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Akira_Kurosawa
was a Japanese film director, producer, screenwriter and editor. In a career that spanned 50 years, Kurosawa directed 30 films. He is widely regarded as one of the most important and influential filmmakers of his generation. His many awards include the Légion d'honneur and an Academy Award for Lifetime Achievement. Life Akira Kurosawa was born to Isamu and Shima Kurosawa on 23 March 1910. He was the youngest of eight children born to the Kurosawas in a suburb of Tokyo. Shima Kurosawa was forty years old at the time of Akira's birth and his father Isamu was forty-five. Akira Kurosawa grew up in a household with three older brothers and four older sisters. Of his three older brothers, one died before Akira was born and one was already grown and out of the household. One of his four older sisters had also left the home to begin her own family before Kurosawa was born. Kurosawa's next-oldest sibling, a sister he called "Little Big Sister," also died suddenly after a short illness when he was ten years old. Kurosawa's father worked as the director of a junior high school operated by the Japanese military and the Kurosawas descended from a line of former samurai. Financially, the family was above average. Isamu Kurosawa embraced western culture both in the athletic programs that he directed and by taking the family to see films, which were then just beginning to appear in Japanese theaters. Later, when Japanese culture turned away from western films, Isamu Kurosawa continued to believe that films were a positive educational experience. In primary school, Kurosawa was encouraged to draw by a teacher who took an interest in mentoring his talents. His two older brothers, Heigo and Tachikawa had a profound impact on him. Heigo was very intelligent and won several academic competitions, but also had what was later called a cynical or dark side. In 1923, the Great Kantō earthquake destroyed Tokyo and left 100,000 people dead. In the wake of this event, Heigo, 17, and Akira, 13, made a walking tour of the devastation. Corpses of humans and animals were piled everywhere. When Akira would attempt to turn his head away, Heigo urged him not to. According to Akira, this experience would later instruct him that to look at a frightening thing head-on is to defeat its ability to cause fear. Heigo eventually began a career as a benshi in Tokyo film theaters. Benshi narrated silent films for the audience and were a uniquely Japanese addition to the theater experience. In the transition to talking pictures, later in Japan than elsewhere, benshi lost work all over the country. Heigo organized a benshi strike that failed. Akira was likewise involved in labor-management struggles, writing several articles for a radical newspaper while improving and expanding his skills as a painter and reading literature. When Akira Kurosawa was in his early 20s, his older brother Heigo committed suicide. Four months later, the oldest of Kurosawa's brothers also died, leaving Akira as the only surviving son of an original four at age 23. Kurosawa's wife was actress Yoko Yaguchi. He had two children with her: a son named Hisao and a daughter named Kazuko. Early career Rashomon poster In 1936, Kurosawa learned of an apprenticeship program for directors through a major film studio, PCL (later Toho). He was hired and worked as an assistant director to Kajiro Yamamoto. After his directorial debut with Sanshiro Sugata (1943), his next few films were made under the watchful eye of the wartime Japanese government and sometimes contained nationalistic themes. For instance, The Most Beautiful (1944) is a propaganda film about Japanese women working in a military optics factory. Judo Saga 2 (1945) portrays Japanese judo as superior to western (American) boxing. His first post-war film No Regrets for Our Youth (1946), by contrast, is critical of the old Japanese regime and is about the wife of a left-wing dissident who is arrested for his political leanings. Kurosawa made several more films dealing with contemporary Japan, most notably Drunken Angel (1948) and Stray Dog (1949). However, it was the period film Rashomon (1950) which led to him being known internationally and won him the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival. Directorial approach Kurosawa had a distinctive cinematic technique, which he had developed by the 1950s, and which gave his films a unique look. He liked using telephoto lenses for the way they flattened the frame and also because he believed that placing cameras farther away from his actors produced better performances. He also liked using multiple cameras, which allowed him to shoot an action scene from different angles. Another Kurosawa trademark was the use of weather elements to heighten mood: for example the heavy rain in the opening scene of Rashomon, and the final battle in Seven Samurai (1954), the intense heat in Stray Dog, the cold wind in Yojimbo (1961), the snow in Ikiru (1952), and the fog in Throne of Blood (1957). Kurosawa also liked using frame wipes, sometimes cleverly hidden by motion within the frame, as a transition device. He was known as "Tenno", literally "Emperor", for his dictatorial directing style. He was a perfectionist who spent enormous amounts of time and effort to achieve the desired visual effects. In Rashomon, he dyed the rain water black with calligraphy ink in order to achieve the effect of heavy rain, and ended up using up the entire local water supply in creating the rainstorm. In the final scene of Throne of Blood, in which Mifune is shot by arrows, Kurosawa used real arrows shot by expert archers from a short range, landing within centimetres of Mifune's body. In Ran (1985), an entire castle set was constructed on the slopes of Mt. Fuji only to be burned to the ground in a climactic scene. Other stories include demanding a stream be made to run in the opposite direction in order to get a better visual effect, and having the roof of a house removed, later to be replaced, because he felt the roof's presence to be unattractive in a short sequence filmed from a train. His perfectionism also showed in his approach to costumes: he felt that giving an actor a brand new costume made the character look less than authentic. To resolve this, he often gave his cast their costumes weeks before shooting was to begin and required them to wear them on a daily basis and "bond with them." In some cases, such as with Seven Samurai, where most of the cast portrayed poor farmers, the actors were told to make sure the costumes were worn down and tattered by the time shooting started. Kurosawa was a notoriously lavish gourmet, and spent huge quantities of money on film sets providing an incredibly large quantity of fine delicacies, especially meat, for the cast and crew, although the meat was sometimes left over from recording sound effects of the sound of blades cutting flesh in the many swordfight scenes. Kurosawa did not believe that "finished" music went well with film. When choosing a musical piece to accompany his scenes, he usually had it stripped down to one element (e.g., trumpets only). Only towards the end of his films are more finished pieces heard. Unusual among directors, Kurosawa edited his films during production. After each day's shooting he would go to the cutting room and cut the dailies. Influences A notable feature of Kurosawa's films is the breadth of his artistic influences. Some of his plots are based on William Shakespeare's works: Ran is loosely based on King Lear, Throne of Blood is based on Macbeth, while The Bad Sleep Well (1960) parallels Hamlet, but is not affirmed to be based on it. Kurosawa also directed film adaptations of Russian literary works, including The Idiot by Dostoevsky (his favorite author) and The Lower Depths (1957), from the play by Maxim Gorky. Ikiru was inspired by Leo Tolstoy's The Death of Ivan Ilyich. Dersu Uzala (1975) was based on the 1923 memoir of the same title by Russian explorer Vladimir Arsenyev. Story lines in Red Beard (1965) can be found in The Insulted and Humiliated by Dostoevsky. High and Low (1963) was based on King's Ransom by American crime writer Ed McBain. Yojimbo may have been based on Dashiell Hammett's Red Harvest and also borrows from American Westerns. Kurosawa was very fond of Georges Simenon and Stray Dog was a product of Kurosawa's desire to make a film in Simenon's manner. Cinematic influences include Frank Capra, William Wyler, Howard Hawks, his mentor Kajiro Yamamoto, and his favorite director John Ford, whose habit of wearing dark glasses Kurosawa emulated. When Kurosawa met Ford, the American simply said, "You really like rain." Kurosawa responded, "You've really been paying attention to my films." He would later instruct Yoshio Tsuchiya, one of the actors in Seven Samurai, to retrieve the same hat Ford wore during that meeting. Despite criticism by some Japanese critics that Kurosawa was "too Western," he was deeply influenced by Japanese culture as well, such as the Noh theaters and the Jidaigeki (period drama) genre of Japanese cinema. Influence Seven Samurai was remade as The Magnificent Seven (1960) and Rashomon was remade by Martin Ritt in 1964's The Outrage. Yojimbo was unofficially remade as the Sergio Leone western A Fistful of Dollars (1964) (resulting in a successful lawsuit by Kurosawa) and was remade as the prohibition-era film Last Man Standing (1996). Sanjuro was also remade in 2007 as Tsubaki Sanjuro, directed by Yoshimitsu Morita. The Hidden Fortress (1957) was remade as The Three Villains of the Hidden Fortress: The Last Princess (2008) and is an acknowledged influence on George Lucas's Star Wars films (Lucas was originally going to remake The Hidden Fortress), in particular Episodes IV and VI and most notably in the characters of R2-D2 and C-3PO.<ref>Introduction to Criterion Collection DVD release of The Hidden Fortress.</ref> Lucas also used a modified version of Kurosawa's signature wipe transition throughout the Star Wars saga. Remakes for Ikiru , High and Low and Seven Samurai are in progress. A second remake of Rashomon is also on the way. The following directors either were directly influenced by Kurosawa, or greatly admired his work: Andrei Tarkovsky Ingmar Bergman - "Now I want to make it plain that The Virgin Spring must be regarded as an aberration. It's touristic, a lousy imitation of Kurosawa." Federico Fellini - Having only seen Seven Samurai from Kurosawa's oeuvre, he still thought Kurosawa was the "the greatest living example of what an author of the cinema should be." Bernardo Bertolucci - "Kurosawa's movies and La Dolce Vita, Fellini are the things that pushed me sucked into being a film director." Robert Altman Sidney Lumet - "Kurosawa never affected me directly in terms of my own movie-making because I never would have presumed that I was capable of that perception and that vision." Introduction to Criterion Collection DVD release of Ran Sam Peckinpah - "I'd like to be able to make a Western like Kurosawa makes Westerns." Roman Polanski Steven Spielberg Martin Scorsese George Lucas Francis Ford Coppola - "One thing that distinguishes Akira Kurosawa is that he didn't make a masterpiece or two masterpieces, he made, you know, eight masterpieces." Zhang Yimou - "Other filmmakers have more money, more advanced techniques, more special effects. Yet no one has surpassed him." John Milius Takeshi Kitano - "...the ideal definition of cinema: a succession of perfect images. And Kurosawa is the only director who has attained that." John Woo - "I love Kurosawa’s movies, and I got so much inspiration from him. He is one of my idols and one of the great masters" Werner Herzog - "Of the filmmakers with whom I feel some kinship Griffith, Murnau, Pudovkin, Buñuel and Kurosawa come to mind. Everything these men did has the touch of greatness." Antoine Fuqua Alex Cox Spike Lee Sergio Leone Ramesh Sippy Rajkumar Santoshi Aamir Khan Collaboration During his most productive period, from the late 40s to the mid-60s, Kurosawa often worked with the same group of collaborators. Fumio Hayasaka composed music for seven of his films — notably Rashomon, Ikiru and Seven Samurai. When Hayasaka died, he collaborated with composer Masaru Satō, who scored most of his later films. Kurosawa worked with the same five scriptwriters during his career: Eijiro Hisaita, Ryuzo Kikushima, Shinobu Hashimoto, Hideo Oguni, and Masato Ide. Yoshiro Muraki was Kurosawa's production designer or art director for most of his films after Stray Dog in 1949, and Asakazu Nakai was his cinematographer on 11 films including Ikiru, Seven Samurai and Ran. Kurosawa also liked working with the same group of actors, especially Takashi Shimura, Tatsuya Nakadai, and Toshirō Mifune. His collaboration with the latter, which began with 1948's Drunken Angel and ended with 1965's Red Beard, is one of the most famous director-actor collaborations in cinema history. Later films The film Red Beard marked a turning point in Kurosawa's career in more ways than one. In addition to being his last film with Mifune, it was his last in black-and-white. It was also his last as a major director within the Japanese studio system making roughly a film a year. Kurosawa was signed to direct a Hollywood project, Tora! Tora! Tora! (1970); but 20th Century Fox replaced him with Toshio Masuda and Kinji Fukasaku before it was completed. It is not known whether Kurosawa quit the project or was fired. His next few films were to be significantly more difficult to finance and were made at intervals of five years. The first, Dodesukaden (1970), about a group of poor people living around a rubbish dump, was not a commercial or financial success. After an attempted suicide, Kurosawa went on to make several more films, although he had great difficulty in obtaining domestic financing despite his international reputation. Dersu Uzala, made in the Soviet Union and set in Siberia in the early 20th century, was the only Kurosawa film made outside of Japan and not in the Japanese language. It is about the friendship of a Russian explorer and a nomadic hunter, and won the Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film. Kagemusha (1980), financed with the help of the director's most famous admirers, George Lucas and Francis Ford Coppola, is the story of a man who is the body double of a medieval Japanese lord and takes over his identity after the lord's death. The film was awarded the Palme d'Or (Golden Palm) at the 1980 Cannes Film Festival (shared with Bob Fosse's All That Jazz). Ran was the director's version of Shakespeare's King Lear, set in medieval Japan (and the only film of Kurosawa's career that he received a "Best Director" Academy Award nomination for). It was by far the largest project of Kurosawa's late career, and he spent a decade planning it and trying to obtain funding, which he was finally able to do with the help of the French producer Serge Silberman. The film was an international success and is generally considered Kurosawa's last masterpiece. In an interview, Kurosawa said that he considered it to be the best film he ever made. Kurosawa made three more films during the 1990s which were more personal than his earlier works. Dreams (1990) is a series of vignettes based on his own dreams. Rhapsody in August (1991) is about memories of the Nagasaki atomic bomb and his final film, Madadayo (1993), is about a retired teacher and his former students. Kurosawa died of a stroke in Setagaya, Tokyo, at age 88. After the Rain is a 1998 posthumous film directed by Kurosawa's closest collaborator, Takashi Koizumi, co-produced by Kurosawa Production (Hisao Kurosawa) and starring Tatsuya Nakadai and Shiro Mifune, son of Toshirō Mifune. The film's screenplay was written by Kurosawa. The story is based on a short novel by Shugoro Yamamoto, Ame Agaru. To coincide with the 100th anniversary of Kurosawa's birth, his unfinished documentary Gendai no Noh will be completed and released in 2010. While filming his masterpiece Ran in 1983, Kurosawa experienced a number of problems during production, including financial troubles, and temporarily postponed filming to work on a non-fiction project. The documentary was to be about classic Japanese Noh theater, whose style had a substantial influence on Ran, as well as Throne of Blood and Kagemusha. Only about 50 minutes of footage exist, but to finish the film, an additional hour will be shot using Kurosawa's original screenplay. Legacy The Akira Kurosawa Foundation was established in December 2003. In commemoration of the 100th anniversary of Kurosawa's birth, the AK100 Project was created. The AK100 Project aims to "expose young people who are the representatives of the next generation, and all people everywhere, to the light and spirit of Akira Kurosawa and the wonderful world he created." To mark the 99th anniversary of the birth of Akira Kurosawa, Anaheim University launched the Anaheim University Akira Kurosawa School of Film at the Beverly Hills Hotel on March 23, 2009, which would have been Kurosawa's 99th birthday. Kurosawa's son, Hisao Kurosawa, attended as Guest of Honor and a special memorial tribute video was played at the event featuring video presentations from Steven Spielberg, George Lucas, Martin Scorsese, Kurosawa's Assistant Director Teruo Nogami and "Dreams" Producer/Nephew of Akira Kurosawa, Mike Inoue. Two awards have been named in Kurosawa's honor, the Akira Kurosawa Award for Lifetime Achievement in Film Directing, awarded during the San Francisco International Film Festival, and the Akira Kurosawa Award, awarded during the Tokyo International Film Festival. Filmography Year Title Japanese Romanization 1943 Sanshiro Sugata aka Judo Saga Sugata Sanshirō 1944 The Most Beautiful Ichiban utsukushiku 1945 Sanshiro Sugata Part II aka Judo Saga 2 Zoku Sugata Sanshirô The Men Who Tread on the Tiger's Tail Tora no o wo fumu otokotachi 1946 No Regrets for Our Youth Waga seishun ni kuinashi 1947 One Wonderful Sunday Subarashiki nichiyōbi 1948 Drunken Angel Yoidore tenshi 1949 The Quiet Duel Shizukanaru ketto Stray Dog Nora inu 1950 Scandal Sukyandaru aka Shūbun Rashomon Rashōmon 1951 The Idiot Hakuchi 1952 Ikiru aka To Live Ikiru 1954 Seven Samurai Shichinin no samurai 1955 I Live in Fear aka Record of a Living Being Ikimono no kiroku 1957 Throne of Blood aka Spider Web Castle Kumonosu-jō The Lower Depths Donzoko 1958 The Hidden Fortress Kakushi toride no san akunin 1960 The Bad Sleep Well Warui yatsu hodo yoku nemuru 1961 Yojimbo aka The Bodyguard Yōjinbō 1962 Sanjuro Tsubaki Sanjūrō 1963 High and Low aka Heaven and Hell Tengoku to jigoku 1965 Red Beard Akahige 1970 Dodesukaden Dodesukaden 1975 Dersu Uzala Derusu Uzāra 1980 Kagemusha aka The Shadow Warrior Kagemusha 1985 Ran Ran 1990 Dreams aka Akira Kurosawa's Dreams Yume 1991 Rhapsody in August Hachigatsu no rapusodī aka Hachigatsu no kyōshikyoku 1993 Madadayo aka Not Yet Mādadayo See also Akira Kurosawa Memorial Short Film Competition Cinema of Japan Samurai cinema References Further reading Goodwin, James (1993). Akira Kurosawa and Intertextual Cinema. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-801-84661-7 Cardullo, Bert (2007). Akira Kurosawa: Interviews (Conversations with Filmmakers). University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 1-578-06997-1 Yoshimoto, Mitsuhiro (2000). Kurosawa: Film Studies and Japanese Cinema. Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-2519-5 Goodwin, James (1994). Perspectives on Akira Kurosawa. G.K. Hall & Co.. ISBN 0-816-11993-7 Martinez, Dolores (2009). Remaking Kurosawa: Translations and Permutations in Global Cinema. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0312293585 Nogami, Teruyo (2006). Waiting on the Weather: Making Movies With Akira Kurosawa. Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 1-933-33009-0 Prince, Stephen (1999). The Warrior's Camera''. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01046-3 External links Akira Kurosawa News and Information Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database Great Performances: Kurosawa (PBS) Pacific Film Archive Akira Kurosawa Foundation Akira Kurosawa Digital Archive Akira Kurosawa at Japanese celebrity's grave guide be-x-old:Акіра Курасава
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Chariots of Fire is a British film released in 1981. Written by Colin Welland and directed by Hugh Hudson, it is based on the true story of British athletes preparing for and competing in the 1924 Summer Olympics. The film was nominated for seven Academy Awards and won four, including Best Picture. The title is a reference to the line, "Bring me my chariot of fire," from the William Blake poem adapted into the hymn Jerusalem. The Blake poem was influenced by several Bible verses, most notably 2nd Kings 2:11 regarding Elijah being taken to heaven in a chariot of fire. The film's working title was "Running" until Welland saw the scene with the singing of the hymn and decided to change the title. Synopsis The movie is based on the true story of two British athletes competing in the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris. Englishman Harold Abrahams (Ben Cross), who is Jewish, overcomes anti-Semitism and class prejudice in order to compete against the "Flying Scotsman", Eric Liddell (Ian Charleson), in the 100 metre race. In 1919, Abrahams enters Cambridge University. He attempts and succeeds at the Trinity Great Court run, which involves running around the court before the clock finishes striking 12. Meanwhile, Liddell sees running as a way of glorifying God before traveling to China to work as a missionary. He represents Scotland against Ireland, and preaches a sermon on "Life as a race" afterwards. At their first meeting, Liddell shakes Abrahams' hand to wish him well, then beats him in a race. Abrahams takes it badly, but Sam Mussabini (Ian Holm), a professional trainer who he had approached earlier, offers to take him on to improve his technique. However, this attracts criticism from the college masters because they are not sympathetic to a Jewish student representing the college. They allege it is ungentlemanly and unsportsmanlike for an amateur athlete seeking to compete in the Olympics to employ a professional coach, but Abrahams, knowing that is cover for their anti-Semitism, dismisses their concern. Eric's sister Jennie (Cheryl Campbell) worries he is too busy running to concern himself with their mission, but Eric tells her he feels inspired: "I believe that God made me for a purpose... (the mission), but He also made me fast, and when I run, I feel His pleasure." Despite pressure from the Prince of Wales and the British Olympic committee, Liddell refuses to run a heat of the 100 metres at the Olympics because his Christian convictions prevent him from running on Sunday. To remedy the sensitive issue, his teammate Lord Andrew Lindsey (Nigel Havers), having won silver in a previous race, proposes to yield his place in the 400 metre race to Liddell. The 400 metres would be run on the following Tuesday, thus averting Liddell's need to run on Sunday. Liddell at church on Sunday is seen quoting Isaiah 40, verse 31: 'But they that wait upon the shall renew their strength; they shall mount up with wings as eagles; they shall run, and be not weary; and they shall walk, and not faint.' Historical accuracy The Great Court, Trinity College, Cambridge; represented by Eton College in the film The film depicts Abrahams as attending Caius College, Cambridge, with two other Olympic athletes, Aubrey Montague and Lord Andrew Lindsay. Montague did in fact compete in the Olympics, although little is known about him. The main source of information about Montague was a series of letters he wrote to his parents about his time at Cambridge and the Olympics; these letters were the basis of Montague's narration in the film. The character of Lindsay was loosely based on Lord Burghley, a significant figure in the history of British athletics. Although Burghley did attend Cambridge, he was not a contemporary of Harold Abrahams, as Abrahams was an undergraduate from 1919 to 1923 and Burghley was at Cambridge from 1923 to 1927. Burghley was still living at the time of the film, and it was a notable historical inaccuracy in the script which reportedly led him to refuse permission for his name to be used in the film. One scene in the film recreates a race in which the runners attempt to run round the perimeter of the Great Court at Trinity College, Cambridge in the time it takes the clock to strike 12 at midday. The film shows Abrahams performing the feat for the first time in history. In fact, at the time of filming the only person known to have succeeded was Lord Burghley in 1927 (the feat has since been accomplished by Trinity undergraduate Sam Dobin, in October 2007). [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-490027/Modern-day-hero-runs-away-Chariots-Fire-challenge.html Daily Mail 27 October 2007) Regarding the idea that using professional trainers was improper or illegal is contradicted by the fact that Sam Mussabini trained many other British athletes, both in 1924 and in previous Olympics, dating back to 1908, (see Sam Mussabini), and also that using professional trainers was a common practice in ancient Olympics. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Olympics/amat.html The film also takes liberties with the events at the 1924 Olympics itself, most notably the events surrounding Liddell's refusal to race on a Sunday. In the film, he only learns on boarding the boat to Paris that one of the heats is to be held on the Sabbath. In fact, the schedule was made public several months in advance, and Liddell spent the remaining months training for the 400 metres, an event in which he had previously excelled. The film depicts Lindsay, having already won a medal in the 400 metre hurdles, giving up his place in the 400 metres for Liddell. In fact Burghley was eliminated in the heats of the 110 hurdles (he would go on to win a gold medal in the 1928 Olympics), and Lindsay's deference to Liddell in the 400 was entirely fabricated. The film does not mention some of the additional events involving the protagonists at these Olympics. After winning the 100 metres, Abrahams also reached the final of the 200 metres but finished last. This is hinted at in the film during the athletic montage which accompanies Liddell's Sunday sermon in Paris, with Mussabini scolding Abrahams ("Juvenile!") for rocking backward at the start; and, during the scene where Abrahams speaks with his friend Montague ("You are my most complete man") while receiving a massage from Mussabini, there is a French newspaper clipping showing Scholz and Paddock with a headline which, when translated, states that the 200 metres was a triumph for the United States. In the same conversation, Abrahams laments getting "beaten out of sight" in the 200. Eric Liddell also ran in the 200m and finished third (behind Paddock and gold medal winner Jackson Scholz). (This was the only time that Liddell and Abrahams competed in the same race. Their meeting in the 1923 AAA Championship in the film was fictitious, though Liddell's win spurred Abrahams to train even harder. ) As an opening runner for the 4 x 100 metres relay team, Abrahams won a silver medal (see article on 1924 Olympics.) Other historical omissions and inaccuracies include: In the film, the 100m bronze medallist is a fictional character called "Tom Watson"; the real medallist was Arthur Porritt of New Zealand, who refused permission for his name to be used in the film, allegedly out of modesty. His wish was accepted by the film's producers, even though his permission was not necessary. In the film, Liddell is tripped up by a Frenchman in the 400 metre event of a Scotland–France international athletic meeting. He recovers, makes up a 20 metre deficit, and wins. This was based on fact, though his achievement was in fact even greater, as he had already won the 100- and 220-yard events that day. . Also unmentioned with regard to Liddell is the fact that it was he who introduced Abrahams to Sam Mussabini. Elements of historical costume are also inaccurate: for instance during training, the American athletes wear shirts with anachronistic 50-star US flags – it would not be until 1959 that Alaska and Hawaii would be granted statehood, raising the number of states from 48 to 50. Finally, the Canadian flag shown on the chest of David "Don" Johnson during the 400m final did not become the Canadian flag until 1964. Production details Filming locations The famous beach running scene The famous beach scenes associated with the theme tune were filmed at West Sands, St. Andrews (the last scene of the opening titles crosses the 1st and 18th holes at St. Andrews Golf Course); a plaque commemorating the filming can be found there today. The scene at Trinity College, Cambridge was actually filmed at Eton College. Liverpool Town Hall was the setting for the scenes depicting the British Embassy in Paris. The Colombes Olympic Stadium was represented by The Oval Sports Centre, Bebington, Merseyside. The nearby Woodside ferry terminal was used to represent the scenes set in Dover. Other scenes were filmed at Birchington, Kent. A scene depicting a performance of The Mikado was filmed in the Savoy Theatre with members of the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company, which led to a small inaccuracy – the costumes worn by the performers were designed several years after the historical events depicted in the film. Music Although the film is a period piece, set in the 1920s, the Academy Award-winning original soundtrack composed by Vangelis uses a modern, 1980s electronic sound with a strong use of synthesizer and piano among other instruments. This was a bold and significant departure from earlier period films which employed sweeping orchestral instrumentals. The title theme of the film has become iconic and has been used in subsequent films and television shows during slow-motion. The film also incorporates a traditional work: a British choir singing "Jerusalem" at the 1978 funeral of Harold Abrahams, the event which 'bookends' the film and which inspired its title. Gilbert and Sullivan also features heavily. Cast Starring Ben Cross - Harold Abrahams Ian Charleson - Eric Liddell Nicholas Farrell - Aubrey Montague Nigel Havers - Lord Andrew Lindsay Cheryl Campbell - Jennie Liddell Alice Krige - Sybil Gordon, Abrahams's wife (her actual name was Sybil Evers) Supporting Cast Lindsay Anderson - The Master of Caius (Hugh Kerr Anderson) Dennis Christopher - American sprinter Charlie Paddock Nigel Davenport - Lord Birkenhead Brad Davis - American sprinter Jackson Scholz Peter Egan - The Duke of Sutherland Sir John Gielgud - The Master of Trinity (J. J. Thomson) Sir Ian Holm - Sam Mussabini, Abrahams's coach Patrick Magee - Lord Cadogan Daniel Gerroll - Henry Stallard Struan Rodger - Sandy McGrath David Yelland - The Prince of Wales Yves Beneyton - George Andre Jeremy Sinden - President of the Gilbert & Sullivan Society Gordon Hammersley - President of the Cambridge Athletic Club Andrew Hawkins - Secretary of the Gilbert & Sullivan Society Richard Griffiths - Head Porter of Caius John Young - The Reverend J. D. Liddell Benny Young - Rob Liddell Yvonne Gilan - Mrs Liddell Jack Smethurst - Sleeping car attendant Gerry Slevin - Colonel John Keddie Peter Cellier - Head waiter at the Savoy Stephen Mallatratt - Watson, based on Arthur Porritt Ruby Wax - American in audience, called "Bunty" in the credits. In early scripts, she was a sort of girlfriend for Eric while he was in Paris. Ratings The film is rated PG in the UK for thematic elements. In the US, to avoid the initial child's G rating which might have hindered sales, Puttnam dubbed in an obscenity in order to be awarded a PG rating. Puttnam interviewed in BBC Radio obituary of Jack Valenti. Awards and recognition Academy Awards (1981) Chariots of Fire was very successful at the Academy Awards. When he accepted his Oscar for Best Original Screenplay Colin Welland famously announced "The British are coming". Best Picture - David Puttnam, producer - won Original Music Score - Vangelis - won Writing Original Screenplay - Colin Welland - won Costume Design - Milena Canonero - won Best Supporting Actor - Ian Holm - nominated Directing - Hugh Hudson - nominated Film Editing - Terry Rawlings - nominated Cannes Film Festival (1981) At the 1981 Cannes Film Festival the film won two awards and competed for the Palme d'Or. Best Supporting Actor - Ian Holm - won Prize of the Ecumenical Jury - Special Mention - Hugh Hudson - won Palme d'Or (Golden Palm) - Hugh Hudson - nominated BAFTA Awards (1981) BAFTA Award for Best Film (1981) - won Popular lists BFI Top 100 British films (1999) - rank 19 Hot 100 No. 1 Hits of 1982 (USA) (May 8) - Vangelis, Chariots of Fire theme AFI's 100 Years... 100 Cheers (2006) - rank 100 References in popular culture During the 1984 Summer Olympic Games, an American Express credit card commercial ("Don't leave home without it") included Ben Cross and the 87-year-old Jackson Scholz. When Cross says something about beating Scholz, the latter remarks with mock indignation, "You never beat me!" Proving he is "still pretty fast," Scholz beats Cross to the draw in picking up the tab with his credit card. The English rugby league player Martin Offiah was nicknamed "Chariots," after the film. One Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner short is called Chariots of Fur. On Sesame Street, one segment of Monsterpiece Theater was called "Chariots of Fur"; it involved Grover and Herry Monster having a race down the beach. In one episode of Two and a Half Men, Alan Harper (Jon Cryer) is running on a beach (He has insomnia and his brother suggests exercise). He does a parody of Chariots of Fire, before being mistaken for a burglar and being picked up by the police. In Mr. Mom, Jack Butler (Michael Keaton) competes in a company-sponsored decathlon, which is seen in slow motion to the famous Chariots of Fire theme. In National Lampoon's Vacation, Clark and Rusty Griswold (Chevy Chase and Anthony Michael Hall respectively) are seen running through the Walley-World parking lot (in slow motion) to the famous Chariots of Fire theme. In Bruce Almighty, Bruce Nolan (Jim Carrey) is covering a news story on Buffalo's Biggest Cookie. He tells the camera to "cue the cheesy inspirational music", to which the movie enters a slow motion version of Bruce attempting to throw milk into a line of children's cups, all while the theme from Chariots of Fire plays in the background. He fails miserably, drenching them in the milk. In Season 4 of SCTV, the movie is spoofed as "Chariots of Eggs," presented as a series of clips from a movie written and directed by comic Bobby Bittman. Though still a period piece set in the world of track and field, in the spoof the event is an egg-and-spoon race and the runners are played by musical guests Hall & Oates. They square off against Andrea Martin and Catherine O'Hara, who parody the lesbian overtones in the track-and-field film Personal Best, The spoof is available in Volume 3 of SCTV DVD series. In Good Burger, Kenan and Kel run to the theme song when they deliver a burger to Shaquille O'Neal. In the 1983 arcade game Track & Field, whenever a game over happens and the screen cuts to the high score table, the Chariots of Fire theme can be heard. The teaser trailer for the 2008 film Marley and Me uses the famed theme music. Joe Biden said Chariots of Fire was his favourite movie. CBS' YouTube-channel: VP Noms On Favorite Movies On an episode of King of Queens, Doug Heffernan gets a harmonica and in one scene is seen playing it quite horribly. He then turns to his friend Deacon Palmer and asks "Does that sound like the beginning of Chariots of Fire to you?" In romantic comedy "The Holiday", whilst browsing a video store, Miles (Jack Black) turns to Iris (Kate Winslet) and sings a segment of the now notorious theme, stating "Such a great score by Vangelis. He took electronic scores to a new level. It was groundbreaking". See also Sabbath breaking Philip Noel-Baker Notes External links Mark Kermode and Simon Mayo recreate the famous courtyard scene at Eton College from BBC Radio 5 Live 4 Speeches from the Movie in Text and Audio from AmericanRhetoric.com Great Court Run BBC Radio 4 - The Reunion: Chariots of Fire In August 2003, actors Ben Cross and Nigel Havers, director Hugh Hudson, writer Colin Welland, and producer David Puttnam discussed the movie in a 45-minute radio interview. Requires RealPlayer to listen. Chariots of Fire at the Arts & Faith Top100 Spiritually Significant Films list
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John Adam Belushi (January 24, 1949 – March 5, 1982) was an American comedian, actor and musician, notable for his work on Saturday Night Live, National Lampoon's Animal House and The Blues Brothers. He was the older brother of Jim Belushi. Biography Early life Belushi was born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Agnes Belushi (née Samaras), a cashier and first-generation Albanian-American, and Adam Belushi (b. 1919), an Albanian immigrant and restaurant operator who left his native village, Qytezë, in 1934 at the age of fifteen. NBC.com > Saturday Night Live > Bios John Belushi Biography (1949-1982) Books Of The Times; Close-Up Of John Belushi - New York Times Belushi was raised in the Albanian Orthodox church The religion of John Belushi, actor, comedian and grew up outside Chicago in Wheaton, where he was a middle linebacker for the Wheaton Central High School football team, and attended the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater and the College of DuPage near Chicago. Belushi's younger brother James Belushi is also an actor and comedian. John met his future wife, Judy Jacklin, while a sophomore in high school, and they stayed together until his death. Career Belushi's first big break as a comedian occurred in 1971, when he joined The Second City comedy troupe in Chicago, Illinois. Thanks to his uncanny caricature of singer Joe Cocker's intense and jerky stage presence, he was cast in National Lampoon's Lemmings, a parody of Woodstock, which played Off-Broadway in 1972 (and which also showcased future Saturday Night Live performers Chevy Chase and Christopher Guest). From 1973 to 1975, National Lampoon Inc. aired The National Lampoon Radio Hour, a half-hour comedy program syndicated across the country on approximately 600 stations. When original director Michael O'Donoghue quit in 1974, Belushi took over the reins until the show was canceled. Other players on the show included future SNL regulars Gilda Radner, Bill Murray, Brian Doyle-Murray and Chevy Chase. Belushi married Judy Jacklin (Judy Pisano), an associate producer of The Radio Hour. A number of comic segments first performed on The Radio Hour would be translated into SNL sketches in the show's early seasons. 1975-1979 Belushi achieved national fame for his work on Saturday Night Live, which he joined as an original cast member in 1975. Between seasons of the show, he made one of his best-known movies, Animal House. As several Belushi biographies have noted, on John's 30th birthday (in 1979), he had the number one film in the U.S. (Animal House), the number one album in the U.S. (The Blues Brothers: Briefcase Full of Blues) and Saturday Night Live was the highest-rated late night television program. In the toga party scene in the basement of the frat house in Animal House, the uncredited coed dancing with Bluto (Belushi) is his wife. While filming Animal House, Belushi made an appearance at Ithaca College in 1976. When introduced, he came onstage with a chainsaw and cut up the podium. When asked who his favorite host on Saturday Night Live was up to that point, he named comic Robert Klein. When interviewed for retrospectives on John Belushi, Dan Aykroyd told stories of John often finishing SNL rehearsals, shows or film shoots and, exhausted, simply walking unannounced into nearby homes of friends or strangers, scrounging around for food and often falling asleep, unable to be located for the following day's work. This was the impetus for the SNL horror-spoof sketch "The Thing That Wouldn't Leave", in which Belushi torments a couple (played by Jane Curtin and Bill Murray) in their home looking for snacks, newspapers and magazines to read, and taking control of their television. Aykroyd called him "America's guest". During his run on SNL, Belushi starred in a short film by SNL writer Tom Schiller called "Don't Look Back In Anger", where he plays himself as an old man visiting the graves of his former castmembers (including Chevy Chase, who had been off the show at the time the film was shown) and reveals that the reason he's still alive is because he's a dancer. He then proceeds to dance on the other cast members' graves. (Ironically, Belushi was the first SNL cast member to die.) He left Saturday Night Live in 1979 to pursue a film career. Belushi would make four more movies in his career, and three of them, 1941, Neighbors, and most notably The Blues Brothers were made with fellow SNL alumnus Dan Aykroyd. Other movie projects At the time of his death, Belushi was pursuing several movie projects, including Noble Rot, an adaptation of a script by former The Mary Tyler Moore Show writer/producer Jay Sandrich entitled Sweet Deception (noble rot is a benevolent fungus that can infect wine grapes on the vine, helping to produce high quality sweet wines). Belushi was rewriting the script with former Saturday Night Live colleague Don Novello (known for his character Guido Sarducci). Belushi was also considering the lead roles in The Joy Of Sex, a comic adaptation of the Dr. Alex Comfort sex manual, and a part in a Louis Malle movie, Moon Over Miami. These projects were abandoned in the wake of his death. Aykroyd wrote the roles of Dr. Peter Venkman in Ghostbusters and Emmett Fitz-Hume in Spies Like Us with Belushi in mind, and the roles were actually played by Belushi's former SNL castmates Bill Murray and Chevy Chase respectively. Aykroyd used to joke that the green ghost Slimer in Ghostbusters was "the ghost of John Belushi", given that he had a similar party animal personality. Released in September 1981, the romantic comedy Continental Divide starred Belushi as Chicago home town hero writer Ernie Souchack who gets put on assignment researching a scientist studying birds of prey in the remote rocky mountains. Belushi's character "Ernie Souchak" was loosely based on popular, now deceased Chicago columnist Mike Royko, whose writings on political corruption in the Windy City, first for the Chicago Daily News, briefly for the Chicago Sun-Times and then to the end of his life for the Chicago Tribune, were legendary. In an interview, the drummer for the punk band Fear, Spit Stix, explained that Belushi hadn't been on SNL for years, but "for the show that we were on (with Donald Pleasance as host), he did make an appearance. In the beginning, he's at the urinal and he turns around to the camera, 'Live! From New York!' That was a favor he did for us because during rehearsal some of our crowd — bused-in slamdancers — tripped over a cable or something, and the union people didn't want any dancers. So as a trade-off, he went up to Grant Tinker's office for us and said, 'I'll make an appearance on the show if the dancers stay.' John was such a generous guy". http://markprindle.com/stix-i.htm Cherokee Studios was a regular haunt for the original Blues Brothers back in the early days of the band. John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd became fixtures at the recording studio, while fellow Blues Brother and legendary guitar player Steve Cropper called Cherokee his producing home. Whenever they needed a bass player, they were joined by another Blues Brother, Donald "Duck" Dunn. During this time, Cropper along with producing partner and Cherokee owner Bruce Robb worked on a number of music projects with the two comedian/musicians, including Belushi's favorite band Fear and later Aykroyd's movie "Dragnet." Surely the real entertainment is what happened in between projects, about which nobody seems willing to comment. "What can I say? John was excessively talented, and I guess you could say he sort of lived life 'excessively.' I think what happened to John had a sobering effect on a lot of people, me included," said music producer Bruce Robb. Trademarks Belushi often played comically intense, volatile, obnoxious and sloppy characters, and was known for his expressive eyes and the solitary raised eyebrow. His most memorable and well-known trademark is that he would raise one eyebrow for comic effect. On Saturday Night Live, he often did a running act during Weekend Update in which he played a news anchor who would give an editorial commentary that starts calmly, but increases in emotional intensity until he is finally screaming and flailing around like a maniac. During these emotional rants, fellow news anchor Jane Curtin would ask him to calm down and stay on topic, but this would only make him angrier. He would snap back at her attempts by saying things like "Just shut up, anchorperson, okay?" or make a fist and say "Don't push me, Curtin! I MEAN IT!!" He would give speeches about the way things could have been, should have been, and then turns it on its ear by saying, "Buuuut NOOOOOOOOOO!!!" continuing on how horrid things had turned out instead. Personal life The "College" sweatshirt Belushi wore in National Lampoon's Animal House was purchased in Carbondale, Illinois, when his brother, Jim, was a student at Southern Illinois University in Carbondale. :: TheSouthern.com - Southern Illinois' Homepage :: According to writer/actor Tim Kazurinsky in the book Live From New York, mentor and close friend Belushi was instrumental in getting fellow Second City alumnus Kazurinsky onto Saturday Night Live in 1981. But during his run on the show, Kazurinsky became very stressed out by its demands (Dick Ebersol was now the executive producer and the show was very unlike the hedonistic manner in which Lorne Michaels produced it when Belushi was a cast member). He later called Belushi and said that he needed a ride to the airport because he was quitting and moving back to Chicago. Belushi and his wife picked him up but refused to bring him to the airport, at which Belushi told Kazurinsky that the show's atmosphere can get bad, but that he still had access to major broadcasting airwaves. Instead, Belushi took the performer to a psychiatrist whom he saw for a year, while staying with the show during his run. Belushi was friends with fellow SNL player Dan Aykroyd. They met in a Toronto speakeasy called The 505 that Aykroyd frequented, and immediately hit it off. It was John Belushi who requisitioned the band Fear and brought them to Cherokee Studios to record songs for the soundtrack of a major motion picture he and Dan Aykroyd were starring in called, "Neighbors." Music producing partners Steve Cropper and Bruce Robb remember recording the memorable band's music, but nobody knows exactly what happened with the final soundtrack which was ultimately replaced in the film by very traditional movie score. Belushi was very generous to his friends and family in many ways, often loaning them money whenever they asked. He used some of his money to buy his father a ranch near San Diego, and helped set up his old friends in Chicago with their own businesses. He helped his brother Jim Belushi find a spot at Second City, where he himself acted in the early days of his career. His generous side also showed during his time in the Blues Brothers; he often played songs by blues artists he thought could use the money from the royalties. Death On March 5, 1982, Belushi was found dead in his room at Bungalow #3 of the Chateau Marmont on Sunset Boulevard in Los Angeles, California. The cause of death was a speedball, a combined injection of cocaine and heroin. On the night of his death, he was visited separately by friends Robin Williams (at the height of his own drug exploits) Robin Williams, television biography from the Biography Channel, 7/7/06. and Robert De Niro, John Belushi Dies at the Chateau Marmont each of whom left the premises, leaving Belushi in the company of assorted others, including Cathy Smith. His death was investigated by forensic pathologist Dr. Ryan Norris among others, and while the findings were disputed, it was officially ruled a drug-related accident. Two months later, Smith, a former groupie for The Band, admitted in an interview with the National Enquirer that she had been with Belushi the night of his death and had given him the fatal speedball shot. After the appearance of the article "I Killed Belushi" in the Enquirer edition of June 29, 1982, the case was reopened. Smith was extradited from Toronto, arrested and charged with first-degree murder. A plea bargain arrangement reduced the charges to involuntary manslaughter, and she served 18 months in prison. In one of his last TV appearances, he filmed a cameo for the comedy series Police Squad!. As a favor to friend Tino Insana, a writer on the programme, Belushi was filmed, face down in a swimming pool, dead. The footage was part of a running gag where the episodes' guest-star wouldn't make it past the opening credit sequence without meeting some gruesome end. Also, as noted in one of the commentary tracks on the DVD, John nearly drowned during the filming of the scene. The scene never aired. Belushi's death is very similar to the death of Chris Farley. They both rose to fame in Saturday Night Live, both died of a drug overdose due to the speedball, and were both 33 years old at the time of their deaths. Honor Belushi and his friend Dan Aykroyd were slated to present the first ever Visual Effects Award at the Academy Awards in 1982, but John died a few weeks prior to the event. Though devastated by John's death, Aykroyd presented the award alone, commenting on the stage "My partner would have loved to have been here to present this award, given that he was something of a visual effect himself." Tribute John Belushi's life is detailed in the 1985 biography Wired: The Short Life and Fast Times of John Belushi by Bob Woodward. Many friends and relatives of Belushi, including his wife Judy, Dan Aykroyd and Jim Belushi, agreed to be interviewed at length for the book, but later felt the final product was exploitative and not representative of the John Belushi they knew. The book was later adapted into a feature film in which Belushi was played by Michael Chiklis. Belushi's friends and family boycotted the film, which proved to be critical and caused the movie to be a box-office flop. Belushi is interred in Abel's Hill Cemetery on Martha's Vineyard Chilmark, Massachusetts. His tombstone reads "I may be gone, but Rock and Roll lives on." His gravestone is not above his body. It was moved after operators of the cemetery had found many signs of vandalism and rowdiness where his body lies. He also has a cenotaph at Elmwood Cemetery in River Grove, Illinois. Belushi was portrayed by actors Eric Siegel in Gilda Radner: It's Always Something, Tyler Labine in Behind the Camera: The Unauthorized Story of Mork & Mindy (which also features his friendship with Robin Williams), and Michael Chiklis in Wired. His widow later remarried and is now Judith Belushi Pisano. Her biography (with co-biographer Tanner Colby) of John, Belushi: A Biography is a collection of first-person interviews and photographs, and was published in 2005. The James Taylor song "That's Why I'm Here" honored Belushi and Taylor's feelings on his death. On April 1st 2004, 22 years after his death, Belushi was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, after a ten-year lobby by James Belushi and Judith Belushi Pisano. Among those present at the ceremony were Dan Aykroyd, Chevy Chase, Ted Danson, Mary Steenburgen, and Tom Arnold. In the 1995 film Hackers, the character Cereal Killer is seen selling a mixtape compilation which includes John Belushi's music in addition to Mama Cass and Jimi Hendrix. John Belushi is mentioned in Wag the Dog movie - his name is used in campaign against inscened Albanian war. In 2006, Biography Channel aired the "John Belushi" episode of Final 24, a documentary following Belushi in the last 24 hours leading to his death. Filmography Tarzoon: Shame of the Jungle (1975) (voice) (1979 American dubbed version) Animal House (1978) The Rutles: All You Need Is Cash (1978) Goin' South (1978) Old Boyfriends (1979) 1941 (1979) The Blues Brothers (1980) Continental Divide (1981) Neighbors (1981) Recurring characters on SNL Samurai Futaba Captain Ned, one of Miles Cowperthwaite's cronies 'Joliet' Jake Blues, from the Blues Brothers Jeff Widette, from the Widettes Kevin (from The Mall sketches) Kuldorth (from The Coneheads) Larry Farber (one half of the Farber couple [the wife, Bobbi, was played by Gilda Radner]) Lowell Brock, from the H&L Brock commercials Matt Cooper, from the Land Shark sketches Pete, from the Olympia Cafe Steve Beshekas (who was in real life a good friend of Belushi's since childhood) Frank Leary, one of St. Mickey's Knights of Columbus Celebrity impersonations on SNL Al Hirt Babe Ruth Bert Lance Cesar Romero Dino De Laurentiis Ed Ames Ed Asner Elizabeth Taylor Elvis Presley Franklin D. Roosevelt Fred Silverman George Wallace Henry Kissinger Hermann Göring Jack Kerouac Jawaharlal Nehru Jimmy Hoffa Joe Cocker (his most known impersonation) John Lennon Leonid Brezhnev Ludwig van Beethoven Marlon Brando Menachim Begin Richard Daley Robert Blake Roy Orbison Sam Peckinpah Sanjay Gandhi Steve Rubell Sun Myung Moon Tip O'Neill Truman Capote Vasiliy Alekseyev William Shatner Woody Hayes Yasser Arafat References External links Interview (MP3) with biographer Tanner Colby and Judith Belushi Pisano on the public radio program The Sound of Young America regarding their book, Belushi. Includes clips from Belushi's work on The National Lampoon Radio Hour. Belushi: A Biography, official website for the book EG Blues Brothers, featuring screencaps from John's films John Belushi Cult Turns 25, The Conservative Voice Maxim Rated Top SNL performer http://www.brucerobbmusic.com Belushi.com, John Belushi Tribute Page Bartcop Entertainment: The Life and Death of Captain Preemo (alternative theory of John Belushi's death) Noble Rot the "lost" screenplay of Novello and Belushi John Belushi is alive and well!
