/ep2009/47/47_0.html among the EU-10. The EU's free trade system helps Hungary, as it is a reatively small country and thus needs export and import. After the accession to the EU, Hungarian workers could immediately go to work to Ireland, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Other countries imposed restrictions http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3513889.stm . The European Union had assisted Hungary with pre-accession funds in before full entry in 2004, and with structural and cohesion funds since entry (some 6800 HUF between 2006 and 2013). Zoltan Pogatsa: Europe Now - Hungary's Preparations for the EU's Structural and Cohesion Funds (Savaria University Press, 2004); 20 Rest of the world 2008-2009 Financial Crisis On 10 October 2008, the Forint dropped by 10% http://www.boursorama.com/international/detail_actu_intern.phtml?news=5958539 Many loans are made in Euro or Swiss Francs in Hungary. On 27 October 2008, Hungary reached an agreement with the IMF and for a rescue package worth about US$20 billion. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/10/27/AR2008102700469.html References Jon Adam: The transition to a market economy in Hungary See also List of Hungarian companies List of banks in Hungary Budapest Stock Exchange BUX Economy of Europe Hungary External links OECD's Hungary country web site OECD economic survey of Hungary Hungarian IT: Coping With Economic Transition And Globalisation The Political and Economic Transition in Hungary CIA The World Factbook | Economy_of_Hungary |@lemmatized hungarian:22 national:3 bank:4 plan:2 general:2 government:15 net:3 lending:1 economy:18 medium:2 size:1 structurally:1 politically:1 institutionally:1 open:1 central:7 europe:12 part:4 eu:11 single:2 market:17 like:1 eastern:6 european:7 experience:2 liberalisation:1 early:4 transition:9 away:1 communism:3 today:2 hungary:64 full:3 member:6 oecd:6 world:7 trade:9 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4,931 | Individualist_anarchism | Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and his/her will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems. "What do I mean by individualism? I mean by individualism the moral doctrine which, relying on no dogma, no tradition, no external determination, appeals only to the individual conscience."Mini-Manual of Individualism by Han Ryner "I do not admit anything except the existence of the individual, as a condition of his sovereignty. To say that the sovereignty of the individual is conditioned by Liberty is simply another way of saying that it is conditioned by itself.""Anarchism and the State" in Individual Liberty Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict. Early influences in individualist anarchism were the thought of William Godwin, Henry David Thoreau (transcendentalism) "Paralelamente, al otro lado del atlántico, en el diferente contexto de una nación a medio hacer, los Estados Unidos, otros filósofos elaboraron un pensamiento individualista similar, aunque con sus propias especificidades. Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862), uno de los escritores próximos al movimiento de la filosofía trascendentalista, es uno de los más conocidos. Su obra más representativa es Walden, aparecida en 1854, aunque redactada entre 1845 y 1847, cuando Thoreau decide instalarse en el aislamiento de una cabaña en el bosque, y vivir en íntimo contacto con la naturaleza, en una vida de soledad y sobriedad. De esta experiencia, su filosofía trata de transmitirnos la idea que resulta necesario un retorno respetuoso a la naturaleza, y que la felicidad es sobre todo fruto de la riqueza interior y de la armonía de los individuos con el entorno natural. Muchos han visto en Thoreau a uno de los precursores del ecologismo y del anarquismo primitivista representado en la actualidad por Jonh Zerzan. Para George Woodcock(, esta actitud puede estar también motivada por una cierta idea de resistencia al progreso y de rechazo al materialismo creciente que caracteriza la sociedad norteamericana de mediados de siglo XIX."Voluntary non-submission. Spanish individualist anarchism during dictatorship and the second republic (1923-1938) , Josiah Warren ("sovereignty of the individual"), Lysander Spooner ("natural law"), Pierre Joseph Proudhon (mutualism), Herbert Spencer ("law of equal liberty") Freeden, Micheal. Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019829414X. pp. 313-314 and Max Stirner (egoism). From there it expanded through Europe and the United States. Benjamin R. Tucker, a famous 19th century individualist anarchist, held that "if the individual has the right to govern himself, all external government is tyranny." Overview Early individualist anarchists include William Godwin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Max Stirner. Market anarchists advocate individual ownership of the produce of labor and a market economy where this property may be bought and sold. Individualist anarchism of different kinds have a few things in common. These are: 1. The concentration and elevation on the individual and his/her over any kind of social or exterior reality or construction such as morality, ideology, social custom, religion, metaphysics, ideas or the will of others. "En la vida de todo único, todo vínculo, independientemente de la forma en que éste se presente, supone una cadena que condiciona, y por tanto elimina la condición de persona libre. Ello supone dos consecuencias; la libertad se mantendrá al margen de toda categoría moral. Este último concepto quedará al margen del vocabulario estirneriano, puesto que tanto ética como moral serán dos conceptos absolutos que, como tales, no pueden situarse por encima de la voluntad individual. La libertad se vive siempre al margen de cualquier condicionamiento material o espiritual, “más allá del bien y del mal” como enunciará Nietzsche en una de sus principales obras. Las creencias colectivas, los prejuicios compartidos, los convencionalismos sociales serán, pues, objeto de destrucción."A.3.1 What are the differences between individualist and social anarchists? "Stirner himself, however, has no truck with "higher beings." Indeed, with the aim of concerning himself purely with his own interests, he attacks all "higher beings," regarding them as a variety of what he calls "spooks," or ideas to which individuals sacrifice themselves and by which they are dominated. First amongst these is the abstraction "Man", into which all unique individuals are submerged and lost. As he put it, "liberalism is a religion because it separates my essence from me and sets it above me, because it exalts 'Man' to the same extent as any other religion does to God . . . it sets me beneath Man." Indeed, he "who is infatuated with Man leaves persons out of account so far as that infatuation extends, and floats in an ideal, sacred interest. Man, you see, is not a person, but an ideal, a spook." [p. 176 and p.79] Among the many "spooks" Stirner attacks are such notable aspects of capitalist life as private property, the division of labour, the state, religion, and (at times) society itself. We will discuss Stirner's critique of capitalism before moving onto his vision of an egoist society and how it relates to social anarchism."[ A.3.1 What are the differences between individualist and social anarchists?] 2. The rejection or reservations on the idea of revolution seeing it as a time of mass uprising which could bring about new hierarchies. Instead they favor more evolutionary methods of bringing about anarchy through alternative experiences and experiments and education which could be brought about today "The first is in regard to the means of action in the here and now (and so the manner in which anarchy will come about). Individualists generally prefer education and the creation of alternative institutions, such as mutual banks, unions, communes, etc.... Such activity, they argue, will ensure that present society will gradually develop out of government into an anarchist one. They are primarily evolutionists, not revolutionists, and dislike social anarchists' use of direct action to create revolutionary situations."A.3.1 What are the differences between individualist and social anarchists? "Toda revolución, pues, hecha en nombre de principios abstractos como igualdad, fraternidad, libertad o humanidad, persigue el mismo fin; anular la voluntad y soberanía del individuo, para así poderlo dominar."La insumisión voluntaria. El anarquismo individualista español durante la dictadura y la segund arepública (1923-1938) . This also because it is not seen desirable for individuals the fact of having to wait for revolution to start experiencing alternative experiences outside what is offered in the current social system "The wave of anarchist bombings and assassinations of the 1890s... and the practice of illegalism from the mid-1880s to the start of the First World War... were twin aspects of the same proletarian offensive, but were expressed in an individualist practice, one that complemented the great collective struggles against capital. The illegalist comrades were tired of waiting for the revolution. The acts of the anarchist bombers and assassins ("propaganda by the deed") and the anarchist burglars ("individual reappropriation") expressed their desperation and their personal, violent rejection of an intolerable society. Moreover, they were clearly meant to be exemplary , invitations to revolt."THE "ILLEGALISTS" by Doug Imrie . 3. The view that relationships with other persons or things can only be of one´s own interest and can be as transitory and without compromises as desired since in individualist anarchism sacrifice is usually rejected. In this way Max Stirner recoomended associations of egoists Finalmente, y este es un tema poco resuelto por el filósofo bávaro, resulta evidente que, a pesar de todo culto a la soberanía individual, es necesario y deseable que los individuos cooperen. Pero el peligro de la asociación conlleva la reproducción, a escala diferente, de una sociedad, y es evidente que en este contexto, los individuos deban renunciar a buena parte de su soberanía. Stirner propone “uniones de egoístas”, formadas por individuos libres que pueden unirse episódicamente para colaborar, pero evitando la estabilidad o la permanencia."La insumisión voluntaria. El anarquismo individualista español durante la dictadura y la segunda república (1923-1938) "The unions Stirner desires would be based on free agreement, being spontaneous and voluntary associations drawn together out of the mutual interests of those involved, who would "care best for their welfare if they unite with others." [p. 309] The unions, unlike the state, exist to ensure what Stirner calls "intercourse," or "union" between individuals. To better understand the nature of these associations, which will replace the state, Stirner lists the relationships between friends, lovers, and children at play as examples. [No Gods, No Masters, vol. 1, p. 25] These illustrate the kinds of relationships that maximise an individual's self-enjoyment, pleasure, freedom, and individuality, as well as ensuring that those involved sacrifice nothing while belonging to them. Such associations are based on mutuality and a free and spontaneous co-operation between equals. As Stirner puts it, "intercourse is mutuality, it is the action, the commercium, of individuals." [p. 218] Its aim is "pleasure" and "self-enjoyment." Thus Stirner sought a broad egoism, one which appreciated others and their uniqueness, and so criticised the narrow egoism of people who forgot the wealth others are: "But that would be a man who does not know and cannot appreciate any of the delights emanating from an interest taken in others, from the consideration shown to others. That would be a man bereft of innumerable pleasures, a wretched character... would he not be a wretched egoist, rather than a genuine Egoist?... The person who loves a human being is, by virtue of that love, a wealthier man that someone else who loves no one." [No Gods, No Masters, vol. 1, p. 23]"What are the differences between individualist and social anarchists? . Individual experience and exploration therefore is emphazised. As such differences exist. In regards to economic questions there are adherents to mutualism (Pierre Joseph Proudhon, Emile Armand, Benjamin Tucker), egoistic disrespect for "ghosts" such as private property and markets (Max Stirner), and adherents to anarcho-communism (Albert Libertad, illegalism). The egoist form of individualist anarchism, derived from the philosophy of Max Stirner, supports the individual doing exactly what he pleases – taking no notice of God, state, or moral rules. To Stirner, rights were spooks in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality" he supported property by force of might rather than moral right. "What my might reaches is my property; and let me claim as property everything I feel myself strong enough to attain, and let me extend my actual property as fas as I entitle, that is, empower myself to take…" From The Ego and Its Own, quoted in Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw "associations of egoists" drawn together by respect for each other's ruthlessness. An important tendency within individualist anarchist currents emphasizes individual subjective exploration and defiance of social conventions. As such Murray Bookchin describes a lot of individualist anarchism as people who "expressed their opposition in uniquely personal forms, especially in fiery tracts, outrageous behavior, and aberrant lifestyles in the cultural ghettos of fin de sicle New York, Paris, and London. As a credo, individualist anarchism remained largely a bohemian lifestyle, most conspicuous in its demands for sexual freedom ('free love') and enamored of innovations in art, behavior, and clothing." "2. Individualist Anarchism and Reaction" in Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism - An Unbridgeable Chasm . In this way free love currents (Emile Armand) and other radical lifestyles such as naturism had popularity among individualist anarchists. One important current within individualist anarchism in this way is Free love The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism By Wendy McElroy . Free love advocates sometimes traced their roots back to Josiah Warren and to experimental communities, viewed sexual freedom as a clear, direct expression of an individual's self-ownership. Free love particularly stressed women's rights since most sexual laws discriminated against women: for example, marriage laws and anti-birth control measures. The most important American free love journal was Lucifer the Lightbearer (1883-1907) edited by Moses Harman. In Europe the main propagandist of free love within individualist anarchism was Emile Armand E. Armand and “la camaraderie amoureuse”. Revolutionary sexualism and the struggle against jealousy . He proposed the concept of la camaraderie amoureuse to speak of free love as the posibility of voluntary sexual encounter between consenting adults. He was also a consistent proponent of polyamory. Another important current especially within french and spanish individualist anarchist groups was naturism. Naturism promoted an ecological worldview, small ecovillages, and most prominently nudism as a way to avoid the artificiality of the industrial mass society of modernity "EL NATURISMO LIBERTARIO EN LA PENÍNSULA IBÉRICA (1890-1939)" by Josep Maria Rosell . Naturist individualist anarchists saw the individual in his biological -physical and psychological- sides and avoided and tried to eliminate social determinations "el individuo es visto en su dimensión biológica -física y psíquica- dejándose la social.""EL NATURISMO LIBERTARIO EN LA PENÍNSULA IBÉRICA (1890-1939)" by Josep Maria Rosell] . An early influence in this vein was Henry David Thoreau and his famous book Walden. People William Godwin James Northcote, William Godwin, oil on canvas, 1802, the National Portrait Gallery, William Godwin, a radical liberal and utilitarian was one of the first to espouse what became known as individualist anarchism. William Godwin was an individualist anarchist Woodcock, George. 2004. Anarchism: A History Of Libertarian Ideas And Movements. Broadview Press. p. 20 and philosophical anarchist who was influenced by the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, "Anarchism", Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 (UK version) and developed what many consider the first expression of modern anarchist thought. Godwin was, according to Peter Kropotkin, "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work."<ref name="EB1910">Peter Kropotkin, "Anarchism", Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1910</ref> Godwin himself attributed the first anarchist writing to Edmund Burke's A Vindication of Natural Society. "Most of the above arguments may be found much more at large in Burke's Vindication of Natural Society; a treatise in which the evils of the existing political institutions are displayed with incomparable force of reasoning and lustre of eloquence…" – footnote, Ch. 2 Political Justice by William Godwin. Godwin advocated extreme individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labor be eliminated. "Godwin, William". (2006). In Britannica Concise Encyclopaedia. Retrieved December 7, 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Godwin was a utilitarian who believed that all individuals are not of equal value, with some of us "of more worth and importance' than others depending on our utility in bringing about social good. Therefore he does not believe in equal rights, but the person's life that should be favored that is most conducive to the general good. Godwin opposed government because it infringes on the individual's right to "private judgement" to determine which actions most maximize utility, but also makes a critique of all authority over the individual's judgement. This aspect of Godwin's philosophy, minus the utilitarianism, was developed into a more extreme form later by Stirner. Godwin's individualism was to such a radical degree that he even opposed individuals performing together in orchestras, writing in Political Justice that "everything understood by the term co-operation is in some sense an evil." The only apparent exception to this opposition to cooperation is the spontaneous association that may arise when a society is threatened by violent force. One reason he opposed cooperation is he believed it to interfere with an individual's ability to be benevolent for the greater good. Godwin opposes the idea of government, but wrote that a minimal state as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge. He expressly opposed democracy, fearing oppression of the individual by the majority (though he believed democracy to be preferable to dictatorship). Godwin supported individual ownership of property, defining it as "the empire to which every man is entitled over the produce of his own industry." However, he also advocated that individuals give to each other their surplus property on the occasion that others have a need for it, without involving trade (e.g. gift economy). Thus, while people have the right to private property, they should give it away as enlightened altruists. This was to be based on utilitarian principles; he said: "Every man has a right to that, the exclusive possession of which being awarded to him, a greater sum of benefit or pleasure will result than could have arisen from its being otherwise appropriated." However, benevolence was not to be enforced, being a matter of free individual "private judgement." He did not advocate a community of goods or assert collective ownership as is embraced in communism, but his belief that individuals ought to share with those in need was influential on the later development of anarchist communism. Godwin's political views were diverse and do not perfectly agree with any of the ideologies that claim his influence; writers of the Socialist Standard, organ of the Socialist Party of Great Britain, consider Godwin both an individualist and a communist; "William Godwin, Shelly and Communism" by ALB, The Socialist Standard anarcho-capitalist Murray Rothbard did not regard Godwin as being in the individualist camp at all, referring to him as the "founder of communist anarchism"; Rothbard, Murray. "Edmund Burke, Anarchist." and historian Albert Weisbord considers him an individualist anarchist without reservation. Some writers see a conflict between Godwin's advocacy of "private judgement" and utilitarianism, as he says that ethics requires that individuals give their surplus property to each other resulting in an egalitarian society, but, at the same time, he insists that all things be left to individual choice. Many of Godwin's views changed over time, as noted by Peter Kropotkin. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, the first self-identified anarchist. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) was the first philosopher to label himself an "anarchist." "Anarchism", BBC Radio 4 program, In Our Time, Thursday December 7 2006. Hosted by Melvyn Bragg of the BBC, with John Keane, Professor of Politics at University of Westminster, Ruth Kinna, Senior Lecturer in Politics at Loughborough University, and Peter Marshall, philosopher and historian. Some consider Proudhon to be an individualist anarchist, while others regard him to be a social anarchist. Bowen, James & Purkis, Jon. 2004. Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester University Press. p. 24 Knowles, Rob. "Political Economy from below : Communitarian Anarchism as a Neglected Discourse in Histories of Economic Thought". History of Economics Review, No.31 Winter 2000. Some commentators do not identify Proudhon as an individualist anarchist due to his preference for association in large industries, rather than individual control. Woodcock, George. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements, Broadview Press, 2004, p. 20 Nevertheless, he was influential among some of the American individualists; in the 1840s and 1850s, Charles A. Dana, Dana, Charles A. Proudhon and his "Bank of the People" (1848). and William B. Greene introduced Proudhon's works to the United States. Greene adapted Proudhon's mutualism to American conditions and introduced it to Benjamin R. Tucker. Tucker, Benjamin R., "On Picket Duty", Liberty (Not the Daughter but the Mother of Order) (1881–1908); 5 January 1889; 6, 10; APS Online pg. 1 Proudhon opposed government privilege that protects capitalist, banking and land interests, and the accumulation or acquisition of property (and any form of coercion that led to it) which he believed hampers competition and keeps wealth in the hands of the few. Proudhon favoured a right of individuals to retain the product of their labor as their own property, but believed that any property beyond that which an individual produced and could possess was illegitimate. Thus, he saw private property as both essential to liberty and a road to tyranny, the former when it resulted from labor and was required for labor and the latter when it resulted in exploitation (profit, interest, rent, tax). He generally called the former "possession" and the latter "property." For large-scale industry, he supported workers associations to replace wage labour and opposed the ownership of land. Proudhon maintained that those who labor should retain the entirety of what they produce, and that monopolies on credit and land are the forces that prohibit such. He advocated an economic system that included private property as possession and exchange market but without profit, which he called mutualism. It is Proudhon's philosophy that was explicitly rejected by Joseph Dejacque in the inception of anarchist-communism, with the latter asserting directly to Proudhon in a letter that "it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature." An individualist rather than anarchist communist, Proudhon said that "communism...is the very denial of society in its foundation..." Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph. The Philosophy of Misery: The Evolution of Capitalism. BiblioBazaar, LLC (2006). ISBN 1426409087 pp. 217 and famously declared that "property is theft!" in reference to his rejection of ownership rights to land being granted to a person who is not using that land. After Dejacque and others split from Proudhon due to the latter's support of individual property and an exchange economy, the relationship between the individualists, who continued in relative alignment with the philosophy of Proudhon, and the anarcho-communists was characterised by various degrees of antagonism and harmony. For example, individualists like Tucker on the one hand translated and reprinted the works of collectivists like Mikhail Bakunin, while on the other hand rejected the economic aspects of collectivism and communism as incompatible with anarchist ideals. Thought American individualist anarchism Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic , surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay, Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. His though is an early influence on green anarchist thought but with an emphasis on the individual experience of the natural world influencing later naturist currents,Simple living as a rejection of a materialist lifestyle and self-sufficiency were Thoreau's goals, and the whole project was inspired by transcendentalist philosophy. The American version of individualist anarchism has a strong emphasis on the non-aggression principle and individual sovereignty. Some individualist anarchists, such as Henry David Thoreau Johnson, Ellwood. The Goodly Word: The Puritan Influence in America Literature, Clements Publishing, 2005, p. 138. Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, edited by Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman, Alvin Saunders Johnson, 1937, p. 12. , do not speak of economics but simply the right of "disunion" from the state, and foresee the gradual elimination of the state through social evolution. His anarchism not only rejects the state but all organized assocations of any kind, advocating complete individual self reliance. Richard Orr Curry, Lawrence B. Goodheart. American Chameloen: American Chameleon: Individualism in Trans-national Context. Kent State University Press, 1991. p. 39 However, most of the individualists are market anarchists, and therefore support provision of defense of the individual and his property being supplied by multiple competing providers in a free market. Josiah WarrenAn early individualist anarchist who was very influential was Josiah Warren, who had participated in a failed collective "utopian socialist" experiment headed by Robert Owen called "New Harmony" and came to the conclusion that such a system is inferior to one that respects the "sovereignty "Some portion, at least, of those who have attended the public meetings, know that EQUITABLE COMMERCE is founded on a principle exactly opposite to combination; this principle may be called that of Individuality. It leaves every one in undisturbed possession of his or her natural and proper sovereignty over its own person, time, property and responsibilities; & no one is acquired or expected to surrender any "portion" of his natural liberty by joining any society whatever; nor to become in any way responsible for the acts or sentiments of any one but himself; nor is there any arrangement by which even the whole body can exercise any government over the person, time property or responsibility of a single individual." - Josiah Warren, Manifesto of the individual" and his right to dispose of his property as his own self-interest prescribes. The "Boston Anarchists" Benjamin Tucker, and a series of other anarchists centered in the Boston area, were influenced by Warren and also a proponent of this interpretation of the labor theory of value. Tucker believed that it was unjust for individuals to receive greater income while performing less labor than others. Tucker asserted that the solution to bring wages up to be their proper level was for the state to cease interfering in the economy and protecting monopolies from competition. Like Warren, he saw income derived without labor to be exploitative (with the exception of gifts and inheritance Tucker, Benjamin. State Socialism and Anarchism ). He argued that lending money for interest involved no labor on the part of the lender and therefore saw interest charges as usurious. Rent was also seen as unjust because it involved obtaining an income without labor. To Tucker and most of his contemporary individualists, rent of land is only made possible by government-backed "monopoly" and "privilege" that restricts competition in the marketplace and concentrates wealth in the hands of a few. Tucker contended that private control of land should be supported only if the possessor of that land is using it, otherwise, the possessor would be able to charge rent to others without laboring to produce something. Tucker envisioned an individualist anarchist society as "each man reaping the fruits of his labour and no man able to live in idleness on an income from capital....become[ing] a great hive of Anarchistic workers, prosperous and free individuals [combining] to carry on their production and distribution on the cost principle." The Individualist Anarchists, p. 276 However, not all of the early individualist anarchists held this philosophy of land ownership. Warren and Lysander Spooner placed no restrictions on occupancy and use for ownership. Steven T. Byington also opposed Tucker's ideas on occupancy and use requirements for land titles. Carl Watner. Benjamin Tucker and His Periodical, Liberty. Journal of Libertarian Studies, Vol. 1, No. 4, p. 308 Anarcho-capitalism (Rothbard circa 1955). 19th century individualist anarchists espoused the labor theory of value. Some believe that the modern movement of anarcho-capitalism is the result of simply removing the labor theory of value from ideas of the 19th century American individualist anarchists: "Their successors today, such as Murray Rothbard, having abandoned the labor theory of value, describe themselves as anarcho-capitalists." Outhwaite, William. The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought, Anarchism entry, Blackwell Publishing, 2003, p. 13 As economic theory changed, the popularity of the labor theory of classical economics was superseded by the subjective theory of value of neo-classical economics. According to Kevin Carson (himself a mutualist), "most people who call themselves "individualist anarchists" today are followers of Murray Rothbard's Austrian economics." Murray Rothbard, a student of Ludwig von Mises, combined the Austrian school economics of his teacher with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the nineteenth century such as Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker. Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, 1987, ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 290 In the mid-1950s Rothbard wrote an article under a pseudonym, saying that "we are not anarchists...but not archists either...Perhaps, then, we could call ourselves by a new name: nonarchist," concerned with differentiating himself from communist and socialistic economic views of other anarchists (including the individualist anarchists of the nineteenth century). Rothbard, Murray. Are Libertarians 'Anarchists'?. LewRockwell.com. However, Rothbard later chose the term "anarcho-capitalism" for his philosophy and referred to himself as an anarchist. Agorism Agorism is a radical left-libertarian form of anarchism, developed from anarcho-capitalism in the late 20th-century by Samuel Edward Konkin III (a.k.a. SEK3). The goal of agorists is a society in which all "relations between people are voluntary exchanges – a free market." Agorists are propertarian market anarchists who consider that property rights are natural rights deriving from the primary right of self-ownership and are not opposed in principle to collectively held property if individual owners of the property consent to collective ownership by contract or other voluntary mutual agreement. However, Agorists are divided on the question of intellectual property rights. European individualist anarchism Individualist anarchism was one of the three categories of anarchism in Russia, along with the more prominent anarchist communism and anarcho-syndicalism. The ranks of the Russian individualist anarchists were predominantly drawn from the intelligentsia and the working class. European individualist anarchists include Max Stirner, Albert Libertad, Shmuel Alexandrov, Anselme Bellegarrigue, Émile Armand, Enrico Arrigoni, Lev Chernyi, John Henry Mackay, Han Ryner, Renzo Novatore, and currently Michel Onfray. Two influential authors in european individualist anarchists are Friedrich Nietzche and Georges Palante. European individualist anarchism proceeded from the roots laid by Godwin, Proudhon and Stirner. Mutualism Modern symbol of mutualism Mutualism is an anarchist school of thought which can be traced to the writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who envisioned a society where each person might possess a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labor in the free market. Mutualist.org Introduction Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual-credit bank which would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate only high enough to cover the costs of administration. Miller, David. 1987. "Mutualism." The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11 Mutualism is based on a labor theory of value which holds that when labor or its product is sold, in exchange, it ought to receive goods or services embodying "the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility". Tandy, Francis D., 1896, Voluntary Socialism, chapter 6, paragraph 15. Some mutualists believe that if the state did not intervene, as a result of increased competition in the marketplace, individuals would receive no more income than that in proportion to the amount of labor they exert. Tandy, Francis D., 1896, Voluntary Socialism, chapter 6, paragraphs 9, 10 & 22.Carson, Kevin, 2004, Studies in Mutualist Political Economy, chapter 2 (after Meek & Oppenheimer). Mutualists oppose the idea of individuals receiving an income through loans, investments, and rent, as they believe these individuals are not laboring. Some of them argue that if state intervention ceased, these types of incomes would disappear due to increased competition in capital. Tandy, Francis D., 1896, Voluntary Socialism, chapter 6, paragraph 19.Carson, Kevin, 2004, Studies in Mutualist Political Economy, chapter 2 (after Ricardo, Dobb & Oppenheimer). Though Proudhon opposed this type of income, he expressed: "... I never meant to ... forbid or suppress, by sovereign decree, ground rent and interest on capital. I believe that all these forms of human activity should remain free and optional for all." Solution of the Social Problem, 1848-49. Insofar as they ensure the workers right to the full product of their labor, mutualists support markets and private property in the product of labor. However, they argue for conditional titles to land, whose private ownership is legitimate only so long as it remains in use or occupation (which Proudhon called "possession.") Swartz, Clarence Lee. What is Mutualism? VI. Land and Rent Proudhon's Mutualism supports labor-owned cooperative firms and associations Hymans, E., Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, pp. 190-1,Woodcock, George. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements, Broadview Press, 2004, pp. 110 & 112 for "we need not hesitate, for we have no choice. . . it is necessary to form an ASSOCIATION among workers . . . because without that, they would remain related as subordinates and superiors, and there would ensue two . . . castes of masters and wage-workers, which is repugnant to a free and democratic society" and so "it becomes necessary for the workers to form themselves into democratic societies, with equal conditions for all members, on pain of a relapse into feudalism." General Idea of the Revolution, Pluto Press, pp. 215-216 and p. 277 As for capital goods (man-made, non-land, "means of production"), mutualist opinions differs on whether these should be commonly managed public assets or private property. Mutualists, following Proudhon, originally considered themselves to be libertarian socialists. However, "some mutualists have abandoned the labor theory of value, and prefer to avoid the term "socialist." But they still retain some cultural attitudes, for the most part, that set them off from the libertarian right." A Mutualist FAQ: A.4. Are Mutualists Socialists? Mutualists have distinguished themselves from state socialism, and don't advocate social control over the means of production. Benjamin Tucker said of Proudhon, that "though opposed to socializing the ownership of capital, [Proudhon] aimed nevertheless to socialize its effects by making its use beneficial to all instead of a means of impoverishing the many to enrich the few...by subjecting capital to the natural law of competition, thus bringing the price of its own use down to cost." Tucker, Benjamin, State Socialism and Anarchism, State Socialism and Anarchism Egoism Max Stirner was the first of the egoist individualist anarchists. Portrait by Friedrich Engels. Max Stirner's philosophy, sometimes called "egoism," is the most extreme form of individualist anarchism. Max Stirner was a Hegelian philosopher whose "name appears with familiar regularity in historically-orientated surveys of anarchist thought as one of the earliest and best-known exponents of individualist anarchism." In 1844, his The Ego and Its Own (Der Einzige and sein Eigentum which may literally be translated as The Unique Individual and His Property Moggach, Douglas. The New Hegelians. Cambridge University Press. p. 177 ) was published, which is considered to be "a founding text in the tradition of individualist anarchism." Stirner does not recommend that the individual try to eliminate the state but simply that they disregard the state when it conflicts with one's autonomous choices and go along with it when doing so is conducive to one's interests. Moggach, Douglas. The New Hegelians. Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 190 He says that the egoist rejects pursuit of devotion to "a great idea, a good cause, a doctirine, a system, a lofty calling," saying that the egoist has no political calling but rather "lives themselves out" without regard to "how well or ill humanity may fare thereby." Moggach, Douglas. The New Hegelians. Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 183 Stirner held that the only limitation on the rights of the individual is his power to obtain what he desires. The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge. Encyclopedia Corporation. p. 176 He proposes that most commonly accepted social institutions—including the notion of State, property as a right, natural rights in general, and the very notion of society—were mere spooks in the mind. Stirner wants to "abolish not only the state but also society as an institution responsible for its members." Heider, Ulrike. Anarchism: Left, Right and Green, San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1994, pp. 95-96 He advocated self-assertion and foresaw "associations of egoists" where respect for ruthlessness drew people together. Even murder is permissible "if it is right for me." Moggach, Douglas. The New Hegelians. Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 191 For Stirner, property simply comes about through might: "Whoever knows how to take, to defend, the thing, to him belongs property." And, "What I have in my power, that is my own. So long as I assert myself as holder, I am the proprietor of the thing." He says, "I do not step shyly back from your property, but look upon it always as my property, in which I respect nothing. Pray do the like with what you call my property!". Stirner, Max. The Ego and Its Own, p. 248 His concept of "egoistic property" not only a lack of moral restraint on how own obtains and uses things, but includes other people as well. Moggach, Douglas. The New Hegelians. Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 194 His embrace of egoism is in stark contrast to Godwin's altruism. Stirner was opposed to communism, seeing it as a form of authority over the individual. This position on property is much different from the native American, natural law, form of individualist anarchism, which defends the inviolability of the private property that has been earned through labor Weir, David. Anarchy & Culture. University of Massachusetts Press. 1997. p. 146 and trade. However, in 1886 Benjamin Tucker rejected the natural rights philosophy and adopted Stirner's egoism, with several others joining with him. This split the American individualists into fierce debate, "with the natural rights proponents accusing the egoists of destroying libertarianism itself." McElroy, Wendy. Benjamin Tucker, Individualism, & Liberty: Not the Daughter but the Mother of Order. Literature of Liberty: A Review of Contemporary Liberal Thought (1978-1982). Institute for Human Studies. Autumn 1981, VOL. IV, NO. 3 Other egoists include James L. Walker, Sidney Parker, Dora Marsden, John Beverly Robinson, and Benjamin Tucker (later in life). In Russia, individualist anarchism inspired by Stirner combined with an appreciation for Friedrich Nietzsche attracted a small following of bohemian artists and intellectuals such as Lev Chernyi, as well as a few lone wolves who found self-expression in crime and violence. Levy, Carl. "Anarchism". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007. They rejected organizing, believing that only unorganized individuals were safe from coercion and domination, believing this kept them true to the ideals of anarchism. Avrich, Paul. "The Anarchists in the Russian Revolution". Russian Review, Vol. 26, No. 4. (Oct., 1967). p. 343 This type of individualist anarchism inspired anarcho-feminist Emma Goldman Though Stirner's philosophy is individualist, it has influenced some libertarian communists and anarcho-communists. "For Ourselves Council for Generalized Self-Management" discusses Stirner and speaks of a "communist egoism," which is said to be a "synthesis of individualism and collectivism," and says that "greed in its fullest sense is the only possible basis of communist society." For Ourselves, The Right to Be Greedy: Theses On The Practical Necessity Of Demanding Everything, 1974. Forms of libertarian communism such as Situationism are influenced by Stirner. see, for example, Christopher Gray, Leaving the Twentieth Century, p. 88. Anarcho-communist Emma Goldman was influenced by both Stirner and Peter Kropotkin and blended their philosophies together in her own, as shown in books of hers such as Anarchism And Other Essays. Emma Goldman, Anarchism and Other Essays, p. 50. France From the legacy of Proudhon and Stirner there emerged a strong tradition of french individualist anarchism. An early important individualist anarchist was Anselme Bellegarrigue. He participated in the French Revolution of 1848, was author and editor of 'Anarchie, Journal de l'Ordre and Au fait ! Au fait ! Interprétation de l'idée démocratique' and wrote the important early Anarchist Manifesto in 1850. Later this tradition continued with such intellectuals as Albert Libertad, André Lorulot, Emile Armand, Victor Serge, Zo d'Axa and Rirette Maitrejean developed theory in the main individualist anarchist journal in France, L’Anarchie in 1905. Outside this journal, Han Ryner wrote Petit Manuel individualiste (1903). French individualist anarchist exposed a diversity of positions (per example, about violence and non-violence). French individualist anarchist exposed a diversity of positions. For example Emile Armand rejected violence and embraced mutualism while becoming an important propagandist for free love, while Albert Libertad and Zo d’Axa was influential in violentists circles and championed violent propaganda by the deed while adhering to communitarianism or anarcho-communism "Libertad était un révolté, qui luttait non en dehors (tel les communautaires/colonies) ni à côté de la société (les éducationnistes), mais en son sein. Il sera énoncé comme une figure de l'anarchisme individualiste, néanmoins, il ne se revendiquera jamais ainsi, même si il ne rejetait pas l'individualisme, et que Libertad se revendiquait du communisme ; plus tard, Mauricius, qui était un des éditeurs du journal "l'Anarchie" dira "Nous ne nous faisions pas d'illusions, nous savions bien que cette libération totale de l'individu dans la société capitaliste était impossible et que la réalisation de sa personnalité ne pourrait se faire que dans une société raisonnable, dont le communisme libertaire nous semblait être la meilleure expression.". Libertad s'associait à la dynamique de révolte individuelle radicale au projet d'émancipation collective. Il insistait sur la nécessité de développer le sentiment de camaraderie, afin de remplacer la concurrence qui était la morale de la société bourgeoise. ""Albert Libertad" and rejecting work. Han Ryner on the other side conciled anarchism with stoicism. Nevertheless french individualist circles had a strong sense of personal libertarianism and experimentation. Naturism and free love contents started to have a strong influence in individualist anarchist circles and from there it expanded to the rest of anarchism also appearing in spanish individualist anarchist groups. "In this sense, the theoretical positions and the vital experiences of french individualism are deeply iconoclastic and scandalous, even within libertarian circles. The call of nudist naturism, the strong defence of bith control methods, the idea of "unions of egoists" with the sole justification of sexual practices, that will try to put in practice, not without difficulties, will establish a way of thought and action, and will result in symphathy within some, and a strong rejection within others." "La insumisión voluntaria. El anarquismo individualista español durante la dictadura y la Segunda República" by Xavier Díez Illegalism Illegalism The "Illegalists", by Doug Imrie (published by Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed) is an anarchist philosophy that developed primarily in France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland during the early 1900s as an outgrowth of Stirner's individualist anarchism "Parallel to the social, collectivist anarchist current there was an individualist one whose partisans emphasized their individu�al freedom and advised other individuals to do the same. Individualist anarchist activity spanned the full spectrum of alternatives to authoritarian society, subverting it by undermining its way of life facet by facet."Thus theft, counterfeiting, swindling and robbery became a way of life for hundreds of individual�ists, as it was already for countless thousands of proletarians. The wave of anarchist bombings and assassinations of the 1890s (Auguste Vaillant, Ravachol, Emile Henry, Sante Caserio) and the practice of illegalism from the mid-1880s to the start of the First World War (Clément Duval, Pini, Marius Jacob, the Bonnot gang) were twin aspects of the same proletarian offensive, but were expressed in an individualist practice, one that complemented the great collective struggles against capital." . Illegalists usually did not seek moral basis for their actions, recognizing only the reality of "might" rather than "right"; for the most part, illegal acts were done simply to satisfy personal desires, not for some greater ideal Parry, Richard. The Bonnot Gang. Rebel Press, 1987. p. 15 , although some committed crimes as a form of Propaganda of the deed The "Illegalists", by Doug Imrie (published by Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed) . The illegalists embraced direct action and propaganda by the deed http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm . Influenced by theorist Max Stirner's egoism as well as Proudhon (his view that Property is theft!), Clément Duval and Marius Jacob proposed the theory of la reprise individuelle (Eng: individual reclamation). Illegalism first rose to prominence among a generation of Europeans inspired by the unrest of the 1890s, during which Ravachol, Émile Henry, Auguste Vaillant, and Caserio committed daring crimes in the name of anarchism "Pre-WWI France was the setting for the only documented anarchist revolutionary movement to embrace all illegal activity as revolutionary practice. Pick-pocketing, theft from the workplace, robbery, confidence scams, desertion from the armed forces, you name it, illegalist activity was praised as a justifiable and necessary aspect of class struggle.""Illegalism" by Rob los Ricos , in what is known as propaganda of the deed. France's Bonnot Gang was the most famous group to embrace illegalism. Italy In Italy individualist anarchism had a strong tendency towards illegalism and violent propaganda by the deed similar to french individualist anarchism but perhaps more extreme "anarco-individualismo" in italian anarchopedia . In this respect we can consider notorious magnicides carried out or attempted by individualists Giovanni Passannante, Sante Caserio, Michele Angiolillo, Luigi Luccheni, Gaetano Bresci who murdered king Umberto I. Caserio lived in france and coexisted within french illegalism and later assasined french president Sadi Carnot. The theoretical seeds of current Insurrectionary anarchism were already laid out at the end of 19th century Italy in a combination of individualist anarchism criticism of permanent groups and organization with a socialist class struggle worldview "Essa trova soprattutto in America del Nord un notevole seguito per opera del Galleani che esprime una sintesi fra l'istanza puramente individualista di stampo anglosassone e americano (ben espressa negli scritti di Tucker) e quella profondamente socialista del movimento anarchico di lingua italiana. Questa commistione di elementi individualisti e comunisti - che caratterizza bene la corrente antiorganizzatrice - rappresenta lo sforzo di quanti avvertirono in modo estremamente sensibile l'invadente burocratismo che pervadeva il movimento operaio e socialista.""anarchismo insurrezionale" in italian anarchopedia .During the rise of fascism this thought also motivated Gino Lucetti, Michele Schirru and Angelo Sbardellotto in attempting the assassination of Benito Mussolini. During the early 20th century it is important the intelectual work of individualist anarchist Renzo Novatore which was influenced by Stirner, Friedrich Nietzsche, Georges Palante, Oscar Wilde, Henrik Ibsen, Arthur Schopenhauer and Charles Baudelaire. He collaborated in numerous anarchist journals and participated in futurism avant-garde currents. In his thought he adhered to stirnerist disrespect to private property only recognizing property of one´s own spirit. "Novatore non era contrario all’abolizione della proprietà privata, poichè riteneva che l’unica proprietà inviolabile fosse solo quella spirituale ed etica. Il suo pensiero è esplicitato in "Verso il nulla creatore": Bisogna che tutto ciò che si chiama "proprietà materiale", "proprietà privata", "proprietà esteriore" diventi per gli individui ciò che è il sole, la luce, il cielo, il mare, le stelle. E ciò avverrà!Avverrà perchè noi - gli iconoclasti - la violenteremo!Solo la ricchezza etica espirituale è invulnerabile. E’ vera proprietà dell'individuo. Il resto no! Il resto è vulnerabile! E tutto ciò che è vulnerabile sarà vulnerato.""Renzo Novatore" in italian anarchopedia . Spain Spain received the influence of american individualist anarchism but most importantly it was related to the french currents. At the turn of the century individualism in Spain takes force through the efforts of people such as Dorado Montero, Ricardo Mella, Federico Urales and J. Elizalde who will translatre french and american individualists. Important in this respect were also magazines such as La Idea Libre, La revista blanca, Etica, Iniciales, Al margen and Nosotros. The most influential thinkers there were Stirner, Emile Armand and Han Ryner. Just as in France, the spreading of Esperanto had importance just as naturism and free love currents. Later Armand and Ryner themselves will start writing in the spanish invidualist press. The concept of Armand of amorous chamaraderie had an important role in motivating promiscuity as realization of the individual. Germany In Germany the scottish-german John Henry McKay became the most important propagandist for individualist anarchist ideas. He fused stirnerist egoism with the positions of Benjamin Tucker and actually translated Tucker into german. Two semi-fictional writings of his own Die Anarchisten and Der Freiheitsucher contributed to individualist theory through an updating of egoist themes within a consideration of the anarchist movement. English translations of these works arrived in the United Kingdom and in individualist american circles lead by Tucker "New England Anarchism in Germany" by Thomas A. Riley . McKay is also known as an important european early activist for LGBT rights. Russia In Russia, Lev Chernyi was an important individualist anarchist involved in resistance against the rise to power of the Bolchevik Party. He adhered mainly to Stirner and the ideas of Tucker. He died after being accused of participation in an episode in which this group bombed the headquarters of the Moscow Committee of the Communist Party. Although most likely not being really involved in the bombing, he might have died of torture "Prominent Anarchists and Left-Libertarians" . Criticisms George Bernard Shaw expressed doubts about the distribution of wealth under individualist anarchism. Prior to abandoning anarchism, libertarian socialist Murray Bookchin criticized individualist anarchism for its opposition to democracy and its embrace of "lifestylism" at the expense of class struggle. Bookchin claimed that individualist anarchism supports only negative liberty and rejects the idea of positive liberty. Bookchin, Murray. "Communalism: The Democratic Dimensions of Social Anarchism". Anarchism, Marxism and the Future of the Left: Interviews and Essays, 1993-1998. AK Press, 1999, p. 155 Anarcho-communist Albert Meltzer proposed that individualist anarchism differs radically from revolutionary anarchism, and that it "is sometimes too readily conceded 'that this is, after all, anarchism'." He claimed that Benjamin Tucker's acceptance of the use of a private police force (including to break up violent strikes to protect the "employer's 'freedom'") is contradictory to the definition of anarchism as "no government." Meltzer, Albert. Anarchism: Arguments For and Against. AK Press, 2000. pp. 114-115 Meltzer opposed anarcho-capitalism for similar reasons, arguing that since it supports "private armies", it actually supports a "limited State." He contends that it "is only possible to conceive of Anarchism which is free, communistic and offering no economic necessity for repression of countering it." Meltzer, Albert. Anarchism: Arguments For and Against. AK Press, 2000. p 50 According to Gareth Griffith, George Bernard Shaw initially had flirtations with individualist anarchism before coming to the conclusion that it was "the negation of socialism, and is, in fact, unsocialism carried as near to its logical conclusion as any sane man dare carry it." Shaw's argument was that even if wealth was initially distributed equally, the degree of laissez-faire advocated by Tucker would result in the distribution of wealth becoming unequal because it would permit private appropriation and accumulation. Griffith, Gareth. Socialism and Superior Brain: The Political Thought of George Bernard Shaw. Routledge (UK). 1993. p. 310 According to academic Carlotta Anderson, American individualist anarchists accept that free competition results in unequal wealth distribution, but they "do not see that as an injustice." Anderson, Carlotta R. All-American Anarchist: Joseph A. Labadie and the Labor Movement, Wayne State University Press, 1998, p. 250 Tucker explained, "If I go through life free and rich, I shall not cry because my neighbor, equally free, is richer. Liberty will ultimately make all men rich; it will not make all men equally rich. Authority may (and may not) make all men equally rich in purse; it certainly will make them equally poor in all that makes life best worth living." Tucker, Benjamin. Economic Rent. There is also criticism between contemporary individualist anarchism currents. American mutualist Joe Peacott has criticized anarcho-capitalists for trying to hegemonize the label "individualist anarchism" and make appear as if all individualist anarchists are pro-capitalism "In her article on individualist anarchism in the October, 1984, New Libertarian, Wendy McElroy mistakenly claims that modern-day individualist anarchism is identical with anarchist capitalism. She ignores the fact that there are still individualist anarchists who reject capitalism as well as communism, in the tradition of Warren, Spooner, Tucker, and others.""I do not quarrel with McElroy's definition of herself as an individualist anarchist. However, I dislike the fact that she tries to equate the term with anarchist capitalism. This is simply not true. I am an individualist anarchist and I am opposed to capitalist economic relations, voluntary or otherwise.""Benjamin Tucker, when he spoke of his ideal "society of contract," was certainly not speaking of anything remotely resembling contemporary capitalist society." "Reply to Wendy Mc Elroy" by Joe Peacott . He has stated that "some individualists, both past and present, agree with the communist anarchists that present-day capitalism is based on economic coercion, not on voluntary contract. Rent and interest are mainstays of modern capitalism, and are protected and enforced by the state. Without these two unjust institutions, capitalism could not exist." "Reply to Wendy Mc Elroy" by Joe Peacott In this way he adheres to mutualist anti-capitalism. See also Tax resistance Footnotes α The term "individualist anarchism" is often used as a classificatory term, but in very different ways. Some sources, such as An Anarchist FAQ use the classification "social anarchism / individualist anarchism". Some see individualist anarchism as distinctly non-socialist, and use the classification "socialist anarchism / individualist anarchism" accordingly. Ostergaard, Geoffrey. "Anarchism". The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14. Other classifications include "mutualist/communal" anarchism. Carson, Kevin, "A Mutualist FAQ". β Michael Freeden identifies four broad types of individualist anarchism. He says the first is the type associated with William Godwin that advocates self-government with a "progressive rationalism that included benevolence to others." The second type is the amoral self-serving rationality of Egoism, as most associated with Max Stirner. The third type is "found in Herbert Spencer's early predictions, and in that of some of his disciples such as Donisthorpe, foreseeing the redundancy of the state in the source of social evolution." The fourth type retains a moderated form of egoism and accounts for social cooperation through the advocacy of market relationships. Freeden, Micheal. Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019829414X. pp. 313-314 γSee, for example, the Winter 2006 issue of the Journal of Libertarian Studies, dedicated to reviews of Kevin Carson's Studies in Mutualist Political Economy. Mutualists compose one bloc, along with agorists and geo-libertarians, in the recently formed Alliance of the Libertarian Left. δThough this term is non-standard usage – by "left", agorists mean "left" in the general sense used by left-libertarians, as defined by Roderick T. Long, as "... an integration, or I’d argue, a reintegration of libertarianism with concerns that are traditionally thought of as being concerns of the left. That includes concerns for worker empowerment, worry about plutocracy, concerns about feminism and various kinds of social equality."'' Long, Roderick. T. An Interview With Roderick Long εKonkin wrote the article "Copywrongs"in opposition to the concept and Schulman countered SEK3's arguments in "Informational Property: Logorights." ζ Individualist anarchism is also known by the terms "anarchist individualism", "anarcho-individualism", "individualistic anarchism", "libertarian anarchism", Morris, Christopher. 1992. An Essay on the Modern State. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. (Used synonymously with "individualist anarchism" when referring to individualist anarchism that supports a market society) "One is anarcho-capitalism, a form of libertarian anarchism which demands that the state should be abolished and that private individuals and firms should control social and economic affairs" (Barbara Goodwin, "Using Political Ideas", fourth edition, John Wiley & Sons (1987), p. 137-138) "the 'libertarian anarchist' could on the face of it either be in favour of capitalism or against it...Pro-capitalist anarchism, is as one might expect, particularly prevalent in the U.S. where it feeds on the strong individualist and libertarian currents that have always been part of the American political imaginary. To return to the point, however, there are individualist anarchists who are most certainly not anti-capitalist and there are those who may well be." Tormey, Simon, Anti-Capitalism, A Beginner's Guide, Oneworld Publications, 2004, p. 118-119 .Friedman presents practical and economic arguments for both libertarianism in general and libertarian anarchism, which he calls anarcho-capitalism." Burton, Daniel C. Libertarian Anarchism: Why It Is Best For Freedom, Law, The Economy And The Environment, And Why Direct Action Is The Way To Get It, Political Notes No. 168, Libertarian Alliance (2001), ISSN 0267-7058 ISBN 1 85637 504 8, p. 1 & 7 - Note: Burton is the founder of the Individualist Anarchist Society at the University of California at Berkeley. "anarcho-libertarianism", "anarchist libertarianism" and "anarchistic libertarianism". References External links Individualist anarchism at Government and Politics Research Guide "Anarchist Individualism as a Life and Activity" by Emile Armand A.3.1 What are the differences between individualist and social anarchists? Mini-Manual of Individualism by Han Ryner The Ego and his own by Max Stirner Mutualist.org. Free market anti-capitalism Voluntary non-submission. Spanish individualist anarchism during dictatorship and the second republic (1923-1938) PDF in Spanish THE "ILLEGALISTS" by Doug Imrie "An Introduction to Individualist Anarchism" by Andrew Rogers Articles by Wendy McElroy about Individualist Anarchism Essay by Benjamin Tucker in 1886 Toward the creative Nothing by Renzo Novatore L'En Dehors current french individualist anarchist magazine and website Global Websites on Individualist Anarchism, ISIL Freedom Network | Individualist_anarchism |@lemmatized individualist:121 anarchism:102 refers:2 several:2 tradition:7 thought:17 within:10 anarchist:95 movement:9 emphasize:3 individual:63 kind:6 external:4 determinant:1 group:7 society:26 ideological:1 system:5 mean:10 individualism:15 moral:8 doctrine:1 rely:1 dogma:1 determination:2 appeal:1 conscience:1 mini:2 manual:2 han:7 ryner:7 admit:1 anything:2 except:1 existence:1 condition:5 sovereignty:6 say:13 liberty:12 simply:7 another:2 way:12 state:33 single:2 philosophy:15 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4,932 | Jurisdiction | In law, jurisdiction (from the Latin ius, iuris meaning "law" and dicere meaning "to speak") is the practical authority granted to a formally constituted legal body or to a political leader to deal with and make pronouncements on legal matters and, by implication, to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility. Alternatively, jurisdiction is the authority given to a legal body, or to a political leader to adjudicate and enforce legal matters. Jurisdiction draws its substance from public international law, conflict of laws, constitutional law and the powers of the executive and legislative branches of government to allocate resources to best serve the needs of its native society. Types There are three main types of judicial jurisdiction, personal (personam), territorial (locum), and subject matter (subjectam): Personal jurisdiction is an authority over a person, regardless of his location. Territorial jurisdiction is an authority confined to a bounded space, including all those present therein, and events which occur there. Subject Matter jurisdiction is an authority over the subject of the legal questions involved in the case. For jurisdiction to be complete, a court must have a concurrence of subject matter jurisdiction with either personal or territorial jurisdiction. The territorial jurisdiction is critical on the principle that courts enforce laws which are territorial in their authority. Briefly, it is "an area of land that is governed by an entity who can hold those residing therein accountable for following specific laws." Courts may also have jurisdiction that is exclusive, or concurrent or shared . Where a court has exclusive jurisdiction over a territory or a subject matter, it is the only court that is authorized to address that matter. Where a court has concurrent or shared jurisdiction, more than one court can adjudicate the matter. Where a concurrent jurisdiction exists in a civil case, a party may attempt to engage in forum shopping, by bringing the case to a court which it presumes would rule in its favor. International dimension International laws and treaties provide agreements which nations agree to be bound to. Political issue Supranational organizations provide mechanisms whereby disputes between states may be resolved through arbitration or mediation. When a country is recognized as de jure, it is an acknowledgment by the other de jure nations that the country has sovereignty and the right to exist. However, it is often at the discretion of each state whether to co-operate or participate. If a state does agree to participate in activities of the supranational bodies and accept decisions, the state is giving up its sovereign authority and thereby allocating power to these bodies. Insofar as these bodies or nominated individuals may resolve disputes in a judicial or quasi-judicial fashion, or promote treaty obligations in the nature of laws, the power ceded to these bodies cumulatively represents its own jurisdiction. But no matter how powerful each body may appear to be, the extent to which any of the judgments may be enforced, or proposed treaties and conventions may become or remain effective within the territorial boundaries of each nation is a political matter under the sovereign control of the relevant representative government(s) which, in a democratic context, will have electorates to satisfy. International and municipal jurisdiction The fact that international organizations, courts and tribunals have been created raises the difficult question of how to co-ordinate their activities with those of national courts. If the two sets of bodies do not have concurrent jurisdiction but, as in the case of the International Criminal Court (ICC), the relationship is expressly based on the principle of complementarity, i.e. the international court is subsidiary or complementary to national courts, the difficulty is avoided. But if the jurisdiction claimed is concurrent, or as in the case of International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), the international tribunal is to prevail over national courts, the problems are more difficult to resolve politically. The idea of universal jurisdiction is fundamental to the operation of global organizations such as the United Nations and the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which jointly assert the benefit of maintaining legal entities with jurisdiction over a wide range of matters of significance to states (the ICJ should not be confused with the ICC and this version of "universal jurisdiction" is not the same as that enacted in the War Crimes Law (Belgium) which is an assertion of extraterritorial jurisdiction that will fail to gain implementation in any other state under the standard provisions of public policy). Under Article 34 Statute of the ICJ only states may be parties in cases before the Court and, under Article 36, the jurisdiction comprises all cases which the parties refer to it and all matters specially provided for in the Charter of the United Nations or in treaties and conventions in force. But, to invoke the jurisdiction in any given case, all the parties have to accept the prospective judgment as binding. This reduces the risk of wasting the Court's time. Despite the safeguards built into the constitutions of most of these organizations, courts and tribunals, the concept of universal jurisdiction is controversial among those states which prefer unilateral to multilateral solutions through the use of executive or military authority, sometimes described as realpolitik-based diplomacy. Within other international contexts, there are intergovernmental organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) that have socially and economically significant dispute resolution functions but, again, even though their jurisdiction may be invoked to hear the cases, the power to enforce their decisions is at the will of the states affected, save that the WTO is permitted to allow retaliatory action by successful states against those states found to be in breach of international trade law. At a regional level, groups of states can create political and legal bodies with sometimes complicated patchworks of overlapping provisions detailing the jurisdictional relationships between the member states and providing for some degree of harmonization between their national legislative and judicial functions, for example, the European Union and African Union both have the potential to become federated states although the political barriers to such unification in the face of entrenched nationalism will be very difficult to overcome. Each such group may form transnational institutions with declared legislative or judicial powers. For example, in Europe, the European Court of Justice has been given jurisdiction as the ultimate appellate court to the member states on issues of European law. This jurisdiction is entrenched and its authority could only be denied by a member state if that member State asserts its sovereignty and withdraws from the union. International and municipal law The standard treaties and conventions leave the issue of implementation to each state, i.e. there is no general rule in international law that treaties have direct effect in municipal law, but some states, by virtue of their membership of supranational bodies, allow the direct incorporation of rights or enact legislation to honor their international commitments. Hence, citizens in those states can invoke the jurisdiction of local courts to enforce rights granted under international law wherever there is incorporation. If there is no direct effect or legislation, there are two theories to justify the courts incorporating international into municipal law: Monism This theory characterizes international and municipal law as a single legal system with municipal law subordinate to international law. Hence, in the Netherlands, all treaties and the orders of international organizations are effective without any action being required to convert international into municipal law. This has an interesting consequence because treaties that limit or extend the powers of the Dutch government are automatically considered a part of their constitutional law, for example, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In states adopting this theory, the local courts automatically accept jurisdiction to adjudicate on lawsuits relying on international law principles. Dualism This theory regards international and municipal law as separate systems so that the municipal courts can only apply international law either when it has been incorporated into municipal law or when the courts incorporate international law on their own motion. In the United Kingdom, for example, a treaty is not effective until it has been incorporated at which time it becomes enforceable in the courts by any private citizen, where appropriate, even against the UK Government. Otherwise the courts have a discretion to apply international law where it does not conflict with statute or the common law. The constitutional principle of parliamentary supremacy permits the legislature to enact any law inconsistent with any international treaty obligations even though the government is a signatory to those treaties. In the United States, the Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution makes all treaties that have been ratified under the authority of the United States and customary international law, …the "Supreme Law of the Land" (U.S. Const.art. VI Cl. 2) and, as such, the law of the land is binding on the federal government as well as on state and local governments. According to the Supreme Court of the United States, the treaty power authorizes Congress to legislate under the Necessary and Proper Clause in areas beyond those specifically conferred on Congress (Missouri v. Holland, 252 U.S. 416 (1920)). The jurisdiction between and within states This now concerns states in the technical legal sense of the word and the relationships both between courts in different states, and between courts within the same state. The usual legal doctrine under which questions of jurisdiction are decided is termed forum non conveniens. Supranational At a supranational level, countries have adopted a range of treaty and convention obligations to relate the right of individual litigants to invoke the jurisdiction of state courts and to enforce the judgments obtained. For example, the member states of the EEC signed the Brussels Convention in 1968 and, subject to amendments as new states joined, it represents the default law for all twenty-seven Member States of what is now termed the European Union on the relationships between the courts in the different countries. In addition, the Lugano Convention (1988) binds the European Union and the European Free Trade Association. In effect from 1 March, 2002, all the member states of the EU except Denmark accepted Council Regulation (EC) 44/2001, which makes major changes to the Brussels Convention and is directly effective in the member states. In some legal areas, at least, the reciprocal enforcement of foreign judgments is now more straightforward. At a state level, the traditional rules still determine jurisdiction over persons who are not domiciled or habitually resident in the European Union or the Lugano area. To deal with the issue of forum shopping, states are urged to adopt more positive rules on conflict of laws. The Hague Conference and other international bodies have made recommendations on jurisdictional matters, but litigants with the encouragement of lawyers on a contingent fee continue to shop for forums. Many nations are subdivided into states and provinces (i.e. a subnational "state") in a federation (as can be found in Australia, Brazil, India, Mexico and the United States) and these subunits will exercise jurisdiction through the court systems as defined by the executives and legislatures. When the jurisdictions of governmental entities overlap, one another—for example, between a state and the federation to which it belongs—their jurisdiction is shared or concurrent jurisdiction. Otherwise, one government entity will have exclusive jurisdiction over the shared area. When jurisdiction is concurrent, one governmental entity may have supreme jurisdiction over the other entity if their laws conflict. If the executive or legislative powers within the jurisdiction are not restricted or restricted only by a number of limited restrictions, these government branches have plenary power such as a national policing power. Otherwise, an enabling act grants only limited or enumerated powers. The problem of forum shopping also applies as between federal and state courts. State level Within each state, it is for the government to determine the allocation of jurisdiction: There must be physical distribution of courts and tribunals throughout the territory which should be divided into convenient functional divisions to provide an effective service to the local communities. Hence, it may be convenient for there to be an extensive network of smaller local courts having a criminal law jurisdiction so that neighborhoods can have a disposition system administered by those familiar with their locality and its needs (see criminal jurisdiction). Whereas more specialized civil and commercial courts need only be located in larger towns and major cities where there is a demand for the particular specialisms consistent with the economic costs of providing the facilities and personnel to staff them. Each court system lays down detailed rules for determining who may invoke the jurisdiction in each of the various divisions. In addition to the possibility that the plaintiff has a local domicile, nationality or habitual residence, these conditions may vary from minimum residence requirements for those more transiently present, that business has been conducted within the territory or that there is some other real connection between the plaintiff and/or the cause of action and the state in which the lawsuit has been filed. The government may decide that individuals within the executive should have the power to make judicial or quasi-judicial decisions, and the extent to which the exercise of this jurisdiction should be subject to review by the courts. This has constitutional implications in that many states operate on the basis of the separation of powers which requires that each branch of government operates as a check on the potential abuse of power by the others. Within the formalized judicial structure, jurisdiction may also be granted to individuals for the provision of specialized functions (e.g. the role of special referees or those individuals of prestige commissioned to conduct inquiries into specific situations with the power to compel testimony). In parallel to the courts system, other tribunals and quasi-judicial bodies may also have a form of jurisdiction, e.g. for arbitration, mediation, etc within a broad framework of alternative dispute resolution. Under normal circumstances, the supervisory function of the courts will be built into the constitutive process for each tribunal or body, or the courts will allow their jurisdiction to be invoked, e.g. by way of remedies such as certiorari, to ensure that justice is seen to be done. However, some well-established bodies such as the Beth Din represent more interesting challenges. Such religious or culturally-based courts often have significant power within the relevant communities yet, in an increasingly multi-ethnic, multi-cultural world, the secular or culturally-different majority in each state cannot be seen to be too quick to interfere and impose its standards without appearing to engage in unequal treatment and discrimination (see the secular response to the get as an example). U.S. The primary distinctions between areas of jurisdiction are codified at a national level. As a common law system, jurisdiction is conceptually divided between jurisdiction over the subject matter of a case and jurisdiction over the person of the litigants. (See personal jurisdiction.) Sometimes a court may exercise jurisdiction over property located within the perimeter of its powers without regard to personal jurisdiction over the litigants; this is called jurisdiction in rem. A court whose subject-matter jurisdiction is limited to certain types of controversies (for example, suits in admiralty or suits where the monetary amount sought is less than a specified sum) is sometimes referred to as a court of special jurisdiction or court of limited jurisdiction. A court whose subject-matter is not limited to certain types of controversy is referred to as a court of general jurisdiction. In the U.S. states, each state has courts of general jurisdiction; most states also have some courts of limited jurisdiction. Federal courts (those operated by the federal government) are courts of limited jurisdiction. Federal jurisdiction is divided into federal question jurisdiction and diversity jurisdiction. The United States district courts may hear only cases arising under federal law and treaties, cases involving ambassadors, admiralty cases, controversies between states or between a state and citizens of another state, lawsuits involving citizens of different states, and against foreign states and citizens. Certain courts, particularly the United States Supreme Court and most state supreme courts, have discretionary jurisdiction, meaning that they can choose which cases to hear from among all the cases presented on appeal. Such courts generally only choose to hear cases that would settle important and controversial points of law. Though these courts have discretion to deny cases they otherwise could adjudicate, no court has the discretion to hear a case that falls outside of its subject-matter jurisdiction. It is also necessary to distinguish between original jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction. A court of original jurisdiction has the power to hear cases as they are first initiated by a plaintiff, while a court of appellate jurisdiction may only hear an action after the court of original jurisdiction (or a lower appellate court) has heard the matter. For example, in United States federal courts, the United States district courts have original jurisdiction over a number of different matters (as mentioned above), and the United States court of appeals have appellate jurisdiction over matters appealed from the district courts. The U.S. Supreme Court, in turn, has appellate jurisdiction (of a discretionary nature) over the Courts of Appeals, as well as the state supreme courts, by means of writ of certiorari. However, in a special class of cases, the U.S. Supreme Court has the power to exercise original jurisdiction. Under , the Supreme court has original and exclusive jurisdiction over controversies between two or more states, and original (but non-exclusive) jurisdiction over cases involving officials of foreign states, controversies between the federal government and a state, actions by a state against the citizens of another state or foreign country. The word "jurisdiction" is also used, especially in informal writing, to refer to a state or political subdivision generally, or to its government, rather than to its legal authority. See also, e.g., "Metro's $11 Billion To-Do List," in The Washington Post: "Local jurisdictions are also facing shortfalls, and much will depend on the economy and political decisions at the local, state and federal levels"; "Teacher pension pinch," in The Baltimore Sun: "Large, affluent jurisdictions have scores of high-salaried teachers with correspondingly higher pension costs." Franchise jurisdiction In the history of English common law, a jurisdiction could be held as a form of property (or more precisely an incorporeal hereditament) called a franchise. Traditional franchise jurisdictions of various powers were held by municipal corporations, religious houses, guilds, early universities, Welsh Marches, and Counties Palatine. Types of franchise courts included Courts Baron, Courts Leet, merchant courts, and the Stannary Courts which dealt with disputes involving the tin miners of Cornwall. The original royal charters of the American colonies included broad grants of franchise jurisdiction along with other governmental powers to corporations or individuals, as did the charters for many other colonial companies such as the British East India Company and British South Africa Company. Analogous jurisdiction existed in medieval times on the European Continent. Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, franchise jurisdictions were largely eliminated. Several formerly important franchise courts were not officially abolished until Courts Act of 1971. See also Lawsuits against God Law enforcement agency - a different use of the word jurisdictio Labor unions in the United States - a different use of the word jurisdiction Guantánamo Bay Rasul v. Bush Footnotes External links LII Law about... 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4,933 | Vought_F4U_Corsair | The Chance Vought F4U Corsair was a carrier-capable fighter aircraft that saw service in World War II and the Korean War (and in isolated local conflicts). Goodyear-built Corsairs were designated FG and Brewster-built aircraft F3A. The Corsair served in some air forces until the 1960s, following the longest production run of any piston-engined fighter in U.S. history (1942–1952). O'Leary 1980, p. 116. Pilot's Manual 1979, Prologue. Some Japanese pilots regarded it as the most formidable American fighter of World War II. Jablonski, p. 171. The U.S. Navy counted an 11:1 kill ratio with the F4U Corsair. Donald 1995, p. 246. Corsairs served with the U.S. Navy, U.S. Marines, Fleet Air Arm, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force, as well the French Navy Aeronavale and other services postwar. It quickly became the most capable carrier-based fighter-bomber of World War II. Demand for the aircraft soon overwhelmed Vought's manufacturing capability, resulting in production by Goodyear (as the FG-1) and Brewster (as the F3A-1). From the first prototype delivery to the U.S. Navy in 1940, to final delivery in 1953 to the French, 12,571 F4U Corsairs were manufactured by Vought, Shettle 2001, p. 107. in 16 separate models. Donald 1995, p. 244. Wilson 1996. Development In February 1938, the U.S. Navy Bureau of Aeronautics published two requests for proposal, for twin-engined and single-engined fighters. For the single-engined fighter the Navy requested the maximum obtainable speed, and a stalling speed not higher than . A range of was specified. Russell 1984, p. 25 The fighter had to carry four guns, or three with increased ammunition. Provision had to be made for anti-aircraft bombs to be carried in the wing. These small bombs would, according to thinking in the 1930s, be dropped on enemy aircraft formations. The XF4U-1 prototype in 1940/41 In June 1938, the U.S. Navy signed a contract for a prototype, the XF4U-1, BuNo 1443. The Corsair was designed by Rex Beisel and the Vought design team. After mock-up inspection in February 1939, construction of the XF4U-1 powered by an XR-2800-4 engine, rated at 1,805 hp (1,350 kW) went ahead quickly. When the prototype was built it had the biggest and most powerful engine, largest propeller and probably the largest wing on any fighter in history. Gunston 1980, p. 42. The first flight of the XF4U-1 was made on May 29, 1940, with Lyman A. Bullard, Jr. at the controls. The maiden flight proceeded normally until a hurried landing was made when the elevator trim tabs failed because of flutter. Johnsen 1993, p. 5. Tillman 1979, p. 5. On October 1, the XF4U-1 made a flight from Stratford to Hartford with an average ground speed of , the first U.S. fighter to fly faster than . Veronico et al. 1994, p. 11. The XF4U-1 also had an excellent rate of climb. On the other hand, the testing of the XF4U-1 revealed some requirements would have to be rewritten. In full-power dive tests, speeds of up to were achieved, not without damage to the control surfaces and access panels, and, in one case, an engine failure. Guyton 1996, pp. 100–104. The spin recovery standards also had to be relaxed, as recovery from the required two-turn spin proved impossible without recourse to an anti-spin chute. The problems clearly meant delays in getting the type into production. Reports coming back from the war in Europe indicated that an armament of two .30 in (7.62 mm) (mounted in engine cowling) and two .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns (one in each outer wing panel) was insufficient, and so when the U.S. Navy asked for production proposals in November 1940, heavier armament was specified. O'Leary 1980, pp. 101–102. The Navy entered into a letter of intent on March 3, 1941, received Vought's production proposal on April 2 and awarded Vought a contract for 584 F4U-1 fighters on June 30 of the same year. Musciano 1979, pp. 40–41 (dates). Tillman 1996, p. 17 (number of aircraft in first order). It was a remarkable achievement for Vought; compared to land-based counterparts, carrier aircraft are "overbuilt" and heavier, to withstand the extreme stress of deck landings. Design Pratt & Whitney R-2800-8 in a Goodyear FG-1 Corsair The F4U incorporated the largest engine available at the time, the 2,000 hp (1,490 kW) 18-cylinder Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp radial. To extract as much power as possible, a relatively large, Hamilton Standard Hydromatic three-blade propeller was used. To accommodate a folding wing, the designers considered retracting the main landing gear rearward, but for the chord of wing selected, it was difficult to fit undercarriage struts long enough to provide sufficient clearance for the large propeller. Their solution was an inverted gull wing, a similar layout to the one used by Germany's Junkers Ju 87 dive bomber, considerably shortening the length of the main gear legs. Green 1973, p. 188. The anhedral of the wing's center-section also permitted the wing and fuselage to meet at the optimum angle for minimizing drag, without the need for wing root fairings. Offsetting these benefits, the bent wing was more difficult to construct and weighed more than a straight one. The Corsair's aerodynamics were an advance over those of contemporary naval fighters. The F4U was the first U.S. Navy airplane to feature landing gear that retracted fully, in a similar manner to that of the Curtiss P-40 in that the oleo struts rotated through 90° during retraction, with the wheel atop the lower end of the strut; a pair of rectangular doors completely enclosed the wheel wells, leaving a completely streamlined wing. Swinhert, Earl. "Vought F4U Corsair." The Aviation History Online Museum. Retrieved: 3 March 2007. The oil coolers were mounted in the center-section of the wings, alongside of the supercharger air intakes, and used openings in the leading edges of the wings, rather than protruding scoops. The large fuselage panels were made of magnesium and were attached to the frames with the newly-developed technique of spot welding, thus mostly eliminating the use of rivets. While employing this new technology, the Corsair was also the last American-produced fighter aircraft to feature fabric as the skinning for the top and bottom of each outer wing, aft of the main spar and armament bays, and for the ailerons, elevators and rudder. In addition, the elevators were constructed from plywood. Russell 1984, p. 26. Even with its streamlining and high speed abilities, with full flap deployment of 60°, the Corsair could fly slowly enough for carrier landings. In part because of its advances in technology and a top speed greater than existing Navy aircraft, numerous technical problems had to be solved before the Corsair would enter service. Carrier suitability was a major development issue, prompting changes to the main landing gear, tail wheel and tailhook. Early F4U-1s had difficulty recovering from developed spins, since the inverted gull wing's shape interfered with elevator authority. It also found that the Corsair's starboard wing could stall and drop rapidly and without warning during slow carrier landings. In addition, if the throttle were suddenly advanced (for example, during an aborted landing) the port wing could stall and drop so quickly that the fighter could flip over with the rapid increase in power. Brown 1980, pp.86-87. These potentially lethal characteristics were later solved through the addition of a small, 6 in (152 mm)-long stall strip to the leading edge of the outer starboard wing, just inboard of the gun ports. This allowed the starboard wing to stall at the same time as the port. O'Leary 1980, pp.106-107. An early F4U-1 showing the "birdcage" canopy. Compare with the XF4U-1. Other problems were encountered during early carrier trials. The combination of an aft cockpit and the Corsair's long nose made landings hazardous for newly-trained pilots. During landing approaches it was found that oil from the hydraulic cowl flaps could spatter onto the windscreen, badly reducing visibility, and the undercarriage oleo struts had bad rebound characteristics on landing, allowing the aircraft to bounce out of control down the carrier deck. The first problem was solved by locking the top cowl flap down permanently, then replacing it with a fixed panel. The undercarriage bounce took more time to solve but eventually a "bleed valve" incorporated in the legs allowed the hydraulic pressure to be released gradually as the aircraft landed. The Corsair was not considered fit for carrier use until the wing stall problems and the deck bounce could be solved. In the event, because the more docile, and simpler to build F6F Hellcat had begun entering service, Corsair deployment aboard U.S. carriers was to be delayed until late 1944. Note: A landing technique using a curving approach that kept the LSO (landing signal officer) in view while coming aboard was developed by the Royal Navy and was adopted by the U.S. Navy. O'Leary 1980, p.111. Production F4U-1s featured several major modifications compared with the XF4U-1. A change of armament to six wing mounted .50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns (three in each outer wing panel) and their ammunition (400 rpg for the inner pair, 375 rpg for the outer) O'Leary 1980, p.102. meant that the location of the wing fuel tanks had to be changed. In order to keep the fuel tank close to the center of gravity (CG), the only available position was in the forward fuselage, ahead of the cockpit. Accordingly a 237 gal (897 l) self-sealing fuel tank replaced the fuselage mounted armament, the cockpit had to be moved back by and the fuselage lengthened. In addition, 150lb of armor plate was installed, along with an bullet-proof windscreen which was set internally, behind the curved Plexiglas windscreen. The canopy could be jettisoned in an emergency and curved transparent panels, providing the pilot with a limited rear view over his shoulders, were inset into the fuselage, behind the pilot's headrest. A rectangular Plexiglas panel was inset into the lower center-section to allow the pilot to see directly beneath the aircraft and assist with deck landings. Note: F2A Buffalos and F4F Wildcats used similar glazed panels. Prior to the F4U-4 Corsair cockpits did not have a complete floor. The engine used was the more powerful R-2800-8 (B series) Double Wasp which produced 2,000 hp (1,491 kW). On the wings the flaps were changed to a NACA slotted type and the ailerons were increased in span to increase the roll rate, with a consequent reduction in flap span. IFF transponder equipment was fitted in the rear fuselage. All in all these changes increased the Corsair's weight by several hundred pounds. Operational history United States Navy and Marine Corps The performance of the Corsair was impressive. The F4U-1 was considerably faster than the F6F Hellcat and slower than the P-47 Thunderbolt, Warbird Alley: Vought F4U Corsair F6F P-47 the two other fighters powered by the R-2800. But while the P-47 achieved its highest speed at with the help of an intercooled turbosupercharger, Dean 1997, p. 281. the F4U-1 reached its maximum speed at , Tillman 1979, p. 196. and used a mechanically supercharged engine. Dean 1997, p. 509. Carrier qualification trials on the escort carrier , on September 25, 1942, caused the U.S. Navy to release the type to the United States Marine Corps. Early Navy pilots spoke disparagingly of the F4U as the "hog", "hosenose" or "bent wing widow-maker". O'Rourke, G.G, Capt. USN. "Of Hosenoses, Stoofs, and Lefthanded Spads". United States Naval Institute Proceedings, July 1968. After all, the U.S. Navy still had the Grumman F6F Hellcat, which did not have the performance of the F4U but was a far better deck landing aircraft. The Marines needed a better fighter than the F4F Wildcat. For them it was not as important the F4U could be recovered aboard a carrier, as they usually flew from land bases. Growing pains aside, Marine Corps squadrons readily took to the radical new fighter. O'Leary 1980, p. 107. Early F4U-1s of VF-17. Despite the decision to issue the F4U to Marine Corps units, two Navy units, VF-12 (October 1942) and later VF-17 (April 1943) were equipped with the F4U. By April 1943, VF-12 had successfully completed deck landing qualification. Tillman 1979, p. 13. However, VF-12 soon abandoned its aircraft to the Marines. VF-17 kept its Corsairs, but was removed from its carrier, , due to perceived difficulties in supplying parts at sea. Blackburn 1989, p. 83. In November 1943, while operating as a shore-based unit in the Solomon Islands, VF-17 reinstalled the tail hooks so its F4Us could land and refuel while providing top cover over the task force participating in the carrier raid on Rabaul. The squadron's pilots successfully landed, refueled and took off from their former home, Bunker Hill and the on November 11, 1943. Bowman 2002, p. 39. The U.S. Navy did not get into combat with the type until September 1943 and the Royal Navy's FAA would qualify the type for carrier operations first. The U.S. Navy finally accepted the F4U for shipboard operations in April 1944, after the longer oleo strut was fitted, which finally eliminated the tendency to bounce. Tillman 1979, pp. 15–17. The first Corsair unit to be based effectively on a carrier was the pioneer USMC squadron, VMF-124, which joined Essex. They were accompanied by VMF-213. The increasing need for fighters as a protection against kamikaze attacks resulted in more Corsair units being moved to carriers. Condon 1998, pp. 4–5. From February 1943 onward, the F4U operated from Guadalcanal and ultimately other bases in the Solomon Islands. A dozen USMC F4U-1s of VMF-124, commanded by Major William E. Gise, arrived at Henderson Field (code name "Cactus") on 12 February. The first recorded combat engagement was on February 14, 1943, when Corsairs of VMF-124 under Major Gise assisted P-40s and P-38s in escorting a formation of B-24 Liberators on a raid against a Japanese aerodrome at Kahili. Japanese fighters contested the raid and the Americans got the worst of it, with four P-38s, two P-40s, two Corsairs and two Liberators lost. No more than four Japanese Zeros were destroyed. A Corsair was responsible for one of the kills, although this was due to a midair collision. The fiasco was referred to as the "Saint Valentine's Day Massacre". Styling 1995, pp.6-9. Sherrod 1952, pp. 134–135. Although the Corsair's combat debut was not impressive, the Marines quickly learned how to make better use of the aircraft and started demonstrating its superiority over Japanese fighters. By May the Corsair units were getting the upper hand, and VMF-124 had produced the first Corsair ace, Second Lieutenant Kenneth A. Walsh, who would rack up a total of 21 kills during the war. Sherrod 1952, p. 431. VMF-113 was activated on January 1, 1943 at Marine Corps Air Station El Toro as part of Marine Base Defense Air Group 41. They were shortly given their full complement of 24 F4U Corsairs. On March 26, 1944, while escorting 4 B-25 bombers on a raid over Ponape, they recorded their first enemy kills when they downed eight Japanese aircraft. In April of that year, VMF-113 was tasked with providing air support for the landings at Ujeland. Since the assault was unopposed the squadron quickly returned to striking Japanese targets in the Marshall Islands for the remainder of 1944. Corsairs were flown by the famous "Black Sheep" Squadron (VMF-214, led by Marine Major Gregory "Pappy" Boyington) in an area of the Solomon Islands called "The Slot". Boyington was credited with 22 kills in F4Us (of 28 total, including six in an AVG P-40). Styling 1995, pp.31, 50, 87,93. Other noted Corsair pilots of the period included VMF-124's Kenneth Walsh, James E. Swett, and Archie Donohue, VMF-215's Robert M. Hanson and Don Aldrich, and VF-17's Tommy Blackburn, Roger Hedrick, and Ira Kepford. Nightfighter versions equipped Navy and Marine units afloat and ashore. At war's end, Corsairs were ashore on Okinawa, combating the kamikaze, and also were flying from fleet and escort carriers. VMF-312, VMF-323, VMF-224, and a handful of others met with success in the Battle of Okinawa. Sherrod 1952, pp. 75–129. A Corsair fires its rockets at a Japanese stronghold on Okinawa Corsairs also served well as fighter bombers in the Central Pacific and the Philippines. By spring 1944, Marine pilots were beginning to exploit the type's considerable capabilities in the close-support role during amphibious landings. Charles Lindbergh flew Corsairs with the Marines as a civilian technical advisor for United Aircraft Corporation in order to determine how best to increase the Corsair's payload and range in the attack role and to help evaluate future viability of single- versus twin-engine fighter design for Vought. "Charles Lindbergh and the 475th Fighter Group" (from the book Lightning Strikes) Lindbergh managed to get the F4U into the air with of bombs, with a bomb on the centerline and a bomb under each wing. Jablonski 1979 In the course of such experiments, he performed strikes on Japanese positions during the battle for the Marshall Islands. By the beginning of 1945, the Corsair was a full-blown "mudfighter", performing strikes with high-explosive bombs, napalm tanks, and HVARs. She proved surprisingly versatile, able to operate everything from Bat glide bombs (without sacrificing a load of 2.75 in/70 mm rockets) to 11.75 in (300 mm) Tiny Tim rockets. Veronico et al., pp. 59, 61. The aircraft was a prominent participant in the fighting for the Palaus, Iwo Jima and Okinawa. Statistics compiled at the end of the war indicate that the F4U and FG flew 64,051 operational sorties for the U.S. Marines and U.S. Navy through the conflict (44% of total fighter sorties), with only 9,581 sorties (15%) flown from carrier decks. Barber 1946, Table 1. F4U and FG pilots claimed 2,140 air combat victories against 189 losses to enemy aircraft, for an overall kill ratio of over 11:1. Barber 1946, Table 2 The aircraft performed well against the best Japanese opponents with a 12:1 kill ratio against Mitsubishi A6M, 7:1 against Nakajima Ki-84, 13:1 against Kawanishi N1K-J, and 3:1 against Mitsubishi J2M during the last year of the war. Barber 1946, Table 28 The Corsair bore the brunt of fighter-bomber missions, delivering 15,621 tons (14,171 tonnes) of bombs during the war (70% of total bombs dropped by fighters during the war). Corsair losses in World War II were as follows: By combat: 189 By enemy anti-aircraft artillery: 349 Accidents during combat missions: 230 Accidents during non-combat flights: 692 Destroyed aboard ships or on the ground: 164 One particularly interesting kill was scored by a Marine Lieutenant R. R. Klingman of VMF-312 Checkerboards, over Okinawa. Klingman was in pursuit of a Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu ("Nick") twin engine fighter at extremely high altitude when his guns jammed due to the gun lubrication thickening from the extreme cold. He simply flew up and chopped off the Ki-45's tail with the big propeller of the Corsair. Despite missing five inches (127 mm) off the end of his propeller blades, he managed to land safely after this ramming attack. He was awarded the Navy Cross. Sherrod 1952, pp. 392–393. Korean War During the Korean War, the Corsair was used mostly in the close-support role. The AU-1 Corsair was a ground-attack version produced for the Korean War; its Pratt & Whitney R-2800 engine, while supercharged, was not as highly boosted as on the F4U. As the Corsair moved from its air superiority role in World War II into the close air support role in the Korean Conflict, the gull wing proved to be a useful feature. A straight, low-wing design would have blocked most of the visibility from the cockpit toward the ground while in level flight, but a Corsair pilot could look through a "notch" and get a better ground reference without having to bank one way or the other to move the wing out of the way. The AU-1, F4U-4B, -4C, -4P and -5N logged combat in Korea between 1950 and 1953. Thompson 2004, p. 118. There were dogfights between F4Us and Soviet-built Yakovlev Yak-9 fighters early in the conflict, but when the enemy introduced the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15, the Corsair was outmatched, though one Marine pilot did get lucky. On September 10, 1952, a MiG-15 made the mistake of getting into a turning contest with a Corsair piloted by Captain Jesse G. Folmar, with Folmar shooting the MiG down with his four cannon. Grossnick and Armstrong 1997 The MiG's wingmen quickly had their revenge, shooting down Folmar, though he bailed out and was swiftly rescued with little injury. Corsair night fighters were used to an extent. The enemy adopted the tactic of using low-and-slow Polikarpov Po-2 intruders to perform night harassment strikes on American forces, and jet-powered night fighters found catching these "Bedcheck Charlies" troublesome. U.S. Navy F4U-5Ns were posted to shore bases to hunt them down, with U.S. Navy Lieutenant Guy Pierre Bordelon, Jr. becoming the Navys only ace in the conflict, as well as the only ace to not score any victories in a jet aircraft. Tillman 1979, pp. 174–175. "Lucky Pierre" was credited with five kills (two Yakovlev Yak-18 and three Po-2). Navy and Marine Corsairs were credited with a total of 12 enemy aircraft. More generally, Corsairs performed attacks with cannon, napalm tanks, various iron bombs and unguided rockets. The old HVAR was a reliable standby; however sturdy Soviet-built armor proved resistant to the HVAR's punch. This led to a new 6.5 in (16.5 cm) shaped charge antitank warhead being developed. The result was called the "Anti-Tank Aircraft Rocket (ATAR)." Tiny Tim was also used in combat, with two under the belly. Veronico et al. 1994 There is also a story of a Corsair pilot who used his arresting hook to snag enemy communications lines from telephone poles. Lieutenant Thomas J. Hudner, Jr., flying with naval squadron VF-32 off the , was awarded the Medal of Honor for crash landing his Corsair in an attempt to rescue his squadron mate, Ensign Jesse L. Brown, whose aircraft had been forced down by antiaircraft fire near Changjin. Brown, who did not survive the incident, was the U.S. Navy's first African American naval aviator. Sherman, Tana. "Thomas J. Hudner Jr.: Building blocks for gallantry, intrepidity."Andover Bulletin, Volume 95, issue 1, Fall 2001, Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. Retrieved: 30 September 2006. Ensign Jesse LeRoy Brown, USN, (1926–1950). Retrieved: 12 February 2007. Royal Navy FG-1D Corsair in FAA markings In the early days of the war, Royal Navy fighter requirements had been based on cumbersome two-seat designs, such as the Blackburn Skua (and its turreted derivative the Blackburn Roc) as well as the Fairey Fulmar, on the assumption they would only be fighting long range bombers or flying boats. The Royal Navy hurriedly adopted higher performance aircraft such as the Hawker Sea-Hurricane and the less robust Supermarine Seafire but neither of these aircraft had sufficient range to operate at a distance from a carrier task force. The Corsair was welcomed as a much more robust and versatile alternative. Styling 1995, pp.67-68. In Royal Navy service, because of the limited hanger deck height in several classes of British carrier, many Corsairs had their outer wings "clipped" by to clear the deckhead. Styling 1995, p.68. The change in span brought about the added benefit of improving the sink rate, reducing the F4U's propensity of "floating" in the final stages of landing. Despite the clipped wings and the shorter decks of British carriers, Royal Navy aviators found landing accidents less of a problem than they had been to U.S. Navy aviators due to the curved approach used. British units solved the landing visibility problem by approaching the carrier in a medium left-hand turn, which allowed the pilot to keep the carrier's deck in view over the dip in the port wing, allowing safe carrier operations. Tillman 1979, pp. 94–95. The Royal Navy developed a number of modifications to the Corsair that made carrier landings more practical. Among these are the Malcolm Hood, raising the pilot's seat http://www.vectorsite.net/avf4u.html#m2 and wiring "shut the cowl flaps across the top of the engine compartment, diverting the oil and hydraulic fluid around the sides of the fuselage". http://www.aviation-history.com/vought/f4u.html The Royal Navy received 95 Corsair Mk Is and 510 Mk IIs, these being equivalent to the F4U-1 and -1A. Brewster-built aircraft were known as Mk IIIs (equivalent to F3A-1D), and Goodyear-built aircraft were known as Mk IVs (equivalent to FG-1D). The Mk IIs and Mk IVs were the only versions to be used in combat. Styling 1995, p.73. The Royal Navy cleared the F4U for carrier operations well before the U.S. Navy and showed that the Corsair Mk II could be operated with reasonable success even from escort carriers. It was not without problems, one being excessive wear of the arrester wires due to the weight of the Corsair and the understandable tendency of the pilots to stay well above the stalling speed. A total of 2,012 Corsairs were supplied to the United Kingdom. Swanborough and Bowers 1976, p. 404. Fleet Air Arm units were created and equipped in the United States, at Quonset Point or Brunswick and then shipped to war theaters aboard escort carriers. The first FAA Corsair unit was No. 1830, created on the first of June 1943, and soon operating from . At the end of the war, 18 FAA squadrons were operating the Corsair. British Corsairs served both in Europe and in the Pacific. The first, and also most important, European operations were the series of attacks (Operation Tungsten) in April, July and August 1944 on the , for which Corsairs from and provided fighter cover. Thetford 1978, p. 73. It appears the Corsairs did not encounter aerial opposition on these raids. At least one Corsair was captured by the Germans, this was Corsair JT404 from No. 1841 squadron (Formidable). Wing Leader Lieutenant Commander RS Baker-Falkner made an emergency landing on July 18, 1944] in a field at Sorvag, near Bodø, Norway. The Corsair was captured intact, although it is not known if it was taken to Germany. Fleet Air Arm Archive Captured Fleet Air Arm Aircraft Retrieved: 1 June 2007. In the Pacific, FAA Corsairs began to operate with the British Pacific Fleet in April 1944, participating in an attack on Sabang, and later, on January 24 and January 30, 1945 (code-named Meridian One and Meridian Two respectively) attacked the oil refineries at Palembang. In July and August 1945, Corsair squadrons Nos. 1834, 1836, 1841 and 1842 took part in a series of strikes on the Japanese mainland, near Tokyo. These squadrons operated from Victorious and Formidable. Thetford 1978, p. 74. On August 9, 1945, days before the end of the war, FAA Corsairs from Formidable were attacking Shiogama harbor on the northeast coast of Japan. Royal Canadian Navy pilot, Lieutenant Robert Hampton Gray, of 1841 Squadron was hit by flak but pressed home his attack on a Japanese destroyer, sinking it with a bomb but crashing into the sea. He was posthumously awarded Canada's last Victoria Cross, becoming the second fighter pilot of the war to earn a Victoria Cross as well as the final Canadian casualty of World War II. Note: Although P/O Andrew Mynarski's Victoria Cross was actually awarded in 1946, it commemorated an action in 1944. FAA Corsairs originally fought in a camouflage scheme with a Dark Slate Grey/Extra Dark Sea Grey disruptive pattern on top and Sky undersides, but were later painted overall dark blue. Those operating in the Pacific theater acquired a specialized British insignia — a modified blue-white roundel with white "bars" to make it look more like a U.S. than a Japanese Hinomaru insignia to prevent friendly-fire incidents. In all, out of eighteen carrier-based squadrons eight saw combat, flying intensive ground attack/interdiction operations and claiming 47.5 aircraft shot down. Styling 1995, pp.69, 73. Royal New Zealand Air Force Equipped with obsolescent Curtiss P-40s, Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) squadrons in the South Pacific performed impressively compared to the American units they operated alongside, in particular in the air-to-air role. The American government accordingly decided to give New Zealand early access to the Corsair, especially as it was not initially being used from carriers. Some 424 Corsairs equipped 13 RNZAF squadrons, including No. 14 Squadron RNZAF and No. 15 Squadron RNZAF, replacing SBD Dauntless as well as P-40s. Russell 1984, p. 28. The F4Us were allocated NZ prefixed serial numbers: F4U-1s Note: Although these are often call F4U-1As apparently this was not an official wartime designation but was one applied post-war to indicate that there were production-line modifications. The same comment applies to the -1B. Russell 1984, p. 27. NZ5201 to NZ5299; NZ5300 to NZ5399; NZ5400 to NZ5487, all of which were assembled by Unit 60; NZ5500 to NZ5577 were assembled and flown at RNZAF Hobsonville. In total there were 237 F4U-1s and 127 F4U-1Ds used by the RNZAF during the Second World War. 60 FG-1Ds which arrived post war were given serial numbers prefixed NZ5600 to NZ5660. Russell 1984, pp. 48-87. The first deliveries of lend-lease Corsairs began in March 1944 with the arrival of 30 F4U-1s at the RNZAF Base Depot Workshops (Unit 60) at Espiritu Santo in the New Hebrides. From April, these workshops became responsible for assembling all Corsairs for the RNZAF units operating the aircraft in the South West Pacific and a Test and Despatch flight was set up to test the aircraft after assembly. By June 1944, 100 Corsairs had been assembled and test flown. The first squadrons to use the Corsair were 20 and 21 Squadrons on Espiritu Santo island, operational in May 1944. The organization of the RNZAF in the Pacific and New Zealand meant that only the pilots and a small staff belonged to the Squadron (the maximum strength on a squadron was 27 pilots): Squadrons were assigned to several Servicing Units (SUs 5-6 officers, 57 NCOs, 212 airmen) which carried out aircraft maintenance and operated from fixed locations: Russell 1984, pp. 32-33. hence F4U-1 NZ5313 was first used by 20 Squadron/1 SU on Guadalcanal in May 1944; 20 Squadron was then relocated to 2 SU on Bougainville in November. Russell 1984, p. 49. In all there were 10 frontline SUs plus another three based in New Zealand. Because each of the SUs painted its aircraft with distinctive markings Russell 1984, pp. 40-45. and the aircraft themselves could be repainted in several different colour schemes the RNZAF Corsairs were far less uniform in appearance compared with their American and FAA contemporaries. Russell 1984, pp. 90-104. By late 1944, the F4U had equipped all ten Pacific-based fighter squadrons of the RNZAF. By the time the Corsairs arrived, there were virtually no Japanese aircraft left in New Zealand's allocated sectors of the Southern Pacific, and despite the RNZAF Squadrons extending their operations to more northern islands, they were primarily used for close support of American, Australian and New Zealand soldiers fighting the Japanese. New Zealand pilots were aware of the Corsair's poor forward view and tendency to ground loop, but found these drawbacks could be solved by pilot training in curved approaches before use from rough forward airbases. At the end of 1945, all Corsair squadrons but one (No. 14) were disbanded. That last squadron was based in Japan, until the Corsair was retired from service in 1947. Tillman 1979, pp. 103–105. No. 14 Squadron was given new FG-1Ds and, in March 1946 transferred to Iwakuni, Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force. Only one airworthy example of the 424 aircraft procured survives: NZ5648/ZK-COR, owned by the Old Stick and Rudder Company at Masterton, NZ. One other mostly complete aircraft and the remains of two others were known to be held by a private collector at Ardmore, NZ, in 1996. Their current whereabouts are unknown. Tillman 1979, p. 192. Old Stick and Rudder Company site French Navy A total of 94 F4U-7s were built for the French Navy in 1952, with the last of the batch, the final Corsair built, rolled out on December 24, 1952. Maloney and Feist 1967, p. 3. The F4U-7s were actually purchased by the U.S. Navy and passed on to the Aeronavale through the U.S. Military Assistance Program (MAP). The French used their F4U-7s during the end of the First Indochina War in the 1950s, where they were supplemented by at least 25 ex-USMC AU-1s passed on to the French in 1954, after the end of the Korean War. Tillman 1979, pp. 179–182. French Corsairs also performed strikes in the Algerian War in 1955 and 1956 and assisted in the Anglo-French-Israeli seizure of the Suez Canal in October 1956, codenamed Operation Musketeer. The Corsairs were painted with yellow and black recognition stripes for this operation. In 1960, some French Corsairs were rigged to carry four SS-11 wire-guided missiles. This was a more or less experimental fit and it is hard to believe it worked well, since it required a pilot to "fly" the missile after launch with a joystick while keeping track of a flare on its tail — an exercise that could be very tricky in a single-seat aircraft under combat conditions. All French Corsairs were out of service by 1964, with some surviving for museum display or as civilian warbirds. The "Football War" Corsairs flew their final combat missions during the 1969 "Football War" between Honduras and El Salvador, in service with both air forces. The conflict was famously triggered, though not really caused, by a disagreement over a football (soccer) match. Both sides claimed various numbers of kills, and each side disputed the claims of the other. Cooper, Tom and Coelich March. "El Salvador vs Honduras, 1969: The 100-Hour War." Air Combat Information Group, 1 September 2003. Retrieved: 8 March 2007. At the outset of the Football War, El Salvador enlisted the assistance of several American pilots with P-51 and F4U experience. Bob Love, a Korean was ace, Chuck Lyford, Ben Hall and Lynn Garrison flew in the world's last combat between propeller-driven fighters. Lynn Garrison had purchased F4U-7 133693 from the French MAAG office when retired from French naval service in 1964. Legacy The Corsair entered service in 1942. Although designed as a carrier fighter, initial operation from carrier decks proved to be troublesome. Its low-speed handling was tricky due to the port wing stalling before the starboard wing. This factor, together with poor visibility over the long nose (leading to one of its nicknames, "The Hose Nose"), made landing a Corsair on a carrier a difficult task. For these reasons, most Corsairs initially went to Marine Corps squadrons who operated off land-based runways, with some early Goodyear built examples (designated FG-1A) being built with fixed, non-folding wings. The USMC aviators welcomed the Corsair with open arms as its performance was far superior to the contemporary Brewster Buffalo and Grumman F4F-3 and -4 Wildcat. Moreover, the Corsair was able to outperform the primary Japanese fighter, the A6M Zero. While the Zero could out-turn the F4U at low speed, the Corsair was faster and could out-climb and out-dive the A6M. Styling 1995 Tactics developed early in the war, such as the Thach Weave, took advantage of the Corsair's strengths. This performance advantage, combined with the ability to take severe punishment, meant a pilot could place an enemy aircraft in the killing zone of the F4U's six .50 (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns and keep him there long enough to inflict major damage. The 2,300 rounds carried by the Corsair gave over one full minute of fire from each gun, which, fired in three to six-second bursts, made the F4U a devastating weapon against aircraft, ground targets, and even ships. Beginning in 1943, the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) also received Corsairs and flew them successfully from Royal Navy carriers in combat with the British Pacific Fleet and in Norway. Aircraft Database of the Fleet Air Arm Archive 1939-1945. Chance-Vought F4U Corsair Retrieved: 5 March 2007. These were clipped-wing Corsairs, the wingtips shortened 8 in (20 cm) to clear the lower overhead height of RN carriers. FAA also developed a curving landing approach to overcome the F4U's deficiencies. Veronico and Campbell 1994. Infantrymen nicknamed the Corsair "The Sweetheart of the Marianas" and "The Angel of Okinawa" for its roles in these campaigns. Among Navy and Marine aviators, however, the aircraft was nicknamed "Ensign Eliminator" and "Bent-Wing Eliminator" because it required many more hours of flight training to master than other Navy carrier-borne aircraft. It was also called simply "U-bird" or "Bent Wing Bird". The Japanese allegedly nicknamed it "Whistling Death", for the noise made by airflow through the wing root-mounted oil cooler air intakes. Swinhart, Earl. "Vought F4U Corsair - USA." Retrieved: 12 January 2008. The Corsair has been named the official aircraft of Connecticut, Connecticut State Register & Manual. STATE OF CONNECTICUT, Sites ° Seals ° Symbols Retrieved: 4 January 2007. due to its connection with Sikorsky Aircraft, in legislation sponsored by state senator George "Doc" Gunther; Gunther had also organized a Corsair Celebration and Symposium at Sikorsky Memorial Airport in Stratford, Connecticut, on Memorial Day, May 29, 2006. Musante, Fred. "Senator "Doc" Gunther retires." Stratford Star 18 May 2006. Retrieved: 5 January 2007. Variants Underside of a Corsair Royal Navy Corsair Mk.Is During World War II, Corsair production expanded beyond Vought to include Brewster and Goodyear models. Allied forces flying the aircraft in World War II included FAA and RNZAF. Eventually, more than 12,500 F4Us would be built, comprising 16 separate variants. F4U-1 (Corsair Mk I Fleet Air Arm): The first production version of the Corsair with the original cockpit seat height and "bird cage" canopy. A later version of this canopy incorporated a small rear view mirror in a transparent blister The differences over the XF4U-1 were as follows: Six .50 in (12.7 mm) Browning AN/M2 machine guns were fitted in the outer wing panels, displacing fuel tanks. An enlarged 237 gal (897 l) fuel tank was fitted ahead of the cockpit, in place of the fuselage armament. The cockpit was moved back by . The fuselage was lengthened from to . The more powerful R-2800-8 Double Wasp was fitted. of armor plate was fitted to the cockpit and a bullet-resistant glass screen was fitted behind the curved windscreen. IFF transponder equipment was fitted. Curved transparent panels were incorporated into the fuselage behind the pilot's headrest. The flaps were changed from deflector type to NACA slotted. The span of the ailerons was increased while that of the flaps was decreased. One 62 gal(234 l) non-self-sealing auxiliary fuel cell was installed in each wing leading edge, just outboard of the guns. A land-based version for the USMC, without the folding wing capability, was built by Goodyear under the designation FG-1. In Fleet Air Arm service the F4U-1 was given the name Corsair Mk I. Goebel, Greg. "The Vought F4U Corsair." Vectorsite.com. Retrieved: 5 March 2007. Vought also built a single F4U-1 two-seat trainer; the Navy showed no interest. Veronico et al. 1984, p. 21. F4U-1A (Corsair Mk II): The designation F4U-1A does not appear in lists of Corsair Bureau Numbers and was not in official use, being applied post-war to differentiate mid to late production F4U-1s from the early production variant. Russell 1984, p. 27. O'Leary 1980, p. 117. Mid to late production Corsairs incorporated a new, taller and wider clear-view canopy with only two frames, along with a simplified clear view windscreen. The cockpit seat was raised 7 in (178 mm) which, with the wider canopy top section, allowed the pilot better visibility over the long nose. The Plexiglas rear-view windows as well as the one under the cockpit were omitted. The tailwheel strut was lengthened, which also aided the pilot's forward view. These Corsairs were the first "carrier capable" variant and introduced a 6 in (152 mm)-long stall strip just outboard of the gun ports on the starboard wing leading edge and improved undercarriage oleo struts which eliminated bouncing on landing. F4U-1s supplied to the USMC lacked arrester hooks and the tail wheels were changed to a smaller diameter solid rubber type. Note: Although F4Us operated by the Marines were seldom seen with folded wings it did not mean that this facility was deactivated; the only version of the Corsair built without folding wings were some of those manufactured by Goodyear. Additionally, an experimental R-2800-8W engine with water injection was fitted on one of the late F4U-1As. After satisfactory results, many F4U-1As were fitted with the new powerplant. The aircraft carried 237 gal (897 l) in the main fuel tank, located in front of the cockpit, as well as an unarmored, non-self-sealing 62 gal (235 l) fuel tank in each wing. This version of the Corsair was the first to be able to carry a drop tank under the center-section. With drop tanks fitted, the fighter had a maximum ferry range of just over . A land-based version, without the folding wing capability, was built by Goodyear as the FG-1A. In British service, the aircraft type was modified with "clipped" wings ( was cut off each wingtip) for use on British aircraft carriers, under the designation Corsair Mk II. F3A-1 (Corsair Mk. III):This was the designation for the Brewster built F4U-1. Just over 700 were built before Brewster was forced out of business. Poor production techniques and shabby quality control meant that these aircraft were red-lined for speed and prohibited from aerobatics after several lost their wings. This was later traced to poor quality wing fittings. None of the Brewster built Corsairs reached front-line units. O'Leary 1980, pp.102, 105. F4U-1B: This was an unofficial post-war designation used to identify F4U-1s modified for FAA use. F4U-1C:The prototype F4U-1C, BuNo50277, appeared in August 1943 and was based on an F4U-1. 200 of this variant were built from July through to November 1944: all were based on the F4U-1D and were built in parallel with that variant. Intended for ground-attack as well as fighter missions, the F4U-1C was similar to the F4U-1D but its armament was replaced by four AN/M2 cannons with 231 rpg "F4U-1D Standard Aircraft Characteristics." Slaker's Flight Journal. Retrieved: 5 March 2007. of ammunition. The F4U-1C was introduced to combat during 1945, most notably in the Okinawa campaign. Aviators preferred the standard armament of six .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns since they were already more than powerful enough to destroy most Japanese aircraft, and had more ammunition and a higher rate of fire. Green 1975, p. 144. The weight of the Hispano cannons and their ammunition affected the flight performance, especially its agility, but the aircraft was found to be especially potent in the ground attack role. An FG-1D with the later style canopy used by the F4U-1D. F4U-1D (Corsair Mk IV): Built in parallel with the F4U-1C, but was introduced in April 1944. It had the new -8W water-injection engine. This change gave the aircraft up to 250 hp (187 kW) more power, which, in turn, increased performance. Speed, for example, was boosted from to . Because of the U.S. Navy's need for fighter-bombers, it had a payload of rockets double the -1A's, as well as twin-rack plumbing for an additional belly drop tank. Such modifications necessitated the need for rocket tabs (attached to fully metal-plated underwing surfaces) and bomb pylons to be bolted on the fighter, however, causing extra drag. Additionally, the new job of fighter-bombing was a new task for the Corsair and the wing fuel cells proved too vulnerable and were removed. The extra fuel carried by the two drop tanks would still allow the aircraft to fly relatively long missions despite the heavy, un-aerodynamic load. The regular armament of six machine guns were implemented as well. The canopies of most -1Ds had their struts removed along with their metal caps, which were used — at one point — as a measure to prevent the canopies' glass from cracking as they moved along the fuselage spines of the fighters. Also, the clear-view style "Malcolm Hood" canopy used initially on Supermarine Spitfire and P-51C Mustang aircraft was adopted as standard equipment for the -1D model, and all later F4U production aircraft. Additional production was carried out by Goodyear (FG-1D) and Brewster (F3A-1D). In Fleet Air Arm service, the latter was known as the Corsair III, and both had their wingtips clipped by 8" per wing to allow storage in the lower hangars of British carriers. F4U-1P: A rare photo reconnaissance variant. Green 1975, p. 149. An F4U-2. The radome on the starboard outer wing is just visible. XF4U-2: Special night fighter variant, equipped with two auxiliary fuel tanks. Moran, p. 94. F4U-2: Experimental conversion of the F4U-1 Corsair into a carrier-borne night fighter, armed with five .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns (the outboard, starboard gun was deleted), and fitted with airborne Intercept (AI) radar set in a radome placed outboard on the starboard wing. Since Vought was preoccupied with more important projects, only 32 were converted from existing F4U-1s by the Naval Aircraft Factory and another two by front line units. "F4U-2." Vought Aircraft Industries, Inc. Retrieved: 9 April 2007. Green 1975, pp. 145–146. The type saw combat with VF(N)-101 aboard USS Enterprise and USS Intrepid in early 1944, VF(N)-75 in the Solomons and VMF(N)-532 on Tarawa. XF4U-3: Experimental aircraft built to hold different engines in order to test the Corsair's performance with a variety of power plants. This variant never entered service. Goodyear also contributed a number of airframes, designated FG-3, to the project. A single sub-variant XF4U-3B with minor modifications was also produced. Green 1975, p. 146. XF4U-3B, planned procurement for the FAA. XF4U-4: New engine and cowling. F4U-4: The last variant to be produced during World War II, the F4U-4 began entering service near the end of 1944. It fully equipped naval squadrons four months before the end of hostilities. It had the 2,100 hp (1,566 kW) dual-stage-supercharged -18W engine. When the cylinders were injected with the water/alcohol mixture, power was boosted to 2,450 hp (1,827 kW). The aircraft required an air scoop under the nose and the unarmored wing fuel tanks of 62 gal (234 l) capacities were removed for better maneuverability at the expense of maximum range. The propeller had one additional blade, bringing the total to four. Maximum speed was increased to and climb rate to over 3,800 ft/min (1,180 m/min) as opposed to the 2,900 ft/min (884 m/min) of the F4U-1A. The service ceiling also increased significantly from to . The "4-Hog" retained the original armament and had all the external loads (i.e., drop tanks, bombs) capabilities of the F4U-1D. The windscreen was now flat bullet-resistant glass to avoid optical warping, a change from the curved Plexiglas windscreens with the internal plate glass of the earlier Corsairs. Vought also tested the two F4U-4Xs (BuNos 49763 and 50301, prototypes for the new R2800) with fixed tiptanks (the Navy showed no interest) and an Aeroproducts six-blade contraprop (not accepted for production). Veronico et al. 1984, pp. 55–58. An F4U-4 of VF-1b on board USS Midway, 1947-1948. F4U-4B: Designation for F4U-4s to be delivered to the British Fleet Air Arm, but were retained by the U.S. for its own use. The Fleet Air Arm received no F4U-4s. Green 1975, p. 148. F4U-4C: 300 F4U-4s ordered with alternate gun armament of four AN/M2 cannons. F4U-4E and F4U-4N: Developed late in the conflict, these night fighters featured radar radomes projecting from the starboard wingtip. The -4E was fitted with the APS-4 search radar, while the -4N was fitted with the APS-6 type. In addition, these aircraft were often refitted with four 20mm M2 cannons similar to the F4U-1C. The night fighter variants would see greater use during the Korean conflict. Green 1975, p. 150. F4U-4K: Experimental drone. F4U-4P: As with the -1P, a rare photo reconnaissance variant. XF4U-5: New engine cowling, other extensive changes. F4U-5: A 1945 design modification of the F4U-4, first flown on December 21st of that year, was intended to increase the F4U-4 Corsair's overall performance and incorporate many Corsair pilots' suggestions. It featured a more powerful Pratt and Whitney R-2800-32(E) engine with a two stage supercharger, Swanborough and Bowers 1976, p. 406. rated at a maximum of . Other improvements included automatic blower controls, cowl flaps, intercooler doors and oil cooler for the engine, spring tabs for the elevators and rudder, a completely modernized cockpit, a completely retractable tail wheel, and heated cannon bays and pitot head. The cowling was lowered two degrees to help with forward visibility, but perhaps most striking as the first variant to feature all-metal wings (223 units produced). Green 1975, p. 152. F4U-5N: Radar equipped version (214 units produced) F4U-5NL: Winterized version (72 units produced, Angelucci 1985, p. 210. 29 modified from F4U-5Ns (101 total). Fitted with rubber de-icing boots on the leading edge of the wings and tail. Maloney 1967, p. 2. F4U-5P: Long-range photo-reconnaissance version (30 units produced) F4U-6: Redesignated AU-1, this was a ground-attack version produced for the U.S. Marine Corps. F4U-7 : AU-1 developed for the French Navy. FG-1E: Goodyear FG-1 with radar equipment. FG-1K: Goodyear FG-1 as drone. FG-3: Turbosupercharger version converted from FG-1D. FG-4:Goodyear F4U-4, never delivered. Super Corsair variants The F2G-1 and F2G-2 were significantly different aircraft, fitted with the Pratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major 4-row 28-cylinder "corncob" radial engine and teardrop (bubble) canopy, as a specialized interceptor against kamikaze attacks. The difference between the -1 and -2 variants was that the -1 featured a manual folding wing and Propellers, while the F2G-2 aircraft had hydraulic operated folding wings, propellers and carrier arresting hooks for carrier use. F2G Histories As World War II was drawing to a close, development problems emerged that led to the abandonment of further work on the F2G series. Green 1975, p. 151. While only 10 were built, several F2Gs went on to racing success after the war, winning the Thompson trophy races in 1947 and 1949. Operators An French Navy F4U-7 Corsair of 14.F flotilla Corsair FG-1D (Goodyear built F4U-1D) in the Royal New Zealand Air Force markings Argentine Navy Air Force of El Salvador French Navy Honduran Air Force Royal New Zealand Air Force No. 14 Squadron RNZAF No. 15 Squadron RNZAF No. 16 Squadron RNZAF No. 17 Squadron RNZAF No. 18 Squadron RNZAF No. 19 Squadron RNZAF No. 20 Squadron RNZAF No. 21 Squadron RNZAF No. 22 Squadron RNZAF No. 23 Squadron RNZAF No. 24 Squadron RNZAF No. 25 Squadron RNZAF No. 26 Squadron RNZAF Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm United States Navy United States Marine Corps Survivors F4U-4 #97369 on display at the National Museum of the Marine Corps Vought F4U-4 #97388 at Corsairs Over Connecticut event, June 2005 F2G-1 "Super Corsair" #88458, painted as Race #57, owned by Bob Odergaard of Kindred, North Dakota, flying at the 2005 AirVenture at Oshkosh, Wisconsin. Goodyear FG-1D at Wings Over the Rockies Museum, Denver, CO, modified as racer N194G. F/A-18F Super Hornet flying alongside an F4U at the Miramar Air Show in 2008 Chance-Vought F4U survivors Over two dozen Corsairs are believed to be still airworthy, most in the United States. Others are found in museum collections worldwide. FG-1D 92436: In flying condition (currently undergoing complete restoration in Idaho) Owner: Olympic Flight Museum, Olympia airport, Olympia, Washington FG-1D 92106: 17,000 hour restoration completed in 2003 by Airpower Unlimited, judged as 2003 Oshkosh E.A.A. Airventure Grand Champion Warbird - World War II and 2003 - Rolls Royce - Heritage Trophy Reno, Nevada - People's Choice Trophy. Acquired in 2007 by Vintage Wings of Canada, Ottawa/Gatineau Airport(CYND), Canada and flown regularly for commemorative events. Chance Vought F4U Corsair FG-1D #88382: on static display in the Personal Courage Wing of The Museum of Flight, Seattle, Washington F4U-1A #17799: in flying condition at the Planes of Fame Air Museum, Chino, California F4U-1D #50375: on static display at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, Chantilly, Virginia. This aircraft was autographed in the wheel well in Magic Marker by "Pappy" Boyington when it was previously on display at the NASM's Garber Restoration and Storage Facility in Silver Hill, Maryland. The autograph is still visible, though the aircraft hangs from the ceiling. XF4U-4 #80750: on static display at the New England Air Museum, Windsor Locks, Connecticut F4U-4 #97142: on static display at the Pima Air & Space Museum, Tucson, Arizona F4U-4 #97280 / NX712RD: on static display at the Cavanaugh Flight Museum, Addison, Texas F4U-4 #97286: Angel of Okinawa on static display at the Fantasy of Flight Museum, Polk City, Florida. This aircraft was owned by Merle B. Gustafson from 1972 until 1984. F4U-4 #97349: on static display at the National Museum of Naval Aviation, NAS Pensacola, Florida F4U-4 #97369: on static display at the National Museum of the Marine Corps, Quantico, Virginia F4U-4: in flying condition, owned by The Flying Bulls, Salzburg, Austria. Registration: OE-EAS F4U-5N #121881: former Argentine Navy aircraft (c/n 121881, COAN serial 0389), although missing its radome, restored in the colors of Lt. Guy Bordelon. Flying as a night fighter in Korea as a member of VC-3 Squadron, U.S. Navy, Lt. Bordelon was the only U.S. ace in Korea who flew a propeller driven airplane. Lone Star Flight Museum, Galveston, Texas F4U-5N #122189: on static display at the Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum, MCAS Miramar, California Flying Leatherneck Historical Foundation and Aviation Museum: Chance Vought F4U-5N "Corsair" Retrieved: 18 December 2007. F4U-5N: In flying condition, served with the Honduran Air Force and saw combat in the ground-attack role in 1969 against El Salvador. Formerly at the Indiana Aviation Museum, Valparaiso, Indiana; sold to a private party in 2008. F4U-7 #133704: on static display at the Battleship Memorial Park, Mobile, Alabama F2G-1 "Super Corsair" NX4324: Restored by Doug Champlin is on display in the Great Gallery of the Museum of Flight in Seattle Washington. F2G-1 "Super Corsair" #88458: in flying condition, painted as Race #57 at the Fargo Air Museum, Fargo, North Dakota F2G-1D "Super Corsair" #88463: Race No. 74 was sold to Walter Soplata, of Newberry, Ohio. This F2G was acquired by the Crawford Auto-Aviation Museum in Cleveland, Ohio. Bob Odergaard of Kindred, North Dakota is restoring the aircraft to static condition. F4U-5 #121928: last remaining in Argentina (c/n 121928, COAN serial 0391), on static display as 3-A-211 at the Museo de la Aviacion Naval, Espora Naval Air Base, Bahía Blanca, Argentina. F4U-7 #133704 (not original Bu#): in flying condition, restored as a Flotille (Squadron ) 14F, Marine Nationale (French Navy). Originally a former F4U-5NL Argentine Navy aircraft (Bu#124541, COAN serial 0433, 3-A-204) which was on static display at the Museo Naval de la Nacion, Tigre, Argentina. Sold in 1991, currently privately owned in France. F4U-1 at TAM Wings of a Dream Museum, São Carlos, Brazil. Donated by Pratt & Whitney. This airplane was part of USMC VMF-122. The museum claims it is the oldest Corsair still in flying conditions (left factory on October 19, 1943). Specifications F4U-1A F4U-4 Popular culture Flying Leathernecks (1951) starring John Wayne, was about a Marine Corps squadron flying Corsairs while developing close-support tactics. The exploits of Marine Corps squadron VMF-214, which flew the Corsair in the Pacific during the war, were depicted in the popular 1976 made-for-television movie Baa Baa Black Sheep (also released as Flying Misfits) and the follow-up television series Baa Baa Black Sheep, which aired from 1976 to 1978). The television series featured six genuine flying Corsairs, but the storylines were fictional. See also Pappy Boyington. The Corsair plays a prominent role in W.E.B. Griffin's book series, The Corps (1986–present). Ted Williams served as a flight instructor training young Marines to fly Corsairs while away from major league baseball during his years of military service in World War II. See also References Notes Bibliography Angelucci, Enzo with Peter M. Bowers. The American Fighter. New York: Orion Books, 1985. ISBN 0-517-56588-9. Abrams, Richard. F4U Corsair at War. London: Ian Allan Ltd., 1977. ISBN 0-7110-0766-7. Barber, S.B. Naval Aviation Combat Statistics: World War II, OPNAV-P-23V No. A129. Washington, D.C.: Air Branch, Office of Naval Intelligence, 1946. Blackburn, Tom. The Jolly Rogers. New York: Orion Books, 1989. ISBN 0-5175-7075-0. Bowman, Martin W. Vought F4U Corsair. Marlborough, UK: The Crowood Press Ltd., 2002. ISBN 1-8612-6492-5. Condon, John Pomeroy. Corsairs and Flattops: Marine Carrier Warfare, 1944-1945. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1998. ISBN 1-55750-127-0. Dean, Francis H. America's Hundred Thousand. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 1997. ISBN 0-7643-0072-5. Donald, David, ed. American Warplanes of World War II. London: Aerospace Publishing. 1995. ISBN 1-874023-72-7. Drendel, Lou. U.S. Navy Carrier Fighters of World War II. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1987. ISBN 0-89747-194-6. Green, William. Famous Fighters of the Second World War. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1975. ISBN 0-385-12395-7. Green, William. "Vought F4U-1 — F4U-4 (FG-1 Corsair)". War Planes of the Second World War, Volume Four: Fighters. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1973, pp. 188–194. ISBN 0-385-03259-5. Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. "Chance Vought F4U Corsair". WW2 Aircraft Fact Files: U.S. Navy and Marine Corps Fighters. London: Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd., 1976, pp. 16–29. ISBN 0-356-08222-9. Grossnick, Roy A. and William J. Armstrong. United States Naval Aviation, 1910–1995. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Historical Center, 1997. ISBN 0-16049-124-X. Guyton, Boone T. Whistling Death: The Test Pilot's Story of the F4U Corsair. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 1996. ISBN 0-88740-732-3. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Aircraft. London: Aerospace Publishing/Orbis Publishing, 1985. Jablonski, Edward. Airwar. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1979. ISBN 0-38514-279-X. Johnsen, Frederick A. F4U Corsair. New York: Crown Publishers, 1983. ISBN 0-517-55007-5. Maloney, Edward T. and Uwe Feist. Chance Vought F4U Corsair, Vol. 11. Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, Inc., 1967. ISBN 0-8168-0540-7. Morris, David. Corsair KD431: The Time Capsule Fighter. Stroud, UK: Sutton Publishing Ltd., 2006. ISBN 0-7509-4305-X. Mondey, David. The Hamlyn Concise Guide to American Aircraft of World War II. London: Octopus Publishing Group Ltd., 1982. ISBN 0-753714-61-2. Moran, Gerard P., Aeroplanes Vought, 1917–1977. Terre Haute, Indiana: Aviation Heritage Books, Sunshine House, Inc., 1978. ISBN 0-911852-83-2. Musciano, Walter A. Corsair Aces: The Bent-wing Bird Over the Pacific. New York: Arco Publishing Company, Inc., 1979. ISBN 0-668-04597-3. Núñez Padin, Jorge Félix. Vought F4U-5,-5N & 5NL Corsair (serie Aeronaval Nro.18) (in Spanish). Buenos Aires, Argentina: Museo de la Aviacón Naval, Instituto Aeronaval, 2004. Okumiya, Masatake and Jiro Horikoshi, with Martin Caidin. Zero! New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1956. O'Leary, Michael. United States Naval Fighters of World War II in Action. Poole, Dorset, UK: Blandford Press, 1980. ISBN 0-7137-0956-1. Pautigny, Bruno (translated from the French by Alan McKay). Corsair: 30 Years of Filibustering 1940-1970. Paris: Histoire & Collections, 2003. ISBN 2-913903-28-2. Pilots Manual for F4U Corsair. Appleton, Wisconsin: Aviation Publications, 1977 (reprint). ISBN 0-87994-026-3. Pilot's Notes for Corsair I-IV: Air Publications 2351A, B, C & D-P.N.. London: Air Ministry, August 1944. Russell, Warren P. Chance Vought F4U-1/F4U-1D and Goodyear FG-1D Corsair: NZPAF, RNZAF Aircraft colour schemes. Invercargill, New Zealand: New Zealand Aero Products, 1984. ISBN 0-473-000245-0 Sherrod, Robert. History of Marine Corps Aviation in World War II. Washington, D.C.: Combat Forces Press, 1952. No ISBN. Shettle, M.L. Marine Corps Air Stations of World War II. Bowersville, Georgia: Schaertel Publishing Co., 2001. ISBN 0-96433-882-3. Styling, Mark. Corsair Aces of World War 2 (Osprey Aircraft of the Aces No 8). London: Osprey Publishing, 1995. ISBN 1-85532-530-6. Sullivan, Jim. F4U Corsair in action. Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1977. ISBN 0-89747-028-1. Swanborough, Gordon and Peter M. Bowers. United States Navy Aircraft since 1911. London: Putnam, Second edition, 1976. ISBN 0-370-10054-9. Thetford, Owen. British Naval Aircraft since 1912. London: Putnam, Fourth edition, 1978. ISBN 0-370-30021-1. Thompson, Warren. "Marine Corsairs in Korea". International Air Power Review, Volume 11, Winter 2003/2004, Norwalk, CO: AirTime Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-880588-60-9. Tillman, Barrett. Corsair — The F4U in World War II and Korea. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1979. ISBN 1-55750-944-8. Tillman, Barrett. Vought F4U Corsair. Warbird Tech Series, Vol. 4. North Branch, Minnesota: Speciality Press, 1996. ISBN 0-933424-67-1. Veronico, Nick and John M. and Donna Campbell. F4U Corsair. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1994. ISBN 0-87938-854-4. Wilson, Randy. "From Bent-winged Bird to Whistling Death." The Dispatch. Midland, Texas: Confederate Air Force, 1996. External links VBF-85 Historical web site; F4U-1D, F4U-1C, FG-1D Tour a Corsair cockpit Navy History Official Site: U.S. Navy performance charts for F4U-4 Vought Aircraft Industries Retiree Club: Vought products — F4U WW2DB: F4U Corsair Warbird Alley: F4U Corsair page Corsairs in French service CorsairExperience.com: Interviews with Corsair pilots Baa Baa Black Sheep the television series Geocities.com: Comprehensive collection of historical flight data charts and reference material AviationHistory: Vought F4U Corsair WWII F4U Corsair training film, 21 minutes WWII Aircraft performance: Includes a large collection of official test data for F4U & FG seriesRetrieved: 20 February 2009. Survivor links AeroWeb: List of survivor F4Us on display AeroWeb: List of survivor FG1s on display Brewster F3A Corsair on display F4UCorsair.com: Information on Corsair projects, museum Corsairs, and blueprints Warbird Registry — listings of existing Corsairs F4U-1 at Tam Museum, Brazil — possibly oldest Corsair in flying conditions. | Vought_F4U_Corsair |@lemmatized chance:8 vought:34 corsair:179 carrier:46 capable:3 fighter:54 aircraft:81 saw:4 service:19 world:25 war:56 ii:25 korean:8 isolated:1 local:1 conflict:8 goodyear:17 build:24 designate:3 fg:31 brewster:10 built:2 serve:6 air:49 force:19 follow:4 long:12 production:16 run:1 piston:1 engined:4 u:35 history:8 leary:9 p:67 pilot:35 manual:4 prologue:1 japanese:18 regard:1 formidable:4 american:13 jablonski:3 navy:66 count:1 kill:11 ratio:3 donald:3 marine:34 fleet:15 arm:14 royal:19 new:35 zealand:13 well:18 french:18 aeronavale:2 postwar:1 quickly:6 become:4 base:20 bomber:7 demand:1 soon:3 overwhelm:1 manufacturing:1 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4,934 | Ferdinand_Magellan | Memorial to Ferdinand Magellan in Punta Arenas (Chile). The statue looks towards the Straits of Magellan Ferdinand Magellan (, ; ) (Spring 1480 – April 27, 1521, Mactan Island, Cebu, Philippines). Ferdinand Magellan was born circa 1480 at Sabrosa, near Chaves, in the province of Tras-os-Montes, one of the wildest districts of Portugal. However, he subsequently obtained Spanish nationality in order to serve the Spanish Crown, so that he could try to find a westward route to the Spice Islands of Indonesia. He thereby became the first person to lead an expedition across the Pacific Ocean. This was also the first successful attempt to circumnavigate the Earth. Although he did not complete the entire voyage (he was killed during the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines), Magellan had earlier traveled eastward to the Spice Islands, so he became one of the first individuals to cross all of the meridians of the Globe. Magellan and his crew were the first Europeans to enter the Pacific from the eponymous Strait of Magellan, which he discovered. They were also the first Europeans to reach the archipelago of what is now known as the Philippines, which was unknown to the western world before their landing. Arab traders had established commerce within the archipelago centuries earlier. A number of geographic features and biological species have been named for Magellan, including the eponymous Magellanic Penguin, which Magellan was the first European to note. C. Michael Hogan. 2008 Of the 237 men who set out on five ships to circumnavigate the earth in 1519, only 18 completed the circumnavigation of the globe and managed to return to Spain in 1522. Lord Stanley of Alderly, The First Voyage Round the World, by Magellan, London: Hakluyt, [1874], p. 39]. They were led by the Basque navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano, who took over command of the expedition after Magellan's death. Seventeen other men arrived later in Spain : twelve men captured by the Portuguese in Cape Verde some weeks earlier, and between 1525 and 1527 five survivors of the Trinidad. Origins and first voyage Magellan, because of his family's heritage, became a page to Queen Leonor at the royal court after the death of his parents during his tenth year. Very little is known about Magellan's background. He was the son of Rui de Magalhães (son of Pedro Afonso de Magalhães and wife Quinta de Sousa) and wife Alda de Mesquita, and brother of Duarte de Sousa, Diogo de Sousa and Isabel de Magalhães, but exactly how he is connected to the respective families it is unknown. He was married to Beatriz Barbosa and had two children: Rodrigo de Magalhães Algumas Observações sobre a Naturalidade e a Família de Fernão de Magalhães, Dom José Manoel de Noronha, Imprensa da Universidade, Coimbra, 1921 and Carlos de Magalhães, both of whom died at a young age. Magellan made his first known expedition at sea at the age of 25 in 1505, when he was sent to India to install Francisco de Almeida as the Portuguese viceroy. The voyage gave Magellan his first experience of battle when a local king, who had paid tribute to Vasco da Gama three years earlier, refused to pay tribute to Almeida, which resulted in the Battle of Diu in 1509. After taking leave without permission, Magellan fell out of favour with Almeida and was also accused of trading illegally with the Moors. Several of the accusations were subsequently proved and there were no further offers of employment after May 15, 1514. Later on in 1515, Magellan had an employment offer as a crew member on a Portuguese ship, but rejected this offer. Spanish search of the Spice Islands The aim of Christopher Columbus' voyage to the West was to reach the coasts of the Spice Islands (or the Indies) and to establish commercial relations between Spain and the several Asian kingdoms. The Spanish soon realised after Columbus' voyages that the lands of the Americas were not a part of Asia, but a new continent. Once Vasco da Gama and the Portuguese arrived in India in 1498, it became urgent for Spain to find a new commercial route to Asia. The Treaty of Tordesillas reserved for Portugal the routes that went around Africa. The Spanish Crown then decided to send out exploration voyages in order to find a way to Asia by travelling westwards. Vasco Núñez de Balboa sailed the Pacific Ocean in 1513, and Juan Díaz de Solís died in Río de la Plata some years later trying to find a passage in South America. When Magellan arrived at the Court of Spain, he presented King Charles V with a plan that would give the ships of the Crown of Castile full access to the lands of the Spice Islands, after that plan failed to gain approval from the Portuguese king, Manuel I. Journey The arrow points to the city of Sanlúcar de Barrameda on the delta of the Guadalquivir River, in Andalusia. On August 10, 1519, five ships under Magellan's command – Trinidad, San Antonio, Concepción, Victoria, and Santiago – left Seville and travelled from the Guadalquivir River to Sanlúcar de Barrameda at the mouth of the river, where they remained more than five weeks. Spanish authorities were wary of Magellan, who was originally Portuguese. They almost prevented the admiral from sailing, and switched his crew from mostly Portuguese men to mostly men of Spain. Nevertheless, Magellan set sail from Sanlúcar de Barrameda with about 270 men on September 20. King Manuel ordered a Portuguese naval detachment to pursue Magellan, but Magellan avoided them. After stopping at the Canary Islands, Magellan arrived at Cape Verde, where he set course for Cape St. Augustine in Brazil. On November 27, the expedition crossed the equator; on December 6, the crew sighted South America. Magellan's ship Victoria As Brazil was Portuguese territory, Magellan avoided it, and on December 13 anchored near present-day Rio de Janeiro. There the crew was resupplied, but bad conditions caused them to delay. Afterwards, they continued to sail south along South America's east coast, looking for the strait that Magellan believed would lead to the Spice Islands. The fleet reached Río de la Plata on January 10, 1520. On March 30, the crew established a settlement they called Puerto San Julian. On April 2, a mutiny involving two of the five ship captains broke out, but it was unsuccessful because most of the crew remained loyal. Juan Sebastián Elcano was one of those who were forgiven. Antonio Pigafetta, an Italian from Vicenza who paid to be on the Magellan voyage, related that Gaspar Quesada, the captain of Concepcion, was executed; Juan de Cartagena, the captain of San Antonio, and a priest named Padre Sanchez de la Reina were instead marooned on the coast. Another account states that Luis de Mendoza, the captain of Victoria, was executed along with Quesada. Reportedly those killed were drawn and quartered and impaled on the coast; years later, their bones were found by Sir Francis Drake. The Strait of Magellan cuts through the southern tip of South America connecting the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean. The journey resumed. The Santiago was sent down the coast on a scouting expedition and was wrecked in a sudden storm. All of its crew survived and made it safely to shore. Two of them returned overland to inform Magellan of what had happened, and to bring rescue to their comrades. After this experience, Magellan decided to wait for a few weeks more before again resuming the voyage. At 52°S latitude on October 21, the fleet reached Cape Virgenes and concluded they had found the passage, because the waters were brine and deep inland. Four ships began an arduous trip through the long passage that Magellan called the Estrecho (Canal) de Todos los Santos, ("All Saints' Channel"), because the fleet travelled through it on November 1, or All Saints' Day. The strait is now named the Strait of Magellan. Magellan first assigned Concepcion and San Antonio to explore the strait, but the latter, commanded by Gómez, deserted and returned to Spain on November 20. On November 28, the three remaining ships entered the South Pacific. Magellan named the waters the Mar Pacifico (Pacific Ocean) because of its apparent stillness. Magellan was the first European to reach Tierra del Fuego just east of the Pacific side of the strait. Death Monument in Lapu-Lapu City, Cebu, Philippines that marks the site where Magellan was believed to be killed. Heading northwest, the crew reached the equator on February 13, 1521. On March 6, they reached the Marianas and Guam. Magellan called Guam the "Island of Sails" because they saw a lot of sailboats. They renamed it to "Ladrones Island" (Island of Thieves) because many of Trinidads small boats were stolen there. On March 16, Magellan reached the island of Homonhon in the Philippines, with 150 crew left, and became the first European to reach the Philippines. Magellan was able to communicate with the native peoples because his Malay interpreter, Enrique, could understand their language. Enrique was indentured by Magellan in 1511 right after the sacking of Malacca, and was at his side during the battles in Africa, during Magellan's disgrace at the King's court in Portugal, and during Magellan's successful raising of a fleet. They traded gifts with Rajah Siaiu of Mazaua Thought to be Limasawa, Southern Leyte, though this is disputed who guided them to Cebu on April 7. Rajah Humabon of Cebu was friendly towards Magellan, and the Spaniards; both he and his queen Juana were baptized as Christians. Afterward, Rajah Humabon and his ally Datu Zula convinced Magellan to kill their enemy, Rajah Lapu-Lapu, on Mactan. Magellan had wished to convert Lapu-Lapu to Christianity, as he had Rajah Humabon, a proposal to which Lapu-Lapu was dismissive. On the morning of April 27, 1521, Magellan sailed to Mactan with an army of men. During the resulting Battle of Mactan against native forces led by Lapu-Lapu, Magellan was shot by a poisonous arrow and later surrounded and finished off with spears and other weapons. Pigafetta and Ginés de Mafra provided the only extant eyewitness accounts of the events culminating in Magellan's death: "When morning came, forty-nine of us leaped into the water up to our thighs, and walked through water for more than two cross-bow flights before we could reach the shore. The boats could not approach nearer because of certain rocks in the water. The other eleven men remained behind to guard the boats. When we reached land, [the natives] had formed in three divisions to the number of more than one thousand five hundred people. When they saw us, they charged down upon us with exceeding loud cries... The musketeers and crossbow-men shot from a distance for about a half-hour, but uselessly... Recognizing the captain, so many turned upon him that they knocked his helmet off his head twice... A native hurled a bamboo spear into the captain's face, but the latter immediately killed him with his lance, which he left in the native's body. Then, trying to lay hand on sword, he could draw it out but halfway, because he had been wounded in the arm with a bamboo spear. When the natives saw that, they all hurled themselves upon him. One of them wounded him on the left leg with a large cutlass, which resembles a scimitar, only being larger. That caused the captain to fall face downward, when immediately they rushed upon him with iron and bamboo spears and with their cutlasses, until they killed our mirror, our light, our comfort, and our true guide. When they wounded him, he turned back many times to see whether we were all in the boats. Thereupon, beholding him dead, we, wounded, retreated, as best we could, to the boats, which were already pulling off." The Death of Magellan, 1521, EyeWitness to History (2001). Retrieved 9 March 2006. Magellan provided in his will that Enrique, his interpreter, was to be freed upon his death. However, after Mactan, the remaining ships' masters refused to free Enrique. Enrique escaped his indenture on May 1, with the aid of Rajah Humabon, amid the deaths of almost 30 crewmen. Pigafetta had been jotting down words in the Visayan language, both Butuanon and Cebuano—which he started at Mazaua on Friday, March 29 and grew to a total of 145 words—and was apparently able to continue communications during the rest of the voyage. The Spaniards offered the natives merchandise in exchange for Magellan's body, but they were declined and so his body was never recovered. Circumnavigation and return Magellan's voyage led to Limasawa, Cebu, Mactan, Palawan, Brunei, Celebes and finally to the Spice Islands. The casualties suffered in the Philippines left the expedition with too few men to sail all three of the remaining ships. Consequently, on May 2, they abandoned Concepción and burned the ship. The fleet, reduced to Trinidad and Victoria, fled westward to Palawan. They left that island on June 21, and were guided to Brunei, Borneo by Moro pilots who could navigate the shallow seas. They anchored off the Brunei breakwater for 35 days, where Pigafetta, an Italian from Vicenza, recorded the splendour of Rajah Siripada's court (gold, two pearls the size of hens' eggs, etc.). In addition, Brunei boasted tame elephants and armament of 62 cannons, more than 5 times the armament of Magellan's ships, and Brunei disdained cloves, which were to prove more valuable than gold, upon the return to Spain. Pigafetta mentions some of the technology of the court, such as porcelain and eyeglasses (both of which were not available or only just becoming available in Europe). After reaching the Maluku Islands (the Spice Islands) on November 6, 115 crew were left. They managed to trade with the Sultan of Tidore, a rival of the Sultan of Ternate, who was the ally of the Portuguese. The two remaining ships, laden with valuable spices, attempted to return to Spain by sailing westwards. However, as they left the Spice Islands, the Trinidad began to take on water. The crew tried to discover and repair the leak, but failed. They concluded that Trinidad would need to spend considerable time being overhauled, but the small Victoria was not large enough to accommodate all the surviving crew. As a result, Victoria with some of the crew sailed west for Spain. Several weeks later, Trinidad departed and attempted to return to Spain via the Pacific route. This attempt failed. Trinidad was captured by the Portuguese, and was eventually wrecked in a storm while at anchor under Portuguese control. One of Magellan's ships circumnavigated the globe, finishing 16 months after the explorer's death. Victoria set sail via the Indian Ocean route home on December 21, commanded by Juan Sebastián Elcano. By May 6, the Victoria rounded the Cape of Good Hope, with only rice for rations. Twenty crewmen died of starvation before Elcano put into Cape Verde, a Portuguese holding, where he abandoned 13 more crew on July 9 in fear of losing his cargo of 26 tons of spices (cloves and cinnamon). On September 6, 1522, Elcano and the remaining crew of Magellan's voyage arrived in Spain aboard the last ship in the fleet, Victoria, almost exactly three years after they departed. Magellan had not intended to circumnavigate the world, only to find a secure way through which the Spanish ships could navigate to the Spice Islands; it was Elcano who, after Magellan's death, decided to push westward, thereby completing the first voyage around the entire Earth. Maximilianus Transylvanus interviewed some of the surviving members of the expedition when they presented themselves to the Spanish court at Valladolid in the autumn of 1522, and wrote the first account of the voyage, which was published in 1523. The account written by Pigafetta did not appear until 1525, and was not wholly published until 1800. This was the Italian transcription by Carlo Amoretti of what we now call the Ambrosiana codex. The expedition eked out a small profit, but the crew was not paid full wages. Four crewmen of the original 55 on Trinidad finally returned to Spain in 1525; 51 of them had died in war or from disease. In total, approximately 232 Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, English and German sailors died on the expedition around the world with Magellan. Legacy Magellan's expedition was the first to circumnavigate the globe and the first to navigate the strait in South America connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Magellan's crew observed several animals that were entirely new to European science, including a "camel without humps", which could have been a llama, guanaco, vicuña, or alpaca. A black "goose" that had to be skinned instead of plucked was a penguin. Two of the closest galaxies, the Magellanic Clouds, were discovered by crew members in the southern hemisphere. The full extent of the Earth was also realized, since their voyage was 14,460 leagues (69,800 km or 43,400mi). The need for an International Date Line was established. Upon returning they found their calendars were a day behind, even though they had faithfully maintained the ship's log. However, they did not have clocks accurate enough to observe the very slight lengthening of each day during which they were underway on the journey (and since they traveled west, after circumnavigation they had rotated about the earth's axis exactly one time less, hence experiencing one less night, than if they had remained in Spain). Maps of the Magellan Strait and a brief history of Ferdinand Magellan. London, UK. Retrieved March 10 2006. This caused great excitement at the time and a special delegation was sent to the Pope to explain the oddity to him. The course that Magellan charted was followed by other navigators: Garcia Jofre de Loaisa, Andres de Urdaneta, Sir Francis Drake and the Manila Galleon. The Magellan probe, which mapped the planet Venus from 1990 to 1994, was named after Ferdinand Magellan. + 18 men returned to Seville aboard Victoria in 1522: Name Rating Juan Sebastián Elcano, from Getaria Master Francisco Albo, from Rodas (in Tui, Galicia) Pilot Miguel de Rodas (in Tui, Galicia) Pilot Juan de Acurio, from Bermeo Pilot Antonio Lombardo (Pigafetta), from Vicenza Supernumerary Martín de Judicibus, from Genoa Chief Steward Hernándo de Bustamante, from Alcántara Mariner Nicholas the Greek, from Nafplion Mariner Miguel Sánchez, from Rodas (in Tui, Galicia) Mariner Antonio Hernández Colmenero, from Huelva Mariner Francisco Rodrigues, Portuguese from Seville Mariner Juan Rodríguez, from Huelva Mariner Diego Carmena, from Baiona (Galicia) Mariner Hans of Aachen, (Holy Roman Empire) Gunner Juan de Arratia, from Bilbao Able Seaman Vasco Gómez Gallego, from Baiona (Galicia) Able Seaman Juan de Santandrés, from Cueto (Cantabria) Apprentice Seaman Juan de Zubileta, from Barakaldo Page Survivors When Victoria, the one surviving ship, returned to the harbor of departure after completing the first circumnavigation of the Earth, only 18 men out of the original 237 men were on board. Martino de Judicibus Among the survivors there were only two Italians, Antonio Pigafetta and Martino de Judicibus. Martino de Judicibus''' () was a Genoese or Savonese Documents related to the questioning performed by the Spanish authorities after the 18 survivors of the voyage returned to Seville in 1522 report that de Judicibus was born in Savona, Italy. Chief Steward. He served with Ferdinand Magellan on his historical voyage to find a westward route to the Spice Islands of Indonesia. A. Pigafetta, «Il viaggio di Magellano intorno al mondo», review by James Alexander ROBERTSON, Cleveland USA, 1906, Ed. Arthur Clark His history is preserved in the nominative registers at the Archivo General de Indias in Seville, Spain. The family name is referred to with the exact Latin patronymic, "de Judicibus". He was initially assigned to the caravel Concepción, one of five ships of the small Spanish fleet of Magellan. Martino de Judicibus embarked on the expedition with the rank of merino. See also Military history of the Philippines History of the Philippines Exploration of Asia Age of Exploration Portuguese Empire Spanish Empire References and footnotes Further reading Primary sources (orig. Primer viaje en torno del globo Retrieved on 2009-04-08)The First Voyage Round the World, by Magellan'', full text, English translation by Lord Stanley of Alderley, London: Hakluyt, [1874] – six contemporary accounts of his voyage Secondary sources External links Magellan's untimely demise on Cebu in the Philippines from History House. 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4,935 | British_Rail | This article is about the defunct entity "British Railways", which later traded as "British Rail". The History of rail transport in Great Britain is covered in its own article. British Railways (BR), which later traded as British Rail, was the operator of most of the British railway system from the nationalisation of the 'Big Four' British railway companies in 1948 until privatisation in stages from 1994 to 1997. At first the trading brand of the Railway Executive of the British Transport Commission, it became in 1962 an independent statutory corporation, the British Railways Board. This period of nationalisation saw sweeping changes in the railway network: steam traction was eliminated in favour of diesel and electric power, passengers replaced freight as the main source of business, and one third of the network was axed. The British Rail "double arrow logo" (see right) represents direction of travel on a double track was nicknamed "the arrow of indecision". It is now employed as a "generic" denoter of a railway station on public (non-operating company) street signs. The British Rail logo is still used on station signs as a national symbol for railway stations. The logo is still being used in new signs and is used by the train operating companies jointly as part of their National Rail brand; it is still also used on railway tickets and on road signs. History The second British Railways crest, used 1955-1965 on passenger coaches and multiple units The rail transport system in Great Britain developed during the 19th century. After the grouping of 1923 under the Railways Act 1921 there were four large railway companies, each dominating its own geographic area: the Great Western Railway (GWR), the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS), the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) and the Southern Railway (SR). The Transport Act 1947 made provision for the nationalisation of the network, as part of a policy of nationalising public services by Clement Attlee's Labour Government. British Railways came into existence as the business name of the Railway Executive of the British Transport Commission (BTC) on 1 January 1948 when it took over the assets of the Big Four. . There were also joint railways between the big four and a few light railways to consider - see list of constituents of British Railways. The Railway Executive was conscious that some lines on the (then very dense) network were not profitable and also hard to justify socially, and a modest rolling programme of closures was begun. However, the general financial position of BR became gradually worse, until an operating loss was recorded in 1955. The Executive itself had been abolished in 1953 by the incoming Conservative government, and control of BR transferred directly to the parent Commission. Other changes to the British Transport Commission at the same time included the return of road haulage to the private sector. Also in 1955, a major modernisation programme costing £1.2 thousand million was authorised by the government. This included the withdrawal of steam traction and its replacement by diesel (and some electric) locomotives. Unfortunately, the plan was not carried out effectively. Too many classes of sometimes experimental locomotives were bought, and a number of marshalling yards were built at a time when wagon load freight was already being replaced by train load workings -- which do not need complex shunting and reforming. In spite of the investment, railway finances continued to worsen, and in 1959 the government stepped in, limiting the amount the BTC could spend without Ministerial authority. A White Paper proposing reorganisation was published in the following year, and a new structure was brought into effect by the Transport Act 1962. This abolished the Commission and replaced it by a number of separate Boards. These included a British Railways Board, which took over on 1 January 1963. The National network might have looked like this by the 1980s if the lines not proposed for development had actually closed (the network for development is shown in bold) Following semi-secret discussions on railway finances by the government-appointed Stedeford Committee in 1961, one of its members, Doctor Richard Beeching, was offered the post of chairing the BTC while it lasted, and then becoming the first Chairman of the British Railways Board. A major traffic census in April 1961, which lasted one week, was used in the compilation of a report on the future of the network. This report - The Reshaping of British Railways - was published by the BRB in March 1963. ("the Beeching Axe"). Its proposals were dramatic. A third of all passenger services and more than 4000 of the 7000 stations would close. Beeching, who is believed to have been the author of most of the report, set out some dire figures. One third of the network was carrying just 1% of the traffic. Of the 18,000 passenger coaches, 6,000 were said to be used only 18 times a year or less. Although maintaining them cost between £3m and £4m a year, they earned only about £0.5m. Most of the closures were carried out between 1963 and 1970 (including a few that were not listed in the report), and the railway was transformed. Freight in particular underwent a revolution as the Victorian network of thousands of little yards was progressively abolished in favour of comparatively few major terminals. Although railway finances did improve after Beeching, they did not return to profit. However, it is said by some that it was Beeching who really modernised BR, and that his changes were inevitable. Others maintain that the extent of closures was excessive, and in support of their argument point to those lines which have since been reopened. A second Beeching report, The Development of the Major Trunk Routes, followed in 1965. This did not recommend closures as such, but outlined a "network for development". The fate of the rest of BR was left undecided, although some observers assumed - mostly wrongly as it turned out - that the "undeveloped" lines would in fact close as well. It is often claimed that the closure of stations serving rural communities removed much feeder traffic from main line passenger services, but this is debatable. The number of passengers on many closed lines did not even justify the continuance of various rail replacement bus services which were introduced after the lines had closed. However, some routes probably did suffer from the loss of their feeders, such as the former main line between Salisbury and Exeter. This route has survived, but it was once linked to several branches carrying considerable summer traffic. The closures were extremely unpopular at the time, and in spite of the logic behind them, they remain contentious today. Passenger levels decreased steadily from the late 1950s to late 1970s. The UK Department for Transport (DfT), specifically Table 6.1 from Transport Statistics Great Britain 2006 (4MB PDF file) Passenger services then experienced a renaissance with the introduction of the high-speed Intercity 125 trains in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The 1980s saw pressure to reduce government funding and above-inflation increases in fares. A further British Rail report, from a committee chaired by Sir David Serpell, was published in 1983. The Serpell Report made no recommendations as such, but did set out various options for the network including, at their most extreme, a skeletal system of less than 2000 route km. This report was not welcomed, and even the government decided to quietly leave it on the shelf. Allegations that the Serpell Report set out a programme of closures are incorrect. Between 1994 and 1997, British Rail was privatised. Ownership of the track and infrastructure passed to Railtrack; passenger operations were franchised to individual private-sector operators (originally there were 25 franchises); and the freight services sold outright (six companies were set up, but five of these were sold to the same buyer). The Conservative government under John Major predicted that privatisation saw an improvement in passenger services. Passenger levels have since increased to the levels of the later 1940s, and as the network is only half its former size it is significantly congested in some areas. The UK Office of Rail Regulation (ORR), specifically Section 1.2 from National Rail Trends 2006-2007 Q1 (PDF file) Network York railway station on the East Coast Main Line The former BR network, with the trunk routes of the West Coast Main Line, East Coast Main Line, Great Western Main Line and Midland Main Line, remains mostly unchanged since privatisation. Several lines have reopened and more are proposed, particularly in Scotland and Wales where the control of railway passenger services is devolved from central government. However, in England passenger trains have returned to Corby and there are numerous other proposals to restore services, such as Oxford-Milton Keynes/Aylesbury-Bedford, Lewes-Uckfield and Plymouth-Tavistock. The branch into Yate, South Gloucestershire, was, some say wrongly, built on, with a street of houses Slimbridge Close, being constructed in the 1980s. In Wales the Welsh Assembly Government successfully supported the reopening of the Vale of Glamorgan line between Barry and Bridgend in 2005 and the Ebbw Valley Line between Ebbw Vale and Cardiff in 2008. (The Barry-Bridgend route was included in the closures proposed in the Beeching report of March 1963 and its services were duly withdrawn in June 1964, but Ebbw Vale had already been closed to passengers before the report was published.) Successor companies Under the process of British Rail's privatisation, operations were split into more than 100 companies. The ownership and operation of the infrastructure of the railway system was taken over by Railtrack. The Telecomms infrastructure and British Rail Telecommunications was sold to Racal which in turn sold onto Global Crossing and merged with Thales Group. The rolling stock was transferred to three private ROSCOs (ROlling Stock COmpanies). Passenger services were divided into 25 operating companies, which were let on a franchise basis for a set number of years, whilst freight services were sold off completely. Dozens of smaller engineering and maintenance companies were also created and sold off. British Rail's passenger services came to an end upon the franchising of ScotRail; the final train that the company operated was a Railfreight Distribution freight train in Autumn 1997. The British Railways Board continued in existence as a corporation until early 2001, when it was replaced with the Strategic Rail Authority. Since privatisation, the structure of the rail industry and number of companies has changed a number of times as franchises have been relet and the areas covered by franchises restructured. Franchise-based companies that took over passenger rail services include: Midland Mainline – superseded in 2007 by East Midlands Trains Great North Eastern Railway – superseded in 2007 by National Express East Coast Virgin Trains (West Coast) Virgin CrossCountry – superseded in 2007 by CrossCountry Scotrail operated by National Express - superseded in 2004 by First Scotrail (now branded as Scotrail - Scotland's Railway) Great Western Trains – from 1998: First Great Western Wales and West – became Wessex Trains and Wales and Borders in 2001, after being split into two separate franchises, and now run by First Great Western and Arriva Trains Wales Arriva Trains Northern (originally Northern Spirit) – superseded in 2004 by First TransPennine Express and Northern Rail First North Western (originally North Western Trains) – superseded in 2004 by First TransPennine Express and Northern Rail Anglia Railways, Great Eastern, (later First Great Eastern and the West Anglia section of WAGN were all merged to become ONE later renamed National Express East Anglia Thameslink and Great Northern Section of WAGN grouped together to form First Capital Connect as part of the Thameslink Great Northern Franchise LTS later renamed C2C Connex South Eastern became Southeastern Connex South Central became South Central and later renamed Southern Merseyrail Electrics for a period called Arriva Trains Merseyside South West Trains Central Trains (Network West Midlands) – divided in 2007 between London Midland, Cross Country and East Midlands Trains See also History of rail transport in Great Britain British Rail brand names British Rail corporate liveries British Rail flying saucer British Rail sandwich British Carriage and Wagon Numbering and Classification British Rail locomotive and multiple unit numbering and classification British Transport Police Gerry Fiennes List of British Rail classes List of companies operating trains in the United Kingdom London Underground Glasgow Subway Liverpool Overhead Railway Steam locomotives of British Railways Sealink BR's sea division National Preservation National Rail Network Rail Rail transport in Great Britain References External links British Railways Board history BRB (Residuary) Ltd. | British_Rail |@lemmatized article:2 defunct:1 entity:1 british:34 railway:40 later:6 trade:2 rail:30 history:4 transport:12 great:15 britain:5 cover:2 br:7 operator:2 system:4 nationalisation:3 big:3 four:4 company:14 privatisation:5 stage:1 first:10 trading:1 brand:4 executive:4 commission:5 become:7 independent:1 statutory:1 corporation:2 board:6 period:2 saw:3 sweeping:1 change:4 network:16 steam:3 traction:2 eliminate:1 favour:2 diesel:2 electric:3 power:1 passenger:17 replace:4 freight:6 main:8 source:1 business:2 one:5 third:3 ax:1 double:2 arrow:2 logo:3 see:3 right:1 represent:1 direction:1 travel:1 track:2 nickname:1 indecision:1 employ:1 generic:1 denoter:1 station:6 public:2 non:1 operate:5 street:2 sign:4 still:3 use:7 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4,936 | Godzilla_vs._the_Sea_Monster | Godzilla versus the Sea Monster (the only film in the series in which "versus" is spelled out), released in Japan as , is a 1966 tokusatsu film directed by Jun Fukuda and written by Shinichi Sekizawa. It was the seventh film to be released in the Godzilla franchise. The film is also known by its English title, Ebirah, Horror of the Deep. The special effects were directed by Eiji Tsuburaya. The film features the monsters: Godzilla, Ebirah, Mothra, and the Giant Condor (also known as Condra). Plot After Yata is lost at sea, his brother Ryota steals a yacht with his two friends and a bank robber. The crew runs afoul of the giant lobster Ebirah, and washes up on the shore of an island, where a terrorist organization manufactures heavy water for their purposes, as well as a chemical that keeps Ebirah at bay. The organization, known as the Red Bamboo, has enslaved natives from Infant Island to help them, but the natives hope to awaken Mothra to rescue them. In their efforts to avoid capture, Ryota and his friends, aided by a beautiful native girl, stumble across Godzilla sleeping, who is resting from his battles with King Ghidorah from the previous two years, within a cliffside cavern. The group devises a plan to defeat the Red Bamboo and escape from the island. In the process, they wake Godzilla using a lightning rod, retrieve the missing Yata, free the enslaved natives and destroy the base, but in the process the island becomes unstable. As Godzilla fights Ebirah, the natives summon Mothra to save everyone, and everyone is saved. Cast Akira Takarada as Yoshimura Tooru Watanabe as Ryota Tooru Ibuki as Yata Choutarou Tougin as Ichino Hideo Sunazuka as Nita Kumi Mizuno as Dayo Pair Bambi as Shobijin Jun Tazaki as Red Bamboo Commander Akihiko Hirata as Captain Ryuui Eisei Amamoto as Carrier Captain Haruo Nakajima as Godzilla Yū Sekida as Ebirah Production The film was originally written for Toho's version of King Kong, but when Toho lost the rights to the character they switched Kong with another popular character at the time, Godzilla. This would explain Godzilla's crush on Kumi Mizuno's character, the relative weakness of Ebirah and [more so] Ookandru (the Giant Condor also known as Condra) compared to last opponent (King Ghidorah), among other things. The US television version and early video versions have a different opening to the film. The opening scenes of Ryota at the Maritime Safety Agency searching for news of his brother have been replaced with a scene supposedly showing Ebirah destroying Yata's boat. This sequence was created by editing a later scene in the movie. The current DVD version of the film restores the Japanese cut. In 1991, Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster was distributed under the Film Ventures International name. The company replaced the opening with a generic credit sequence, using footage from Son of Godzilla. English version In 1967, the film was released directly to television in North America by the Walter Reade Organization. It was the first Godzilla film to not receive North American theatrical distribution. There were several small alterations made: Dialogue was dubbed to English. Deleted: The opening credits sequence. This version features only the title card, Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster. Deleted: A scene where Ryoto goes to the Maritime Safety office and sees a poster on the wall for a dance contest. Deleted: Rock music that played in the Japanese version during Godzilla and Ebirah's battle. The English version runs 83 minutes, four minutes shorter than the Japanese version, and was featured in an episode of the movie-mocking television series Mystery Science Theater 3000. Box office In Japan, the film was released on December 17 and sold approximately 3,450,000 tickets. It was re-released on July 22, 1972 and sold approximately 760,000 tickets. DVD release Sony Pictures Released: February 8, 2005 Aspect Ratio: Anamorphic Widescreen (2.35:1) Sound: Japanese (2.0), English (2.0) Supplements: Trailers for Godzilla: Tokyo SOS, MirrorMask, Anacondas: The Hunt for the Blood Orchid, and Steamboy'' Region 1 Note: Contain's Toho's International Version MPAA Rating: PG for sci-fi monster violence External links Godzilla on the web(Japan) Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster film review FX director Sadamasa Arikiawa interview Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster at Toho Kingdom | Godzilla_vs._the_Sea_Monster |@lemmatized godzilla:18 versus:2 sea:6 monster:7 film:13 series:2 spell:1 release:7 japan:3 tokusatsu:1 direct:2 jun:2 fukuda:1 write:2 shinichi:1 sekizawa:1 seventh:1 franchise:1 also:3 know:4 english:5 title:2 ebirah:9 horror:1 deep:1 special:1 effect:1 eiji:1 tsuburaya:1 feature:3 mothra:3 giant:3 condor:2 condra:2 plot:1 yata:4 lose:2 brother:2 ryota:4 steal:1 yacht:1 two:2 friend:2 bank:1 robber:1 crew:1 run:2 afoul:1 lobster:1 wash:1 shore:1 island:4 terrorist:1 organization:3 manufacture:1 heavy:1 water:1 purpose:1 well:1 chemical:1 keep:1 bay:1 red:3 bamboo:3 enslave:1 native:5 infant:1 help:1 hope:1 awaken:1 rescue:1 effort:1 avoid:1 capture:1 aid:1 beautiful:1 girl:1 stumble:1 across:1 sleeping:1 rest:1 battle:2 king:3 ghidorah:2 previous:1 year:1 within:1 cliffside:1 cavern:1 group:1 devise:1 plan:1 defeat:1 escape:1 process:2 wake:1 use:2 lightning:1 rod:1 retrieve:1 miss:1 free:1 enslaved:1 destroy:2 base:1 become:1 unstable:1 fight:1 summon:1 save:2 everyone:2 cast:1 akira:1 takarada:1 yoshimura:1 tooru:2 watanabe:1 ibuki:1 choutarou:1 tougin:1 ichino:1 hideo:1 sunazuka:1 nita:1 kumi:2 mizuno:2 dayo:1 pair:1 bambi:1 shobijin:1 tazaki:1 commander:1 akihiko:1 hirata:1 captain:2 ryuui:1 eisei:1 amamoto:1 carrier:1 haruo:1 nakajima:1 yū:1 sekida:1 production:1 originally:1 toho:4 version:10 kong:2 right:1 character:3 switch:1 another:1 popular:1 time:1 would:1 explain:1 crush:1 relative:1 weakness:1 ookandru:1 compare:1 last:1 opponent:1 among:1 thing:1 u:1 television:3 early:1 video:1 different:1 opening:4 scene:4 maritime:2 safety:2 agency:1 search:1 news:1 replace:2 supposedly:1 show:1 boat:1 sequence:3 create:1 edit:1 late:1 movie:2 current:1 dvd:2 restore:1 japanese:4 cut:1 v:4 distribute:1 venture:1 international:2 name:1 company:1 generic:1 credit:2 footage:1 son:1 directly:1 north:2 america:1 walter:1 reade:1 first:1 receive:1 american:1 theatrical:1 distribution:1 several:1 small:1 alteration:1 make:1 dialogue:1 dub:1 delete:3 card:1 ryoto:1 go:1 office:2 see:1 poster:1 wall:1 dance:1 contest:1 rock:1 music:1 play:1 minute:2 four:1 shorter:1 episode:1 mocking:1 mystery:1 science:1 theater:1 box:1 december:1 sell:2 approximately:2 ticket:2 july:1 sony:1 picture:1 february:1 aspect:1 ratio:1 anamorphic:1 widescreen:1 sound:1 supplement:1 trailer:1 tokyo:1 mirrormask:1 anaconda:1 hunt:1 blood:1 orchid:1 steamboy:1 region:1 note:1 contain:1 mpaa:1 rating:1 pg:1 sci:1 fi:1 violence:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 review:1 fx:1 director:1 sadamasa:1 arikiawa:1 interview:1 kingdom:1 |@bigram jun_fukuda:1 eiji_tsuburaya:1 run_afoul:1 king_ghidorah:2 lightning_rod:1 akihiko_hirata:1 haruo_nakajima:1 anamorphic_widescreen:1 sci_fi:1 external_link:1 |
4,937 | Cinema_of_Poland | Tablet commemorating the screening of the first Polish film, Antoś pierwszy raz w Warszawie The history of cinema in Poland is almost as long as history of cinematography, and it has universal achievements, even though Polish movies tend to be less commercially available than movies from several other European nations. From 1955 onwards, the works of directors of the so-called Polish Film School had a great influence on the contemporary trends such as French New Wave, Italian neorealism or even late Classical Hollywood cinema. After World War II, despite censorship. Filmmakers like Roman Polański, Krzysztof Kieślowski, Agnieszka Holland, Andrzej Wajda, Andrzej Żuławski impacted the development of the cinematography. Twelve Polish films or co-productions are represented in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die, namely Ashes and Diamonds, The Decalogue, The Double Life of Veronique, Europa Europa, Man of Iron, Man of Marble, Passenger, The Pianist, The Saragossa Manuscript, Three Colors: Blue, Three Colors: Red and The Tin Drum. In the most recent years, while no longer and struggling with censorship, and with a large number of independent filmmakers of all genres, the Polish productions tend to be more inspired by the American film. History Early history The first cinema in Poland (then occupied by the Russian Empire) was founded in Łódź in 1899, several years after the invention of the Cinematograph. Initially dubbed Living Pictures Theatre, it gained much popularity and by the end of the next decade there were cinemas in almost every major town of Poland. Arguably the first Polish filmmaker was Kazimierz Prószyński, who filmed various short documentaries in Warsaw. His pleograph film camera has been patented already before the Lumière brothers' invention and he is credited as the author of the earliest surviving Polish documentary titled Ślizgawka w Łazienkach (Skating-rink in the Royal Baths), as well as the first short narrative films Powrót birbanta (Rake's return home) and Przygoda dorożkarza (Cabman's Adventure), both created in 1902. Another pioneer of cinema was Bolesław Matuszewski, who became one of the first filmmakers working for the Lumière company - and the official "cinematographer" of the Russian tsars in 1897. The earliest surviving feature film, the Antoś pierwszy raz w Warszawie (Antoś for the First Time in Warsaw) was made in 1908 by Antoni Fertner. The date of its' première, October 22, 1908, is considered the founding date of Polish film industry. Soon Polish artists started experimenting with other genres of cinema: in 1910 Władysław Starewicz made the one of the first animated cartoons in the world - and the first to use the stop motion technique, the Piękna Lukanida (Beautiful Lukanida). By the start of World War I the cinema in Poland was already in full swing, with numerous adaptations of major works of Polish literature screened (notably the Dzieje grzechu, Meir Ezofowicz and Nad Niemnem. During the WWI the Polish cinema crossed borders. Films made in Warsaw or Vilnius were often rebranded with German language intertitles and shown in Berlin. That was how a young actress Pola Negri (born Barbara Apolonia Chałupiec) gained fame in Germany and eventually became one of the European super-stars of silent film. After WWII Graduates of world-renowned Łódź Film School include some of the icons of the world cinematography, e.g., Roman Polański (Knife in the Water, Rosemary's Baby, Frantic, The Pianist) and Krzysztof Zanussi (a leading director of the so-called cinema of moral anxiety of the 1970s. Andrzej Wajda's films offer insightful analyses of the universal element of the Polish experience - the struggle to maintain dignity under the most trying circumstances. His films defined several Polish generations. In 2000, Wajda was awarded an honorary Oscar for his overall contributions to the cinematography. In the 1990s, Krzysztof Kieślowski won a universal acclaim with productions such as The Decalogue (made for television), The Double Life of Véronique and the Three Colors trilogy. A large number of Polish film directors (e.g., Agnieszka Holland and Janusz Kamiński) have worked in American studios. Polish animated films - e.g., those by Jan Lenica and Zbigniew Rybczyński (Oscar, 1983) - have a long tradition and derive inspiration from Poland's graphic arts. Directors Agnieszka Holand Krzystof Kieślowski Roman Polański Piotr Andrejew Józef Arkusz Stanisław Bareja Walerian Borowczyk Marek Brodzki Piotr Dumała Aleksander Ford Wojciech Has Agnieszka Holland Jerzy Hoffman Wanda Jakubowska Tadeusz Jaworski Kazimierz Karabasz Jerzy Kawalerowicz Krzysztof Kieślowski (The Three Colors trilogy, The Decalogue) Jan Jakub Kolski Tadeusz Konwicki Krzysztof Krauze Jerzy Kucia Kazimierz Kutz J%C3%B3zef LejtesJan Lenica Marcel Łoziński Juliusz Machulski Janusz Majewski Lech Majewski Janusz Morgenstern Andrzej Munk Jerzy Passendorfer Marek Piwowski Roman Polański Stanisław Różewicz Zbig Rybczyński Jerzy Skolimowski Ladislas Starevich (Władysław Starewicz) Jerzy Stuhr Piotr Szulkin Andrzej Wajda Michał Waszyński Krzysztof Zanussi Andrzej Żuławski Notable actors Kazimierz Opaliński Piotr Adamczyk Eugeniusz Bodo Michał Bajor Zbigniew Cybulski Elżbieta Czyżewska Paweł Deląg Katarzyna Figura Małgorzata Foremniak Piotr Fronczewski Janusz Gajos Robert Gonera Karolina Gruszka Krystyna Janda Marian Kociniak Marek Kondrat Bogusław Linda Krzysztof Majchrzak Paweł Małaszyński Pola Negri Daniel Olbrychski Joanna Pacuła Cezary Pazura Jacek Poniedziałek Kinga Preis Wojciech Pszoniak Izabella Scorupco (left Poland in 1978) Andrzej Seweryn Jerzy Stuhr Grażyna Szapołowska Beata Tyszkiewicz Zbigniew Zamachowski Michał Żebrowski Notable films A Generation (1955) Kanal (1956) Ashes and Diamonds (1958) Farewells (1958) Heroism (1958) The Last Day of Summer (1958) Night Train (1959) Lotna (1959) Knife in the Water (1962) How to Be Loved (1963) The Passenger (1963) The Saragossa Manuscript (1965) Pharaoh (1966) Hell and Heaven :pl:Piekło i Niebo (1966) Colonel Wolodyjowski (1968) Jak rozpętałem drugą wojnę światową ("How I unleashed the Second World War") (1969) Rejs (a.k.a. The Cruise) (1970) The Hour-Glass Sanatorium (1973) The Deluge (1974) The Promised Land (1975) Człowiek z marmuru (a.k.a. Man of Marble) (1976) Teddy Bear (1980) Człowiek z żelaza (a.k.a. Man of Iron) (1981) Sexmission (1984) The Decalogue (1988) With Fire and Sword (1999) Dług (a.k.a. The Debt) imdb (1999) The Revenge (2002) The Pianist (2002) Katyń (2007) See also Polish film school National Film School in Łódź World cinema History of cinema List of films made in Poland in the Interwar Period List of famous Poles External links Polish Film Institute Internet Polish Movie Database Polish Cinema Database Short overview of Polish cinema Film theory in Poland before World War IIMarek Haltof, Canadian Slavonic Papers, March-June 1998. european-films.net - Reviews, trailers, interviews, news and previews of recent and upcoming European films (in English) | Cinema_of_Poland |@lemmatized tablet:1 commemorate:1 screening:1 first:8 polish:20 film:24 antoś:3 pierwszy:2 raz:2 w:3 warszawie:2 history:5 cinema:13 poland:8 almost:2 long:3 cinematography:4 universal:3 achievement:1 even:2 though:1 movie:4 tend:2 less:1 commercially:1 available:1 several:3 european:4 nation:1 onwards:1 work:4 director:4 call:2 school:4 great:1 influence:1 contemporary:1 trend:1 french:1 new:1 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4,938 | Lacrosse | Lacrosse is a team sport of Native American origin that is played using a small solid rubber ball and a long-handled racquet called a crosse or lacrosse stick. The head of the lacrosse stick is strung with loose netting that is designed to hold the lacrosse ball. Offensively, the object of the game is to use the lacrosse stick to catch, carry, and pass the ball in an effort to score by ultimately hurling the ball into an opponent's goal. Defensively the object is to keep the opposing team from scoring and to dispossess them of the ball through the use of stick checking and body contact or positioning. There are three main versions of the sport; men's lacrosse, women's lacrosse and box lacrosse. History Lacrosse originated in the Indian nations of mid-America. In many Native American societies/tribes, the ball sport was often part of religious ritual, played to resolve conflicts, heal the sick, develop strong, virile men and prepare for war. Legend tells of games with more than 100 players from different tribes taking turns to play.It could be played on a field many miles in length and width; sometimes the game could last for days. Early lacrosse balls were made of deerskin, clay, stone, and sometimes wood. Lacrosse played a significant role in the community and religious life of tribes across the continent for many years. Early lacrosse was characterized by deep spiritual involvement,befitting the spirit of combat in which it was undertaken. Those who took part did so in the role of warriors, with the goal of bringing glory and honor to themselves and their tribes. The game was said to be played "for the Creator" or was referred to as "The Creator's Game". Lacrosse, one of the oldest team sports in the Americas, may have developed as early as the 12th century, Vennum, Thomas. American Indian Lacrosse: Little Brother of War. (Smithsonian Institution, 1994) SBN 978-1560983026. Liss, Howard. Lacrosse (Funk & Wagnalls, 1970) pg 13. but since then has undergone many modifications. In the traditional Native American version, each team consisted of about 100 to 1,000 men on a field that stretched from about 500 yards to a couple of miles long. These lacrosse games lasted from sunup to sundown for two to three days straight. These games were played as part of ceremonial ritual to give thanks to the Creator. The modern Ojibway verb 'to play Lacrosse' is baaga'adowe (Baggataway [sic]). The French Jesuit missionary, Jean de Brébeuf, saw Iroquois tribesmen play it in 1637 and was the first European to write about the game. He called it lacrosse. Some say the name originated from the French term for field hockey, le jeu de la crosse. Lacrosse: E-Lacrosse Lacrosse History, Links and Sources Others suggest that it was named after the crosier, a staff carried by bishops. STX Lacrosse In 1856, Dr. William George Beers, a Canadian dentist, founded the Montreal Lacrosse Club. In 1867 he codified the game, shortening the length of each game and reducing the number of players to twelve per team. The first game played under Beers' rules was at Upper Canada College in 1867, with Upper Canada College losing to the Toronto Cricket Club by a score of 3–1. By the 1900s, high schools, colleges, and universities began playing the game. Lacrosse was contested as a demonstration sport in the 1928 and 1932 Olympics. On each occasion, a playoff was held to determine the American representative to the Olympics and on each occasion the playoffs were won by the Johns Hopkins Blue Jays. In the United States, lacrosse had primarily been a regional sport centered in and around Maryland, New England, upstate New York, Long Island, and mid-Atlantic states. In recent years, its popularity has started to spread south to Georgia, Alabama and Florida, as well as west to Colorado, California, Texas, and the Midwest. The sport has gained increasing visibility in the media, with a growth of college, high school, and youth programs throughout the country. The NCAA Men's Lacrosse Championship has the highest attendance of any NCAA Championship, outdrawing the Final Four of men's basketball. The growth of lacrosse was also facilitated by the introduction of plastic stick heads in the 1970s by Baltimore-based STX. This innovation reduced the weight and cost of the lacrosse stick. It also allowed for faster passes and game play than traditional wooden sticks. Up until the 1930s, all lacrosse was played on large fields outdoors. The owners of Canadian hockey arenas invented a reduced version of the game, called box lacrosse, as a means to make more profit from their arena investments. In a relatively short period of time, box lacrosse became the dominant form of the sport in Canada, in part due to the severe winter weather that limited outdoor play. More recently, field lacrosse has witnessed a revival in Canada as the Canadian University Field Lacrosse Association (CUFLA) began operating a collegiate men's league in 1985. It now includes 12 varsity teams. In 1994 Canada declared lacrosse its National Summer Sport with the passage of the National Sports Act (Bill C-212). In 1987 a professional box lacrosse league was started, called the Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League. This league changed its name to the Major Indoor Lacrosse League, then later to the National Lacrosse League and grew to encompass lacrosse clubs in twelve cities throughout the United States and Canada. In the summer of 2001, a professional field lacrosse league, known as Major League Lacrosse (MLL), was inaugurated. Initially starting with six teams, the MLL has grown to a total of ten clubs located in major metropolitan areas in the United States. On July 4, 2008, Major League Lacrosse set the professional lacrosse attendance record: 20,116 fans attended a game at Invesco Field in Denver, Colorado. In 2006 a field lacrosse league was developed in Quebec, Canada. Composed of the English colleges, this league came together to become the first official college field lacrosse league in Quebec. Types of play Field lacrosse Men's field lacrosse is played with ten players on each team: a goalkeeper; three defenders in the defensive end; three midfielders (often called "middies") free to roam the whole field; and three attackers attempting to score goals in the offensive end. It is the most common version of lacrosse played internationally. The modern game was codified in Canada by Dr. William George Beers in 1856. Scott, p. 8 The game has evolved from that time to include the protective equipment and lacrosse sticks made from synthetic materials. Each player carries a lacrosse stick (or crosse). A "short crosse" (sometimes called a "short stick") measures between and long (head and shaft together) is typically used by midfielders and attackmen. A total of four players per team may carry a "long crosse" (sometimes called "long pole", "long stick" or "d-pole") that are to long. The head of the crosse on both long and short crosses must be or larger at its widest point and inches wide or wider at its narrowest point. The designated goalkeeper is allowed to have a stick from to ) long and the head of a goalkeeper's crosse may measure up to wide, significantly larger than field players' heads to assist in blocking shots. The field of play is long and wide. The goals are by . The goal sits inside a circular "crease", measuring in diameter. Each offensive and defensive area is surrounded by a "restraining box." Each quarter, and after each goal scored, play is restarted with a face-off. During a face-off, two players lay their stick horizontally next to the ball, head of the stick inches from the ball and the butt-end pointing down the midfield line. Face-off-men scrap for the ball, often by “clamping” it under their stick and flicking it out to their teammates. Attackers and defenders cannot cross their “restraining line” until one player from the midfield takes possession of the ball or the ball crosses the restraining line. If a member of one team touches the ball and it travels outside of the playing area, play is restarted by possession being awarded to the opposing team. During play, teams may substitute players in and out freely. Sometimes this is referred to as "on the fly" substitution. Substitution must occur within the designated exchange area in order to be legal. For most penalties, the offending player is sent to the penalty box and his team has to play without him and with one less player for a short amount of time. Most penalties last for 30 to 60 seconds. Occasionally a longer penalty may be assessed for more severe infractions. The team that has taken the penalty is said to be playing man down while the other team is on the man up. Teams will use various lacrosse strategies to attack and defend while a player is being penalized. Offsides is penalized by a 30 second penalty. It occurs when there are more than six players (three midfielders/three attackmen or three midfielders/three defensemen) on one half of the field. The zones are separated by the midfield line. Defensemen and attackmen can cross the midfield line, however the team must assure that a midfielder "stays back" in order to avoid an offsides penalty (a midfielder will raise his crosse to signify they are staying back). At the highest level it is represented by the professional Major League Lacrosse (MLL) and on the collegiate level by the NCAA Division I in the United States. The first collegiate lacrosse program was established by New York University in 1877, and the 1971 tournament was the first Men's Lacrosse Championship sponsored by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). It is also played at a high level on the amateur level by the Australian Lacrosse League, the Canadian University Field Lacrosse Association, and club lacrosse leagues internationally. Internationally, there are twenty two total members of the Federation of International Lacrosse (FIL), only United States, Canada, Australia, and the Iroquois Nationals have finished in the top three places at the World Lacrosse Championships. The World Lacrosse Championship began as a four-team invitational tournament in 1968 sanctioned by the International Lacrosse Federation. Lacrosse at the Olympics was a medal earning sport in the 1904 Summer Olympics and the 1908 Summer Olympics. Lacrosse was a demonstration sport in the 1928 Summer Olympics, 1932 Summer Olympics, and the 1948 Summer Olympics. The professional Major League Lacrosse strayed from the established field lacrosse rules of international, college, and high school programs. With intentions to increase scoring, the league employed a sixty second shot clock, a two–point goal for shots taken outside a designated perimeter, and allowed each team to only field three long–stick defenders as opposed to the traditional four. However, after eight years of play, the league introduced a fourth long stick defender prior to the 2009 MLL season. The MLL has been bolstered by a ten year television contract with ESPN in 2007. Box lacrosse Box lacrosse (or indoor lacrosse) is an indoor version of the game played by teams of six on ice hockey rinks where the ice has been removed or covered by artificial turf. The enclosed playing area is called a box, in contrast to the open playing field of the traditional game. This version of the game was introduced in the 1930s to promote business for hockey arenas, Fisher, p. 157 and within several years had nearly supplanted field lacrosse in Canada. Fisher, p. 120 Box lacrosse is played at the highest level by the Senior A divisions of the Canadian Lacrosse Association (Western Lacrosse Association of the British Columbia Lacrosse Association and Major Series Lacrosse of the Ontario Lacrosse Association), and the National Lacrosse League (NLL). The National Lacrosse League employs some minor rule changes from the Canadian Lacrosse Association (CLA) rules. Notably, the games are played during the winter,, the NLL games consist of four fifteen-minute quarters compared with three periods of twenty minutes each (similar to ice hockey) in CLA games, and that NLL players may use only sticks with hollow shafts, while CLA permits solid wooden sticks. Vennum, p. 287 The goals are much smaller than field lacrosse, traditionally wide by tall in box, and wide by tall in the NLL. In the National Lacrosse League and Major Series Lacrosse the dimensions are slightly larger at wide by tall. Also, the goaltender wears much more protective padding, including a massive chest protector and armguard combination known as "uppers", large shin guards known as leg pads (both of which must follow strict measurment guidelines), and ice hockey-style masks or lacrosse helmets such as those made by Cascade. Also, at the professional level, box lacrosse goaltenders often use traditional wooden sticks outside of the NLL, which does not allow wooden sticks. The style of the game is fast, accelerated by the close confines of the floor and a shot clock. The shot clock requires the attacking team to take a shot on goal within 30 seconds of gaining possession of the ball. In addition, players must advance the ball from their own defensive end to the offensive side of the floor within 10 seconds. For most penalties, the offending player is sent to the penalty box and his team has to play without him and with one less player for a short amount of time. Most penalties last for two minutes, unless a five minute major penalty has been assessed. Fighting is illegal in box lacrosse, however what separates box lacrosse (and ice hockey) from other sport is that at the top levels of professional and junior lacrosse, a five-minute major penalty is given and the players are not ejected for participating in a fight. Internationally, the World Indoor Lacrosse Championships are held every four years, originally sponsored by the International Lacrosse Federation and now sponsored by the Federation of International Lacrosse. Only eight nations have competed in these competitions, and only Canada, Iroquois Nationals and the United States have finished in the most coveted 1st, 2nd and 3rd places at these events. Women's lacrosse The rules of women's lacrosse differ significantly from men's lacrosse, most notably by equipment and the degree of allowable physical contact. 2007 IWWLA Women's Lacrosse Rules, International Federation of Women's Lacrosse Associations Women's lacrosse does not promote a lot of physical contact. The only protective equipment worn for this sport is a mouth guard and face guard and sometimes thin gloves. Although women's lacrosse does not allow much physical contact, it does allow stick to stick contact when in the right body position (though limited in younger age groups). Players are able to hit the opponent's stick to try and obtain possession of the ball. This is commonly known as checking. In younger groups lower than 7th grade no checking is permitted. In 7th grade to 8th grade checking is only permitted if the opponent's stick is below the shoulders. Players are able to lightly push the player if their stick is a certain angle on the oppositions body. The first modern women's lacrosse game was held at St Leonards School in Scotland in 1890. It was introduced by the school's headmistress Louisa Lumsden. The first women's lacrosse team in the United States was established at Bryn Mawr School in Baltimore, Maryland. Men’s and women’s lacrosse were played under virtually the same rules, with no protective equipment, until the mid-1930s. NCAA women's Lacrosse Division I began play in 1982. The University of Maryland, College Park has traditionally dominated the women's intercollegiate play, producing many head coaches across the country and many U.S. national team players. The Lady Terps won seven consecutive NCAA championships, from 1995 through 2001. Princeton University's women's teams have made it to the final game seven times since 1993 and have won three NCAA titles, in 1993, 2002, and 2003. In recent years, Northwestern University has become a force, winning the national championship from 2005 through 2008. Internationally, the game is commonly played in British girls' independent schools, and while only a minor sport in Australia, it is played to a very high standard at the elite level, where its national squad won the 2005 Women's Lacrosse World Cup. The next Women's World Cup will be played in 2009 hosted by Prague, Czech Republic. College lacrosse Lacrosse in the United States is played at the collegiate level in both the club and sanctioned team sport. There are currently 59 NCAA sanctioned Division I men's lacrosse teams, 35 Division II men's lacrosse teams, and 131 Division III men's lacrosse teams. There are also currently 88 Division I women's lacrosse teams, 37 Division II women's lacrosse Teams, and 154 Division III women's lacrosse teams. Almost 200 collegiate men's club teams compete at the Men's Collegiate Lacrosse Association level, including most major universities in the United States. Another 100 schools have club teams in the National College Lacrosse League. The first U. S. intercollegiate game was played on November 22, 1877 between New York University and Manhattan College. Lacrosse had been introduced in upstate New York in the 1860s. Lacrosse was further introduced to the Baltimore area in the 1890s. These two areas continue to be the hotbeds of college lacrosse in the U.S. The first intercollegiate lacrosse tournament was held in 1881, with Harvard beating Princeton, 3-0, in the championship game. International lacrosse Lacrosse has been played for the most part in Canada and the United States, with small but dedicated lacrosse communities in the United Kingdom and Australia. Recently, however, lacrosse has begun to flourish at an international level with the sport establishing itself in many new and far-reaching countries, particularly in Europe and east Asia. With lacrosse not having been an official Olympic sport since 1908, the pinnacle of international lacrosse competition consists of the quadrennial World Championships. Currently, there are world championships for lacrosse at senior men, senior women, under 19 men and under 19 women level. Until 1986, lacrosse world championships had only been contested by the United States, Canada, England and Australia, with Scotland and Wales also competing in the women's edition. The expansion of the game internationally saw the 2005 Women's World Cup competed for by ten nations, and the 2006 Men's World Championship was contested by 21 countries. In 2003, the first World Indoor Lacrosse Championship was contested by six nations at four sites in Ontario, Canada. Canada won the championship in a final game against the Iroquois, 21-4. The 2007 WILC was held in Halifax, Canada on from May 14-20. Teams from Australia, Canada, the Czech Republic, England, Ireland, Iroquois Nationals, Scotland and the United States competed. The next largest international field lacrosse competition is the European Lacrosse Championships. Held for both men and women, the European Lacrosse Federation (ELF) has been running the European Championships since 1995. Before 2001 the Championships were an annual event, but in 2001 the ELF changed the format to every four years between the World Championship. Before 2004, only 7 nations had ever participated, but in 2004 there was a record number of participating countries, with 12 men's and 6 women's, which made it the largest international lacrosse event of 2004. The last European Lacrosse Championships were held in Lahti, Finland in 2008, with 18 competing countries. England placed first with the Netherlands and Germany placing second and third, respectively. The World Lacrosse Championships have been dominated by the United States, particularly in the men's game, where the only world championship game losses at either level was in the 1978 final to Canada and 2006 final to Canada. The USA has won 8 of the 10 senior men's and all six under 19 men's tournaments to date. The next Men's World Lacrosse Championships will be held in Manchester, England, in 2010. In the women's game, Australia have provided stiffer competition, even holding a winning record against the USA of 6 wins to 5 at senior world championships, plus one draw. Despite this, the USA has won 5 of the 7 senior women's and 2 of the 3 under 19 women's tournaments to date, with the other world championships won by Australia, including the 2005 senior women's trophy. The Iroquois Nationals are a team consisting of members of the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. The team was admitted to the International Lacrosse Federation (ILF) in 1990. It is the only Native American team sanctioned to compete in any sport internationally. The Nationals placed fourth in the 1998, 2002 and 2006 World Lacrosse Championships. In 2008, the Iroquois were admitted as the Haudenosunee Nation to the International Federation of Women's Lacrosse Associations (IFWLA) as one of that governing body's final acts. One obstacle to the international development of lacrosse had been the existence of separate governing bodies for the men's and women's versions of the sport, with men's lacrosse being governed by ILF and the women's version by IFWLA. In August 2008, after four years of negotiation, the two bodies merged to form a single unified body, the Federation of International Lacrosse (FIL). All championships previously operated by the ILF and IFWLA will be taken over by the FIL. See also Intercrosse - a version of lacrosse popular in physical education classes is played with sticks made completely out of plastic and hollow balls. Polocrosse - a version of lacrosse played on horseback. References Footnotes Bibliography External links CBC Digital Archives - Lacrosse: A History of Canada's Game Inside Lacrosse: Magazine, Website and TV show for the world of lacrosse. Lax United: Exclusive Video Coverage for the Sport of Lacrosse. Major League Lacrosse - The professional outdoor lacrosse league. MCLA: The Lax Mag, The Official Magazine of the Men's Collegiate Lacrosse Association. National Lacrosse League - The professional indoor lacrosse league. US Lacrosse: Magazine and Website of the National Governing Body for Lacrosse in the United States. Lacrosse Map - Interactive team and tournament map documenting the growth of lacrosse since 1850. The "Official" Lacrosse Dictionary from E-Lacrosse.com | Lacrosse |@lemmatized lacrosse:154 team:39 sport:21 native:4 american:6 origin:1 play:41 use:7 small:3 solid:2 rubber:1 ball:17 long:13 handle:1 racquet:1 call:8 crosse:8 stick:27 head:8 string:1 loose:1 net:1 design:1 hold:10 offensively:1 object:2 game:35 catch:1 carry:4 pass:2 effort:1 score:5 ultimately:1 hurl:1 opponent:3 goal:9 defensively:1 keep:1 oppose:3 dispossess:1 checking:4 body:8 contact:5 positioning:1 three:13 main:1 version:10 men:28 woman:31 box:16 history:3 originate:2 indian:2 nation:7 mid:3 america:2 many:7 society:1 tribes:1 often:4 part:5 religious:2 ritual:2 resolve:1 conflict:1 heal:1 sick:1 develop:3 strong:1 virile:1 prepare:1 war:2 legend:1 tell:1 player:22 different:1 tribe:3 take:7 turn:1 could:2 field:23 mile:2 length:2 width:1 sometimes:6 last:5 day:2 early:3 make:7 deerskin:1 clay:1 stone:1 wood:1 significant:1 role:2 community:2 life:1 across:2 continent:1 year:9 characterize:1 deep:1 spiritual:1 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4,939 | Akio_Morita | Akio Morita (盛田昭夫 Morita Akio, January 26, 1921 in Tokoname, Aichi, Japan – October 3, 1999 in Tokyo) was a co-founder of Sony Corporation with his friend Masaru Ibuka (April 11, 1908 - December 19, 1997). Early life Morita's family was involved in sake, miso and soy sauce production in Chita Peninsula, Aichi Prefecture since 1665. He was oldest of four siblings and his father Kyuzaemon trained him as a child to take over the family business. Akio, however, found his true calling in mathematics and physics, and in 1944 he graduated from Osaka Imperial University with a degree in physics. He later joined the navy and served as a lieutenant during World War II. During his service, Morita met his future partner Masaru Ibuka in the Navy's Wartime Research Committee. Sony On May 7, 1946, Morita and Ibuka founded Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha (Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation, the forerunner to Sony Corporation) with about 20 employees and initial capital of ¥190,000. Ibuka was 38 years old, Morita 25. Morita's family invested in Sony during the early period and was the largest shareholder. In 1949, the company developed magnetic recording tape and in 1950, sold the first tape recorder in Japan. In 1957, it produced a pocket-sized radio (the first to be fully-transistorized) and in 1958 Morita and Ibuka made the decision to rename their company Sony (sonus is Latin for sound, and Sonny-boys is Japanese slang for "whiz kids"). Morita was an advocate for all the products made by the Sony Corporation. He helped sell his new radio by claiming that it was "pocket sized" and had the ability to fit in a normal shirt pocket. However, the radio was slightly too big to fit in a shirt pocket, so Morita made his business men wear shirts with slightly larger pockets giving the radio a "pocket sized" appearance. In 1960 it produced the first transistor television in the world. In 1979 the Walkman was introduced, making it the world's first portable music player. In 1984 Sony launched the Discman series which extended their Walkman brand to portable CD products. In 1960, the Sony Corporation of America was established in the United States. In 1961, the Sony Corporation of America was the first Japanese company to be listed on the New York Stock Exchange. Sony bought Columbia Records and other CBS labels in 1988 and Columbia Pictures in 1989. On November 25, 1994, Morita resigned as Sony chairman after suffering a cerebral hemorrhage while playing tennis. His successor, Norio Ohga, had joined the company after sending Morita a letter denouncing the poor quality of the company's tape recorders. Other service He was also Vice Chairman of the Keidanren (Japan Federation of Economic Organizations) and was a member of the Japan-U.S. Economic Relations Group, (also known as the "Wise Men's Group"). Publications In 1966, Morita wrote a book called Gakureki Muyō Ron (学歴無用論, Never Mind School Records), in which he stresses that school records are not important in one's success or ability to do business. In 1986, Morita wrote an autobiography titled Made in Japan. He was famous for co-authoring the 1991 essay The Japan that Can Say No with politician Shintaro Ishihara, which criticized United States business practices and encouraged Japanese to take a more independent role in business and foreign affairs. Awards He was awarded the Albert Medal from the United Kingdom's Royal Society of Arts in 1982, the first Japanese to receive the honor. Two years later, he received the prestigious National Order of the Legion of Honor and in 1991, he was awarded the First Class Order of the Sacred Treasure from the Emperor of Japan. Death Akio Morita suffered a stroke in 1993, during a game of tennis. On October 3, 1999, Morita died of pneumonia at the age of 78. External links Akio Morita Library Time magazine profile Sony Biographical notes PBS notes Full Biography at World of Biography Sony Encyclopedia Article Akio Morita's Early Life Further reading Morita, Akio. Made in Japan (New York: Dutton, 1986, ISBN 0451151712) Morita, Akio. Never Mind School Records (1966) (ISBN 4022604158 in Japanese) Morita, Akio (Co-Author) and Shintaro Ishihara. The Japan That Can Say No (Simon & Schuster, 1991, ISBN 0671758535, ISBN 4334051588 in Japanese) List of books authored by Akio Morita at WorldCat | Akio_Morita |@lemmatized akio:10 morita:22 盛田昭夫:1 january:1 tokoname:1 aichi:2 japan:9 october:2 tokyo:3 co:3 founder:1 sony:13 corporation:6 friend:1 masaru:2 ibuka:5 april:1 december:1 early:3 life:2 family:3 involve:1 sake:1 miso:1 soy:1 sauce:1 production:1 chita:1 peninsula:1 prefecture:1 since:1 old:2 four:1 sibling:1 father:1 kyuzaemon:1 train:1 child:1 take:2 business:5 however:2 find:1 true:1 call:2 mathematics:1 physic:2 graduate:1 osaka:1 imperial:1 university:1 degree:1 later:2 join:2 navy:2 serve:1 lieutenant:1 world:4 war:1 ii:1 service:2 meet:1 future:1 partner:1 wartime:1 research:1 committee:1 may:1 founded:1 tsushin:1 kogyo:1 kabushiki:1 kaisha:1 telecommunication:1 engineering:1 forerunner:1 employee:1 initial:1 capital:1 year:2 invest:1 period:1 large:2 shareholder:1 company:5 develop:1 magnetic:1 recording:1 tape:3 sell:2 first:7 recorder:2 produce:2 pocket:6 size:3 radio:4 fully:1 transistorize:1 make:6 decision:1 rename:1 sonus:1 latin:1 sound:1 sonny:1 boy:1 japanese:6 slang:1 whiz:1 kid:1 advocate:1 product:2 help:1 new:3 claim:1 ability:2 fit:2 normal:1 shirt:3 slightly:2 big:1 men:2 wear:1 give:1 appearance:1 transistor:1 television:1 walkman:2 introduce:1 portable:2 music:1 player:1 launch:1 discman:1 series:1 extend:1 brand:1 cd:1 america:2 establish:1 united:3 state:2 list:2 york:2 stock:1 exchange:1 buy:1 columbia:2 record:4 cbs:1 label:1 picture:1 november:1 resign:1 chairman:2 suffer:2 cerebral:1 hemorrhage:1 play:1 tennis:2 successor:1 norio:1 ohga:1 send:1 letter:1 denounce:1 poor:1 quality:1 also:2 vice:1 keidanren:1 federation:1 economic:2 organization:1 member:1 u:1 relation:1 group:2 know:1 wise:1 publication:1 write:2 book:2 gakureki:1 muyō:1 ron:1 学歴無用論:1 never:2 mind:2 school:3 stress:1 important:1 one:1 success:1 autobiography:1 title:1 famous:1 author:3 essay:1 say:2 politician:1 shintaro:2 ishihara:2 criticize:1 practice:1 encourage:1 independent:1 role:1 foreign:1 affair:1 award:3 albert:1 medal:1 kingdom:1 royal:1 society:1 art:1 receive:2 honor:2 two:1 prestigious:1 national:1 order:2 legion:1 class:1 sacred:1 treasure:1 emperor:1 death:1 stroke:1 game:1 die:1 pneumonia:1 age:1 external:1 link:1 library:1 time:1 magazine:1 profile:1 biographical:1 note:2 pbs:1 full:1 biography:2 encyclopedia:1 article:1 far:1 reading:1 dutton:1 isbn:4 simon:1 schuster:1 worldcat:1 |@bigram akio_morita:5 soy_sauce:1 tape_recorder:2 stock_exchange:1 cerebral_hemorrhage:1 foreign_affair:1 external_link:1 simon_schuster:1 |
4,940 | Kantele | Koistinen concert kantele with 38 strings Kantele is a Finnish traditional plucked string instrument. It is related to the Russian gusli, the Latvian kokle, the Lithuanian kanklės and the Estonian kannel. Its more distant relatives are the Japanese koto and Chinese gu zheng. The oldest forms of kantele have 5 or 6 horsehair strings and a wooden body carved from one piece; more modern instruments have metal strings and often a body made from several pieces. Modern concert kanteles can have up to 40 strings. Modern instruments with 15 or fewer strings are generally more closely modelled on traditional shapes than the concert kantele, and form a separate category of instrument known as small kantele. The playing positions of concert kantele and small kantele are reversed, i.e., to the player of a small kantele the longest low pitched strings are farthest away from his body, whilst to a concert kantele this side of the instrument is nearest, and the short high pitched strings farthest away. The instruments have different though related repertoires. Robert Stigell's Väinämöinen (1888) decorating the Vanha Ylioppilastalo (Old Studenthouse) in Helsinki holds humankind's first kantele made of the giant pike's jawbone as told in Kalevala. The kantele has a distinctive bell-like sound. The Finnish kantele generally has a diatonic tuning though small kantele with between 5 and 15 strings are often tuned to a gapped mode missing a seventh and with the lowest pitched strings tuned to a fourth below the tonic as a drone. The Estonian Kannel has a variety of traditional tunings. Concert versions have a switch mechanism (similar to semitone levers on a modern folk harp) for making sharps and flats. Players hold the kantele in their laps or on a small table. There are two main techniques to play, either plucking the strings with their fingers or strumming unstopped strings (sometimes with a matchstick). There have been strong developments for the kantele in Finland lately. Education for playing the instrument starts in schools and music institutes up to conservatories and the Sibelius Academy, the only music university in Finland. Even some artistic doctoral studies are being made at the Academy with traditional, western classical and electronic music. A Finnish luthiery, Koistinen Koistinen Kantele , has developed also an electric kantele Koistinen Kantele , which employs pick-ups similar to those on electric guitars. It has gained popularity amongst Finnish heavy metal composers, such as Amorphis. In Finland's national epic, Kalevala, the mage Väinämöinen makes the first kantele from the jawbone of a giant pike and a few hairs from Hiisi's stallion. The music it makes draws all the forest creatures near to wonder at its beauty. Later, after losing and greatly grieving over his kantele, Väinämöinen makes another one from a birch, strung with the hair of a willing maiden, and its magic proves equally profound. It is the gift the eternal sage leaves behind when he departs Kaleva at the advent of Christianity. References External links Kantele at Sibelius Academy, Piano music department Virtual Finland: Kantele | Kantele |@lemmatized koistinen:4 concert:6 kantele:22 string:12 finnish:4 traditional:4 pluck:2 instrument:7 relate:1 russian:1 gusli:1 latvian:1 kokle:1 lithuanian:1 kanklės:1 estonian:2 kannel:2 distant:1 relative:1 japanese:1 koto:1 chinese:1 gu:1 zheng:1 old:2 form:2 horsehair:1 wooden:1 body:3 carve:1 one:2 piece:2 modern:4 metal:2 often:2 make:6 several:1 kanteles:1 generally:2 closely:1 model:1 shape:1 separate:1 category:1 know:1 small:5 play:3 position:1 reverse:1 e:1 player:2 long:1 low:2 pitch:2 farthest:2 away:2 whilst:1 side:1 near:2 short:1 high:1 different:1 though:2 related:1 repertoire:1 robert:1 stigell:1 väinämöinen:3 decorate:1 vanha:1 ylioppilastalo:1 studenthouse:1 helsinki:1 hold:2 humankind:1 first:2 made:1 giant:2 pike:2 jawbone:2 told:1 kalevala:2 distinctive:1 bell:1 like:1 sound:1 diatonic:1 tuning:2 tune:2 gapped:1 mode:1 miss:1 seventh:1 pitched:1 fourth:1 tonic:1 drone:1 variety:1 version:1 switch:1 mechanism:1 similar:2 semitone:1 lever:1 folk:1 harp:1 sharps:1 flat:1 lap:1 table:1 two:1 main:1 technique:1 either:1 finger:1 strum:1 unstopped:1 sometimes:1 matchstick:1 strong:1 development:1 finland:4 lately:1 education:1 start:1 school:1 music:5 institute:1 conservatory:1 sibelius:2 academy:3 university:1 even:1 artistic:1 doctoral:1 study:1 western:1 classical:1 electronic:1 luthiery:1 develop:1 also:1 electric:2 employ:1 pick:1 ups:1 guitar:1 gain:1 popularity:1 amongst:1 heavy:1 composer:1 amorphis:1 national:1 epic:1 mage:1 hair:2 hiisi:1 stallion:1 draws:1 forest:1 creature:1 wonder:1 beauty:1 later:1 lose:1 greatly:1 grieve:1 another:1 birch:1 strung:1 willing:1 maiden:1 magic:1 prof:1 equally:1 profound:1 gift:1 eternal:1 sage:1 leaf:1 behind:1 depart:1 kaleva:1 advent:1 christianity:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 piano:1 department:1 virtual:1 |@bigram pluck_string:2 sharps_flat:1 epic_kalevala:1 external_link:1 |
4,941 | Agathocles | Agathocles was the name of several ancient Greeks: Agathocles, a sophist, teacher of Damon Agathocles (writer), was the name of a number of ancient writers, including an ancient historian referred to by Pliny and Cicero Agathocles, the tyrant of Syracuse Agathocles (son of Lysimachus), the son and heir of Lysimachus Agathocles of Bactria, an Indo-Greek king who ruled about 185 BC Agathocles of Egypt, guardian of Ptolemy V Epiphanes Agathoclea, mistress of Ptolemy IV Philopator and sister of the above It is also the name of: Agathocles (band), a grindcore band | Agathocles |@lemmatized agathocles:8 name:3 several:1 ancient:3 greek:2 sophist:1 teacher:1 damon:1 writer:2 number:1 include:1 historian:1 refer:1 pliny:1 cicero:1 tyrant:1 syracuse:1 son:2 lysimachus:2 heir:1 bactria:1 indo:1 king:1 rule:1 bc:1 egypt:1 guardian:1 ptolemy:2 v:1 epiphanes:1 agathoclea:1 mistress:1 iv:1 philopator:1 sister:1 also:1 band:2 grindcore:1 |@bigram |
4,942 | Columba | See Columba (disambiguation), Saint Columba (disambiguation) and St Columb for other uses. Not to be confused with St Columbanus, also Irish and partly his contemporary. Saint Columba of Iona (7 December 521 – 9 June 597), also known as Colum Cille (meaning "Dove of the church") was an outstanding figure among the Gaelic missionary monks who, some of his advocates claim, introduced Christianity to the Picts during the Early Medieval Period. He was one of the Twelve Apostles of Ireland. Early life in Ireland Columba was born to Fedlimid and Eithne of the Cenel Conaill in Gartan, near Lough Gartan, County Donegal, in Ireland. On his father's side he was great-great-grandson of Niall of the Nine Hostages, an Irish high king of the 5th century. In early Christian Ireland the druidic tradition collapsed due to the spread of the new Christian faith. The study of Latin learning and Christian theology in monasteries flourished. Columba became a pupil at the monastic school at Clonard Abbey, situated on the River Boyne in modern County Meath. During the sixth century, some of the most significant names in the history of Irish Christianity studied at the Clonard monastery. It is said that the average number of scholars under instruction at Clonard was 3,000. Twelve students who studied under St. Finian became known as the Twelve Apostles of Ireland, Columba was one of these. He became a monk and was ordained as a priest. Tradition asserts that, sometime around 560, he became involved in a quarrel with Saint Finnian of Moville over a psalter. Columba copied the manuscript at the scriptorium under Saint Finnian, intending to keep the copy. Saint Finnian disputed his right to keep the copy. The dispute eventually led to the pitched Battle of Cúl Dreimhne in 561, during which many men were killed. A synod of clerics and scholars threatened to excommunicate him for these deaths, but St. Brendan of Birr spoke on his behalf with the result that he was allowed to go into exile instead. Columba suggested that he would work as a missionary in Scotland to help convert as many people as had been killed in the battle. He exiled himself from Ireland, to return only once again, several years later. Columba's copy of the psalter has been traditionally associated with the Cathach of St. Columba. Scotland In 563 he travelled to Scotland with twelve companions, where according to his legend he first landed at the southern tip of the Kintyre peninsula, near Southend. However, being still in sight of his native land he moved further north up the west coast of Scotland. In 563 he was granted land on the island of Iona off the west coast of Scotland which became the centre of his evangelising mission to the Picts. However, there is a sense in which he was not leaving his native people, as the Irish Gaels had been colonizing the west coast of Scotland for the previous couple of centuries. Aside from the services he provided guiding the only centre of literacy in the region, his reputation as a holy man led to his role as a diplomat among the tribes; "Who is St. Columba?" St. Columba Retreat House. Retrieved 6 October 2008. there are also many stories of miracles which he performed during his work to convert the Picts. He visited the pagan king Bridei, king of Fortriu, at his base in Inverness, winning the king's respect. He subsequently played a major role in the politics of the country. He was also very energetic in his evangelical work, and, in addition to founding several churches in the Hebrides, he worked to turn his monastery at Iona into a school for missionaries. He was a renowned man of letters, having written several hymns and being credited with having transcribed 300 books. One of the few, if not the only, times he left Scotland after his arrival was toward the end of his life, when he returned to Ireland to found the monastery at Durrow. He died on Iona and was buried in the abbey he created. Several islands are named after Columba in Scotland, including Ì Chaluim Chille (one of the Scottish Gaelic names of Iona), Inchcolm and Eilean Chaluim Chille Lasting legacy Columba is credited as being a leading figure in the revitalization of monasticism, and "[h]is achievements illustrated the importance of the Celtic church in bringing a revival of Christianity to Western Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire". It is said Clan Robertson are heirs of Columba. Clan MacKinnon may also have some claim to being descendant of St Columcille as after he founded his Church on Isle Iona, The MacKinnons were the abbotts to the Church for centuries. This would also account for the fact that Clan MacKinnon is among the ancient clans of Scotland. The Parish of Saint Columbkille serves the neighborhood of Brighton, MA with a church and grammar school. The current church was built to be the Cathedral of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Boston since it is in the same neighborhood as the former Cardinal's residence, but does not serve in this function. Papillion, Nebraska also has a church and grammar school named after Saint Columbkille. Today, Aer Lingus, Ireland's national flag carrier has named one of its A330 aircraft in commoration of the saint (reg: EI-DUO). Vita Columbae Saint Columba in stained glass. The main source of information about Columba's life is the Vita Columbae by Adomnán (also known as Eunan), the ninth Abbot of Iona, who died in 704. Both the Vita Columbae and Bede record Columba's visit to Bridei. Whereas Adomnán just tells us that Columba visited Bridei, Bede relates a later, perhaps Pictish tradition, whereby the saint actually converts the Pictish king. Another early source is a poem in praise of Columba, most probably commissioned by Columba's kinsman, the king of the Uí Néill clan. It was almost certainly written within three or four years of Columba's death and is the earliest vernacular poem in European history. It consists of 25 stanzas of four verses of seven syllables each. The vita of Columba is also the source of the first known reference to a Loch Ness Monster. According to Adomnan, Columba came across a group of Picts who were burying a "poor little man" Vita Columbae who had been killed by the monster, and saved a swimmer with the sign of the Cross and the imprecation "You will go no further", at which the beast fled terrified, to the amazement of the assembled Picts who glorified Columba's God. Whether or not this incident is true, Adomnan's text specifically states that the monster was swimming in the River Ness - the river flowing from the loch - rather than in Loch Ness itself. Through the reputation of its venerable founder and its position as a major European centre of learning, Columba's Iona became a place of pilgrimage. A network of Celtic high crosses marking processional routes developed around his shrine at Iona. Columba is historically revered as a warrior saint, and was often invoked for victory in battle. His relics were finally removed in 849 and divided between Alba and Ireland. Relics of Columba were carried before Scottish armies in the reliquary made at Iona in the mid-8th century, called the Brecbennoch. Legend has it that the Brecbennoch, was carried to Bannockburn by the vastly outnumbered Scots army and the intercession to the Saint helped them to victory. It is widely thought that the Monymusk Reliquary is this object. O Columba spes Scotorum... "O Columba, hope of the Scots" begins a 13th century prayer in the Antiphoner of Inchcolm, the "Iona of the East". See also Early Christian Ireland List of people on stamps of Ireland Old High St Stephen's, Inverness Sainte-Colombe Scotland in the Early Middle Ages Coláiste Choilm Loch Ness Monster References Further reading External links CELT: On the Life of Saint Columba (Betha Choluim Chille) (tr. W. Stokes) CELT: The Life of Columba, written by Adamnan (tr. W. Reeves) BBC: St Columba Columba of Kells and Iona The Church of St Michael and All Angels website: St Columba of Iona, Apostle to the Picts St Columba on SaintsAlive Photo of the birthplace of Columcille at Gartan Coláiste Choilm | Columba |@lemmatized see:2 columba:36 disambiguation:2 saint:13 st:13 columb:1 us:1 confuse:1 columbanus:1 also:10 irish:4 partly:1 contemporary:1 iona:13 december:1 june:1 know:4 colum:1 cille:1 mean:1 dove:1 church:9 outstanding:1 figure:2 among:3 gaelic:2 missionary:3 monk:2 advocate:1 claim:2 introduce:1 christianity:3 picts:6 early:7 medieval:1 period:1 one:5 twelve:4 apostle:3 ireland:11 life:5 bear:1 fedlimid:1 eithne:1 cenel:1 conaill:1 gartan:3 near:2 lough:1 county:2 donegal:1 father:1 side:1 great:2 grandson:1 niall:1 nine:1 hostage:1 high:3 king:6 century:6 christian:4 druidic:1 tradition:3 collapse:1 due:1 spread:1 new:1 faith:1 study:3 latin:1 learning:2 theology:1 monastery:4 flourish:1 become:6 pupil:1 monastic:1 school:4 clonard:3 abbey:2 situate:1 river:3 boyne:1 modern:1 meath:1 sixth:1 significant:1 name:5 history:2 say:2 average:1 number:1 scholar:2 instruction:1 student:1 finian:1 ordain:1 priest:1 assert:1 sometime:1 around:2 involve:1 quarrel:1 finnian:3 moville:1 psalter:2 copy:4 manuscript:1 scriptorium:1 intend:1 keep:2 dispute:2 right:1 eventually:1 lead:2 pitched:1 battle:3 cúl:1 dreimhne:1 many:3 men:1 kill:3 synod:1 cleric:1 threaten:1 excommunicate:1 death:2 brendan:1 birr:1 spoke:1 behalf:1 result:1 allow:1 go:2 exile:2 instead:1 suggest:1 would:2 work:4 scotland:10 help:2 convert:3 people:3 return:2 several:4 year:2 later:2 traditionally:1 associate:1 cathach:1 travel:1 companion:1 accord:2 legend:2 first:2 land:3 southern:1 tip:1 kintyre:1 peninsula:1 southend:1 however:2 still:1 sight:1 native:2 move:1 far:2 north:1 west:3 coast:3 grant:1 island:2 centre:3 evangelise:1 mission:1 sense:1 leave:2 gael:1 colonize:1 previous:1 couple:1 aside:1 service:1 provide:1 guide:1 literacy:1 region:1 reputation:2 holy:1 man:3 role:2 diplomat:1 tribe:1 retreat:1 house:1 retrieve:1 october:1 story:1 miracle:1 perform:1 visit:3 pagan:1 bridei:3 fortriu:1 base:1 inverness:2 win:1 respect:1 subsequently:1 play:1 major:2 politics:1 country:1 energetic:1 evangelical:1 addition:1 found:2 hebrides:1 turn:1 renowned:1 letter:1 write:3 hymn:1 credit:2 transcribe:1 book:1 time:1 arrival:1 toward:1 end:1 find:1 durrow:1 die:2 bury:2 create:1 include:1 ì:1 chaluim:2 chille:3 scottish:2 inchcolm:2 eilean:1 last:1 legacy:1 leading:1 revitalization:1 monasticism:1 h:1 achievement:1 illustrate:1 importance:1 celtic:2 bring:1 revival:1 western:1 europe:1 fall:1 roman:2 empire:1 clan:5 robertson:1 heir:1 mackinnon:2 may:1 descendant:1 columcille:2 isle:1 mackinnons:1 abbotts:1 account:1 fact:1 ancient:1 parish:1 columbkille:2 serve:2 neighborhood:2 brighton:1 grammar:2 current:1 build:1 cathedral:1 catholic:1 archdiocese:1 boston:1 since:1 former:1 cardinal:1 residence:1 function:1 papillion:1 nebraska:1 today:1 aer:1 lingus:1 national:1 flag:1 carrier:1 aircraft:1 commoration:1 reg:1 ei:1 duo:1 vita:5 columbae:4 stained:1 glass:1 main:1 source:3 information:1 adomnán:2 eunan:1 ninth:1 abbot:1 bede:2 record:1 whereas:1 tell:1 u:1 relate:1 perhaps:1 pictish:2 whereby:1 actually:1 another:1 poem:2 praise:1 probably:1 commission:1 kinsman:1 uí:1 néill:1 almost:1 certainly:1 within:1 three:1 four:2 vernacular:1 european:2 consist:1 stanza:1 verse:1 seven:1 syllable:1 reference:2 loch:4 ness:4 monster:4 adomnan:2 come:1 across:1 group:1 poor:1 little:1 save:1 swimmer:1 sign:1 cross:2 imprecation:1 beast:1 flee:1 terrified:1 amazement:1 assembled:1 glorify:1 god:1 whether:1 incident:1 true:1 text:1 specifically:1 state:1 swim:1 flow:1 rather:1 venerable:1 founder:1 position:1 place:1 pilgrimage:1 network:1 mark:1 processional:1 route:1 develop:1 shrine:1 historically:1 revere:1 warrior:1 often:1 invoke:1 victory:2 relic:2 finally:1 remove:1 divide:1 alba:1 carry:2 army:2 reliquary:2 make:1 mid:1 call:1 brecbennoch:2 bannockburn:1 vastly:1 outnumber:1 scot:2 intercession:1 widely:1 think:1 monymusk:1 object:1 spes:1 scotorum:1 hope:1 begin:1 prayer:1 antiphoner:1 east:1 list:1 stamp:1 old:1 stephen:1 sainte:1 colombe:1 middle:1 age:1 coláiste:2 choilm:2 read:1 external:1 link:1 celt:2 betha:1 choluim:1 tr:2 w:2 stokes:1 adamnan:1 reef:1 bbc:1 kells:1 michael:1 angel:1 website:1 saintsalive:1 photo:1 birthplace:1 |@bigram saint_columba:4 st_columb:1 columba_iona:3 twelve_apostle:2 county_donegal:1 county_meath:1 ordain_priest:1 pitched_battle:1 st_columba:6 scottish_gaelic:1 aer_lingus:1 stained_glass:1 uí_néill:1 loch_ness:3 ness_monster:2 vastly_outnumber:1 external_link:1 |
4,943 | Giovanni_Pierluigi_da_Palestrina | Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (between 3 February 1525 and 2 February 1526 Lockwood/O'Regan/Owens, Grove online – 2 February 1594) was an Italian composer of the Renaissance. He was the most famous sixteenth-century representative of the Roman School of musical composition. Palestrina had a vast influence on the development of Roman Catholic church music, and his work can be seen as a summation of Renaissance polyphony. Life Palestrina was born in Palestrina, a town near Rome, then part of the Papal States. He spent most of his career in Rome. Documents suggest he first visited the city in 1537, when he is listed as a chorister at Santa Maria Maggiore basilica. He studied with Robin Mallapert and Firmin Lebel. It was rumored Palestrina studied under Claude Goudimel; the story originated in the nineteenth century, but according to recent study, Goudimel was never in Rome. From 1544 to 1551 Palestrina was organist of the principal church of his native city (St Agapito), and in the last year became maestro di cappella at the Cappella Giulia, the papal choir at St. Peter's Basilica. His first published compositions, a book of masses made so favorable an impression with Pope Julius III (previously the Bishop of Palestrina), that he was appointed musical director of the Julian Chapel. In addition, this was the first book of masses by a native composer: in the Italian states of his day, most composers of sacred music were from Netherlands, France, Portugal Manuel Mendes, António Carreira, Duarte Lobo, Filipe de Magalhães, Fr. Manuel Cardoso, João Lourenço and Pero do Porto, among many others or Spain. In fact his book of masses was actually modeled on one by Morales, and the woodcut in the front is an almost exact copy of the one from the book by the Spaniard. Palestrina held positions similar to his Julian Chapel appointment at other chapels and churches in Rome during the next decade (notably St John in Lateran, 1555–1560, and St Maria Maggiore, 1561–1566). In 1571 he returned to the Julian Chapel, and remained at St Peter's for the rest of his life. The decade of the 1570s was difficult for him personally; he lost his brother, two of his sons, and his wife in three separate outbreaks of the plague (1572, 1575, and 1580 respectively). He seems to have considered becoming a priest at this time, but instead he married again, this time to a wealthy widow; this finally gave him financial independence (he was not well paid as choirmaster) and he was able to compose prolifically until his death. He died in Rome of pleurisy in 1594. Music and reputation Palestrina left hundreds of compositions, including 104 masses, 68 offertories, more than 300 motets, at least 72 hymns, 35 magnificats, 11 litanies, 4 or 5 sets of lamentations etc., at least 140 madrigals and 9 organ ricercari (however, recent scholarship has classed these ricercari as of doubtful authorship; Palestrina probably wrote no purely instrumental music). There are two comprehensive editions of Palestrina's works: one edited by Haberl and published in 33 volumes in 1862-94, the other edited by R. Casimiri and others and published in 34 volumes. His Missa sine nomine seems to have been particularly attractive to Johann Sebastian Bach, who studied and performed it while he was writing his own masterpiece, the Mass in B Minor. His compositions are typified as very clear, with voice parts well-balanced and beautifully harmonized. Among the works counted as his masterpieces is the Missa Papae Marcelli (Pope Marcellus Mass), which according to legend was composed to persuade the Council of Trent that a draconian ban on polyphonic treatment of text in sacred music was unnecessary. However, more recent scholarship shows that this mass was composed before the cardinals convened to discuss the ban (possibly as much as ten years before). It is probable, however, that Palestrina was quite conscious of the needs of intelligible text in conformity with the doctrine of the Counter-Reformation, and wrote his works towards this end from the 1560s until the end of his life. The "Palestrina Style"—the smooth style of 16th century polyphony, derived and codified by Johann Joseph Fux from a careful study of his works—is the style usually taught as "Renaissance polyphony" in college counterpoint classes, although in a modified form, as Fux made a number of stylistic errors which have been corrected by later authors (notably Knud Jeppesen and Morris). As codified by Fux it follows the rules of what he defined as "species counterpoint." Palestrina established and followed these strict guidelines: The flow of music is dynamic, not rigid or static. Melody should contain few leaps between notes. If a leap occurs, it must be small and immediately countered by opposite stepwise motion. Dissonances are either passing note or off the beat. If it is on the beat, it is immediately resolved. No composer of the sixteenth century was more consistent in following his own rules, and staying within the stylistic bounds he imposed on himself, than was Palestrina. Also, no composer of the sixteenth century has had such an edifice of myth and legend built around him. Much of the research on Palestrina was done in the nineteenth century by Giuseppe Baini, who published a monograph in 1828 which made Palestrina famous again, and reinforced the already existing legend that he was the "Saviour of Church Music" during the reforms of the Council of Trent. The nineteenth-century attitude of hero-worship is predominant in this monograph, however, and this has remained with the composer to some degree to the present day; Hans Pfitzner's opera Palestrina shows this attitude at its peak. Scholarship of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries tends to retain the view that Palestrina was a strong and refined composer, representing a summit of technical perfection, but emphasizes that there were other composers working at the same time with equally individual voices and slightly different styles, even within the confines of smooth polyphony, such as Lassus and Victoria. Palestrina was immensely famous in his day, and his reputation, if anything, increased following his death. Conservative music of the Roman School continued to be written in his style (known as the "prima pratica" in the seventeenth century), by such students of his as Giovanni Maria Nanino, Ruggiero Giovanelli, Arcangelo Crivelli, Teofilo Gargari, Francesco Soriano and Gregorio Allegri. It is also thought that Salvatore Sacco may have been a student of Palestrina. Palestrina's music continues to be performed and recorded, and provides models for the study of counterpoint. Amongst the choirs which recreate his music is the Palestrina Choir http://www.procathedral.ie/palestrina_choir.htm Dublin References Sources Article "Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da", in: The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980. ISBN 1-56159-174-2 Benjamin, Thomas, The Craft of Modal Counterpoint, 2nd ed. Routledge, New York, 2005. ISBN 0-415-97172-1 (direct approach) Coates, Henry, Palestrina. J. M. Dent & Sons, London, 1938. (An early entry in the Master Musicians series, and, like other books in that series, combines biographical data with musicological commentary.) Daniel, Thomas, Kontrapunkt, Eine Satzlehre zur Vokalpolyphonie des 16. Jahrhunderts. Verlag Dohr, 2002. ISBN 3-925366-96-2 Johann Joseph Fux, The Study of Counterpoint (Gradus ad Parnassum). Tr. Alfred Mann. W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1965. ISBN 0-393-00277-2 Gauldin, Robert, A Practical Approach to Sixteenth-Century Counterpoint. Waveland Press, Inc., Long Grove, Illinois, 1995. ISBN 0-88133-852-4 (direct approach, no species; contains a large and detailed bibliography) Haigh, Andrew C. "Modal Harmony in the Music of Palestrina", in the festschrift Essays on Music: In Honor of Archibald Thompson Davison. Harvard University Press, 1957, pp.111–120. Jeppesen, Knud, The Style of Palestrina and the Dissonance. 2nd ed., London, 1946. (An exhaustive study of his contrapuntal technique.) Jeppesen, Knud; Haydon, Glen (Translator); Foreword by Mann, Alfred. Counterpoint. New York, 1939. Available through Dover Publications, 1992. ISBN 0-486-27036-X Lewis Lockwood, Noel O'Regan, Jessie Ann Owens: "Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da". Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed July 7, 2007), (subscription access) Meier, Bernhard, The Modes of Classical Vocal Polyphony, Described According to the Sources. Broude Brothers Limited, 1988. ISBN 0-8450-7025-8 Morris, R.O., Contrapuntal Technique in the Sixteenth Century. Oxford University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-19-321468-7 (out of print; one of the first attempts at "direct approach", meaning Morris does away with Fux' five species). Motte, Diether de la, Kontrapunkt. 1981 Bärenreiter-Verlag, Kassel. ISBN 3-423-30146-5 / 3-7618-4371-2 (this text is in German; great, though!) Pyne, Zoe Kendrick, Giovanni Pierluigi di Palestrina: His Life and Times, Bodley Head, London, 1922. Reese, Gustave, Music in the Renaissance. W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1954. ISBN 0-393-09530-4 Roche, Jerome, Palestrina. Oxford University Press, 1970. ISBN 0-19-314117-5 Stewart, Robert, An Introduction to Sixteenth-Century Counterpoint and Palestrina's Musical Style. Ardsley House, Publishers, 1994. ISBN 1-880157-07-1 Stove, R. J., Prince of Music: Palestrina and His World, Quakers Hill Press, Sydney, 1990. ISBN 0-7316-8792-2 (biographical rather than musicological in nature; is wholly devoid of staff-notation extracts; but corrects some errors found in Z. K. Pyne and elsewhere). Swindale, Owen, Polyphonic Composition, Oxford University Press, 1962. (Out of print, no ISBN available.) External links Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina's Foundation Listen to a free recording of Palestrina's Sicut Cervus from Coro Nostro, a mixed chamber choir based in Leicester, UK. Listen to free recordings of songs from Umeå Akademiska Kör Catholic Encyclopedia: Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (Italian) Palestrina listen tracks on Magazzini-Sonori | Giovanni_Pierluigi_da_Palestrina |@lemmatized giovanni:8 pierluigi:7 da:6 palestrina:37 february:3 lockwood:2 regan:2 owen:3 grove:4 online:2 italian:3 composer:8 renaissance:4 famous:3 sixteenth:6 century:12 representative:1 roman:3 school:2 musical:3 composition:5 vast:1 influence:1 development:1 catholic:2 church:4 music:16 work:6 see:1 summation:1 polyphony:5 life:4 bear:1 town:1 near:1 rome:5 part:2 papal:2 state:2 spend:1 career:1 document:1 suggest:1 first:5 visit:1 city:2 list:1 chorister:1 santa:1 maria:3 maggiore:2 basilica:2 study:8 robin:1 mallapert:1 firmin:1 lebel:1 rumor:1 claude:1 goudimel:2 story:1 originate:1 nineteenth:3 accord:3 recent:3 never:1 organist:1 principal:1 native:2 st:5 agapito:1 last:1 year:2 become:2 maestro:1 di:2 cappella:2 giulia:1 choir:4 peter:2 publish:4 book:5 mass:7 make:3 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4,944 | Huldrych_Zwingli | Huldrych Zwingli as depicted by Hans Asper in an oil portrait from 1531; Kunstmuseum Winterthur. Huldrych (or Ulrich . According to Potter, "Huldrych" was the spelling Zwingli preferred. However, Potter uses "Ulrich", while Gäbler, Stephens, and Furcha use "Huldrych". His signature at the Marburg Colloquy was the Latinised name "Huldrychus Zwinglius" (). For more on his name, see (in German only, Reformed Church of Zürich) ) Zwingli (1 January 1484 – 11 October 1531) was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. Born during a time of emerging Swiss patriotism and increasing criticism of the Swiss mercenary system, he attended the University of Vienna and the University of Basel, a scholarly centre of humanism. He continued his studies while he served as a pastor in Glarus and later in Einsiedeln where he was influenced by the writings of Erasmus. In 1519, Zwingli became the pastor of the Grossmünster in Zürich where he began to preach ideas on reforming the Catholic Church. In his first public controversy in 1522, he attacked the custom of fasting during Lent. In his publications, he noted corruption in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, promoted clerical marriage, and attacked the use of images in places of worship. In 1525, Zwingli introduced a new communion liturgy to replace the mass. Zwingli also clashed with the radical wing of the Reformation, the Anabaptists, which resulted in their persecution. The Reformation spread to other parts of the Swiss Confederation, but several cantons resisted, preferring to remain Catholic. Zwingli formed an alliance of Reformed cantons which divided the Confederation along religious lines. In 1529, a war between the two sides was averted at the last moment. Meanwhile, Zwingli’s ideas came to the attention of Martin Luther and other reformers. They met at the Marburg Colloquy and although they agreed on many points of doctrine, they could not reach an accord on the doctrine of the presence of Christ in the Eucharist. In 1531 Zwingli’s alliance applied an unsuccessful food blockade on the Catholic cantons. The cantons responded with an attack at a moment when Zürich was badly prepared. Zwingli was killed in battle at the age of 47. His legacy lives on in the confessions, liturgy, and church orders of the Reformed churches of today. Historical context Map of the Swiss Confederation in 1515. The Swiss Confederation in Huldrych Zwingli’s time consisted of thirteen states (cantons) as well as affiliated states and common lordships. Unlike the current modern state of Switzerland, which operates under a federal government, the thirteen states were nearly independent, conducting their own domestic and foreign affairs. Each state formed its own alliances within and without the Confederation. This relative independence served as the basis for conflict during the time of the Reformation when the various states divided between different confessional camps. Military ambitions were given an additional impetus with the competition to acquire new territory and resources, as seen for example in the Old Zürich War. The political environment in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries was also volatile. For centuries the foreign policies of the Confederation were determined by its relationship with its powerful neighbour, France. Nominally, the Confederation was under the control of the Holy Roman Empire. However, through a succession of wars culminating in the Swabian War, the Confederation had become de facto independent. As the two continental powers and minor states such as the Duchy of Milan, Duchy of Savoy, and the Papal States competed and fought against each other, there were far-reaching political, economic, and social consequences for the Confederation. It was during this time that the mercenary pension system became a subject of disagreement. The religious factions of Zwingli’s time debated vociferously regarding the merits of sending young Swiss men to fight in foreign wars mainly for the enrichment of the cantonal authorities. These internal and external factors contributed to the rise of a Confederation national consciousness, in which the term fatherland (patria) began to take on meaning beyond an individual canton. At the same time, Renaissance humanism, with its universal values and emphasis on scholarship (as exemplified by Erasmus, the "prince of humanism"), had taken root in the country. It was within this environment, defined by the confluence of Swiss patriotism and humanism, that Zwingli was born. Life Early years (1484–1518) House where Zwingli was born in Wildhaus in what is now the Canton of St. Gallen. Huldrych Zwingli was born on 1 January 1484 in Wildhaus, Switzerland in the Toggenburg valley to a family of farmers, the third child among nine siblings. His father, Ulrich, played a leading role in the administration of the community (Amtmann or chief local magistrate). Zwingli's primary schooling was provided by his uncle, Bartholomew, a cleric in Weesen. At ten years old, Zwingli was sent to Basel to obtain his secondary education where he learned Latin under Magistrate Gregory Bünzli. After three years in Basel, he stayed a short time in Bern with the humanist, Henry Wölfflin. The Dominicans in Bern tried to persuade Zwingli to join their order and it is possible that he was received as a novice. ; . Potter mentions this possibility. Gäbler states that Zwingli did not refute later claims by opponents that he had been a monk in Bern. However, his father and uncle disapproved of such a course and he left Bern without completing his Latin studies. ; He enrolled in the University of Vienna in the winter semester of 1498 but was expelled, according to the university's records. However, it is not certain that Zwingli was indeed expelled, and he re-enrolled in the summer semester of 1500; his activities in 1499 are unknown. . The word exclusus (expelled) was added to his matriculation entry. Gäbler notes that without a date and reason, it does not conform to what was customary at the time. Zwingli continued his studies in Vienna until 1502, after which he transferred to the University of Basel where he received the Master of Arts degree (Magister) in 1506. Like many of his contemporaries, Zwingli went to work for the Catholic Church having studied little theology. He celebrated his first mass in his hometown, Wildhaus, on 29 September 1506. His first ecclesiastical post was the pastorate of the town of Glarus, where he stayed for ten years. It was in Glarus, whose soldiers were used as mercenaries in Europe, that Zwingli became involved in politics. The Swiss Confederation was embroiled in various campaigns with its neighbours: the French, the Habsburgs, and the Papal States. Zwingli placed himself solidly on the side of the Roman See. In return, Pope Julius II honoured Zwingli by providing him with an annual pension. He took the role of chaplain in several campaigns in Italy, including the Battle of Novara in 1513. However, the decisive defeat of the Swiss in the Battle of Marignano caused a shift in mood in Glarus in favour of the French rather than the pope. Zwingli, the papal partisan, found himself in a difficult position and he decided to retreat to Einsiedeln in the canton of Schwyz. By this time, he had become convinced that mercenary service was immoral and that Swiss unity was indispensable for any future achievements. Some of his earliest extant writings, such as The Ox (1510) and The Labyrinth (1516), attacked the mercenary system using allegory and satire. His countrymen were presented as virtuous people within a French, imperial, and papal triangle. ; Zwingli stayed in Einsiedeln for two years during which he withdrew completely from politics in favour of ecclesiastical activities and personal studies. Zwingli's time as the pastor of Glarus and Einsiedeln was characterised by inner growth and development. He perfected his Greek and he took up the study of Hebrew. His library contained over three hundred volumes from which he was able to draw upon classical, patristic, and scholastic works. He exchanged scholarly letters with a circle of Swiss humanists and began to study the writings of Erasmus. Zwingli took the opportunity to meet him while Erasmus was in Basel between August 1514 and May 1516. Zwingli's turn to relative pacifism and his focus on preaching can be traced to the influence of Erasmus. In late 1518, the post of the Leutpriestertum (people's priest) of the Grossmünster at Zürich became vacant. The canons of the foundation that administered the Grossmünster recognised Zwingli's reputation as a fine preacher and writer. His connection with humanists was a decisive factor as several canons were sympathetic to Erasmian reform. In addition, his opposition to the French and to mercenary service was welcomed by Zürich politicians. On 11 December 1518, the canons elected Zwingli to become the stipendiary priest and on 27 December he moved permanently to Zürich. Zürich ministry begins (1519–1521) The Grossmünster in the centre of the medieval town of Zürich (Murerplan, 1576) On 1 January 1519, Zwingli gave his first sermon in Zürich. Deviating from the prevalent practice of basing a sermon on the Gospel lesson of a particular Sunday, he began to read through the Gospel of Matthew giving his interpretation during the sermon. He continued to read and interpret the book on subsequent Sundays until he reached the end and then proceeded in the same manner with the Acts of the Apostles, the New Testament epistles, and finally the Old Testament. His motives for doing this are not clear, but in his sermons he used exhortation to achieve moral and ecclesiastical improvement which were goals comparable with Erasmian reform. Sometime after 1520, Zwingli's theological model began to evolve into an idiosyncratic form that was neither Erasmian nor Lutheran. Scholars do not agree on the process of how he developed his own unique model. One view is that Zwingli was trained as an Erasmian humanist and Luther played a decisive role in changing his theology. . Proponents of this view are Oskar Farner and Walther Köhler. Another view is that Zwingli did not pay much attention to Luther's theology and in fact he considered it as part of the humanist reform movement. . Proponents of this view are Arthur Rich and Cornelius Augustijn. A third view is that Zwingli was not a complete follower of Erasmus, but had diverged from him as early as 1516 and that he independently developed his theology. . A proponent of this view is Gottfried W. Locher. Zwingli’s theological stance was gradually revealed through his sermons. He attacked moral corruption and in the process he named individuals who were the targets of his denunciations. Monks were accused of indolence and high living. In 1519, Zwingli specifically rejected the veneration of saints and called for the need to distinguish between their true and fictional accounts. He cast doubts on hellfire, asserted that unbaptised children were not damned, and questioned the power of excommunication. His attack on the claim that tithing was a divine institution, however, had the greatest theological and social impact. This contradicted the immediate economic interests of the foundation. One of the elderly canons who had supported Zwingli’s election, Konrad Hofmann, complained about his sermons in a letter. Some canons supported Hofmann, but the opposition never grew very large. Zwingli insisted that he was not an innovator and that the sole basis of his teachings was Scripture. Within the diocese of Constance, Bernhardin Sanson was offering a special indulgence for contributors to the building of St Peter's in Rome. When Sanson arrived at the gates of Zürich at the end of January 1519, parishioners prompted Zwingli with questions. He responded with displeasure that the people were not being properly informed about the conditions of the indulgence and were being induced to part with their money on false pretences. This was over a year after Martin Luther published his Ninety-five theses (31 October 1517). The council of Zürich refused Sanson entry into the city. As the authorities in Rome were anxious to contain the fire started by Luther, the Bishop of Constance denied any support of Sanson and he was recalled. In August 1519, Zürich was struck by an outbreak of the plague during which at least one in four persons died. All of those who could afford it left the city, but Zwingli remained and continued his pastoral duties. In September, he caught the disease and nearly died. He described his preparation for death in a poem, Zwingli's Pestlied, consisting of three parts: the onset of the illness, the closeness to death, and the joy of recovery. The final verses of the first part read: see e.g. Thuo, wie du wilt; mich nüt befilt. Din haf bin ich. Mach gantz ald brich; dann nimpst mich hin der geiste min von diser Erd, thuost du's, dass er nit böser werd, ald anderen nit befleck ir läben fromm und sit. Thy purpose fulfil: nothing can be too severe for me. I am thy vessel, for you to make whole or break to pieces. Since, if you take hence my spirit from this earth, you do it so that it will not grow evil, and will not mar the pious lives of others. In the years following his recovery, Zwingli's opponents remained in the minority. When a vacancy occurred among the canons of the Grossmünster, Zwingli was elected to fulfill that vacancy on 29 April 1521. In becoming a canon, he became a full citizen of Zürich. He also retained his post as the people's priest of the Grossmünster. First rifts (1522–1524) The first public controversy regarding Zwingli’s preaching broke out during the season of Lent in 1522. On the first fasting Sunday, 9 March, Zwingli and about a dozen other participants consciously transgressed the fasting rule by cutting and distributing two smoked sausages (the Wurstessen in Christoph Froschauer's workshop). Zwingli defended this act in a sermon which was published on 16 April, under the title Von Erkiesen und Freiheit der Speisen (Regarding the Choice and Freedom of Foods). He noted that no general valid rule on food can be derived from the Bible and that to transgress such a rule is not a sin. Even before the publication of this treatise, the diocese of Constance reacted by sending a delegation to Zürich. The city council condemned the fasting violation, but assumed responsibility over ecclesiastical matters and requested the religious authorities clarify the issue. The bishop responded on 24 May by admonishing the Grossmünster and city council and repeating the traditional position. Following this event, Zwingli and other humanist friends petitioned the bishop on 2 July to abolish the requirement of celibacy on the clergy. Two weeks later the petition was reprinted for the public in German as Eine freundliche Bitte und Ermahnung an die Eidgenossen (A Friendly Petition and Admonition to the Confederates). The issue was not just an abstract problem for Zwingli, as he had secretly married a widow, Anna Reinhard, earlier in the year. Their cohabitation was well-known and their public wedding took place on 2 April 1524, three months before the birth of their first child. They would eventually have four children: Regula, William, Huldrych, and Anna. As the petition was addressed to the secular authorities, the bishop responded at the same level by notifying the Zürich government to maintain the ecclesiastical order. Other Swiss clergyman joined in Zwingli’s cause which encouraged him to make his first major statement of faith, Apolgeticus Archeteles (The First and Last Word). He defended himself against charges of inciting unrest and heresy. He denied the ecclesiastical hierarchy any right to judge on matters of church order because of its corrupted state. Zürich disputations (1523) Relief of Zwingli preaching at the pulpit, Otto Münch, 1935 The events of 1522 brought no clarification on the issues. Not only did the unrest between Zürich and the bishop continue, tensions were growing among Zürich’s Confederation partners in the Swiss Diet. On 22 December, the Diet recommended that its members prohibit the new teachings, a strong indictment directed at Zürich. The city council felt obliged to take the initiative and to find its own solution. On 3 January 1523, it invited the clergy of the city and outlying region to a meeting to allow the factions to present their opinions. The bishop was invited to attend or to send a representative. The council would render a decision on who would be allowed to continue to proclaim their views. This meeting, the first Zürich disputation, took place on 29 January 1523. The meeting attracted a large crowd of approximately six hundred participants. The bishop sent a delegation led by his vicar general, Johannes Fabri. Zwingli summarised his position in the Schlussreden (Concluding Statements or the Sixty-seven Articles). Fabri, who was ordered not to participate but to observe only, simply insisted on the necessity of the ecclesiastical authority. The decision of the council was that Zwingli would be allowed to continue his preaching and that all other preachers should teach only in accordance with Scripture. In September 1523, Leo Jud, Zwingli’s closest friend and colleague and pastor of St. Peterskirche, publicly called for the removal of statues of saints and other icons. This led to demonstrations and iconoclastic activities. The city council decided to work out the matter of images in a second disputation. The essence of the mass and its sacrificial character was also included as a subject of discussion. Supporters of the mass claimed that the Eucharist was a true sacrifice, while Zwingli claimed that it was a commemorative meal. As in the first disputation, an invitation was sent out to the Zürich clergy and the bishop of Constance. This time, however, the lay people of Zürich, the dioceses of Chur and Basel, the University of Basel, and the twelve members of the Confederation were also invited. About nine hundred persons attended this meeting, but neither the bishop nor the Confederation sent representatives. The disputation started on 26 October 1523 and lasted two days. Zwingli again took the lead in the disputation. His opponent was the aforementioned canon, Konrad Hofmann, who had initially supported Zwingli's election. Also taking part was a group of young men demanding a much faster pace of reformation, who among other things pleaded for replacing infant baptism with adult baptism. This group was led by Conrad Grebel, one of the initiators of the Anabaptist movement. During the first three days of dispute, although the controversy of images and the mass were discussed, the arguments led to the question of whether the city council or the ecclesiastical government had the authority to decide on these issues. At this point, Konrad Schmid, a priest from Aargau and follower of Zwingli, made a pragmatic suggestion. As images were not yet considered to be valueless by everyone, he suggested that pastors preach on this subject under threat of punishment. He believed the opinions of the people would gradually change and the voluntary removal of images would follow. Hence, Schmid rejected the radicals and their iconoclasm, but supported Zwingli’s position. In November the council passed ordinances in support of Schmid’s motion. Zwingli wrote a booklet on the evangelical duties of a minister, Kurze, christliche Einleitung (Short Christian Introduction), and the council sent it out to the clergy and the members of the Confederation. Reformation progresses in Zürich (1524–1525) Above the entrance to the Grossmünster, it is written, "In this House of God, Huldrych Zwingli's Reformation took its start." In December 1523, the council set a deadline of Pentecost in 1524 for a solution to the elimination of the mass and images. Zwingli gave a formal opinion in Vorschlag wegen der Bilder und der Messe (Proposal Concerning Images and the Mass). He did not urge an immediate, general abolition. The council decided on the orderly removal of images within Zürich, but rural congregations were granted the right to remove them based on majority vote. The decision on the mass was postponed. Evidence of the effect of the Reformation was seen in early 1524. Candlemas was not celebrated, processions of robed clergy ceased, worshippers did not go with palms or relics on Palm Sunday to the Lindenhof, and triptychs remained covered and closed after Lent. Opposition to the changes came from Konrad Hofmann and his followers, but the council decided in favour of keeping the government mandates. When Hofmann left the city, opposition from pastors hostile to the Reformation broke down. The bishop of Constance tried to intervene in defending the mass and the veneration of images. Zwingli wrote an official response for the council and the result was the severance of all ties between the city and the diocese. Although the council had hesitated in abolishing the mass, the decrease in the exercise of traditional piety allowed pastors to be unofficially released from the requirement of celebrating mass. As individual pastors altered their practices as each saw fit, Zwingli was prompted to address this disorganised situation by designing a communion liturgy in the German language. This was published in Aktion oder Brauch des Nachtmahls (Act or Custom of the Supper). Shortly before Easter, Zwingli and his closest associates requested the council to cancel the mass and to introduce the new public order of worship. On Maundy Thursday, 13 April 1525, Zwingli celebrated communion under his new liturgy. Wooden cups and plates were used to avoid any outward displays of formality. The congregation sat at set tables to emphasise the meal aspect of the sacrament. The sermon was the focal point of the service and there was no organ music or singing. The importance of the sermon in the worship service was underlined by Zwingli’s proposal to limit the celebration of communion to four times a year. For some time Zwingli had accused mendicant orders of hypocrisy and demanded their abolition in order to support the truly poor. He suggested the monasteries be changed into hospitals and welfare institutions and incorporate their wealth into a welfare fund. This was done by reorganising the foundations of the Grossmünster and Fraumünster and pensioning off remaining nuns and monks. The council secularised the church properties and established new welfare programs for the poor. Zwingli requested permission to establish a Latin school, the Prophezei (Prophecy), at the Grossmünster. The council agreed and it was officially opened on 19 June 1525 with Zwingli and Jud as teachers. It served to retrain and re-educate the clergy. The Zürich Bible translation, traditionally attributed to Zwingli and printed by Christoph Froschauer, bears the mark of teamwork from the Prophecy school. According to , the first complete Bible was printed in 1531. Other sources say 1529 or 1530. See and . Early editions were called the Froschauer Bible, see . Scholars have not yet attempted to clarify Zwingli's share of the work based on external and stylistic evidence. Conflict with the Anabaptists (1525–1527) Shortly after the second Zürich disputation, many in the radical wing of the Reformation became convinced that Zwingli was making too many concessions to the Zürich council. They rejected the role of civil government and demanded the immediate establishment of a congregation of the faithful. Conrad Grebel, the leader of the radicals and the emerging Anabaptist movement, spoke disparagingly of Zwingli in private. On 15 August 1524 the council insisted on the obligation to baptise all newborn infants. Zwingli secretly conferred with Grebel’s group and late in 1524, the council called for official discussions. When talks were broken off, Zwingli published Wer Ursache gebe zu Aufruhr (Whoever Causes Unrest) clarifying the opposing points-of-view. On 17 January 1525 a public debate was held and the council decided in favour of Zwingli. Anyone refusing to have their children baptised was required to leave Zürich. The radicals ignored these measures and on 21 January, they met at the house of the mother of another radical leader, Felix Manz. Grebel and a third leader, George Blaurock, performed the first recorded Anabaptist adult baptisms. On 1 February, the council repeated the requirement on the baptism of all babies and some who failed to comply were arrested and fined, Manz and Blaurock among them. Zwingli and Jud interviewed them and more debates were held before the Zürich council. Meanwhile, the new teachings continued to spread to other parts of the Confederation as well as a number of Swabian towns. On 6–8 November, the last debate on the subject of baptism took place in the Grossmünster. Grebel, Manz, and Blaurock defended their cause before Zwingli, Jud, and other reformers. There was no serious exchange of views as each side would not move from their positions and the debates degenerated into an uproar, each side shouting abuse at the other. The Zürich council decided that no compromise was possible. On 7 March 1526 it released the notorious mandate that no one shall rebaptise another under the penalty of death. Although Zwingli, technically, had nothing to do with the mandate, there is no indication that he disapproved. Felix Manz, who had sworn to leave Zürich and not to baptise any more, had deliberately returned and continued the practice. After he was arrested and tried, he was executed on 5 January 1527 by being drowned in the Limmat river. He was the first Anabaptist martyr; three more were to follow, after which all others either fled or were expelled from Zürich. The descendant of the Zwinglian Reformation, the Reformed Church of Zürich, and the descendants of the Anabaptist movement (Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites) held a Reconciliation Conference at the Grossmünster on 26 June 2004. See also and Reformation in the Confederation (1526–1528) Statue of Zwingli in front of the Wasserkirche in Zürich On 8 April 1524, five cantons, Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, and Zug, formed an alliance, die fünf Orte (the Five States) to defend themselves from Zwingli’s Reformation. They contacted the opponents of Martin Luther including John Eck who had debated Luther in the Leipzig Disputation of 1519. Eck offered to dispute Zwingli and he accepted. However, they could not agree on the selection of the judging authority, the location of the debate, and the use of the Swiss Diet as a court. Because of the disagreements, Zwingli decided to boycott the disputation. On 19 May 1526, all the cantons sent delegates to Baden. Although Zürich’s representatives were present, they did not participate in the sessions. Eck led the Catholic party while the reformers were represented by Johannes Oecolampadius of Basel, a theologian from Württemberg who had carried on an extensive and friendly correspondence with Zwingli. While the debate proceeded, Zwingli was kept informed of the proceedings and printed pamphlets giving his opinions. It was of little use as the Diet decided against Zwingli. He was to be banned and his writings were no longer to be distributed. Of the thirteen Confederation members, Glarus, Solothurn, Fribourg, and Appenzell as well as the Five States voted against Zwingli. Bern, Basel, Schaffhausen, and Zürich supported him. The Baden disputation exposed a deep rift in the Confederation on matters of religion. The Reformation was now emerging in other states. The city of St Gallen, an affiliated state to the Confederation, was led by a reformed mayor, Joachim Vadian, and the city abolished the mass in 1527, just two years after Zürich. In Basel, although Zwingli had a close relationship with Oecolampadius, the government did not officially sanction any reformatory changes until 1 April 1529 when the mass was prohibited. Schaffhausen, which had closely followed Zürich’s example, formally adopted the Reformation in September 1529. In the case of Bern, Berchtold Haller, the priest at St Vincent Münster, and Niklaus Manuel, the poet, painter, and politician, had campaigned for the reformed cause. But it was only after another disputation that Bern counted itself as a canton of the Reformation. Four hundred and fifty persons participated, including pastors from Bern and other cantons as well as theologians from outside the Confederation such as Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Capito from Strasbourg, Ambrosius Blarer from Constance, and Andreas Althamer from Nürnberg. Eck and Fabri refused to attend and the Catholic cantons did not send representatives. The meeting started on 6 January 1528 and lasted nearly three weeks. Zwingli assumed the main burden of defending the Reformation and he preached twice in the Münster. On 7 February 1528 the council decreed that the Reformation was established in Bern. First Kappel War (1529) Even before the Bern disputation, Zwingli was canvassing for an alliance of reformed cities. Once Bern officially accepted the Reformation, a new alliance, das Christliche Burgrecht (the Christian Civic Union) was created. . Potter also translates Burgrecht as "Civic Union", while translates it as "Fortress Law". The first meetings were held in Bern between representatives of Bern, Constance, and Zürich on 5–6 January 1528. Other cities including Basel, Biel, Mülhausen, Schaffhausen, and St Gallen, eventually joined the alliance. The Five States felt encircled and isolated, so they searched for outside allies. After two months of negotiations, the Five States formed die Christliche Vereinigung (the Christian Alliance) with Ferdinand of Austria on 22 April 1529. Soon after the Austrian treaty was signed, a reformed preacher, Jacob Kaiser, was captured in Uznach and executed in Schwyz. This triggered a strong reaction from Zwingli, and he drafted Ratschlag über den Krieg (Advice About the War) for the government. He outlined justifications for an attack on the Catholic states and other measures to be taken. Before Zürich could implement his plans, a delegation from Bern that included Niklaus Manuel, arrived in Zürich. The delegation called on Zürich to settle the matter peacefully. Manuel added that an attack would expose Bern to further dangers as Catholic Valais and the Duchy of Savoy bordered its southern flank. He then noted, "You cannot really bring faith by means of spears and halberds." . In Early Modern German, "Warlich man mag mit spiess und halberten den glouben nit ingeben." Zürich, however, decided that it would act alone knowing that Bern would be obliged to acquiesce. War was declared on 8 June 1529. Zürich was able to raise an army of 30,000 men. The Five States were abandoned by Austria and could raise only 9,000 men. The two forces met near Kappel, but war was averted due to the intervention of Hans Aebli, a relative of Zwingli, who pleaded for an armistice. Zwingli was obliged to state the terms of the armistice. He demanded the dissolution of the Christian Alliance; unhindered preaching by reformers in the Catholic states; prohibition of the pension system; payment of war reparations; and compensation to the children of Jacob Kaiser. Manuel was involved in the negotiations. Bern was not ready to insist on the unhindered preaching or the prohibition of the pension system. Zürich and Bern could not agree and the Five States pledged only to the dissolution of the alliance with Austria. This was a bitter disappointment for Zwingli and it marked his decline in political influence. The first Land Peace of Kappel, der erste Landfriede, ended the war on 24 June. Marburg Colloquy (1529) Coloured woodcut of the Marburg Colloquy, anonymous, 1557 While Zwingli carried on the political work of the Swiss Reformation, he developed his theological views with his colleagues. The famous disagreement between Luther and Zwingli on the interpretation of the Eucharist originated when Andreas Karlstadt, Luther’s former colleague from Wittenberg, published three pamphlets on the Lord’s Supper in which Karlstadt rejected the idea of a real presence in the elements. These pamphlets, published in Basel in 1524, received the approval of Oecolampadius and Zwingli. Luther rejected Karlstadt’s arguments and considered Zwingli primarily to be a partisan of Karlstadt. Zwingli began to express his thoughts on the Eucharist in several publications including de Eucharistia (On the Eucharist). He attacked the idea of the real presence and argued that the word is in the words of the institution—"This is my body, this is my blood"—means signifies. Hence, the words are understood as a metaphor and Zwingli claimed that there was no real presence during the Eucharist. In effect, the meal was symbolic of the Last Supper. By spring 1527, Luther reacted strongly to Zwingli’s views in a treatise placing his disagreement with Zwingli in the context of a battle against Satanic forces. The controversy continued until 1528 when efforts to build bridges between the Lutheran and the Zwinglian views began. Martin Bucer tried to mediate while Philip of Hesse, who wanted to form a political coalition of all Protestant forces, invited the two parties to Marburg to discuss their differences. This event became known as the Marburg Colloquy. Zwingli accepted Philip's invitation fully believing that he would be able to convince Luther. By contrast, Luther did not expect anything to come out of the meeting and had to be urged by Philip to attend. Zwingli, accompanied by Oecolampadius, arrived on 28 September 1529 with Luther and Philipp Melanchthon arriving shortly thereafter. Other theologians also participated including Martin Bucer, Andreas Osiander, Johannes Brenz, and Justus Jonas. The debates were held from 1–3 October and the results were published in the fifteen Marburg Articles. The participants were able to agree on fourteen of the articles, but the fifteenth article established the differences in their views on the presence of Christ in the Eucharist. Afterwards, each side was convinced that they were the victors, but in fact the controversy was not resolved and the final result was the formation of two different Protestant confessions. Politics, confessions, and the Second Kappel War (1529–1531) With the failure of the Marburg Colloquy and the split of the Confederation, Zwingli set his goal on an alliance with Philip of Hesse. He kept a lively correspondence with Philip. Bern refused to participate, but after a long process, Zürich, Basel, and Strasbourg signed a mutual defence treaty with Philip in November 1530. Zwingli also personally negotiated with France's diplomatic representative, but the two sides were too far apart. France wanted to maintain good relations with the Five States. Approaches to Venice and Milan also failed. As Zwingli was working on establishing these political alliances, Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, invited Protestants to the Augsburg Diet to present their views so that he could make a verdict on the issue of faith. The Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession. Under the leadership of Martin Bucer, the cities of Strasbourg, Constance, Memmingen, and Lindau produced the Tetrapolitan Confession. This document attempted to take a middle position between the Lutherans and Zwinglians. It was too late for the Burgrecht cities to produce a confession of their own. Zwingli then produced his own private confession, Fidei ratio (Account of Faith) in which he explained his faith in twelve articles conforming to the articles of the Apostles' Creed. The tone was strongly anti-Catholic as well as anti-Lutheran. The Lutherans did not react officially, but criticised it privately. Zwingli's and Luther's old opponent, John Eck, counter-attacked with a publication, Refutation of the Articles Zwingli Submitted to the Emperor. When Philip of Hesse formed the Schmalkaldic League at the end of 1530, the four cities of the Tetrapolitan Confession joined on the basis of a Lutheran interpretation of that confession. Given the flexibility of the league's entrance requirements, Zürich, Basel, and Bern also considered joining. However, Zwingli could not reconcile the Tetrapolitan Confession with his own beliefs and wrote a harsh refusal to Bucer and Capito. This offended Philip to the point where relations with the League were severed. The Burgrecht cities now had no external allies to help deal with internal Confederation religious conflicts. The Battle of Kappel, 11 October 1531, from Chronik by Johannes Stumpf, 1548 The peace treaty of the First Kappel War did not define the right of unhindered preaching in the Catholic states. Zwingli interpreted this to mean that preaching should be permitted, but the Five States suppressed any attempts to reform. The Burgrecht cities considered different means of applying pressure to the Five States. Basel and Schaffhausen preferred quiet diplomacy while Zürich wanted armed conflict. Zwingli and Jud unequivocally advocated an attack on the Five States. Bern took a middle position which eventually prevailed. In May 1531, Zürich reluctantly agreed to impose a food blockade. It failed to have any effect and in October, Bern decided to withdraw the blockade. Zürich urged its continuation and the Burgrecht cities began to quarrel among themselves. On 9 October 1531, in a surprise move, the Five States declared war on Zürich. Zürich's mobilisation was slow due to internal squabbling and on 11 October, three thousand five hundred poorly deployed men encountered a Five States force nearly double their size near Kappel. Many pastors, including Zwingli, were among the soldiers. The battle lasted less than one hour and Zwingli was among the five hundred casualties in the Zürich army. He had considered himself first and foremost a soldier of Christ; second a defender of his country, the Confederation; and third a leader of his city, Zürich, where he had lived for the previous twelve years. Ironically, he died at the age of 47, not for Christ nor for the Confederation, but for Zürich. Theology The cornerstone of Zwingli’s theology is the Bible. Zwingli appealed to scripture constantly in his writings. He placed its authority above other sources such as the ecumenical councils or the Church Fathers, although he did not hesitate to use other sources to support his arguments. The principles that guide Zwingli's interpretations are derived from his humanist education and his reformed understanding of the Bible. Modifying a literalist interpretation of a passage, he paid attention to the immediate context and attempted to understand the purpose behind it. He compared passages of scripture and used analogies, a method he describes in A Friendly Exegesis (1527). Two analogies that he used quite effectively were between baptism and circumcision and between the Passover and the Eucharist. A rendition of Huldrych Zwingli from the 1906 edition of the Meyers Konversations-Lexikon Zwingli rejected the word sacrament in the popular usage of his time. For ordinary people, the word meant some kind of holy action of which there is inherent power to free the conscience from sin. For Zwingli, a sacrament was an initiatory ceremony or a pledge, pointing out that the word was derived from sacramentum meaning an oath. In his early writings on baptism, he noted that baptism was an example of such a pledge. He challenged Catholics by accusing them of superstition when they ascribed the water of baptism a certain power to wash away sin. Later, in his conflict with the Anabaptists, he defended the practice of infant baptism, noting that there is no law forbidding the practice. He argued that baptism was a sign of a covenant with God, thereby replacing circumcision in the Old Testament. Zwingli approached the Eucharist in a similar manner to baptism. During the first Zürich disputation in 1523, he denied that an actual sacrifice occurred during the mass, arguing that Christ made the sacrifice only once and for all eternity. Hence, the Eucharist was “a memorial of the sacrifice”. Huldreich Zwinglis Samtliche Werke, Vol. I, 460.6-10, as quoted in Following this argument, he further developed his view, coming to the conclusion of the “signifies” interpretation for the words of the institution. He used various passages of scripture to argue against transubstantiation as well as Luther’s views, the key text being John 6:63, "It is the Spirit who gives life, the flesh is of no avail". Zwingli’s rational approach and use of scripture to understand the meaning of the Eucharist was one reason he could not reach a consensus with Luther. The impact of Luther on Zwingli’s theological development has long been a source of interest and discussion among Zwinglian scholars. Zwingli himself asserted vigorously his independence of Luther. The most recent studies have lent credibility to this claim, although some scholars still claim his theology was dependent upon Luther's. Zwingli appears to have read Luther’s books in search of confirmation from Luther for his own views. Zwingli did, however, admire Luther greatly for the stand he took against the pope. This, more than Luther's theology, was a key influence on Zwingli's convictions as a reformer. What Zwingli considered Luther's courageous stance at the Leipzig Disputation had a decisive impact on Zwingli during his earliest years as a priest, and during this time Zwingli praised and promoted Luther's writings to support his own similar ideas. Like Luther, Zwingli was also a student and admirer of Augustine. His later writings continued to show characteristic differences from Luther such as the inclusion of non-Christians in heaven as described in An Exposition of the Faith. Music Zwingli enjoyed music and could play several instruments, including the violin, harp, flute, dulcimer and hunting horn. He would sometimes amuse the children of his congregation on his lute and was so well-known for his playing that his enemies mocked him as “the evangelical lute-player and fifer". Three of Zwingli's Lieder or hymns have been preserved: the Pestlied mentioned above, an adaptation of Psalm 65 (ca. 1525), and the Kappeler Lied, which is believed to have been composed during the campaign of the first war of Kappel (1529). Hannes Reimann, Huldrych Zwingli - der Musiker, Archiv für Musikwissenschaft 17 2./3. (1960), pp. 126–141 These songs were not meant to be sung during worship services and are not identified as hymns of the Reformation, though they were published in some 16th century hymnals. Zwingli criticised the practice of priestly chanting and monastic choirs. The criticism dates from 1523 when he attacked certain worship practices. He associated music with images and vestments, all of which he felt diverted people’s attention from true spiritual worship. It is not known what he thought of the musical practices in early Lutheran churches. Zwingli, however eliminated music from worship in the church, stating that God had not commanded musical worship. Leith, John H, Introduction to the Reformed Tradition, Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 0804204799 p210-211 The organist of the People's Church in Zurich is recorded as weeping upon seeing the great organ broken up. Chadwick, Owen, The Reformation, Penguin, 1990, p. 439 Although Zwingli did not express an opinion on congregational singing, he made no effort to encourage it. Nevertheless, scholars have found that Zwingli was supportive of a role for music in the church. Gottfried W. Locher writes, "The old assertion 'Zwingli was against church singing' holds good no longer.... Zwingli's polemic is concerned exclusively with the medieval Latin choral and priestly chanting and not with the hymns of evangelical congregations or choirs". Locher goes on to say that "Zwingli freely allowed vernacular psalm or choral singing. In addition, he even seems to have striven for lively, antiphonal, unison recitative". Locher then summaries his comments on Zwingli's view of church music as follows: "The chief thought in his conception of worship was always 'conscious attendance and understanding' — 'devotion', yet with the lively participation of all concerned". Legacy Zwingli was a humanist and a scholar with many devoted friends and disciples. He communicated as easily with the ordinary people of his congregation as with rulers such as Philip of Hesse. His reputation as a stern, stolid reformer is counterbalanced by the fact that he had an excellent sense of humour and used satiric fables, spoofing, and puns in his writings. . He was more conscious of social obligations than Luther and he genuinely believed that the masses would accept a government guided by God’s word. He tirelessly promoted assistance to the poor, who he believed should be cared for by a truly Christian community. In December 1531, the Zürich council selected Heinrich Bullinger as his successor. He immediately removed any doubts about Zwingli’s orthodoxy and defended him as a prophet and a martyr. During Bullinger's rule, the confessional divisions of the Confederation were stabilised. He rallied the reformed cities and cantons and helped them to recover from the defeat at Kappel. Zwingli had instituted fundamental reforms, while Bullinger consolidated and refined them. Scholars have found assessing Zwingli’s historical impact to be difficult, for several reasons. There is no consensus definition of "Zwinglianism"; by any definition, Zwinglianism evolved under his successor, Heinrich Bullinger; and research into Zwingli’s influence on Bullinger and John Calvin is still rudimentary. Bullinger adopted most of Zwingli’s points of doctrine. Like Zwingli, he summarised his theology several times, the best-known being the Second Helvetic Confession of 1566. Meanwhile, Calvin had established the Reformation in Geneva. Calvin differed with Zwingli on the Eucharist and criticised him for regarding it as simply a metaphorical event. In 1549, however, Bullinger and Calvin succeeded in overcoming the differences in doctrine and produced the Consensus Tigurinus (Zürich Consensus). They declared that the Eucharist was not just symbolic of the meal, but they also rejected the Lutheran position that the body and blood of Christ is in union with the elements. With this rapprochement, Calvin established his role in the Swiss Reformed Churches and eventually in the wider world. , J. C. McLelland, "Meta-Zwingli or Anti-Zwingli? Bullinger and Calvin in Eucharistic Concord" Outside of Switzerland, no church counts Zwingli as its founder. Scholars speculate as to why Zwinglianism has not diffused more widely, , Ulrich Gäbler, "Zwingli the Loser". even though Zwingli’s theology is considered the first expression of Reformed theology. Although his name is not widely recognised, Zwingli's legacy lives on in the basic confessions of the Reformed churches of today. He is often called, after Martin Luther and John Calvin, the "Third Man of the Reformation". List of works Zwingli's collected works are expected to fill 21 volumes. A collection of selected works was published in 1995 by the Zwingliverein in collaboration with the Theologischer Verlag Zürich Huldrych Zwingli, Schriften (4 vols.), eds. Th. Brunnschweiler and S. Lutz, Zürich (1995), ISBN 978-3290109783 This four-volume collection contains the following works: English titles are those of Volume 1: 1995, 512 pages, ISBN 3-290-10974-7 Pestlied (1519/20) "The Plague Song" Die freie Wahl der Speisen (1522) "Choice and Liberty regarding Food" Eine göttliche Ermahnung der Schwyzer (1522) "A Solemn Exhortation [to the people of Schwyz]" Die Klarheit und Gewissheit des Wortes Gottes (1522) "The Clarity and Certainty of the Word of God" Göttliche und menschliche Gerechtigkeit (1523) "Divine and Human Righteousness" Wie Jugendliche aus gutem Haus zu erziehen sind (1523) "How to educate adolescents from a good home" Der Hirt (1524) "The Shepherd" Eine freundschaftliche und ernste Ermahnung der Eidgenossen (1524) "Zwingli's Letter to the Federation" Wer Ursache zum Aufruhr gibt (1524) "Those Who Give Cause for Tumult" Volume 2: 1995, 556 pages, ISBN 3-290-10975-5 Auslegung und Begründung der Thesen oder Artikel (1523) "Interpretation and justification of the theses or articles" Volume 3: 1995, 519 pages, ISBN 3-290-10976-3 Empfehlung zur Vorbereitung auf einen möglichen Krieg (1524) "Plan for a Campaign" Kommentar über die wahre und die falsche Religion (1525) "Commentary on True and False Religion" Volume 4: 1995, 512 pages, ISBN 3-290-10977-1 Antwort auf die Predigt Luthers gegen die Schwärmer (1527) "A Refutation of Luther's sermon against vain enthusiasm" Die beiden Berner Predigten (1528) "The Berne sermons" Rechenschaft über den Glauben (1530) "An Exposition of the Faith" Die Vorsehung (1530) "Providence" Erklärung des christlichen Glaubens (1531) "Explanation of the Christian faith" The complete 21-volume edition is being undertaken by the Zwingliverein in collaboration with the Institut für schweizerische Reformationsgeschichte, and is projected to be organised as follows: vols. I–VI Werke: Zwingli's theological and political writings, essays, sermons etc., in chronological order. This section was completed in 1991. vols. VII–XI Briefe: Letters vol. XII Randglossen: Zwingli's glosses in the margin of books vols XIII ff. Exegetische Schriften: Zwingli's exegetical notes on the Bible. Vols. XIII and XIV have been published, vols. XV and XVI are under preparation. Vols. XVII to XXI are planned to cover the New Testament. See also Timeline of Huldrych Zwingli William Farel Notes References . . . . . . . . . , OCLC 820553. . . . External links Biography of Anna Reinhard in Leben magazine from a seminary of the Reformed Church in the United States Website of the Zwingli Association and Zwingliana journal be-x-old:Ульрых Цвінглі | Huldrych_Zwingli |@lemmatized huldrych:12 zwingli:169 depict:1 han:2 asper:1 oil:1 portrait:1 kunstmuseum:1 winterthur:1 ulrich:4 accord:4 potter:4 spelling:1 prefer:2 however:13 us:1 gäbler:4 stephen:1 furcha:1 use:13 signature:1 marburg:8 colloquy:6 latinised:1 name:4 huldrychus:1 zwinglius:1 see:10 german:4 reform:12 church:19 zürich:61 january:11 october:8 leader:5 reformation:24 switzerland:4 bear:5 time:16 emerge:3 swiss:16 patriotism:2 increase:1 criticism:2 mercenary:6 system:5 attend:5 university:6 vienna:3 basel:15 scholarly:2 centre:2 humanism:4 continue:11 study:8 serve:3 pastor:10 glarus:6 later:4 einsiedeln:4 influence:5 writing:10 erasmus:6 become:11 grossmünster:12 begin:9 preach:5 idea:5 catholic:12 first:25 public:6 controversy:5 attack:12 custom:2 fast:1 lent:3 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4,945 | Hardware | Hardware can refer to several things: Hardware, physical artifacts of a technology Computer hardware, the physical part of a computer Hardware (TV series), a British situation comedy Hardware (1990 film), a 1990 film Hardware (album), a studio album by the heavy metal band Krokus Hardware (comics), a character from Milestone Comics Builders hardware, hardware for doors, cabinets, windows, bathrooms, etc. | Hardware |@lemmatized hardware:9 refer:1 several:1 thing:1 physical:2 artifact:1 technology:1 computer:2 part:1 tv:1 series:1 british:1 situation:1 comedy:1 film:2 album:2 studio:1 heavy:1 metal:1 band:1 krokus:1 comic:2 character:1 milestone:1 builder:1 door:1 cabinet:1 window:1 bathroom:1 etc:1 |@bigram |