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4,703
Ordinal_number
Representation of the ordinal numbers up to ωω. Each turn of the spiral represents one power of ω In set theory, an ordinal number, or just ordinal, is the order type of a well-ordered set. They are usually identified with hereditarily transitive sets. Ordinals are an extension of the natural numbers different from integers and from cardinals. Like other kinds of numbers, ordinals can be added, multiplied, and exponentiated. The finite ordinals (and the finite cardinals) are the natural numbers: 0, 1, 2, …, since any two total orderings of a finite set are order isomorphic. The least infinite ordinal is ω which is identified with the cardinal number . However in the transfinite case, beyond ω, ordinals draw a finer distinction than cardinals on account of their order information. Whereas there is only one countably infinite cardinal, namely itself, there are uncountably many countably infinite ordinals, namely ω, ω + 1, ω + 2, …, ω·2, ω·2 + 1, …, ω2, …, ω3, …, ωω, …, ωωω, …, ε0, …. Here addition and multiplication are not commutative: in particular 1 + ω is ω rather than ω + 1, while 2·ω is ω rather than ω·2. The set of all countable ordinals constitutes the first uncountable ordinal ω1 which is identified with the cardinal (next cardinal after ). Well-ordered cardinals are identified with their initial ordinals, i.e. the smallest ordinal of that cardinality. The cardinality of an ordinal defines a many to one association from ordinals to cardinals. Ordinals were introduced by Georg Cantor in 1897 Georg Cantor, Beitrage zur Begrundung der transfiniten Mengenlehre. II (tr.: Contributions to the Founding of the Theory of Transfinite Numbers II), Mathematische Annalen 49 (1897), 207-­246. English translation. Citation from Akihiro Kanamori, Set Theory from Cantor to Cohen, to appear in: Andrew Irvine and John H. Woods (editors), The Handbook of the Philosophy of Science, volume 4, Mathematics, Cambridge University Press. to accommodate infinite sequences and to classify sets with certain kinds of order structures on them. Thorough introductions are given by Levy (1979) and Sacks (2003). In general, each ordinal α is the order type of the set of ordinals strictly less than α itself. This property permits every ordinal to be represented as the set of all ordinals less than it. Ordinals may be categorized as: zero, successor ordinals, and limit ordinals (of various cofinalities). Given a class of ordinals, one can identify the α-th member of that class, i.e. one can index (count) them. A class is closed and unbounded if its indexing function is continuous and never stops. The Cantor normal form uniquely represents each ordinal as a finite sum of ordinal powers of ω. However, this cannot form the basis of a universal ordinal notation due to such self-referential representations as . Larger and larger ordinals can be defined, but they become more and more difficult to describe. Any ordinal number can be made into a topological space by endowing it with the order topology; this topology is discrete if and only if the ordinal is a countable cardinal, i.e. at most ω. A subset of ω + 1 is open in the order topology if and only if either it is cofinite or it does not contain ω as an element. Ordinals extend the natural numbers A natural number (which, in this context, includes the number 0) can be used for two purposes: to describe the size of a set, or to describe the position of an element in a sequence. When restricted to finite sets these two concepts coincide; there is only one way to put a finite set into a linear sequence, up to isomorphism. When dealing with infinite sets one has to distinguish between the notion of size, which leads to cardinal numbers, and the notion of position, which is generalized by the ordinal numbers described here. This is because, while any set has only one size (its cardinality), there are many nonisomorphic well-orderings of any infinite set, as explained below. Whereas the notion of cardinal number is associated to a set with no particular structure on it, the ordinals are intimately linked with the special kind of sets which are called well-ordered (so intimately linked, in fact, that some mathematicians make no distinction between the two concepts). A well-ordered set is a totally ordered set (given any two elements one defines a smaller and a larger one in a coherent way) in which there is no infinite decreasing sequence (however, there may be infinite increasing sequences); equivalently, every non-empty subset of the set has a least element. Ordinals may be used to label the elements of any given well-ordered set (the smallest element being labeled 0, the one after that 1, the next one 2, "and so on") and to measure the "length" of the whole set by the least ordinal which is not a label for an element of the set. This "length" is called the order type of the set. Any ordinal is defined by the set of ordinals that precede it: in fact, the most common definition of ordinals identifies each ordinal as the set of ordinals that precede it. For example, the ordinal 42 is the order type of the ordinals less than it, i.e., the ordinals from 0 (the smallest of all ordinals) to 41 (the immediate predecessor of 42), and it is generally identified as the set {0,1,2,…,41}. Conversely, any set of ordinals which is downward-closed—meaning that any ordinal less than an ordinal in the set is also in the set—is (or can be identified with) an ordinal. So far we have mentioned only finite ordinals, which are the natural numbers. But there are infinite ones as well: the smallest infinite ordinal is ω, which is the order type of the natural numbers (finite ordinals) and which can even be identified with the set of natural numbers (indeed, the set of natural numbers is well-ordered—as is any set of ordinals—and since it is downward closed it can be identified with the ordinal associated to it, which is exactly how we define ω). A graphical “matchstick” representation of the ordinal ω². Each stick corresponds to an ordinal of the form ω·m+n where m and n are natural numbers. Perhaps a clearer intuition of ordinals can be formed by examining a first few of them: as mentioned above, they start with the natural numbers, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … After all natural numbers comes the first infinite ordinal, ω, and after that come ω+1, ω+2, ω+3, and so on. (Exactly what addition means will be defined later on: just consider them as names.) After all of these come ω·2 (which is ω+ω), ω·2+1, ω·2+2, and so on, then ω·3, and then later on ω·4. Now the set of ordinals which we form in this way (the ω·m+n, where m and n are natural numbers) must itself have an ordinal associated to it: and that is ω2. Further on, there will be ω3, then ω4, and so on, and ωω, then ωω², and much later on ε0 (epsilon nought) (to give a few examples of relatively small—countable—ordinals). We can go on in this way indefinitely far ("indefinitely far" is exactly what ordinals are good at: basically every time one says "and so on" when enumerating ordinals, it defines a larger ordinal). The smallest uncountable ordinal is the set of all countable ordinals, expressed as ω1. Definitions Well-ordered sets A well-ordered set is an ordered set in which every non-empty subset has a least element: this is equivalent (at least in the presence of the axiom of dependent choice) to just saying that the set is totally ordered and there is no infinite decreasing sequence, something which is perhaps easier to visualize. In practice, the importance of well-ordering is justified by the possibility of applying transfinite induction, which says, essentially, that any property that passes on from the predecessors of an element to that element itself must be true of all elements (of the given well-ordered set). If the states of a computation (computer program or game) can be well-ordered in such a way that each step is followed by a "lower" step, then you can be sure that the computation will terminate. Now we don't want to distinguish between two well-ordered sets if they only differ in the "labeling of their elements", or more formally: if we can pair off the elements of the first set with the elements of the second set such that if one element is smaller than another in the first set, then the partner of the first element is smaller than the partner of the second element in the second set, and vice versa. Such a one-to-one correspondence is called an order isomorphism and the two well-ordered sets are said to be order-isomorphic, or similar (obviously this is an equivalence relation). Provided there exists an order isomorphism between two well-ordered sets, the order isomorphism is unique: this makes it quite justifiable to consider the two sets as essentially identical, and to seek a "canonical" representative of the isomorphism type (class). This is exactly what the ordinals provide, and it also provides a canonical labeling of the elements of any well-ordered set. So we essentially wish to define an ordinal as an isomorphism class of well-ordered sets: that is, as an equivalence class for the equivalence relation of "being order-isomorphic". There is a technical difficulty involved, however, in the fact that the equivalence class is too large to be a set in the usual Zermelo–Fraenkel (ZF) formalization of set theory. But this is not a serious difficulty. We will say that the ordinal is the order type of any set in the class. Definition of an ordinal as an equivalence class The original definition of ordinal number, found for example in Principia Mathematica, defines the order type of a well-ordering as the set of all well-orderings similar (order-isomorphic) to that well-ordering: in other words, an ordinal number is genuinely an equivalence class of well-ordered sets. This definition must be abandoned in ZF and related systems of axiomatic set theory because these equivalence classes are too large to form a set. However, this definition still can be used in type theory and in Quine's set theory New Foundations and related systems (where it affords a rather surprising alternative solution to the Burali-Forti paradox of the largest ordinal). Von Neumann definition of ordinals Rather than defining an ordinal as an equivalence class of well-ordered sets, we will define it as a particular well-ordered set which (canonically) represents the class. Thus, an ordinal number will be a well-ordered set; and every well-ordered set will be order-isomorphic to exactly one ordinal number. The standard definition, suggested by John von Neumann, is: each ordinal is the well-ordered set of all smaller ordinals. In symbols, λ = [0,λ). Levy (1979, p. 52) attributes the idea to unpublished work of Zermelo in 1916 and several papers by von Neumann the 1920s. Formally: A set S is an ordinal if and only if S is strictly well-ordered with respect to set membership and every element of S is also a subset of S. Note that the natural numbers are ordinals by this definition. For instance, 2 is an element of 4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}, and 2 is equal to {0, 1} and so it is a subset of {0, 1, 2, 3}. It can be shown by transfinite induction that every well-ordered set is order-isomorphic to exactly one of these ordinals, that is, there is an order preserving bijective function between them. Furthermore, the elements of every ordinal are ordinals themselves. Whenever you have two ordinals S and T, S is an element of T if and only if S is a proper subset of T. Moreover, either S is an element of T, or T is an element of S, or they are equal. So every set of ordinals is totally ordered. Further, every set of ordinals is well-ordered. This generalizes the fact that every set of natural numbers is well-ordered. Consequently, every ordinal S is a set having as elements precisely the ordinals smaller than S. For example, every set of ordinals has a supremum, the ordinal obtained by taking the union of all the ordinals in the set. This union exists regardless of the set's size, by the axiom of union. The class of all ordinals is not a set. If it were a set, one could show that it was an ordinal and thus a member of itself which would contradicts its strict ordering by membership. This is the Burali-Forti paradox. The class of all ordinals is variously called "Ord", "ON", or "∞". An ordinal is finite if and only if the opposite order is also well-ordered, which is the case if and only if each of its subsets has a maximum. Other definitions There are other modern formulations of the definition of ordinal. For example, assuming the axiom of regularity, the following are equivalent for a set x: x is an ordinal, x is a transitive set, and set membership is trichotomous on x, x is a transitive set totally ordered by set inclusion, x is a transitive set of transitive sets. These definitions cannot be used in non-well-founded set theories. In set theories with urelements, one has to further make sure that the definition excludes urelements from appearing in ordinals. Transfinite sequence If α is a limit ordinal and X is a set, an α-indexed sequence of elements of X is a function from α to X. This concept, a transfinite sequence or ordinal-indexed sequence, is a generalization of the concept of a sequence. An ordinary sequence corresponds to the case α = ω. Transfinite induction What is transfinite induction? Transfinite induction holds in any well-ordered set, but it is so important in relation to ordinals that it is worth restating here. Any property which passes from the set of ordinals smaller than a given ordinal α to α itself, is true of all ordinals. That is, if P(α) is true whenever P(β) is true for all β<α, then P(α) is true for all α. Or, more practically: in order to prove a property P for all ordinals α, one can assume that it is already known for all smaller β<α. Transfinite recursion Transfinite induction can be used not only to prove things, but also to define them. Such a definition is normally said to be by transfinite recursion – the proof that the result is well-defined uses transfinite induction. Let F denote a (class) function F to be defined on the ordinals. The idea now is that, in defining F(α) for an unspecified ordinal α, one may assume that F(β) is already defined for all and thus give a formula for F(α) in terms of these F(β). It then follows by transfinite induction that there is one and only one function satisfying the recursion formula up to and including α. Here is an example of definition by transfinite recursion on the ordinals (more will be given later): define function F by letting F(α) be the smallest ordinal not in the class {F(β) | β < α}, that is, the class consisting of all F(β) for . This definition assumes the F(β) known in the very process of defining F; this apparent vicious circle is exactly what definition by transfinite recursion permits. In fact, F(0) makes sense since there is no ordinal , and the class {F(β) | β < 0} is empty. So F(0) is equal to 0 (the smallest ordinal of all). Now that F(0) is known, the definition applied to F(1) makes sense (it is the smallest ordinal not in the singleton class }), and so on (the and so on is exactly transfinite induction). It turns out that this example is not very exciting, since provably for all ordinals α, which can be shown, precisely, by transfinite induction. Successor and limit ordinals Any nonzero ordinal has the minimum element, zero. It may or may not have a maximum element. For example, 42 has maximum 41 and ω+6 has maximum ω+5. On the other hand, ω does not have a maximum since there is no largest natural number. If an ordinal has a maximum α, then it is the next ordinal after α, and it is called a successor ordinal, namely the successor of α, written α+1. In the von Neumann definition of ordinals, the successor of α is since its elements are those of α and α itself. A nonzero ordinal which is not a successor is called a limit ordinal. One justification for this term is that a limit ordinal is indeed the limit in a topological sense of all smaller ordinals (under the order topology). When is an ordinal-indexed sequence, indexed by a limit γ and the sequence is increasing, i.e. whenever we define its limit to be the least upper bound of the set that is, the smallest ordinal (it always exists) greater than any term of the sequence. In this sense, a limit ordinal is the limit of all smaller ordinals (indexed by itself). Put more directly, it is the supremum of the set of smaller ordinals. Another way of defining a limit ordinal is to say that α is a limit ordinal if and only if: There is an ordinal less than α and whenever ζ is an ordinal less than α, then there exists an ordinal ξ such that ζ < ξ < α. So in the following sequence: 0, 1, 2, ... , ω, ω+1 ω is a limit ordinal because for any smaller ordinal (in this example, a natural number) we can find another ordinal (natural number) larger than it, but still less than ω. Thus, every ordinal is either zero, or a successor (of a well-defined predecessor), or a limit. This distinction is important, because many definitions by transfinite induction rely upon it. Very often, when defining a function F by transfinite induction on all ordinals, one defines F(0), and F(α+1) assuming F(α) is defined, and then, for limit ordinals δ one defines F(δ) as the limit of the F(β) for all β<δ (either in the sense of ordinal limits, as we have just explained, or for some other notion of limit if F does not take ordinal values). Thus, the interesting step in the definition is the successor step, not the limit ordinals. Such functions (especially for F nondecreasing and taking ordinal values) are called continuous. We will see that ordinal addition, multiplication and exponentiation are continuous as functions of their second argument. Indexing classes of ordinals We have mentioned that any well-ordered set is similar (order-isomorphic) to a unique ordinal number , or, in other words, that its elements can be indexed in increasing fashion by the ordinals less than . This applies, in particular, to any set of ordinals: any set of ordinals is naturally indexed by the ordinals less than some . The same holds, with a slight modification, for classes of ordinals (a collection of ordinals, possibly too large to form a set, defined by some property): any class of ordinals can be indexed by ordinals (and, when the class is unbounded in the class of all ordinals, this puts it in class-bijection with the class of all ordinals). So we can freely speak of the -th element in the class (with the convention that the “0-th” is the smallest, the “1-th” is the next smallest, and so on). Formally, the definition is by transfinite induction: the -th element of the class is defined (provided it has already been defined for all ), as the smallest element greater than the -th element for all . We can apply this, for example, to the class of limit ordinals: the -th ordinal which is either a limit or zero is (see ordinal arithmetic for the definition of multiplication of ordinals). Similarly, we can consider additively indecomposable ordinals (meaning a nonzero ordinal which is not the sum of two strictly smaller ordinals): the -th additively indecomposable ordinal is indexed as . The technique of indexing classes of ordinals is often useful in the context of fixed points: for example, the -th ordinal such that is written . These are called the "epsilon numbers". Closed unbounded sets and classes A class of ordinals is said to be unbounded, or cofinal, when given any ordinal, there is always some element of the class greater than it (then the class must be a proper class, i.e., it cannot be a set). It is said to be closed when the limit of a sequence of ordinals in the class is again in the class: or, equivalently, when the indexing (class-)function is continuous in the sense that, for a limit ordinal, (the -th ordinal in the class) is the limit of all for ; this is also the same as being closed, in the topological sense, for the order topology (to avoid talking of topology on proper classes, one can demand that the intersection of the class with any given ordinal is closed for the order topology on that ordinal, this is again equivalent). Of particular importance are those classes of ordinals which are closed and unbounded, sometimes called clubs. For example, the class of all limit ordinals is closed and unbounded: this translates the fact that there is always a limit ordinal greater than a given ordinal, and that a limit of limit ordinals is a limit ordinal (a fortunate fact if the terminology is to make any sense at all!). The class of additively indecomposable ordinals, or the class of ordinals, or the class of cardinals, are all closed unbounded; the set of regular cardinals, however, is unbounded but not closed, and any finite set of ordinals is closed but not unbounded. A class is stationary if it has a nonempty intersection with every closed unbounded class. All superclasses of closed unbounded classes are stationary and stationary classes are unbounded, but there are stationary classes which are not closed and there are stationary classes which have no closed unbounded subclass (such as the class of all limit ordinals with countable cofinality). Since the intersection of two closed unbounded classes is closed and unbounded, the intersection of a stationary class and a closed unbounded class is stationary. But the intersection of two stationary classes may be empty, e.g. the class of ordinals with cofinality ω with the class of ordinals with uncountable cofinality. Rather than formulating these definitions for (proper) classes of ordinals, we can formulate them for sets of ordinals below a given ordinal : A subset of a limit ordinal is said to be unbounded (or cofinal) under provided any ordinal less than is less than some ordinal in the set. More generally, we can call a subset of any ordinal cofinal in provided every ordinal less than is less than or equal to some ordinal in the set. The subset is said to be closed under provided it is closed for the order topology in , i.e. a limit of ordinals in the set is either in the set or equal to itself. Arithmetic of ordinals There are three usual operations on ordinals: addition, multiplication, and (ordinal) exponentiation. Each can be defined in essentially two different ways: either by constructing an explicit well-ordered set which represents the operation or by using transfinite recursion. Cantor normal form provides a standardized way of writing ordinals. The so-called "natural" arithmetical operations retain commutativity at the expense of continuity. Ordinals and cardinals Initial ordinal of a cardinal Each ordinal has an associated cardinal, its cardinality, obtained by simply forgetting the order. Any well-ordered set having that ordinal as its order-type has the same cardinality. The smallest ordinal having a given cardinal as its cardinality is called the initial ordinal of that cardinal. Every finite ordinal (natural number) is initial, but most infinite ordinals are not initial. The axiom of choice is equivalent to the statement that every set can be well-ordered, i.e. that every cardinal has an initial ordinal. In this case, it is traditional to identify the cardinal number with its initial ordinal, and we say that the initial ordinal is a cardinal. The α-th infinite initial ordinal is written . Its cardinality is written . For example, the cardinality of ω0 = ω is , which is also the cardinality of ω² or ε0 (all are countable ordinals). So (assuming the axiom of choice) we identify ω with , except that the notation is used when writing cardinals, and ω when writing ordinals (this is important since whereas ). Also, is the smallest uncountable ordinal (to see that it exists, consider the set of equivalence classes of well-orderings of the natural numbers: each such well-ordering defines a countable ordinal, and is the order type of that set), is the smallest ordinal whose cardinality is greater than , and so on, and is the limit of the for natural numbers n (any limit of cardinals is a cardinal, so this limit is indeed the first cardinal after all the ). See also Von Neumann cardinal assignment. Cofinality The cofinality of an ordinal is the smallest ordinal which is the order type of a cofinal subset of . Notice that a number of authors define confinality or use it only for limit ordinals. The cofinality of a set of ordinals or any other well ordered set is the cofinality of the order type of that set. Thus for a limit ordinal, there exists a -indexed strictly increasing sequence with limit . For example, the cofinality of ω² is ω, because the sequence ω·m (where m ranges over the natural numbers) tends to ω²; but, more generally, any countable limit ordinal has cofinality ω. An uncountable limit ordinal may have either cofinality ω as does or an uncountable cofinality. The cofinality of 0 is 0. And the cofinality of any successor ordinal is 1. The cofinality of any limit ordinal is at least . An ordinal which is equal to its cofinality is called regular and it is always an initial ordinal. Any limit of regular ordinals is a limit of initial ordinals and thus is also initial even if it is not regular which it usually is not. If the Axiom of Choice, then is regular for each α. In this case, the ordinals 0, 1, , , and are regular, whereas 2, 3, , and ωω·2 are initial ordinals which are not regular. The cofinality of any ordinal α is a regular ordinal, i.e. the cofinality of the cofinality of α is the same as the cofinality of α. So the cofinality operation is idempotent. Some “large” countable ordinals We have already mentioned (see Cantor normal form) the ordinal ε0, which is the smallest satisfying the equation , so it is the limit of the sequence 0, 1, , , , etc. Many ordinals can be defined in such a manner as fixed points of certain ordinal functions (the -th ordinal such that is called , then we could go on trying to find the -th ordinal such that , “and so on”, but all the subtlety lies in the “and so on”). We can try to do this systematically, but no matter what system is used to define and construct ordinals, there is always an ordinal that lies just above all the ordinals constructed by the system. Perhaps the most important ordinal which limits in this manner a system of construction is the Church-Kleene ordinal, (despite the in the name, this ordinal is countable), which is the smallest ordinal which cannot in any way be represented by a computable function (this can be made rigorous, of course). Considerably large ordinals can be defined below , however, which measure the “proof-theoretic strength” of certain formal systems (for example, measures the strength of Peano arithmetic). Large ordinals can also be defined above the Church-Kleene ordinal, which are of interest in various parts of logic. Topology and ordinals Any ordinal can be made into a topological space in a natural way by endowing it with the order topology. See the Topology and ordinals section of the "Order topology" article. Downward closed sets of ordinals A set is downward closed if anything less than an element of the set is also in the set. If a set of ordinals is downward closed, then that set is an ordinal—the least ordinal not in the set. Examples: The set of ordinals less than 3 is 3 = { 0, 1, 2 }, the smallest ordinal not less than 3. The set of finite ordinals is infinite, the smallest infinite ordinal: ω. The set of countable ordinals is uncountable, the smallest uncountable ordinal: ω1. See also Counting Notes References Conway, J. H. and Guy, R. K. "Cantor's Ordinal Numbers." In The Book of Numbers. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 266-267 and 274, 1996. See Ch. 6, "Ordinal and cardinal numbers" Reprinted 2002, Dover. ISBN 0-486-42079-5 Sierpiński, W. (1965). Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers (2nd ed.). Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Also defines ordinal operations in terms of the Cantor Normal Form. Patrick Suppes, Axiomatic Set Theory, D.Van Nostrand Company Inc., 1960, ISBN 0-486-61630-4 External links Ordinals at ProvenMath Beitraege zur Begruendung der transfiniten Mengenlehre Cantor's original paper published in Mathematische Annalen 49(2), 1897
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4,704
Omniscience
Omniscience () The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) ISBN 0-19-861-263-x - p.1293 "omniscience " (or Omniscient Point-of-View in writing) is the capacity to know everything infinitely, or at least everything that can be known about a character including thoughts, feelings, life and the universe, etc. In monotheism, this ability is typically attributed to God. The God of the Bible is referred to often as "The Great I Am," among other similar names, which also incorporates His omnipresence and omnipotence. This concept is included in the Qur'an, where God is called "Al-'aleem" on multiple occasions. This is the infinite form of the verb "alema" which means to know. In Hinduism, God is referred to as sarv-gyaata (omniscient), sarv-samarth (omnipotent) and sarv-vyapt (omnipresent) gyaata (knowing). There are basically three main gods of Hinduism. Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma. Each god has his own special purpose. Definition There is a distinction between: inherent omniscience - the ability to know anything that one chooses to know and can be known. total omniscience - actually knowing everything that can be known. Some modern theologians argue that God's omniscience is inherent rather than total, and that God chooses to limit his omniscience in order to preserve the freewill and dignity of his creatures. see eg John Polkinghorne Science and Theology for a discussion of his position and that of other scientist-theologians Certain theologians of the 16th Century, comfortable with the definition of God as being omniscient in the total sense, in order for worthy beings' abilities to choose freely, embraced the doctrine of predestination. Controversies Nontheism often claims that the very concept of omniscience is inherently contradictory. Some theists argue that God created all knowledge and has ready access thereto. This statement invokes a circular time contradiction: presupposing the existence of God, before knowledge existed, there was no knowledge at all, which means that God was unable to possess knowledge prior to its creation. Alternately if knowledge was not a "creation" but merely existed in God's mind for all time there would be no contradiction. In Thomistic thought, which holds God to exist outside of time due to his ability to perceive everything at once, everything which God knows in his mind already exists. Hence, God would know of nothing that was not in existence (or else it would exist), and God would also know everything that was in existence (or else it would not exist), and God would possess this knowledge of what did exist and what did not exist at any point in the history of time. It should be added that the above definitions cover what is called propositional knowledge (knowing that), as opposed to experiential knowledge (knowing how). That some entity is omniscient in the sense of possessing all possible propositional knowledge does not imply that it also possesses all possible experiential knowledge. Opinions differ as to whether the propositionally omniscient God of the theists is able to possess all experiential knowledge as well. But it seems at least obvious that a divine infinite being conceived of as necessary infinitely knowledgeable would also know how, for example, a finite person [man] dying feels like as He [God] would have access to all knowledge including the obvious experiences of the dying human. There is a third type of knowledge: practical or procedural knowledge (knowing how to do). If omniscience is taken to be all knowledge then all knowledge of all types would be fully known and comprehended. A related but distinct ability is omnipotence (unlimited power). Omniscience is sometimes understood to also imply the capacity to know everything that will be. Foreknowledge and its compatibility with free will has been a debated topic by theists and philosophers. The argument that divine foreknowledge is not compatible with free will is known as theological fatalism. If man is truly free to choose between different alternatives, it is very difficult to understand how God could know in advance which way he will choose. For a clear example of this incompatibility argument, see http://www.valdosta.edu/~rbarnett/phi/free.html Various responses have been proposed: God can know in advance what I will do, because free will is to be understood only as freedom from coercion, and anything further is an illusion. God can know in advance what I will do, even though free will in the fullest sense of the phrase does exist. God somehow has a "middle knowledge" - that is, knowledge of how free agents will act in any given circumstances. God can know all possibilities. The same way a master chess player is able to anticipate not only one scenario but several and prepare the moves in response to each scenario, God is able to figure all consequences from what I will do next moment, since my options are multiple but still limited. The sovereignty (autonomy) of God, existing within a free agent, Gospel of Thomas 3 provides strong inner compulsions toward a course of action (calling), and the power of choice (election). Holy Bible, 2 Peter 1:10, Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary The actions of a human are thus determined by a human acting on relatively strong or weak urges (both from God and the environment around them) and their own relative power to choose. The Philosopher's Handbook, Stanley Rosen, ed., Random House Reference, New York, 2000. God chooses to foreknow and foreordain (and, therefore, predetermine) some things, but not others. This allows a free moral choice on the part of man for those things that God choose not to foreordain. It accomplishes this by attributing to God the ability for Him, Himself, to be a free moral agent with the ability to choose what He will, and will not, foreknow, assuming God exists in linear time (or at least an analogue thereof) where "foreknowledge" is a meaningful concept. It is not possible for God to know the result of a free human choice. Omniscience should therefore be interpreted to mean "knowledge of everything that can be known". God can know what someone will do, but only by predetermining it; thus, he chooses the extent of human freedom by choosing what (if anything) to know in this way. God stands outside time, and therefore can know everything free agents do, since He does not know these facts "in advance", he knows them before they are even conceived and long after the actions have occurred. The free agent's future actions therefore remain contingent to himself and others in linear time but are logically necessary to God on account of His infallibly accurate all-encompassing view. This was the solution offered by Thomas Aquinas. See also Divine Providence versus the concept of Fate Instead of producing a parallel model in God's own infallible mind of the future contingent actions of a free agent (thus suppressing the agent's free will), God encodes his knowledge of the agent's actions in the original action itself. God passively seeing the infinite future in no way alters it, anymore than us reading a history book influences the past by simply observing it retrospectively. However, He might choose (or not) to read any chapter or the ending, or open the book at any page. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada has stated that man does have limited free will; he can decide whether or not to surrender to the will of Krishna. Otherwise, all material happenings and their implications are inconceivably predestined. This concept being subject to challenge in customary affairs, it is then also somewhat ridiculed as a philosophy. Non-theological uses Omniscience is also studied in game theory, where it is not necessarily an advantageous quality if one's omniscience is a published fact. For example, in the game of chicken: two people each drive a car towards the other. The first to swerve to avoid a collision loses. In such a game, the optimal outcome is to have your opponent swerve. The worst outcome is when nobody swerves. But if A knows that B is in fact omniscient, then A will simply decide to never swerve since A knows B will know A's logical decision and B will be forced to swerve to avoid a collision — this is assuming each player is logical and follows optimal strategy. dubious-discuss Omniscience is also used in the field of literary analysis and criticism, referring to the point of view of the narrator. An omniscient narrator is almost always a third-person narrator, capable of revealing insights into characters and settings that would not be otherwise apparent from the events of the story and which no single character could be aware of. Theological representations The concepts of omniscience can be defined naively as follows (using the notation of modal logic): x is omniscient =def In words, for total omniscience: x is omniscient =def For all propositions p: if p (is true), then x knows that p (is true) For inherent omniscience one interprets Kxp in this and the following as x can know that p is true, so for inherent omniscience this proposition reads: x is omniscient =def For all propositions p: if p (is true), then x can know that p (is true) But a critical logical analysis shows that this definition is too naive to be proper, and so it must be qualified as follows: x is omniscient =def In words: x is omniscient =def For all propositions p: if p (is true) and p is (logically) knowable, then x knows [/can know] that p (is true) The latter definition is necessary, because there are logically true but logically unknowable propositions such as "Nobody knows that this sentence is true": N = "Nobody knows that N is true" If N is true, then nobody knows that N is true; and if N is false, then it is not the case that nobody knows that N is true, which means that somebody knows that N is true. And if somebody knows that N is true, then N is true; therefore, N is true in any case. But if N is true in any case, then it is logically true and nobody knows it. What is more, the logically true N is not only not known to be true but also impossibly known to be true, for what is logically true is impossibly false. Sentence N is a logical counter-example to the unqualified definition of "omniscience", but it does not undermine the qualified one. Unfortunately, there are further logical examples that seem to undermine even this restricted definition, such as the following one (called "The Strengthened Divine Liar"): B = "God does not believe that B is true" If B is true, then God (or any other person) does not believe that B is true and thus doesn't know that B is true. Therefore, if B is true, then there is a truth (viz. "B is true") which God doesn't know. And if B is not true (= false), then God falsely believes that B is true. But to believe the falsity that B is true is to believe the truth that B is not true. Therefore, if B is not true, then there is a truth (viz. "B is not true") which God doesn't know. So, in any case there is a truth that God does not and cannot know, for knowledge implies true belief. While sentence N is a non-knower-relative unknowability, B is a knower-relative unknowability, which means that our concept of omniscience apparently needs to be redefined again: x is omniscient =def In words: x is omniscient =def For all propositions p: if p (is true) and p is (logically) knowable to x, then x knows [/can know] that p (is true) See also Omnibenevolence Omnipotence Omnipresence Impassibility Pantomath Predestination Problem of evil Epistemology References
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4,705
Equivalence_relation
In mathematics, an equivalence relation is, loosely, a binary relation on a set that specifies how to split up (i.e. partition) the set into subsets such that every element of the larger set is in exactly one of the subsets. Any two elements of the larger set are then considered "equivalent" with respect to the equivalence relation if and only if they are also elements of the same subset. An equivalence relation partitions a set into several disjoint subsets, called equivalence classes. All the elements in a given equivalence class are equivalent among themselves, and no element is equivalent with any element from a different class. Notation Although various notations are used throughout the literature to denote that two elements a and b of a set are equivalent with respect to equivalence relation R, the most common are "a ~ b" and "a ≡ b", which are used when R is the obvious relation being referenced, and variations of "a ~R b", "a ≡R b", or "aRb". Definition Let A be a set and ~ be a binary relation on A. ~ is called an equivalence relation if and only if for all , all the following holds true: Reflexivity: a ~ a Symmetry: if a ~ b then b ~ a Transitivity: if a ~ b and b ~ c then a ~ c. The equivalence class of a under ~, denoted [a], is defined as . A together with ~ is called a setoid. Note that reflexivity is implied by symmetry and transitivity if for each element a of A, there is another element b of A such that a and b are related. However, reflexivity does not follow from symmetry and transitivity alone. For example, consider the set of integers and define two elements as being related if they are both even numbers. This relation is clearly symmetric and transitive, but in view of the existence of odd numbers, it is not reflexive. Examples Equivalence relations An ubiquitous equivalence relation is the equality ("=") relation between elements of any set. Other examples include: "Has the same birthday as" on the set of all people, given naive set theory. "Is similar to" or "congruent to" on the set of all triangles. "Is congruent to modulo n" on the integers. "Has the same image under a function" on the elements of the domain of the function. Logical equivalence of logical sentences. "Is isomorphic to" on models of a set of sentences. In some axiomatic set theories other than the canonical ZFC (e.g., New Foundations and related theories): Similarity on the universe of well-orderings gives rise to equivalence classes that are the ordinal numbers. Equinumerosity on the universe of: Finite sets gives rise to equivalence classes which are the natural numbers. Infinite sets gives rise to equivalence classes which are the transfinite cardinal numbers. Let a, b, c, d be natural numbers, and let (a, b) and (c, d) be ordered pairs of such numbers. Then the equivalence classes under the relation (a, b) ~ (c, d) are the: Integers if a + d = b + c; Positive rational numbers if ad = bc. To obtain all the rational numbers, simply let a through d range over the integers just defined. Let (r<sub>n</sub>) and (s<sub>n</sub>) be any two Cauchy sequences of rational numbers. The real numbers are the equivalence classes of the relation (r<sub>n</sub>) ~ (s<sub>n</sub>), if the sequence (r<sub>n</sub> − s<sub>n</sub>) has limit 0. Green's relations are five equivalence relations on the elements of a semigroup. "Is parallel to" on the set of subspaces of an affine space. The binary relation of thermal equilibrium on the set of thermodynamic systems. The zeroth law of thermodynamics says that thermal equilibrium is a Euclidean relation. Thermal equilibrium is also trivially reflexive. For a proof that a relation that is both Euclidean and reflexive is also an equivalence relation, see here. Relations that are not equivalences The relation "≥" between real numbers is reflexive and transitive, but not symmetric. For example, 7 ≥ 5 does not imply that 5 ≥ 7. It is, however, a partial order. The relation "has a common factor greater than 1 with" between natural numbers greater than 1, is reflexive and symmetric, but not transitive. (Example: The natural numbers 2 and 6 have a common factor greater than 1, and 6 and 3 have a common factor greater than 1, but 2 and 3 do not have a common factor greater than 1). The empty relation R on a non-empty set X (i.e. aRb is never true) is vacuously symmetric and transitive, but not reflexive. (If X is also empty then R is reflexive.) The relation "is approximately equal to" between real numbers, even if more precisely defined, is not an equivalence relation, because although reflexive and symmetric, it is not transitive, since multiple small changes can accumulate to become a big change. However, if the approximation is defined asymptotically, for example by saying that two functions f and g are approximately equal near some point if the limit of f-g is 0 at that point, then this defines an equivalence relation. The relation "is a sibling of" (used to connote pairs of distinct people who have the same parents) on the set of all human beings is not an equivalence relation. Although siblinghood is symmetric (if A is a sibling of B, then B is a sibling of A) and transitive on any 3 distinct people (if A is a sibling of B and C is a sibling of B, then A is a sibling of C, provided A is not C), it is not reflexive (A cannot be a sibling of A). The concept of parallelism in ordered geometry is not symmetric and is, therefore, not an equivalence relation. An equivalence relation on a set is never an equivalence relation on a proper superset of that set. For example R = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3)} is an equivalence relation on {1,2,3} but not on {1,2,3,4} or on the natural numbers. The problem is that reflexivity fails because (4,4) is not a member. Connection to other relations A congruence relation is an equivalence relation whose domain X is also the underlying set for an algebraic structure, and which respects the additional structure. In general, congruence relations play the role of kernels of homomorphisms, and the quotient of a structure by a congruence relation can be formed. In many important cases congruence relations have an alternative representation as substructures of the structure on which they are defined. E.g. the congruence relations on groups correspond to the normal subgroups. A partial order replaces symmetry with antisymmetry and is thus reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive. Equality is the only relation that is both an equivalence relation and a partial order. A strict partial order is irreflexive, transitive, and asymmetric. A partial equivalence relation is transitive and symmetric. Transitive and symmetric imply reflexive if and only if for all a∈X exists b∈X such that a~b. A dependency relation is reflexive and symmetric. A preorder is reflexive and transitive. Equivalence class, quotient set, partition Let X be a nonempty set, and let . Some definitions: Equivalence class The set of all a and b for which a ~ b holds make up an equivalence class of X by ~. Let denote the equivalence class to which a belongs. Then all elements of X equivalent to each other are also elements of the same equivalence class. Quotient set The set of all possible equivalence classes of X by ~, denoted , is the quotient set of X by ~. If X is a topological space, there is a natural way of transforming X/~ into a topological space; see quotient space for the details. Projection The projection of ~ is the function defined by which maps elements of X into their respective equivalence classes by ~. Theorem on projections Garrett Birkhoff and Saunders Mac Lane, 1999 (1967). Algebra, 3rd ed. p. 35, Th. 19. Chelsea. : Let the function f: X → B be such that a ~ b → f(a) = f(b). Then there is a unique function g : X/~ → B, such that f = gπ. If f is a surjection and a ~ b ↔ f(a) = f(b), then g is a bijection. Equivalence kernel The equivalence kernel of a function f is the equivalence relation ~ defined by . The equivalence kernel of an injection is the identity relation. Partition A partition of X is a set P of subsets of X, such that every element of X is an element of a single element of P. Each element of P is a cell of the partition. Moreover, the elements of P are pairwise disjoint and their union is X. Fundamental Theorem of Equivalence Relations Wallace, D. A. R., 1998. Groups, Rings and Fields. p. 31, Th. 8. Springer-Verlag. Dummit, D. S., and Foote, R. M., 2004. Abstract Algebra, 3rd ed. p. 3, Prop. 2. John Wiley & Sons. An equivalence relation ~ on a set X partitions X. Conversely, corresponding to any partition of X, there exists an equivalence relation ~ on X. In both cases, the cells of the partition of X are the equivalence classes of X by ~. Since each element of X belongs to a unique cell of any partition of X, and since each cell of the partition is identical to an equivalence class of X by ~, each element of X belongs to a unique equivalence class of X by ~. Thus there is a natural bijection from the set of all possible equivalence relations on X and the set of all partitions of X. Counting possible partitions Let X be a finite set with n elements. Since every equivalence relation over X corresponds to a partition of X, and vice versa, the number of possible equivalence relations on X equals the number of distinct partitions of X, which is the nth Bell number B<sub>n</sub>: Generating equivalence relations Given any set X, there is an equivalence relation over the set [X→X] of all possible functions X→X. Two such functions are deemed equivalent when their respective sets of fixpoints have the same cardinality, corresponding to cycles of length one in a permutation. Functions equivalent in this manner form an equivalence class on [X→X], and these equivalence classes partition [X→X]. An equivalence relation ~ on X is the equivalence kernel of its surjective projection π : X → X/~ Garrett Birkhoff and Saunders Mac Lane, 1999 (1967). Algebra, 3rd ed. p. 33, Th. 18. Chelsea. . Conversely, any surjection between sets determines a partition on its domain, the set of preimages of singletons in the codomain. Thus an equivalence relation over X, a partition of X, and a projection whose domain is X, are three equivalent ways of specifying the same thing. The intersection of any collection of equivalence relations over X (viewed as a subset of X × X) is also an equivalence relation. This yields a convenient way of generating an equivalence relation: given any binary relation R on X, the equivalence relation generated by R is the smallest equivalence relation containing R. Concretely, R generates the equivalence relation a ~ b if and only if there exist elements x1, x2, ..., xn in X such that a = x1, b = xn, and (xi,xi+ 1)∈R or (xi+1,xi)∈R, i = 1, ..., n-1. Note that the equivalence relation generated in this manner can be trivial. For instance, the equivalence relation ~ generated by: Any total order on X has exactly one equivalence class, X itself, because x ~ y for all x and y; Any subset of the identity relation on X has equivalence classes that are the singletons of X. Equivalence relations can construct new spaces by "gluing things together." Let X be the unit Cartesian square [0,1] × [0,1], and let ~ be the equivalence relation on X defined by ∀a, b ∈ [0,1] ((a, 0) ~ (a, 1) ∧ (0, b) ~ (1, b)). Then the quotient space X/~ can be naturally identified with a torus: take a square piece of paper, bend and glue together the upper and lower edge to form a cylinder, then bend the resulting cylinder so as to glue together its two open ends, resulting in a torus. Algebraic structure Much of mathematics is grounded in the study of equivalences (the subject of this entry), and order relations. It is very well known that lattice theory captures the mathematical structure of order relations. Even though equivalence relations are as ubiquitous in mathematics as order relations, the algebraic structure of equivalences is not as well known as that of orders. The former structure draws primarily on group theory and, to a lesser extent, on the theory of lattices, categories, and groupoids. Group theory Just as order relations are grounded in ordered sets, sets closed under pairwise supremum and infimum, equivalence relations are grounded in partitioned sets, sets closed under bijections preserving partition structure. Since all such bijections map an equivalence class onto itself, such bijections are also known as permutations. Hence permutation groups (also known as transformation groups) and the related notion of orbit shed light on the mathematical structure of equivalence relations. Let '~' denote an equivalence relation over some nonempty set A, called the universe or underlying set. Let G denote the set of bijective functions over A that preserve the partition structure of A: ∀x ∈ A ∀g ∈ G (g(x) ∈ [x]). Then the following three connected theorems hold Bas van Fraassen, 1989. Laws and Symmetry. §10.3. Oxford Univ. Press. : ~ partitions A into equivalence classes. (This is the Fundamental Theorem of Equivalence Relations, mentioned above); Given a partition of A, G is a transformation group under composition, whose orbits are the cells of the partition‡; Given a transformation group G over A, there exists an equivalence relation ~ over A, whose equivalence classes are the orbits of G. Wallace, D. A. R., 1998. Groups, Rings and Fields. p. 202, Th. 6. Springer-Verlag. Dummit, D. S., and Foote, R. M., 2004. Abstract Algebra, 3rd ed. p. 114, Prop.2. John Wiley & Sons. . In sum, given an equivalence relation ~ over A, there exists a transformation group G over A whose orbits are the equivalence classes of A under ~. This transformation group characterisation of equivalence relations differs fundamentally from the way lattices characterize order relations. The arguments of the lattice theory operations meet and join are elements of some universe A. Meanwhile, the arguments of the transformation group operations composition and inverse are elements of a set of bijections, A → A. Moving to groups in general, let H be a subgroup of some group G. Let ~ be an equivalence relation on G, such that a ~ b ↔ (ab−1 ∈ H). The equivalence classes of ~—also called the orbits of the action of H on G—are the right cosets of H in G. Interchanging a and b yields the left cosets. ‡Proof Bas van Fraassen, 1989. Laws and Symmetry. p. 246. Oxford Univ. Press. . Let function composition interpret group multiplication, and function inverse interpret group inverse. Then G is a group under composition, meaning that ∀x ∈ A ∀g ∈ G ([g(x)] = [x]), because G satisfies the following four conditions: G is closed under composition. The composition of any two elements of G exists, because the domain and codomain of any element of G is A. Moreover, the composition of bijections is bijective Wallace, D. A. R., 1998. Groups, Rings and Fields. p. 22, Th. 6. Springer-Verlag. Existence of identity element. The identity function, I(x)=x, is an obvious element of G Existence of inverse function. Every bijective function g has an inverse g−1, such that gg−1 = I; Composition associates. f(gh) = (fg)h. This holds for all functions over all domains Wallace, D. A. R., 1998. Groups, Rings and Fields. p. 24, Th. 7. Springer-Verlag. . Let f and g be any two elements of G. By virtue of the definition of G, [g(f(x))] = [f(x)] and [f(x)] = [x], so that [g(f(x))] = [x]. Hence G is also a transformation group (and an automorphism group) because function composition preserves the partitioning of A. Categories and groupoids The composition of morphisms central to category theory, denoted here by concatenation, generalizes the composition of functions central to transformation groups. The axioms of category theory assert that the composition of morphisms associates, and that the left and right identity morphisms exist for any morphism. If a morphism f has an inverse, f is an isomorphism, i.e., there exists a morphism g such that the compositions fg and gf equal the appropriate identity morphisms. Hence the category-theoretic concept nearest to an equivalence relation is a (small) category whose morphisms are all isomorphisms. Groupoid is another name for a small category of this nature. Let G be a set and let "~" denote an equivalence relation over G. Then we can form a groupoid representing this equivalence relation as follows. The objects are the elements of G, and for any two elements x and y of G, there exists a unique morphism from x to y if and only if x~y. The elements x and y are "equivalent" if there is an element g of the groupoid from x to y. There may be many such g, each of which can be regarded as a distinct "proof" that x and y are equivalent. The advantages of regarding an equivalence relation as a special case of a groupoid include: Whereas the notion of "free equivalence relation" does not exist, that of a free groupoid on a directed graph does. Thus it is meaningful to speak of a "presentation of an equivalence relation," i.e., a presentation of the corresponding groupoid; Bundles of groups, group actions, sets, and equivalence relations can be regarded as special cases of the notion of groupoid, a point of view that suggests a number of analogies; In many contexts "quotienting," and hence the appropriate equivalence relations often called congruences, are important. This leads to the notion of an internal groupoid in a category Borceux, F. and Janelidze, G., 2001. Galois theories, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521803098 . Lattices The possible equivalence relations on any set X, when ordered by set inclusion, form a complete lattice, called Con X by convention. The canonical map ker: X^X → Con X, relates the monoid X^X of all functions on X and Con X. ker is surjective but not injective. Less formally, the equivalence relation ker on X, takes each function f: X→X to its kernel ker f. Likewise, ker(ker) is an equivalence relation on X^X. Equivalence relations and mathematical logic Equivalence relations are a ready source of examples or counterexamples. For example, an equivalence relation with exactly two infinite equivalence classes is an easy example of a theory which is ω-categorical, but not categorical for any larger cardinal number. An implication of model theory is that the properties defining a relation can be proved independent of each other (and hence necessary parts of the definition) if and only if, for each property, examples can be found of relations not satisfying the given property while satisfying all the other properties. Hence the three defining properties of equivalence relations can be proved mutually independent by the following three examples: Reflexive and transitive: The relation ≤ on N. Or any preorder; Symmetric and transitive: The relation R on N, defined as aRb ↔ ab ≠ 0. Or any partial equivalence relation; Reflexive and symmetric: The relation R on Z, defined as aRb ↔ "a − b is divisible by at least one of 2 or 3." Or any dependency relation. Properties definable in first-order logic that an equivalence relation may or may not possess include: The number of equivalence classes is finite or infinite; The number of equivalence classes equals the (finite) natural number n; All equivalence classes have infinite cardinality; The number of elements in each equivalence class is the natural number n. Euclid anticipated equivalence Euclid's The Elements includes the following "Common Notion 1": Things which equal the same thing also equal one another. Nowadays, the property described by Common Notion 1 is called Euclidean (replacing "equal" by "are in relation with"). The following theorem connects Euclidean relations and equivalence relations: Theorem. If a relation is Euclidean and reflexive, it is also symmetric and transitive. Proof: (aRc ∧ bRc) → aRb [a/c] = (aRa ∧ bRa) → aRb [reflexive; erase T∧] = bRa → aRb. Hence R is symmetric. (aRc ∧ bRc) → aRb [symmetry] = (aRc ∧ cRb) → aRb. Hence R is transitive. Hence an equivalence relation is a relation that is Euclidean and reflexive. The Elements mentions neither symmetry nor reflexivity, and Euclid probably would have deemed the reflexivity of equality too obvious to warrant explicit mention. If this (and taking "equality" as an all-purpose abstract relation) is granted, a charitable reading of Common Notion 1 would credit Euclid with being the first to conceive of equivalence relations and their importance in deductive systems. See also Automorphism Automorphism group Congruence relation Directed set Equality (mathematics) Equivalence Equivalence class Euclidean relation Group action Groupoid Partial equivalence relation Symmetry group Total order Transformation group Up to Notes References Brown, R., 2006. Topology and Groupoids, Booksurge LLC. ISBN 1419627228. Castellani, E., 2003, "Symmetry and equivalence" in Katherine Brading and E. Castellani (eds.), Symmetries in Physics: Philosophical Reflections. Cambridge University Press: 422-433. Robert Dilworth and Crawley, Peter, 1973. Algebraic Theory of Lattices. Prentice Hall. Chpt. 12 discusses how equivalence relations arise in lattice theory. Higgins, P.J., 1971. Categories and groupoids, van Nostrand, downloadable as TAC Reprint, 2005. John Randolph Lucas, 1973. A Treatise on Time and Space. London: Methuen. Section 31. Rosen, Joseph, 1995. Symmetry in Science: An Introduction to the General Theory. Springer-Verlag. External links Bogomolny, A., "Equivalence Relationship" cut-the-knot. Accessed 7 December 2007 Equivalence relation at PlanetMath
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4,706
Exon
An exon is a nucleic acid sequence that is represented in the mature form of an RNA molecule after a) portions of a precursor RNA, introns, have been removed by cis-splicing or b) two or more precursor RNA molecules have been ligated by trans-splicing. The mature RNA molecule can be a messenger RNA or a functional form of a non-coding RNA such as rRNA or tRNA. Depending on the context, exon can refer to the sequence in the DNA or its RNA transcript. History The term exon was coined by American biochemist Walter Gilbert in 1978: This definition was originally made for protein-coding transcipts that are spliced before being translated. The term later came to include sequences removed from rRNA Kister, K-P, Eckert,(1987) W.A., Characterization of an authentic intermediate in the self-splicing process of ribosomal precursor RNa in macronuclei of Tetrahymena thermophila Nucleic Acid research 15:1905-1920 and tRNA Valenzuela P, Venegas A, Weinberg F, Bishop R, Rutter WJ. (1978) Structure of yeast phenylalanine-tRNA genes: an intervening DNA segment within the region coding for the tRNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1978 Jan;75(1):190-4. , and it also was used later for RNA molecules originating from different parts of the genome that are then ligated by trans-splicing The transposition unit of variant surface glycoprotein gene 118 of Trypanosoma brucei. Presence of repeated elements at its border and absence of promoter-associated sequences. Liu AY, Van der Ploeg LH, Rijsewijk FA, Borst P. J Mol Biol. 1983 167(1):57-75 PMID: 6306255 . Function In many genes, each exon contains part of the open reading frame (ORF) that codes for a specific portion of the complete protein. However, the term exon is often misused to refer only to coding sequences for the final protein. This is incorrect, since many noncoding exons are known in human genes (Zhang 1998). To the right is a diagram of an heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA), which is an unedited mRNA transcript, or pre-mRNAs. Exons can include both sequences that code for amino acids (red) and untranslated sequences (grey). Stretches of unused sequence called introns (blue) are removed, and the exons are joined together to form the final functional mRNA. The notation 5' and 3' refer to the direction of the DNA template in the chromosome and is used to distinguish between the two untranslated regions (grey). Some of the exons will be wholly or part of the 5' untranslated region (5' UTR) or the 3' untranslated region (3' UTR) of each transcript. The untranslated regions are important for efficient translation of the transcript and for controlling the rate of translation and half life of the transcript. Furthermore, transcripts made from the same gene may not have the same exon structure since parts of the mRNA could be removed by the process of alternative splicing. Some mRNA transcripts have exons with no ORF's and thus are sometimes referred to as non-coding RNA. Exonization is the creation of a new exon, as result of mutations in intronic sequences . Polycistronic messages have multiple ORF's in one transcript and also have small regions of untranslated sequence between each ORF. Experimental approaches that utilize exons Exon trapping or 'gene trapping' is a molecular biology technique that exploits the existence of the intron-exon splicing to find new genes. The first exon of a 'trapped' gene splices into the exon that is contained in the insertional DNA. This new exon contains the ORF for a reporter gene that can now be expressed using the enhancers that control the target gene. A scientist knows that a new gene has been trapped when the reporter gene is expressed. Splicing can be experimentally modified so that targeted exons are excluded from mature mRNA transcripts by blocking the access of splice-directing small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs) to pre-mRNA using Morpholino antisense oligos . This has become a standard technique in developmental biology. Morpholino oligos can also be targeted to prevent molecules that regulate splicing (e.g. splice enhancers, splice suppressors) from binding to pre-mRNA, altering patterns of splicing. See also Intron Exon shuffling mRNA UTR Eukaryotic gene example References
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4,707
Oracle_Corporation
Oracle Corporation () specializes in developing and marketing enterprise software products — particularly database management systems. Through organic growth and a number of high-profile acquisitions, Oracle enlarged its share of the software market. By 2007 Oracle ranked third on the list of largest software companies in the world, after Microsoft and IBM. Software Top 100: "The World's Largest Software Companies" Subsequently it became larger than IBM after its acquisition of Hyperion and BEA. The corporation has arguably become best-known due to association with its flagship Oracle database. The company also builds tools for database development, middle-tier software, enterprise resource planning software (ERP), customer relationship management software (CRM) and supply chain management (SCM) software. The founder and CEO of Oracle Corporation, Larry Ellison, has served as Oracle's CEO throughout the company's history. Ellison also served as the Chairman of the Board until his replacement by Jeffrey O. Henley in 2004. Ellison retains his role as CEO. Ellison took inspiration from the 1970 paper written by Edgar F. Codd on relational database systems named "A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks". He had heard about the IBM System R database from an article in the IBM Research Journal provided by Ed Oates (a future co-founder of Oracle Corporation). System R also derived from Codd's theories, and Ellison wanted to make his Oracle product compatible with System R, but IBM stopped this by keeping the error codes for their DBMS secret. Ellison co-founded Oracle Corporation in 1977 under the name Software Development Laboratories (SDL). In 1979 SDL changed its name to Relational Software, Inc. (RSI). In 1982, RSI renamed itself as Oracle Systems Oracle anniversary timeline, page 4. Retrieved 2008-05-15 to align itself more closely with its flagship product Oracle Database. At this stage Robert Miner served as the company's senior programmer. On April 20, 2009 Oracle announced it was acquiring Sun Microsystems for $7.4B ($9.50 per share). "Oracle to Buy Sun" Overall timeline June 16, 1977: Oracle Corporation incorporated in Redwood Shores, California Oracle.com FAQ, oraFAQ.com as Software Development Laboratories (SDL) by Larry Ellison, Bob Miner and Ed Oates. June 1979: SDL renamed to "Relational Software Inc." (RSI), and relocated to Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California. Oracle 2, the first version of the Oracle database software, as purchased by Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, runs on PDP-11 hardware. The company decides to name the first version of its flagship product "version 2" rather than "version 1" because it believes customers might hesitate to buy the initial release of its product. October 1979: RSI actively promotes Oracle on the VAX platform (the software runs on the VAX in PDP-11 emulator mode) 1981 Umang Gupta joined Oracle Corporation where he wrote the first business plan for the company and served as Vice President and General Manager February 1981: RSI begins developing tools for the Oracle Database, including the Interactive Application Facility (IAF), a predecessor to Oracle*Forms. March 1983: RSI rewrites Oracle in C for portability and releases Oracle version 3. RSI takes the name "Oracle" in order to align more closely with its primary product. The name Oracle came from the code name of a CIA project which the founders had all worked on while at the Ampex Corporation. April 1984: Oracle received additional funding from Sequoia Capital. October 1984: Oracle version 4 released, introducing read consistency November 1984: Oracle database software ported to the PC platform. The MS-DOS version (4.1.4) of Oracle runs in only 512K of memory. (Oracle for MSDOS version 5, released in 1986, runs in Protected Mode on 286 machines using a technique invented by Mike Roberts, among the first products to do so.) April 1985: Oracle version 5 released — one of the first RDBMSs to operate in client-server mode. 1986: Oracle version 5.1 released with support for distributed queries. Investigations into clustering begin. March 12, 1986: Oracle goes public with revenues of $55 million USD. August 1987: Oracle founds its Applications division, building business-management software closely integrated with its database software. Oracle Corporation acquires TCI for its project management software. 1988: Oracle version 6 released with support for row-level locking and hot backups. The developers embedded the PL/SQL procedural language engine into the database but made no provision to store program blocks such as procedures and triggers in the database - this capability came in version 7. Users could submit PL/SQL blocks for immediate execution in the server from an environment such as SQL*Plus, or via SQL statements embedded in a host program. Oracle Corporation included separate PL/SQL engines in various client tools (such as SQL*Forms and Reports). 1989: Oracle Corporation moves its world headquarters to Redwood Shores, California. Revenues reach US$584 million 1990: In the third quarter, Oracle reports its first ever loss; it lays off hundreds of employees. Ellison hires Jeffrey O. Henley as CFO and Raymond Lane as COO. June 1992: Oracle 7 released with performance enhancements, administrative utilities, application-development tools, security features, the ability to persist PL/SQL program units in the database as stored procedures and triggers, and support for declarative referential integrity 1993: Oracle Corporation releases its "Cooperative Development Environment" (CDE), which bundles Oracle Forms, Reports, Graphics, Book 1994: Oracle acquired the database-product DEC Rdb (now called Oracle Rdb) from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). Oracle Rdb operates only on the OpenVMS platform (also a former product of DEC). June 21, 1995: Oracle Corporation announces new data-warehousing facilities, including parallel queries. November 1995: Oracle becomes one of the first large software companies to announce an Internet strategy when Ellison introduces the network computer concept at an IDC conference in Paris April 1997: Oracle releases the first version of Discoverer, an ad-hoc query tool for business intelligence (BI). June 1997: Oracle 8 released with SQL object technology, Internet technology and support for terabytes of data September 1997: Oracle Corporation announces its commitment to the Java platform, and introduces Oracle's Java integrated development environment, subsequently called "Oracle JDeveloper". January 1998: Oracle releases Oracle Applications 10.7 Network Computing Architecture (NCA). All the applications in the business software now run across the web in a standard web browser. May 1998: Oracle Corporation releases Oracle Applications 11 April 1998: Oracle announces that it will integrate a Java virtual machine with Oracle Database. September 1998: Oracle 8i released. October 1998: Oracle 8 and Oracle Application Server 4.0 released on the Linux platform. May 1999: Oracle releases JDeveloper 2.0, showcasing Business Components for Java (BC4J), a set of libraries and development tools for building database-aware applications. 2000: OracleMobile subsidiary founded. Oracle 9i released. May 2000: Oracle announces the Internet File System (iFS), later re-branded as Oracle Content Management SDK. June 2000: Oracle9i Application Server released with support for building portals. 2001: Ellison announces that Oracle saved $1 billion implementing and using its own business applications 2004: Oracle 10g released. December 13, 2004: After a long battle over the control of PeopleSoft, Oracle announces that it has signed an agreement to acquire PeopleSoft for $26.50 per share (approximately $10.3 billion). January 14, 2005: Oracle Corporation announces that it will reduce its combined workforce to 50,000, a reduction of approximately 5,000 following the take-over of PeopleSoft. Oracle Corporation plans to retain 90% of PeopleSoft product-development and product-support staff. March, 2005: Oracle Corporation extends its operations in the Middle East by opening a regional office in Amman, Jordan. September 2005: Oracle Corporation announces that it has agreed to acquire the private company Global Logistics Technologies, Inc., a global provider of logistics and transportation managements software (TMS) solutions, through a cash offer. September 12, 2005: Oracle Corporation announces its purchase of Siebel Systems, a producer of customer relationship management (CRM) technologies and an important provider of business intelligence software, for $5.8 billion. April 12, 2006: Oracle Corporation announces that it has agreed to acquire Portal Software, Inc. (OTC BB: PRSF.PK), a global provider of billing- and revenue-management solutions for the communications and media industry, through a cash tender offer for $4.90 per share, or approximately $220 million. October 25, 2006: Oracle Corporation announces Unbreakable Linux November 2, 2006: Oracle Corporation announces that it has agreed to acquire Stellent, Inc. (NASDAQ: STEL), a global provider of enterprise content management (ECM) software solutions, through a cash tender offer for $13.50 per share, or approximately $440 million. December 15, 2006, a majority of MetaSolv stockholders approved Oracle's acquisition of MetaSolv Software, a provider of operations support systems (OSS) software for the communications industry. 2007: Oracle 11g released. March 1, 2007: Oracle announces that it has agreed to buy Hyperion Solutions Corporation (Nasdaq: HYSL), a global provider of performance-management software solutions, through a cash tender offer for $52.00 per share, or approximately $3.3 billion. The acquisition officially ended on July 1, 2007. March 22, 2007: Oracle files a court case against a major competitor, SAP AG, in the Californian courts for malpractice and unfair competition. See Oracle documentation on the case. October 12, 2007: Oracle announces that it has made a bid to buy BEA Systems for a price of $17 per share, an offer rejected by the BEA board, which felt that it undervalued their company October 16, 2007: Oracle confirms the impending departure of John Wookey, senior vice president for application development and head of its applications strategy, raising questions concerning the planned release and future of Oracle's Fusion Applications strategy. January 16, 2008: Oracle announces it will buy BEA Systems for $19.375 per share in cash for a total of "$7.2 billion net of cash". Oracle to Acquire BEA Systems September 24, 2008: Oracle announces it will sell servers and storage, a co-developed and co-branded data warehouse appliance named the HP Oracle Database Machine. Oracle Introduces The HP Oracle Database Machine: Delivering 10x Faster Performance Than Current Oracle Data Warehouses April 20, 2009: Oracle announces its intention to acquire Sun Microsystems for $7.4B ($9.50 per share) "Oracle and Sun" . Technology timeline 1979: offers the first commercial SQL RDBMS. 1983: offers a VAX-mode database. 1984: offers the first database with read consistency. 1986: offers a client-server DBMS. 1987: introduces UNIX-based Oracle applications 1988: introduces PL/SQL. 1992: offers full applications implementation methodology. 1995: offers the first 64-bit RDBMS. 1996: moves towards an open standards-based, web-enabled architecture. 1999: offers its first DBMS with XML support. 2001: becomes the first to complete 3 terabyte TPC-H world record. 2002: offers the first database to pass 15 industry standard security evaluations. 2003: introduces what it calls "Enterprise Grid Computing" with Oracle10g. 2005: releases its first free database, Oracle Database 10g Express Edition (XE). 2006: becomes the global leader in CRM technologies by virtue of its takeover of Siebel Systems. 2008: smart scans in software speed query response in HP Oracle Database Machine / Exadata storage. RDBMS release timeline 1979: Oracle version 2 (first released version) 1982: Oracle version 3 1984: Oracle version 4 1986: Oracle version 5 1988: Oracle version 1 for Macintosh Physical user guide 1989: Oracle version 6 1993: Oracle version 7 1997: Oracle version 8 1999: Oracle version 8i 2001: Oracle version 9i 2003: Oracle version 10g 2007: Oracle version 11g Oracle acquisitions As became apparent with the acquisition of PeopleSoft in January 2005, Oracle has made acquisitions an important component of its growth strategy. Company Date Industry Valuationmillions USD Thinking Machines Corporation Darwin, Datamining technology N/A Toplink Object relation mapping technology N/A NetForce Adverse Event Reporting System N/A Steltor Enterprise calendaring system N/A Reliaty Enterprise data protection N/A Phaos Identity Management N/A Collaxa Business Process Management N/A PeopleSoft Enterprise Software $10,300 Oblix Identity Management N/A Retek Retail Industry Solutions $630 TripleHop Context-sensitive Enterprise Search N/A TimesTen Real-time Enterprise Solutions N/A ProfitLogic Retail Industry Solutions N/A Context Media Enterprise Content Integration N/A i-flex (Oracle Financial Services) Banking Industry Solutions $900 G-Log Transportation Management Solutions N/A Innobase Discrete Transactional Open Source Database Technology N/A Thor Technologies Enterprise-wide User Provisioning Solutions. N/A OctetString Virtual Directory Solutions N/A Temposoft Workforce Management Applications N/A 360Commerce Retail Industry Solutions N/A Siebel Systems Customer Relationship Management Solutions $5,850 Sleepycat Open Source Database Software for Embedded Applications N/A HotSip Communications Infrastructure Solutions N/A Portal Software Communications Industry Software Suite $220 Net4Call Communications Industry Service Delivery Platform N/A Demantra Demand-driven Planning Solutions N/A Telephony@Work IP-based Contact Center Technology N/A Sigma Dynamics Real-time Predictive Analytics Software N/A Sunopsis Enterprise Integration Software N/A MetaSolv Software Communications Service Providers Solutions $219 Stellent Content Management Solutions $440 SPL WorldGroup Revenue and Operations Management Software N/A Hyperion Solutions Enterprise Performance Management $3,300 AppForge (intellectual assets only) Cross-platform handheld development N/A Agile Software Corporation Product Life Cycle Management Software $495 Bharosa Identify Theft $495 NetSure Telecom Ltd. Network intelligence and optimization software Undisclosed Active Reasoning, Inc. IT Compliance software Undisclosed Bridgestream Enterprise Role Management N/A LogicalApps Compliance software N/A Moniforce End-user experience management software N/A BEA Systems Middleware software Company $8,500 Captovation Document capture software N/A Empirix (Web) Web application testing software N/A LODESTAR Corporation Utility software solutions N/A AdminServer Insurance policy administration software N/A Skywire Software Insurance software N/A Global Knowledge Software Technical Writing/Training Authoring software N/A ClearApp Application management solutions for composite applications software N/A Primavera Systems Project Portfolio Management solutions software N/A Haley Limited Policy modeling and automation software N/A mValent Application Configuration Management software N/A Relsys Drug safety and risk management solutions with advanced analytics for the health sciences industry N/A Sun Microsystems (announced but not completed) Computers, Computer Components, Computer Software, Development Environment and Information Technology Services $7,400 Virtual Iron Software (announced but not completed) Server virtualization management software N/A Products and services Technology products Various databases In 2004 Oracle Corporation shipped release 10g ("g" standing for "grid") as the then latest version of Oracle Database. (Oracle Application Server 10g using Java EE integrates with the server part of that version of the database, making it possible to deploy web-technology applications. The application server comprises the first middle-tier software designed for grid computing. The strong interrelationship between Oracle 10g and Java has enabled the company to allow developers to set up stored procedures written in the Java language, as well as those written in the traditional Oracle database programming language, PL/SQL.) Release 11g has started to replace release 10g. BerkeleyDB offers embedded database processing. Oracle Rdb, a relational database system, runs on OpenVMS platforms. Oracle acquired Rdb in 1994 from Digital Equipment Corporation. Oracle has since made many enhancements to this product and development continues . TimesTen features in-memory database operations. Oracle Fusion Middleware Oracle Enterprise Manager Some database administrators (DBAs) use Oracle Enterprise Manager (OEM) to manage the DBMS. With Oracle Database version 10g, Oracle Corporation introduced a web-based rewrite of OEM called "Oracle Enterprise Manager Database Control". Oracle Corporation has dubbed the super Enterprise Manager used to manage a grid of multiple DBMS and Application Servers as "Oracle Enterprise Manager Grid Control". Oracle Secure Enterprise Search Oracle Secure Enterprise Search (SES) is Oracle's enterprise search offering. It gives users the ability to search for content across multiple locations, including websites, file servers, content management systems, enterprise resource planning systems, customer relationship management systems, business intelligence systems, and databases. Oracle Beehive Released in 2008, Oracle Beehive is collaboration software that provides team workspaces (including wikis, team calendaring and file sharing), email, calendar, instant messaging, and conferencing on a single platform. It is available as licensed software or software as a service. Oracle Collaboration Suite Oracle Collaboration Suite is a collaboration software solution that contains messaging, groupware and collaboration applications. It has been replaced by Oracle Beehive. Development software Oracle Corporation's tools for developing applications include (amongst others): Oracle Designer Oracle Developer - which consists of Oracle Forms, Oracle Discoverer and Oracle Reports Oracle JDeveloper Oracle Application Express - also known as APEX Oracle SQL Developer Oracle SQL*Plus Worksheet Many external and third-party tools make the Oracle database administrator's tasks easier. Application products Besides databases, Oracle also sells a suite of business applications. The Oracle eBusiness Suite includes software to perform financial- (Oracle Financials), manufacturing-, enterprise resource planning and HR- (Human Resource Management Systems) related functions (Oracle HR). Users can access these facilities through a browser interface over the Internet or via a corporate intranet. Consequent to a number of high-value acquisitions beginning in 2003, especially in the area of applications, Oracle Corporation maintains a number of product lines: Oracle eBusiness Suite PeopleSoft Enterprise Siebel JD Edwards EnterpriseOne JD Edwards World Development of applications commonly takes place in Java (using Oracle JDeveloper) or through PL/SQL (using, for example, Oracle Forms and Oracle Reports). Oracle Corporation has started a drive toward "wizard"-driven environments with a view to enabling non-programmers to produce simple data-driven applications. Services Oracle Consulting Oracle University Oracle Certification Program Oracle On Demand Oracle Support Product support: Oracle Corporation identifies its customers and their support entitlements using CSI (Customer Support Identifier) codes. Registered customers can submit Service Requests (SRs) — usually via the web-accessible MetaLink interface or (as from September 2008) from its super-set: "My Oracle Support". Critical Patch Updates: since 2005, Oracle Corporation has grouped collections of patches and security fixes for its products each quarter into a "Critical Patch Update" (CPU), released each January, April, July and October. Critical Patch Updates and Security Alerts. Retrieved 2008-05-15. Oracle Financing Marketing Sales practices In 1990 Oracle laid off 10% (about 400 people) of its work force because of a mismatch between cash and revenues. This crisis, which almost resulted in Oracle's bankruptcy, came about because of Oracle's "up-front" marketing strategy, in which sales people urged potential customers to buy the largest possible amount of software all at once. The sales people then booked the value of future license sales in the current quarter, thereby increasing their bonuses. This became a problem when the future sales subsequently failed to materialize. Oracle eventually had to restate its earnings twice, and also settled (out of court) class-action lawsuits arising from its having overstated its earnings. Ellison would later say, in 1992, that Oracle had made "an incredible business mistake". Gilbert, Alorie (2002-06-20). Oracle cuts rewards for last-minute deals. CNET News. Retrieved on 2008-11-01 from http://www.zdnetasia.com/news/software/0,39044164,39048963,00.htm. Competition Although IBM dominated the mainframe relational database market with its DB2 and SQL/DS database products, it delayed entering the market for a relational database on UNIX and Windows operating systems. This left the door open for Sybase, Oracle, and Informix (and eventually Microsoft) to dominate mid-range and microcomputers. Around this time, Oracle technology started to lag technically behind that of Sybase. In 1990–1993 Sybase became the fastest-growing database company and the database industry's darling vendor, but soon fell victim to its merger mania and to technical issues with System X. Sybase's 1993 merger with PowerSoft resulted in its losing its focus on its core database technology. In 1993, Sybase sold the rights to its database software running under the Windows operating system to Microsoft Corporation, which markets it under the name "SQL Server." In 1994 Informix Software overtook Sybase and became Oracle's most important rival. The intense war between Informix CEO Phil White and Ellison made front-page news in Silicon Valley for three years. Ultimately, Oracle defeated Informix in 1997. In November 2005 a book detailing the war between Oracle and Informix appeared. The Real Story of Informix Software and Phil White provides a detailed chronology of the battle of Informix against Oracle, and how Informix Software's CEO Phil White landed in jail because of his obsession with overtaking Ellison. Once it had overcome Informix and Sybase, Oracle Corporation enjoyed years of dominance in the database market until use of Microsoft SQL Server became widespread in the late 1990s and IBM acquired Informix Software in 2000 (to complement its DB2 database). Oracle competes for new database licenses on UNIX, Linux, and Windows operating systems primarily against IBM's DB2 and Microsoft SQL Server (which only runs on Windows). IBM's DB2 dominates the mainframe database market. In 2004, Oracle's sales grew at a rate of 14.5% to $6.2 billion, giving it 41.3% and the top share of the relational-database market (InformationWeek - March, 2005), with market share estimated at up to 44.6% in 2005 by some sources. http://www.oracle.com/corporate/analyst/reports/infrastructure/dbms/idc-201692.pdf Oracle Corporation's main competitors in the database arena remain IBM DB2 and Microsoft SQL Server, and to a lesser extent Sybase and Teradata , with open-source databases such as PostgreSQL and MySQL also having a significant share of the market. EnterpriseDB, based on PostgreSQL, has made inroads by proclaiming that its product delivers Oracle compatibility features at a much lower price-point. In the software applications market, Oracle Corporation primarily competes against SAP. On March 22, 2007 Oracle sued SAP, accusing them of fraud and unfair competition. Due to the expanding market for business-intelligence software, many other software companies — small and large — have successfully competed in quality with Oracle and SAP products. Some commentators expect that more products and business intelligence services will appear . Oracle and SAP Oracle Corporation and the German company SAP AG had a decade-long history of cooperation. This cooperation began in 1988, with the integration of SAP's R/3 enterprise application suite with Oracle's relational database products. The marketplace regarded the two firms' products as complementing one another, rather than as substitutes. Despite the current SAP partnership with Microsoft, and the increasing integration of SAP applications with Microsoft products (such as Microsoft SQL Server, a competitor to Oracle Database), Oracle and SAP continue their cooperation. According to Oracle Corporation, the majority of SAP's customers use Oracle databases. In years, however, competition between Oracle and SAP has increased, and as a result, the rivalry between the two companies has grown, even developing into a feud between the co-founders of the two companies, where one party would frequently voice strong negative comments about the other company. In 2004 Oracle began to increase its interest in the business of enterprise applications (in 1989, Oracle had already released Oracle Financials). A series of acquisitions by Oracle Corporation began, most notably those of PeopleSoft, Siebel and Hyperion). SAP recognized that Oracle had started to become a competitor in a market where SAP had the leadership, and saw an opportunity to lure in customers from those companies that Oracle Corporation had acquired. SAP would offer those customers special discounts on the licenses for its enterprise applications. Safe Passage Program Oracle Corporation would resort to a similar strategy, by advising SAP customers to get "OFF SAP" (a play on the words of the acronym for its middleware platform "Oracle Fusion for SAP"), Oracle press release and also by providing special discounts on licenses and services to SAP customers who chose Oracle Corporation products. Oracle and SAP also compete in the third-party enterprise software maintenance and support market (the latter through its recently acquired subsidiary TomorrowNow). On March 22, 2007 Oracle filed a suit against SAP. The complaint alleged that TomorrowNow, which provides discount support for legacy Oracle product lines, used the accounts of former Oracle customers to systematically download patches and support documents from Oracle's website and to appropriate them for SAP's use. http://www.oracle.com/corporate/press/2007_mar/sapsuit.html http://www.oracle.com/sapsuit Some analysts have suggested the suit could form part of a strategy by Oracle Corporation to decrease competition with SAP in the market for third-party enterprise software maintenance and support. The lawsuit As barometer: SAP finally scores big with TomorrowNow | Enterprise Anti-matter | ZDNet.com On July 3, 2007 SAP admitted that TomorrowNow employees had made "inappropriate downloads" from the Oracle support web site. However, it claims that SAP personnel and SAP customers had no access to Oracle intellectual property via TomorrowNow. SAP's CEO Henning Kagermann stated that "Even a single inappropriate download is unacceptable from my perspective. We regret very much that this occurred." Additionally, SAP announced that it had "instituted changes" in TomorrowNow's operational oversight. SAP Responds to Oracle Complaint Slogans : "The Information Company" or "Oracle let's go !!" "Information driven" for the Oracle Database: "Can't break it, can't break in" or "Unbreakable" Controversies Trashgate In 2000 Oracle gained attention from the computer industry and the press after hiring private investigators to dig through the trash of organizations involved in a antitrust trial involving Microsoft. Oracle Rethinks Its Dumpster-Diving Ways The Chairman of Oracle Corporation, Larry Ellison, staunchly defended his company's hiring of an East Coast detective agency to investigate groups that supported rival Microsoft Corporation during its antitrust trial, calling the snooping a "public service". The investigation reportedly included a $1,200 offer to janitors at the Association for Competitive Technology to look through Microsoft's trash. Asked how he'd feel if others were looking into Oracle's business activities, Ellison said: "We will ship our garbage to Redmond, and they can go through it. We believe in full disclosure." Swing Shift Column, San Jose Mercury News (San Jose, California) (via Knight-Ridder/Tribune Business News) (December , 2000) "Can't break it, can't break in" Oracle Corporation markets many of its products using the slogan "Can't break it, can't break in", or "Unbreakable". This signifies the increasing demands on information safety. Oracle Corporation also stresses the reliability of networked databases and network access to databases as major selling points. However, two weeks after its introduction in 2002, David Litchfield, Alexander Kornbrust, Cesar Cerrudo and others demonstrated a whole suite of successful attacks against Oracle products. The Register: "Oracle security claim" The Register: "How to hack unbreakable Oracle" Commentators criticized the slogan as unrealistic and as an invitation to crackers, but Oracle Corporation's chief security officer Mary Ann Davidson portrayed the criticism as unfair. Rather than representing a literal claim of Oracle's products' impregnability, she saw the campaign in the context of fourteen independent security evaluations Oracle list of major Security certifications Oracle list of major Security certifications that Oracle Corporation's database server passed. Relationship with John Ashcroft In 2004, then-United States Attorney General John Ashcroft sued Oracle Corporation to prevent a contract acquisition. Then, in 2005, Oracle hired Ashcroft's recently-founded lobbying firm, The Ashcroft Group, LLC. Oracle, with Ashcroft's lobbying, then went on to acquire the contract, a multi-billion dollar intelligence application. Chicago Tribune: "Ashcroft breaks with tradition by lobbying, has earned $269,000" Headquarters Oracle headquarters Oracle Corporation has its world headquarters on the San Francisco Peninsula in the Redwood Shores area of Redwood City, adjacent to Belmont, near San Carlos Airport (IATA airport code: SQL). Oracle HQ stands on the former site of Marine World Africa USA, which moved from Redwood Shores to Vallejo in 1986. Oracle Corporation originally leased two buildings on the site, moving its finance and administration departments from the corporation's former headquarters in Davis Drive, Belmont, California. Eventually, Oracle purchased the complex and constructed a further four main buildings. The Oracle Parkway buildings featured prominently as the futuristic headquarters of the fictional company "NorthAm Robotics" in the Robin Williams film Bicentennial Man (1999). IMDb: Trivia for Bicentennial Man Sponsorships On 20 October 2006, the Golden State Warriors and the Oracle Corporation announced a 10-year agreement in which the Oakland Arena would become known as the Oracle Arena. Larry Ellison's yachting sponsorship uses the "Oracle" name: Oracle BMW Racing. People Bruce Scott, one of the first employees at Oracle (then Software Development Laboratories), subsequently co-founded Gupta Technologies (which later became Centura Software) in 1984 with Umang Gupta, and later became CEO and founder of PointBase, Inc. Bruce served as the co-author and co-architect of Oracle V1, V2 and V3. He originated the sample schema "SCOTT" (containing tables like EMP and DEPT) with the password defaulted to TIGER (apparently named after his cat). In 1997, Larry Ellison became a director of Apple Computer after Steve Jobs came back to that company. Ellison resigned in 2002, saying that he did not have the time to attend necessary formal board meetings. Trivia On May 14, 2005 a Saturday Night Live skit referenced Oracle Corporation. The skit involved Will Ferrell as a team leader at an Oracle summit/convention. Ferrell's character did song parodies that reflected Oracle http://snltranscripts.jt.org/04/04soracle.phtml . Part of Oracle Corporation's early success arose from using the C programming language to implement its products. This eased porting to different operating systems (most of which support C). This gave Oracle Corporation an advantage over companies that used operating-system-specific languages. Oracle Corporation programmers wrote the first C compiler for the IBM mainframe platform in order to port to that platform. The closest airport to the Oracle World Corporate Headquarters, San Carlos Airport, uses the IATA code "SQL". This coincidence has nothing to do with the SQL Language: the airport acquired its code well before the founding of the Oracle Corporation. On August 22, 2008 AP ranked founder Larry Ellison as the top-paid chief executive NY Daily News: Oracle's Larry Ellison grabs top spot on best-paid list CEOWorld Magazine:University of Illinois drop out Lawrence J. Ellison of Oracle: highest paid Technology CEO . See also Oracle OpenWorld (cf MIX Conference) Oracle Clinical Oracle Unbreakable Linux Oracle User Group Oracle Technology Network Oracle Certification Program Oracle Applications List of acquisitions by Oracle References External links The Oracle Corporation website Oracle Technology Network "Oracle's Transformation" a 2007 speech by Larry Ellison
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4,708
AIM-7_Sparrow
The AIM-7 Sparrow is a medium-range semi-active radar homing air-to-air missile operated by the United States Air Force, United States Navy and United States Marine Corps, as well as various allied air forces and navies. Sparrow and its derivatives were the West's principal beyond visual range (BVR) air-to-air missile from the late 1950s until the 1990s. It remains in service, although it is being phased out in aviation applications in favor of the more advanced AIM-120 AMRAAM. The armed forces of Japan employ the Sparrow missile, though it is being phased out and replaced by the Mitsubishi AAM-4. NATO pilots use the brevity code Fox One in radio communication to signal launch of a Semi-Active Radar Homing Missile such as the Sparrow. The Sparrow was used as the basis for a surface-to-air missile, the RIM-7 Sea Sparrow, which is used by the United States Navy for air defense of its ships. Development Sparrow I Sparrow I's during tests on a F3D Skyknight in the early 1950s The Sparrow emerged from a late-1940s United States Navy program to develop a guided rocket weapon for air-to-air use. In 1947 the Navy contracted Sperry to build a beam riding version of a standard HVAR, the standard unguided aerial rocket, under Project Hotshot. The weapon was initially dubbed KAS-1, then AAM-2, and, from 1948 on, AAM-N-2. The airframe was developed by Douglas Aircraft Company. The diameter of the HVAR proved to be inadequate for the electronics, leading Douglas to expand the missile's airframe to diameter. The prototype weapon made its first aerial interception in 1952. After a protracted development cycle the initial AAM-N-2 Sparrow entered service in 1956, carried by the F3H-2M Demon and F7U Cutlass fighter aircraft. Compared to the modern versions, the Sparrow I was more streamlined and featured a bullet-shaped airframe with a long pointed nose. Sparrow I was a limited and rather primitive weapon. The limitations of beam-riding guidance (which was slaved to an optical sight, requiring visual identification of the target) restricted the missile to visual-range attacks and made it essentially useless against a maneuvering target. Only about 2,000 rounds were produced to this standard. Sparrow II As early as 1950 Douglas examined equipping the Sparrow with an active radar seeker, initially known as XAAM-N-2a Sparrow II, the original retroactively becoming Sparrow I. In 1952 it was given the new code AAM-N-3. By 1955 Douglas proposed going ahead with development, intending it to be the primary weapon for the F5D Skylancer interceptor, and ten years later an advanced active radar similar to the modern AMRAAM for the Avro Arrow were built under license by Canadair (see below). However, the small size of the missile forebody and the K-band AN/APQ-64 radar limited performance, and it was never able to work in testing. The program was cancelled in 1958 when the Arrow was cancelled and all work ended. Sparrow 2D The Sparrow II missile, along with the RCA-Victor Astra fire control system was chosen for the Avro Arrow project. After the U.S. Navy cancelled the Sparrow II program in 1956, work was transferred to Canadair. As a cost savings measure ($3.5 Million per aircraft) the ASTRA and Sparrow II programs were terminated in 1958. The Sparrow 2D project was extremely ambitious for the 1950s: its goals - a fully active fire and forget missile - were not fulfilled until the AMRAAM missile was introduced in the 1980s. Sparrow X A subvariant of the Sparrow 2D that carries the same nuclear warhead as the MD-2 Genie but was cancelled due to the fact that it was proposed slightly before the CF-105 was cancelled. Sparrow III F3H Demon launching a Sparrow III in 1958 Concurrently, in 1951, Raytheon began work on the semi-active radar homing version of Sparrow family of missiles, the AAM-N-6 Sparrow III. The first of these weapons entered United States Navy service in 1958. The AAM-N-6a was similar to the -6, but used a new Thiokol liquid-fuel rocket engine for improved performance. It also included changes to the guidance electronics to make it effective at higher closing speeds. The -6a was also selected to arm the Air Force's F-110A Spectre (F-4 Phantom) fighters in 1962, known to them as the AIM-101. It entered production in 1959, with 7500 being built. Another upgrade reverted to a Rocketdyne solid-fuel motor for the AAM-N-6b, which started production in 1963. The new motor significantly increased maximum range to for head-on attacks. During this year the Navy and Air Force agreed on standardized naming conventions for their missiles. The Sparrows became the AIM-7 series. The original Sparrow I and aborted Sparrow II became the AIM-7A and AIM-7B, despite both being out of service. The -6, -6a and -6B became the AIM-7C, AIM-7D and AIM-7E respectively. 25,000 AIM-7E's were produced, and saw extensive use during the Vietnam War, where its performance was generally considered disappointing. The mixed results were a combination of reliability problems (exacerbated by the tropical climate), limited pilot training in fighter-to-fighter combat, and restrictive rules of engagement that generally prohibited BVR (beyond visual range) engagements. The Pk (kill probability) of the AIM-7E was less than 10%; US fighter pilots shot down 55 aircraft using the Sparrow. In 1969 an improved version, the E-2, was introduced with clipped wings and various changes to the fusing. Considered a "dogfight Sparrow", the AIM-7E-2 was intended to be used at shorter ranges where the missile was still travelling at high speeds, and in the head-on aspect, making it much more useful in the visual limitations imposed on the engagements. Even so, its kill rate was only 13% in actual combat in 1972, leading to a practice of ripple-firing all four at once in hopes of increasing kill probability. Its worst tendency was that of detonating prematurely, approximately a thousand feet in front of the launching aircraft, but it also had many motor failures, erratic flights, and fusing problems. An E-3 version included additional changes to the fusing, and an E-4 featured a modified seeker for use with the F-14 Tomcat. Improved versions of the AIM-7 were developed in the 1970s in an attempt to address the weapon's limitations. The AIM-7F, which entered service in 1976, had a dual-stage rocket motor for longer range, solid-state electronics for greatly improved reliability, and a larger warhead. Even this version had room for improvement, leading British Aerospace and the Italian firm Selenia to develop advanced versions of Sparrow with better performance and improved electronics as the Skyflash and Selenia Aspide, respectively. The most common version of the Sparrow today, the AIM-7M, entered service in 1982 and featured a new inverse monopulse seeker (matching the capabilities of Skyflash), active radar fuse, digital controls, improved ECM resistance, and better low-altitude performance. It was used to good advantage in the 1991 Gulf War, where it scored many USAF air-to-air kills; however its kill probability, overall, is still less than 40%. The AIM-7P is similar in most ways to the M versions, and was primarily an upgrade program for existing M-series missiles. The main changes were to the software, improving low-level performance. A follow-on Block II upgrade added a new rear receiver allowing the missile to receive mid-course correction from the launching aircraft. Plans initially called for all M versions to be upgraded, but currently P's are being issued as required to replace M's lost or removed from the inventory. The final version of the missile was to have been the AIM-7R, which added an infrared seeker to an otherwise unchanged AIM-7P Block II. A general wind-down of the budget led to it being cancelled in 1997. Sparrow is now being phased out with the availability of the active-radar AIM-120 AMRAAM, but is likely to remain in service for a number of years. Foreign versions Italy The Italian company Finmeccanica, Alenia Difesa licensed the AIM-7E Sparrow technology from US, and produced its own improved version called Aspide. UK British Aerospace (BAe) licensed the AIM-7E2 technology in the 1970s, producing the Skyflash missile. Skyflash used a Marconi XJ521 monopulse Semi-Active seeker together with improvements to the electronics. It was powered by the Aerojet Mk52 mod 2 rocket engine (later by the Rocketdyne Mk38 mod 4). Skyflash entered service with the Royal Air Force (RAF) on their Phantom FG.1/FGR.2 in 1976, and later on the Tornado F3. The Skyflash was also exported to Sweden for use on their Viggen fighters. An upgraded version with active radar seeker, called Active Sky Flash was proposed by BAe and Thomson-CSF, but did not receive funding because the RAF opted for other missiles. http://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/missile/row/skyflash.htm Design The Sparrow has four major sections: guidance section, warhead, control, and rocket motor (currently the Hercules MK-58 solid-propellant rocket motor). It has a cylindrical body with four wings at mid-body and four tail fins. Although the external dimensions of the Sparrow remained relatively unchanged from model to model, the internal components of newer missiles represent major improvements, with vastly increased capabilities. The warhead is of the continuous-rod type. As with other semi-active radar guided missiles, the missile does not generate radar signals, but instead homes in on reflected continuous-wave signals from the launch platform's radar. The receiver also senses the guidance radar to enable comparisons that enhance the missile's resistance to passive jamming. Principle of guidance (semi-active version) The launching aircraft will illuminate the target with its radar. In radars of the 1950s these were single target tracking devices using a nutating horn as part of its antenna. This caused the beam to be swept in a small cone. Signal processing would be applied to determine the direction of maximum illumination and so develop a signal to steer the antenna toward the target. The missile detects the reflected signal from the target with a high gain antenna in a similar fashion and steers the entire missile toward closure with the target. The missile guidance also samples a portion of the illuminating signal via rearward pointing waveguides. The comparison of these two signals enabled logic circuits to determine the true target reflection signal, even if the target were to eject radar-reflecting chaff. See also AIM-9 Sidewinder AIM-54 Phoenix List of missiles Missile designation References Michel, Marshall L. (2004). Clashes: Air Combat Over North Vietnam 1965-1972, Naval Institute Press, ISBN 1557505853 External links Aero Arrow Recovery Canada GlobalSecurity.org Designation-Systems.Net
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aim_sidewinder:1 external_link:1 globalsecurity_org:1
4,709
Neil_Peart