4,946 | Jay_Leno | James Douglas Muir "Jay" Leno (born April 28, 1950) is an American stand-up comedian, television host, writer. He was the fourth permanent host of the fifty-year-old American television program The Tonight Show on NBC, having hosted The Tonight Show with Jay Leno from May 1992 to May 2009. Beginning in fall 2009, Leno is scheduled to have a primetime talk show, tentatively titled The Jay Leno Show, which will air weeknights at 10:00 p.m. (Eastern Time, UTC-5), also on NBC. Early life Jay Leno was born in New Rochelle, New York, on April 28, 1950. His mother, Catherine (née Muir), a homemaker, was born in Greenock, Scotland, and came to the United States at age 11. Her schooling was limited and as a result she prized her children's successes. Leno's father, Angelo, who worked as an insurance salesman, was born in New York to immigrants from Flumeri, Italy. Leno grew up in Andover, Massachusetts, and although his high school guidance counselor recommended that he drop out of high school because of his grades, Jay not only graduated but also went on to receive a bachelor's degree in speech therapy from Emerson College, in 1973. He also attended Bentley College in Waltham, Massachusetts, but did not like it. Leno's siblings include his late brother, Patrick, who was a veteran. As Leno was growing up, he used to say that he would take over Johnny Carson's job, which he eventually did. Early in his career, Leno did commercials for Doritos brand tortilla chips. In the late 1970s, he was the warm-up act for Johnny Mathis, Tom Jones, and John Denver. Career The Tonight Show He replaced Johnny Carson as host of The Tonight Show in 1992, after having been a regular substitute host for Carson since 1987. Leno continued to perform as a stand-up comedian throughout his tenure on The Tonight Show. In 2004, Leno signed a contract extension with NBC which would keep him as host of The Tonight Show until 2009. Later in 2004, Conan O'Brien signed a contract with NBC under which O'Brien would become the host of The Tonight Show in 2009, replacing Leno at that time. Leno said in 2008 that he was saving all of his income from The Tonight Show and living solely off his income from stand-up comedy. On April 23, 2009, Leno checked himself into a hospital with an undisclosed illness. http://edition.cnn.com/2009/SHOWBIZ/TV/04/23/leno.hospitalized/index.html He was released the following day and returned to work on Monday April 27. The two subsequently cancelled Tonight Show episodes for April 23 and April 24 were Leno's first in 17 years as host. It was never disclosed what illness caused the absence. http://www.canada.com/News/Leno+misses+first+show+years/1530668/story.html Succession by Conan O'Brien Because Leno's show continued to lead all late-night programming in the Nielsen ratings, the pending expiration of Leno's contract led to speculation about whether he would become a late-night host for another network after his commitment to NBC expired. Leno's last Tonight Show was on Friday May 29, 2009. On December 8, 2008, it was reported that Leno will remain on NBC and move to a new hour-long show at 10:00 P.M. five nights a week. This show will be in a similar format to The Tonight Show, taped in the same studio, and retaining many of Leno's most popular bits. Late Night host Conan O'Brien was his successor on The Tonight Show itself. Michael Jackson trial In the 2005 trial of Michael Jackson over allegations of child molestation, Leno appeared as a defense witness (many celebrity defense witnesses had been expected, but Leno was one of the few whose testimony was actually needed). In his testimony regarding a call by the accuser, Leno testified he never called the police, no money was asked for, and there was no coaching - but that the calls seemed unusual and scripted. Due to this, Leno was initially not allowed to continue telling jokes about Jackson or the case, which had been a fixture of The Tonight Show'''s opening monologue in particular. But he and his show's writers used a legal loophole by having Leno briefly step aside while stand-in comedians took the stage and told jokes about the trial. Stand-ins included Roseanne Barr, Drew Carey, Brad Garrett, and Dennis Miller among others. After NBC challenged the gag order, the judge permitted Leno to make jokes, as long as they were not related to his testimony. After the gag order was lifted, the next show featured a monologue entirely of Michael Jackson jokes. E! Entertainment Television created a re-enactment of Jay's testimony using the actual trial transcript, with Jimmy Kimmel as Jay. Personal life Leno is known for his prominent jaw, which has been described as mandibular prognathism. He has stated that he is aware of surgery that could reset his mandible, but does not wish to endure a prolonged healing period with his jaws wired shut. During an August 1, 2007, interview with CNN journalist Anderson Cooper on The Tonight Show, Leno confirmed that he is dyslexic. He has been married since 1980 to Mavis Leno; the couple is childless by choice. Charity Along with his wife, Mavis, he donated $100,000 in 2001 to the Feminist Majority's campaign to stop gender apartheid in Afghanistan, to educate the public regarding the plight of women in Afghanistan under Taliban rule. Mavis Leno is on the board of the Feminist Majority. In 2001, he auctioned off a Harley-Davidson motorcycle signed by his celebrity guests in an effort to help victims of the September 11 attacks. The bike sold for about $360,000. In 2005, he repeated the gesture twice: first, to aid victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake, with a bike sold for $810,000, and then again to help the victims of Hurricane Katrina; that bike sold for $1,550,100. Leno arriving to the 45th Primetime Emmy Awards in his Hispano-Suiza 8 Vehicle collection Jay Leno is widely known as a car and motorcycle aficionado. He has a large antique car and motorcycle collection of various international marques spanning from the early 1900s to modern vehicles. He is also a promotor of the mechanical crafts through a column in Popular Mechanics. Along with his collection of classic cars, he has several high-performance cars. These include a 1994 McLaren F1, Porsche Carrera GT, Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren, Lamborghini Miura, Ariel Atom, Dodge Viper GTS, Ford GT, Audi R8 and a custom Corvette C6RS (a modified Z06 built by Pratt & Miller). This Corvette can run on either E-85 Ethanol or gasoline. His EcoJet car runs on bio-diesel fuel. Its engine is a Honeywell LT-101 turbine. The shell is carbon fiber over Kevlar. Leno's Blastolene Special is a -long aluminum-bodied roadster powered by a V12 engine from an M47 Patton tank Leno bought from Blastolene Brothers. It was featured in the 2005 racing game Gran Turismo 4, and Monster Garage. The collection also includes an original 1912 Stanley Steamer (which, with Leno behind the wheel, became the oldest car to ever receive a speeding ticket) and a rare 1964 Studebaker Avanti. Leno's column in the American magazine Popular Mechanics showcases his car collection and gives advice about various automotive topics, including restoration and unique models, such as his jet-powered motorcycle and solar-powered hybrid. Leno also writes occasional "Motormouth" articles for The Sunday Times (London), reviewing high end sports cars and giving his humorous take on automotive matters. He also writes a monthly column for Octane Magazine. Leno's passion for classic cars led him to an affiliation with the Automobile Restoration Department at McPherson College, in McPherson, Kansas. Today he serves on the National Advisory Board for the college's automotive restoration program and helps fund the Fred Duesenberg Memorial Scholarship. Leno also has an Internet site, called "Jay Leno's Garage," which contains video clips and photos of his automobiles in detail. Since 2006 Leno has had his garage work on a biodiesel, turbine powered car in collaboration with GM, the EcoJet concept car. Criticism Howard Stern accused Leno of stealing material from him, most notably, Stern says Leno stole the idea of the 'Jaywalking' segment, where Leno asks people on the street basic intelligence/current event questions. Leno also hired announcer "Stuttering" John Melendez from Stern's staff. During the 2007-2008 WGA Writers strike, Leno was accused of violating WGA guidelines by writing his own monologue for The Tonight Show''. While NBC and Leno claim there were private meetings with the WGA where there was a secret agreement allowing this, the WGA denies such a meeting. References External links Official Tonight Show web site Jay Leno's Car Collection Jay Leno's Columns at Octane magazine New York Times on Leno's affiliation with McPherson College Live performance videos from the Tonight Show | Jay_Leno |@lemmatized james:1 douglas:1 muir:2 jay:11 leno:53 bear:4 april:6 american:3 stand:5 comedian:3 television:3 host:10 writer:3 fourth:1 permanent:1 fifty:1 year:3 old:2 program:2 tonight:17 show:25 nbc:8 may:3 begin:1 fall:1 schedule:1 primetime:2 talk:1 tentatively:1 title:1 air:1 weeknight:1 p:2 eastern:1 time:4 utc:1 also:9 early:3 life:2 new:5 rochelle:1 york:3 mother:1 catherine:1 née:1 homemaker:1 greenock:1 scotland:1 come:1 united:1 state:2 age:1 schooling:1 limited:1 result:1 prize:1 child:2 success:1 father:1 angelo:1 work:3 insurance:1 salesman:1 immigrant:1 flumeri:1 italy:1 grow:2 andover:1 massachusetts:2 although:1 high:4 school:2 guidance:1 counselor:1 recommend:1 drop:1 grade:1 graduate:1 go:1 receive:2 bachelor:1 degree:1 speech:1 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agreement:1 denies:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 web:1 |@bigram jay_leno:8 andover_massachusetts:1 bachelor_degree:1 waltham_massachusetts:1 johnny_carson:2 conan_brien:3 cnn_com:1 http_www:1 nielsen_rating:1 jimmy_kimmel:1 harley_davidson:1 davidson_motorcycle:1 hurricane_katrina:1 primetime_emmy:1 emmy_award:1 hispano_suiza:1 mercedes_benz:1 ford_gt:1 ethanol_gasoline:1 gran_turismo:1 advisory_board:1 video_clip:1 howard_stern:1 external_link:1 |
4,947 | Denis_Leary | Denis Colin Leary (born August 18, 1957) is a Golden Globe- and Emmy Award-nominated American actor, comedian, writer and director. He is known for his often angry comedic style, and his chain smoking. As of 2009, Leary is the star and co-creator of the television show Rescue Me now in its 5th season. Biography Leary was born in Worcester, Massachusetts, the son of Irish Catholic immigrants. His mother, Nora, was a maid. His father, John Leary (deceased), was an auto mechanic. Since both of his parents are from Killarney, County Kerry, Ireland, Leary holds both Irish and American citizenship. He graduated from Saint Peter-Marian High School, in Worcester. Through marriage, Leary is a distant cousin of talk show host Conan O'Brien and has jokingly said on Late Night with Conan O'Brien that, "All Irish people are related." His name is often misspelled as "Dennis" instead of the correct "Denis." Emerson College Leary is a graduate of Emerson College, in Boston, where he was classmates with fellow comic Mario Cantone, who remains his closest friend. Comedian Steven Wright and actress Gina Gershon also attended Emerson at the same time as Leary. At the school, he and Jodi Haffner Wallace co-founded the Emerson Comedy Workshop, a troupe that continues on-campus as of at least 2009. After graduating with the Emerson Class of 1979, he took a job at the school teaching comedy writing classes and maintained the job for five years. Leary was honored with an honorary doctorate and spoke briefly at his alma mater's undergraduate commencement ceremony on May 16, 2005 and is credited as "Dr. Denis Leary" on the cover of his 2008 book, Why We Suck. Career Leary started his career as a comedian in the Boston comedy scene of the 1980s, where he hosted his own show at the underground club "Play It Again Sam's". He also wrote and appeared on a local comedy series, Lenny Clarke's Late Show, hosted by his friend Lenny Clarke and written by Boston comedy writer Martin Olson. Leary and Clarke both spoke about their early affiliations and influences in the Boston comedy scene in the documentary film When Standup Stood Out (2006). It was during this time that he developed his stage persona. He also appeared in skits on the MTV game show Remote Control, playing such characters as Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones, the "brother" of co-host Colin Quinn, and artist Andy Warhol. Leary first earned fame when he ranted about R.E.M. in an MTV sketch. Several other commercials for MTV followed, in which Leary would rant at high speeds about a variety of topics. He has released two records of his stand-up comedy: No Cure for Cancer (1993) and Lock 'n Load (1997). In late 2004, he released the EP Merry F#%$in' Christmas, which included a mix of new music, previously unreleased recordings, and some tracks from Lock 'n Load. In 1993, his sardonic song about the stereotypical American male, "Asshole", achieved much notoriety. It was voted #1 in an Australian youth radio poll (the Triple J Hottest 100) as well as reaching #2 in the singles chart in that country. The video also became a staple of MTV's late-night programming. Due to its explicit and controversial content, however, it received limited airplay on mainstream American radio stations. At the 2004 Comics Come Home event in Boston, Massachusetts, Leary performed a new version of the song directed at the New York Yankees baseball team, and as the song concluded, Bronson Arroyo walked on stage with the World Series trophy. The song was also used as part of the Holsten Pils series of ads in the , in which Leary was participating, with adapted lyrics criticizing a drunk driver. Although he says he is most at home on stage doing stand-up, Leary has appeared as an actor in over 40 movies, including The Sandlot, Monument Ave., The Matchmaker, The Ref, Suicide Kings, Dawg, Wag the Dog, Demolition Man, The Thomas Crown Affair and Operation Dumbo Drop. He has had the lead role in two television series, The Job and Rescue Me. In addition, Leary has provided voices for characters in animated films, such as a medium fire-breathing dragon named Flame in the The Agents series, a prehistoric, saber-toothed cat named Diego in the Ice Age film trilogy, and Francis in A Bug's Life. He has produced numerous movies, television shows, and specials through his production company Apostle; these include Comedy Central's Shorties Watchin' Shorties, the stand-up special Denis Leary's Merry F#$%in' Christmas, and the movie Blow. As a Boston Red Sox fan, he narrated the official 2004 World Series film. In 2006, Leary and Lenny Clarke appeared on television during a Red Sox telecast and, upon realizing that Red Sox first baseman Kevin Youkilis is Jewish, delivered a criticism of Mel Gibson's antisemitic comments. As an ice hockey fan, Leary also hosted the National Hockey League video NHL's Greatest Goals. In 2003, Comedy Central honored Leary with the Comedy Central Roast of Denis Leary. Friend Jeff Garlin acted as roastmaster. Roasters included Mario Cantone, Adam Ferrara, Dane Cook, Jim Breuer, Nick DiPaolo, Don Gavin, Christopher Walken, Lenny Clarke, Gina Gershon, Conan O'Brien, Jon Stewart, Gilbert Gottfried, Colin Quinn, and Michael J. Fox. As of 2004, Leary is the star and co-creator of the FX cable-network series Rescue Me. He plays Tommy Gavin, a New York City firefighter dealing with alcoholism, family dysfunction, and other issues in post-9/11 New York City. Leary received Emmy nominations in 2006 and 2007 for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series for his performance. For this TV series, he turned down roles in two films: The Departed (Mark Wahlberg got the role after Leary turned down the role) and Bobby, which his close friend Emilio Estevez directed. In the mid-2000s, Leary did the TV voiceover for MLB 2K8 ads, where he used his trademark rant style in baseball terms, and ads for the 2009 Ford F-150 pickup truck. He was also a producer of the Fox Broadcasting series Canterbury's Law and wrote and directed its pilot episode. Canterbury's Law aired in the spring of 2008 and was canceled after eight episodes. On September 9, 2008, Leary hosted the sixth annual Fashion Rocks event, which aired on CBS. During one part of the show, Leary came onstage dressed in a long gold halter dress and wearing diamond earrings and a bracelet; he carried a purse and a pair of high heels. In another segment, he let out a controversial rant about Britney Spears, the birth of Ricky Martin's twins, and David Duchovny going to rehab for sex addiction. In December 2008, Leary appeared in a video on funnyordie.com critiquing a list of some of his "best" films, titled "Denis Leary Remembers Denis Leary Movies". "Denis Leary Remembers Denis Leary Movies" In 2008, Leary was a guest star on The Simpsons. In this episode titled "Lost Verizon", the second episode of season 20, Leary was exaggerated as a "very epic" superstar. On March 21, 2009 Leary began the "Rescue Me Comedy Tour" in Atlantic City, New Jersey. The 11-date tour, featuring Rescue Me co-stars Lenny Clarke and Adam Ferrara, will be Leary's first stand-up comedy tour in 12 years. Personal life Denis Leary has been married to writer Ann Lembeck Leary since 1989. They met when he was her instructor for an English class at Emerson College. They have two children, son John Joseph "Jack" (born 1990) and daughter Devin (born 1992). Ann Leary published a memoir, An Innocent, a Broad, about the premature birth of their son on an overseas visit to England. She has also written a novel, Outtakes From a Marriage, which was published in 2008. Leary is an ice hockey fan and has his own backyard hockey rink at his home in New York with piping installed under the ice surface to help the ice stay frozen. His favorite National Hockey League team is the Boston Bruins. He is also a diehard Boston Red Sox fan, as well as a fan of the Green Bay Packers. Leary is a moderate Democrat. He has said, "I'm more interested in my issues than I am in the guy" and "I was a life-long Democrat, but now at my age, I`ve come to realize that the Democrats suck, and the Republicans suck, and basically the entire system sucks. But you have to go within the system to find what you want." Honest Questions with Denis Leary. Glenn Beck Show. Aired July 4, 2007. Leary supported Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election. Oprah Fridays Live in Chicago with Denis Leary - Show Recap. By Elizabeth Borer. About.com Published January 16, 2009. Leary defines his religious beliefs as "I`m a lapsed catholic in the best sense of the word. You know, I was raised with Irish parents, Irish immigrant parents. My parents, you know, prayed all the time, took us to mass. And my father would sometimes swear in Gaelic. It doesn`t get more religious than that. But, no, after a while, they taught us wrong. I didn`t raise my kids with the fear of God. I raised my kids with the sense of, you know, to me, Jesus was this great guy...". Despite jokes he's made, Leary watches The Oprah Winfrey Show frequently and loves the program. Leary Firefighters Foundation On December 3, 1999, six firefighters from Leary's hometown of Worcester were killed in a massive warehouse fire. Among the dead were Leary's cousin Jerry Lucey and his close childhood friend Lt. Tommy Spencer. In response, the comedian founded the Leary Firefighters Foundation. Since its creation in the year 2000, the foundation has distributed over $2.5 million (USD) to fire departments in the Worcester, Boston, and New York City areas for equipment, training materials, new vehicles, and new facilities. Leary won $125,000 for the foundation on the game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire. Leary has close ties with 107.3 WAAF-FM, which in 2000 released the station album "Survive This!" Part of the proceeds from this album were donated to the Leary Firefighters Foundation. A separate fund run by Leary's foundation, the Fund for New York's Bravest, has distributed over $2 million (USD) to the families of the 343 firemen killed in the September 11, 2001, attacks in addition to providing funding for necessities such as a new mobile command center, first responder training, and a high-rise simulator for the FDNY's training campus. This new fund was established because the families of the Worcester fire did not want to include New York families into the fund. As a result, Leary created a separate fund for New York. As the foundation's president, Leary has been active in all of the fundraising, usually presenting large checks and donated equipment personally. The close relationship he has developed with the FDNY as well as with individual firefighters across the New York/New England area has resulted in Leary's most recent television show, Rescue Me, a Comedy-drama on FX. In the pilot episode of the show, he is seen wearing a Leary Firefighter Foundation 9-11 Memorial T-shirt. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, Leary donated over a dozen boats to the New Orleans fire department to aid in rescue efforts in future disasters. The foundation also rebuilt entire NOLA firehouses. Autism-remarks controversy In his 2008 book Why We Suck: A Feel Good Guide to Staying Fat, Loud, Lazy and Stupid, Leary made a statement about autism that has angered many people. In response to the controversy, Leary stated that the quote was taken out of context and that in that paragraph he had been talking about the trend of overdiagnosis of autism, which he attributed to American parents seeking an excuse for behavioral problems and underperformance. Later, he apologized to parents with autistic children whom he had offended. http://www.usmagazine.com/news/denis-leary-says-autism-Criticism-taken-out-of-context http://news.bostonherald.com/news/regional/view/2008_10_28_Denis_Leary_Tells_Parents:_I_m_Sorry:_%E2%80%98Raising_Children_With_Autism__Deserves_Admiration__Comic_Says/srvc=home&position=0 Accusations of plagiarism For many years, Leary had been friends with fellow comedian Bill Hicks. However, when Hicks heard Leary's No Cure for Cancer, he felt Leary had stolen his act and material. Hicks famously told an interviewer: "I have a scoop for you. I stole his (Leary's) act. I camouflaged it with punchlines, and to really throw people off, I did it before he did". The friendship ended abruptly as a result. At least three stand-up comedians have gone on the record stating they believe Leary stole not just some of Hicks' material but also his persona and attitude. One similar routine was about the band Judas Priest, during which Hicks specifically says "I don’t think we lost a cancer cure." As a result of this, it is claimed that after Bill Hicks' death from pancreatic cancer, an industry joke began to circulate about Leary's transformation and subsequent success (roughly; "Question: Why is Denis Leary a star while Bill Hicks is unknown? Answer: Because there's No Cure for Cancer.") During a 2003 roast of Denis Leary, comedian Lenny Clarke, a friend of Leary's, said there was a carton of cigarettes backstage from Bill Hicks with the message, "Wish I had gotten these to you sooner." This joke was cut from the final broadcast. (dead link as of at least March 26, 2009) The controversy surrounding plagiarism is also mentioned in American Scream: The Bill Hicks Story, by Cynthia True: Leary was in Montreal to host the "Nasty Show", at Club Soda, and Colleen was coordinating the talent so she was standing backstage when she heard Leary doing material that sounded incredibly similar to old Hicks riffs, including his perennial Jim Fixx joke: ("Keith Richards outlived Jim Fixx, the runner and health nut dude. The plot thickens."). When Leary came offstage, Colleen, more stunned than angry, said, "Hey, you know that's Bill Hicks' material! Do you know that's his material?" Leary stood there, stared at her without saying a word and briskly left the dressing room. Reportedly, upon hearing a tape of Leary's album No Cure for Cancer, "Bill was furious. All these years, aside from the occasional jibe, he had pretty much shrugged off Leary's lifting. Comedians borrowed, stole stuff and even bought bits from one another. Milton Berle and Robin Williams were famous for it. This was different. Leary had, practically line for line, taken huge chunks of Bill's act and recorded it." In the August 2006 Playboy, an interviewer told Leary, "Much has been written about you and comedian Bill Hicks.... People have accused you of appropriating his persona and material." Leary replied: On September 9, 2008, Louis CK appeared on Opie and Anthony and related a story from when he was much younger alleging Leary had plagiarized a bit from him. At the time, CK's closing bit was one about how great it would be to "just be an asshole". During a show when both CK and Leary performed, CK says Leary continued the bit, with due credit. However, after that, he said he saw Leary perform his entire bit without credit, and it has been suggested that this bit evolved into the song "Asshole". Despite this, CK, who also has been cited as the victim of plagiarism by Dane Cook, said he prefers to just write new material and move on rather than harbor a grudge. To this Leary stated: "If Louis CK wants to copyright the word 'asshole', he should make it his middle name." Awards Year Result Award Category Film/Show 2009 Nominated Golden Globe Awards Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Series, Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television Recount (2008) 2008 Nominated Emmy Awards Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie Recount (2008) 2007 Nominated Emmy Awards Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series Rescue Me 2007 Nominated Satellite Awards Best Actor in a Series, Drama Rescue Me 2007 Nominated Prism Awards Performance in a Drama Series, Multi-Episode Storyline Rescue Me 2006 Nominated Emmy Awards Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series Rescue Me 2006 Nominated Satellite Awards Best Television Series, Drama Rescue Me 2006 Nominated Satellite Awards Best Actor in a Series, Drama Rescue Me 2006 Nominated Prism Awards Performance in a Drama Series, Multi-Episode Storyline Rescue Me 2005 Nominated Emmy Awards Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series Rescue Me 2005 Nominated Golden Globe Awards Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series - Drama Rescue Me 2005 Nominated Satellite Awards Best Actor in a Series, Drama Rescue Me 2005 Won Satellite Awards Best Ensemble - Television Rescue Me 2005 Nominated Satellite Awards Best Television Series, Drama Rescue Me 2005 Nominated Television Critics Association Awards Outstanding Achievement in Drama Rescue Me 2005 Nominated Television Critics Association Awards Outstanding New Program of the Year Rescue Me 2003 Nominated Kids' Choice Awards Favorite Voice from an Animated Movie Ice Age 2003 Nominated DVD Exclusive Awards Best Actor Double Whammy (2001) 2002 Nominated Television Critics Association Awards Individual Achievement in Comedy The Job 2002 Nominated Television Critics Association Awards Best New Show The Job 2000 Won Blockbuster Entertainment Awards Favorite Supporting Actor - Drama/Romance The Thomas Crown Affair (1999) 1996 Won CableACE Awards Best Directing: Comedy National Lampoon's Favorite Deadly Sins (1995) 1992 Won Edinburgh International Arts Festival Critic's Award No Cure for Cancer (1992) 1992 Won BBC Festival Recommendation Award No Cure for Cancer (1992) Filmography Films Year Title Role Notes 1987 Long Walk to Forever Newt short film 1991 Strictly Business Jake cameo 1993 The Sandlot Bill Who's the Man? Sergeant Cooper Demolition Man Edgar Friendly National Lampoon's Loaded Weapon 1 Mike McCracken cameo, performing You Really Got Me Judgment Night Fallon 1994 The Ref Gus Gunmen Armor O'Malley Natural Born Killers Prison Inmate director's cut, cameo 1995 National Lampoon's Favorite Deadly Sins Jake TV-movie, also directed segment "Lust"Operation Dumbo Drop CW3 David Poole The Neon Bible Frank 1996 Underworld Johnny Crown/Johnny Alt Two If by Sea Francis "Frank" O'Brien also writer 1997 The Second Civil War Vinnie Franko TV-movie Love Walked In Jack Hanaway also producer Subway Stories Guy in wheel chair TV movie, segment "The Red Shoes" Wag the Dog Fad King Suicide Kings Lono Veccio The Real Blonde Doug The MatchMaker Nick 1998 Monument Ave. Bobby O'Grady a.k.a Snitch, also uncredited writer Wide Awake Mr. Beal Small Soldiers Gil Mars A Bug's Life Francis voice 1999 True Crime Bob Findley Jesus' Son Wayne Do Not Disturb Simon The Thomas Crown Affair Det. Michael McCann 2000 Sand Teddy Lakeboat The Fireman Company Man Officer Fry 2001 Double Whammy Det. Raymond Pluto also uncredited producer Final Bill performing Little Sister 2002 Dawg Douglas "Dawg" Munford a.k.a Bad Boy Ice Age Diego voice The Secret Lives of Dentists Slater 2003 When Stand Up Stood Out Himself documentary The Curse of the Bambino Himself documentary Reverse of the Curse of the Bambino Himself documentary (sequel) 2006 Ice Age: The Meltdown Diego voice 2008 Recount Michael Whouley TV-movie 2009 Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs Diego voice Gross (films) Year Title US Gross 1993 The Sandlot US$32.1 million Demolition Man US$134.0 million Judgment Night US$12.1 million 1994 Gunmen US$3.4 million Natural Born Killers US$11.1 million 1995 The Neon Bible US$780,072 1997 The MatchMaker US$3.3 million 1998 Wide Awake US$58,212 Small Soldiers US$71.7 million A Bug's Life US$162.7 million 1999 The Thomas Crown Affair US$69.3 million 2006 Ice Age: The Meltdown US$195.3 million TV shows Year Title Role Note(s) 1987 Remote Control Various roles All episodes 1990 Afterdrive Himself Talk show 1992 Tonight with Jonathan Ross 2 episode 1998 The Late Late Show with Tom Snyder Himself Episode dated 24 April 1998 1998 Fantasy World Cup Himself Episode #1.15 1998 Space Ghost Coast to Coast Himself Episode: Waiting For Edward 2001-2002 The Rosie O'Donnell Show Himself Guest at two episodes 2001-2002 The Job Mike McNeil Also writer and producerAll episodes 2002 Contest Searchlight Fictionalized version of himself All episodes 2002 Crank Yankers Joe Smith (voice) Episode: 1.2 2004 Rescue Me Tommy Gavin nominated for Golden Globe and Emmyalso creator,producer and writer 2005 The Charlie Rose Show Himself one episode Last Call with Carson Daly Himself two episodes (2004-2005) The Tony Danza Show Himself episode dated 13 July 2005 The Big Idea with Donny Deutsch Himself one episode 2006 Rachael Ray Himself 1 episode Late Show with David Letterman Himself 5 episode (2003, -4, -5, -6, -7) Late Night with Conan O'Brien Himself 6 episode (1997-2007) The Daily Show Himself 5 episode (2002, -3, -6, -7, -8) Live with Regis and Kathie Lee Himself 2 episode The Tonight Show with Jay Leno Himself 6 episode (1997-2007) 2007 Jimmy Kimmel Live! Himself Episode dated 12 September 2007 The Ellen DeGeneres Show Himself Episode dated 2 October 2007 The View Himself 4 episodes (2005-2007) 2008 The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson Himself 3 episodes (two of them in last seasons) The Simpsons Himself 1 episode - Lost Verizon Family Guy Himself 1 episode The Daily Show Himself 1 episode The Bonnie Hunt Show Himself Episode dated 3 December 2008 Jimmy Kimmel Live! Himself Episode dated 3 December 2008 Discography 1993: No Cure for Cancer 1997: Lock 'n Load 2004: Merry F#%$in' Christmas Bibliography 2008: Why We Suck: A Feel Good Guide to Staying Fat, Loud, Lazy and Stupid, Viking ISBN 978-0-670-03160-3 References External links DenisLeary.com - Official Site. Leary Firefighters Foundation Denis Leary interview at AOL Television Denis Leary at Allmusic Dennis Leary Interview in Complex Magazine Dennis Leary on The Daily Show CNN NOLA Firehouses Rebuilt by Leary Fire Fighters Foundation http://www.annleary.com Review of "Why We Suck" book | Denis_Leary |@lemmatized denis:17 colin:3 leary:93 born:3 august:2 golden:4 globe:4 emmy:6 award:27 nominated:9 american:6 actor:13 comedian:9 writer:7 director:2 know:6 often:2 angry:2 comedic:1 style:2 chain:1 smoking:1 star:6 co:5 creator:3 television:15 show:31 rescue:22 season:3 biography:1 bear:3 worcester:5 massachusetts:2 son:4 irish:5 catholic:2 immigrant:2 mother:1 nora:1 maid:1 father:2 john:2 deceased:1 auto:1 mechanic:1 since:3 parent:6 killarney:1 county:1 kerry:1 ireland:1 hold:1 citizenship:1 graduate:3 saint:1 peter:1 marian:1 high:4 school:3 marriage:2 distant:1 cousin:2 talk:3 host:7 conan:4 brien:5 jokingly:1 say:11 late:10 night:5 people:4 relate:2 name:4 misspell:1 dennis:3 instead:1 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4,948 | Crossbow | Sketch by Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1500 A crossbow is a weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles, often called bolts. The medieval crossbow was called by many names, most of which derived from the word ballista, a siege engine resembling a crossbow in mechanism and appearance. Crossbows played a significant role in the fare of North Africa, Europe and Asia. They were developed in Ancient Greece and East Asia with Ancient China being the main source of archaeological evidence. The first textual reference to crossbows were found in the works of Mozi's followers and Sun Tzu's The Art of War written in between 500 BC and 300 BC and from the 2nd century BC writer Biton referring to a 5th century work. Crossbows are still being used in warfare. However, they are used today primarily for target shooting and hunting. Design Modern crossbow A crossbow is a bow mounted on a stick (called a tiller or stock) with a mechanism in it which holds the drawn bow string. The earliest designs utilized a slot in the stock, down into which the cocked string was placed. To fire this design, a vertical rod is thrust up through a hole in the bottom of the notch, forcing the string out. This rod is usually attached perpendicular to a rear-facing firing lever called a trigger or 'tickler'. A later design utilized a rolling cylindrical pawl called a 'nut' to retain the cocked string. This nut has a perpendicular center slot for the bolt, and an intersecting axial slot for the string, along with a lower face or slot against which the internal trigger sits. They often also have some form of strengthening internal 'sear' or trigger face, usually of metal. These 'roller nuts' were either free-floating in their close-fitting hole across the stock, tied in with a binding of sinew or other strong cording, or mounted on a metal axle or pins. Removable or integral plates of wood, ivory or metal on the sides of the stock kept the nut in place laterally. Nuts were made of antler, bone, ivory or metal (usually brass). A trigger system, (usually made of iron or steel from medieval times onwards), was used to retain the force of the cocked string in the nut and then release the nut to spin and the string to shoot the bolt. Sophisticated bronze triggers with safety notches are known to have been used on crossbows from ancient China. Complicated iron triggers that could be released with little strength are known in Europe from the early 1400s. As a result crossbows could be kept cocked and ready to shoot for some time with little effort, allowing crossbowmen to aim better. The bow (called the "prod" or "lath" on a crossbow) of early crossbows was made of a single piece of wood, usually ash or yew. Composite bows are made from layers of different material—often wood, horn and sinew—glued together and bound with animal tendon. These composite bows, made of several layers, are much stronger and more efficient in releasing energy than simple wooden bows. As steel became more widely available in Europe around the 14th century, steel prods came into use. The crossbow prod is very short compared to ordinary bows, resulting in a short draw length. This leads to a higher draw weight in order to store the same amount of energy. Furthermore the thick prods are a bit less efficient at releasing energy, but more energy can be stored by a crossbow. Traditionally the prod was often lashed to the stock with rope, whipcord, or other strong cording. This cording is called the bridle. The strings for a crossbow are typically made of strong fibers that would not tend to fray. Whipcord was very common; however linen, hemp, and sinew were used as well. In wet conditions, twisted mulberry root was occasionally used. Crossbows have a shorter draw length than bows, resulting in the need of a greater amount of draw force in order to store the same amount of energy. Very light crossbows can be drawn by hand, but heavier types need the help of mechanical devices. The simplest version of mechanical cocking device is a hook attached to a belt, drawing the bow by straightening the legs. Other devices are hinged levers which either pulled or pushed the string into place, cranked rack-and-pinion devices called 'cranequins' and multiple cord-and-pulley cranked devices called windlasses. Variants Modern recurve crossbow Modern compound crossbow Crossbows exist in different variants. One way to classify them is the acceleration system, while another is the size and energy, degree of automation or projectiles. The simplest acceleration system is a straight or bent prod and it is probably the earliest version of a crossbow. A recurve crossbow is a bow that has tips curving away from the archer. The recurve bow's bent limbs have a longer draw length than an equivalent straight-limbed bow, giving a more acceleration to the projectile and less hand shock. Recurved limbs also put greater strain on the materials used to make the bow, and they may make more noise with the shot. Multiple bow systems (for example a Chu-ko-nu) have a special system of pulling the sinew via several bows (which can be recurve bows). The workings can be compared to a modern compound bow system. The weapon uses several different bows instead of one bow with a tackle system to achieve a higher acceleration of the sinew via the multiplication with each bow's pulling effect. A compound crossbow is a modern crossbow and is similar to a compound bow, The limbs are usually much stiffer than those of a recurve crossbow. This limb stiffness makes the compound bow more energy efficient than other bows, but the limbs are too stiff to be drawn comfortably with a string attached directly to them. The compound bow has the string attached to the pulleys, one or both of which has one or more cables attached to the opposite limb. When the string is drawn back, the string causes the pulleys to turn. This causes the pulleys to pull the cables, which in turn causes the limbs to bend and thus store energy. Other types of compound bows use either (one or both) cam shaped or excentrically mounted pulleys in order to provide a "let off", such that the archer is not holding against the maximum draw weight of the bow while trying to aim. But in a crossbow the string is held back mechanically, so there is no advantage in providing a let off. Therefore, compound crossbows generally use only pulleys that are both round and concentrically mounted, in order to capture the maximum available energy from the relatively short draw length. Remains of an ancient Chinese pistol crossbow, 2nd century BC. In size the smallest are pistol crossbows. Others are simple long stocks with the crossbow mounted on them. These could be shot from under the arm. The next step in development was rifle shaped stocks that allowed better aiming. The arbalest was a heavy crossbow which required special systems for pulling the sinew via windlasses. For siege warfare the size of crossbows was further increased to hurl large projectiles such as rocks at fortifications. The required crossbows needed a massive base frame and powerful windlass devices. Such devices include the oxybeles. The ballista has torsion springs replacing the elastic prod of the oxybeles, but later also developed into smaller versions. O'Connell, Robert L. (1989). Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1950-5359-1, p. 65 "Ballista" is still the root word for crossbow in Romance languages such as Italian (balestra). The repeating crossbow automated the separate actions of stringing the bow, placing the projectile and shooting. This way the task can be accomplished with a simple one-handed movement, while keeping the weapon stationary. As a result, it is possible to shoot at a faster rate compared to unmodified version. The Chinese repeating crossbow, Chu Ko Nu, is a small handheld crossbow that accomplishes the task with a magazine containing a number of bolts on top. The mechanism is worked by moving a rectangular lever forward and backward. A bullet crossbow is a type of handheld crossbow which rather than arrows or bolts shoots spherical projectiles made of stone, clay or lead. There are two variants, one has a double string with a pocket for the projectile; the other has a barrel with a slot for the string. Projectiles Modern crossbow bolt and 1 eurocent coin The arrow-like projectiles of a crossbow are called bolts. These are much shorter than arrows, but can be several times heavier. There is an optimum weight for bolts to achieve maximum kinetic energy, which varies depending on the strength and characteristics of the crossbow. In ancient times the bolts of a strong crossbow were usually several times heavier than arrows. Modern bolts are stamped with a proof mark to ensure their consistent weight. Bolts typically have three fletches, commonly seen on arrows. Crossbow bolts can be fitted with a variety of heads, some with sickle-shaped heads to cut rope or rigging; but the most common today is a four-sided point called a quarrel. A highly specialized type of bolt can be employed to collect blubber biopsy samples used in biology research. Crossbows can also be adapted to shoot lead bullets or stones, in which case they are called stone-bows. Primarily used for hunting wildfowl, these usually have a double string with a pouch between the strings to hold the projectile. Accessories The reticules of modern crossbow telescopic sights often allow the shooter to adjust for different ranges The ancient crossbow often included a metal grid serving as iron sights. Modern crossbow sights often use similar technology to modern firearm sights such red dot sights, laser sights, and telescopic sights. Many crossbow scopes feature multiple crosshairs to compensate for the significant effects of gravity over different ranges. Quivers can be mounted to hold ammunition. These are often made from plastic and usually hold the bolts in fixed positions along the structure. A popular detachable design consists of a main arm that is attached to the weapon, a plate on one end that secures four or more individual bolts at a point on their shafts and at the other end a cover that secures their heads. This kind of quiver is attached under the front of the crossbow, parallel to the string and is designed to be quickly detached and reattached. Other designs hold bolts underneath the crossbow parallel to the stock, sometimes on either side of the crossbow. A major cause of the sound of firing a crossbow is vibration of various components. Crossbow silencers are multiple components placed on high vibration parts such as the string and limbs to dampen vibration and suppress the sound of loosing the arrow. History First evidence The trigger portion of a Chinese crossbow dating from the Han Dynasty. A miniature guard brandishing a handheld crossbow from the top balcony of a model watchtower, made of glazed earthenware during the Eastern Han era (25–220 AD) of China, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Most historical sources trace its origins to East Asia —mainly Ancient China— between two and three thousand years ago . The earliest Chinese document mentioning a crossbow is in scripts from the 5th century BC attributed to the followers of Mozi. This source refers the use of a giant crossbow catapult to the 6th to 5th century BC, corresponding to the late Spring and Autumn Period. Sun Tzu's influential book The Art of War (first appearance dated in between 500 BC to 300 BC James Clavell, The Art of War, prelude ) refers in chapter V to the traits and in XII to the use of crossbows. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/132/132.txt One of the earliest reliable records of this weapon in warfare is from an ambush, the Battle of Ma-Ling in 341 BC. By the 200s BC, the crossbow (nǔ, 弩) was well developed and quite widely used in China. Several remains of them have been found among the soldiers of the Terracotta Army in the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang (260-210 BC). Weapons of the terracotta army The earliest crossbow bolts found in China come from a 5th century BC State of Chu grave in Hubei, while the oldest crossbow stocks with bronze triggers were found in a 4th century BC grave in Hunan. Wagner, Donald B. (1993). Iron and Steel in Ancient China: Second Impression, With Corrections. Leiden: E.J. Brill. ISBN 9004096329. Pages 153, 157–158. Mao, Ying. "Introduction of Crossbow Mechanism," in Southeast Culture, 1998, No. 3: 109–117. Wright, David Curtis (2001). The History of China. Westport: Greenwood Press. ISBN 031330940X. Page 159. According to Needham, linguistic evidence makes it the more probable hypothesis that the crossbow may have originated among the cultures neighboring ancient China. It was used as weapon and toy, but mainly in the form of unattended traps. The earliest date for the crossbow in the European world is from the 5th century BC, Gurstelle, William (2004).The Art of the Catapult. Chicago Review Press. ISBN 1-5565-2526-5, p. 49 from the Greek world. The historian Diodorus Siculus (fl. 1st century BC), described the invention of a mechanical arrow firing catapult (katapeltikon) by a Greek task force in 399 BC. Diod. Sic. 14.42.1 Duncan Campbell: Greek and Roman Artillery 399 BC-AD 363, Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2003, ISBN 1841766348, p.3 The weapon was soon after employed against Motya (397 BC), a key Carthaginian stronghold in Sicily. Diod. Sic. 14.50.4 Duncan Campbell: Greek and Roman Artillery 399 BC-AD 363, Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2003, ISBN 1841766348, p.8 Diodorus is assumed to have drawn his description from the highly rated Eric William Marsden: Greek and Roman Artillery: Historical Development, The Clarendon Press, Oxford 1969, ISBN 978-0198142683, p.48f. history of Philistus, a contemporary of the events then. The date of the introduction of crossbows, however, can be dated further back: According to the inventor Hero of Alexandria (fl. 1st c. AD), who referred to the now lost works of the 3rd century BC engineer Ctesibius, this weapon was inspired by an earlier hand-held crossbow, called the gastraphetes (belly shooter), which could store more energy than the Greek bows. A detailed description of the gastraphetes, along with a drawing, is found in Heron's technical treatise Belopoeica. Duncan Campbell: Greek and Roman Artillery 399 BC-AD 363, Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2003, ISBN 1841766348, p.4 Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, Sarah B. Pomeroy, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts (1999). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1950-9742-4, p. 366 A third Greek author, Biton (fl. 2nd c. BC), whose reliability has been positively reevaluated by recent scholarship, M.J.T. Lewis: When was Biton?, Mnemosyne, Vol. 52, No. 2 (1999), pp. 159-168 described two advanced forms of the gastraphetes, which he credits to Zopyros, an engineer from southern Italy. Zopyrus has been plausibly equated with a Pythagorean of that name who seems to have flourished in the late 5th century BC. Peter Kingsley: Ancient Philosophy, Mystery and Magic, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1995, p.150ff. Lewis established a lower date of no later than the mid-fourth century (M.J.T. Lewis: When was Biton?, Mnemosyne, Vol. 52, No. 2 (1999), pp. 159-168 (160)). Same de Camp (L. Sprague de Camp: Master Gunner Apollonios, Technology and Culture, Vol. 2, No. 3 (1961), pp. 240-244 (241) He probably designed his bow-machines on the occasion of the sieges of Cumae and Milet between 421 BC and 401 BC. Biton Biton 65.1-67.4 & 61.12-65.1 Duncan Campbell: Greek and Roman Artillery 399 BC-AD 363, Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2003, ISBN 1841766348, p.5 The bows of these machines already featured a winched pull back system and could apparently throw two missile at once. Classical Mediterranean antiquity Roman crossbow, called arcuballista The gastraphetes was a handheld crossbow, used by ancient Greeks. It was described in the first century AD by the Greek author Heron of Alexandria in his work Belopoeica (Ancient Greek Βελοποιικά, 'on catapult-making'). It is believed to have been invented around 400 BC. The weapon was powered by a composite bow. It was cocked by resting the stomach in a concavity at the rear of the stock and pressing down with all strength. In this way considerably more energy can be summoned up than by using only one arm of the archer as in the hand-bow. There are no attestations through pictures or archaeological finds, but the description by Heron is detailed enough to have allowed modern reconstructions to be made. Its application in sieges featured more and more powerful projectiles, leading first to the larger oxybeles and then to technical improvements with the ballista. The ballista is a torsion weapon, not being a tension weapon and for this reason it isn't considered a crossbow. Medieval Europe A Medieval crossbowman drawing his bow behind his pavise. A hook on the end of a strap on his belt engages the bowstring. Holding the crossbow down by putting his foot through the stirrup, he draws the bow by straightening his legs The use of crossbows in European warfare dates back to Roman times and is again evident from the Battle of Hastings until about 1500 AD. They almost completely superseded hand bows in many European armies in the twelfth century for a number of reasons. Although a longbow could achieve comparable accuracy and faster shooting rate than an average crossbow, crossbows could release more kinetic energy and be used effectively after a week of training, while a comparable single-shot skill with a longbow could take years of practice. In the armies of Europe, mounted and unmounted crossbowmen, often mixed with javeliners and archers, occupied a central position in battle formations. Usually they engaged the enemy in offensive skirmishes before an assault of mounted knights. Crossbowmen were also valuable in counterattacks to protect their infantry. The rank of commanding officer of the crossbowmen corps was one of the highest positions in any army of this time. Along with polearm weapons made from farming equipment, the crossbow was also a weapon of choice for insurgent peasants such as the Taborites. Mounted knights armed with lances proved ineffective against formations of pikemen combined with crossbowmen whose weapons could penetrate most knights' armor. The invention of pushlever and ratchet drawing mechanisms enabled the use of crossbows on horseback, leading to the development of new cavalry tactics. Knights and mercenaries deployed in triangular formations, with the most heavily armored knights at the front. Some of these riders would carry small, powerful all-metal crossbows of their own. Crossbows were eventually replaced in warfare by more powerful gunpowder weapons, although early guns had slower rates of fire and much worse accuracy than contemporary crossbows. Later, similar competing tactics would feature harquebusiers or musketeers in formation with pikemen, pitted against cavalry firing pistols or carbines. Elsewhere Wheelmounted and elephantmounted double-bow-arcuballistas of the Champa kingdom. In Asia, crossbows were used as antipersonnel and siege weapons. The Chinese developed the repeating crossbow with an automatic reloading system. The Saracens called the crossbow qaws Ferengi, or "Frankish bow," as the Crusaders used the crossbow against the Arab and Turkoman horsemen with remarkable success. The adapted crossbow was used by the Islamic armies in defence of their castles. Later footstrapped version become very popular among the Muslim armies in Spain. During the Crusades, Europeans were exposed to Saracen composite bows, made from layers of different material—often wood, horn and sinew—glued together and bound with animal tendon. These composite bows could be much more powerful than wooden bows, and were adopted for crossbow prods across Europe. In Western Africa and Central Africa, Baaka pygmy with crossbow crossbows serve as a scout weapon and for hunting, with enslaved Africans bringing the technology to America. Notes On West African Crossbow Technology In the American south, the crossbow was used for hunting when firearms or gunpowder were unavailable because of economic hardships or isolation. Light hunting crossbows were traditionally used by the Inuit in Northern America. Modern use Hunting, leisure and science A whale shot by a modified crossbow bolt for a blubber biopsy sample. Crossbows are used for target shooting and bowhunting in modern archery and for blubber biopsy samples in scientific research. Modern military and paramilitary use In the Americas, the Peruvian army (Ejército) equips some soldiers with crossbows and rope, to establish a zip-line in difficult terrain. Ejercito prepare for deployment. In Brazil the CIGS (Jungle Warfare Training Center) also trains soldiers in the use of crossbows. CIGS information thread. CIGS photograph. In Europe, British based Barnett International supplied crossbows to Serbian forces which according to The Guardian were later used "in ambushes and as a counter-sniper weapon", against the Kosovo Liberation Army during the Kosovo War in the areas of Pec and Djakovica, south west of Kosovo. The Guardian. . Whitehall launched an investigation, though the department of trade and industry established that not being "on the military list" crossbows were not covered by such export regulations. Paul Beaver of Jane's defence publications commented that, "They are not only a silent killer, they also have a psychological effect". On February 15, 2008 Serbian Minister of Defence Dragan Sutanovac was pictured testing a Barnett crossbow during a public exercise of the Serbian army's Special Forces in Nis, 200 km south of capital Belgrade. Day Life Serbia report Special forces in both Greece and Turkey also continue to employ the crossbow. Greek soldiers uses crossbow. Turkish special ops. In Asia, Chinese armed forces use crossbows at all unit levels from traffic police to the special forces units of the People's Liberation Army. Chinese news report on crossbows. Chinese traffic police using crossbows. Chinese special forces with crossbows. One justification for this comes in the crossbow's ability to stop persons carrying explosives without risk of causing detonation. PLA Daily reports on the 3rd Detachment of the Armed Police Yunnan Contingen's crossbow special service unit Indian Navy's Marine Commando Force were equipped until the late 1980s with crossbows supplied with cyanide-tipped arrows, as an alternative to suppressed handguns. Marine Commandos Comparison to conventional bows With a crossbow, archers could release a draw force far in excess of what they could have handled with a bow. Moreover, crossbows could be kept cocked and ready to shoot for some time with little effort, allowing crossbowmen to aim better. The disadvantage is the greater weight and clumsiness compared to a bow, as well as the slower rate of fire and the lower efficiency of the acceleration system. Crossbows have a much smaller draw length than bows. This means that for the same energy to be imparted to the arrow (or bolt) the crossbow has to have a much higher draw weight. Legal issues Can. 29 of the Second Lateran Council under Pope Innocent II in 1139 may have banned the use of crossbows against Christians. The sources are collected in Hefele, Histoire des conciles d'apres les documents originaux, trans. and continued by H. Leclerq 1907-52., 5/1, 721-722; but see also, Bernhardi Jahrbuecher der deutschen Geschichte, I Leipzig 1883, 154-160: The authenticity, interpretation and translation of this source is contested. Today the crossbow often has a complicated legal status due to the possibility of lethal use and its similarities with both firearms and archery weapons. See also Master of Crossbowmen Bow (weapon) Arbalist (crossbowman) Notes References Payne-Gallwey, Ralph, Sir, The Crossbow: Mediaeval and Modern, Military and Sporting; its Construction, History & Management with a Treatise on the Balista and Catapult of the Ancients and An Appendix on the Catapult, Balista & the Turkish Bow, New York : Bramhall House, 1958. The Crossbows of South-West China, by Stephen Selby, 1999 African crossbow, Donald B. Ball, 1996 Crossbow of the Hill Tribes External links International Crossbow Shooting Union (IAU) World Crossbow Shooting Association (WCSA) Reconstructions and Plans of Greek and Roman crossbows | Crossbow |@lemmatized sketch:1 leonardo:1 da:1 vinci:1 c:3 crossbow:118 weapon:22 consisting:1 bow:48 mount:8 stock:11 shoot:10 projectile:11 often:11 call:15 bolt:19 medieval:4 many:3 name:2 derive:1 word:2 ballista:5 siege:5 engine:1 resemble:1 mechanism:5 appearance:2 crossbows:1 play:1 significant:2 role:1 fare:1 north:1 africa:3 europe:7 asia:5 develop:3 ancient:14 greece:3 east:2 china:10 main:2 source:5 archaeological:2 evidence:3 first:5 textual:1 reference:2 find:6 work:5 mozi:2 follower:2 sun:2 tzu:2 art:5 war:5 write:1 bc:27 century:15 writer:1 biton:6 refer:3 still:2 use:38 warfare:6 however:3 today:3 primarily:2 target:2 shooting:3 hunting:3 design:8 modern:15 stick:1 tiller:1 hold:8 drawn:1 string:21 early:10 utilize:2 slot:5 cocked:5 place:5 fire:6 vertical:1 rod:2 thrust:1 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balista:2 appendix:1 york:1 bramhall:1 house:1 stephen:1 selby:1 ball:1 hill:1 tribes:1 external:1 link:1 union:1 iau:1 association:1 wcsa:1 plan:1 |@bigram leonardo_da:1 da_vinci:1 archaeological_evidence:1 sun_tzu:2 crossbow_crossbow:5 recurve_bow:2 forward_backward:1 crossbow_bolt:4 kinetic_energy:2 han_dynasty:1 http_www:1 qin_shi:1 shi_huang:1 diodorus_siculus:1 osprey_publishing:4 clarendon_press:2 l_sprague:1 heron_alexandria:1 enslaved_african:1 lateran_council:1 pope_innocent:1 der_deutschen:1 external_link:1 |
4,949 | Ideogram | An ideogram or ideograph (from Greek idea "idea" + grafo "to write") is a graphic symbol that represents an idea or concept. They can be a straighforward pictogram, or a more abstract symbol that is comprehensible only on the basis of prior convention. Examples of ideograms include wayfinding signs, such as in airports and other environments where many people may not be familiar with the language of the place they are in, as well as Arabic numerals and formal languages (mathematical notation, logic, UML), which are used worldwide regardless of how they are pronounced in different languages. Other examples include the Blissymbols, Emoticons and pictographs as used by the Sioux and Ojibwa. Terminology The term "ideogram" is commonly used to describe logographs in writing systems such as Egyptian hieroglyphs, Sumerian cuneiform and Chinese characters. In the history of writing symbols proceeded from ideographic (e.g. an icon of a bull's head in a list inventory, denoting that the following numeral refers to head of cattle) to logographic (an icon of a bull denoting the Semitic word ʾālep "ox", to phonetic (the bull's head used as a symbol in rebus writing, indicating the glottal stop at the beginning of the word for "ox", viz. the letter Aleph). Bronze Age writing systems used a combination of these applications, and many signs in hieroglyphic as well as in cuneiform writing could be used either logographically or phonetically. For example, the Akkadian sign AN () could be an ideograph for "deity", an ideogram for the god Anum in particular, a logograph for the Akkadian stem il- "deity", a logograph for the Akkadian word šamu "sky", or a syllabogram for either the syllable an or il. Chinese characters Chinese characters have often been called "ideograms", but since many Chinese characters also have morphemic and often phonetic significance, there were many attempts to abandon the name "ideogram" in favour of a term that more accurately represents their nature. One alternative is logogram, from the Greek roots logos ("word") and grapho ("to write"). Others include Sinogram, emphasising the Chinese origin of the characters, and Han character, a literal translation of the native term. These terms have gained some currency among scholars, but have failed to spread into common usage. The native terms (Chinese hanzi, Japanese kanji, Korean hanja) are also fairly widespread in the contexts of the individual languages, but they are not generally considered suitable for discussion of the script as a whole. See also Asemic writing Energy Systems Language Icon (computing) Lexigram Logotype Sona language Traffic sign Isotype (pictograms) Linear B, which had an ideographic component References DeFrancis, John. 1990. The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1068-6 Hannas, William. C. 1997. Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1892-X (paperback); ISBN 0-8248-1842-3 (hardcover) Unger, J. Marshall. 2003. Ideogram: Chinese Characters and the Myth of Disembodied Meaning. ISBN 0-8248-2760-0 (trade paperback), ISBN 0-8248-2656-6 (hardcover) External links AIGA Symbol Signs Common US ideograms. American Heritage Dictionary definition Encyclopedia Britannica online entry The Ideographic Myth Extract from DeFrancis' book. Merriam-Webster OnLine definition Ojibwa and Sioux pictographs | Ideogram |@lemmatized ideogram:7 ideograph:2 greek:2 idea:3 grafo:1 write:6 graphic:1 symbol:5 represent:2 concept:1 straighforward:1 pictogram:1 abstract:1 comprehensible:1 basis:1 prior:1 convention:1 example:3 include:3 wayfinding:1 sign:5 airport:1 environment:1 many:4 people:1 may:1 familiar:1 language:7 place:1 well:2 arabic:1 numeral:2 formal:1 mathematical:1 notation:1 logic:1 uml:1 use:6 worldwide:1 regardless:1 pronounce:1 different:1 blissymbols:1 emoticon:1 pictograph:2 sioux:2 ojibwa:2 terminology:1 term:5 commonly:1 describe:1 logograph:3 system:3 egyptian:1 hieroglyph:1 sumerian:1 cuneiform:2 chinese:8 character:7 history:1 proceed:1 ideographic:3 e:1 g:1 icon:3 bull:3 head:3 list:1 inventory:1 denote:2 following:1 refers:1 cattle:1 logographic:1 semitic:1 word:4 ʾālep:1 ox:2 phonetic:2 rebus:1 writing:2 indicate:1 glottal:1 stop:1 beginning:1 viz:1 letter:1 aleph:1 bronze:1 age:1 combination:1 application:1 hieroglyphic:1 could:2 either:2 logographically:1 phonetically:1 akkadian:3 deity:2 god:1 anum:1 particular:1 stem:1 il:2 šamu:1 sky:1 syllabogram:1 syllable:1 often:2 call:1 since:1 also:3 morphemic:1 significance:1 attempt:1 abandon:1 name:1 favour:1 accurately:1 nature:1 one:1 alternative:1 logogram:1 root:1 logos:1 grapho:1 others:1 sinogram:1 emphasise:1 origin:1 han:1 literal:1 translation:1 native:2 gain:1 currency:1 among:1 scholar:1 fail:1 spread:1 common:2 usage:1 hanzi:1 japanese:1 kanji:1 korean:1 hanja:1 fairly:1 widespread:1 context:1 individual:1 generally:1 consider:1 suitable:1 discussion:1 script:1 whole:1 see:1 asemic:1 energy:1 compute:1 lexigram:1 logotype:1 sona:1 traffic:1 isotype:1 pictograms:1 linear:1 b:1 component:1 reference:1 defrancis:2 john:1 fact:1 fantasy:1 honolulu:1 university:2 hawaii:2 press:2 isbn:5 hannas:1 william:1 c:1 asia:1 orthographic:1 dilemma:1 x:1 paperback:2 hardcover:2 unger:1 j:1 marshall:1 myth:2 disembodied:1 meaning:1 trade:1 external:1 link:1 aiga:1 u:1 ideograms:1 american:1 heritage:1 dictionary:1 definition:2 encyclopedia:1 britannica:1 online:2 entry:1 extract:1 book:1 merriam:1 webster:1 |@bigram arabic_numeral:1 egyptian_hieroglyph:1 glottal_stop:1 literal_translation:1 asemic_write:1 external_link:1 encyclopedia_britannica:1 britannica_online:1 merriam_webster:1 |
4,950 | Nonlinear_optics | Nonlinear optics (NLO) is the branch of optics that describes the behaviour of light in nonlinear media, that is, media in which the dielectric polarization P responds nonlinearly to the electric field E of the light. This nonlinearity is typically only observed at very high light intensities such as those provided by pulsed lasers. Nonlinear optics gives rise to a host of optical phenomena: Frequency mixing processes Second harmonic generation (SHG), or frequency doubling, generation of light with a doubled frequency (half the wavelength); Sum frequency generation (SFG), generation of light with a frequency that is the sum of two other frequencies (SHG is a special case of this); Third harmonic generation (THG), generation of light with a tripled frequency (one-third the wavelength) (usually done in two steps: SHG followed by SFG of original and frequency-doubled waves); Difference frequency generation (DFG), generation of light with a frequency that is the difference between two other frequencies; Parametric amplification, amplification of a signal input in the presence of a higher-frequency pump wave, at the same time generating an idler wave (can be considered as DFG); Parametric oscillation, generation of a signal and idler wave using a parametric amplifier in a resonator (with no signal input); Parametric generation, like parametric oscillation but without a resonator, using a very high gain instead; Spontaneous parametric down conversion (SPDC), the amplification of the vacuum fluctuations in the low gain regime; Optical rectification, generation of quasi-static electric fields. Four-wave mixing (FWM), can also arise from other nonlinearities. Other nonlinear processes Optical Kerr effect, intensity dependent refractive index; Self-focusing; Kerr-lens modelocking (KLM). Self-phase modulation (SPM), a effect. Optical solitons. Cross-phase modulation (XPM); Four-wave mixing (FWM), can also arise from other nonlinearities. Cross-polarized wave generation (XPW), a effect in which a wave with polarization vector perpendicular to the input one is generated. Raman amplification, Optical phase conjugation. Brillouin scattering, interaction of photons with acoustic phonons; Optical phase conjugation. Two-photon absorption, simultaneous absorption of two photons, transferring the energy to a single electron; Multiple photoionisation, near-simultaneous removal of many bound electrons by one photon. Chaos in Optical Systems Related processes In these processes, the medium has a linear response to the light, but the properties of the medium are affected by other causes: Pockels effect, the refractive index is affected by a static electric field; used in electro-optic modulators; Acousto-optics, the refractive index is affected by acoustic waves (ultrasound); used in acousto-optic modulators. Raman scattering, interaction of photons with optical phonons; Frequency-mixing processes One of the most commonly-used frequency-mixing processes is frequency doubling or second-harmonic generation. With this technique, the 1064-nm output from Nd:YAG lasers or the 800-nm output from Ti:sapphire lasers can be converted to visible light, with wavelengths of 532 nm (green) or 400 nm (violet), respectively. Practically, frequency-doubling is carried out by placing a special crystal in a laser beam under a well-chosen angle. Commonly-used crystals are BBO (β-barium borate), KDP (potassium dihydrogen phosphate), KTP (potassium titanyl phosphate), and lithium niobate. These crystals have the necessary properties of being strongly birefringent (necessary to obtain phase matching, see below), having a specific crystal symmetry and of course being transparent for and resistant against the high-intensity laser light. However, organic polymeric materials are set to take over from crystals as they are cheaper to make, have lower drive voltages and superior performance. Theory A number of nonlinear optical phenomena can be described as frequency-mixing processes. If the induced dipole moments of the material respond instantaneously to an applied electric field, the dielectric polarization (dipole moment per unit volume) at time in a medium can be written as a power series in the electrical field: . Here, the coefficients are the -th order susceptibilities of the medium. For any three-wave mixing process, the second-order term is crucial; it is only nonzero in media that have no inversion symmetry. If we write , where c.c. denotes the complex conjugate (E1 and E2 being the incident beams of interest), the second-order term in the above expansion will read , where the summation is over . The six combinations correspond, respectively, to the second harmonic of , the second harmonic of , the optically rectified signals of and , the difference frequency, and the sum frequency. A medium that is thus pumped by the fields and will radiate a field with an angular frequency . Note: in this description, is a scalar. In reality, is a tensor whose components depend on the combination of frequencies. Parametric generation and amplification is a variation of difference frequency generation, where the lower-frequency one of the two generating fields is much weaker (parametric amplification) or completely absent (parametric generation). In the latter case, the fundamental quantum-mechanical uncertainty in the electric field initiates the process. Phase matching The above ignores the position dependence of the electrical fields. In a typical situation, the electrical fields are traveling waves described by , at position , with the wave vector , where is the velocity of light and the index of refraction of the medium at angular frequency . Thus, the second-order polarization angular frequency is . At each position , the oscillating second-order polarization radiates at angular frequency and a corresponding wave vector . Constructive interference, and therefore a high intensity field, will occur only if . The above equation is known as the phase matching condition. Typically, three-wave mixing is done in a birefringent crystalline material (I.e., the refractive index depends on the polarization and direction of the light that passes through.), where the polarizations of the fields and the orientation of the crystal are chosen such that the phase-matching condition is fulfilled. This phase matching technique is called angle tuning. Typically a crystal has three axes, one of which has a different refractive index than the other ones. This axis is called the extraordinary (e) axis, while the other two are ordinary axes (o). There are several schemes of choosing the polarizations. If the signal and idler have the same polarization, it is called "Type-I phase-matching", and if their polarizations are perpendicular, it is called "Type-II phase-matching". However, other conventions exist that specify further which frequency has what polarization relative to the crystal axis. These types are listed below, with the convention that the signal wavelength is shorter than the idler wavelength. +Phase-matching types+() Polarizations Scheme Pump Signal Idler e o o Type I e o e Type II (or IIA) e e o Type III (or IIB) e e e Type IV o o o Type V o o e Type VI (or IIB or IIIA) o e o Type VII (or IIA or IIIB) o e e Type VIII (or I) Most common nonlinear crystals are negative unaxial, which means that the e axis has a smaller refractive index than the o axes. In those crystals, type I and II phasematching are usually the most suitable schemes. In positive uniaxial crystals, types VII and VIII are more suitable. Types II and III are essentially equivalent, except that the names of signal and idler are swapped when the signal has a longer wavelength than the idler. For this reason, they are sometimes called IIA and IIB. The type numbers V–VIII are less common than I and II and variants. One undesirable effect of angle tuning is that the optical frequencies involved do not propagate collinearly with each other. This is due to the fact that the extraordinary wave propagating through a birefringent crystal possesses a Poynting vector that is not parallel with the propagation vector. This would lead to beam walkoff which limits the nonlinear optical conversion efficiency. Two other methods of phase matching avoids beam walkoff by forcing all frequencies to propagate at a 90 degree angle with respect to the optical axis of the crystal. These methods are called temperature tuning and quasi-phase-matching. Temperature tuning is where the pump (laser) frequency polarization is orthogonal to the signal and idler frequency polarization. The birefringence in some crystals, in particular Lithium Niobate is highly temperature dependent. The crystal is controlled at a certain temperature to achieve phase matching conditions. The other method quasi-phase matching. In this method the frequencies involved are not constantly locked in phase with each other, instead the crystal axis is flipped at a regular interval Λ, typically 15 micrometres in length. Hence, these crystals are called periodically-poled. This results in the polarization response of the crystal to be shifted back in phase with the pump beam by reversing the nonlinear susceptibility. This allows net positive energy flow from the pump into the signal and idler frequencies. In this case, the crystal itself provides the additional wavevector k=2π/λ (and hence momentum) to satisfy the phase matching condition. Quasi-phase matching can be expanded to chirped gratings to get more bandwidth and to shape an SHG pulse like it is done in a dazzler. SHG of a pump and Self-phase modulation (emulated by second order processes) of the signal and an optical parametric amplifier can be integrated monolithically. Higher-order frequency mixing The above holds for processes. It can be extended for processes where is nonzero, something that is generally true in any medium without any symmetry restrictions. Third-harmonic generation is a process, although in laser applications, it is usually implemented as a two-stage process: first the fundamental laser frequency is doubled and then the doubled and the fundamental frequencies are added in a sum-frequency process. The Kerr effect can be described as a as well. At high intensities the Taylor series, which led the domination of the lower orders, does not converge anymore and instead a time based model is used. When a noble gas atom is hit by an intense laser pulse, which has an electric field strength comparable to the Coulomb field of the atom, the outermost electron may be ionized from the atom. Once freed, the electron can be accelerated by the electric field of the light, first moving away from the ion, then back toward it as the field changes direction. The electron may then recombine with the ion, releasing its energy in the form of a photon. The light is emitted at every peak of the laser light field which is intense enough, producing a series of attosecond light flashes. The photon energies generated by this process can extend past the 800th harmonic order up to 1300 eV. This is called high-order harmonic generation. The laser must be linearly polarized, so that the electron returns to the vicinity of the parent ion. High-order harmonic generation has been observed in noble gas jets, cells, and gas-filled capillary waveguides. Optical phase conjugation Comparison of a phase conjugate mirror with a conventional mirror. With the phase conjugate mirror the image is not deformed when passing through an aberrating element twice. It is possible, using nonlinear optical processes, to exactly reverse the propagation direction and phase variation of a beam of light. The reversed beam is called a conjugate beam, and thus the technique is known as optical phase conjugation (also called time reversal, wavefront reversal and retroreflection). One can interpret this nonlinear optical interaction as being analogous to a real-time holographic process. In this case, the interacting beams simultaneously interact in a nonlinear optical material to form a dynamic hologram (two of the three input beams), or real-time diffraction pattern, in the material. The third incident beam diffracts off this dynamic hologram, and, in the process, reads out the phase-conjugate wave. In effect, all three incident beams interact (essentially) simultaneously to form several real-time holograms, resulting in a set of diffracted output waves that phase up as the "time-reversed" beam. In the language of nonlinear optics, the interacting beams result in a nonlinear polarization within the material, which coherently radiates to form the phase-conjugate wave. The most common way of producing optical phase conjugation is to use a four-wave mixing technique, though it is also possible to use processes such as stimulated Brillouin scattering. A device producing the phase conjugation effect is known as a phase conjugate mirror (PCM). For the four-wave mixing technique, we can describe four beams (j = 1,2,3,4) with electric fields: where Ej are the electric field amplitudes. Ξ1 and Ξ2 are known as the two pump waves, with Ξ3 being the signal wave, and Ξ4 being the generated conjugate wave. If the pump waves and the signal wave are superimposed in a medium with a non-zero χ(3), this produces a nonlinear polarization field: resulting in generation of waves with frequencies given by ω = ±ω1 ±ω2 ±ω3 in addition to third harmonic generation waves with ω = 3ω1, 3ω2, 3ω3. As above, the phase-matching condition determines which of these waves is the dominant. By choosing conditions such that ω = ω1 + ω2 - ω3 and k = k1 + k2 - k3, this gives a polarization field: . This is the generating field for the phase conjugate beam, Ξ4. Its direction is given by k4 = k1 + k2 - k3, and so if the two pump beams are counterpropagating (k1 = -k2), then the conjugate and signal beams propagate in opposite directions (k4 = -k3). This results in the retroreflecting property of the effect. Further, it can be shown for a medium with refractive index n and a beam interaction length l, the electric field amplitude of the conjugate beam is approximated by (where c is the speed of light). If the pump beams E1 and E2 are plane (counterpropagating) waves, then: ; that is, the generated beam amplitude is the complex conjugate of the signal beam amplitude. Since the imaginary part of the amplitude contains the phase of the beam, this results in the reversal of phase property of the effect. Note that the constant of proportionality between the signal and conjugate beams can be greater than 1. This is effectively a mirror with a reflection coefficient greater than 100%, producing an amplified reflection. The power for this comes from the two pump beams, which are depleted by the process. The frequency of the conjugate wave can be different from that of the signal wave. If the pump waves are of frequency ω1 = ω2 = ω, and the signal wave higher in frequency such that ω3 = ω + Δω, then the conjugate wave is of frequency ω4 = ω - Δω. This is known as frequency flipping. Common SHG materials Dark-Red Gallium Selenide in its bulk form. 806 nm light : lithium iodate (LiIO3) 860 nm light : potassium niobate (KNbO3) 980 nm light : KNbO3 1064 nm light : monopotassium phosphate (KH2PO4, KDP), lithium triborate (LBO) and β-barium borate (BBO). 1300 nm light : gallium selenide (GaSe) 1319 nm light : KNbO3, BBO, KDP, potassium titanyl phosphate (KTP), lithium niobate (LiNbO3), LiIO3, and ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP) See also Born-Infeld action Filament propagation :Category:Nonlinear optical materials Harmonic generation References and notes General reference: Robert W. Boyd, Nonlinear optics, Second edition, Academic press, (2003). Phase conjugation Scientific American, December 1985, "Phase Conjugation," by Vladimir Shkunov and Boris Zel'dovich. Scientific American, January 1986, "Applications of Optical Phase Conjugation," by David M. Pepper. Scientific American, October 1990, "The Photorefractive Effect," by David M. Pepper, Jack Feinberg, and Nicolai V. Kukhtarev. External links Encyclopedia of laser physics and technology, with content on nonlinear optics, by Rüdiger Paschotta Nonlinear Optics, Quantum Optics: Concepts in Modern Optics, journal of basic science and practical applications, edited by Takayoshi Kobayashi An Intuitive Explanation of Phase Conjugation AdvR - NLO Frequency Conversion in KTP Waveguides | Nonlinear_optics |@lemmatized nonlinear:18 optic:12 nlo:2 branch:1 describe:5 behaviour:1 light:24 medium:12 dielectric:2 polarization:18 p:1 respond:2 nonlinearly:1 electric:10 field:24 e:16 nonlinearity:1 typically:4 observe:2 high:9 intensity:5 provide:2 pulsed:1 laser:12 give:4 rise:1 host:1 optical:21 phenomenon:2 frequency:44 mix:2 process:21 second:10 harmonic:11 generation:22 shg:6 doubling:2 doubled:2 half:1 wavelength:6 sum:4 sfg:2 two:13 special:2 case:4 third:5 thg:1 tripled:1 one:9 usually:3 step:1 follow:1 original:1 double:3 wave:34 difference:4 dfg:2 parametric:10 amplification:6 signal:19 input:4 presence:1 pump:13 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4,951 | Bill_Haley | This article is specifically about the singer. For detailed information about his rock and roll group, see Bill Haley & His Comets. Bill Haley () (July 6, 1925 – February 9, 1981) was one of the first American rock and roll musicians. He is credited by many with first popularizing this form of music in the early 1950s with his group Bill Haley & His Comets and their hit song "Rock Around the Clock". Bill Haley is known as the Father of Rock n Roll. http://www.audiobooksonline.com/188595915X.html Biography Early life and career Haley was born William John Clifton Haley (some sources append "Junior" to his name, but his eldest son states that this is erroneous) in Highland Park, Michigan, and raised in Booth's Corner, Pennsylvania. Many sources (almost universally predating his death in 1981) state that Haley was born in 1927, which is due to Haley knocking two years off his age for publicity purposes in the 1950s. A few recent sources erroneously give a birth year of 1924. Haley's father was from Kentucky whilst his mother - Maude Green - was an English immigrant from Ulverston , Lancashire . Haley was blinded in his left eye as a child due to a botched operation. According to biographer John Swenson, Haley later adopted his distinctive spit-curl hairstyle to distract attention from his blind eye. The spit-curl caught on as a 1950s style signature, although Haley and others had worn the hairstyle much earlier. In 1943, Haley joined his first professional group, the Cousin Lee Band (a Wilmington, Delaware-based country music group), as a guitarist and yodeler. In 1946, Haley joined a Pennsylvania-based western swing band called the Down Homers run by Kenny Roberts. It has often been reported in musical reference works that Haley's first professional recordings were made with the Down Homers on a pair of singles released in 1946 by Vogue Records. This was later debunked by Roberts and others, stating Haley had already left the group by the time the singles were made. In the early 2000s, however, a set of 1946 radio recordings by the Down Homers was discovered, and Haley is definitely present as he is identified by name and sings a solo number "She Taught Me to Yodel"; these recordings were commercially released for the first time in 2006. When Haley gigged and became experienced on the professional music front, he created several groups. These included the Four Aces of Western Swing and the Range Drifters. With the Four Aces, he made some country hit singles in the late 1940s for Cowboy Records while working as a touring musician and, beginning in 1947, as musical director at WPWA Radio. (Many of Haley's early recordings from this period would not be released until after his death.) After disbanding the Four Aces and briefly trying a solo career using the names Jack Haley and Johnny Clifton (as chronicled in the biography Sound and Glory), Haley formed a new group called The Saddlemen in either 1949 or 1950 (sources vary as to the exact year); this new group recorded for several labels, including one single for Atlantic Records. Haley was signed to Dave Miller's Philadelphia-based Holiday Records in 1951 and began to change musical styles, recording "Rocket 88" (originally by Jackie Brenston and His Delta Cats), and, in 1952, "Rock the Joint", previously recorded by several bands including Jimmy Preston and His Prestonians. (By the time of "Rock the Joint", Haley had graduated from Holiday Records to Miller's larger Essex label. The relative success of these recordings (both sold in the 75,000-100,000 copy range in the Pennsylvania-New England region) made Haley believe that the combination of rhythm and blues and country could be successful. In 1951 Haley crossed paths with The Treniers while playing in Wildwood, New Jersey. After writing "Rock a Beatin' Boogie", The Treniers used the song in their live shows, and Haley arranged for the song to be recorded by two bands: in summer 1952 it was covered by the Esquire Boys (a band that featured Haley session guitarist Danny Cedrone), and in 1953 by The Treniers. Haley and The Comets did not record their own version of the song until 1955. Bill Haley & His Comets During the Labour Day weekend in 1952, The Saddlemen were renamed Bill Haley with Haley's Comets (inspired by a popular mispronunciation of Halley's Comet), and in 1953, Haley's recording of "Crazy Man, Crazy" (co-written by Haley and his bass player, Marshall Lytle although Lytle wouldn't receive credit until 2001) became the first rock and roll song to hit the American charts, peaking at no.15 on Billboard and no.11 on Cash Box. Soon after, the band's name was revised to Bill Haley & His Comets. In 1953, a song called "Rock Around the Clock" was written for Haley (Dawson 2005). He was unable to record it until April 12, 1954. Initially, it was relatively unsuccessful, staying at the charts for only one week, but Haley soon scored a major worldwide hit with a cover version of Big Joe Turner's "Shake, Rattle and Roll", which went on to sell a million copies and became the first ever rock 'n' roll song to enter British singles charts in December 1954 and became a Gold Record. Haley and his band were important in launching the music known as "Rock and Roll" to a wider, mostly white audience after years of it being considered an underground genre. When "Rock Around the Clock" appeared behind the opening credits of the 1955 film Blackboard Jungle starring Glenn Ford, it soared to the top of the American Billboard charts for eight weeks. The single is commonly used as a convenient line of demarcation between the "rock era" and the music industry that preceded it; Billboard Magazine separates its statistical tabulations into 1890-1954 and 1955-present. After the record rose to number one, Haley was quickly given the title "Father of Rock and Roll," by the media, and by teenagers that had come to embrace the new style of music. "Rock Around the Clock" was the first record ever to sell over one million copies in both Britain and Germany and, in 1957, Haley became the first major American rock singer to tour Europe. Haley continued to score hits throughout the 1950s such as "See You Later, Alligator" and he starred in the first rock and roll musical movies Rock Around the Clock and Don't Knock the Rock, both in 1956. His star was soon surpassed in the USA by the younger, sexier Elvis, but Haley continued to be a major star in Latin America, Mexico, and in Europe throughout the 1960s. Death and legacy A self-admitted alcoholic (as indicated in a 1974 radio interview for the BBC), Haley fought a battle with liquor well into the 1970s. Nonetheless, he and his band continued to be a popular touring act, enjoying a career resurgence in the late 1960s with the Rock and roll revival movement and the signing of a lucrative record deal with the European Sonet Records label. After performing for Queen Elizabeth II at a command performance in 1979, Haley made his final performances in South Africa in May and June 1980. Prior to the South African tour, he was diagnosed with a brain tumor, and a planned tour of Germany in the fall of 1980 was canceled. Despite his ill health, Haley began compiling notes for possible use as a basis for either a biographical film based on his life, or a published autobiography (accounts differ), and there were plans for him to record an album in Memphis, Tennessee, when the brain tumor began affecting his behavior and he retired to his home in Harlingen, Texas, where he died early on the morning February 9, 1981. Media reports immediately following his death indicated Haley displayed deranged and erratic behavior in his final weeks, although beyond a biography of Haley by John Swenson released a year later which describes Haley painting the windows of his home black and making rambling late-night phone calls to friends and relatives, there is little information extant about Haley's final days. The exact cause of his death is controversial. Media reports, supported by Haley's death certificate (reproduced in the book Bill Haley: The Daddy of Rock and Roll by John Swenson), suggest he died of "natural causes most likely heart attack". Members of Haley's family, however, contest that he died from the brain tumor. Haley was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1987. He has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Dawson, Jim and Whitcomb, Ian (2005). Rock Around the Clock: The Record that Started the Rock Revolution!, p. 180. Hal Leonard Corporation. ISBN 087930829X Songwriters Tom Russell and Dave Alvin addressed Haley's sad demise in musical terms with "Haley's Comet" on Alvin's 1991 album "Blue Blvd." Dwight Yoakam sang backup on the tribute. Haley's original Comets from 1954 and 1955 still tour the world to packed houses. Despite ranging in age from 72 to 84, the band members show no sign of slowing down, releasing a concert DVD in 2004 on Hydra Records, playing the trendy Viper Room in West Hollywood in 2005, and performing at Dick Clark's American Bandstand Theater in Branson, Missouri in 2006-07. In March 2007 The Original Comets pre opened the Bill-Haley-Museum in Munich, Germany(Schleissheimerstr.321,München www.rockithydra.de). On October 27, 2007 ex Comets guitar player Bill Turner opened the Bill-Haley-Museum for the public. The Museum keeps the legacy and importance of Bill Haley & His Comets alive. There are hundreds of photos, posters, books, instruments, Gold Records, business papers and merchandise on display. Asteroid Main article - 79896 Billhaley In February 2006, the International Astronomical Union announced the naming of asteroid 79896 Billhaley to mark the 25th anniversary of Bill Haley's death. Children Married three times, Bill Haley had at least eight children. John W. Haley, his eldest son, wrote Sound and Glory, a biography of Haley, while his youngest daughter, Gina Haley, is an up-and-coming musician based out of Los Angeles. Scott Haley is a noted athlete, while Bill's youngest son, Pedro Haley, is also a musician-in-the-making. He also had a daughter from his last marriage with Mrs. Martha Velasco. Her name is Martha Maria. Bill Haley Jr. (b. 7/28/55), Bill's second son and first with Joan Barbara "Cuppy" Haley-Hahn, publishes a regional business magazine in Southeastern Pennsylvania (Route 422 Business Advisor). He sings and plays guitar with a band called "Lager Rhythms," and appeared with the "Original Comets" at the Bubba Mac Shack in Somers Point, New Jersey, in 2004 and 2005, and at the Twin Bar re-dedication ceremony in Gloucester City, New Jersey, in 2007. He is currently writing a biography about his father, concentrating on the years 1949-61. Biographies In 1980, Haley began working on an autobiography entitled The Life and Times of Bill Haley but died after completing only 100 pages. The work is registered with the U.S. Copyright Office but has yet to be released to the public. In 1982, John Swenson wrote Bill Haley: The Daddy of Rock and Roll (published in the UK under the title, Bill Haley), which is controversial among Haley fans for alleged inaccuracies. In 1990, Haley's eldest son, John W. Haley, along with John von Hoëlle wrote Sound and Glory, a biography focusing mostly on Haley's early life and peak career years. This book is long out of print. A German-language biography was published soon after Haley's death, written by Peter Cornelsen and Harald D. Kain. A book on the history of Haley's most famous recording, Rock Around the Clock: The Record That Started the Rock Revolution by Jim Dawson was published in June 2005 (). Film portrayals Unlike his contemporaries, Bill Haley has rarely been portrayed on screen. Following the success of The Buddy Holly Story in 1978, Haley expressed interest in having his life story committed to film, but this never came to fruition. In the 1980s and early 1990s, numerous media reports emerged that plans were underway to do a biopic based upon Haley's life, with Beau Bridges, Jeff Bridges and John Ritter all at one point being mentioned as actors in line to play Haley (according to Goldmine Magazine, Ritter attempted to buy the film rights to Sound and Glory). Bill Haley has also been portrayed - not always in a positive light - in several "period" films: John Paramor in Shout! The Story of Johnny O'Keefe (1985) Michael Daingerfield in Mr. Rock 'n' Roll: The Alan Freed Story (1999) Dicky Barrett (of The Mighty Mighty Bosstones) in Shake, Rattle and Roll: An American Love Story (also 1999) In March 2005, the British network Sky TV reported that Tom Hanks was planning to produce a biopic on the life of Bill Haley, with production tentatively scheduled to begin in 2006. However this rumor was quickly debunked by Hanks. Discography Prior to the formation of Bill Haley and the Saddlemen, which later became The Comets, Haley released several singles with other groups. Dates are approximate due to lack of documentation. (Source: the Bill Haley Database) As Bill Haley and the Four Aces of Western Swing 1948 Too Many Parties and Too Many Pals (vocal by Tex King)/Four Leaf Clover Blues (Cowboy CR1201) 1949 Tennessee Border/Candy Kisses (Cowboy CR1202) As Johnny Clifton and His String Band 1949 or 1950 Stand Up and Be Counted/Loveless Blues (Center C102) Many Haley discographies list two 1946 recordings by the Down Homers released on the Vogue Records label as featuring Haley. Haley historian Chris Gardner, as well as surviving members of the group, have confirmed that the two singles: "Out Where the West Winds Blow"/"Who's Gonna Kiss You When I'm Gone" (Vogue R736) and "Boogie Woogie Yodel"/"Baby I Found Out All About You" (Vogue R786) do not feature Haley. However, the tracks were nonetheless included in the compilation box set Rock 'n' Roll Arrives released by Bear Family Records in 2006. See the discography section of Bill Haley & His Comets for a list of the singles and album releases made by Haley with the Saddlemen and the Comets from 1950 onwards. Unreleased recordings Bill Haley recorded prolifically during the 1940s, often at the radio stations where he worked, or in formal studio settings. Virtually none of these recordings were ever released. Liner notes for a 2003 CD release by Hydra Records entitled Bill Haley and Friends Vol. 2: The Legendary Cowboy Recordings reveal that several additional Cowboy label single releases were planned for the Four Aces, but this never occurred. A number of previously unreleased Haley country-western recordings from the 1946-1950 period began to emerge near the end of Haley's life, some of which were released by the Arzee label, with titles such as "Yodel Your Blues Away" and "Rose of My Heart." Still more demos, alternate takes, and wholly unheard-before recordings have been released since Haley's death. Notable examples of such releases include the albums Golden Country Origins by Grassroots Records of Australia and Hillbilly Haley by the British label, Rollercoaster, as well as the aforementioned German release by Hydra Records. In 2006, Bear Family Records of Germany released what is considered to be the most comprehensive (yet still incomplete) collection of Haley's 1946-1950 recordings as part of its Haley box set Rock n' Roll Arrives. References Sources Books Jim Dawson, Rock Around the Clock: The Record That Started the Rock Revolution! (San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 2005) John W. Haley and John von Hoëlle, Sound and Glory (Wilmington, DE: Dyne-American, 1990) John Swenson, Bill Haley (London: W.H. Allen, 1982) External links Portal site providing links to all the major Bill Haley-related websites on the Net Melody Manor (Bill Haley's house) Google Map Answers The Bill Haley & His Comets-Story dt. | Bill_Haley |@lemmatized article:2 specifically:1 singer:2 detailed:1 information:2 rock:32 roll:17 group:10 see:3 bill:33 haley:106 comet:17 july:1 february:3 one:6 first:11 american:7 musician:4 credit:3 many:6 popularize:1 form:2 music:6 early:7 hit:5 song:7 around:8 clock:8 know:2 father:4 n:5 http:1 www:2 audiobooksonline:1 com:1 html:1 biography:8 life:8 career:4 bear:4 william:1 john:13 clifton:3 source:6 append:1 junior:1 name:5 eldest:3 son:5 state:3 erroneous:1 highland:1 park:1 michigan:1 raise:1 booth:1 corner:1 pennsylvania:4 almost:1 universally:1 predate:1 death:9 due:3 knock:2 two:4 year:7 age:2 publicity:1 purpose:1 recent:1 erroneously:1 give:2 birth:1 kentucky:1 whilst:1 mother:1 maude:1 green:1 english:1 immigrant:1 ulverston:1 lancashire:1 blind:2 left:1 eye:2 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4,952 | Heathers | Heathers is a 1989 black comedy film starring Winona Ryder, Christian Slater, and Shannen Doherty. The film portrays four girls in a trend-setting clique at a fictional high school in Ohio. The girls—three of whom are named Heather—rule the school through intimidation, contempt, and sex appeal. Heathers brought director Michael Lehmann and producer Denise Di Novi the 1990 Independent Spirit Award for Best First Feature. Daniel Waters also gained recognition for his screenplay, which won a 1990 Edgar Award. Heathers (1989) - Awards The film was a U.S. box office failure, Heathers (1989) - Box office / business but has since become a cult classic, as is shown by its high sales and rentals on DVD and VHS. In 2006, it was ranked #5 on Entertainment Weekly's list of the 50 Best High School Movies. Countdown: The 50 best high school movies | Photo Gallery | News + Notes | Entertainment Weekly Plot The film centers on high school student Veronica Sawyer (Ryder). Veronica is part of the most popular clique in Westerburg High School (named for singer Paul Westerberg) in Sherwood, a fictional suburb of Columbus, Ohio. In addition to Veronica, the clique is composed of three wealthy girls with the same first name: Heather Chandler (Walker), Heather Duke (Doherty), and Heather McNamara (Falk). These mean-spirited girls play croquet with each other, use their own unique slang, and even purge together. Even though they are adored by most other students, the Heathers despise everyone outside their clique and continuously bully socially awkward classmates such as the overweight Martha "Dumptruck" Dunnstock. The Heathers: Heather Duke (Doherty), Heather McNamara (Falk), Heather Chandler (Walker) and Veronica Sawyer (Ryder) playing a joke on an overweight student Veronica was not always in the Heathers clique. She used to be good friends with nerdy student Betty Finn (Estevez). Veronica finds "friendship" with the Heathers both attractive and repulsive since it is mostly based on vanity, peer pressure, and a desire to dominate instead of being dominated. She even says that they are not really her friends, just people she hangs out with because being popular is her "job". When a new student, a rebellious boy named Jason Dean (Slater), or J.D. for short (like James Dean), pulls a gun on school bullies Kurt (Fenton) and Ram (Labyorteaux) and fires blanks at them, Veronica is intrigued. After having a horrible time at a fraternity party, Veronica is met by J.D. and they have sex in the croquet yard. He accompanies her on an early morning visit to Heather Chandler's home. Veronica is furious with Heather Chandler's treatment of her at a fraternity party the night before. Veronica and J.D. jokingly prepare a cup full of drain cleaner to bring Heather as a morning wake-up drink. Veronica decides on milk and orange juice as a suitable form of revenge, as the combination can induce vomiting. J.D. distracts Veronica with a kiss and while they are kissing, Veronica takes the wrong glass to give to Heather. J.D. notices the mistake, but does not inform Veronica that she has taken the drain cleaner instead of the milk and orange juice combination. Heather Chandler drinks the drain cleaner and dies in front of them. J.D. urges Veronica to protect herself from suspicion of murder by forging a suicide note in Heather Chandler's handwriting. Based on this note, the school and community look on Heather Chandler's death as a dramatic, yet somehow hip, decision made by a popular but sadly troubled teenager. Heather Duke soon steps into Heather Chandler's former role as clique leader, and begins wearing a red hair bow that had belonged to Chandler. Several weeks later, the oafish Kurt and Ram spread a false rumor about Veronica giving oral sex to Kurt and Ram at the same time, ruining her reputation at school. J.D. suggests a plan for revenge. He proposes that Veronica lure them into the woods behind the school with the promise to "make the rumors true." Once the bullies have undressed, J.D. tells her they will shoot them with special "Ich Lüge" bullets that will knock them unconscious but not kill them. J.D. will plant "gay" materials beside the other boys, including a gay porn magazine and bottled mineral water. He will also leave a fake suicide note saying the two were lovers in a suicide pact. The prank appears to go according to plan, with Ram being shot and falling to the ground. Veronica misses Kurt, who runs away. Veronica realizes that the bullets are real ("Ich lüge" means "I'm lying" in German). J.D. had intended to kill Kurt and Ram all along. J.D. manages to chase the surviving boy back towards Veronica, who panics and shoots him dead. The boys' bodies are soon discovered along with the planted evidence of their "affair". At their funeral, Kurt's father is seen wailing, "I love my dead gay son!" Veronica realizes that she is in over her head. She feels guilty about the murders, but worse still, other students begin mimicking the perceived behavior of the popular dead kids and attempting suicide themselves. Martha Dumptruck pins a suicide note to her chest and walks into traffic. She survives but is badly injured. The other students ridicule her actions as an ill-advised attempt to act "popular". Veronica tells J.D. that she will not participate in any more killings. He plans to kill Heather Duke next, and subtly threatens to do the same to Veronica if she does not cooperate. Veronica instead tricks J.D. by using a harness to make it look like she has hanged herself. Heartbroken, he reveals his plan to blow up the entire school during a pep rally. A petition he has been circulating—via Heather Duke—to get the fictional band Big Fun (whose anti-suicide pop song is all the rage at school) to perform on campus was actually a disguised suicide note. Most of the students had already signed, so the mass murder would appear to be a mass suicide instead. Veronica confronts J.D. in the boiler room where he is rigging timed explosives. She attempts to kill him when he refuses to stop the bomb. As J.D. collapses, he accidentally stops the timer. Veronica walks out through the pep rally with everyone cheering, unaware of their narrowly-missed demise. The severely injured J.D. follows her outside, looks at her as if to say, " We could have been together..." and detonates a bomb that is strapped to his chest. The final scene of the film is of Veronica, covered in ash and bleeding slightly, walking through the school halls. She confronts Heather Duke and tells her "There's a new sheriff in town." Kissing Heather on the cheek, she takes the red hair bow Heather Duke had inherited from Heather Chandler and puts it in her own hair. Veronica then walks over to Martha Dunnstock to start a friendly conversation. Cast Winona Ryder as Veronica Sawyer – The protagonist. Although officially a member of the Heathers, Veronica does not like the way that they run the school, their misuse of authority, and their intimidation of "lower" students. Christian Slater as Jason "JD" Dean – A sociopathic drifter who eventually falls in love with Veronica. Shannen Doherty as Heather Duke – She starts off as the quiet Heather. She is the least-appreciated of the clique, and allows herself to be kicked around by Heather Chandler. However, she is jealous of Heather Chandler's leadership, and after Heather Chandler is killed, Heather Duke becomes the new Number One and begins behaving as badly as her predecessor. Kim Walker as Heather Chandler – The lead Heather (also known as "Heather Number One"). She uses sex appeal and intimidation to run the school, despite being only a junior. She picked Veronica as her protege and offered to teach her "how to fuck with the eagles". In spite of her recognized "popularity", she is mean-spirited and not genuinely well-liked. She dies when she drinks a cup of drain cleaner from Veronica and JD. Lisanne Falk as Heather McNamara – A cheerleader, she is the Heather that seems well adapted to the clique's way of life. However, after Heather Chandler dies, she becomes lost and eventually attempts suicide, only to be saved by Veronica before she can swallow a bottle of pills. Lance Fenton and Patrick Labyorteaux as Kurt and Ram – Two stereotypical boorish jocks who use physical force and intimidation to bully their underclassmen. Veronica and JD eventually kill them after they spread a rumor that ruins Veronica's reputation; JD stages the scene so it looks as if Kurt and Ram killed themselves in a suicide pact, conflicted and despondent over their hidden homosexual relationship. Penelope Milford as Mrs. Fleming – A hippie teacher at school, Pauline Fleming is ecstatic about the "suicide" of Heather Chandler and uses it to crank feelings out of the other students. A baby-boomer, she successfully appears to manipulate the teenage suicides into her own personal gain in ensuring that she is most prominent in media coverage about the suicides. Glenn Shadix as Father Ripper Jeremy Applegate as Peter Dawson Renée Estevez as Betty Finn Jennifer Rhodes as Mrs. Sawyer Production Daniel Waters wanted his screenplay to go to director Stanley Kubrick, Heathers DVD review not only out of profound admiration for Kubrick but also from a perception that "Kubrick was the only person that could get away with a three-hour film". (The cafeteria scene opening Heathers was written as an homage to the barracks scene opening Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket.) After a number of failed attempts to get the script to Kubrick made Waters realize the apparent futility of the enterprise, he decided to give the script to Michael Lehmann, who then took it on with Denise Di Novi. Many actors and actresses turned down the project because of its dark subject matter. Early choices for JD and Veronica were Brad Pitt and Jennifer Connelly. Although Pitt auditioned for JD, the filmmakers rejected him because they thought he came across as "too nice" and therefore would not be credible. Connelly declined. Winona Ryder—who was 16 at the time of filming and badly wanted the part—begged Waters to cast her. She was eventually given the role; Christian Slater was signed on after. Heather Graham, then 17, was cast as Heather McNamara but her mother wouldn't allow her to do the film. Filming took place in 1988, and lasted 32 days. Two stars of the movie died at an early age: Jeremy Applegate (Peter Dawson, whose character prays he will never commit suicide) committed suicide with a shotgun on March 23, 2000, and Kim Walker (Heather Chandler, who had the line "Did you have a brain tumor for breakfast?") died of a brain tumor on March 6, 2001. Soundtrack The film uses two versions of the song "Que Sera, Sera," the first by singer Syd Straw and another over the end credits by Sly & the Family Stone. On the film's DVD commentary, Di Novi mentions that the filmmakers wanted to use the original Doris Day version of the song, but Day would not lend her name to any project using profanity. Di Novi also notes that, when her father was a session musician for Day, he and the other musicians had to put money in a "swear jar" when they cursed. The song "Teenage Suicide (Don't Do It)" by the fictional band Big Fun was written and produced for the film by musician Don Dixon, and performed by the ad hoc group "Big Fun", which consisted of Dixon, Mitch Easter, Angie Carlson and Marti Jones. The song is included on Dixon's 1992 greatest hits album (If) I'm A Ham, Well You're A Sausage. The film's electronic score was composed and performed by David Newman and a soundtrack CD was subsequently released. Home video releases Heathers was first released onto VHS in 1989, where it received strong sales and rentals, and is where it first became well known after being unsuccessful at the box office. It was released again on laserdisc on September 16, 1996 with restored stereo sound. This widescreen edition was digitally transferred from Trans Atlantic Pictures interpositive print under the supervision of cinematographer Francis Kenny. The sound was mastered from the magnetic sound elements. The film was first released onto DVD on March 30, 1999, in a barebones edition. In 2001, a multi-region special edition DVD was released from Anchor Bay in Dolby Digital 5.1. The DVD was released in the United States, Canada, Australia, Europe to high sales. In 2004 a limited edition DVD set was released, and only 15,000 were produced. The set contained an audio commentary with director Michael Lehmann, producer Denise Di Novi and writer Daniel Waters, a 30-minute documentary titled Swatch Dogs And Diet Cokeheads, featuring interviews with Ryder, Slater, Doherty, Falk, Lehmann, Waters, Di Novi, Director of Photography Francis Kenny and Editor Norman Hollyn. It also includes a theatrical trailer, screenplay excerpt, original ending, biographies, 10 Page full-color fold-out with photos and liner notes, a 8cm "Heathers Rules!" ruler, and a 48-page full-color "yearbook style" booklet with rare photos. On July 1, 2008, a new 20th anniversary special edition DVD set was released from Anchor Bay to coincide with the DVD of Daniel Waters' new film Sex and Death 101. The DVD features a new documentary, Return to Westerberg High. On November 18, 2008, Anchor Bay released a Blu-ray disc with all the special features from the 20th Anniversary DVD and a soundtrack in Dolby TrueHD 5.1. Alternate ending On the DVD edition of Heathers, the "special features" section contains the script for a different ending which was considered too dark for teen audiences and nixed by New World Pictures, the distributor. It reflects back on a comment by J.D. earlier in the film, saying to Veronica, in defense of his actions, that "the only place different social types can genuinely get along is in heaven." In this version, J.D. dies in the boiler room, and Veronica is shown walking through the school, though only from the back. This is interrupted by shots of the bomb counting down, showing that Veronica had not shut it off. When she reaches the front of the school, Veronica turns around, allowing the viewer to see that the bomb was strapped to her chest. It hits zero, the screen turns black, and Veronica says "Boom." The next scene is the school prom. A banner says "WHAT A WASTE, OH THE HUMANITY" (a line said by Heather Duke after the death of Heather Chandler, and again by the cops who discover Ram and Kurt's bodies). The students begin to dance, at first sticking with those of the same or similar social cliques. But when it is time for prom pictures, people from different cliques are couples. A geek and a stoner pose together, then "hippie" teacher Pauline Fleming (Penelope Milford) and stern Principal Gowan (John Ingle). Kurt (previously killed) has his picture taken with the cow he had tipped. Mismatched couples continue to appear, and other dead characters make appearances: J.D. plays a "smoking hot" guitar solo, then rushes to the dance floor to dance with Heather Duke, Kurt, and finally Heather Chandler. The Heathers do a ring-around-the-rosey. The camera is moved up to reveal Martha Dunnstock, wailing beautifully. The viewpoint is then lifted even higher to show a smiling Veronica in a "striking pose". Despite the change of the endings, the movie failed at the box-office when released. (The Swatch Dogs And Diet Cokeheads documentary blames the box-office failure on poor marketing due to the studio's financial problems.) However, since then it has developed into a very strong and prominent cult classic and has made a significant impact on teenage films. Spoofs, influences, and references The status of Heathers as a classic black comedy has inspired various spoofs, references and influences: Winona Ryder's character, Veronica inspired the name of the Australian pop band The Veronicas. Tina Fey, the writer of Mean Girls, considers Heathers "the hardcore version of Mean Girls." Mean Girls director Mark Waters, brother of Heathers screenwriter Daniel Waters, referred to his film as "Clueless meets Heathers." The Seattle Times: Arts & Entertainment: It's back to school with 'Mean Girls,' but director will transfer to guy films Veronica and her not-so-popular friend have combination first and last names that go together (Betty and Veronica, from Archie Comics, and Sawyer and Finn, from Tom Sawyer) The two police officers that discover the bodies of Kurt and Ram are named "Milner" and "McCord". Actors Martin Milner and Kent McCord portrayed officers Pete Malloy and Jim Reed in the 1968–1975 police drama Adam-12. The band "Heathers", made up of Irish singer-songwriters Louise and Ellie McNamara, is named after the film, while their song "What's Your Damage?" is inspired by the same line said throughout the film. Post-hardcore band From First to Last's album Dear Diary, My Teen Angst Has a Body Count is a quote by Veronica in Heathers ("Dear diary, my teen-angst bullshit has a body count"). In the season 4 finale of Gilmore Girls, Lorelai Gilmore shoves Rory Gilmore through a doorway, prompting her to say, "What's your damage, Heather?", a line uttered numerous times in the film. In an episode of Will & Grace, Will says, "What’s your damage, Heather?" to Grace. In the episode of Will & Grace entitled "Wedding Balls", Will says, "OK, I’ll let you two Heather girls get back to your Heathering," after Jack and Karen start complaining about Will. In the novel Nick and Norah's Infinite Playlist by Rachel Cohn, Norah wiggles her index finger at Nick and sing-songs, "A true friend's work is never done," only to be shocked by Nick's knowledge of the film when he responds "Bulimia is so '87, Heather." In Gingerbread, another novel by Rachel Cohn, Cyd Charisse's gay stepbrother Danny and his boyfriend are in a band called I Love My Dead Gay Son. In an episode of Frasier (Juvenilia), the lines "Why don't we discuss it over a cheeseburger or some such," followed by "I'd like that very much" are uttered twice referencing the final lines in Heathers. The Bloodhound Gang song Magna Cum Nada references the film with the line "The name's Dunnstock, it's not Dumptruck!" 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4,953 | Evolution | In biology, evolution is change in the genetic material of a population of organisms from one generation to the next. Though the changes produced in any one generation are small, differences accumulate with each generation and can, over time, cause substantial changes in the organisms. This process can culminate in the emergence of new species. Indeed, the similarities between organisms suggest that all known species are descended from a common ancestor (or ancestral gene pool) through this process of gradual divergence. The basis of evolution is the genes that are passed on from generation to generation; these produce an organism's inherited traits. These traits vary within populations, with organisms showing heritable differences (variation) in their traits. Evolution itself is the product of two opposing forces: processes that constantly introduce variation, and processes that make variants become more common or rare. New variation arises in two main ways: either from mutations in genes, or from the transfer of genes between populations and between species. In species that reproduce sexually, new combinations of genes are also produced by genetic recombination, which can increase variation between organisms. Two major mechanisms determine which variants will become more common or rare in a population. One is natural selection, a process that causes helpful traits (those that increase the chance of survival and reproduction) to become more common in a population and causes harmful traits to become more rare. This occurs because individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to reproduce, meaning that more individuals in the next generation will inherit these traits. Over many generations, adaptations occur through a combination of successive, small, random changes in traits, and natural selection of the variants best-suited for their environment. The other major mechanism driving evolution is genetic drift, an independent process that produces random changes in the frequency of traits in a population. Genetic drift results from the role that chance plays in whether a given trait will be passed on as individuals survive and reproduce. Evolutionary biologists document the fact that evolution occurs, and also develop and test theories that explain its causes. The study of evolutionary biology began in the mid-nineteenth century, when studies of the fossil record and the diversity of living organisms convinced most scientists that species changed over time. However, the mechanism driving these changes remained unclear until the theories of natural selection were independently discovered by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace. Darwin's landmark work On the Origin of Species of 1859 brought the new theories of evolution by natural selection to a wide audience. . Related earlier ideas were acknowledged in Darwin's work soon led to overwhelming acceptance of evolution among scientists. Joint statement issued by the national science academies of 67 countries, including the United Kingdom's Royal Society from the world's largest general scientific society In the 1930s, Darwinian natural selection was combined with Mendelian inheritance to form the modern evolutionary synthesis, which connected the units of evolution (genes) and the mechanism of evolution (natural selection). This powerful explanatory and predictive theory directs research by constantly raising new questions, and it has become the central organizing principle of modern biology, providing a unifying explanation for the diversity of life on Earth. Heredity Evolution in organisms occurs through changes in heritable traits – particular characteristics of an organism. In humans, for example, eye color is an inherited characteristic, which individuals can inherit from one of their parents. Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism's genome is called its genotype. The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behavior of an organism is called its phenotype. These traits come from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. As a result, not every aspect of an organism's phenotype is inherited. Suntanned skin results from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children. However, people have different responses to sunlight, arising from differences in their genotype; a striking example is individuals with the inherited trait of albinism, who do not tan and are highly sensitive to sunburn. Heritable traits are passed from one generation to the next via DNA, a molecule that encodes genetic information. DNA is a polymer composed of four types of bases. The sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule specify the genetic information, in a manner similar to a sequence of letters specifying a sentence. Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes; different genes have different sequences of bases. Within cells, the long strands of DNA form condensed structures called chromosomes. A specific location within a chromosome is known as a locus. If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles. DNA sequences can change through mutations, producing new alleles. If a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism. However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by multiple interacting genes. The study of such complex traits is a major area of current genetic research. Another interesting but unsolved question in genetics is if epigenetics is important in evolution, this is where heritable changes occur in organisms without there being any changes to the sequences of their genes. Variation An individual organism's phenotype results from both its genotype and the influence from the environment it has lived in. A substantial part of the variation in phenotypes in a population is caused by the differences between their genotypes. The modern evolutionary synthesis defines evolution as the change over time in this genetic variation. The frequency of one particular allele will fluctuate, becoming more or less prevalent relative to other forms of that gene. Evolutionary forces act by driving these changes in allele frequency in one direction or another. Variation disappears when an allele reaches the point of fixation — when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely. Variation comes from mutations in genetic material, migration between populations (gene flow), and the reshuffling of genes through sexual reproduction. Variation also comes from exchanges of genes between different species; for example, through horizontal gene transfer in bacteria, and hybridization in plants. * Despite the constant introduction of variation through these processes, most of the genome of a species is identical in all individuals of that species. However, even relatively small changes in genotype can lead to dramatic changes in phenotype: chimpanzees and humans differ in only about 5% of their genomes. Mutation Genetic variation comes from random mutations that occur in the genomes of organisms. Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell's genome and are caused by radiation, viruses, transposons and mutagenic chemicals, as well as errors that occur during meiosis or DNA replication. These mutagens produce several different types of change in DNA sequences; these can either have no effect, alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning. Studies in the fly Drosophila melanogaster suggest that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, this will probably be harmful, with about 70 percent of these mutations having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial. Due to the damaging effects that mutations can have on cells, organisms have evolved mechanisms such as DNA repair to remove mutations. Therefore, the optimal mutation rate for a species is a trade-off between costs of a high mutation rate, such as deleterious mutations, and the metabolic costs of maintaining systems to reduce the mutation rate, such as DNA repair enzymes. Some species such as retroviruses have such high mutation rates that most of their offspring will possess a mutated gene. Such rapid mutation may be an advantage since these viruses will evolve constantly and rapidly, and thus evade the responses of the human immune system. Mutations can involve large sections of DNA becoming duplicated, which is a major source of raw material for evolving new genes, with tens to hundreds of genes duplicated in animal genomes every million years. Most genes belong to larger families of genes of shared ancestry. Novel genes are produced by several methods, commonly through the duplication and mutation of an ancestral gene, or by recombining parts of different genes to form new combinations with new functions. Here, domains act as modules, each with a particular and independent function, that can be mixed together to produce genes encoding new proteins with novel properties. For example, the human eye uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for color vision and one for night vision; all four arose from a single ancestral gene. Another advantage of duplicating a gene (or even an entire genome) is that overlapping or redundant functions in multiple genes allows alleles to be retained that would otherwise be harmful, thus increasing genetic diversity. Changes in chromosome number may involve even larger mutations, where segments of the DNA within chromosomes break and then rearrange. For example, two chromosomes in the Homo genus fused to produce human chromosome 2; this fusion did not occur in the lineage of the other apes, and they retain these separate chromosomes. In evolution, the most important role of such chromosomal rearrangements may be to accelerate the divergence of a population into new species by making populations less likely to interbreed, and thereby preserving genetic differences between these populations. Sequences of DNA that can move about the genome, such as transposons, make up a major fraction of the genetic material of plants and animals, and may have been important in the evolution of genomes. For example, more than a million copies of the Alu sequence are present in the human genome, and these sequences have now been recruited to perform functions such as regulating gene expression. Another effect of these mobile DNA sequences is that when they move within a genome, they can mutate or delete existing genes and thereby produce genetic diversity. Sex and recombination In asexual organisms, genes are inherited together, or linked, as they cannot mix with genes in other organisms during reproduction. However, the offspring of sexual organisms contain random mixtures of their parents' chromosomes that are produced through independent assortment. In the related process of genetic recombination, sexual organisms can also exchange DNA between two matching chromosomes. Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies, but instead change which alleles are associated with each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles. Recent research suggests that sex usually increases genetic variation and may increase the rate of evolution. Recombination allows even alleles that are close together in a strand of DNA to be inherited independently. However, the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per generation). As a result, genes close together on a chromosome may not always be shuffled away from each other, and genes that are close together tend to be inherited together, a phenomenon known as linkage. This tendency is measured by finding how often two alleles occur together on a single chromosome, which is called their linkage disequilibrium. A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a haplotype. When alleles cannot be separated by recombination – such as in mammalian Y chromosomes, which pass intact from fathers to sons – harmful mutations accumulate. By breaking up allele combinations, sexual reproduction allows the removal of harmful mutations and the retention of beneficial mutations. In addition, recombination and reassortment can produce individuals with new and advantageous gene combinations. These positive effects are balanced by the fact that sex reduces an organism's reproductive rate, can cause mutations and may separate beneficial combinations of genes. The reasons for the evolution of sexual reproduction are therefore unclear and this question is still an active area of research in evolutionary biology, that has prompted ideas such as the Red Queen hypothesis. Population genetics From a genetic viewpoint, evolution is a generation-to-generation change in the frequencies of alleles within a population that shares a common gene pool. A population is a localized group of individuals belonging to the same species. For example, all of the moths of the same species living in an isolated forest represent a population. A single gene in this population may have several alternate forms, which account for variations between the phenotypes of the organisms. An example might be a gene for coloration in moths that has two alleles: black and white. A gene pool is the complete set of alleles for a gene in a single population; the allele frequency measures the fraction of the gene pool comprised of a single allele (for example, what fraction of moth coloration genes are the black allele). Evolution occurs when there are changes in the frequencies of alleles within a population of interbreeding organisms; for example, the allele for black color in a population of moths becoming more common. To understand the mechanisms that cause a population to evolve, it is useful to consider what conditions are required for a population not to evolve. The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that the frequencies of alleles (variations in a gene) in a sufficiently large population will remain constant if the only forces acting on that population are the random reshuffling of alleles during the formation of the sperm or egg, and the random combination of the alleles in these sex cells during fertilization. Such a population is said to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium - it is not evolving. Gene flow Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations, which are usually of the same species. Examples of gene flow within a species include the migration and then breeding of organisms, or the exchange of pollen. Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer. Migration into or out of a population can change allele frequencies, as well as introducing genetic variation into a population. Immigration may add new genetic material to the established gene pool of a population. Conversely, emigration may remove genetic material. As barriers to reproduction between two diverging populations are required for the populations to become new species, gene flow may slow this process by spreading genetic differences between the populations. Gene flow is hindered by mountain ranges, oceans and deserts or even man-made structures such as the Great Wall of China, which has hindered the flow of plant genes. Depending on how far two species have diverged since their most recent common ancestor, it may still be possible for them to produce offspring, as with horses and donkeys mating to produce mules. Such hybrids are generally infertile, due to the two different sets of chromosomes being unable to pair up during meiosis. In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct. However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype. The importance of hybridization in creating new species of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals, with the gray tree frog being a particularly well-studied example. Hybridization is, however, an important means of speciation in plants, since polyploidy (having more than two copies of each chromosome) is tolerated in plants more readily than in animals. Polyploidy is important in hybrids as it allows reproduction, with the two different sets of chromosomes each being able to pair with an identical partner during meiosis. Polyploids also have more genetic diversity, which allows them to avoid inbreeding depression in small populations. Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among bacteria. In medicine, this contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance, as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species. Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean beetle Callosobruchus chinensis may also have occurred. An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers, which appear to have received a range of genes from bacteria, fungi, and plants. Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across biological domains. Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of eukaryotic cells and prokaryotes, during the acquisition of chloroplasts and mitochondria. Mechanisms The two main mechanisms that produce evolution are natural selection and genetic drift. Natural selection favors genes that improve capacity for survival and reproduction. Genetic drift is random change in the frequency of alleles, caused by the random sampling of a generation's genes during reproduction. The relative importance of natural selection and genetic drift in a population varies depending on the strength of the selection and the effective population size, which is the number of individuals capable of breeding. Natural selection usually predominates in large populations, while genetic drift dominates in small populations. The dominance of genetic drift in small populations can even lead to the fixation of slightly deleterious mutations. As a result, changing population size can dramatically influence the course of evolution. Population bottlenecks, where the population shrinks temporarily and therefore loses genetic variation, result in a more uniform population. Natural selection Natural selection is the process by which genetic mutations that enhance reproduction become, and remain, more common in successive generations of a population. It has often been called a "self-evident" mechanism because it necessarily follows from three simple facts: Heritable variation exists within populations of organisms. Organisms produce more offspring than can survive. These offspring vary in their ability to survive and reproduce. These conditions produce competition between organisms for survival and reproduction. Consequently, organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors pass these advantageous traits on, while traits that do not confer an advantage are not passed on to the next generation. The central concept of natural selection is the evolutionary fitness of an organism. This measures the organism's genetic contribution to the next generation. However, this is not the same as the total number of offspring: instead fitness measures the proportion of subsequent generations that carry an organism's genes. Consequently, if an allele increases fitness more than the other alleles of that gene, then with each generation this allele will become more common within the population. These traits are said to be "selected for". Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival, and increased fecundity. Conversely, the lower fitness caused by having a less beneficial or deleterious allele results in this allele becoming rarer — they are "selected against". Importantly, the fitness of an allele is not a fixed characteristic, if the environment changes, previously neutral or harmful traits may become beneficial and previously beneficial traits become harmful. Natural selection within a population for a trait that can vary across a range of values, such as height, can be categorized into three different types. The first is directional selection, which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time — for example organisms slowly getting taller. Secondly, disruptive selection is selection for extreme trait values and often results in two different values becoming most common, with selection against the average value. This would be when either short or tall organisms had an advantage, but not those of medium height. Finally, in stabilizing selection there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in variance around the average value and less diversity. This would, for example, cause organisms to slowly become all the same height. A special case of natural selection is sexual selection, which is selection for any trait that increases mating success by increasing the attractiveness of an organism to potential mates. Traits that evolved through sexual selection are particularly prominent in males of some animal species, despite traits such as cumbersome antlers, mating calls or bright colors that attract predators, decreasing the survival of individual males. This survival disadvantage is balanced by higher reproductive success in males that show these hard to fake, sexually selected traits. Natural selection most generally makes nature the measure against which individuals, and individual traits, are more or less likely to survive. "Nature" in this sense refers to an ecosystem, that is, a system in which organisms interact with every other element, physical as well as biological, in their local environment. Eugene Odum, a founder of ecology, defined an ecosystem as: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms...in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (ie: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system." Odum, EP (1971) Fundamentals of ecology, third edition, Saunders New York Each population within an ecosystem occupies a distinct niche, or position, with distinct relationships to other parts of the system. These relationships involve the life history of the organism, its position in the food chain, and its geographic range. This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection. An active area of research is the unit of selection, with natural selection being proposed to work at the level of genes, cells, individual organisms, groups of organisms and even species. None of these are mutually exclusive and selection may act on multiple levels simultaneously. An example of selection occurring below the level of the individual organism are genes called transposons, which can replicate and spread throughout a genome. Selection at a level above the individual, such as group selection, may allow the evolution of co-operation, as discussed below. Genetic drift Genetic drift is the change in allele frequency from one generation to the next that occurs because alleles in offspring are a random sample of those in the parents, as well as from the role that chance plays in determining whether a given individual will survive and reproduce. In mathematical terms, alleles are subject to sampling error. As a result, when selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies tend to "drift" upward or downward randomly (in a random walk). This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population, or replacing the other alleles entirely. Genetic drift may therefore eliminate some alleles from a population due to chance alone. Even in the absence of selective forces, genetic drift can cause two separate populations that began with the same genetic structure to drift apart into two divergent populations with different sets of alleles. The time for an allele to become fixed by genetic drift depends on population size, with fixation occurring more rapidly in smaller populations. The precise measure of population that is important is called the effective population size. The effective population is always smaller than the total population since it takes into account factors such as the level of inbreeding, the number of animals that are too old or young to breed, and the lower probability of animals that live far apart managing to mate with each other. Although natural selection is responsible for adaptation, the relative importance of the two forces of natural selection and genetic drift in driving evolutionary change in general is an area of current research in evolutionary biology. These investigations were prompted by the neutral theory of molecular evolution, which proposed that most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of neutral mutations that do not have any immediate effects on the fitness of an organism. Hence, in this model, most genetic changes in a population are the result of constant mutation pressure and genetic drift. This form of the neutral theory is now largely abandoned, since it does not seem to fit the genetic variation seen in nature. However, a more recent and better-supported version of this model is the nearly neutral theory, where most mutations only have small effects on fitness. Outcomes Evolution influences every aspect of the form and behavior of organisms. Most prominent are the specific behavioral and physical adaptations that are the outcome of natural selection. These adaptations increase fitness by aiding activities such as finding food, avoiding predators or attracting mates. Organisms can also respond to selection by co-operating with each other, usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial symbiosis. In the longer term, evolution produces new species through splitting ancestral populations of organisms into new groups that cannot or will not interbreed. These outcomes of evolution are sometimes divided into macroevolution, which is evolution that occurs at or above the level of species, such as extinction and speciation, and microevolution, which is smaller evolutionary changes, such as adaptations, within a species or population. In general, macroevolution is regarded as the outcome of long periods of microevolution. Thus, the distinction between micro- and macroevolution is not a fundamental one - the difference is simply the time involved. However, in macroevolution, the traits of the entire species may be important. For instance, a large amount of variation among individuals allows a species to rapidly adapt to new habitats, lessening the chance of it going extinct, while a wide geographic range increases the chance of speciation, by making it more likely that part of the population will become isolated. In this sense, microevolution and macroevolution might involve selection at different levels - with microevolution acting on genes and organisms, versus macroevolutionary processes acting on entire species and affecting the rate of speciation and extinction. A common misconception is that evolution is "progressive," but natural selection has no long-term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity. Michael J. Dougherty. Is the human race evolving or devolving? Scientific American July 20, 1998. TalkOrigins Archive response to Creationist claims - Claim CB932: Evolution of degenerate forms Although complex species have evolved, this occurs as a side effect of the overall number of organisms increasing, and simple forms of life remain more common. For example, the overwhelming majority of species are microscopic prokaryotes, which form about half the world's biomass despite their small size, and constitute the vast majority of Earth's biodiversity. Simple organisms have therefore been the dominant form of life on Earth throughout its history and continue to be the main form of life up to the present day, with complex life only appearing more diverse because it is more noticeable. Adaptation Adaptation is one of the basic phenomena of biology, Williams, George C. 1966. Adaptation and natural selection: a critique of some current evolutionary thought. Princeton. "Evolutionary adaptation is a phenomenon of pervasive importance in biology." p5 and is the process whereby an organism becomes better suited to its habitat. Mayr, Ernst 1982. The growth of biological thought. Harvard. p483: "Adaptation... could no longer be considered a static condition, a product of a creative past, and became instead a continuing dynamic process." The Oxford Dictionary of Science defines adaptation as "Any change in the structure or functioning of an organism that makes it better suited to its environment". Also, the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism's survival. For example, the adaptation of horses' teeth to the grinding of grass, or the ability of horses to run fast and escape predators. By using the term adaptation for the evolutionary process, and adaptive trait for the product (the bodily part or function), the two senses of the word may be distinguished. Adaptations are produced by natural selection. The following definitions are due to Theodosius Dobzhansky. 1. Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats. Dobzhansky T. 1968. On some fundamental concepts of evolutionary biology. Evolutionary biology 2, 1–34. 2. Adaptedness is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats. Dobzhansky T. 1970. Genetics of the evolutionary process. Columbia, N.Y. p4–6, 79–82, 84–87 3. An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing. Dobzhansky T. 1956. Genetics of natural populations XXV. Genetic changes in populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura and Drosphila persimilis in some locations in California. Evolution 10, 82–92. Adaptation may cause either the gain of a new feature, or the loss of an ancestral feature. An example that shows both types of change is bacterial adaptation to antibiotic selection, with genetic changes causing antibiotic resistance by both modifying the target of the drug, or increasing the activity of transporters that pump the drug out of the cell. Other striking examples are the bacteria Escherichia coli evolving the ability to use citric acid as a nutrient in a long-term laboratory experiment, Flavobacterium evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by-products of nylon manufacturing, and the soil bacterium Sphingobium evolving an entirely new metabolic pathway that degrades the synthetic pesticide pentachlorophenol. An interesting but still controversial idea is that some adaptations might increase the ability of organisms to generate genetic diversity and adapt by natural selection (increasing organisms' evolvability). However, many traits that appear to be simple adaptations are in fact exaptations: structures originally adapted for one function, but which coincidentally became somewhat useful for some other function in the process. One example is the African lizard Holaspis guentheri, which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by looking at its near relatives. However, in this species, the head has become so flattened that it assists in gliding from tree to tree—an exaptation. Another is the recruitment of enzymes from glycolysis and xenobiotic metabolism to serve as structural proteins called crystallins within the lenses of organisms' eyes. As adaptation occurs through the gradual modification of existing structures, structures with similar internal organization may have very different functions in related organisms. This is the result of a single ancestral structure being adapted to function in different ways. The bones within bat wings, for example, are structurally similar to both human hands and seal flippers, due to the common descent of these structures from an ancestor that also had five digits at the end of each forelimb. Other idiosyncratic anatomical features, such as bones in the wrist of the panda being formed into a false "thumb," indicate that an organism's evolutionary lineage can limit what adaptations are possible. During adaptation, some structures may lose their original function and become vestigial structures. Such structures may have little or no function in a current species, yet have a clear function in ancestral species, or other closely related species. Examples include pseudogenes, the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish, wings in flightless birds, and the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes. Examples of vestigial structures in humans include wisdom teeth, the coccyx, and the vermiform appendix. A critical principle of ecology is that of competitive exclusion: no two species can occupy the same niche in the same environment for a long time. Consequently, natural selection will tend to force species to adapt to different ecological niches. This may mean that, for example, two species of cichlid fish adapt to live in different habitats, which will minimize the competition between them for food. An area of current investigation in evolutionary developmental biology is the developmental basis of adaptations and exaptations. This research addresses the origin and evolution of embryonic development and how modifications of development and developmental processes produce novel features. * These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to create new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the middle ear in mammals. It is also possible for structures that have been lost in evolution to reappear due to changes in developmental genes, such as a mutation in chickens causing embryos to grow teeth similar to those of crocodiles. It is now becoming clear that most alterations in the form of organisms are due to changes in the level and timing of the expression of a small set of conserved genes. Co-evolution Interactions between organisms can produce both conflict and co-operation. When the interaction is between pairs of species, such as a pathogen and a host, or a predator and its prey, these species can develop matched sets of adaptations. Here, the evolution of one species causes adaptations in a second species. These changes in the second species then, in turn, cause new adaptations in the first species. This cycle of selection and response is called co-evolution. An example is the production of tetrodotoxin in the rough-skinned newt and the evolution of tetrodotoxin resistance in its predator, the common garter snake. In this predator-prey pair, an evolutionary arms race has produced high levels of toxin in the newt and correspondingly high levels of resistance in the snake. * Co-operation However, not all interactions between species involve conflict. * Many cases of mutually beneficial interactions have evolved. For instance, an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the mycorrhizal fungi that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil. This is a reciprocal relationship as the plants provide the fungi with sugars from photosynthesis. Here, the fungi actually grow inside plant cells, allowing them to exchange nutrients with their hosts, while sending signals that suppress the plant immune system. Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved. An extreme case is the eusociality found in social insects, such as bees, termites and ants, where sterile insects feed and guard the small number of organisms in a colony that are able to reproduce. On an even smaller scale, the somatic cells that make up the body of an animal limit their reproduction so they can maintain a stable organism, which then supports a small number of the animal's germ cells to produce offspring. Here, somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to grow, remain as they are, or die. If cells ignore these signals and multiply inappropriately, their uncontrolled growth causes cancer. These examples of cooperation within species are thought to have evolved through the process of kin selection, which is where one organism acts to help raise a relative's offspring. This activity is selected for because if the helping individual contains alleles which promote the helping activity, it is likely that its kin will also contain these alleles and thus those alleles will be passed on. Other processes that may promote cooperation include group selection, where cooperation provides benefits to a group of organisms. Speciation Speciation is the process where a species diverges into two or more descendant species. Evolutionary biologists view species as statistical phenomena and not categories or types. This view is counterintuitive since the classical idea of species is still widely held, with a species seen as a class of organisms exemplified by a "type specimen" that bears all the traits common to this species. Instead, a species is now defined as a separately evolving lineage that forms a single gene pool. Although properties such as genetics and morphology are used to help separate closely related lineages, this definition has fuzzy boundaries. Indeed, the exact definition of the term "species" is still controversial, particularly in prokaryotes, and this is called the species problem. Biologists have proposed a range of more precise definitions, but the definition used is a pragmatic choice that depends on the particularities of the species concerned. Typically the actual focus on biological study is the population, an observable interacting group of organisms, rather than a species, an observable similar group of individuals. Speciation has been observed multiple times under both controlled laboratory conditions and in nature. *** In sexually reproducing organisms, speciation results from reproductive isolation followed by genealogical divergence. There are four mechanisms for speciation. The most common in animals is allopatric speciation, which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by habitat fragmentation or migration. Selection under these conditions can produce very rapid changes in the appearance and behaviour of organisms. As selection and drift act independently on populations isolated from the rest of their species, separation may eventually produce organisms that cannot interbreed. The second mechanism of speciation is peripatric speciation, which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment. This differs from allopatric speciation in that the isolated populations are numerically much smaller than the parental population. Here, the founder effect causes rapid speciation through both rapid genetic drift and selection on a small gene pool. The third mechanism of speciation is parapatric speciation. This is similar to peripatric speciation in that a small population enters a new habitat, but differs in that there is no physical separation between these two populations. Instead, speciation results from the evolution of mechanisms that reduce gene flow between the two populations. Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change in the environment within the parental species' habitat. One example is the grass Anthoxanthum odoratum, which can undergo parapatric speciation in response to localized metal pollution from mines. Here, plants evolve that have resistance to high levels of metals in the soil. Selection against interbreeding with the metal-sensitive parental population produces a change in flowering time of the metal-resistant plants, causing reproductive isolation. Selection against hybrids between the two populations may cause reinforcement, which is the evolution of traits that promote mating within a species, as well as character displacement, which is when two species become more distinct in appearance. Finally, in sympatric speciation species diverge without geographic isolation or changes in habitat. This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population. * Generally, sympatric speciation in animals requires the evolution of both genetic differences and non-random mating, to allow reproductive isolation to evolve. One type of sympatric speciation involves cross-breeding of two related species to produce a new hybrid species. This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile. This is because during meiosis the homologous chromosomes from each parent are from different species and cannot successfully pair. However, it is more common in plants because plants often double their number of chromosomes, to form polyploids. This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form a matching pair during meiosis, since as each parent's chromosomes is represented by a pair already. An example of such a speciation event is when the plant species Arabidopsis thaliana and Arabidopsis arenosa cross-bred to give the new species Arabidopsis suecica. This happened about 20,000 years ago, and the speciation process has been repeated in the laboratory, which allows the study of the genetic mechanisms involved in this process. Indeed, chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation, as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms. Speciation events are important in the theory of punctuated equilibrium, which accounts for the pattern in the fossil record of short "bursts" of evolution interspersed with relatively long periods of stasis, where species remain relatively unchanged. Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould, 1972. "Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism" In T.J.M. Schopf, ed., Models in Paleobiology. San Francisco: Freeman Cooper. pp. 82–115. Reprinted in N. Eldredge Time frames. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press. 1985 In this theory, speciation and rapid evolution are linked, with natural selection and genetic drift acting most strongly on organisms undergoing speciation in novel habitats or small populations. As a result, the periods of stasis in the fossil record correspond to the parental population, and the organisms undergoing speciation and rapid evolution are found in small populations or geographically restricted habitats, and therefore rarely being preserved as fossils. Extinction Extinction is the disappearance of an entire species. Extinction is not an unusual event, as species regularly appear through speciation, and disappear through extinction. Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on earth are now extinct, and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species. These extinctions have happened continuously throughout the history of life, although the rate of extinction spikes in occasional mass extinction events. The Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, during which the non-avian dinosaurs went extinct, is the most well-known, but the earlier Permian–Triassic extinction event was even more severe, with approximately 96 percent of species driven to extinction. The Holocene extinction event is an ongoing mass extinction associated with humanity's expansion across the globe over the past few thousand years. Present-day extinction rates are 100-1000 times greater than the background rate, and up to 30 percent of species may be extinct by the mid 21st century. Human activities are now the primary cause of the ongoing extinction event; * global warming may further accelerate it in the future. The role of extinction in evolution depends on which type is considered. The causes of the continuous "low-level" extinction events, which form the majority of extinctions, are not well understood and may be the result of competition between species for limited resources (competitive exclusion). If competition from other species does alter the probability that a species will become extinct, this could produce species selection as a level of natural selection. The intermittent mass extinctions are also important, but instead of acting as a selective force, they drastically reduce diversity in a nonspecific manner and promote bursts of rapid evolution and speciation in survivors. Evolutionary history of life Origin of life The origin of life is a necessary precursor for biological evolution, but understanding that evolution occurred once organisms appeared and investigating how this happens does not depend on understanding exactly how life began. The current scientific consensus is that the complex biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler chemical reactions, but it is unclear how this occurred. Not much is certain about the earliest developments in life, the structure of the first living things, or the identity and nature of any last universal common ancestor or ancestral gene pool. Consequently, there is no scientific consensus on how life began, but proposals include self-replicating molecules such as RNA, and the assembly of simple cells. Common descent All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool. Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events. The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation. Second, the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique organisms, but organisms that share morphological similarities. Third, vestigial traits with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits, and finally, that organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups - similar to a family tree. However, modern research has suggested that, due to horizontal gene transfer, this "tree of life" may be more complicated than a simple branching tree since some genes have spread independently between distantly related species. Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history. Fossils, along with the comparative anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record. By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, paleontologists can infer the lineages of those species. However, this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells, bones or teeth. Further, as prokaryotes such as bacteria and archaea share a limited set of common morphologies, their fossils do not provide information on their ancestry. More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms. For example, all living cells use the same basic set of nucleotides and amino acids. The development of molecular genetics has revealed the record of evolution left in organisms' genomes: dating when species diverged through the molecular clock produced by mutations. For example, these DNA sequence comparisons have revealed the close genetic similarity between humans and chimpanzees and shed light on when the common ancestor of these species existed. Evolution of life Despite the uncertainty on how life began, it is generally accepted that prokaryotes inhabited the Earth from approximately 3–4 billion years ago. * No obvious changes in morphology or cellular organization occurred in these organisms over the next few billion years. The eukaryotes were the next major change in cell structure. These came from ancient bacteria being engulfed by the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association called endosymbiosis. The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent co-evolution, with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes. An independent second engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants. * It is unknown when the first eukaryotic cells appeared though they first emerged between 1.6 - 2.7 billion years ago. The history of life was that of the unicellular eukaryotes, prokaryotes, and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in the Ediacaran period. The evolution of multicellularity occurred in multiple independent events, in organisms as diverse as sponges, brown algae, cyanobacteria, slime moulds and myxobacteria. Soon after the emergence of these first multicellular organisms, a remarkable amount of biological diversity appeared over approximately 10 million years, in an event called the Cambrian explosion. Here, the majority of types of modern animals appeared in the fossil record, as well as unique lineages that subsequently became extinct. Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis. * About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi colonized the land, and were soon followed by arthropods and other animals. Amphibians first appeared around 300 million years ago, followed by early amniotes, then mammals around 200 million years ago and birds around 100 million years ago (both from "reptile"-like lineages). However, despite the evolution of these large animals, smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth, with the majority of both biomass and species being prokaryotes. History of evolutionary thought Evolutionary ideas such as common descent and the transmutation of species have existed since at least the 6th century BC, when they were expounded by the Greek philosopher Anaximander. Others who considered such ideas included the Greek philosopher Empedocles, the Roman philosopher-poet Lucretius, the Arab biologist Al-Jahiz, the Persian philosopher Ibn Miskawayh, the Brethren of Purity, Muhammad Hamidullah and Afzal Iqbal (1993), The Emergence of Islam: Lectures on the Development of Islamic World-view, Intellectual Tradition and Polity, p. 143-144. Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad. and the Chinese philosopher Zhuangzi. "A Source Book In Chinese Philosophy", Chan, Wing-Tsit, p. 204, 1962. As biological knowledge grew in the 18th century, evolutionary ideas were set out by a few natural philosophers including Pierre Maupertuis in 1745 and Erasmus Darwin in 1796. The ideas of the biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck about transmutation of species had wide influence. Charles Darwin formulated his idea of natural selection in 1838 and was still developing his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him a similar theory, and both were presented to the Linnean Society of London in separate papers. At the end of 1859 Darwin's publication of On the Origin of Species explained natural selection in detail and presented evidence leading to increasingly wide acceptance of the occurrence of evolution. Debate about the mechanisms of evolution continued, and Darwin could not explain the source of the heritable variations which would be acted on by natural selection. Like Lamarck, he thought that parents passed on adaptations acquired during their lifetimes, a theory which was subsequently dubbed Lamarckism. p. 17-18 In the 1880s August Weismann's experiments indicated that changes from use and disuse were not heritable, and Lamarckism gradually fell from favour. More significantly, Darwin could not account for how traits were passed down from generation to generation. In 1865 Gregor Mendel found that traits were inherited in a predictable manner. When Mendel's work was rediscovered in 1900s, disagreements over the rate of evolution predicted by early geneticists and biometricians led to a rift between the Mendelian and Darwinian models of evolution. Yet it was the rediscovery of Gregor Mendel’s pioneering work on the fundamentals of genetics (of which Darwin and Wallace were unaware) by Hugo de Vries and others in the early 1900s that provided the impetus for a better understanding of how variation occurs in plant and animal traits. That variation is the main fuel used by natural selection to shape the wide variety of adaptive traits observed in organic life. Even though Hugo de Vries and other early geneticists were very critical of the theory of evolution, their rediscovery of and subsequent work on genetics eventually provided a solid basis on which the theory of evolution stood even more convincingly than when it was originally proposed. Quammen, D. (2006). The reluctant Mr. Darwin: An intimate portrait of Charles Darwin and the making of his theory of evolution. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company. The apparent contradiction between Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection and Mendel’s work was reconciled in the 1920s and 1930s by evolutionary biologists such as J.B.S. Haldane, Sewall Wright, and particularly Ronald Fisher, who set the foundations for the establishment of the field of population genetics. The end result was a combination of evolution by natural selection and Mendelian inheritance, the modern evolutionary synthesis. In the 1940s, the identification of DNA as the genetic material by Oswald Avery and colleagues and the subsequent publication of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, demonstrated the physical basis for inheritance. Since then, genetics and molecular biology have become core parts of evolutionary biology and have revolutionized the field of phylogenetics. In its early history, evolutionary biology primarily drew in scientists from traditional taxonomically oriented disciplines, whose specialist training in particular organisms addressed general questions in evolution. As evolutionary biology expanded as an academic discipline, particularly after the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis, it began to draw more widely from the biological sciences. Currently the study of evolutionary biology involves scientists from fields as diverse as biochemistry, ecology, genetics and physiology, and evolutionary concepts are used in even more distant disciplines such as psychology, medicine, philosophy and computer science. In the 21st century, current research in evolutionary biology deals with several areas where the modern evolutionary synthesis may need modification or extension, such as assessing the relative importance of various ideas on the unit of selection and evolvability and how to fully incorporate the findings of evolutionary developmental biology. Social and cultural responses In the 19th century, particularly after the publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859, the idea that life had evolved was an active source of academic debate centered on the philosophical, social and religious implications of evolution. Nowadays, the fact that organisms evolve is uncontested in the scientific literature and the modern evolutionary synthesis is widely accepted by scientists. However, evolution remains a contentious concept for some religious groups. For an overview of the philosophical, religious, and cosmological controversies, see: *For the scientific and social reception of evolution in the 19th and early 20th centuries, see: ** While various religions and denominations have reconciled their beliefs with evolution through concepts such as theistic evolution, there are creationists who believe that evolution is contradicted by the creation myths found in their respective religions and who raise various objections to evolution. As had been demonstrated by responses to the publication of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation in 1844, the most controversial aspect of evolutionary biology is the implication of human evolution that human mental and moral faculties, which had been thought purely spiritual, are not distinctly separated from those of other animals. In some countries—notably the United States—these tensions between science and religion have fueled the current creation-evolution controversy, a religious conflict focusing on politics and public education. While other scientific fields such as cosmology and earth science also conflict with literal interpretations of many religious texts, evolutionary biology experiences significantly more opposition from religious literalists. Another example associated with evolutionary theory that is now widely regarded as unwarranted is misnamed "Social Darwinism," a term given to the 19th century Whig Malthusian theory developed by Herbert Spencer into ideas about "survival of the fittest" in commerce and human societies as a whole, and by others into claims that social inequality, racism, and imperialism were justified. On the history of eugenics and evolution, see However, these ideas contradict Darwin's own views, and contemporary scientists and philosophers consider these ideas to be neither mandated by evolutionary theory nor supported by data. Darwin strongly disagreed with attempts by Herbert Spencer and others to extrapolate evolutionary ideas to all possible subjects; see Applications Evolutionary biology, and in particular the understanding of how organisms evolve through natural selection, is an area of science with many practical applications. A major technological application of evolution is artificial selection, which is the intentional selection of certain traits in a population of organisms. Humans have used artificial selection for thousands of years in the domestication of plants and animals. More recently, such selection has become a vital part of genetic engineering, with selectable markers such as antibiotic resistance genes being used to manipulate DNA in molecular biology. It is also possible to use repeated rounds of mutation and selection to evolve proteins with particular properties, such as modified enzymes or new antibodies, in a process called directed evolution. Understanding the changes that have occurred during organism's evolution can reveal the genes needed to construct parts of the body, genes which may be involved in human genetic disorders. For example, the Mexican tetra is an albino cavefish that lost its eyesight during evolution. Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves. This helped identify genes required for vision and pigmentation, such as crystallins and the melanocortin 1 receptor. Similarly, comparing the genome of the Antarctic icefish, which lacks red blood cells, to close relatives such as the zebrafish revealed genes needed to make these blood cells. As evolution can produce highly optimized processes and networks, it has many applications in computer science. Here, simulations of evolution using evolutionary algorithms and artificial life started with the work of Nils Aall Barricelli in the 1960s, and was extended by Alex Fraser, who published a series of papers on simulation of artificial selection. Artificial evolution became a widely recognized optimization method as a result of the work of Ingo Rechenberg in the 1960s and early 1970s, who used evolution strategies to solve complex engineering problems. Genetic algorithms in particular became popular through the writing of John Holland. As academic interest grew, dramatic increases in the power of computers allowed practical applications, including the automatic evolution of computer programs. Evolutionary algorithms are now used to solve multi-dimensional problems more efficiently than software produced by human designers, and also to optimize the design of systems. See also Evolutionary biology portal References Further reading Introductory reading History of evolutionary thought Advanced reading External links General information Everything you wanted to know about evolution by New Scientist Howstuffworks.com — How Evolution Works National Academies Evolution Resources Synthetic Theory Of Evolution: An Introduction to Modern Evolutionary Concepts and Theories Understanding Evolution from University of California, Berkeley History of evolutionary thought The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online Understanding Evolution: History, Theory, Evidence, and Implications On-line lectures What Genomes Can Tell Us About the Past - lecture by Sydney Brenner The Origin of Vertebrates - lecture by Marc Kirschner Related topics be-x-old:Эвалюцыя | Evolution |@lemmatized biology:22 evolution:87 change:46 genetic:54 material:10 population:82 organism:94 one:19 generation:20 next:8 though:3 produce:35 small:23 difference:9 accumulate:2 time:11 cause:25 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4,954 | Cybernetics | Cybernetics is the interdisciplinary study of the structure of regulatory systems. Cybernetics is closely related to control theory and systems theory. Both in its origins and in its evolution in the second-half of the 20th century, cybernetics is equally applicable to physical and social (that is, language-based) systems. Cybernetics is preeminent when the system under scrutiny is involved in a closed signal loop, where action by the system in an environment causes some change in the environment and that change is manifest to the system via information / feedback that causes the system to adapt to new conditions: the system changes its behaviour. This "circular causal" relationship is necessary and sufficient for a cybernetic perspective. Example of cybernetic thinking. On the one hand a company is approached as a system in an environment. On the other hand cybernetic factory can be modeled as a control system. Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of control systems, electrical network theory, mechanical engineering, logic modeling, evolutionary biology, neuroscience, anthropology, and psychology in the 1940s, often attributed to the Macy Conferences. Other fields of study which have influenced or been influenced by cybernetics include game theory, system theory (a mathematical counterpart to cybernetics), psychology (especially neuropsychology, behavioral psychology, cognitive psychology), philosophy, and architecture. Tange, Kenzo (1966) "Function, Structure and Symbol". Overview The term cybernetics stems from the Greek κυβερνήτης (kybernētēs, steersman, governor, pilot, or rudder — the same root as government). Cybernetics is a broad field of study, but the essential goal of cybernetics is to understand and define the functions and processes of systems that have goals, and that participate in circular, causal chains that move from action to sensing to comparison with desired goal, and again to action. Studies in cybernetics provide a means for examining the design and function of any system, including social systems such as business management and organizational learning, including for the purpose of making them more efficient and effective. Cybernetics was defined by Norbert Wiener, in his book of that title, as the study of control and communication in the animal and the machine. Stafford Beer called it the science of effective organization and Gordon Pask extended it to include information flows "in all media" from stars to brains. It includes the study of feedback, black boxes and derived concepts such as communication and control in living organisms, machines and organizations including self-organization. Its focus is how anything (digital, mechanical or biological) processes information, reacts to information, and changes or can be changed to better accomplish the first two tasks . A more philosophical definition, suggested in 1956 by Louis Couffignal, one of the pioneers of cybernetics, characterizes cybernetics as "the art of ensuring the efficacy of action" Couffignal, Louis, "Essai d’une définition générale de la cybernétique", The First International Congress on Cybernetics, Namur, Belgium, June 26-29, 1956, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1958, pp. 46-54 . The most recent definition has been proposed by Louis Kauffman, President of the American Society for Cybernetics, "Cybernetics is the study of systems and processes that interact with themselves and produce themselves from themselves" CYBCON discusstion group 20 September 2007 18:15 . Concepts studied by cyberneticists (or, as some prefer, cyberneticians) include, but are not limited to: learning, cognition, adaption, social control, emergence, communication, efficiency, efficacy and interconnectivity. These concepts are studied by other subjects such as engineering and biology, but in cybernetics these are removed from the context of the individual organism or device. Other fields of study which have influenced or been influenced by cybernetics include game theory; system theory (a mathematical counterpart to cybernetics); psychology, especially neuropsychology, behavioral psychology,cognitive psychology; philosophy; anthropology and even architecture. History The Roots of Cybernetic theory The word cybernetics was first used in the context of "the study of self-governance" by Plato in The Laws to signify the governance of people. The words govern and governor are related to the same Greek root through the Latin cognates gubernare and gubernator. The word "cybernétique" was also used in 1834 by the physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836) to denote the sciences of government in his classification system of human knowledge. James Watt The first artificial automatic regulatory system, a water clock, was invented by the mechanician Ktesibios. In his water clocks, water flowed from a source such as a holding tank into a reservoir, then from the reservoir to the mechanisms of the clock. Ktesibios's device used a cone-shaped float to monitor the level of the water in its reservoir and adjust the rate of flow of the water accordingly to maintain a constant level of water in the reservoir, so that it neither overflowed nor was allowed to run dry. This was the first artificial truly automatic self-regulatory device that required no outside intervention between the feedback and the controls of the mechanism. Although they did not refer to this concept by the name of Cybernetics (they considered it a field of engineering), Ktesibios and others such as Heron and Su Song are considered to be some of the first to study cybernetic principles. The study of teleological mechanisms (from the Greek τέλος or telos for end, goal, or purpose) in machines with corrective feedback dates from as far back as the late 1700s when James Watt's steam engine was equipped with a governor, a centrifugal feedback valve for controlling the speed of the engine. Alfred Russel Wallace identified this as the principle of evolution in his famous 1858 paper. In 1868 James Clerk Maxwell published a theoretical article on governors, one of the first to discuss and refine the principles of self-regulating devices. Jakob von Uexküll applied the feedback mechanism via his model of functional cycle (Funktionskreis) in order to explain animal behaviour and the origins of meaning in general. The Early 20th century Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of control systems, electrical network theory, mechanical engineering, logic modeling, evolutionary biology and neuroscience in the 1940s. Electronic control systems originated with the 1927 work of Bell Telephone Laboratories engineer Harold S. Black on using negative feedback to control amplifiers. The ideas are also related to the biological work of Ludwig von Bertalanffy in General Systems Theory. Early applications of negative feedback in electronic circuits included the control of gun mounts and radar antenna during World War Two. Jay Forrester, a graduate student at the Servomechanisms Laboratory at MIT during WWII working with Gordon S. Brown to develop electronic control systems for the U.S. Navy, later applied these ideas to social organizations such as corporations and cities as an original organizer of the MIT School of Industrial Management at the MIT Sloan School of Management. Forrester is known as the founder of System Dynamics. W. Edwards Deming, the Total Quality Management guru for whom Japan named its top post-WWII industrial prize, was an intern at Bell Telephone Labs in 1927 and may have been influenced by network theory. Deming made "Understanding Systems" one of the four pillars of what he described as "Profound Knowledge" in his book "The New Economics." Numerous papers spearheaded the coalescing of the field. In 1935 Russian physiologist P.K. Anokhin published a book in which the concept of feedback ("back afferentation") was studied. The study and mathematical modelling of regulatory processes became a continuing research effort and two key articles were published in 1943. These papers were "Behavior, Purpose and Teleology" by Arturo Rosenblueth, Norbert Wiener, and Julian Bigelow; and the paper "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" by Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts. Cybernetics as a discipline was firmly established by Wiener, McCulloch and others, such as W. Ross Ashby and W. Grey Walter. Walter was one of the first to build autonomous robots as an aid to the study of animal behaviour. Together with the US and UK, an important geographical locus of early cybernetics was France. In the spring of 1947, Wiener was invited to a congress on harmonic analysis, held in Nancy, France. The event was organized by the Bourbaki, a French scientific society, and mathematician Szolem Mandelbrojt (1899-1983), uncle of the world-famous mathematician Benoît Mandelbrot. John von Neumann During this stay in France, Wiener received the offer to write a manuscript on the unifying character of this part of applied mathematics, which is found in the study of Brownian motion and in telecommunication engineering. The following summer, back in the United States, Wiener decided to introduce the neologism cybernetics into his scientific theory. The name cybernetics was coined to denote the study of "teleological mechanisms" and was popularized through his book Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the Animal and Machine (Hermann & Cie, Paris, 1948). In the UK this became the focus for the Ratio Club. In the early 1940s John von Neumann, although better known for his work in mathematics and computer science, did contribute a unique and unusual addition to the world of cybernetics: Von Neumann cellular automata, and their logical follow up the Von Neumann Universal Constructor. The result of these deceptively simple thought-experiments was the concept of self replication which cybernetics adopted as a core concept. The concept that the same properties of genetic reproduction applied to social memes, living cells, and even computer viruses is further proof of the somewhat surprising universality of cybernetic study. Wiener popularized the social implications of cybernetics, drawing analogies between automatic systems (such as a regulated steam engine) and human institutions in his best-selling The Human Use of Human Beings : Cybernetics and Society (Houghton-Mifflin, 1950). While not the only instance of a research organization focused on cybernetics, the Biological Computer Lab at the University of Illinois, Urbana/Champaign, under the direction of Heinz von Foerster, was a major center of cybernetic research for almost 20 years, beginning in 1958. The Fall and Rebirth of Cybernetics For a time during the past 30 years, the field of cybernetics followed a boom-bust cycle of becoming more and more dominated by the subfields of artificial intelligence and machine-biological interfaces (ie. cyborgs) and when this research fell out of favor, the field as a whole fell from grace. Francisco Varela. Stuart A. Umpleby In the 1970s new cybernetics has emerged in multiple fields, first in biology. Some biologists influenced by cybernetic concepts (Maturana and Varela, 1980); Varela, 1979; Atlan, 1979) realized that the cybernetic metaphors of the program upon which molecular biology had been based rendered a conception of the autonomy of the living being impossible. Consequently, these thinkers were led to invent a new cybernetics, one more suited to the organizations which mankind discovers in nature - organizations he has not himself invented. The possibility that this new cybernetics could also account for social forms of organization, remained an object of debate among theoreticians on self-organization in the 1980s. Jean-Pierre Dupuy, "The autonomy of social reality: on the contribution of systems theory to the theory of society" in: Elias L. Khalil & Kenneth E. Boulding eds., Evolution, Order and Complexity, 1986. In political science, Project Cybersyn attempted to introduce a cybernetically controlled economy during the early 1970s. In the 1980s, unlike its predecessor, the new cybernetics concerns itself with the interaction of autonomous political actors and subgroups, and the practical and reflexive consciousness of the subjects who produce and reproduce the structure of a political community. A dominant consideration is that of recursiveness, or self-reference of political action both with regards to the expression of political consciousness and with the ways in which systems build upon themselves. Peter Harries-Jones (1988), "The Self-Organizing Polity: An Epistemological Analysis of Political Life by Laurent Dobuzinskis" in: Canadian Journal of Political Science (Revue canadienne de science politique), Vol. 21, No. 2 (Jun., 1988), pp. 431-433. Geyer and van der Zouwen in 1978 discussed a number of characteristics of the emerging "new cybernetics". One characteristic of new cybernetics is that it views information as constructed and reconstructed by an individual interacting with the environment. This provides an epistemological foundation of science, by viewing it as observer-dependent. Another characteristic of the new cybernetics is its contribution towards bridging the "micro-macro gap". That is, it links the individual with the society. Geyer and van der Zouwen also noted that a transition from classical cybernetics to the new cybernetics involves a transition from classical problems to new problems. These shifts in thinking involve, among others, a change from emphasis on the system being steered to the system doing the steering, and the factor which guides the steering decisions. And a new emphasis on communication between several systems which are trying to steer each other. Kenneth D. Bailey (1994), Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis, p.163. Recent endeavors into the true focus of cybernetics, systems of control and emergent behavior, by such related fields as game theory (the analysis of group interaction), systems of feedback in evolution, and metamaterials (the study of materials with properties beyond the Newtonian properties of their constituent atoms), have led to a revived interest in this increasingly relevant field. Subdivisions of the field Cybernetics is an earlier but still-used generic term for many types of subject matter. These subjects also extend into many others areas of science, but are united in their study of control of systems. Pure Cybernetics Pure cybernetics studies systems of control as a concept, attempting to discover the basic principles underlying such things asASIMO uses sensors and intelligent algorithms to avoid obstacles and navigate stairs. Artificial intelligence Robotics Computer Vision Control systems Emergence Learning organization New Cybernetics Second-order cybernetics Interactions of Actors Theory Conversation Theory In Biology Cybernetics in biology is the study of cybernetic systems present in biological organisms, primarily focusing on how animals adapt to their environment, and how information in the form of genes is passed from generation to generation Note: this does not refer to the concept of Racial Memory but to the concept of cumulative adaptation to a particular niche, such as the case of the pepper moth having genes for both light and dark environments. . There is also a secondary focus on cyborgs.Thermal image of a cold-blooded tarantula on a warm-blooded human hand Bioengineering Biocybernetics Bionics Homeostasis Medical cybernetics Synthetic Biology Systems Biology In Complexity Science Complexity Science attempts to analyze the nature of complex systems, and the reasons behind their unusual properties.A way of modelling Complex Adaptive System Complex Adaptive System Complex systems Complexity theory In Computer Science Computer science directly applies the concepts of cybernetics to the control of devices and the analysis of information. Robotics Decision support system Cellular automaton Simulation In Engineering Cybernetics in engineering is used to analyze cascading failures and System Accidents, in which the small errors and imperfections in a system can generate disasters. Other topics studied include:An artificial heart, example of a biomedical engineering. Adaptive systems Engineering cybernetics Ergonomics Biomedical engineering Systems engineering In Management Entrepreneurial cybernetics Management cybernetics Organizational cybernetics Operations research Systems engineering In Mathematics Mathematical Cybernetics focuses on the factors of information, interaction of parts in systems, and the structure of systems.Turbulence in the tip vortex from an airplane wing. Dynamical system Information theory Systems theory In Psychology Homunculus Psycho-Cybernetics Systems psychology In Sociology By examining group behavior through the lens of cybernetics, sociology seeks the reasons for such spontaneous events as smart mobs and riots, as well as how communities develop rules, such as etiquette, by consensus without formal discussion. Affect Control Theory explains role behavior, emotions, and labeling theory in terms of homeostatic maintenance of sentiments associated with cultural categories. The most comprehensive attempt ever made in the social sciences to increase cybernetics in an generalized theory of society was made by Talcott Parsons. These and other cybernetic models in sociology are reviewed in a book edited by McClelland and Fararo McClelland, Kent A., and Thomas J. Fararo (Eds.). 2006. Purpose, Meaning, and Action: Control Systems Theories in Sociology. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. . Affect Control Theory Memetics Sociocybernetics See also Artificial life Automation Brain-computer interface Chaos theory Connectionism Decision theory Family therapy Gaia hypothesis Industrial Ecology Intelligence amplification Management science Perceptual control theory Principia Cybernetica Project Cybersyn Semiotics Superorganisms Synergetics References Further reading W. Ross Ashby (1956), Introduction to Cybernetics. Methuen, London, UK. PDF text. Stafford Beer (1974), Designing Freedom, John Wiley, London and New York, 1975. Lars Bluma, (2005), Norbert Wiener und die Entstehung der Kybernetik im Zweiten Weltkrieg, Münster. Charles François (1999). "Systemics and cybernetics in a historical perspective". In: Systems Research and Behavioral Science. Vol 16, pp. 203-219 (1999) Steve J. Heims (1980), John von Neumann and Norbert Wiener: From Mathematics to the Technologies of Life and Death, 3. Aufl., Cambridge. Steve J. Heims (1993), Constructing a Social Science for Postwar America. The Cybernetics Group, 1946-1953, Cambridge University Press, London, UK. Helvey, T.C. The Age of Information: An Interdisciplinary Survey of Cybernetics. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology Publications, 1971. Francis Heylighen, and Cliff Joslyn (2001). "Cybernetics and Second Order Cybernetics", in: R.A. Meyers (ed.), Encyclopedia of Physical Science & Technology (3rd ed.), Vol. 4, (Academic Press, New York), p. 155-170. Hans Joachim Ilgauds (1980), Norbert Wiener, Leipzig. John Johnston, (2008) "The Allure of Machinic Life: Cybernetics, Artificial Life, and the New AI", MIT Press Eden Medina, "Designing Freedom, Regulating a Nation: Socialist Cybernetics in Allende's Chile." Journal of Latin American Studies 38 (2006):571-606. Paul Pangaro (1990), "Cybernetics — A Definition", Eprint. Gordon Pask (1972), "Cybernetics", entry in Encyclopaedia Britannica 1972. B.C. Patten, and E.P. Odum (1981), "The Cybernetic Nature of Ecosystems", The American Naturalist 118, 886-895. Heinz von Foerster, (1995), Ethics and Second-Order Cybernetics. Stuart Umpleby (1989), "The science of cybernetics and the cybernetics of science", in: Cybernetics and Systems", Vol. 21, No. 1, (1990), pp. 109-121. Norbert Wiener (1948), Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine'', (Hermann & Cie Editeurs, Paris, The Technology Press, Cambridge, Mass., John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1948). External links Genaral Principia Cybernetica Web Web Dictionary of Cybernetics and Systems Glossary Slideshow (136 slides) Basics of Cybernetics Societies American Society for Cybernetics IEEE Systems, Man, & Cybernetics Society The Cybernetics Society | Cybernetics |@lemmatized cybernetics:82 interdisciplinary:4 study:27 structure:4 regulatory:4 system:59 closely:1 related:2 control:24 theory:29 origin:2 evolution:4 second:4 half:1 century:2 equally:1 applicable:1 physical:2 social:10 language:1 base:2 preeminent:1 scrutiny:1 involve:3 closed:1 signal:1 loop:1 action:6 environment:6 cause:2 change:6 manifest:1 via:2 information:10 feedback:10 adapt:2 new:19 condition:1 behaviour:3 circular:2 causal:2 relationship:1 necessary:1 sufficient:1 cybernetic:12 perspective:2 example:2 thinking:1 one:7 hand:3 company:1 approach:1 factory:1 model:4 contemporary:2 begin:3 connect:2 field:13 electrical:2 network:3 mechanical:3 engineering:12 logic:2 modeling:2 evolutionary:2 biology:9 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4,955 | Kipper | Kippered "split" herring. A kipper is a whole herring, an oily fish, that has been split from tail to head, gutted, salted, and cold smoked. In the and North America they are often eaten grilled for breakfast. In the UK, kippers, along with other preserved fish such as the bloater and buckling, were also once commonly enjoyed as a high tea or supper treat; most popularly with inland and urban working-class populations before World War II. Terminology The English philologist and ethnographer Walter William Skeat derives the word from the Old English kippian, to spawn. The origin of the word has various parallels, such as Icelandic kippa which means "to pull, snatch" and the German word kippen which means "to tilt, to incline". Similarly, the English kipe denotes a basket used to catch fish. Another theory traces the word kipper to the kip, or small beak, that male salmon develop during the breeding season. As a verb, "to kipper" means to preserve by rubbing with salt or other spices before drying in the open air or in smoke. So beef or other meat preserved in the same fashion can reasonably be called "kippered." Origin The exact origin of kippers is unknown, though fish have been slit, gutted and smoked since time immemorial. According to Mark Kurlansky, "Smoked foods almost always carry with them legends about their having been created by accident — usually the peasant hung the food too close to the fire, and then, imagine his surprise the next morning when...". Mark Kurlansky, 2002. Salt: A World History, ISBN 0-8027-1373-4 An English version of this legend can be found in the story of John Woodger at Seahouses in Northumberland, around 1843, in which kippering happened accidentally, when fish for processing was left overnight in a room with a smoking stove. The legend is known to be false, because the word "kipper" long predates this. It is known that smoking and salting of fish—in particular of spawning salmon and herring which are caught in large numbers in a short time and can be made suitable for edible storage by this practice—predates 19th century Britain and indeed written history, probably going back as long as humans have been using salt to preserve food. Thomas Nashe writes in 1599 about a fisherman from Lothingland in the Great Yarmouth area similarly discovering about smoking herring by accident. "Curing of Herrings — From the Works of Thomas Nash, 1599", The Every-day Book and Table Book; or, Everlasting Calendar of Popular Amusements, Sports, Pastimes, Ceremonies, Manners, Customs, and Events, Each of the Three Hundred and Sixty-Five Days, in Past and Present Times; Forming a Complete History of the Year, Months, and Seasons, and a Perpetual Key to the Almanac, Including Accounts of the Weather, Rules for Health and Conduct, Remarkable and Important Anecdotes, Facts, and Notices, in Chronology, Antiquities, Topography, Biography, Natural History, Art, Science, and General Literature; Derived from the Most Authentic Sources, and Valuable Original Communication, with Poetical Elucidations, for Daily Use and Diversion. Vol III., ed. William Hone, (London: 1838) p 569-70. Retrieved on 2008-06-10 It is also known that kippered fish were eaten in Germany and reached Scandinavia sometime during the Middle Ages. Preparations Canned kippered herring exported from Germany. "Cold smoked" fish, that have not been salted for preservation, need to be cooked before being eaten safely (they can be boiled, fried, grilled, jugged or roasted, for instance). "Kipper snacks," (see below) are precooked and may be eaten without further preparation. Kippers for breakfast in England. In the United Kingdom, kippers are most often served at tea or dinner. In the United States, where kippers are less commonly eaten than in the UK, they are almost always sold as either canned "kipper snacks" or in jars found in the refrigerated foods section. British variations Kippers are extremely popular in the Isle of Man. Thousands are produced annually in the town of Peel, where two kipper houses, Moore's Kipper Yard and Devereau and Son, smoke and export herring. A kipper meal is known as spuds and herrin in the Isle of Man, where kippers are usually served with potatoes and buttered bread. The meal is called tatties and herrin in the Scottish Lowlands. Mallaig, the once busiest herring port in Europe, is famous for its traditionally smoked kippers. Today only two traditional smokehouses remain. J. Lawrie & Sons, or "Jaffy's" as many may know them and Andy Race Fish Merchants, both are family-run smokehouses on the west coast of Scotland. In England, the small village of Craster in Northumberland is world famous for its herring kippers which are still made in traditional smokehouses. However, the fish themselves now come from the Atlantic, instead of local waters. The town of Hastings in East Sussex is certified by the Marine Stewardship Council as producing sustainably-fished herring. During the October-January season the herrings are smoked with oak chips at Rock-a-Nore Fisheries in Rock-a-Nore, opposite the fish market on the Stade (the beach), to produce MSC-certified kippers. These are sold locally and supplied to nearby Judges Bakery, where they are used in place of pork in a variation on traditional sausage rolls, the Rock-a-Nore Roll. Related terms The Manx word for kipper is which literally translates as red herring. Compare to Irish scadán dearg. A kipper is also sometimes referred to as a "red herring", although particularly strong curing is required to produce a truly red kipper. This term can be dated to the late Middle Ages as quoted here c1400 Femina (Trin-C B.14.40) 27: "He eteþ no ffyssh But heryng red." Samuel Pepys used it in his diary entry of 28 February 1660 "Up in the morning, and had some red herrings to our breakfast, while my boot-heel was a-mending, by the same token the boy left the hole as big as it was before." Kipper time is the season in which fishing for salmon is forbidden in Great Britain, originally the period May 3 to January 6, in the River Thames by an Act of Parliament. Kipper season refers (particularly among fairground workers, market workers, taxi drivers and the like) to any lean period in trade, particularly the first three or four months of the year; possibly a reference to the above usage, or to the need to live frugally during such a period, by (for instance) living off kippers. References See also Processes food preservation curing smoking Smoked herring Bloater, whole-smoked herring buckling, hot-smoked decapitated herring Other preserved fish Arbroath Smokie, smoked haddock Finnan Haddie, smoked haddock Dried and salted cod Other Red herring, something true but irrelevant External links "The lure of red herring", history of smoked fish varieties. 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4,956 | Dendrite | Dendrites (from Greek δένδρον déndron, “tree”) are the branched projections of a neuron that act to conduct the electrochemical stimulation received from other neural cells to the cell body, or soma, of the neuron from which the dendrites project. Electrical stimulation is transmitted onto dendrites by upstream neurons via synapses which are located at various points throughout the dendritic arbor. Dendrites play a critical role in integrating these synaptic inputs and in determining the extent to which action potentials are produced by the neuron. Recent research has also found that dendrites can support action potentials and release neurotransmitters. This property was originally believed to be specific to axons. The long outgrowths on dendritic cells are also called dendrites. These dendrites do not process electrical signals. Electrical properties of dendrites The structure and branching of a neuron's dendrites, as well as the availability and variation in voltage-gated ion conductances, strongly influences how it integrates the input from other neurons, particularly those that input only weakly. This integration is both "temporal" -- involving the summation of stimuli that arrive in rapid succession -- as well as "spatial" -- entailing the aggregation of excitatory and inhibitory inputs from separate branches. Dendrites were once believed to merely convey stimulation passively. In this example, voltage changes measured at the cell body result from activations of distal synapses propagating to the soma without the aid of voltage-gated ion channels. Passive cable theory describes how voltage changes at a particular location on a dendrite transmit this electrical signal through a system of converging dendrite segments of different diameters, lengths, and electrical properties. Based on passive cable theory one can track how changes in a neuron’s dendritic morphology changes the membrane voltage at the soma, and thus how variation in dendrite architectures affects the overall output characteristics of the neuron. Although passive cable theory offers insights regarding input propagation along dendrite segments, it is important to remember that dendrite membranes are host to a cornucopia of proteins some of which may help amplify or attenuate synaptic input. Sodium, calcium, and potassium channels are all implicated in contributing to input modulation. It is possible that each of these ion species has a family of channel types each with its own biophysical characteristics relevant to synaptic input modulation. Such characteristics include the latency of channel opening, the electrical conductance of the ion pore, the activation voltage, and the activation duration. In this way, a weak input from a distal synapse can be amplified by sodium and calcium currents en route to the soma so that the effects of distal synapse are no less robust than those of a proximal synapse. One important feature of dendrites, endowed by their active voltage gated conductances, is their ability to send action potentials back into the dendritic arbor. Known as backpropagating action potentials, these signals depolarize the dendritic arbor and provide a crucial component toward synapse modulation and long-term potentiation.Furthermore, a train of backpropagating action potentials artificially generated at the soma can induce a calcium action potential at the dendritic initiation zone in certain types of neurons. Whether or not this mechanism is of physiological importance remains an open question. Dendrite development Despite the critical role that dendrites play in the computational tendencies of neurons, very little is known about the process by which dendrites orient themselves in vivo and are compelled to create the intricate branching pattern unique to each specific neuronal class. It is likely that a complex array of extracellular and intracellular cues modulate dendrite development. Early candidates include: Sema3A, Notch, CREST, and Dasm1. Sema3A may act as a dendritic chemoattractant that aids cortical pyramidal neurons in orienting their apical dendrites to the pial surface. Notch acts as a neurotrophic factor in aiding dendrite growth and branching, while CREST may play an important role in regulating calcium dependent growth signals. Dasm1 (Dendrite arborization and synapse maturation 1) expression appears to be highly localized to dendrites and may have substantial influence on dendrite (but not axon) development. See also Neuron Dendritic spine Axon Synapse Purkinje cell Pyramidal neuron References Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM. Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York (2000). ISBN 0-8385-7701-6 Koch C. Biophysics of Computation, Oxford University Press, Oxford (1999). ISBN 0-19-510491-9 Stuart G, Spruston N, Hausser M. Dendrites, Oxford University Press, USA (2008). ISBN 0-1985-6656-5 External links - "Slide 3 Spinal cord" Dendritic Tree - Cell Centered Database . | Dendrite |@lemmatized dendrite:24 greek:1 δένδρον:1 déndron:1 tree:2 branched:1 projection:1 neuron:13 act:3 conduct:1 electrochemical:1 stimulation:3 receive:1 neural:2 cell:6 body:2 soma:5 project:1 electrical:6 transmit:2 onto:1 upstream:1 via:1 synapsis:2 locate:1 various:1 point:1 throughout:1 dendritic:9 arbor:3 play:3 critical:2 role:3 integrate:2 synaptic:3 input:9 determine:1 extent:1 action:6 potential:6 produce:1 recent:1 research:1 also:3 find:1 support:1 release:1 neurotransmitter:1 property:3 originally:1 believe:2 specific:2 axon:3 long:2 outgrowth:1 call:1 process:2 signal:4 structure:1 branching:3 well:2 availability:1 variation:2 voltage:7 gate:2 ion:4 conductance:3 strongly:1 influence:2 particularly:1 weakly:1 integration:1 temporal:1 involve:1 summation:1 stimulus:1 arrive:1 rapid:1 succession:1 spatial:1 entail:1 aggregation:1 excitatory:1 inhibitory:1 separate:1 branch:1 merely:1 convey:1 passively:1 example:1 change:4 measure:1 result:1 activation:3 distal:3 propagate:1 without:1 aid:3 gated:1 channel:4 passive:3 cable:3 theory:3 describe:1 particular:1 location:1 system:1 converge:1 segment:2 different:1 diameter:1 length:1 base:1 one:2 track:1 morphology:1 membrane:2 thus:1 architecture:1 affect:1 overall:1 output:1 characteristic:3 although:1 offer:1 insight:1 regard:1 propagation:1 along:1 important:3 remember:1 host:1 cornucopia:1 protein:1 may:4 help:1 amplify:2 attenuate:1 sodium:2 calcium:4 potassium:1 implicate:1 contribute:1 modulation:3 possible:1 specie:1 family:1 type:2 biophysical:1 relevant:1 include:2 latency:1 opening:1 pore:1 duration:1 way:1 weak:1 synapse:6 current:1 en:1 route:1 effect:1 less:1 robust:1 proximal:1 feature:1 endow:1 active:1 ability:1 send:1 back:1 know:2 backpropagating:2 depolarize:1 provide:1 crucial:1 component:1 toward:1 term:1 potentiation:1 furthermore:1 train:1 artificially:1 generate:1 induce:1 initiation:1 zone:1 certain:1 whether:1 mechanism:1 physiological:1 importance:1 remain:1 open:1 question:1 development:3 despite:1 dendrites:2 computational:1 tendency:1 little:1 orient:2 vivo:1 compel:1 create:1 intricate:1 pattern:1 unique:1 neuronal:1 class:1 likely:1 complex:1 array:1 extracellular:1 intracellular:1 cue:1 modulate:1 early:1 candidate:1 notch:2 crest:2 chemoattractant:1 cortical:1 pyramidal:2 apical:1 pial:1 surface:1 neurotrophic:1 factor:1 growth:2 regulate:1 dependent:1 arborization:1 maturation:1 expression:1 appear:1 highly:1 localize:1 substantial:1 see:1 spine:1 purkinje:1 reference:1 kandel:1 er:1 schwartz:1 jh:1 jessell:1 tm:1 principle:1 science:1 ed:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 new:1 york:1 isbn:3 koch:1 c:1 biophysics:1 computation:1 oxford:3 university:2 press:2 stuart:1 g:1 spruston:1 n:1 hausser:1 usa:1 external:1 link:1 slide:1 spinal:1 cord:1 center:1 database:1 |@bigram neuron_dendrite:2 electrical_stimulation:1 dendritic_cell:1 excitatory_inhibitory:1 voltage_gated:1 gated_ion:1 en_route:1 term_potentiation:1 dendrite_axon:1 purkinje_cell:1 mcgraw_hill:1 external_link:1 spinal_cord:1 |
4,957 | Bill_Bixby | Bill Bixby, born Wilfred Bailey Bixby, (January 22, 1934 – November 21, 1993) was an American film and television actor, director and frequent game show panelist. His career spanned over three decades; he appeared on stage, in motion pictures and five TV series, such as My Favorite Martian, The Courtship of Eddie's Father and The Incredible Hulk. Biography Early life and career Bixby, a fourth-generation Californian of English descent, was born in San Francisco, California. His father, Wilfred Everett Bixby, was a store clerk and his mother, Jane Bixby, was a senior manager at I. Magnum & Co. When Bixby was eight, his father enlisted in the U.S. Navy during World War II and traveled to the South Pacific. He attended Lowell High School where he perfected his oratory and dramatic skills as a member of the Lowell Forensic Society. Though he received only average grades, he also competed in high school speech tournaments regionally. After graduation from high school in 1952, against his parents' wishes, he majored in drama at San Francisco City College, where he was a classmate of future actress Lee Meriwether. Later, he attended the University of California, Berkeley, his parents' alma mater, and joined the Phi Delta Theta fraternity there. Just four credits short of earning a degree, Bixby dropped out of college and joined the United States Marine Corps after being drafted into the United States Army during the Korean War. Bixby served stateside duty in the Marines and was honorably discharged. He then moved to Hollywood, where he had a string of odd jobs that included bellhop and lifeguard. He organized shows at a resort in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. In 1959, he was hired to work as a model and to do commercial work for General Motors and Chrysler. Character actor In 1961, Bixby was in the musical The Boyfriend at the Detroit Civic Theater, returning to Hollywood to make his television debut on an episode of The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis. He became a highly regarded character actor and guest-starred in many 1960s TV series including Ben Casey, The Twilight Zone, The Andy Griffith Show, Dr. Kildare and Hennessey. He also joined the cast of The Joey Bishop Show in 1962. During the 1970s, he made guest-appearances on TV series such as Ironside, Insight, Barbary Coast, The Love Boat, Medical Center, four episodes of Love, American Style, Fantasy Island and two episodes of The Streets of San Francisco. In 1976, he received two Emmy Award nominations, one for Outstanding Lead Actor for a Single Appearance in Drama or Comedy for The Streets of San Francisco and the other for Outstanding Single Performance by a Supporting Actor in Comedy or Drama Series for Rich Man, Poor Man. Television roles My Favorite Martian and other early roles Bixby took the role of young reporter Tim O'Hara in the 1963 CBS sitcom, My Favorite Martian, in which he co-starred with Ray Walston. But by 1966, high production costs forced the series to come to an end after 107 episodes. After the cancellation of Martian, Bixby starred in four movies: Ride Beyond Vengeance, Doctor,You've Got to Be Kidding, and two of Elvis Presley's movies, Clambake, and Speedway. He turned down the role as Marlo Thomas's boyfriend in the successful That Girl and starred in two failed pilots. The Courtship of Eddie's Father In 1969, Bixby starred in his second high profile television role, as Tom Corbett in the dramedy show The Courtship of Eddie's Father on ABC. The series concerned a widowed father raising a young son, managing a major syndicated magazine while at the same time trying to re-establish himself on the dating scene. This series was also the answer to other 1960s and 1970s sitcoms that dealt with widowhood, such as, The Andy Griffith Show, My Three Sons, The Eleventh Hour, The Beverly Hillbillies, Petticoat Junction, The Lucy Show, Family Affair, Julia, The Doris Day Show, The Partridge Family and Sanford And Son. On Courtship, Bixby's co-star on the show was unknown child actor Brandon Cruz; the pair developed a close rapport that translated to an off-camera friendship as well. The cast was rounded out by Academy Award winning actress Miyoshi Umeki, who played the role of Tom's housekeeper, Mrs. Livingston, James Komack (one of the series' producers) as Norman Tinker (Tom's pseudo-hippy, quirky photographer) and unfamiliar actress Kristina Holland as Tina (Tom's secretary). One episode of the show co-starred Bixby's future wife, Days of our Lives actress Brenda Benet, as one of Tom's girlfriends. Bixby was nominated for an Emmy Award for Lead Actor in a Comedy Series in 1971. The following year, he won the Parents Without Partners Exemplary Service Award for 1972. He also made his directorial debut on the show in 1970. ABC pulled the plug on the sitcom in 1972 after 73 episodes. Brandon Cruz said the show dealt with issues that were talked about, and also experienced by himself and Bixby, but were never brought up in a television series. Bixby was not the first actor to portray a single father, but he became one of the most popular, thanks to his chemistry with the youngster Cruz. The show was cancelled at the end of the third season. The two stars remained in contact, and Cruz was even a guest on Bixby's next run-away hit, The Incredible Hulk. The death of Bixby's only child, Christopher, in 1981 drew Bixby and Cruz closer still. The two would remain in touch until Bixby's own death in 1993. In 1995, shortly after Bixby's death, Cruz named his own son Lincoln Bixby Cruz. 1973 to 1977 In 1973, Bixby starred in The Magician. The series was well-liked, but it only lasted one season, likely a victim of the Hollywood writers' strike of 1973, and high production costs. An accomplished amateur magician himself, he hosted several TV specials in the mid-1970s which featured other amateur magicians, and was a respected member of the Hollywood magic community, belonging to The Magic Castle, an exclusive club for magicians. During the show's popular, although short-lived production, Bixby as always, invited a few old friends along to co-star such as Kristina Holland and Ralph O'Hara. He became a popular game show panelist, appearing mostly on Password and The Hollywood Squares. He was also a panelist on the 1974 revival of Masquerade Party hosted by Richard Dawson. He had also appeared with Dawson on Cop-Out. He co-starred with Tim Conway and Don Knotts in the Disney movie The Apple Dumpling Gang 1975. Unlike the previous movies that Bixby starred in, this one received mediocre reviews, but was well received by the public and is generally considered a good family film. Returning to television, he worked with Susan Blakely on Rich Man, Poor Man, a highly successful television miniseries in 1976. In 1977, Bixby appeared with Donna Mills, Richard Jaeckel, and William Shatner in the last episode, entitled "The Scarlet Ribbon", of NBC's western series The Oregon Trail, starring Rod Taylor and Andrew Stevens. Bixby directed two The Oregon Trail episodes. He also hosted Once Upon A Classic for PBS from 1976 to 1980. The Incredible Hulk In 1977, after Larry Hagman quickly turned down the part, Bixby starred as Dr. David Bruce Banner in a two-hour pilot movie called The Incredible Hulk, based loosely on the Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Marvel comic of the same name. Its success (coupled with some theatrical releases of the film in Europe) convinced CBS to turn it into a weekly science-fiction series which began airing in early 1978. It was a massive international hit, seen in over seventy countries. The show made Bixby into a pop icon of the late '70s and early '80s. Lou Ferrigno, a bodybuilder and a lesser known star at the time, starred as the Hulk. The show also featured veteran actor Jack Colvin as investigative reporter Jack McGee, who pursues the Hulk throughout the series' run. One line of dialogue from the pilot - Dr. Banner: "Mr McGee, don't make me angry. You wouldn't like me when I'm angry" quickly became a catchphrase the world over. The pilot also starred Susan Sullivan as Dr. Elaina Marks who tries to help the conflicted and widowed Dr. Banner overcome his "problem" and falls in love with him in the process. During the show's run, Bixby invited two of his long-time friends, Ray Walston and Brandon Cruz, to guest star with him in different episodes of the series. He also worked on the show with his friend, movie actress Mariette Hartley, who would later star with Bixby in his final series, Goodnight, Beantown in 1983. In the Hulk, Ms. Hartley appeared in the memorable double-length episode Married (in which David finds another source of help with whom he falls in love and marries) and subsequently won an Emmy Award for her guest appearance. Future star Loni Anderson would also guest star with Bixby during the first season. Bixby directed one episode of the Hulk, "Bring Me the Head of the Hulk" in 1980 (original airdate: January 9, 1981). The series was cancelled after the following season, but leftover episodes aired as late as the next June. Bixby was disappointed that his character was not cured of his condition in the final episode. However, this lack of closure left the door open for future projects. Thus, Bixby was later able to reprise the role in three television movies: The Incredible Hulk Returns, The Trial of the Incredible Hulk, and The Death of the Incredible Hulk. Later work After finishing The Incredible Hulk, Bixby decided to focus on directing as well as acting. He directed and starred in his own comedy, Goodnight, Beantown, co-starring Mariette Hartley. He also directed the satirical police sitcom Sledge Hammer!Bixby directed two of three Hulk made-for-television sequel movies in the late 1980s and 1990. He also directed most of the third season of the NBC sitcom Blossom . He hosted two Is Elvis Alive? specials in August 1991 and January 1992 Bill Bixby: Biography, Sitcoms Online, Retrieved on May 8, 2008 ; both from Las Vegas. On his short-lived series, The Magician, Bixby was credited as performing his magic tricks himself (except for the TV-movie/pilot). Additionally, in 1992, Bixby became an outspoken advocate for research into prostate cancer. Personal life Bixby's father died of a heart attack in 1971, a month before Bill's first wedding. His ashes were scattered in the Pacific off the coast of Malibu. Bixby was married three times. His first marriage was to actress Brenda Benet. They were married on July 4, 1971. She gave birth to their son Christopher on September 25, 1974. In addition to their earlier appearance together on Courtship, Benet guest-starred with him on his The Magician series in 1973, did an episode of The Love Boat with him in 1977, and guested on his The Incredible Hulk program in 1980 just before they divorced. On March 1, 1981, Bixby's six-year-old son Christopher died suddenly of a rare throat infection. His ashes were scattered in the Pacific Ocean, near Malibu, like his grandfather's. Benet committed suicide in April 1982 following a break-off with her assistant, Tammy Bruce. In 1989, he met Laura Michaels, who had worked on the set of one of his Hulk movies. The couple married a year later in Hawaii. In early 1991, Bixby was diagnosed with prostate cancer and underwent treatment. He was divorced in the same year. In late 1992, friends introduced him to the artist Judith Kliban, widow of B. Kliban, a cartoonist who had died of a pulmonary embolism. Bixby married Judith in late 1993, just six weeks before he collapsed on the set of Blossom. In early 1993, after rumors began circulating about his health, Bixby went public with his illness, discussing his disease and the energy needed to keep him alive. As a result, he made several guest appearances on shows such as Entertainment Tonight, The Today Show, and Good Morning America, among many others. Death Bixby's cancer recurred and was diagnosed as terminal. On November 21, 1993, six days after his final assignment on Blossom, he died of complications in Century City, California. His wife and another longtime friend of the actor, Dick Martin, were by his side. Bixby's ashes are at Kliban's Maui estate. A week after his death, his and Judith's family were joined by many mourners at a private memorial. Pop culture The Fairly Odd Parents' "Pixie Rap" makes reference to Bill Bixby. On the song "Sho 'Nuff" by Tela, rapper MJG references Bill Bixby. In the 2008 film The Incredible Hulk, Bixby has a cameo; Bruce Banner (Edward Norton) is watching an episode of The Courtship of Eddie's Father. On the song "Down For Whatever" by Ice Cube, the rapper references Bill Bixby. Long Beach, California band, 3rd Alley has a song entitled, "Bill Bixby" on their record, Shiny Shady People. In the song 'Mad Izm' by Channel Live featuring KRS-ONE, KRS-ONE raps 'Don't let me rip out my clothes like Bill Bixby.' On the television show Punk'd, Andre 3000 tells a cop his name is Bill Bixby. On the Family Guy episode "Emission Impossible", Peter tells Lois' sister to say "David Banner, I slashed your tires." This causes him to "Hulk out". Also in the earlier episode "Wasted Talent", Stewie walks down a road trying to imitate Bixby at the end of each Incredible Hulk episode. On The Simpsons episode "I Am Furious Yellow", Comic Book Guy tells Stan Lee that he couldn't even turn into Bill Bixby, after Lee proclaims that he can turn into The Incredible Hulk. In the 2000 film Gone in 60 Seconds, the car thieves are discussing TV car trivia. Otto Halliwell (Robert Duvall) says “…Sway, how about giving us the Bill Bixby trifecta?”and Sway (Angelina Jolie) replies, “Drove a Corvette in "The Magician", a Ford pickup truck in "The Incredible Hulk", and in "The Courtship of Eddie's Father", he walked.”'' Memorable Quotes- Gone in 60 Seconds IMDB http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0187078/quotes See also References External links Retrieved on 2008-08-11 Retrieved on 2008-08-11 Retrieved on 2008-08-11 Retrieved on 2008-08-11 | Bill_Bixby |@lemmatized bill:11 bixby:59 bear:2 wilfred:2 bailey:1 january:3 november:2 american:2 film:5 television:10 actor:10 director:1 frequent:1 game:2 show:22 panelist:3 career:2 span:1 three:5 decade:1 appear:5 stage:1 motion:1 picture:1 five:1 tv:6 series:19 favorite:3 martian:4 courtship:7 eddie:5 father:10 incredible:13 hulk:21 biography:2 early:8 life:3 fourth:1 generation:1 californian:1 english:1 descent:1 san:4 francisco:4 california:4 everett:1 store:1 clerk:1 mother:1 jane:1 senior:1 manager:1 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4,958 | Mercalli_intensity_scale | The Mercalli intensity scale is a scale used for measuring the intensity of an earthquake. The scale quantifies the effects of an earthquake on the Earth's surface, humans, objects of nature, and man-made structures on a scale of I through XII, with I denoting not felt, and XII one that causes almost complete destruction. The values will differ based on the distance to the earthquake, with the highest intensities being around the epicentral area. Data is gathered from individuals who have experienced the quake, and an intensity value will be given to their location. Evolution of the Mercalli scale The Mercalli scale originated with the widely used simple ten-degree Rossi-Forel scale, which was revised by Italian volcanologist Giuseppe Mercalli in 1883 and 1902. The terms or Mercalli scale should not be used unless one really means the original ten-degree scale of 1902. In 1902 the ten-degree Mercalli scale was expanded to twelve degrees by Italian physicist Adolfo Cancani. It was later completely re-written by German geophysicist August Heinrich Sieberg and became known as the Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg (MCS) scale. The Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg scale was later modified and published in English by Harry O. Wood and Frank Neumann in 1931 as the Mercalli-Wood-Neuman (MWN) scale. It was later improved by Charles Richter, the father of the Richter magnitude scale. The scale is known today as the Modified Mercalli Scale and commonly abbreviated MM. Modified Mercalli scale The lower degrees of the MM scale generally deal with the manner in which the earthquake is felt by people. The higher numbers of the scale are based on observed structural damage. The table below is a rough guide to the degrees of the Modified Mercalli Scale. The colors and descriptive names shown here differ from those used on certain shake maps in other articles. I. Instrumental Not felt by many people unless in favourable conditions. II. Feeble Felt only by a few people at best, especially on the upper floors of buildings. Delicately suspended objects may swing. III. Slight Felt quite noticeably by people indoors, especially on the upper floors of buildings. Many do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibration similar to the passing of a truck. Duration estimated. IV. Moderate Felt indoors by many people, outdoors by few people during the day. At night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing motor cars rock noticeably. Dishes and windows rattle alarmingly. V. Rather StrongFelt outside by most, may not be felt by some outside in non-favourable conditions. Dishes and windows may break and large bells will ring. Vibrations like large train passing close to house. VI. Strong Felt by all; many frightened and run outdoors, walk unsteadily. Windows, dishes, glassware broken; books fall off shelves; some heavy furniture moved or overturned; a few instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight. VII. Very Strong Difficult to stand; furniture broken; damage negligible in building of good design and construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures; some chimneys broken. Noticed by people driving motor cars. VIII. Destructive Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture moved. IX. Ruinous General panic; damage considerable in specially designed structures, well designed frame structures thrown out of plumb. Damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations. X. Disastrous Some well built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundation. Rails bent. XI. Very Disastrous Few, if any masonry structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent greatly. XII. Catastrophic Total damage - Almost everything is destroyed. Lines of sight and level distorted. Objects thrown into the air. The ground moves in waves or ripples. Large amounts of rock may move position. Correlations with Physical Quantities The Mercalli scale is not defined in terms of more rigorous, objectively quantifiable measurements such as shake amplitude, peak velocity, acceleration, or period. Information on these has been provided by the USGS Shakemap site. Note that perceived shaking (the basis for the Calligraph scale) is best correlated with acceleration for low-intensity events, and with velocity for high-intensity events. See also Other seismic scales Hayward Fault Zone for seismic shake maps using the Mercalli scale Richter magnitude scale Bibliography The Severity of an earthquake pamphlet of the United States Geological Survey U.S. National Earthquake Information Center John N. Louie, Associate Professor of Seismology at the University of Nevada | Mercalli_intensity_scale |@lemmatized mercalli:14 intensity:6 scale:25 use:5 measure:1 earthquake:7 quantify:1 effect:1 earth:1 surface:1 human:1 object:3 nature:1 man:1 make:2 structure:10 xii:3 denote:1 felt:8 one:2 cause:1 almost:2 complete:1 destruction:1 value:2 differ:2 base:2 distance:1 high:3 around:1 epicentral:1 area:1 data:1 gather:1 individual:1 experience:1 quake:1 give:1 location:1 evolution:1 originate:1 widely:1 simple:1 ten:3 degree:6 rossi:1 forel:1 revise:1 italian:2 volcanologist:1 giuseppe:1 term:2 unless:2 really:1 mean:1 original:1 expand:1 twelve:1 physicist:1 adolfo:1 cancani:3 later:3 completely:1 write:1 german:1 geophysicist:1 august:1 heinrich:1 sieberg:3 become:1 know:2 mc:1 modify:2 publish:1 english:1 harry:1 wood:2 frank:1 neumann:1 neuman:1 mwn:1 improve:1 charles:1 richter:3 father:1 magnitude:2 today:1 modified:2 commonly:1 abbreviate:1 mm:2 low:2 generally:1 deal:1 manner:1 people:7 number:1 observed:1 structural:1 damage:9 table:1 rough:1 guide:1 color:1 descriptive:1 name:1 show:1 certain:1 shake:3 map:2 article:1 instrumental:1 many:4 favourable:2 condition:2 ii:1 feeble:1 best:2 especially:2 upper:2 floor:2 building:7 delicately:1 suspended:1 may:5 swing:1 iii:1 slight:4 quite:1 noticeably:2 indoors:2 recognize:1 stand:4 motor:3 car:3 rock:3 slightly:1 vibration:2 similar:1 passing:1 truck:2 duration:1 estimate:1 iv:1 moderate:2 outdoors:2 day:1 night:1 awaken:1 dish:4 window:4 door:1 disturb:1 wall:2 crack:1 sound:1 sensation:1 like:2 heavy:3 strike:1 rattle:1 alarmingly:1 v:1 rather:1 strongfelt:1 outside:2 non:1 break:4 large:3 bell:1 ring:1 train:1 pass:1 close:1 house:1 vi:1 strong:2 frighten:1 run:1 walk:1 unsteadily:1 glassware:1 book:1 fall:3 shelf:1 furniture:3 move:4 overturn:1 instance:1 plaster:1 vii:1 difficult:1 negligible:1 good:1 design:5 construction:1 well:3 build:3 ordinary:2 considerable:3 poorly:2 built:1 badly:1 chimney:2 notice:1 drive:1 viii:1 destructive:1 specially:2 substantial:2 partial:2 collapse:2 great:2 factory:1 stack:1 column:1 monument:1 ix:1 ruinous:1 general:1 panic:1 frame:2 throw:2 plumb:1 shift:1 foundation:2 x:1 disastrous:2 wooden:1 destroy:4 masonry:2 rail:2 bent:2 xi:1 remain:1 bridge:1 greatly:1 catastrophic:1 total:1 everything:1 line:1 sight:1 level:1 distort:1 air:1 ground:1 wave:1 ripple:1 amount:1 position:1 correlation:1 physical:1 quantity:1 define:1 rigorous:1 objectively:1 quantifiable:1 measurement:1 amplitude:1 peak:1 velocity:2 acceleration:2 period:1 information:2 provide:1 usgs:1 shakemap:1 site:1 note:1 perceive:1 shaking:1 basis:1 calligraph:1 correlate:1 event:2 see:1 also:1 seismic:2 hayward:1 fault:1 zone:1 bibliography:1 severity:1 pamphlet:1 united:1 state:1 geological:1 survey:1 u:1 national:1 center:1 john:1 n:1 louie:1 associate:1 professor:1 seismology:1 university:1 nevada:1 |@bigram mercalli_scale:9 richter_magnitude:2 hayward_fault:1 geological_survey:1 |
4,959 | KISS_principle | The KISS principle. KISS is a modern acronym for the empirical principle "Keep it Short and Simple," or the more recent and disparaging "Keep it Simple, Stupid" . KISS states that design simplicity should be a key goal and that unnecessary complexity should be avoided. Related concepts The principle most likely finds its origins in similar concepts, such as Occam's razor, and Albert Einstein's maxim that "everything should be made as simple as possible, but no simpler." Leonardo Da Vinci's "Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication", or Antoine de Saint Exupéry's "It seems that perfection is reached not when there is nothing left to add, but when there is nothing left to take away". Colin Chapman, the founder of Lotus Cars, urged his designers to "Simplify, and add lightness". Rube Goldberg machines illustrate the sorts of problems that may arise with "non-KISS," overly-complex solutions. Instruction creep and function creep are examples of failure to follow the KISS principle in software development. This is known as "Creeping Featurism". Keep it short and sweet, an advice to copy editors, is not normally abbreviated. Keep it Short and Sweet In film animation Master animator Richard Williams explains the KISS Principle in his book The Animator's Survival Kit, and Disney's Nine Old Men write about it in Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life, which is considered "the animation bible" by CG, traditional and stop motion animators. Inexperienced animators may "overanimate", or make their character move too much and do too much, such as carrying every accent over into body language, facial expression, and lipsync. Williams urges animators to "KISS". See also You Ain't Gonna Need It (YAGNI) Rube Goldberg Heath Robinson Occam's razor New Jersey style References http://quotiki.com/quote.aspx?id=7923 | KISS_principle |@lemmatized kiss:7 principle:5 modern:1 acronym:1 empirical:1 keep:4 short:3 simple:3 recent:1 disparage:1 stupid:1 state:1 design:1 simplicity:2 key:1 goal:1 unnecessary:1 complexity:1 avoid:1 relate:1 concepts:1 likely:1 find:1 origin:1 similar:1 concept:1 occam:2 razor:2 albert:1 einstein:1 maxim:1 everything:1 make:2 possible:1 simpler:1 leonardo:1 da:1 vinci:1 ultimate:1 sophistication:1 antoine:1 de:1 saint:1 exupéry:1 seem:1 perfection:1 reach:1 nothing:2 leave:2 add:2 take:1 away:1 colin:1 chapman:1 founder:1 lotus:1 car:1 urge:2 designer:1 simplify:1 lightness:1 rube:2 goldberg:2 machine:1 illustrate:1 sort:1 problem:1 may:2 arise:1 non:1 overly:1 complex:1 solution:1 instruction:1 creep:3 function:1 example:1 failure:1 follow:1 software:1 development:1 know:1 featurism:1 sweet:2 advice:1 copy:1 editor:1 normally:1 abbreviate:1 film:1 animation:3 master:1 animator:5 richard:1 williams:2 explain:1 book:1 survival:1 kit:1 disney:2 nine:1 old:1 men:1 write:1 illusion:1 life:1 consider:1 bible:1 cg:1 traditional:1 stop:1 motion:1 inexperienced:1 overanimate:1 character:1 move:1 much:2 carry:1 every:1 accent:1 body:1 language:1 facial:1 expression:1 lipsync:1 see:1 also:1 gonna:1 need:1 yagni:1 heath:1 robinson:1 new:1 jersey:1 style:1 reference:1 http:1 quotiki:1 com:1 quote:1 aspx:1 id:1 |@bigram occam_razor:2 albert_einstein:1 leonardo_da:1 da_vinci:1 saint_exupéry:1 rube_goldberg:2 facial_expression:1 aspx_id:1 |
4,960 | Arithmetic_function | In number theory, an arithmetic (or arithmetical) function is a real or complex valued function f(n) defined on the set of natural numbers (i.e. positive integers) that "expresses some arithmetical property of n." Hardy & Wright, intro. to Ch. XVI An example of an arithmetic function is the non-principal character (mod 4) defined by where is the Kronecker symbol. To emphasise that they are being thought of as functions rather than sequences, values of an arithmetic function are usually denoted by a(n) rather than an. There is a larger class of number-theoretic functions that do not fit the above definition, e.g. the prime-counting functions. This article provides links to functions of both classes. Notation and mean that the sum or product is over all prime numbers: Similarly, and mean that the sum or product is over all prime powers (with positive exponent, so 1 is not counted): and mean that the sum or product is over all positive divisors of n, including 1 and n. E.g., if n = 12, The notations can be combined: and mean that the sum or product is over all prime divisors of n. E.g., if n = 18, and similarly and mean that the sum or product is over all prime powers dividing n. E.g., if n = 24, Multiplicative and additive functions An arithmetic function a is completely additive if a(mn) = a(m) + a(n) for all natural numbers m and n; completely multiplicative if a(mn) = a(m)a(n) for all natural numbers m and n; Two whole numbers m and n are called coprime if their greatest common divisor is 1; i.e., if there is no prime number that divides both of them. Then an arithmetic function a is additive if a(mn) = a(m) + a(n) for all coprime natural numbers m and n; multiplicative if a(mn) = a(m)a(n) for all coprime natural numbers m and n. Ω(n), ω(n), νp(n) - prime power decomposition The fundamental theorem of arithmetic states that any positive integer n can be factorised uniquely as a product of powers of primes: where p1 < p2 < ... < pk are primes and the aj are positive integers. (1 is given by the empty product.) It is often convenient to write this as an infinite product over all the primes, where all but a finite number have a zero exponent. Define νp(n) as the exponent of the highest power of the prime p that divides n. I.e. if p is one of the pi then νp(n) = ai, otherwise it is zero. Then In terms of the above the functions ω and Ω are defined by ω(n) = k, Ω(n) = a1 + a2 + ... + ak. To avoid repetition, whenever possible formulas for the functions listed in this article are given in terms of n and the corresponding pi, ai, ω, and Ω. Multiplicative functions σk(n), τ(n), d(n) - divisor sums σk(n) is the sum of the kth powers of the positive divisors of n, including 1 and n, where k is a complex mumber. σ1(n), the sum of the (positive) divisors of n, is usually denoted by σ(n). Since a positive number to the zero power is one, σ0(n) is therefore the number of (positive) divisors of n; it is usually denoted by d(n) or τ(n) (for the German Teiler = divisors). Setting k = 0 in the second product gives φ(n) - Euler totient function φ(n), the Euler totient function, is the number of positive integers not greater than n that are coprime to n. μ(n) - Möbius function μ(n), the Möbius function, is important because of the Möbius inversion formula. See Dirichlet convolution, below. This implies that μ(1) = 1. (Because Ω(1) = ω(1) = 0.) τ(n) - Ramanujan tau function τ(n), the Ramanujan tau function, is defined by its generating function identity: Although it is hard to say exactly what "arithmetical property of n" it "expresses", Hardy, Ramanujan, § 10.2 (τ(n) is (2π)−12 times the nth Fourier coefficient in the q-expansion of the modular discriminant function) Apostol, Modular Functions ..., § 1.15, Ch. 4, and ch. 6 it is included among the arithmetical functions because it is multiplicative and it occurs in identities involving certain σk(n) and rk(n) functions (because these are also coefficients in the expansion of modular forms). cq(n) - Ramanujan's sum cq(n), Ramanujan's sum, is the sum of the nth powers of the primitive qth roots of unity: Even though it is defined as a sum of complex numbers (irrational for most values of q), it is an integer. For a fixed value of n it is multiplicative in q: If q and r are coprime, Many of the functions mentioned in this article have expansions as series involving these sums; see the article Ramanujan's sum for examples. Completely multiplicative functions λ(n) - Liouville function λ(n), the Liouville function, is defined by χ(n) - characters All Dirichlet characters χ(n) are completely multiplicative; e.g. the non-principal character (mod 4) defined in the introduction, or the principal character (mod n) defined by Additive functions ω(n) - distinct prime divisors ω(n), defined above as the number of distinct primes dividing n, is additive Completely additive functions Ω(n) - prime divisors Ω(n), defined above as the number of prime factors of n counted with multiplicities, is completely additive. νp(n) - prime power dividing n For a fixed prime p, νp(n), defined above as the exponent of the largest power of p dividing n, is completely additive. Neither multiplicative nor additive π(x), Π(x), θ(x), ψ(x) - prime count functions Unlike the other functions listed in this article, these are defined for non-negative real (not just integer) arguments. They are used in the statement and proof of the prime number theorem. π(n), the prime counting function, is the number of primes not exceeding x. A related function counts prime powers with weight 1 for primes, 1/2 for their squares, 1/3 for cubes, ... θ(x) and ψ(x), the Chebyshev functions are defined as sums of the natural logarithms of the primes not exceeding x: Λ(n) - von Mangoldt function Λ(n), the von Mangoldt function, is 0 unless the argument is a prime power, in which case it is the natural log of the prime: p(n) - partition function p(n), the partition function, is the number of ways of representationing n as a sum of positive integers, where two representations with the same summands in a different order are not counted as being different: λ(n) - Carmichael function λ(n), the Carmichael function, is the smallest positive number such that for all a coprime to n. Equivalently, it is the least common multiple of the orders of the elements of the multiplicative group of integers modulo n. For powers of odd primes and for 2 and 4, λ(n) is equal to the Euler totient function of n; for powers of 2 greater than 4 it is equal to one half of the Euler totient function of n: and for general n it is the least common multiple of λ of each of the prime power factors of n: h(n) - Class number h(n), the class number function, is the order of the ideal class group of an algebraic extension of the rationals with discriminant n. The notation is ambiguous, as there are in general many extensions with the same discriminant. See quadratic field and cyclotomic field for classical examples. rk(n) - Sum of k squares rk(n) is the number of ways n can be represented as the sum of k squares, where representations that differ only in the order of the summands or in the signs of the square roots are counted as different. Summation functions Given an arithmetic function a(n), its summation function A(x) is defined by A can be regarded as a function of a real variable. Given a positive integer m, A is constant along open intervals m < x < m + 1, and has a jump discontinuity at each integer for which a(m) ≠ 0. Since such functions are often represented by series and integrals, to achieve pointwise convergence it is usual to define the value at the discontinuities as the average of the values to the left and right: Individual values of arithmetic functions may fluctuate wildly - as in most of the above examples. Summation functions "smooth out" these fluctuations. In some cases it may be possible to find asymptotic behaviour for the summation function for large x. A classical example of this phenomenon Hardy & Wright, §§ 18.1–18.2 is given by d(n), the number of divisors of n: Dirichlet convolution Given an arithmetic function a(n), let Fa(s), for complex s, be the function defined by the corresponding Dirichlet series (where it converges): Hardy & Wright, § 17.6, show how the theory of generating functions can be constructed in a purely formal manner with no attention paid to convergence. Fa(s) is called a generating function of a(n). The simplest such series, corresponding to the constant function a(n) = 1 for all n, is ς(s) the Riemann zeta function. The generating function of the Möbius function is the inverse of the zeta function: Consider two arithmetic functions a and b and their respective generating functions Fa(s) and Fb(s). The product Fa(s)Fb(s) can be computed as follows: It is a straightforward exercise to show that if c(n) is defined by then This function c is called the Dirichlet convolution of a and b, and is denoted by . A particularly important case is convolution with the constant function a(n) = 1 for all n, corresponding to multiplying the generating function by the zeta function: Multiplying by the inverse of the zeta function gives the Möbius inversion formula: If f is multiplicative, then so is g. If f is completely multiplicative, then g is multiplicative, but may or may not be completely multiplicative. The article multiplicative function has a short proof. Relations among the functions There are a great many formulas connecting arithmetical functions with each other and with the other functions of analysis - in fact, a large part of elementary and analytic number theory is a detailed study of these relations. See the articles on the individual functions for details. Here are a few examples: Dirichlet convolutions where λ is the Liouville function. Hardy & Wright, Thm. 263 Hardy & Wright, Thm. 63 Möbius inversion Hardy & Wright, Thm. 288–290 Hardy & Wright, Thm. 264 Möbius inversion Möbius inversion Möbius inversion where λ is the Liouville function. See Liouville function Hardy & Wright, Thm. 296 Möbius inversion Sums of squares (Lagrange's four-square theorem). where χ is the non-principal character (mod 4) defined in the introduction. Hardy & Wright, Thm. 278 where ν = ν2(n). Hardy & Wright, Thm. 386 Hardy, Ramanujan, eqs 9.1.2, 9.1.3 Koblitz, Ex. III.5.2 Hardy & Wright, § 20.13 Define the function σk*(n) as Hardy, Ramanujan, § 9.7 That is, if n is odd, σk*(n) is the sum of the kth powers of the divisors of n, i.e. σk(n), and if n is even it is the sum of the kth powers of the even divisors of n minus the sum of the kth powers of the odd divisors of n. Hardy & Wright, § 20.13 Hardy, Ramanujan, § 9.13 Adopt the convention that Ramanujan's τ(x) = 0 if x is not an integer. Hardy, Ramanujan, § 9.17 Divisor sum convolutions Here "convolution" does not mean "Dirichlet convolution" but instead refers to the formula for the coefficients of the product of two power series: The sequence is called the convolution or the Cauchy product of the seqences an and bn. See Eisenstein series for a discussion of the series and functional identities involved in these formulas. Ramanujan, On Certain Arithmetical Functions, Table IV; Papers, p. 146 Koblitz, ex. III.2.8 Koblitz, ex. III.2.3 Koblitz, ex. III.2.8 Koblitz, ex. III.2.2 Ramanujan, On Certain Arithmetical Functions, Table IV; Papers, p. 146 where τ(n) is Ramanujan's function. Koblitz, ex. III.2.4 Apostol, Modular Functions ..., Ex. 6.10 Since σk(n) (for natural number k) and τ(n) are integers, the above formulas can be used to prove congruences Apostol, Modular Functions..., Ch. 6 Ex. 10 for the functions. See Tau-function for some examples. Extend the domain of the partition function by setting p(0) = 1. G.H. Hardy, S. Ramannujan, Asymptotic Formulæ in Combinatory Analysis, § 1.3; in Ramannujan, Papers p. 279 This recurrence can be used to compute p(n). Prime-count related Let be the nth harmonic number. Then is true for every natural number n if and only if the Riemann hypothesis is true. See Divisor function. follows from the definitions Hardy & Wright, eq. 22.1.2 See prime counting functions. Hardy & Wright, eq. 22.1.1 Hardy & Wright, eq. 22.1.3 Miscellaneous and where λ(n) is Liouville's function. follows from the definitions Hardy Ramanujan, eq. 3.10.3 Hardy & Wright, § 22.13 where λ(n) is Carmichael's function. follows from the definition of λ(n) and Euler's theorem. Further, See Multiplicative group of integers modulo n and Primitive root modulo n. Hardy & Wright, Thm. 329 Hardy & Wright, Thms. 271, 272 Note that Hardy & Wright, eq. 16.3.1 Ramanujan, Some Formulæ in the Analytic Theory of Numbers, eq. (C); Papers p.133 Compare this with 13 + 23 + 33 + ... + n3 = (1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n)2 Ramanujan, Some Formulæ in the Analytic Theory of Numbers, eq. (F); Papers p.134 Apostol, Modular Functions ..., ch. 6 eq. 4 where τ(n) is Ramanujan's function. Apostol, Modular Functions ..., ch. 6 eq. 3 Notes References External links Elementary Evaluation of Certain Convolution Sums Involving Divisor Functions PDF of a paper by Huard, Ou, Spearman, and Williams. Contains elementary (i.e. not relying on the theory of modular forms) proofs of divisor sum convolutions, formulas for the number of ways of representing a number as a sum of triangular numbers, and related results. | Arithmetic_function |@lemmatized number:34 theory:6 arithmetic:10 arithmetical:7 function:94 real:3 complex:4 value:7 f:4 n:124 define:20 set:3 natural:9 e:10 positive:13 integer:13 express:2 property:2 hardy:26 wright:19 intro:1 ch:6 xvi:1 example:7 non:4 principal:4 character:6 mod:4 kronecker:1 symbol:1 emphasise:1 think:1 rather:2 sequence:2 usually:3 denote:4 large:4 class:5 theoretic:1 fit:1 definition:4 g:8 prime:30 counting:2 article:7 provide:1 link:2 notation:3 mean:6 sum:26 product:12 similarly:2 power:19 exponent:4 count:8 divisor:18 include:3 combine:1 divide:6 multiplicative:16 additive:9 completely:9 mn:4 two:4 whole:1 call:4 coprime:6 great:4 common:3 ω:14 νp:5 decomposition:1 fundamental:1 theorem:4 state:1 factorise:1 uniquely:1 pk:1 aj:1 give:8 empty:1 often:2 convenient:1 write:1 infinite:1 finite:1 zero:3 high:1 p:13 one:3 pi:2 ai:2 otherwise:1 term:2 k:6 ak:1 avoid:1 repetition:1 whenever:1 possible:2 formula:8 list:2 corresponding:2 σk:7 τ:9 kth:4 mumber:1 σ:1 since:3 therefore:1 german:1 teiler:1 second:1 φ:2 euler:5 totient:4 μ:3 möbius:10 important:2 inversion:7 see:10 dirichlet:7 convolution:11 imply:1 ramanujan:18 tau:3 generate:6 identity:3 although:1 hard:1 say:1 exactly:1 time:1 nth:3 fourier:1 coefficient:3 q:4 expansion:3 modular:8 discriminant:3 apostol:5 among:2 occur:1 involve:4 certain:4 rk:3 also:1 form:2 cq:2 primitive:2 qth:1 root:3 unity:1 even:3 though:1 irrational:1 fixed:2 r:1 many:3 mention:1 series:7 λ:13 liouville:6 χ:3 introduction:2 distinct:2 factor:2 multiplicity:1 neither:1 π:3 x:13 θ:2 ψ:2 unlike:1 negative:1 argument:2 use:3 statement:1 proof:3 exceed:2 related:3 weight:1 square:6 cube:1 chebyshev:1 logarithm:1 von:2 mangoldt:2 unless:1 case:3 log:1 partition:3 way:3 representationing:1 representation:2 summands:2 different:3 order:4 carmichael:3 small:1 equivalently:1 least:2 multiple:2 element:1 group:3 modulo:3 odd:3 equal:2 half:1 general:2 h:3 ideal:1 algebraic:1 extension:2 rational:1 ambiguous:1 quadratic:1 field:2 cyclotomic:1 classical:2 represent:3 differ:1 sign:1 summation:4 regard:1 variable:1 constant:3 along:1 open:1 interval:1 jump:1 discontinuity:2 integral:1 achieve:1 pointwise:1 convergence:2 usual:1 average:1 left:1 right:1 individual:2 may:4 fluctuate:1 wildly:1 smooth:1 fluctuation:1 find:1 asymptotic:2 behaviour:1 phenomenon:1 let:2 fa:4 converge:1 show:2 construct:1 purely:1 formal:1 manner:1 attention:1 pay:1 simple:1 correspond:2 ς:1 riemann:2 zeta:4 inverse:2 consider:1 b:2 respective:1 fb:2 compute:2 follow:4 straightforward:1 exercise:1 c:3 particularly:1 multiply:1 multiplying:1 short:1 relation:2 connect:1 analysis:2 fact:1 part:1 elementary:3 analytic:3 detailed:1 study:1 detail:1 thm:9 lagrange:1 four:1 ν:1 eqs:1 koblitz:6 ex:8 iii:6 minus:1 adopt:1 convention:1 instead:1 refers:1 cauchy:1 seqences:1 bn:1 eisenstein:1 discussion:1 functional:1 table:2 iv:2 paper:6 prove:1 congruence:1 extend:1 domain:1 ramannujan:2 formulæ:3 combinatory:1 recurrence:1 harmonic:1 true:2 every:1 hypothesis:1 eq:9 miscellaneous:1 note:2 compare:1 reference:1 external:1 evaluation:1 pdf:1 huard:1 ou:1 spearman:1 williams:1 contains:1 rely:1 triangular:1 result:1 |@bigram hardy_wright:19 completely_multiplicative:5 common_divisor:1 νp_n:5 ω_ω:3 σk_n:7 euler_totient:4 totient_function:4 möbius_inversion:7 dirichlet_convolution:5 hardy_ramanujan:6 apostol_modular:5 ramanujan_sum:3 integer_modulo:2 cyclotomic_field:1 pointwise_convergence:1 riemann_zeta:1 zeta_function:4 fa_fb:2 wright_thm:9 koblitz_ex:6 riemann_hypothesis:1 external_link:1 |
4,961 | Hans_Selye | Hans Hugo Bruno Selye, CC () (January 26, 1907 — October 16, 1982) was a Canadian endocrinologist of Austro-Hungarian origin and Hungarian ethnicity. Selye did much important factual work on the hypothetical non-specific response of the organism to stressors. While he did not recognize all of the many aspects of glucocorticoids, Selye was aware of this response on their role. Some commentators considered him the first to demonstrate the existence of biological stress. History Selye was born Vienna, Austria-Hungary on 26 January, 1907 . He became a Doctor of Medicine and Chemistry in Prague in 1929, went to Johns Hopkins University on a Rockefeller Foundation Scholarship in 1931 and then went to McGill University in Montreal where he started researching the issue of stress in 1936. In 1945 he joined the Universite de Montreal where he had 40 assistants and worked with 15,000 lab animals. Kantha (1992), in a survey of an elite group of scientists who have authored over 1,000 research publications, identified Selye as one who had published 1,700 research papers, 15 monographs and 7 popular books. He died October 16, 1982 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Work on stress His initial inspiration for general adaptation syndrome (GAS, a theory of stress) came from an endocrinological experiment in which he injected mice with extracts of various organs. He at first believed he had discovered a new hormone, but was proved wrong when every irritating substance he injected produced the same symptoms (swelling of the adrenal cortex, atrophy of the thymus, gastric and duodenal ulcers). This, paired with his observation that people with different diseases exhibit similar symptoms, led to his description of the effects of "noxious agents" as he at first called it. He later coined the term "stress", which has been accepted into the lexicon of various other languages. Selye has acknowledged the influence of Claude Bernard (who developed the idea of "milieu intérieur") and Walter Cannon's "homeostasis". Selye conceptualized the physiology of stress as having two components: a set of responses which he called the "general adaptation syndrome", and the development of a pathological state from ongoing, unrelieved stress. Selye discovered and documented that stress differs from other physical responses in that stress is stressful whether one receives good or bad news, whether the impulse is positive or negative. He called negative stress "distress" and positive stress "eustress". The system whereby the body copes with stress, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) system, was also first described by Selye. He also pointed to an "alarm state", a "resistance state", and an "exhaustion state", largely referring to glandular states. Later he developed the idea of two "reservoirs" of stress resistance, or alternatively stress energy. Selye wrote The Stress of Life (1956), From Dream to Discovery: On Being a Scientist (1964) and Stress without Distress (1974). He worked as a professor and director of the Institute of Experimental Medicine and Surgery at the Université de Montréal. In 1968 he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. Former Graduate Students Roger Guillemin Paola S. Timiras Publications "A Syndrome Produced by Diverse Nocuous Agents" - 1936 article by Hans Selye from The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences The Stress of life. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956. Selye, H. "Stress and disease". Science, Oct.7, 1955; 122: 625-631. From Dream to Discovery: On Being a Scientist. New York: McGraw-Hill 1964 Hormones and Resistance. Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag, 1971. Stress without Distress. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., c1974. See also Science and technology in Canada Alvin Toffler References Sri Kantha, S: "Productivity drive". Nature, Apr.30, 1992; 356: 738. Sri Kantha, S: "Clues to prolific productivity among prominen scientists". Medical Hypotheses, 1992; 39: 159-163. External links Mementos and photos 'Stress, by Hans Selye, National Film Board | Hans_Selye |@lemmatized han:3 hugo:1 bruno:1 selye:13 cc:1 january:2 october:2 canadian:1 endocrinologist:1 austro:1 hungarian:2 origin:1 ethnicity:1 much:1 important:1 factual:1 work:4 hypothetical:1 non:1 specific:1 response:4 organism:1 stressor:1 recognize:1 many:1 aspect:1 glucocorticoid:1 aware:1 role:1 commentator:1 consider:1 first:4 demonstrate:1 existence:1 biological:1 stress:20 history:1 bear:1 vienna:1 austria:1 hungary:1 become:1 doctor:1 medicine:2 chemistry:1 prague:1 go:2 johns:1 hopkins:1 university:2 rockefeller:1 foundation:1 scholarship:1 mcgill:1 montreal:3 start:1 research:3 issue:1 join:1 universite:1 de:2 assistant:1 lab:1 animal:1 kantha:3 survey:1 elite:1 group:1 scientist:4 author:1 publication:2 identify:1 one:2 publish:1 paper:1 monograph:1 popular:1 book:1 die:1 quebec:1 canada:3 initial:1 inspiration:1 general:2 adaptation:2 syndrome:3 gas:1 theory:1 come:1 endocrinological:1 experiment:1 inject:2 mouse:1 extract:1 various:2 organ:1 believe:1 discover:2 new:4 hormone:2 prove:1 wrong:1 every:1 irritating:1 substance:1 produce:2 symptom:2 swell:1 adrenal:2 cortex:1 atrophy:1 thymus:1 gastric:1 duodenal:1 ulcer:1 pair:1 observation:1 people:1 different:1 disease:2 exhibit:1 similar:1 lead:1 description:1 effect:1 noxious:1 agent:2 call:3 later:2 coin:1 term:1 accept:1 lexicon:1 language:1 acknowledge:1 influence:1 claude:1 bernard:1 develop:2 idea:2 milieu:1 intérieur:1 walter:1 cannon:1 homeostasis:1 conceptualize:1 physiology:1 two:2 component:1 set:1 development:1 pathological:1 state:5 ongoing:1 unrelieved:1 document:1 differs:1 physical:1 stressful:1 whether:2 receive:1 good:1 bad:1 news:1 impulse:1 positive:2 negative:2 distress:3 eustress:1 system:2 whereby:1 body:1 cop:1 hypothalamic:1 pituitary:1 axis:2 hpa:1 also:3 describe:1 point:1 alarm:1 resistance:3 exhaustion:1 largely:1 refer:1 glandular:1 reservoir:1 alternatively:1 energy:1 write:1 life:2 dream:2 discovery:2 without:2 professor:1 director:1 institute:1 experimental:1 surgery:1 université:1 montréal:1 make:1 companion:1 order:1 former:1 graduate:1 student:1 roger:1 guillemin:1 paola:1 timiras:1 diverse:1 nocuous:1 article:1 journal:1 neuropsychiatry:1 clinical:1 neuroscience:1 york:3 mcgraw:2 hill:2 h:1 science:2 oct:1 berlin:1 springer:1 verlag:1 philadelphia:1 j:1 b:1 lippincott:1 co:1 see:1 technology:1 alvin:1 toffler:1 reference:1 sri:2 productivity:2 drive:1 nature:1 apr:1 clue:1 prolific:1 among:1 prominen:1 medical:1 hypothesis:1 external:1 link:1 memento:1 photo:1 national:1 film:1 board:1 |@bigram austro_hungarian:1 austria_hungary:1 montreal_quebec:1 adrenal_cortex:1 hypothalamic_pituitary:1 pituitary_adrenal:1 adrenal_axis:1 hpa_axis:1 mcgraw_hill:2 springer_verlag:1 sri_kantha:2 external_link:1 |
4,962 | Economy_of_the_Isle_of_Man | Offshore banking, manufacturing, and tourism form key sectors of the economy of the Isle of Man, a British Crown dependency in the Irish Sea. The government's policy of offering incentives to high-technology companies and financial institutions to locate on the Island has expanded employment opportunities in high-income industries. As a result, agriculture and fishing, once the mainstays of the economy, now make declining contributions to the Island's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Banking and other services now contribute the great bulk of GDP. Trade is mostly with the United Kingdom. The Isle of Man has free access to European Union markets for goods, but only has restricted access for services, people, or financial products. The Isle of Man is a low tax economy with no capital gains tax, wealth tax, stamp duty, death duty or inheritance tax Direct Tax - Isle of Man Government Isle of Man Finance and income tax rates of 10% and 18%; corporation tax is at 0%. New Assessor Of Income Tax - Isle of Man Government Forget Monaco: Isle of Man cuts tax to tempt super-rich - Tax, Money - Independent.co.uk Gambling The Isle of Man has also recently entered the online gambling industry. In 2005 PokerStars, one of the world's largest online poker sites, relocated its headquarters to the Isle of Man from Costa Rica. In 2006, RNG Gaming a large gaming software developer of P2P tournaments and Get21, a multiplayer online blackjack site, based their corporate offices on the island. Film making The Manx government also promotes island locations for making films by contributing to the production costs. Among the most successful productions funded in part by the Isle of Man film industry were Waking Ned, where the Manx countryside stood in for rural Ireland, and films like Stormbreaker, Shergar, Tom Brown's Schooldays, I Capture the Castle, The Libertine, Island at War (TV series), Five Children and It, Colour Me Kubrick, Sparkle, and others. Other films that have been filmed on the Isle of Man include Thomas and the Magic Railroad, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, and Keeping Mum. Past Productions - Isle of Man Film Radio and television The British television show Top Gear frequently tests high-powered cars on the island because many of the rural roads do not have speed limits. Electricity Since 1999, the Isle of Man has received electricity through the world's longest submarine AC cable, the 90 kV Isle of Man to England Interconnector, as well as from a natural gas power station in Douglas, an oil power station in Peel and a small hydro-electric power station in Sulby Glen. GDP: purchasing power parity - $2.113 billion (2003 est.) GDP - real growth rate: NA% GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $28,500 (2003 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 1% industry: 13% services: 86% (2000 est.) Population below poverty line: NA% Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% Inflation rate (consumer prices): 3.6% (2003 est.) Labor force: 39,690(2001) Labour force - by occupation: agriculture, forestry and fishing 3%, manufacturing 11%, construction 10%, transport and communication 8%, wholesale and retail distribution 11%, professional and scientific services 18%, public administration 6%, banking and finance 18%, tourism 2%, entertainment and catering 3%, miscellaneous services 10% Unemployment rate: 0.6% (2004 est.) Budget: revenues: $485 million expenditures: $463 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY00/01 est.) Industries: financial services, light manufacturing, tourism Industrial production growth rate: 3.2% (1996/97) Electricity - production: 329 GWh (1999) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1999) Electricity - consumption: 287 GWh (1999) Electricity - exports: NA kWh Electricity - imports: NA kWh Agriculture - products: cereals, vegetables, cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry Exports: $NA Exports - commodities: tweeds, herring, processed shellfish, beef, lamb Exports - partners: UK Imports: $NA Imports - commodities: timber, fertilizers, fish Imports - partners: UK Debt - external: $NA Economic aid - recipient: $NA Currency: 1 Isle of Man pound = 100 pence Exchange rates: Manx pounds per US$1 - 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996), 0.6335 (1995); the Manx pound is at par with the British pound Fiscal year: 1 April–31 March See also Isle of Man Manx pound Economy of Europe References | Economy_of_the_Isle_of_Man |@lemmatized offshore:1 banking:3 manufacturing:2 tourism:3 form:1 key:1 sector:2 economy:4 isle:16 man:16 british:3 crown:1 dependency:1 irish:1 sea:1 government:4 policy:1 offer:1 incentive:1 high:4 technology:1 company:1 financial:3 institution:1 locate:1 island:6 expand:1 employment:1 opportunity:1 income:4 industry:5 result:1 agriculture:4 fishing:2 mainstay:1 make:3 decline:1 contribution:1 gross:1 domestic:1 product:3 gdp:6 service:6 contribute:2 great:1 bulk:1 trade:1 mostly:1 united:1 kingdom:1 free:1 access:2 european:1 union:1 market:1 good:1 restrict:1 people:1 low:2 tax:10 capital:2 gain:1 wealth:1 stamp:1 duty:2 death:1 inheritance:1 direct:1 finance:2 rate:6 corporation:1 new:1 assessor:1 forget:1 monaco:1 cut:1 tempt:1 super:1 rich:1 money:1 independent:1 co:1 uk:3 gamble:1 also:3 recently:1 enter:1 online:3 gambling:1 pokerstars:1 one:1 world:2 large:2 poker:1 site:2 relocate:1 headquarters:1 costa:1 rica:1 rng:1 game:1 gaming:1 software:1 developer:1 tournament:1 multiplayer:1 blackjack:1 base:1 corporate:1 office:1 film:7 manx:5 promote:1 location:1 production:6 cost:1 among:1 successful:1 fund:1 part:1 wake:1 ned:1 countryside:1 stand:1 rural:2 ireland:1 like:1 stormbreaker:1 shergar:1 tom:1 brown:1 schooldays:1 capture:1 castle:1 libertine:1 war:1 tv:1 series:1 five:1 child:1 colour:1 kubrick:1 sparkle:1 others:1 include:2 thomas:1 magic:1 railroad:1 harry:1 potter:1 chamber:1 secret:1 keep:1 mum:1 past:1 radio:1 television:2 show:1 top:1 gear:1 frequently:1 test:1 powered:1 car:1 many:1 road:1 speed:1 limit:1 electricity:7 since:1 receive:1 long:1 submarine:1 ac:1 cable:1 kv:1 england:1 interconnector:1 well:1 natural:1 gas:1 power:5 station:3 douglas:1 oil:1 peel:1 small:1 hydro:2 electric:1 sulby:1 glen:1 purchasing:2 parity:2 billion:1 est:6 real:1 growth:2 na:11 per:2 caput:1 composition:1 population:1 poverty:1 line:1 household:1 consumption:2 percentage:1 share:1 inflation:1 consumer:1 price:1 labor:1 force:2 labour:1 occupation:1 forestry:1 manufacture:1 construction:1 transport:1 communication:1 wholesale:1 retail:1 distribution:1 professional:1 scientific:1 public:1 administration:1 entertainment:1 cater:1 miscellaneous:1 unemployment:1 budget:1 revenue:1 million:2 expenditure:2 light:1 industrial:1 gwh:2 source:1 fossil:1 fuel:1 nuclear:1 export:4 kwh:2 import:4 cereal:1 vegetable:1 cattle:1 sheep:1 pig:1 poultry:1 commodity:2 tweed:1 herring:1 process:1 shellfish:1 beef:1 lamb:1 partner:2 timber:1 fertilizer:1 fish:1 debt:1 external:1 economic:1 aid:1 recipient:1 currency:1 pound:5 penny:1 exchange:1 u:1 january:1 par:1 fiscal:1 year:1 april:1 march:1 see:1 europe:1 reference:1 |@bigram offshore_banking:1 crown_dependency:1 gross_domestic:1 income_tax:2 costa_rica:1 multiplayer_online:1 harry_potter:1 hydro_electric:1 gdp_purchasing:1 purchasing_power:2 per_caput:1 caput_purchasing:1 household_income:1 agriculture_forestry:1 forestry_fishing:1 wholesale_retail:1 unemployment_rate:1 expenditure_na:1 production_gwh:1 gwh_electricity:2 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 consumption_gwh:1 kwh_electricity:1 kwh_agriculture:1 cattle_sheep:1 sheep_pig:1 pig_poultry:1 export_commodity:1 |