Neil Ellwood Peart () OC, (born September 12, 1952) is a Canadian musician and author. He is best-known as the drummer and lyricist for the rock band Rush. Peart grew up in Port Dalhousie, Ontario, Canada (now part of St. Catharines) working the occasional odd job. However, his true ambition was to become a professional musician. During adolescence, he floated from regional band to regional band and dropped out of high school to pursue a career as a full-time drummer. After a discouraging stint in England to concentrate on his music, Peart returned home, where he joined a local Toronto band, Rush, in the summer of 1974. Early in his career, Peart's performance style was deeply rooted in hard rock. He drew most of his inspiration from drummers such as Keith Moon and John Bonham, players who were at the forefront of the British hard rock scene. Anatomy of a Drum Solo DVD, Neil Peart (2005) accompanying booklet. (Republished in Modern Drummer Magazine, April 2006) As time progressed, however, he began to emulate jazz and big band musicians Gene Krupa and Buddy Rich. In 1994, Peart became a friend and pupil of jazz instructor Freddie Gruber. Neil Peart Biography Accessed January 18, 2008 It was during this time that Peart decided to revamp and reinvent his playing style by incorporating jazz and swing components. Gruber was also responsible for introducing him to the products of Drum Workshop, the company whose products Peart currently endorses. Peart has received many awards for his musical performances and is known for his technical proficiency and stamina. Olson, Andrew C."Neil Peart Modern Drummer Awards" - andrewolson.com - Updated 10/1/06 - Accessed July 18, 2007 In addition to being a musician, Peart is also a prolific writer, having published several memoirs about his travels. Peart is also Rush's primary lyricist. In writing lyrics for Rush, Peart addressed universal themes and diverse subject matter including science fiction, fantasy, and philosophy, as well as secular, humanitarian and libertarian themes. In contrast, his books have been focused on his personal experiences. Life and career Early life Peart was born on his family's farm in Hagersville, on the outskirts of Hamilton. The first child of four, his brother Danny and sisters Judy and Nancy were born after the family moved to St. Catharines when Peart was two. At this time his father became parts manager for Dalziel Equipment, a farm machinery supplier. In 1956 the family moved to the Port Dalhousie area of the town. Peart attended Gracefield School, and describes his childhood as happy and says he experienced a warm family life. By early adolescence he became interested in music and acquired a transistor radio, which he would use to tune into pop music stations broadcasting from Toronto, Hamilton, Welland and Buffalo. His first exposure to musical training came in the form of piano lessons, which he later said in his instructional video A Work in Progress did not have much impact on him. He had a penchant for drumming on various objects around the house with a pair of chopsticks, so for his 13th birthday, his parents bought him a pair of drum sticks, a practice pad and some lessons, with the promise that if he stuck with it for a year, they would buy him a kit. His parents bought him a drum kit for his 14th birthday and he began taking lessons from Don George at the Peninsula Conservatory of Music. His stage debut took place that year at the school's Christmas pageant in St. Johns Anglican Church Hall in Port Dalhousie. His next appearance was at Lakeport High School with his first group, The Eternal Triangle. This performance contained an original number entitled "LSD Forever". At this show he performed his first solo. Peart got a job in Lakeside Park, a fairground on the shores of Lake Ontario, which later inspired a song of the same name on the Rush album Caress of Steel. Lakeside Park Rush Song Facts Accessed February 15, 2008 He worked on the Bubble Game and Ball Toss, but his tendency to take it easy when business was slack resulted in his termination. By his late teens, Peart had played in local bands such as Mumblin’ Sumpthin’, the Majority, and JR Flood. These bands practiced in basement recreation rooms and garages and played church halls, high schools and roller rinks in towns across Southern Ontario such as Mitchell, Seaforth, and Elmira. They also played in the northern Ontario city of Timmins. Tuesday nights were filled with jam sessions at the Niagara Theatre Centre. Peart, Neil. with Brian Collins editor "A Port boy's story" parts 1 & 2 - St. Catharines Standard - (c/o geocities.com) - June 24/25, 1994 - Accessed August 9, 2007 Career before joining Rush At eighteen years of age, after struggling to achieve success as a drummer in Canada, Peart traveled to London hoping to further his career as a professional musician. Despite playing in several bands and picking up occasional session work, he was forced to support himself by selling trinkets to tourists in a souvenir shop called The Great Frog on Carnaby Street. Neil Peart in London Don Howe Accessed February 19, 2008 The National Midnight Star White-Barn.com Accessed February 19, 2008 While in London he came across the writings of novelist and objectivist Ayn Rand. Rand's writings became a significant philosophical influence on Peart, as he found many of her treatises to individualism and Objectivism inspiring. References to Rand's philosophy can be found in his lyrics, most notably "Anthem" from 1975's Fly By Night album, "Freewill" from 1980's Permanent Waves, and "2112" from 1976's 2112. Allmusic guide Review for 2112 Allmusic guide Accessed February 10 After eighteen months of dead-end musical gigs, and disillusioned by his lack of progress in the music business, Peart placed his aspiration of becoming a professional musician on hold and returned to Canada. Upon returning to St. Catharines, he worked for his father selling tractor parts at Dalziel Equipment. Joining Rush After returning to Canada, Peart was recruited to play drums for the St. Catharines band Hush, who played on the South Ontario bar circuit. Soon after, a mutual acquaintance convinced Peart to audition for the Toronto-based band Rush, which needed a replacement for its original drummer John Rutsey. Geddy Lee and Alex Lifeson oversaw the audition. His future band mates describe his arrival that day as somewhat humorous, as he arrived in shorts, driving a battered old car with his drums stored in trashcans. Peart felt the entire audition was a complete disaster. While Lee and Peart hit it off on a personal level (both sharing similar tastes in books and music), Lifeson had a less than favorable impression of Peart. After some discussion, Lee convinced Lifeson that Peart's maniacal British style of drumming, reminiscent of The Who's Keith Moon, was what the band needed. History of Rush History of Rush Accessed February 2006 Peart officially joined the band on July 29, 1974, two weeks before the group's first US tour. Peart procured a silver Slingerland kit which he played at his first gig with the band, opening for Uriah Heep and Manfred Mann in front of over 11,000 people at the Civic Arena, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on August 14, 1974. Neil Peart and Rush's first performance Chartattack Accessed February 19, 2008 Early career with Rush Peart soon settled into his new position, also becoming the band's primary lyricist. Before joining Rush, he had written few songs, but, with the other members largely uninterested in writing lyrics, Peart's previously underutilized writing became as noticed as his musicianship. Neil Peart's Lyrics Rob Pagano's website - Neil Peart Mini-Biography Accessed February 22, 2008 The band was still finding its feet as a recording act, and Peart, along with the rest of the band, now had to learn to live from a suitcase. His first recording with the band, 1975's Fly by Night, was fairly successful, winning the Juno Award for most promising new act, Individual awards list Accessed July 16, 2007 but, the follow up, Caress of Steel, which the band had high hopes for, was greeted with hostility by both fans and critics. Caress of Steel Review Greg Prato, Allmusic Guide Accessed September 20, 2007 In response to this negative reception, most of which was aimed at the B side spanning epic "The Fountain of Lamneth", Peart responded by penning "2112" on their next album of the same name in 1976. The album, despite record company indifference, became their breakthrough and gained a following in the United States. Allmusic guide Review for 2112 Allmusic guide Accessed February 10, 2008 The supporting tour culminated in a three night stand at Massey Hall in Toronto, a venue Peart had dreamed of playing in his days on the Southern Ontario bar circuit and where he was now introduced as "The Professor on the drum kit" by Lee. Geddy Lee Announces Neil Peart Rush Frequently Asked Questions Accessed February 19, 2008 Peart returned to England for Rush's Northern European Tour and the band stayed in the United Kingdom to record the next album, 1977's A Farewell to Kings in Rockfield Studios in Wales. They returned to Rockfield to record the follow up, Hemispheres, in 1978, which they wrote entirely in the studio. The recording of five studio albums in four years, coupled with as many as 300 gigs a year, convinced the band to take a different approach thereafter. Peart has described his time in the band up to this point as "a dark tunnel." Current Biography Magazine Power Windows Website Accessed February 19, 2008 From this point on, Peart's career was near exclusively with Rush: Play style reinvention In 1992, Peart was invited by Buddy Rich's daughter, Cathy Rich, to play at the Buddy Rich Memorial Scholarship Concert in New York City. Though initially intimidated by the request, Peart accepted the offer and performed for the first time with the Buddy Rich Big Band. Feeling that his performance left much to be desired, Peart decided to produce and play on two Buddy Rich tribute albums titled Burning for Buddy: A Tribute to the Music of Buddy Rich in 1994 and 1997, respectively in order to regain his aplomb. Peart wrote on his personal website that "And yet...I still had a nagging feeling that when I played in that style, I was just imitating it, not really feeling it properly. As the old Duke Ellington standard goes, 'It don’t mean a thing, if it ain’t got that swing', and I didn’t think I did." Neil Peart's Official Website Neil Peart News Accessed November 6, 2008 In early 2007, Peart and Cathy Rich again began discussing yet another Buddy tribute concert. In response, Peart decided to once again augment his swing style with formal drum lessons, this time under the tutelage of another pupil of Freddie Gruber, Peter Erskine, himself an instructor of drummer Steve Gadd. On October 18, 2008, Peart once again performed at the Buddy Rich Memorial Concert at New York's Hammerstein Ballroom. Family tragedy & continuing on Soon after the culmination of Rush's Test For Echo Tour on July 4, 1997, Peart's daughter and only child, 19-year-old Selena Taylor, was killed in a single-car accident on Highway 401 near the town of Brighton, Ontario on August 10. His common-law wife of 22 years, Jacqueline Taylor, succumbed to cancer only 10 months later on June 20, 1998. Peart, however, maintains that her death was the result of a "broken heart" and called it "a slow suicide by apathy. She just didn't care." In his book Ghost Rider: Travels on the Healing Road, Peart writes of how he had told his bandmates at Selena's funeral, "consider me retired." Peart took a hiatus to mourn and reflect, during which time he traveled extensively throughout North America on his BMW motorcycle, covering 88,000 km (55,000 miles). After his journey ended, Peart decided to return to the band. Peart wrote Ghost Rider: Travels on the Healing Road as a chronicle of his geographical and emotional journey. While Peart was visiting long-time Rush photographer Andrew MacNaughtan in Los Angeles, MacNaughtan introduced Peart to his future wife, photographer Carrie Nuttall. They married on September 9, 2000. In early 2001, Peart announced to his bandmates that he was ready to return to recording and performing. The product of the band's return was the 2002 album Vapor Trails. At the start of the ensuing tour in support of the album, it was decided amongst the band members that Peart would not take part in the daily grind of press interviews and "Meet and Greet" sessions upon their arrival in a new city that typically monopolize a touring band's daily schedule. While Peart has always shied away from these types of in-person encounters, it was decided that having to needlessly expose him to an endless stream of questions about the tragic events of his life was quite unnecessary. MacNaughtan, Andrew. Geddy Lee. and Alex Lifeson. "The Boys in Brazil", Rush in Rio DVD Bonus Material. New York, New York: Atlantic Recording Corporation/Anthem/Msi Music Corp October 2003. ISBN 6311465272 Daniel Catullo Rush. Rush in Rio. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Zoë Vision. 2003. OCLC 53877410 Jordan, Lawrence. Daniel E Catullo. Rush Rush in Rio. London: Sanctuary Visual Entertainment. 2003. OCLC 84678389 Since the release of Vapor Trails and reuniting with his fellow band mates, Peart has returned to work as a full-time musician. Rush has since released a cover EP, Feedback in June 2004 and their 18th studio album Snakes & Arrows in May 2007, which were supported by three additional tours in 2004, 2007, and 2008. Musicianship Style and influences Peart (right, behind Geddy Lee) performing with Rush. Peart is consistently ranked as one of the greatest rock drummers by fans, fellow musicians, and magazines. Scaruffi, Piero. "Greatest rock drummers of all times" - scaruffi.com - Accessed July 18, 2007 Neil Peart page - DrummerWorld - Accessed July 18, 2007 "Best drummers in rock" - tribe.net - Thursday, January 12, 2006 - Accessed July 18, 2007 "Best Rock Drummers" - the-top-tens.com - Accessed July 18, 2007 His influences are eclectic, ranging from John Bonham, Michael Giles, Phil Collins, Steve Gadd, and Keith Moon, to fusion and jazz drummers Billy Cobham, Buddy Rich, Bill Bruford and Gene Krupa. Peart, Neil. Matthew Wachsman. Paul Siegel. Rob Wallis. Anatomy of a Drum Solo. Hudson Music. Distributed by Hal Leonard. 2005. ISBN 1423407008 Peart, Neil. "Neil Peart Speaks With Zildjian" - Zildjian.com - (c/o 2112.net) - January 2003 The Who was the first group that inspired him to write songs and play the drums. Dome, Malcolm. "Interview with Neil Peart" - Metal Hammer - (c/o 2112.net) - April 25th 1988 Peart is distinguished for playing "butt-end out", reversing stick orientation for greater impact and increased rim-shot capacity. "When I was starting out", Peart later said, "if I broke the tips off my sticks I couldn't afford to buy new ones, so I would just turn them around and use the other end. I got used to it, and continue to use the heavy end of lighter sticks - it gives me a solid impact, but with less 'dead weight' to sling around." Peart, Neil. Rush - Counterparts - Rush Backstage Club Newsletter - (c/o 2112.net) - January 1994 Peart had long played just matched grip, however, he decided to shift to traditional as part of his style reinvention in the mid-1990s under the tutelage of jazz coach Freddie Gruber. Shortly after the filming of his first instructional DVD A Work in Progress, Peart went back to using primarily matched, though he does switch back to traditional when playing songs from Test for Echo and during moments when he feels traditional grip is more appropriate, such as the rudimentary snare drum section of his drum solo. He discusses the details of these switches in the DVD Anatomy of a Drum Solo. Equipment Neil Peart and his 360 degree drumkit With Rush, Peart has played Slingerland, Tama, Ludwig, and Drum Workshop (DW) drums, in that order. Rush Archives Neil Peart's Equipment Accessed January 18, 2008 Historically he has played Zildjian cymbals exclusively (from the "A" series, save for various effect cymbals, like Wuhan China cymbals), switching in the early 2000s to Paragon, a line created for him by Sabian. Neil Peart Signature Series Cymbals Paragon Accessed February 10, 2008 In concert, Peart uses an elaborate 360-degree drum kit, with a large acoustic set in front and electronic drums to the rear. Neil Peart began incorporating Simmons Electronic Drums beginning with 1984's Grace Under Pressure During the late 1970s, Peart augmented his acoustic setup with diverse percussion instruments including orchestra bells, tubular bells, wind chimes, crotales, timbales, timpani, gong, temple blocks, bell tree, triangle, and melodic cowbells. Since the mid-1980s, Peart has replaced several of these pieces with MIDI trigger pads. This was done in order to trigger sounds sampled from various pieces of acoustic percussion that would otherwise consume far too much stage area. Some purely electronic non-instrumental sounds are also used. Beginning with 1984's Grace Under Pressure, he used Simmons electronic drums in conjunction with Akai digital samplers. Peart has performed several songs primarily using the electronic portion of his drum kit. (e.g. "Red Sector A", "Closer to the Heart" on A Show of Hands (video) and "Mystic Rhythms" on R30.) Peart's drum solos also feature sections performed primarily on the electronic portion of his kit. Shortly after making the choice to include electronic drums and triggers, Peart added what has become another trademark of his kit: his rotating drum riser. During live Rush shows, the automated rotating riser allows Peart to swap dynamically the prominent portions of the kit ("front", traditional kit; and "back" electronic kit). A staple of Peart's live drum solos has been the in-performance rotation-and-swap of the front and back kits as part of the solo itself. This special effect simultaneously provides a symbolic transition of drum styles within the solo, as well as providing a visual treat for the audience. In the early 2000s, Peart began taking full advantage of the advances in electronic drum technology; primarily incorporating Roland V-Drums and continued use of samplers with his existing set of acoustic percussion. Peart's digitally sampled library of both traditional and exotic sounds has grown over the years with his music. In April 2006, Neil took delivery of his third DW set, configured similarly to the R30 set, in a Tobacco Sunburst finish over curly maple exterior ply, with chrome hardware. He refers to this set as the "West Coast kit", as he uses it when he is in Los Angeles. Besides using it on recent recordings with Vertical Horizon, he played it while composing parts for Rush's latest studio album, Snakes & Arrows. It features a custom 23" bass drum, otherwise all sizes remain the same as the R30 kit. On March 20, 2007 Peart revealed that Drum Workshop prepared a new set of red-painted DW maple shells with black hardware and gold "Snakes & Arrows" logos for Neil to play on the Snakes & Arrows Tour. Peart, Neil. ""The Count of Words"" - The N.E.P. News - neilpeart.net - March 20, 2007 - Accessed August 9, 2007 Solos Peart is often regarded as one of the finest practitioners of the in-concert drum solo. Modern Drummer Magazine April 2006 Article "Soloing in the Shadow of Giants". Modern Drummer Publishing Inc. NJ, USA. He is known for extensive, intricate drum solos containing odd time signatures, Peart, Neil. "Soloing in the Shadow of Giants" - Modern Drummer Magazine - (c/o NeilPeart.net) - April 2006 "Pieces of Eight" - Modern Drummer Magazine - (c/o 2112.net) - May 1987 - Accessed July 18, 2007 complex arrangements (sometimes total separation between upper and lower limb patterns: e.g. an ostinato dubbed "The Waltz"), Neil Peart; The Waltz - drummerworld.com - (QuickTime video) - Accessed July 18, 2007 and exotic percussion instruments. "Neil Peart > Credits" - All Media Guide - Accessed July 18, 2007 These solos have been featured on every live album released by the band. On the early live albums (All the World's a Stage & Exit...Stage Left), the drum solo was included as part of a song. On all subsequent live albums, the drum solo has been included on a separate track. His most recent instructional DVD, Anatomy of a Drum Solo, is an in-depth examination of how he constructs a solo. He uses his solo from the 2004 R30 30th anniversary tour as the basis for examination, along with other lectures and demonstrations on how to construct a drum solo that is musical instead of indulgent. Lyrics Peart is also the main lyricist for Rush. Literature has always heavily influenced his writings Neil Peart Interview Rush: Off The Record with Mary Turner Accessed February 21, 2008 and, as such, he has tackled a wide range of subjects. In his early days with Rush, much of his lyrical output was influenced by fantasy and science fiction literature Interview with Neil Peart Metal Hammer – April 25th 1988 Accessed February 21, 2008 , mythology and philosophy. However, nearly as much would deal with real world or personal issues such as life on the road and parts of his adolescence. The song "2112" focuses on the struggle of an individual against the collectivist forces of a totalitarian state. This became the band's breakthrough release, but also brought unexpected criticism, mainly due to the credit of inspiration Peart gave to Ayn Rand in the liner notes. "There was a remarkable backlash, especially from the English press, this being the late seventies, when collectivism was still in style, especially among journalists," Peart said. "They were calling us 'Junior fascists' and 'Hitler lovers.' It was a total shock to me". Rand, Rush, and Rock Neil Peart Quotes Accessed February 16, 2008 Weary of accusations of fascism or ideological fealty to Rand's philosophy of Objectivism, Peart has sought to remind listeners of his eclecticism and independence in interviews. He did not, however, try to argue in defense of Rand's views: The 1980 album Permanent Waves saw Peart cease to use fantasy literature or ancient mythology in his writing. 1981's Moving Pictures showed that Peart was still interested in heroic, mythological figures, but would now place them firmly in a modern and reality based context. The song "Limelight" from the same album is an autobiographical account of Peart's reservations regarding his own popularity and the pressures with fame. From Permanent Waves onward, most of Peart's lyrics began to revolve around social, emotional, and humanitarian issues, usually from an objective standpoint and employing the use of metaphors and symbolic representation. 1984's Grace Under Pressure strings together such despondent topics as the Holocaust ("Red Sector A") and the death of close friends ("Afterimage"). Power Windows "Grace Under Pressure"Power Windows Website Accessed February 16, 2008 Starting with 1987's Hold Your Fire and including 1989's Presto, 1991's Roll the Bones, and 1993's Counterparts, Peart would continue to explore diverse lyrical motifs, even addressing the topic of love and relationships Matt Scannell on Neil Peart Drumhead Accessed February 19, 2008 ("Open Secrets", "Ghost of a Chance", "Speed of Love", "Cold Fire") a subject which he purposefully eschewed in the past due to what he perceived as an inherent hackneyed stereotype. However, 2002's Vapor Trails was heavily devoted to speaking about Peart's personal issues, combined with other humanitarian topics such as the 9/11 terrorist attacks ("Peaceable Kingdom"). The band's most recent album Snakes & Arrows deals primarily and vociferously with Peart's opinions regarding faith and religion. Opinions of Peart's lyrics have always been divided. While fans have lauded them as thoughtful and intelligent, some critics have called them over-wrought and bombastic. For example, in 2007, he was voted #2 on Blender magazine's list of "worst lyricists in rock". Political views Peart has never publicly identified with any political party or organization in Canada or the United States. Even so, his political and philosophical views have often been analyzed through his work with Rush and through other sources. Peart is often categorized as an Objectivist and an admirer of Ayn Rand. Most of this is based on his work with Rush in the 1970s, particularly the song "Anthem" and the album 2112, the latter specifically credited to "the genius of Ayn Rand." Rand, Rush and Rock However, in a 1994 interview, while contending the "individual is paramount in matters of justice and liberty," Peart specifically distanced himself from a strictly Objectivist line, stating he was "no one's disciple." Power windows...Counterparts Although Peart is sometimes regarded as a "conservative" and "Republican" rock star, Republican Rock Stars he, in 2005, described himself as a "left-leaning libertarian," The Spirit of Rand and is often cited as a libertarian celebrity. Neil Peart - Libertarian 5 Biggest Libertarian Musicians He also speaks of Fox News Channel being biased towards conservatives and rebuts British accusations that he and Rush are a "right wing" rock band in his book Roadshow: Landscape with Drums: a Concert Tour by Motorcycle. In 2008 Peart described himself as a "quasi-libertarian" and stated that motorcycle helmet laws, which are often opposed by libertarians, "are not an issue at all to me." NEP News Books Peart is the author of four non-fiction books, the latest released in September 2006. His growth as an author predates the published work by several years (not including his work as Rush's primary lyricist), through private letters and short travelogues sent out to a small circle of friends and family. Peart's first book, titled The Masked Rider: Cycling in West Africa, was written in 1996 about a month-long bicycling tour through Cameroon in November 1988. The book details Peart's travels through towns and villages with four fellow riders. The original had a limited print run, but after the critical and commercial success of Peart's second book, Masked Rider was re-issued and remains in print as of 2006. After losing his wife and only daughter, Peart penned Ghost Rider: Travels on the Healing Road. Peart and the rest of the band were always able to keep his private life at a distance from his public image in Rush. However, Ghost Rider is a first-person narrative of Peart on the road, on a motorcycle, in an effort to put his life back together as he embarked on an extensive journey across North America. Deciding to take a road trip, this time by car, Peart reflects on his life, his career, his family and music. This is covered in Peart's third book Traveling Music: The Soundtrack Of My Life And Times. It follows Peart still carrying emotional scars, but building a new life. As with his previous two books, it is a first person narrative. Thirty years after Peart joined Rush, the band found itself on its 30th anniversary tour. Released in September 2006, Roadshow: Landscape With Drums, A Concert Tour By Motorcycle details the tour both from behind Neil's drumkit and on his BMW R1150GS and R1200GS motorcycles. DVDs Apart from Rush's video releases as a band, Peart has released two instructional DVDs A Work in Progress. Miami, Florida: Warner Bros. Publications. 2002. ISBN 0757990290 Originally released on VHS in 1996 and re-released on DVD in 2002. Anatomy of A Drum Solo S.l.: Hudson Music: Distributed by Hal Leonard. 2005. ISBN 1423407008 Awards and honours Peart has received the following awards in the Modern Drummer magazine reader's poll: Awards List Rush Awards list Accessed August 2, 2007 Hall of Fame: 1983 Best Rock Drummer*: 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 2006, 2008 Best Multi-Percussionist*: 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986 Best Percussion Instrumentalist: 1982 Most Promising New Drummer: 1980 Best All Around: 1986 1986 Honor Roll: Rock Drummer, Multi-Percussion (* - As a member of the Honor Roll in these categories, he is no longer eligible for votes in the above categories.) Best Instructional Video: 2006, for Anatomy of A Drum Solo Best Drum Recording of the 1980s, 2007, for "YYZ" from Exit...Stage Left Best Recorded Performance: 1980: Permanent Waves 1981: Moving Pictures 1982: Exit...Stage Left 1983: Signals 1985: Grace Under Pressure 1986: Power Windows 1988: Hold Your Fire 1989: A Show of Hands 1990: Presto 1992: Roll the Bones 1993: Counterparts 1997: Test for Echo 1999: Different Stages 2002: Vapor Trails 2004: R30 2007: Snakes & Arrows Peart has received the following awards from DRUM! magazine for 2007: DRUM! Magazine Awards Blabbermouth.net Accessed January 1, 2008 Drummer of the Year Best Progressive Rock Drummer Best Live Performer Best DVD (Anatomy Of A Drum Solo) Best Drumming Album (Snakes & Arrows) Peart received the following awards from DRUM! magazine for 2008: DRUM! Magazine Awards Big Drum Thump Accessed July 2, 2008 Drummer of the Year Best Progressive Rock Drummer (Runner-Up) Best Mainstream Pop Drummer (Runner-Up) Best Live Drumming Performer Along with his bandmates Lee and Lifeson, Peart was made an Officer of the Order of Canada on May 9, 1996. The trio was the first rock band to be so honoured, as a group. "RUSH highlights", MapleMusic - Accessed May 23, 2007 References External links The Official Neil Peart website Official Rush Web site Interview with Peart in which he addresses the influence of Ayn Rand on his lyrics Power Windows tour drumkit assembly Neil Peart at Drummerworld - contains video and sound clips. Rush Photographer Andrew MacNaughtan - Neil Peart Autographed Portraits For Charity. From Limbo Fill workout Gadd Style fills The Big Band Finale The Waltz Floating Snare
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Bus_(computing)
PCI Express bus card slots (from top to bottom: x4, x16, x1 and x16), compared to a traditional 32-bit PCI bus card slot (bottom). In computer architecture, a bus is a subsystem that transfers data between computer components inside a computer or between computers. Early computer buses were literally parallel electrical buses with multiple connections, but the term is now used for any physical arrangement that provides the same logical functionality as a parallel electrical bus. Modern computer buses can use both parallel and bit-serial connections, and can be wired in either a multidrop (electrical parallel) or daisy chain topology, or connected by switched hubs, as in the case of USB. History First generation Early computer buses were bundles of wire that attached memory and peripherals. They were named after electrical buses, or busbars. Almost always, there was one bus for memory, and another for peripherals, and these were accessed by separate instructions, with completely different timings and protocols. One of the first complications was the use of interrupts. Early computers performed I/O by waiting in a loop for the peripheral to become ready. This was a waste of time for programs that had other tasks to do. Also, if the program attempted to perform those other tasks, it might take too long for the program to check again, resulting in loss of data. Engineers thus arranged for the peripherals to interrupt the CPU. The interrupts had to be prioritized, because the CPU can only execute code for one peripheral at a time, and some devices are more time-critical than others. Some time after this, some computers began to share memory among several CPUs. On these computers, access to the bus had to be prioritized, as well. The classic, simple way to prioritize interrupts or bus access was with a daisy chain. DEC noted that having two buses seemed wasteful and expensive for mass-produced minicomputers, and mapped peripherals into the memory bus, so that the devices appeared to be memory locations. Early microcomputer bus systems were essentially a passive backplane connected directly or through buffer amplifiers to the pins of the CPU. Memory and other devices would be added to the bus using the same address and data pins as the CPU itself used, connected in parallel. Communication was controlled by the CPU, which had read and written data from the devices as if they are blocks of memory, using the same instructions, all timed by a central clock controlling the speed of the CPU. Still, devices interrupted the CPU by signaling on separate CPU pins. For instance, a disk drive controller would signal the CPU that new data was ready to be read, at which point the CPU would move the data by reading the "memory location" that corresponded to the disk drive. Almost all early microcomputers were built in this fashion, starting with the S-100 bus in the Altair. In some instances, most notably in the IBM PC, although similar physical architecture is employed, instructions to access peripherals (in and out) and memory (mov and others) have not been made uniform at all, and still generate distinct CPU signals, that could be used to implement a separate I/O bus. These simple bus systems had a serious drawback when used for general-purpose computers. All the equipment on the bus has to talk at the same speed, as it shares a single clock. Increasing the speed of the CPU becomes harder, because the speed of all the devices must increase as well. When it is not practical or economical to have all devices as fast as the CPU, the CPU must either enter a wait state, or work at a slower clock frequency temporarily , to talk to other devices in the computer. While acceptable in embedded systems, this problem was not tolerated for long in general-purpose, user-expandable computers. Such bus systems are also difficult to configure when constructed from common off-the-shelf equipment. Typically each added expansion card requires many jumpers in order to set memory addresses, I/O addresses, interrupt priorities, and interrupt numbers. Second generation "Second generation" bus systems like NuBus addressed some of these problems. They typically separated the computer into two "worlds", the CPU and memory on one side, and the various devices on the other, with a bus controller in between. This allowed the CPU to increase in speed without affecting the bus. This also moved much of the burden for moving the data out of the CPU and into the cards and controller, so devices on the bus could talk to each other with no CPU intervention. This led to much better "real world" performance, but also required the cards to be much more complex. These buses also often addressed speed issues by being "bigger" in terms of the size of the data path, moving from 8-bit parallel buses in the first generation, to 16 or 32-bit in the second, as well as adding software setup (now standardised as Plug-n-play) to supplant or replace the jumpers. However these newer systems shared one quality with their earlier cousins, in that everyone on the bus had to talk at the same speed. While the CPU was now isolated and could increase speed without fear, CPUs and memory continued to increase in speed much faster than the buses they talked to. The result was that the bus speeds were now very much slower than what a modern system needed, and the machines were left starved for data. A particularly common example of this problem was that video cards quickly outran even the newer bus systems like PCI, and computers began to include AGP just to drive the video card. By 2004 AGP was outgrown again by high-end video cards and is being replaced with the new PCI Express bus. An increasing number of external devices started employing their own bus systems as well. When disk drives were first introduced, they would be added to the machine with a card plugged into the bus, which is why computers have so many slots on the bus. But through the 1980s and 1990s, new systems like SCSI and IDE were introduced to serve this need, leaving most slots in modern systems empty. Today there are likely to be about five different buses in the typical machine, supporting various devices. Third generation "Third generation" buses have been emerging into the market since about 2001, including HyperTransport and InfiniBand. They also tend to be very flexible in terms of their physical connections, allowing them to be used both as internal buses, as well as connecting different machines together. This can lead to complex problems when trying to service different requests, so much of the work on these systems concerns software design, as opposed to the hardware itself. In general, these third generation buses tend to look more like a network than the original concept of a bus, with a higher protocol overhead needed than early systems, while also allowing multiple devices to use the bus at once. Buses such as Wishbone have been developed by the open source hardware movement in an attempt to further remove legal/patenting constraints from computer design. Description of a bus At one time, "bus" meant an electrically parallel system, with electrical conductors similar or identical to the pins on the CPU. This is no longer the case, and modern systems are blurring the lines between buses and networks. Buses can be parallel buses, which carry data words in parallel on multiple wires, or serial buses, which carry data in bit-serial form. The addition of extra power and control connections, differential drivers, and data connections in each direction usually means that most serial buses have more conductors than the minimum of one used in the 1-Wire serial bus. As data rates increase, the problems of timing skew, power consumption, electromagnetic interference and crosstalk across parallel buses become more and more difficult to circumvent. One partial solution to this problem has been to double pump the bus. Often, a serial bus can actually be operated at higher overall data rates than a parallel bus, despite having fewer electrical connections, because a serial bus inherently has no timing skew or crosstalk. USB, FireWire, and Serial ATA are examples of this. Multidrop connections do not work well for fast serial buses, so most modern serial buses use daisy-chain or hub designs. Most computers have both internal and external buses. An internal bus connects all the internal components of a computer to the motherboard (and thus, the CPU and internal memory). These types of buses are also referred to as a local bus, because they are intended to connect to local devices, not to those in other machines or external to the computer. An external bus connects external peripherals to the motherboard. Network connections such as Ethernet are not generally regarded as buses, although the difference is largely conceptual rather than practical. The arrival of technologies such as InfiniBand and HyperTransport is further blurring the boundaries between networks and buses. Even the lines between internal and external are sometimes fuzzy, I²C can be used as both an internal bus, or an external bus (where it is known as ACCESS.bus), and InfiniBand is intended to replace both internal buses like PCI as well as external ones like Fibre Channel. In the typical desktop application, USB serves as a peripheral bus, but it also sees some use as a networking utility and for connectivity between different computers, again blurring the conceptual distinction. Bus topology In a network, the master scheduler controls the data traffic. If data is to be transferred, the requesting computer sends a message to the scheduler, which puts the request into a queue. The message contains an identification code which is broadcast to all nodes of the network. The scheduler works out priorities and notifies the receiver as soon as the bus is available. The identified node takes the message and performs the data transfer between the two computers. Having completed the data transfer the bus becomes free for the next request in the scheduler's queue. Advantage: Any computer can be accessed directly and messages can be sent in a relatively simple and fast way. Disadvantage: A scheduler is required to organize the traffic by assigning frequencies and priorities to each signal. See also: Bus network. Examples of internal computer buses Parallel ASUS Media Bus proprietary, used on some ASUS Socket 7 motherboards CAMAC for instrumentation systems Extended ISA or EISA Industry Standard Architecture or ISA Low Pin Count or LPC MicroChannel or MCA MBus Multibus for industrial systems NuBus or IEEE 1196 OPTi local bus used on early Intel 80486 motherboards. Conventional PCI S-100 bus or IEEE 696, used in the Altair and similar microcomputers SBus or IEEE 1496 VESA Local Bus or VLB or VL-bus VMEbus, the VERSAmodule Eurocard bus STD Bus for 8- and 16-bit microprocessor systems Unibus, a proprietary bus developed by Digital Equipment Corporation for their PDP-11 and early VAX computers. Q-Bus, a proprietary bus developed by Digital Equipment Corporation for their PDP and later VAX computers. Serial 1-Wire HyperTransport I²C PCI Express or PCIe Serial Peripheral Interface Bus or SPI bus Self Repairable Spare Net for Elastic Interface Bus from US patent application 20080082878 Self repairable elastic interface buses have recently been invented by IBM. IBM has filed a patent application on these buses which is undergoing peer review on Peer to Patent. The public commentary period closed on July 24, 2008. Peer to Patent review page for "System and Method to Support Use of Bus Spare Wires in Connection Modules" The IBM invention provides a spare net which the system switches to in the event that an alternate net doesn't function. Examples of external computer buses Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment or ATA (aka PATA, IDE, EIDE, ATAPI, etc.) disk/tape peripheral attachment bus(the original ATA is parallel, but see also the recent serial ATA) HIPPI HIgh Performance Parallel Interface IEEE-488 (aka GPIB, General-Purpose Instrumentation Bus, and HPIB, Hewlett-Packard Instrumentation Bus) PC card, previously known as PCMCIA, much used in laptop computers and other portables, but fading with the introduction of USB and built-in network and modem connections SCSI Small Computer System Interface, disk/tape peripheral attachment bus Serial USB Universal Serial Bus, used for a variety of external devices Serial Attached SCSI and other serial SCSI buses serial ATA Controller Area Network ("CAN bus") EIA-485 FireWire Examples of internal/external computer buses Futurebus InfiniBand QuickRing SCI References See also Address bus Bus contention Control bus Front side bus Network On Chip List of device bandwidths External links Chip Weems' Lecture 12: Buses Computer hardware buses and slots pinouts with brief descriptions
Bus_(computing) |@lemmatized pci:7 express:3 bus:105 card:10 slot:5 top:1 bottom:2 compare:1 traditional:1 bit:6 computer:32 architecture:3 subsystem:1 transfer:4 data:18 component:2 inside:1 early:9 literally:1 parallel:15 electrical:6 multiple:3 connection:10 term:3 use:20 physical:3 arrangement:1 provide:2 logical:1 functionality:1 modern:5 serial:18 wire:6 either:2 multidrop:2 daisy:3 chain:3 topology:2 connect:5 switched:1 hub:2 case:2 usb:5 history:1 first:4 generation:7 bundle:1 attach:1 memory:13 peripheral:12 name:1 busbar:1 almost:2 always:1 one:9 another:1 access:6 separate:4 instruction:3 completely:1 different:5 timing:2 protocol:2 complication:1 interrupt:7 perform:3 wait:2 loop:1 become:4 ready:2 waste:1 time:7 program:3 task:2 also:12 attempt:2 might:1 take:2 long:2 check:1 result:2 loss:1 engineer:1 thus:2 arrange:1 cpu:23 prioritize:3 execute:1 code:2 device:16 critical:1 others:2 begin:2 share:3 among:1 several:1 well:7 classic:1 simple:3 way:2 dec:1 note:1 two:3 seem:1 wasteful:1 expensive:1 mass:1 produced:1 minicomputer:1 map:1 appear:1 location:2 microcomputer:3 system:21 essentially:1 passive:1 backplane:1 directly:2 buffer:1 amplifier:1 pin:5 would:4 add:3 address:6 communication:1 control:5 read:3 write:1 block:1 central:1 clock:3 speed:10 still:2 signal:4 instance:2 disk:5 drive:4 controller:4 new:5 point:1 move:4 correspond:1 build:2 fashion:1 start:2 altair:2 notably:1 ibm:4 pc:2 although:2 similar:3 employ:2 mov:1 make:1 uniform:1 generate:1 distinct:1 could:3 implement:1 serious:1 drawback:1 general:4 purpose:3 equipment:4 talk:5 single:1 increase:7 hard:1 must:2 practical:2 economical:1 fast:3 enter:1 state:1 work:4 slow:2 frequency:2 temporarily:1 acceptable:1 embedded:1 problem:6 tolerate:1 user:1 expandable:1 difficult:2 configure:1 construct:1 common:2 shelf:1 typically:2 added:1 expansion:1 require:3 many:2 jumper:2 order:1 set:1 priority:3 number:2 second:3 like:6 nubus:2 world:2 side:2 various:2 allow:3 without:2 affect:1 much:7 burden:1 intervention:1 lead:2 good:1 real:1 performance:2 complex:2 often:2 issue:1 big:1 size:1 path:1 software:2 setup:1 standardise:1 plug:2 n:1 play:1 supplant:1 replace:3 however:1 quality:1 cousin:1 everyone:1 isolated:1 fear:1 continue:1 faster:1 need:3 machine:5 leave:2 starve:1 particularly:1 example:5 video:3 quickly:1 outrun:1 even:2 include:2 agp:2 outgrow:1 high:4 end:1 external:12 introduce:2 scsi:4 ide:2 serve:1 empty:1 today:1 likely:1 five:1 typical:2 support:2 third:3 emerge:1 market:1 since:1 hypertransport:3 infiniband:4 tend:2 flexible:1 internal:10 together:1 try:1 service:1 request:4 concern:1 design:3 oppose:1 hardware:3 look:1 network:10 original:2 concept:1 overhead:1 wishbone:1 develop:3 open:1 source:1 movement:1 far:2 remove:1 legal:1 patent:5 constraint:1 description:2 mean:2 electrically:1 conductor:2 identical:1 longer:1 blur:3 line:2 carry:2 word:1 form:1 addition:1 extra:1 power:2 differential:1 driver:1 direction:1 usually:1 minimum:1 rate:2 skew:2 consumption:1 electromagnetic:1 interference:1 crosstalk:2 across:1 circumvent:1 partial:1 solution:1 double:1 pump:1 actually:1 operate:1 overall:1 despite:1 inherently:1 firewire:2 ata:5 connects:2 motherboard:2 type:1 refer:1 local:4 intend:2 ethernet:1 generally:1 regard:1 difference:1 largely:1 conceptual:2 rather:1 arrival:1 technology:2 boundary:1 sometimes:1 fuzzy:1 know:2 fibre:1 channel:1 desktop:1 application:3 serf:1 see:4 networking:1 utility:1 connectivity:1 distinction:1 master:1 scheduler:5 traffic:2 send:2 message:4 put:1 queue:2 contain:1 identification:1 broadcast:1 node:2 notify:1 receiver:1 soon:1 available:1 identified:1 complete:1 free:1 next:1 advantage:1 relatively:1 disadvantage:1 organize:1 assign:1 asus:2 medium:1 proprietary:3 socket:1 motherboards:2 camac:1 instrumentation:3 extend:1 isa:2 eisa:1 industry:1 standard:1 low:1 count:1 lpc:1 microchannel:1 mca:1 mbus:1 multibus:1 industrial:1 ieee:4 opti:1 intel:1 conventional:1 sbus:1 vesa:1 vlb:1 vl:1 vmebus:1 versamodule:1 eurocard:1 std:1 microprocessor:1 unibus:1 digital:2 corporation:2 pdp:2 vax:2 q:1 later:1 pcie:1 interface:5 spi:1 self:2 repairable:2 spare:3 net:3 elastic:2 u:1 recently:1 invent:1 file:1 undergo:1 peer:3 review:2 public:1 commentary:1 period:1 close:1 july:1 page:1 method:1 module:1 invention:1 switch:1 event:1 alternate:1 function:1 advanced:1 attachment:3 aka:2 pata:1 eide:1 atapi:1 etc:1 tape:2 recent:1 hippi:1 gpib:1 hpib:1 hewlett:1 packard:1 previously:1 pcmcia:1 laptop:1 portable:1 fade:1 introduction:1 modem:1 small:1 universal:1 variety:1 attached:1 area:1 eia:1 futurebus:1 quickring:1 sci:1 reference:1 contention:1 front:1 chip:2 list:1 bandwidth:1 link:1 weems:1 lecture:1 pinouts:1 brief:1 |@bigram pci_express:3 pci_bus:2 ibm_pc:1 usb_firewire:1 serial_ata:3 vesa_local:1 peer_review:1 ide_eide:1 hewlett_packard:1 external_link:1
4,711
Dysprosium
Dysprosium () is a chemical element with the symbol Dy and atomic number 66. It is a rare earth element with a metallic silver luster. Dysprosium is never found in nature as a free element, though it is found in various minerals, such as xenotime. Like most other lanthanoids, dysprosium forms compounds in a single oxidation state, +3, and most of its compounds are soluble in water. Solid dysprosium is relatively stable in air at room temperature, but it dissolves readily in mineral acids. Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of 7 isotopes, the most abundant of which is 164Dy. Dysprosium was first identified in 1886 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, but was not isolated in pure form until the development of ion exchange techniques in the 1950s. Dysprosium is used for its high thermal neutron absorption cross-section in making control rods in nuclear reactors, for its high magnetic susceptibility to magnetization in data storage devices and as a component of Terfenol-D. Soluble dysprosium salts are mildly toxic, while the insoluble salts are considered non-toxic. Dysprosium has no known biological role. History In 1878, erbium ores were found to contain the oxides of two other rare earths: holmium and thulium. French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, while working with holmium oxide, separated dysprosium oxide from it in Paris in 1886. His procedure for isolating the dysprosium involved dissolving dysprosium oxide in acid, then adding ammonia to precipitate the hydroxide. He was only able to isolate dysprosium from its oxide after more than 30 attempts at his procedure. Upon succeeding, he named the element dysprosium from the Greek dysprositos, meaning "hard to get". However, the element was not isolated in relatively pure form until after the development of ion exchange techniques by Frank Spedding at Iowa State University in the early 1950s. In 1950, Glenn T. Seaborg, Albert Ghiorso, and Stanley G. Thompson bombarded 241Am with helium ions, which produced atoms with an atomic number of 97 and which closely resembled the neighboring lanthanide terbium. Because terbium was named after Ytterby, the city in which it and several other elements were discovered, this new element was named berkelium for the city in which it was synthesized. However, when the research team synthesized element 98, they could not think of a good analogy for dysprosium, and instead named the element californium in honor of the state in which it was synthesized. The research team went on to "point out that, in recognition of the fact that dysprosium is named on the basis of a Greek word meaning 'difficult to get at,' that the searchers for another element a century ago found it difficult to get to California." Characteristics Dysprosium sample Dysprosium is a rare earth element that has a metallic, bright silver luster. It is soft enough to be cut with a knife, and can be machined without sparking if overheating is avoided. Dysprosium's physical characteristics can be greatly affected even by small amounts of impurities. It is relatively stable in air at room temperature, but it dissolves readily in dilute or concentrated mineral acids with the emission of hydrogen. Dysprosium also reacts with water and the halogens at higher temperatures. Dysprosium and holmium have the highest magnetic strengths of the elements, especially at low temperatures. Compounds Dysprosium has a single oxidation state, +3. The halides, such as DyF3 and DyBr3, tend to take on a yellow color. Dysprosium oxide, also known as dysprosia, is a white powder that is highly magnetic, more so than iron oxide. It results from the following chemical reaction: 4Dy + 3O2 → 2Dy2O3 Dysprosium carbonate, Dy2(CO3)3, and dysprosium sulfate, Dy2(SO4)3, result from similar reactions. Most dysprosium compounds are soluble in water, though dysprosium carbonate tetrahydrate (Dy2(CO3)3•4H2O) and dysprosium oxalate decahydrate (Dy2(C2O4)3•10H2O) are both insoluble in water. Isotopes Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of 7 isotopes: 156Dy, 158Dy, 160Dy, 161Dy, 162Dy, 163Dy, and 164Dy. These are all considered stable, although 156Dy decays by alpha decay with a half-life of over 1×1018 years. Of the naturally occurring isotopes, 164Dy is the most abundant at 28%, followed by 162Dy at 26%. The least abundant is 156Dy at .06%. 29 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 138 to 173. The most stable of these is 154Dy with a half-life of approximately 3 years, followed by 159Dy with a half-life of 144.4 days. The least stable is 138Dy with a half-life of 200 ms. Isotopes that are lighter than the stable isotopes tend to decay primarily by β+ decay, while those that are heavier tend to decay by β- decay, with some exceptions. 154Dy decays primarily by alpha decay, and 152Dy and 159Dy decay primarily by electron capture. Dysprosium also has at least 11 metastable isomers, ranging in atomic mass from 140 to 165. The most stable of these is 165mDy, which has a half-life of 1.257 minutes. 149Dy has two excitation states, the second of which, 149m2Dy, has a half-life of 28 ns. Occurrence Dysprosium is never encountered as a free element, but is found in many minerals, including xenotime, fergusonite, gadolinite, euxenite, polycrase, blomstrandine, monazite and bastnäsite; often with erbium and holmium or other rare earth elements. Currently, most dysprosium is being obtained from the ion-adsorption clay ores of southern China. In the high-yttrium version of these, dysprosium happens to be the most abundant of the heavy lanthanides, comprising up to 7–8% of the concentrate (as compared to about 65% for yttrium). Dysprosium has no known biological role, and it is unknown how much dysprosium there is in the average human body. It is estimated that the daily intake for a human is as small as a few micrograms. Based on the other lanthanides, dysprosium levels would be highest in bone tissue, though smaller amounts would also be present in the liver and kidneys. Dysprosium is not absorbed by plant roots, and as a result, very little of it gets into the main food chain. Magnetic properties Dysprosium has a simple ferromagnetic ordering at temperatures below 85 K. Above 85 K, it turns into an helical antiferromagnetic state in which all of the atomic moments in a particular basal plane layer are parallel, and oriented at a fixed angle to the moments of adjacent layers. This unusual antiferromagnetism transforms into a disordered (paramagnetic) state at 179 K. Production Dysprosium is obtained primarily from monazite sand, a mixture of various phosphates. In isolating dysprosium, most of the unwanted metals can be removed magnetically or by a flotation process. Dysprosium can then be separated from other rare earth metals by an ion exchange displacement process. The resulting dysprosium ions can then react with either fluorine or chlorine to form dysprosium fluoride, DyF3, or dysprosium chloride, DyCl3. These compounds can be reduced using either calcium or lithium metals in the following reactions: 3Ca + 2DyF3 → 2Dy + 3CaF2 3Li + DyCl3 → Dy + 3LiCl The components are placed in a tantalum crucible and fired in a helium atmosphere. As the reaction progresses, the resulting halide compounds and molten dysprosium separate due to differences in density. When the mixture cools, the dysprosium can be cut away from the impurities. Applications Dysprosium is used, in conjunction with vanadium and other elements, in making laser materials. Because of dysprosium's high thermal neutron absorption cross-section, dysprosium oxide-nickel cermets are used in neutron-absorbing control rods in nuclear reactors. Dysprosium-cadmium chalcogenides are sources of infrared radiation which is useful for studying chemical reactions. Because dysprosium and its compounds are highly susceptible to magnetization, they are employed in various data storage applications, such as in compact discs. Neodymium-iron-boron magnets can have up to 6% of the neodymium substituted with dysprosium to raise the coercivity for demanding applications such as drive motors for hybrid electric vehicles. This substitution would require up to 100 grams of dysprosium per hybrid car produced. Based on Toyota's projected 2 million units per year, the use of dysprosium in applications such as this would quickly exhaust the available supply of the metal. The dysprosium substitution may also be useful in other applications, as it improves the corrosion resistance of the magnets. Dysprosium is one of the components of Terfenol-D, along with iron and terbium. Terfenol-D has the highest room-temperature magnetoresistance of any known material; this property is employed in transducers, wide-band mechanical resonators, and high-precision liquid fuel injectors. Dysprosium is used in dosimeters for measuring ionizing radiation. Crystals of calcium sulfate or calcium fluoride are doped with dysprosium. When these crystals are exposed to radiation, the dysprosium atoms become excited and luminescent. The luminescence can be measured to determine the degree of exposure to which the dosimeter has been subjected. Precautions Like many powders, dysprosium powder may present an explosion hazard when mixed with air and when an ignition source is present. Thin foils of the substance can also be ignited by sparks or by static electricity. Dysprosium fires cannot be put out by water. It can react with water to produce flammable hydrogen gas. Dysprosium chloride fires, however, can be extinguished with water, while dysprosium fluoride and dysprosium oxide are non-flammable. Dysprosium nitrate, Dy(NO3)3, is a strong oxidizing agent and will readily ignite upon contact with organic substances. Soluble dysprosium salts, such as dysprosium chloride and dysprosium nitrate, are mildly toxic when ingested. The insoluble salts, however, are non-toxic. Based on the toxicity of dysprosium chloride to mice, it is estimated that the ingestion of 500 grams or more could be fatal to a human. See also Materials science Notes External links WebElements.com – Dysprosium It's Elemental – Dysprosium Los Alamos National Laboratory – Dysprosium
Dysprosium |@lemmatized dysprosium:72 chemical:3 element:15 symbol:1 dy:3 atomic:5 number:2 rare:5 earth:5 metallic:2 silver:2 luster:2 never:2 find:5 nature:1 free:2 though:3 various:3 mineral:4 xenotime:2 like:2 lanthanoid:1 form:4 compound:7 single:2 oxidation:2 state:7 soluble:4 water:7 solid:1 relatively:3 stable:7 air:3 room:3 temperature:6 dissolve:3 readily:3 acid:3 naturally:3 occur:3 compose:2 isotope:6 abundant:4 first:1 identify:1 paul:2 émile:2 lecoq:2 de:2 boisbaudran:2 isolate:5 pure:2 development:2 ion:6 exchange:3 technique:2 use:6 high:9 thermal:2 neutron:3 absorption:2 cross:2 section:2 make:2 control:2 rod:2 nuclear:2 reactor:2 magnetic:4 susceptibility:1 magnetization:2 data:2 storage:2 device:1 component:3 terfenol:3 salt:4 mildly:2 toxic:4 insoluble:3 consider:2 non:3 know:3 biological:2 role:2 history:1 erbium:2 ore:2 contain:1 oxide:9 two:2 holmium:4 thulium:1 french:1 chemist:1 work:1 separate:3 paris:1 procedure:2 involve:1 add:1 ammonia:1 precipitate:1 hydroxide:1 able:1 attempt:1 upon:2 succeed:1 name:5 greek:2 dysprositos:1 mean:1 hard:1 get:4 however:4 frank:1 spedding:1 iowa:1 university:1 early:1 glenn:1 seaborg:1 albert:1 ghiorso:1 stanley:1 g:1 thompson:1 bombard:1 helium:2 produce:3 atom:1 closely:1 resemble:1 neighboring:1 lanthanide:3 terbium:3 ytterby:1 city:2 several:1 discover:1 new:1 berkelium:1 synthesize:4 research:2 team:2 could:2 think:1 good:1 analogy:1 instead:1 californium:1 honor:1 go:1 point:1 recognition:1 fact:1 basis:1 word:1 meaning:1 difficult:2 searcher:1 another:1 century:1 ago:1 california:1 characteristic:2 sample:1 bright:1 soft:1 enough:1 cut:2 knife:1 machine:1 without:1 spark:2 overheating:1 avoid:1 physical:1 greatly:1 affect:1 even:1 small:3 amount:2 impurity:2 dilute:1 concentrated:1 emission:1 hydrogen:2 also:8 react:3 halogen:1 strength:1 especially:1 low:1 halide:2 tend:3 take:1 yellow:1 color:1 dysprosia:1 white:1 powder:3 highly:2 iron:3 result:5 follow:3 reaction:5 carbonate:2 sulfate:2 similar:1 tetrahydrate:1 oxalate:1 decahydrate:1 although:1 decay:9 alpha:2 half:6 life:6 year:3 least:3 radioisotope:1 range:2 mass:2 approximately:1 day:1 light:1 primarily:4 β:2 heavy:2 exception:1 electron:1 capture:1 metastable:1 isomer:1 minute:1 excitation:1 second:1 n:1 occurrence:1 encounter:1 many:2 include:1 fergusonite:1 gadolinite:1 euxenite:1 polycrase:1 blomstrandine:1 monazite:2 bastnäsite:1 often:1 currently:1 obtain:2 adsorption:1 clay:1 southern:1 china:1 yttrium:2 version:1 happen:1 comprise:1 concentrate:1 compare:1 unknown:1 much:1 average:1 human:3 body:1 estimate:2 daily:1 intake:1 microgram:1 base:3 level:1 would:4 bone:1 tissue:1 present:3 liver:1 kidney:1 absorb:2 plant:1 root:1 little:1 main:1 food:1 chain:1 property:2 simple:1 ferromagnetic:1 ordering:1 k:3 turn:1 helical:1 antiferromagnetic:1 moment:2 particular:1 basal:1 plane:1 layer:2 parallel:1 orient:1 fixed:1 angle:1 adjacent:1 unusual:1 antiferromagnetism:1 transforms:1 disordered:1 paramagnetic:1 production:1 sand:1 mixture:2 phosphate:1 unwanted:1 metal:4 remove:1 magnetically:1 flotation:1 process:2 displacement:1 either:2 fluorine:1 chlorine:1 fluoride:3 chloride:4 reduce:1 calcium:3 lithium:1 following:1 place:1 tantalum:1 crucible:1 fire:3 atmosphere:1 progress:1 melt:1 due:1 difference:1 density:1 cool:1 away:1 application:5 conjunction:1 vanadium:1 laser:1 material:3 nickel:1 cermets:1 cadmium:1 chalcogenides:1 source:2 infrared:1 radiation:3 useful:2 study:1 susceptible:1 employ:2 compact:1 disc:1 neodymium:2 boron:1 magnet:2 substitute:1 raise:1 coercivity:1 demand:1 drive:1 motor:1 hybrid:2 electric:1 vehicle:1 substitution:2 require:1 gram:2 per:2 car:1 toyota:1 project:1 million:1 unit:1 quickly:1 exhaust:1 available:1 supply:1 may:2 improve:1 corrosion:1 resistance:1 one:1 along:1 magnetoresistance:1 known:1 transducer:1 wide:1 band:1 mechanical:1 resonator:1 precision:1 liquid:1 fuel:1 injector:1 dosimeter:2 measure:2 ionize:1 crystal:2 dope:1 expose:1 atoms:1 become:1 excited:1 luminescent:1 luminescence:1 determine:1 degree:1 exposure:1 subject:1 precaution:1 explosion:1 hazard:1 mixed:1 ignition:1 thin:1 foil:1 substance:2 ignite:2 static:1 electricity:1 cannot:1 put:1 flammable:2 gas:1 extinguish:1 nitrate:2 strong:1 oxidizing:1 agent:1 contact:1 organic:1 ingest:1 toxicity:1 mice:1 ingestion:1 fatal:1 see:1 science:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 webelements:1 com:1 elemental:1 los:1 alamos:1 national:1 laboratory:1 |@bigram lecoq_de:2 de_boisbaudran:2 thermal_neutron:2 nuclear_reactor:2 magnetic_susceptibility:1 mildly_toxic:2 holmium_oxide:1 dysprosium_oxide:6 glenn_seaborg:1 albert_ghiorso:1 closely_resemble:1 alpha_decay:2 stable_isotope:1 metastable_isomer:1 liver_kidney:1 monazite_sand:1 fluorine_chlorine:1 infrared_radiation:1 compact_disc:1 corrosion_resistance:1 fuel_injector:1 ionize_radiation:1 calcium_sulfate:1 static_electricity:1 oxidizing_agent:1 external_link:1 link_webelements:1 webelements_com:1 los_alamos:1 alamos_national:1
4,712
Kleene_star
In mathematical logic and computer science, the Kleene star (or Kleene closure) is a unary operation, either on sets of strings or on sets of symbols or characters. The application of the Kleene star to a set V is written as V*. It is widely used for regular expressions, which is the context in which it was introduced by Stephen Kleene to characterise certain automata. If V is a set of strings then V* is defined as the smallest superset of V that contains λ (the empty string) and is closed under the string concatenation operation. This set can also be described as the set of strings that can be made by concatenating zero or more strings from V. If V is a set of symbols or characters then V* is the set of all strings over symbols in V, including the empty string. Definition and notation Given define recursively the set where If is a formal language, then the -th power of the set is shorthand for the concatenation of set with itself times. That is, can be understood to be the set of all strings of length , formed from the symbols in . The definition of Kleene star on is That is, it is the collection of all possible finite-length strings generated from the symbols in . In some formal language studies, (e.g. AFL Theory) a variation on the Kleene star operation called the Kleene plus is used. The Kleene plus omits the term in the above union. In other words, the Kleene plus on is Examples Example of Kleene star applied to set of strings: {"ab", "c"}* = {λ, "ab", "c", "abab", "abc", "cab", "cc", "ababab", "ababc", "abcab", "abcc", "cabab", "cabc", "ccab", "ccc", ...}. Example of Kleene star applied to set of characters: {'a', 'b', 'c'}* = {λ, "a", "b", "c", "aa", "ab", "ac", "ba", "bb", "bc", "ca", "cb", "cc", ...}. Example of Kleene star applied to the empty set: Example of Kleene plus applied to the empty set: Generalization Strings form a monoid with concatenation as the binary operation and λ the identity element. The Kleene star is defined for any monoid, not just strings. See also Kleene algebra Extended Backus-Naur form Pumping lemma Star height References The definition of Kleene star is found in virtually every textbook on automata theory. A standard reference is the following: John E. Hopcroft and Jeffrey D. Ullman. Introduction to Automata Theory Languages and Computation. 1st edition. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1979.
Kleene_star |@lemmatized mathematical:1 logic:1 computer:1 science:1 kleene:16 star:10 closure:1 unary:1 operation:4 either:1 set:16 string:13 symbol:5 character:3 application:1 v:9 write:1 widely:1 use:2 regular:1 expression:1 context:1 introduce:1 stephen:1 characterise:1 certain:1 automaton:2 define:3 small:1 superset:1 contain:1 λ:4 empty:4 close:1 concatenation:3 also:2 describe:1 make:1 concatenate:1 zero:1 include:1 definition:3 notation:1 give:1 recursively:1 formal:2 language:3 th:1 power:1 shorthand:1 time:1 understand:1 length:2 form:3 collection:1 possible:1 finite:1 generate:1 study:1 e:2 g:1 afl:1 theory:3 variation:1 call:1 plus:4 omit:1 term:1 union:1 word:1 examples:1 example:4 apply:4 ab:3 c:4 abab:1 abc:1 cab:1 cc:2 ababab:1 ababc:1 abcab:1 abcc:1 cabab:1 cabc:1 ccab:1 ccc:1 b:2 aa:1 ac:1 ba:1 bb:1 bc:1 ca:1 cb:1 generalization:1 monoid:2 binary:1 identity:1 element:1 see:1 algebra:1 extend:1 backus:1 naur:1 pump:1 lemma:1 height:1 reference:2 find:1 virtually:1 every:1 textbook:1 standard:1 following:1 john:1 hopcroft:1 jeffrey:1 ullman:1 introduction:1 automata:1 computation:1 edition:1 addison:1 wesley:1 publishing:1 company:1 |@bigram stephen_kleene:1 string_concatenation:1 backus_naur:1 addison_wesley:1
4,713
MIPS_instruction_set
A MIPS R4400 microprocessor made by Toshiba. MIPS (originally an acronym for Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages) is a reduced Instruction set computing (RISC) instruction set architecture (ISA) developed by MIPS Computer Systems (now MIPS Technologies). The early MIPS architectures were 32-bit, while later versions were 64-bit. Multiple revisions of the MIPS instruction set exist, including MIPS I, MIPS II, MIPS III, MIPS IV, MIPS V, MIPS32, and MIPS64. The current revisions are MIPS32 (for 32-bit implementations) and MIPS64 (for 64-bit implementations). MIPS32 and MIPS64 define a control register set as well as the instruction set. Several "add-on" extensions are also available, including MIPS-3D which is a simple set of floating-point SIMD instructions dedicated to common 3D tasks, MDMX (MaDMaX) which is a more extensive integer SIMD instruction set using the 64-bit floating-point registers, MIPS16e which adds compression to the instruction stream to make programs take up less room (allegedly a response to the Thumb encoding in the ARM architecture), and the recent addition of MIPS MT, new multithreading additions to the system similar to HyperThreading in the Intel's Pentium 4 processors. Computer architecture courses in universities and technical schools often study the MIPS architecture . The architecture greatly influenced later RISC architectures such as Alpha (previously Alpha AXP). MIPS implementations are currently primarily used in many embedded systems such as the Series2 TiVo, Windows CE devices, Cisco routers, residential gateways, Foneras, Avaya, and video game consoles like the Nintendo 64 and Sony PlayStation, PlayStation 2, and PlayStation Portable handheld system. Until late 2006 they were also used in many of SGI's computer products. MIPS implementations were also used by Digital Equipment Corporation, NEC, Pyramid Technology, Siemens Nixdorf, Tandem and others during the late 1980s and 1990s. In the mid to late 1990s, it was estimated that one in three RISC microprocessors produced were MIPS implementations. History RISC pioneer A MIPS microprocessor Orion R4600 made by IDT. In 1981, a team led by John L. Hennessy at Stanford University started work on what would become the first MIPS processor. The basic concept was to increase performance through the use of deep instruction pipelines. Pipelining as a basic technique was well known before (see IBM 801 for instance), but not developed into its full potential. CPUs are built up from a number of dedicated sub-units such as instruction decoders, ALUs (integer arithmetics and logic), load/store units (handling memory), and so on. In a traditional non-optimized design, a particular instruction in a program sequence must be (almost) completed before the next can start to "flow" from one unit to another; in a pipelined architecture, successive instructions can instead overlap in execution. For instance, at the same time a math instruction is fed into the floating point unit, the load/store unit can fetch the next instruction. One major barrier to pipelining was that some instructions, like division, take longer to complete and the CPU therefore has to wait before passing the next instruction into the pipeline. One solution to this problem is to use a series of interlocks that allows stages to indicate that they are busy, pausing the other stages upstream. Hennessy's team viewed these interlocks as a major performance barrier since they had to communicate to all the modules in the CPU which takes time, and appeared to limit the clock speed. A major aspect of the MIPS design was to fit every sub-phase, including cache-access, of all instructions into one cycle, thereby removing any needs for interlocking, and permitting a single cycle throughput. Although this design eliminated a number of useful instructions such as multiply and divide it was felt that the overall performance of the system would be dramatically improved because the chips could run at much higher clock rates. This ramping of the speed would be difficult with interlocking involved, as the time needed to set up locks is as much a function of die size as clock rate. The elimination of these instructions became a contentious point. The other difference between the MIPS design and the competing Berkeley RISC involved the handling of subroutine calls. RISC used a technique called register windows to improve performance of these very common tasks, but this limited the maximum depth of multi-level calls. Each subroutine call required its own set of registers, which in turn required more real estate on the CPU and more complexity in its design. Hennessy felt that a careful compiler could find free registers without resorting to a hardware implementation, and that simply increasing the number of registers would not only make this simple, but increase the performance of all tasks. In other ways the MIPS design was very much a typical RISC design. To save bits in the instruction word, RISC designs reduce the number of instructions to encode. The MIPS design uses 6 bits of the 32-bit word for the basic opcode; Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, Computer Organization and Design, David A. Patterson & John L. Hennessy, Edition 3, ISBN 1-55860-604-1, page 63 the rest may contain a single 26-bit jump address or it may have up to four 5-bit fields specifying up to three registers plus a shift value combined with another 6-bits of opcode; another format, among several, specifies two registers combined with a 16-bit immediate value, etc. This allowed this CPU to load up the instruction and the data it needed in a single cycle, whereas an (older) non-RISC design, such as the MOS Technology 6502 for instance, required separate cycles to load the opcode and the data. This was one of the major performance improvements that RISC offered. However, modern non-RISC designs achieves this speed by other means (such as queues in the CPU). In 1984 Hennessy was convinced of the future commercial potential of the design, and left Stanford to form MIPS Computer Systems. They released their first design, the R2000, in 1985, improving the design as the R3000 in 1988. These 32-bit CPUs formed the basis of their company through the 1980s, used primarily in SGI's series of workstations. These commercial designs deviated from the Stanford academic research by implementing most of the interlocks in hardware, supplying full multiply and divide instructions (among others). In 1991 MIPS released the first 64-bit microprocessor, the R4000. The R4000 has an advanced TLB where the entry contains not just virtual address but also the virtual address space id. Such buffer eliminates the major performance problems from microkernels Jochen Liedtke(1995). On micro kernel construction. 15th Symposium on Operating Systems Principles, Copper Mountain Resort, Colorado. that are slow on competing architectures (Pentium, PowerPC, Alpha) because of the need to flush the TLB on the frequent context switches. However, MIPS had financial difficulties while bringing it to market. The design was so important to SGI, at the time one of MIPS' few major customers, that SGI bought the company outright in 1992 in order to guarantee the design would not be lost. As a subsidiary of SGI, the company became known as MIPS Technologies Licensable architecture In the early 1990s MIPS started licensing their designs to third-party vendors. This proved fairly successful due to the simplicity of the core, which allowed it to be used in a number of applications that would have formerly used much less capable CISC designs of similar gate count and price -- the two are strongly related; the price of a CPU is generally related to the number of gates and the number of external pins. Sun Microsystems attempted to enjoy similar success by licensing their SPARC core but was not nearly as successful. By the late 1990s MIPS was a powerhouse in the embedded processor field, and in 1997 the 48-millionth MIPS-based CPU shipped, making it the first RISC CPU to outship the famous 68k family. MIPS was so successful that SGI spun-off MIPS Technologies in 1998. Fully half of MIPS' income today comes from licensing their designs, while much of the rest comes from contract design work on cores that will then be produced by third parties. In 1999 MIPS formalized their licensing system around two basic designs, the 32-bit MIPS32 (based on MIPS II with some additional features from MIPS III, MIPS IV, and MIPS V) and the 64-bit MIPS64 (based on MIPS V). NEC, Toshiba and SiByte (later acquired by Broadcom) each obtained licenses for the MIPS64 as soon as it was announced. Philips, LSI Logic and IDT have since joined them. Success followed success, and today the MIPS cores are one of the most-used "heavyweight" cores in the marketplace for computer-like devices (hand-held computers, set-top boxes, etc.), with other designers fighting it out for other niches. Some indication of their success is the fact that Freescale (spun-off by Motorola) uses MIPS cores in their set-top box designs, instead of their own PowerPC-based cores. Since the MIPS architecture is licensable, it has attracted several processor start-up companies over the years. One of the first start-ups to design MIPS processors was Quantum Effect Devices (see next section). The MIPS design team that designed the R4300 started the company SandCraft, which designed the R5432 for NEC and later produced the SR71000, one of the first out-of-order execution processors for the embedded market. The original DEC StrongARM team eventually split into two MIPS-based start-ups: SiByte which produced the SB-1250, one of the first high-performance MIPS-based systems-on-a-chip (SOC); while Alchemy Semiconductor (later acquired by AMD) produced the Au-1000 SoC for low-power applications. Lexra used a MIPS-like architecture and added DSP extensions for the audio chip market and multithreading support for the networking market. Due to Lexra not licensing the architecture, two lawsuits were started between the two companies. The first was quickly resolved when Lexra promised not to advertise their processors as MIPS-compatible. The second (about MIPS patent 4814976 for handling unaligned memory access) was protracted, hurt both companies' business, and culminated in MIPS Technologies giving Lexra a free license and a large cash payment. Two companies have emerged that specialize in building multi-core devices using the MIPS architecture. Raza Microelectronics, Inc. purchased the product line from failing SandCraft and later produced devices that contained eight cores that were targeted at the telecommunications and networking markets. Cavium Networks, originally a security processor vendor also produced devices with eight CPU cores, and later up to 32 cores, for the same markets. Both of these companies designed their cores in-house, just licensing the architecture instead of purchasing cores from MIPS. Losing the desktop Among the manufacturers which have made computer workstation systems using MIPS processors are SGI, MIPS Computer Systems, Inc., Whitechapel Workstations, Olivetti, Siemens-Nixdorf, Acer, Digital Equipment Corporation, NEC, and DeskStation. Operating systems ported to the architecture include SGI's IRIX, Microsoft's Windows NT (until v4.0), Windows CE, Linux, BSD, UNIX System V, SINIX and MIPS Computer Systems' own RISC/os. There was speculation in the early 1990s that MIPS and other powerful RISC processors would overtake the Intel IA32 architecture. This was encouraged by the support of the first two versions of Microsoft's Windows NT for DEC Alpha, MIPS and PowerPC - and to a lesser extent the Clipper architecture and SPARC. However, as Intel quickly released faster versions of their Pentium class CPUs, Microsoft Windows NT v4.0 dropped support for anything but Intel and Alpha. With SGI's decision to transition to the Itanium and IA32 architectures, use of MIPS processors on the desktop has now disappeared almost completely SGI announcing the end of MIPS . Embedded markets Through the 1990s, the MIPS architecture was widely adopted by the embedded market, including for use in computer networking/telecommunications, video arcade games, home video game consoles, computer printers, digital set-top boxes, digital televisions, DSL and cable modems, and personal digital assistants. The low power-consumption and heat characteristics of embedded MIPS implementations, the wide availability of embedded development tools, and knowledge about the architecture means use of MIPS microprocessors in embedded roles is likely to remain common. Synthesizeable cores for embedded markets In recent years most of the technology used in the various MIPS generations has been offered as IP-cores (building-blocks) for embedded processor designs. Both 32-bit and 64-bit basic cores are offered, known as the 4K and 5K respectively, and the design itself can be licensed as MIPS32 and MIPS64. These cores can be mixed with add-in units such as FPUs, SIMD systems, various input/output devices, etc. MIPS cores have been commercially successful, now being used in many consumer and industrial applications. MIPS cores can be found in newer Cisco, Linksys and Mikrotik's routerboard routers, cable modems and ADSL modems, smartcards, laser printer engines, set-top boxes, robots, handheld computers, Sony PlayStation 2 and Sony PlayStation Portable. In cellphone/PDA applications, the MIPS core has been unable to displace the incumbent, competing ARM core. MIPS architecture processors include: IDT RC32438; ATI Xilleon; Alchemy Au1000, 1100, 1200; Broadcom Sentry5; RMI XLR7xx, Cavium Octeon CN30xx, CN31xx, CN36xx, CN38xx and CN5xxx; Infineon Technologies EasyPort, Amazon, Danube, ADM5120, WildPass, INCA-IP, INCA-IP2; Microchip Technology PIC32; NEC EMMA and EMMA2, NEC VR4181A, VR4121, VR4122, VR4181A, VR5432, VR5500; Oak Technologies Generation; PMC-Sierra RM11200; QuickLogic QuickMIPS ESP; Toshiba "Donau", Toshiba TMPR492x, TX4925, TX9956, TX7901. MIPS-based supercomputers One of the more interesting applications of the MIPS architecture is its use in massive processor count supercomputers. Silicon Graphics (SGI) refocused its business from desktop graphics workstations to the high performance computing (HPC) market in the early 1990s. The success of the company's first foray into server systems, the Challenge series based on the R4400 and R8000, and later R10000, motivated SGI to create a vastly more powerful system. The introduction of the integrated R10000 allowed SGI to produce a system, the Origin 2000, eventually scalable to 1024 CPUs using its NUMAlink cc-NUMA interconnect. The Origin 2000 begat the Origin 3000 series which topped out with the same 1024 maximum CPU count but using the R14000 and R16000 chips up to 700 MHz. Its MIPS based supercomputers were withdrawn in 2005 when SGI made the strategic decision to move to Intel's IA-64 architecture. An HPC startup introduced a radical MIPS based supercomputer in 2007. SiCortex, Inc. has created a tightly integrated Linux cluster supercomputer based on the MIPS64 architecture and a high performance interconnect based on the Kautz digraph topology. The system is very power efficient and computationally powerful. The most unique aspect of the system is its multicore processing node which integrates six MIPS64 cores, a crossbar memory controller, interconnect DMA engine, Gigabit Ethernet and PCI Express controllers all on a single chip which consumes only 10 watts of power, yet has a peak floating point performance of 6 GFLOPs. The most powerful configuration, the SC5832, is a single cabinet supercomputer consisting of 972 such node chips for a total of 5832 MIPS64 processor cores and 8.2 teraFLOPS of peak performance. CPU family The first commercial MIPS CPU model, the R2000, was announced in 1985. It added multiple-cycle multiply and divide instructions in a somewhat independent on-chip unit. New instructions were added to retrieve the results from this unit back to the execution core; these result-retrieving instructions were interlocked. The R2000 could be booted either big-endian or little-endian. It had thirty-two 32-bit general purpose registers, but no condition code register (the designers considered it a potential bottleneck), a feature it shares with the AMD 29000 and the Alpha. Unlike other registers, the program counter is not directly accessible. The R2000 also had support for up to four co-processors, one of which was built into the main CPU and handled exceptions, traps and memory management, while the other three were left for other uses. One of these could be filled by the optional R2010 FPU, which had thirty-two 32-bit registers that could be used as sixteen 64-bit registers for double-precision. The R3000 succeeded the R2000 in 1988, adding 32 KB (soon increased to 64 KB) caches for instructions and data, along with cache coherency support for multiprocessor use. While there were flaws in the R3000's multiprocessor support, it still managed to be a part of several successful multiprocessor designs. The R3000 also included a built-in MMU, a common feature on CPUs of the era. The R3000, like the R2000, could be paired with a R3010 FPU. The R3000 was the first successful MIPS design in the marketplace, and eventually over one million were made. A speed-bumped version of the R3000 running up to 40 MHz, the R3000A delivered a performance of 32 VUPs (VAX Unit of Performance). The R3000A was the processor used in the extremely successful Sony PlayStation. Third-party designs include Performance Semiconductor's R3400 and IDT's R3500, both of them were R3000As with an integrated R3010 FPU. Toshiba's R3900 was a virtually first SoC for the early handheld PCs based on the Windows CE. A radiation-hardened variant for space applications, the Mongoose-V, is a R3000 with an integrated R3010 FPU. The R4000 series, released in 1991, extended the MIPS instruction set to a full 64-bit architecture, moved the FPU onto the main die to create a single-chip microprocessor, and operated at a radically high internal clock speed (it was introduced at 100 MHz). However, in order to achieve the clock speed the caches were reduced to 8 KB each and they took three cycles to access. The high operating frequencies were achieved through the technique of deep pipelining (called super-pipelining at the time). With the introduction of the R4000 a number of improved versions soon followed, including the R4400 (1993) which included 16 KB caches, largely bug-free 64-bit operation, and support for a larger external level 2 cache. MIPS, now a division of SGI called MTI, designed the lower-cost R4200, and later the even lower cost R4300, which was the R4200 with a 32-bit external bus. The Nintendo 64 used a NEC VR4300 CPU that was based upon the low-cost MIPS R4300i. NEC Offers Two High Cost Performance 64-bit RISC Microprocessors IDT]], designed by Quantum Effect Devices Quantum Effect Devices (QED), a separate company started by former MIPS employees, designed the R4600 "Orion", the R4700 "Orion", the R4650 and the R5000. Where the R4000 had pushed clock frequency and sacrificed cache capacity, the QED designs emphasized large caches which could be accessed in just two cycles and efficient use of silicon area. The R4600 and R4700 were used in low-cost versions of the SGI Indy workstation as well as the first MIPS based Cisco routers, such as the 36x0 and 7x00-series routers. The R4650 was used in the original WebTV set-top boxes (now Microsoft TV). The R5000 FPU had more flexible single precision floating-point scheduling than the R4000, and as a result, R5000-based SGI Indys had much better graphics performance than similarly clocked R4400 Indys with the same graphics hardware. SGI gave the old graphics board a new name when it was combined with R5000 in order to emphasize the improvement. QED later designed the RM7000 and RM9000 family of devices for embedded markets like networking and laser printers. QED was acquired by the semiconductor manufacturer PMC-Sierra in August 2000, the latter company continuing to invest in the MIPS architecture. The RM7000 included an on-board 256 kB level 2 cache and a controller for optional level three cache. The RM9xx0 were a family of SOC devices which included northbridge peripherals such as memory controller, PCI controller, gigabit ethernet controller and fast IO such as a hypertransport port. The R8000 (1994) was the first superscalar MIPS design, able to execute two integer or floating point and two memory instructions per cycle. The design was spread over six chips: an integer unit (with 16 KB instruction and 16 KB data caches), a floating-point unit, three full-custom secondary cache tag RAMs (two for secondary cache accesses, one for bus snooping), and a cache controller ASIC. The design had two fully pipelined double precision multiply-add units, which could stream data from the 4 MB off-chip secondary cache. The R8000 powered SGI's POWER Challenge servers in the mid 1990s and later became available in the POWER Indigo2 workstation. Although its FPU performance fit scientific users quite well, its limited integer performance and high cost dampened appeal for most users, and the R8000 was in the marketplace for only a year and remains fairly rare. In 1995, the R10000 was released. This processor was a single-chip design, ran at a faster clock speed than the R8000, and had larger 32 KB primary instruction and data caches. It was also superscalar, but its major innovation was out-of-order execution. Even with a single memory pipeline and simpler FPU, the vastly improved integer performance, lower price, and higher density made the R10000 preferable for most customers. Recent designs have all been based upon R10000 core. The R12000 used a 0.25 micrometre process to shrink the chip and achieve higher clock rates. The revised R14000 allowed higher clock rates with additional support for DDR SRAM in the off-chip cache, and a faster system bus clocked to 200 MHz for better throughput. Later iterations are named the R16000 and the R16000A and feature increased clock speed, additional L1 cache, and smaller die manufacturing compared with before. Other members of the MIPS family include the R6000, an ECL implementation of the MIPS architecture which was produced by Bipolar Integrated Technology. The R6000 microprocessor introduced the MIPS II instruction set. Its TLB and cache architecture are different from all other members of the MIPS family. The R6000 did not deliver the promised performance benefits, and although it saw some use in Control Data machines, it quickly disappeared from the mainstream market. + MIPS MicroprocessorsModel Frequency (MHz)Year Process (µm) Transistors (Millions) Die Size (mm²)Pin Count Power (W)Voltage Dcache (KB) Icache (KB)L2 CacheL3 CacheR20008-16.6719852.00.11????3264NoneNoneR300012-4019881.20.1166.121454?64640-256 KB ExternalNoneR400010019910.81.35213179155881 MB ExternalNoneR4400100-25019920.62.318617915516161-4 MB ExternalNoneR4600100-13319940.642.2771794.651616512 KB ExternalNoneR5000150-20019960.353.784223103.332321 MB ExternalNoneR800075-9019940.72.6299591+591303.316164 MB ExternalNoneR10000150-25019960.35, 0.256.7299599303.332321-4 MB ExternalNoneR12000270-40019980.25, 0.186.920460020432322-8 MB ExternalNoneRM7000250-60019980.25, 0.18, 0.13189130410, 6, 33.3, 2.5, 1.51616256 KB Internal1 MB ExternalR14000500-60020010.137.220452717?32322-4 MB ExternalNoneR16000700-100020020.11???20?64644-16 MB ExternalNoneR24K750+200365nm?0.83???64644-16 MB ExternalNone Note: These specifications are for common processor models. Variations exist, especially in Level 2 cache. Note: The R8000 has a unique cache hierarchy named 'Data Streaming Cache' where there is 16 KB of L1 data cache for the integer chip with an external 4 MB L2 cache that served as the secondary unified cache for the integer chip but as the L1 data cache for the floating point chip. Summary of R3000 instruction set opcodes Instructions are divided into three types: R, I and J. Every instruction starts with a 6-bit opcode. In addition to the opcode, R-type instructions specify three registers, a shift amount field, and a function field; I-type instructions specify two registers and a 16-bit immediate value; J-type instructions follow the opcode with a 26-bit jump target. MIPS R3000 Instruction Set Summary MIPS Instruction Reference The following are the three formats used for the core instruction set: Type -31-                                 format (bits)                                 -0- R opcode (6) rs (5) rt (5) rd (5) shamt (5) funct (6) I opcode (6) rs (5) rt (5) immediate (16) J opcode (6) address (26) MIPS assembly language These are assembly language instructions that have direct hardware implementation, as opposed to pseudoinstructions which are translated into multiple real instructions before being assembled. In the following, the register letters d, t, and s are placeholders for (register) numbers or register names. "C" denotes a constant ("immediate"). All the following instructions are native instructions. Opcodes and funct codes are in hexadecimal. The MIPS32 Instruction Set states that the word unsigned as part of Add and Subtract instructions, is a misnomer. The difference between signed and unsigned versions of commands is not a sign extension (or lack thereof) of the operands, but controls whether a trap is executed on overflow (e.g. Add) or an overflow is ignored (Add unsigned). An immediate operand CONST to these instructions is always sign-extended. Integer MIPS has 32 integer ("fast") registers. Data must be in registers to perform arithmetic. Register $0 always holds 0 and register $1 is normally reserved for the assembler (for handling pseudo instructions and large constants). The encoding shows which bits correspond to which parts of the instruction. A hyphen (-) is used to indicate don't cares. Category Name Instruction syntax Meaning Format/opcode/funct Notes/Encoding ArithmeticAdd add $d,$s,$t $d = $s + $t R 0 adds two registers, executes a trap on overflow000000ss sssttttt ddddd--- --100000 Add unsigned addu $d,$s,$t $d = $s + $t R 0 as above but ignores an overflow000000ss sssttttt ddddd--- --100001 Subtract sub $d,$s,$t $d = $s - $t R 0 subtracts two registers, executes a trap on overflow000000ss sssttttt ddddd--- --100010 Subtract unsigned subu $d,$s,$t $d = $s - $t R 0 as above but ignores an overflow000000ss sssttttt ddddd000 00100011 Add immediate addi $t,$s,C $t = $s + C (signed) I - Used to add sign-extended constants (and also to copy one register to another "addi $1, $2, 0"), executes a trap on overflow001000ss sssttttt CCCCCCCC CCCCCCCC Add immediate unsigned addiu $t,$s,C $t = $s + C (unsigned) I - as above but ignores an overflow, C still sign-extended001001ss sssttttt CCCCCCCC CCCCCCCC Multiply mult $x,$y LO = (($x * $y) << 32) >> 32; HI = ($x * $y) >> 32; R 0 Multiplies two registers and puts the 64-bit result in two special memory spots - LO and HI. Alternatively, one could say the result of this operation is: (int HI,int LO) = (64-bit) $x * $y . See mfhi and mflo for accessing LO and HI regs. Divide div $x, $y LO = $x / $y     HI = $x % $y R 0 1A Divides two registers and puts the 32-bit integer result in LO and the remainder in HI. Divide unsigned divu $x, $y LO = $x / $y     HI = $x % $y R 0 1B Divides two registers and puts the 32-bit integer result in LO and the remainder in HI. Data Transfer Load double word ld $x,C($y) $x = Memory[$y + C] I - loads the word stored from: MEM[$y+C] and the following 7 bytes to $x and the next register. Load word lw $x,C($y) $x = Memory[$y + C] I - loads the word stored from: MEM[$y+C] and the following 3 bytes. Load halfword lh $x,C($y) $x = Memory[$y + C] (signed) I - loads the halfword stored from: MEM[$y+C] and the following byte. Sign is extended to width of register. Load halfword unsigned lhu $x,C($y) $x = Memory[$y + C] (unsigned) I - As above without sign extension. Load byte lb $x,C($y) $x = Memory[$y + C] (signed) I - loads the byte stored from: MEM[$y+C]. Load byte unsigned lbu $x,C($y) $x = Memory[$y + C] (unsigned) I - As above without sign extension. Store double word sd $x,C($y) Memory[$y + C] = $x I - stores two words from $x and the next register into: MEM[$y+C] and the following 7 bytes. The order of the operands is a large source of confusion. Store word sw $x,C($y) Memory[$y + C] = $x I - stores a word into: MEM[$y+C] and the following 3 bytes. The order of the operands is a large source of confusion. Store half sh $x,C($y) Memory[$y + C] = $x I - stores the first half of a register (a halfword) into: MEM[$y+C] and the following byte. Store byte sb $x,C($y) Memory[$y + C] = $x I - stores the first fourth of a register (a byte) into: MEM[$y+C]. Load upper immediate lui $x,C $x = C << 16 I - loads a 16-bit immediate operand into the upper 16-bits of the register specified. Maximum value of constant is 216-1 Move from high mfhi $x $x = HI R 0 Moves a value from HI to a register. Do not use a multiply or a divide instruction within two instructions of mfhi (that action is undefined because of the MIPS pipeline). Move from low mflo $x $x = LO R 0 Moves a value from LO to a register. Do not use a multiply or a divide instruction within two instructions of mflo (that action is undefined because of the MIPS pipeline). Move from Control Register mfcZ $x, $y $x = Coprocessor[Z].ControlRegister[$y] R 0 Moves a 4 byte value from Coprocessor Z Control register to a general purpose register. Sign extension. Move to Control Register mtcZ $x, $y Coprocessor[Z].ControlRegister[$y] = $x R 0 Moves a 4 byte value from a general purpose register to a Coprocessor Z Control register. Sign extension. Logical And and $d,$s,$t $d = $s & $t R 0 Bitwise and000000ss sssttttt ddddd--- --100100 And immediate andi $t,$s,C $t = $s & C I - 001100ss sssttttt CCCCCCCC CCCCCCCC Or or $x,$y,$z $x = $y | $z R 0 Bitwise or Or immediate ori $x,$y,C $x = $y | C I - Exclusive or xor $x,$y,$z $x = $y ^ $z R 0 Nor nor $x,$y,$z $x = ~ ($y | $z) R 0 Bitwise nor Set on less than slt $x,$y,$z $x = ($y < $z) R 0 Tests if one register is less than another. Set on less than immediate slti $x,$y,C $x = ($y < C) I - Tests if one register is less than a constant. Bitwise Shift Shift left logical sll $x,$y,C $x = $y << C R 0 0 shifts C number of bits to the left (multiplies by ) Shift right logical srl $x,$y,C $x = $y >> C R 0 shifts CONST number of bits to the right - zeros are shifted in (divides by ). Note that this instruction only works as division of a two's complement number if the value is positive. Shift right arithmetic sra $x,$y,C R 0 shifts C number of bits - the sign bit is shifted in (divides 2's complement number by ) Conditional branch Branch on equal beq $s,$t,C if ($s == $t) go to PC+4+4*C I - Goes to the instruction at the specified address if two registers are equal.000100ss sssttttt CCCCCCCC CCCCCCCC Branch on not equal bne $x,$y,C if ($x != $y) go to PC+4+4*C I - Goes to the instruction at the specified address if two registers are not equal. Unconditional jump Jump j C PC = PC+4[31:28] . C*4 J - Unconditionally jumps to the instruction at the specified address. Jump register jr $x goto address $x R 0 Jumps to the address contained in the specified register Jump and link jal C $31 = PC + 8; PC = PC+4[31:28] . C*4 J - For procedure call - used to call a subroutine, $31 holds the return address; returning from a subroutine is done by: jr $31. Return address is PC + 8, not PC + 4 due to the use of a branch delay slot which forces the instruction after the jump to be executed NOTE: In MIPS assembler code, the offset for branching instructions can be represented by a label elsewhere in the code. NOTE: that there is no corresponding "load lower immediate" instruction; this can be done by using addi (add immediate, see below) or ori (or immediate) with the register $0 (whose value is always zero). For example, both addi $1, $0, 100 and ori $1, $0, 100 load the decimal value 100 into register $1. NOTE: Subtracting an immediate can be done with adding the negation of that value as the immediate. Floating point MIPS has 32 floating-point registers. Two registers are paired for double precision numbers. Odd numbered registers cannot be used for arithmetic or branch, just for data transfer of the right "half" of double precision register pairs. Category Name Instruction syntax Meaning Format/opcode/funct Notes/Encoding ArithmeticFP add single add.s $x,$y,$z $x = $y + $z Floating-Point add (single precision) FP subtract single sub.s $x,$y,$z $x = $y - $z Floating-Point subtract (single precision) FP multiply single mul.s $x,$y,$z $x = $y * $z Floating-Point multiply (single precision) FP divide single div.s $x,$y,$z $x = $y / $z Floating-Point divide (single precision) FP add double add.d $x,$y,$z $x = $y + $z Floating-Point add (double precision) FP subtract double sub.d $x,$y,$z $x = $y - $z Floating-Point subtract (double precision) FP multiply double mul.d $x,$y,$z $x = $y * $z Floating-Point multiply (double precision) FP divide double div.d $x,$y,$z $x = $y / $z Floating-Point divide (double precision) Data Transfer Load word coprocessor lwcZ $x,CONST ($y) Coprocessor[Z].DataRegister[$x] = Memory[$y + CONST] I Loads the 4 byte word stored from: MEM[$2+CONST] into a Coprocessor data register. Sign extension. Store word coprocessor swcZ $x,CONST ($y) Memory[$y + CONST] = Coprocessor[Z].DataRegister[$x] I Stores the 4 byte word held by a Coprocessor data register into: MEM[$2+CONST]. Sign extension. Logical FP compare single (eq,ne,lt,le,gt,ge) c.lt.s $f2,$f4 if ($f2 < $f4) cond=1; else cond=0 Floating-point compare less than single precisionFP compare double (eq,ne,lt,le,gt,ge) c.lt.d $f2,$f4 if ($f2 < $f4) cond=1; else cond=0 Floating-point compare less than double precision Branch branch on FP true bc1t 100 if (cond == 1) go to PC+4+100 PC relative branch if FP condition branch on FP false bc1f 100 if (cond == 0) go to PC+4+100 PC relative branch if not condition Pseudo instructions These instructions are accepted by the MIPS assembler, however they are not real instructions within the MIPS instruction set. Instead, the assembler translates them into sequences of real instructions. Name instruction syntax Real instruction translation meaning Load Address la $1, LabelAddr lui $1, LabelAddr[31:16]; ori $1,$1, LabelAddr[15:0] $1 = Label Address Load Immediate li $1, IMMED[31:0] lui $1, IMMED[31:16]; ori $1,$1, IMMED[15:0] $1 = 32 bit Immediate value Branch if greater than bgt $rs,$rt,Label slt $at,$rt,$rs; bne $at,$zero,Label if(R[rs]>R[rt]) PC=Label Branch if less than blt $rs,$rt,Label slt $at,$rs,$rt; bne $at,$zero,Label if(R[rs]<R[rt]) PC=Label Branch if greater than or equal bge etc if(R[rs]>=R[rt]) PC=Label branch if less than or equal ble if(R[rs]<=R[rt]) PC=Label branch if greater than unsigned bgtu if(R[rs]=>R[rt]) PC=Label branch if greater than zero bgtz if(R[rs]>0) PC=Label Some other important instructions NOP (no operation) (machine code 0x00000000, interpreted by CPU as sll $0,$0,0) break (breaks the program, used by debuggers) syscall (used for system calls to the operating system) a full set of Floating point instructions for both single precision and double precision operands Compiler register usage The hardware architecture specifies that: General purpose register $0 always returns a value of 0 . General purpose register $31 is used as the link register for jump and link instructions. HI and LO are used to access the multiplier/divider results, accessed by the mfhi (move from high) and mflo commands. These are the only hardware restrictions on the usage of the general purpose registers. The various MIPS tool-chains implement specific calling conventions that further restrict how the registers are used. These calling conventions are totally maintained by the tool-chain software and are not required by the hardware. + Registers Name Number Use Callee must preserve? $zero $0 constant 0 N/A $at $1 assembler temporary no $v0–$v1 $2–$3 Values for function returns and expression evaluation no $a0–$a3 $4–$7 function arguments no $t0–$t7 $8–$15 temporaries no $s0–$s7 $16–$23 saved temporaries yes $t8–$t9 $24–$25 temporaries no $k0–$k1 $26–$27 reserved for OS kernel no $gp $28 global pointer yes $sp $29 stack pointer yes $fp $30 frame pointer yes $ra $31 return address N/A Registers that are preserved across a call are registers that (by convention) will not be changed by a system call or procedure (function) call. For example, $s-registers must be saved to the stack by a procedure that needs to use them, and $sp and $fp are always incremented by constants, and decremented back after the procedure is done with them (and the memory they point to). By contrast, $ra is changed automatically by any normal function call (ones that use jal), and $t-registers must be saved by the program before any procedure call (if the program needs the values inside them after the call). Simulators Open Virtual Platforms (OVP) includes the freely available simulator OVPsim, a library of models of processors, peripherals and platforms, and APIs which enable users to develop their own models. The models in the library are open source, written in C, and include the MIPS 4K, 24K and 34K cores. These models are created and maintained by Imperas and in partnership with MIPS Technologies have been tested and assigned the MIPS-Verified (tm) mark. The OVP site also includes models of ARM, Tensilica and OpenCores/openRisc processors. Sample MIPS-based platforms include both bare metal environments and platforms for booting unmodified Linux binary images. These platforms–emulators are available as source or binaries and are fast, free, and easy to use. OVPsim is developed and maintained by Imperas and is very fast (hundreds of million of instructions per second), and built to handle multicore architectures. To download the MIPS OVPsim simulators/emulators visit . There is a freely available "MIPS32 Simulator" (earlier versions simulated only the R2000/R3000) called SPIM for several operating systems (specifically Unix or GNU/Linux; Mac OS X; MS Windows 95, 98, NT, 2000, XP; and DOS) which is good for learning MIPS assembly language programming and the general concepts of RISC-assembly language programming: http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~larus/spim.html EduMIPS64 is a GPL graphical cross-platform MIPS64 CPU simulator, written in Java/Swing. It supports a wide subset of the MIPS64 ISA and allows the user to graphically see what happens in the pipeline when an assembly program is run by the CPU. It has educational purposes and is used in some Computer Architecture courses in Universities around the world. More info at http://www.edumips.org MARS is another GUI-based MIPS emulator designed for use in education, specifically for use with Hennessy's Computer Organization and Design. More information is available at http://courses.missouristate.edu/KenVollmar/MARS/ More advanced free MIPS emulators are available from the GXemul (formerly known as the mips64emul project) and QEMU projects, which emulate not only the various MIPS III and higher microprocessors (from the R4000 through the R10000), but also entire computer systems which use the microprocessors. For example, GXemul can emulate both a DECstation with a MIPS R4400 CPU (and boot to Ultrix), and an SGI O2 with a MIPS R10000 CPU (although the ability to boot Irix is limited), among others, as well as the various framebuffers, SCSI controllers, and the like which comprise those systems. Commercial simulators are available especially for the embedded use of MIPS processors, for example Virtutech Simics (MIPS 4Kc and 5Kc, PMC RM9000, QED RM7000), VaST Systems (R3000, R4000), and CoWare (the MIPS4KE, MIPS24K, MIPS25Kf and MIPS34K). References Further reading See also DLX, a very similar architecture designed by John L. Hennessy (creator of MIPS) for teaching purposes Loongson, a MIPS implementation developed at Chinese Academy of Sciences MIPS-X, developed as a follow-on project to the MIPS architecture Mongoose-V, a radiation hardened version of the MIPS R3000 used in spacecrafts SPIM. is a MIPS processor simulator. MARS (MIPS Assembler and Runtime Simulator). is a MIPS processor simulator. External links MIPS Architectures at MIPS Technologies Full overview of MIPS architecture Patterson & Hennessy - Appendix A Summary of MIPS assembly language MIPS Instruction reference MIPS processor images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de A programmed introduction to MIPS assembly mips bitshift operators MIPS software user's manual
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Doctor_(title)
Doctor (gen.: doctoris) means teacher in Latin. The word is originally an agentive noun of the verb docēre ('to teach'). Oxford English Dictionary, v. doctor. It has been used continuously as an honored academic title for over a millennium in Europe, where it dates back to the rise of the university. This use spread to the Americas, former European colonies, and is now prevalent in most of the world. As a prefix — abbreviated "Dr"— its primary designation is a person who has obtained a doctorate (that is, a doctoral degree), which is the highest rank of academic degree awardable. Doctoral degrees may be "research doctorates", awarded on the basis of competency in research, or "taught doctorates" (also called "professional doctorates", because they are invariably awarded in professional subjects), awarded on the basis of coursework and adjunct requirements (if any) successfully completed by the conferee. In some languages, when addressing several persons of whom each holds a doctor title, one can use the plural abbreviation Dres. (for Latin 'doctores'). E.g., instead of Dr. Miller and Dr. Rubinstein: Dres. Miller and Rubinstein. Doctor as a noun Throughout most of the academic world, the term "doctor" refers to an individual who earned a degree of Doctor of Philosophy, or Ph.D. (an abbreviation for the Latin Philosophiæ Doctor; or alternatively Doctor philosophiæ, D.Phil., originally from the Greek Διδάκτωρ Φιλοσοφίας, Didaktōr Philosophias, meaning Teacher of Philosophy), or other research doctorates such as the Doctor of Science, or Sc.D. (an abbreviation of the Latin Scientiae Doctor). Beyond academia and in the classical professions, such as medicine and the law, the professional doctorates emerged such as the Doctor of Medicine M.D. (an abbreviation of the Latin Medicinæ Doctor), or Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery MBBS, MBChB, MB, BCh, etc. (an abbreviation of the Latin Medicinae Baccalaureus et Baccalaureus Chirurgiae), and the Juris Doctor or Doctor of Jurisprudence. The first academic degrees were all law degrees, and the first law degrees were doctorates. The origins of the doctorate dates back to the ijazat attadris wa'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic Madrasahs that taught Islamic law since the 9th century. Makdisi, G. (1989). “Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 109 (2): 175-182 The foundations for the first European universities were the glossators of the 11th century, which were schools of law that taught Canon law and Roman law. Herbermann, et al. (1915). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Encyclopedia Press. Accessed May 26, 2008. The first European university, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the glossator school in Bologna. It is from this history that it is said that the first academic title of doctor applied to scholars of law. The degree and title were not applied to scholars of other disciplines until the 13th century. idem And at the University of Bologna from its founding in the 12th century until the end of the 20th century the only degree conferred was the doctorate, usually earned after five years of intensive study after secondary school. The rising of the doctor of philosophy to its present level is a modern novelty. Reed, A. (1921). ‘’Training for the Public Profession of the Law, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Bulletin 15.’’ Boston: Merrymount Press. At its origins, a doctorate was simply a qualification for a guild—that of teaching law. van Ditzhuyzen, R. (2005). The ‘creatio doctoris’: Diversity or convergence of ceremonial forms? Unknown publisher. Accessed May 26, 2008. The earliest doctoral degrees (theology, law, and medicine) reflected the historical separation of all university study into these three fields. Over time the D.D. has gradually become less common and studies outside theology and medicine have become more common (such studies were then called "philosophy", but are now classified as sciences and humanities - however this usage survives in the degree of Doctor of Philosophy). The Ph.D. was originally a degree granted by a university to learned individuals who had achieved the approval of their peers and who had demonstrated a long and productive career in the field of philosophy. The appellation of "Doctor" (from Latin: teacher) was usually awarded only when the individual was in middle age. It indicated a life dedicated to learning, to knowledge, and to the spread of knowledge. The Ph.D. entered widespread use in the 19th century at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin as a degree to be granted to someone who had undertaken original research in the sciences or humanities. From there it spread to the United States, arriving at Yale University in 1861, and then to the United Kingdom in 1921. This displaced the existing Doctor of Philosophy degree in some Universities; for instance, the D.Phil. (higher doctorate in the faculty of philosophy) at the University of St Andrews was discontinued and replaced with the Ph.D. (research doctorate). However, some UK universities such as Oxford and Sussex (and, until recently, York) retain the D.Phil. appellation for their research degrees, as, until recently, did the University of Waikato in New Zealand. In the US, the Doctor of Science, Sc.D., is an academic research degree that was first conferred in North America by Harvard University in 1872, and is relatively rarer than the Ph.D. However, the Sc.D. degree has long been awarded by leading institutions such as Harvard University, Johns Hopkins University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston University, Washington University in St. Louis, etc. At many of these universities, the academic requirements for the Ph.D. and Sc.D. are identical, and with identical doctoral academic regalia. In effort to standardize doctoral degree conferral at these large research institutions, the Ph.D. has replaced and grandfathered the Sc.D. in certain programs, while the Sc.D. is preserved in parallel to the Ph.D. as the highest conferred research doctorate. Some ability to carry out original research must be documented by producing a dissertation or thesis, often of substantial length. The degree and title "doctor" is often a prerequisite for permanent (or nearly permanent) employment as a university lecturer or as a researcher in some sciences, though this varies on a regional basis. In others such as engineering or geology, a doctoral degree is considered desirable but not essential for employment. While most US lawyers and physicians who pursue purely academic and research careers in law and medicine do so after having earned a J.D. or M.D., respectively, these degrees are regarded as professional doctorates because most who earn them pursue careers as working professionals. In more recent times other professional doctorates have emerged such as the EdD (usually held by school administrators), the DBA and the DPA (nearly always earned by prior recipients of the M.B.A. and the M.P.A., who continue to pursue ongoing professional careers in business and public administration) and the DPT (most often awarded to future physical therapy practitioners as an alternative to the usual M.P.T.). Medical and other health professions In English-speaking countries, most medical practitioners use the title professionally and socially. In the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth countries, those training for the medical profession complete either a 5-6 year course or an accelerated 4-year graduate entry course that leads to the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS, MBChB, or other similar abbreviation) British Medical Association. 2007. Becoming a Doctor: Entry in 2008. Accessed May 31, 2008. ; the higher postgraduate degree of Doctor of Medicine (MD) is reserved for those who can prove a particular distinction on the field, usually through a body of published work or the submission of a dissertation. University of Cambridge. Statutes and Ordinances, chapter 7. Accessed May 31, 2008. In the United States and some other countries, the basic medical qualification is the Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), usually completed as an advanced degree following a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) degree. The American MD degree is the equivalent of the British MBBS (but not necessarily the MBBS in other countries.) qualification. In other health-related disciplines such as podiatry, dentistry, chiropractic medicine, optometry, and veterinary medicine, where the professional doctorate is the degree which serves as the 'entry-level' degree for practitioners, a similar educational framework exists and leads to a doctoral degree. Such professionals typically use the title 'Dr' professionally and socially, although a podiatrist would often be referred to as a "podiatric surgeon" and a dentist a "dental surgeon". In the United States only, the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) degree is an equivalent degree to M.D. but with several differences in study and training. Speaking in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom on January 19, 1996, health minister Gerald Malone noted that the title doctor had never been restricted to either medical practitioners or those with doctoral degrees in the UK, commenting that the word was defined by common usage but that the titles "physician, doctor of medicine, licentiate in medicine and surgery, bachelor of medicine, surgeon, general practitioner and apothecary" did have special protection in law. Hansard, January 19, 1996. Columns: 1064-1069. For many years the UK's General Dental Council (GDC) regarded the use of the title doctor by dentists as a disciplinary offence, but on November 14, 1995 the GDC ruled that dentists could use the title doctor thenceforth provided that they did not do so to imply that they held qualifications that they did not possess. "You have called me doctor for ten years." Dentistry.co.uk, February 14, 2006. In guidance issued by Who's Who published by A & C Black, Titles and Forms of Address: A guide to correct use, 21st edition. (2002.) London: A & C Black. ISBN 0-7136-6265-4 it is noted that in the context of the UK, "not all qualified medical [practitioners] hold the [MD] degree" but that "those ... who have not taken [it] are addressed as if they had." A & C Black also note that British surgeons - a designation reserved for those who have obtained membership of the Royal College of Surgeons - are addressed as Mr, Mrs or Miss rather than Dr. This custom has been commented on in the British Medical Journal and may stem from the historical origins of the profession. Dobson, Roger. (2005) "English surgeons may at last be about to become doctors". British Medical Journal, 330:1103. In German language-speaking countries, the word Doktor always refers to a research doctorate awardee, and is distinct from Arzt, a medical practitioner. An Arzt who holds the Dr. med. degree is addressed as Herr Doktor; an Arzt who does not would simply be Herr. This rule has been weakened recently, and people (e.g. in Austria) refer to medical practitioners as Doktor too. Legal profession Generally speaking, the modern practice is for lawyers to avoid use of any title, although formal practice varies across the world. Historically lawyers in most European countries were addressed with the title of doctor, and countries outside of Europe have generally followed the practice of the European country which had policy influence through "modernization" or "colonialization." The first university degrees, starting with the law school of the University of Bologna (or glossators) in the 11th century, were all law degrees and doctorates. Herbermann, et al. (1915). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Encyclopedia Press. Accessed May 26, 2008. García y García, A. (1992). "The Faculties of Law," A History of the University in Europe, London: Cambridge University Press. Accessed May 26, 2008. Degrees in other fields did not start until the 13th century, but the doctor continued to be the only degree offered at many of the old universities until the 20th century. Therefore, in many of the southern European countries, including Portugal, Spain and Italy, E.g. Portugal: Alves Periera Teixeira de Sousa. Accessed February 16, 2009; Italy Studio Misuraca, Franceschin and Associates. Accessed February 16, 2009. lawyers have traditionally been addressed as “doctor,” a practice which was transferred to many countries in South America Peru: Hernandez & Cia. Accessed February 16, 2009; Brazil: Abdo & Diniz. Accessed February 16, 2009 (see Spanish or Portuguese profile pages); Argentina: Lareo & Paz. Accessed February 16, 2009. (as well as Macau in China). Macau: Macau Lawyers Association. Accessed February 16, 2009 The title of doctor has never been used to address lawyers in England or other common law countries (with the exception of the United States). This is because until 1846 lawyers in England were not required to have a university degree and were trained by other attorneys by apprenticeship or in the Inns of Court. Stein, R. (1981). The Path of Legal Education from Edward to Langdell: A History of Insular Reaction, Pace University School of Law Faculty Publications, 1981, 57 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 429, pp. 430, 432, 434, 436 When law degrees started to become a requirement for lawyers in England, the degree awarded was the undergraduate LL.B. Even though most lawyers in the United States do not use any titles, the law degree in that country is the Juris Doctor, a professional doctorate degree, Association of American Universities Data Exchange. Glossary of Terms for Graduate Education. Accessed May 26, 2008; National Science Foundation (2006). "Time to Degree of U.S. Research Doctorate Recipients," "InfoBrief, Science Resource Statistics" NSF 06-312, 2006, p. 7. (under "Data notes" mentions that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); San Diego County Bar Association (1969). "Ethics Opinion 1969-5". Accessed May 26, 2008. (under "other references" discusses differences between academic and professional doctorate, and statement that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); University of Utah (2006). University of Utah – The Graduate School – Graduate Handbook. Accessed May 28, 2008. (the J.D. degree is listed under doctorate degrees); German Federal Ministry of Education. "U.S. Higher Education / Evaluation of the Almanac Chronicle of Higher Education". Accessed May 26, 2008. (report by the German Federal Ministry of Education analysing the Chronicle of Higher Education from the U.S. and stating that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); Encyclopedia Britannica. (2002). "Encyclopedia Britannica", 3:962:1a. (the J.D. is listed among other doctorate degrees). and some J.D. holders in the United States use the title of "Doctor" in professional American Bar Association. Model Code of Professional Responsibility, Disciplinary Rule 2-102(E). Cornell University Law School, LLI. Accessed February 10, 2009. Peter H. Geraghty. Are There Any Doctors Or Associates In the House?. American Bar Association, 2007. and academic situations, though this practice would be considered unusual. E.g. University of Montana School of Business Administration. Profile of Dr. Michael Harrington. University of Montana, 2006. See also Distance Learning Discussion Forums. New wrinkle in the "Is the JD a doctorate?" debate. Distance Learning Discussion Forums, 2003-2005. In countries where holders of the first law degree traditionally use the title of doctor (e.g. Peru, Brazil, Macau, Portugal, Argentina, and Italy), E.g. Peru: Hernandez & Cia. Accessed February 16, 2009; Brazil: Abdo & Diniz. Accessed February 16, 2009 (see Spanish or Portuguese profile pages); Macau: Macau Lawyers Association. Accessed February 16, 2009; Portugal: Alves Periera Teixeira de Sousa. Accessed February 16, 2009; Argentina: Lareo & Paz. Accessed February 16, 2009; and Italy Studio Misuraca, Franceschin and Associates. Accessed February 16, 2009. J.D. holders who are attorneys will often use the title of doctor as well. E.g. Dr. Ronald Charles Wolf. Accessed February 16, 2009. Florida Bar News. Debate over 'doctor of law' title continues. Florida Bar Association, July 1, 2006. In many Asian countries, the proper title for a lawyer is simply, “lawyer,” but holders of the Juris Doctor degree are also called "博士" (doctor). Google Translate; The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary. (2002). Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Beijing.; Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (Chinese-English). (2006). Pearson Education, Hong Kong, 2006. Also see The Morrison Foester law firm website, one of the largest law firms in Asia and the United States, for an example of usage. Use of "doctor" as a title of address Customs for the use of "doctor" and the abbreviation "Dr" vary throughout the world. United States Historically in the U.S., only those who held a medical degree M.D., M.B.B.S., D.O., or research doctorate Ph.D., or Sc.D. were entitled to use the title of "doctor" and could prefix their names with "Dr.". However, the use of “doctor” as a title has been expanded to include non-medical or Ph.D. degrees, such as the PharmD or discipline-based research doctorates Ed.D, D.B.A., D.P.A., though typically only in an academic setting. Dentists, chiropractors, podiatrists, optometrists, audiologists and veterinarians are also addressed as doctors. Pharmacists may be referred to as "doctor" in certain situations, although restrictions apply in some jurisdictions and some situations (e.g., when it would mislead someone to think that they are licensed physician). Dentists and podiatrists may be addressed as "physicians and surgeons of dentistry/podiatry" due to the close similarities of their course work, national Board examinations, and rotations in post-graduate residency to that of the MD or MBBS training, though with the same conditions that they are not attempting to mislead others into believing they are liscensed physicians. Those with J.D. degrees and honorary doctorates typically do not use the title "doctor" or the prefix "Dr." even though they are entitled to do so in some settings. In general, anyone with a doctorate degree in the U.S. may use the title, and often do in academic situtations. In medical situations the term is often reserved for MD or DO holders, in order to avoid confusing patients. United Kingdom and the Commonwealth In the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and other areas whose cultures were recently linked to the UK, the title Doctor generally applies in both the academic and clinical fields. "Registered medical practitioners" hold the degree of Bachelor of Medicine (usually also with surgery). Cultural conventions exist, clinicians who are Members or Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons are an exception. As a homage to their predecessors, the barber surgeons, they prefer to be addressed as Mr, Mrs, Ms or Miss, even if they do hold a medical degree. When a medical doctor passes the examinations which enable them to become a member of one or more of the Royal Surgical Colleges and become "MRCS", it is customary for them to drop the "Doctor" prefix and take up "Miss", "Mister", or etc. This rule applies to any doctor of any grade who has passed the appropriate exams, and is not the exclusive province of consultant-level surgeons. In recent times, other surgically-orientated specialists, such as gynaecologists, have also adopted the these prefixes. A surgeon who is also a professor is usually known as "Professor" and, similarly, a surgeon who has been ennobled, knighted, created a baronet or appointed a dame uses the corresonding title (Lord, Sir, Dame). Physicians, on the other hand, when they pass their "MRCP" examinations, which enable them to become members of the Royal College of Physicians, do not drop the "Doctor" prefix and remain Doctor, even when they are consultants. In the United Kingdom the status and rank of consultant surgeons with the MRCS, titled "Mister", etc., and consultant physicians with the MRCP, titled "doctor", is identical. Surgeons in the USA and elsewhere continue to use the title "doctor", although New Zealand uses the titles of Mr and Doctor, in the same way as the United Kingdom. Spain The social standing of Doctors in Spain is evidenced by the fact that only Ph.D. holders, Grandees and Dukes can take seat and cover their heads in the presence of the King Raíces de las normas y tradiciones del protocolo y ceremonial universitario actual: las universidades del Antiguo Régimen y los actos de colación. Protocolo y Etiqueta . Ph.D. Degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 1393/2007) http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2007/10/30/pdfs/A44037-44048.pdf (in Spanish) , Real Decreto (in Spanish). They are granted by the University on behalf of the King, and its Diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a National Registry of Ph.D.s called TESEO Base de Datos TESEO . Any person who uses the Spanish title of "Doctor" (or "Dr.") without being included in this Government database can be prosecuted for fraud. Unlike other countries, Spain registers a comparatively small number of Doctor degree holders. According to the National Institute of Statistics (INE), less than 5% of M.Sc. degree holders are admitted to Ph.D. programs, and less than 10% of 1st year Ph.D. students are finally granted a Doctor title http://sandevid.com/uploads/media/DOCTORADO_Y_TESIS_DOCTORALES_POR_SEXO_56e4d2_06.pdf . This reinforces the prestige that Doctors enjoy in Spain's society. Canada Canada lies somewhere between British and American usage of the degree and terminology of "doctor". On one hand all medical practitioners trained in Canada receive the MD degree and are referred to as "Doctor". The British use of "Mr", "Mrs", and so on for surgeons is not followed in Canada. On the other hand, in the legal profession, graduates of almost all Canadian law schools receive the LLB degree and not referred to as "doctor" (in a growing number of Canadian law schools, including the University of Toronto, the degree of Juris Doctor is conferred, but the title is not used in practice). Medicine, Dentistry, and Law (as well as other first professional degree programs) are generally not considered to be graduate education in Canada, but rather a specialized professional undergraduate program. Practitioners in veterinary medicine, optometry and dentistry have doctorate degrees and are very commonly referred to with the title "Dr" preceding the specific name, but not referred to as "a doctor". Practitioners of podiatry and alternative medicine may not be referred to with the "Dr" honorific in relation to providing the public with health care services. In Ontario, only Chiropractors, Dentists, Medical Doctors, Optometrists, Psychologists, and registered Traditional Chinese Medicine Practitioners and Acupuncturists can use the title. Regulated Health Professions Act, 1991. . A registered Naturopathic doctor may only use the title “doctor” in written format if he or she also uses the phrase, "naturopathic doctor", immediately following his or her name. Honorary degrees, usually LLD, are similar to those in the United States. Research doctorates are mostly PhD's and ScD's. Austria In Austria academic titles become part of the name and are therefore added to all personal ID documents. In certain legal transactions, such as land purchases, the person has to sign with the title, even if the person's usual signature does not include the title (has elected to omit it). Germany In Germany, all holders of doctorate degrees are appropriately addressed as "Dr X" in all social situations. However, those granted PhDs from other countries may find themselves in legal difficulties if they use the term "Doktor" professionally in Germany. Double doctorates are indicated in the title by "Dr.Dr." or "DDr." and triple doctorates as "Dr.Dr.Dr." or "DDDr.". More doctorates are indicated by the addition of "mult.", such as "Dr. mult.". Honorary titles are shown with the addition of "hc", which stands for "honoris causa". Example: "Dr. hc. mult." EU legislation recognises academic qualifications (including higher degrees and doctorates) of all member states. In Germany, a recent federal law (signed by all Cultural and Educational Ministers in accord with the EU law) confirmed the standardisation of qualifications and recognised that non-Germans were also entitled to use the title Doctor if they possessed an equivalent and recognised qualification from an EU member state. Until this Federal Law was introduced, there was no recognised mechanism to prevent administrators in private bodies and civil servants in public-funded bodies (such as universities) from automatically discriminating between the qualifications of people with German doctorates compared to holders of doctorates from an EU member state. The German university bureaucratic practice of using the post-nominal form, "Ph.D." (or equivalent), to distinguish non-German doctorates can be challenged legally as evidence of arbitrary discrimination and prejudice against non-German nationals (academics). All EU citizens are now "legally entitled" to use and be titled (addressed) as "Doctor" or "Dr." in all formal, legal and published communications. For academics with doctorates from non-EU member states, the qualification must be recognised formally ("validated") by the Federal Educational Ministry in Bonn. The recognition process can be done by the employer or employee and may be part of the official bureaucracy for confirming professional status and is dependent on individual bilateral agreements between Germany and other countries. An example of mutual recognition of Doctor titles among EU countries is the "Bonn Agreement of November 14 1994", signed between Germany and Spain Boletín Oficial del Estado. Texto del Documento . Hungary In Hungary the title of Doctor used to become a part of the name and is added as such to personal ID documents. The use of this practice has been significantly declined in the recent years, although legally it is still possible. Italy In Italy, all university graduates (after a 3 year course equivalent to a Bachelor degree) receive the title "Dottore"; after earning a second 2-years degree "Dottore Magistrale", and after earning their Ph.D. "Dottore di Ricerca". Therefore, Italians thus address each other and present themselves as "Dott." or Dr. even if not holding what in other countries is considered a doctorate. This phenomenon may have been caused by Italy's previous lack of a "Ph.D." degree. The Philippines In the Philippines, titles and names of occupations usually follow Spanish naming conventions (gender-specific terms). The feminine form of "Doktor" is "Doktora", and is abbreviated usually as "Dra." Portugal In Portugal, after the completion of an undergraduate degree a person is referred to as Doutor (Dr.) - male or Doutora (Dra.) - female. Abbreviation In British English it is not necessary to indicate a abbreviation with a full stop (period) after the abbreviation, when the last letter of the abbreviation is the same as the unabbreviated word http://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/department/docs/punctuation/node28.html Abbreviations , while the opposite holds true in North American English. This means that while the abbreviation of Doctor is usually written as "Dr" in most of the Commonwealth, it is usually written as "Dr." in North America. Chambers Reference Online Similarly, conventions regarding the punctuation of degree abbreviations vary. In the United Kingdom, it is increasingly common to omit punctuations from abbreviations that are not truncations: while the usual abbreviation of "Esquire" is "Esq.", the usual abbreviation for "Doctor of Philosophy" is "PhD". It is not incorrect to use the fully-punctuated "Ph.D.", though if this pattern is used, it should be used consistently; practice in particular situations may vary, and it is always more elegant to be consistent with a local patterns of usage than to deviate from. Honorary doctorates An honorary doctorate is a doctoral degree awarded for service to the institution or the wider community. This service does not need to be academic in nature. Often, the same set of degrees is used for higher doctorates, but they are distinguished as being honoris causa: in comprehensive lists, the lettering used to indicate the possession of a higher doctorate is often adjusted to indicate this, e.g. "Hon. Sc.D.", as opposed to the earned research doctorate "Sc.D.". The degrees of Doctor of the University (D.Univ.) and Doctor of Humane Letters (D.H.L.), however, are only awarded as an honorary degree. Other uses of "Doctor" In some regions, such as the Southern United States, "Doctor" is traditionally added to the first name of people (especially men) holding doctorates, where it is used in either direct or indirect familiar address. "Doc" is a common nickname for someone with a doctoral degree, in real life and in fiction — for example, the character "Doc" in Gunsmoke and Doc Holliday. Also, Doc Savage, 'Man of Bronze', a series of young adult pulp fiction paperback books popular among US high school students during the 1960s and 1970s. "Doc" is Marty McFly's nickname for Doctor Emmett Brown in the Back to the Future trilogy. In Roman Catholicism and several other Christian denominations, a Doctor of the Church is an eminent theologian (e.g. Thomas Aquinas, also known as the Angelic Doctor) from whose teachings the whole Church is held to have derived great advantage. Catholic Encyclopedia - Doctors of the Church References External links The Use of Dr. in Canada law for Optometrists Florida law for using Dr. title Indiana usage of Dr. titleSECTION 1. IC 24-5-0.5-12 IS use of Dr. title in names in Hungary
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Numerical_analysis
Babylonian clay tablet YBC 7289(c. 1800–1600 BCE) with annotations. (Image by Bill Casselman) Numerical analysis is the study of algorithms for the problems of continuous mathematics (as distinguished from discrete mathematics). One of the earliest mathematical writings is the Babylonian tablet YBC 7289, which gives a sexagesimal numerical approximation of , the length of the diagonal in a unit square. The approximation of the square root of 2 is four sexagesimal figures, which is about six decimal figures. 1 + 24/60 + 51/602 + 10/603 = 1.41421296... Photograph, illustration, and description of the root(2) tablet from the Yale Babylonian Collection Being able to compute the sides of a triangle (and hence, being able to compute square roots) is extremely important, for instance, in carpentry and construction. The New Zealand Qualification authority specifically mentions this skill in document 13004 version 2, dated 17 October 2003 titled CARPENTRY THEORY: Demonstrate knowledge of setting out a building In a rectangular wall section that is 2.40 meter by 3.75 meter, a diagonal beam has to be 4.45 meters long. By the Pythagorean theorem, a rectangle whose sides are 2.40 meter and 3.75 meter has a diagonal of length meters. Numerical analysis continues this long tradition of practical mathematical calculations. Much like the Babylonian approximation to , modern numerical analysis does not seek exact answers, because exact answers are impossible to obtain in practice. Instead, much of numerical analysis is concerned with obtaining approximate solutions while maintaining reasonable bounds on errors. Numerical analysis naturally finds applications in all fields of engineering and the physical sciences, but in the 21st century, the life sciences and even the arts have adopted elements of scientific computations. Ordinary differential equations appear in the movement of heavenly bodies (planets, stars and galaxies); optimization occurs in portfolio management; numerical linear algebra is essential to quantitative psychology; stochastic differential equations and Markov chains are essential in simulating living cells for medicine and biology. Before the advent of modern computers numerical methods often depended on hand interpolation in large printed tables. Since the mid 20th century, computers calculate the required functions instead. The interpolation algorithms nevertheless may be used as part of the software for solving differential equations. General introduction The overall goal of the field of numerical analysis is the design and analysis of techniques to give approximate but accurate solutions to hard problems, the variety of which is suggested by the following. Advanced numerical methods are essential in making numerical weather prediction feasible. Computing the trajectory of a spacecraft requires the accurate numerical solution of a system of ordinary differential equations. Car companies can improve the crash safety of their vehicles by using computer simulations of car crashes. Such simulations essentially consist of solving partial differential equations numerically. Hedge funds (private investment funds) use tools from all fields of numerical analysis to calculate the value of stocks and derivatives more precisely than other market participants. Airlines use sophisticated optimization algorithms to decide ticket prices, airplane and crew assignments and fuel needs. This field is also called operations research. Insurance companies use numerical programs for actuarial analysis. The rest of this section outlines several important themes of numerical analysis. History The field of numerical analysis predates the invention of modern computers by many centuries. Linear interpolation was already in use more than 2000 years ago. Many great mathematicians of the past were preoccupied by numerical analysis, as is obvious from the names of important algorithms like Newton's method, Lagrange interpolation polynomial, Gaussian elimination, or Euler's method. To facilitate computations by hand, large books were produced with formulas and tables of data such as interpolation points and function coefficients. Using these tables, often calculated out to 16 decimal places or more for some functions, one could look up values to plug into the formulas given and achieve very good numerical estimates of some functions. The canonical work in the field is the NIST publication edited by Abramowitz and Stegun, a 1000-plus page book of a very large number of commonly used formulas and functions and their values at many points. The function values are no longer very useful when a computer is available, but the large listing of formulas can still be very handy. The mechanical calculator was also developed as a tool for hand computation. These calculators evolved into electronic computers in the 1940s, and it was then found that these computers were also useful for administrative purposes. But the invention of the computer also influenced the field of numerical analysis, since now longer and more complicated calculations could be done. Direct and iterative methods Direct vs iterative methods Consider the problem of solving 3x3+4=28 for the unknown quantity x. + Direct Method 3x3 + 4 = 28. Subtract 4 3x3 = 24. Divide by 3 x3 = 8. Take cube roots x = 2. SHOULD BE NOTED THAT THE BISECTION METHOD BELOW ISN'T EXACTLY WHAT IS DESCRIBED ON THE BISECTION PAGE For the iterative method, apply the bisection method to f(x) = 3x3 - 24. The initial values are a = 0, b = 3, f(a) = -24, f(b) = 57. + Iterative Method a b mid f(mid) 0 3 1.5 -13.875 1.5 3 2.25 10.17... 1.5 2.25 1.875 -4.22... 1.875 2.25 2.0625 2.32... We conclude from this table that the solution is between 1.875 and 2.0625. The algorithm might return any number in that range with an error less than 0.2. Discretization and numerical integration In a two hour race, we have measured the speed of the car at three instants and recorded them in the following table. Time 0:20 1:00 1:40 km/h 140 150 180 A discretization would be to say that the speed of the car was constant from 0:00 to 0:40, then from 0:40 to 1:20 and finally from 1:20 to 2:00. For instance, the total distance traveled in the first 40 minutes is approximately (2/3h x 140 km/h)=93.3 km. This would allow us to estimate the total distance traveled as 93.3 km + 100 km + 120 km = 313.3 km, which is an example of numerical integration (see below) using a Riemann sum, because displacement is the integral of velocity. Ill posed problem: Take the function f(x) = 1/(x − 1). Note that f(1.1) = 10 and f(1.001) = 1000: a change in x of less than 0.1 turns into a change in f(x) of nearly 1000. Evaluating f(x) near x = 1 is an ill-conditioned problem. Well-posed problem: By contrast, the function is continuous and so evaluating it is well-posed, at least for being not close to zero. Direct methods compute the solution to a problem in a finite number of steps. These methods would give the precise answer if they were performed in infinite precision arithmetic. Examples include Gaussian elimination, the QR factorization method for solving systems of linear equations, and the simplex method of linear programming. In practice, finite precision is used and the result is an approximation of the true solution (assuming stability). In contrast to direct methods, iterative methods are not expected to terminate in a number of steps. Starting from an initial guess, iterative methods form successive approximations that converge to the exact solution only in the limit. A convergence criterion is specified in order to decide when a sufficiently accurate solution has (hopefully) been found. Even using infinite precision arithmetic these methods would not reach the solution within a finite number of steps (in general). Examples include Newton's method, the bisection method, and Jacobi iteration. In computational matrix algebra, iterative methods are generally needed for large problems. Iterative methods are more common than direct methods in numerical analysis. Some methods are direct in principle but are usually used as though they were not, e.g. GMRES and the conjugate gradient method. For these methods the number of steps needed to obtain the exact solution is so large that an approximation is accepted in the same manner as for an iterative method. Discretization Furthermore, continuous problems must sometimes be replaced by a discrete problem whose solution is known to approximate that of the continuous problem; this process is called discretization. For example, the solution of a differential equation is a function. This function must be represented by a finite amount of data, for instance by its value at a finite number of points at its domain, even though this domain is a continuum. The generation and propagation of errors The study of errors forms an important part of numerical analysis. There are several ways in which error can be introduced in the solution of the problem. Round-off Round-off errors arise because it is impossible to represent all real numbers exactly on a finite-state machine (which is what all practical digital computers are). Truncation and discretization error Truncation errors are committed when an iterative method is terminated and the approximate solution differs from the exact solution. Similarly, discretization induces a discretization error because the solution of the discrete problem does not coincide with the solution of the continuous problem. For instance, in the iteration in the sidebar to compute the solution of , after 10 or so iterations, we conclude that the root is roughly 1.99 (for example). We therefore have a truncation error of 0.01. Once an error is generated, it will generally propagate through the calculation. For instance, we have already noted that the operation + on a calculator (or a computer) is inexact. It follows that a calculation of the type a+b+c+d+e is even more inexact. Numerical stability and well-posed problems Numerical stability is an important notion in numerical analysis. An algorithm is called numerically stable if an error, whatever its cause, does not grow to be much larger during the calculation. This happens if the problem is well-conditioned, meaning that the solution changes by only a small amount if the problem data are changed by a small amount. To the contrary, if a problem is ill-conditioned, then any small error in the data will grow to be a large error. Both the original problem and the algorithm used to solve that problem can be well-conditioned and/or ill-conditioned, and any combination is possible. So an algorithm that solves a well-conditioned problem may be either numerically stable or numerically unstable. An art of numerical analysis is to find a stable algorithm for solving a well-posed mathematical problem. For instance, computing the square root of 2 (which is roughly 1.41421) is a well-posed problem. Many algorithms solve this problem by starting with an initial approximation x1 to , for instance x1=1.4, and then computing improved guesses x2, x3, etc... One such method is the famous Babylonian method, which is given by xk+1 = xk/2 + 1/xk. Another iteration, which we will call Method X, is given by xk + 1 = (xk2−2)2 + xk. This is a fixed point iteration for the equation , whose solutions include . The iterates always move to the right since . Hence converges and diverges. We have calculated a few iterations of each scheme in table form below, with initial guesses x1 = 1.4 and x1 = 1.42. Babylonian Babylonian Method X Method X x1 = 1.4 x1 = 1.42 x1 = 1.4 x1 = 1.42 x2 = 1.4142857... x2 = 1.41422535... x2 = 1.4016 x2 = 1.42026896 x3 = 1.414213564... x3 = 1.41421356242... x3 = 1.4028614... x3 = 1.42056... ... ... x1000000 = 1.41421... x28 = 7280.2284... Observe that the Babylonian method converges fast regardless of the initial guess, whereas Method X converges extremely slowly with initial guess 1.4 and diverges for initial guess 1.42. Hence, the Babylonian method is numerically stable, while Method X is numerically unstable. Areas of study The field of numerical analysis is divided into different disciplines according to the problem that is to be solved. Computing values of functions Interpolation: We have observed the temperature to vary from 20 degrees Celsius at 1:00 to 14 degrees at 3:00. A linear interpolation of this data would conclude that it was 17 degrees at 2:00 and 18.5 degrees at 1:30pm. Extrapolation: If the gross domestic product of a country has been growing an average of 5% per year and was 100 billion dollars last year, we might extrapolate that it will be 105 billion dollars this year. A line through 20 points? Regression: In linear regression, given n points, we compute a line that passes as close as possible to those n points. How much for a glass of lemonade? Optimization: Say you sell lemonade at a lemonade stand, and notice that at $1, you can sell 197 glasses of lemonade per day, and that for each increase of $0.01, you will sell one less lemonade per day. If you could charge $1.485, you would maximize your profit, but due to the constraint of having to charge a whole cent amount, charging $1.49 per glass will yield the maximum income of $220.52 per day. Wind direction in blue, true trajectory in black, Euler method in red. Differential equation: If you set up 100 fans to blow air from one end of the room to the other and then you drop a feather into the wind, what happens? The feather will follow the air currents, which may be very complex. One approximation is to measure the speed at which the air is blowing near the feather every second, and advance the simulated feather as if it were moving in a straight line at that same speed for one second, before measuring the wind speed again. This is called the Euler method for solving an ordinary differential equation. One of the simplest problems is the evaluation of a function at a given point. The most straightforward approach, of just plugging in the number in the formula is sometimes not very efficient. For polynomials, a better approach is using the Horner scheme, since it reduces the necessary number of multiplications and additions. Generally, it is important to estimate and control round-off errors arising from the use of floating point arithmetic. Interpolation, extrapolation, and regression Interpolation solves the following problem: given the value of some unknown function at a number of points, what value does that function have at some other point between the given points? A very simple method is to use linear interpolation, which assumes that the unknown function is linear between every pair of successive points. This can be generalized to polynomial interpolation, which is sometimes more accurate but suffers from Runge's phenomenon. Other interpolation methods use localized functions like splines or wavelets. Extrapolation is very similar to interpolation, except that now we want to find the value of the unknown function at a point which is outside the given points. Regression is also similar, but it takes into account that the data is imprecise. Given some points, and a measurement of the value of some function at these points (with an error), we want to determine the unknown function. The least squares-method is one popular way to achieve this. Solving equations and systems of equations Another fundamental problem is computing the solution of some given equation. Two cases are commonly distinguished, depending on whether the equation is linear or not. For instance, the equation is linear while is not. Much effort has been put in the development of methods for solving systems of linear equations. Standard direct methods, i.e., methods that use some matrix decomposition are Gaussian elimination, LU decomposition, Cholesky decomposition for symmetric (or hermitian) and positive-definite matrix, and QR decomposition for non-square matrices. Iterative methods such as the Jacobi method, Gauss–Seidel method, successive over-relaxation and conjugate gradient method are usually preferred for large systems. Root-finding algorithms are used to solve nonlinear equations (they are so named since a root of a function is an argument for which the function yields zero). If the function is differentiable and the derivative is known, then Newton's method is a popular choice. Linearization is another technique for solving nonlinear equations. Solving eigenvalue or singular value problems Several important problems can be phrased in terms of eigenvalue decompositions or singular value decompositions. For instance, the spectral image compression algorithm The Singular Value Decomposition and Its Applications in Image Compression is based on the singular value decomposition. The corresponding tool in statistics is called principal component analysis. One application is to automatically find the 100 top subjects of discussion on the web, and to then classify each web page according to which subject it belongs to. Optimization Optimization problems ask for the point at which a given function is maximized (or minimized). Often, the point also has to satisfy some constraints. The field of optimization is further split in several subfields, depending on the form of the objective function and the constraint. For instance, linear programming deals with the case that both the objective function and the constraints are linear. A famous method in linear programming is the simplex method. The method of Lagrange multipliers can be used to reduce optimization problems with constraints to unconstrained optimization problems. Evaluating integrals Numerical integration, in some instances also known as numerical quadrature, asks for the value of a definite integral. Popular methods use one of the Newton–Cotes formulas (like the midpoint rule or Simpson's rule) or Gaussian quadrature. These methods rely on a "divide and conquer" strategy, whereby an integral on a relatively large set is broken down into integrals on smaller sets. In higher dimensions, where these methods become prohibitively expensive in terms of computational effort, one may use Monte Carlo or quasi-Monte Carlo methods (see Monte Carlo integration), or, in modestly large dimensions, the method of sparse grids. Differential equations Numerical analysis is also concerned with computing (in an approximate way) the solution of differential equations, both ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations. Partial differential equations are solved by first discretizing the equation, bringing it into a finite-dimensional subspace. This can be done by a finite element method, a finite difference method, or (particularly in engineering) a finite volume method. The theoretical justification of these methods often involves theorems from functional analysis. This reduces the problem to the solution of an algebraic equation. Software Since the late twentieth century, most algorithms are implemented in a variety of programming languages. The Netlib repository contains various collections of software routines for numerical problems, mostly in Fortran and C. Commercial products implementing many different numerical algorithms include the IMSL and NAG libraries; a free alternative is the GNU Scientific Library. There are several popular numerical computing applications such as MATLAB, S-PLUS, LabVIEW, and IDL and Scilab as well as free and open source alternatives such as FreeMat, GNU Octave (similar to Matlab), IT++ (a C++ library), R (similar to S-PLUS) and certain variants of Python. Performance varies widely: while vector and matrix operations are usually fast, scalar loops may vary in speed by more than an order of magnitude. Speed comparison of various number crunching packages Comparison of mathematical programs for data analysis Stefan Steinhaus, ScientificWeb.com Many computer algebra systems such as Mathematica also benefit from the availability of arbitrary precision arithmetic which can provide more accurate results. Also, any spreadsheet software can be used to solve simple problems relating to numerical analysis. See also Scientific computing List of numerical analysis topics Gram-Schmidt process Numerical differentiation Symbolic-numeric computation Notes References Trefethen, Lloyd N. (2006). "Numerical analysis", 20 pages. To appear in: Timothy Gowers and June Barrow-Green (editors), Princeton Companion of Mathematics, Princeton University Press. External links General numerical-methods.com numericalmathematics.com Numerical Recipes "Alternatives to Numerical Recipes" Scientific computing FAQ Numerical analysis DMOZ category Numerical Computing Resources on the Internet - maintained by Indiana University Stat/Math Center Numerical Methods Resources Journals Numerische Mathematik, volumes 1-66, Springer, 1959-1994 (searchable; pages are images). Numerische Mathematik at SpringerLink, volumes 1-112, Springer, 1959-2009 SIAM Journal on Numerical Analysis, volumes 1-47, SIAM, 1964-2009 Software and Code Lists of free software for scientific computing and numerical analysis Numerical methods for Fortran programmers Java Number Cruncher features free, downloadable code samples that graphically illustrate common numerical algorithms Excel Implementations Online Texts free, downloadable previous editions of Numerical Recipes Online Course Material Numerical Methods, Stuart Dalziel University of Cambridge Lectures on Numerical Analysis, Dennis Deturck and Herbert S. Wilf University of Pennsylvania Numerical methods, John D. Fenton University of Karlsruhe Numerical Methods for Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, Autar Kaw University of South Florida Numerical Analysis Project, John H. Mathews California State University, Fullerton Numerical Methods - Online Course, Aaron Naiman Jerusalem College of Technology Introduction to Numerical Analysis for Engineering, Henrik Schmidt Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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Gary,_Indiana
Gary is a city in Lake County, Indiana, United States. The city is located in the southeastern portion of the Chicago metropolitan area and is approximately 25 miles from downtown Chicago. The population was 102,746 at the 2000 census, making it the fifth largest city in the state. Gary was once the second largest city in Indiana, a position now held by Fort Wayne. It borders Lake Michigan and is known for its large steel mills, high crime rate, and Democratic political leaning, with one study rating it the second-most Democratic city in the United States. Study Ranks America’s Most Liberal and Conservative Cities The city is also known as the birthplace of the Jackson family. History The city was founded in 1906 by the United States Steel Corporation as the home for its new plant. The city was named after the chairman of U.S. Steel, Elbert H. Gary. Among U.S. cities with a population of 100,000 or more, Gary has the highest percentage of African-American residents (as of the 2000 U.S. census). Gary had one of the nation's first African-American mayors, Richard G. Hatcher, and hosted the ground-breaking 1972 National Black Political Convention. At the same time, Gary suffered from many affluent and middle-class residents leaving Gary and relocating to the surrounding towns and cities. Because of the loss of jobs in the city, many people left the area altogether for regions with employment. Gary's fortunes have risen and fallen with those of the steel industry. In the 1960s, like many other American urban centers, Gary entered a downward spiral of decline. Gary's decline was brought on by the growing competitiveness in the steel industry, which had caused U.S. Steel to layoff many workers from the Gary area. Crime increased, including use and trade in illegal drugs under the supervision of crime lord James T. Molloy. U.S. Steel continues to be a major steel producer, but with only a fraction of its former level of employment. While Gary has failed to re-establish a manufacturing base since its population peak, two casinos opened along the Gary lakeshore in the 1990s. Today, Gary faces numerous difficulties, including unemployment, major economic problems, and a high rate of crime, though the city has made some progress in addressing these issues since the 1990s. Meredith Willson's 1957 Broadway musical The Music Man featured the song, Gary, Indiana, describing Gary Conservatory as the alleged alma mater of lead character Professor Harold Hill ("Gary Music Conservatory, Class of '05!"). The joke in Hill's claim, of course, is that the City of Gary wasn't founded until 1906. Wilson's musical, set in 1912, later was the basis of a theatrical film (1962) and a made-for-television film (2003). Recent history Three-term Democratic Mayor Scott King resigned from office in March, 2006, citing a desire to return to private law practice, and the financial rewards involved therein. NWI Times Then-deputy mayor and former Calumet Township Trustee Dozier T. Allen Jr. became acting mayor, pending a formal election by local Democratic party officials. On April 4, 2006, local officials chose former Lake County Commissioner and King rival Rudolph Clay to fill the remaining 21 months of King's term. After celebrating its 100th year in 2006, the city of Gary finally shows evidence of rebound from years of economic depression. Many buildings that have been left vacant for years are now finally slated for demolition and development. Gary, Indiana Many new homes have been built through the HOPE VI grant from HUD. The Gary Chicago International Airport has recently secured nearly 100 million dollars in grants and private donations. The FAA approved GYY's master plan which includes the expansion of runways, land acquistition for a larger terminal, an integrated transportation center, and provision for a third runway. The first part of the plan requires that the EJ&E line, which runs at the end of the runway, be relocated. After being at the top (or very near the top) of the list a few times, Gary was rated the 17th most dangerous city in the United States according to Morgan Quitno's 2007 analysis of crime rates (City Crime Rankings, 14th Edition), down from 10th highest in the 2006 edition. This is indicative of the progress Gary has made in reducing crime since the 1990s. The city recorded 51 homicides in 2006, a 13.5 percent decrease from the previous year. In 2007, Gary had 71 homicides — almost a 40 percent increase over 2006. Dallas-based HomeVestors of America released their "Top 10 Markets for Real Estate Investing" list on 9 December, 2006. Gary earned the number one position on this list, which represents activity of investors who purchase homes below market and then sell. Milwaukee Also, Forbes Magazine recently listed Gary 39th on their Top 100 Best Cities for Jobs in 2008. The ranking was up from 89th in 2006 and 84th in 2007. Gary area gets high marks / nwi.com In March, 2008 the Chief of Police, Deputy Chief and a police sergeant were all indicted by the federal court for violating the civil rights of a Gary resident. Geography Gary is located at (41.580786, -87.345449). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 57.2 square miles (148.3 km²), of which, 50.2 square miles (130.1 km²) of it is land and 7.0 square miles (18.2 km²) of it (12.25%) is water. The city sits on the southern end of the former lake bed of the prehistoric Lake Chicago, and the current Lake Michigan. Most of the city's soil nearly one foot below the surface is pure sand. The sand beneath Gary, and on its beaches, is of such high quality that in years past it was mined for the manufacture of glass. Gary is "T" shaped, with its northern border on Lake Michigan. At the Northwesternmost section Gary borders Hammond and East Chicago. Miller Beach, its easternmost neighborhood, borders Lake Station and Portage. Gary's southernmost section borders Hobart and Merrillville. Climate Gary, like Chicago, has a variable climate. In July and August, the warmest months, high temperatures average 84 °F (29 °C) and peak just above 100 °F (38 °C) and low temperatures average 63 °F (17 °C). In January and February, the coldest months, high temperatures average around 29 °F (-2 °C) and low temperatures average 13 °F (-11 °C), with at least a few days of temperatures dipping below 0 °F (-18 °C). The weather of Gary is greatly regulated by its proximity to Lake Michigan, as it sits at the lake's southernmost point. Weather varies yearly. Tornadoes strike annually, though the city has generally avoided major damage. In summer months Gary is quite humid. The city's yearly precipitation averages about 40 inches. Summer is the rainiest season, with rainfall of short duration and very loud, drawn-out thunderstorms. Winters vary but are predominantly snowy with regular blizzards. Snowfall in Gary can average 24 to 36 inches per winter, but sometimes large blizzards hit because of "lake effect snow," a phenomenon wherein large amounts of water evaporated from the lake deposits onto the shoreline areas inordinate amounts of snow. Climate Chart Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 102,746 people, 38,244 households, and 25,623 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,045.5 people per square mile (789.8/km²). There were 43,630 housing units at an average density of 868.6/sq mi (335.4/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 84.03% African American, 11.92% White, 0.21% Native American, 0.14% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 1.97% from other races, and 1.71% from two or more races. 4.93% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 38,244 households out of which 31.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.2% were married couples living together, 30.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.0% were non-families. 28.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.28. In the city the population was spread out with 29.9% under the age of 18, 10.1% from 18 to 24, 25.1% from 25 to 44, 22.2% from 45 to 64, and 12.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 84.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.0 males. The median income for a household in the city was $27,195, and the median income for a family was $32,205. Males had a median income of $34,992 versus $24,432 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,383. About 22.2% of families and 25.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 37.9% of those under age 18 and 14.1% of those age 65 or over. Culture Neighborhoods Aetna is located on Gary's far east side along the Dunes Highway. The oldest part of Aetna was developed in the 1930s and is home to an impressive collection of art deco architecture; the other sections were built through out the 1950's after the Korean War. The eastern edge of Aetna is marked by wilderness and borders Miller Beach and the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. Ambridge is located on Gary's near west side along 5th Avenue. Ambridge was developed for workers at the nearby steel plant in the 1910s and 1920's, and is named after the American Bridge Works, which was a subsidiary of U.S. Steel. The neighborhood is home to a huge stock of prairie style and art deco homes. The Gary Masonic Temple is located in the neighborhood along with the Ambassador Apartment building. Located just south of Interstate 90, the neighborhood can be seen while passing Buchanan Street. Black Oak is located on the far southwest side of Gary, in the vicinity of the Burr Street exit to the Borman Expressway. It was annexed in the 1970s. Prior to that, Black Oak was associated with Hammond, and the area has Hammond telephone numbers. The community was convinced by Mayor Hatcher that its residents would benefit from better services, provided by the city, than those provided by the county. Brunswick is located on Gary's far west side. The neighborhood is located just south of Interstate 90 and can be seen from the expressway. The Brunswick area includes the old Tri-City Plaza shopping center on West 5th Avenue (U.S. 20). The area is located just south of the Gary Chicago International Airport. Downtown is the heart of Gary and is home to a number of office buildings. Interstate 90 divides downtown Gary from the United States Steel Plant. Downtown Gary was developed in the 1920s and houses several pieces of impressive architecture, including several structures designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. A new office building was constructed in the downtown in recent years, as was a new baseball stadium for the Gary SouthShore RailCats. A significant number of older structures have been demolished in recent years, but a number of abandoned buildings remain in the downtown area, including historic structures like Gary's Union Station and City Methodist Church. Glen Park is located on Gary's south side, made up mostly of mid-twentieth century houses. Glen Park is divided from the remainder of the city by the Borman Expressway. The northern portion of Glen Park is home to Gary's Gleason Park Golf Course and the campus of Indiana University Northwest. The far western portion of Glen Park is home to the Village Shopping Center. Glen Ryan is a subdivision located on Gary's far east side along the Dunes Highway north of the South Shore Rail Road. The subdivision was built in phases between the late 1950's to the mid 1960's. The eastern edge of Glen Ryan is boardered by Miller Beach and the southern edge is boardered by Aetna. Ivanhoe was a housing project located on Gary's west side along 11th Avenue west of Chase Street. Closed in the summer of 2007, the facility was "sealed off" by a chain link fence. Marshalltown is a subdivision located on Gary's east side along Central Avenue and 21st Avenue to the east of Martin Luther King Drive. One of the newest neighborhoods in Gary, it was also one of the last to begin a conversion to subsidized residency. Midtown is located to the south of Downtown Gary, along Broadway. Miller Beach also known through the years as Miller Station or just simply as Miller, is a neighborhood on Gary's far east side. The original town of Miller predated the city of Gary by more than half a century. Miller developed around the old stagecoach stop and train station known, as early as the 1840s, as Miller's Junction. Miller Town Hall stands on the corner of Grand Boulevard and Miller Avenue at Old Hobart Road. The Historic Miller Schoolhouse, no longer used, still stands in Miller on Lake Street near the Miller South Shore train station. Tarrytown is a subdivision located on Gary's west side between Whitcomb Street and Clark Road. Tolleston is one of Gary's oldest neighborhoods, predating much of the rest of the city. It was named for an old settlement along the railroads of the area. The area is to the west of downtown Gary and south of the Ambridge area. Westbrook is an apartment complex on the west side of the city between Taft and Chase Streets, adjacent to the old Pennsylvania Railroad tracks, and the neighborhood surrounding that complex. It lies just to the north of Tolleston. Media Newspapers — Gary is served by two major newspapers based outside the city, as well as a Gary-based, largely African-American interest paper. These papers provide regional topics, and cover events in Gary. Post-Tribune, which was originally located in Gary. Offices and facilities for the Post-Tribune are now based in Merrillville, a suburb of Gary. The Times, previously known as the Hammond Times. Offices and facilities for The Times are in nearby Munster. The Gary Crusader, based in Gary and largely focused on black or African-American interests and readership. Broadcast — Gary is served by five local broadcasters plus government access and numerous Chicago area radio and TV stations, and by other nearby stations in Illinois and Indiana. W18AT (Channel 18) a repeater of LeSEA's WHME in South Bend. WPWR (Channel 50) is the Chicago My Network TV affiliate, but is licensed to Gary. Studios and transmitters are co-located with WFLD's in Chicago, and like WFLD, WPWR is owned by Fox Television Stations. WYIN (Channel 56) is a PBS affiliate licensed to Gary. Their studios are in Merrillville. WGVE (FM 88.7) is owned by the Gary Community School Corporation, and is used primarily as a teaching facility. Programming is maintained by students in the broadcast program at the Gary Career Center. WGVE also carries limited NPR programming. WLTH (AM 1370) carries syndicated talk programming, and is owned by Pluria Marshall Jr. WWCA (AM 1270) is presently a Relevant Radio owned-and-operated radio station, carrying programming from the Catholic-oriented Relevant Radio network. Sports 300|The U.S. Steel Yard, home of the Gary SouthShore RailCats. The following sports franchises are based in Gary: The Gary SouthShore RailCats are a Northern League, professional baseball team. The team plays in Gary's U.S. Steel Yard baseball stadium. The RailCats were the 2005 and 2007 Northern League Champions. The Gary Steelheads, are an International Basketball League, professional basketball team that has played in the IBL, CBA and USBL. The team plays in Gary's Genesis Convention Center. [] On August 3, 1956, Willie J. Williams broke the 20-year-old World's Record in the 100 meter dash of the greatest sprinter ever, Jesse Owens. This feat was accomplished after Williams was injured in the 1956 Olympic Trials while serving his country in an International World Military Track competition. In addition to breaking Jesse Owens' record, Williams did so on the same track and on the same date/different year. Jesse Owens bravely won four gold medals in 1936 while defying Hitler in Berlin's stadium. In the process of breaking the World's Record, Williams also defeated a gold medal Olympian, Ira Murchison. This information is documented in the 1958 World Book Encyclopedia. Parks Gleason Park Marquette Park Education Primary and secondary schools There are three school districts serving the city as well as multiple charter schools located within the city. Most public schools in Gary are administered by the Gary Community School Corporation. The other public schools within the city are administered by Lake Ridge Schools Corporation. Some Gary residents in the outskirts attend schools administered by the River Forest Community School Corporation. Gary Charter Schools operates several charter schools. Higher education Gary is home to two regional state college campuses: Indiana University Northwest Ivy Tech Community College Northwest Public libraries The Gary Public Library System consists of the main library at 220 West 5th Avenue and several branches: Brunswick Branch, W. E. B. DuBois Branch, J. F. Kennedy Branch, Tolleston Branch, and Ora L. Wildermuth Branch. "Locations & Hours." Gary Public Library System. Retrieved on January 21, 2009. Lake County Public Library operates the Black Oak Branch at 5921 West 25th Avenue in the Gary city limits. "Locations and Hours." Lake County Public Library. Retrieved on January 21, 2009. In addition Indiana University Northwest operates the Indiana University Northwest Library on its campus. "Library." Indiana University Northwest. Retrieved on January 21, 2009. Transportation NICTD (Northern Indiana Commuter Transportation District) operates the South Shore Line, a commuter rail system (one of the United States' last original operating interurban railway systems), running between Chicago and South Bend. GPTC (Gary Public Transportation Corporation) a commuter bus system that offers service to numerous stops throughout the city and neighboring suburbs. GPTC also has express service to locations outside of the city including connections to Chicago transit. Front door pickup is available for disabled citizens at no extra cost. GYY (Gary/Chicago International Airport) is operating as the "third airport" for the Chicago area. It is currently undergoing much federally funded expansion, and the administration is courting airlines aggressively. Boeing already bases their corporate fleets here. The National Guard is intending to base their Chicago area air operation there as well, which would add much needed security to the airport, taking away some of the stigma of an airport in Gary. Interstate 90 (Indiana Toll Road), Interstate 80, Interstate 94, and Interstate 65 run through Gary, as well as U.S. Routes 12 and 20, Indiana State Road 912/Cline Avenue and a former stretch of Indiana State Road 312 now decommissioned. Sister City Fuxin, People's Republic of China Fuxin, Gary now sisters / Post-Trib.com See also Chicago Metropolitan Area Northern Indiana Notes External links City of Gary, Indiana Official Page Photos galleries of Gary, Indiana from 2005 U.S. Steel Gary Works Photograph Collection, 1906-1971 The Miller Beach web site MillerBeachDays Dave's Den - providing extensive coverage on the history and development of the City of Gary More current photos of Gary's buildings