4,963 | Memetics | This article is related to the study of self-replicating units of culture, not to be confused with mimetics. Memetics is an approach to evolutionary models of cultural information transfer based on the concept of the meme. Starting from a proposition put forward in the writings of Richard Dawkins, it has since turned into a new area of study, one that looks at the self-replicating units of culture. It has been proposed that just as memes are analogous to genes, memetics is analogous to genetics. History of the term In his book The Selfish Gene (1976), the evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins used the term meme to describe a unit of human cultural transmission analogous to the gene, arguing that replication also happens in culture, albeit in a different sense. In his book, Dawkins contended that the meme is a unit of information residing in the brain and is the mutating replicator in human cultural evolution. It is a pattern that can influence its surroundings – that is, it has causal agency – and can propagate. This created great debate among sociologists, biologists, and scientists of other disciplines, because Dawkins himself did not provide a sufficient explanation of how the replication of units of information in the brain controls human behaviour and ultimately culture, since the principal topic of the book was genetics. Dawkins apparently did not intend to present a comprehensive theory of memetics in The Selfish Gene, but rather coined the term meme in a speculative spirit. Accordingly, the term "unit of information" came to be defined in different ways by many scientists. The modern memetics movement dates from the mid 1980s. A January 1983 Metamagical Themas column by Douglas Hofstadter in Scientific American was influential as was his 1985 book of the same name. "Memeticist" was coined as analogous to "geneticist" originally in The Selfish Gene and later "Arel Lucas suggested that the discipline that studies memes and their connections to human and other carriers of them be known as memetics by analogy with 'genetics.'" (This might not be the earliest use of "memetics.") Dawkins' The Selfish Gene has been a factor in drawing in people of disparate intellectual backgrounds. Another stimulus was the publication in 1992 of Consciousness Explained by Tufts University philosopher Daniel Dennett, which incorporated the meme concept into a theory of the mind. In his 1993 essay Viruses of the Mind, Richard Dawkins used memetics to explain the phenomenon of religious belief and the various characteristics of organised religions. By then, memetics were picked up by art as well and thus a popular concept (e.g. Neal Stephenson's Snow Crash). However, the foundation of memetics in full modern incarnation originates in the publication in 1996, of two books by authors outside the academic mainstream: Virus of the Mind: The New Science of the Meme by former Microsoft executive turned motivational speaker and professional poker player, Richard Brodie, and Thought Contagion: How Belief Spreads Through Society by Aaron Lynch, a mathematician and philosopher who worked for many years as an engineer at Fermilab. Lynch claimed to have conceived his theory totally independently of any contact with academics in the cultural evolutionary sphere, and apparently was not even aware of Dawkins' The Selfish Gene until his book was very close to publication. Around the same time as the publication of the books by Lynch and Brodie, a new e-journal appeared on the web, hosted by the Centre for Policy Modelling at Manchester Metropolitan University Journal of Memetics – Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission. The journal has since then been taken over by Francis Heylighen of the CLEA research institute at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel. The e-journal soon became the central point for publication and debate within the nascent memetics community. (There had been a short-lived paper memetics publication starting in 1990, the Journal of Ideas edited by Elan Moritz. )) In 1999, Susan Blackmore, a psychologist at the University of the West of England, published The Meme Machine, which more fully worked out the ideas of Dennett, Lynch and Brodie and attempted to compare and contrast them with various approaches from the cultural evolutionary mainstream, as well as providing novel, and controversial, memetic-based theories for the evolution of language and the human sense of individual selfhood. The term is a transliteration of the Ancient Greek (), meaning "imitator, pretender", and was used in 1904 by the German evolutionary biologist Richard Semon, best known for his development of the engram theory of memory, in his work Die mnemischen Empfindungen in ihren Beziehungen zu den Originalempfindungen, translated into English in 1921 as The Mneme. Until Daniel Schacter published Forgotten Ideas, Neglected Pioneers: Richard Semon and the Story of Memory in 2000, Semon's work had little influence, though it was quoted extensively in Erwin Schrödinger's prescient 1956 Tarner Lecture "Mind and Matter." Internalists and externalists The memetics movement split almost immediately into two. The first group were those who wanted to stick to Dawkins' definition of a meme as "a unit of cultural transmission". Gibran Burchett, another memeticist responsible for helping to research and co-coin the term memetic engineering, along with Leveious Rolando and Larry Lottman, has stated that a meme can be defined, more precisely, as "a unit of cultural information that can be copied, located in the brain". This thinking is more inline with Dawkins and Blackmore as evident in Dr. Susan Blackmore's TED Talks Presentation {Feb 2008}. The second group wants to redefine memes as observable cultural artifacts and behaviors. These two schools became known as the "internalists" and the "externalists." Prominent internalists included both Lynch and Brodie; the most vocal externalists included Derek Gatherer, a geneticist from Liverpool John Moores University and William Benzon, a writer on cultural evolution and music. The main rationale for externalism was that internal brain entities are not observable, and memetics cannot advance as a science, especially a quantitative science, unless it moves its emphasis onto the directly quantifiable aspects of culture. Internalists countered with various arguments: that brain states will eventually be directly observable with advanced technology, that most cultural anthropologists agree that culture is about beliefs and not artefacts, or that artefacts cannot be replicators in the same sense as mental entities (or DNA) are replicators. The debate became so heated that a 1998 Symposium on Memetics, organised as part of the 15th International Conference on Cybernetics, passed a motion calling for an end to definitional debates. The most advanced statement of the internalist school came in 2002 with the publication of The Electric Meme, by Robert Aunger, an anthropologist from the University of Cambridge. Aunger also organised a conference in Cambridge in 1999, at which prominent sociologists and anthropologists were able to give their assessment of the progress made in memetics to that date. This resulted in the publication of Darwinizing Culture: The Status of Memetics as a Science, edited by Aunger and with a foreword by Dennett, in 2000. Maturity In 2005, the Journal of Memetics – Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission ceased publication and published a set of "obituaries" for memetics. This was not intended to suggest that there can be no further work on memetics. A relaunch of this journal is in the works and the journal is again accepting new submissions Journal of Memetics - Aims and Scope . Susan Blackmore has left the University of the West of England to become a freelance science writer and now concentrates more on the field of consciousness and cognitive science. Derek Gatherer moved to work as a computer programmer in the pharmaceutical industry, although he still occasionally publishes on memetics-related matters. Richard Brodie is now climbing the world professional poker rankings. Aaron Lynch disowned the memetics community and the words "meme" and "memetics" (without disowning the ideas in his book), adopting the self-description "thought contagionist". Lynch lost his previous funding from a private sponsor and after his book royalties declined, he was unable to support himself as a private memetics/thought-contagion consultant. He died in 2005. Susan Blackmore (2002) re-stated the meme definition as whatever is copied from one person to another person, whether habits, skills, songs, stories, or any other kind of information. Further she said that memes, like genes, are replicators. That is, they are information that is copied with variation and selection. Because only some of the variants survive, memes (and hence human cultures) evolve. Memes are copied by imitation, teaching and other methods, and they compete for space in our memories and for the chance to be copied again. Large groups of memes that are copied and passed on together are called co-adapted meme complexes, or memeplexes. In her definition, thus, the way that a meme replicates is through imitation. This requires brain capacity to generally imitate a model or selectively imitate the model. Since the process of social learning varies from one person to another, the imitation process cannot be said to be completely imitated. The sameness of an idea may be expressed with different memes supporting it. This is to say that the mutation rate in memetic evolution is extremely high, and mutations are even possible within each and every interaction of the imitation process. It becomes very interesting when we see that a social system composed of a complex network of microinteractions exists, but at the macro level an order emerges to create culture. Critique Benitez-Bribiesca, a critic to memetics, calls it "a pseudoscientific dogma" and "a dangerous idea that poses a threat to the serious study of conciousness and cultural evolution" among other things. As factual criticism, he refers to the lack of a code script for memes, as the DNA is for genes, and to the fact that the meme mutation mechanism (i.e., an idea going from one brain to another) is too unstable (low replication accuracy and high mutation rate), which would render the evolutionary process chaotic. Benitez-Bribiesca, Luis (2001): Memetics: A dangerous idea. Interciecia 26: 29–31, p. 29. Another critique comes from semiotics, (e.g., Deacon Terrence Deacon, The trouble with memes (and what to do about it). The Semiotic Review of Books 10(3). , Kull Kalevi Kull (2000), Copy versus translate, meme versus sign: development of biological textuality. European Journal for Semiotic Studies 12(1), 101–120. ) stating that the concept of meme is a primitivized concept of Sign. Meme is thus described in memetics as a sign without its triadic nature. In other words, meme is a degenerate sign, which includes only its ability of being copied. Accordingly, the objects of copying are memes, whereas the objects of translation (sensu lato) and interpretation are signs. New developments Dawkins responds in A Devil's Chaplain that there are actually two different types of memetic processes. The first is a type of cultural idea, action, or expression, which does have high variance; for instance, a student of his who had inherited some of the mannerisms of Wittgenstein. However, he also describes a self-correcting meme, highly resistant to mutation. As an example of this, he gives origami patterns in elementary schools – except in rare cases, the meme is either passed on in the exact sequence of instructions, or (in the case of a forgetful child) terminates. This type of meme tends not to evolve, and to experience profound mutations in the rare event that it does. Some memeticists, however, see this as more of a continuum of meme strength, rather than two types of memes. Another definition, given by Hokky Situngkir, tried to offer a more rigorous formalism for the meme, memeplexes, and the deme, seeing the meme as a cultural unit in a cultural complex system. It is based on the Darwinian genetic algorithm with some modifications to account for the different patterns of evolution seen in genes and memes. In the method of memetics as the way to see culture as a complex adaptive system, he describes a way to see memetics as an alternative methodology of cultural evolution. However, there are as many possible definitions that are credited to the word "meme". For example, in the sense of computer simulation the term memetic algorithm is used to define a particular computational viewpoint. Memetics can be simply understood as a method for scientific analysis of cultural evolution. However, proponents of memetics as described in the Journal of Memetics – Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission believe that 'memetics' has the potential to be an important and promising analysis of culture using the framework of evolutionary concepts. Keith Henson who wrote Memetics and the Modular-Mind (Analog Aug. 1987) makes the case that memetics needs to incorporate Evolutionary psychology to understand the psychological traits of a meme's host. Sex, Drugs, and Cults by H. Keith Henson This is especially true of time-varying, meme-amplification host-traits, such as those leading to wars. Evolutionary Psychology, Memes and the Origin of War Evolutionary Psychology, Memes and the Origin of War || kuro5hin.org Recently, Christopher diCarlo has developed the idea of 'memetic equilibrium' to describe a cultural compatible state with biological equilibrium. In "Problem Solving and Neurotransmission in the Upper Paleolithic" (in press), diCarlo argues that as human consciousness evolved and developed, so too did our ancestors' capacity to consider and attempt to solve environmental problems in more conceptually sophisticated ways. Understood in this way, problem solving amongst a particular group, when considered satisfactory, often produces a feeling of environmental control, stability, in short--memetic equilibrium. But the pay-off is not merely practical, providing purely functional utility--it is biochemical and it comes in the form of neurotransmitters. The relationship between a gradually emerging conscious awareness and sophisticated languages in which to formulate representations combined with the desire to maintain biological equilibrium, generated the necessity for memetic equilibrium to fill in conceptual gaps in terms of understanding three very important aspects in the Upper Paleolithic: causality, morality, and mortality. The desire to explain phenomena in relation to maintaining survival and reproductive stasis, generated a normative stance in the minds of our ancestors—Survival/Reproductive Value (or S-R Value). The application of memetics to a difficult complex social system problem, environmental sustainability, has recently been attempted at thwink.org. Using meme types and memetic infection in several stock and flow simulation models, Jack Harich has demonstrated several interesting phenomena that are best, and perhaps only, explained by memes. One model, The Dueling Loops of the Political Powerplace, argues that the fundamental reason corruption is the norm in politics is due to an inherent structural advantage of one feedback loop pitted against another. Another model, The Memetic Evolution of Solutions to Difficult Problems, uses memes, the evolutionary algorithm, and the scientific method to show how complex solutions evolve over time and how that process can be improved. The insights gained from these models are being used to engineer memetic solution elements to the sustainability problem. Francis Heylighen of the Center Leo Apostel for Interdisciplinary Studies has postulated what he calls "memetic selection criteria". These criteria opened the way to a specialized field of applied memetics to find out if these selection criteria could stand the test of quantitative analyses. In 2003 Klaas Chielens carried out these tests in a Masters thesis project on the testability of the selection criteria. In Selfish Sounds and Linguistic Evolution (2004, Cambridge University Press), Austrian linguist Nikolaus Ritt has attempted to operationalise memetic concepts and use them for the explanation of long term sound changes and change conspiracies in early English. It is argued that a generalised Darwinian framework for handling cultural change can provide explanations where established, speaker centred approaches fail to do so. The book makes comparatively concrete suggestions about the possible material structure of memes, and provides two empirically rich case studies. Australian academic S.J. Whitty has argued that project management is a memeplex with the language and stories of its practitioners at its core. A Memetic Paradigm of Project Management (International Journal of Project Management, 23 (8) 575-583) This radical, some say heretical approach requires project managers to consider that most of what they call a project and what it is to manage one is an illusion; a human construct about a collection of feelings, expectations, and sensations, cleverly conjured up, fashioned, and conveniently labelled by the human brain. It also requires project managers to consider that the reasons for using project management are not consciously driven to maximize profit. Project managers are required to consider project management as naturally occurring, self-serving, evolving and designing organizations for its own purpose. Swedish political scientist Mikael Sandberg argues against "Lamarckian" interpretations of institutional and technological evolution and studies creative innovation of information technologies in governmental and private organizations in Sweden in the 1990s from a memetic perspective. “The Evolution of IT Innovations in Swedish Organizations: A Darwinian Critique of ‘Lamarckian’ Institutional Economics”, Journal of Evolutionary Economics, vol. 17, No. 1 (Feb 2007) Comparing the effects of active ("Lamarckian) IT strategy versus user–producer interactivity (Darwinian co-evolution), evidence from Swedish organizations shows that co-evolutionary interactivity is almost four times as strong a factor behind IT creativity as the ‘Lamarckian’ IT strategy. Terminology Memotype – is the actual information-content of a meme. Meme-complex – (sometimes abbreviated memeplex) is a collection or grouping of memes that have evolved into a mutually supportive or symbiotic relationship. Simply put, a meme-complex is a set of ideas that reinforce each other. Meme-complexes are roughly analogous to the symbiotic collection of individual genes that make up the genetic codes of biological organisms. An example of a memeplex would be a religion. Memeoid – is a neologism for people who have been taken over by a meme to the extent that their own survival becomes inconsequential. Examples include kamikazes, suicide bombers and cult members who commit mass suicide. The term was apparently coined by H. Keith Henson in "Memes, L5 and the Religion of the Space Colonies," L5 News, 1985 pp. 5-8, and referenced in the expanded second edition of Richard Dawkins' book The Selfish Gene (p. 330). Memetic Equilibrium – refers to the cultural equivalent of species biological equilibrium. It is that which humans strive for in terms of personal value with respect to cultural artefacts and ideas. The term was coined by Christopher diCarlo in "Problem Solving and Neurotransmission in the Upper Paleolithic (in press). Teme – (or technomemes) technological replicators. See also Computational sociology Copycat Cultural selection theory Dual inheritance theory Evolution Evolutionary epistemology General Semantics Human-based genetic algorithms Knowledge ecology Lamarckian evolution Meme pool Replicator Self-replication Seme (semantics) Social constructionism Social Osmosis Sociotype Viral marketing Memespace References Boyd, Rob & Richerson, Peter J. (1985). Culture and the Evolutionary Process. Chicago University Press. ISBN 978-0226069333 Boyd, Rob & Richerson, Peter J. (2005). Not by Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Evolution. Chicago University Press. ISBN 0-226-71284-2 Cloak, F.T. 1975. "Is a cultural ethology possible?" Human Ecology 3: 161—182. Heylighen F. & Chielens K. (2009): Evolution of Culture, Memetics, in: Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science, ed. B. Meyers (Springer) The Selfish Gene by Richard Dawkins, Oxford University Press, 1976, 2nd edition, December 1989, hardcover, 352 pages, ISBN 0-19-217773-7; April 1992, ISBN 0-19-857519-X; trade paperback, September 1990, 352 pages, ISBN 0-19-286092-5 Aunger, Robert. The Electric Meme: A New Theory of How We Think. New York: Free Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0743201506 The Meme Machine by Susan Blackmore, Oxford University Press, 1999, hardcover ISBN 0-19-850365-2, trade paperback ISBN 0-9658817-8-4, May 2000, ISBN 0-19-286212-X The Ideology of Cybernetic Totalist Intellectuals an essay by Jaron Lanier which is very strongly critical of "meme totalists" who assert memes over bodies. Culture as Complex Adaptive System by Hokky Situngkir – formal interplays between memetics and cultural analysis. Journal of Memetics – Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission Brodie, Richard. Virus of the Mind: The New Science of the Meme. Seattle, Wash: Integral Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0963600110 Cultural Software: A Theory of Ideology by Jack Balkin which uses memetics to explain the growth and spread of ideology. Footnotes External links Memetics publications on the web Journal of Memetics () Memetics (Principia Cybernetica Web) Memetics: A Critique Interesting semiotics point of view Evolution and Memes: The human brain as a selective imitation device Article by Susan Blackmore. A Very Short Introduction to Memetics A comprehensive introduction by Henry M. 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4,964 | Politics_of_Cape_Verde | Politics of Cape Verde takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Cape Verde is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The constitution first approved in 1980 and substantially revised in 1992 forms the basis of government organization. It declares that the government is the "organ that defines, leads, and executes the general internal and external policy of the country" and is responsible to the National Assembly. Political conditions Following independence in 1975, the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) established a one party political system. This became the African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV) in 1980, as Cape Verde sought to distance itself from Guinea-Bissau, following unrest in that country. In 1991, following growing pressure for a more pluralistic society, multi-party elections were held for the first time. The opposition party, the Movement for Democracy (MpD), won the legislative elections, and formed the government. The MpD candidate also defeated the PAICV candidate in the presidential elections. In the 1996 elections, the MpD increased their majority, but in the 2001 the PAICV returned to power, winning both the Legislative and the Presidential elections. Generally, Cape Verde enjoys a stable democratic system. The elections have been considered free and fair, there is a free press, and the rule of law is respected by the State. In acknowledgment of this, Freedom House granted Cape Verde two 1s in its annual Freedom in the World report, a perfect score. It is the only African country to receive this score. Executive branch |President |Pedro Pires |PAICV |22 March 2001 |- |Prime Minister |José Maria Neves |PAICV |1 February 2001 |} The Prime Minister is the head of the government and as such proposes other ministers and secretaries of state. The Prime Minister is nominated by the National Assembly and appointed by the President. The President is the head of state and is elected by popular vote for a five-year term; the most recent elections were held in 2006. Legislative branch The National Assembly (Asembleia Nacional) has 72 members, elected for a five year term by proportional representation. Political parties and elections Judicial branch Administrative divisions Cape Verde is divided into 22 municipalities (concelhos, singular - concelho): Boa Vista, Brava, Maio, Mosteiros, Paul, Porto Novo, Praia, Ribeira Grande, Ribeira Grande de Santiago,Sal, Santa Catarina, Santa Catarina do Fogo, Santa Cruz, São Domingos, São Filipe, São Lourenço dos Órgãos,São Miguel, São Nicolau, São Salvador do Mundo, São Vicente, Tarrafal, Tarrafal de São Nicolau, Voting rights for noncitizens Article 24 of the Cape Verde Constitution states that alinea 3.: "Rights not conferred to foreigners and apatrids may be attributed to citizens of countries with Portuguese as an official language, except for access to functions of sovereignty organs, service in the armed forces or in the diplomatic career." alinea 4. "Active and passive electoral capacity can be attributed by law to foreigners and apatrid residents on the national territory for the elections of the members of the organs of the local municipalities." The website of the governmental Institute of Cape Verde Communities states that such a measure was adopted "to stimulate reciprocity from host countries of Cape Verdian migrants" . A law nr. 36/V/97 was promulgated on August 25 1997 regulating the "Statute of Lusophone Citizen", concerning nationals from any country member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (article 2), stating in its article 3 that "The lusophone citizen with residence in Cape Verde is recognized the active and passive electoral capacity for municipal elections, under conditions of the law. The lusophone citizen with residence in Cape Verde has the right to exercise political activity related to his electoral capacity." . International organization participation ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, International Maritime Organization, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, ITUC, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant) Sources | Politics_of_Cape_Verde |@lemmatized politics:1 cape:13 verde:12 take:1 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:1 representative:1 democratic:2 republic:1 whereby:1 prime:4 minister:5 head:3 government:7 multi:2 party:7 system:3 executive:3 power:3 exercise:2 legislative:4 vest:1 national:6 assembly:4 judiciary:1 independent:1 legislature:1 constitution:2 first:2 approve:1 substantially:1 revise:1 form:2 basis:1 organization:3 declare:1 organ:3 define:1 lead:1 execute:1 general:1 internal:1 external:1 policy:1 country:7 responsible:1 political:4 condition:2 follow:3 independence:3 african:3 guinea:2 paigc:1 establish:1 one:1 become:1 paicv:5 seek:1 distance:1 bissau:1 unrest:1 grow:1 pressure:1 pluralistic:1 society:1 election:10 hold:2 time:1 opposition:1 movement:1 democracy:1 mpd:3 win:2 candidate:2 also:1 defeat:1 presidential:2 increase:1 majority:1 return:1 generally:1 enjoy:1 stable:1 consider:1 free:2 fair:1 press:1 rule:1 law:4 respect:1 state:6 acknowledgment:1 freedom:2 house:1 grant:1 two:1 annual:1 world:1 report:1 perfect:1 score:2 receive:1 branch:3 president:3 pedro:1 pires:1 march:1 josé:1 maria:1 neve:1 february:1 propose:1 secretary:1 nominate:1 appoint:1 elect:2 popular:1 vote:2 five:2 year:2 term:2 recent:1 asembleia:1 nacional:1 member:3 proportional:1 representation:1 judicial:1 administrative:1 division:1 divide:1 municipality:2 concelhos:1 singular:1 concelho:1 boa:1 vista:1 brava:1 maio:1 mosteiros:1 paul:1 porto:1 novo:1 praia:1 ribeira:2 grande:2 de:2 santiago:1 sal:1 santa:3 catarina:2 fogo:1 cruz:1 são:8 domingo:1 filipe:1 lourenço:1 órgãos:1 miguel:1 nicolau:2 salvador:1 mundo:1 vicente:1 tarrafal:2 right:3 noncitizen:1 article:3 alinea:2 confer:1 foreigner:2 apatrids:1 may:1 attribute:2 citizen:4 portuguese:2 official:1 language:2 except:1 access:1 function:1 sovereignty:1 service:1 armed:1 force:1 diplomatic:1 career:1 active:2 passive:2 electoral:3 capacity:3 apatrid:1 resident:1 territory:1 local:1 website:1 governmental:1 institute:1 community:2 measure:1 adopt:1 stimulate:1 reciprocity:1 host:1 verdian:1 migrant:1 nr:1 v:1 promulgate:1 august:1 regulate:1 statute:1 lusophone:3 concern:1 residence:2 recognize:1 municipal:1 activity:1 relate:1 international:2 participation:1 acct:1 acp:1 afdb:1 ccc:1 eca:1 ecowas:1 fao:1 g:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icrm:1 ida:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 maritime:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 observer:1 itu:1 ituc:1 nam:1 oau:1 opcw:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtro:1 applicant:1 source:1 |@bigram cape_verde:12 prime_minister:4 judiciary_independent:1 verde_paigc:1 guinea_bissau:1 presidential_election:2 legislative_branch:1 proportional_representation:1 judicial_branch:1 boa_vista:1 santa_catarina:2 santa_cruz:1 são_lourenço:1 são_miguel:1 são_nicolau:2 são_vicente:1 participation_acct:1 acct_acp:1 acp_afdb:1 ccc_eca:1 eca_ecowas:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_observer:1 itu_ituc:1 ituc_nam:1 nam_oau:1 oau_opcw:1 opcw_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unido_upu:1 upu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtro:1 wtro_applicant:1 |
4,965 | Key_size | In cryptography, key size or key length is the size (usually measured in bits or bytes) of the key used in a cryptographic algorithm (such as a cipher). An algorithm's key length is distinct from its cryptographic security, which is a logarithmic measure of the fastest known computational attack on the algorithm, also measured in bits. The security of an algorithm cannot exceed its key length (since any algorithm can be cracked by brute force), but it can be smaller. For example, Triple DES has a key size of 168 bits but provides at most 112 bits of security, since an attack of complexity 2112 is known. This property of Triple DES is not a weakness provided 112 bits of security is sufficient for an application. Most symmetric-key algorithms in common use are designed to have security equal to their key length. No asymmetric-key algorithms with this property are known; elliptic curve cryptography comes the closest with an effective security of roughly half its key length. Significance Keys are used to control the operation of a cipher so that only the correct key can convert encrypted text (ciphertext) to plaintext. Many ciphers are based on publicly known algorithms or are open source, and so it is only the difficulty of obtaining the key that determines security of the system, provided that there is no analytic attack (i.e., a 'structural weakness' in the algorithms or protocols used), and assuming that the key is not otherwise available (such as via theft, extortion, or compromise of computer systems). The widely accepted notion that the security of the system should depend on the key alone has been explicitly formulated by Auguste Kerckhoffs (in the 1880s) and Claude Shannon (in the 1940s); the statements are known as Kerckhoffs' principle and Shannon's Maxim respectively. A key should therefore be large enough that a brute force attack (possible against any encryption algorithm) is infeasible – i.e, would take too long to execute. Shannon's work on information theory showed that to achieve perfect secrecy, it is necessary for the key length to be at least as large as the message to be transmitted and only used once (this algorithm is called the One-time pad). In light of this, and the practical difficulty of managing such long keys, modern cryptographic practice has discarded the notion of perfect secrecy as a requirement for encryption, and instead focuses on computational security. Under this definition, the computational requirements of breaking an encrypted text must be infeasible for an attacker. The preferred numbers commonly used as key sizes (in bits) are powers of two, potentially multiplied with a small odd integer. Key size and encryption system Encryption systems are often grouped into families. Common families include symmetric systems (e.g. AES) and asymmetric systems (e.g. RSA), or may be grouped according to the central algorithm used (e.g. elliptic curve cryptography). As each of these is of a different level of cryptographic complexity, it is usual to have different key sizes for the same level of security, depending upon the algorithm used. For example, the security available with a 1024-bit key using asymmetric RSA is considered approximately equal in security to an 80-bit key in a symmetric algorithm (Source: RSA Security). The actual degree of security achieved over time varies, as more computational power and more powerful mathematical analytic methods become available. For this reason cryptologists tend to look at indicators that an algorithm or key length shows signs of potential vulnerability, to move to longer key sizes or more difficult algorithms. For example , a 1039 bit integer was factored, with the special number field sieve using 400 computers over 11 months. http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,132184-pg,1/article.html [Researcher: RSA 1024-bit Encryption not Enough] The factored number was of a special form; the special number field sieve cannot be used on RSA keys. The computation is roughly equivalent to breaking a 700 bit RSA key. However, this might be an advanced warning that 1024 bit RSA used in secure online commerce should be deprecated, since they may become breakable in the near future. Cryptography professor Arjen Lenstra observed that "Last time, it took nine years for us to generalize from a special to a nonspecial, hard-to-factor number" and when asked whether 1024-bit RSA keys are dead, said: "The answer to that question is an unqualified yes." Researchers: 307-digit key crack endangers 1024-bit RSA Brute force attack Even if a symmetric cipher is currently unbreakable by exploiting structural weaknesses in its algorithm, it is possible to run through the entire space of keys in what is known as a brute force attack. Since longer symmetric keys require exponentially more work to brute force search, a sufficiently long symmetric key will prevent this line of attack. With a key of length n bits, there are 2n possible keys. This number grows very rapidly as n increases. Moore's law suggests that computing power doubles roughly every 18 to 24 months, but even this doubling effect leaves the larger symmetric key lengths currently considered acceptably well out of reach. The large number of operations (2128) required to try all possible 128-bit keys is widely considered to be out of reach for conventional digital computing techniques for the foreseeable future. However alternative forms of computing technology are anticipated which may have superior processing power than classical computers. If a suitably sized quantum computer capable of running Grover's algorithm reliably becomes available it would reduce a 128-bit key down to 64-bit security, roughly a DES equivalent. This is one of the reasons why AES supports a 256-bit key length. See the discussion on the relationship between key lengths and quantum computing attacks at the bottom of this page for more information. Symmetric algorithm key lengths US Government export policy has long restricted the 'strength' of cryptography which can be sent out of the country. For many years the limit was 40 bits. Today, a key length of 40 bits offers little protection against even a casual attacker with a single PC. The restrictions have not been removed (in 2007, it is still illegal to export cryptographic software using key lengths greater than 64-bits without authorization from the U.S. Bureau of Industry and Security), but it became easier to gain authorization to export to certain countries in 1999/2000. When the Data Encryption Standard cipher was released in 1977, a key length of 56 bits was thought to be sufficient (though there was speculation at the time that the NSA has deliberately reduced the key size from the original value of 112 bits, in IBM's Lucifer cipher, or 64 bits, in one of the versions of what was adopted as DES) so as to limit the 'strength' of encryption available to non-US users. The NSA has major computing resources and a large budget; some thought that 56 bits was NSA-breakable in the late '70s. However, by the late 90s, it became clear that DES could be cracked in a few days' time-frame with custom-built hardware such as could be purchased by a large corporation. The book Cracking DES (O'Reilly and Associates) tells of the successful attempt to break 56-bit DES by a brute force attack mounted by a cyber civil rights group with limited resources; see EFF DES cracker. 56 bits is now considered insufficient length for symmetric algorithm keys, and may have been for some time. More technically and financially capable organizations were surely able to do the same long before the effort described in the book. Distributed.net and its volunteers broke a 64-bit RC5 key in several years, using about seventy thousand (mostly home) computers. The NSA's Skipjack algorithm used in its Fortezza program employs 80 bit keys. DES has been replaced in many applications by Triple DES, which has 112 bits of security with 168-bit keys. The Advanced Encryption Standard published in 2001 uses a key size of (at minimum) 128 bits. It also can use keys up to 256 bits (a specification requirement for submissions to the AES contest). 128 bits is currently thought, by many observers, to be sufficient for the foreseeable future for symmetric algorithms of AES's quality. The U.S. Government requires 192 or 256-bit AES keys for highly sensitive data. In 2003 the U.S. National Institute for Standards and Technology, NIST, proposed that 80-bit keys should be phased out by 2015. As of 2005, 80-bit keys were allowed to be used only until 2010. Asymmetric algorithm key lengths The effectiveness of public key cryptosystems depends on the intractability (computational and theoretical) of certain mathematical problems such as integer factorization. These problems are time consuming to solve, but usually faster than trying all possible keys by brute force. Thus, asymmetric algorithm keys must be longer for equivalent resistance to attack than symmetric algorithm keys. As of 2002, a key length of 1024 bits was generally considered the minimum necessary for the RSA encryption algorithm. RSA Security claims that 1024-bit RSA keys are equivalent in strength to 80-bit symmetric keys, 2048-bit RSA keys to 112-bit symmetric keys and 3072-bit RSA keys to 128-bit symmetric keys. RSA claims that 1024-bit keys are likely to become crackable some time between 2006 and 2010 and that 2048-bit keys are sufficient until 2030. An RSA key length of 3072 bits should be used if security is required beyond 2030. http://www.rsa.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2004 [TWIRL and RSA Key Size] NIST key management guidelines further suggest that 15360-bit RSA keys are equivalent in strength to 256-bit symmetric keys. http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-57/SP800-57-Part1.pdf [Recommendation for Key Management – Part 1: General (Revised)] The Finite Field Diffie-Hellman algorithm has roughly the same key strength as RSA for the same key sizes. The work factor for breaking Diffie-Hellman is based on the discrete logarithm problem, which is related to the integer factorization problem on which RSA's strength is based. Thus, a 3072-bit Diffie-Hellman key has about the same strength as a 3072-bit RSA key. One of the asymmetric algorithm types, elliptic curve cryptography, or ECC, appears to be secure with shorter keys than those needed by other asymmetric key algorithms. NIST guidelines state that ECC keys should be twice the length of equivalent strength symmetric key algorithms. So, for example, a 224-bit ECC key would have roughly the same strength as a 112-bit symmetric key. These estimates assume no major breakthroughs in solving the underlying mathematical problems that ECC is based on. A message encrypted with an elliptic key algorithm using a 109-bit long key has been broken by brute force. https://www.certicom.com/index.php?action=company,press_archive&view=307 [Certicom Announces Elliptic Curve Cryptography Challenge Winner] The NSA specifies that "Elliptic Curve Public Key Cryptography using the 256-bit prime modulus elliptic curve as specified in FIPS-186-2 and SHA-256 are appropriate for protecting classified information up to the SECRET level. Use of the 384-bit prime modulus elliptic curve and SHA-384 are necessary for the protection of TOP SECRET information." Effect of quantum computing attacks on key strength The two best known quantum computing attacks are based on Shor's algorithm and Grover's algorithm. Of the two Shor's offers the greatest risk to current security systems. Derivatives of Shor's algorithm are widely conjectured to be effective against all mainstream public-key algorithms including RSA, Diffie-Hellman and elliptic curve cryptography. According to Professor Gilles Brassard, an expert in quantum computing: "The time needed to factor an RSA integer is the same order as the time needed to use that same integer as modulus for a single RSA encryption. In other words, it takes no more time to break RSA on a quantum computer (up to a multiplicative constant) than to use it legitimately on a classical computer." The general consensus is that these public key algorithms are insecure at any key size if sufficiently large quantum computers capable of running Shor's algorithm become available. The implications of this attack is that all data encrypted using current standards based security systems such as the ubiquitous SSL used to protect e-commerce and Internet banking and SSH used to protect access to sensitive computing systems is at risk. Encrypted data protected using these protocols can be archived and may be broken at a later time. Mainstream symmetric ciphers (such as AES or Twofish) and collision resistant hash function (such as SHA) are widely conjectured to offer greater security against known quantum computing attacks. They are widely conjectured to be most vulnerable to Grover's algorithm. Bennett, Bernstein, Brassard, and Vazirani proved in 1996 that a brute-force key search on a quantum computer cannot be faster than roughly 2n/2 invocations of the underlying cryptographic algorithm, compared with roughly 2n in the classical case. Bennett C.H., Bernstein E., Brassard G., Vazirani U., The strengths and weaknesses of quantum computation. SIAM Journal on Computing 26(5): 1510-1523 (1997). Thus in the presence of large quantum computers an n-bit key can provide at most n/2 bits of security. Quantum brute force is easily defeated by doubling the key length, which has little extra computational cost in ordinary use. This implies that at least a 160-bit symmetric key is required to achieve 80-bit security rating against a quantum computer. See also Key strengthening References Recommendation for Key Management — Part 1: general, NIST Special Publication 800-57. March, 2007 Blaze, Matt; Diffie, Whitfield; Rivest, Ronald L.; et al. "Minimal Key Lengths for Symmetric Ciphers to Provide Adequate Commercial Security". January, 1996 Arjen K. Lenstra, Eric R. Verheul: Selecting Cryptographic Key Sizes. J. Cryptology 14(4): 255-293 (2001) — Citeseer link External links www.keylength.com: An online keylength calculator A discussion on the importance of key length (PDF file), available also in PostScript and other formats A discussion on how much time we have available before we must take steps to protect against quantum computing attacks NIST crypto toolkit The FreeS/WAN project's discussion of key length Burt Kaliski: TWIRL and RSA key sizes (May 2003) | Key_size |@lemmatized cryptography:9 key:101 size:15 length:23 usually:2 measure:3 bit:61 byte:1 use:29 cryptographic:7 algorithm:38 cipher:8 distinct:1 security:25 logarithmic:1 fast:3 known:1 computational:6 attack:15 also:4 cannot:3 exceed:1 since:4 crack:4 brute:10 force:10 small:2 example:4 triple:3 de:9 provide:5 complexity:2 know:7 property:2 weakness:4 sufficient:4 application:2 symmetric:20 common:2 design:1 equal:2 asymmetric:7 elliptic:9 curve:8 come:1 closest:1 effective:2 roughly:8 half:1 significance:1 control:1 operation:2 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integer_factorization:2 asp_id:1 nist_gov:1 diffie_hellman:4 discrete_logarithm:1 hellman_key:1 index_php:1 shor_algorithm:3 cipher_aes:1 strength_weakness:1 siam_journal:1 et_al:1 external_link:1 |
4,966 | Megabyte | Megabyte is a SI-multiple (see prefix mega-) of the unit byte for digital information storage or transmission and is equal to 106 () bytes. However, due to historical usage in computer-related fields it is still often used to represent 220 (1024×1024 or ) bytes. In rare cases, it is used to mean 1000×1024 () bytes. It is commonly abbreviated as Mbyte or MB (compare Mb, for the megabit). Definition The term "megabyte" is ambiguous because it is commonly used to mean either 10002 bytes or 10242 bytes. The confusion originated as compromise technical jargon for the byte multiples that needed to be expressed by the powers of 2 but lacked a convenient name. As 1024 (210) is roughly equal to 1000 (103), roughly corresponding SI multiples began to be used as approximate binary multiples. By the end of 2007, standards and government authorities including IEC, IEEE, , and NIST, had addressed this ambiguity by promulgating standards requiring the use of megabyte to describe strictly 10002 bytes and "mebibyte" to describe 10242 bytes. This is reflected in an increasing number of software projects, but most file managers still show file sizes in "megabytes" ("MB") in the binary sense (10242 bytes). The term remains ambiguous and it can follow any one of the following common definitions: bytes (10002, 106): This is the definition recommended by the International System of Units (SI) and the International Electrotechnical Commission IEC. This definition is used in networking contexts and most storage media, particularly hard drives, Flash-based storage SanDisk USB Flash Drive "Note: 1 megabyte (MB) = 1 million bytes; 1 gigabyte (GB) = 1 billion bytes." , and DVDs, and is also consistent with the other uses of the SI prefix in computing, such as CPU clock speeds or measures of performance. bytes (10242, 220): This definition is most commonly used in reference to computer memory, but most software that display file size or drive capacity, including file managers also use this definition. See Consumer confusion (in the "gigabyte" article). bytes (1000×1024): This is used to describe the formatted capacity of the "1.44 MB" 3.5 inch HD floppy disk, which actually has a capacity of bytes. Megabyte examples 1.44 MB floppy disks can store 1,474,560 bytes of data. MB in this context means 1,000×1,024 bytes. Depending on compression methods and file format, a megabyte of data can roughly be: a 1024×1024 pixel bitmap image with 256 colors (8 bpp color depth). 1 minute of 128 kbit/s MP3 compressed music. 6 seconds of uncompressed CD audio. a typical book volume in text format (500 pages × 2000 characters per page). See also binary prefix kilobyte gigabyte mebibyte megabit orders of magnitude (data) References External links Historical Notes About The Cost Of Hard Drive Storage Space the megabyte (established definition in Networking and Storage industries; from whatis.com) International Electrotechnical Commission definitions IEC prefixes and symbols for binary multiples | Megabyte |@lemmatized megabyte:8 si:4 multiple:4 see:3 prefix:4 mega:1 unit:2 byte:17 digital:1 information:1 storage:5 transmission:1 equal:2 however:1 due:1 historical:2 usage:1 computer:2 related:1 field:1 still:2 often:1 use:9 represent:1 rare:1 case:1 mean:3 commonly:3 abbreviate:1 mbyte:1 mb:7 compare:1 megabit:2 definition:8 term:2 ambiguous:2 either:1 confusion:2 originate:1 compromise:1 technical:1 jargon:1 multiples:1 need:1 express:1 power:1 lack:1 convenient:1 name:1 roughly:3 correspond:1 begin:1 approximate:1 binary:4 end:1 standard:2 government:1 authority:1 include:2 iec:3 ieee:1 nist:1 address:1 ambiguity:1 promulgate:1 require:1 describe:3 strictly:1 mebibyte:2 reflect:1 increase:1 number:1 software:2 project:1 file:5 manager:2 show:1 size:2 sense:1 remain:1 follow:1 one:1 following:1 common:1 recommend:1 international:3 system:1 electrotechnical:2 commission:2 network:1 context:2 medium:1 particularly:1 hard:2 drive:4 flash:2 base:1 sandisk:1 usb:1 note:2 million:1 gigabyte:3 gb:1 billion:1 dvd:1 also:3 consistent:1 us:1 compute:1 cpu:1 clock:1 speed:1 measure:1 performance:1 reference:2 memory:1 display:1 capacity:3 consumer:1 article:1 bytes:1 formatted:1 inch:1 hd:1 floppy:2 disk:2 actually:1 examples:1 store:1 data:3 depend:1 compression:1 method:1 format:2 pixel:1 bitmap:1 image:1 color:2 bpp:1 depth:1 minute:1 kbit:1 compress:1 music:1 second:1 uncompressed:1 cd:1 audio:1 typical:1 book:1 volume:1 text:1 page:2 character:1 per:1 kilobyte:1 order:1 magnitude:1 external:1 link:1 cost:1 space:1 establish:1 networking:1 industry:1 whatis:1 com:1 symbol:1 |@bigram international_electrotechnical:2 electrotechnical_commission:2 usb_flash:1 si_prefix:1 formatted_capacity:1 hd_floppy:1 floppy_disk:2 mb_floppy:1 external_link:1 |
4,967 | Codec | A codec is a device or computer program capable of encoding and/or decoding a digital data stream or signal. The word codec is a portmanteau of 'compressor-decompressor' or, most commonly, 'coder-decoder'. http://www.afterdawn.com/glossary/terms/codec.cfm Related concepts An endec (encoder/decoder) is a similar yet different concept mainly used for hardware. In the mid 20th century, a "codec" was hardware that coded analog signals into Pulse-code modulation (PCM) and decoded them back. Late in the century the name came to be applied to a class of software for converting among digital signal formats, and including compander functions. A codec encodes a data stream or signal for transmission, storage or encryption, or decodes it for playback or editing. Codecs are used in videoconferencing and streaming media applications. A video camera's analog-to-digital converter (ADC) converts its analog signals into digital signals, which are then passed through a video compressor for digital transmission or storage. A receiving device then runs the signal through a video decompressor, then a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) for analog display. The term codec is also used as a generic name for a video conferencing unit. An audio compressor converts analog audio signals into digital signals for transmission or storage. A receiving device then converts the digital signals back to analog using an audio decompressor, for playback. An example of this are the codecs used in the sound cards of personal computers. Compression quality Lossy codecs: Many of the more popular codecs in the software world are lossy, meaning that they reduce quality by some amount in order to achieve compression, but use some algorithm to create the impression of the data being there. Smaller data sets ease the strain on relatively expensive storage sub-systems such as non-volatile memory and hard disk, as well as write-once-read-many formats such as CD-ROM, DVD and Blu-ray Disc. Lossless codecs: There are also many lossless codecs which are typically used for archiving data in a compressed form while retaining all of the information present in the original stream. If preserving the original quality of the stream is more important than eliminating the correspondingly larger data sizes, lossless codecs are preferred. This is especially true if the data is to undergo further processing (for example editing) in which case the repeated application of processing (encoding and decoding) on lossy codecs will degrade the quality of the resulting data such that it is no longer identifiable (visually, audibly or both). Using more than one codec or encoding scheme successively can also degrade quality significantly. The decreasing cost of storage capacity and network bandwidth has a tendency to reduce the need for lossy codecs for some media. Codecs are often designed to emphasize certain aspects of the media, or their use, to be encoded. For example, a digital video (using a DV codec) of a sports event, such as baseball or soccer, needs to encode motion well but not necessarily exact colors, while a video of an art exhibit needs to perform well encoding color and surface texture. Audio codecs for cell phones need to have very low latency between source encoding and playback; while audio codecs for recording or broadcast can use high-latency audio compression techniques to achieve higher fidelity at a lower bit-rate. There are thousands of audio and video codecs ranging in cost from free to hundreds of dollars or more. This variety of codecs can create compatibility and obsolescence issues. By contrast, raw uncompressed PCM audio (44.1 kHz, 16 bit stereo, as represented on an audio CD or in a .wav or .aiff file) is a standard across multiple platforms. Many multimedia data streams contain both audio and video, and often some metadata that permit synchronization of audio and video. Each of these three streams may be handled by different programs, processes, or hardware; but for the multimedia data streams to be useful in stored or transmitted form, they must be encapsulated together in a container format. Lower bit rate codecs allow more users, but they also have more distortion. Beyond the initial increase in distortion, lower bit rate codecs also achieve their lower bit rates by using more complex algorithms that make certain assumptions, such as those about the media and the packet loss rate. Other codecs may not make those same assumptions. When a user with a low bit-rate codec talks to a user with another codec, additional distortion is introduced by each transcoding. The notion of AVI being a codec is incorrect as AVI is a container format, which many codecs might use (although not to ISO standard). There are other well-known alternative containers such as Ogg, ASF, QuickTime, RealMedia, Matroska, DivX, and MP4. See also Analog-to-digital converter Audio codec, Video codec Datatypes (Amiga) Audio signal processing Digital signal processing Digital-to-analog converter List of codecs Lossless data compression Lossy compression Video coding Open source codecs and containers K-Lite Codec Pack Comparison of container formats Comparisons Comparison of audio codecs Comparison of video codecs References | Codec |@lemmatized codec:14 device:3 computer:2 program:2 capable:1 encode:7 decode:4 digital:12 data:11 stream:8 signal:12 word:1 portmanteau:1 compressor:3 decompressor:3 commonly:1 coder:1 decoder:2 http:1 www:1 afterdawn:1 com:1 glossary:1 term:2 cfm:1 related:1 concept:2 endec:1 encoder:1 similar:1 yet:1 different:2 mainly:1 use:13 hardware:3 mid:1 century:2 cod:2 analog:9 pulse:1 code:1 modulation:1 pcm:2 back:2 late:1 name:2 come:1 apply:1 class:1 software:2 convert:4 among:1 format:5 include:1 compander:1 function:1 transmission:3 storage:5 encryption:1 playback:3 edit:2 codecs:22 videoconferencing:1 medium:4 application:2 video:12 camera:1 converter:4 adc:1 pass:1 receiving:2 run:1 dac:1 display:1 also:6 generic:1 conferencing:1 unit:1 audio:14 example:3 sound:1 card:1 personal:1 compression:5 quality:5 lossy:5 many:5 popular:1 world:1 mean:1 reduce:2 amount:1 order:1 achieve:3 algorithm:2 create:2 impression:1 small:1 set:1 ease:1 strain:1 relatively:1 expensive:1 sub:1 system:1 non:1 volatile:1 memory:1 hard:1 disk:1 well:4 write:1 read:1 cd:2 rom:1 dvd:1 blu:1 ray:1 disc:1 lossless:4 typically:1 archive:1 compressed:1 form:2 retain:1 information:1 present:1 original:2 preserve:1 important:1 eliminate:1 correspondingly:1 large:1 size:1 prefer:1 especially:1 true:1 undergo:1 processing:4 case:1 repeat:1 degrade:2 result:1 longer:1 identifiable:1 visually:1 audibly:1 one:1 scheme:1 successively:1 significantly:1 decrease:1 cost:2 capacity:1 network:1 bandwidth:1 tendency:1 need:4 often:2 design:1 emphasize:1 certain:2 aspect:1 dv:1 sport:1 event:1 baseball:1 soccer:1 motion:1 necessarily:1 exact:1 color:2 art:1 exhibit:1 perform:1 surface:1 texture:1 cell:1 phone:1 low:6 latency:2 source:2 encoding:1 record:1 broadcast:1 high:2 technique:1 fidelity:1 bit:6 rate:6 thousand:1 range:1 free:1 hundred:1 dollar:1 variety:1 compatibility:1 obsolescence:1 issue:1 contrast:1 raw:1 uncompressed:1 khz:1 stereo:1 represent:1 wav:1 aiff:1 file:1 standard:2 across:1 multiple:1 platform:1 multimedia:2 contain:1 metadata:1 permit:1 synchronization:1 three:1 may:2 handle:1 process:1 useful:1 stored:1 transmitted:1 must:1 encapsulate:1 together:1 container:5 allow:1 user:3 distortion:3 beyond:1 initial:1 increase:1 complex:1 make:2 assumption:2 packet:1 loss:1 talk:1 another:1 additional:1 introduce:1 transcoding:1 notion:1 avi:2 incorrect:1 might:1 although:1 iso:1 know:1 alternative:1 ogg:1 asf:1 quicktime:1 realmedia:1 matroska:1 divx:1 see:1 datatypes:1 amiga:1 list:1 open:1 k:1 lite:1 pack:1 comparison:4 reference:1 |@bigram encode_decode:2 http_www:1 encoder_decoder:1 digital_converter:2 converter_adc:1 analog_converter:2 video_conferencing:1 cd_rom:1 dvd_blu:1 blu_ray:1 audio_codecs:3 audio_codec:1 signal_processing:2 compression_lossy:1 lossy_compression:1 |
4,968 | Beatrix_Potter | Helen Beatrix Potter (28 July 1866 – 22 December 1943) was an English author, illustrator, mycologist and conservationist who was best known for her many best-selling children's books that featured animal characters, such as Peter Rabbit. Born into a privileged household, Potter was educated by governesses and grew up isolated from other children. She had numerous pets and, through holidays spent in Scotland and the Lake District, developed a love of landscape, flora and fauna, all of which she closely observed and painted. Her parents discouraged her intellectual development as a young woman, but her study and watercolors of fungi led her to be widely respected in the field of mycology. In her thirties, Potter published the highly successful children's book The Tale of Peter Rabbit, and became secretly engaged to her publisher Norman Warne. This caused a breach with her parents, who disapproved of her marrying someone of lower social status. Warne died before the wedding could take place. Potter began writing and illustrating children's books full time. Having become financially independent of her parents, she was able to buy a farm in the Lake District, which she extended with other purchases over time. In her forties, she married William Heelis, a local solicitor. She became a sheep breeder and farmer while continuing to write and illustrate books for children. She published a total of twenty-three books. Potter died in 1943, and left almost all of her property to her husband who, after his death in 1945, left it to The National Trust to preserve the beauty of the Lake District as she had known it and protect it from developers. Potter's books continue to sell well throughout the world, in multiple languages. Her stories have been retold in various formats, including a ballet, films and in animation. Biography Potter at fifteen years with her springer spaniel, Spot Beatrix Potter was born in South Kensington, London on 28 July 1866. Educated at home by a succession of governesses, she had little opportunity to mix with other children. Even her younger brother, Bertram, was rarely at home; he was sent as a boy to boarding school, leaving Beatrix alone with her many pets. She had frogs, newts, ferrets and even a pet bat. She also had two rabbits — the first was Benjamin, whom she described as "an impudent, cheeky little thing", while the second was Peter, whom she took everywhere with her on a little lead, even on the occasional outing. Potter watched the animals for hours on end, sketching them. Gradually the sketches became better and better, developing her talents from an early age. Beatrix Potter's father, Rupert William Potter (1832–1914), although trained as a barrister, spent his days at gentlemen's clubs and rarely practised law. Her mother, Helen Potter née Leech (1839–1932), the daughter of a cotton merchant, spent her time visiting or receiving visitors. The family was supported by both parents' inherited incomes. Every summer, Rupert Potter would rent a country house; firstly Dalguise House in Perthshire, Scotland for the eleven summers of 1871 to 1881, "Overview of Dalguise", Gazetteer for Scotland, University of Edinburgh School of Geosciences. then later one in the English Lake District. In 1882 the family met the local vicar, Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley, who was deeply worried about the effects of industry and tourism on the Lake District. He would later found the National Trust in 1895, to help protect the countryside. Beatrix Potter had immediately fallen in love with the rugged mountains and dark lakes. Through Rawnsley, she learnt of the importance of trying to conserve the region, something that was to stay with her for the rest of her life. Scientific aspirations and work on fungi When Potter came of age, her parents appointed her their housekeeper and discouraged any intellectual development, instead requiring her to supervise the household. From the age of 15 until she was past 30, she recorded her everyday life in journals, using her own secret code which was not decoded until 20 years after her death. An uncle attempted to introduce her as a student at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, but she was rejected because she was female. Potter was later one of the first to suggest that lichens were a symbiotic relationship between fungi and algae. Chet Raymo, "The Sharp and the Half-Sharp", Science Musings (blog of Stonehill College professor and former Boston Globe columnist, Chet Raymo), September 29, 2006. As, at the time, the only way to record microscopic images was by painting them, Potter made numerous drawings of lichens and fungi. As the result of her observations, she was widely respected throughout England as an expert mycologist. She also studied spore germination and life cycles of fungi. Potter's set of detailed watercolours of fungi, numbering some 270 completed by 1901, is in the Armitt Library, Ambleside. In 1897, her paper on the germination of spores was presented to the Linnean Society by her uncle Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe, as women were barred from attending meetings. (In 1997, the Society issued a posthumous official apology to Potter for the way she had been treated.) The Royal Society also refused to publish at least one of her technical papers. She also lectured at the London School of Economics several times. Literary career Colour illustration of Peter Rabbit with his family, from The Tale of Peter Rabbit, 1902. Much of Potter's stories' vocabulary and artistic practice stemmed from Joel Chandler Harris's Uncle Remus stories. The basis of her many projects and stories were the small animals which she smuggled into the house or observed during family holidays in Scotland and the Lake District. When she was 27 and on one such holiday in Scotland, in a letter dated 4 September 1893 she sent a story about rabbits to Noel Moore, the five-year-old son of her last governess. She was encouraged by former governess Annie Moore to publish the story, so she borrowed it back in 1901 and made it into the book entitled The Tale of Peter Rabbit and Mr. McGregor's Garden. She sent her slightly rewritten picture letters to six publishers, but was turned down by all of them. The primary complaint from all of them was the lack of colour pictures, which were popular at the time. In September 1901, she decided to self-publish and distribute 250 copies of a renamed The Tale of Peter Rabbit. Later that year, because the colour printing blocks were already created and other children’s books were popular, she finally attracted the publisher Frederick Warne & Co. The publishing contract was signed in June 1902 and, by the end of the year, 28,000 copies were in print. Later, the character Peter Rabbit was patented and produced as a soft toy in 1903. This makes Peter the oldest licensed character. , Frederick Warne & Co Limited 2002, retrieved March 2009 She followed it with The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin in 1903, that was also based on an earlier letter. Such was the popularity of these and her subsequent books that she gained an independent income from their sales. She also became secretly engaged to the publisher, Norman Warne in 1905, but her parents were set against her marrying a tradesman. Their opposition to the wedding caused a breach between Beatrix and her parents. The wedding was not to be, for soon after the engagement, Norman fell ill of pernicious anemia and died within a few weeks. Beatrix was devastated. She wrote in a letter to his sister, Millie, "He did not live long, but he fulfilled a useful happy life. I must try to make a fresh beginning next year." Peterrabbit.com, Frederick Warne & Co Limited 2002, retrieved February 2007 Potter eventually wrote 23 books, all in the same small format. Part of the popularity of her books was due to the quality of her illustrations: the animal characters are portrayed as full of personality, but are deeply based in natural actions. Her writing efforts finally abated around 1920 due to poor eyesight. The Tale of Little Pig Robinson was published in 1930; however, the actual manuscript was one of the first to be written and much predates this publication date. Later life: the Lake District and conservation After Warne's death, Potter purchased Hill Top Farm in the village of Sawrey (then in Lancashire, now in Cumbria), in the Lake District. She loved the landscape, and visited the farm as often as she could, discussing the set-up with farm manager John Cannon. The National Trust, "The Story of Beatrix Potter". With the steady stream of royalties from her books, she began to buy pieces of land under the guidance of local solicitor William Heelis. In 1913 at the age of 47, Potter married Heelis and moved to Hill Top Farm permanently. Some of Potter's best-loved works show the Hill Top farmhouse and the village. While the couple had no children, the farm was constantly alive with dogs, cats and even a pet hedgehog named "Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle". On moving to the Lake District, Potter became engrossed in breeding and showing Herdwick sheep. She became a respected farmer, a judge at local agricultural shows, and President of the Herdwick Sheep Breeders' Association. When Potter's parents died, she used her inheritance to buy more farms and tracts of land. After some years, Potter and Heelis moved down into the village of Sawrey, and into Castle Cottage — where the local children knew her for her grumpy demeanour, and called her "Auld Mother Heelis". BBC, "Beatrix Potter - Children's Author", December 20, 2001. Her letters of the time reflect her increasing concerns with her sheep, preservation of farmland, and World War II. e.g., Jane Crowell Morse (ed.), Beatrix Potter's Americans: Selected Letters, Horn Book, Inc., 1982 Beatrix Potter died at Castle Cottage in Sawrey on 22 December 1943. Her body was cremated at Carleton Crematorium, Blackpool and her ashes were scattered in the countryside near Sawrey. Britain Unlimited, "Beatrix Potter". Subsequent events In her will, Potter left almost all of her property to the National Trust — 4,000 acres (16 km²) of land, cottages, and 15 farms. The legacy has helped ensure that the Lake District and the practice of fell farming remain unspoiled to this day. Her properties now lie within the Lake District National Park. The Trust's 2005 Swindon headquarters are named "Heelis" in her honour. Beatrix Potter Gallery, a gallery run by the National Trust and situated in a 17th-century Lake District townhouse in Hawkshead, Cumbria, England, now displays her original book illustrations. Film and TV adaptations In 1971, the film The Tales of Beatrix Potter directed by Reginald Mills was released. Several of the Tales were set to music, with choreography by Frederick Ashton and danced by the members of The Royal Ballet. The Tale of Pigling Bland was turned into a musical theatrical production by Suzy Conn and was first performed on 6 July 2006 at the Toronto Fringe Festival in Toronto, Canada. In 1982, the BBC produced The Tale of Beatrix Potter. This dramatisation of her life was written by John Hawkesworth and directed by Bill Hayes. It starred Holly Aird and Penelope Wilton as the young and adult Beatrix respectively. In 1992, the BBC produced an animated series based on the stories of Beatrix Potter, called The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends. It aired on the Family Channel in 1993–95. The entire series was released individually on VHS and later released on DVD as a 2-disc set. Miss Potter, a biographical film starring Renée Zellweger, was released on 29 December 2006. It was written by Richard Maltby, Jr. and directed by Chris Noonan. The character of Norman Warne was played by Ewan McGregor, while that of William Heelis was played by Lloyd Owen. Beatrix as a young girl was played by Lucy Boynton. Books The modern author Susan Wittig Albert publishes a series of mysteries featuring a fictionalised Beatrix Potter, focusing on the period of her life between her fiancé's death and her eventual establishment as a farmer in Sawrey. In December 2006 Penguin Books published Beatrix Potter: A Life in Nature, a new biography by Linda Lear, which emphasises Potter's scientific accomplishments both as a botanical artist and as an amateur mycologist. Beatrix Potter, A Life in Nature, by Linda Lear Partial bibliography The Tale of Peter Rabbit (1902) The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin (1903) The Tailor of Gloucester (1903) The Tale of Benjamin Bunny (1904) The Tale of Two Bad Mice (1904) The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle (1905) The Tale of the Pie and the Patty-Pan (1905) The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher (1906) The Story of a Fierce Bad Rabbit (1906) The Story of Miss Moppet (1906) The Tale of Tom Kitten (1907) The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck (1908) The Tale of Samuel Whiskers or The Roly-Poly Pudding (1908) The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies (1909) The Tale of Ginger and Pickles (1909) The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse (1910) The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes (1911) The Tale of Mr. Tod (1912) The Tale of Pigling Bland (1913) Appley Dapply's Nursery Rhymes (1917) The Tale of Johnny Town-Mouse (1918) Cecily Parsley's Nursery Rhymes (1922) The Fairy Caravan (1929) The Tale of Little Pig Robinson (1930) Wag-By-Wall (decorations by J. J. Lankes) (1944) References Sources Judy Taylor, "Potter, (Helen) Beatrix (1866–1943)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 accessed 14 Jan 2007 Jane Crowell Morse (ed.), Beatrix Potter's Americans: Selected Letters, Horn Book, Inc., 1982 Linda Lear, Beatrix Potter: A Life in Nature (Allen Lane, 2006) (ISBN 0713995602, ISBN 978-0713995602) (biography) Further reading Susan Denyer, Beatrix Potter: At Home in the Lake District (2000) (biographical, plus photography of Potter's Lake District) Anne Stevenson Hobbs, Beatrix Potter: Author and Illustrator (2005) (ISBN 0723257000; ISBN 978-0723257004) (collection of 200 of Potter's paintings, a catalogue of the Dulwich Picture Gallery exhibition of 2005) Anne Stevenson Hobbs, Judy Taylor, and Joyce Whalley, Beatrix Potter, 1866–1943: The Artist and Her World (1987) (ISBN 0723235619; 978-0723235613) (a companion to the Tate Gallery Exhibition) Margaret Lane, The Tale of Beatrix Potter: A Biography (2001) (ISBN 978-0723246763 ; 0723246769) Jane Crowell Morse (ed.), Beatrix Potter's Americans: Selected Letters, Horn Book, Inc., 1982 Beatrix Potter, Beatrix Potter: A Journal (2006) (ISBN 0723258058; ISBN 978-0723258056) Judy Taylor, Beatrix Potter: Artist, Storyteller and Countrywoman (1996) (ISBN 0723241759; ISBN 978-0723241751) Fictional works Richard Maltby, Miss Potter: The Novel (novelization of the film) (2006) (ISBN 0723258619; ISBN 978-0723258612) Garth Pearce, The Making of Miss Potter (2006) (ISBN 0723258635; ISBN 978-0723258636) (book about the making of the film) Bryan Talbot, The Tale of One Bad Rat (1996) (ISBN 1-56971-127-5; ISBN 978-1-56971-127-9) (A graphic novel about a teenager who runs away from an abusive home and finds solace in her love of the Beatrix Potter books and the Lake Country.) External links Biography of Beatrix Potter incorporating primary sources "Beatrix Potter's tales of escape": a review by Nicola Shulman in the TLS, 21 February 2007. A list of online e-texts Online feature of the Information Sciences Library at the University of Pittsburgh The world's largest collection of Potter's drawings, literary manuscripts, correspondence, photographs and related materials at the Victoria and Albert Museum "Beatrix Potter in Cumbria" "Beatrix Potter Society, UK" | Beatrix_Potter |@lemmatized helen:3 beatrix:37 potter:63 july:3 december:5 english:2 author:4 illustrator:2 mycologist:3 conservationist:1 best:3 know:3 many:3 sell:2 child:10 book:20 feature:3 animal:4 character:5 peter:11 rabbit:12 bear:2 privileged:1 household:2 educate:2 governess:4 grow:1 isolate:1 numerous:2 pet:4 holiday:3 spend:3 scotland:5 lake:16 district:14 develop:2 love:5 landscape:2 flora:1 fauna:1 closely:1 observe:2 painted:1 parent:8 discourage:2 intellectual:2 development:2 young:4 woman:2 study:2 watercolor:1 fungi:6 lead:2 widely:2 respect:2 field:1 mycology:1 thirty:1 publish:8 highly:1 successful:1 tale:31 become:7 secretly:2 engage:2 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4,969 | Henry_VII_of_England | The Tudor Rose: a combination of the Red Rose of Lancaster and the White Rose of York Henry VII (before accession known as Henry Tudor; ; 28 January 1457 – 21 April 1509) was the King of England and Lord of Ireland from his usurpation of the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509, as the first monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Early life Henry was born at Pembroke Castle, Wales in 1457, only son of Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond and Lady Margaret Beaufort. His father died two months before he was born, meaning the young Henry spent much of his life with his uncle, Jasper Tudor. During the first reign of Edward IV, he was in the care of William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/henry7.html while his uncle was in exile abroad. When the Yorkist Edward IV returned to the throne in 1471, Henry, who was a Lancastrian, fled to Brittany, where he spent most of the next 14 years. By 1483, his mother, despite being married to pro-Yorkist Lord Stanley, was actively promoting Henry as an alternative to the unpopular Richard III. With money and supplies borrowed from his host, Francis II, Duke of Brittany, Henry tried to land in England, but his conspiracy unravelled, resulting in the execution of his primary co-conspirator, Duke of Buckingham. Richard III attempted to extradite Henry via an arrangement with the Breton authorities, but Henry escaped to France. He was welcomed by the French, who readily supplied him with troops and equipment for a second invasion. Rise to the throne Having gained the support of the Woodvilles, in-laws of the late Edward IV, he landed with a French and Scottish force in Mill Bay, Pembrokeshire, and marched into England, accompanied by his uncle, Jasper Tudor, and John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford. Wales was traditionally a Lancastrian stronghold, and Henry owed the support he gathered to his ancestry, being directly descended, through his father, from the Lord Rhys. He amassed an army of around 5,000 soldiers and went north. Henry was aware that his best chance to seize the throne would be to engage Richard quickly and defeat him immediately, as Richard had reinforcements in Nottingham and Leicester. Richard only needed to avoid being killed in order to keep his throne. Though outnumbered, Henry's Lancastrian forces decisively defeated Richard's Yorkist army at the Battle of Bosworth on 22 August 1485. Several of Richard's key allies, such as the Earl of Northumberland and William and Thomas Stanley, crucially switched sides or left the battlefield. Richard III's death at the Battle of Bosworth Field effectively ended the Wars of the Roses, although it was not the last battle Henry had to fight. Henry VII's paternal grandfather, Owen Tudor, is said to have secretly married the widow of Henry V, Catherine of Valois. The result of their union was Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond, father of Henry VII. Henry's claim to the throne, however, derived from his mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort. His claim was somewhat tenuous; it was from a woman, and based on a lineage of illegitimate succession, overlooking the fact that the Beauforts were disinherited by Letters Patent of King Henry IV. Henry's mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, claimed royal blood as a great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt, third son of Edward III, and his third wife Katherine Swynford, Duchess of Lancaster. Katherine was John's mistress for 25 years and they had four children; John, Henry, Thomas and Joan Beaufort, when they married in 1396. Nonetheless, John ensured his and Katherine's children were legitimized. His nephew, Richard II, issued Letters Patent, confirmed by an Act of Parliament in 1397, that legitimized John of Gaunt's Beaufort children. Richard's cousin and successor, Henry IV, son of John of Gaunt and his first wife Blanche of Lancaster, issued an order barring his Beaufort siblings from the throne. The legality of Henry's order was doubtful, given the Beauforts were previously legitimized by an Act of Parliament. In any event, Henry VII was not the only monarch descended from the union of John of Gaunt and Katherine Swynford. The Yorkist kings were as well, as Joan Beaufort, only daughter of the Gaunt-Swynford union, was the mother of Cecily Neville, wife of Richard, Duke of York and mother of Edward IV and Richard III. It is also noteworthy that the Tudors were said to be descended from Edward I through his granddaughter Eleanor of Bar, daughter of the Count of Bar, apparently without intending to create a connection to earlier Plantagenets. If forged, that pretension was, however, unnecessary since Catherine of Valois was twice a descendant of Henry II through the Kings of Castile. However, the Wars of the Roses had ensured that any other claimants were either dead or too weak to challenge him. The throne was Henry's by right of conquest. Reign The first concern Henry had on attaining the throne was the question of establishing the strength and supremacy of his rule. His claim to the throne being as weak as it was, he was fortunate that the majority of claimants died either in the dynastic wars or had been executed by his predecessors. Despite seeing off the Stafford and Lovell Rebellion of 1486, his main worry was "pretenders" including Perkin Warbeck, who, claiming to be Richard, Duke of York, and son of Edward IV, made attempts at the throne, backed by disaffected nobles and foreign enemies. Henry secured his crown principally by dividing and undermining the power of the nobility, especially through the aggressive use of bonds and recognisances to secure loyalty, as well as a legislative assault on retaining private armies. He also honoured his pledge of December 1483 to marry Elizabeth of York, daughter and heir of King Edward IV. They were third cousins, as both were descended from John of Gaunt and his third wife, Katherine Swynford. The marriage took place on 18 January 1486 at Westminster. The marriage unified the warring houses and gave his children a stronger claim to the throne. The unification of the houses of York and Lancaster by Henry VII's marriage to Elizabeth of York is represented in the heraldic symbol of the Tudor rose, a combination of the white rose of York and the red rose of Lancaster. In addition, Henry had the Titulus Regius, the document that declared Edward IV's children illegitimate by citing his marriage as invalid, repealed, thus legitimizing his wife. Several amateur historians, including Bertram Fields and most particularly Sir Clements Markham believe that he may have been involved in the murder of the Princes in the Tower, as the repeal of the Titulus Regius gave them a stronger claim to the throne than his own. Elimination of Rivals Henry's first action was to retroactively declare himself king from the day before the battle, ensuring that anyone who fought against him would be guilty of treason. It is interesting to note, therefore, that he spared Richard's designated heir, John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln. He regretted his leniency two years later, when Lincoln rebelled and attempted to set a boy pretender of peasant stock, Lambert Simnel, on the throne in Henry's place. Lincoln was killed at the Battle of Stoke, but Henry, seeing Simnel as a puppet of Lincoln, spared him and took him in as a kitchen servant. Simnel had been put forward as "Edward VI", impersonating the young Edward, Earl of Warwick, son of George, Duke of Clarence. Edward was imprisoned in the Tower: Henry had, in 1485, imprisoned the boy and had him executed in 1499. He spared Edward's elder sister, Margaret Pole, who had the next best claim on the throne; she removed herself to Salisbury, and, at Henry's allowance, inherited her father's earldom — and survived well into her seventh decade, until she too fell victim of the fears and vengeance of royals, i.e., Henry VIII, who brought a bill of attainder, nominally for treason, against her. She was executed shortly afterward. Henry married Elizabeth of York with the hope of uniting the Yorkist and Lancastrian sides of the Plantagenet dynastic disputes. In this he was largely successful. However, a level of paranoia continued, so much that anyone with blood ties to the Plantagenets was suspected of coveting the throne. Economic and diplomatic policies It is generally accepted that Henry VII was a fiscally prudent monarch who restored the fortunes of an effectively bankrupt exchequer, (Edward IV's treasury was emptied by his wife's Woodville relations after his death and before the accession of Richard III), by introducing ruthlessly efficient mechanisms of taxation (though many of his policies can be seen to have been built on foundations laid by Richard III in his brief rule). In this he was supported by his chancellor, Archbishop John Morton, whose "Morton's Fork" was a catch-22 method of ensuring that nobles paid increased taxes. Royal government was also reformed with the introduction of the King's Council that kept the nobility in check. Henry VII (centre), with his advisors Sir Richard Empson and Sir Edmund Dudley Henry VII's policy was both to maintain peace and to create economic prosperity. Up to a point, he succeeded. He was not a military man and had no interest in trying to regain French territories lost during the reigns of his predecessors; he was therefore ready to conclude a treaty with France at Etaples that brought money into the coffers of England, and ensured the French would not support pretenders to the English throne, such as Perkin Warbeck. However, this treaty came at a slight price, as Henry mounted a minor invasion of Brittany in November 1492. This act of war was a bluff by Henry as he had no intention of fighting over the winter periods. However, as France was becoming more concerned with the Italian Wars, they were happy to agree to the Treaty of Etaples. Henry had been under the financial and physical protection of the French throne or its vassals for most of his life, prior to his ascending the throne of England. To strengthen his position, however, he subsidized shipbuilding, so strengthening the navy (he commissioned Europe's first ever — and the world's oldest surviving — dry dock at Portsmouth in 1495) and improving trading opportunities. By the time of his death, he had amassed a personal fortune of £1.5 million. (£7,1 billion in 2007). Henry VII was one of the first European monarchs to recognise the importance of the newly-united Spanish kingdom and concluded the Treaty of Medina Del Campo in 1489, by which his son, Arthur Tudor, was married to Catherine of Aragon. Similarly, the first treaty between England and Scotland for almost two centuries betrothed his daughter Margaret to King James IV of Scotland, a move which would ultimately see the English and Scottish crowns united under Margaret's great-grandson, James I. He also formed an alliance with the Holy Roman Empire, under the emperor Maximilian I (1493–1519) and persuaded Pope Innocent VIII to issue a Bull of Excommunication against all pretenders to Henry's throne. Henry's most successful economic related diplomacy came through the Magnus Intercursus (1496). In 1494, Henry had a trade embargo (mainly the trade of wool) with the Netherlands (ultimately, Margaret of Burgundy and Maximilian of the Holy Roman Empire), as he wanted to stop their support of the pretender Perkin Warbeck. This paid off for Henry as the Magnus Intercursus was agreed in 1496, which helped remove taxation for English merchants and significantly increase England's wealth. In 1506, he agreed the Treaty of Windsor with Philip of Netherlands which resulted in the Malus Intercursus (the evil agreement). Again, from this treaty, Henry aimed to make English trade more profitable. However, France, Burgundy, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain and the Hanseatic League became annoyed with this and significantly reduced their trade with Henry. Philip also died shortly after the Treaty, which left Henry vulnerable and with debts of up to £30,000. Law Enforcement and Justices of Peace Henry's principal problem was to restore royal authority in a realm recovering from the Wars of the Roses. There were too many powerful noblemen, and as a consequence of the system of so called bastard feudalism, each had what amounted to private armies of indentured retainers (mercenaries masquerading as servants). He was content to allow the nobles their regional influence if they were loyal to him. For instance, the Stanley family had control of Lancashire and Cheshire, upholding the peace on the condition that they stayed within the law. In other cases, he brought his over-powerful subjects to heel by degree. He passed laws against 'livery' (flaunting your adherents by giving them badges and emblems) and 'maintenance' (keeping too many male 'servants'). These were used shrewdly in levying fines upon those that he perceived as threats. However, his principal weapon was the Court of Star Chamber. This revived an earlier practice of using a small (and trusted) group of the Privy Council as a personal or Prerogative Court, able to cut through the cumbersome legal system and act swiftly. Serious disputes involving the use of personal power, or threats to royal authority, were thus dealt with. Henry VII used Justices of the Peace on a large, nationwide scale. They were appointed for every shire and served for a year at a time. Their chief task was to see that the laws of the country were obeyed in their area. Their powers and numbers steadily increased during the Tudors, never more so than under Henry’s reign. Despite this, Henry was keen to constrain their power and influence, applying the same principles to the Justices of Peace as he did to the nobility. i.e. a similar system of bonds and recognisances to which applied to both the gentry (Justices of the Peace) as well as the nobles who tried to exert their elevated influence over these local officials. All Acts of Parliament were overseen by the Justices of Peace. For example, Justices of Peace could replace suspect jurors in accordance with the 1495 act preventing the corruption of juries. They were also in charge of various administrative duties, such as the checking of weights and measures. By 1509, Justices of Peace were key enforcers of law and order for Henry VII. They were unpaid, which, in comparison with modern standards, meant a lesser tax bill to pay for a police force. Local gentry saw the office as one of local influence and prestige and were therefore willing to serve. Overall, this was a successful area of policy for Henry, both in terms of efficiency and as a method of reducing the corruption endemic within the nobility of the Middle Ages. Later years In 1502, fate dealt Henry VII a blow from which he never fully recovered: his heir, Arthur, died in an epidemic at Ludlow Castle. This made Henry, Duke of York, heir to the throne. In 1503, Henry VII's queen, Elizabeth of York, died in childbirth. Not wishing the negotiations that had led to the marriage of his late son to Catherine of Aragon to go to waste, he arranged a Papal dispensation for Prince Henry to marry Catherine — normally a degree of relationship that precluded marriage in the Roman Catholic Church. Also included in the dispensation was a provison that would allow Henry VII to marry his widowed daughter-in-law. Henry VII obtained the dispensation from Pope Julius II (1503–13) but had second thoughts about the marriage and did not allow it to take place during his lifetime. Although he made half-hearted plans to remarry and beget more heirs, these never came to anything. On his death in 1509, he was succeeded by his second son, Henry VIII (1509–47). He is buried at Westminster Abbey on 9 May 1509. Popular lore suggests that Henry died of a broken heart following the deaths of his son and his wife. A common misconception is that Henry VII died wealthy, when in fact he merely died solvent. Titles, styles, honours and arms Titles and styles 28 January 1457–22 August 1485: The Earl of Richmond (disputed) 22 August 1485–21 April 1509: His Highness The King of England and France, Lord of Ireland Henry's full style as king was: Henry, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Lord of Ireland Arms Upon his succession as king, Henry became entitled to bear the arms of his kingdom. After his union with his Yorkist wife, he used the red-and-white rose as his emblem — this continued to be his dynasty's emblem, known as the Tudor rose. Issue Henry and Elizabeth's children were: NameBirthDeathNotesArthur Tudor, Prince of England19 September 14862 April 1502Married Catherine of Aragon in 1501. Margaret Tudor28 November 148918 October 1541Married (1) James IV, King of Scotland (1473–1513) in 1503. Married (2) Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus (1489–1557) in 1514. Henry VIII, King of England28 June 149128 January 1547Married (1) Catherine of Aragon (1485–1536) in 1509. Married (2) Anne Boleyn (1501–1536) in 1533. Married (3) Jane Seymour (1503–1537) in 1536. Married (4) Anne of Cleves (1515–1557) in 1540. Married (5) Catherine Howard (1520–1542) in 1540. Married (6) Catherine Parr (1512–1548) in 1543. Elizabeth Tudor2 July 149214 September 1495Died young. Mary Tudor18 March 149625 June 1533Married (1) Louis XII, King of France (1462–1515) in 1514. Married (2) Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk (1484–1545) in 1515. Mary was the grandmother to Lady Jane Grey).Edmund Tudor, Duke of Somerset21 February 149919 June 1500Died young. Katherine Tudor2 February 15032 February 1503Died young. Mother, Elizabeth of York, died as a result of Katherine's birth. An illegitimate son has also been attributed to Henry by "a Breton Lady": NameBirthDeathNotesSir Roland de Velville or Veleville 1474 25 June 1535 He was knighted in 1497 and was Constable of Beaumaris Castle. If de Velville was in fact Henry's son, he was born during the period of Henry's exile in France. Roland de Velville's descendants included Katheryn of Berain, hence she is sometimes referred to as "Katherine Tudor". About Henry VII TUDOR (King of England) Further descendants Henry VII's elder surviving daughter Margaret was married first to James IV of Scotland (1488–1513), and their son became James V of Scotland (1513–42), whose daughter became Mary, Queen of Scots. By means of this marriage, Henry VII hoped to break the Auld Alliance between Scotland and France. Margaret Tudor's second marriage was to Archibald Douglas; their grandson, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley married Mary, Queen of Scots. Their son, James VI of Scotland (1567–1625), inherited the throne of England as James I (1603–25) after the death of Elizabeth I. Henry VII's other surviving daughter, Mary, first married King Louis XII of France (1498–1515) and then, when he died after only about 3 months of marriage, she married Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk without her brother's (now King Henry VIII) permission. Their daughter Frances married Henry Grey, and her children included Lady Jane Grey, in whose name her parents and in-laws tried to seize the throne after Edward VI of England (1537–53) died. Ancestry See also Cestui que Cultural depictions of Henry VII of England Notes References Henry VII by S. B. Chrimes & George Bernard (1972) Henry VII by Jocelyn Hunt & Carolyn Towle (1998) Henry VII by Roger Turvey & Caroline Steinsberg (2000) Henry VII by Sean Cunningham (2007) The Son of Prophecy: Henry Tudor's Road to Bosworth (1985) by David Rees (ISBN 0-85159-005-5) is a discussion of how Henry's return to Wales was regarded by some as the fulfilment of a Messianic prophecy. 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4,970 | Fur_seal | Fur seals are any of nine species of pinnipeds in the Otariidae family. One species, the northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus) inhabits the North Pacific, while seven species in the Arctocephalus genus are found primarily in the Southern hemisphere. They are much more closely related to sea lions than true seals, and share with them external ears (pinnae), relatively long and muscular foreflippers, and the ability to walk on all fours. They are marked by their dense underfur, which made them a long-time object of commercial hunting. Taxonomy Until recently, fur seals were all grouped under a single subfamily of Pinnipedia called Arctocephalinae to contrast them with Otariinae – the sea lions – based on the most prominent common feature, namely the coat of dense underfur intermixed with guard hairs. Recent genetic evidence, however, suggests that Callorhinus is more closely related to some sea lion species, and the fur seal/sealion subfamily distinction has been eliminated from most taxonomies. Nonetheless, all fur seals have certain features in common: the fur, generally smaller sizes, farther and longer foraging trips, smaller and more abundant prey items and greater sexual dimorphism. For these reasons, the distinction remains useful. Physical appearance Fur seals share with other otariids the ability to turn their rear limbs forward and move on all fours. Fur seals are generally smaller than sea lions. At under , the Galapagos fur seal is the smallest of all pinnipeds. However, their flippers tend to be proportionately longer, their pelage tends to be darker and the vibrissae more prominent. Males are often more than five times heavier than the females, making them among the most sexually dimorphic of all mammal groups. Behavior and ecology A seal at Living Coasts sunbathing on a rock Typically, fur seals gather during the summer months annually in large assemblages at specific beaches or rocky outcrops to give birth and breed. All species are polygynous, meaning dominant males reproduce with more than one female. For most species, total gestation lasts about 11.5 months, including a several month period of delayed implantation of the embryo. While northern fur seal males aggressively select and defend the specific females in their harems, http://www.afsc.noaa.gov/NMML/education/Pinnipeds/furseals.htm males of southern species of fur seal tend to protect spatial territories and females are free to choose or switch their mates according to their own preference or social hierarchy. After several continuous days of nursing the newborn pups, females go on extended foraging trips that can last as long as a week, returning to the rookery to feed their pups until they are weaned. Males fast during the reproductive season, unwilling to leave their females or territories. The remainder of the year, fur seals lead a largely pelagic existence in the open sea pursuing their prey wherever it is abundant and plentiful. Fur seals feed on moderately sized fish, squid and krill. Several species of the southern fur seal also have sea birds, especially penguins, as part of their diet. http://www.springerlink.com/content/m2873042013t33h7/ www.bas.ac.uk/documents/bas_bulletins/bulletin56_08.pdf The fur seals themselves are preyed upon by sharks, orcas and occasionally by larger sea lions. When fur seals were hunted in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, they hauled out on remote islands where there were no predators. The hunters reported being able to club the unwary animals to death one after another, making the hunt profitable even though the price per seal skin was low. Muir, Diana Reflections in Bullough's Pond, University Press of New England, 2001 Exploitation Many fur seal species were heavily exploited by commercial sealers, especially during the 19th century when their fur was highly valued. Beginning in the 1790s, the ports of Stonington and New Haven, Connecticut were leaders of the American fur seal trade, which primarily entailed clubbing fur seals to death on uninhabited South Pacific islands, skinning them, and selling the hides in China. Muir, Diana, "Reflections in Bullough's Pond," University Press of New England, 2000,pp. 80ff. Many populations, notably the Guadalupe fur seal, northern fur seal and Cape fur seal, suffered dramatic declines and are still recovering. Currently, most species are protected and hunting is mostly limited to subsistence harvest. Globally, most populations can be considered healthy, mostly due to the fact that they often prefer remote habitats that are relatively inaccessible to humans. Nonetheless, environmental degradation, competition with fisheries and climate change potentially pose threats to some populations. Species SUBORDER PINNIPEDIA Family Otariidae Genus Arctocephalus Antarctic Fur Seal, A. gazella Brown Fur Seal, A. pusillus South African Fur Seal, A. pusillus pusillus Australian Fur Seal, A. pusillus doriferus Galapagos Fur Seal, A. galapagoensis Guadalupe Fur Seal, A. townsendi Juan Fernandez Fur Seal, A. philippii New Zealand Fur Seal or Southern Fur Seal, A. forsteri South American Fur Seal, A. australis Subantarctic Fur Seal, A. tropicalis Genus Callorhinus Northern Fur Seal, C. ursinus Genus Eumetopias Genus Neophoca Genus Otaria Genus Phocarctos Genus Zalophus Family Phocidae: true seals Family Odobenidae: Walrus See also Seal (disambiguation) | Fur_seal |@lemmatized fur:36 seal:39 nine:1 specie:11 pinniped:2 otariidae:2 family:4 one:3 northern:4 callorhinus:3 ursinus:2 inhabit:1 north:1 pacific:2 seven:1 arctocephalus:2 genus:8 find:1 primarily:2 southern:4 hemisphere:1 much:1 closely:2 relate:2 sea:7 lion:5 true:2 share:2 external:1 ear:1 pinnae:1 relatively:2 long:3 muscular:1 foreflippers:1 ability:2 walk:1 four:2 mark:1 dense:2 underfur:2 make:3 time:2 object:1 commercial:2 hunting:1 taxonomy:2 recently:1 group:2 single:1 subfamily:2 pinnipedia:2 call:1 arctocephalinae:1 contrast:1 otariinae:1 base:1 prominent:2 common:2 feature:2 namely:1 coat:1 intermixed:1 guard:1 hair:1 recent:1 genetic:1 evidence:1 however:2 suggest:1 sealion:1 distinction:2 eliminate:1 nonetheless:2 certain:1 generally:2 small:4 size:2 far:1 longer:2 forage:1 trip:2 abundant:2 prey:3 item:1 great:1 sexual:1 dimorphism:1 reason:1 remain:1 useful:1 physical:1 appearance:1 otariids:1 turn:1 rear:1 limb:1 forward:1 move:1 galapagos:2 flipper:1 tend:3 proportionately:1 pelage:1 darker:1 vibrissa:1 male:5 often:2 five:1 heavy:1 female:6 among:1 sexually:1 dimorphic:1 mammal:1 behavior:1 ecology:1 living:1 coast:1 sunbathe:1 rock:1 typically:1 gather:1 summer:1 month:3 annually:1 large:2 assemblage:1 specific:2 beach:1 rocky:1 outcrop:1 give:1 birth:1 breed:1 polygynous:1 mean:1 dominant:1 reproduce:1 total:1 gestation:1 last:2 include:1 several:3 period:1 delayed:1 implantation:1 embryo:1 aggressively:1 select:1 defend:1 harem:1 http:2 www:3 afsc:1 noaa:1 gov:1 nmml:1 education:1 pinnipeds:1 furseals:1 htm:1 protect:2 spatial:1 territory:2 free:1 choose:1 switch:1 mate:1 accord:1 preference:1 social:1 hierarchy:1 continuous:1 day:1 nurse:1 newborn:1 pup:2 go:1 extend:1 foraging:1 week:1 return:1 rookery:1 fee:2 wean:1 fast:1 reproductive:1 season:1 unwilling:1 leave:1 remainder:1 year:1 lead:1 largely:1 pelagic:1 existence:1 open:1 pursue:1 wherever:1 plentiful:1 moderately:1 fish:1 squid:1 krill:1 also:2 bird:1 especially:2 penguins:1 part:1 diet:1 springerlink:1 com:1 content:1 ba:1 ac:1 uk:1 document:1 pdf:1 upon:1 shark:1 orca:1 occasionally:1 hunt:3 late:1 eighteenth:1 early:1 nineteenth:1 century:2 haul:1 remote:2 island:2 predator:1 hunter:1 report:1 able:1 club:2 unwary:1 animal:1 death:2 another:1 profitable:1 even:1 though:1 price:1 per:1 skin:2 low:1 muir:2 diana:2 reflection:2 bullough:2 pond:2 university:2 press:2 new:4 england:2 exploitation:1 many:2 heavily:1 exploit:1 sealer:1 highly:1 value:1 begin:1 port:1 stonington:1 connecticut:1 leader:1 american:2 trade:1 entail:1 uninhabited:1 south:3 sell:1 hide:1 china:1 pp:1 population:3 notably:1 guadalupe:2 cape:1 suffer:1 dramatic:1 decline:1 still:1 recover:1 currently:1 mostly:2 limit:1 subsistence:1 harvest:1 globally:1 consider:1 healthy:1 due:1 fact:1 prefer:1 habitat:1 inaccessible:1 human:1 environmental:1 degradation:1 competition:1 fishery:1 climate:1 change:1 potentially:1 pose:1 threat:1 suborder:1 antarctic:1 gazella:1 brown:1 pusillus:4 african:1 australian:1 doriferus:1 galapagoensis:1 townsendi:1 juan:1 fernandez:1 philippii:1 zealand:1 forsteri:1 australis:1 subantarctic:1 tropicalis:1 c:1 eumetopias:1 neophoca:1 otaria:1 phocarctos:1 zalophus:1 phocidae:1 odobenidae:1 walrus:1 see:1 disambiguation:1 |@bigram fur_seal:34 southern_hemisphere:1 closely_relate:2 sexual_dimorphism:1 sexually_dimorphic:1 rocky_outcrop:1 http_www:2 noaa_gov:1 fish_squid:1 www_springerlink:1 springerlink_com:1 nineteenth_century:1 environmental_degradation:1 juan_fernandez:1 |
4,971 | Casa_Batlló | The Casa Batlló in Barcelona Roof architecture at Casa Battlo Casa Batlló ( in Catalan), is a building restored by Antoni Gaudí and Josep Maria Jujol, built in the year 1877 and remodelled in the years 1905–1907; located at 43, Passeig de Gràcia (passeig is Catalan for promenade or avenue), part of the Illa de la Discòrdia in the Eixample district of Barcelona, Catalonia. The local name for the building is Casa dels ossos (House of Bones), and indeed it does have a visceral, skeletal organic quality. It was originally designed for a middle-class family and situated in a prosperous district of Barcelona. The building looks very remarkable — like everything Gaudí designed, only identifiable as Modernisme or Art Nouveau in the broadest sense. The ground floor, in particular, is rather astonishing with tracery, irregular oval windows and flowing sculpted stone work. It seems that the goal of the designer was to avoid straight lines completely. Much of the façade is decorated with a mosaic made of broken ceramic tiles (trencadís) that starts in shades of golden orange moving into greenish blues. The roof is arched and was likened to the back of a dragon or dinosaur. A common theory about the building is that the rounded feature to the left of centre, terminating at the top in a turret and cross, represents the sword of Saint George (patron saint of Catalonia), which has been plunged into the back of the dragon. Gallery External links The official website of La Casa Batlló Photographs of the inside of La Casa Batlló Casa Batlló on GreatBuildings.com Casa Batlló pictures Casa Batlló description gaudi designer | Casa_Batlló |@lemmatized casa:9 batlló:7 barcelona:3 roof:2 architecture:1 battlo:1 catalan:2 building:4 restore:1 antoni:1 gaudí:2 josep:1 maria:1 jujol:1 build:1 year:2 remodelled:1 locate:1 passeig:2 de:2 gràcia:1 promenade:1 avenue:1 part:1 illa:1 la:3 discòrdia:1 eixample:1 district:2 catalonia:2 local:1 name:1 dels:1 ossos:1 house:1 bone:1 indeed:1 visceral:1 skeletal:1 organic:1 quality:1 originally:1 design:2 middle:1 class:1 family:1 situate:1 prosperous:1 look:1 remarkable:1 like:1 everything:1 identifiable:1 modernisme:1 art:1 nouveau:1 broad:1 sense:1 ground:1 floor:1 particular:1 rather:1 astonish:1 tracery:1 irregular:1 oval:1 window:1 flow:1 sculpt:1 stone:1 work:1 seem:1 goal:1 designer:2 avoid:1 straight:1 line:1 completely:1 much:1 façade:1 decorate:1 mosaic:1 make:1 broken:1 ceramic:1 tile:1 trencadís:1 start:1 shade:1 golden:1 orange:1 move:1 greenish:1 blue:1 arch:1 liken:1 back:2 dragon:2 dinosaur:1 common:1 theory:1 rounded:1 feature:1 left:1 centre:1 terminate:1 top:1 turret:1 cross:1 represent:1 sword:1 saint:2 george:1 patron:1 plunge:1 gallery:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 photograph:1 inside:1 greatbuildings:1 com:1 picture:1 description:1 gaudi:1 |@bigram casa_batlló:7 antoni_gaudí:1 barcelona_catalonia:1 art_nouveau:1 patron_saint:1 external_link:1 |
4,972 | Commuter_rail | A Southeastern commuter train at Slade Green in South East London, England, running a service to London Cannon Street. South Korean Commuter Car, Tonggeun, in Dorasan Station. Two electric multiple units of the class 423 common in several German S-Bahn networks. Suburban commuter railroad or commuter railway a passenger rail transport service between a city center, and outer suburbs and commuter towns or other locations that draw large numbers of commuters—people who travel on a daily basis. Trains operate following a schedule, at speeds varying from 50 to 200 km/h (35 to 125 mph). Distance charges or zone pricing may be used. Common non-English names are Cercanías in Spanish, S-Bahn in German, and Elektrichka in Russian. The development of commuter rail services has become popular today, with the increased public awareness of congestion, dependence on fossil fuels, and other environmental issues, as well as the rising costs of owning, operating and parking automobiles. Characteristics |Cab Control Car of a GO Train with a view of the CN Tower in the background in Toronto, Canada. Elektrichka departing from a station platform in Russia A double-decker Cityrail train at Sydney Central A KTM Komuter electric multiple unit at a station in suburban Malaysia. Most commuter trains are built to rail standards, differing from light rail or rapid transit systems by: being larger; providing more seating and less standing room, for the longer distances involved having (in most cases) a lower frequency of service; having scheduled services (i.e. trains run at specific times rather than at specific intervals); serving lower-density areas, typically by connecting suburbs to the city centre; sharing track or right-of-way with intercity or freight trains Train schedule Compared to rapid transit, commuter rail has lower frequency, following a schedule rather than fixed intervals, and less station with at least about 5 km interval or longer. They serve lower density areas, and often share right-of-way with intercity or freight trains. Some services operate only during peak hours. Average speeds are high and generally about 50 km/h at least. Some services introduce rapid or express service and skip some stations on the way in order to run faster and separate long-distance commuters and short-distance ones. The general range of commuter trains' distance varies between 15 and 200 km (10 and 125 miles). Track Their ability to coexist with freight or intercity services in the same right-of-way can drastically reduce system construction costs. However, frequently they are built with dedicated tracks within that right-of-way to prevent delays. Most such trains run on the local standard gauge track. Some light rail systems may run on a narrower gauge. Examples of narrow gauge systems are found in Japan, Switzerland , in the Brisbane (Citytrain) and Perth (Transperth) systems in Australia, and on the Genoa-Casella line in Italy. Countries like India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka use the Broad Gauge. Distinction between other modes of rail Metro In some cases, hybrids between a train and a metro have been created. They run underground in the dense city centres and on surface or elevated tracks in lower-density areas. Examples include the Madrid Cercanías network, the Dublin Area Rapid Transit, the Liverpool Merseyrail network, the Paris RER, lines 6-8 of the Barcelona Metro, the S-Bahn systems of Berlin, Munich, Vienna and Zürich, the Naples narrow gauge Circumvesuviana, the suburban railway (HÉV) in Budapest, Valparaíso Metro and the rail systems of Tokyo, Seoul (Seoul Metropolitan Subway), Sydney (CityRail) and Melbourne. Regional rail Regional rail usually provides rail services between towns and cities, rather than purely linking major population hubs in the way inter-city rail does. Regional rail operates outside major cities. Unlike Inter-city, it stops at most or all stations. It provides a service between smaller communities along the line, and also connections with long-distance services. Alternative names are "local train" or "stopping train". Examples include the former BR's Regional Railways, France's TER (Transport express régional) and Germany's DB Regio services. Regional rail does not exist in this sense in the USA, so the term "Regional Rail" has become synonymous with commuter rail. Inter-city rail In some European countries the distinction between commuter trains and long-distance/intercity trains is very hard to make, because of the relatively short distances involved. For example, so called "intercity" trains in Belgium and the Netherlands carry many commuters and their equipment, range and speeds are similar to those of commuter trains in some larger countries. Russian commuter trains, on the other hand, frequently cover areas larger than Belgium itself, although these are still short distances by Russian standards. They have a different ticketing system from long-distance trains, and in major cities they often operate from a separate section of the train station. High-speed rail Sometimes High-speed rail can serve daily use of commuters. Japanese High-speed rail Shinkansen is heavily used by commuters in Greater Tokyo Area. They commute for 100 or 200 km distance by Shinkansen. To meet the demand of commuters, commuter discount pass is sold by JR and bilevel car E4 Series Shinkansen of sixteen car, 1,600 seats capacity has been introduced in morning and evening rush hour. Train types Commuter trains are usually optimized for maximum passenger volume, in most cases without sacrificing too much comfort and luggage space, though they seldom have all the amenities of long-distance trains. Cars may be single- or double-level, and aim to provide seating for all. Compared to intercity trains, they have less space, fewer amenities and limited baggage areas. Multiple unit type Commuter rail trains are usually composed of multiple units, which are self-propelled, bidirectional, articulated passenger rail cars with driving motors on each (or every other) bogie. Depending on local circumstances and tradition they may be powered either by diesel engines located below the passenger compartment (diesel multiple units) or by electricity picked up from third rails or overhead lines (electric multiple units). Multiple units are almost invariably equipped with control cabs at both ends, which is why such units are so frequently used to provide commuter services, due to the associated short turn-around time. Locomotive hauled services A Metra push-pull locomotive commuter train approaches a platform in Dearfield, a Chicago suburb. Locomotive hauled services are used in some countries or locations. This is often a case of asset sweating, by using a single large combined fleet for intercity and regional services. Loco hauled services are usually run in push-pull formation, that is, the train can run with the locomotive at the "front" or "rear" of the train (pushing or pulling). Trains are often equipped with a "driving van trailer" (DVT), a control cab at the other end of the train from the locomotive, allowing the train driver to operate the train from either end. The motive power for locomotive-hauled commuter trains may be either electric or Diesel-electric, although some countries, such as Germany and some of the former Soviet-bloc countries, also use diesel-hydraulic locomotives. Seat plans In the U.S. and some other countries, a three-and-two seat plan is used. However, few people sit in the middle seat on these trains because they feel crowded and uncomfortable. It is said one industrial designer for one of New York City's commuter railroads, Metro-North, told people: "I designed the aisle seat with a half-back and no upholstery, so it will be very uncomfortable to sit there. They'll move in and take the center seat!" (This seating design can also be found on older New Jersey Transit and Long Island Rail Road rolling stock.) In Japan, longitudinal (sideways window-lining) seat is widely used in commuter rail to increase capacity in rush hours. Carriages are not organized to increase seating capacity even in the case of commuting longer than 50 km and commuters in Greater Tokyo Area have to stand in the train for more than an hour. Commuter rail in the world Africa Currently there are not many examples of commuter rail in Africa. Metrorail is operated in South Africa, and there are some commuter rail services in Morocco and Tunisia. Asia Commuter trains are currently uncommon in China, although a small system has been inaugurated in Beijing in 2008. Another system, which is going to serve a chain of stations between Guangzhou and Zhuhai is under construction. In Hong Kong, the Mass Transit Railway (MTR) system contains several railway lines that connect various areas in the New Territories to the core urban areas. These lines are the , the , and the . They can be considered as commuter rails. In Japan, commuter rails have extensive network and frequent service, and are heavily used. It is notable that many of them are run by Private railway companies. In Iran, SYSTRA has done "Tehran long term urban rail study". SYSTRA proposed 4 express lines which are similar to RER lines in Paris. Tehran Metro is going to construct express lines. For instance, the Rahyab Behineh (consultant of Tehran Metro) is studying Tehran Express Line 2. Tehran Metro currently has a commuter line between Tehran and Karaj. In India, there are commuter rail in some cities. For example, Mumbai Suburban Railway is the rail of the longest history in Asia and said to be most congested railway in the world. Other examples in Asia include Seoul Metropolitan Subway which has suburban lines operated by Korail in South Korea, KTM Komuter in Malaysia, and KRL Jabotabek in Jakarta Metropolitan area, Indonesia. Europe Major metropolitan areas in most European countries are usually served by extensive commuter rail systems. Well-known examples include S-Bahn in Germany, Switzerland and Austria, RER in France, Cercanías in Spain. In Russia, Ukraine and some other countries of the former Soviet Union, electrical multiple unit passenger suburban train called Elektrichka is widespread. North America In the United States and Canada, regional passenger rail service is performed by commuter railroads, which are usually governmental or quasi-governmental agencies. South America The San Martín Line is part of the extensive Buenos Aires metropolitan rail system. Currently in Buenos Aires (Argentina) an extensive 558 Mile (899 km) commuter system covers the Buenos Aires metropolitan area, there are also systems in, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil ); the SuperVia, in São Paulo; the State Secretariat for Metropolitan Transports and the Metrotrén in Santiago, Chile amongs many others. Oceania Major cities in Australia have commuter rail services in their metropolitan area. The main systems include CityRail in Sydney, Citytrain in Brisbane, Connex Melbourne, Transperth Trains around Perth. Adelaide Metro has a few railway lines as well. New Zealand has two commuter rail systems: in Auckland and in Wellington (Tranz Metro). See also Cercanías Commuter rail in the United Kingdom Commuter rail in North America Train categories in Europe Commuting List of suburban and commuter rail systems Noise mitigation Rail terminology Passenger rail terminology Public transport List of rail accidents: Rail accidents pre-1950 Rail accidents 1950–1999 Rail accidents 2000–present Cityrail S-Bahn External links Commuter Rail & Transit News Current news concerning commuter rail development and issues TimeTable Mobile Open-source train schedule/timetable for PDA and handheld devices | Commuter_rail |@lemmatized southeastern:1 commuter:46 train:41 slade:1 green:1 south:5 east:1 london:2 england:1 run:9 service:22 cannon:1 street:1 korean:1 car:6 tonggeun:1 dorasan:1 station:8 two:3 electric:5 multiple:8 unit:9 class:1 common:2 several:2 german:2 bahn:5 network:4 suburban:7 railroad:3 railway:9 passenger:7 rail:49 transport:4 city:12 center:2 outer:1 suburb:3 town:2 location:2 draw:1 large:5 number:1 people:3 travel:1 daily:2 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4,973 | Bronze | Bronze Chola Statue of Nataraja at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City Bronze is a metal alloy consisting primarily of copper, usually with tin as the main additive, but sometimes with other elements such as phosphorus, manganese, aluminium, or silicon. It was particularly significant in antiquity, giving its name to the Bronze Age. "Bronze" derives from the and, in turn, is perhaps ultimately taken from the Persian word "birinj," meaning "copper". Online Etymological Dictionary http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=bronze History Chinese pu vessel with interlaced dragon design, Spring and Autumn Period (722 BC-481 BC) Bronze was significant to any culture that encountered it. It was one of the most innovative alloys of mankind. Tools, weapons, armor, and various building materials like decorative tiles made of bronze were harder and more durable than their stone and copper ("Chalcolithic") predecessors. Initially bronze was made out of copper and arsenic to form arsenic bronze. It was only later that tin was used, becoming the sole type of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC. Tin bronze was superior over arsenic bronze in that the alloying process itself could more easily be controlled (as tin was available as a metal) and the alloy was stronger and easier to cast. Also, unlike arsenic, tin is not toxic. The earliest tin-alloy bronzes date to the late 4th millennium BC in Susa (Iran) and some ancient sites in Luristan (Iran) and Mesopotamia (Iraq). Copper and tin ores are rarely found together (exceptions include one ancient site in Thailand and one in Iran), so serious bronze work has always involved trade. In Europe, the major source for tin was Great Britain's deposits of ore in Cornwall. Phoenician traders visited Great Britain to trade goods from the Mediterranean for tin. Though bronze is stronger (harder) than wrought iron, the Bronze Age gave way to the Iron Age; this happened because iron was easier to find. Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, but for many purposes the weaker wrought iron was found to be sufficiently strong. Archaeologists suspect that a serious disruption of the tin trade precipitated the transition. The population migrations around 1200 – 1100 BC reduced the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean (and from Great Britain), limiting supplies and raising prices. http://www.claytoncramer.com/Iron2.pdf As ironworking improved, iron became cheaper, and cultures learned how to make steel, which is stronger than bronze and holds a sharper edge longer. rvde002.tmp Properties Assorted ancient Bronze castings Bronze can be superior to iron in many applications. It is considerably less brittle than iron. Bronze only oxidizes superficially; once the surface oxidizes, the thin oxide layer protects the underlying metal from further corrosion. Copper-based alloys have lower melting points than steel or iron, and are more readily produced from their constituent metals. They are generally about 10 percent heavier than steel, although alloys using aluminium or silicon may be slightly less dense. Bronzes are softer and weaker than steel, e.g. bronze springs are less stiff (and so store less energy) for the same bulk. Bronze resists corrosion (especially seawater corrosion) and metal fatigue better than steel and also conducts heat and electricity better than most steels. The cost of copper-base alloys is generally higher than that of steels but lower than that of nickel-base alloys such as stainless steel. Copper and its alloys have a huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical, mechanical, and chemical properties. Some common examples are the high electrical conductivity of pure copper, the excellent deep-drawing qualities of cartridge case brass, the low-friction properties of bearing bronze, the resonant qualities of bell bronze, and the resistance to corrosion by sea water of several bronze alloys. Uses Ewer from 7th century Iran. Cast, chased, and inlaid bronze. New York Metropolitan Museum of Art In the twentieth century, silicon was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an alloy with wide application in industry and the major form used in contemporary statuary. Aluminium is also used for the structural metal aluminium bronze. It is also widely used for cast bronze sculpture. Many common bronze alloys have the unusual and very desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling in the finest details of a mould. Bronze parts are tough and typically used for bearings, clips, electrical connectors and springs. Bronze also has very little metal-on-metal friction, which made it invaluable for the building of cannon where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in the barrel. It is still widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings, and similar fittings, and is particularly common in the bearings of small electric motors. Phosphor bronze is particularly suited to precision-grade bearings and springs. It is also used in guitar and piano strings. Bronze is typically 88% copper and 12% tin. Knapp, Brian. (1996) Copper, Silver and Gold. Reed Library, Australia Alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin are used to make coins, springs, turbines and blades. Commercial bronze (otherwise known as brass) is 90% copper and 10% zinc, and contains no tin. It is stronger than copper and it has equivalent ductility. It is used for screws and wires. Unlike steel, bronze struck against a hard surface will not generate sparks, so it (along with beryllium copper) is used to make hammers, mallets, wrenches and other durable tools to be used in explosive atmospheres or in the presence of flammable vapours. Bronze Statues Indian Hindu artisans from the period of the Chola empire in Tamil Nadu, used bronze to create intricate statutes via the lost wax method with ornate detailing depicting the Gods of Hinduism mostly, but also the lifestyle of the period. The art form survives to this day, with many silpis, craftsmen, working in the areas of Swamimalai and Chennai. In antiquity other cultures also produced works of high art using bronze. For example: in Africa the bronze heads of the Kingdom of Benin, in Europe; Grecian bronzes typically of figures from Greek mythology, in east Asia; Chinese bronzes of the Shang and Zhou dynasty - more often ceremonial vessels but including some figurine examples. Bronze continues into modern times as one of the materials of choice for monumental statuery. Musical instruments Bronze is the most popular metal for top-quality bells- even more so the bell metal variety, and more recently, saxophones. Nearly all professional cymbals are made from a bronze alloy. The alloy used in drum kit cymbal bronze is unique in the desired balance of durability and timbre. According to a legend (on the Zildjian cymbals website), in 1623, an Armenian man in Turkey named Avedis Zildjian, an alchemist, was attempting to form base metals into gold. Upon dropping an ingot on the ground, he was amazed at how well it rang. He was given the title Zildjian (Son of Cymbal Maker) by the Turkish Sultan. Today, the Avedis Zildjian Corporation is the largest maker of cymbals in the world. Zildjian.com - en-US Modern cymbals consist of several types of bronze, the most common being B20 bronze, which is roughly 20% tin, 80% copper, with traces of silver. Zildjian and Sabian use this alloy for their professional lines. A Swiss Company, Paiste, uses a softer B8 bronze which is made from 8% tin and 92% copper in nearly all of their cymbals. (Zildjian and Sabian use this metal too, in their budget priced cymbals). A misconception is the higher the tin content the pitch correspondingly drops. MEINL CYMBALS... INSPIRE: 4 IS MORE Meinl uses 16% tin 84% copper cymbals, which has a pitch roughly in between B8 and B20. The reality is tin and even more so silver add longer duration sustain. Bronze is also used for the windings of steel strings of various stringed instruments such as the double bass, piano, harpsichord and the guitar, replacing former gut and nylon strings. Bronze strings are commonly reserved on pianoforte for the lower pitch tones, as they possess a superior sustain quality to that of high-tensile steel Tim McCreight, Metals technic: a collection of techniques for metalsmiths. Brynmorgen Press, 1992 ISBN 0961598433: 151 pages . Bronze of various metallurgical properties are widely used in the struck idiophones globally, notably of South East Asia, most famously the Javanese gamelan and other glockenspiel-like musical instruments. The earliest bronze archeological finds in Indonesia date from 1-2 BCE, including flat plates probably suspended and struck by a wooden or bone mallet. David LaPlantz, Jewelry - Metalwork 1991 Survey: Visions - Concepts - Communication: S. LaPlantz: 1991: ISBN 0942002059: 156 pages Tim McCreight, Metals technic: a collection of techniques for metalsmiths. Brynmorgen Press, 1992 ISBN 0961598433: 151 pages See also Fragment of the grave of Cyprian Kamil Norwid in the Bards' crypt in Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland by sculptor Czesław Dźwigaj List of copper alloys Art object Bronze medal Bronze sculpture Bronzing Chinese bronze inscriptions Lost-wax casting Seagram Building References External links Bronze bells "Lost Wax, Found Bronze": lost-wax casting explained Viking Bronze - Ancient and Early Medieval bronze casting | Bronze |@lemmatized bronze:64 chola:2 statue:2 nataraja:1 metropolitan:2 museum:2 art:5 new:2 york:2 city:1 metal:14 alloy:16 consist:3 primarily:1 copper:19 usually:1 tin:20 main:1 additive:1 sometimes:1 element:2 phosphorus:1 manganese:1 aluminium:4 silicon:3 particularly:3 significant:2 antiquity:2 give:3 name:2 age:4 derives:1 turn:1 perhaps:1 ultimately:1 take:1 persian:1 word:1 birinj:1 meaning:1 online:1 etymological:1 dictionary:1 http:2 www:2 etymonline:1 com:3 index:1 php:1 term:1 history:1 chinese:3 pu:1 vessel:2 interlaced:1 dragon:1 design:1 spring:6 autumn:1 period:3 bc:5 culture:3 encounter:1 one:4 innovative:1 mankind:1 tool:2 weapon:1 armor:1 various:3 build:1 material:2 like:2 decorative:1 tile:1 make:8 hard:3 durable:2 stone:1 chalcolithic:1 predecessor:1 initially:1 arsenic:4 form:4 later:1 use:22 become:2 sole:1 type:2 late:2 millennium:2 superior:3 alloying:2 process:1 could:1 easily:1 control:1 available:1 strong:5 easy:2 cast:4 also:10 unlike:2 toxic:1 early:3 date:2 susa:1 iran:4 ancient:4 site:2 luristan:1 mesopotamia:1 iraq:1 ore:2 rarely:1 find:5 together:1 exception:1 include:3 thailand:1 serious:2 work:4 always:1 involve:1 trade:3 europe:2 major:2 source:1 great:3 britain:3 deposit:1 cornwall:1 phoenician:1 trader:1 visit:1 good:2 mediterranean:2 though:1 wrought:1 iron:10 way:1 happen:1 still:2 many:4 purpose:1 weak:2 sufficiently:1 archaeologist:1 suspect:1 disruption:1 precipitate:1 transition:1 population:1 migration:1 around:2 reduce:1 shipping:1 limit:1 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structural:1 widely:3 sculpture:2 unusual:1 desirable:1 expand:1 set:1 thus:1 fill:1 fine:1 detail:2 mould:1 part:1 tough:1 typically:3 bearing:5 clip:1 connector:1 little:1 invaluable:1 building:2 cannon:1 cannonball:1 would:1 otherwise:2 stick:1 barrel:1 today:2 bushing:1 automobile:1 transmission:1 pilot:1 similar:1 fitting:1 small:1 electric:1 motor:1 phosphor:1 suit:1 precision:1 grade:1 guitar:2 piano:2 string:4 knapp:1 brian:1 silver:3 gold:2 reed:1 library:1 australia:1 alpha:3 solid:1 solution:1 coin:1 turbine:1 blade:1 commercial:1 know:1 zinc:1 contain:1 equivalent:1 ductility:1 screw:1 wire:1 struck:2 generate:1 spark:1 along:1 beryllium:1 hammer:1 mallet:2 wrench:1 explosive:1 atmosphere:1 presence:1 flammable:1 vapour:1 indian:1 hindu:1 artisan:1 empire:1 tamil:1 nadu:1 intricate:1 statute:1 via:1 lose:4 wax:4 method:1 ornate:1 depict:1 god:1 hinduism:1 mostly:1 lifestyle:1 survive:1 day:1 silpis:1 craftsman:1 area:1 swamimalai:1 chennai:1 africa:1 head:1 kingdom:1 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4,974 | Geelong_Football_Club | Geelong Football Club, nicknamed The Cats, is a professional Australian rules football club based in the city of Geelong. Playing in the Australian Football League (AFL), they have won seven VFL/AFL premierships, and nine McClelland Trophies. AFL Tables Finishing Summary 1897-2006. Geelong were four-times AFL premiership runners-up in the late '80s and early '90s. Retrieved on 2007-06-10. . Since 1941 the club has played its home games at Kardinia Park, now known by its sponsored name "Skilled Stadium". The club's traditional guernsey colours are white guernseys with navy blue hoops, navy shorts and navy and white hooped socks. Formed in 1859, Geelong is the second oldest club in the AFL after Melbourne and one of the oldest football clubs in the world. Official Website of the Geelong Football Club GFC History Retrieved on 2007-06-10. Along with its AFL team, the club also fields a stand-alone team in the Victoria Football league (VFL). After competing in the old VFA the club helped form the Victorian Football League (VFL) in 1897. Rodgers, Stephen (1983) Every Game Ever Played p. i. Melbourne: Lloyd O'Neil Between its sixth premiership in 1963 and its seventh in 2007, Geelong gained a reputation for being under-achievers. The Bulletin publishes for the last time The club played-off in five Grand Finals during that period, but failed to win any of them. After a 44-year premiership drought, the club claimed its seventh premiership flag with an AFL-record 119-point victory in the 2007 AFL Grand Final. AFL Tables Finishing Summary 1897-2006. Geelong four-times runners-up in late 80s and early 80s. Retrieved on 2007-06-10. During the late 1990s the club was heavily in debt, but the current board, led by Frank Costa as Club President, has brought it back to a sound financial position. From 1999 to the Year of the Cat The 7.30 Report - ABC Successive grand final losses in the 1990s and unsuccessful finals appearances during the 2000s has caused Geelong fans much heartache. While 2007 was a great relief for the club, it failed to win the 2008 premiership despite recording the most successful home and away season in the games history. Despite this, the club has always been reputed with its exciting and attacking style of play. Especially during the 1990s and in recent years. The club has made a number of unique achievements throughout its history. It holds the record for the longest winning streak in AFL/VFL history - 23 games. It holds the record for the highest score recorded in a single game- 37.17.239 against Brisbane in 1992. It recorded the highest ever aggregate total for points scored in 1992 (3,334). It holds the record for restricting an opponent to the lowest ever score in a game- St.Kilda 0.1.1 in 1899. They are the only team to have nine players selected in an All Australian team (2007). During the 1989 season they managed to win three games in a row by more than 100 points. The only time it has ever been achieved. One of the clubs greatest players, Gary Ablett, is the only player to have been awarded the Coleman medal three years in a row (1993-94-95). Ablett also holds the record for the most goals kicked in a VFL/AFL Grand Final (9 goals in 1989). History A boys football team from Geelong, c. 1860-1900. Geelong Football Club was established at a meeting held in the Victoria Hotel on 18 July, 1859. It is the third oldest Australian Rules football club (after the Melbourne Football Club and the Castlemaine Football Club). The club is one of the oldest football clubs in the world. Geelong played most of its early home games at the Argyle Square, situated between Aberdeen Street and Pakington Street. However, in 1878 the club was evicted from the ground by the private owner who ploughed up the paddock because the club had neglected to pay its rent. THE CLUBS. The Complete History of Every Club in the VFL/AFL; Garrie Hutchinson, John Ross, et al.; 1988, Viking, Melbourne. Page 190 Geelong then moved to Corio Oval for the 1878 season - the year the club won its first VFA premiership in only the second VFA season. Club attire in 1895 (Jim McShane pictured). The Geelong Football Club was among the most powerful in the VFA (Victorian Football Association), winning seven VFA premierships up to the birth of the VFL (Victorian Football League) in 1897. VFA/VFL Summary Chart 1877 to 2007 Geelong was the only non-Melbourne based team at a time when a trip from Geelong to Melbourne involved quite an arduous journey. Notable was Geelong's success in "The Match of the Century" in 1886. This first Grand Final in the VFA between two previously undefeated teams, Geelong and South Melbourne, stimulated unprecedented public interest. It was alleged that saboteurs attempted to destroy one of the special trains carrying Geelong supporters to the match in South Melbourne. The victorious Geelong team were treated to an impromptu public parade in the enemy territory of South Melbourne. Geelong helped form the new VFL with other foundation clubs, Collingwood, Essendon, Fitzroy, Melbourne and South Melbourne. For many years the Geelong Football Club were known as the Pivotonians, after the city's nickname 'The Pivot'. Seagulls was also an earlier nickname. The dark blue and white hooped uniform still worn today represents the blue water of Corio Bay and the white seagulls so numerous in the Bay. Geelong was nicknamed the 'Cats' in 1923 after a run of losses prompted a local cartoonist to suggest that the club needed a black cat to bring it good luck. Soon after, during a match a black cat ventured on to the ground. Geelong won that match, breaking the losing streak. It was decided that cats were indeed good luck. Geelong has ever since been known as the Cats. Despite dominating in the VFA, Geelong found the premiership harder to win in the VFL. In 1897, the inaugural season of the VFL, no grand final was played, but instead a round-robin finals system. Essendon won all three of its games, while Geelong lost to Essendon during this series. As a result, Geelong finished second in the inaugural season, a good start to the new league. 1920s: Geelong prospers Geelong finally won its first VFL premiership in 1925, being the first club outside of Melbourne to achieve this. The VFL/AFL's award for the fairest and best player in a season is named after Charles Brownlow, a Geelong and VFL administrator who died in early 1924. Fittingly, in 1924, the first player to win the award was Geelong's champion, Edward Greeves. Greeves attained a second and third place in votes for the award in later seasons, emphasizing his skill and sportsmanship. In 1925 the Ford Motor Company signed on as a corporate sponsor of the Geelong Football Club. This relationship has persisted to the present (2008). It is claimed that this sponsorship is the longest of its type in the world. 1930s: Succeeding during tough times Geelong followed up on its 1925 premiership with wins in 1931 and 1937. The 1937 Grand Final is widely regarded as a game of the highest quality, remembered for its long and accurate kicking and high marking. During this Era the Coulter Law discouraged club administrators from poaching players from each others' clubs. For many footballers who were seldom more than semi-professional sportsmen, match payments supplemented Great Depression-hit wages. 1940s: Geelong becomes a war casualty In 1941, the club moved from Corio Oval to the more centrally located Kardinia Park in South Geelong. Geelong experienced a lean period in the 1940s. World War II wartime restrictions on prohibited travel in 1942 and 1943 even for the purposes of playing football. Geelong had always been particularly subject to what Geoffrey Blainey a notable Australian historian, author of A Game of Our Own, and Geelong supporter, termed the "tyranny of distance". Despite these handicaps, at war's end the club recruited many players who represented the club during its most successful era in the early 1950s. 1950s: Geelong's most successful era In the 1950s, Geelong flourished. Led by Geelong's greatest coach (officially named at Geelong's team of the century 2000) Reg Hickey, Geelong won the premiership flags of 1951 and 1952. Geelong won the 1951 premiership under memorable circumstances. Essendon was favoured to win the third of a hat-trick of premierships. However, in the final round of the home and away season Essendon's champion full forward, John Coleman retaliated against Carlton full back, Harry Caspar and was reported and later suspended for four weeks. He therefore was unable to play in the grand final. Bob Davis acknowledges the possibility that had Coleman played, Essendon may well have won, given that Geelong had no true match for him, as Coleman was simply too skilled. Therefore it could be argued that Geelong was handed the 51 flag and were not in fact worthy winners. To celebrate its good fortune, Geelong buried a toy bomber in the Kardinia Park turf. This comical ceremony was inspired by the rumour that Geelong's premiership players of 1937 had buried a magpie in the middle of the ground after their premiership win over Collingwood that year. Players of note in this golden era include Bob Davis, Leo Turner (father of future star, Michael Turner), Peter Pianto, Fred Flanagan, and Bernie Smith. Bernie Smith's quality was recognised with his win in the 1951 Brownlow Medal. In 1952, Geelong easily defeated Lou Richards' Collingwood team. To celebrate the win, the next day the players buried another dead magpie in the middle of Kardinia Park. In 1953, Collingwood defeated Geelong in the Grand Final. In 1956, Geelong recruited Billy Goggin, Geelong's greatest rover, who also coached Geelong in the 1980s. At the end of 1959, Reg Hickey decided to retire as coach, making way for Bob Davis, a star in the 51-52 premierships. 1960s: A licence to entertain Geelong's most notable recruitment coup ever was the transfer of perhaps the greatest ruckman of all time, Graham "Polly" Farmer from East Perth. At Geelong's first practice match, a crowd of 20,000 attended just to witness his legendary skills. In 1962, another of Geelong's star players, Alistair Lord won the Brownlow Medal playing in the centre. His twin, Stewart Lord also played with the club and has been credited as the main reason his brother won the award given their similarities in appearance, both played significant roles in the club's premiership win. High expectations of success were somewhat disappointed in 1962. Graham Farmer injured his knee three times during the season, causing him to miss crucial games. However, as Farmer's and Goggin's partnership developed from 1963 onwards, their teamwork at ruck duels inspired admiration and envy. These two players spearheaded the club's next premiership in 1963. In 1963, Geelong played Hawthorn 4 times. Early in the season the clubs played a draw. However, in the final round of the season, the semi finals and the grand final (the only instance of two teams playing three matches in a row against each other), Geelong defeated John Kennedy's Hawthorn Hawks. Captained by Fred Wooller, Geelong clearly distinguished itself as the team of 1963 with an easy 49 point win. A dead hawk joined two magpies and a toy bomber under the Kardinia Park turf. Pole-driven to be Port's undertaker | Herald Sun Frustratingly for supporters of the Club, 1963 was the last time that Geelong enjoyed premiership success until 2007. At the beginning of 1964, Geelong recruited John "Sammy" Newman as a ruckman from Geelong Grammar School. In an interview with Lou Richards on Channel 7's World of Sport, Bob Davis predicted that Newman would enjoy a stellar career. Sam Newman played 300 games for Geelong and went on to become a prominent media personality. Geelong played in finals in every year between 1962 and 1969. Graham Farmer succeeded Fred Wooller as captain in 1965, leading the club until the end of 1967. In 1966, the Geelong Board decided to declare the coaching position open. Applications were sought but Bob Davis declined to reapply. The Board chose Peter Pianto as Davis' replacement. Pianto coached Geelong to the 1967 Grand Final. Geelong narrowly lost this match by nine points to Richmond. Graham Farmer played his 101st and final match for Geelong on this day. 1970s: Out-classed amateurs During the 1970s Geelong Football Club achieved mediocre results. The club fell behind the progressive clubs of the 1970s, notably Carlton, Richmond, Hawthorn and North Melbourne. Unlike these clubs Geelong recruited poorly and/or could not afford to recruit quality footballers. During the 1970s footballers increasingly came to view the game as a profession rather than a pastime. Richer and more entrepreneurial clubs outbidded clubs like Geelong for talented and dedicated players. Coaches Graham Farmer and Rodney Olsson failed to develop successful teams. Geelong finished fourth in the 1976 season. The club won its only final of the 1970s by defeating fifth-placed Footscray. Geelong lost to North Melbourne in the second week of the finals. In 1978 Geelong finished fifth, only to lose to Carlton in the first week of the finals. One of the few noteworthy players was Larry Donohue, who in 1976 kicked over 100 goals to lead the VFL goal kicking. 1978 yielded him 95 goals. 1980s: Adjusting to new realities During the 1980s Geelong recruited well but underperformed on the field. In 1980, coached by Billy Goggin, Geelong finished on top of the ladder at the home and away season. Geelong defeated Richmond once during the season but could not do it again in the first week of the finals. Geelong played Collingwood in the Preliminary Final for the right to play Richmond in the Grand Final and lost the match. In 1981 Geelong's finals campaign inflicted more heartbreak. Geelong beat Collingwood in the Qualifying Final but lost to Carlton in the Second Semi-Final. Geelong were beaten by Collingwood by the narrow margin of seven points when they clashed again in the Preliminary Final. In 1982 the club collapsed on-field, missing the finals. The board sacked Billy Goggin. Richmond premiership coach Tom Hafey took over in 1983. However, the club did not improve under Hafey. Geelong failed to play in the finals during Hafey's tenure. One bright moment during the Hafey years was the recruitment of former Hawthorn player Gary Ablett from Myrtleford for the 1984 season. In his first season, Ablett won his only best and fairest for the club, an early indication of Ablett's football genius. The most notable incident for the club in 1985 was when Hawthorn legend Leigh Matthews swung his arm at ruck-rover Neville Bruns' jaw and broke it. The incident received huge media coverage. Matthews was charged by police. Although the law courts did not punish Matthews, the VFL suspended his playing permit for one month. The club also recruited future champion midfielder and dual Brownlow Medallist, Greg Williams and another future Brownlow Medallist and three-time club champion, Paul Couch. Due to a lack of on-field improvement during his tenure as coach, Tom Hafey was sacked at the end of the 1985 season. Hafey was soon afterwards appointed coach of the Sydney Swans. Three players followed him to Sydney: David Bolton, Bernard Toohey, and Greg Williams. Williams' decision was to prove a wise one, netting him two Brownlow medals, a Premiership medallion and a Norm Smith Medal. In 1986 John Devine, a member of the 1963 premiership team was appointed as coach. Under Devine, the club recruited Barry Stoneham, Garry Hocking, Mark Bairstow and Billy Brownless. Geelong's recruiters demonstrated that they had adapted to the new system of the player salary cap introduced in 1985 and the AFL draft introduced in 1986. However, the club missed the finals during Devine's tenure. In 1986, as a sign of things to come, Paul Couch won the first of his three club best-and-fairest awards. In 1987 Geelong missed the finals. In the pre-season of 1988, in a foretaste of approaching frustrations, Geelong contested Hawthorn for the pre-season cup, the National-Panasonic Cup. Geelong lost by two points despite being in control for much of the match. Geelong underperformed in the main competition, finishing tenth. The Board sacked John Devine as coach. In 1989 Geelong signed North Melbourne champion Malcolm Blight to coach the club. Blight's new approach had mixed results. Geelong once again contested the National-Panasonic pre-season Grand Final, this time against Melbourne. Once again the Cats lost. Adapting quickly to Blight's coaching philosophy, Geelong kicked mammoth scores and during the 1989 season. It is the only club so far to win by 100 points for three weeks in a row, defeating lowly clubs Richmond, St Kilda and the Brisbane Bears. Gavin Exell had a productive season, kicking 61 goals during the home-and-away season, narrowly pipping team-mate Gary Ablett, who kicked 60. Ablett's notable goalkicking feats of the year included a bag of 14 goals against Richmond, 10 against Brisbane and 7 against Collingwood (where he amassed 38 possessions on the wing in the wet). In this match against Collingwood, Gary Ablett also kicked the goal of the year. However, the Gary Ablett show had not even started yet. Geelong finished third at the completion of the home-and-away season and met Essendon in the Qualifying Final in the first week. Geelong's lack of finals experience was telling as Essendon ended a 3-year losing streak to Geelong, thrashing them by 76 points. Gary Ablett and Shane Hamilton each kicked 3 goals in this match. Geelong then met Melbourne in the semifinals. The previous week, Essendon had assigned "taggers" to Geelong's star midfielders, Paul Couch and Mark Bairstow. This move worked to great effect, nullifying both. Melbourne coach John Northey predictably did the same. However, his move was so predictable that Malcolm Blight benched both Couch and Bairstow for the first quarter, completely throwing Melbourne's plans into disarray. The result saw Geelong easily beat Melbourne by over 10 goals. Gary Ablett kicked 7 goals in an awesome display, as well as taking one of the marks of the year over Melbourne's Steven Febey. The Preliminary Final saw a rematch between Geelong and Essendon at VFL Park. Early on, it appeared that Essendon would repeat their win of two weeks prior. However, Geelong soon got back on track and began to kick goals at will. Gary Ablett continued his awesome form, kicking 8 goals and constructing many more. The result saw Geelong cause a 170 point turnaround from a fortnight ago, to comprehensively defeat Essendon by a mammoth 94 points, to march into the club's first Grand Final since 1967. The Grand Final proved to be an epic battle. At the opening bounce, Mark Yeates, retaliating to an incident incurred by Dermott Brereton in Round 6, bumped off Brereton to try and take the match winner out of the game in what must be argued was a cowardly hit, breaking Brereton's ribs. During this period, Ablett had managed to mark and kick the opening goal of the match. Brereton was ordered off the ground, but refused and instead rested in the pocket. Brereton took a mark shortly after and goaled, leading Hawthorn to a 40 point quarter-time break. Hawthorn coach Alan Jeans commented at the time that Breretons courage was "inspirational." Geelong won the second quarter by two points and the third quarter by one point. The final quarter proved frantic, as Geelong managed to get within 6 points of the tiring and wounded Hawks, before the siren sounded. Gary Ablett was awarded the Norm Smith Medal for a best on ground performance in kicking 9 goals 1 behind to equal Collingwood's Gordon Coventry’s goalkicking record in a grand final. His 2nd quarter goal and 3rd quarter marks were two of his notable highlights of his day. To cap a remarkable season, Paul Couch won the Brownlow Medal by 2 votes from Hawthorn's John Platten. 1990s: Not quite good enough The decade of the 1990s was another era of disappointed expections. By the end of the 1990s Geelong Football Club was in crisis, deep in debt and with a depleted player list. Geelong failed in 1990 to reproduce the exciting brand of attacking football of 1989. Season 1991 started ominously. On the eve of the season, Gary Ablett retired for odd reasons. Nevertheless, Geelong won some games. Ablett returned mid-season to the club. The club finished third at the end of the home and away. The final against 4th placed St Kilda was a memorable one. Tony Lockett kicked his nine goals for St Kilda by three-quarter time. Billy Brownless, kicked eight goals. The Cats managed to win by seven points. Ablett was suspended for elbowing St Kilda's Nathan Burke, and missed the rest of the season due to suspension. Over the next two weeks, Geelong met Hawthorn and the West Coast Eagles, both losses for the club. Consistent with the close finish of 1989, Hawthorn won the match by two points. The loss against the Eagles was by fifteen points. In 1992 Geelong returned to the spectacular form of three seasons previous. Against the Brisbane Bears at Carrara the club kicked a VFL/AFL record score of 37 goals 17 behinds (239 points). Jim Main, Aussie Rules for dummies (2nd edition, 2008) p 42. See also YouTube. This record score still stands. Gary Ablett snr. and Billy Brownless both kicked more than 70 goals for the season to form a potent forward-line combination. Geelong finished the regular season on top of the ladder, eclipsing their previous record for total points scored in a home-and-away season (2916 in 1989) and increased it to 3057 points. After beating Footscray Bulldogs in the qualifying final by 61 points, the 2nd semi Geelong lost to West Coast Eagles by 38 points. Beating Footscray Bulldogs again in the preliminary final by 64 points the Cats again squared off against the power of the West Coast Eagles. In the Grand Final the Cats got off to a wonderful start, at one stage during the second quarter leading by five goals. However, in the second half West Coast's Peter Matera ran riot, booting five goals and earning himself the Norm Smith Medal as best on ground. The Perth based West Coast won by 28 points to take the first premiership won by a non-Victorian club. In 1993 the Geelong once again underachieved as Malcolm Blight experimented with more defensive tactics. For most of the season on-field performances were lacklustre as the players struggled to adapt. It was not until late in the season when Geelong reverted to its all-out attacking style of play. Several experienced players urged Blight to revert to Geelong's customary geisha style of play. Blight agreed and Geelong began to play like champions again. Frustratingly, Geelong narrowly missed the finals on percentage. In 1993 Blight decided to play Gary Ablett at Full Forward permanently. The move paid handsome dividends, as Ablett reached the second fastest century in VFL/AFL history. Ablett's most notable performances of this year included 11 goals against Melbourne, 14 against Essendon and 10 against the Adelaide Crows - all in losing sides. Tallies of 10 goal against North Melbourne, and 12 against his favourite victim, Richmond, in winning sides. 1994 proved to be a hard year for the club. The club had a good home-and-away season to finish fourth. Gary Ablett topped the goalkicking for the year easily, kicking 129 goals (including the finals) and winning his second consecutive John Coleman Medal. The club met fifth placed Footscray in the first week of the finals. The match proved a nailbiter, with an after-the-siren kick and goal by Billy Brownless giving the club a five-point win. A week later Geelong had no hope of beating Carlton, who had finished 2nd after the home and away season, given that their three best midfielders; Garry Hocking, Paul Couch and Mark Bairstow were not playing through injury. However, with several young players and second-tier midfielders, along with six goals from Gary Ablett, Geelong defeated Carlton by 33 points. Geelong met North Melbourne in the Preliminary Final in a match which proved even more nailbiting than their match with Footscray 2 weeks prior. North Melbourne started well, but Geelong dominated the second and third quarters to lead by six goals in the third quarter. A fine feat given that Geelong's target all season, Gary Ablett was being beaten by North Melbourne's full back, Michael Martyn. However, North Melbourne came back strongly in the last quarter and took the lead late in the match. However, Geelong scored a behind to level the scores. With 25 seconds left and a boundary throw-in, the ball came to ground and Michael Martyn cleared, only for the ball to be marked by Leigh Colbert. Colbert then kicked long, where ruckman John Barnes dropped the mark, allowing Leigh Tudor, a former North Melbourne player to swoop, and kick the ball over Martyn's head to land in the hand of Gary Ablett. As Ablett walked back to take his kick, the siren went, and Ablett kicked the winning goal, propelling Geelong to its third Grand Final in seven years. Geelong once again played West Coast for the premiership. Unlike two seasons ago, Geelong proved no match against an Eagles outfit superior to its 1992 premiership team, losing by 80 points. Billy Brownless stood out with a fantastic mark in the second quarter, as well as four goals. Malcolm Blight, dispirited by three Grand Final losses under his tenure, announced his resignation. His assistant Gary Ayres took over the job. Ayres immediately took action, sacking both Steven Hocking (on 199 games) and former captain Mark Bairstow. 1994 saw another best-and-fairest win to Garry Hocking, who also won 20 votes in the Brownlow Medal to finish third to eventual winner Greg Williams on 30 votes and Peter Matera on 28 votes. 1995 saw the club improve. The club was highly consistent, its biggest losing margin being less than 20 points, and never losing two matches in a row - the only club to do so for the year. The club finished second on the ladder to Carlton. Gary Ablett once again won the Coleman Medal and kick over 100 goals for the third year in a row. In the finals the club met 7th placed Footscray and won by 82 points. The club earned a week's break and returned for the third weeks clash against Richmond, and won by 78 points and so for the second consecutive season and for the fourth time in seven years, Geelong played for the premiership this time against against Carlton, who had only lost two games for the year. The match was hard to tip, as many saw Geelong a definite chance given that the two sides met once during the year, which saw Carlton win by two points. Geelong was thrashed by 61 points, playing its worst game for the entire season. Gary Ablett played his worst game for years, blanketed by Carlton's Stephen Silvagni. To add insult to injury, former Geelong player Greg Williams, now a superstar at Carlton, was named best on ground with his five goals. A notable rookie of this year would be Brenton Sanderson, who would play over 200 games by the end of career, retiring at the end of 2005, and be recognised with selection into the Geelong Hall of Fame. The best and fairest was won by Paul Couch, who narrowly missed out on winning his second Brownlow Medal. In 1996 the club would experience an unsuccessful year, finishing seventh at the end of the Home and Away Season. Gary Ablett would be suspended for four weeks after round 2, which resulted in a rapid decline in his quality. He would kick his 1000th career goal against Fremantle. The cats would meet eventual premier, North Melbourne in the first week of the finals, which saw North win by over 10 goals. Garry Hocking would once again win the best and fairest award, and miss out on the Brownlow Medal by a vote in the process. A notable recruit would be Steven King, standing at over two metres tall. In 1997 Geelong faced a season with no dependence on ageing superstars, Paul Couch and Gary Ablett. By mid season, Couch would retire on 259 games. Gary Ablett would not play a senior game ever again for the club after injuring his knee in the reserves. The club would start the season well, challenging Carlton to the 1997 pre-season premiership, the Ansett Australia Cup. However, identically to 1995, Geelong capitulated, allowing Carlton another piece of silverware. The club finished second on the ladder. The club met North Melbourne in a "home" final at the MCG at Night. North Melbourne, on its actual home ground beat Geelong by 18 points. Geelong then travelled to Adelaide and lost the game by eight points, exiting by losing both finals. 1998 was a season best forgotten. The club finished 12th, its lowest finish for over 40 years. A notable recruit for Geelong came in the form of Matthew Scarlett, son of former player, John. Geelong took full advantage of the Father-Son Rule. This concession allowed sons of ex-players to nominate for their fathers' clubs, thus exempting them from being chosen by any other club in the national draft. In 1999 the club won five games straight to open. However, the club then lost its next 9 to finish the season with 10 wins and tenth position. The roller-coaster season saw coach Gary Ayres quit to take the job at Adelaide, which ironically was available after Malcolm Blight quit, almost identical to when Ayres took over Geelong in 1995. Mark Thompson was appointed coach. At the end of this season, Geelong traded Leigh Colbert for North Melbourne premiership player, Cameron Mooney. 2000s 2000: Promising signs Season 2000 started well, with Geelong winning its first three matches. By the end of the home and away season Geelong finished fifth and met eighth placed Hawthorn in the first finals match ever played at Docklands Stadium, the AFL's state-of-the-art facility. Hawthorn won by nine points. Barry Stoneham announced his retirement after this game, ending a magnificent career spanning over 240 games. He remains at the club currently as a runner. 2001 – 2003: Recruitment of the stars 2001-2003 saw a lean period for the club where finals were not realised for three years - finishing twelfth, ninth and twelfth respectively. However, during this time the club recruited well. Current stars such as Paul Chapman, Gary Ablett, Jr., Jimmy Bartel, James Kelly and Joel Corey were notable recruits. Veteran Brenton Sanderson won the Best and fairest in 2001, Steven King in 2002 (who was in that year appointed club captain) and Matthew Scarlett in 2003. 2004 In 2004 Geelong challenged for the pre-season premiership (known as the Wizard Home Loans Cup), where they met St Kilda, Geelong led for much of the match, but St Kilda finished strongly to win by 20 points. The season proved fruitful as the club finished fourth at the end of the Home and Away season. The club met eventual premier, Port Adelaide at AAMI Stadium/Football Park in Adelaide, historically Geelong's worst ground in terms of wins. Port reaffirmed their superiority at the venue to win by 55 points. This game did not start a new rivalry between these two clubs, but some rivalry between the clubs was started three seasons later. Geelong soldiered on however and met Essendon at the MCG, winning by ten points despite leading by over six goals at three quarter time. Geelong then met Brisbane, the premiers of 2001-2003. The Cats dominated the first half but it was clear the club lacked a target up forward. In the second half, Brisbane took control and steadied enough to win by a small margin of nine points. Post season, Geelong finally managed to entice shy Modewarre player and son of the club's greatest player, Nathan Ablett to play AFL football for Geelong. Another major signing was disgruntled Richmond big-man Brad Ottens, recruited to counter Geelong's lack of forward line height. Cameron Ling capped off a fine season by winning his first best and fairest after finishing runner up in the previous two counts. 2005: Finals heartbreak The club started very well, before hitting a slump mid-season as injuries took their toll. This necessitated the debut of Nathan Ablett, who played his first game in a narrow loss to Melbourne. His two goals for the club that day excited fans and provided hope that he would be good enough. Nathan showed late in the season against West Coast that indeed he could play, with 4 goals in a thrashing of the then top placed Eagles. By the end of the season, Geelong finished fifth and played eighth placed Melbourne. Geelong thrashed Melbourne by 55 points in a match remembered for Steven King's attempted kick of the ball in mid air, accidentally making contact with Melbourne ruckman Jeff White, smashing his face, which required surgery. The next week the club met Sydney at the Sydney Cricket Ground (SCG) where the Cats led for the majority of the match. A four goal lead at three quarter time in a low scoring match saw Geelong in a strong position. A stunning final term performance by Sydney's Nick Davis that saw him kick four goals including the winning snap three seconds before the siren denied Geelong victory. Sydney later went on to become the 2005 Premiers. This was Brenton Sanderson's final game. Joel Corey won his first best and fairest. 2006: Pre-season success, but season failure Season 2006 began promisingly, but ended with criticism by club members of the performance of the club. Geelong beat Adelaide to claim the pre-season National Australia Bank Cup. Big wins at home against the Brisbane Lions and Kangaroos in the first two rounds fuelled optimism. However, Geelong began to underperform, losing some close encounters and suffering some humiliating defeats. In the final game of the year, the Cats were soundly beaten by Hawthorn for the second time. Geelong finished tenth on the ladder with ten wins and a draw. Responding to member anger, the Board ordered a comprehensive review of all aspects of the administration of the club and of the club's personnel. Coach Mark Thompson was widely perceived to be at risk. However, the review accepted that Thompson should continue as coach. The Board opted for stability over the uncertainty of radical personnel change. Thompson was publicly outraged by the ordeal which he considered poorly handled. 2006 NAB Cup Grand Final SG G B Total Adelaide 1 10 15 84 Geelong 3 10 5 92 Venue: AAMI Stadium, Adelaide Crowd: 30,707 2007: Finally, the drought ends Season 2007 was the most successful in the history of the club. Yet, early mixed results provided few clues of Geelong's domination of the competition. After an unexpected home loss to the Kangaroos, player Paul Chapman made public comments about the unprofessional attitude of some of his team mates . Thereafter, Geelong lost only one game for the rest of the season. Geelong unleashed a dynamic style of play dubbed "tsunami football" by critic and commentator Robert Walls . Geelong's streak of fifteen wins was ended by second-placed Port Adelaide with a victory-snatching goal in the final three seconds. Geelong ended the season three games clear on top of the ladder. In the 2nd Qualifying Final, Geelong defeated the Kangaroos by 106 points, their second greatest winning margin against the Roos and their third biggest win in the finals. Geelong then played Collingwood before a crowd of 98,002. Geelong won an intense struggle by five points. Geelong defeated Port Adelaide in the 2007 AFL Grand Final, with a record-breaking margin of 119 points, 24-19-163 to 6-8-44, the largest-ever winning margin in a VFL/AFL Grand Final. Steve Johnson won the Norm Smith Medal for best on ground, while Cameron Mooney was the leading goalscorer with five goals. 2007 Toyota AFL Grand Final G B Total Geelong 24 19 163 Port Adelaide 6 8 44 Venue: Melbourne Cricket Ground Crowd: 97,302 2008: Dominance, but no glory It was a season of almost unprecedented dominance, resulting in the team winning 21 out of the 22 games and finishing with a percentage of 161.84 (Their only loss of the season was to Collingwood in round 9 by 86 points). With the team in form and having lost just one game for the year the Cats were almost unbackable favourites to win the 2008 AFL premiership. They beat St Kilda in the first qualifying final 17.17(119) to 8.13(61) and held on against a spirited Western Bulldogs side in the Preliminary Final, coming out on top 12.11(83) to 7.12 (54). The win secured the Cats a Grand Final berth against the 2nd placed Hawthorn. http://www.afl.com.au/Ladder/tabid/74/default.aspx AFL Ladder . Geelong were defeated in the 2008 AFL Grand Final by Hawthorn in front of an attendance of 100,012 people. Despite having numerous chances in the first half of the game, and dominating through the midfield, the Cats failed to apply scoreboard pressure, and were edged out in the end by a more accurate Hawthorn outfit. Ultimately the Cats failed to defend their premiership, and a chance to win back to back flags for just the second time in the club's history. Identity Guernsey and colours Geelong's Home and Clash Jumpers This is the current 2008 jumper design. From 2007 a clash jumper was introduced. The Geelong Football Club has worn its blue and white hoops since its first game, although the thickness of the hoops has changed over the years. Club song "We Are Geelong" is the song sung after a game won by the Geelong Football Club. It is sung to the tune of "Toreador" from Carmen. The lyrics were written by former premiership player John Watts. Only the first verse is used when played at matches, and when sung by the team after a victory. Lyrics We are Geelong, the greatest team of all We are Geelong; we’re always on the ball We play the game as it should be played At home or far away Our banners fly high, from dawn to dark Down at Kardinia Park So! Stand up and fight, remember our tradition Stand up and fight, it’s always our ambition Throughout the game to fight with all our might Because we’re the mighty blue and white And when the ball is bounced, to the final bell Stand up and fight like hell Honours Team awards League Premierships VFL/AFL: 7 (1925, 1931, 1937, 1951, 1952, 1963, 2007) Reserves: 13 (1923, 1924, 1930, 1937, 1938, 1948, 1960, 1963, 1964, 1975, 1980, 1981, 1982) Under 19s: 1 (1962) VFA/VFL: 9 (1878, 1879, 1880, 1882, 1883, 1884, 1886, 2002, 2007) Night Series/Pre-Season Premierships Night Series: 1 (1961) Pre-Season: 2 (2006, 2009) McClelland Trophy: 9 (1952, 1954, 1962, 1963, 1980, 1981, 1992, 2007, 2008) Wooden Spoons: 5 (1908, 1915, 1944, 1957, 1958) Individual awards Players Current playing list Playing list for 2009 season: Notable players Gary Ablett (member of the AFL team of the century) Billy Brownless (current media personality) Charles 'Chas' Brownlow Damian Drum (former player, and current politician) Ben Graham (former player, captain and current NFL footballer) Garry Hocking Reg Hickey Sam Newman (former player and current media personality) Neil Trezise (former player, coach and politician) Doug Wade (member of the top 5 all time VFL/AFL goalkickers) Membership base Geelong Cats banner at the 2007 AFL Grand Final Season Members Change from previous season Finishing position Average home match crowds 1984 7709 AFL Record - Preliminary Finals 2007, Geelong V Collingwood September 21, 2007 — 6th 20,577 1985 7718 9 (+0.12%) 6th 19,463 1986 6985 733 (-9.50%) 9th 15,319 1987 6981 4 (-0.06%) 6th 20,462 1988 9667 2686 (+38.48%) 9th 20,790 1989 7760 1907 (-19.73%) 2nd 29,296 1990 15,087 7327 (+94.42%) 10th 24,711 1991 11,356 3731 (-24.73%) 3rd 23,525 1992 13,535 2179 (+19.19%) 2nd 27,698 1993 15,500 1965 (+14.52%) 7th 26,920 1994 14,312 1188 (-7.66%) 4th 26,461 1995 15,922 1610 (+11.25%) 2nd 25,317 1996 17,346 1424 (+8.94%) 7th 25,161 1997 18,858 1512 (+8.72%) 2nd 28,324 1998 19,971 1113 (+5.90%) 12th 28,371 1999 21,032 1061 (+5.31%) 11th 24,840 2000 25,595 4563 (+21.70%) 5th 27,729 2001 25,420 175 (-0.68%) 12th 27,093 2002 23,756 1664 (-6.55%) 9th 27,040 2003 24,017 261 (+1.10%) 12th 25,971 2004 25,021 1004 (+4.18%) 4th 25,747 2005 30,821 5800 (+23.18%) 5th 27,783 2006 32,290 1469 (+4.77%) 10th 27,428 2007 30,169 2121 (-6.57%) 1st 31,547 2008 36,850 6681 (+22.15%) 2nd 29,474 2009* 36,376 — — 32,132 Averages+ 18,547 1,214 (+6.94%) n/a 23,274 * Ongoing figures (as of 24 May 2009), 2009 membership purchases close on 30 June 2009. + Averages use 1984 – 2008 figures Administrative positions President: Frank Costa (1999 – present) CEO: Brian Cook (1999 – present) Chief operating officer: Stuart Fox Board members: Vice-president: Gareth Andrews Director: Nicholas Carr Director: Colin Carter (1987 – 1993; July 2008 – present) Director: Bob Gartland Director: Alistair Hamblin (December 2004 – present) (also Chair of the Finance & Audit Committee) Director: Campbell Neal Director: Doug Wade See also List of Geelong Football Club players List of Geelong Football Club captains List of Geelong Football Club coaches References External links Official Website of the Geelong Football Club Official AFL Website MetroCats Supporter Group The Cattery - Unofficial Geelong Football Club Website "Around the Grounds" - Web Documentary - Kardinia Park Geelong Football Club Honour Roll - list of all Presidents, captains, coaches and Best & Fairest winners since 1879. | Geelong_Football_Club |@lemmatized geelong:178 football:34 club:119 nickname:4 cat:20 professional:2 australian:5 rule:4 base:4 city:2 playing:3 league:6 afl:31 win:72 seven:6 vfl:23 premiership:34 nine:6 mcclelland:2 trophy:2 table:2 finish:26 summary:3 four:7 time:23 runner:4 late:7 early:10 retrieve:3 since:5 play:42 home:22 game:40 kardinia:7 park:9 know:4 sponsor:2 name:4 skilled:2 stadium:4 traditional:1 guernsey:3 colour:2 white:7 navy:3 blue:5 hoop:4 short:1 hooped:1 sock:1 form:8 second:26 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4,975 | Guinea | Guinea, officially Republic of Guinea (, ), is a country in West Africa formerly known as French Guinea. The country's current population is estimated at 10,211,437 (CIA 2008 estimate). Guinea's size is almost . Its territory has a crescent shape, with its western border on the Atlantic Ocean, curving inland to the east and south. The Atlantic coast borders Guinea-Bissau to the north and Sierra Leone to the south. The inland part neighbors Senegal to the north, Mali to the north and north-east, Côte d'Ivoire to the south-east, and Liberia to the south. The Niger River runs through the nation, providing both water and irregular transportation. Conakry is the capital, seat of the national government, and largest city. The nation is sometimes called Guinea-Conakry to distinguish it from its neighbor Guinea-Bissau. See, for example, Univ. of Iowa map, Music Videos of Guinea Conakry - Clips Guineens, The Anglican Diocese of Guinea - Conakry, Canal France International's English-language page for Guinea Conakry History The land composing present-day Guinea was part of a series of empires, beginning with the Ghana Empire which came into being around 900 [AD]. This was followed by the Sosso kingdom in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The Mali Empire took control of the region after the Battle of Kirina in 1235, but grew weaker over time from internal conflicts, which eventually led to its dissolution. Europeans first came to the area during the era of Portuguese discoveries in the fifteenth century. The European slave trade began the next century. One of the strongest successor states of the Mali Empire was the Songhai Empire. It exceeded its predecessors in terms of territory and wealth, but succumbed to civil war. Eventually, it was toppled at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591. An Islamic state was founded in the eighteenth century which brought stability to the region. Simultaneously, the Fulani Muslims arrived in the highland region of Fouta Djallon. France colonized Guinea in 1890 and appointed Noël Balley as the first governor. The capital Conakry was founded on Tombo Island in the same year. In 1895 the country was incorporated into French West Africa. Monument to commemorate the 1970 military victory over the Mercenaries invasion. On 28 September 1958, under the direction of Charles de Gaulle, Metropolitan France held a referendum on a new constitution and the creation of the Fifth Republic. The colonies, except Algeria, which was legally a direct part of France, were given the choice between immediate independence or retaining their colonial status. All colonies except Guinea opted for the latter. Thus, Guinea became the first French African colony to gain independence, on 2 October 1958, at the cost of the immediate cessation of all French assistance. After independence, Guinea was governed by President Ahmed Sékou Touré. Touré pursued broadly socialist economic policies and suppressed opposition and free expression. Under his leadership, Guinea joined the Non-Aligned Movement and pursued close ties with the Eastern Bloc. After Touré's death in 1984, Lansana Conté assumed power and immediately changed his predecessor's economic policies, but the government remained dictatorial. The first elections since independence were held in 1993, but the results and those of subsequent elections were disputed. Conté faced domestic criticism for the condition of the country's economy and for his heavy-handed approach to political opposition. While on a visit to France with his family in 2005, Prime Minister François Lonseny Fall resigned and sought asylum, citing corruption and increasing interference from the President, which he felt limited his effectiveness as the head of the government. Fall's successor, Cellou Dalein Diallo, was removed in April 2006, and Conté failed to appoint a new one until the end of January 2007 after devastating nationwide strikes and mass demonstrations. During 2006, there were two nationwide strikes by government workers, during which 10 students were shot dead by the military; strikes were suspended when Conté agreed to more favorable wages for civil servants and a reduction of the cost of the basic amenities, rice and oil. At the beginning of 2007, citing the government's failure to honor the terms of previous agreements, trade unions called new strikes, protesting rising costs of living, government corruption, and economic mismanagement. Lasting for more than two weeks, these strikes drew some of the largest demonstrations seen during Conté's tenure and resulted in some 60 deaths. Among the unions' demands was that the aging and ailing President name a consensus prime minister to fill the post vacant since Diallo's removal, and relinquish to him certain presidential responsibilities. Conté reluctantly agreed to appoint a new prime minister and lower fuel and rice prices, thus ending the strikes. On 13 February 2007, upon the nomination of Eugene Camara, viewed as a close ally of Conté, to the post of Prime Minister, violent demonstrations immediately broke out throughout the country. Strikes resumed, citing the President's failure to nominate a "consensus" prime minister per the 27 January 2007 agreement. Martial law was declared after violent clashes with demonstrators, bringing the death toll since January to well over 100, and there were widespread reports of pillaging and rapes committed by men in military uniform. Government buildings and property owned by government officials throughout the country were looted and destroyed by angry mobs. Many feared Guinea to be on the verge of civil war as protesters from all parts of Guinea called for Conté's unequivocal resignation. After diplomatic intervention from the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and neighboring heads of state, Conté agreed to choose a new prime minister from a list of five candidates furnished by the labor unions and civic leaders. On 26 February 2007, Lansana Kouyaté, former Guinean ambassador to the UN, was nominated to the post. Strikes were called off, and the nomination was hailed by the strikers. On 23 December 2008, Aboubacar Somparé, President of the National Assembly, flanked by Prime Minister Kouyaté, and Diarra Camara the head of the Army, announced that Conté had died "after a long illness". Under the Guinean constitution, Somparé was to assume the Presidency of the Republic and a new presidential election was to have been held within 60 days. However, six hours after the announcement of Conté's death, Captain Moussa Dadis Camara announced a coup d'état by the Guinean Army, saying that "the government and the institutions of the Republic have been dissolved". Camara also announced the suspension of the constitution "as well as political and union activity". Government and politics Captain Moussa Dadis Camara is head of the military junta that currently runs Guinea. Commander Sekouba Konate is the Vice President. On 23 December 2008 it was announced that President Lansana Conté, who ruled from 1984-2008 had died. Although Aboubacar Somparé, as President of the National Assembly, was Conté's constitutional successor, a group of military officers seized power within hours and suspended the constitution. Headed by Captain Moussa Dadis Camara, the junta, known as the National Council for Democracy and Development, has promised to hold a new presidential election at the end of a two-year transitional period. Camara's leadership initially after the coup was challenged by Sekouba Konate, commander of a special forces unit within the capital barracks. Lots were then drawn between Camara, Konate, and a third officer (unknown at this time), with Camara being the winner after two successive drawings. The appointed Prime Minister, Kabine Komara, a veteran of Guinea's central bank and the Ministry of Finance, was most recently a senior director at the African Export-Import Bank in Cairo. Ahmed Tidiane Souaré, Prime Minister under the previous regime, swore loyalty to the junta. Souaré was recently arrested by the junta, apparently as part of a drug and corruptions crackdown. Theoretically, the politics of Guinea would take place within the framework of a presidential republic, wherein the President of Guinea would be the head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of the Guinean military. The president would have been elected to a maximum of two 7-year terms, although Lansana Conte, who was in power from 1984 to 2008, continued to run for further terms. Executive power was exercised by the president and members of his cabinet. To be elected president of Guinea a candidate must have been a Guinean-born citizen by birth, be at least 35 years of age, and must be able to speak and read the French language. Legislative power was vested in the National Assembly. The National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) has 114 members, elected for a four-year term, 38 members in single-seat constituencies and 76 members by proportional representation. Guinea is a one-party-dominant state, with the Party of Unity and Progress in power. Opposition parties are allowed but are widely considered to have no real chance of gaining power. Ahmed Tidiane Souare was appointed prime minister in May 2008. He replaced Lansana Kouyate, a former UN diplomat who had been appointed by President Conte fifteen months earlier under a deal to end a general strike against the president's rule. Following his appointment, Mr Souare said he planned to continue changes begun by Mr Kouyate and "to restore authority to the state because we're in a state of disarray." He is a member of former President Conte's Party of Unity and Progress and has previously served as minister of mines and geology and as minister of state for higher education and scientific research. Regions and prefectures Regions of Guinea The Republic Guinea covers of West Africa about 10 degrees north of the equator. Guinea is divided into four natural regions with distinct human, geographic, and climatic characteristics: Maritime Guinea (La Guinée Maritime) covers 18% of the country Mid-Guinea (La Moyenne-Guinée) covers 20% of the country Upper-Guinea (La Haute-Guinée) covers 41% of the country Forested Guinea (Guinée Forestière) is both forested and mountainous Guinea is divided into seven administrative regions and subdivided into thirty-three prefectures. The national capital, Conakry, ranks as a special zone. Boké Region Conakry Region Faranah Region Kankan Region Kindia Region Labé Region Mamou Region Nzérékoré Region City populations Populations of some of the larger cities, as estimated by World Gazeteer for 2008. The latest published census is from 1996. http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gcis&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=abcdefghinoq&msz=1500&geo=-89 World Gazatteer Télimélé (285,078) Boké (116,270) Conakry (1,857,153) Faranah (87,083) Fria (110,586) Guéckédou (221,715) Kamsar (88,222) Kankan (197,108) Kindia (181,126) Kissidougou (119,909) Labé (58,649) Lola (60,911) Macenta (88,376) Mamou (76,269) Nzérékoré (224,791) Geography Map of Guinea Beach on Iles de Los. At 94,919 square miles (245,857 km2), Guinea is roughly the size of the United Kingdom and slightly smaller than the U.S. state of Oregon. There are 200 miles (320 km) of coastline. The total land border is 2,112 miles (3,399 km). The countries bordering Guinea include Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast), Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Senegal, Sierra Leone. The country is divided into four main regions: the Basse-Cote lowlands in the west along the coast, populated mainly by the Susu ethnic group; the cooler, mountainous Fouta Djalon that run roughly north-south through the middle of the country, populated by Peuls, the Sahelian Haute-Guinea to the northeast, populated by Malinkes, and the forested jungle regions in the southeast, with several ethnic groups. Guinea's mountains are the source for the Niger, the Gambia, and Senegal Rivers, as well as the numerous rivers flowing to the sea on the west side of the range in Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast. The highest point in Guinea is Mont Nimba at 5,748 feet (1,752 m). Although the Guinean and Ivorian sides of the Nimba Massif are a UNESCO Strict Nature Reserve, the portion of the so-called Guinean Backbone continues into Liberia, where it has been mined for decades; the damage is quite evident in the Nzérékoré Region at . Economy Richly endowed with minerals, Guinea possesses over 25 billion metric tons (MT) of bauxite – and perhaps up to one-half of the world's reserves. In addition, Guinea's mineral wealth includes more than 4-billion tons of high-grade iron ore, significant diamond and gold deposits, and undetermined quantities of uranium. Guinea has considerable potential for growth in the agricultural and fishing sectors. Soil, water, and climatic conditions provide opportunities for large-scale irrigated farming and agro industry. Possibilities for investment and commercial activities exist in all these areas, but Guinea's poorly developed infrastructure and rampant corruption continue to present obstacles to large-scale investment projects. Joint venture bauxite mining and alumina operations in northwest Guinea historically provide about 80% of Guinea's foreign exchange. The Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinea (CBG) is the main player in the bauxite industry. CBG is a joint venture, in which 49% of the shares are owned by the Guinean Government and 51% by an international consortium led by Alcoa and Alcan. CBG exports about 14 million metric tons of high-grade bauxite every year. The Compagnie des Bauxites de Kindia (CBK), a joint venture between the Government of Guinea and Russki Alumina, produces some 2.5 million MT annually, nearly all of which is exported to Russia and Eastern Europe. Dian Dian, a Guinean/Ukrainian joint bauxite venture, has a projected production rate of 1 million MT per year, but is not expected to begin operations for several years. The Alumina Compagnie de Guinée (ACG), which took over the former Friguia Consortium, produced about 2.4 million tons of bauxite in 2004, which is used as raw material for its alumina refinery. The refinery supplies about 750,000 MT of alumina for export to world markets. Both Global Alumina and Alcoa-Alcan have signed conventions with the Government of Guinea to build large alumina refineries with a combined capacity of about 4 million MT per year. Diamonds and gold also are mined and exported on a large scale. AREDOR, a joint diamond-mining venture between the Guinean Government (50%) and an Australian, British, and Swiss consortium, began production in 1984 and mined diamonds that are 90% gem quality. Production stopped from 1993 until 1996, when First City Mining of Canada purchased the international portion of the consortium. By far, most diamonds are mined artisanally. The largest gold mining operation in Guinea is a joint venture between the government and Ashanti Gold Fields of Ghana. SMD also has a large gold mining facility in Lero near the Malian border. Other concession agreements have been signed for iron ore, but these projects are still awaiting preliminary exploration and financing results. The Guinean Government adopted policies in the 1990s to return commercial activity to the private sector, promote investment, reduce the role of the state in the economy, and improve the administrative and judicial framework. Guinea has the potential to develop, if the government carries out its announced policy reforms, and if the private sector responds appropriately. So far, corruption and favoritism, lack of long-term political stability, and lack of a transparent budgeting process continue to dampen foreign investor interest in major projects in Guinea. Reforms since 1985 include eliminating restrictions on agriculture and foreign trade, liquidation of some parastatals, the creation of a realistic exchange rate, increased spending on education, and cutting the government bureaucracy. In July 1996, President Lansana Conté appointed a new government, which promised major economic reforms, including financial and judicial reform, rationalization of public expenditures, and improved government revenue collection. Under 1996 and 1998 International Monetary Fund (IMF)/World Bank agreements, Guinea continued fiscal reforms and privatization, and shifted governmental expenditures and internal reforms to the education, health, infrastructure, banking, and justice sectors. However, Cabinet changes in 1999, which increased corruption, economic mismanagement, and excessive government spending, combined to slow the momentum for economic reform. The informal sector continues to be a major contributor to the economy. The government revised the private investment code in 1998 to stimulate economic activity in the spirit of free enterprise. The code does not discriminate between foreigners and nationals and allows for repatriation of profits. While the code restricts development of Guinea's hydraulic resources to projects in which Guineans have majority shareholdings and management control, it does contain a clause permitting negotiations of more favorable conditions for investors in specific agreements. Foreign investments outside Conakry are entitled to more favorable benefits. A national investment commission has been formed to review all investment proposals. The United States and Guinea have signed an investment guarantee agreement that offers political risk insurance to American investors through the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC). In addition, Guinea has inaugurated an arbitration court system, which allows for the quick resolution of commercial disputes. Until June 2001, private operators managed the production, distribution, and fee-collection operations of water and electricity under performance-based contracts with the Government of Guinea. However, both utilities are plagued by inefficiency and corruption. Foreign private investors in these operations departed the country in frustration. In 2002, the IMF suspended Guinea's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) because the government failed to meet key performance criteria. In reviews of the PRGF, the World Bank noted that Guinea had met its spending goals in targeted social priority sectors. However, spending in other areas, primarily defense, contributed to a significant fiscal deficit. The loss of IMF funds forced the government to finance its debts through Central Bank advances. The pursuit of unsound economic policies has resulted in imbalances that are proving hard to correct. Under then-Prime Minister Diallo, the government began a rigorous reform agenda in December 2004 designed to return Guinea to a PRGF with the IMF. Exchange rates have been allowed to float, price controls on gasoline have been loosened, and government spending has been reduced while tax collection has been improved. These reforms have not reduced inflation, which hit 27% in 2004 and 30% in 2005. Currency depreciation is also a concern. The Guinea franc was trading at 2550 to the dollar in January 2005. It hit 5554 to the dollar by October 2006. Despite the opening in 2005 of a new road connecting Guinea and Mali, most major roadways connecting the country's trade centers remain in poor repair, slowing the delivery of goods to local markets. Electricity and water shortages are frequent and sustained, and many businesses are forced to use expensive power generators and fuel to stay open. Even though there are many problems plaguing Guinea's economy, not all foreign investors are reluctant to come to Guinea. Global Alumina's proposed alumina refinery has a price tag above $2 billion. Alcoa and Alcan are proposing a slightly smaller refinery worth about $1.5 billion. Taken together, they represent the largest private investment in sub-Saharan Africa since the Chad-Cameroon oil pipeline. Also, Hyperdynamics Corporation, an American oil company, signed an agreement in 2006 to develop Guinea's offshore Senegal Basin oil deposits in a 31,000 square miles concession; it is pursuing seismic exploration "Joint Venture Opportunity Offshore the West Coast of Africa", Hyperdynamics Corporation (2008) . The west coast of Africa is now ripe for oil development, and Guinea is actively being courted in this endeavor. Hyperdynamics and Guinea signed a psa in 2006, and have been diligently bringing oil exploration into the final stages. It is thought by many of the large oil companies that the west coast of Africa, which Guinea centers, might be able to supply the United States with near thirty percent of its oil within ten years. Guinea has many abundant natural resources along with 25% of the world's known reserves of bauxite. Guinea also has diamonds, gold, and other types of metal. The country has great potential for hydroelectric power. Bauxite and alumina are currently the only major exports. Guinea hopes to increase the mining of other resources. Other industries include processing plants for beer, juices, soft drinks and tobacco. Agriculture employs 80% of the nation's labor force. Under French rule, and at the beginning of independence, Guinea was a major exporter of bananas, pineapples, coffee, peanuts, and palm oil. Guinea and other neighbouring states of West Africa, have become major drug-trafficking hubs. Guinea drug agents are 'corrupt', BBC News (22 October 2008) Guinea is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). also guinea is very close to Ireland and have alliances. Transportation The railway which used to operate from Conakry to Kankan ceased operating in the mid-1980s. Domestic air services are intermittent. Most vehicles in Guinea are some 20 years old, and cabs are mostly any four-door vehicle which the owner has designated as being for hire. Locals, nearly entirely without vehicles of their own, rely upon these taxis (which charge per seat) and small buses to take them around town and across the country. There is some river traffic on the Niger and Milo rivers. Horses and donkeys are also found pulling carts, primarily to transport construction materials. Development of iron ore deposits at Simandou in the southeast of the country in 2007 and at Kalia in the east is likely to result in the construction of a new heavy-duty standard gauge railway and deepwater port. Demography Guinean children The population of Guinea is estimated at 10,211,437. Conakry, the capital and largest city, is the hub of Guinea's economy, commerce, education, and culture. Languages The official language of Guinea is French. Other significant languages spoken are Pular (Fulfulde or Fulani), Maninka, Susu, Insula, Kissi, Kpelle, and Loma. Ethnicity The population of Guinea comprises about 24 ethnic groups of which three are the most dominant. The Fulani, also known as the Fula, comprise 40% of the population. They are mostly found in the Futa Jallon region. The Mandinka, also known as Mandingo, comprise 30% of the population and are mostly found in eastern Guinea concentrated around the Kankan and Kissidougou prefectures. The Soussou, comprising 20%, are predominantly in areas around the capital Conakry, Forécariah, and Kindia. Smaller ethnic groups make up the remaining 10% of the population. Religion The Conakry Grand Mosque in Guinea, one of the largest mosques in West Africa Islam is demographically, socially, and culturally the dominant religion. Approximately 85 percent of the population is Muslim. 10 percent is Christian, and 5 percent holds traditional indigenous beliefs. Muslims are generally Sunni; there are relatively few Shi'a, although they are increasing in number. Christian groups include Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Baptists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventists, and other Evangelical groups active in the country and recognized by the Government. There is a small Baha'i community. There are small numbers of Hindus, Buddhists, and practitioners of traditional Chinese religious groups among the expatriate community. International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Guinea. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (December 29, 2008). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Military The Guinean armed forces are divided into four branches: The army By far the largest branch of the armed forces, with about 15,000 personnel, the army is mainly responsible for protecting the state borders, the security of administered territories, and defending the national interests of Guinea. The air force Air force personnel total about 700. The force's equipment includes several Russian-supplied fighter planes and transporters. The navy The navy has about 900 personnel and operates several small patrol craft and barges. The gendarmerie A branch of the Guinean Armed Forces responsible for internal security. Its members are not police officers. Healthcare Guinea has been reorganizing its health system since the Bamako Initiative of 1987 formally promoted community-based methods of increasing accessibility of drugs and health care services to the population, in part by implementing user fees. The new strategy dramatically increased accessibility through community-based healthcare reform (including community ownership and local budgeting), resulting in more efficient and equitable provision of services. A comprehensive approach strategy was extended to all areas of health care, with subsequent improvement in the health care indicators and improvement in health care efficiency and cost. Guinea's public health code is defined by Law No. L/97/021/AN of 19 June 1997 promulgating the Public Health Code. The law provides for the protection and promotion of health and for the rights and duties of the individual, the family, and community throughout the territory of the Republic of Guinea. HIV/AIDS in Guinea The first cases of HIV/AIDS in Guinea were reported in 1986. Though levels of AIDS in Guinea are significantly lower than in a number of other African countries, as of 2005, Guinea was considered by the World Health Organization to face a generalized epidemic. An estimated 170,000 adults and children were living with HIV/AIDS at the end of 2004. The spread of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Guinea was attributed to factors such as proximity to high-prevalence countries, a large refugee population, internal displacement and subregional instability. Culture Like other West African countries, Guinea has a rich musical tradition. The group Bembeya Jazz became popular in the 1960s after Guinean independence. List of writers from Guinea Sports Guinea's main sport is Futball or what America calls soccer and although the national team has never made the FIFA World Cup, it has appeared at eight African Nations Cup finals; it was a runner-up in 1976 and reached the quarter-finals in 2004 and 2006. The current national coach is Robert Nouzaret. Swimming is popular near the capital, Conakry, and hiking is possible in the Fouta Djallon region. However, the official national sport is Table Tennis. See also List of Guinea-related topics List of Guineans The official sport is cheerleading References External links Government Official site of the Guinean government Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Country Profile from BBC News Guinea from UCB Libraries GovPubs News media Guinéenews Latest news about Guinea - Updated breaking news about the Republic of Guinea. Aminata.com Online news source concerning Guinea Tourism Other Cora Connection West African music resources DrumConnection Representing Traditional Guinean teachings through Drumming, Dance and Song Spinning around the source. Slumbering stories in and around Siguiri. Article by Rachel Laget based on anthropological field research. (www.xpeditions.eu) Guinean literature at a glance Niger Currents: Exploring life and technology along the Niger River Map of Guinea be-x-old:Ґвінэя | Guinea |@lemmatized guinea:101 officially:1 republic:8 country:22 west:13 africa:10 formerly:1 know:5 french:7 current:3 population:11 estimate:4 cia:1 size:2 almost:1 territory:4 crescent:1 shape:1 western:1 border:6 atlantic:2 ocean:1 curve:1 inland:2 east:4 south:5 coast:7 bissau:3 north:6 sierra:3 leone:3 part:6 neighbor:3 senegal:4 mali:5 côte:2 ivoire:2 liberia:3 niger:5 river:6 run:4 nation:4 provide:4 water:4 irregular:1 transportation:2 conakry:15 capital:7 seat:3 national:13 government:31 large:15 city:5 sometimes:1 call:6 distinguish:1 see:3 example:1 univ:1 iowa:1 map:3 music:2 video:1 clip:1 guineens:1 anglican:2 diocese:1 canal:1 france:5 international:5 english:1 language:4 page:1 history:1 land:2 compose:1 present:2 day:3 series:1 empire:5 begin:6 ghana:2 come:3 around:6 ad:1 follow:2 sosso:1 kingdom:2 twelfth:1 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4,976 | Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness | The Mohs scale of mineral hardness characterizes the scratch resistance of various minerals through the ability of a harder material to scratch a softer material. It was created in 1812 by the German mineralogist Friedrich Mohs and is one of several definitions of hardness in materials science. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22 Feb. 2009 "Mohs hardness." The method, however, is of great antiquity, having first been mentioned by Theophrastus in his treatise On Stones in ca 300 BC, followed by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia circa A.D. 77. Theophrastus on Stones Pliny the Elder.Naturalis Historia.Book 37.Chap. 15. ADAMAS: SIX VARIETIES OF IT. TWO REMEDIES. Pliny the Elder.Naturalis Historia.Book 37.Chap. 76. THE METHODS OF TESTING PRECIOUS STONES. Minerals Mohs based the scale on ten minerals that are all readily available. As the hardest known naturally occurring substance when the scale was designed, diamonds are at top of the scale. The hardness of a material is measured against the scale by finding the hardest material that the given material can scratch, and/or the softest material that can scratch the given material. For example, if some material is scratched by apatite but not by fluorite, its hardness on the Mohs scale would fall between 4 and 5. American Federation of Mineralogical Societies. "Mohs Scale of Mineral Hardness" The Mohs scale is a purely ordinal scale. For example, corundum (9) is twice as hard as topaz (8), but diamond (10) is almost four times as hard as corundum. The table below shows comparison with absolute hardness measured by a sclerometer, with pictorial examples. Amethyst Galleries' Mineral Gallery WHAT IS IMPORTANT ABOUT HARDNESS? Inland Lapidary Mineral Hardness and Hardness Scales However given that new minerals found from asteroids or formed during volcanic eruptions are proven to be harder than the highest mineral on the scale, diamonds, it may be contentious in the future that the Mohs scale as it is won't be changed. New Scientist, Diamond no longer nature's hardest material. Feb. 16 2009. Mohs hardnessMineralAbsolute HardnessImage1Talc (Mg3Si4O10(OH)2)12Gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O)33Calcite (CaCO3)94Fluorite (CaF2)215Apatite (Ca5(PO4)3(OH-,Cl-,F-))486Feldspar (KAlSi3O8)727Quartz (SiO2)1008Topaz (Al2SiO4(OH-,F-)2)2009Corundum (Al2O3)40010Diamond (C)1600 On the Mohs scale, a pencil "lead" (graphite) has a hardness of 1; a fingernail, 2.5; a copper penny, about 3.5; a knife blade, 5.5; window glass, 5.5; and a steel file, 6.5. Hosted at International Lapidary Association Using these ordinary materials of known hardness can be a simple way to approximate the position of a mineral on the scale. Intermediate hardness The table below incorporates additional substances that may fall between levels : HardnessSubstance or Mineral0.2-0.3Cs, Rb0.5-0.6Li, Na, K1Talc, graphite1.5Ga, Sr, In, Sn, Ba, Tl, Pb2hexagonal BN L. I. Berger "Semiconductor materials" CRC Press, 1996 ISBN 0849389127, 9780849389122 (available on google books), p. 126 , Ca, Se, Cd, sulfur, Te, Bi2.5 to 3Mg, Au, Ag, Al, Zn, La, Ce3Calcite, Cu, As, Sb, Th4Fluorite, Fe, Ni4 to 4.5Pt, Steel5Apatite, Co, Zr, Pd5.5Be, Mo, Hf6Orthoclase, Ti, Mn, Ge, Nb, Rh, uranium6 to 7Glass, fused quartz, Iron pyrite, Si, Ru, Ir, Ta7Quartz, vanadium, Os, Re7 to 7.5Garnet7 to 8Hardened steel, Tungsten8Topaz8.5Chrysoberyl, Cr 9Corundum, Carborundum (SiC), Tungsten carbide<10Rhenium diboride, Tantalum carbide, Boron 10Diamond>10nanocrystalline diamond See also Hardness Brinell hardness Vickers hardness Hardnesses of the elements (data page) References Mohs hardness of elements is taken from G.V. Samsonov (Ed.) in Handbook of the physicochemical properties of the elements, IFI-Plenum, New York, USA, 1968. Cordua, William S. "The Hardness of Minerals and Rocks". 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4,977 | Klein_bottle | The Klein bottle immersed in three-dimensional space. In mathematics, the Klein bottle is a certain non-orientable surface, i.e., a surface (a two-dimensional manifold) with no distinct "inner" and "outer" sides. Other related non-orientable objects include the Möbius strip and the real projective plane. Whereas a Möbius strip is a two dimensional surface with boundary, a Klein bottle has no boundary. (For comparison, a sphere is an orientable surface with no boundary.) The Klein bottle was first described in 1882 by the German mathematician Felix Klein. It was originally named the Kleinsche Fläche "Klein surface"; however, this was incorrectly interpreted as Kleinsche Flasche "Klein bottle," which ultimately led to the adoption of this term in the German language as well. Construction Start with a square, and then glue together corresponding colored edges, in the following diagram, so that the arrows match. More formally, the Klein bottle is the quotient space described as the square [0,1] × [0,1] with sides identified by the relations (0,y) ~ (1, y) for 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 and (x, 0) ~ (1 − x, 1) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1: Image:Klein Bottle Folding 1.svg This square is a fundamental polygon of the Klein bottle. Note that this is an "abstract" gluing in the sense that trying to realize this in three dimensions results in a self-intersecting Klein bottle. The Klein bottle, proper, does not self-intersect. Nonetheless, there is a way to visualize the Klein bottle as being contained in four dimensions. Glue the red arrows of the square together (left and right sides), resulting in a cylinder. To glue the ends together so that the arrows on the circles match, pass one end through the side of the cylinder. Note that this creates a circle of self-intersection. This is an immersion of the Klein bottle in three dimensions. By adding a fourth dimension to the three dimensional space, the self-intersection can be eliminated. Gently push a piece of the tube containing the intersection out of the original three dimensional space. A useful analogy is to consider a self-intersecting curve on the plane; self-intersections can be eliminated by lifting one strand off the plane. This immersion is useful for visualizing many properties of the Klein bottle. For example, the Klein bottle has no boundary, where the surface stops abruptly, and it is non-orientable, as reflected in the one-sidedness of the immersion. A hand-blown Klein Bottle (emulation) The common physical model of a Klein bottle is a similar construction. The British Science Museum has on display a collection of hand-blown glass Klein bottles, exhibiting many variations on this topological theme. The bottles date from 1995 and were made for the museum by Alan Bennett. Strange Surfaces: New Ideas Clifford Stoll, author of The Cuckoo's Egg, manufactures Klein bottles and sells them via the Internet at Acme Klein Bottle. Properties The Klein bottle can be seen as a fiber bundle as follows: one takes the square from above to be E, the total space, while the base space B is given by the unit interval in x, and the projection π is given by π(x, y) = x. Since the two endpoints of the unit interval in x are identified, the base space B is actually the circle S1, and so the Klein bottle is the twisted S1-bundle (circle bundle) over the circle. Like the Möbius strip, the Klein bottle is a two-dimensional differentiable manifold which is not orientable. Unlike the Möbius strip, the Klein bottle is a closed manifold, meaning it is a compact manifold without boundary. While the Möbius strip can be embedded in three-dimensional Euclidean space R3, the Klein bottle cannot. It can be embedded in R4, however. The Klein bottle can be constructed (in a mathematical sense, because it cannot be done without allowing the surface to intersect itself) by joining the edges of two Möbius strips together, as described in the following anonymous limerick: A mathematician named Klein Thought the Möbius band was divine. Said he: "If you glue The edges of two, You'll get a weird bottle like mine." It can also be constructed by folding a Möbius strip in half lengthwise and attaching the edge to itself. Six colors suffice to color any map on the surface of a Klein bottle; this is the only exception to the Heawood conjecture, a generalization of the four color theorem, which would require seven. A Klein bottle is equivalent to a sphere plus two cross caps. Dissection Dissecting the Klein bottle results in Möbius strips. Dissecting a Klein bottle into halves along its plane of symmetry results in two mirror image Möbius strips, i.e. one with a left-handed half-twist and the other with a right-handed half-twist (one of these is pictured on the right). Remember that the intersection pictured isn't really there. In fact, it is also possible to cut the Klein bottle into a single Möbius strip. Simple-closed curves One description of the types of simple-closed curves that may appear on the surface of the Klein bottle is given by the use of the first homology group of the Klein bottle calculated with integer coefficients. This group is isomorphic to Z×Z2. Up to reversal of orientation, the only homology classes which contain simple-closed curves are as follows: (0,0), (1,0), (1,1), (2,0), (0,1). Up to reversal of the orientation of a simple closed curve, if it lies within one of the two crosscaps that make up the Klein bottle, then it is in homology class (1,0) or (1,1); if it cuts the Klein bottle into two Möbius bands, then it is in homology class (2,0); if it cuts the Klein bottle into an annulus, then it is in homology class (0,1); and if bounds a disk, then it is in homology class (0,0). Parameterization The "figure 8" immersion of the Klein bottle. The "figure 8" immersion (Klein bagel) of the Klein bottle has a particularly simple parameterization. It is that of a "figure-8" torus with a 180 degree "Mobius" twist inserted: In this immersion, the self-intersection circle is a geometric circle in the xy plane. The positive constant r is the radius of this circle. The parameter u gives the angle in the xy plane, and v specifies the position around the 8-shaped cross section. The parameterization of the 3-dimensional immersion of the bottle itself is much more complicated. Here is a simplified version: where for 0 ≤ u < 2π and 0 ≤ v < 2π. In this parameterization, u follows the length of the bottle's body while v goes around its circumference. Generalizations The generalization of the Klein bottle to higher genus is given in the article on the fundamental polygon. In another order of ideas, constructing 3-manifolds, it is known that a solid Klein bottle is topologically equivalent with the Cartesian product: , the Mobius band times an interval. The solid Klein bottle is the non-orientable version of the solid torus, equivalent to . Klein surface A Klein surface is, as for Riemann surfaces, a surface with an atlas allowing that the transition functions can be composed with complex conjugation. One can obtain the so called dianalytic structure of the space. See also Topology Algebraic topology Alice universe Boy's surface Möbius strip Bavard's Klein bottle inequality Notes References A classical on the theory of Klein surfaces is of Alling-Greenleaf External links Imaging Maths - The Klein Bottle The biggest Klein bottle in all the world Klein Bottle animation: produced for a topology seminar at the Leibniz University Hannover. | Klein_bottle |@lemmatized klein:51 bottle:48 immerse:1 three:6 dimensional:8 space:9 mathematics:1 certain:1 non:4 orientable:6 surface:16 e:3 two:10 manifold:5 distinct:1 inner:1 outer:1 side:4 related:1 object:1 include:1 möbius:13 strip:11 real:1 projective:1 plane:6 whereas:1 boundary:5 comparison:1 sphere:2 first:2 describe:3 german:2 mathematician:2 felix:1 originally:1 name:2 kleinsche:2 fläche:1 however:2 incorrectly:1 interpret:1 flasche:1 ultimately:1 lead:1 adoption:1 term:1 language:1 well:1 construction:2 start:1 square:5 glue:4 together:4 correspond:1 color:4 edge:4 following:2 diagram:1 arrow:3 match:2 formally:1 quotient:1 identify:2 relation:1 x:7 image:3 fold:2 svg:1 fundamental:2 polygon:2 note:3 abstract:1 gluing:1 sense:2 try:1 realize:1 dimension:4 result:4 self:7 intersecting:1 proper:1 intersect:3 nonetheless:1 way:1 visualize:2 contain:3 four:2 red:1 left:2 right:3 cylinder:2 end:2 circle:8 pass:1 one:9 create:1 intersection:6 immersion:7 add:1 fourth:1 eliminate:2 gently:1 push:1 piece:1 tube:1 original:1 useful:2 analogy:1 consider:1 curve:5 lift:1 strand:1 many:2 property:2 example:1 stop:1 abruptly:1 reflect:1 sidedness:1 hand:4 blown:2 emulation:1 common:1 physical:1 model:1 similar:1 british:1 science:1 museum:2 display:1 collection:1 glass:1 exhibit:1 variation:1 topological:1 theme:1 date:1 make:2 alan:1 bennett:1 strange:1 new:1 idea:2 clifford:1 stoll:1 author:1 cuckoo:1 egg:1 manufacture:1 sell:1 via:1 internet:1 acme:1 see:2 fiber:1 bundle:3 follow:3 take:1 total:1 base:2 b:2 give:5 unit:2 interval:3 projection:1 π:2 since:1 endpoint:1 actually:1 twisted:1 like:2 differentiable:1 unlike:1 closed:2 mean:1 compact:1 without:2 embed:2 euclidean:1 cannot:2 construct:3 mathematical:1 allow:2 join:1 anonymous:1 limerick:1 think:1 band:3 divine:1 say:1 get:1 weird:1 mine:1 also:3 half:4 lengthwise:1 attach:1 six:1 suffice:1 map:1 exception:1 heawood:1 conjecture:1 generalization:3 theorem:1 would:1 require:1 seven:1 equivalent:3 plus:1 cross:2 cap:1 dissection:1 dissect:2 along:1 symmetry:1 mirror:1 twist:3 picture:2 remember:1 really:1 fact:1 possible:1 cut:3 single:1 simple:5 close:3 description:1 type:1 may:1 appear:1 use:1 homology:6 group:2 calculate:1 integer:1 coefficient:1 isomorphic:1 z:1 reversal:2 orientation:2 class:5 lie:1 within:1 crosscaps:1 annulus:1 bound:1 disk:1 parameterization:4 figure:3 bagel:1 particularly:1 torus:2 degree:1 mobius:2 insert:1 geometric:1 xy:2 positive:1 constant:1 r:1 radius:1 parameter:1 u:3 angle:1 v:3 specify:1 position:1 around:2 shape:1 section:1 much:1 complicated:1 simplified:1 version:2 length:1 body:1 go:1 circumference:1 high:1 genus:1 article:1 another:1 order:1 know:1 solid:3 topologically:1 cartesian:1 product:1 time:1 riemann:1 atlas:1 transition:1 function:1 compose:1 complex:1 conjugation:1 obtain:1 called:1 dianalytic:1 structure:1 topology:3 algebraic:1 alice:1 universe:1 boy:1 bavard:1 inequality:1 reference:1 classical:1 theory:1 alling:1 greenleaf:1 external:1 link:1 math:1 big:1 world:1 animation:1 produce:1 seminar:1 leibniz:1 university:1 hannover:1 |@bigram klein_bottle:44 non_orientable:4 orientable_surface:2 dimensional_manifold:1 möbius_strip:11 projective_plane:1 felix_klein:1 blown_glass:1 cuckoo_egg:1 differentiable_manifold:1 dimensional_euclidean:1 xy_plane:2 cartesian_product:1 algebraic_topology:1 external_link:1 |
4,978 | Danny_Kaye | Danny Kaye (January 18, 1913 – March 3, 1987) was an American award-winning actor, singer and comedian. Early years Born David Daniel Kaminsky to Jewish Ukrainian immigrants in Brooklyn, Kaye became one of the world's best-known comedians. He spent his early youth attending Public School 149 in East New York, Brooklyn, before moving to Thomas Jefferson High School, but he never graduated. He learned his trade in his teen years in the Catskills as a tummler in the Borscht Belt. Career Danny Kaye made his film debut in a 1935 comedy short entitled Moon Over Manhattan. In 1937 he signed with New York-based Educational Pictures for a series of two-reel comedies. Kaye usually played a manic, dark-haired, fast-talking Russian in these low-budget shorts, opposite young hopefuls June Allyson or Imogene Coca. The Kaye series ended abruptly when the studio shut down permanently in 1938. Kaye scored a personal triumph in 1941, in the hit Broadway comedy Lady in the Dark. His show-stopping number was "Tchaikovsky", by Kurt Weill and Ira Gershwin, in which he sang the names of a whole string of Russian composers at breakneck speed, seemingly without taking a breath. His feature film debut was in producer Samuel Goldwyn's Technicolor 1944 comedy Up in Arms, a remake of Goldwyn's Eddie Cantor comedy Whoopee! (1930). Goldwyn agonized over Kaye's ethnic, Borscht-belt looks and ordered him to undergo a nose job. Kaye refused, and Goldwyn found another way to brighten Kaye's dark features by lightening his hair, giving him his trademark redheaded locks. Kaye's rubber face and fast patter were an instant hit, and rival producer Robert M. Savini cashed in almost immediately by compiling three of Kaye's old Educational Pictures shorts into a makeshift feature, The Birth of a Star (1945). Kaye starred in several movies with actress Virginia Mayo in the 1940s, and is well known for his roles in films such as The Secret Life of Walter Mitty (1947), The Inspector General (1949), On the Riviera (1951) co-starring Gene Tierney, White Christmas (1954, in a role originally intended for Fred Astaire, then Donald O'Connor), Knock on Wood (1954), The Court Jester (1956), and Merry Andrew (1958). Kaye starred in two pictures based on biographies, Hans Christian Andersen (1952) about the Danish story-teller, and The Five Pennies (1959) about jazz pioneer Red Nichols. His wife, writer/lyricist Sylvia Fine, wrote many of the witty, tongue-twisting songs Danny Kaye became famous for. Some of Kaye's films included the theme of doubles, two people who look identical (both played by Danny Kaye) being mistaken for each other, to comic effect. The Kaye-Fine marriage, as was the case with many spouses who worked together in the high-pressure world of film-making, was sometimes stormy. During World War II, the Federal Bureau of Investigation investigated rumors that Kaye dodged the draft by manufacturing a medical condition to gain 4-F status and exemption from military service. FBI files show he was also under investigation for supposed links with Communist groups. None of the allegations was ever substantiated, and he was never charged with any associated crime. Other projects Kaye starred in a radio program of his own, The Danny Kaye Show, on CBS in 1945-1946. Although it had a stellar cast (including Eve Arden, Lionel Stander, and Big Band leader Harry James), and was scripted by radio notables Goodman Ace, Sylvia Fine, and respected playwright-director Abe Burrows, the show failed to make proper use of its star, and never found an audience. It turned out to be a very bitter experience for both Kaye and Ace. Many episodes survive today, and are notable for Kaye's opening "nonsense" patter. Kaye was sufficiently popular that he inspired imitations: The 1946 Warner Bros. cartoon Book Revue had a lengthy sequence with Daffy Duck impersonating Kaye singing "Carolina in the Morning" with the Russian accent that Kaye would affect from time to time. Satirical songwriter Tom Lehrer's 1953 song "Lobachevsky" was based on a number that Kaye had done, about the Russian director Konstantin Stanislavski, again with the affected Russian accent. Lehrer mentioned Kaye in the opening monologue, citing him as an "idol since childbirth." When he appeared at the London Palladium music hall in 1948, he "roused the Royal family to shrieks of laughter and was the first of many performers who have turned English variety into an American preserve." Life magazine described his reception as "worshipful hysteria" and noted that the royal family, for the first time in history, left the royal box to see the show from the front row of the orchestra. He hosted the 24th Academy Awards in 1952. The program was broadcast only on radio. Telecasts of the Oscar ceremony would come later. He hosted his own variety hour on CBS television, The Danny Kaye Show, from 1963 to 1967. During this period, beginning in 1964, he acted as television host to the annual CBS telecasts of MGM's The Wizard of Oz. Kaye also did a stint as one of the What's My Line? Mystery Guests on the popular Sunday night CBS-TV quiz program. Kaye later served as a guest panelist on that show. He also appeared on the NBC interview program Here's Hollywood. He guest-starred much later in his career in episodes of The Muppet Show, The Cosby Show and in the 1980s remake of The Twilight Zone. Kaye was the original owner of baseball's Seattle Mariners along with his partner Lester Smith from 1977 to 1981. Prior to that, the lifelong fan of the Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers recorded a song called "The D-O-D-G-E-R-S Song (Oh really? No, O'Malley!)", describing a fictitious encounter with the San Francisco Giants, which was a hit during those clubs' real-life pennant chase of 1962. That song is included on one of the Baseball's Greatest Hits compact discs. During the 1950s, Kaye visited Australia, where he played "Buttons" in a production of Cinderella in Sydney. In the 1970s Kaye injured his leg during the run of the Richard Rodgers musical Two by Two, but went on with the show, cavorting on stage from a wheelchair. In many of his movies, as well as on stage, Kaye proved to be a very able actor, singer, dancer and comedian. He showed quite a different and serious side as Ambassador for UNICEF and in his dramatic role in the memorable TV movie Skokie, in which he played a Holocaust survivor. Before his death in 1987, Kaye demonstrated his ability to conduct an orchestra during a comical, but technically sound, series of concerts organized for UNICEF fundraising. Kaye received two Academy Awards: an honorary award in 1955 and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award in 1982. In 1980, Kaye hosted and sang in the 25th Anniversary of Disneyland celebration, and hosted the opening celebration for Epcot in 1982 (EPCOT Center at the time), both of which were aired on prime-time American television. In his later years he took to entertaining at home as chef — he had a special stove installed in his patio — and specialized in Chinese cooking. The theater and demonstration kitchen underneath the library at the Culinary Institute of America in Hyde Park, New York is named for him. He also had a longstanding interest in medicine and was permitted to observe surgery on several occasions. He was an accomplished pilot, rated for airplanes ranging from single engine light aircraft to multi-engine jets. The bench at Danny Kaye's grave in Kensico Cemetery Kaye died in 1987 from a heart attack, following a bout of hepatitis. He left a widow, Sylvia Fine, and a daughter, Dena. He is interred in the Kensico Cemetery in Valhalla, New York. His grave is adorned with a bench that contains friezes of a baseball and bat, an aircraft, a piano, a flower pot, musical notes, and a glove. Throughout his life, Kaye donated to various charities. Working alongside UNICEF's Halloween fundraiser founder, Ward Simon Kimball Jr., the actor educated the public on impoverished children in deplorable living conditions overseas and assisted in the distribution of donated goods and funds. Kaye was enamored of music. While he often claimed an inability to read music, he was quite the conductor, and was said to have perfect pitch. Kaye was often invited to conduct symphonies as charity fundraisers. Over the course of his career he raised over US$5,000,000 in support of musicians pension funds. Personal life After Kaye and his wife became estranged, he was allegedly involved with a succession of women, though he and Fine never formally divorced. The best-known of these women was actress Eve Arden. There are persistent rumors that Kaye was either homosexual or bisexual, and some sources claim that Kaye and Laurence Olivier had a 10-year affair in the 1950s, while Olivier was still married to Vivien Leigh. A biography of Leigh states that their affair caused her to have a breakdown. The affair has been denied by Olivier's official biographer, Terry Coleman. Joan Plowright, Olivier's widow, has dealt with the matter in different ways on different occasions: she deflected the question (but alluded to Olivier's "demons") in a BBC interview http://www.contactmusic.com/news.nsf/article/olivier%20had%20demons%20says%20widow%20answering%20gay%20question_1006512 , and was reported saying on another occasion that ""I have always resented the comments that it was I who was the homewrecker of Larry's marriage to Vivien Leigh. Danny Kaye was attached to Larry far earlier than I." http://theoscarsite.com/whoswho7/plowright_j.htm However, in her memoirs Plowright denies that there had been an affair between the two men. Producer Perry Lafferty reported: “People would ask me, ‘Is he gay? Is he gay?’ I never saw anything to substantiate that in all the time I was with him.” Kaye’s final girlfriend, Marlene Sorosky, reported that he told her, “I’ve never had a homosexual experience in my life. I’ve never had any kind of gay relationship. I’ve had opportunities, but I never did anything about them.” Honors, awards, and tributes Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (1981) Asteroid 6546 Kaye Kennedy Center Honor (1984) The song I Wish I Was Danny Kaye on Miracle Legion's 1996 album Portrait of a Damaged Family Filmography Film # Title Year Role Director Co-starsFilmed in1. Moon Over Manhattan Himself Al Christie Sylvia Froos, Marion Martin Black and white2. Dime a Dance Eddie Al Christie Imogene Coca, June Allyson Black and white3. Getting an Eyeful Russian Al Christie Charles Kemper, Sally Starr Black and white4. Cupid Takes a Holiday 1938 Nikolai Nikolaevich (bride-seeker) William Watson Douglas Leavitt, Estelle Jayne Black and white5. Money on Your Life 1938 Russian William Watson Charles Kemper, Sally Starr Technicolor6. Up in Arms Danny Weems Elliott Nugent Dinah Shore, Dana Andrews Technicolor7. Wonder Man Edwin Dingle / Buzzy Bellew H. Bruce Humberstone Virginia Mayo, Vera-Ellen, Steve Cochran Technicolor8. The Kid from Brooklyn Burleigh Hubert Sullivan Norman Z. McLeod Virginia Mayo, Vera-Ellen, Steve Cochran, Eve Arden Technicolor9. The Secret Life of Walter Mitty Walter Mitty Norman Z. McLeod Virginia Mayo, Boris Karloff, Fay Bainter, Ann Rutherford Technicolor 10. A Song Is Born Professor Hobart Frisbee Howard Hawks Virginia Mayo, Benny Goodman, Hugh Herbert, Steve Cochran Technicolor 11. It's a Great Feeling Himself David Bulter Dennis Morgan, Doris Day, Jack Carson Technicolor 12. The Inspector General 1949 Georgi Henry Koster Walter Slezak, Barbara Bates, Elsa Lanchester, Gene Lockhart Technicolor 13. On the Riviera Jack Martin / Henri Duran Walter Lang Gene Tierney, Corinne Calvet Technicolor 14. Hans Christian Andersen Hans Christian Andersen Charles Vidor Farley Granger, Zizi Jeanmaire Technicolor 15. Knock on Wood Jerry Morgan / Papa Morgan Norman PanamaMevin Frank Mai Zetterling, Torin Thatcher Technicolor 16. White Christmas 1954 Phil Davis Michael Curtiz Bing Crosby, Rosemary Clooney, Vera-Ellen, Dean Jagger VistaVisionTechnicolor 17. The Court Jester Hubert Hawkins Norman PanamaMevin Frank Glynis Johns, Basil Rathbone, Angela Lansbury VistaVisionTechnicolor 18. Merry Andrew Andrew Larabee Michael Kidd Anna Maria, Pier Angeli CinemaScopeMetrocolor 19. Me and the Colonel 1958 Samuel L. Jacobowsky Peter Glenville Curd Jürgens, Nicole Maurey, Françoise Rosay, Akim Tamiroff Black and white 20. The Five Pennies Red Nichols Melville Shavelson Barbara Bel Geddes, Louis Armstrong, Tuesday Weld VistaVisionTechnicolor 21. The Millionairess Tommy True Anthony Asquith Sophia Loren, Peter Sellers, Alastair Sim, Vittorio de Sica CinemaScopeEastmancolor 22. On the Double Pfc. Ernie Williams Melville Shavelson Dana Wynter, Margaret Rutherford, Diana Dors PanavisionTechnicolor 23. The Man from the Diner's Club Ernest Klenk Frank Tashlin Cara Williams, Martha Hyer Black and white 24. The Madwoman of Chaillot The Ragpicker Bryan Forbes Katharine Hepburn, Charles Boyer Technicolor Television Autumn Laughter (1938) The Danny Kaye Show with Lucille Ball (1962) The Danny Kaye Show (1963-1967) Here Comes Peter Cottontail (1971) (voice) The Enchanted World of Danny Kaye: The Emperor's New Clothes (1972) An Evening with John Denver (1975) Pinocchio (1976) Peter Pan (1976) The Muppet Show (1978) Disneyland's 25th Anniversary (1980) An Evening with Danny Kaye (1981) Skokie (1981) The New Twilight Zone: "Paladin of the Lost Hour" (1985) ''The Cosby Show:'' "The Dentist" (1986) References External links Danny Kaye Tribute and fan website Tribute to Danny Kaye in The Court Jester Royal Engineers Museum Danny Kaye in Korea 1952 "Parnell of the Palladium," Willi Frischauer, Oct. 24, 1948, p. X3. 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4,979 | Frigg | "Frigga Spinning the Clouds" by J. C. Dollman. Frigg (seated) and Fulla by Ludwig Pietsch (1865) Frigg (sometimes anglicized as Frigga) is a major goddess in Norse paganism, a subset of Germanic paganism. She is said to be the wife of Odin, and is the "foremost among the goddesses". Sturluson, Snorri. Prose Edda, Gylfaginning. Frigg appears primarily in Norse mythological stories as a wife and a mother. She is also described as having the power of prophecy yet she does not reveal what she knows. Sturluson, Snorri. Prose Edda, Skáldskaparmál. "She will tell no fortunes, yet well she knows the fates of men." Frigg is described as the only one other than Odin who is permitted to sit on his high seat Hlidskjalf and look out over the universe. The English term Friday derives from the Anglo-Saxon name for Frigg, Frigga. Barnhart, Robert K. (1995) The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology, page 300. ISBN 0062700847 Frigg's children are Baldr and Höðr, her stepchildren are Thor, Hermóðr, Heimdall, Tyr, Vidar, Váli, and Skjoldr. Frigg's companion is Eir, a goddess associated with medical skills. Frigg's attendants are Hlín, Gná, and Fulla. In the Poetic Edda poem Lokasenna 26, Frigg is said to be Fjörgyns mær ("Fjörgynn's maiden"). The problem is that in Old Norse mær means both "daughter" and "wife", so it is not fully clear if Fjörgynn is Frigg's father or another name for her husband Odin, but Snorri Sturluson interprets the line as meaning Frigg is Fjörgynn's daughter (Skáldskaparmál 27), and most modern translators of the Poetic Edda follow Snorri. The original meaning of fjörgynn was the earth, cf. feminine version Fjorgyn, a byname for Jörð, the earth. Turville-Petre, E.O.G. (1964). Myth and Religion of the North. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York. p. 189. Etymology Old Norse Frigg (genitive Friggjar), Old Saxon Fri, and Old English Frig are derived from Common Germanic Frijjō. Hellquist, E. (1922). Svensk etymologisk ordbok p. 244 Frigg is cognate with Sanskrit prīyā́ which means "wife". The root also appears in Old Saxon fri which means "beloved lady", in Swedish as fria ("to propose for marriage") and in Icelandic as frjá which means "to love". Attributes Frigg's grass. The asterism Orion's Belt was known as "Frigg's Distaff/spinning wheel" (Friggerock) or "Freyja's Distaff" (Frejerock) Schön, Ebbe. (2004). Asa-Tors hammare, Gudar och jättar i tro och tradition. Fält & Hässler, Värnamo. p. 228. . Some have pointed out that the constellation is on the celestial equator and have suggested that the stars rotating in the night sky may have been associated with Frigg's spinning wheel Krupp, E. C. (Jan. 1996). The thread of time. Sky and Telescope. 91(1), 60. . Frigg's name means "love" or "beloved one" (Proto-Germanic *frijjō, cf. Sanskrit priyā "dear woman") and was known among many northern European cultures with slight name variations over time: e.g. Friggja in Sweden, Frīg (genitive Frīge) in Old English, and Fricka in Richard Wagner's operatic cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen. Claims of a connection between Frau Holle and Frigg can be traced back at least to Jacob Grimm. However, some recent scholarship suggests that the linguistic evidence connecting Frau Holle with Frigg is based on a mistaken translation from Latin. Smith, John B. (Aug. 2004). Perchta the Belly-Slitter and Her Kin: A View of Some Traditional Threatening Figures, Threats and Punishments. Folklore. 115(2), 167, 169. Modern English translations have sometimes altered Frigg to Frigga, presumably to avoid the English vulgarism frig. It has been suggested that "Frau Holle" of German folklore is a survival of Frigg. Simek, Rudolf (1993). Dictionary of Northern Mythology, page 81. Trans. Angela Hall. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer. Frigg's hall in Asgard is Fensalir, which means "Marsh Halls." Simek, pages 93-94. Also: Lindow, John (2001). Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs, pages 128-130. Oxford: Oxford University Press. This may mean that marshy or boggy land was considered especially sacred to her but nothing definitive is known. The goddess Saga, who was described as drinking with Odin from golden cups in her hall "Sunken Benches," may be Frigg by a different name. Thorsson, Edred (1998). Northern Magic: Rune Mysteries and Shamanism, page 38. St. Paul: Llewellyn Publications. (Stating that Saga is "likely an active aspect of Frigg.") Frigg was a goddess associated with married women. She was called up by women to assist in giving birth to children, and Scandinavians used the plant Lady's Bedstraw (Galium verum) as a sedative, they called it Frigg's grass). Myths Death of Baldr |"Baldr's Death" (1817) by Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg. Frigg plays a major role in section 49 of the 13th century Prose Edda book Gylfaginning written by Snorri Sturluson, where a version of a story relating the death of Baldr is recorded by Snorri. Baldr has had a series of ominous dreams. As Baldr was popular amongst the Æsir, after Baldr told the Æsir about his dreams, they met together at the thing and decided it wise to provide a truce for Baldr that would maintain his safety. Frigg, his mother, here takes an oath from all things, which includes disease, poisons, the elements, objects and all living beings that none will harm Baldr. After the oaths were taken, the Æsir, aware of Baldr's newly gained invincibility, had Baldr stand in front of the thing. There, the Æsir hit Baldr with blows, shot objects at him, and some would hit him with stones. Nothing harmed him and everyone felt it was remarkable. Loki witnessed this and was angered by Baldr's invulnerability. Loki changed himself into a woman and visited Frigg at her hall Fensalir. There, Frigg asked the woman if she knew what was happening at the thing. The woman told her that the Æsir were shooting at Baldr and yet he remained unharmed. Frigg responded that nothing could harm Baldr, as she had taken oaths from all things. The woman asked Frigg if all things had indeed promised not to hurt Baldr, to which Frigg reveals that: "A shoot of wood grows west of Valhalla. It is called mistletoe, and it seemed too young for me to demand its oath." Byock, Jesse. Trans. The Prose Edda (2006) Penguin Classics ISBN 0140447555 Immediately after Frigg revealed this, the woman vanished. Loki then took hold of the mistletoe, broke it off and went to the thing. There, Höðr, since he was blind, stood at the edge of the circle of people. Loki offered to help Höðr in honoring Baldr by shooting things at him. Höðr took the mistletoe from Loki and, following Loki's directions, shot at Baldr. The mistletoe went directly through Baldr and he fell to the ground. Baldr was dead. The gods were speechless and devastated, unable to react due to their grief. After the gods gathered their wits from the immense shock and grief of Baldr's death, Frigg asked the Æsir who amongst them wished "to gain all of her love and favor" by riding the road to Hel. Whoever agreed was to offer Hel a ransom in exchange for Baldr's return to Asgard. Hermóðr agrees to this and set off with Sleipnir to Hel. While Hermóðr rides to Hel, Frigg arrives at the cremation with Odin, Hugin and Munin, and the Valkyries. With them came various other gods and beings during which a grand funeral for Baldr was held. After a long journey, Hermóðr arrives in Hel, meets with Hel and pleads for the return of Baldr on behalf of Frigg. Hel gives the condition that all things must weep for Baldr if Baldr will be returned to Asgard. Nanna, the wife of Baldr (whose heart burst upon seeing the corpse of Baldr and was placed upon the pyre with Baldr), gives gifts to Hermóðr to return to Asgard with. "Along with other gifts", only two gifts are specifically mentioned: a white linen robe for Frigg and a golden ring for Fulla. The Æsir then sent forth messengers to all things to have them weep for Baldr, so that he may return from Hel. All things did but a giantess by the name of Þökk, regarding whom Snorri writes that "people believe that the giantess was Loki". Afterwards, in sections 50 and 51, a series of events occur where the gods take revenge upon Loki by binding him and thus furthering the onset of Ragnarök, though Frigg is not mentioned further in these sections. Vili and Ve "Frigga" (1832) from Die Helden und Götter des Nordens, oder Das Buch der sagen. The story of Frigg and Odin's brothers, Vili and , has survived in very brief form. In the Ynglinga Saga of Snorri Sturluson the entire story is told as follows: "Othin [Odin] had two brothers. One was called , and the other Vili. These, his brothers, governed the realm when he was gone. One time when Othin was gone to a great distance, he stayed away so long that the Æsir thought he would never return. Then his brothers began to divide his inheritance; but his wife Frigg they shared between them. However, a short while afterwards, Othin returned and took possession of his wife again." Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway, by Snorri Sturlson, Lee Hollander, trans. The American-Scandinavian Foundation by the University of Texas Press, 1964. "The Saga of the Ynglings," Chapter 3, page 7. The same story is referenced in one stanza of the poem, Lokasenna, in which Loki insults Frigg by accusing her of infidelity with Odin's brothers: Hush thee, Frigg, who art Fjorgyn's daughter: Thou hast ever been mad after men. Vili and Ve, thou, Vithrir's spouse, [Vithrir=Odin] Didst fold to thy bosom both. The Poetic Edda (2nd edition), Lee Hollander, trans. University of Texas Press, 1990. Lokasenna, stanza 26, page 96. Modern scholars such as Lee Hollander explain that Lokasenna was intended to be humorous and that the accusations thrown by Loki in the poem are not necessarily to be taken as "generally accepted lore" at the time it was composed. Rather they are charges that are easy for Loki to make and difficult for his targets to disprove, or which they do not care to refute. The Poetic Edda (2nd edition), Lee Hollander, trans. University of Texas Press, 1990. Introduction to "Lokasenna", page 90. Comparisons have been proposed regarding Frigg's role in this story to that of sacred queens during certain periods in ancient Egypt, when a king was king by virtue of being the queen's husband.Gundarsson, Kveldulf Hagan, ed. Our Troth, Volume 1 (Second Edition), Chapter 17, "Frigg," page 327-328. The Troth, 2006. See also for Egyptian heiress theory. Historia gentis Langobardorum A depiction of Odin and Frigg (1895) by Lorenz Frølich. The Langobard historian Paul the Deacon, who died in southern Italy in the 790s, was proud of his tribal origins and related how his people once had migrated from southern Scandinavia. Harrison, D. & Svensson, K. (2007). Vikingaliv Fälth & Hässler, Värnamo. ISBN 978-91-27-35725-9 p. 74 In his work Historia gentis Langobardorum, Paul relates how Odin's wife Frea (Frigg/Freyja) had given victory to the Langobards in a war against the Vandals. She is depicted as a wife who knows how to get her own way even though her husband thinks he is in charge. The Winnili and the Vandals were two warring tribes. Odin favored the Vandals, while Frea favored the Winnili. After a heated discussion, Odin swore that he would grant victory to the first tribe he saw the next morning upon awakening-- knowing full well that the bed was arranged so that the Vandals were on his side. While he slept, Frea told the Winnili women to comb their hair over their faces to look like long beards so they would look like men and turned the bed so the Winnili women would be on Odin's side. When he woke up, Odin was surprised to see the disguised women first and asked who these long bearded men were, which was where the tribe got its new name, the Langobards ("longbeards"). Odin kept his oath and granted victory to the Winnili (now known as the Lombards), and eventually saw the wisdom of Frea's choice. Gesta Danorum Saxo Grammaticus wrote in his Gesta Danorum another story about Frigg: "At this time there was one Odin, who was credited over all Europe with the honour, which was false, of godhead, but used more continually to sojourn at Upsala; and in this spot, either from the sloth of the inhabitants or from its own pleasantness, he vouchsafed to dwell with somewhat especial constancy. The kings of the North, desiring more zealously to worship his deity, embounded his likeness in a golden image; and this statue, which betokened their homage, they transmitted with much show of worship to Byzantium, fettering even the effigied arms with a serried mass of bracelets. Odin was overjoyed at such notoriety, and greeted warmly the devotion of the senders. But his queen Frigg, desiring to go forth more beautified, called smiths, and had the gold stripped from the statue. Odin hanged them, and mounted the statue upon a pedestal, which by the marvellous skill of his art he made to speak when a mortal touched it. But still Frigg preferred the splendour of her own apparel to the divine honours of her husband, and submitted herself to the embraces of one of her servants; and it was by this man's device she broke down the image, and turned to the service of her private wantonness that gold which had been devoted to public idolatry. Little thought she of practicing unchastity, that she might the easier satisfy her greed, this woman so unworthy to be the consort of a god; but what should I here add, save that such a godhead was worthy of such a wife? So great was the error that of old befooled the minds of men. Thus Odin, wounded by the double trespass of his wife, resented the outrage to his image as keenly as that to his bed; and, ruffled by these two stinging dishonours, took to an exile overflowing with noble shame, imagining so to wipe off the slur of his ignominy. At home, Frigg went with a certain Mith-Othin and took over Odin's properties, until Odin came back and drove them away. Frigg's death later cleared Odin's name and he regained his reputation." (Gesta Danorum, Book I) The Nine Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus, translated by Oliver Elton (Norroena Society, New York, 1905) Available online: In Saxo's Gesta Danorum, however, the gods and goddesses are heavily euhemerized, and Saxo's view on pagan deities is extremely biased, therefore most stories related to pagan gods written in it might not exist in ancient lore. Georges Dumézil linked Saxo's account of Frigg's infidelity and the stolen gold with the burning of Gullveig. Connection between Frigg and Freyja Fricka rides a chariot in this illustration by Arthur Rackham to Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen. Frigg is the highest goddess of the Æsir, while Freyja is the highest goddess of the Vanir. Many arguments have been made both for and against the idea that Frigg and Freyja are really the same goddess, avatars of one another. Davidson, Hilda Ellis. (1998). Roles of the Northern Goddess, page 10. London: Routlege. Also: Grundy, Stephen, Freyja and Frigg, pages 56-67; Nasstrom, Brit-Mari. Freyja, a goddess with many names, pages 68-77. Billington, Sandra & Green, Miranda (Eds.) (1996) The Concept of the Goddess. London: Routlege. Some arguments are based on linguistic analysis, others on the fact that Freyja wasn't known in southern Germany, only in the north, and in some places the two goddesses were considered to be the same, while in others they were considered to be different. Welsh, Lynda. (2001). Goddess of the North, page 75. York Beach: Weiser Books. There are clearly many similarities between the two: both had flying cloaks of falcon feathers and engaged in shape-shifting, Frigg was married to Odin while Freyja was married to Óðr, both had special necklaces, both had a personification of the Earth as a parent, both were called upon for assistance in childbirth, etc. There is also an argument that Frigg and Freyja are part of a triad of goddesses (together with a third goddess such as Hnoss or Iðunn) associated with the different ages of womankind. Welsh, Lynda. (2001). Goddess of the North, pages 107-126. York Beach: Weiser Books. (Chapter, "Putting together the fragments," which speculates on possible components of a triple goddess.) The areas of influence of Frigg and Freyja don't quite match up with the areas of influence often seen in other goddess triads. This may mean that the argument isn't a good one, or it may show something interesting about northern European culture as compared to Celtic and southern European culture. Finally, there is an argument is that Frigg and Freyja are similar goddesses from different pantheons who were first conflated into each other and then later seen as separate goddesses again (see also Frige). This is consistent with the theological treatment of some Greek, Roman, and Egyptian deities in the late classical period. Toponyms In Västergötland, Sweden, there is a place called Friggeråker. An English charter from 936 AD displays the name Frigedoone, which means "Valley of Frig", thus implying that Friden in Derbyshire is named after Frigg. The cities of Froyle ("Frigg's Hill") and Freefolk ("Frigg's People") in Hampshire, England may also be named after Frigg. Grigsby, John (2005). Beowulf & Grendel: The Truth Behind England's Oldest Legend, page 44. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 1842931539 References | Frigg |@lemmatized frigga:5 spin:3 cloud:1 j:1 c:2 dollman:1 frigg:65 seat:2 fulla:3 ludwig:1 pietsch:1 sometimes:2 anglicize:1 major:2 goddess:21 norse:5 paganism:2 subset:1 germanic:3 say:2 wife:11 odin:24 foremost:1 among:2 sturluson:5 snorri:9 prose:4 edda:8 gylfaginning:2 appear:2 primarily:1 mythological:1 story:8 mother:2 also:8 describe:3 power:1 prophecy:1 yet:3 reveal:2 know:10 skáldskaparmál:2 tell:5 fortune:1 well:2 fate:1 men:5 one:9 permit:1 sit:1 high:3 hlidskjalf:1 look:3 universe:1 english:6 term:1 friday:1 derive:2 anglo:1 saxon:3 name:12 barnhart:2 robert:1 k:2 concise:1 dictionary:2 etymology:2 page:15 isbn:4 child:2 baldr:30 höðr:4 stepchild:1 thor:1 hermóðr:5 heimdall:1 tyr:1 vidar:1 váli:1 skjoldr:1 companion:1 eir:1 associate:4 medical:1 skill:2 attendant:1 hlín:1 gná:1 poetic:4 poem:3 lokasenna:5 fjörgyns:1 mær:2 fjörgynn:4 maiden:1 problem:1 old:8 mean:9 daughter:3 fully:1 clear:2 father:1 another:3 husband:4 interpret:1 line:1 meaning:2 modern:3 translator:1 follow:3 original:1 earth:3 cf:2 feminine:1 version:2 fjorgyn:2 byname:1 jörð:1 turville:1 petre:1 e:4 g:2 myth:2 religion:1 north:5 holt:1 rinehart:1 winston:1 new:3 york:4 p:4 genitive:2 friggjar:1 fri:2 frig:3 common:1 frijjō:2 hellquist:1 svensk:1 etymologisk:1 ordbok:1 cognate:1 sanskrit:2 prīyā:1 root:1 beloved:2 lady:2 swedish:1 fria:1 propose:2 marriage:1 icelandic:1 frjá:1 love:3 attribute:1 grass:2 asterism:1 orion:1 belt:1 distaff:2 wheel:2 friggerock:1 freyja:12 frejerock:1 schön:1 ebbe:1 asa:1 tor:1 hammare:1 gudar:1 och:2 jättar:1 tro:1 tradition:1 fält:1 hässler:2 värnamo:2 point:1 constellation:1 celestial:1 equator:1 suggest:3 star:1 rotate:1 night:1 sky:2 may:7 krupp:1 jan:1 thread:1 time:5 telescope:1 proto:1 priyā:1 dear:1 woman:12 many:4 northern:5 european:3 culture:3 slight:1 variation:1 friggja:1 sweden:2 frīg:1 frīge:1 fricka:2 richard:2 wagner:2 operatic:1 cycle:1 der:3 ring:3 de:3 nibelung:1 claim:1 connection:2 frau:3 holle:3 trace:1 back:2 least:1 jacob:1 grimm:1 however:3 recent:1 scholarship:1 linguistic:2 evidence:1 connect:1 base:2 mistaken:1 translation:2 latin:1 smith:2 john:3 b:1 aug:1 perchta:1 belly:1 slitter:1 kin:1 view:2 traditional:1 threatening:1 figure:1 threat:1 punishment:1 folklore:2 alter:1 presumably:1 avoid:1 vulgarism:1 german:1 survival:1 simek:2 rudolf:1 mythology:2 trans:5 angela:1 hall:5 cambridge:1 brewer:1 asgard:4 fensalir:2 marsh:1 lindow:1 guide:1 god:8 hero:1 ritual:1 belief:1 oxford:2 university:4 press:4 marshy:1 boggy:1 land:1 consider:3 especially:1 sacred:2 nothing:3 definitive:1 saga:4 drinking:1 golden:3 cup:1 sunken:1 bench:1 different:4 thorsson:1 edred:1 magic:1 rune:1 mystery:1 shamanism:1 st:1 paul:3 llewellyn:1 publication:1 state:1 likely:1 active:1 aspect:1 married:1 call:7 assist:1 give:4 birth:1 scandinavian:2 use:2 plant:1 bedstraw:1 galium:1 verum:1 sedative:1 death:5 christoffer:1 wilhelm:1 eckersberg:1 play:1 role:3 section:3 century:1 book:5 write:4 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4,980 | Olympus_Mons | Olympus Mons (Latin for "Mount Olympus") is the tallest known volcano and mountain in the Solar System and was formed during amazonian epoch. It is located on the planet Mars at approximately 18°N 133°W / 18, -133. It is three times taller than Mount Everest. Since the late 19th century — well before space probes confirmed its identity as a mountain — Olympus Mons was known to astronomers as the albedo feature, Nix Olympica ("Snows of Olympus"), although its mountainous nature was suspected. Patrick Moore 1977, Guide to Mars, London (UK), Cutterworth Press, p.96 General description Olympus Mons The central edifice stands 27 kilometers (around 16.7 miles/approx. 88,600 ft) high above the mean surface level of Mars Highest and lowest points on Mars NASA (about three times the elevation of Mount Everest above sea level and 2.6 times the height of Mauna Kea above its base). It is 550 km (342 miles) in width, flanked by steep cliffs, and has a caldera complex that is 85 km (53 miles) long, 60 km (37 miles) wide, and up to 3 km (1.8 miles) deep with six overlapping pit craters. Its outer edge is defined by an escarpment up to 6 km (4 miles) tall, unique among the shield volcanoes of Mars. Both the size of Olympus Mons and its shallow slope (2.5 degrees central dome surrounded by 5 degree outer region) mean that a person standing on the surface of Mars would be unable to view the upper profile of the volcano even from a distance, as the curvature of the planet and the volcano itself would obscure it. However, one could view parts of Olympus: standing on the highest point of its summit, the slope of the volcano would extend beyond the horizon, a mere 3 kilometers away Martian Volcanoes on HST Images How Far Could I See Standing on Olympus Mons, "2.37 miles", Jeff Beish, Former A.L.P.O. Mars Recorder ; from the three kilometer elevated caldera rim one could see 80 kilometers to the caldera's other side; from the southeast scarp highpoint (about 5 km elevation SPREADING OF THE OLYMPUS MONS VOLCANIC EDIFICE, MARS. P. J. McGovern lpi.usra.edu, 2005, Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVI (2005), Figure 2b showing profiles with NE and SW scarp highpoints ) one could look about 180 km southeast; from the northwest scarp highpoint (about 8 km elevation) one could look upslope possibly 240 km and look northeast possibly 230 km. An occasional misconception is that the top of Olympus Mons is above the Martian atmosphere. The atmospheric pressure at the top varies between 5 and 8% of the average Martian surface pressure (600 pascals) Public Access to Standard Temperature-Pressure Profiles Standard Pressure Profiles measured by MGS Radio Science team at 27 km range from approx 30 to 50 pascals Late Martian Weather! stanford.edu temperature/pressure profiles 1998 to 2005 ; by comparison the atmospheric pressure at the summit of Mount Everest is about 32 percent of that at sea level. Even so, airborne Martian dust is still present and high altitude carbon dioxide-ice cloud cover is still possible at the peak of Olympus Mons, though water-ice clouds are not. Although the average Martian surface atmospheric pressure is less than one percent of that seen on Earth, the much lower gravity on Mars allows its atmosphere to extend much higher, as lower gravity increases scale height. Two of the craters on Olympus Mons have been provisionally assigned names by the IAU. These are the 15.6 km diameter Karzok crater () and the 10.4 km diameter Pangboche crater (). Volcanism Olympus Mons is a shield volcano, the result of highly fluid lava flowing out of volcanic vents over a long period of time, and is much wider than it is tall; the average slope of Olympus Mons' flanks is very gradual. In 2004 the Mars Express orbiter imaged old lava flows on the flanks of Olympus Mons. Based on crater size and frequency counts, the surface of this western scarp has been dated from 115 million years old down to a region that is only 2 million years old. This is very recent in geological terms, suggesting that the mountain may yet have some ongoing volcanic activity. The Hawaiian Islands are examples of similar shield volcanoes on a smaller scale (see Mauna Kea). The extraordinary size of Olympus Mons is likely because Mars does not have tectonic plates. Thus, the crust remained fixed over a hotspot and the volcano continued to discharge lava, bringing it to such a height. The caldera at the peak of the volcano was formed after volcanism ceased and the roof of the emptied magma chamber collapsed. During the collapse the surface became extended and formed fractures. Later additional caldera collapses were formed due to subsequent lava production. These overlapped the original circular caldera, giving the edge a less symmetric appearance. Early observations and naming The mountain, as well as a few other of the volcanoes in the Tharsis region, has sufficient height to reach above the frequent dust storms of Mars, and it was visible from Earth already to 19th century observers. The astronomer Patrick Moore points out that during dust storms, "Schiaparelli had found that his Nodus Gordis and Olympic Snow were almost the only features to be seen. He guessed correctly that they must be high". Moore 1977, Guide to Mars, p.120 Only with the Mariner probes could this be confirmed with certainty. After the Mariner 9 probe had photographed it from orbit in 1972, it became clear that the altitude was much greater than that of any mountain found on Earth, and the name was changed to Olympus Mons. Surroundings Wide view of the Olympus Mons aureole, escarpment and caldera Caldera and pit craters on Olympus Mons Olympus Mons is located in the Tharsis bulge, a huge swelling in the Martian surface that bears numerous other large volcanic features. Among them are a chain of lesser shield volcanoes including Arsia Mons, Pavonis Mons and Ascraeus Mons, which are small only in comparison to Olympus Mons itself. The land immediately surrounding Olympus Mons is a depression in the bulge 2 km deep. The volcano is surrounded by a region known as the Olympus Mons aureole (Latin, "circle of light") with gigantic ridges and blocks extending 1000 km (600 miles) from the summit that show evidence of development and resurfacing connected with glacial activity. Both the escarpment and the aureole are poorly understood. In one theory, this basalt cliff was formed by landslides, and the aureole consists of material they deposited. A view of this escarpment (scarp/cliff) is shown in the picture taken by HiRISE below. References in popular culture The American alternative rock band Pixies use the name of the volcano for their song 'Bird dream of the Olympus Mons' from their 1991 album Trompe le Monde. The rock band Torche has a song of the same name on their In Return EP. The television series Futurama made an episode called "Where the Buggalo Roam" in which the characters are out on a Martian cattle drive on Olympus Mons. The graphic novel Watchmen features scenes that take place near Olympus Mons. The science fiction novels Ilium and Olympos, by Dan Simmons, feature Olympus Mons as a home for Greek God-like beings. Olympus Mons is the name of a Pittsburgh-based experimental rock group. Olympus Mons is an important plot location in the anime Mars Daybreak as it is the only area on Mars not covered by water. In Sealab 2021 episode "Der Dieb", Captain Murphy makes references to the Tharsian region on Mars. In Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars Trilogy, which deals with the colonization of the red planet, the crater rims of Olympus Mons serve as a base station for a space elevator. See also List of mountains on Mars by height References External links Astronomy Picture of the Day 26 May 2004 Western Flank of Olympus Mons and Aureole Volcanism on Mars Olympus Mons from Google Mars Olympus Mons fact file for younger people | Olympus_Mons |@lemmatized olympus:33 mon:33 latin:2 mount:4 tall:4 known:1 volcano:14 mountain:6 solar:1 system:1 form:4 amazonian:1 epoch:1 locate:2 planet:3 mar:20 approximately:1 n:1 w:1 three:3 time:4 everest:3 since:1 late:2 century:2 well:2 space:2 probe:3 confirm:2 identity:1 know:2 astronomer:2 albedo:1 feature:5 nix:1 olympica:1 snow:2 although:2 mountainous:1 nature:1 suspect:1 patrick:2 moore:3 guide:2 london:1 uk:1 cutterworth:1 press:1 p:4 general:1 description:1 central:2 edifice:2 stand:3 kilometer:4 around:1 mile:8 approx:2 ft:1 high:6 mean:2 surface:7 level:3 low:3 point:3 nasa:1 elevation:3 sea:2 height:5 mauna:2 kea:2 base:4 km:15 width:1 flank:4 steep:1 cliff:3 caldera:8 complex:1 long:2 wide:3 deep:2 six:1 overlap:2 pit:2 crater:7 outer:1 edge:2 define:1 escarpment:4 unique:1 among:2 shield:4 size:3 shallow:1 slope:3 degree:2 dome:1 surround:3 region:5 person:1 would:3 unable:1 view:4 upper:1 profile:5 even:2 distance:1 curvature:1 obscure:1 however:1 one:6 could:6 part:1 standing:1 summit:3 extend:3 beyond:1 horizon:1 mere:1 away:1 martian:8 hst:1 image:2 far:1 see:6 jeff:1 beish:1 former:1 l:1 recorder:1 elevate:1 rim:2 side:1 southeast:2 scarp:5 highpoint:2 spreading:1 volcanic:4 j:1 mcgovern:1 lpi:1 usra:1 edu:2 lunar:1 planetary:1 science:3 xxxvi:1 figure:1 showing:1 ne:1 sw:1 highpoints:1 look:3 northwest:1 upslope:1 possibly:2 northeast:1 occasional:1 misconception:1 top:2 atmosphere:2 atmospheric:3 pressure:7 varies:1 average:3 pascal:2 public:1 access:1 standard:2 temperature:2 measure:1 mg:1 radio:1 team:1 range:1 weather:1 stanford:1 comparison:2 percent:2 airborne:1 dust:3 still:2 present:1 altitude:2 carbon:1 dioxide:1 ice:2 cloud:2 cover:2 possible:1 peak:2 though:1 water:2 less:3 earth:3 much:4 gravity:2 allow:1 increase:1 scale:2 two:1 provisionally:1 assign:1 name:6 iau:1 diameter:2 karzok:1 pangboche:1 volcanism:3 result:1 highly:1 fluid:1 lava:4 flow:2 vent:1 period:1 gradual:1 express:1 orbiter:1 old:3 frequency:1 count:1 western:2 date:1 million:2 year:2 recent:1 geological:1 term:1 suggest:1 may:2 yet:1 ongoing:1 activity:2 hawaiian:1 island:1 example:1 similar:1 small:2 extraordinary:1 likely:1 tectonic:1 plate:1 thus:1 crust:1 remain:1 fix:1 hotspot:1 continue:1 discharge:1 bring:1 cease:1 roof:1 emptied:1 magma:1 chamber:1 collapse:3 become:2 extended:1 formed:1 fracture:1 later:1 additional:1 due:1 subsequent:1 production:1 original:1 circular:1 give:1 symmetric:1 appearance:1 early:1 observation:1 tharsis:2 sufficient:1 reach:1 frequent:1 storm:2 visible:1 already:1 observer:1 schiaparelli:1 find:2 nodus:1 gordis:1 olympic:1 almost:1 guess:1 correctly:1 must:1 mariner:2 certainty:1 photograph:1 orbit:1 clear:1 great:1 change:1 surroundings:1 aureole:5 bulge:2 huge:1 swelling:1 bear:1 numerous:1 large:1 chain:1 include:1 arsia:1 pavonis:1 ascraeus:1 land:1 immediately:1 depression:1 circle:1 light:1 gigantic:1 ridge:1 block:1 show:2 evidence:1 development:1 resurfacing:1 connect:1 glacial:1 poorly:1 understood:1 theory:1 basalt:1 landslide:1 consists:1 material:1 deposit:1 picture:2 take:2 hirise:1 reference:3 popular:1 culture:1 american:1 alternative:1 rock:3 band:2 pixy:1 use:1 song:2 bird:1 dream:1 album:1 trompe:1 le:1 monde:1 torche:1 return:1 ep:1 television:1 series:1 futurama:1 make:2 episode:2 call:1 buggalo:1 roam:1 character:1 cattle:1 drive:1 graphic:1 novel:2 watchman:1 scenes:1 place:1 near:1 fiction:1 ilium:1 olympos:1 dan:1 simmons:1 home:1 greek:1 god:1 like:1 pittsburgh:1 experimental:1 group:1 important:1 plot:1 location:1 anime:1 daybreak:1 area:1 sealab:1 der:1 dieb:1 captain:1 murphy:1 tharsian:1 kim:1 stanley:1 robinson:1 trilogy:1 deal:1 colonization:1 red:1 serve:1 station:1 elevator:1 also:1 list:1 external:1 link:1 astronomy:1 day:1 google:1 fact:1 file:1 young:1 people:1 |@bigram olympus_mon:30 mount_olympus:1 mount_everest:3 mauna_kea:2 steep_cliff:1 atmospheric_pressure:3 stanford_edu:1 carbon_dioxide:1 lava_flow:2 volcanic_vent:1 tectonic_plate:1 magma_chamber:1 dust_storm:2 poorly_understood:1 le_monde:1 science_fiction:1 novel_ilium:1 ilium_olympos:1 dan_simmons:1 kim_stanley:1 mar_trilogy:1 crater_rim:1 external_link:1 |
4,981 | Nuclear_magnetic_resonance | Pacific Northwest National Laboratory's high magnetic field (800 MHz, 18.8 T) NMR spectrometer being loaded with a sample. 900MHz, 21.2 T NMR Magnet at HWB-NMR, Birmingham, UK being loaded with a sample Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is the name given to a physical resonance phenomenon involving the observation of specific quantum mechanical magnetic properties of an atomic nucleus in the presence of an applied, external magnetic field. Many scientific techniques exploit NMR phenomena to study molecular physics, crystals and non-crystalline materials through NMR spectroscopy. NMR is also routinely used in advanced medical imaging techniques, such as in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). All nuclei that contain odd numbers of nucleons have an intrinsic magnetic moment and angular momentum, in other words a . The most commonly studied nuclei are (the most NMR-sensitive isotope after the radioactive ) and , although nuclei from isotopes of many other elements (e.g. , , , , , , , , , , , , ) are studied by high-field NMR spectroscopy as well. A key feature of NMR is that the resonance frequency of a particular substance is directly proportional to the strength of the applied magnetic field. It is this feature that is exploited in imaging techniques; if a sample is placed in a non-uniform magnetic field then the resonance frequencies of the sample's nuclei depend on where in the field they are located. Since the resolution of the imaging techniques depends on how big the gradient of the field is, many efforts are made to develop more powerful magnets, often using superconductors. The effectiveness of NMR can also be improved using hyperpolarization, and/or using two-dimensional, three-dimensional and higher dimension multi-frequency techniques. The principle of NMR usually involves two sequential steps: The alignment (polarization) of the magnetic nuclear spins in an applied, constant magnetic field H0. The perturbation of this alignment of the nuclear spins by employing an electro-magnetic, usually radio frequency (RF) pulse. The required perturbing frequency is dependent upon the static magnetic field (H0) and the nuclei of observation. The two fields are usually chosen to be perpendicular to each other as this maximises the NMR signal strength. The resulting response by the total magnetization (M) of the nuclear spins is the phenomenon that is exploited in NMR spectroscopy and magnetic resonance imaging. Both use intense applied magnetic fields (H0) in order to achieve dispersion and very high stability to deliver spectral resolution, the details of which are described by chemical shifts, the Zeeman effect, and Knight shifts (in metals). NMR phenomena are also utilized in low-field NMR, NMR spectroscopy and MRI in the Earth's magnetic field (referred to as Earth's field NMR), and in several types of magnetometers. History Discovery Nuclear magnetic resonance was first described and measured in molecular beams by Isidor Rabi in 1938. Eight years later, in 1946, Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell refined the technique for use on liquids and solids, for which they shared the Nobel Prize in physics in 1952. Purcell had worked on the development and radar applications during World War II at Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Radiation Laboratory. His work during that project on the production and detection of RF energy, and on the absorption of such RF energy by matter, preceded his discovery of NMR. They noticed that magnetic nuclei, like and , could absorb RF energy when placed in a magnetic field of a strength specific to the identity of the nuclei. When this absorption occurs, the nucleus is described as being in resonance. Different atomic nuclei within a molecule resonate at different (radio) frequencies for the same magnetic field strength. The observation of such magnetic resonance frequencies of the nuclei present in a molecule allows any trained user to discover essential, chemical and structural information about the molecule. The development of nuclear magnetic resonance as a technique of analytical chemistry and biochemistry parallels the development of electromagnetic technology and its introduction into civilian use. Theory of nuclear magnetic resonance Nuclear spin and magnets All nucleons, that is neutrons and protons, composing any atomic nucleus, have the intrinsic quantum property of spin. The overall spin of the nucleus is determined by the spin quantum number S. If the number of both the protons and neutrons in a given isotope are even then , i.e. there is no overall spin; just as electrons pair up in atomic orbitals, so do even numbers of protons or even numbers of neutrons (which are also spin- particles and hence fermions) pair up giving zero overall spin. Interestingly, however, a proton and neutron will have lower energy when their spins are parallel, not anti-parallel, as this parallel spin alignment does not infringe upon the Pauli principle, but instead has to do with the quark fine structure of these two nucleons. Therefore, the spin ground state for the deuteron (the deuterium nucleus, or the 2H isotope of hydrogen) --that has only a proton and a neutron-- corresponds to a spin value of 1, not of zero; the single, isolated deuteron is therefore exhibiting an NMR absorption spectrum characteristic of a quadrupolar nucleus of spin 1, which in the `rigid' state at very low temperatures is a characteristic (`Pake') doublet, (not a singlet as for a single, isolated 1H, or any other isolated fermion or dipolar nucleus of spin 1/2). On the other hand, because of the Pauli principle, the (radioactive) tritium isotope has to have a pair of anti-parallel spin neutrons (of total spin zero for the neutron spin couple), plus a proton of spin 1/2; therefore, the character of the tritium nucleus (`triton') is again magnetic dipolar, not quadrupolar-- like its non-radioactive deuteron neighbor, and the tritium nucleus total spin value is again 1/2, just like for the simpler, abundant hydrogen isotope, 1H nucleus (the proton). The NMR absorption (radio) frequency for tritium is however slightly higher for tritium than that of 1H because the tritium nucleus has a slightly higher gyromagnetic ratio than 1H. In many other cases of non-radioactive nuclei, the overall spin is also non-zero. For example, the nucleus has an overall spin value . A non-zero spin is thus always associated with a non-zero magnetic moment (μ) via the relation , where g is the gyromagnetic ratio. It is this magnetic moment that allows the observation of NMR absorption spectra caused by transitions between nuclear spin levels. Most radioactive nuclei (with some rare exceptions) that have both even numbers of protons and even numbers of neutrons, also have zero nuclear magnetic moments-and also have zero magnetic dipole and quadrupole moments; therefore, such radioactive isotopes do not exhibit any NMR absorption spectra. Thus, , , and are examples of radioactive nuclear isotopes that have no NMR absorption, whereas , , and are stable nuclear isotopes that do exhibit NMR absorption spectra; the last two nuclei are quadrupolar nuclei whereas the preceding two nuclei ( and ) are dipolar ones. Electron spin resonance (ESR) is a related technique which detects transitions between electron spin levels instead of nuclear ones. The basic principles are similar; however, the instrumentation, data analysis and detailed theory are significantly different. Moreover, there is a much smaller number of molecules and materials with unpaired electron spins that exhibit ESR (or electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)) absorption than those that have NMR absorption spectra. Significantly also, is the much greater sensitivity of ESR and EPR in comparison with NMR. Furthermore, ferromagnetic materials and thin films may exhibit `very unusual', highly resolved ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) spectra, or ferromagnetic spin wave resonance (FSWR) excitations in non-crystalline solids such as ferromagnetic metallic glasses, well beyond the common single-transitions of most routine NMR, FMR and EPR studies. Values of spin angular momentum The angular momentum associated with nuclear spin is quantized. This means both that the magnitude of angular momentum is quantized (i.e. S can only take on a restricted range of values), and also that the orientation of the associated angular momentum is quantized. The associated quantum number is known as the magnetic quantum number, m, and can take values from +S to −S, in integer steps. Hence for any given nucleus, there is a total of angular momentum states. The z-component of the angular momentum vector (S) is therefore , where ħ is the reduced Planck constant. The z-component of the magnetic moment is simply: Spin behavior in a magnetic field |Splitting of nuclei spin states in an external magnetic field Consider nuclei which have a spin of one-half, like , or . The nucleus has two possible spin states: m = or m = − (also referred to as spin-up and spin-down, or sometimes α and β spin states, respectively). These states are degenerate, i.e they have the same energy. Hence the number of atoms in these two states will be approximately equal at thermal equilibrium. If a nucleus is placed in a magnetic field, however, the interaction between the nuclear magnetic moment and the external magnetic field mean the two states no longer have the same energy. The energy of a magnetic moment μ when in a magnetic field B0 is given by: Usually B0 is chosen to be aligned along the z axis, therefore cosθ=1: or alternatively: As a result the different nuclear spin states have different energies in a non-zero magnetic field. In hand-waving terms, we can talk about the two spin states of a spin as being aligned either with or against the magnetic field. If g is positive (true for most isotopes) then is the lower energy state. The energy difference between the two states is: and this difference results in a small population bias toward the lower energy state. Magnetic resonance by nuclei Resonant absorption by nuclear spins will occur only when electromagnetic radiation of the correct frequency (e.g., equaling the Larmor precession rate) is being applied to match the energy difference between the nuclear spin levels in a constant magnetic field of the appropriate strength. The energy of an absorbed photon is then , where ν0 is the resonance radiofrequency that has to match (that is, it has to be equal to) the Larmor precession frequency νL of the nuclear magnetization in the constant magnetic field H0. Hence, a magnetic resonance absorption will only occur when , which is when . Such magnetic resonance frequencies typically correspond to the radio frequency (or RF) range of the electromagnetic spectrum for magnetic fields up to ~20 T. It is this magnetic resonant absorption which is detected in NMR. Nuclear shielding It might appear from the above that all nuclei of the same nuclide (and hence the same g) would resonate at the same frequency. This is not the case. The most important perturbation of the NMR frequency for applications of NMR is the 'shielding' effect of the surrounding electrons. In general, this electronic shielding reduces the magnetic field at the nucleus (which is what determines the NMR frequency). As a result the energy gap is reduced, and the frequency required to achieve resonance is also reduced. This shift in the NMR frequency due to the electrons' molecular orbital coupling to the external magnetic field is called chemical shift, and it explains why NMR is able to probe the chemical structure of molecules which depends on the electron density distribution in the corresponding molecular orbitals. If a nucleus in a specific chemical group is shielded to a higher degree by a higher electron density of its surrounding molecular orbital, then its NMR frequency will be shifted "upfield" (that is, a lower chemical shift), whereas if it is less shielded by such surrounding electron density, then its NMR frequency will be shifted "downfield" (that is, a higher chemical shift). Unless the local symmetry of such molecular orbitals is very high (leading to "isotropic" shift), the shielding effect will depend on the orientation of the molecule with respect to the external field (H0). In solid-state NMR spectroscopy, magic angle spinning is required to average out this orientation dependence in order to obtain values close to the average chemical shifts. This is unnecessary in conventional NMR investigations of molecules, since rapid molecular tumbling averages out the chemical shift anisotropy (CSA). In this case, the term "average" chemical shift (ACS) is used. Relaxation The process called population relaxation refers to nuclei that return to the thermodynamic state in the magnet. This process is also called T1, "spin-lattice" or "longitudinal magnetic" relaxation, where T1 refers to the mean time for an individual nucleus to return to its thermal equilibrium state of the spins. Once the nuclear spin population is relaxed, it can be probed again, since it is in the initial, equilibrium (mixed) state. The precessing nuclei can also fall out of alignment with each other (returning the net magnetization vector to a non-precessing field) and stop producing a signal. This is called T2 or transverse relaxation. Because of the difference in the actual relaxation mechanisms involved (for example, inter-molecular vs. intra-molecular magnetic dipole-dipole interactions ), T1 is always longer than T2 (that is, slower spin-lattice relaxation, for example because of smaller dipole-dipole interaction effects). In practice, the value of T*2 which is the actually observed decay time of the observed NMR signal, or free induction decay, (to 1/e of the initial amplitude immediately after the resonant RF pulse)-- also depends on the static magnetic field inhomogeneity, which is quite significant. (There is also a smaller but significant contribution to the observed FID shortening from the RF inhomogeneity of the resonat pulse). In the corresponding FT-NMR spectrum-- meaning the Fourier transform of the free induction decay--the T*2 time is inversely related to the width of the NMR signal in frequency units. Thus, a nucleus with a long T2 relaxation time gives rise to a very sharp NMR peak in the FT-NMR spectrum for a very homogeneous ( "well-shimmed") static magnetic field, whereas nuclei with shorter T2 values give rise to broad FT-NMR peaks even when the magnet is shimmed well. Both T1 and T2 depend on the rate of molecular motions as well as the gyromagnetic ratios of both the resonating and their strongly interacting, next-neighbor nuclei that are not at resonance. NMR spectroscopy NMR spectroscopy is one of the principal techniques used to obtain physical, chemical, electronic and structural information about molecules due to either the chemical shift Zeeman effect, or the Knight shift effect, or a combination of both, on the resonant frequencies of the nuclei present in the sample. It is a powerful technique that can provide detailed information on the topology, dynamics and three-dimensional structure of molecules in solution and the solid state. Thus, structural and dynamic information is obtainable (with or without "magic angle" spinning (MAS)) from NMR studies of quadrupolar nuclei (that is, those nuclei with spin ) even in the presence of magnetic dipole-dipole interaction broadening (or simply, dipolar broadening) which is always much smaller than the quadrupolar interaction strength because it is a magnetic vs. an electric interaction effect. Additional structural and chemical information may be obtained by performing double-quantum NMR experiments for quadrupolar nuclei such as . Also, nuclear magnetic resonance is one of the techniques that has been used to design quantum automata, and also build elementary quantum computers. http://planetphysics.org/encyclopedia/QuantumComputers.html (see also references cited therein)] Continuous wave (CW) spectroscopy In its first few decades, nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometers used a technique known as continuous-wave spectroscopy (CW spectroscopy). Although NMR spectra could be, and have been, obtained using a fixed magnetic field and sweeping the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation, this more typically involved using a fixed frequency source and varying the current (and hence magnetic field) in an electromagnet to observe the resonant absorption signals. This is the origin of the anachronistic, but still common, "high" and "low" field terminology for low frequency and high frequency regions respectively of the NMR spectrum. CW spectroscopy is inefficient in comparison to Fourier techniques (see below) as it probes the NMR response at individual frequencies in succession. As the NMR signal is intrinsically weak, the observed spectra suffer from a poor signal-to-noise ratio. This can be mitigated by signal averaging i.e. adding the spectra from repeated measurements. While the NMR signal is constant between scans and so adds linearly, the random noise adds more slowly—as the square-root of the number of spectra (see Random walk). Hence the overall ratio of the signal to the noise increases as the square-root of the number of spectra measured. Fourier transform spectroscopy Most applications of NMR involve full NMR spectra, that is, the intensity of the NMR signal as a function of frequency. Early attempts to acquire the NMR spectrum more efficiently than simple CW methods involved irradiating simultaneously with more than one frequency. It was soon realized, however, that a simpler solution was to use short pulses of radio-frequency (centered at the middle of the NMR spectrum). In simple terms, a short square pulse of a given "carrier" frequency "contains" a range of frequencies centered about the carrier frequency, with the range of excitation (bandwidth) being inversely proportional to the pulse duration (the Fourier transform (FT) of an approximate square wave contains contributions from all the frequencies in the neighborhood of the principal frequency). The restricted range of the NMR frequencies made it relatively easy to use short (millisecond to microsecond) radiofrequency (RF) pulses to excite the entire NMR spectrum. Applying such a pulse to a set of nuclear spins simultaneously excites all the single-quantum NMR transitions. In terms of the net magnetization vector, this corresponds to tilting the magnetization vector away from its equilibrium position (aligned along the external magnetic field). The out-of-equilibrium magnetization vector precesses about the external magnetic field vector at the NMR frequency of the spins. This oscillating magnetization vector induces a current in a nearby pickup coil, creating an electrical signal oscillating at the NMR frequency. This signal is known as the free induction decay (FID) and contains the vector-sum of the NMR responses from all the excited spins. In order to obtain the frequency-domain NMR spectrum (NMR absorption intensity vs. NMR frequency) this time-domain signal (intensity vs. time) must be FTed. Fortunately the development of FT NMR coincided with the development of digital computers and Fast Fourier Transform algorithms. Richard R. Ernst was one of the pioneers of pulse (FT) NMR and won a Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1991 for his work on FT NMR and his development of multi-dimensional NMR (see below). Multi-dimensional NMR Spectroscopy The use of pulses of different shapes, frequencies and durations in specifically-designed patterns or pulse sequences allows the spectroscopist to extract many different types of information about the molecule. Multi-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is a kind of FT NMR in which there are at least two pulses and, as the experiment is repeated, the pulse sequence is varied. In multidimensional nuclear magnetic resonance there will be a sequence of pulses and, at least, one variable time period. In three dimensions, two time sequences will be varied. In four dimensions, three will be varied. There are many such experiments. In one, these time intervals allow (amongst other things) magnetization transfer between nuclei and, therefore, the detection of the kinds of nuclear-nuclear interactions that allowed for the magnetization transfer. Interactions that can be detected are usually classified into two kinds. There are through-bond interactions and through-space interactions, the latter usually being a consequence of the nuclear Overhauser effect. Experiments of the nuclear Overhauser variety may be employed to establish distances between atoms, as for example by 2D-FT NMR of molecules in solution. Although the fundamental concept of 2D-FT NMR was proposed by Professor Jean Jeener from the Free University of Brussels at an International Conference, this idea was largely developed by Richard Ernst who won the 1991 Nobel prize in Chemistry for his work in FT NMR, including multi-dimensional FT NMR, and especially 2D-FT NMR of small molecules. "Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Fourier Transform Spectroscopy" Multi-dimensional FT NMR experiments were then further developed into powerful methodologies for studying biomolecules in solution, in particular for the determination of the structure of biopolymers such as proteins or even small nucleic acids. Kurt Wüthrich shared (with John B. Fenn) in 2002 the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in protein FT NMR in solution. Solid-state NMR spectroscopy This technique complements biopolymer X-ray crystallography in that it is frequently applicable to biomolecules in a liquid or liquid crystal phase, whereas crystallography, as the name implies, is performed on molecules in a solid phase. Though nuclear magnetic resonance is used to study solids, extensive atomic-level biomolecular structural detail is especially challenging to obtain in the solid state. There is little signal averaging by thermal motion in the solid state, where most molecules can only undergo restricted vibrations and rotations at room temperature, each in a slightly different electronic environment, therefore exhibiting a different NMR absorption peak. Such a variation in the electronic environment of the resonating nuclei results in a blurring of the observed spectra--which is often only a broad Gaussian band for non-quadrupolar spins in a solid- thus making the interpretation of such "dipolar" and "chemical shift anisotropy" (CSA) broadened spectra either very difficult or impossible. Professor Raymond Andrew at Nottingham University in UK pioneered the development of high-resolution solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance. He was the first to report the introduction of the MAS (magic angle sample spinning; MASS) technique that allowed him to achieve spectral resolution in solids sufficient to distinguish between chemical groups with either different chemical shifts or distinct Knight shifts. In MASS, the sample is spun at several kilohertz around an axis that makes the so-called magic angle θm (which is ~ 54.74°, where cos2θm = 1/3, or 3cos2θm -1 = 0) with respect to the direction of the static magnetic field H0; as a result of such magic angle sample spinning, the chemical shift anisotropy bands are averaged to their corresponding average (isotropic) chemical shift values. The above expression involving cos2θm has its origin in a calculation that predicts the magnetic dipolar interaction effects to cancel out for the specific value of θm called the magic angle. One notes that correct alignment of the sample rotation axis as close as possible to θm is essential for cancelling out the dipolar interactions whose strength for angles sufficiently far from θm is usually greater than ~10 kHz for C-H bonds in solids, for example, and it is thus greater than their CSA values. A concept developed by Sven Hartmann and Erwin Hahn was utilized in transferring magnetization from protons to less sensitive nuclei (popularly known as cross-polarization) by M.G. Gibby, Alex Pines and John S. Waugh. Then, Jake Schaefer and Ed Stejskal demonstrated also the powerful use of cross-polarization under MASS conditions which is now routinely employed to detect low-abundance and low-sensitivity nuclei. Sensitivity Because the intensity of nuclear magnetic resonance signals and, hence, the sensitivity of the technique depends on the strength of the magnetic field the technique has also advanced over the decades with the development of more powerful magnets. Advances made in audio-visual technology have also improved the signal-generation and processing capabilities of newer machines. As noted above, the sensitivity of nuclear magnetic resonance signals is also dependent on the presence of a magnetically-susceptible nuclide and, therefore, either on the natural abundance of such nuclides or on the ability of the experimentalist to artificially enrich the molecules, under study, with such nuclides. The most abundant naturally-occurring isotopes of hydrogen and phosphorus (for example) are both magnetically susceptible and readily useful for nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. In contrast, carbon and nitrogen have useful isotopes but which occur only in very low natural abundance. Other limitations on sensitivity arise from the quantum-mechanical nature of the phenomenon. For quantum states separated by energy equivalent to radio frequencies, thermal energy from the environment causes the populations of the states to be close to equal. Since incoming radiation is equally likely to cause stimulated emission (a transition from the upper to the lower state) as absorption, the NMR effect depends on an excess of nuclei in the lower states. Several factors can reduce sensitivity, including Increasing temperature, which evens out the population of states. Conversely, low temperature NMR can sometimes yield better results than room-temperature NMR, providing the sample remains liquid. Saturation of the sample with energy applied at the resonant radiofrequency. This manifests in both CW and pulsed NMR;in the first, CW, case this happens by using too much continuous power that keeps the upper spin levels completely populated; in the second case, saturation occurs by pulsing too frequently --without allowing time for the nuclei to return to thermal equilibrium through spin-lattice relaxation. For nuclei such as this is a serious practical problem as the relaxation time is measured in seconds; for protons in "pure" ice, or in high-purity (undoped) LiF crystals the spin-lattice relaxation time can be on the order of an hour or longer. The use of shorter RF pulses that tip the magnetization by less than $90^0$ can partially solve the problem by allowing spectral acquisition without the complete loss of NMR signal. Non-magnetic effects, such as electric-quadrupole coupling of spin-1 and spin- nuclei with their local environment, which broaden and weaken absorption peaks. , an abundant spin-1 nucleus, is difficult to study for this reason. High resolution NMR instead probes molecules using the rarer isotope, which has spin-. Isotopes Many chemical elements can be used for NMR analysis. Commonly used nuclei: , the most commonly used, very useful. Highly abundant, the most sensitive nucleus apart from tritium ( ) which is not commonly used as it is unstable and radioactive. Narrow chemical shift with sharp signals. In particular, the signal is used in magnetic resonance imaging. , commonly used in the form of deuterated solvents to avoid interference of solvents in measurement of . Also used in determining the behavior of lipids in lipid membranes and other solids or liquid crystals as it is a relatively non-perturbing label which can selectively replace . , very sensitive. Low percentage in natural helium, has to be enriched. Used mainly in studies of endohedral fullerenes. , lower sensitivity than . Quartz tubes must be used as borosilicate glass interferes with measurement. , more sensitive than , yields sharper signals. Quartz tubes must be used as borosilicate glass interferes with measurement. , commonly used. There is a low percentage in natural carbon, therefore spectrum acquisition on unlabelled takes a long time. Frequently used for labeling of compounds in synthetic and metabolic studies. Has low sensitivity and wide chemical shift, yields sharp signals. Low percentage makes it useful by preventing spin-spin couplings and makes the spectrum appear less crowded. Slow relaxation means that spectra are not integrable unless long acquisition times are used. , medium sensitivity nucleus with wide chemical shift. Its large quadrupole moment interferes in acquisition of high resolution spectra, limiting usefulness to smaller molecules and functional groups with a high degree of symmetry such as the headgroups of lipids. , relatively commonly used. Can be used for labeling compounds. Nucleus very insensitive but yields sharp signals. Low percentage in natural nitrogen together with low sensitivity requires high concentrations or expensive isotope enrichment. , low sensitivity and very low natural abundance. Used in metabolic and biochemical studies. , relatively commonly measured. Sensitive, yields sharp signals, has wide chemical shift. , 100% of natural phosphorus. Medium sensitivity, wide chemical shift range, yields sharp lines. Used in biochemical studies. and , broad signal. significantly more sensitive, preferred over despite its slightly broader signal. Organic chlorides yield very broad signals, its use is limited to inorganic and ionic chlorides and very small organic molecules. , used in biochemistry to study calcium binding to DNA, proteins, etc. Moderately sensitive, very low natural abundance. , used in studies of catalysts and complexes. Other nuclei (usually used in the studies of their complexes and chemical binding, or to detect presence of the element): , , , , , , , , Applications Medicine The use of nuclear magnetic resonance best known to the general public is magnetic resonance imaging for medical diagnosis and MR Microscopy in research settings, however, it is also widely used in chemical studies, notably in NMR spectroscopy such as proton NMR, carbon-13 NMR, deuterium NMR and phosphorus-31 NMR. Biochemical information can also be obtained from living tissue (e.g. human brain tumours) with the technique known as in vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy or chemical shift NMR Microscopy. These studies are possible because nuclei are surrounded by orbiting electrons, which are also spinning charged particles such as magnets and, so, will partially shield the nuclei. The amount of shielding depends on the exact local environment. For example, a hydrogen bonded to an oxygen will be shielded differently than a hydrogen bonded to a carbon atom. In addition, two hydrogen nuclei can interact via a process known as spin-spin coupling, if they are on the same molecule, which will split the lines of the spectra in a recognizable way. Chemistry By studying the peaks of nuclear magnetic resonance spectra, chemists can determine the structure of many compounds. It can be a very selective technique, distinguishing among many atoms within a molecule or collection of molecules of the same type but which differ only in terms of their local chemical environment. See the articles on carbon-13 NMR and proton NMR for detailed discussions. By studying T2* information, a chemist can determine the identity of a compound by comparing the observed nuclear precession frequencies to known frequencies. Further structural data can be elucidated by observing spin-spin coupling, a process by which the precession frequency of a nucleus can be influenced by the magnetization transfer from nearby nuclei. Spin-spin coupling is most commonly observed in NMR involving common isotopes, such as Hydrogen-1 ( NMR). Because the nuclear magnetic resonance timescale is rather slow, compared to other spectroscopic methods, changing the temperature of a T2* experiment can also give information about fast reactions, such as the Cope rearrangement or about structural dynamics, such as ring-flipping in cyclohexane. At low enough temperatures, a distinction can be made between the axial and equatorial hydrogens in cyclohexane. An example of nuclear magnetic resonance being used in the determination of a structure is that of buckminsterfullerene (often called "buckyballs", composition C60). This now famous form of carbon has 60 carbon atoms forming a sphere. The carbon atoms are all in identical environments and so should see the same internal H field. Unfortunately, buckminsterfullerene contains no hydrogen and so nuclear magnetic resonance has to be used. spectra require longer acquisition times since carbon-13 is not the common isotope of carbon (unlike hydrogen, where is the common isotope). However, in 1990 the spectrum was obtained by R. Taylor and co-workers at the University of Sussex and was found to contain a single peak, confirming the unusual structure of buckminsterfullerene. Non-destructive testing Nuclear magnetic resonance is extremely useful for analyzing samples non-destructively. Radio waves and static magnetic fields easily penetrate many types of matter and anything that is not inherently ferromagnetic. For example, various expensive biological samples, such as nucleic acids, including RNA and DNA, or proteins, can be studied using nuclear magnetic resonance for weeks or months before using destructive biochemical experiments. This also makes nuclear magnetic resonance a good choice for analyzing dangerous samples. Data acquisition in the petroleum industry Another use for nuclear magnetic resonance is data acquisition in the petroleum industry for petroleum and natural gas exploration and recovery. A borehole is drilled into rock and sedimentary strata into which nuclear magnetic resonance logging equipment is lowered. Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis of these boreholes is used to measure rock porosity, estimate permeability from pore size distribution and identify pore fluids (water, oil and gas). These instruments are typically low field NMR spectrometers. Process control NMR has now entered the arena of real-time process control and process optimization in oil refineries and petrochemical plants. Two different types of NMR analysis are utilized to provide real time analysis of feeds and products in order to control and optimize unit operations. Time-domain NMR (TD-NMR) spectrometers operating at low field (2–20 MHz for ) yield free induction decay data that can be used to determine absolute hydrogen content values, rheological information, and component composition. These spectrometers are used in mining, polymer production, cosmetics and food manufacturing as well as coal analysis. High resolution FT-NMR spectrometers operating in the 60 MHz range with shielded permanent magnet systems yield high resolution NMR spectra of refinery and petrochemical streams. The variation observed in these spectra with changing physical and chemical properties is modelled utilizing chemometrics to yield predictions on unknown samples. The prediction results are provided to control systems via analogue or digital outputs from the spectrometer. Earth's field NMR In the Earth's magnetic field, NMR frequencies are in the audio frequency range. EFNMR is typically stimulated by applying a relatively strong dc magnetic field pulse to the sample and, following the pulse, analysing the resulting low frequency alternating magnetic field that occurs in the Earth's magnetic field due to free induction decay (FID). These effects are exploited in some types of magnetometers, EFNMR spectrometers, and MRI imagers. Their inexpensive portable nature makes these instruments valuable for field use and for teaching the principles of NMR and MRI. Quantum computing NMR quantum computing uses the spin states of molecules as qubits. NMR differs from other implementations of quantum computers in that it uses an ensemble of systems, in this case molecules. The ensemble is initialized to be the thermal equilibrium state (see quantum statistical mechanics). Magnetometers Various magnetometers use NMR effects to measure magnetic fields, including proton precession magnetometers (PPM) (also known as proton magnetometers), and Overhauser magnetometers. See also Earth's field NMR. Makers of NMR equipment Major NMR instrument makers include Oxford Instruments, Bruker, SpinLock SRL, General Electric, JEOL, Kimble Chase, Philips, Siemens AG, Varian, Inc. and SpinCore Technologies, Inc. See also Carbon-13 NMR Chemical shift 2D-FT NMRI and Spectroscopy Dynamic Nuclear Polarisation (DNP) Earth's field NMR (EFNMR) Electromagnetism Electron spin/paramagnetic resonance Ferromagnetic resonance Free induction decay (FID) Gyromagnetic ratio Hyperpolarization In vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) J-coupling Larmor equation (Not to be confused with Larmor formula). Larmor precession Low field NMR Magic angle spinning Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Magnetometer NMR spectra database NMR spectroscopy NMR Microscopy Nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR) Overhauser magnetometer Protein dynamics Protein NMR Proton NMR Proton precession magnetometer (PPM) Proton magnetometer Rabi cycle Relaxometry Relaxation (NMR) Solid-state NMR Stark effect Zeeman effect Notes References {{cite journal |author = J.M Tyszka, S.E Fraser, R.E Jacobs |year = 2005 |doi = 10.1016/j.copbio.2004.11.004 |title = Magnetic resonance microscopy: recent advances and applications |journal = Current Opinion in Biotechnology |volume = 16 |issue = 1 |pages=93–99 }} External links NMR/MRI tutorial Richard Ernst, NL - Developer of Multdimensional NMR techniques Freeview video provided by the Vega Science Trust. 2D-FT NMR , MR--Imaging and related Nobel awards Illustrated applications of 2D-FT NMR and MR-Imaging. 'An Interview with Kurt Wuthrich' Freeview video by the Vega Science Trust (Wüthrich was awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2002 "for his development of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for determining the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules in solution"). Acronyms, Abbreviations and Initialisms - Nuclear Magnetic Resonance'' A free interactive simulation of NMR principles Bionmr.com - discussion of NMR applications in biological systems NMR Wiki Open NMR,EPR,MRI web project The International Society of Magnetic Resonance AUREMOL (Universitaet Regensburg) NMR processing software from ACD/Labs for 1D and 2D NMR spectra. DB interface available. NMR Prediction software ACD/NMR Predictors Automated elucidation of chemical structures ACD/Structure Elucidator NMR simulation software QSim Free software for simulation of spin coupled multiplets and DNMR spectra WINDNMR-Pro NMR processing software NMRPipe BMRB BioMagResBank - A repository for experimental data from NMR spectroscopy of proteins, peptides, nucleic acids and small biomolecules. RMN - An NMR data processing program for the Macintosh. Applications of Time-Domain NMR in Process Control Applications of High Resolution FT-NMR in Real-Time Process Control Introduction to Process NMR NMR and Diesel Manufacturing HWB-NMR Henry Wellcome Building for Biomolecular NMR, Birmingham, UK. CARA - Computer Aided Resonance Assignment, freeware, developed at the group of Prof. Kurt Wüthrich CCPN - The Collaborative Computing Project for NMR, based at the University of Cambridge, UK Vanderbilt Structural Biology General site for structural biology at Vanderbilt University. NMR, x-ray crystallography, and computational biology all included. Janocchio Conformation-dependent coupling and NOE prediction for small molecules. Earth's field NMR (EFNMR) Animation of NMR spin precession Article on helium scarcity and potential effects on NMR and MRI communities CERMAX - CEntro de Ressonancia Magnetica Antonio Xavier | Nuclear_magnetic_resonance |@lemmatized pacific:1 northwest:1 national:1 laboratory:2 high:21 magnetic:97 field:54 mhz:3 nmr:152 spectrometer:8 load:2 sample:16 magnet:8 hwb:2 birmingham:2 uk:4 nuclear:52 resonance:55 name:2 give:9 physical:3 phenomenon:5 involve:7 observation:4 specific:4 quantum:15 mechanical:2 property:3 atomic:5 nucleus:54 presence:4 apply:6 external:8 many:10 scientific:1 technique:20 exploit:4 study:21 molecular:10 physic:2 crystal:4 non:15 crystalline:2 material:3 spectroscopy:24 also:31 routinely:2 use:56 advanced:1 medical:2 image:3 imaging:7 mri:8 nuclei:10 contain:5 odd:1 number:13 nucleon:3 intrinsic:2 moment:9 angular:7 momentum:7 word:1 commonly:9 sensitive:8 isotope:17 radioactive:8 although:3 element:3 e:10 g:7 well:6 key:1 feature:2 frequency:47 particular:3 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4,982 | Herb | Basil, a common culinary herb. A(n) herb is a plant that is valued for flavor, scent, or other qualities. Herbs are used in cooking, as medicines, and for spiritual purposes. In American English "herb" is normally pronounced , with the initial "h" silent, but in British English the "h" is sounded: (see American and British English pronunciation differences). Uses Herbs have a variety of uses including culinary, medicinal, or in some cases even spiritual usage. General usage differs between culinary herbs and medicinal herbs. In medicinal or spiritual use any of the parts of the plant might be considered "herbs", including leaves, roots, flowers, seeds, resin, root bark, inner bark (cambium), berries and sometimes the pericarp or other portions of the plant. Culinary herbs Culinary use of the term "herb" typically distinguishes between herbs, from the leafy green parts of a plant, and spices, from other parts of the plant, including seeds, berries, bark, root, fruit, and even occasionally dried leaves or roots. Culinary herbs are distinguished from vegetables in that, like spices, they are used in small amounts and provide flavor rather than substance to food. Some culinary herbs are shrubs (such as rosemary, Rosmarinus officinalis), or trees (such as bay laurel, Laurus nobilis) – this contrasts with botanical herbs, which by definition cannot be woody plants. Some plants are used as both a spice and an herb, such as dill seed and dill weed or coriander seeds and coriander leaves. Medicinal herbs Plants contain phytochemicals that have effects on the body. Throughout history, from the Bible, Koran to other old texts, the medicinal benefits of herbs are quoted. There may be some effects even when consumed in the small levels that typify culinary "spicing", and some herbs are toxic in larger quantities. For instance, some types of herbal extract, such as the extract of St. John's-wort (Hypericum perforatum) or of kava (Piper methysticum) can be used for medical purposes to relieve depression and stress. However, large amounts of these herbs may lead to poisoning, and should be used with caution. One herb-like substance, called Shilajit, may actually help lower blood glucose levels which is especially important for those suffering from diabetes. Herbs have long been used as the basis of traditional Chinese herbal medicine, with usage dating as far back as the first century . Some herbs are used not only for culinary and medicinal purposes, but also for recreational purposes; one such herb is cannabis. Religious herbs Herbs are used in many religions – such as in Christianity (myrrh (Commiphora myrrha), ague root (Aletris farinosa) and frankincense (Boswellia spp)) and in the partially Christianized Anglo-Saxon pagan Nine Herbs Charm. In Hinduism a form of Basil called Tulsi is worshipped as a goddess for its medicinal value since the Vedic times. Many Hindus have a Tulsi plant in front of their houses. Botanical herbs In botanical usage a herb or herbaceous plant is any non-woody plant, regardless of its flavor, scent or other properties. A botanical herb cannot therefore be a woody plant such as a tree or shrub. See also List of plants used as medicine Herbaceous plant Pot herb Apothecary Herbalism Herb garden The Herb Society of America International Herb Association List of herbs and spices Remedy Prehistoric medicine Strewing herb References External links How to Grow Herbs Herb Research Foundation Indian herbalMedicines Chinese Herbal Medicine | Herb |@lemmatized basil:2 common:1 culinary:9 herb:35 n:1 plant:14 value:2 flavor:3 scent:2 quality:1 use:11 cooking:1 medicine:5 spiritual:3 purpose:4 american:2 english:3 normally:1 pronounce:1 initial:1 h:2 silent:1 british:2 sound:1 see:2 pronunciation:1 difference:1 us:2 variety:1 include:3 medicinal:7 case:1 even:3 usage:4 general:1 differs:1 part:3 might:1 consider:1 leaf:3 root:5 flower:1 seed:4 resin:1 bark:3 inner:1 cambium:1 berry:2 sometimes:1 pericarp:1 portion:1 term:1 typically:1 distinguish:2 leafy:1 green:1 spice:5 fruit:1 occasionally:1 dried:1 vegetable:1 like:2 small:2 amount:2 provide:1 rather:1 substance:2 food:1 shrubs:1 rosemary:1 rosmarinus:1 officinalis:1 tree:2 bay:1 laurel:1 laurus:1 nobilis:1 contrast:1 botanical:4 definition:1 cannot:2 woody:3 dill:2 weed:1 coriander:2 contain:1 phytochemical:1 effect:2 body:1 throughout:1 history:1 bible:1 koran:1 old:1 text:1 benefit:1 quote:1 may:3 consume:1 level:2 typify:1 toxic:1 large:2 quantity:1 instance:1 type:1 herbal:3 extract:2 st:1 john:1 wort:1 hypericum:1 perforatum:1 kava:1 piper:1 methysticum:1 medical:1 relieve:1 depression:1 stress:1 however:1 lead:1 poison:1 caution:1 one:2 call:2 shilajit:1 actually:1 help:1 low:1 blood:1 glucose:1 especially:1 important:1 suffer:1 diabetes:1 long:1 basis:1 traditional:1 chinese:2 dating:1 far:1 back:1 first:1 century:1 also:2 recreational:1 cannabis:1 religious:1 many:2 religion:1 christianity:1 myrrh:1 commiphora:1 myrrha:1 ague:1 aletris:1 farinosa:1 frankincense:1 boswellia:1 spp:1 partially:1 christianize:1 anglo:1 saxon:1 pagan:1 nine:1 herbs:2 charm:1 hinduism:1 form:1 tulsi:2 worship:1 goddess:1 since:1 vedic:1 time:1 hindu:1 front:1 house:1 herbaceous:2 non:1 regardless:1 property:1 therefore:1 shrub:1 list:2 pot:1 apothecary:1 herbalism:1 garden:1 society:1 america:1 international:1 association:1 remedy:1 prehistoric:1 strew:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 grow:1 research:1 foundation:1 indian:1 herbalmedicines:1 |@bigram culinary_herb:5 medicinal_herb:2 leafy_green:1 dried_leaf:1 bay_laurel:1 spice_herb:2 herbal_medicine:2 anglo_saxon:1 herbaceous_plant:2 tree_shrub:1 herb_spice:1 external_link:1 |
4,983 | Jean-Paul_Sartre | Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980), commonly known simply as Jean-Paul Sartre, was a French existentialist philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the leading figures in 20th century French philosophy. Biography Early life and thought Jean-Paul Sartre was born and raised in Paris to Jean-Baptiste Sartre, an officer of the French Navy, and Anne-Marie Schweitzer. His mother was of Alsatian origin, and was the grand niece of German Nobel prize laureate Albert Schweitzer. When Sartre was 15 months old, his father died of a fever. Anne-Marie raised him with help from her father, Charles Schweitzer, a high school professor of German, who taught Sartre mathematics and introduced him to classical literature at a very early age. As a teenager in the 1920s, Sartre became attracted to philosophy upon reading Henri Bergson's Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness. He studied and earned a doctorate in philosophy in Paris at the elite École Normale Supérieure, an institution of higher education which was the alma mater for several prominent French thinkers and intellectuals. Sartre was influenced by many aspects of Western philosophy, absorbing ideas from Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger among others. In 1929 at the École Normale, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who studied at the Sorbonne and later went on to become a noted philosopher, writer, and feminist. The two, it is documented, became inseparable and lifelong companions, initiating a romantic relationship, though they were not monogamous . Sartre served as a conscript in the French Army from 1929 to 1931 and he later argued in 1959 that each French person was responsible for the collective crimes during the Algerian War of Independence. Together, Sartre and de Beauvoir challenged the cultural and social assumptions and expectations of their upbringings, which they considered bourgeois, in both lifestyle and thought. The conflict between oppressive, spiritually-destructive conformity (mauvaise foi, literally, "bad faith") and an "authentic" way of "being" became the dominant theme of Sartre's early work, a theme embodied in his principal philosophical work L'Être et le Néant (Being and Nothingness) (1943). Sartre's introduction to his philosophy is his work Existentialism is a Humanism (1946), originally presented as a lecture. Sartre and World War II In 1939 Sartre was drafted into the French army, where he served as a meteorologist. He was captured by German troops in 1940 in Padoux, and he spent nine months as a prisoner of war — in Nancy and finally in Stalag 12D, Trier, where he wrote his first theatrical piece, Barionà, fils du tonnerre, a drama concerning Christmas. It was during this period of confinement that Sartre read Heidegger's Sein und Zeit later to become a major influence on his own essay on phenomenological ontology. Due to poor health (he claimed that his poor eyesight affected his balance) Sartre was released in April 1941. Given civilian status, he recovered his position as a teacher of Lycée Pasteur near Paris, settled at the Hotel Mistral near Montparnasse at Paris and was given a new position at Lycée Condorcet, replacing a Jewish teacher who had been forbidden to teach by Vichy law. After coming back to Paris in May 1941, he participated in the founding of the underground group Socialisme et Liberté with other writers Simone de Beauvoir, Merleau-Ponty, Jean-Toussaint, Dominique Desanti, Jean Kanapa, and École Normale students. In August, Sartre and Beauvoir went to the French Riviera seeking the support of André Gide and André Malraux. However, both Gide and Malraux were undecided, and this may have been the cause of Sartre's disappointment and discouragement. Socialisme et liberté soon dissolved and Sartre decided to write, instead of being involved in active resistance. He then wrote Being and Nothingness, The Flies and No Exit, none of which were censored by the Germans, and also contributed to both legal and illegal literary magazines. After August 1944 and the Liberation of Paris, he wrote Anti-Semite and Jew. In the book he tries to explain the etiology of hate by analyzing antisemitic hate. Sartre was a very active contributor to Combat, a newspaper created during the clandestine period by Albert Camus, a philosopher and author who held similar beliefs. Sartre and Beauvoir remained friends with Camus until he turned away from communism, a schism that eventually divided them in 1951, after the publication of Camus' The Rebel. Later, while Sartre was labelled by some authors as a resistant, the French philosopher and resistant Vladimir Jankelevitch criticized Sartre's lack of political commitment during the German occupation, and interpreted his further struggles for liberty as an attempt to redeem himself. According to Camus, Sartre was a writer who resisted, not a resistor who wrote. When the war ended Sartre established Les Temps Modernes (Modern Times), a monthly literary and political review, and started writing full-time as well as continuing his political activism. He would draw on his war experiences for his great trilogy of novels, Les Chemins de la Liberté (The Roads to Freedom) (1945–1949). Politics Jean Paul Sartre (middle) and Simone de Beauvoir (left) meeting with Che Guevara (right) in Cuba, 1960 The first period of Sartre's career, defined in large part by Being and Nothingness (1943), gave way to a second period as a politically engaged activist and intellectual. His 1948 work Les Mains Sales (Dirty Hands) in particular explored the problem of being both an intellectual at the same time as becoming "engaged" politically. He embraced communism, denied the purgings of Stalin, had an affair with a KGB-agent New studies agree that Beauvoir is eclipsing Sartre as a philosopher and writer The Independent May 25, 2008. Retrieved on January 4, 2009. and defended existentialism, though never officially joining the Communist Party, and took a prominent role in the struggle against French rule in Algeria. He became perhaps the most eminent supporter of the FLN in the Algerian War and was one of the signatory of the Manifeste des 121. Furthermore, he had an Algerian mistress, Arlette Elkaïm, who became his adopted daughter in 1965. He opposed the Vietnam War and, along with Bertrand Russell and others, organized a tribunal intended to expose U.S. war crimes, which became known as the Russell Tribunal in 1967. Its effect was limited. As a fellow-traveller, Sartre spent much of the rest of his life attempting to reconcile his existentialist ideas about free will with communist principles, which taught that socio-economic forces beyond our immediate, individual control play a critical role in shaping our lives. His major defining work of this period, the Critique de la raison dialectique (Critique of Dialectical Reason) appeared in 1960 (a second volume appeared posthumously). In Critique, Sartre set out to give Marxism a more vigorous intellectual defense than it had received up until then; he ended by concluding that Marx's notion of "class" as an objective entity was fallacious. Sartre's emphasis on the humanist values in the early works of Marx led to a dispute with the leading Communist intellectual in France in the 1960s, Louis Althusser, who claimed that the ideas of the young Marx were decisively superseded by the "scientific" system of the later Marx. Sartre went to Cuba in the '60s to meet Fidel Castro and spent a great deal of time philosophizing with Ernesto "Che" Guevara. After Guevara's death, Sartre would declare him to be "not only an intellectual but also the most complete human being of our age" "Remembering Che Guevara", 9 October 2006, The International News, by Prof Khwaja Masud and the "era's most perfect man." Amazon Review of: The Bolivian Diary: Authorized Edition Sartre would also compliment Che Guevara by professing that "he lived his words, spoke his own actions and his story and the story of the world ran parallel." HeyChe.org - People about Che Guevara Following the Munich massacre in which eleven Israeli Olympians were killed by the Palestinian organization Black September in Munich 1972, Sartre said terrorism "is a terrible weapon but the oppressed poor have no others." Sartre also found it "perfectly scandalous that the Munich attack should be judged by the French press and a section of public opinion as an intolerable scandal." Sartre: The Philosopher of the Twentieth Century, Bernard-Henri Lévy, p.343). However, Sartre was generally supportive of Israel and Zionism. Said, Edward, "My Encounter with Sartre," London Review of Books 1 June 2000. During a collective hunger strike in 1974, Sartre visited Red Army Faction leader Andreas Baader in Stammheim Prison and criticized the harsh conditions of imprisonment. The Slow Death of Andreas Baader Late life and death In 1964, Sartre renounced literature in a witty and sardonic account of the first ten years of his life, Les mots (Words). The book is an ironic counterballast to Marcel Proust, whose reputation had unexpectedly eclipsed that of André Gide (who had provided the model of littérature engagée for Sartre's generation). Literature, Sartre concluded, functioned ultimately as a bourgeois substitute for real commitment in the world. He was the first Nobel Laureate to voluntarily decline the Nobel Prize, and he had previously refused the Légion d'honneur, in 1945. The prize was announced 1964 22 October; on 14 October, Sartre had written a letter to the Nobel Institute, asking to be removed from the list of nominees, and that he would not accept the prize if awarded, but the letter went unread; Histoire de lettres Jean-Paul Sartre refuse le Prix Nobel en 1964, Elodie Bessé on 23 October, Le Figaro published a statement by Sartre explaining his refusal. However, Lars Gyllensten, long time member of the Nobel prize committee has claimed in his autobiography that Sartre later tried to access the prize money, but was subsequently turned down. Allegedly, the French philosopher in 1975 wrote a letter to the Nobel Prize committee saying that he had changed his mind about the prize, at least when it came to the money. At which point the prize committee is said to have declined the request, stating that the funds had been reinvested in the Nobel institute. Though his name was then a household word (as was "existentialism" during the tumultuous 1960s), Sartre remained a simple man with few possessions, actively committed to causes until the end of his life, such as the student revolution strikes in Paris during the summer of 1968 during which he was arrested for civil disobedience. President Charles de Gaulle intervened and pardoned him, commenting that "you don't arrest Voltaire." "Superstar of the Mind", by Tom Bishop in New York Times 7 June 1987 In 1975, when asked how he would like to be remembered, Sartre replied: "I would like [people] to remember Nausea, [my plays] No Exit and The Devil and the Good Lord, and then my two philosophical works, more particularly the second one, Critique of Dialectical Reason. Then my essay on Genet, Saint Genet...If these are remembered, that would be quite an achievement, and I don't ask for more. As a man, if a certain Jean-Paul Sartre is remembered, I would like people to remember the milieu or historical situation in which I lived,...how I lived in it, in terms of all the aspirations which I tried to gather up within myself." Sartre's physical condition deteriorated, partially due to the merciless pace of work (and using drugs for this reason, e.g., amphetamine) he put himself through during the writing of the Critique and the last project of his life, a massive analytical biography of Gustave Flaubert (The Family Idiot), both of which remained unfinished. He died 15 April 1980 in Paris from an oedema of the lung. Sartre's grave in the Cimetière de Montparnasse Sartre lies buried in Cimetière de Montparnasse in Paris. His funeral was well attended, with estimates of the number of mourners along the two hour march ranging from 15 000 to over 50 000. Finding God Sartre's atheism was foundational for his style of existentialist philosophy. Sartre for much of his life tried to draw all possible conclusions from the idea that there is no God. "Man," he wrote in 1943, "is a useless passion." He also wrote "everything that exists is born for no reason, carries on living through weakness, and dies by accident." However as he matured Sartre stance on God changed till he explained; ‘I do not feel that I am the product of chance, a speck of dust in the universe, but someone who was expected, prepared, prefigured. In short, a being whom only a Creator could put here; and this idea of a creating hand refers to God.’ The 1996 issue of Wired magazine reports: “Everything you know about Jean-Paul Sartre is wrong. Hope Now: The 1980 Interviews, a book full of conversations between Sartre and his assistant Benny Levy, conducted shortly before his death, reveals a philosopher who had abandoned leftism and his friends for messianic Judaism.” Thought The basis of Sartre's existentialism can be found in The Transcendence of the Ego. To begin with, the thing-in-itself is infinite and overflowing. Sartre refers to any direct consciousness of the thing-in-itself as a "pre-reflective consciousness." Any attempt to describe, understand, historicize etc. the thing-in-itself, Sartre calls "reflective consciousness." There is no way for the reflective consciousness to subsume the pre-reflective, and so reflection is fated to a form of anxiety, i.e. the human condition. The reflective consciousness in all its forms, (scientific, artistic or otherwise) can only limit the thing-in-itself by virtue of its attempt to understand or describe it. It follows, therefore, that any attempt at self-knowledge (self-consciousness - a reflective consciousness of an overflowing infinite) is a construct that fails no matter how often it is attempted. Consciousness is consciousness of itself insofar as it is consciousness of a transcendent object. The same holds true about knowledge of the "Other." The "Other" (meaning simply beings or objects that are not the self) is a construct of reflective consciousness. A volitional entity must be careful to understand this more as a form of warning than as an ontological statement. However, there is an implication of solipsism here that Sartre considers fundamental to any coherent description of the human condition. Sartre, 1936 Transcendence of the Ego, Williams and Kirkpatrick, 1957 pp. 98-106 translation from "La transcendence de l"ego... Sartre overcomes this solipsism by a kind of ritual. Self consciousness needs "the Other" to prove (display) its own existence. It has a "masochistic desire" to be limited, i.e. limited by the reflective consciousness of another subject. This is expressed metaphorically in the famous line of dialogue from No Exit, "Hell is other people." The main idea of Jean-Paul Sartre is that we are, as humans, "condemned to be free." Existentialism and Humanism This theory relies upon his atheism, and is formed using the example of the paper-knife. Sartre says that if one considered a paper-knife, one would assume that the creator would have had a plan for it: an essence. Sartre said that human beings have no essence before their existence because, there is no Creator. Thus: "existence precedes essence". Existentialism and Humanism, page 27 So, and just for that, the Sartrian man with his freedom will become a god, but he will remain always only a bankrupt god. La Nausée and existentialism As a junior lecturer at the Lycée du Havre in 1938, Sartre wrote the novel La Nausée (Nausea) which serves in some ways as a manifesto of existentialism and remains one of his most famous books. Taking a page from the German phenomenological movement, he believed that our ideas are the product of experiences of real-life situations, and that novels and plays can well describe such fundamental experiences, have as much value as do discursive essays for the elaboration of philosophical theories. With such purpose, this novel concerns a dejected researcher (Roquentin) in a town similar to Le Havre who becomes starkly conscious of the fact that inanimate objects and situations remain absolutely indifferent to his existence. As such, they show themselves to be resistant to whatever significance human consciousness might perceive in them. This indifference of "things in themselves" (closely linked with the later notion of "being-in-itself" in his Being and Nothingness) has the effect of highlighting all the more the freedom Roquentin has to perceive and act in the world; everywhere he looks, he finds situations imbued with meanings which bear the stamp of his existence. Hence the "nausea" referred to in the title of the book; all that he encounters in his everyday life is suffused with a pervasive, even horrible, taste — specifically, his freedom. The book takes the term from Friedrich Nietzsche's Thus Spoke Zarathustra, where it is used in the context of the often nauseating quality of existence. No matter how much Roquentin longs for something else or something different, he cannot get away from this harrowing evidence of his engagement with the world. The novel also acts as a terrifying realization of some of Kant's fundamental ideas; Sartre uses the idea of the autonomy of the will (that morality is derived from our ability to choose in reality; the ability to choose being derived from human freedom; embodied in the famous saying "Condemned to be free") as a way to show the world's indifference to the individual. The freedom that Kant exposed is here a strong burden, for the freedom to act towards objects is ultimately useless, and the practical application of Kant's ideas prove to be bitterly rejected. The stories in Le Mur (The Wall) emphasize the arbitrary aspects of the situations people find themselves in and the absurdity of their attempts to deal rationally with them. A whole school of absurd literature subsequently developed. Sartre and literature During the 1940s and 1950s, Sartre's existentialism became a favoured philosophy of the beatnik generation. This is debatable. In Desolation Angels, Kerouac implies that his fantasy of Parisian life had been tarnished by Sartre and existentialism. Sartre's views were counterposed to those of Albert Camus in the popular imagination. In 1948, the Roman Catholic Church placed his complete works on the Index of prohibited books. Most of his plays are richly symbolic and serve as a means of conveying his philosophy. The best-known, Huis-clos (No Exit), contains the famous line "L'enfer, c'est les autres", usually translated as "Hell is other people". Aside from the impact of Nausea, Sartre's major contribution to literature was the The Roads to Freedom trilogy which charts the progression of how World War II affected Sartre's ideas. In this way, Roads to Freedom presents a less theoretical and more practical approach to existentialism. Sartre as a public intellectual While the broad focus of Sartre's life revolved around the notion of human freedom, he began a sustained intellectual participation in more public matters in 1945. Prior to this -- before the Second World War -- he was content with the role of an apolitical liberal intellectual: "Now teaching at a lycée in Laon [...] Sartre made his headquarters the Dome café at the crossing of Montparnasse and Raspail boulevards. He attended plays, read novels, and dined [with] women. He wrote. And he was published" (Gerassi 1989: 134). Sartre and his lifelong companion, Simone de Beauvoir, existed, in her words, where "the world about us was a mere backdrop against which our private lives were played out" (de Beauvoir 1958: 339). Sartre portrayed his own pre-war situation in the character Mathieu, chief protagonist in the The Age of Reason, which was completed during Sartre's first year as a soldier in the Second World War. By forging Mathieu as an absolute rationalist, analyzing every situation, and functioning entirely on reason, he removed any strands of authentic content from his character and as a result, Mathieu could "recognize no allegiance except to [him]self" (Sartre 1942: 13), though he realized that without "responsibility for my own existence, it would seem utterly absurd to go on existing" (Sartre 1942: 14). Mathieu's commitment was only to himself, never to the outside world. Mathieu was restrained from action each time because he had no reasons for acting. Sartre then, for these reasons, was not compelled to participate in the Spanish Civil War, and it took the invasion of his own country to motivate him into action and to provide a crystallization of these ideas. It was the war that gave him a purpose beyond himself, and the atrocities of the war can be seen as the turning point in his public stance. The war opened Sartre's eyes to a political reality he had not yet understood until forced into continual engagement with it: "the world itself destroyed Sartre's illusions about isolated self-determining individuals and made clear his own personal stake in the events of the time" (Aronson 1980: 108). Returning to Paris in 1941 he formed the "Socialisme et Liberté" resistance group. In 1943, after a lack of Communist support forced the disbandment of the group, Sartre joined a writers' Resistance group Aronson, Ronald (2004). Camus & Sartre: The Story of a Friendship and the Quarrel That Ended It. University of Chicago Press. p. 30. ISBN 0226027961, 9780226027968. , in which he remained an active participant until the end of the war. He continued to write ferociously, and it was due to this "crucial experience of war and captivity that Sartre began to try to build up a positive moral system and to express it through literature" (Thody 1964: 21). The symbolic initiation of this new phase in Sartre’s work is packaged in the introduction he wrote for a new journal, Les Temps Modernes, in October 1945. Here he aligned the journal, and thus himself, with the Left and called for writers to express their political commitment (Aronson 1980: 107). Yet, this alignment was indefinite, directed more to the concept of the Left than a specific party of the Left. Sartre's philosophy lent itself to his being a public intellectual. He envisaged culture as a very fluid concept; neither pre-determined, nor definitely finished; instead, in true existential fashion, "culture was always conceived as a process of continual invention and re-invention". This marks Sartre, the intellectual, as a pragmatist, willing to move and shift stance along with events. He did not dogmatically follow a cause other than the belief in human freedom, preferring to retain a pacifist's objectivity. It is this over-arching theme of freedom that means his work "subverts the bases for distinctions among the disciplines" (Kirsner 2003: 13). Therefore, he was able to hold knowledge across a vast array of subjects: "the international world order, the political and economic organisation of contemporary society, especially France, the institutional and legal frameworks that regulate the lives of ordinary citizens, the educational system, the media networks that control and disseminate information. Sartre systematically refused to keep quiet about what he saw as inequalities and injustices in the world" (Scriven 1999: xii). Moreover, his views were divergent from the prevailing political situation. The most clear example of this is in his post-war attitude to the French Communist Party (PCF), who, following Liberation were infuriated by Sartre's philosophy and opposition, which appeared to lure young French men and women away from the ideology of Marxism and into Sartre’s own existentialism (Scriven 1999: 13). Here we see Sartre telling his own truths to the establishment, a fundamental role of the public intellectual. His troubled and varied relationship with Communism -- and Marxism in particular -- was a consequence of their doctrines that would have prevented his notion of radical freedom. And to align himself too rigidly with any political movement would have circumscribed the very freedom he was searching for. This search is most evident in his earlier writings and, especially after the Second World War, in his public activities, which he had begun to regard as more significant upon recognition of the futility of words in contrast to action. (Kirsner 2003: 60). In the aftermath of a war that had for the first time properly engaged Sartre in political matters, he set forth a body of work which "reflected on virtually every important theme of his early thought and began to explore alternative solutions to the problems posed there" (Aronson 1980: 121). The greatest difficulties that he and all public intellectuals of the time faced were the increasing technological aspects of the world that were outdating the printed word as a form of expression. In Sartre's opinion, the "traditional bourgeois literary forms remain innately superior", but there is "a recognition that the new technological 'mass media' forms must be embraced if Sartre's ethical and political achievements as an authentic, committed intellectual are to be achieved: the demystification of bourgeois political practices and the Sartre's raising of the consciousness, both political and cultural, of the working class" (Scriven 1993: 8). The struggle for Sartre was against the monopolising moguls who were beginning to take over the media and destroy the role of the intellectual. His attempts to reach a public were mediated by these powers, and it was often these powers he had to campaign against. He was skilled enough, however, to circumvent some of these issues by his interactive approach to the various forms of media, advertising his radio interviews in a newspaper column for example, and vice versa. (Scriven 1993: 22). The role of a public intellectual can lead to the individual placing himself in danger as he engages with disputed topics. In Sartre's case, this was witnessed in June 1961, when a plastic bomb exploded in the entrance of his apartment building. His public support of Algerian self-determination at the time had led Sartre to become a target of the right-wing campaign of terror that mounted as the colonists' position deteriorated. A similar occurrence took place the next year and he had begun to receive threatening letters from Oran. (Aronson 1980: 157). Sartre clearly held himself and his kind in high regard, pronouncing the intellectuals to be the moral conscience of their age, their task being to observe the political and social situation of the moment, and to speak out freely in accordance with their consciences. (Scriven 1993: 119). Selected bibliography L'Imagination (Imagination: A Psychological Critique), 1936 La Transcendence de l'égo (The Transcendence of the Ego), 1937 La Nausée (Nausea), 1938 Le Mur (The Wall), 1939 Esquisse d'une théorie des émotions (Sketch for a Theory of the Emotions), 1939 L'Imaginaire (The Imaginary), 1940, lit. "The Unconscious" Les Mouches (The Flies), 1943 - a modern version of the Oresteia L'Être et le néant (Being and Nothingness), 1943 Réflexions sur la question juive (Anti-Semite and Jew; literally, Reflections on the Jewish Question), 1943 Huis-clos (No Exit), 1944 Les Chemins de la liberté (The Roads to Freedom) trilogy, comprising: L'Âge de raison (The Age of Reason), 1945 Le Sursis (The Reprieve), 1947 La Mort dans l'Âme (Troubled Sleep, title formerly translated as Iron in the Soul, literally "Death in Spirit"), 1949 Morts sans sépulture (Deaths without burial; aka The Victors; Men Without Shadows in English), 1946 L'Existentialisme est un humanisme (Existentialism is a Humanism), 1946 La Putain respectueuse (The Respectful Prostitute) 1946 Qu'est ce que la littérature? (What is literature?), 1947 Baudelaire, 1947 Situations, 1947 –1965 Les Mains sales (Dirty Hands), 1948 "Orphée Noir" (Black Orpheus), introduction to Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache. edited by Léopold Sédar Senghor, 1948 Le Diable et le bon dieu (The Devil and the Good Lord), 1951 Les Jeux sont faits (The Game is Up), 1952 Saint Genet, Actor and Martyr, 1952 Kean (adaptation of Alexandre Dumas, père's play) 1953, produced Paris 1954, revived London 2007 Nekrassov, 1955 Existentialism and Human Emotions, 1957 The Problem of Method, 1957 Les Séquestrés d'Altona (The Condemned of Altona), 1959 Critique de la raison dialectique (Critique of Dialectical Reason), 1960 "Preface" to Frantz Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth, 1961 Search for a Method (English translation of preface to Critique, Vol. I), 1962 Colonialism and Neocolonialism, 1964 Les Mots (The Words), 1964, autobiographical L'Idiot de la famille (The Family Idiot), 1971–1972 - on Gustave Flaubert Cahiers pour une morale (Notebooks for Ethics), 1983, 1947-48 notes on ethics Les Carnets de la drôle de guerre: Novembre 1939 - Mars 1940 (War Diaries: Notebooks from a Phony War 1939-1940), 1984, notebooks from Sartre's time in the Phony War of 1939-1940 See also Existentialism Atheist existentialism Wilfrid Desan Sources Aronson, Ronald (1980) Jean-Paul Sartre - Philosophy in the World. London: NLB Gerassi, John (1989) Jean-Paul Sartre: Hated Conscience of His Century. Volume 1: Protestant or Protester? Chicago: University of Chicago Press Kirsner, Douglas (2003) The Schizoid World of Jean-Paul Sartre and R.D. Lang. New York: Karnac Scriven, Michael (1993) Sartre and The Media. London: MacMillan Press Ltd Scriven, Michael (1999) Jean-Paul Sartre: Politics and Culture in Postwar France. London: MacMillan Press Ltd Thody, Philip (1964) Jean-Paul Sartre. London: Hamish Hamilton References Further reading Annie Cohen-Solal, Sartre 1905-80, 1985. Simone de Beauvoir, Adieux: A Farewell to Sartre, New York: Pantheon Books, 1984. Thomas Flynn, Sartre and Marxist Existentialism: The Test Case of Collective Responsibility, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. John Gerassi, Jean-Paul Sartre: Hated Conscience of His Century, Volume 1: Protestant or Protester?, University of Chicago Press, 1989. ISBN 0226287971. R. D. Laing and D. G. Cooper, Reason and Violence: A Decade of Sartre's Philosophy, 1950-1960, New York: Pantheon, 1971. Suzanne Lilar, A propos de Sartre et de l'amour, Paris: Grasset, 1967. Axel Madsen, Hearts and Minds: The Common Journey of Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre, William Morrow & Co, 1977. Heiner Wittmann, L'esthétique de Sartre. Artistes et intellectuels, translated from the German by N. Weitemeier and J. Yacar, Éditions L'Harmattan (Collection L'ouverture philosophique), Paris 2001. Jean-Paul Sartre and Benny Levy, Hope Now: The 1980 Interviews, translated by Adrian van den Hoven, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. P.V. Spade, Class Lecture Notes on Jean-Paul Sartre's Being and Nothingness. 1996. H. Wittmann, Sartre und die Kunst. Die Porträtstudien von Tintoretto bis Flaubert, Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1996. H. Wittmann, Sartre and Camus in Aesthetics. The Challenge of Freedom.Ed. by Dirk Hoeges. Dialoghi/Dialogues. Literatur und Kultur Italiens und Frankreichs, vol. 13, Frankfurt/M: Peter Lang 2009 ISBN 978-3-631-58693-8 Wilfrid Desan, The Tragic Finale: An Essay on the philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre (1954) External links By Sartre Full Ebooks in French on the website 'La philosophie' Americans and Their Myths Sartre's essay in The Nation (18 October 1947 issue) Sartre Internet Archive on Marxists.org French Audiobook (mp3), incipit of The Words (1964), read aloud in French by IncipitBlog. On Sartre Groupe d'études sartriennes, Paris Sartre’s Critique of Dialectical Reason essay by Andy Blunden Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980): Existentialism Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Jean-Paul Sartre (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Sartre.org Articles, archives, and forum Texts on Sartre Sartre Rubric on the website of the Sorbonne Marx Seminar "The Second Coming Of Sartre", John Lichfield, The Independent, 17 June 2005 The World According to Sartre essay by Roger Kimball Reclaiming Sartre A review of Ian Birchall, Sartre Against Stalinism Biography and quotes of Sartre Living with Mother. Sartre and the problem of maternity, Benedict O'Donohoe, International WebjournalSens Public. L’image de la femme dans le théâtre de Jean-Paul Sartre - Jean-Paul Sartre:sexiste? by Stephanie Rupert Pierre Michel, Jean-Paul Sartre et Octave Mirbeau. 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4,984 | Labrador_duck | The Labrador Duck, Camptorhynchus labradorius, was a striking black and white eider-like sea duck that was never known to be common, and is believed to be the first bird to become extinct in North America after 1500. The last Labrador Duck is believed to have been seen at Elmira, New York on December 12, 1878; the last preserved specimen was shot in 1875 on Long Island. It was thought to breed in Labrador, although no nests were ever described, and it wintered from Nova Scotia to as far south as Chesapeake Bay. Other names The Labrador Duck was also known as a Pied Duck, a vernacular name that it shared with the Surf Scoter and the Common Goldeneye (and even the American Oystercatcher), a fact that has led to difficulties in interpreting old records of these species, and also as Skunk Duck. Both names refer to the male's striking white/black piebald coloration. Yet another common name was Sand Shoal Duck, referring to its habit of feeding in shallow water. The closest evolutionary relatives of the Labrador Duck are apparently the scoters (Melanitta) (Livezey, 1995). Diet The Labrador Duck fed on small molluscs, and the structure of the bill was highly modified from that of most ducks, having a wide, flattened tip with numerous lamellae inside. In this way it is considered an ecological counterpart of the North Pacific/North Asian Steller's Eider. Another, completely unrelated, duck with similar (but even more specialized) bill morphology is the Australian Pink-eared Duck, which feeds largely on plankton, but also mollusks; the condition in the Labrador Duck probably resembled that in the Blue Duck most in outward appearance. Extinction The extinction of the Labrador Duck is still not fully explained. Although hunted for food, this duck was considered to taste bad, would rot quickly and fetched a low price. Consequently, it was not sought much by hunters. However, it is thought that the eggs may have been over-harvested, and it may have been subject to depredations by the feather trade in its breeding area as well. Another possible factor in the bird's extinction was the decline in mussels and other shellfish on which they are believed to have fed in their winter quarters, due to growth of population and industry on the Eastern Seaboard. Although all sea ducks readily feed on shallow-water molluscs, no Western Atlantic bird species seems to have been as dependent on such food as much as the Labrador Duck (Bangs in Phillips, 1926). Image gallery References Database entry includes justification for why this species is listed as extinct Cokinos, Christopher (2000): Hope is the Thing with Feathers. New York: Putnam, pp. 281-304. ISBN 1-58542-006-9 Ducher, William (1894): The Labrador Duck - another specimen, with additional data respecting extant specimens. Auk 11: 4-12. PDF fulltext Forbush, Edward Howe (1912): A History of the Game Birds, Wild-Fowl and Shore Birds of Massachusetts and Adjacent States. Boston: Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, pp. 411-416. Fuller, Errol (2001): Extinct Birds, Comstock Publishing, ISBN 0-8014-3954-X, pp. 85-87. Livezey, Bradley C. (1995): Phylogeny and Evolutionary Ecology of Modern Seaducks (Anatidae: Mergini). Condor 97: 233-255. PDF fulltext Phillips, John C. (1922-1926): A Natural History of Ducks. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, volume 4, pp. 57-63. Madge, Steve & Burn, Hilary (1988): Waterfowl. An identification guide to the ducks, geese and swans of the world.'' Boston: Houghton Mifflin, pp. 265-266. ISBN 0-395-46727-6 External links BirdLife Species Factsheet IUCN Red List The Labrador Duck from John James Audubon's Birds of America The Very Last Labrador Duck - Elmira, New York Environment Canada Swans, Geese, and Ducks of Canada Marine Extinction Database University of East Anglia, UK 3D view of specimens RMNH 110.083 and RMNH 110.084 at Naturalis, Leiden (requires QuickTime browser plugin). 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4,985 | John_Stuart_Mill | John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 8 May 1873), British philosopher, political theorist, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential classical liberal thinker of the 19th century. He was an exponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by Jeremy Bentham, although his conception of it was very different from Bentham's. Biography John Stuart Mill was born in the Pentonville area of London, the eldest son of the Scottish philosopher and historian James Mill. John Stuart was educated by his father, with the advice and assistance of Jeremy Bentham and Francis Place. He was given an extremely rigorous upbringing, and was deliberately shielded from association with children his own age other than his siblings. His father, a follower of Bentham and an adherent of associationism, had as his explicit aim to create a genius intellect that would carry on the cause of utilitarianism and its implementation after he and Bentham were dead. Mill was a notably precocious child; at the age of three he was taught Greek. By the age of eight he had read Aesop's Fables, Xenophon's Anabasis, and the whole of Herodotus, and was acquainted with Lucian, Diogenes Laërtius, Isocrates and six dialogues of Plato. He had also read a great deal of history in English and had been taught arithmetic. At the age of eight he began learning Latin, Euclid, and algebra, and was appointed schoolmaster to the younger children of the family. His main reading was still history, but he went through all the commonly taught Latin and Greek authors and by the age of ten could read Plato and Demosthenes with ease. His father also thought that it was important for Mill to study and compose poetry. One of Mill's earliest poetry compositions was a continuation of the Iliad. In his spare time, he also enjoyed reading about natural sciences and popular novels, such as Don Quixote and Robinson Crusoe. His father's History of India was published in 1818; immediately thereafter, about the age of twelve, Mill began a thorough study of the scholastic logic, at the same time reading Aristotle's logical treatises in the original language. In the following year he was introduced to political economy and studied Adam Smith and David Ricardo with his father, ultimately completing their classical economic view of factors of production. Mill's comptes rendus of his daily economy lessons helped his father in writing Elements of Political Economy, which became the leading textbook exposition of doctrinaire Ricardian economics. Ricardo, who was a close friend of his father, used to invite the young Mill to his house for a walk in order to talk about political economy. At age fourteen, Mill stayed a year in France with the family of Sir Samuel Bentham, brother of Jeremy Bentham. The mountain scenery he saw led to a lifelong taste for mountain landscapes. The lively and friendly way of life of the French also left a deep impression on him. In Montpellier, he attended the winter courses on chemistry, zoology, logic of the Faculté des Sciences, as well as taking a course of the higher mathematics. While coming and going from France, he stayed in Paris for a few days in the house of the renowned economist Jean-Baptiste Say, a friend of Mill's father. There he met many leaders of the Liberal party, as well as other notable Parisians, including Henri Saint-Simon. This intensive study however had injurious effects on Mill's mental health, and state of mind. At the age of twenty Mill, J.S. Autobiography, Part V (1873). he suffered a nervous breakdown. As explained in chapter V of his Autobiography, this was caused by the great physical and mental arduousness of his studies which had suppressed any feelings he might have developed normally in childhood. Nevertheless, this depression eventually began to dissipate, as he began to find solace in the Mémoires of Jean-François Marmontel and the poetry of William Wordsworth. Mill refused to study at Oxford University or Cambridge University, because he refused to take Anglican orders from the "white devil". Capaldi, Nicholas. John Stuart Mill: A Biography. p.33, Cambridge, 2004, ISBN 0-521-62024-4. Instead he followed his father to work for the British East India Company until 1858. Harriet Taylor In 1851, Mill married Harriet Taylor after 21 years of an intimate friendship. Taylor was married when they met, and their relationship was close but chaste during the years before her first husband died. Brilliant in her own right, Taylor was a significant influence on Mill's work and ideas during both friendship and marriage. His relationship with Harriet Taylor reinforced Mill's advocacy of women's rights. He cites her influence in his final revision of On Liberty, which was published shortly after her death, and she appears to be obliquely referenced in The Subjection of Women. Taylor died in 1858 after developing severe lung congestion, only seven years into their marriage. Between the years 1865-1868 Mill served as Lord Rector of the University of St. Andrews. During the same period, 1865-8, he was a Member of Parliament for City and Westminster Ibid. p.321-322 , and was often associated with the Liberal Party. During his time as an MP, Mill advocated easing the burdens on Ireland, and became the first person in Parliament to call for women to be given the right to vote. Mill became a strong advocate of women's rights and such political and social reforms as proportional representation, labor unions, and farm cooperatives. In 1869, he argued for the right of women to vote. In Considerations on Representative Government, Mill called for various reforms of Parliament and voting, especially proportional representation, the Single Transferable Vote, and the extension of suffrage. He was godfather to Bertrand Russell. He died in Avignon, France, in 1873. Five people came to his burial. Mill is buried alongside his wife. Works Theory of liberty Mill's On Liberty addresses the nature and limits of the power that can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual. One argument that Mill develops further than any previous philosopher is the harm principle. The harm principle holds that each individual has the right to act as he wants, so long as these actions do not harm others. If the action is self-regarding, that is, if it only directly affects the person undertaking the action, then society has no right to intervene, even if it feels the actor is harming himself. He does argue, however, that individuals are prevented from doing lasting, serious harm to themselves or their property by the harm principle. Because no-one exists in isolation, harm done to oneself also harms others, and destroying property deprives the community as well as oneself. Mill, John Stuart "On Liberty" Penguin Classics, 2006 ISBN 978-0-14-144147-4 pages 90-91 Mill excuses those who are "incapable of self-government" from this principle, such as young children or those living in "backward states of society". Mill argues that despotism is an acceptable form of government for those societies that are "backward", as long as the despot has the best interests of the people at heart, because of the barriers to spontaneous progress. Mill, John Stuart "On Liberty" Penguin Classics, 2006 ISBN 978-0-14-144147-4 page 16 Though this principle seems clear, there are a number of complications. For example, Mill explicitly states that "harms" may include acts of omission as well as acts of commission. Thus, failing to rescue a drowning child counts as a harmful act, as does failing to pay taxes, or failing to appear as a witness in court. All such harmful omissions may be regulated, according to Mill. By contrast, it does not count as harming someone if — without force or fraud — the affected individual consents to assume the risk: thus one may permissibly offer unsafe employment to others, provided there is no deception involved. (Mill does, however, recognize one limit to consent: society should not permit people to sell themselves into slavery). In these and other cases, it is important to keep in mind that the arguments in On Liberty are grounded on the principle of Utility, and not on appeals to natural rights. The question of what counts as a self-regarding action and what actions, whether of omission or commission, constitute harmful actions subject to regulation, continues to exercise interpreters of Mill. It is important to emphasize that Mill did not consider giving offense to constitute "harm"; an action could not be restricted because it violated the conventions or morals of a given society. The idea of 'offense' causing harm and thus being restricted was later developed by Joel Feinberg in his 'offense principle' essentially an extension of J.S.Mill's 'harm principle'. On Liberty involves an impassioned defense of free speech. Mill argues that free discourse is a necessary condition for intellectual and social progress. We can never be sure, he contends, that a silenced opinion does not contain some element of the truth. He also argues that allowing people to air false opinions is productive for two reasons. First, individuals are more likely to abandon erroneous beliefs if they are engaged in an open exchange of ideas. Second, by forcing other individuals to re-examine and re-affirm their beliefs in the process of debate, these beliefs are kept from declining into mere dogma. It is not enough for Mill that one simply has an unexamined belief that happens to be true; one must understand why the belief in question is the true one. John Stuart Mill and Helen Taylor. Helen was the daughter of Harriet Taylor and collaborated with Mill for fifteen years after her mother's death in 1858 Mill's view on social liberty and tyranny of majority (from On Liberty) Mill believes that “the struggle between Liberty and Authority is the most conspicuous feature in the portions of history.” For him, liberty in antiquity was a “contest... between subjects, or some classes of subjects, and the government." Mill defined "social liberty" as protection from "the tyranny of political rulers." He introduces a number of different tyrannies, including social tyranny, and also the tyranny of the majority. Social Liberty for Mill was to put limits on the ruler’s power so that he would not be able to use his power on his own wishes and make every kind of decision which could harm society; in other words, people should have the right to have a say in the government’s decisions. He said that social liberty was “the nature and limits of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual”. It was attempted in two ways: first, by obtaining recognition of certain immunities, called political liberties or rights; second, by establishment of a system of "constitutional checks". However, limiting the power of government is not enough. "Society can and does execute its own mandates: and if it issues wrong mandates instead of right, or any mandates at all in things with which it ought not to meddle, it practises a social tyranny more formidable than many kinds of political oppression, since, though not usually upheld by such extreme penalties, it leaves fewer means of escape, penetrating much more deeply into the details of life, and enslaving the soul itself.” View on liberty John Stuart Mill’s view on liberty, which was influenced by Joseph Priestley and Josiah Warren, is that the individual ought be free to do as he wishes unless he harms others. Individuals are rational enough to make decisions about their good being and choose any religion they want to. Government should interfere when it is for the protection of society. Mill explains, “The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection. That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinion of others, to do so would be wise, or even right...The only part of the conduct of anyone, for which he is amenable to society, is that which concerns others. In the part which merely concerns him, his independence is, of right, absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign.” John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), “The Contest in America.” Harper's New Monthly Magazine, Volume 24, Issue 143, page 683-684. Harper & Bros., New York, April 1862. View on freedom of speech Mill objected to censorship. He says: "I choose, by preference the cases which are least favourable to me - In which the argument against freedom of opinion, both on truth and that of utility, is considered the strongest. Let the opinions impugned be the belief of God and in a future state, or any of the commonly received doctrines of morality... But I must be permitted to observe that it is not the feeling sure of a doctrine (be it what it may) which I call an assumption of infallibility. It is the undertaking to decide that question for others, without allowing them to hear what can be said on the contrary side. And I denounce and reprobate this pretension not the less if I put forth on the side of my most solemn convictions. However positive anyone's persuasion may be, not only of the faculty but of the pernicious consequences, but (to adopt expressions which I altogether condemn) the immorality and impiety of opinion. - yet if, in pursuance of that private judgement, though backed by the public judgement of his country or contemporaries, he prevents the opinion from being heard in its defence, he assumes infallibility. And so far from the assumption being less objectionable or less dangerous because the opinion is called immoral or impious, this is the case of all others in which it is most fatal.” John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) “On Liberty” 1859. ed. Gertrude Himmelfarb, UK: Penguin, 1985, pp.83-84 Human rights and slavery In 1850, Mill sent an anonymous letter (which came to be known under the title "The Negro Question"), in rebuttal to Thomas Carlyle's anonymous letter to Fraser's Magazine for Town and Country. Carlyle had defended slavery on grounds of genetic inferiority and claimed that the West Indies development was due to British ingenuity alone and dismissed any notion that there was a debtedness to imported slaves for building the economy there. Mill's rebuttal and references to the ongoing debate in the U.S. at the time regarding slavery were emphatic and eloquent. The full text, as well as a link to the Carlyle letter which prompted it, is available online. [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/texts/carlyle/millnegro.htm The Negro Question by John Stuart Mill. Mill is also famous for being one of the earliest and strongest supporters of women's liberation. His book The Subjection of Women is one of the earliest written on this subject by a male author. He felt that the oppression of women was one of the few remaining relics from ancient times, a set of prejudices that severely impeded the progress of humanity. Mill, J.S. (1869) The Subjection of Women, Chapter 1 Utilitarianism The canonical statement of Mill's utilitarianism can be found in Utilitarianism. This philosophy has a long tradition, although Mill's account is primarily influenced by Jeremy Bentham and Mill's father James Mill. His conception of utilitarianism is so different from Bentham's, however, that some modern thinkers have argued that he demonstrates libertarian ideals and that he was not as much a consequentialist as was Bentham, although he did not reject consequentialism as Kant did. Bentham's famous formulation of utilitarianism is known as the "greatest-happiness principle". It holds that one must always act so as to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people, within reason. One of Mill's major contributions to utilitarianism is his argument for the qualitative separation of pleasures. Bentham treats all forms of happiness as equal, whereas Mill argues that intellectual and moral pleasures are superior to more physical forms of pleasure. Mill distinguishes between happiness and contentment, claiming that the former is of higher value than the latter, a belief wittily encapsulated in the statement that "[i]t is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, are of a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question." Mill defines the difference between higher and lower forms of happiness with the principle that those who have experienced both tend to prefer one over the other. This is, perhaps, in direct contrast with Bentham's statement that "Pushpin is as good as an Opera", that, if a simple child's game like hopscotch causes more pleasure to more people than a night at the opera house, it is more imperative upon a society to devote more resources to propagating hopscotch than running opera houses. Mill's argument is that the "simple pleasures" tend to be preferred by people who have no experience with high art, and are therefore not in a proper position to judge. Mill supported legislation that would have granted extra voting power to university graduates on the grounds that they were in a better position to judge what would be best for society. It should be noted that, in this example, Mill did not intend to devalue uneducated people and would certainly have advocated sending the poor but talented to universities: he believed that education, and not the intrinsic nature of the educated, qualified them to have more influence in government. Mill also dealt with one of the prime problems associated with utilitarianism, that of schadenfreude. Detractors of utilitarianism argued, among other things, that, if enough people hated another person sufficiently that simply reducing the happiness of the object of their hatred would cause them pleasure, it would be incumbent upon a utilitarian society to aid them in harming the individual. Mill argued that, in order to have such an attitude of malice, each citizen would have to value his own pleasure over that of another. Society, therefore, is in no way obligated to indulge him; on the contrary, it is fully permitted to suppress his actions. The qualitative account of happiness that Mill advocates thus sheds light on his account presented in On Liberty. As Mill suggests in that text, utility is to be conceived in relation to mankind "as a progressive being", which includes the development and exercise of his rational capacities as he strives to achieve a "higher mode of existence". The rejection of censorship and paternalism is intended to provide the necessary social conditions for the achievement of knowledge and the greatest ability for the greatest number to develop and exercise their deliberative and rational capacities. Economic philosophy Mill's early economic philosophy was one of free markets. However, he accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax on alcohol, if there were sufficient utilitarian grounds. He also accepted the principle of legislative intervention for the purpose of animal welfare. Mill originally believed that "equality of taxation" meant "equality of sacrifice" and that progressive taxation penalized those who worked harder and saved more and was therefore "a mild form of robbery". Later he altered his views toward a more socialist bent, adding chapters to his Principles of Political Economy in defense of a socialist outlook, and defending some socialist causes. Within this revised work he also made the radical proposal that the whole wage system be abolished in favour of a co-operative wage system. Nonetheless, some of his views on the idea of flat taxation remained, albeit in a slightly toned down form. Mill's Principles of Political Economy, first published in 1848, was one of the most widely read of all books on economics in the period. As Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations had during an earlier period, Mill's Principles dominated economics teaching. (In the case of Oxford University it was the standard text until 1919. The text that replaced it was written by Cambridge's Alfred Marshall). Mill's views on the Environment Mill demonstrated an early insight into the value of the natural world - in particular in Book IV, chapter VI of "Principles of Political Economy": "Of the Stationary State" http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/mill/book4/bk4ch06 The Principles of Political Economy, Book 4, Chapter VI. in which Mill recognises wealth beyond the material, and argues that the logical conclusion of unlimited growth is destruction of the environment and a reduced quality of life. Major publications "Two Letters on the Measure of Value", 1822, The Traveller "Questions of Population", 1823, Black Dwarf "War Expenditure", 1824, Westminster Review "Quarterly Review -- Political Economy", 1825, Westminster Review "Review of Miss Martineau's Tales", 1830, Examiner "The Spirit of the Age", 1831, Examiner "Essay on Bentham" 1838 A System of Logic, 1843 Essays on Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy, 1844 "Claims of Labour", 1845, Edinburgh Review The Principles of Political Economy: with some of their applications to social philosophy, 1848 "The Negro Question", 1850, Fraser's Magazine Dissertations and Discussions, 1859. A Few Words on Non-intervention, 1859On Liberty, 1859 Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform, 1859. Considerations on Representative Government, 1861 "Centralisation", 1862, Edinburgh Review "The Contest in America", 1862, Harper's Magazine Utilitarianism, 1863 An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy, 1865. Auguste Comte and Positivism, 1865. Inaugural Address at St. Andrews - Rectorial Inaugural Address at the University of St. Andrews, concerning the value of culture, 1867. "Speech In Favor of Capital Punishment", 1868 England and Ireland, 1868. "Thornton on Labor and its Claims", 1869, Fortnightly Review The Subjection of Women, 1869 Chapters and Speeches on the Irish Land Question, 1870 On Nature, 1874 Autobiography of John Stuart Mill, 1873 Three Essays on Religion, 1874 "Notes on N.W. Senior's Political Economy", 1945, Economica See also List of liberal theorists Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom Notes References Michael St. John Packe, The Life of John Stuart Mill, MacMillan (1952). David O. Brink, "Mill's Deliberative Utilitarianism," in Philosophy and Public Affairs 21 (1992), 67-103. Sterling Harwood, "Eleven Objections to Utilitarianism," in Louis P. Pojman, ed., Moral Philosophy: A Reader (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Co., 1998), and in Sterling Harwood, ed., Business as Ethical and Business as Usual (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1996), Chapter 7, and in www.sterlingharwood.com. Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy (2003). Introducing Political Philosophy. Icon Books. ISBN 1-84046-450-X. Frederick Rosen, Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill (Routledge Studies in Ethics & Moral Theory), 2003. ISBN 0415220947 Samuel Hollander, The Economics of John Stuart Mill (University of Toronto Press, 1985) Mill, John Stuart, A System of Logic, University Press of the Pacific, Honolulu, 2002, ISBN 1-4102-0252-6 Chin Liew Ten, Mill on Liberty, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1980, full-text online at Victorianweb.org (National University of Singapore) "Right Again, The passions of John Stuart Mill," by Adam Gopnik. The New Yorker, October 6, 2008. "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: John Stuart Mill" External links Mill's works Collected Works of John Stuart Mill - Definitive Edition in 33 volumes, plus separate titles, on the Online Library of Liberty The Online Books Page lists works on various sites Vintage Mill, works in HTML Works, readable and downloadable Primary and secondary works More easily readable versions of On Liberty, Utilitarianism, and Three Essays on Religion Of the Composition of Causes, Chapter VI of System of Logic (1859) Secondary works John Stuart Mill in the Concise Encyclopedia of Economics on Econlib John Stuart Mill in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy A podcast interview of Richard Reeves on Mill's On Liberty Mill On Liberty, by Chin Liew Ten (C.L. Ten), Clarendon Press, 1980 (full-text online) Utilitarianism as Secondary Ethic An overview of utilitarianism with summary of its critiques. How far did JS Mill let liberalism down? Did he prefer Socialism to Liberalism? by David McDonagh Mill-fest: The Bicentennial Edition'' by the blog Catallarchy "Organic Conservatism, Administrative Realism, and the Imperialist Ethos in the 'Indian Career' of John Stuart Mill, by Vinay Lal (review of "John Stuart Mill and India" by Lynn Zastoupil, Stanford University Press, Stanford, California, 1994.) "On John Stuart Mill" in Some Reflections on Ethics by Dr.Ramendra, Mill Further information John Stuart Mill. Extensive collection of links to writings by and about J.S. Mill. EpistemeLinks The Victorian Web Mill section Links to works and resources Biography, works and quotes of John Stuart Mill Catalogue of Mill's correspondence and papers held at the Archives Division of the London School of Economics. 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4,986 | Aromatherapy | Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine that uses volatile liquid plant materials, known as essential oils (EOs), and other aromatic compounds from plants for the purpose of affecting a person's mood or health. Scientific evidence is growing and preliminary but encouraging for a number of health issues. Essential oils differ in chemical composition from other herbal products because the distillation process only recovers the lighter phytomolecules. For this reason essential oils are rich in monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, as well as other VOC substances (esters, aromatic compounds, non-terpene hydrocarbons, some organic sulfides etc.). Aromatherapy is a generic term that refers to any of the various traditions that make use of essential oils sometimes in combination with other alternative medical practices and spiritual beliefs. Popular use of these products include massaging products, medicine, or any topical application that incorporates the use of true, pure essential oils in their products. Medical treatment involving aromatic compounds exist outside of the West, but may or may not be included in the term 'aromatherapy'. Modes of application The modes of application of aromatherapy include: Aerial diffusion: for environmental fragrancing or aerial disinfection Direct inhalation: for respiratory disinfection, decongestion, expectoration as well as psychological effects Topical applications: for general massage, baths, compresses, therapeutic skin care Materials Some of the materials employed include: Essential oils: Fragrant oils extracted from plants chiefly through steam distillation (e.g. eucalyptus oil) or expression (grapefruit oil). However, the term is also occasionally used to describe fragrant oils extracted from plant material by any solvent extraction. Absolutes: Fragrant oils extracted primarily from flowers or delicate plant tissues through solvent or supercritical fluid extraction (e.g. rose absolute). The term is also used to describe oils extracted from fragrant butters, concretes, and enfleurage pommades using ethanol. Phytoncides: Various volatile organic compounds from plants that kill microbes. Many terpene-based fragrant oils and sulfuric compounds from plants in the genus "Allium" are phytoncides, though the latter are likely less commonly used in aromatherapy due to their disagreeable odors. Herbal distillates or hydrosols: The aqueous by-products of the distillation process (e.g. rosewater). There are many herbs that make herbal distillates and they have culinary uses, medicinal uses and skin care uses. Common herbal distillates are rose, lemon balm and chamomile. Infusions: Aqueous extracts of various plant material (e.g. infusion of chamomile) Carrier oils: Typically oily plant base triacylglycerides that dilute essential oils for use on the skin (e.g. sweet almond oil) Theory Aromatherapy is the treatment or prevention of disease by use of essential oils. Two basic mechanisms are offered to explain the purported effects. One is the influence of aroma on the brain, especially the limbic system through the olfactory system. The other is the direct pharmacological effects of the essential oils. While precise knowledge of the synergy between the body and aromatic oils is often claimed by aromatherapists, the efficacy of aromatherapy remains to be proven. However, some preliminary clinical studies show positive effects. In the English-speaking world, practitioners tend to emphasize the use of oils in massage. Aromatherapy tends to be regarded as a complementary modality at best and a pseudoscientific fraud at worst. Aromatherapy On the continent, especially in France, where it originated, aromatherapy is incorporated into mainstream medicine. There, the use of the antiseptic, antiviral, antifungal, and antibacterial properties of oils in the control of infections is emphasized over the approaches familiar to North Americans. In France some essential oils are regulated as prescription drugs, and thus administered by a physician. French doctors use a technique called the aromatogram to guide their decision on which essential oil to use. First the doctor cultures a sample of infected tissue or secretion from the patient. Next the growing culture is divided among petri dishes supplied with agar. Each petri dish is inoculated with a different essential oil to determine which have the most activity against the target strain of microorganism. The antiseptic activity manifests as a pattern of inhibited growth. http://www.florihana.com/en/aromatogram.htm The Aromatogram http://www.pranarom.co.uk/en/essential_oil/aromatogramme Aromatogram In many countries, essential oils are included in the national pharmacopoeia, but aromatherapy as science has never been recognized as a valid branch of medicine in the United States, Russia, Germany, or Japan. Essential oils (EOs), phytoncides, and other natural VOCs work in different ways. At the scent level they activate the limbic system and emotional centers of the brain. When applied to the skin (commonly in form of "massage oils," i.e., 1%–10% solutions of EO in carrier oil) they activate thermal receptors and kill microbes and fungi. Internal application of essential oil preparations (mainly in pharmacological drugs; generally not recommended for home use apart from dilution — 1%–5% in fats or mineral oils, or hydrosoles) may stimulate the immune system. Choice and purchase Oils with standardized content of components (marked FCC, for Food Chemical Codex) have to contain a specified amount of certain aroma chemicals that normally occur in the oil. But there is no law that the chemicals cannot be added in synthetic form in order to meet the criteria established by the FCC for that oil. For instance, lemongrass essential oil has to contain 75% aldehyde to meet the FCC profile for that oil, but that aldehyde can come from a chemical refinery instead of from lemongrass. To say that FCC oils are "food grade" then makes them seem natural when in fact they are not necessarily so. Undiluted essential oils suitable for aromatherapy are termed therapeutic grade, but in countries where the industry is not regulated, therapeutic grade is based on industry consensus and is not a regulatory category. Some aromatherapists take advantage of this situation to make misleading claims about the origin and even content of the oils they use. Likewise, claims that an oil's purity is vetted by mass spectrometry or gas chromatography have limited value, since all such testing can do is show that various chemicals occur in the oil. Many of the chemicals that occur naturally in essential oils are manufactured by the perfume industry and adulterate essential oils because they are cheaper. There is no way to distinguish between these synthetic additives and the naturally occurring chemicals. The best instrument for determining whether an essential oil is adulterated is an educated nose. Many people can distinguish between natural and synthetic scents, but it takes experience. Price Oils vary in price based on the amount of the harvest, the country of origin, the type of extraction used (steam distillation, CO2 extract, enfleurage), and how desirable the oil is. Indian Sandalwood (Santalum album) is considered more desirable than Australian Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum), based upon the aroma, and is twice as costly, mainly because the tree that yields Indian Sandalwood essential oils is endangered. Organic and wild harvested essential oils also tend to be more expensive. Price is also determined by whether the oil is 'cut' or not. There are few companies and individuals that produce then resell 'pure', unadulterated essential oils. Many times oils are extracted, by whatever form, then repressed or thinned with a carrier of alcohol or some such substance. This lowers the quality of the healing properties of the oils. It can also lower the price necessary for a profit to be made, especially with higher priced oils such as rose or frankinscense. Pharmacological effects attributed to essential oils Antibacterial: In vitro testing has confirmed antibacterial effects in certain oils including rosemary, clove, lime, cinnamon, and tea tree oil. Antiviral: Supported for tea tree oil, lemongrass, sandalwood, peppermint, ginger, thyme, and hyssop in in vitro testing against Herpes Antifungal: Supported by in vitro testing for lavender, thyme, clove, juniper, and tea tree oil Anti-inflammatory: Reported in in-vitro assays of clove, cinnamon, sage, eucalyptus, black cumin and bay leaf Anxiolytic: Reported in animal models using oils of lavender, rose and angelica Antispasmotic (spasmolytic): Spasmolytic properties for catnip, lavender and New Zealand tea tree oils have been reported in animal studies. Gilani AH, Shah AJ, Zubair A et al. (2009). "Chemical composition and mechanisms underlying the spasmolytic and bronchiodilatory properties of the essential oil of Nepeta cataria L." J Ethnopharmacol. 121:405-411. Lis-Balchin M, Hart S. (1999). "Studies on the mode of action of the essential oil of lavender (Lavendula angustifolia P. Miller." Phytother Res. 13:540-542. Lis-Balchin M, Hart SL. (1998). "An investigation of the actions of the essential oils of Manuka (leptospermum scoparium) and Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides), Myrtaceae on guinea-pig smooth muscle." J Pharm Pharmacol. 50:809-811. <ref>Pisseri F, Bertoli A, Pistelli L. (2008). "Essential oils in medicine: principles of therapy." Parassitologia. '50:89-91.</ref> Invigorating: Antioxidant: Popular uses Basil is used in perfumery for its clear, sweet and mildly spicy aroma. In aromatherapy, it is used for sharpening concentration, for its uplifting effect on depression, and to relieve headaches and migraines. Basil oil has many chemotypes and some are known to be emmenagogues and should be avoided during pregnancy. Bergamot is one of the most popular oils in perfumery. It is an excellent insect repellent and may be helpful for both the urinary tract and for the digestive tract. It is useful for skin conditions linked to stress, such as cold sores and chicken pox, especially when combined with eucalyptus oil. Bergamot is a flavoring agent in Earl Grey tea. Cold-pressed Bergamot oil contains bergaptene, a strong photosensitizer when applied to the skin, so only distilled or 'bergaptene-free' types can be topically used. Black pepper has a sharp and spicy aroma. Common uses include stimulating the circulation and for muscular aches and pains. Skin application is useful for bruises, since it stimulates the circulation. Citronella oil, obtained from a relative of lemongrass, is used as an insect repellent and in perfumery. Clove oil is a topical analgesic, especially useful in dentistry. It is also used an antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, and antiemetic. Eucalyptus oil is often used in combination with peppermint to provide relief for the airways in case of cold or flu. Geranium oil is used as an astringent, antiseptic and diuretic. Jasmine is used as an aphrodisiac. Lavender oil is used as an antiseptic, to soothe minor cuts and burns, to calm and relax, and to soothe headaches and migraines. Lemon oil is uplifting and anti-stress/anti-depressant. In a Japanese study, lemon essential oil in vapour form has been found to reduce stress in mice. Lemon oil - Researchers at Ohio State University reveals that Lemon oil aroma may enhance one's mood, and help with relaxation. Ohio State University Research, March 3, 2008 Study is published in the March 2008 issue of the journal Psychoneuroendocrinology Rose is used as an aphrodisiac. Sandalwood oil is used as an aphrodisiac. Tea tree oil and many other essential oils have topical (external) antimicrobial (i.e. antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, or antiparasitic) activity and are used as antiseptics, disinfectants, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16161028&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_DocSum] Antibacterial activity of essential oils from Australian native plants. and in mouthrinses. Thyme oil http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16690225&query_hl=14&itool=pubmed_docsum Antimicrobial and antiplasmid activities of essential oils. Yarrow oil is used to reduce joint inflammation and relieve cold and influenza symptoms. Ylang-ylang oil is used as an aphrodisiac. Efficacy The consensus among most medical professionals is that while some aromas have demonstrated effects on mood and relaxation and may have related benefits for patients, there is currently insufficient scientific proof of many of the claims made for aromatherapy. http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/aromatherapy/HealthProfessional/page3 Aromatherapy and Essential Oils Scientific research on the cause and effect of aromatherapy is limited, although in vitro'' testing has revealed some antibacterial and antiviral effects and a few double blind studies have been published. Essential oils have a demonstrated efficacy in dental mouthwash products. Like many alternative therapies, few controlled, double-blind studies have been carried out—a common explanation is that there is little incentive to do so if the results of the studies are not patentable. Researchers at Sloan-Kettering have found that aromatherapy significantly reduces claustrophobia attacks for patients undergoing MRI scans; however, studies of similar rigor are far from numerous. Some benefits that have been linked to aromatherapy, such as relaxation and clarity of mind, may arise from the placebo effect rather than from the inherent properties of the scents themselves. Skeptical literature suggests that aromatherapy is based on the anecdotal evidence of its benefits rather than proof that aromatherapy can cure diseases. Scientists and medical professionals acknowledge that aromatherapy has limited scientific support, but critics argue that the claims of most aromatherapy practitioners go beyond the data, and/or that the studies are neither adequately controlled nor peer reviewed. Some proponents of aromatherapy believe that the claimed effect of each type of oil is not caused by the chemicals in the oil interacting with the senses, but because the oil contains a distillation of the "life force" of the plant from which it is derived that will "balance the energies" of the body and promote healing or well-being by purging negative vibrations from the body's energy field. Arguing that there is no scientific evidence that healing can be achieved, and that the claimed "energies" even exist, many skeptics reject this form of aromatherapy as pseudoscience or even quackery. van der Watt and Janca have discovered that some of psychological disorders can be healed with the therapy through inhalation excercises, suggesting that furhter scientific studies, especially toxicity data, need to be conducted and collected to validate the finding . Other application include to menopausal symptoms (inconclusive) Safety concerns In addition, there are potential safety concerns. Because essential oils are highly concentrated they can irritate the skin when used neat. Therefore, they are normally diluted with a carrier oil for topical application. Phototoxic reactions may occur with citrus peel oils such as lemon or lime. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1312240 Hyperpigmented macules and streaks Also, many essential oils have chemical components that are sensitisers (meaning that they will after a number of uses cause reactions on the skin, and more so in the rest of the body). Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, with cats being particularly prone. The Lavender Cat - Cats and Essential Oil Safety Two common oils, lavender and tea tree, have been implicated in causing gynaecomastia, an abnormal breast tissue growth, in prepubescent boys, although the report which cites this potential issue is based on observations of only three boys (and so is not a scientific study), and two of those boys were significantly above average in weight for their age, thus already prone to gynaecomastia. A child hormone specialist at the University of Cambridge claimed "... these oils can mimic oestrogens" and "people should be a little bit careful about using these products." As with any bioactive substance, an essential oil that may be safe for the general public could still pose hazards for pregnant and lactating women. While some advocate the ingestion of essential oils for therapeutic purposes, licensed aromatherapy professionals do not recommend self prescription due the highly toxic nature of some essential oil. Some very common oils like Eucalyptus are extremely toxic when taken internally. Doses as low as one teaspoon has been reported to cause clinically significant symptoms and severe poisoning can occur after ingestion of 4 to 5 ml. Eucalyptus oil (PIM 031) A few reported cases of toxic reactions like liver damage and seizures have occurred after ingestion of sage, hyssop, thuja, and cedar. Accidental ingestion may happen when oils are not kept out of reach of children. Oils both ingested and applied to the skin can potentially have negative interaction with conventional medicine. For example, the topical use of methyl salicylate heavy oils like Sweet Birch and Wintergreen may cause hemorrhaging in users taking the anticoagulant Warfarin. Adulterated oils may also pose problems depending on the type of substance used. Table of vaporization temperatures Plant common name Scientific name Part utilized Temperature Eucalyptus Eucalyptus globulus Leaves 130°C (266°F) Hops Humulus lupulus Fruit 154°C (309°F) Chamomile Chamomilla recutita Flowers 190°C (374°F) Lavender Lavandula angustifolia Leaves 130°C (266°F) Lemon balm Melissa officinalis Leaves 142°C (288°F) Salvia Salvia officinalis Leaves 190°C (374°F) Thyme Thymus vulgaris Herb 190°C (374°F) Cannabis Cannabis sativa Flowers 180°C (356°F) See also Critical thinking Notes & References Further reading Maria Lis-Balchin, Aromatherapy science - a guide for healthcare professionals, éd. Pharmaceutical Press (2006) Kurt Schnaubelt, Ph.D., Advanced Aromatherapy : The Science of Essential Oil Therapy, (ISBN 0-89281-743-7) Kurt Schnaubelt, Ph.D., Medical Aromatherapy : Healing With Essential Oils (ISBN 1-883319-69-2) The Practice of Aromatherapy: A Classic Compendium of Plant Medicines and Their Healing Properties (ISBN 0-89281-398-9) Christopher Wanjek, Bad Medicine : Misconceptions and Misuses Revealed, from Distance Healing to Vitamin O, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (ISBN 0-471-43499-X) Dr. Jean Valnet, The Practice of Aromatherapy (ISBN 0852071434) External links The National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy International Federation of Aromatherapy Aromatherapy Guide Aromatherapy and Essential Oil Cautions and Safety Information What Does the Research Say About Essential Oils? Antiviral and Antimicrobial Properties of Essential Oils The Aromatherapy Global Online Research Archives Journals News And Information about Aromatherapy Aromatherapy Journal International Journal of Aromatherapy Aroma Scents Journal Criticism Aromatherapy - does it work? 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4,987 | Ithaca_Hours | The Ithaca HOUR is a local currency used in Ithaca, New York and is the oldest and largest local currency system in the United States that is still operating. Richard P. Carpenter, "PLAN TO TOUCH THE HEART OF THE APPLE OF YOUR EYE", Boston Globe, Jan. 29, 2006. It has inspired other similar systems in Madison, WI, Corvallis, OR Emily Lambert, "Funny Money", Forbes, Feb. 14th, 2006. , and a proposed system in the Lehigh Valley, PA. Spencer Soper, "Lehigh Valley group eyes a local alternative to money", The Morning Call, Jan. 7, 2009. One Ithaca HOUR is valued at US$10 and is generally recommended to be used as payment for one hour's work, although the rate is negotiable. The Currency Ithaca HOURS are not backed by national currency and cannot be freely converted to national currency, although some businesses may agree to buy them. "New age town in U.S. embraces dollar alternative", www.chinadaily.com.cn, Jun. 21, 2007. HOURS are printed on high-quality paper and use faint graphics that would be difficult to reproduce, and each bill is stamped with a serial number, in order to discourage counterfeiting. M. Tye Wolf, "Making Money - The brand new one-tenth Ithaca Hour bill hits the streets", Ithaca Times, Oct. 2, 2002. In 2002, a one-tenth hour bill was introduced, partly due to the encouragement and funding from Alternatives Federal Credit Union and feedback from retailers who complained about the awkwardness of only having larger denominations to work with; the bills bear the signatures of both HOURS President Steve Burke and the president of AFCU. Origin Ithaca Hours were started by Paul Glover in November of 1991. "ITHACA JOURNAL; An Alternative to Cash, Beyond Banks or Barter", New York Times, May 31, 1993. The system has historical roots in scrip and alternative and local currencies that proliferated in American during the great depression. While doing research into local economics during 1989, Paul Glover had seen an "Hour" note 19th century British industrialist Robert Owen issued to his workers for spending at his company store. After Ithaca Hours began, he discovered that Owen's Hours were based on Josiah Warren's "Time Store" notes of 1827. In May 1991, local student Patrice Jennings interviewed Mr. Glover about the Ithaca LETS system. This conversation strongly reinforced his interest in trade systems. Jennings research on the Ithaca LETS and its failure was integral to the development of the HOUR currency; conversations between Jennings and Glover helped to ensure that HOURS used knowledge of what had not worked with the LETS system. Bill Maurer, Mutual life, limited: Islamic banking, alternative currencies, lateral reason, Princeton University Press, 2005, p. 47. Within a few days, he had designs for the HOUR and Half HOUR notes. He established that each HOUR would be worth the equivalent of $10, which was about the average hourly amount that workers earned in surrounding Tompkins County Evelyn Nieves, "Our Towns;Ithaca Hours: Pocket Money For Everyman", New York Times, Jan. 21, 1996. , although the exact rate of exchange for any given transaction was to be decided by the parties themselves. At GreenStar Cooperative Market, a local food co-op, Glover approached Gary Fine, a local massage therapist, with photocopied samples. Fine became the first person to sign a list formally agreeing to accept HOURS in exchange for services. Soon after, Jim Rohrrsen, the proprietor of a local toy store, became the first retailer to sign-up to accept Ithaca HOURS in exchange for merchandise. When the system was first started, 90 people agreed to accept HOURS as pay for their services. They all agreed to accept HOURS despite the lack of a business plan or guarantee. Glover then began to ask for small donations to help pay for printing HOURS. Fine Line Printing completed the first run of 1,500 HOURS and 1,500 Half HOURS in October 1991. These notes, the first modern local currency, were nearly twice as large as the current Ithaca HOURS. Because they didn't fit well in people's wallets, almost all of the original notes have been removed from circulation. The first issue of Ithaca Money was printed at Our Press, a printing shop in Chenango Bridge, New York, on October 16, 1991. The next day Glover issued 10 HOURS to Ithaca Hours, the organization he founded to run the system, as the first of four reimbursements for the cost of printing HOURS. The day after that, October 18, 1991, 382 HOURS were disbursed and prepared for mailing to the first 93 pioneers. On October 19, 1991, Glover bought a samosa from Catherine Martinez at the Farmers' Market with Half HOUR #751—the first use of an HOUR. Several other Market vendors enrolled that day. Stacks of the Ithaca Money newspaper were distributed all over town with an invitation to "join the fun." A Barter Potluck was held at GIAC on November 12, 1991, the first of many monthly gatherings where food and skills were exchanged, acquaintances made, and friendships renewed. Management In 1996, Glover was running the Ithaca Hours system from his home, and the system had an advisory board and a governing board called the "Barter Potluck". The Advisory Board incorporated the Ithaca HOUR system as Ithaca Hours, Inc. in October 1998, and hosted the first elections for Board of Directors in March 1999. The first Board of Directors included Monica Hargraves, Dan Cogan, Margaret McCasland, Greg Spence Wolf, Bob LeRoy, LeGrace Benson, Wally Woods, Jennifer Elges, and Donald Stephenson. In May 1999 Paul Glover turned the administration of Ithaca HOURS over to the newly elected Board of Directors. Paul Glover has continued to support Ithaca Hours through community outreach to present, most notably through the Ithaca Health Fund (now incorporated as part of the Ithaca Health Alliance) and Ithaca Community News. The current Board of Directors, 2005–2006, includes Steve Burke, Monica Hargraves, Rebecca Nellenback, and Bill Chaisson. Economic development Several million dollars value of HOURS have been traded since 1991 among thousands of residents and over 500 area businesses, including the Cayuga Medical Center, Alternatives Federal Credit Union, the public library, many local farmers, movie theatres, restaurants, healers, plumbers, carpenters, electricians, and landlords. One of the primary functions of the Ithaca Hours system is to promote local economic development. Businesses who receive Hours must spend them on local goods and services, thus building a network of inter-supporting local businesses. While non-local businesses are welcome to accept Hours, those businesses need to spend them on local goods and services to be economically sustainable. In their mission to promote local economic development, the Board of Directors also makes interest-free loans of Ithaca HOURS to local businesses and grants to local non-profit organizations. References See also Local currency Money Time-based currency Wörgl External links Main Website Founder's Website E F Schumacher Society Local Currency website Brief History of Local Currencies Community Currency Online Magazine | Ithaca_Hours |@lemmatized ithaca:27 hour:42 local:22 currency:14 use:5 new:6 york:4 old:1 large:3 system:13 united:1 state:1 still:1 operate:1 richard:1 p:2 carpenter:2 plan:2 touch:1 heart:1 apple:1 eye:2 boston:1 globe:1 jan:3 inspire:1 similar:1 madison:1 wi:1 corvallis:1 emily:1 lambert:1 funny:1 money:7 forbes:1 feb:1 proposed:1 lehigh:2 valley:2 pa:1 spencer:1 soper:1 group:1 alternative:7 morning:1 call:2 one:5 value:2 u:2 generally:1 recommend:1 payment:1 work:3 although:3 rate:2 negotiable:1 back:1 national:2 cannot:1 freely:1 convert:1 business:8 may:4 agree:4 buy:2 age:1 town:3 embrace:1 dollar:2 www:1 chinadaily:1 com:1 cn:1 jun:1 print:2 high:1 quality:1 paper:1 faint:1 graphic:1 would:2 difficult:1 reproduce:1 bill:6 stamp:1 serial:1 number:1 order:1 discourage:1 counterfeiting:1 tye:1 wolf:2 make:3 brand:1 tenth:2 hit:1 street:1 time:5 oct:1 introduce:1 partly:1 due:1 encouragement:1 funding:1 federal:2 credit:2 union:2 feedback:1 retailer:2 complain:1 awkwardness:1 denomination:1 bear:1 signature:1 president:2 steve:2 burke:2 afcu:1 origin:1 start:2 paul:4 glover:11 november:2 journal:1 cash:1 beyond:1 bank:1 barter:3 historical:1 root:1 scrip:1 proliferate:1 american:1 great:1 depression:1 research:2 economics:1 see:2 note:5 century:1 british:1 industrialist:1 robert:1 owen:2 issue:3 worker:2 spending:1 company:1 store:3 begin:2 discover:1 base:2 josiah:1 warren:1 student:1 patrice:1 jennings:3 interview:1 mr:1 let:3 conversation:2 strongly:1 reinforce:1 interest:2 trade:2 failure:1 integral:1 development:4 help:2 ensure:1 knowledge:1 maurer:1 mutual:1 life:1 limited:1 islamic:1 banking:1 lateral:1 reason:1 princeton:1 university:1 press:2 within:1 day:4 design:1 half:3 establish:1 worth:1 equivalent:1 average:1 hourly:1 amount:1 earn:1 surround:1 tompkins:1 county:1 evelyn:1 nieves:1 pocket:1 everyman:1 exact:1 exchange:4 give:1 transaction:1 decide:1 party:1 greenstar:1 cooperative:1 market:3 food:2 co:1 op:1 approach:1 gary:1 fine:3 massage:1 therapist:1 photocopied:1 sample:1 become:2 first:12 person:1 sign:2 list:1 formally:1 accept:5 service:4 soon:1 jim:1 rohrrsen:1 proprietor:1 toy:1 merchandise:1 people:2 pay:2 despite:1 lack:1 guarantee:1 ask:1 small:1 donation:1 printing:4 line:1 complete:1 run:3 october:5 modern:1 nearly:1 twice:1 current:2 fit:1 well:1 wallet:1 almost:1 original:1 remove:1 circulation:1 shop:1 chenango:1 bridge:1 next:1 organization:2 found:1 four:1 reimbursement:1 cost:1 disburse:1 prepare:1 mail:1 pioneer:1 samosa:1 catherine:1 martinez:1 farmer:2 several:2 vendor:1 enrol:1 stack:1 newspaper:1 distribute:1 invitation:1 join:1 fun:1 potluck:2 hold:1 giac:1 many:2 monthly:1 gathering:1 skill:1 acquaintance:1 friendship:1 renew:1 management:1 home:1 advisory:2 board:8 govern:1 incorporate:2 inc:1 host:1 election:1 director:5 march:1 include:3 monica:2 hargraves:2 dan:1 cogan:1 margaret:1 mccasland:1 greg:1 spence:1 bob:1 leroy:1 legrace:1 benson:1 wally:1 wood:1 jennifer:1 elges:1 donald:1 stephenson:1 turn:1 administration:1 newly:1 elect:1 continue:1 support:2 community:3 outreach:1 present:1 notably:1 health:2 fund:1 part:1 alliance:1 news:1 rebecca:1 nellenback:1 chaisson:1 economic:3 million:1 since:1 among:1 thousand:1 resident:1 area:1 cayuga:1 medical:1 center:1 public:1 library:1 movie:1 theatre:1 restaurant:1 healer:1 plumber:1 electrician:1 landlord:1 primary:1 function:1 promote:2 receive:1 must:1 spend:2 good:2 thus:1 build:1 network:1 inter:1 non:2 welcome:1 need:1 economically:1 sustainable:1 mission:1 also:2 free:1 loan:1 grant:1 profit:1 reference:1 wörgl:1 external:1 link:1 main:1 website:3 founder:1 e:1 f:1 schumacher:1 society:1 brief:1 history:1 online:1 magazine:1 |@bigram boston_globe:1 madison_wi:1 lehigh_valley:2 josiah_warren:1 tompkins_county:1 advisory_board:2 wally_wood:1 external_link:1 |
4,988 | Code_of_Hammurabi | An image of the Code of Hammurabi. The upper part of the stele of Hammurabi's code of laws. The Code of Hammurabi (Codex Hammurabi ) is a well-preserved ancient law code, created ca. 1760 BC (middle chronology) in ancient Babylon. It was enacted by the sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi. Gabriele Bartz, Eberhard König, ( Arts and Architecture), Könemann, Köln, (2005), isbn3-8331-1943-8. Only one example of the Code survives today, inscribed on a seven foot, four inch tall basalt http://www.commonlaw.com/Hammurabi.html Code of Hammurabia C. H. W. Johns CONTENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673226487&CURRENT_LLV_NOTICE%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673226487&FOLDER%3C%3Efolder_id=9852723696500800&bmUID=1156475018923&bmLocale=en|title=Near Eastern Antiquities: Mesopotamia|accessdate=September 14 2007|dateformat=mdy|publisher=The Louvre Museum|year=2006|author=The Louvre Museum}} in the Akkadian language in the cuneiform script. Discovery The stele containing the Code of Hammurabi was discovered in 1901 by the Egyptologist Gustav Jéquier, a member of the expedition headed by Jacques de Morgan. The stele was discovered in what is now Khūzestān, Iran (ancient Susa, Elam), where it had been taken as plunder by the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte in the 12th century BC. It is currently on display at the Louvre Museum in Paris. Hammurabi Hammurabi (ruled ca. 1796 BC – 1750 BC) believed that he was chosen by the gods to deliver the law to his people. In the preface to the law code, he states, "Anu and Bel called by name me, Hammurabi, the exalted prince, who feared God, to bring about the rule of righteousness in the land." Law The Code of Hammurabi was one of several sets of laws in the Ancient Near East. Earlier collections of laws include the Code of Ur-Nammu, king of (ca. 2050 BC), the Laws of Eshnunna (ca. 1930 BC) and the codex of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin (ca. 1870 BC). , while later ones include the Hittite laws, the Assyrian laws, and Mosaic Law. These codes come from similar cultures in a relatively small geographical area, and they have passages which resemble each other. View of the back side of the stele. The code is often pointed to be a primary example of even a king not being able to change fundamental laws concerning the governing of a country which was the primitive form of what is now known as a constitution. The Babylonians and their neighbors developed the earliest system of economics that was fixed in a legal code, using a metric of various commodities. The early law codes from Sumer could be considered the first (written) economic formula, and had many attributes still in use in the current price system today... such as codified amounts of money for business deals (interest rates), fines in money for 'wrong doing', inheritance rules, laws concerning how private property is to be taxed or divided, etc. http://history-world.org/reforms_of_urukagina.htm Examples These are seven (7) example laws, in their entirety, of the Code of Hammurabi, translated into English: 1. If any one ensnares another, putting a ban upon him, but he can not prove it, then he that ensnared him shall be put to death. 2. If any one brings an accusation against a man, and the accused goes to the river and leaps into the river, if he sinks in the river his accuser shall take possession of his house. But if the river proves that the accused is not guilty, and he escapes unhurt, then he who had brought the accusation shall be put to death, while he who leaped into the river shall take possession of the house that had belonged to his accuser. 3. If any one brings an accusation of any crime before the elders, and does not prove what he has charged, he shall, if a capital offense is charged, be put to death. 4. If a Builder builds a house for someone, and does not construct it properly, and the house which he built falls in and kills its owner, then that builder shall be put to death. 5. If a man give his child to a nurse and the child dies in her hands, but the nurse unbeknown to the father and mother nurses another child, then they shall convict her of having nursed another child without the knowledge of the father and mother and her breasts shall be cut off. 6. If any one steals the minor son of another, he shall be put to death. 7. If a man takes a woman to wife, but has no intercourse with her, this woman is no wife to him. There are 282 such laws in the Code of Hammurabi, each no more than a sentence or two. The 282 laws are bracketed by a Prologue in which Hammurabi introduces himself, and an Epilogue in which he affirms his authority and sets forth his hopes and prayers for his code of laws. See also Urukagina - Sumerian king and creator of what is sometimes cited as the first example of a legal code in recorded history. Code of Ur-Nammu - the oldest known tablet containing a law code surviving today, it predates the Code of Hammurabi by some 300 years. Code of the Assura Babylonian law Cuneiform Law Quid pro quo Code of Hammurabi translated by R.F. Harper in 1904, Chicago University Press ~ References Notes Bibliography Falkenstein, A. (1956–57). Die neusumerischen Gerichtsurkunden I–III. München. Elsen-Novák, G. / Novák, M.: Der 'König der Gerechtigkeit'. Zur Ikonologie und Teleologie des 'Codex' Hammurapi. In: Baghdader Mitteilungen 37 (2006), pp. 131-156. Julius Oppert and Joachim Menant (1877). Documents juridiques de l'Assyrie et de la Chaldee. París. Thomas, D. Winton, ed. (1958). Documents from Old Testament Times. London and New York. External links Law Code of Hammurabi, king of Babylon | Musée du Louvre English Translation | University of Evansville English translation of the Code of Hammurabi Complete scientific Englsh translation of the Code of Hammurabi | Code_of_Hammurabi |@lemmatized image:1 code:26 hammurabi:19 upper:1 part:1 stele:4 law:22 codex:3 well:1 preserve:1 ancient:4 create:1 ca:5 bc:7 middle:1 chronology:1 babylon:2 enact:1 sixth:1 babylonian:3 king:6 gabriele:1 bartz:1 eberhard:1 könig:2 art:1 architecture:1 könemann:1 köln:1 one:7 example:5 survive:2 today:3 inscribe:1 seven:2 foot:1 four:1 inch:1 tall:1 basalt:1 http:2 www:1 commonlaw:1 com:1 html:1 hammurabia:1 c:1 h:1 w:1 johns:1 content:1 folder:1 bmuid:1 bmlocale:1 en:1 title:1 near:2 eastern:1 antiquity:1 mesopotamia:1 accessdate:1 september:1 dateformat:1 mdy:1 publisher:1 louvre:4 museum:3 year:2 author:1 akkadian:1 language:1 cuneiform:2 script:1 discovery:1 contain:2 discover:2 egyptologist:1 gustav:1 jéquier:1 member:1 expedition:1 head:1 jacques:1 de:4 morgan:1 khūzestān:1 iran:1 susa:1 elam:1 take:4 plunder:1 elamite:1 shutruk:1 nahhunte:1 century:1 currently:1 display:1 paris:1 rule:3 believe:1 choose:1 god:2 deliver:1 people:1 preface:1 state:1 anu:1 bel:1 call:1 name:1 exalted:1 prince:1 fear:1 bring:4 righteousness:1 land:1 several:1 set:2 east:1 early:3 collection:1 include:2 ur:2 nammu:2 eshnunna:1 lipit:1 ishtar:1 isin:1 late:1 hittite:1 assyrian:1 mosaic:1 come:1 similar:1 culture:1 relatively:1 small:1 geographical:1 area:1 passage:1 resemble:1 view:1 back:1 side:1 often:1 point:1 primary:1 even:1 able:1 change:1 fundamental:1 concern:2 governing:1 country:1 primitive:1 form:1 know:1 constitution:1 neighbor:1 develop:1 system:2 economics:1 fix:1 legal:2 use:2 metric:1 various:1 commodity:1 sumer:1 could:1 consider:1 first:2 write:1 economic:1 formula:1 many:1 attribute:1 still:1 current:1 price:1 codified:1 amount:1 money:2 business:1 deal:1 interest:1 rate:1 fine:1 wrong:1 inheritance:1 private:1 property:1 tax:1 divide:1 etc:1 history:2 world:1 org:1 htm:1 entirety:1 translate:2 english:3 ensnare:2 another:4 put:6 ban:1 upon:1 prove:3 shall:9 death:5 accusation:3 man:3 accuse:2 go:1 river:5 leap:2 sink:1 accuser:2 possession:2 house:4 guilty:1 escape:1 unhurt:1 belong:1 crime:1 elder:1 charge:2 capital:1 offense:1 builder:2 build:2 someone:1 construct:1 properly:1 fall:1 kill:1 owner:1 give:1 child:4 nurse:4 die:2 hand:1 unbeknown:1 father:2 mother:2 convict:1 without:1 knowledge:1 breast:1 cut:1 steal:1 minor:1 son:1 woman:2 wife:2 intercourse:1 sentence:1 two:1 bracket:1 prologue:1 introduces:1 epilogue:1 affirm:1 authority:1 forth:1 hope:1 prayer:1 see:1 also:1 urukagina:1 sumerian:1 creator:1 sometimes:1 cite:1 recorded:1 old:2 known:1 tablet:1 predate:1 assura:1 quid:1 pro:1 quo:1 r:1 f:1 harper:1 chicago:1 university:2 press:1 reference:1 note:1 bibliography:1 falkenstein:1 neusumerischen:1 gerichtsurkunden:1 iii:1 münchen:1 elsen:1 novák:2 g:1 der:2 gerechtigkeit:1 zur:1 ikonologie:1 und:1 teleologie:1 hammurapi:1 baghdader:1 mitteilungen:1 pp:1 julius:1 oppert:1 joachim:1 menant:1 document:2 juridiques:1 l:1 assyrie:1 et:1 la:1 chaldee:1 parís:1 thomas:1 winton:1 ed:1 testament:1 time:1 london:1 new:1 york:1 external:1 link:1 musée:1 du:1 translation:3 evansville:1 complete:1 scientific:1 englsh:1 |@bigram code_hammurabi:11 http_www:1 cuneiform_script:1 ur_nammu:2 quid_pro:1 pro_quo:1 external_link:1 musée_du:1 du_louvre:1 |
4,989 | Conan_the_Barbarian | "Hither came Conan, the Cimmerian, black-haired, sullen-eyed, sword in hand, a thief, a reaver, a slayer, with gigantic melancholies and gigantic mirth, to tread the jeweled thrones of the Earth under his sandalled feet." — Robert E. Howard, The Phoenix on the Sword, 1932. Illustration by Mark Schultz. Conan the Barbarian (also known as Conan the Cimmerian, from the name of his homeland, Cimmeria) is a fictional character in books, comics and movies. He is a hero The Robert E. Howard United Press Association, David McAllister; selections from One More Barbarian #37. Towson University, John L. Flynn; A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF HEROES IN CONTEMPORARY WORKS OF FANTASY LITERATURE. a well known and iconic figure in American fantasy, and the most famous barbarian in fiction. Herron (1984). p. 149: "Robert E. Howard of Cross Plains, Texas, created one of the great mythic figures in modern popular culture, the Dark Barbarian… [which] put Howard in the select ranks of the literary legend-makers. Possibilities of movi coming out on September 17 2009: Ned Buntline, Alexandre Dumas, père, Mary Shelley, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Bram Stoker, Edgar Rice Burroughs, Dashiell Hammett, H. P. Lovecraft, J. R. R. Tolkien, and Ian Fleming." Conan is often associated with the fantasy subgenre of sword-and-sorcery and heroic fantasy. He was created by Texan writer Robert E. Howard in 1932 via a series of fantasy stories sold to Weird Tales magazine, the character has since appeared in licensed books, comics, films, television programs,video games and even a boardgame, all of which contribute to the hero's long-standing popularity. Conan the Barbarian is also the name of a Gnome Press collection of stories published in 1954, a comic published by Marvel Comics beginning in 1970, and a film and its novelization in 1982. Publication history Conan the Barbarian was created by Robert E. Howard and was the spiritual successor to an earlier character, Kull of Atlantis. For months, Howard had been in search of a new character to market to the burgeoning pulp outlets of the early 1930s. In October 1931, Howard submitted a short story titled "People of the Dark" to Clayton Publications' new magazine, Strange Tales of Mystery and Terror (June 1932). "People of the Dark" is a remembrance story of "past lives", and in its first-person narrative the protagonist describes one of his previous incarnations: Conan, a black-haired barbarian hero who swears by a deity called Crom. Some Howard scholars believe this Conan to be a forerunner of the more famous character. Patrice Louinet. Hyborian Genesis: Part 1, pages 429 to 453, The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian; 2003, Del Rey. In February 1932, Howard vacationed at a border town on the lower Rio Grande to enjoy the local flavor. During this trip, he further conceived the character of Conan and also wrote the poem "Cimmeria", much of which echoes specific passages in Plutarch's Lives. According to some scholars, there is a strong likelihood that Howard's conception of Conan and the Hyborian Age originated in Thomas Bulfinch's The Outline of Mythology (1913) which enthused Howard to "coalesce into a coherent whole his literary aspirations and the strong physical, autobiographical elements underlying the creation of Conan." An interior Weird Tales illustration sketched by, assumedly, Margaret Brundage in 1932. The illustration depicts a scene from Howard's The Phoenix on the Sword. The original short story was written by Howard and first appeared in a 1932 issue of Weird Tales magazine. Having digested these prior influences after he returned from his trip, Howard rewrote the rejected Kull story "By This Axe I Rule!" (May 1929) with his new hero in mind, re-titling it "The Phoenix on the Sword". Howard also wrote "The Frost Giant's Daughter", inspired by the Greek myth of Daphne, and submitted both stories to Weird Tales magazine. Although "The Frost-Giant's Daughter" was rejected, the magazine accepted "The Phoenix on the Sword" after it received the requested polishing. "The Phoenix on the Sword" appeared in Weird Tales in December 1932, thus marking Conan's first appearance in print. Weird Tales would become famous for its unique stable of notable authors, including H. P. Lovecraft, Clark Ashton Smith, Tennessee Williams, Robert Bloch, Seabury Quinn and others. The acceptance of "The Phoenix on the Sword" by editor Farnsworth Wright prompted Howard to write an 8,000 word essay for personal use detailing "the Hyborian Age," the fictional setting for Conan. Using this essay as his guideline, Howard began plotting "The Tower of the Elephant", a new Conan story that would be the first to truly integrate his new conception of the Hyborian world, and thus to introduce the setting to the reader. The publication and success of "The Tower of the Elephant" would spur Howard to write many more Conan stories for Weird Tales. By the time of Howard's suicide in 1936, he had written twenty-one complete tales, seventeen of which had been published, as well as a number of unfinished fragments. Following Howard's death, the copyright of the Conan stories passed through several hands. Eventually, under the guidance of L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter, the stories were expurgated, revised and sometimes rewritten. For roughly forty years, the original versions of Howard's Conan stories remained out of print. Only with the Berkley editions in 1977 was an attempt made to return to the earliest published (Weird Tales) form of the texts, but these failed to displace the edited versions. In the 1980s and 1990s, the copyright holders of the Conan franchise permitted Howard's stories to go out of print entirely, while continuing to sell Conan works by other authors. In 2000, the British publisher Gollancz Science Fiction issued a two-volume, complete edition of Howard's Conan stories as part of their Fantasy Masterworks imprint, including several stories which had never seen print in their original form. The Gollancz edition mostly used the versions of the stories as published in Weird Tales. In 2003, a British publisher named Wandering Star made an effort both to restore Howard's original manuscripts and to provide a more scholarly and historical view of the Conan stories. They published deluxe hardcover editions in England, which were republished in the United States by the Del Rey imprint of Ballantine Books. The first book, Conan of Cimmeria: Volume One (1932–1933) (2003; published in the US as The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian) includes Howard's notes on his fictional setting, as well as letters and poems concerning the genesis of his ideas. This was followed by Conan of Cimmeria: Volume Two (1934) (2004) and Conan of Cimmeria: Volume Three (1935–1936) (2005); these were published in the US in 2005 as The Bloody Crown of Conan and The Conquering Sword of Conan. Among them, the three books include all of the original unedited Conan stories. Setting A map of Robert E. Howard's Hyborian Age. The various stories of Conan the Barbarian occur in the fictional "Hyborian Age," set after the destruction of Atlantis and before the rise of the known ancient civilizations. This is a specific epoch in a fictional timeline created by Howard for many of the low fantasy tales of his artificial legendry. Robert E. Howard's Hyborian Age essay adapted by Roy Thomas and Walt Simonson. The reasons behind the invention of the Hyborian Age were perhaps commercial: Howard had an intense love for history and historical dramas; however, at the same time, he recognized the difficulties and the time-consuming research work needed in maintaining historical accuracy. By conceiving a timeless setting — "a vanished age" — and by carefully choosing names that resembled human history, Howard shrewdly avoided the problem of historical anachronisms and the need for lengthy exposition. According to "The Phoenix on the Sword", the adventures of Conan take place "...Between the years when the oceans drank Atlantis and the gleaming cities, and the years of the rise of the Sons of Aryas..." Howard, Robert E., "The Phoenix on the Sword," The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian (2003). Personality and character Conan is a Cimmerian (based somewhat loosely on the Celts), a barbarian of the far north. One of his grandfathers, however, came from a southern tribe. He was born on a battlefield and is the son of a village blacksmith. Conan matured quickly as a youth and, by age fifteen, he was already a respected warrior who had participated in the destruction of the Aquilonian outpost of Venarium. After its destruction, he was struck by wanderlust and began the adventures chronicled by Howard, encountering skulking monsters, evil wizards, tavern wenches, and beautiful princesses. He roamed throughout the Hyborian Age nations as a thief, outlaw, mercenary and pirate. As he grew older, he began commanding larger units of men and escalating his ambitions. In his forties, he seized the crown of the tyrannical king of Aquilona, the most powerful kingdom of the Hyborian Age, having strangled the previous ruler on the steps of the throne. Conan's adventures often result in him performing heroic feats, though his motivation for doing so is largely for his own survival or for personal gain, implying that the character displays the characteristics of an anti-hero and could be described as the archetypal "amoral swordsman" of the Sword and Sorcery genre. Towson University, John L. Flynn; A Historical Overview of Heroes in Contemporary Works of Fantasy Literature. This observation could however be said to be in contrast to the assumption that Conan was merely another barbarian hero as envisioned by Howard for Weird Tales magazine. Appearance Conan has "sullen blue eyes" and a black "square-cut mane". Howard once describes him as having a hairy chest and, while comic book interpretations often portray Conan as wearing a loincloth or other minimalist clothing, Howard describes the character as wearing whatever garb is typical for the land and culture in which Conan finds himself. Though Howard never gave a strict height or weight for Conan in a story, only describing him in loose terms like "giant" and "massive", he did once state that Conan and another of Howard's characters, the crusader Cormac Fitzgeoffrey, were "physical doubles" at 6'2" and 210 lb (188 cm and 95 kg, a description of Howard's own height and weight). In the tales no human is ever described as stronger than Conan, although several are mentioned as taller (such as the strangler Baal-pteor) or of larger bulk. In a letter to P. Schuyler Miller and John D. Clark in 1936 only three months before Howard's death, Conan is described as standing 6 feet and weighing 180 pounds when he takes part in an attack on Venarium only 15 years old, though being far from fully grown. Although Conan is muscular, Howard frequently compares his agility and way of moving to that of a panther (see for instance "Jewels of Gwahlur," "Beyond the Black River" or "Rogues in the House"). His skin is frequently characterized as bronzed from constant exposure to the sun. In his younger years, he is often depicted wearing a light chain shirt and a horned helmet, though appearances vary with different artists. During his reign as king of Aquilonia, Conan was "... a tall man, mightily shouldered and deep of chest, with a massive corded neck and heavily muscled limbs. He was clad in silk and velvet, with the royal lions of Aquilonia worked in gold upon his rich jupon, and the crown of Aquilonia shone on his square-cut black mane; but the great sword at his side seemed more natural to him than the regal accoutrements. His brow was low and broad, his eyes a volcanic blue that smoldered as if with some inner fire. His dark, scarred, almost sinister face was that of a fighting-man, and his velvet garments could not conceal the hard, dangerous lines of his limbs." Robert E. Howard. The Hour of the Dragon, pages 89 and 90, The Bloody Crown of Conan; 2005, Del Rey. Though several later authors have referred to Conan as "Germanic-looking", Howard imagined the Cimmerians as a proto-Celtic people with mostly black hair and blue or grey eyes. Ethnically the Cimmerians to which Conan belongs are descendants of the Atlanteans, though they do not remember their ancestry. In his fictional historical essay The Hyborian Age, Howard describes how the people of Atlantis — the land where his character King Kull originated — had to move east after a great cataclysm changed the face of the world and sank their island, settling where northern Ireland and Scotland would eventually be located. In the same work, Howard also described how the Cimmerians eventually moved south and east after the age of Conan (presumably in the vicinity of the Black Sea, where the historical Cimmerians dwelt). Abilities Despite his brutish appearance, Conan uses his brain as well as his brawn. The Cimmerian is a talented fighter, but his travels have given him vast experience in other trades, especially as a thief; he is also a talented commander, tactician and strategist, as well as a born leader. In addition, Conan speaks many languages, including advanced reading and writing abilities: in certain stories, he is able to recognize, or even decipher, certain ancient or secret signs and writings. He also has a lot of stamina which enables him to go without sleep for a few days. Another noticeable trait is his sense of humor, largely absent in the comics and movies but very much a part of Howard's original vision of the character, particularly apparent in "Xuthal of the Dusk," also known as "The Slithering Shadow." He is a loyal friend to those true to him, with a barbaric code of conduct that often marks him as more honorable than the more sophisticated people he meets in his travels. Indeed, his straightforward nature and barbarism are constants in all the tales. Conan is a formidable armed and unarmed combatant. With his back to the wall Conan is capable of engaging and killing opponents by the score. This is seen in several stories, such as "Queen of the Black Coast", "The Scarlet Citadel" and "A Witch Shall be Born". Conan is not superhuman, though; he did need the providential help of Zelata's wolf to defeat four Nemedian soldiers in the story The Hour of the Dragon. Some of his hardest victories have come from fighting single opponents of inhuman strength: one such as Thak, the ape man from "Rogues in the House," or the strangler Baal-Pteor in "Shadows in Zamboula." Conan is far from untouchable and has been captured and defeated several times (on one occasion knocking himself out drunkenly running into a wall). Influences Howard frequently corresponded with H. P. Lovecraft, and the two would sometimes insert references or elements of each others' settings in their works. Later editors reworked many of the original Conan stories by Howard, thus diluting this connection. Nevertheless, many of Howard's unedited Conan stories are arguably part of the Cthulhu Mythos. Patrice Louinet. Hyborian Genesis: Part 1, page 436, The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian; 2003, Del Rey. Additionally, many of the Conan stories by Howard, de Camp and Carter used geographical place names from Clark Ashton Smith's Hyperborean Cycle. The Conan stories are informed by the popular interest of the time in ideas on evolution and Social Darwinism. Are some peoples destined to rule over others? Are our physical and mental characteristics the result of our experiences or are they the result of our inheritance from our ancestors? Is human civilization a natural or an unnatural development? As Conan remarks in one story: Civilized men are more discourteous than savages because they know they can be impolite without having their skulls split, as a general thing. — "The Tower of the Elephant", Robert E. Howard, Weird Tales, March 1933. Additionally, fans such as comic book artist Mark Schultz have concluded that Conan was an idealized alter ego for Howard. Unlike the modern, stereotypical view of a brainless barbarian, Howard originally created Conan as a thoughtful figure, although primarily a man of action rather than a man of deep thought or brooding. A closer alter ego for Howard, often depicted as a melancholic man who often battled with depression, much like Howard himself (the writer eventually committed suicide) is King Kull, Conan's original forebear (cf "By This Axe, I Rule" and " The Mirrors of Tuzun Thune ". Let teachers and priests and philosophers brood over questions of reality and illusion. I know this: if life is an illusion, then I am no less an illusion, and being thus, the illusion is real to me. I live, I burn with life, I love, I slay, and I am content. — "Queen of the Black Coast", Robert E. Howard, Weird Tales, May 1934. Original Robert E. Howard Conan stories Cover of Weird Tales (May 1934) depicting Conan and Bêlit in Queen of the Black Coast, one of Robert E. Howard's original Conan stories. Conan stories published in Weird Tales "The Phoenix on the Sword" (novelette; WT 20 6, December 1932) "The Scarlet Citadel" (novelette; WT 21 1, January 1933) "The Tower of the Elephant" (novelette; WT 21 3, March 1933) "Black Colossus" (novelette; WT 21 6, June 1933) "Xuthal of the Dusk" (novelette; WT 22 3, September 1933, as "The Slithering Shadow") "The Pool of the Black One" (novelette; WT 22 4, October 1933) "Rogues in the House" (novelette; WT 23 1, January 1934) "Iron Shadows in the Moon" (novelette; WT 23 4, April 1934, as "Shadows in the Moonlight") "Queen of the Black Coast" (novelette; WT 23 5, May 1934) "The Devil in Iron" (novelette; WT 24 2, August 1934) "The People of the Black Circle" (novella; WT 24 3–5, September/October/November 1934) "A Witch Shall be Born" (novelette; WT 24 6, December 1934) "Jewels of Gwahlur" (novelette; WT 25 3, March 1935) "Beyond the Black River" (novella; WT 25 5–6, May/June 1935) "Man-Eaters of Zamboula" (novelette; WT 26 5, November 1935, as "Shadows in Zamboula") "The Hour of the Dragon" (novel; WT 26 6 & 25 1–4, December 35/January/February/March/April 1936) "Red Nails" (novella; WT 28 1–3, July/August-September/October 1936) Conan stories not published in his lifetime "The Frost Giant's Daughter" — Published in 2003 in The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian. "The God in the Bowl" — Published in 2003 in The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian. "The Vale of Lost Women" — Published in 2003 in The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian. "The Black Stranger" — Published in 1987 in Echoes of Valor. Unfinished Conan stories by Howard "The Snout in the Dark" — Fragment. "Drums of Tombalku" — Fragment. "The Hall of the Dead" — Synopsis. "The Hand of Nergal" — Fragment. NOTE: A number of untitled synopses for Conan stories also exist. Other Conan-related material by Howard "Wolves Beyond the Border" — A non-Conan story set in Conan's world. Fragment. "The Hyborian Age" — An essay written in 1932. Published in 2003 in The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian. "Cimmeria" — A poem written in 1932. Published in 2003 in The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian. Book editions Cover of Conan the Usurper (1967). Art by Frank Frazetta. The character of Conan has proven durably popular, resulting in Conan stories by later writers such as Poul Anderson, Leonard Carpenter, Lin Carter, L. Sprague de Camp, Roland J. Green, John C. Hocking, Robert Jordan, Sean A. Moore, Björn Nyberg, Andrew J. Offutt, Steve Perry, John Maddox Roberts, Harry Turtledove, and Karl Edward Wagner. Some of these writers have finished incomplete Conan manuscripts by Howard. Others were created by rewriting Howard stories which originally featured entirely different characters from entirely different milieus. Most, however, are completely original works. In total, more than fifty novels and dozens of short stories featuring the Conan character have been written by authors other than Howard. The Gnome Press edition (1950–1957) was the first hardcover collection of Howard's Conan stories, including all the original Howard material known to exist at the time, some left unpublished in his lifetime. The later volumes contain some stories rewritten by L. Sprague de Camp (like "The Treasure of Tranicos"), including several non-Conan Howard stories, mostly historical exotica situated in the Levant at the time of the crusades, which he turned into Conan yarns. The Gnome edition also issued the first Conan story written by an author other than Howard — the final volume published, which is by Björn Nyberg and revised by de Camp. The Lancer/Ace editions (1966–1977), under the direction of de Camp and Lin Carter, were the first comprehensive paperbacks, compiling the material from the Gnome Press series together in chronological order with all the remaining original Howard material, including that left unpublished in his lifetime and fragments and outlines. These were completed by de Camp and Carter, and new stories written entirely by the two were added as well. Lancer Books went out of business before bringing out the entire series, the publication of which was completed by Ace Books. Its covers featured dynamic images by Frank Frazetta that, for many fans, presented the "definitive" impression of Conan and his world. For decades to come, most other portrayals of the Cimmerian and his imitators were heavily influenced by the cover paintings of this series. Editions after the Lancer/Ace series have been of either the original Howard stories or Conan material by others, but not both. Notable later editions of the Howard stories include the Donald M. Grant editions (1974–1989); Berkley editions (1977); Gollancz editions (2000–2006), and Wandering Star/Del Rey editions (2003–2005). Later series of new Conan material include the Bantam editions (1978–1982), Ace Maroto editions (1978–1981), and Tor editions (1982–2004). Conan chronologies In an attempt to provide a coherent timeline which fit the numerous adventures of Conan penned by Robert E. Howard and later writers, various "Conan chronologies" have been prepared by many people from the 1930s onward. Note that no consistent timeline has yet to accommodate every single Conan story. The following are the principal theories that have been advanced over the years. Miller/Clark chronology — A Probable Outline of Conan's Career (1936) was the first effort to put the tales in chronological order. Completed by P. Schuyler Miller and John D. Clark, the chronology was later revised by Clark and L. Sprague de Camp in An Informal Biography of Conan the Cimmerian (1952). Robert Jordan chronology — A Conan Chronology by Robert Jordan (1987) was a new chronology written by Conan writer Robert Jordan that included all written Conan material up to that point. It was heavily influenced by the Miller/Clark/de Camp chronologies, though it departed from them in a number of idiosyncratic instances. William Galen Gray chronology — Timeline of Conan's Journeys (1997, rev. 2004), was fan William Galen Gray's attempt to create "a chronology of all the stories, both Howard and pastiche." Drawing on the earlier Miller/Clark and Jordan chronologies, it represents the ultimate expression of their tradition to date. Joe Marek chronology — Joe Marek's chronology is limited to stories written (or devised) by Howard, though within that context it is essentially a revision of the Miller/Clark tradition to better reflect the internal evidence of the stories and avoid forcing Conan into what he perceives as a "mad dash" around the Hyborian world within timeframes too rapid to be credible. Dale Rippke chronology — The Darkstorm Conan Chronology (2003) was a completely revised and heavily researched chronology, radically repositioning a number of stories and including only those stories written or devised by Howard. The Dark Horse comic series follows this chronology. Media Films Conan the Barbarian (1982) poster. For more details on this topic, see Conan the Barbarian (1982) or Conan the Destroyer (1984). The very first Conan cinematic project was planned by Edward Summer. Summer envisioned a series of Conan movies, much like the James Bond franchise. He outlined six stories for this film series, but none were ever made. An original screenplay by Summer and Roy Thomas was written, but their lore-authentic screen story was never filmed. Instead the resulting film, Conan the Barbarian (1982), was written by the unlikely pairing of Oliver Stone and John Milius. Their script had very little in common with Howard's original Conan tales, and was a bold re-imagining of Conan's life. The plot of Conan the Barbarian (1982) begins with Conan being enslaved by the Vanir raiders of Thulsa Doom, a malevolent warlord who is responsible for the slaying of Conan's parents and the genocide of his people. Later, Thulsa Doom becomes a cult leader of a shamanist religion that worships Set, a Snake God. The vengeful Conan, the archer Subotai and the thief Valeria set out on a quest to rescue a princess held captive by Thulsa Doom. The film was directed by John Milius and produced by Dino De Laurentiis. The character of Conan was played by Arnold Schwarzenegger and was his break-through role as an actor. This film was followed by a less popular sequel, Conan the Destroyer in 1984. This sequel was a more typical fantasy-genre film and was even less faithful to Howard's Conan stories. There were rumours in the late 1990s of a third Conan sequel, King Conan: Crown of Iron, but Schwarzenegger's election as governor of California ended this project. Goodbye Hollywood: Schwarzenegger becomes California governor. The film rights to Conan were acquired by Millennium Films in August 2007. Millennium plan to complete production on a new Conan movie in 2010 New Conan movie in 2010 , with the movie intended to be more faithful to Howard's original works than the earlier movies. Millennium wins rights to upcoming Conan film An animated feature, Conan: Red Nails, based upon the novella of the same name is being made (see Red Nails). Conan: Red Nails – Official film website Television There have been three television series related to Conan: A live-action TV series and animated cartoon series — both entitled Conan the Adventurer, as well as a second animated series entitled Conan and the Young Warriors. Conan The Adventurer was the name of a popular animated television series. Produced by Jetlag Productions and Sunbow Productions, the series debuted on October 1, 1992, ran for 64 episodes and concluded exactly two years later, on October 1, 1994. The series involved Conan chasing Serpent Men across the world in an attempt to release his parents from eternal imprisonment as living statues. Conan and the Young Warriors was an animated television series which premiered in 1994 and ran for 13 episodes. DiC Entertainment produced the show and CBS aired this series as a spin-off to the previous Conan the Adventurer animated series. This cartoon took place after the finale of Conan the Adventurer with Wrath-Amon vanquished and Conan's family returned to life from living stone. Conan soon finds that the family of one of his friends are being turned into wolves by an evil sorceress and he must train three warriors in order to aid him in rescuing them. Conan: The Adventurer was a television series loosely based on Conan. The TV show premiered on September 22, 1997, and ran for 22 episodes. This live-action series starred German bodybuilder Ralf Moeller as Conan and Danny Woodburn as his sidekick Otli. The storyline was quite different from the Conan lore of Robert E. Howard. In this adaptation, Conan is a pleasant and jovial person. Also in this version, Conan is not a loner but one member in a merry band of adventurers. Comics Tower of the Elephant comic by R. Thomas, J. Buscema and A. Alcala. Conan the Barbarian has appeared in comics nearly non-stop since 1970. The comics are arguably, apart from the books, the vehicle that had the greatest influence on the longevity and popularity of the character. Aside from an earlier and unofficial Conan comic published in Mexico, the two main publishers of Conan comics have been Marvel and Dark Horse. Marvel Comics launched Conan the Barbarian (1970–1993) and the now-classic Savage Sword of Conan (1974–1995). Dark Horse Comics launched their Conan series in 2003. Dark Horse Comics is currently publishing compilations of the 1970s Marvel Comics Conan the Barbarian series and Savage Sword of Conan series in graphic-novel format. Marvel Comics introduced a relatively lore-faithful version of Conan the Barbarian in 1970 with Conan the Barbarian, written by Roy Thomas and illustrated by Barry Windsor-Smith. Smith was succeeded by penciller John Buscema, while Thomas continued to write for many years. Later writers included J.M. DeMatteis, Bruce Jones, Michael Fleisher, Doug Moench, Jim Owsley, Alan Zelenetz, Chuck Dixon, and Don Kraar. The highly successful Conan the Barbarian series spawned the more adult, black-and-white Savage Sword of Conan in 1974. Written by Roy Thomas and most art by John Buscema or Alfredo Alcala, the Savage Sword of Conan soon became one of the most popular comic series in the 1970s and is now-considered a cult classic. The Marvel Conan stories were also adapted as a newspaper comic strip which appeared daily and Sunday from 4 September 1978 to 12 April 1981. Originally written by Roy Thomas and illustrated by John Buscema, the strip was continued by several different Marvel artists and writers. For more details on this topic, see Conan (Marvel comics). Dark Horse Comics began their comic adaptation of the Conan saga in 2003. Entitled simply Conan, the series was first written by Kurt Busiek and pencilled by Cary Nord. Tim Truman replaced Busiek when Busiek signed an exclusive contract with DC Comics; however, Busiek issues were sometimes used for filler. This series is an interpretation of the original Conan material by Robert E. Howard with no connection whatsoever to the earlier Marvel comics or any Conan story not written or envisioned by Howard supplemented by wholly original material. The US President Barack Obama is a collector of Conan the Barbarian comic books and a big fan of the character. "Barack Obama: The 50 facts you might not know". Telegraph, 11/11/08 Games Age of Conan, an MMORPG, released in May 2008. Video games Seven video games have been released based on the Conan mythos. In 1984, Datasoft released Conan: Hall of Volta for the Apple II and Commodore 64. In 1989, Mindscape, Inc. released 'Conan' for the NES. In 1991, Mindscape released Conan: The Mysteries of Time for NES, a Commodore 64 port by System 3. In 1991, Virgin Games and Synergistic released Conan: The Cimmerian for Amiga and DOS. In 2004, TDK Mediactive released Conan (2004 video game), a third-person action game for Windows and consoles. In 2007, THQ and Nihilistic released Conan, a third-person action game for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. In 2008, Funcom released Age of Conan, a massively multiplayer online roleplaying game (MMORPG) on May 20 in the US and May 23 in Europe. Collectible card games In 2006, Comic Images released the Conan Collectible Card Game designed by Jason Robinette. Board games In 2009, Fantasy Flight Games released the Age of Conan strategy board game, depicting warfare between the Hyborian nations in which Conan adventures. Role-playing games TSR signed a license agreement in 1984 to publish the Conan game. Two modules for Advanced Dungeons & Dragons: CB1 Conan Unchained! (1984) CB2 Conan Against Darkness! (1984) Conan Role-Playing Game (1985) by TSR, Inc., and 3 official game adventures: CN1 Conan the Buccaneer (1985) CN2 Conan the Mercenary (1985) CN3 Conan Triumphant (1985) GURPS Conan, a GURPS version by Steve Jackson Games. Conan The Roleplaying Game (2004), an OGL version by Mongoose Publishing, with many supplements. Play-by-mail games Hyborian War, hosted by Reality Simulations Inc., is a play-by-mail game set in the Hyborian Age. Characters The following characters have prominent roles in the Conan mythos. Bêlit — A self-styled queen of the Black Coast, captain of the pirate ship "Tigress," and Conan's first serious lover (Queen of the Black Coast). Red Sonja — An Hyrkanian warrior created by Roy Thomas and Barry Windsor-Smith for the Conan comics. She was based on the Howard character, Red Sonya of Rogatino, who appeared in The Shadow of the Vulture tale set in the 16th century. Thoth-Amon — A Stygian wizard of great power who appeared in the first Conan story written (The Phoenix on the Sword) and was mentioned in The God in the Bowl and The Hour of the Dragon. L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter made Thoth-Amon the arch-nemesis of Conan. In the Marvel comics, Thoth-Amon was also Conan's life-long opponent and had a striking appearance designed by Barry Windsor-Smith; he wore a distinctive ram-horn ornamental headdress. Thulsa Doom — A skull-faced necromancer in a King Kull story, a recurring villain in the Kull comics, and the antagonist in the 1982 film. Valeria — A female mercenary affiliated with the Red Brotherhood (Red Nails). Yara — An evil wizard and an adversary of Conan (The Tower of the Elephant). Zenobia — A seraglio concubine whom Conan wed and made queen of Aquilonia (The Hour of the Dragon). Copyright and trademark dispute The name Conan and the names of Robert E. Howard's other principal characters are claimed as trademarked by Paradox Entertainment of Stockholm, Sweden, through its US subsidiary Paradox Entertainment Inc. Paradox copyrights stories written by other authors under license from Conan Properties Inc. However, since Robert E. Howard published his Conan stories at a time when the date of publication was the marker (1923 through 1963), any new owners failed to renew them to maintain the copyrights. Paul Herman's research on the copyright status of Robert Howard's works The exact status of all of Howard's Conan works are in question. Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States at Cornell University The Australian site of Project Gutenberg has many Robert E. Howard stories, including several Conan stories. Robert E. Howard's stories on Project Gutenberg This indicates that, in their opinion, the stories are free from copyright and may be used by anyone, at least under Australian law, which was 50 years from author's death until 2005. Subsequent stories written by other authors are subject to the copyright laws of the relevant time. In the United Kingdom, 70 years after the death of an author his works fall into the public domain and as such the works of Robert E. Howard have now fallen into the public domain there. Sources Bibliography Notes and references External links Conan Bibliography compiled by Bruce L. Precourt – January 1998 Conan: The Official Website Conan the Barbarian at AmratheLion.com Maps of the Hyborian Age Online MMORPG "Age of Conan: Hyborian Adventures" by Funcom Conan RPG by Mongoose Publishing "From Pen to Sword: Robert E. Howard's Conan," by John J. 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4,990 | Henry_Middleton | The surviving wing of the mansion built by Henry Middleton in the 1700s Henry Middleton (1717 June 13, 1784) of South Carolina was the second President of the Continental Congress from October 22 1774, until Peyton Randolph was able to resume his duties briefly beginning on May 10, 1775. His father was Acting South Carolina Governor (1725-1730) Arthur Middleton (1681-1737). While a delegate to the Continental Congress, Middleton resigned in order to prepare for the coming war. He was succeeded by his son Arthur Middleton (1742-1787), who went on to sign the United States Declaration of Independence. Arthur's son, also named Henry (1770-1846), had a long career in politics. He was Governor of South Carolina (1810-1812), U.S. Representative (1815-1819), and the Minister to Russia (1820-1830). Several of Henry's other children married well: Hester was married to S.C. Lt. Governor Charles Drayton {See below}-grandson of South Carolina Governor William Bull. {Federal Judge William Drayton, Sr. was father of Charles Drayton and Congressman William Drayton; the Drayton brothers were cousins of Congressman William Henry Drayton. W.H. Drayton father of US Navy Captain Percival Drayton and CS General Thomas Fenwick Drayton. Mary Polly was married to Congressman Pierce Butler. Mary Butler was the daughter of Col. Thomas Middleton. She was Henry's cousin. Henrietta was married to Governor Edward Rutledge. Sarah was the first wife of Charles Cotesworth Pinckney. Charles Pinckney's brother Thomas Pinckney's son Thomas Pinckney Jr married Elizabeth Izard, a distant cousin of Congressman Ralph Izard. (Charles and Thomas Pinckney's sister Harriott was married to Daniel Horry, whose daughter married a son of South Carolina Governor John Rutledge. They were thus connected to the Grimké; Huger; Drayton; Laurens families of South Carolina and the Forten family of Philadelphia). Thomas married Anne Manigault. Their daughter Esther married Ralph Stead Izard, a distant cousin of South Caroina Congressman Ralph Izard and Alice De Lancey. (Alice was a niece of James DeLancey; James DeLancey's sister Susannah was the wife of Sir Peter Warren (Admiral). James DeLancey's daughter Anne was a wife of loyalist Thomas Jones (historian)). Another daughter, Elizabeth Middleton, was married to Ralph DeLancey Izard, son of Congressman Ralph Izard. (Note: Joseph, a brother of Anne Manigault, was first married to a daughter of Arthur Middleton and Mary Izard; by Joseph Manigault's second marriage to Charlotte Drayton he was the father of Confederate General Arthur Middleton Manigault (1824-1886), whose wife was a cousin 1st removed of Confederate General Benjamin Huger. Charlotte Drayton was the daughter of Charles Drayton and Hester Middleton {above}). Further reading External links biographic sketch at U.S. Congress website Middleton Place | Henry_Middleton |@lemmatized survive:1 wing:1 mansion:1 build:1 henry:6 middleton:11 june:1 south:7 carolina:6 second:2 president:1 continental:2 congress:3 october:1 peyton:1 randolph:1 able:1 resume:1 duty:1 briefly:1 begin:1 may:1 father:4 act:1 governor:6 arthur:5 delegate:1 resign:1 order:1 prepare:1 come:1 war:1 succeed:1 son:5 go:1 sign:1 united:1 state:1 declaration:1 independence:1 also:1 name:1 long:1 career:1 politics:1 u:3 representative:1 minister:1 russia:1 several:1 child:1 marry:11 well:1 hester:2 c:1 lt:1 charles:6 drayton:13 see:1 grandson:1 william:4 bull:1 federal:1 judge:1 sr:1 congressman:6 brother:3 cousin:5 w:1 h:1 navy:1 captain:1 percival:1 cs:1 general:3 thomas:7 fenwick:1 mary:3 polly:1 pierce:1 butler:2 daughter:7 col:1 henrietta:1 edward:1 rutledge:2 sarah:1 first:2 wife:4 cotesworth:1 pinckney:5 jr:1 elizabeth:2 izard:7 distant:2 ralph:5 sister:2 harriott:1 daniel:1 horry:1 whose:2 john:1 thus:1 connect:1 grimké:1 huger:2 laurens:1 family:2 forten:1 philadelphia:1 anne:3 manigault:4 esther:1 stead:1 caroina:1 alice:2 de:1 lancey:1 niece:1 james:3 delancey:4 susannah:1 sir:1 peter:1 warren:1 admiral:1 loyalist:1 jones:1 historian:1 another:1 note:1 joseph:2 marriage:1 charlotte:2 confederate:2 removed:1 benjamin:1 far:1 reading:1 external:1 link:1 biographic:1 sketch:1 website:1 place:1 |@bigram declaration_independence:1 distant_cousin:2 external_link:1 |
4,991 | Accumulator_(computing) | In a computer's central processing unit (CPU), an accumulator is a register in which intermediate arithmetic and logic results are stored. Without a register like an accumulator, it would be necessary to write the result of each calculation (addition, multiplication, shift, etc.) to main memory, perhaps only to be read right back again for use in the next operation. Access to main memory is slower than access to a register like the accumulator because the technology used for the large main memory is slower (but cheaper) than that used for a register. The canonical example for accumulator use is summing a list of numbers. The accumulator is initially set to zero, then each number in turn is added to the value in the accumulator. Only when all numbers have been added is the result held in the accumulator written to main memory or to another, non-accumulator, CPU register. An accumulator machine, also called a 1-operand machine, or a CPU with accumulator-based architecture, is a kind of CPU in which -- although it may have several registers -- the CPU always stores the results of most calculations in one special register -- typically called "the" accumulator of that CPU. Historically almost all early computers were accumulator machines; and many microcontrollers still popular as of 2008 (such as the Freescale 68HC12 and the PICmicro) are accumulator machines. Modern CPUs are typically 2-operand or 3-operand machines -- the additional operands specify which one of many general purpose registers (also called "general purpose accumulators" ) are used as the source and destination for calculations. These CPUs are not considered "accumulator machines". The characteristic which distinguishes one register as being the accumulator of a computer architecture is that the accumulator (if the architecture were to have one) would be used as an implicit operand for arithmetic instructions. For instance, a CPU might have an instruction like: ADD memaddress This instruction would add the value read from the memory location at memaddress to the value from the accumulator, placing the result in the accumulator. The accumulator is not identified in the instruction by a register number; it is implicit in the instruction and no other register can be specified in the instruction. Some architectures use a particular register as an accumulator in some instructions, but other instructions use register numbers for explicit operand specification. In the common x86 microprocessor architecture, the 32-bit EAX register (or one of its subcomponents AX or AL, or part or all of the separate 32-bit EDX register for multiplication of large numbers) is an accumulator in some arithmetic instructions, such as MUL and DIV, but in other arithmetic instructions EAX is one of several registers that can be specified. For instance, MUL ecx will multiply the contents of 32-bit register ECX by those of EAX and split the result between EAX and EDX (for 64 bits total, avoiding overflow). ADD, however, accepts two arguments: ADD ecx, edx will add ECX and EDX and place the result in ECX, and likewise for most registers. History of the computer accumulator Historical convention dedicates a register to "the accumulator", an "arithmetic organ" that literally accumulates its number during a sequence of arithmetic operations: "The first part of our arithmetic organ ... should be a parallel storage organ which can receive a number and add it to the one already in it, which is also able to clear its contents and which can store what it contains. We will call such an organ an Accumulator. It is quite conventional in principle in past and present computing machines of the most varied types, e.g. desk multipliers, standard IBM counters, more modern relay machines, the ENIAC" (Goldstine and von Neumann, 1946; p. 98 in Bell and Newell 1971). Just a few of the instructions are, for example (with some modern interpretation): Clear accumulator and add number from memory location x Clear accumulator and subtract number from memory location x Add number copied from memory location x to the contents of the accumulator Subtract number copied from memory location x from the contents of the accumulator Clear accumulator and shift contents of register into accumulator No convention exists regarding the names for operations from registers to accumulator and from accumulator to registers. Tradition (e.g. Donald Knuth's (1973) imaginary MIX computer), for example, uses two instructions called LOAD ACCUMULATOR from memory/register (e.g. "LDA r") and STORE ACCUMULATOR in register/memory (e.g. "STA r"). Knuth's model has many other instructions as well. References Goldstine, Herman H., and von Neumann, John, "Planning and Coding of the Problems for an Electronic Computing Instrument", Rep. 1947, Institute of Advanced Study, Princeton. Reprinted on pp. 92-119 in Bell, C. Gordon and Newell, Allen (1971), Computer Structures: Readings and Examples, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. ISBN 0070043574}. A veritable treasure-trove of detailed descriptions of ancient machines including photos. | Accumulator_(computing) |@lemmatized computer:6 central:1 processing:1 unit:1 cpu:9 accumulator:35 register:24 intermediate:1 arithmetic:7 logic:1 result:7 store:4 without:1 like:3 would:3 necessary:1 write:2 calculation:3 addition:1 multiplication:2 shift:2 etc:1 main:4 memory:11 perhaps:1 read:2 right:1 back:1 use:9 next:1 operation:3 access:2 slow:2 technology:1 large:2 cheap:1 canonical:1 example:4 sum:1 list:1 number:12 initially:1 set:1 zero:1 turn:1 add:10 value:3 hold:1 another:1 non:1 machine:9 also:3 call:5 operand:6 base:1 architecture:5 kind:1 although:1 may:1 several:2 always:1 one:7 special:1 typically:2 historically:1 almost:1 early:1 many:3 microcontrollers:1 still:1 popular:1 freescale:1 picmicro:1 modern:3 additional:1 specify:3 general:2 purpose:2 source:1 destination:1 consider:1 characteristic:1 distinguish:1 implicit:2 instruction:13 instance:2 might:1 memaddress:2 location:5 place:2 identify:1 particular:1 explicit:1 specification:1 common:1 microprocessor:1 bit:4 eax:4 subcomponents:1 ax:1 al:1 part:2 separate:1 edx:4 mul:2 div:1 ecx:5 multiply:1 content:5 split:1 total:1 avoid:1 overflow:1 however:1 accept:1 two:2 argument:1 likewise:1 history:1 historical:1 convention:2 dedicate:1 organ:4 literally:1 accumulate:1 sequence:1 first:1 parallel:1 storage:1 receive:1 already:1 able:1 clear:4 contain:1 quite:1 conventional:1 principle:1 past:1 present:1 compute:1 varied:1 type:1 e:4 g:4 desk:1 multiplier:1 standard:1 ibm:1 counter:1 relay:1 eniac:1 goldstine:2 von:2 neumann:2 p:1 bell:2 newell:2 interpretation:1 x:4 subtract:2 copy:2 exist:1 regard:1 name:1 tradition:1 donald:1 knuth:2 imaginary:1 mix:1 load:1 lda:1 r:2 sta:1 model:1 well:1 reference:1 herman:1 h:1 john:1 planning:1 coding:1 problem:1 electronic:1 computing:1 instrument:1 rep:1 institute:1 advanced:1 study:1 princeton:1 reprint:1 pp:1 c:1 gordon:1 allen:1 structure:1 reading:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 book:1 company:1 new:1 york:1 isbn:1 veritable:1 treasure:1 trove:1 detailed:1 description:1 ancient:1 include:1 photo:1 |@bigram accumulator_register:3 register_accumulator:6 von_neumann:2 donald_knuth:1 mcgraw_hill:1 treasure_trove:1 |
4,992 | List_of_Macintosh_models_grouped_by_CPU_type | This list of Macintosh models grouped by CPU type contains all CPUs used by Apple Inc. for their Macintosh computers. It is grouped by processor family, processor model, and then chronologically by Macintosh model. Motorola 68000 Motorola 68000 A Motorola 68000 processor Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L1 cache(bytes) Introduced Discontinued MC68000Macintosh Retroactively named the "Macintosh 128K" after the release of the Macintosh 512K. 8 8 512 January 1984 October 1985Macintosh 512K 8 8 512 September 1984 April 1986Macintosh XL An Apple Lisa modified with MacWorks XL to run Mac software. 5 5 512 January 1985 April 1985Macintosh Plus Sold in educational markets as the "Macintosh Plus ED." 8 8 512 January 1986 October 1990Macintosh 512Ke Sold in educational markets as the "Macintosh ED." 8 8 512 April 1986 September 1987Macintosh SE 8 8 512 March 1987 August 1989Macintosh SE FDHD 8 8 512 August 1989 October 1990Macintosh Classic 8 8 512 October 1990 September 1992 MC68HC000Macintosh Portable 16 16 512 September 1989 October 1991PowerBook 100 16 16 — October 1991 August 1992 The Motorola 68000 was the first Mac processor. Although it had some 32-bit characteristics, such as its 32-bit CPU registers, it is considered a 16-bit processor because of its 16-bit data path. Motorola 68020 A Motorola 68020 processor Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L1 cache(bytes) Data path width/Address width(bits) FPU MMU Introduced Discontinued MC68020Macintosh II 16 16 256 32/16 68881 68851 (optional) March 1987 January 1990Macintosh LC 16 16 256 16/16 — — October 1990 March 1992 The Motorola 68020 was the first 32-bit Mac processor. It was also the first Mac processor to support co-processors such as a floating point unit or memory management unit. Motorola 68030 A Motorola 68030 processor Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L1 cache(bytes) L2 cache(KB) Data path width/Address width(bits) FPU Introduced Discontinued MC68030Macintosh IIx 16 16 512 — 32/32 68882 September 1988 October 1990Macintosh SE/30 16 16 512 — 32/32 68882 January 1989 October 1990Macintosh IIcx 16 16 512 — 32/32 68882 March 1989 February 1991Macintosh IIci 25 25 512 0–32 32/32 68882 September 1989 February 1993Macintosh IIfx 40 40 512 32 32/32 68882 March 1990 April 1992Macintosh IIsi 20 20 512 — 32/32 68882 October 1990 March 1993Macintosh Classic II 16 16 512 — 16/32 — October 1991 September 1993Performa 200PowerBook 140 16 16 512 — 32/32 — October 1991 August 1992PowerBook 170 25 25 512 — 32/32 — October 1991 October 1992Macintosh LC II 16 16 512 — 16/32 — March 1992 March 1993Performa 400Performa 405Performa 410Performa 430PowerBook 145 25 25 512 — 32/32 — August 1992 June 1993Performa 600/600CD 32 16 512 32 32/32 — September 1992 October 1993Macintosh IIvi 16 16 512 32 32/32 — October 1992 February 1993Macintosh IIvx 32 16 512 32 32/32 68882 October 1992 October 1993PowerBook 160 25 25 512 — 32/32 — October 1992 August 1993PowerBook 180 33 33 512 — 32/32 68882 October 1992 May 1994PowerBook Duo 210 25 25 512 — 32/32 — October 1992 October 1993PowerBook Duo 230 33 33 512 — 32/32 — October 1992 July 1994Macintosh Color Classic 16 16 512 — 16/32 68882 (optional) February 1993 May 1994Performa 250Performa 275Macintosh LC III 25 25 512 — 32/32 68882 February 1993 February 1994Performa 450PowerBook 165c 33 33 512 — 32/32 68882 February 1993 December 1993Macintosh LC 520 25 25 512 — 32/32 68882 June 1993 February 1994PowerBook 180c 33 33 512 — 32/32 68882 June 1993 March 1994PowerBook 145B 25 25 512 — 32/32 — July 1993 July 1994PowerBook 165 33 33 512 — 32/32 — August 1993 July 1994Macintosh LC III+ 33 33 512 — 32/32 68882 October 1993 February 1994Performa 460Performa 466Performa 467Macintosh Color Classic II 33 33 512 — 32/32 68882 (optional) October 1993 May 1994Macintosh TV 32 16 512 — 32/32 68882 October 1993 February 1994PowerBook Duo 250 33 33 512 — 32/32 — October 1993 May 1994PowerBook Duo 270c 33 33 512 — 32/32 68882 October 1993 April 1994Macintosh LC 550 33 33 512 — 32/32 68882 February 1994 March 1995Performa 550Performa 560PowerBook 150 33 33 512 — 32/32 — July 1994 October 1995 The Motorola 68030 was the first Mac processor with an integrated memory management unit. Motorola 68040 A Motorola 68040 processor Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L1 cache(KB) Introduced Discontinued MC68040Macintosh Quadra 700 25 25 8 October 1991 March 1993Macintosh Quadra 900 25 25 8 October 1991 May 1992Macintosh Quadra 950 33 33 8 May 1992 October 1995Macintosh Centris 650 25 25 8 February 1993 October 1993Macintosh Quadra 800 33 33 8 February 1993 March 1994Workgroup Server 80 33 33 8 February 1993 March 1994Workgroup Server 95 Shipped with A/UX operating system but capable of running Mac OS. 33 33 8 March 1993 April 1995Macintosh Quadra 660AV 25 25 8 July 1993 September 1994Macintosh Quadra 840AV 40 40 8 July 1993 July 1994Macintosh Centris 660AV 25 25 8 July 1993 September 1994Workgroup Server 60 20–25 20–25 8 July 1993 October 1994Macintosh Quadra 610 25 25 8 October 1993 July 1994Macintosh Quadra 650 33 33 8 October 1993 September 1994Macintosh Quadra 630 33 33 8 July 1994 October 1995Macintosh LC 630Performa 630Performa 630CDPerforma 631CDPerforma 635CDPerforma 636Performa 636CDPerforma 637CDPerforma 638CDPerforma 640CDPowerBook 550c 33 33 8 May 1995 April 1996 MC68LC040Macintosh Centris 610 20 20 8 February 1993 October 1993Macintosh LC 475 25 25 8 October 1993 October 1994Macintosh Quadra 605 25 25 8 October 1993 October 1994Performa 475Performa 476Macintosh LC 575 33 33 8 February 1994 April 1995Performa 575Performa 576Performa 577Performa 578PowerBook Duo 280 33 33 8 April 1994 November 1994PowerBook Duo 280c 33 33 8 April 1994 January 1996PowerBook 520 25 25 8 May 1994 June 1995PowerBook 520c 25 25 8 May 1994 September 1995PowerBook 540 33 33 8 May 1994 October 1994PowerBook 540c 33 33 8 May 1994 August 1995Macintosh LC 580 33 33 8 April 1995 April 1996Performa 580CDPerforma 588CDPowerBook 190 33 33 8 August 1995 June 1996PowerBook 190cs 33 33 8 August 1995 October 1996 The Motorola 68040 was the first Mac processor with an integrated floating point unit (not available on the 60LC040). PowerPC PowerPC 601 An IBM PowerPC 601 processor Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L1 cache(KB)(data/instr.) L2 cache(KB) Introduced Discontinued PowerPC 601Power Macintosh 6100 60–66 30.0–33.3 16/16 — March 1994 October 1995Performa 6110CDPerforma 6112CDPerforma 6115CDPerforma 6116CDPerforma 6117CDPerforma 6118CDPower Macintosh 7100 66–80 33.3–40.0 16/16 — March 1994 January 1996Power Macintosh 8100 80–110 33.3–40.0 16/16 256 March 1994 July 1995Workgroup Server 6150 60–66 30.0–33.3 16/16 — April 1994 April 1996Workgroup Server 8150 80–110 36.7–40.0 16/16 256 April 1994 April 1996Workgroup Server 9150 80–120 40.0 16/16 512–1024 April 1994 May 1996Power Macintosh 7200 75–120 37.5–40.0 16/16 — May 1995 February 1997Power Macintosh 8200 100–120 40.0 16/16 256 April 1996 July 1996 PowerPC 601vPower Macintosh 7500 100 50.0 16/16 — May 1995 May 1996Workgroup Server 7250 120 40.0 16/16 — February 1996 April 1997 PowerPC 603 A Motorola PowerPC 603 processor Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L1 cache(KB)(data/instr.) L2 cache(KB) Introduced Discontinued PowerPC 603Power Macintosh 5200 LC 75 37.5 8/8 256 April 1995 April 1996Performa 5200CDPerforma 5210CDPerforma 5215CDPerforma 5220CDPower Macintosh 6200 75–120 37.5–40.0 8/8 256 May 1995 July 1997Performa 6200CDPerforma 6205CDPerforma 6210CDPerforma 6214CDPerforma 6216CDPerforma 6218CDPerforma 6220CDPerforma 6230CD PowerPC 603ePower Macintosh 5300 LC 100–120 40.0 16/16 256 August 1995 April 1996Performa 5300CD (DE)Performa 5320CDPowerBook 5300c/ce/cs 100–117 33.3 16/16 — August 1995 August 1996PowerBook Duo 2300c 100 33.3 16/16 — August 1995 February 1997Power Macintosh 5260 LC 100–120 40.0 16/16 256 April 1996 March 1997Performa 5260CDPerforma 5270CDPerforma 5280CDPerforma 6260CD 100 40.0 16/16 256 May 1996 July 1997Performa 6290CDPerforma 6300CDPerforma 6310CDPower Macintosh 6300/120 120 40.0 16/16 256 May 1996 July 1997Performa 6320Power Macintosh 4400 150–200 40.0 16/16 256 November 1996 February 1998Performa 4400PowerBook 1400c/cs 117–133 33.3 16/16 — November 1996 May 1998 PowerPC 603evPower Macintosh 5400 LC 120–200 40.0 16/16 256 April 1996 early 1998Performa 5400CDPerforma 5410CDPerforma 5420CDPerforma 5430CDPerforma 5440CDPower Macintosh 6400 180–200 40.0 16/16 256 August 1996 August 1997Performa 6400Performa 6360 Sold in Europe and Asia as the "Power Macintosh 6300/160." 160 40.0 16/16 — October 1996 October 1997PowerBook 1400c/cs 166 33.3 16/16 128 November 1996 May 1998Power Macintosh 5500 225–275 50.0 16/16 256 February 1997 early 1998Power Macintosh 6500 225–300 50.0 16/16 256 February 1997 March 1998PowerBook 3400 180–240 40.0 16/16 256 February 1997 November 199720th Anniversary Macintosh 250 50.0 16/16 128 May 1997 March 1998PowerBook 2400 180–240 40.0 16/16 256 May 1997 May 1998 PowerPC 604 An IBM PowerPC 604e processor Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L2 cache(KB) Processors Introduced Discontinued PowerPC 604Power Macintosh 8500 120–150 40–50 256 1 May 1995 August 1996Power Macintosh 9500 120–150 40–50 512 1 May 1995 August 1996Network Server 500 Shipped with AIX operating system and incapable of running Mac OS. 132 44 512 1 February 1996 April 1997Workgroup Server 8550 132 44 512 1 February 1996 September 1996Power Macintosh 7600 120–132 40–44 256 1 April 1996 August 1996 PowerPC 604ePower Macintosh 8500 180 45 256 1 August 1996 February 1997Power Macintosh 9500 180–200 45–50 512 1–2 August 1996 February 1997Power Macintosh 7600 200 50 256 1 August 1996 November 1997Network Server 700 150–200 50 1024 1 September 1996 April 1997Workgroup Server 8550 200 50 512 1 September 1996 April 1997Power Macintosh 7300 166–200 45–50 256 1 February 1997 November 1997Power Macintosh 8600 200 50 512 1 February 1997 August 1997Power Macintosh 9600 200–233 50 512 1–2 February 1997 August 1997Workgroup Server 7350 180 45 256 1 April 1997 March 1998Workgroup Server 9650 233 50 512 1 April 1997 August 1997 PowerPC 604evPower Macintosh 8600 250–300 50 1024 1 August 1997 February 1998Power Macintosh 9600 300–350 50 1024 1 August 1997 March 1998Workgroup Server 9650 350 50 1024 1 August 1997 March 1998 The PowerPC 604e was the first Mac processor available in a symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) configuration. PowerPC G3 An IBM PowerPC 750CXe ("G3") processor Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L2 cache(KB) Introduced Discontinued PowerPC 750Power Macintosh G3 (Beige) 233–333 66 1024 November 1997 January 1999PowerBook G3 233–500 50–100 512–1024 November 1997 January 2001Macintosh Server G3 (Beige) 233–333 66 1024 March 1998 December 1998iMac 233–500 66–100 512 August 1998 July 2001Power Macintosh G3 (Blue & White) 300–450 100 1024 January 1999 September 1999Macintosh Server G3 (Blue & White) 350–450 100 1024 January 1999 August 1999iBook 300–366 66 512 September 1999 September 2000PowerPC 750CXiMac 600 100 256 September 2000 May 2001 PowerPC 750CXeiBook 366–500 66–100 256–512 September 2000 May 2002iMac 500–700 100 256 July 2001 March 2003PowerPC 755iBook 600 100 256 October 2001 May 2002PowerPC 750FXiBook 600–900 100 512 May 2002 October 2003 PowerPC G4 A Motorola PowerPC 7400 ("G4") processor Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L2 cache(KB) L3 cache(MB) Processors Introduced Discontinued PowerPC 7400Power Mac G4 350–500 100 512–1024 — 1–2 September 1999 January 2001Macintosh Server G4 350–500 100 512–1024 — 1–2 January 2000 January 2001Power Mac G4 Cube 450–500 100 512–1024 — 1 August 2000 April 2001 PowerPC 7410Power Mac G4 466–533 133 1024 — 1–2 January 2001 July 2001PowerBook G4 400–500 100 1024 — 1 January 2001 October 2001Macintosh Server G4 466–533 133 1024 — 1–2 January 2001 July 2001Power Mac G4 Cube User reports indicate that the Power Mac G4 Cube began shipping with the more power efficient PowerPC 7410 in April 2001. 450–500 100 1024 — 1 April 2001 July 2001 PowerPC 7450Power Mac G4 667–867 133 256–1024 0–2 1–2 January 2001 January 2002Macintosh Server G4 733–1000 133 256 0–2 1–2 September 2001 August 2002PowerBook G4 550–667 100–133 256 — 1 October 2001 July 2002iMac G4 700–800 100 256 — 1 January 2002 January 2003eMac 700–800 100 256 — 1 April 2002 May 2003 PowerPC 7455Power Mac G4 800–1420 133–167 256 1–4 1–2 January 2002 June 2004PowerBook G4 667–1000 133–167 256 0–1 1 April 2002 September 2003Xserve 1000–1333 133 256 2 1–2 May 2002 January 2004Macintosh Server G4 1000–1250 133–167 256 1–2 1–2 August 2002 January 2003iMac G4 800–1250 100–167 256 — 1 February 2003 July 2004eMac 800–1000 133 256 — 1 May 2003 April 2004iBook G4 800–1000 133 256 — 1 October 2003 April 2004 PowerPC 7447PowerBook G4 1000–1333 133–167 512 — 1 September 2003 April 2004eMac 1250 167 512 — 1 April 2004 May 2005 PowerPC 7447aPowerBook G4 1333–1667 167 512 — 1 April 2004 April 2006iBook G4 1000–1420 133–142 512 — 1 April 2004 May 2006Mac mini 1250–1500 167 512 — 1 January 2005 February 2006eMac 1420 167 512 — 1 May 2005 July 2006 The PowerPC 7400 was the first Mac processor to include an AltiVec vector processing unit. The PowerPC 7455 was the first Mac processor to break the 1 GHz barrier. PowerPC G5 An IBM PowerPC 970FX ("G5") processor Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L2 cache(KB) Processors Cores perprocessor Introduced DiscontinuedPowerPC 970Power Mac G5 1.6–2.0 800–1000 512 1–2 1 June 2003 June 2004 PowerPC 970FXXserve G5 2.0–2.3 1000–1150 512 1–2 1 January 2004 August 2005Power Mac G5 1.8–2.7 900–1350 512 1–2 1 June 2004 November 2005iMac G5 1.6–2.1 533–700 512 1 1 August 2004 January 2006PowerPC 970MPPower Mac G5 2.0–2.5 1000–1250 2×1024 1–2 2 November 2005 August 2006 The PowerPC 970 was the first 64-bit Mac processor. The PowerPC 970MP was the first dual-core Mac processor and the first to be found in a quad-core configuration. Intel x86 P6 Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L2 cache(MB) Processors Cores perprocessor Introduced Discontinued Core Duo ("Yonah")iMac 1.83–2.00 667 2 1 2 January 2006 September 2006MacBook Pro 1.83–2.16 667 2 1 2 February 2006 October 2006Mac mini 1.66–1.83 667 2 1 2 February 2006 August 2007MacBook 1.83–2.00 667 2 1 2 May 2006 November 2006Core Solo ("Yonah")Mac mini 1.50 667 2 1 1 February 2006 September 2006 Yonah was the first Mac processor to support the SSE, SSE2, and SSE3 instruction sets. The Core Solo was a Core Duo with one of the two cores disabled. Core Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L2 cache(MB) Processors Cores perprocessor Introduced Discontinued Xeon 5100 ("Woodcrest")Mac Pro 2.00–3.00 1333 4 2 2 August 2006 January 2008Xserve 2.00–3.00 1333 4 2 2 October 2006 January 2008 Core 2 Duo ("Merom")iMac 1.83–2.40 667–800 2–4 1 2 September 2006 April 2008MacBook Pro 2.16–2.60 667–800 4 1 2 October 2006 February 2008MacBook 1.83–2.20 667–800 2–4 1 2 November 2006 February 2008Mac mini 1.83–2.00 667 2–4 1 2 August 2007 March 2009MacBook Air 1.60–1.80 800 4 1 2 January 2008 October 2008Xeon 5300 ("Clovertown")Mac Pro 3.00 1333 2×4 2 4 April 2007 January 2008Core 2 Extreme ("Merom XE")iMac 2.80 800 4 1 2 August 2007 April 2008 Xeon 5400 ("Harpertown")Mac Pro 2.80–3.20 1600 2×6 1–2 4 January 2008 March 2009Xserve 2.80–3.00 1600 2×6 1–2 4 January 2008 current Core 2 Duo ("Penryn")MacBook Pro 2.40–2.93 1066 3–6 1 2 February 2008 currentMacBook 2.00–2.40 1066 3 1 2 February 2008 currentiMac 2.40–3.06 1066 6 1 2 April 2008 March 2009MacBook Air 1.60–1.83 1066 6 1 2 October 2008 currentMac mini 2.00–2.26 1066 3 1 2 March 2009 current Woodcrest added support for the SSSE3 instruction set. Penryn added support for a subset for SSE4 (SSE4.1). Merom was the first 64-bit processor to appear in a Mac notebook. Clovertown was the first quad-core Mac processor and the first to be found in an 8-core configuration. Nehalem Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) L2 Cache (MB) L3 cache(MB) Processors Cores perprocessor Introduced Discontinued Xeon 3500 ("Bloomfield")Mac Pro 2.66–2.93 1 8 1 4 March 2009 current Xeon 5500 ("Gainestown")Mac Pro 2.26–2.93 1 8 1–2 4 March 2009 current Bloomfield/Gainestown was the first Mac processor with an integrated memory controller and simultaneous multithreading. It also added full support for the SSE4 instruction set (SSE4.2). See also Macintosh Timeline of Macintosh models Comparison of Macintosh models List of products discontinued by Apple Inc. List of Macintosh models by case type Footnotes References Specifications, Apple Computer, Inc. Ian Page and contributors, MacTracker. Glen Sanford, Apple History, apple-history.com. Dan Knight, Computer Profiles, LowEndMac, Cobweb Publishing, Inc. | List_of_Macintosh_models_grouped_by_CPU_type |@lemmatized list:3 macintosh:42 model:19 group:2 cpu:3 type:2 contain:1 use:1 apple:6 inc:4 computer:3 processor:47 family:1 chronologically:1 motorola:15 clock:13 speed:25 mhz:9 fsb:12 mt:12 cache:18 byte:3 introduce:13 discontinue:13 retroactively:1 name:1 release:1 january:34 october:57 september:27 april:46 xl:2 lisa:1 modify:1 macworks:1 run:3 mac:33 software:1 plus:2 sell:3 educational:2 market:2 ed:2 se:3 march:31 august:40 fdhd:1 classic:4 portable:1 first:16 although:1 bit:9 characteristic:1 register:1 consider:1 data:5 path:3 width:4 address:2 fpu:2 mmu:1 ii:4 optional:3 lc:14 also:3 support:5 co:1 float:1 point:2 unit:5 memory:3 management:2 kb:10 iix:1 iicx:1 february:40 iici:1 iifx:1 iisi:1 june:9 iivi:1 iivx:1 may:36 duo:11 july:25 color:2 iii:2 december:2 tv:1 integrated:3 quadra:10 centris:3 server:20 ship:3 ux:1 operate:2 system:2 capable:1 november:13 floating:1 available:2 powerpc:36 ibm:4 instr:2 de:1 performa:1 ce:1 cs:1 c:2 early:2 europe:1 asia:1 power:3 anniversary:1 aix:1 incapable:1 symmetric:1 multiprocessing:1 smp:1 configuration:3 beige:2 blue:2 white:2 mb:5 cube:3 user:1 report:1 indicate:1 begin:1 efficient:1 mini:5 include:1 altivec:1 vector:1 processing:1 break:1 ghz:5 barrier:1 core:15 perprocessor:4 discontinuedpowerpc:1 dual:1 find:2 quad:2 intel:1 yonah:3 imac:3 pro:8 solo:2 sse:1 instruction:3 set:3 one:1 two:1 disable:1 xeon:4 woodcrest:2 merom:3 air:2 clovertown:2 extreme:1 xe:1 harpertown:1 current:4 penryn:2 macbook:1 currentmacbook:1 currentimac:1 currentmac:1 add:3 subset:1 appear:1 notebook:1 nehalem:1 bloomfield:2 gainestown:2 controller:1 simultaneous:1 multithreading:1 full:1 see:1 timeline:1 comparison:1 product:1 case:1 footnote:1 reference:1 specification:1 ian:1 page:1 contributor:1 mactracker:1 glen:1 sanford:1 history:2 com:1 dan:1 knight:1 profile:1 lowendmac:1 cobweb:1 publishing:1 |@bigram motorola_motorola:5 mhz_fsb:9 fsb_speed:12 mt_cache:12 apple_lisa:1 cache_kb:10 quadra_october:5 powerpc_powerpc:1 powerpc_processor:6 discontinue_powerpc:5 powerpc_macintosh:9 macintosh_lc:4 symmetric_multiprocessing:1 kb_cache:1 quad_core:2 macbook_pro:1 |
4,993 | Serie_A | Serie A (officially known as the Serie A TIM, for sponsorship reasons) is a professional league competition for football clubs located at the top echelon of the Italian football league system operating for eighty years from 1929 to the present. It is regarded as one of the elite leagues of the footballing world. Historically, Serie A has produced the highest number of European Cup finalists. In total Italian clubs have reached the final of the competition on a record of twenty-five different occasions, winning the title eleven times. As of 2008, Serie A is ranked third among European leagues by UEFA, based on the performance of Italian clubs in the Champions League and the UEFA Cup, and second in the IFFHS rating. In its current format, the Italian Football Championship was revised from having regional and interregional rounds, to just one solid league for the 1929–30 season onwards; the Serie A system carries on today. The championship titles won before 1929 are officially recognised by FIGC as a championship in the same way the ones since then are. The league hosts three of the world's most famous clubs, Juventus, Internazionale and Milan, all founding members of the G-14 a group representing the largest and most prestigious European football clubs; Serie A was the only league to produce three founding members. More players have won the coveted Ballon d'Or award while playing at a Serie A club than any other league in the world. Milan is one of two clubs with the most official international titles in the world. Juventus, the most successful Italian team, . is tied for third in Europe and sixth in the world in the same ranking. They are also the only club in the world to have won all official club competitions. Format For most of Serie A's history there were 16 or 18 clubs competing at the top level; however, since 2004–05 there were 20 clubs altogether. Below is a complete record of how many teams played in each season throughout the league's history; 1929–1934 = 18 1934–1943 = 16 1945–1946 = 25 Two groups, North and South, then a final group 1946–1947 = 20 1947–1948 = 21 1948–1952 = 20 1952–1967 = 18 1967–1988 = 16 1988–2004 = 18 2004– = 20 Scudetto patch. During the course of a season, from August to May, each club played each of the other teams twice; once at home and once away, totaling 38 games for each team by the end of the season. Therefore, in Italian football a true round-robin format is used. In the first half of the season, called the andata, each team played exactly one time against each league opponent, for a total of 19 games. In the second half of the season, called the ritorno, the teams played in exactly the same order that they did in the first half of the season, the only difference being that home and away situations are switched. Since the 1994-1995 season, teams were awarded three points for a win, one point for a draw, and no points for a loss. Since Italy is currently rated as one of the top three European countries in terms of club football ratings, the top four teams in the Serie A qualified for the UEFA Champions League. The top three teams qualify directly to the group phase, while the fourth-placed team enters the competition at the third qualifying round and must win a two-legged knockout tie in order to enter the group phase. Teams finishing 5th and 6th qualify for the UEFA Europa League Tournament. A third UEFA Europa League spot is reserved for the winner of the Coppa Italia. If the Coppa Italia champion has already qualified for one of the two European tournaments by placing in the top six of Serie A, the third UEFA Europa League spot goes to the losing finalist. If both Coppa Italia finalists finish among the top six teams in Serie A, the 7th classified team in Serie A is awarded the UEFA Europa League spot. The three lowest placed teams are relegated to Serie B. Before the 2005–06 season if two or more teams were tied in points for first place, for only one spot in a European tournament, or in the relegation zone, teams would play tie-breaking games after the season was over to determine which team would be champion, or be awarded a European tournament spot, or be saved or relegated. Since 2005–06, if two or more teams end the season with the same number of points, the ordering is determined by their head-to-head records. In case two or more teams have same total points and same head-to-head records, goal difference becomes the secondary deciding factor. The Golden Star In 1958, based on an idea of Umberto Agnelli, the honor of Golden Star for Sports Excellence ("Stella d’Oro al Merito Sportivo" in Italian) was introduced to recognize sides that have won multiple championships or other honours by the display of gold stars on their team crests and jerseys. In Italy, the practice is to award one star for ten titles. The first team to adopt a star was Juventus in Italy and Europe FIFA.com article , who added a star above their crest in 1958 to represent their tenth Serie A title. In 1982, they received their second golden star for having won their 20th league title. The current officially-sanctioned Serie A stars are: Juventus (27; received in 1958 and 1982). Milan (17, received in 1979). Internazionale (17, received in 1966). History Serie A, as it is structured today, began in 1929. From 1898 to 1922 the competition was organised into regional groups. Because of ever growing teams attending regional championships, FIGC split the CCI (Italian Football Confederation) in 1921. When CCI teams rejoined the FIGC created two interregional divisions renaming Categories into Divisions and splitting FIGC sections into two North-South leagues. In 1926 due to internal crises FIGC changed internal settings adding southern teams to the national divisions which lead to 1929-30 final settlement. No title was awarded in 1927 after Torino were stripped of the championship by the Italian Football Federation (FIGC). Torino were declared champions in the 1948-49 season following a plane crash near the end of the season in which the entire team was killed. The Serie A Championship title is often referred to as the scudetto (small shield) because since the 1924-25 season the winning team will bear a small coat of arms with the Italian tricolour on their strip in the following season. The most successful club is Juventus with 27 championships, followed by Internazionale and Milan and (17), and Genoa (9). From 2004-05 onwards an actual trophy was awarded to club on the field after the last turn of the championship. The trophy, called Coppa Campioni d'Italia, is official since the 1960–61 season, but between 1961 and 2004 it was consigned to the winning clubs at the head office of the Lega Nazionale Professionisti. On 30 April 2009, Serie A announced a split from Serie B to form Lega Calcio Serie A. Nineteen of the twenty clubs voted in favour of the move in an argument over television rights. Relegation threatened Lecce voted against. Maurizio Beretta, the former head of Italy's employers' association, will be the president of the new league. Serie A to form breakaway league - BBC Sport Serie A clubs to set up their own league - Washington Post Serie A set for breakaway - SkySports Italian league splits in two after meeting ends in stalemate - Guardian Television rights As of 2007 individual clubs competing in the league have the rights to sell their broadcast rights to specific channels in Italy, unlike in most other European countries. The three broadcasters in Italy are the satellite broadcaster SKY Italia, along with terrestrial broadcasters Mediaset and La7 for their own pay television networks; RAI is allowed to broadcast only highlights (in exclusive from 13:30 to 22:30 CET). In countries outside of Italy, the league is broadcast on Raitalia (numerous countries in several continents), KBS Sports (South Korea), TV7 (Bulgaria), Trans 7(Indonesia), TV Avala (Serbia) , NTV Turkey (Turkey), Telma (Macedonia), mio TV (Singapore), Telelatino & Fox Sports World Canada (Canada), FSC (United States), TV Esporte Interativo, Rede Bandeirantes, Sport1 (The Netherlands) ESPN Brasil (Brazil) and ESPN Latin America (Latin America). In Australia Serie A is broadcast by Setanta Sports Australia (the home games of 8 teams in the league) with 2 games per week, ESPN Australia (the home games of the top 10 teams in the league) with three live games per week and Raitalia with four live games per week. Champions Club Winners Runners-up Championship seasons Juventus <center>27 <center>19 1905, 1925–26, 1930–31, 1931–32, 1932–33, 1933–34, 1934–35, 1949–50, 1951–52, 1957–58, 1959–60, 1960–61, 1966–67, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1974–75, 1976–77, 1977–78, 1980–81, 1981–82, 1983–84, 1985–86, 1994–95, 1996–97, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2002–03 Milan <center>17 <center>14 1901, 1906, 1907, 1950–51, 1954–55, 1956–57, 1958–59, 1961–62, 1967–68, 1978–79, 1987–88, 1991–92, 1992–93, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1998–99, 2003–04 Internazionale <center>17 <center>13 1909–10, 1919–20, 1929–30, 1937–38, 1939–40, 1952–53, 1953–54, 1962–63, 1964–65, 1965–66, 1970–71, 1979–80, 1988–89, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09 Genoa <center>9 <center>4 1898, 1899, 1900, 1902, 1903, 1904, 1914–15, 1922–23, 1923–24 Torino <center>7 <center>7 1927–28, 1942–43, 1945–46, 1946–47, 1947–48, 1948–49, 1975–76 Bologna <center>7 <center>4 1924–25, 1928–29, 1935–36, 1936–37, 1938–39, 1940–41, 1963–64 Pro Vercelli <center>7 <center>1 1908, 1909, 1910–11, 1911–12, 1912–13, 1920–21, 1921–22 (CCI) Roma <center>3 <center>11 1941–42, 1982–83, 2000–01 Lazio <center>2 <center>6 1973–74, 1999–2000 Fiorentina <center>2 <center>5 1955–56, 1968–69 Napoli <center>2 <center>4 1986–87, 1989–90 Cagliari <center>1 <center>1 1969–70 Casale <center>1 <center>- 1913–14 Novese <center>1 <center>- 1921–22 (FIGC) Sampdoria <center>1 <center>- 1990–91 Hellas Verona <center>1 <center>- 1984–85 Spezia <center>1 <center>- 1944 The 2004-05 and 2005-2006 titles were won by Juventus but have been called off due to the Calciopoli scam. The 2004-05 title was not assigned, while the 2005-06 title was assigned to Internazionale. Serie A clubs For more details see List of Italian Football Championship clubs Prior to 1929, many clubs competed in the top level of Italian football (61 in total) as the earlier rounds were competed up to 1922 on a regional basis then interregional up to 1929. Below is a list of Serie A clubs who have competed in the competition when it has been a league format. Seasons in Serie A 77 seasons: Internazionale 76 seasons: Juventus, Roma 75 seasons: Milan 71 seasons: Fiorentina 68 seasons: Torino 66 seasons: Lazio 63 seasons: Bologna, Napoli 53 seasons: Sampdoria 49 seasons: Atalanta 42 seasons: Genoa 36 seasons: Udinese 30 seasons: Cagliari, Vicenza 28 seasons: Bari 26 seasons: Triestina 24 seasons: Verona 22 seasons: Palermo 21 seasons: Brescia 18 seasons: Parma 16 seasons: Ascoli, Livorno, Padova, Spal 13 seasons: Alessandria, Como, Modena, Lecce, Perugia 12 seasons: Catania, Novara, Pro Patria, Venezia 11 seasons: Foggia 10 seasons: Avellino, Cesena 9 seasons: Empoli, Reggina 8 seasons: Lucchese, Piacenza, Sampierdarenese 7 seasons: Catanzaro, Chievo, Cremonese, Mantova, Pisa, Varese 6 seasons: Pro Vercelli, Siena 5 seasons: Messina, Pescara 4 seasons: Casale 3 seasons: Lecco, Legnano, Reggiana 2 seasons: Ancona, Salernitana, Ternana 1 season: Pistoiese, Treviso The bolded teams compete in Serie A currently. Internazionale is the only team that has played Serie A football in every season. Serie A members for 2008–09 The following twenty clubs will be competing in Serie A during the 2008–09 season. ClubFinishing positionin 2007–08First season intop divisionFirst season ofcurrent spell intop divisionAtalanta9th1928–292006–07Bologna2nd in Serie B1910–112008–09Cagliari14th1963–642004–05Catania17th1954–552006–07Chievo Verona1st in Serie B2001–022008–09Fiorentina4th1931–322004–05Genoa10th18982007–08Internazionale1st19091909Juventus3rd19002007–08Lazio12th1913–141988–89Lecce3rd in Serie B1985–862008–09Milan5th19001983–84Napoli8th1912–132007–08Palermo11th1921–222004–05Reggina16th1999–002002–03Roma2nd1927–281952–53Sampdoria6th1946–472003–04Siena13th2003–042003–04Torino15th19072006–07Udinese7th1913–141995–96 See also Football records in Italy List of foreign Serie A players All-time Serie A table References Specific External links Official Site FIGC Official Site Football Italiano (In English) History Serie A — All results since 1929. | Serie_A |@lemmatized serie:37 officially:3 know:1 tim:1 sponsorship:1 reason:1 professional:1 league:27 competition:6 football:13 club:25 locate:1 top:9 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4,994 | Greyhound | The greyhound is a breed of hunting dog that has been primarily bred for coursing game and racing, but with a recent resurgence of popularity increasingly as a pedigree show dog and family pet. It is a soft and intelligent breed that often becomes attached to its owners. It is the fastest breed of dog. [http://www.thebreedsofdogs.com/GREYHOUND.htmBreeds Of Dogs, Greyhound: General Description Of Breed] A combination of long, powerful legs, deep chest, flexible spine and slim build allows it to reach speeds of around . http://www.greyhoundracingtoday.com/articles/GREYHOUND-ATHLETE.html Description Appearance Males are usually tall at the withers and weigh around . Females tend to be smaller with shoulder heights ranging from and weights from less than . Greyhounds have very short hair, which is easy to maintain. There are approximately thirty recognized color forms, of which variations of white, brindle, fawn, black, red and blue (gray) can appear uniquely or in combination. American Kennel Club - Breed Colors and Markings Anatomy The key to the speed of a greyhound can be found in its light but muscular build, largest heart, and highest percentage of fast-twitch muscle of any breed, Snow, D.H. and Harris R.C. "Thoroughbreds and Greyhounds: Biochemical Adaptations in Creatures of Nature and of Man" Circulation, Respiration, and Metabolism Berlin: Springer Verlag 1985 Snow, D.H. "The horse and dog, elite athletes - why and how?" Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 44 267 1985 the double suspension gallop and the extreme flexibility of the spine. "Double suspension rotary gallop" describes the fastest running gait of the greyhound in which all four feet are free from the ground in two phases, contracted and extended, during each full stride. Curtis M Brown. Dog Locomotion and Gait Analysis. Wheat Ridge, Colorado: Hoflin 1986 ISBN 0866670610 Temperament A male brindle greyhound Although greyhounds are extremely fast and athletic, and despite their reputation as racing dogs, they are not high-energy dogs. They are sprinters, and although they love running, they do not require extensive exercise. Most are quiet, gentle animals. An adult greyhound will stay healthy and happy with a daily walk of as little as 20 to 30 minutes. Greyhounds have been referred to as "Forty-five mile per hour couch potatoes." Friends of Greyhounds: Greyhound Rescue and Greyhound Adoption in South Florida FAQ. Accessed April 15, 2008 Roles Racing Until the early twentieth century, greyhounds were principally bred and trained for coursing. During the early 1920s, modern Greyhound racing was introduced into the United States and introduced into The United Kingdom (Belle Vue) in 1936 and Northern Ireland (Celtic Park) on April 18, 1927 and immediately followed by Shelbourne Park in Dublin very soon after. The greyhound holds the record for fastest recorded dog. Aside from professional racing, many greyhounds enjoy success on the amateur race track. Organizations like the Large Gazehound Racing Association (LGRA) and the National Oval Track Racing Association (NOTRA) provide opportunities for greyhounds and other sighthound breeds to compete in amateur racing events all over the United States - Large Gazehound Racing Association - National Oval Track Racing Association Coursing The original function of the greyhound was to be a hare coursing dog. Some greyhounds still fulfill their original function, although artificial lure sports like lure coursing and racing are far more common and popular. Both the American Kennel Club and the American Sighthound Field Association sponsor lure coursing events in North America. Greyhounds as pets Greyhound owners and adoption groups generally consider greyhounds to be wonderful pets. NZKC - Breed Standard - Greyhound - Hound They are pack-oriented dogs, which means that they will quickly adopt humans into their pack as alpha. They can get along well with children, dogs and other family pets. Livingood, Lee (2000). Retired Racing Greyhounds for Dummies, p. 19-22. IDG Books Worldwide, Inc., Foster City, CA. ISBN 0764552767. Rescued racing greyhounds occasionally develop separation anxiety when re-housed or when their new owners have to leave them alone for a period of time (the addition of a second greyhound often solves this problem). Livingood, Lee (2000). Retired Racing Greyhounds for Dummies, p. 143-144. IDG Books Worldwide, Inc., Foster City, CA. ISBN 0764552767. An adopted Greyhound, 5 years old Greyhounds bark very little, which helps in suburban environments, and are usually as friendly to strangers as they are with their own family. Branigan, Cynthia A. (1998). Adopting the Racing Greyhound, p. 17-18. Howell Book House, New York. ISBN 087605193X. The most common misconception concerning greyhounds is that they are hyperactive. In retired racing greyhounds it is usually the opposite. Young greyhounds that have never been taught how to utilize the energy they are bred with, can be hyperactive and destructive if not given an outlet, and require more experienced handlers. Greyhound adoption groups generally require owners to keep their greyhounds on-leash at all times, except in fully enclosed areas. Greyhound Adoption League of Texas, Inc. - About the Athletes Microsoft Word - SEGA_Foster_Manual_V7_FINAL_JUne_2006.doc FAQ Greyhound Adoption Program - Is a Greyhound right for you? How Safe is an Off-Lead Run? [Adopt a Greyhound] CompassionforGreyhounds.org :: View topic - Leash Rules Greyhound Angels Adoption Mid-South Greyhound Adoption Option This is due to their prey-drive, their speed, and the assertion that greyhounds have no road sense. GRV Clubs - GAP Due to their strength, adoption groups recommend that fences be between 4 and 6 feet, to prevent them being able to jump. Greyhounds do shed but do not have undercoats and therefore are less likely to trigger people's dog allergies (they are sometimes incorrectly referred to as "hypoallergenic"). The lack of an undercoat, coupled with a general lack of body fat, also makes greyhounds more susceptible to extreme temperatures, and most sources recommend that greyhounds be housed inside. Blythe, Linda, Gannon, James, Craig, A. Morrie, and Fegan, Desmond P. (2007). Care of the Racing and Retired Greyhound, p. 394. American Greyhound Council, Inc., Kansas. ISBN 0964145634. Greyhounds are one of the easiest dogs to take care of. They are extremely loyal and will only do what you tell them to do. If you were to take a greyhound for a walk, the greyhound would walk right next to you because of how they grew up. When in racing, greyhounds are trained to walk around in a circle next to their trainer for people to place bets on them. This is the reason why greyhounds are so loyal to their owners. Greyhounds are very sensitive to insecticides. Branigan, Cynthia A. (1998). Adopting the Racing Greyhound, p. 99-101. Howell Book House, New York. ISBN 087605193X. Many vets do not recommend the use of flea collars or flea spray on greyhounds unless it is a pyrethrin-based product. Products like Advantage, Frontline, Lufenuron, and Amitraz are safe for use on greyhounds and are very effective in controlling fleas and ticks. Branigan, Cynthia A. (1998). Adopting the Racing Greyhound, p. 101-103. Howell Book House, New York. ISBN 087605193X. It is often believed that greyhounds need a large living space, however, they can thrive in small spaces. Due to their temperament, greyhounds can make better "apartment dogs" than some of the smaller hyperactive breeds . Welfare Greyhound racing In the late 20th century several greyhound adoption groups were formed. The early groups were formed in large part out of a sense of concern about the treatment of the dogs while living on the track. These groups began taking greyhounds from the racetracks when they could no longer compete and placing them in adoptive homes. Prior to the formation of these groups, in the United States over 20,000 retired greyhounds a year were euthanized; recent estimates still number in the thousands, with about 90% of National Greyhound Association-registered animals either being adopted, or returned for breeding purposes (according to the industry numbers upwards of 2000 dogs are still killed annually in the US while anti-racing groups estimate the figure at closer to 12,000.). Greyhound Racing Association media kit: The referenced industry figures do not include information about unregistered litters, nor outcomes for dogs after they finished as breeding dogs. The statistics vary depending on the reporting organization. According to the Greyhound Network News one page fact sheet estimates that of the 26,600 Greyhounds that were no longer racing in 2005, 45% of them were euthanized by either groups that could not adopt them out or by the dog breeders via farm culling. Accidents and disease are also common killers among racing greyhounds. In 2005, an epidemic of respiratory failure killed dozens of dogs and left over 1200 quarantined in the U.S., particularly in Massachusetts, Colorado, Iowa and Rhode Island. The vast majority of greyhounds in the USA are bred for racing (registered with the National Greyhound Association or NGA), leading American Kennel Club registered dogs about 150:1. Each NGA dog is issued a Bertillon card, which measures 56 distinct identifying traits with the Bertillon number tattooed on the dog's ear to prove identity during their racing career. Not all dogs bred for racing are able to do so, due to speed, temperament, or physical problems. Most NGA greyhounds finish racing between two and five years of age. Some retired racing greyhounds have injuries that may follow them for the remainder of their lives, although the majority are healthy and can live long lives after their racing careers are over. There are currently two online databases to easily lookup or search for all past and present registered dogs: Greyhound-Data.com and Rosnet2000.com Dogs can be searched by their Bertillon number, race name, and other attributes. Data includes dog photos, race statistics, and pedigree. Health and Physiology Greyhound running Greyhounds are typically a healthy and long-lived breed, and hereditary illness is rare. Some greyhounds have been known to develop esophageal achalasia, bloat (gastric torsion), and osteosarcoma. Because the greyhound's lean physique makes it ill-suited to sleeping on hard surfaces, owners of companion greyhounds generally provide soft bedding; without bedding, greyhounds are prone to develop painful skin sores. The typical greyhound lifespan is 10 to 13 years. Coile, Caroline, Ph. D., Encyclopedia of Dog Breeds, Barron's Educational Series, 2005, p. 77. Due to the unique physiology and anatomy of greyhounds, a veterinarian who understands the issues relevant to the breed is generally needed when the dogs need treatment, particularly when anaesthesia is required. Greyhounds cannot metabolize barbiturate-based anesthesia as other breeds can because they have lower amounts of oxidative enzymes in their livers. Blythe, Linda, Gannon, James, Craig, A. Morrie, and Fegan, Desmond P. (2007). Care of the Racing and Retired Greyhound, p. 416. American Greyhound Council, Inc., Kansas. ISBN 0964145634. Greyhounds demonstrate unusual blood chemistry, which can be misread by veterinarians not familiar with the breed; this can result in an incorrect diagnosis. Greyhounds have higher levels of red blood cells than other breeds. Since red blood cells carry oxygen to the muscles, this higher level allows the hound to move larger quantities of oxygen faster from the lungs to the muscles. Blythe, Linda, Gannon, James, Craig, A. Morrie, and Fegan, Desmond P. (2007). Care of the Racing and Retired Greyhound, p. 82. American Greyhound Council, Inc., Kansas. ISBN 0964145634. Greyhounds have lower levels of platelets than other breeds. http://www.animalmedicalcentreofmedina.com/library/Greyhound%20Labwork.pdf. Veterinary blood services often use greyhounds as universal blood donors. United Blood Services article about Greyhounds as blood donors. History Sighthounds unleashed in Paolo Uccello's Night hunt (Ashmolean Museum) The breed's origin is romantically reputed to be connected to ancient Egypt, where depictions of smooth-coated sighthound types have been found which are typical of Saluki (Persian Greyhound) or Sloughi (tombs at Beni Hassan circa 2000BC). However, analyses of DNA reported in 2004 suggest that the Greyhound is not closely related to these Oriental breeds, but is a close relative to herding dogs. Mark Derr (May 21, 2004). "Collie or Pug? Study Finds the Genetic Code". The New York Times. Parker et al. (May 21, 2004). "Genetic Structure of the Purebred Domestic Dog". Science volume 304, pp. 1160–4. Historical literature on the first sighthound in Europe (Arrian), the vertragus, the probable antecedent of the Greyhound, suggests that the origin is with the ancient Celts from Eastern Europe or Eurasia. All modern, purebred pedigree Greyhounds, are derived from the greyhound stock recorded and registered, firstly in the private 18th century then public 19th century studbooks, which ultimately were registered with Coursing, Racing, and Kennel Club authorities of the United Kingdom. Historically, these sighthounds were used primarily for hunting in the open where their keen eyesight is valuable. It is believed that they (or at least similarly-named dogs) were introduced to the area now known as the United Kingdom in the 5th and 6th century BC from Celtic mainland Europe although the Picts and other hunter gatherer tribes of the Northern area (now known as Scotland) were believed to have had large hounds similar to that of the Deerhound before the 6th century BC. The name "greyhound" is generally believed to come from the Old English grighund. "Hund" is the antecedent of the modern "hound", but the meaning of "grig" is undetermined, other than in reference to dogs in Old English and Norse. Its origin does not appear to have any common root with the modern word "grey" for color, and indeed the greyhound is seen with a wide variety of coat colors. It is known that in England during the medieval period, lords and royalty keen to own greyhounds for sport, requested they be bred to color variants that made them easier to view and identify in pursuit of their quarry. The lighter colors, patch-like markings and white appeared in the breed that was once ordinarily grey in color. The greyhound is the only dog mentioned by name in the Bible; the King James version names the Greyhound as one of the four things stately in the Proverbs. Proverbs 30:29–31 King James version. However, in the modern version of the Bible this has been changed to strutting rooster, which appears to be a more correct translation of the Hebrew term זַרְזִיר (zarzir). According to Pokorny Pokorny, Indogermanisches Woerterbuch, pp. 441–2. the English name "greyhound" does not mean "gray dog/hound", but simply "fair dog". Subsequent words have been derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *g'her- 'shine, twinkle': English gray, Old High German gris 'grey, old', Old Icelandic griss 'piglet, pig', Old Icelandic gryja 'to dawn', gryjandi 'morning twilight', Old Irish grian 'sun', Old Church Slavonic zorja 'morning twilight, brightness'. The common sense of these words is 'to shine; bright'. Miscellaneous Cultural references to greyhounds Simpson's Santa's Little Helper A widely recognized greyhound in popular culture is the fictional character Santa's Little Helper from the animated series The Simpsons. The character, Santa's Little Helper, exhibits many of the intellectual and behavioral characteristics of the typical greyhound as a pet. He is portrayed as affectionate, tolerant of other household pets (notably cats), loyal, and not overly active. Greyhound Bus The Greyhound Bus Lines bus company, in keeping with their logo which sports a racing greyhound, occasionally airs television commercials starring a talking computer-generated greyhound. The greyhound in these commercial shorts is often noted for his dry, deadpan wit. In holiday season commercials, the greyhound also sings about fare discounts, the song being set to a Christmas carol. Sports The greyhound is often used as a mascot by sports teams, both professional and amateur, as well as many college and high school teams. Professional Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds (Ontario Hockey League) Ohio Valley Greyhounds (United Indoor Football) College Assumption College University of Indianapolis Loyola College in Maryland Eastern New Mexico University Moberly Area Community College (in Moberly, Missouri) Moravian College in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania Yankton College (Yankton, South Dakota) Other Greyhound was the name of several roller coasters in the United States and Canada. None of these rides operate today. In Australia, racing Greyhounds are commonly known in slang terminology as "Dish Lickers" (e.g., "I just won 50 bucks at the Dish Lickers"). See also Sighthound Lure coursing Coursing Greyhound racing Greyhound adoption Similar breeds: Afghan Hound Galgo Español (Spanish Greyhound) Italian Greyhound Hungarian Greyhound Lurcher (Not a breed, but a type of dog with Greyhound ancestry) Saluki Whippet References External links Clubs, Associations and Societies Greyhound Club of America Greyhound Pets of America National Greyhound Association World Greyhound Racing Federation Information Comprehensive database of Greyhound pedigrees Greyhound-data "The greyhound in 1864: ..." Walsh 1864 "The greyhound, ..." Dalziel 1887 Of Greyhounds and of their nature, Chapter XV: "The Master of Game" Edward of York circa 1406 Example of the Double Suspension Gallop | Greyhound |@lemmatized greyhound:134 breed:28 hunt:3 dog:38 primarily:2 course:7 game:2 racing:17 recent:2 resurgence:1 popularity:1 increasingly:1 pedigree:4 show:1 family:3 pet:7 soft:2 intelligent:1 often:6 become:1 attach:1 owner:6 fast:5 http:3 www:3 thebreedsofdogs:1 com:5 htmbreeds:1 general:2 description:2 combination:2 long:3 powerful:1 leg:1 deep:1 chest:1 flexible:1 spine:2 slim:1 build:2 allow:2 reach:1 speed:4 around:3 greyhoundracingtoday:1 article:2 athlete:3 html:1 appearance:1 male:2 usually:3 tall:1 withers:1 weigh:1 female:1 tend:1 small:3 shoulder:1 height:1 range:1 weight:1 less:2 short:2 hair:1 easy:3 maintain:1 approximately:1 thirty:1 recognize:2 color:7 form:3 variation:1 white:2 brindle:2 fawn:1 black:1 red:3 blue:1 gray:3 appear:4 uniquely:1 american:7 kennel:4 club:7 marking:2 anatomy:2 key:1 find:3 light:1 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4,995 | Niklas_Luhmann | Niklas Luhmann (December 8, 1927 - November 6, 1998) was a German sociologist, administration expert, and a prominent thinker in sociological systems theory. Biography Luhmann was born in Lüneburg, Germany, where his father's family had been running a brewery for several generations. After graduating from the Johanneum school in 1943, he was conscripted as a Luftwaffenhelfer in World War II and served for two years until, at the age of 17, he was taken prisoner of war by American troops in 1945. In an interview Luhmann once said: "... die Behandlung war – gelinde gesagt – nicht nach den Regeln der internationalen Konventionen". Source: Detlef Horster (1997), Niklas Luhmann, München, p.28. After the war Luhmann studied law at the University of Freiburg from 1946 to 1949, when he obtained a law degree, and then began a career in Lüneburg's public administration. During a sabbatical in 1961, he went to Harvard, where he met and studied under Talcott Parsons, then the world's most influential social systems theorist. In later years, Luhmann dismissed Parsons' theory, developing a rival approach of his own. Leaving the civil service in 1962, he lectured at the national Deutsche Hochschule für Verwaltungswissenschaften (University for Administrative Sciences) in Speyer, Germany, until 1965, when he was offered a position at the Sozialforschungsstelle (Social Research Centre) of the University of Münster, led by Helmut Schelsky. 1965/66 he studied one semester of sociology at the University of Münster. Two earlier books were retroactively accepted as a PhD thesis and habilitation at the University of Münster in 1966, qualifying him for a university professorship. In 1968/1969, he briefly served as a lecturer at Theodor Adorno's former chair at the University of Frankfurt and then was appointed full professor of sociology at the newly founded University of Bielefeld, Germany (until 1993). He continued to publish after his retirement, when he finally found the time to complete his magnum opus, Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft ("The Society of Society"), which appeared in 1997. Works Luhmann wrote prolifically, with more than three dozen books published on a variety of subjects, including law, economy, politics, art, religion, ecology, mass media, and love. While his theories have yet to make much of a mark in American sociology, his theory is currently dominant in German sociology, and has also been rather intensively received in Japan and Eastern Europe, including Russia. His relatively low profile elsewhere is partly due to the fact that translating his work is a difficult task, since his writing presents a challenge even to readers of German, including many sociologists. Luhmann is probably best-known to North Americans for his debate with the critical theorist Jürgen Habermas over the potential of social systems theory. Like his one-time mentor Talcott Parsons, Luhmann is an advocate of the "grand theory", aiming to address any aspect of social life within a universal theoretical framework - of which the diversity of subjects he wrote about is an indication. Luhmann's theory is generally considered highly abstract, and his publications are difficult to read. This fact, along with the somewhat elitist behaviour of some of his disciples and the supposed political conservatism implicit in his theory, has made Luhmann a controversial figure in sociology. A major critique of Luhmann is found in Piyush Mathur's detailed exegesis (2006) of one of Luhmann's treatises in an American journal. "Neither Cited nor Foundational: Niklas Luhmann's Ecological Communication", The Communication Review, 8: 329–362, 2005; for a more general critique see e.g. Alex Viskovatoff's "Foundations of Niklas Luhmann's Theory of Social Systems", Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 29:4, 481-516, 1999). Luhmann himself described his theory as "labyrinth-like" or "non-linear" and claimed he was deliberately keeping his prose enigmatic to prevent it from being understood "too quickly", which would only produce simplistic misunderstandings. "Niklas Luhmann: Unverständliche Wissenschaft: Probleme einer theorieeigenen Sprache, in: Luhmann, Soziologische Aufklärung 3: Soziales System, Gesellschaft, Organisation. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag, 4th. ed. 2005, pp. 193-205, quote on p. 199. The influence of Gregory Bateson and Jurgen Ruesch on Luhmann has been discussed by Piyush Mathur in an April 2008 article titled "Gregory Bateson, Niklas Luhmann, and Ecological Communication." Mathur, Piyush. "Gregory Bateson, Niklas Luhmann, and Ecological Communication, The Communication Review, Volume 11, Issue 2 April 2008 , pages 151 - 175 Theory Luhmann's Systems theory was based on, what he called, the "evolution of communication": from oral communication, over Writing systems towards electronic media and parallel with the evolution of society through functional differentiation. In his theory there are three strands Systems theory as societal theory Communication theory and Evolution theory Which goes through his entire work. Niklas Luhmann (1975), "Systemtheorie, Evolutionstheorie und Kommunikationstheorie", in: Soziologische Gids 22 3. pp.154–168 The core element of Luhmann's theory is communication. Social systems are systems of communication, and society is the most encompassing social system. Being the social system that comprises all (and only) communication, today's society is a world society. A system is defined by a boundary between itself and its environment, dividing it from an infinitely complex, or (colloquially) chaotic, exterior. The interior of the system is thus a zone of reduced complexity: Communication within a system operates by selecting only a limited amount of all information available outside. This process is also called "reduction of complexity." The criterion according to which information is selected and processed is meaning (in German, Sinn). Both social systems and psychical or personal systems (see below for an explanation of this distinction) operate by processing meaning. Furthermore, each system has a distinctive identity that is constantly reproduced in its communication and depends on what is considered meaningful and what is not. If a system fails to maintain that identity, it ceases to exist as a system and dissolves back into the environment it emerged from. Luhmann called this process of reproduction from elements previously filtered from an over-complex environment autopoiesis (pronounced "auto-poy-E-sis"; literally: self-creation), using a term coined in cognitive biology by Chilean thinkers Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela. Social systems are autopoietically closed in that they use and rely on resources from their environment; yet those resources do not become part of the systems' operation. Both thought and digestion are important preconditions for communication, but neither appears in communication as such. Luhmann likens the operation of autopoiesis (the filtering and processing of information from the environment) to a program, making a series of logical distinctions (in German, Unterscheidungen). Here, Luhmann refers to the British mathematician G. Spencer-Brown's logic of distinctions that Maturana and Varela had earlier identified as a model for the functioning of any cognitive process. The supreme criterion guiding the "self-creation" of any given system is a defining binary code. This binary code, is not to be confused with the computers operation: Luhmann (following Spencer-Brown and Gregory Bateson) assumes that auto-referential systems are continuously confronted with the dilemma of disintegration/continuation. This dilemma is framed with an ever-changing set of available choices; everyone of those potential choices, can be the system's selection or not (a binary state, selected/rejected). The influence of Spencer-Brown's book, "Laws of Form", on Luhmann cannot be overestimated. Although Luhmann first developed his understanding of social systems theory under Parsons' influence, he soon moved away from the Parsonian concept. The most important difference is that Parsons used systems as a merely analytic tool to understand certain processes going on in society; Luhmann, in contrast, treats his vision of systems ontologically, saying that "systems exist", that is Luhmann in fact suggests to change the ontological paradigm with the paradigm of systems theory: the difference system/environment (which also signifies a relationship). Another difference is that Parsons asks how certain subsystems contribute to the functioning of overall society. Luhmann starts with the differentiation of the systems themselves out of a nondescript environment. He does observe how certain systems fulfill functions that contribute to "society" as a whole, but this is happening more or less by chance, without an overarching vision of society. Finally, the systems' autopoietic closure is another fundamental difference from Parsons' concept. Each system works strictly according to its very own code and has no understanding at all for the way other systems perceive their environment. For example, the economy is all about money, so there is no independent role in the economic system for extraneous aspects such as morals. One seemingly peculiar, but within the overall framework strictly logical, axiom of Luhmann's theory is the human being's position outside any social system, initially developed by Parsons. Consisting of "pure communicative actions" (a reference to Jürgen Habermas) any social system requires human consciousnesses (personal or psychical systems) as an obviously necessary, but nevertheless environmental resource. In Luhmann's terms, human beings are neither part of society nor of any specific systems, just as they are not part of a conversation. Luhmann himself once said concisely that he was "not interested in people". That is not to say that people were not a matter for Luhmann, but rather, the communicative actions of people are constituted (but not defined) by society, and society is constituted (but not defined) by the communicative actions of people: society is people's environment, and people are society's environment. Thus, sociology can explain how persons, can change society - the influence of the environment (the people) onto the system (the society), the so-called “structural coupling”. Luhmann was devoted to the ideal of non-normative science introduced to sociology in the early 20th century by Max Weber and later re-defined and defended against its critics by Karl Popper. However, in an academic environment that never strictly separated descriptive and normative theories of society, Luhmann's sociology has widely attracted criticism from various intellectuals, perhaps most notably Jürgen Habermas. Luhmann's reception Luhmann's systems theory is being applied or used worldwide by sociologists: In Europe: In Denmark: Niels Åkerstrøm Andersen Anderson, Niels A. (2003) Discursive analytical strategies : understanding Foucault, Koselleck, Laclau, Luhmann. Policy Press. Bristol, UK. ISBN 1 86134440 6 , Ole Bjerg, Susanne Holmström, Øjvind Larsen, Jens Rasmussen, Gorm Harste, Lars Qvortrup, Ole Thyssen and Jesper Tække Jesper Taekke In Germany: Dirk Baecker, Marie Theres Fögen, Gunther Teubner, Helmut Willke In the Netherlands: Wil Martens, Willem Schinkel Schinkel, Willem (2007) Denken in een tijd van sociale hypochondrie, aanzet tot een theorie voorbij de maatschappij In Sweden: Dimitris Michailakis, Jan-Inge Jönhill And further Rudi Laermans in Belgium, Alexander Filippov in Russia, Artan Muhaxhiri in Kosovo, Jože Pučnik in Slovenia, Inger-Johanne Sand in Norway, Urs Stäheli and Rudolph Stichweh in Switzerland. In Turkey: Yunus Yoldaş Yoldaş,Yunus “İşlevsel-Yapısal Sistem Kuramı”, Alfa Aktüel Yayınları, İstanbul 2007. In North and South America: In Brazil: Celso Fernandes Campilongo, Gabriel Cohn, Marcelo Neves, Almiro Petry, Leonel Severo Rocha, Germano Schwartz In Canada: Peter Beyer In Chile: Darío Rodriguez, Pedro Morandé, Aldo Mascareño, Marcelo Arnold. In Colombia''': Eliana Herrera-Vega In United States: Harrison White In Asia: In Japan: Masachi Osawa, Daizaburo Hashizume, Toshiki Sato It is often being used in analyses dealing with corporate social responsibility, organisational legitimacy, governance structures as well as with sociology of law and of course general sociology. In Taiwan: Chih-Chieh Tang Miscellaneous Luhmann also appears as a character in Paul Wühr's work of literature Das falsche Buch, together with - among others - Ulrich Sonnemann, Johann Georg Hamann and Richard Buckminster Fuller. Luhmann owned a pub ("Pons") in his parent's house in his native town of Lüneburg. The house, which also contained his father's brewery, had been in his family's hands since 1857. Publications 1963: (with Franz Becker): Verwaltungsfehler und Vertrauensschutz: Möglichkeiten gesetzlicher Regelung der Rücknehmbarkeit von Verwaltungsakten, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot 1964: Funktionen und Folgen formaler Organisation, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot 1965: Öffentlich-rechtliche Entschädigung rechtspolitisch betrachtet, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot 1965: Grundrechte als Institution: Ein Beitrag zur politischen Soziologie, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot 1966: Recht und Automation in der öffentlichen Verwaltung: Eine verwaltungswissenschaftliche Untersuchung, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot 1966: Theorie der Verwaltungswissenschaft: Bestandsaufnahme und Entwurf, Köln-Berlin 1968: Vertrauen: Ein Mechanismus der Reduktion sozialer Komplexität, Stuttgart: Enke (English translation: Trust and Power, Chichester: Wiley, 1979.) 1968: Zweckbegriff und Systemrationalität: Über die Funktion von Zwecken in sozialen Systemen, Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr, Paul Siebeck 1969: Legitimation durch Verfahren, Neuwied/Berlin: Luchterhand 1970: Soziologische Aufklärung: Aufsätze zur Theorie sozialer Systeme, Köln/Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1971 (with Jürgen Habermas): Theorie der Gesellschaft oder Sozialtechnologie - Was leistet die Systemforschung? Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1971: Politische Planung: Aufsätze zur Soziologie von Politik und Verwaltung, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1972: Rechtssoziologie, 2 volumes, Reinbek: Rowohlt (English translation: A Sociological Theory of Law, London: Routledge, 1985) 1973: (with Renate Mayntz): Personal im öffentlichen Dienst: Eintritt und Karrieren, Baden-Baden: Nomos 1974: Rechtssystem und Rechtsdogmatik, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer 1975: Macht, Stuttgart: Enke (English translation: Trust and Power, Chichester: Wiley, 1979.) 1975: Soziologische Aufklärung 2: Aufsätze zur Theorie der Gesellschaft, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, ISBN 978-3531612812 1977: Funktion der Religion, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp (English translation of pp. 72-181: Religious Dogmatics and the Evolution of Societies, New York/Toronto: Edwin Mellen Press) 1978: Organisation und Entscheidung (= Rheinisch-Westfälische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vorträge G 232), Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1979 (with Karl Eberhard Schorr): Reflexionsprobleme im Erziehungssystem, Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta 1980: Gesellschaftsstruktur und Semantik: Studien zur Wissenssoziologie der modernen Gesellschaft I, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1981: Politische Theorie im Wohlfahrtsstaat, München: Olzog (English translation with essays from Soziologische Aufklärung 4: Political Theory in the Welfare State, Berlin: de Gruyter, 1990) 1981: Gesellschaftsstruktur und Semantik: Studien zur Wissenssoziologie der modernen Gesellschaft II, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1981: Ausdifferenzierung des Rechts: Beiträge zur Rechtssoziologie und Rechtstheorie, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1981: Soziologische Aufklärung 3: Soziales System, Gesellschaft, Organisation, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag (English translation: The Differentiation of Society, New York: Columbia University Press, 1982) 1982: Liebe als Passion: Zur Codierung von Intimität, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp (English translation: Love as Passion: The Codification of Intimacy, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1986, ISBN 978-0804732536) 1984: Soziale Systeme: Grundriß einer allgemeinen Theorie, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp (English translation: Social Systems, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995) 1985: Kann die moderne Gesellschaft sich auf ökologische Gefährdungen einstellen? (= Rheinisch-Westfälische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vorträge G 278), Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1986: Die soziologische Beobachtung des Rechts, Frankfurt: Metzner 1986: Ökologische Kommunikation: Kann die moderne Gesellschaft sich auf ökologische Gefährdungen einstellen? Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag (English translation: Ecological communication, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989) 1987: Soziologische Aufklärung 4: Beiträge zur funktionalen Differenzierung der Gesellschaft, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1987 (edited by Dirk Baecker and Georg Stanitzek): Archimedes und wir: Interviews, Berlin: Merve 1988: Die Wirtschaft der Gesellschaft, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1988: Erkenntnis als Konstruktion, Bern: Benteli 1989: Gesellschaftsstruktur und Semantik: Studien zur Wissenssoziologie der modernen Gesellschaft 3, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1989 (with Peter Fuchs): Reden und Schweigen, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp (partial English translation: "Speaking and Silence", New German Critique 61 (1994), pp. 25-37) 1990: Risiko und Gefahr (= Aulavorträge 48), St. Gallen 1990: Paradigm lost: Über die ethische Reflexion der Moral, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp (partial English translation: "Paradigm Lost: On the Ethical Reflection of Morality: Speech on the Occasion of the Award of the Hegel Prize 1988", Thesis Eleven 29 (1991), pp. 82-94) 1990: Essays on Self-Reference, New York: Columbia University Press 1990: Soziologische Aufklärung 5: Konstruktivistische Perspektiven, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1990: Die Wissenschaft der Gesellschaft, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp (English translation of chapter 10: "The Modernity of Science", New German Critique 61 (1994), pp. 9-23) 1991: Soziologie des Risikos, Berlin: de Gruyter (English translation: Risk: A Sociological Theory, Berlin: de Gruyter) 1992 (with Raffaele De Giorgi): Teoria della società, Milano: Franco Angeli 1992: Beobachtungen der Moderne, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1992 (edited by André Kieserling): Universität als Milieu, Bielefeld: Haux 1993: Gibt es in unserer Gesellschaft noch unverzichtbare Normen?, Heidelberg: C.F. Müller 1993: Das Recht der Gesellschaft, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1994: Die Ausdifferenzierung des Kunstsystems, Bern: Benteli 1995: Die Realität der Massenmedien (= Nordrhein-Westfälischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vorträge G 333), Opladen 1995; second, extended edition 1996.) (English translation: The Reality of the Mass Media, Stanford: Stanford University Press, ISBN 978-0804740777 1995: Soziologische Aufklärung 6: Die Soziologie und der Mensch, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1995: Gesellschaftsstruktur und Semantik: Studien zur Wissenssoziologie der modernen Gesellschaft 4, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1995: Die Kunst der Gesellschaft, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1996: Die neuzeitlichen Wissenschaften und die Phänomenologie, Wien: Picus 1996 (edited by Kai-Uwe Hellmann: Protest: Systemtheorie und soziale Bewegungen, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1996: Modern Society Shocked by its Risks (= University of Hongkong, Department of Sociology Occasional Papers 17), Hongkong, available via HKU Scholars HUB 1997: Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Articles 2006, "System as Difference". Organization, Volume 13 (1) (January 2006), pp. 37-57 About Luhmann Detlef Horster (1997), Niklas Luhmann'', München, David Seidl and Kai Helge Becker: Niklas Luhmann and Organization Studies. Copenhagen Business School Press, Copenhagen 2005, ISBN 978-8763001625. References External links Soziale-systeme.de: German webpage with texts, events and bibliographies concerning Niklas Luhmann's systems theory. 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4,996 | James_Thurber | James Grover Thurber (December 8, 1894 – November 2, 1961) was an American author, cartoonist and celebrated wit. Thurber was best known for his contributions (both cartoons and short stories) to The New Yorker magazine. Life Thurber was born in Columbus, Ohio, to Charles L. Thurber and Mary Agnes (Mame) Fisher Thurber on December 8, 1894. Both of his parents greatly influenced his work. His father, a sporadically employed clerk and minor politician who dreamed of being a lawyer or an actor, is said to have been the inspiration for the small, timid protagonist typical of many of his stories. Thurber described his mother as a "born comedienne" and "one of the finest comic talents I think I have ever known." She was a practical joker, on one occasion pretending to be crippled and attending a faith healer revival, only to jump up and proclaim herself healed. Thurber had two brothers, William and Robert. Once, while playing a game of William Tell, his brother William shot James in the eye with an arrow. Because of the lack of medical technology, Thurber lost his eye. This injury would later cause him to be almost entirely blind. During his childhood he was unable to participate in sports and activities because of his injury, and instead developed a creative imagination, which he shared in his writings. Neurologist V.S. Ramachandran suggests Thurber's imagination may be partly explained by Charles Bonnet syndrome, a neurological condition that causes vivid and bizarre hallucinations even in blind patients. From 1913 to 1918, Thurber attended The Ohio State University, where he was a member of the Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity. He never graduated from the University because his poor eyesight prevented him from taking a mandatory ROTC course. In 1995 he was posthumously awarded a degree. From 1918 to 1920, at the close of World War I, Thurber worked as a code clerk for the Department of State, first in Washington, D.C., and then at the American Embassy in Paris, France. After this Thurber returned to Columbus, where he began his writing career as a reporter for the Columbus Dispatch from 1921 to 1924. During part of this time, he reviewed current books, films, and plays in a weekly column called "Credos and Curios," a title that later would be given to a posthumous collection of his work. Thurber also returned to Paris in this period, where he wrote for the Chicago Tribune and other newspapers. In 1925, he moved to Greenwich Village in New York City, getting a job as a reporter for the New York Evening Post. He joined the staff of The New Yorker in 1927 as an editor with the help of his friend and fellow New Yorker contributor, E.B. White. His career as a cartoonist began in 1930 when White found some of Thurber's drawings in a trash can and submitted them for publication. Thurber would contribute both his writings and his drawings to The New Yorker until the 1950s. Thurber was married twice. In 1922, Thurber married Althea Adams. The marriage was troubled and ended in divorce in May 1935. Adams gave Thurber his only child, his daughter Rosemary. Thurber remarried in June 1935 to Helen Wismer. His second marriage lasted until he died in 1961, at the age of 66, due to complications from pneumonia, which followed upon a stroke suffered at his home. His last words, aside from the repeated word "God," were "God bless... God damn," according to Helen Thurber. Career Thurber worked hard in the 1920s, both in the U.S. and in France, to establish himself as a professional writer. However, unique among major American literary figures, he became equally well known for his simple, surrealistic drawings and cartoons. Both his skills were helped along by the support of, and collaboration with, fellow New Yorker staff member E. B. White. White insisted that Thurber's sketches could stand on their own as artistic expressions — and Thurber would go on to draw six covers and numerous classic illustrations for the New Yorker. While able to sketch out his cartoons in the usual fashion in the 1920s and 1930s, his failing eyesight later required him to draw them on very large sheets of paper using a thick black crayon (also, on black paper using white chalk, from which they were photographed and the colors reversed for publication). Regardless of method, his cartoons became as notable as his writings; they possessed an eerie, wobbly feel that seems to mirror Thurber's idiosyncratic view on life. He once wrote that people said it looked like he drew them under water. (Dorothy Parker, contemporary and friend of Thurber, referred to his cartoons as having the "semblance of unbaked cookies."). The last drawing Thurber was able to complete was a self-portrait in yellow crayon on black paper, which appeared on the cover of the July 9, 1951, edition of Time Magazine. The same drawing also appeared on the dust jacket of The Thurber Album (1952). Many of his short stories are humorous fictional memoirs from his life, but he also wrote darker material, such as "The Whip-Poor-Will," a story of madness and murder. "The Dog Who Bit People" and "The Night the Bed Fell" are his most well known short stories; they can be found in My Life and Hard Times, the creative mix of autobiography and fiction which was his 'break-out' book. Also notable, and often anthologized, are "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty," "The Catbird Seat", "A Couple of Hamburgers", "The Greatest Man in the World" and "If Grant Had Been Drinking at Appomattox," which can be found in The Thurber Carnival. The Middle Aged Man on the Flying Trapeze has several short stories with a tense undercurrent of marital discord. The book was published the year of his divorce and remarriage. His story "You Could Look It Up," about a midget being brought in to take a walk in a baseball game, is said to have been an inspiration for Bill Veeck's stunt with Eddie Gaedel with the St. Louis Browns in 1951. Veeck claimed an older provenance for the stunt, but was certainly aware of the Thurber story. In addition to his other fiction, Thurber wrote over seventy-five fables, most of which were collected in Fables for Our Time & Famous Poems Illustrated (1940) and Further Fables for Our Time (1956). These usually conformed to the fable genre to the extent that they were short, featured anthropomorphic animals as main characters, and ended with a moral as a tagline. An exception to this format was his most famous fable, "The Unicorn in the Garden," which featured an all-human cast except for the unicorn, which didn't speak. Thurber's fables were satirical in nature, and the morals served as punchlines rather than advice to the reader. His stories also included several book-length fairy tales, such as The White Deer (1945) and The Wonderful O (1957). The latter was one of several of Thurber's works illustrated by Marc Simont. Thurber's prose for The New Yorker and other venues also included numerous humorous essays. A favorite subject, especially toward the end of his life, was the English language. Pieces on this subject included "The Spreading 'You Know'," which decried the overuse of that pair of words in conversation, "The New Vocabularianism," "What Do You Mean It Was Brillig?" and many others. Thurber's short pieces, whether stories, essays or something in between, were referred to as "casuals" by Thurber and the staff of The New Yorker. Thurber wrote a biographical memoir about The New Yorkers founder and publisher, Harold Ross, titled The Years with Ross (1958). Thurber also wrote a five-part New Yorker series, between 1947 and 1948, examining in depth the radio soap opera phenomenon, based on near-constant listening and researching over the same period. Leaving nearly no element of these programs unexamined, including their writers, producers, sponsors, performers, and listeners alike, Thurber re-published the series in his anthology, The Beast in Me and Other Animals (1948) under the section title "Soapland." The series was one of the first to examine such a pop culture phenomenon in depth and with just enough traces of Thurber's wit to make it more than just a sober piece of what would later be called investigative reporting. Thurber teamed with college schoolmate (and actor/director) Elliot Nugent to write a major Broadway hit comic drama of the late 1930s, The Male Animal, which was made into a film in 1942, starring Henry Fonda, Olivia de Havilland, and Jack Carson. In 1947 Danny Kaye played the title character in The Secret Life of Walter Mitty, a film that had little to do with the original short story and which Thurber hated. In 1951 animation studio United Productions of America announced a forthcoming feature to be faithfully compiled from Thurber's work, titled Men, Women and Dogs. However, the only part of the ambitious production that was eventually released was the UPA cartoon The Unicorn in the Garden (1953). Near the end of his life, in 1960, Thurber finally was able to fulfill his long-standing desire to be on the professional stage by playing himself in 88 performances of the revue A Thurber Carnival, based on a selection of Thurber's stories and cartoon captions. Thurber appeared in the sketch "File and Forget," dictating fictional correspondence to his publisher. Thurber won a special Tony Award for the adapted script of the Carnival. In 1961, the episode "The Secret Life of James Thurber" aired on CBS's anthology series, The DuPont Show with June Allyson. Adolphe Menjou appeared in the program as Fitch, and Orson Bean and Sue Randall portrayed John and Ellen Monroe. A full series based on Thurber's writings and life entitled My World and Welcome to It was broadcast on NBC in 1969-70, starring William Windom as the Thurber figure. The show won a 1970 Emmy Award as the year's best comedy series, and Windom won an Emmy as well. The animation of Thurber's cartoons on My World and Welcome to It led to the 1972 Jack Lemmon film The War Between Men and Women, which concludes with an animated rendering of Thurber's classic anti-war work "The Last Flower." Windom went on to perform Thurber material in a one-man stage show. Previously, Windom had starred with Inger Stevens in the ABC sitcom The Farmer's Daughter. An annual award, the Thurber Prize, begun in 1997, honors outstanding examples of American humor. Bibliography Incomplete - to be updated Is Sex Necessary? or, Why You Feel The Way You Do (spoof of sexual psychology manuals, with E. B. White), 1929, 75th anniv. edition (2004) with foreword by John Updike, ISBN 0-06-073314-4 The Owl in the Attic and Other Perplexities, 1931 The Seal in the Bedroom and Other Predicaments, 1932 My Life and Hard Times, 1933 ISBN 0-06-093308-9 The Middle-Aged Man on the Flying Trapeze, 1935 Let Your Mind Alone! and Other More Or Less Inspirational Pieces, 1937 The Last Flower, 1939, re-issued 2007 ISBN 978-1-58729-620-8 The Male Animal (stage play), 1939 (with Elliot Nugent) Fables for Our Time and Famous Poems Illustrated, 1940 ISBN 0-06-090999-4 My World--and Welcome To It, 1942 ISBN 0-15-662344-7 Many Moons, (children) 1943 Men, Women, and Dogs, 1943 The Great Quillow, (children) 1944 The Thurber Carnival (anthology), 1945, ISBN 0-06-093287-2 The White Deer, (children) 1945 The Beast in Me and Other Animals, 1948 ISBN 0-15-610850-X The 13 Clocks, (children) 1950 The Thurber Album, 1952 Thurber Country, 1953 Thurber's Dogs, 1955 Further Fables For Our Time, 1956 The Wonderful O, (children) 1957 Alarms and Diversions (anthology), 1957 The Years With Ross, 1959 ISBN 0-06-095971-1 A Thurber Carnival (stage play), 1960 Lanterns and Lances, 1961Posthumous Collections:'''Credos and Curios, 1962Thurber & Company, 1966 (ed. Helen W. Thurber)Selected Letters of James Thurber, 1981 (ed. Helen W. Thurber & Edward Weeks)Collecting Himself: James Thurber on Writing and Writers, Humor and Himself, 1989 (ed. Michael J. Rosen)Thurber On Crime, 1991 (ed. Robert Lopresti)People Have More Fun Than Anybody: A Centennial Celebration of Drawings and Writings by James Thurber, 1994 (ed. Michael J. Rosen)James Thurber: Writings and Drawings, 1996, (ed. Garrison Keillor), Library of America, ISBN 978-1-88301122-2The Dog Department: James Thurber on Hounds, Scotties, and Talking Poodles, 2001 (ed. Michael J. Rosen)The Thurber Letters, 2002 (ed. Harrison Kinney, with Rosemary A. Thurber) Short stories and articles Biographies of Thurber Burton Bernstein Thurber (1975); William Morrow & Co (May, 1996) ISBN 0-688-14772-0 Thomas Fensch The Man Who Was Walter Mitty: The Life and Work of James Thurber (2001) ISBN 0-930-75113-2 Neil A. Grauer Remember Laughter: A Life of James Thurber (1994); University of Nebraska Press; Reprint edition (August, 1995) ISBN 0-8032-7056-9 Harrison Kinney James Thurber: His Life and Times (1995); Henry Holt & Co ISBN 0-8050-3966-X Literature reviewThe Clocks Of Columbus: The Literary Career of James Thurber'' by Charles S. Holmes (1972). Atheneum ISBN 0689705743; Secker & Warburg, May 1973, ISBN 0-436-20080-5 References External links The Paris Review Interview Thurber at The Thurber House website Thurber's World (and Welcome To it) Pathfinder: James Grover Thurber - Thurber links portal The last flower - ballet after James Thurber Origins of the Thurber Dog | James_Thurber |@lemmatized james:13 grover:2 thurber:82 december:2 november:1 american:4 author:1 cartoonist:2 celebrate:1 wit:2 best:2 know:5 contribution:1 cartoon:8 short:8 story:13 new:13 yorker:9 magazine:2 life:14 bear:2 columbus:4 ohio:2 charles:3 l:1 mary:1 agnes:1 mame:1 fisher:1 parent:1 greatly:1 influence:1 work:8 father:1 sporadically:1 employ:1 clerk:2 minor:1 politician:1 dream:1 lawyer:1 actor:2 say:3 inspiration:2 small:1 timid:1 protagonist:1 typical:1 many:4 describe:1 mother:1 comedienne:1 one:5 fine:1 comic:2 talent:1 think:1 ever:1 practical:1 joker:1 occasion:1 pretending:1 cripple:1 attend:2 faith:1 healer:1 revival:1 jump:1 proclaim:1 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4,997 | Cards_speak | Cards speak ("for themselves") is used in two poker contexts: First, it is used to describe a high-low split game without a declaration. That is, in a cards speak game, players all reveal their hands at the showdown, and whoever has the highest hand wins the high half of the pot and whoever has the lowest hand wins the low half. Poker Dictionary: Cards Speak The other context is as a house rule in casino cardrooms. "Cards speak" means that any verbal declaration as to the content of a player’s hand is not binding. If Mary says she has no pair, but in fact she has a flush, her cards speak and her hand is viewed for its genuine value, that of a flush. Likewise if John says he has a flush, but in fact he does not, his hand is judged on its actual merits, not his verbal declaration. Cards Speak Rule At the discretion of management, any player miscalling his hand may have that hand fouled, but this is not required. The "cards speak" rule does not address the awarding of a pot, player responsibilities, or the similar one player to a hand rule. It merely means that verbal statements do not make a hand value. The cards do. See also Public cardroom rules (poker) Notes | Cards_speak |@lemmatized card:8 speak:7 use:2 two:1 poker:3 context:2 first:1 describe:1 high:3 low:3 split:1 game:2 without:1 declaration:3 player:5 reveal:1 hand:10 showdown:1 whoever:2 win:2 half:2 pot:2 dictionary:1 house:1 rule:5 casino:1 cardroom:2 mean:2 verbal:3 content:1 bind:1 mary:1 say:2 pair:1 fact:2 flush:3 view:1 genuine:1 value:2 likewise:1 john:1 judge:1 actual:1 merit:1 discretion:1 management:1 miscall:1 may:1 foul:1 require:1 address:1 awarding:1 responsibility:1 similar:1 one:1 merely:1 statement:1 make:1 see:1 also:1 public:1 note:1 |@bigram public_cardroom:1 cardroom_rule:1 |
4,998 | The_Maritimes | The Maritime provinces The Maritime provinces, also called the Maritimes or the Canadian Maritimes, is a region of Eastern Canada consisting of three provinces: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. On the Atlantic coast, the Maritimes are a subregion of Atlantic Canada. The population of the Maritime provinces was 1,826,896 in 2008. The Maritimes front the Atlantic Ocean and its various sub-basins such as the Gulf of Maine and Gulf of St. Lawrence systems. The region is located northeast of New England, southeast of Quebec's Gaspé Peninsula, and southwest of the island of Newfoundland. The province of Newfoundland and Labrador is often mistakenly identified as a Maritime province: it is properly part of Atlantic Canada (with the other three provinces) and thus referred to as an Atlantic province. Although it is located on the Atlantic coast, the Gulf of St. Lawrence physically separates this province from the Maritimes. It also has a uniquely different history; the Dominion of Newfoundland joined Canada eight decades after the three Maritime provinces. The four provinces of Atlantic Canada, combined with the two of Central Canada (Quebec and Ontario), comprise Eastern Canada. There was talk of a Maritime Union of the three provinces to have greater political power; however, the first discussions on the subject in 1864 at the Charlottetown Conference led to the process of Canadian Confederation which formed the larger Dominion of Canada instead.Peggys Cove, Nova Scotia, an archetypal Maritime scene The Maritimes The Maritimes are home to Mi'kmaq and Maliseet people and have an extensive history of French and English settlement dating back to the seventeenth century, forming a unique culture that predates Canada. History Following the northerly retreat of glaciers at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation over ten thousand years ago, human settlement by Native Americans or First Nations began in the Maritimes with Paleo-Indians during the Early Period, ending around six thousand years ago. The Middle Period, starting six thousand years ago, and ending three thousand years ago, was dominated by rising sea levels from the melting glaciers in polar regions. This is also when what is called the Laurentian tradition started among Archaic Indians, existing First Nations peoples of the time. Evidence of Archaic Indian burial mounds and other ceremonial sites existing in the St. John River valley has been uncovered. The Late Period extended from three thousand years ago until first contact with European settlers and was dominated by the organization of First Nations peoples into the Algonquian-influenced Abenaki Nation which existed largely in present-day interior Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, and the Mi'kmaq Nation which inhabited all of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, eastern New Brunswick and the southern Gaspé. The primarily agrarian Maliseet Nation settled throughout the St. John River and Allagash River valleys of present-day New Brunswick and Maine. The Passamaquoddy Nation inhabited the northwestern coastal regions of the present-day Bay of Fundy. The Mi'kmaq Nation is also assumed to have crossed the present-day Cabot Strait at around this time to settle on the south coast of Newfoundland but were in a minority position compared to the Beothuk Nation. European contact The Maritimes was the first area in Canada to be settled by Europeans. There is speculation that Viking explorers discovered and settled in the Vinland region around 1000 AD, which is when the L'Anse aux Meadows settlement in Newfoundland and Labrador has been dated, and it is possible that further exploration was made into the present-day Maritimes and northeastern United States. Both Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot) and Giovanni da Verrazzano are reliably reported to have sailed in or near Maritime waters during their voyages of discovery for England and France respectively. Several Portuguese explorers have also documented various parts of the Maritimes, namely Diego Homem. However, it was French explorer Jacques Cartier who made the first detailed reconnaissance of the region for a European power, and in so doing, claimed the region for the King of France. Cartier was followed by nobleman Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts who was accompanied by explorer/cartographer Samuel de Champlain in a 1604 expedition where they established the second permanent European settlement in North America, following Spain's settlement at St. Augustine. Champlain's settlement at Saint Croix Island, later moved to Port-Royal, survived where the ill-fated English settlement at Roanoke did not, and pre-dated the more successful English settlement at Jamestown by three years. Champlain went on to greater fame as the founder of New France which comprises much of the present-day lower St. Lawrence River valley in the province of Quebec. Acadia Champlain's success in the region, which came to be called Acadie, led to the fertile tidal marshes surrounding the southeastern and northeastern reaches of the Bay of Fundy being populated by French immigrants who called themselves Acadien. Acadians eventually built small settlements throughout what is today mainland Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, as well as Île-Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island), Île-Royale (Cape Breton Island), and other shorelines of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in present-day Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec. Acadian settlements had primarily agrarian economies, although there were many early examples of Acadian fishing settlements in southwestern Nova Scotia and in Île-Royale, as well as along the south and west coasts of Newfoundland, the Gaspé Peninsula, and the present-day Côte-Nord region of Quebec. Most Acadian fishing activities were overshadowed by the comparatively enormous seasonal European fishing fleets based out of Newfoundland which took advantage of proximity to the Grand Banks. The growing English colonies along the American seaboard to the south and various European wars between England and France during the 17th and 18th centuries brought Acadia to the centre of world-scale geopolitical forces. In 1613, Virginian raiders captured Port Royale, and in 1621 Acadia was ceded to Scotland's Sir William Alexander who renamed it Nova Scotia. By 1632, Acadia was returned from Scotland to France under the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and the Port Royale settlement was moved to the site of nearby present-day Annapolis Royal. More French settlers, primarily from the Vienne, Normandie, and Brittany regions of France, continued to populate the colony of Acadia during the latter part of the 17th and early part of the 18th centuries. Important settlements also began in the Beaubassin region of the present-day Isthmus of Chignecto, and in the St. John River valley, and settlers began to establish communities on Île-Saint-Jean and Île-Royale as well. In 1654, New England raiders attacked Acadian settlements on the Annapolis Basin, starting a period of uncertainty for Acadians throughout the English constitutional crises under Oliver Cromwell, and only being properly resolved under the Treaty of Breda in 1667 when France's claim to the region was reaffirmed. Colonial administration by France throughout the history of Acadia was contemptuous at best. France's priorities were in settling and strengthening its claim on New France and the exploration and settlement of interior North America and the Mississippi River valley. British and French control Further French-English conflict resulted in the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 which saw France formally relinquish Acadia to Britain. Confusion over the boundaries between Acadia, New France, and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts left Britain in possession of what is the present-day Nova Scotia peninsula. The early British capital of the Colony of Nova Scotia (sometimes referred to as the 14th Colony) was established at Annapolis Royal, where Fort Anne was constructed. France still maintained control over much of present-day New Brunswick and northern Maine, Île-Saint-Jean, and Île-Royale. In 1719, to further protect strategic interests in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and St. Lawrence River, France began the 20-year construction of a large fortress at Louisbourg on Île-Royale. Massachusetts was increasingly concerned over reports of the capabilities of this fortress, and of privateers staging out of its harbour to raid New England fishermen on the Grand Banks. The War of the Austrian Succession saw Britain and France in conflict with each other, and in 1745 several warships and a small contingent of troops were sent from Boston, first to the Nova Scotian fishing port of Canso, and on to Louisbourg where they laid siege to the fortress until the French surrendered and were evacuated. The British returned control of Île-Royale to France with the fortress virtually intact three years later under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and the French reestablished their forces there. In 1749, to counter the rising threat of Louisbourg, Halifax was founded and the Royal Navy established a major naval base and citadel. The Seven Years' War from 1756 to 1763 was the final struggle for European domination of North America. The French colony of New France was the objective, and the present-day Maritime provinces saw conflict beginning in 1755 with the British capture of French forces at Fort Beausejour and Fort Gaspereau, guarding the Isthmus of Chignecto. In 1758, the fortress of Louisbourg was laid siege for a second time within 15 years, this time by more than 27,000 British soldiers and sailors with over 150 warships. After the French surrender, Louisbourg was thoroughly destroyed by British engineers to ensure it would never be reclaimed. With the fall of Louisbourg, French resistance in the region crumbled. British forces seized remaining French control over Acadia in the coming months, with Île-Saint-Jean falling in 1759 to British forces on their way to Quebec City for the Siege of Quebec and ensuing Battle of the Plains of Abraham. It was also during the course of this war that British administrators in Nova Scotia began the expulsion of the Acadians from their adopted homeland. Many were expelled to Louisiana, but some Acadian families, and sometimes entire communities, escaped British soldiers tasked with their deportation, by hiding for years in hidden forest settlements, aided by the Mi'kmaq. These Acadians during the 19th century created new settlements in western Nova Scotia, southwestern and northwestern Cape Breton Island, and western Prince Edward Island, but their most significant concentration was along the New Brunswick shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. American Revolution Following the Seven Years' War, empty Acadian lands were settled first by New England Planters and then by immigrants brought from Yorkshire. Île-Royale was renamed to Cape Breton Island and incorporated into the Colony of Nova Scotia. Both the colonies of Nova Scotia (present-day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) and St. John's Island (Prince Edward Island) were affected by the American Revolutionary War, largely by privateering against American shipping, but several coastal communities were also the targets of American raiders. Charlottetown, the capital of the new colony of St. John's Island, was ransacked in 1775 with the provincial secretary kidnapped and the Great Seal stolen. The largest military action in the Maritimes during the revolutionary war was the attack on Fort Cumberland (the renamed Fort Beausejour) in 1776 by a force of American sympathizers led by Jonathan Eddy. The fort was partially overrun after a month-long siege, but the attackers were ultimately repelled after the arrival of British reinforcements from Halifax. The most significant impact from this war was the settling of large numbers of Loyalist refugees in the region, especially in Shelburne and Parrtown (Saint John). Following the Treaty of Paris in 1783, Loyalist settlers in what would become New Brunswick persuaded British administrators to split the Colony of Nova Scotia to create the new colony of New Brunswick in 1784. At the same time, another part of the Colony of Nova Scotia, Cape Breton Island, was split off to become the Colony of Cape Breton Island. The Colony of St. John's Island was renamed to Prince Edward Island on November 29, 1798. The War of 1812 had some affect on the shipping industry in the Maritime colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Cape Breton Island; however, the significant Royal Navy presence in Halifax and other ports in the region prevented any serious attempts by American raiders. Maritime and American privateers targeted unprotected shipping of both the United States and Britain respectively, further reducing trade. The American border with New Brunswick did not have any significant action during this conflict, although British forces did occupy a portion of coastal Maine at one point. The most significant incident from this war which occurred in the Maritimes was the British capture and detention of the American frigate USS Chesapeake in Halifax. 19th century In 1820, the Colony of Cape Breton Island was merged back into the Colony of Nova Scotia for the second time by the British government. British settlement of the Maritimes, as the colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island came to be known, accelerated throughout the late 18th century and into the 19th century with significant immigration to the region as a result of Scottish migrants displaced by the Highland Clearances and Irish escaping the Great Irish Famine (1845-1849). As a result, significant portions of the three provinces are influenced by Celtic heritages, with Scottish Gaelic having been widely spoken, particularly in Cape Breton, although it is less prevalent today. During the American Civil War, some Maritimers emigrated to the United States to volunteer for the armies of the Union or the Confederacy. However, the majority of the conflict's impact was felt in the shipping industry since diplomatic tensions between Britain and the Unionist North had deteriorated after Britain expressed support for the secessionist Confederate South. The Union navy, although much smaller than the Royal Navy, did posture off Maritime coasts at times. Although an amphibious invasion was never in question, blockading by Union naval forces was relatively common, particularly at Halifax, where Confederate navy ships sought refuge and reprovisioning. The immense size of the Union army (the largest on the planet toward the end of the Civil War), however, was viewed with increasing concern by Maritimers throughout the early 1860s. Another concern was the rising threat of Fenian raids on border communities in New Brunswick by those seeking to end British rule of Ireland. This combination of events, coupled with an ongoing decline in British military and economic support to the region as the Home Office favoured newer colonial endeavours in Africa and elsewhere, led to a call among Maritime politicians for a conference on Maritime Union, to be held in early September, 1864 in—chosen in part because of Prince Edward Island's reluctance to give up its jurisdictional sovereignty in favour of uniting with New Brunswick and Nova Scotia into a single colony. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia felt that if the union conference were held in Charlottetown, they might be able to convince Island politicians to support the proposal. The Charlottetown Conference, as it came to be called, was also attended by a slew of visiting delegates from the neighbouring colony of Canada, who had largely arrived at their own invitation with their own agenda. This agenda saw the conference dominated by discussions of creating an even larger union of the entire territory of British North America into a united colony. The Charlottetown Conference ended with an agreement to meet the following month in Quebec City, where more formal discussions ensued, culminating with meetings in London and the signing of the British North America Act. Of the Maritime provinces, only Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were initially party to the BNA Act, Prince Edward Island's reluctance, combined with a booming agricultural and fishing export economy having led to that colony opting not to sign on. Major communities The major communities of the region include Halifax and Sydney in Nova Scotia, Moncton, Saint John, and Fredericton in New Brunswick, and Charlottetown in Prince Edward Island. Society and culture |Halifax skyline from Dartmouth, Nova Scotia Maritime society is based upon a mixture of traditions and class backgrounds. Predominantly rural until recent decades, the region traces many of its cultural activities to those rural resource-based economies of fishing, agriculture, forestry, and coal mining. While Maritimers are predominantly of west European heritage (Scottish, Irish, English, and Acadian), immigration to Industrial Cape Breton during the heyday of coal mining and steel manufacturing brought people from eastern Europe as well as from Newfoundland. The Maritimes also has a black population who are descendants of former African American runaway slaves and loyalists, largely concentrated in Nova Scotia but also in various communities throughout southern New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. The Mi'kmaq Nation's reserves throughout Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and eastern New Brunswick dominate aboriginal culture in the region, compared to the much smaller population of the Maliseet Nation in western New Brunswick. Skyline of Saint John, New Brunswick as of Summer 2002 Cultural activities are fairly diverse throughout the region, with the music, dance, theatre, and literary art forms tending to follow the particular cultural heritage of specific locales. Notable Nova Scotian folklorist and cultural historian Helen Creighton spent the majority of her lifetime recording the various Celtic musical and folk traditions of rural Nova Scotia during the mid-20th century, prior to this knowledge being wiped out by mass media assimilation with the rest of North America. A fragment of Gaelic culture remains in Nova Scotia but primarily on Cape Breton Island. Skyline of Moncton, New Brunswick Canada has witnessed a "Celtic revival" in which many Maritime musicians and songs have risen to prominence in recent decades. Some companies, particularly breweries such as Alexander Keith's and Moosehead have played up a connection between folklore with alcohol consumption during their marketing campaigns. The Maritimes were among the strongest supporters of prohibition (Prince Edward Island lasting until 1949), and some predominantly rural communities maintain "dry" status, banning the retail sale of alcohol to this day as a vestige of the original temperance movement in the region. Economy Present status Fredericton City Hall Given the relatively small population of the region (compared with the Central Canadian provinces or the New England states), the regional economy is a net exporter of natural resources, manufactured goods, and services. The regional economy has long been tied to natural resources such as fishing, logging, farming, and mining activities. Significant industrialisation in second half of the 19th century brought steel to Trenton, Nova Scotia, and subsequent creation of a widespread industrial base to take advantage of the region's large underground coal deposits. After Confederation, however, this industrial base withered with technological change, and trading links to Europe and the U.S. were reduced in favour of those with Ontario and Quebec. In recent years, however, the Maritime regional economy has begun increased contributions from manufacturing again and the steady transition to a service economy. Important manufacturing centres in the region include Pictou County, Truro, the Annapolis Valley and the South Shore, and the Strait of Canso area in Nova Scotia, as well as Summerside in Prince Edward Island, and the Miramichi area, the North Shore and the upper Saint John River valley of New Brunswick. Some predominantly coastal areas have become major tourist centres, such as parts of Prince Edward Island, Cape Breton Island, the South Shore of Nova Scotia and the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Bay of Fundy coasts of New Brunswick. Additional service-related industries in information technology, pharmaceuticals, insurance and financial sectors—as well as research-related spin-offs from the region's numerous universities and colleges—are significant economic contributors. Another important contribution to Nova Scotia's provincial economy is through spin-offs and royalties relating to off-shore petroleum exploration and development. Mostly concentrated on the continental shelf of the province's Atlantic coast in the vicinity of Sable Island, exploration activities began in the 1960s and resulted in the first commercial production field for oil beginning in the 1980s. Natural gas was also discovered in the 1980s during exploration work, and this is being commercially recovered, beginning in the late 1990s. Initial optimism in Nova Scotia about the potential of off-shore resources appears to have diminished with the lack of new discoveries, although exploration work continues and is moving farther off-shore into waters on the continental margin. Peakes Quay on the Charlottetown waterfront Regional transportation networks have also changed significantly in recent decades with port modernizations, with new expressways and ongoing arterial highway construction, the abandonment of various low-capacity railway branchlines (including the entire railway system of Prince Edward Island and southwestern Nova Scotia), and the construction of the Canso Causeway and the Confederation Bridge. There have been airport improvements at various centres providing improved connections to markets and destinations in the rest of North America and overseas. Improvements in infrastructure and the regional economy notwithstanding, the three provinces remain one of the poorer regions of Canada. While urban areas are growing and thriving, economic adjustments have been harsh in rural and resource-dependent communities, and emigration has been an ongoing phenomenon for some parts of the region. Another problem is seen in the lower average wages and family incomes within the region. Property values are depressed, resulting in a smaller tax base for these three provinces, particularly when compared with the national average which benefits from central and western Canadian economic growth. This has been particularly problematic with the growth of the welfare state in Canada since the 1950s, resulting in the need to draw upon equalization payments to provide nationally-mandated social services. Since the 1990s the region has experienced an exceptionally tumultuous period in its regional economy with the collapse of large portions of the ground fishery throughout Atlantic Canada, the closing of coal mines and a steel mill on Cape Breton Island, and the closure of military bases in all three provinces. Historical Growth Delegates of the Charlottetown Conference on the steps of Government House While the relative economic underperformance of the Maritime economy has been long lasting, it has not always been present. The mid-19th century, especially the 1850s and 1860s, has long been seen as a "Golden Age" in the Maritimes. Growth was strong, and the region had one of British North America's most extensive manufacturing sectors. The question of why the Maritimes fell from being a centre of Canadian manufacturing to being an economic hinterland is thus a central one to the study of the region's pecuniary difficulties. The period in which the decline occurred had a great many potential culprits. In 1867 Nova Scotia and New Brunswick merged with the Canadas in Confederation, with Prince Edward Island joining them six years later in 1873. Canada was formed only a year after free trade with the United States (in the form of the Reciprocity Agreement) had ended. In the 1870s John A. Macdonald's National Policy was implemented, creating a system of protective tariffs around the new nation. Throughout the period there was also significant technological change both in the production and transportation of goods. Decline The cause of economic malaise in the Maritimes is an issue of great debate and controversy among historians, economists, and geographers. The differing opinions can approximately be divided into the "structuralists," who argue that poor policy decisions are to blame, and the others, who argue that unavoidable technological and geographical factors caused the decline. Shipping magnate Sir Samuel Cunard The exact date that the Maritimes began to fall behind the rest of Canada is difficult to determine. Historian Kris Inwood places the date very early, at least in Nova Scotia, finding clear signs that the Maritimes "Golden Age" of the mid-nineteenth century was over by 1870, before Confederation or the National Policy could have had any significant impact. Richard Caves places the date closer to 1885. T.W. Acheson takes a similar view and provides considerable evidence that the early 1880s were in fact a booming period in Nova Scotia and this growth was only undermined towards the end of that decade. David Alexander argues that any earlier declines were simply part of the global Long Depression, and that the Maritimes first fell behind the rest of Canada when the great boom period of the early twentieth century had little effect on the region. E.R. Forbes, however, emphasizes that the precipitous decline did not occur until after the First World War during the 1920s when new railway policies were implemented. Forbes also contends that significant Canadian defence spending during the Second World War favoured powerful political interests in Central Canada such as C.D. Howe, when major Maritime shipyards and factories, as well as Canada's largest steel mill, located in Cape Breton Island, fared poorly. Yarmouth in 1910 One of the most important changes, and one that almost certainly had an effect, was the revolution in transportation that occurred at this time. The Maritimes were connected to central Canada by the Intercolonial Railway in the 1870s, removing a longstanding barrier to trade. For the first time this placed the Maritime manufacturers in direct competition with those of Central Canada. Maritime trading patterns shifted considerably from mainly trading with New England, Britain, and the Caribbean, to being focused on commerce with the Canadian interior, enforced by the federal government's tariff policies. Simultaneous with the construction of railways in the region, the age of the wooden sailing ship began to come to an end, being replaced by larger and faster steel steam ships. The Maritimes had long been a centre for shipbuilding, and this industry was hurt by the change. The larger ships were also less likely to call on the smaller population centres such as Saint John and Halifax, preferring to travel to cities like New York and Montreal. Even the Cunard Line, founded by Haligonian Samuel Cunard, stopped making more than a single ceremonial voyage to Halifax each year. More controversial than the role of technology is the argument over the role of politics in the origins of the region's decline. Confederation and the tariff and railway freight policies that followed have often been blamed for having a deleterious effect on the Maritime economies. Arguments have been made that the Maritimes' poverty was caused by control over policy by Central Canada which used the national structures for its own enrichment. This was the central view of the Maritime Rights Movement of the 1920s, which advocated greater local control over the region's finances. T.W. Acheson is one of the main proponents of this theory. He notes the growth that was occurring during the early years of the National Policy in Nova Scotia demonstrates how the effects of railway fares and the tariff structure helped undermine this growth. Capitalists from Central Canada purchased the factories and industries of the Maritimes from their bankrupt local owners and proceeded to close down many of them, consolidating the industry in Central Canada. Princess and Water Street in Saint John The policies in the early years of Confederation were designed by Central Canadian interests, and they reflected the needs of that region. The unified Canadian market and the introduction of railroads created a relative weakness in the Maritime economies. Central to this concept, according to Acheson, was the lack of metropolises in the Maritimes. Montreal and Toronto were well suited to benefit from the development of large-scale manufacturing and extensive railway systems in Quebec and Ontario, these being the goals of the Macdonald and Laurier governments. In the Maritimes the situation was very different. Today New Brunswick has several mid-sized centres in Saint John, Moncton, and Fredericton but no significant population centre. Nova Scotia has a growing metropolitan area surrounding Halifax, but a contracting population in industrial Cape Breton, and several smaller centres in Bridgewater, Kentville, Yarmouth, and Pictou County. Prince Edward Island's only significant population centres are in Charlottetown and Summerside. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, just the opposite was the case with little to no population concentration in major industrial centres as the predominantly rural resource-dependent Maritime economy continued on the same path as it had since European settlement on the region's shores. Despite the region's absence of economic growth on the same scale as other parts of the nation, the Maritimes has changed markedly throughout the 20th century, partly as a result of global and national economic trends, and partly as a result of government intervention. Each sub-region within the Maritimes has developed over time to exploit different resources and expertise. Saint John became a centre of the timber trade and shipbuilding and is currently a centre for oil refining and some manufacturing. The northern New Brunswick communities of Edmundston, Campbellton, Dalhousie, Bathurst, and Miramichi are focused on the pulp and paper industry and some mining activity. Moncton was a centre for railways and has changed its focus to becoming a multi-modal transportation centre with associated manufacturing and retail interests. The Halifax metropolitan area has come to dominate peninsular Nova Scotia as a retail and service centre, but that province's industries were spread out from the coal and steel industries of industrial Cape Breton and Pictou counties, the mixed farming of the North Shore and Annapolis Valley, and the fishing industry was primarily focused on the South Shore and Eastern Shore. Prince Edward Island is largely dominated by farming, fishing, and tourism. Given the geographic diversity of the various sub-regions within the Maritimes, policies to centralize the population and economy were not initially successful, thus Maritime factories closed while those in Ontario and Quebec prospered. The traditional staples thesis, advocated by scholars such as S.A. Saunders, looks at the resource endowments of the Maritimes and argues that it was the decline of the traditional industries of shipbuilding and fishing that led to Maritime poverty, since these processes were rooted in geography, and thus all but inevitable. Kris Inwood has revived the staples approach and looks at a number of geographic weaknesses relative to Central Canada. He repeats Acheson's argument that the region lacks major urban centres, but adds that the Maritimes were also lacking the great rivers that led to the cheap and abundant hydro-electric power, key to Quebec and Ontario's urban and manufacturing development, that the extraction costs of Maritime resources were relatively higher (particularly in the case of Cape Breton coal), and that the soils of the region were poorer and thus the agricultural sector weaker. The Maritimes are the only provinces in Canada which entered Confederation in the 19th century and have kept their original colonial boundaries. All three provinces have the smallest land base in the country and have been forced to make do with resources within. By comparison, the former colony of the United Province of Canada (divided into the District of Canada East, and the District of Canada West) and the western provinces were dozens of times larger and in some cases were expanded to take in territory formerly held in British Crown grants to companies such as the Hudson's Bay Company. The economic riches of energy and natural resources held within this larger land base were only realized by other provinces during the 20th century. One comparison made with the wealthier areas of Canada is that of the region's political and/or work culture. Today few academics make such a claim, but it still a common explanation in other circles. Some writers have also alleged that Maritime business people were unwilling to take risks or invest in manufacturing, a thesis Acheson devotes much attention to debunking. In recent years dependency theory has been used to examine the situation of the Maritimes, and while it rejects most traditional economic models it does correspond with the evidence. Politics Maritime conservatism since the Second World War has been very much part of the Red Tory tradition, key influences being former Premier of Nova Scotia and federal Progressive Conservative Party leader Robert Stanfield and New Brunswick Tory strategist Dalton Camp. In recent years, the social democratic New Democratic Party (NDP) has made significant inroads both federally and provincially in the region. The NDP has elected Members of Parliament (MPs) from New Brunswick, but most of the focus of the party at the federal and provincial levels is currently in the Halifax area of Nova Scotia. Industrial Cape Breton has historically been a region of labour activism, electing Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (and later NDP) MPs, and even produced many early members of the Communist Party of Canada in the pre-World War II era. In the 2004 federal election, the NDP captured 28.45% of the vote in Nova Scotia, more than any other province. The Maritimes are generally socially conservative but unlike Alberta, they also have fiscally socialist tendencies. It is because of the lack of support for fiscal conservatism that federal parties such as the Canadian Alliance never had much success in the region, and the level of support for the new Conservative Party of Canada in the region is uncertain. In the 2004 federal election, the Conservatives had one of the worst showings in the region for a right-wing party, going back to Confederation, with the possible exception of the 1993 election. An area within the region where both fiscal and social conservatism do coincide and where the federal Reform Party and Canadian Alliance have met success is in the central-western part of New Brunswick, in the St. John River valley north of Saint John and south of Grand Falls. Contributing demographics include a predominantly Anglophone population residing in a largely rural agrarian setting. One influence might be proximity to the International Boundary and the state of Maine. The valley is also settled by descendants of United Empire Loyalists, some of whom established fundamentalist Christian congregations in the area which continue to influence certain segments of society. There are also a large number of active and retired military personnel located in the Fredericton and Oromocto area as a result of the large military base at CFB Gagetown. Another area in the region with smatterings of coinciding fiscal and social conservatism is the Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia. The Liberal Party of Canada has done well in the Maritimes in the past because of its interventionist policies. The Acadian Peninsula region of New Brunswick, long dependent upon seasonal employment in the Gulf of St. Lawrence fishery, tends to vote for the Liberals or NDP for this reason. In the 1997 federal election, Prime Minister Jean Chrétien's Liberals endured a bitter defeat to the PCs and NDP in many ridings as a result of unpopular cuts to unemployment benefits for seasonal workers, as well as closures of several Canadian Forces Bases, the refusal to honour a promise to rescind the Goods and Services Tax, cutbacks to provincial equalization payments, health care, post-secondary education and regional transportation infrastructure such as airports, fishing harbours, seaports, and railways. The Liberals held onto seats in Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick, while being shut out of Nova Scotia entirely, the second time in history (the only other time being the Diefenbaker sweep). The Maritimes is currently represented in the Canadian Parliament by 25 Members of the House of Commons (Nova Scotia - 11, New Brunswick - 10, Prince Edward Island - 4) and 24 Senators (Nova Scotia and New Brunswick - 10 each, Prince Edward Island - 4). This level of representation was established at the time of Confederation when the Maritimes had a much larger proportion of the national population. The comparatively large population growth of western and central Canada during the immigration boom of the 20th century has reduced the Maritimes' proportion of the national population to less than 10%, resulting in an over-representation in Parliament, with some federal ridings having fewer than 35,000 people, compared to central and western Canada where ridings typically contain 100,000-120,000 people. The Canadian Senate is structured along regional lines, giving an equal number of seats (24) to the Maritimes, Ontario, Quebec, and western Canada, in addition to the later entry of Newfoundland and Labrador, as well as the three territories. Enshrined in the Constitution, this model was developed to ensure that no area of the country is able to exert undue influence in the Senate. The Maritimes, with its much smaller proportion of the national population (compared to the time of Confederation) also have an over-representation in the Senate, particularly compared to the population growth of Ontario and the western provinces. This has led to calls to reform the Senate; however, such a move would entail constitutional changes. Another factor related to the number of Senate seats is that a federal court decision in the early 20th century mandated that no province can have fewer Members of Parliament than it has senators. This court decision resulted from a legal challenge by the Government of Prince Edward Island after that province's number of MPs was proposed to change from 4 to 3, accounting for its declining proportion of the national population at that time. When PEI entered Confederation in 1873, it was accorded 6 MPs and 4 Senators; however this was reduced to 4 MPs by the early twentieth century. Senators having been appointed for life at this time, these coveted seats rarely went unfilled for a long period of time anywhere in Canada. As a result, PEI's challenge was accepted by the federal court and its level of federal representation was secured. In the aftermath of the 1989 budget, which saw a fillibuster by Liberal Senators in attempt to kill legislation creating the Goods and Services Tax, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney "stacked" the Senate by creating additional seats in several provinces across Canada, including New Brunswick; however, there was no attempt by these provinces to increase the number of MPs to reflect this change in Senate representation. See also Atlantic Canada Central Canada List of regions of Canada Maritime Film Classification Board Vegetation of the Maritimes References External links The Maritime Provinces, the Maritime Rights Movement and Canadian Federalism Weather, travel, newspapers and radio links Atlantic Provinces Economic Council Atlantic Institute of Market Studies Genuine Progress Indicator Atlantic Atlantic Provinces Communities: Towns & Cities. Basic Information, Facts, Figures, Pictures Atlantic Canada Portal/Portail du Canada Atlantique Maritime Series - The State of the Regions. 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4,999 | Book_of_Deuteronomy | Deuteronomy (Greek: Deuteronomion, "second law") or Devarim (Hebrew: דְּבָרִים, literally "things" or "words") is the fifth book of the Hebrew Bible and of the Old Testament, and the fifth of five books of the Jewish Torah or Pentateuch. In form it is a set of three sermons delivered by Moses reviewing the previous forty years of wandering in the wilderness; its central element is a detailed law-code by which the Children of Israel are to live in the Promised Land. In theological terms the book constitutes a covenant between Yahweh and the "Children of Israel"; this is the culmination of the series of covenants which begins with that between Yahweh and all living things after the Flood (Genesis 9). One of its most significant verses constitutes the shema ("Hear, O Israel, the LORD is our God, the LORD is one!"), which today serves as the definitive statement of Jewish identity. The majority scholarly opinion is that the bulk of the book was composed in the late 7th century BC, during the religious reforms carried out under king Josiah, with later additions from the period after the fall of Judah to the Neo-Babylonian empire in 586 BC; a minority view holds that the book is largely a creation of the post-Exilic, Persian period, i.e. the 4th century BC and even later. Its essential concerns mirror the thrust of Josiah's reforms: Yahweh is to be accepted as the sole God of Israel, and worshiped only in one place. Title The title is derived from the Greek Deuteronomion (Latin Deuteronomium), "second law", from to deuteronomion touto, "this second law", the erroneous Septuagint rendering of the Hebrew phrase mishneh ha-torah ha-zot, "a copy of this law" (Deuteronomy 17:18). Its Hebrew title is Devarim, , "words", specifically spoken words. morfix online dictionary; in modern Hebrew this meaning is "smichut" (genitive noun construct), e.g. "לפי דבריך" = "according to what you said". , from the opening phrase Eleh ha-devarim, "These are the words...". Summary Deuteronomy presents itself as a series of sermons delivered by Moses to the Israelites in the plains of Moab. (The break-down into three sermons followed here is the normal scholarly view, but some scholars opt for a division into four). First sermon Deuteronomy 1-4 recapitulates Israel's disobedient refusal to enter the Promised Land and the resulting forty years of wandering in the wilderness. The disobedience of Israel is contrasted with the justice of God, who is judge to Israel, punishing them in the wilderness and destroying utterly the generation who disobeyed God's commandment. God's wrath is also shown to the surrounding nations, such as King Sihon of Heshbon, whose people were utterly destroyed. In light of God's justice, Moses urges obedience to divine ordinances and warns the Israelites against the danger of forsaking the God of their ancestors. Second sermon Deuteronomy 5-26 is composed of two distinct addresses. The first, in chapters 5-11, forms a second introduction, expanding on the Ethical Decalogue given at Mount Sinai. The second, in chapters 12-26, is the Deuteronomic Code, a series of mitzvot (commands), forming extensive laws, admonitions, and injunctions to the Israelites regarding how they ought to conduct themselves in Canaan, the land promised by the God of Israel. The laws include: The worship of God must remain pure, uninfluenced by neighbouring cultures and their 'idolatrous' religious practices. The death penalty is prescribed for conversion from Yahwism and for proselytisation. The death penalty is also prescribed for males who are guilty of all of the following: disobeying their parents, profligacy and drunkenness. Certain Dietary principles are enjoined. The law of rape prescribes various conditions and penalties, depending on whether the girl is engaged to be married or not, and whether the rape occurs in town or in the country. (Deuteronomy 22) A Tithe for the Levites and charity for the poor. A regular Jubilee Year during which all debts are cancelled. Slavery can last no more than 6 years if the individual purchased is "thy brother, an Hebrew man, or an Hebrew woman." Yahwistic religious festivals—including Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot—are to be part of Israel's worship The offices of Judge, King, Kohen (temple priest), and Prophet are instituted A ban against Asherah next to altars dedicated to God, and the erection of sacred stones A ban against children either being immolated or passing through fire (the text is ambiguous as to which is meant), divination, sorcery, witchcraft, spellcasting, and necromancy A ban preventing blemished animals from becoming sacrifices at the Temple Naming of three cities of refuge where those accused of manslaughter may flee from the avenger of blood. Exemptions from military service for the newly betrothed, newly married, owners of new houses, planters of new vineyards, and anyone afraid of fighting. The peace terms to be offered to non-Israelites before battle - the terms being that they are to become slaves The Amalekites to be utterly destroyed An order for parents to take a stubborn and rebellious son before the town elders to be stoned. A ban on the destruction of fruit trees, the mothers of newly-born birds, and beasts of burden which have fallen over, or are lost Rules which regulate marriage, and Levirate Marriage, and allow divorce. Purity laws which prohibit the mixing of fabrics, of crops, of beasts of burden under the same yoke, and transvestitism. The use of Tzitzit (tassels on garments) Prohibition against people from Ammon, Moab, or who are of illegitimate birth, and their descendants for ten generations, from entering the assembly; the same restriction upon those who are castrated (but not their descendants) Regulations for ritual cleanliness, general hygiene, and the treatment of Tzaraath A ban on religious prostitution Regulations for slavery, servitude, vows, debt, usury, and permissible objects for securing loans Prohibition against wives making a groin attack on their husband's adversary. Third sermon The concluding discourse sets out sanctions against breaking the law, blessings to the obedient, and curses on the rebellious. The Israelites are solemnly adjured to adhere faithfully to the covenant, and so secure for themselves, and for their posterity, the promised blessings. Death of Moses Moses conditionally renews the covenant between God and the Israelites, the condition being the loyalty of the people, and appoints Joshua as his heir to lead the people into Canaan. Then he writes down the "instruction" (not necessarily the five books of the Torah) and gives it to the Kohanim, along with the commandment for the king of Israel to read it before an assembly of all Jewish men, women, and children every seven years, during the holiday of Sukkot (this is the mitzvah of Hakhel). Three short appendices follow: The Song of Moses, which the text states was created by Moses upon the request of God; () The Blessing of Moses upon the individual tribes of Israel; The death of Moses. () Structure and composition Structure Chapters 12-26 form the Deuteronomic legal code making up the core of the book. This Deuteronomic Code reinterprets the Covenant Code at Exodus 21-23 to give it a more humane cast, such as the different treatment of slaves. Chapters 4:44-11 make up the original introduction, framing the laws as a body of commandments received by Moses on Sinai but not revealed to the Israelites until this day, the eve of their entry into the promised land, and chapters 27-28 conclude the original book with a series of blessings and curses relating to the keeping of the law. This original book was later expanded by the addition of chapters 1-4:43 as a new introduction and 29-34 as a new conclusion. The purpose of 1-4:44 and 29-31 was to magnify Joshua's role as Moses' successor, and thus tie Deuteronomy to the book of Joshua. Chapter 32 added blessings for the tribes of Israel, and chapter 33 added a prophesy from Yahweh that Israel's enemies would one day take them into captivity and exile in punishment for future unfaithfulness, but would at the end restore them to the land. Chapter 34 reports the death of Moses. Ronald L. Troxel, Ph.D., "Deuteronomy and the Torah" (a lecture delivered to students at the University of Wisconsin) Composition During the nineteenth century, secular biblical scholarship abandoned the traditional view that the Torah, and therefore Deuteronomy, was composed by Moses in the second millennium BC. Deuteronomy instead came to be seen as the document whose discovery is described in 2 Kings 22:8-20: 2 Kings 22 the High Priest Hilkiah finds an ancient lost scroll in the Temple and takes it to king Josiah; what Josiah reads there causes him to embark on a program of religious reform, suppressing the worship of all other gods but YHWH and centralising the worship of YHWH in the Temple. Richard Elliott Friedman, Who Wrote the Bible? The Deuteronomist author or authors also produced a history of Israel from Joshua to Josiah, consisting of the books of Joshua, Judges, the Books of Samuel, and the Books of Kings. In this history Josiah figured as the greatest of all the kings, the only one who never wavered from the law given by Moses, and the one who would restore the ancient kingdom of David and Solomon. But in 609 BC Josiah was killed at Megiddo by the Egyptians, and in 586 BC the Babylonians conquered Jerusalem and took its people into captivity. Consequently, at some point after 586, a second edition known as "Dtr2" was produced, containing additional warnings about faithlessness and exile, as well as promises of restoration in the event of repentance. This second edition inserted two originally independent documents, and framings for them, which now comprise the two poems at Deuteronomy 31-33, and the account of Moses' death was moved to where it lies now, Deuteronomy 34. In the final redaction of the Torah, c.450 BC, Deuteronomy 34 gained additional verses describing the death of Moses from two other originally independent documents, the Jahwist and the Priestly source. Deuteronomistic History overview. More recently, Meredith G. Kline has proposed that Deuteronomy should be viewed as a suzerain/vassal treaty between God and the people of Israel. According to Kline, a conservative scholar who wished to restore the case for the book's Mosaic provenance, these treaties were based on Hittite treaties of the second millennium BC. Moshe Weinfeld subsequently argued that Deuteronomy’s extensive list of curses (28:23-35) fits better the style of seventh century BC Assyrian treaties. "Deuteronomy adapts the literary form and the vocabulary of a treaty but places the deity YHWH, the God of Judah, in the place of the Assyrian king. ... The writer(s) are therefore deliberately taking an instrument of Assyrian subjugation, the client treaty, and using it as a mechanism to bolster Judean commitment to their national deity and to reinforce national identity". Weinfeld's position is the more commonly accepted. Peter Bedford, "Empires and Exploitation: The Neo-Assyrian Empire, p.23 Themes YHWH and Israel Polytheism was a feature of Israelite religion down through the end of the Iron Age. Mark S. Smith, "The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts", (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), at Bible and Interpretation "[T]here is no clear and unambiguous denial [in the Hebrew bible] of the existence of gods other than YHWH before Deutero-Isaiah in the 6th century B.C. ... The question was not whether there is only one elohim [god], but whether there is any elohim like YHWH." John McKenzie, "Aspects of Old Testament Thought" in Raymond E. Brown, Joseph A. Fitzmyer, and Roland E. Murphy, eds., The New Jerome Biblical Commentary (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1990), 1287, S.v. 77:17. . The theological position underpinning Deuteronomy is that Yhwh is the patron god of Israel, as Chemosh was the patron of Moab and Marduk of Babylon: "When the Most High ("El Elyon") apportioned the nations, when he divided humankind, he fixed the boundaries of the peoples according to the number of the gods, the Lord's ("YHWH's") own portion was his people, Jacob his allotted share" (Deuteronomy 32:8-9) Deuteronomy 32 The concept of the covenant also plays a central role in the theology of Deuteronomy. Israel is YHWH's vassal, and Israel's tenancy of the land is conditional on keeping the covenant, which in turn necessitates tempered rule by state and village leaders who keep the covenant. "These beliefs, dubbed biblical Yahwism, are widely recognized in biblical scholarship as enshrined in Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomistic History (Joshua through Kings), with pronounced affinities to the Pentateuchal E source and to the prophets Hosea, Jeremiah, and Malachi." Norman K. Gottwald, review of Stephen L. Cook, The Social Roots of Biblical Yahwism, Society of Biblical Literature, 2004 Deuteronomy, unlike the Priestly source which makes up most of Leviticus and Numbers, does not promote the supremacy of the Aarond priesthood (i.e., the clan of priests claiming descent from Aaron who at various times monopolised the High Priesthood in Jerusalem): for Deuteronomy, all Levites have priestly functions. It does, however, promote the centralisation of worship. Deuteronomy in later tradition Judaism: the shema (שמע) Deuteronomy 6:4-5: "Hear (shema), O Israel, the Lord (YHWH) is our God, the Lord (YHWH) alone!" has become the basic credo of Judaism, and its twice-daily recitation is a mitzvah (religious commandment). The shema goes on: "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart and all thy soul and all thy might;" it has therefore also become identified with the central Jewish concept of the love of God, and the rewards that come with this. Christianity The earliest Christian authors interpreted the prophetic elements of the book of Deuteronomy dealing with the eschatological restoration of Israel as having been fulfilled in Jesus Christ and the establishment of the Christian church, composed of both Jews and Gentiles (Luke 1-2, Acts 2-5). Jesus himself was the "one (i.e., prophet) like me" predicted by Moses in Deuteronomy 18:15 (Acts 3:22-23), and St. Paul, drawing on Deuteronomy 30:11-14, explains that the keeping of torah, which constituted Israel's righteousness under the Mosaic covenant, is redefined around faith in Jesus and the gospel (the New Covenant) J. G. McConville, "Deuteronomy", in Dictionary of the Old Testament: The Pentateuch (IVP, 2002); and "Deuteronomy 30:11-14 As a Prophecy of the New Covenant in Christ," Steven R. Coxhead, Westminster Theological Journal 68 (2006). : See also Biblical criticism Documentary hypothesis Mosaic authorship Deuteronomic Code Tanakh Weekly Torah portions in Deuteronomy: Devarim, Va'etchanan, Eikev, Re'eh, Shoftim, Ki Teitzei, Ki Tavo, Nitzavim, Vayelech, Haazinu, V'Zot HaBerachah. References External links Book of Deuteronomy article (Jewish Encyclopedia) Teacher's Guide to Teaching Deuteronomy Deuteronomy by Rob Bradshaw "Deuteronomy 30:11-14 As a Prophecy of the New Covenant in Christ," Steven R. Coxhead, Westminster Theological Journal 68 (2006) "Deuteronomy 32:8 and the Sons of God", Michael S. Heiser, Bibliotheca Sacra 158 (January-March 2001) Versions and translations Jewish translations: Deuteronomy at Mechon-Mamre (modified Jewish Publication Society translation) Deuteronomy (The Living Torah) Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan's translation and commentary at Ort.org Devarim - Deuteronomy (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org דְּבָרִים Devarim - Deuteronomy (Hebrew - English at Mechon-Mamre.org) Christian translations: Online Bible at GospelHall.org (King James Version) Deuteronomy - Chapter Indexed (King James Version) oremus Bible Browser (New Revised Standard Version) oremus Bible Browser (Anglicized New Revised Standard Version) Deuteronomy at Wikisource (Authorized King James Version) | Book_of_Deuteronomy |@lemmatized deuteronomy:42 greek:2 deuteronomion:3 second:10 law:13 devarim:6 hebrew:9 ד:2 ב:2 ר:2 ים:2 literally:1 thing:2 word:4 fifth:2 book:16 bible:7 old:3 testament:3 five:2 jewish:7 torah:9 pentateuch:2 form:4 set:2 three:4 sermon:6 deliver:3 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