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4,717
Kwashiorkor
A seated, listless child, who was among many kwashiorkor cases found in Nigerian relief camps during the Nigerian–Biafran War. Typical ulcerating dermatosis on a Malawian child suffering from kwashiorkor. Kwashiorkor is a virulent form of childhood malnutrition characterized by edema, irritability, anorexia, ulcerating dermatoses, and an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates. The presence of edema caused by poor nutrition defines kwashiorkor. The cause of kwashiorkor was thought to be due to insufficient protein consumption alone, however micronutrient and antioxidant deficiencies are now believed to play important roles. Jamaican pediatrician Cicely D. Williams introduced the name into the medical community in her 1935 Lancet article. The name is derived from the Ga language of coastal Ghana, translated literally "first-second", and reflecting the development of the condition in an older child who has been weaned from the breast when a younger sibling comes. Breast milk contains proteins and amino acids vital to a child's growth. In at-risk populations, kwashiorkor may develop after a mother weans her child from breast milk and replaces the diet with foods high in starches and carbohydrates and deficient in protein. Signs and symptoms The defining sign of kwashiorkor in a malnourished child is pedal edema (swelling of the feet). Other signs include a distended abdomen, an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates, thinning hair, loss of teeth, skin depigmentation and dermatitis. Children with kwashiorkor often develop irritability and anorexia. Victims of kwashiorkor fail to produce antibodies following vaccination against diseases, including diphtheria and typhoid. Generally, the disease can be treated by adding food energy and protein to the diet; however, it can have a long-term impact on a child's physical and mental development, and in severe cases may lead to death. Possible causes There are various explanations for the development of kwashiorkor, and the topic remains controversial . It is now accepted that protein deficiency, in combination with energy and micronutrient deficiency, is necessary but not sufficient to cause kwashiorkor. The condition is likely due to deficiency of one of several types of nutrients (e.g., iron, folic acid, iodine, selenium, vitamin C), particularly those involved with anti-oxidant protection. Important anti-oxidants in the body that are reduced in children with kwashiorkor include glutathione, albumin, vitamin E and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Therefore, if a child with reduced type one nutrients or anti-oxidants is exposed to stress (e.g. an infection or toxin) he/she is more liable to develop kwashiorkor. Ignorance of nutrition can be a cause. Dr. Latham, director of the Program in International Nutrition at Cornell University cited a case where parents who fed their child cassava failed to recognize malnutrition because of the edema caused by the syndrome and insisted the child was well-nourished despite the lack of dietary protein. One important factor in the development of kwashiorkor is aflatoxin poisoning. Aflatoxins are produced by molds and ingested with moldy foods. They are toxified by the cytochrome P450 system in the liver, the resulting epoxides damage liver DNA. Since many serum proteins, in particular albumin, are produced in the liver, the symptoms of kwashiorkor are easily explained. It is noteworthy that kwashiorkor occurs mostly in warm, humid climates that encourage mold growth. In dry climates, marasmus is the more frequent disease associated with malnutrition. This has important consequences for treatment of the patients. Protein should be supplied only for anabolic purposes. The catabolic needs should be satisfied with carbohydrate and fat. Protein catabolism involves the urea cycle, which is located in the liver and can easily overwhelm the capacity of an already damaged organ. The resulting liver failure can be fatal. Other malnutrition syndromes include marasmus and cachexia, although the latter is often caused by underlying illnesses. See also Starvation Cachexia Emaciation Marasmus anaemia References
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4,718
Osiris
Osiris (Greek language, also Usiris; the Egyptian language name is variously transliterated Asar, Aser, Ausar, Ausir, Wesir, Usir, Usire,or Ausare) was an Egyptian god, usually called the god of the Afterlife. Osiris is one of the oldest gods for whom records have been found; one of the oldest known attestations of his name is on the Palermo Stone of around 2500 BC. He was widely worshiped until the suppression of the Egyptian religion during the Christian era. Catholic Encyclopedia: Theodosius I "History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death of Theodosius I. to the Death of Justinian", The Suppression of Paganism – ch22, p371,John Bagnell Bury, Courier Dover Publications, 1958, ISBN 0486203999 The information we have on the myths of Osiris is derived from allusions contained in the Pyramid Texts (ca. 2400 BC), later New Kingdom source documents such as the Shabaka Stone and the Contending of Horus and Seth, and much later, in narrative style from the writings of Greek authors including Plutarch "Isis and Osiris", Plutarch, translated by Frank Cole Babbitt, 1936, Vol 5 Loeb Classical Library. and Diodorus Siculus. "The Historical Library of Diodorus Siculus", Vol 1, translated by G. Booth, 1814. Osiris was not only a merciful judge of the dead in the afterlife, but also the underworld agency that granted all life, including sprouting vegetation and the fertile flooding of the Nile River. He is described as the "Lord of love" "The Gods of the Egyptians", E. A. Wallis Budge, p259, Dover 1969 org pub 1904, ISBN 0-486-22056-7 , "He Who is Permanently Benign and Youthful"., and the "Lord of Silence". "The Burden of Egypt", J.A Wilson, p302, University of Chicago Press, 4th imp 1963 The Kings of Egypt were associated with Osiris in death — as Osiris rose from the dead they would, in union with him, inherit eternal life through a process of imitative magic. By the New Kingdom all people, not just pharaohs, were believed to be associated with Osiris at death if they incurred the costs of the assimilation rituals. "Man, Myth and Magic", Osiris, Vol 5 p2087-88, S.G.F Brandon, BPC Publishing, 1971. Osiris was at times considered the oldest son of the Earth god Geb, and the sky goddess, Nut as well as being brother and husband of Isis, with Horus being considered his posthumously begotten son. He was later associated with the name Khenti-Amentiu, which means "Foremost of the Westerners" a reference to his kingship in the land of the dead. "How to Read Egyptian Heiroglyphs", Mark Collier & Bill Manley, British Museum Press, p41, 1998, ISBN 0 7141 1910 5 Through the hope of new life after death Osiris began to be associated with the cycles observed in nature, in particular vegetation and the annual flooding of the Nile, through his links with Orion and Sirius at the start of the new year. Osiris was viewed as the one who died to save the many, who rose from the dead, the first of a long line that has significantly affected man's view of the world and expections of an afterlife. Davis, Nigel. "Human Sacrifice", Wlliam Morrow & Sons, ch2,1981 Appearance Osiris is represented in his most developed form of iconography wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt, amongst the variants this is sometimes supplemented with feathers to represent the Atef crown, and carrying the crook and flail. The crook is thought to represent Osiris as a shepherd God. The symbolism of the flail is more uncertain with shepherds whip, fly-whisk, or association with the god Andjety of the ninth nome of Lower Egypt proposed. The Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology, Edited by Donald B. Redford, p302-307, Berkley, 2003, ISBN 0-425-19096-X He was commonly depicted as a green (the color of rebirth) or black (alluding to the fertility of the Nile floodplain) complexioned pharaoh in mummiform. "How to Read Egyptian Heiroglyphs", Mark Collier & Bill Manley, British Museum Press, p42, 1998, ISBN 0 7141 1910 5 Early mythology The Pyramid Texts describe early conceptions of an afterlife in terms of eternal travelling with the sun god amongst the stars. Amongst these mortuary texts, at the beginning of the 4th dynasty, is found: "An offering the king gives, and Anubis". By the end of the 5th dynasty the formula in all tombs becomes "An offering the king gives, and Osiris". "Architecture of the Afterlife: Understanding Egypt’s pyramid tombs", Ann Macy Roth,Archaeology Odyssey, Spring 1998 When the Ennead and Ogdoad cosmogenies became merged, with the identification of Ra as Atum (Atum-Ra), gradually Anubis (Ogdoad system) was replaced by Osiris, whose cult had become more significant. Anubis was said to have given way to Osiris out of respect, and, as an underworld deity. Anubis was Set's son in some versions, but because Set became god of evil, he was subsequently identified as being Osiris' son. Abydos, which had been a strong centre of the cult of Anubis, became a centre of the cult of Osiris. Because Isis, Osiris' wife and sister, represented life in the Ennead, it was considered somewhat inappropriate for her to be the mother of a god associated with death such as Anubis, and so instead, it was usually said that Nephthys, the other of the two female children of Geb and Nut, was his mother. Father of Horus The gods Osiris, Anubis, and Horus, from a tomb painting. Later, when Hathor's identity (from the Ogdoad) was assimilated into that of Isis, Horus, who had been Isis' husband (in the Ogdoad), became considered her son, and thus, since Osiris was Isis' husband (in the Ennead), Osiris also became considered Horus' father. Attempts to explain how Osiris, a god of the dead, could give rise to Horus, who was thought to be living, led to the development of the Myth of Osiris and Isis, which became a central myth in Egyptian mythology. The myth described Osiris as having been killed by his brother Set who wanted Osiris' throne. Isis briefly brought Osiris back to life by use of a spell that she learned from her father. This spell gave her time to become pregnant by Osiris before he again died. Isis later gave birth to Horus. As such, since Horus was born after Osiris' resurrection, Horus became thought of as representing new beginnings, and vanquished Set. This combination, Osiris-Horus, was therefore a life-death-rebirth deity, and thus associated with the new harvest each year. Afterward, Osiris became known as the Egyptian god of the dead, Isis became known as the Egyptian goddess of the children, and Horus became known as the Egyptian god of the sky. Ptah-Seker (who resulted from the identification of Ptah as Seker), who was god of re-incarnation, thus gradually became identified with Osiris, the two becoming Ptah-Seker-Osiris (rarely known as Ptah-Seker-Atum, although this was just the name, and involved Osiris rather than Atum). As the sun was thought to spend the night in the underworld, and subsequently be re-incarnated, as both king of the underworld, and god of reincarnation, Ptah-Seker-Osiris was identified. Ram god Since Osiris was considered dead, as god of the dead, Osiris' soul, or rather his Ba, was occasionally worshipped in its own right, almost as if it were a distinct god, especially so in the Delta city of Mendes. This aspect of Osiris was referred to as Banebdjedet, (also spelt "Banebded" or "Banebdjed"), which is technically feminine) which literally means The ba of the lord of the djed, which roughly means The soul of the lord of the pillar of stability. The djed, a type of pillar, was usually understood as the backbone of Osiris, and, at the same time, as the Nile, the backbone of Egypt. The Nile, supplying water, and Osiris (strongly connected to the vegetation) who died only to be resurrected represented continuity and therefore stability. As Banebdjed, Osiris was given epithets such as Lord of the Sky and Life of the (sun god) Ra, since Ra, when he had become identified with Atum, was considered Osiris' ancestor, from whom his regal authority was inherited. Ba does not, however, quite mean soul in the western sense, and also has to do with power, reputation, force of character, especially in the case of a god. Since the ba was associated with power, and also happened to be a word for ram in Egyptian, Banebdjed was depicted as a ram, or as Ram-headed. A living, sacred ram, was even kept at Mendes and worshipped as the incarnation of the god, and upon death, the rams were mummified and buried in a ram-specific necropolis. As regards the association of Osiris with the ram, the god's traditional crook and flail are of course the instruments of the shepherd, which has suggested to some scholars also an origin for Osiris in herding tribes of the upper Nile. The crook and flail were originally symbols of the minor agricultural deity Andjety, and passed to Osiris later. From Osiris, they eventually passed to Egyptian kings in general as symbols of divine authority. In Mendes, they had considered Hatmehit, a local fish-goddess, as the most important deity, and so when the cult of Osiris became more significant, Banebdjed was identified in Mendes as deriving his authority from being married to Hatmehit. Later, when Horus became identified as the child of Osiris (in this form Horus is known as Harpocrates in Greek and Har-pa-khered in Egyptian), Banebdjed was consequently said to be Horus' father, as Banebdjed is an aspect of Osiris. Mythology The family of Osiris. Osiris on lapis lazuli pillar in the middle, flanked by Horus on the left and Isis on the right. 22nd dynasty, Paris Louvre The cult of Osiris (who was a god chiefly of regeneration and re-birth) had a particularly strong interest toward the concept of immortality. Plutarch recounts one version of the myth surrounding the cult in which Set (Osiris' brother) fooled Osiris into getting into a box, which he then shut, had sealed with lead, and threw into the Nile (sarcophagi were based on the box in this myth). Osiris' wife, Isis, searched for his remains until she finally found him embedded in a tree trunk, which was holding up the roof of a palace in Byblos on the Phoenician coast. She managed to remove the coffin and open it, but Osiris was already dead. She used a spell she had learned from her father and brought him back to life so he could impregnate her. After they finished, he died again, so she hid his body in the desert. Months later, she gave birth to Horus. While she was off raising him, Set had been out hunting one night, and he came across the body of Osiris. Enraged, he tore the body into fourteen pieces and scattered them throughout the land. Isis gathered up all the parts of the body, less the phallus which was eaten by a fish thereafter considered taboo by the Egyptians, and bandaged them together for a proper burial. The gods were impressed by the devotion of Isis and thus resurrected Osiris as the god of the underworld. Because of his death and resurrection, Osiris is associated with the flooding and retreating of the Nile and thus with the crops along the Nile valley. Diodorus Siculus gives another version of the myth in which Osiris is described as an ancient king who taught the Egyptians the arts of civilization, including agriculture. Osiris is murdered by his evil brother Set, whom Diodorus associates with the evil Typhon ("Typhonian Beast") of Greek mythology. Typhon divides the body into twenty six pieces which he distributes amongst his fellow conspirators in order to implicate them in the murder. Isis and Horus avenge the death of Osiris and slay Typhon. Isis recovers all the parts of Osiris body, less the phallus, and secretly buries them. She made replicas of them and distributed them to several locations which then became centres of Osiris worship. "Osiris", Man, Myth & Magic, S.G.F Brandon, Vol5 P2088, BPC Publishing. "The Historical Library of Diodorus Siculus", translated by George Booth 1814. retrieved 3 June 2007. The tale of Osiris becoming fish-like is cognate with the story the Greek shepherd god Pan becoming fish like from the waist down in the same river Nile after being attacked by Typhon (see Capricornus). This attack was part of a generational feud in which both Zeus and Dionysus were dismembered by Typhon, in a similar manner as Osiris was by Set in Egypt. Passion and resurrection A shaven-headed priest of Osiris holding a canopic vase of Osiris with the hems of his robe. Ptolemaic Egypt. 1st century CE. Plutarch and others have noted that the sacrifices to Osiris were “gloomy, solemn, and mournful...” (Isis and Osiris, 69) and that the great mystery festival, celebrated in two phases, began at Abydos on the 17th of Athyr (November 13) commemorating the death of the god, which is also the same day that grain was planted in the ground. “The death of the grain and the death of the god were one and the same: the cereal was identified with the god who came from heaven; he was the bread by which man lives. The resurrection of the God symbolized the rebirth of the grain.” (Larson 17) The annual festival involved the construction of “Osiris Beds” formed in shape of Osiris, filled with soil and sown with seed. Britannica Ultimate Edition 2003 DVD The germinating seed symbolized Osiris rising from the dead. An almost pristine example was found in the tomb of Tutankhamun by Howard Carter. Osiris Bed, Burton photograph p2024, The Griffith Institute. The first phase of the festival was a public drama depicting the murder and dismemberment of Osiris, the search of his body by Isis, his triumphal return as the resurrected god, and the battle in which Horus defeated Set. This was all presented by skilled actors as a literary history, and was the main method of recruiting cult membership. According to Julius Firmicus Maternus of the fourth century, this play was re-enacted each year by worshippers who “beat their breasts and gashed their shoulders.... When they pretend that the mutilated remains of the god have been found and rejoined...they turn from mourning to rejoicing.” (De Errore Profanorum). The passion of Osiris is reflected in his name 'Wenennefer" ("the one who continues to be perfect"), which also alludes to his post mortem power. "How to Read Egyptian Heiroglyphs", Mark Collier & Bill Manley, British Museum Press, p42, 1998, ISBN 0 7141 1910 5 Scholars such as E.A. Wallis Budge have suggested possible connections or parallels in Osiris' resurrection story with those found in Christianity: "The Egyptians of every period in which they are known to us believed that Osiris was of divine origin, that he suffered death and mutilation at the hands of the powers of evil, that after a great struggle with these powers he rose again, that he became henceforth the king of the underworld and judge of the dead, and that because he had conquered death the righteous also might conquer death...In Osiris the Christian Egyptians found the prototype of Christ, and in the pictures and statues of Isis suckling her son Horus, they perceived the prototypes of the Virgin Mary and her child." E.A Wallis Budge, "Egyptian Religion",Ch2,ISBN 0-14-019017-1 Ikhernofret Stela Much of the extant information about the Passion of Osiris can be found on the Ikhernofret Stela at Abydos erected in the 12th Dynasty by Ikhernofret (also I-Kher-Nefert), possibly a priest of Osiris or other official during the reign of Senwosret III (Pharaoh Sesostris, about 1875 BC). The Passion Plays were held in the last month of the inundation (the annual Nile flood), coinciding with Spring, and held at Abydos/Abedjou which was the traditional place where the body of Osiris/Wesir drifted ashore after having been drowned in the Nile.<ref name="passion play">ancientworlds.net - the passion plays of osiris </ref> The part of the myth recounting the chopping up of the body into 14 pieces by Set is not recorded until later by Plutarch. Some elements of the ceremony were held in the temple, while others involved public participation in a form of theatre. The Stela of I-Kher-Nefert recounts the programme of events of the public elements over the five days of the Festival:The First Day, The Procession of Wepwawet: A mock battle is enacted during which the enemies of Osiris are defeated. A procession is led by the god Wepwawet ("opener of the way").The Second Day, The Great Procession of Osiris: The body of Osiris is taken from his temple to his tomb. The boat he is transported in, the "Neshmet" bark, has to be defended against his enemies.The Third Day, Osiris is Mourned and the Enemies of the Land are Destroyed.The Fourth Day, Night Vigil: Prayers and recitations are made and funeral rites performed.The Fifth Day, Osiris is Reborn: Osiris is reborn at dawn and crowned with the crown of Ma'at. A statue of Osiris is brought to the temple. Wheat and clay rituals Contrasting with the public "theatrical" ceremonies sourced from the I-Kher-Nefert stele, more esoteric ceremonies were performed inside the temples by priests witnessed only by initiates. Plutarch mentions that two days after the beginning of the festival “the priests bring forth sacred chest containing a small golden coffer, into which they pour some potable water...and a great shout arises from the company for joy that Osiris is found (or resurrected). Then they knead some fertile soil with the water...and fashion therefrom a crescent-shaped figure, which they cloth and adorn, this indicating that they regard these gods as the substance of Earth and Water.” (Isis and Osiris, 39). Yet even he was obscure, for he also wrote, “I pass over the cutting of the wood” opting to not describe it since he considered it most sacred (Ibid. 21). In the Osirian temple at Denderah, an inscription (translated by Budge, Chapter XV, Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection) describes in detail the making of wheat paste models of each dismembered piece of Osiris to be sent out to the town where each piece was discovered by Isis. At the temple of Mendes, figures of Osiris are made from wheat and paste placed in a trough on the day of the murder, then water added for several days, when finally the mixture was kneaded into a mold of Osiris and taken to the temple and buried (the sacred grain for these cakes only grown in the temple fields). Molds are made from wood of a red tree in the forms of the sixteen dismembered parts of Osiris, cakes of divine bread made from each mold, placed in a silver chest and set near the head of the god, the inward parts of Osiris as described in the Book of the Dead (XVII). On the first day of the Festival of Ploughing, where the goddess Isis appears in her shrine where she is stripped naked, Paste made from the grain is placed in her bed and moistened with water, representing the fecund earth. All of these sacred rituals were climaxed by the eating of sacramental god, the eucharist by which the celebrants were transformed, in their persuasion, into replicas of their god-man (Larson 20). Judgment With the rise of the cult of Osiris during the Middle Kingdom the “democratization of religion” offered to even his most humblest followers the prospect of eternal life, with moral fitness becoming the dominant factor in determining a persons suitability. At death a person faced judgment by a tribunal of forty-two divine judges. If they led a life in conformance with the precepts of the Goddess Maat, who represented truth and right living, the person was welcomed into the kingdom of Osiris. If found guilty the person was thrown to a “devourer” and didn't share in eternal life. Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt”, Rosalie David, p158-159, Penguin, 2002, ISBN 0-14-0262252-0 The person who is taken by the devourer is subject first to terrifying punishment and then annihilated. These depictions of punishment may have influenced medieval perceptions of the inferno in hell via early Christian and Coptic texts. ”The Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology: The Oxford Guide”, “Hell”, p161-162, Jacobus Van Dijk, Berkley Reference, 2003, ISBN 0-425-19096-X Purification for those who are considered justified may be found in the descriptions of “Flame Island”, where they experience the triumph over evil and rebirth. For the dammed complete destruction into a state of non being awaits but there is no suggestion of eternal torture. ”The Divine Verdict”, John Gwyn Griffiths, p233, BRILL, 1991, ISBN 9004092315 see also letter by Prof. Griffith to “The Independent”, 32 December 1993 Divine pardon at judgement was always a central concern for the Ancient Egyptians. "Egyptian Religion", Jan Assman, The Encyclopedia of Christianity, p77, vol2, Wm. B Eerdmans Publishing, 1999, ISBN 90041 16958 During the reign of Seti I Osiris was also invoked in royal decrees to pursue the living when wrongdoing was observed but kept secret and not reported. "The Burden of Egypt", J.A Wilson, p243, University of Chicago Press, 4th imp 1963 Greco-Roman era Osiris-Dionysus By the Hellenic era, Greek awareness of Osiris had grown, and attempts had been made to merge Greek philosophy, such as Platonism, and the cult of Osiris (especially the myth of his resurrection), resulting in a new mystery religion. Gradually, this became more popular, and was exported to other parts of the Greek sphere of influence. However, these mystery religions valued the change in wisdom, personality, and knowledge of fundamental truth, rather than the exact details of the acknowledged myths on which their teachings were superimposed. Thus in each region that it was exported to, the myth was changed to be about a similar local god, resulting in a series of gods, who had originally been quite distinct, but who were now syncretisms with Osiris. These gods became known as Osiris-Dionysus. Serapis Serapis. (Vatican collection) Eventually, in Egypt, the Hellenic pharaohs decided to produce a deity that would be acceptable to both the local Egyptian population, and the influx of Hellenic visitors, to bring the two groups together, rather than allow a source of rebellion to grow. Thus Osiris was identified explicitly with Apis, really an aspect of Ptah, who had already been identified as Osiris by this point, and a syncretism of the two was created, known as Serapis, and depicted as a standard Greek god. The early Alexanderian Christian community appears to have been rather syncretic in their worship of Serapis and Jesus and would prostrate themselves without distinction between the two. "Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity", Otto Friedrich August Meinardus, American Univ in Cairo Press, 2002, p143, ISBN 9774247574A A letter ascribed in the Augustan History In modern times most scholars read this work as a piece of "deliberate mystification" written much later than it's purported date, however the "fundamentalist view" still has distinguished support see: "The Cambridge History of Classical Literature", E. J. Kenney, Wendell Vernon Clausen, p43, Cambridge University Press, 1983,ISBN 0521273714 to the Emperor Hadrian refers to the worship of Serapis by residents of Egypt who described themselves as Christians, and Christian worship by those claiming to worship Serapis, suggesting a great confusion of the cults and practices: The land of Egypt, the praises of which you have been recounting to me, my dear Servianus, I have found to be wholly light-minded, unstable, and blown about by every breath of rumour. There those who worship Serapis are, in fact, Christians, and those who call themselves bishops of Christ are, in fact, devotees of Serapis. There is no chief of the Jewish synagogue, no Samaritan, no Christian presbyter, who is not an astrologer, a soothsayer, or an anointer. Even the Patriarch himself, when he comes to Egypt, is forced by some to worship Serapis, by others to worship Christ. (Augustan History, Firmus et al. 8) Destruction Philae Island The cult of Osiris continued up until the 6th century AD on the island of Philae in Upper Nile. The Theodosian decree (in about 380 AD) to destroy all pagan temples was not enforced there.The worship of Isis and Osiris was allowed to continue at Philae until the time of Justinian. This toleration was due to an old treaty made between the Blemyes-Nobadae and Diocletian. Every year they visited Elaphantine and at certain intervals took the image of Isis up river to the land of the Blemyes for oracular purposes before returning it. Justinian would not tolerate this and sent Narses to destroy the sanctuaries, with the priests being arrested and the divine images taken to Constantinople. ”History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death of Theodosius I. to the Death of Justinian”, The Suppression of Paganism – ch22, p371,John Bagnell Bury, Courier Dover Publications, 1958, ISBN 0486203999 See also Aaru Egyptian soul Notes References Martin A. Larson, The Story of Christian Origins'' (1977, 711 pp. ISBN 0883310902 ). External links Ancient Egyptian God Osiris The Influence of the Mystery Religions on Christianity by Martin Luther King Jr.
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4,719
Algeria
{{Infobox Country || native_name= al Jumhuriyya al Jazaa'iriyya al Demoqratiyya ash Sha'biyya Tagduda tamegdayt taɣerfant tazzayrit République algérienne démocratique et populaire |conventional_long_name = People's Democratic Republic of Algeria |common_name = Algeria |capital = Algiers |national_anthem = Kassaman(Arabic)The Pledge |national_motto = بالشعب وللشعب(Arabic)"By the people and for the people" Constitution of Algeria (1996), Art. 11 [ar] Constitution of Algeria (1996), Art. 11 [en] |image_flag = Flag of Algeria.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Algeria.svg |symbol_type = Emblem |image_map = LocationAlgeria.svg |official_languages = Arabic |regional_languages = Tamazight (National languages) , French is very widely spoken but not recognized. |capital = Algiers |latd=36 |latm=42 |latNS=N |longd=3 |longm=13 |longEW=E |largest_city = capital |government_type = Presidential Republic |leader_title1 = President |leader_name1 = Abdelaziz Bouteflika |leader_title2 = Prime Minister |leader_name2 = Ahmed Ouyahia |sovereignty_type = Establishment |established_event1 = Hammadid dynasty |established_date1 = from 1014 |established_event2 = Ottoman rule |established_date2 = from 1516 |established_event3 = French rule |established_date3 = from 1830 |established_event4 = Independence from France |established_date4 = 5 July 1962 |area_rank = 11th |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |area_km2 = 2381741 |area_sq_mi = 919595 |percent_water = negligible |population_estimate = 33,769,669 |population_estimate_year = 2008 |population_estimate_rank = 35th |population_census = 29,100,867 |population_census_year = 1998 |population_density_km2 = 14 |population_density_sq_mi = 36 |population_density_rank = 196th |GDP_PPP_year = 2008 |GDP_PPP = $233.098 billion |GDP_PPP_rank = 38th |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $6,698 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 88th |GDP_nominal = $159.669 billion |GDP_nominal_rank = 48th |GDP_nominal_year = 2008 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $4,588 |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 84th |HDI_year = 2007 |HDI = 0.733 |HDI_rank = 104th |HDI_category = medium |Gini = 35.3 |Gini_year = 1995 |Gini_category = medium |currency = Algerian dinar |currency_code = DZD |time_zone = CET |utc_offset = +1 |time_zone_DST = not observed |utc_offset_DST = |demonym = Algerian |drives_on = right |cctld = .dz |calling_code = 213 }} Algeria (, al-Jazā’ir; Berber: Dzayer), officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a country located in North Africa. It is the largest country on the Mediterranean sea, the second largest on the African continent and the eleventh-largest country in the world in terms of land area. Encarta MSN It is bordered by Tunisia in the northeast, Libya in the east, Niger in the southeast, Mali and Mauritania in the southwest, a few kilometers of the Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara in the southwest, Morocco in the west and northwest, and the Mediterranean Sea in the north. Its size is almost 2,400,000 km2 with an estimated population near to 35,000,000. The capital of Algeria is Algiers. Algeria is a member of the United Nations, African Union, OPEC and the Arab League. It also contributed towards the creation of the Maghreb Union. Algeria is considered by Berbers to be a part of the Berber World. Etymology Al-jazā’ir is itself a truncated form of the city's older name of jazā’ir banī mazghanā, the Arabic for "the islands of (the Berber tribe) Ait Mazghanna", as used by early medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi and Yaqut al-Hamawi. In the Classical times northern Algeria was known as Numidia. Numidia included back then parts of modern day Morocco. History Ancient history Roman arch of Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria Berbers have inhabited Algeria since at least 10,000 BC; after 1000 BC, the Carthaginians began establishing settlements along the coast. The Berbers seized the opportunity offered by the Punic Wars to become independent of Carthage, and Berber kingdoms began to emerge, most notably Numidia. In 200 BC, however, they were once again taken over, this time by the Roman Republic. When the Western Roman Empire collapsed, Berbers became independent again in many areas, while the Vandals took control over other parts, where they remained until expelled by the generals of the Byzantine Emperor, Justinian I. The Byzantine Empire then retained a precarious grip on the east of the country until the coming of the Arabs in the eighth century. Middle Ages The two branches, Sanhadja and Zanata, were also divided into tribes, with each Maghreb region made up of several tribes. Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale De Ibn Khaldūn, William MacGuckin Several Berber dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages. Arrival of Islam Great Mosque of Algiers After the waves of Muslim Arab armies that conquered Algeria from its former Berber rulers and the rule of the Umayyid Arab Dynasty fell, numerous Dynasties emerged thereafter. Amongst those dynasties are the [Almohads],[Almoravids],Fatimids of Egypt and Abdelwadids. Having converted the Kutama of Kabylie to its cause, the Shia Fatimids overthrew the Rustamids, and conquered Egypt, leaving Algeria and Tunisia to their Zirid vassals. When the latter rebelled, the Shia Fatimids sent in the Banu Hilal, a populous Arab tribe, to weaken them. This continued the influx of Arabs into the region since numerous other tribes then migrated with the Banu Hilal such as Banu Sulaym, Banu Muqal, Banu Jashm, Banu Khalt, and others. History of Ibn Khaldun Ottoman rule In the beginning of the 16th century, after the completion of the Reconquista, the Spanish Empire attacked the Algerian coastal area and committed many massacres against the civilian population (“about 4000 in Oran and 4100 in Béjaïa). They took control of Mers El Kébir in 1505, Oran in 1509, Béjaïa in 1510, Tenes, Mostaganem, Cherchell and Dellys in 1511, and finally Algiers in 1512. On 15 January 1510 the King of Algiers, Samis El Phillipe, was forced into submission to the king of Spain; the Spanish Empire turned the Algerian population to subservients. King El Phillipe called for help from the corsairs Barberous brothers Hayreddin Barbarossa and Oruç Reis who previously helped Andalousian Muslims and Jews to escape from the Spanish oppression in 1492. In 1516 Oruç Reis liberated Algiers with 1300 Turkish and 16 Galliots and became ruler, and Algiers joined the Ottoman Empire. After his death in 1518, his brother Hayreddin Barbarossa succeeded him, the Sultan Selim I sent him 6000 soldiers and 2000 janissary with which he liberated most of the Algerian territory taken by the Spanish, from Annaba to Mostaganem. Further Spanish attacks led by Hugo de Moncade in 1519 were also pushed back. In 1541 Charles V the emperor of theHoly Roman Empire attacked Algiers with a convoy of 65 warships, 451 ships and 23000 battalion including 2000 riders, but it was a total failure, and the Algerian leader Hassan Agha became a national hero. Algiers then became a great military power. Algeria was made part of the Ottoman Empire by Barbaros Hayreddin Pasa and his brother Aruj in 1517. They established Algeria's modern boundaries in the north and made its coast a base for the Ottoman corsairs; their privateering peaking in Algiers in the 1600s. Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the First (1801–1805) and Second Barbary Wars (1815) with the United States. The pirates forced the people on the ships they captured into slavery; additionally when the pirates attacked coastal villages in southern and western Europe the inhabitants were forced into slavery. Barbary Pirates — Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1911 The Moorish ambassador of the Barbary States to the Court of Queen Elizabeth I of England. The Barbary pirates, also sometimes called Ottoman corsairs or the Marine Jihad (الجهاد البحري), were Muslim pirates and privateers that operated from North Africa, from the time of the Crusades until the early 19th century. Based in North African ports such as Tunis in Tunisia, Tripoli in Libya, Algiers in Algeria, Salé and other ports in Morocco, they preyed on Christian and other non-Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea. Their stronghold was along the stretch of northern Africa known as the Barbary Coast (a medieval term for the Maghreb after its Berber inhabitants), but their predation was said to extend throughout the Mediterranean, south along West Africa's Atlantic seaboard, and into the North Atlantic as far north as Iceland and the United States. They often made raids, called Razzias, on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave markets in places such as Turkey, Egypt, Iran, Algeria and Morocco. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves. These slaves were captured mainly from seaside villages in Italy, Spain and Portugal, and from farther places like France or England, Ireland, the Netherlands, Germany, Poland, Russia, Scandinavia and even Iceland, India, Southeast Asia and North America. The impact of these attacks was devastating – France, England, and Spain each lost thousands of ships, and long stretches of coast in Spain and Italy were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants. Pirate raids discouraged settlement along the coast until the 19th century. Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha. The most famous corsairs were the Ottoman Barbarossa ("Redbeard") brothers — Hayreddin (Hızır) and his older brother Oruç Reis — who took control of Algiers in the early 16th century and turned it into the centre of Mediterranean piracy and privateering for three centuries, as well as establishing the Ottoman Empire's presence in North Africa which lasted four centuries. Other famous Ottoman privateer-admirals included Turgut Reis (known as Dragut in the West), Kurtoğlu (known as Curtogoli in the West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis, Nemdil Reis and Koca Murat Reis. In 1544, Hayreddin captured the island of Ischia, taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari, almost the entire population. In 1551, Turgut Reis enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island Gozo, between 5,000 and 6,000, sending them to Libya. In 1554, pirates sacked Vieste in southern Italy and took an estimated 7,000 slaves. In 1555, Turgut Reis sacked Bastia, Corsica, taking 6000 prisoners. In 1558, Barbary corsairs captured the town of Ciutadella (Minorca), destroyed it, slaughtered the inhabitants and took 3,000 survivors to Istanbul as slaves. In 1563, Turgut Reis landed on the shores of the province of Granada, Spain, and captured coastal settlements in the area, such as Almuñécar, along with 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates often attacked the Balearic Islands, and in response many coastal watchtowers and fortified churches were erected. The threat was so severe that the island of Formentera became uninhabited. From 1609 to 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates. Rees Davies, British Slaves on the Barbary Coast, BBC, 1 July 2003 In the 19th century, Barbary pirates would capture ships and enslave the crew. Latterly American ships were attacked. During this period, the pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a "license tax" in exchange for safe harbor of their vessels. Mackie, Erin Skye, Welcome the Outlaw: Pirates, Maroons, and Caribbean Countercultures Cultural Critique - 59, Winter 2005, pp. 24–62 One American slave reported that the Algerians had enslaved 130 American seamen in the Mediterranean and Atlantic from 1785 to 1793. French rule Constantine, Algeria 1840 On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded Algiers in 1830. The conquest of Algeria by the French was long and particularly violent, and it resulted in the disappearance of about a third of the Algerian population. - http://gallica.bnf.fr/, La démographie figurée de l'Algérie, op.cit., p.260 et 261. Between 1830 and 1847 50,000 French people had emigrated to Algeria 'France - Republic, Monarchy, and Empire' By Keith Randell , but the conquest was slow due to intense resistance from such people as Emir Abdelkader, Ahmed Bey and Fatma N'Soumer. Indeed, the conquest was not technically complete until the early 1900s when the last Tuareg were conquered by General Guilain P. Denoeux. Oran, Algeria Meanwhile, however, the French made Algeria an integral part of France, a status that would end only with the collapse of the Fourth Republic in 1958. Tens of thousands of settlers from France, Spain, Italy, and Malta moved in to farm the Algerian coastal plain and occupied significant parts of Algeria's cities. These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land. Algeria's social fabric suffered during the occupation: literacy plummeted, while land development uprooted much of the population. Starting from the end of the 19th century, people of European descent in Algeria (or natives like Spanish people in Oran), as well as the native Algerian Jews (typically Sephardic in origin), became full French citizens. After Algeria's 1962 independence, they were called Pieds-Noirs; ("Pieds Noirs" meaning "black feet", referring to the black shoes the Europeans wore on their feet). In contrast, the vast majority of Muslim Algerians (even veterans of the French army) received neither French citizenship nor the right to vote. Post-independence In 1954, the National Liberation Front (FLN) launched the Algerian War of Independence which was a guerrilla campaign. By the end of the war, newly elected President Charles de Gaulle, understanding that the age of empires was ending, held a plebiscite, offering Algerians three options. In a famous speech (4 June 1958 in Algiers) de Gaulle proclaimed in front of a vast crowd of Pieds-Noirs "Je vous ai compris" (I have understood you). Most Pieds-noirs then believed that de Gaulle meant that Algeria would remain French. The poll resulted in a landslide vote for complete independence from France. Over one million people, 10% of the population, then fled the country for France and in just a few months in mid-1962. These included most of the 1,025,000 Pieds-Noirs, as well as 81,000 Harkis (pro-French Algerians serving in the French Army). In the days preceding the bloody conflict, a group of Algerian Rebels opened fire on a marketplace in Oran killing numerous innocent civilians, mostly women. Cosmopolitan Algiers Mohamedia Tower Algeria's first president was the FLN leader Ahmed Ben Bella. He was overthrown by his former ally and defence minister, Houari Boumédienne in 1965. Under Ben Bella the government had already become increasingly socialist and authoritarian, and this trend continued throughout Boumédienne's government. However, Boumédienne relied much more heavily on the army, and reduced the sole legal party to a merely symbolic role. Agriculture was collectivised, and a massive industrialization drive launched. Oil extraction facilities were nationalized. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the 1973 oil crisis. However, the Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil which led to hardship when the price collapsed during the 1980s oil glut. In foreign policy, while Algeria shares much of its history and cultural heritage with neighbouring Morocco, the two countries have had somewhat hostile relations with each other ever since Algeria's independence. Reasons for this include Morocco's disputed claim to portions of western Algeria (which led to the Sand War in 1963), Algeria's support for the Polisario Front for its right to self-determination, and Algeria's hosting of Sahrawi refugees within its borders in the city of Tindouf. Within Algeria, dissent was rarely tolerated, and the state's control over the media and the outlawing of political parties other than the FLN was cemented in the repressive constitution of 1976. Boumédienne died in 1978, but the rule of his successor, Chadli Bendjedid, was little more open. The state took on a strongly bureaucratic character and corruption was widespread. The modernization drive brought considerable demographic changes to Algeria. Village traditions underwent significant change as urbanization increased. New industries emerged, agricultural employment was substantially reduced. Education was extended nationwide, raising the literacy rate from less than 10% to over 60%. There was a dramatic increase in the fertility rate to 7–8 children per mother. Therefore by 1980, there was a very youthful population and a housing crisis. The new generation struggled to relate to the cultural obsession with the war years and two conflicting protest movements developed: communists, including Berber identity movements; and Islamic 'intégristes'. Both groups protested against one-party rule but also clashed with each other in universities and on the streets during the 1980s. Mass protests from both camps in Autumn 1988 forced Bendjedid to concede the end of one-party rule. Elections were planned to happen in 1991. In December 1991, the Islamic Salvation Front won the first round of the country's first multi-party elections. The military then intervened and cancelled the second round. It forced then-president Bendjedid to resign and banned all political parties based on religion (including the Islamic Salvation Front). A political conflict ensued, leading Algeria into the violent Algerian Civil War. More than 160,000 people were killed between 17 January 1992 and June 2002. Most of the deaths were between militants and government troops, but a great number of civilians were also killed. The question of who was responsible for these deaths was controversial at the time amongst academic observers; many were claimed by the Armed Islamic Group. Though many of these massacres were carried out by Islamic extremists, the Algerian regime also used the army and foreign mercenaries to conduct attacks on men, women and children and then proceeded to blame the attacks upon various Islamic groups within the country. Khilafah - An overview of recent events in Algeria Algiers Elections resumed in 1995, and after 1998, the war waned. On 27 April 1999, after a series of short-term leaders representing the military, Abdelaziz Bouteflika, the current president, was elected. Arabic German Consulting www.Arab.de . Retrieved 4 April 2006. By 2002, the main guerrilla groups had either been destroyed or surrendered, taking advantage of an amnesty program, though sporadic fighting continued in some areas (See Islamic insurgency in Algeria (2002–present)). The issue of Amazigh language and identity increased in significance, particularly after the extensive Kabyle protests of 2001 and the near-total boycott of local elections in Kabylie.The government responded with concessions including naming of Tamazight (Berber) as a national language and teaching it in schools. Much of Algeria is now recovering and developing into an emerging economy. The high prices of oil and gas are being used by the new government to improve the country's infrastructure and especially improve industry and agricultural land. Recently, overseas investment in Algeria has increased. Topographic map of Algeria Geography Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural harbours. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a steppe landscape, which ends with the Saharan Atlas; further south, there is the Sahara desert. The Ahaggar Mountains (), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located about 1,500 km (932 miles) south of the capital, Algiers and just west of Tamanghasset. Algiers, Oran, Constantine, and Annaba are Algeria's main cities. Tropic of Cancer in the torrid zone Hammas Towers in Algiers In this region even in winter, midday desert temperatures can be very hot. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded. The highest temperature recorded in Tiguentour is 140.9 °F (60.5 °C) and is probably the highest reliable temperature ever recorded in Algeria under standard conditions. Rainfall is fairly abundant along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from 400 to 670 mm annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. Precipitation is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as 1000 mm in some years. Farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Prevailing winds that are easterly and north-easterly in summer change to westerly and northerly in winter and carry with them a general increase in precipitation from September through December, a decrease in the late winter and spring months, and a near absence of rainfall during the summer months. Algeria also has ergs, or sand dunes between mountains, which in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can get up to . Politics Abdelaziz Bouteflika, President of Algeria. Louisa Hanoune The head of state is the President of Algeria, who is elected to a five-year term. The president, as of a constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament on November 11, 2008, is not limited to any term length. Algeria has universal suffrage at 18 years of age. The President is the head of the Council of Ministers and of the High Security Council. He appoints the Prime Minister who is also the head of government. The Prime Minister appoints the Council of Ministers. The Algerian parliament is bicameral, consisting of a lower chamber, the National People's Assembly (APN), with 380 members; and an upper chamber, the Council Of Nation, with 144 members. The APN is elected every five years. Under the 1976 constitution (as modified 1979, and amended in 1988, 1989, and 1996) Algeria is a multi-party state. All parties must be approved by the Ministry of the Interior. To date, Algeria has had more than 40 legal political parties. According to the constitution, no political association may be formed if it is "based on differences in religion, language, race, gender or region." Foreign relations and military Djebel Chenoua class corvette El Kirch (353) built by ECRN in Mers-el-Kebir and operated by the Algerian National Navy The military of Algeria consists of the People's National Army (ANP), the Algerian National Navy (MRA), and the Algerian Air Force (QJJ), plus the Territorial Air Defense Force. It is the direct successor of the Armée de Libération Nationale (ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front, which fought French colonial occupation during the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62). The commander-in-chief of the military is the president, who is also Minister of National Defense. Total personnel includes 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff (2008 estimate). Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of eighteen months (six training and twelve in civil projects). The total military expenditure in 2006 was estimated variously at 2.7% of GDP (3,096 million), or 3.3% of GDP. Algeria is a leading military power in North Africa and has its force oriented toward its western (Morocco) and eastern (Libya) borders. Its primary military supplier has been the former Soviet Union, which has sold various types of sophisticated equipment under military trade agreements, and the People's Republic of China. Algeria has attempted, in recent years, to diversify its sources of military material. Military forces are supplemented by a 70,000-member gendarmerie or rural police force under the control of the president and 30,000-member Sûreté nationale or Metropolitan police force under the Ministry of the Interior. In 2007, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49 MiG-29SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated $1.5 Billion. They also agreed to return old aircraft purchased from the Former USSR. Russia is also building two 636-type diesel submarines for Algeria. Maghreb Union Tensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation to the Western Sahara have put great obstacles in the way of tightening the Maghreb Union and the yearned Great Maghreb Sultanate, which was nominally established in 1989 but carried little practical weight with its coastal neighbors. Bin Ali calls for reactivating Arab Maghreb Union, Tunisia-Maghreb, Politics, 2/19/1999 www.arabicnews.com . Retrieved 4 April 2006. Religion Islam is the predominant religion, followed by more than 90 percent of the country's population. This figure includes all these born in families considered of Muslim descent. Officially Algerians are Muslims at nearly 100% , however a great number are Atheists or other kinds of non-believers and are not counted as such in the statistics and they make up probably at least 10% of the population. Nearly all Algerians belong to the Sunni Islam , with the exception of some 200.000 ibadis in the M'zab Valley in the region of Ghardaia Ibadis and Kharijis . There are also some 50.000 Christians in the country, among whom 10.000 Catholics and 30.000 to 50.000 Protestants, according to the Protestant Church of Algeria's leader Mustapha Krim. Top Chrétien Vodeo TV Algeria had an important Jewish community until the 1960s, but there is no active Jewish community today, although a very small number of Jews continue to live in Algiers. Since 1994 the size of the Jewish community has diminished to virtual nonexistence due to fears of terrorist violence, and the synagogue in Algiers remained closed. U.S. Department of State Provinces and districts Map of the provinces of Algeria numbered according to the official order Algeria is divided into 48 provinces (wilayas), 553 districts (daïras) and 1,541 municipalities (baladiyahs). Each province, district, and municipality is named after its seat, which is mostly also the largest city. According to the Algerian constitution, a province is a territorial collectivity enjoying some economic freedom. The People's Provincial Assembly is the political entity governing a province, which has a "president", who is elected by the members of the assembly. They are in turn elected on universal suffrage every five years. The "Wali" (Prefect or governor) directs each province. This person is chosen by the Algerian President to handle the PPA's decisions. The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are: 1 Adrar 2 Chlef 3 Laghouat 4 Oum el-Bouaghi 5 Batna 6 Béjaïa 7 Biskra 8 Béchar 9 Blida 10 Bouira 11 Tamanghasset 12 Tébessa13 Tlemcen 14 Tiaret 15 Tizi Ouzou 16 Algiers 17 Djelfa 18 Jijel 19 Sétif 20 Saïda 21 Skikda 22 Sidi Bel Abbes 23 Annaba 24 Guelma25 Constantine 26 Médéa 27 Mostaganem 28 M'Sila 29 Mascara 30 Ouargla 31 Oran 32 El Bayadh 33 Illizi 34 Bordj Bou Arréridj 35 Boumerdès 36 El Tarf37 Tindouf 38 Tissemsilt 39 El Oued 40 Khenchela 41 Souk Ahras 42 Tipasa 43 Mila 44 Aïn Defla 45 Naama 46 Aïn Témouchent 47 Ghardaïa 48 Relizane Economy Ministry of Finances of Algeria Algiers Bay Project, to be completed in 2012 The fossil fuels energy sector is the backbone of Algeria's economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. The country ranks fourteenth in petroleum reserves, containing of proven oil reserves with estimates suggesting that the actual amount is even more. The U.S. Energy Information Administration reported that in 2005, Algeria had 160 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven natural gas reserves (4,502 billion cubic metres Retrieved 16 March 2009. ), the eighth largest in the world. Algeria Country Analysis Brief, EIA, March 2005. Retrieved 18 January 2007. Algeria’s financial and economic indicators improved during the mid-1990s, in part because of policy reforms supported by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and debt rescheduling from the Paris Club. Algeria’s finances in 2000 and 2001 benefited from an increase in oil prices and the government’s tight fiscal policy, leading to a large increase in the trade surplus, record highs in foreign exchange reserves, and reduction in foreign debt. Sonatrach Headquarter The government's continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards, however. In 2001, the government signed an Association Treaty with the European Union that will eventually lower tariffs and increase trade. In March 2006, Russia agreed to erase $4.74 billion of Algeria's Soviet-era debt during a visit by President Vladimir Putin to the country, the first by a Russian leader in half a century. In return, president Bouteflika agreed to buy $7.5 billion worth of combat planes, air-defense systems and other arms from Russia, according to the head of Russia's state arms exporter Rosoboronexport. Algeria also decided in 2006 to pay off its full $8bn (£4.3bn) debt to the Paris Club group of rich creditor nations before schedule. This will reduce the Algerian foreign debt to less than $5bn in the end of 2006. The Paris Club said the move reflected Algeria's economic recovery in recent years. Agriculture Algeria has always been noted for the fertility of its soil. 25% of Algerians are employed in the agricultural sector. A considerable amount of cotton was grown at the time of the United States' Civil War, but the industry declined afterwards. In the early years of the twentieth century efforts to extend the cultivation of the plant were renewed. A small amount of cotton is also grown in the southern oases. Large quantities of a vegetable that resembles horsehair, an excellent fibre, are made from the leaves of the dwarf palm. The olive (both for its fruit and oil) and tobacco are cultivated with great success. More than 7,500,000 acres (30,000 km2) are devoted to the cultivation of cereal grains. The Tell is the grain-growing land. During the time of French rule its productivity was increased substantially by the sinking of artesian wells in districts which only required water to make them fertile. Of the crops raised, wheat, barley and oats are the principal cereals. A great variety of vegetables and fruits, especially citrus products, are exported. Algeria also exports figs, dates, esparto grass, and cork. It is the largest oat market in Africa. Algeria is known for Bertolli's olive oil spread, although the spread has an Italian background. Demographics Demographics of Algeria, Data of FAO, year 2005; number of inhabitants in thousands. Notre Dame d'Afrique The El Jedid Mosque in Algiers The population of Algeria is 35,190,000 (jan 2009 est.). About 70% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the minority who inhabit the Sahara are mainly concentrated in oases, although some 1.5 million remain nomadic or partly nomadic. Almost 30% of Algerians are under 15. Algeria has the fourth lowest fertility rate in the Greater Middle East after Cyprus, Tunisia, and Turkey. 99% of Algerians are classified ethnically as Arab or Berber by unofficial sources and according to their native language, whether it is a predominantly Arab dialect or a predominantly Berber dialect (because all Algerian dialects are in fact an arabic-berber mix, none is pure arabic or pure berber), but this doesn't really reflect the real ancestry of Algerians, which is mostly a mixed ancestry made of Berber and different European and Middle Eastern populations that have invaded northwest Africa at different periods of history and mixed with its inhabitants; these groups include Arabs, Turks, Vandals, Phenicians, Romans, Greeks, Egyptians. Thusly, the spoken language bares no indication of the true ancestry of those who speak it. Europeans account for less than 1% of the population, inhabiting almost exclusively the largest metropolitan areas. However, during the colonial period there was a large (15.2% in 1962) European population, consisting primarily of French people, in addition to Spaniards in the west of the country, Italians and Maltese in the east, and other Europeans in smaller numbers. Known as pieds-noirs, European colonists were concentrated on the coast and formed a majority of the population of Oran (60%) and important proportions in other large cities like Algiers and Annaba. Almost all of this population left during or immediately after the country's independence from France. Housing and medicine continue to be pressing problems in Algeria. Failing infrastructure and the continued influx of people from rural to urban areas has overtaxed both systems. According to the UNDP, Algeria has one of the world's highest per housing unit occupancy rates for housing, and government officials have publicly stated that the country has an immediate shortfall of 1.5 million housing units. Women make up 70 percent of Algeria's lawyers and 60 percent of its judges. Women dominate medicine. Increasingly, women are contributing more to household income than men. Sixty percent of university students are women, according to university researchers. It is estimated that 95,700 refugees and asylum-seekers have sought refuge in Algeria. This includes roughly 90,000 from Morocco and 4,100 from former Palestine. [U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. "World Refugee Survey 2008." Available Online at: http://www.refugees.org/countryreports.aspx?id=2116. pp.34] Ethnic groups Ethnic composition of Algeria is mixed Arab and Berber. No official figures can be given, because Algerian law forbids population censuses based on ethnic, religious and linguistic criteria. The Encarta encyclopedia gives the following figures for ethnic composition: 83% Arab; 16% Berber, less than 1% European; Encarta The Algerian representant for Human Rights, M. Semichi mentioned in 1993 that there were 13-14 million Berbers in Algeria, which would amount to nearly 60% (for a population estimated in this moment at 23 million); United Nations, CERD, 1993 he speaks about 7 million people in Kabylie, "8-9 million in the Aurès, in the east of the country" and 1 million in the south. The Aurès region has around 3 million or, if defined very broadly, up to 5 million inhabitants. Official Algerian figures by Province The Berber people, identified as speakers of a Berber language, are divided into several groups, Kabyle in the mountainous north-central area, Chaoui in the eastern Atlas Mountains, Mozabites in the M'zab valley, and Tuareg in the far south, while the Arab Algerians make up the rest of the country. Languages Trilingual welcome sign in the Isser Municipality (Boumerdès), written in Arabic, Amazigh (Tifinagh), and French, typical of Berber cities. Most of Algeria uses only Arabic and French signs. Arabic is spoken as a native language by 72% percent of the population; of these, over 83% speak Algerian Arabic and around 11% Hassaniya. - http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/AXL/, Jacques Leclerc, L’aménagement linguistique dans le monde. CIRAL (Centre international de recherche en aménagement linguistique) Algerian Arabic is understood or spoken as a second language by many non-native speakers. However, in the media and on official occasions the spoken language is Standard Arabic. The Berbers (or Imazighen) speak one of the various dialects of Tamazight and add up to around 47 % of the population. Arabic remains Algeria's only official language, although Tamazight has recently been recognized as a national language alongside it. - « Loi n° 02-03 portant révision constitutionnelle », adopted on 10 April 2002. The language issue is politically sensitive, particularly for the Berber , which has been disadvantaged by state-sanctioned Arabization. Language politics and Arabization have partly been a reaction to the fact that 130 years of French colonization had left both the state bureaucracy and much of the educated upper class completely Francophone, as well as being motivated by the Arab nationalism promoted by successive Algerian governments. French is still the most widely studied foreign language in the country, and many Algerians speak it fluently, though it is usually not spoken in daily circumstances. Since independence, the government has pursued a policy of linguistic Arabization of education and bureaucracy, with some success, although many university courses continue to be taught in French. Recently, schools have started to incorporate French into the curriculum as early as children start to learn Arabic. French is also used in media and commerce. Education Béjaïa University Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 15. In the year 1997, there was an outstanding amount of teachers and students in primary schools. In Algeria there are 43 universities, 10 colleges, and 7 institutes for higher learning. The University of Algiers (founded in 1909), which is located in the capital of Algeria, Algiers has about 267,142 students. The Algerian school system is structured into Basic, General Secondary, and Technical Secondary levels: Basic Ecole fondamentale (Fundamental School)Length of program: 9 yearsAge range: 6 to 15Certificate/diploma awarded: Brevet d'Enseignement Moyen B.E.M. General Secondary Lycée d'Enseignement général (School of General Teaching), lycées polyvalents (General-Purpose School) Length of program: 3 yearsAge range: 15 to 18Certificate/diploma awarded: Baccalauréat de l'Enseignement secondaire (Bachelor's Degree of Secondary School) Technical Secondary Lycées d'Enseignement technique (Technical School)Length of program: 3 yearsCertificate/diploma awarded: Baccalauréat technique (Technical Bachelor's Degree) Culture and Sports The Monument of the Martyrs (Maqam a'chaheed) in Algiers Cheb Khaled Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. Famous novelists of the twentieth century include Mohammed Dib, Albert 3LI Camus, and Kateb Yacine, while Assia Djebar is widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were Rachid Mimouni, later vice-president of Amnesty International, and Tahar Djaout, murdered by an Islamist group in 1993 for his secularist views. Tahar Djaout French Publishers' Agency and France Edition, Inc. . Retrieved 4 April 2006. In philosophy and the humanities, Jacques Derrida, the father of deconstruction, was born in El Biar in Algiers; Malek Bennabi and Frantz Fanon are noted for their thoughts on decolonization; Augustine of Hippo was born in Tagaste (modern-day Souk Ahras); and Ibn Khaldun, though born in Tunis, wrote the Muqaddima while staying in Algeria. Algerian culture has been strongly influenced by Islam, the main religion. The works of the Sanusi family in pre-colonial times, and of Emir Abdelkader and Sheikh Ben Badis in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author Apuleius was born in Madaurus (Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria. In painting, Mohammed Khadda Mohammed Khadda official site. Retrieved 4 April 2006. and M'Hamed Issiakhem have been notable in recent years. Karim Ziani The most popular sports in the country are football, athletics and handball. Since and before One of the biggest events in Algerian sport was the 1982 national football team's defeat of West Germany in Gijon, Spain by a goal from Lakhdar Belloumi. But because of conflicts, and the poor conditions in Algeria through the 1990s and continuing in some areas of the country today many athletes have left Algeria for countries they could earn more in, usually France. Retired football great Zinedine Zidane as well as young prodigies Karim Benzema and Samir Nasri are all second generation Algerian immigrants. In athletics, Algeria has produced several world champions including Noureddine Morceli, Hassiba Boulmerka, Jabir-Said Guerni, and Benida Berrah. Landscapes and monuments of Algeria UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Algeria There are several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Algeria including Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad, the first capital of the Hammadid empire; Tipasa, a Phoenician and later Roman town; and Djémila and Timgad, both Roman ruins; M'Zab Valley, a limestone valley containing a large urbanized oasis; also the Casbah of Algiers is an important citadel. The only natural World Heritage Sites is the Tassili n'Ajjer, a mountain range. See also List of Algeria-related articles Topic outline of Algeria References Bibliography Ageron, Charles-Robert (1991). Modern Algeria. A History from 1830 to the Present. Translated from French and edited by Michael Brett. London: Hurst. ISBN 086543266X. Aghrout, Ahmed and Bougherira, Redha M. (2004). Algeria in Transition: Reforms and Development Prospects. Routledge. ISBN 041534848X Bennoune, Mahfoud (1988). The Making of Contemporary Algeria: Colonial Upheavals and Post-Independence Development, 1830–1987. Cambridge U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521301505. Fanon, Frantz (1966). The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press. ASIN B0007FW4AW, ISBN 0802141323 (2005 paperback). Horne, Alistair (1977). A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962. Viking Adult. ISBN 0670619647, ISBN 1-59017-218-3 (2006 reprint) Roberts, Hugh (2003). The Battlefield: Algeria, 1988–2002. Studies in a Broken Polity. London: Verso. ISBN 185984684X. Ruedy, John (1992). Modern Algeria: The Origins and Development of a Nation. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253349982. Stora, Benjamin (2001). Algeria, 1830–2000. A Short History. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801437156. External links Government El Mouradia official presidential site (in French and Arabic) National People's Assembly official parliamentary site Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Algeria from UCB Libraries GovPubs'' Photos From Algeria Ministère de l'Aménagement du Territoire, de l'Environnement et du Tourisme Map of Algeria
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Economy_of_Cyprus
Economic affairs in Cyprus are dominated by the division of the country into the southern area controlled by the Cyprus Government and the northern Turkish Cypriot-administered area. The Greek Cypriot economy is prosperous but highly susceptible to external shocks. In 2008 it was classified by the IMF amongst the 32 advanced economies of the world. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/01/weodata/groups.htm#ae IMF Advanced Economies List. World Economic Outlook, Database—WEO Groups and Aggregates Information, April 2008. The IMF forecasts that Cyprus will be the only developed economy to enjoy continuous growth rates through the 2009 financial crisis. http://www.thewest.com.au/default.aspx?MenuId=9&ContentID=138338 Erratic growth rates in the 1990s reflect the economy's vulnerability to swings in tourist arrivals, caused by political instability on the island and fluctuations in economic conditions in Western Europe. From 1 January 2008, the country entered the Eurozone and adopted the euro and monetary policy is dictated by the European Central Bank. The irrevocable fixed exchange rate of CYP 0.585274 per EUR 1.00 was set. The Turkish Cypriot economy has about one-fifth the population and one-third the per capita GDP of the south. Because the Turkish-Cypriot de facto administration is recognized only by Turkey, it has had much difficulty arranging foreign financing, and foreign firms have hesitated to invest there. The economy mainly revolves around the agricultural sector and government service, which together employ about half of the work force. The tourism sector also contributes substantially into the economy. Moreover, the small economy has seen some downfalls because the Turkish lira is legal tender. To compensate for the economy's weakness, Turkey has been known to provide significant financial aid. In both sectors, water shortage is a growing problem, and several desalination plants are planned. Economy in the Government-controlled sector Cyprus has an open, free-market, service-based economy with some light manufacturing. The Cypriots are among the most prosperous people in the Mediterranean region. Internationally, Cyprus promotes its geographical location as a "bridge" between West and East, along with its educated English-speaking population, moderate local costs, good airline connections, and telecommunications. Throughout the post-Independence period, Cyprus has had a record of successful economic performance, reflected in rapid growth, full employment conditions and external and internal stability. The underdeveloped economy, inherited from Colonial Rule in 1960, has been transformed into a modern economy, with dynamic services, industrial and agricultural sectors and advanced physical and social infrastructure. Cyprus is classified among the high-income countries, with a per capita income of CY£9,477 in 2004 . It has a standard of living that is even higher than some other European Union member-states and the performance of the economy compares favourably with that of most other EU countries. Cyprus holds 16th place worldwide in terms of per capita income. The average annual rate of growth in the past five years was about 3.8%, while inflation stood at 2.9% and unemployment at 3.4% over that period. These achievements appear all the more striking, bearing in mind the severe economic and social dislocation created by the Turkish invasion of 1974 and the continuing occupation of the northern part of the island by Turkey. The Turkish invasion inflicted a serious blow to the Cyprus economy and in particular to agriculture, tourism, mining and quarrying: 70 percent of the island’s rich producing resources were lost, the tourist industry lost 65 percent of its hotels and tourist accommodation, the industrial sector lost 46 percent, and mining and quarrying lost 56 percent of production. The loss of the Port of Famagusta, which handled 83 percent of the general cargo, and the closure of the Nicosia International Airport, in the buffer zone, were additional blows. The success of Cyprus in the economic sphere is attributed, inter alia, to the adoption of a market oriented economic system, the pursuance of sound macroeconomic policies by the government as well as the existence of a dynamic and flexible entrepreneurship and a highly educated labour force. Moreover, the economy benefited from the close cooperation between the public sector and the social partners. In the past 20 years, the economy has shifted from agriculture to light manufacturing and services. The service sector, including tourism, contributes 70% to the GDP and employs 62% of the labor force. Industry and construction contribute 24% and employ 25% of labor. Manufactured goods account for approximately 69% of domestic exports. Agriculture is responsible for 6% of GDP and 12% of the labor force. Potatoes and citrus are the principal export crops. After robust growth rates in the 1980s (average annual growth was 6.1%), economic performance in the 1990s has been mixed: Real GDP growth was 9.7% in 1992, 1.7% in 1993, 6.0% in 1994, 6.0% in 1995, 1.9% in 1996 and 2.3% in 1997. This pattern underlines the economy's vulnerability to swings in tourist arrivals (i.e., to economic and political conditions in Cyprus, Western Europe, and the Middle East) and the need to restructure the economy. Declining competitiveness in tourism and especially in manufacturing will act as a drag on growth until structural changes are effected. Overvaluation of the Cypriot pound has kept inflation in check in recent years (3.5% in 1997) and is forecast to continue to do so in the foreseeable future. Economic prospects are good over the long term, and real growth in 1998 is expected to reach 3.0%. Trade is vital to the Cypriot economy—the island is not self-sufficient in food and has few natural resources—and the trade deficit continues to grow. Exports rose by 1.3% in 1997, while imports rose by 2.2%, resulting in a trade deficit of $2.1 billion (2.7% higher than the previous year). Cyprus must import fuels, most raw materials, heavy machinery, and transportation equipment. More than 50% of its trade is with the European Union (especially the UK); the Middle East receives 20% of exports. Cyprus signed an Association Agreement with the European Union (EU) in 1972, which resulted in the establishment of a Customs Union between the two sides. Cyprus applied for full EU membership in 1990 and has since linked the Cyprus pound to the European Currency Unit (ECU). EU accession negotiations started on March 31, 1998. In 1991, Cyprus introduced a Value Added Tax (VAT), which is currently 15% in line with the EU minimum. Cyprus ratified the new world trade agreement (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, GATT) in 1995 and began implementing it fully on January 1, 1996. On May 1 2004, Cyprus became a full member of the EU. Cyprus has the fourth-largest ship registry in the world, with 2,758 ships and 25.5 million gross registered tons (GRTs). It is an open registry and includes ships from more than 43 countries, including Greece, Germany, and Russia. Export opportunities Cyprus has been liberalizing its trade regime by eliminating import quotas and licenses and lowering tariffs on most products as a result of its obligations under the new world trade agreement and its Customs Union agreement with the European Union. As a result, U.S. products are becoming more competitive in Cyprus and prospects for further expansion of bilateral trade ties are excellent. Government computerization and telecommunications development, two of the priorities of the government's 5-year development plan (1994-1998), provide excellent opportunities for U.S. exports. Sales of computer-assisted design systems, new capital equipment for textile, clothing, footwear production, medical equipment, environmental equipment, and services are also expected to grow. U.S. pressure resulted in the adoption of a new copyright law in 1994 and a new patent law in 1998. Investment climate In February 1997, the government revised its policy on foreign direct investment, permitting 100% foreign ownership in certain cases. Regulations on foreign portfolio investment in the Cyprus Stock Exchange also have been liberalized. Additionally, Cyprus passed a modern banking law in July 1997, incorporating all the provisions and directives of the EU for the prudential supervision of credit institutions. Cyprus has concluded treaties on double taxation with 26 countries, including the U.S., and has removed exchange restrictions on current international transactions. Non-residents and foreign investors may freely repatriate proceeds from investments in Cyprus. Offshore sector The 1,049 full-fledged offshore companies—which are located in Cyprus but conduct business abroad only—qualify for various tax- and duty-free concessions. Foreign exchange earnings from offshore companies rose to $346 million in 1997. There are about 40 U.S.-owned firms in Cyprus; about half operate exclusively on an offshore basis. U.S. firms are mainly engaged in the regional marketing of computers, computer graphics, telecommunications, printing equipment, household products, and soft drinks. Since 1994, re-entry visa provisions have been streamlined and 3-year work permits have been introduced for offshore employees. Trade between Cyprus and the United States The U.S. embassy in Nicosia sponsors a popular pavilion for American products at the annual Cyprus International State Fair, hosts the Commercial Awards dinner, and organizes other events to promote U.S. products throughout the year. Total U.S. exports to Cyprus were about $700 million in 1997 (compared with $670 million in 1996), making the U.S. Cyprus' number-one supplier of total imports for the third year in a row. Exports include American tobacco and tobacco products, automatic data processing and other machinery, and cereals. Principal U.S. imports from Cyprus consist of clothing, footwear, steel tubes and pipes, dairy products, and various food items. Turkish Cypriot economy The economic disparity between the two communities is pronounced. Although the Turkish Cypriot area operates on a free-market basis, the lack of private and governmental investment, shortages of skilled labor and experienced managers, plus inflation and the devaluation of the Turkish lira (which the Turkish Cypriots use as their currency) continue to plague the economy. Turkey is, by far, the main trading partner of the "T.R.N.C.," supplying 55% of imports and absorbing 48% of exports. In a landmark case, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) ruled on July 5, 1994, against the British practice of importing produce from Northern Cyprus based on certificates of origin and phytosanitary certificates granted by "T.R.N.C." authorities. The ECJ decision stated that only goods bearing certificates of origin from the Government of Cyprus could be recognized for trade by EU member countries. That decision resulted in a considerable decrease of Turkish Cypriot exports to the EU: from $36.4 million (or 66.7% of total Turkish Cypriot exports) in 1993 to $24.7 million in 1996 (or 35% of total exports) in 1996. Even so, the EU continues to be the "T.R.N.C.'s" second-largest trading partner, with a 24.7% share of total imports and 35% share of total exports. Assistance from Turkey is the mainstay of the Turkish Cypriot economy. Under the latest economic protocol (signed January 3, 1997), Turkey undertakes to provide Turkish Cypriots loans totaling $250 million for the purpose of implementing projects included in the protocol related to public finance, tourism, banking, and privatization. Fluctuation in the Turkish lira, which suffered from hyperinflation every year until its replacement by the New Turkish Lira in 2005, exerted downward pressure on the Turkish Cypriot standard of living for many years. The Turkish Cypriot de facto authorities have instituted a free market in foreign exchange and permit residents to hold foreign-currency denominated bank accounts. This encourages transfers from Turkish Cypriots living abroad. PEPSIco is known to have a major factory in the Turkish sector of Lefkosa (Greek: Lefkosia English: Nicosia). Even though the North is under an embargo, PEPSIco has still chosen to operate a major factory there, where they produce Pepsi, Yedigu and many more PEPSIco brands. The factory is run with EKTAM. Statistics GDP: Greek Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $21.38 billion (2007 est); Turkish Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $1.865 million (2006 est.) GDP - real growth rate: Greek Cypriot area: 3.9% (2nd Trimester 2008) Year GDP in billions of USD PPP % GDP Growth2002 14.397 2.12003 14.953 1.92004 15.764 3.72005 16.745 3.82006 17.772 4.02009 --- 0.3 http://www.thewest.com.au/default.aspx?MenuId=9&ContentID=138338 estimated 2010 --- 1.2 Turkish Cypriot area: -2% (2007 est.) GDP - per capita: Greek Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $15,400 Turkish Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $11,800 (2006 est.) GDP - composition by sector: Greek Cypriot area: agriculture 2.7%, industry 19.2%, services 78% Turkish Cypriot area: agriculture 8.6%, industry 22.5%, services 69.1% (1998) Population below poverty line: NA% Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% Inflation rate (consumer prices): Greek Cypriot area: 4.6% (Jan-July 2008 est.) Turkish Cypriot area: 11.4% (2006 est.) Labor force: Greek Cypriot area: 393,000 (2007 est.) Turkish Cypriot area: 95,030 (2007 est.) Labor force - by occupation: Greek Cypriot area: services 71%, industry 20.5%, agriculture 8.5% (2007 Est.) Turkish Cypriot area: services 56.5%, industry 29%, agriculture 14.5% (2007 est.) Unemployment rate: Greek Cypriot area: 3.7% (July 2008 est.) Turkish Cypriot area: 9.4% (2005 est.) Budget: revenues: Greek Cypriot area - $9.996 billion (2007 est.) Turkish Cypriot area - $2.5 billion (2006 est.) Aid from Turkey amounts to $400 million. expenditures: Greek Cypriot area - $9.304 billion Turkish Cypriot area - $2.5 billion Industries: Greek Cypriot area - tourism, food and beverage processing, cement and gypsum production, ship repair and refurbishment, textiles, light chemicals, metal products, wood, paper, stone, and clay products Turkish Cypriot area - foodstuffs, textiles, clothing, ship repair, clay, gypsum, copper, furniture Industrial production growth rate: Greek Cypriot area: 3.8% (2007 est.) Turkish Cypriot area: -0.3% (2007 est.) Electricity - production: Greek Cypriot area: 4.618 billion kWh (2006) Turkish Cypriot area: 998.9 million kWh (2005) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: Greek Cypriot area: 4.135 billion kWh Turkish Cypriot area: 797.9 million kWh (2005) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) Agriculture - products: Greek Cypriot area - citrus, vegetables, barley, grapes, olives, vegetables; poultry, pork, lamb, dairy, cheese Turkish Cypriot area - citrus fruit, dairy, potatoes, grapes, olives, poultry, lamb Exports: Greek Cypriot area: $1.489 billion f.o.b. (2007 est.) Turkish Cypriot area: $68.1 million, f.o.b. (2007 est.) Exports - commodities: Greek Cypriot area: citrus, potatoes, pharmaceuticals, cement, and clothing Turkish Cypriot area: citrus, dairy, potatoes, textiles Exports - partners: Greek Cypriot area: Greece 21.1%, UK 14.3%, Germany 6.6% (2006) Turkish Cypriot area: Turkey 40%; direct trade between the area administered by Turkish Cypriots and the area under government control remains limited (2006) Imports: Greek Cypriot area: $7.786 billion f.o.b. (2007 est.) Turkish Cypriot area: $1.2 billion, f.o.b. (2007 est.) Imports - commodities: Greek Cypriot area: consumer goods, petroleum and lubricants, intermediate goods, machinery, transport equipment Turkish Cypriot area: vehicles, fuel, cigarettes, food, minerals, chemicals, machinery Imports - partners: Greek Cypriot area: Greece 17.7%, Italy 10.2%, UK 9.6%, Germany 9.4%, Israel 6.5%, France 5.4%, China 5.3%, Netherlands 4.1% (2006) Turkish Cypriot area: Turkey 60%; direct trade between the area administered by Turkish Cypriots and the area under government control remains limited (2006) Debt - external: Greek Cypriot area: $27.69 billion (31 December 2007 est.) Turkish Cypriot area: $NA (Turkey has forgiven most past aid) Stock of direct foreign investment - at home: Greek Cypriot area: $13.18 billion (2007 est.) Turkish Cypriot area: $NA Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad: Greek Cypriot area: $5.324 billion (2007 est.) Turkish Cypriot area: $NA Economic aid - donor: Greek Cypriot area - $25.9 million (2006) Turkish Cypriot area - $NA Economic aid - recipient: Greek Cypriot area - $15 million (2006) Turkish Cypriot area - under a July 2006 agreement, Turkey plans to provide the area administered by Turkish Cypriots 1.875 billion YTL ($1.3 billion) over three years (600 million YTL in 2006, 625 million YTL in 2007 and 650 million YTL in 2008); Currency: Greek Cypriot area: 1 euro = 100 cent since 1 January 2008 previously 1 Cypriot pound = 100 cents; Turkish Cypriot area: 1 Turkish lira (TL) = 100 kurus Reserves of foreign exchange and gold: Greek Cypriot area: $6.507 billion (31 December 2007 est.) Turkish Cypriot area: $NA Exchange rates: Cypriot pounds per US$1 - 0.5688 (January 2000), 0.5423 (1999), 0.5170 (1998), 0.5135 (1997), 0.4663 (1996), 0.4522 (1995); Turkish liras (TL) per US$1 – 545,584 (January 2000), 418,783 (1999), 260,724 (1998), 151,865 (1997), 81,405 (1996), 45,845.1 (1995) Fiscal year: calendar year References 2008 Budget 2008 document Statistics http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2009/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2009_MONTH_01/3-08012009-EN-AP.PDF http://www.pio.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/D00B3871C2414DB8C2257532002F87BD?OpenDocument&sub=2&e= http://www.pio.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/1BBADC1EC2AE938FC225754E0036592B?OpenDocument&sub=1&e= http://www.pio.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/9D034D4D6D1FC9D2C22574BB0031C3FC?OpenDocument&sub=1&e= http://www.pio.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/FEBF227BFA66F6FDC225755500327C49?OpenDocument&sub=2&e= http://www.pio.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/524E76AFC4EEB9C9C2257170002FEF87/$file/GOV-MAIN_AGGREGATE-%20FINAL-1998_2007-EN_231008.xls?OpenElement http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2009/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2009_MONTH_02/2-13022009-EN-AP.PDF http://www.mof.gov.cy/mof/mof.nsf/All/727F1C16C6F1D1DFC225755C003723BF/$file/Stability%20Programme%202008-2012.pdf?OpenElement See also Cypriot pound Economy of Europe List of Minister of Finance of the Republic of Cyprus External references Cyprus Agriculture Cyprus Company Registration Cyprus Foreign Investment Cyprus Professional Services Cyprus Trade & Exports
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4,721
Afonso_I_of_Portugal
Afonso I (August 1109, Guimarães or Viseu - 6 December 1185, Coimbra), or also Affonso (Archaic Portuguese), Alfonso or Alphonso (Portuguese-Galician) or Alphonsus (Latin version), sometimes rendered in English as Alphonzo or Alphonse, depending on the Spanish or French influence, more commonly known as Afonso Henriques (), nicknamed the Conqueror (Port. o Conquistador), El-Bortukali («the Portuguese») by the Moors, was the first King of Portugal, achieving its independence from León and doubling its area with the Reconquista. Life Afonso I was the son of Henry of Burgundy, Count of Portugal and Teresa of León, the illegitimate daughter of King Alfonso VI of León. He was proclaimed King on July 26 1139, immediately after the Battle of Ourique, and died on December 6 1185 in Coimbra. At the end of the 11th century, the Iberian Peninsula political agenda was mostly concerned with the Reconquista, the driving out of the Muslim successor-states to the Caliphate of Córdoba after its collapse. With European military aristocracies focused on the Crusades, Alfonso VI called for the help of the French nobility to deal with the Moors. In exchange, he was to give the hands of his daughters in wedlock to the leaders of the expedition and bestow royal privileges to the others. Thus, the royal heiress Urraca of León wedded Raymond of Burgundy, younger son of the Count of Burgundy, and her half-sister, princess Teresa of León, wedded his cousin, another French crusader, Henry of Burgundy, younger brother of the Duke of Burgundy. Henry was made Count of Portugal, a burdensome county south of Galicia, where Moorish incursions and attacks were to be expected. With his wife Teresa as co-ruler of Portugal, Henry withstood the ordeal and held the lands for his father-in-law. Tomb of Afonso Henriques in the Santa Cruz Monastery in Coimbra. From this marriage several children were born, but only one son, Afonso Henriques (meaning "Afonso son of Henry") survived. The boy, born 1109, followed his father as Count of Portugal in 1112, under the tutelage of his mother. The relations between Teresa and her son Afonso proved difficult. Only eleven years old, Afonso already had his own political ideas, greatly different from his mother's. In 1120, the young prince took the side of the archbishop of Braga, a political foe of Teresa, and both were exiled by her orders. Afonso spent the next years away from his own county, under the watch of the bishop. In 1122 Afonso became fourteen, the adult age in the 12th century. He made himself a knight on his own account in the Cathedral of Zamora, raised an army, and proceeded to take control of his lands. Near Guimarães, at the Battle of São Mamede (1128) he overcame the troops under his mother's lover and ally Count Fernando Peres de Trava of Galicia, making her his prisoner and exiling her forever to a monastery in León. Thus the possibility of incorporating Portugal into a Kingdom of Galicia was eliminated and Afonso became sole ruler (Duke of Portugal) after demands for independence from the county's people, church and nobles. He also vanquished Alfonso VII of León, another of his mother's allies, and thus freed the county from political dependence on the crown of León. On April 6, 1129, Afonso Henriques dictated the writ in which he proclaimed himself Prince of Portugal. Afonso then turned his arms against the persistent problem of the Moors in the south. His campaigns were successful and, on July 26 1139, he obtained an overwhelming victory in the Battle of Ourique, and straight after was unanimously proclaimed King of Portugal by his soldiers. This meant that Portugal was no longer a vassal county of León, but an independent kingdom in its own right. The first assembly of the estates-general convened at Lamego (wherein he would have been given the crown from the Archbishop of Braga, to confirm the independence) is likely to be a 17th century embellishment of Portuguese history. Independence, however, was not a thing a land could choose on its own. Portugal still had to be acknowledged by the neighboring lands and, most importantly, by the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope. Afonso wed Mafalda of Savoy, daughter of Count Amadeo III of Savoy, and sent Ambassadors to Rome to negotiate with the Pope. In Portugal, he built several monasteries and convents and bestowed important privileges to religious orders. In 1143, he wrote to Pope Innocent II to declare himself and the kingdom servants of the Church, swearing to pursue driving the Moors out of the Iberian peninsula. Bypassing any king of León, Afonso declared himself the direct liegeman of the Papacy. Thus, Afonso continued to distinguish himself by his exploits against the Moors, from whom he wrested Santarém and Lisbon in 1147 (see Siege of Lisbon). He also conquered an important part of the land south of the Tagus River, although this was lost again to the Moors in the following years. Meanwhile, King Alfonso VII of León (Afonso's cousin) regarded the independent ruler of Portugal as nothing but a rebel. Conflict between the two was constant and bitter in the following years. Afonso became involved in a war, taking the side of the Aragonese king, an enemy of Castile. To ensure the alliance, his son Sancho was engaged to Dulce Berenguer, sister of the Count of Barcelona, and princess of Aragon. Finally, in 1143, the Treaty of Zamora established peace between the cousins and the recognition by the Kingdom of León that Portugal was an independent kingdom. In 1169, Afonso was disabled in an engagement near Badajoz by a fall from his horse, and made prisoner by the soldiers of the king of León. Portugal was obliged to surrender as his ransom almost all the conquests Afonso had made in Galicia in the previous years. In 1179 the privileges and favours given to the Roman Catholic Church were compensated. In the papal bull Manifestis Probatum, Pope Alexander III acknowledged Afonso as King and Portugal as an independent land with the right to conquer lands from the Moors. With this papal blessing, Portugal was at last secured as a country and safe from any Leonese attempts at annexation. In 1184, in spite of his great age, he still had sufficient energy to relieve his son Sancho, who was besieged in Santarém by the Moors. Afonso died shortly after, on December 6, 1185. The Portuguese revere him as a hero, both on account of his personal character and as the founder of their nation. There are stories that it would take 10 men to carry his sword, and that Afonso would want to engage other monarchs in personal combat, but no one would dare accept his challenge. Scientific research In July 2006, the tomb of the King (which is located in the Santa Cruz Monastery in Coimbra) was opened for scientific purposes by researchers from the University of Coimbra (Portugal), and the University of Granada (Spain). The opening of the tomb provoked considerable concern among some sectors of Portuguese society and IPPAR – Instituto Português do Património Arquitectónico (Portuguese State Agency for Architectural Patrimony). The government halted the opening requesting more protocols from the scientific team because of the importance of the king in the nation's formation. IPPAR: direcção nacional diz que não foi consultada sobre abertura do túmulo de D. Afonso Henriques, Público, 6 July 2006, accessed December 2006 (in Portuguese) Ancestors Descendants Afonso married in 1146 Mafalda or Maud of Savoy (1125-1158), daughter of Amadeo III, Count of Savoy, and Mafalda of Albon. NameBirthDeathNotesBy Maud of Savoy (1125-1158; married in 1146)Infante Henrique (Henry)March 5, 11471147 Infanta Mafalda1148c. 1160 Infanta Urracac. 11511188Queen of León by marriage to King Ferdinand II of León.Infante Sancho1154March 26, 1212Succeeded him as Sancho I, 2nd King of PortugalInfanta Teresa (Theresa)11571218Countess consort of Flanders by marriage to Philip I of Flanders. Duchess consort of Burgundy by marriage to Eudes III of Burgundy.Infante João (John)11561156 Infanta Sancha11531159 By Elvira GálterUrraca Afonsoc. 1130?Natural daughter. Married Pedro Afonso Viegas. Lady of Aveiro.Other natural offspringFernando Afonso? c. (1166 is an erroneous date) c. 1172High-General of the Kingdom (Constable of Portugal)Pedro Afonsoc 11301169A.k.a. Pedro Henriques. 1st Grand-Master of the Order of Aviz.Afonsoc. 1135120712th Grand Master of the Order of Saint John of Rhodes (also known as the Knights Hospitaller).Teresa Afonsoc. 1135?Married Fernando Martins Bravo or Martim Moniz. See also Portugal History of Portugal Timeline of Portuguese history Second County of Portugal (11th to 12th Century) First Dynasty: Burgundy (12th to 14th Century) Bibliography Diogo Freitas do Amaral, D. Afonso Henriques. Lisboa: Bertrand, 2000. ISBN 972-25-1157-2. References
Afonso_I_of_Portugal |@lemmatized afonso:28 august:1 guimarães:2 viseu:1 december:4 coimbra:5 also:5 affonso:1 archaic:1 portuguese:9 alfonso:5 alphonso:1 galician:1 alphonsus:1 latin:1 version:1 sometimes:1 render:1 english:1 alphonzo:1 alphonse:1 depend:1 spanish:1 french:3 influence:1 commonly:1 know:2 henriques:7 nickname:1 conqueror:1 port:1 conquistador:1 el:1 bortukali:1 moor:8 first:3 king:13 portugal:22 achieve:1 independence:4 león:15 double:1 area:1 reconquista:2 life:1 son:7 henry:6 burgundy:8 count:8 teresa:7 illegitimate:1 daughter:5 vi:2 proclaim:2 july:4 immediately:1 battle:3 ourique:2 die:2 end:1 century:5 iberian:2 peninsula:2 political:4 agenda:1 mostly:1 concern:2 drive:2 muslim:1 successor:1 state:2 caliphate:1 córdoba:1 collapse:1 european:1 military:1 aristocracy:1 focus:1 crusade:1 call:1 help:1 nobility:1 deal:1 exchange:1 give:3 hand:1 wedlock:1 leader:1 expedition:1 bestow:2 royal:2 privilege:3 others:1 thus:4 heiress:1 urraca:1 wed:3 raymond:1 young:3 half:1 sister:2 princess:2 cousin:3 another:2 crusader:1 brother:1 duke:2 make:5 burdensome:1 county:6 south:3 galicia:4 moorish:1 incursion:1 attack:1 expect:1 wife:1 co:1 ruler:3 withstand:1 ordeal:1 hold:1 land:7 father:2 law:1 tomb:3 santa:2 cruz:2 monastery:4 marriage:4 several:2 child:1 bear:1 one:2 mean:1 survive:1 boy:1 born:1 follow:1 tutelage:1 mother:4 relation:1 prove:1 difficult:1 eleven:1 year:5 old:1 already:1 idea:1 greatly:1 different:1 prince:2 take:4 side:2 archbishop:2 braga:2 foe:1 exile:2 order:4 spend:1 next:1 away:1 watch:1 bishop:1 become:3 fourteen:1 adult:1 age:2 knight:2 account:2 cathedral:1 zamora:2 raise:1 army:1 proceed:1 control:1 near:2 são:1 mamede:1 overcome:1 troop:1 lover:1 ally:2 fernando:2 peres:1 de:2 trava:1 prisoner:2 forever:1 possibility:1 incorporate:1 kingdom:6 eliminate:1 sole:1 demand:1 people:1 church:4 noble:1 vanquish:1 vii:2 free:1 dependence:1 crown:2 april:1 dictate:1 writ:1 turn:1 arm:1 persistent:1 problem:1 campaign:1 successful:1 obtain:1 overwhelming:1 victory:1 straight:1 unanimously:1 proclaimed:1 soldier:2 meant:1 long:1 vassal:1 independent:4 right:2 assembly:1 estate:1 general:2 convene:1 lamego:1 wherein:1 would:4 confirm:1 likely:1 embellishment:1 history:3 however:1 thing:1 could:1 choose:1 still:2 acknowledge:2 neighboring:1 importantly:1 roman:2 catholic:2 pope:4 mafalda:3 savoy:5 amadeo:2 iii:4 send:1 ambassador:1 rome:1 negotiate:1 build:1 convent:1 important:2 religious:1 write:1 innocent:1 ii:2 declare:2 servant:1 swear:1 pursue:1 bypass:1 direct:1 liegeman:1 papacy:1 continue:1 distinguish:1 exploit:1 wrest:1 santarém:2 lisbon:2 see:2 siege:1 conquer:2 part:1 tagus:1 river:1 although:1 lose:1 following:2 meanwhile:1 regard:1 nothing:1 rebel:1 conflict:1 two:1 constant:1 bitter:1 involve:1 war:1 aragonese:1 enemy:1 castile:1 ensure:1 alliance:1 sancho:3 engage:2 dulce:1 berenguer:1 barcelona:1 aragon:1 finally:1 treaty:1 establish:1 peace:1 recognition:1 disable:1 engagement:1 badajoz:1 fall:1 horse:1 oblige:1 surrender:1 ransom:1 almost:1 conquest:1 previous:1 favour:1 compensate:1 papal:2 bull:1 manifestis:1 probatum:1 alexander:1 blessing:1 last:1 secure:1 country:1 safe:1 leonese:1 attempt:1 annexation:1 spite:1 great:1 sufficient:1 energy:1 relieve:1 besiege:1 shortly:1 revere:1 hero:1 personal:2 character:1 founder:1 nation:2 story:1 men:1 carry:1 sword:1 want:1 monarch:1 combat:1 dare:1 accept:1 challenge:1 scientific:3 research:1 locate:1 open:1 purpose:1 researcher:1 university:2 granada:1 spain:1 opening:2 provoke:1 considerable:1 among:1 sector:1 society:1 ippar:2 instituto:1 português:1 património:1 arquitectónico:1 agency:1 architectural:1 patrimony:1 government:1 halt:1 request:1 protocol:1 team:1 importance:1 formation:1 direcção:1 nacional:1 diz:1 que:1 não:1 foi:1 consultada:1 sobre:1 abertura:1 túmulo:1 público:1 access:1 ancestor:1 descendant:1 marry:3 maud:2 albon:1 namebirthdeathnotesby:1 infante:3 henrique:1 march:1 infanta:3 urracac:1 ferdinand:1 portugalinfanta:1 theresa:1 consort:2 flanders:2 philip:1 duchess:1 eudes:1 joão:1 john:2 elvira:1 gálterurraca:1 afonsoc:4 natural:2 married:1 pedro:3 viegas:1 lady:1 aveiro:1 offspringfernando:1 c:2 erroneous:1 date:1 constable:1 k:1 grand:2 master:2 aviz:1 saint:1 rhodes:1 hospitaller:1 martin:1 bravo:1 martim:1 moniz:1 timeline:1 second:1 dynasty:1 bibliography:1 diogo:1 freitas:1 amaral:1 lisboa:1 bertrand:1 isbn:1 reference:1 |@bigram portuguese_galician:1 afonso_henriques:6 alfonso_vi:2 iberian_peninsula:2 duke_burgundy:1 santa_cruz:2 alfonso_vii:2 pope_innocent:1 tagus_river:1 papal_bull:1 knight_hospitaller:1
4,722
Demographics_of_Croatia
The demographic features of the population of Croatia includes population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Croatia is inhabited mostly by Croats, while minority groups include Serbs, Bosniaks, Hungarians, Italians, Slovenes, Germans, Czechs, Romani people and others. Catholicism is the predominant religion, while there's also Eastern Orthodoxy and Islam. Croatia has a negative natural population growth rate, having completed demographic transition in the 1970s. Life expectancy and literacy rates are reasonably high. Demographics of Croatia, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 4.492 million (July 2008) Age structure 0-14 years: 15,8% (male 373,638/female 354,261) 15-64 years: 67,2% (male 1,497,958/female 1,515,314) 65 years and over: 17% (male 288,480/female 465,098) (2008 est.) Median age Total: 40.3 years Male: 38.3 years Female: 42.1 years (2006 est.) Population growth rate -0.043% (2008,CIA) Birth rate 9.64 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) There were 41,446 births in 2006. Death rate 11.66 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.) There were 50,378 deaths in 2006. Net migration rate 1.58 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008 est.) Sex ratio At birth: 1.06 male(s)/female Under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.62 male(s)/female Total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate Total: 6.49 deaths/1,000 live births Male: 6.51 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 6.46 deaths/1,000 live births (2008 est.) Life expectancy at birth Total population: 75.13 years Male: 71.49 years Female: 78.97 years (2008 est.) HIV/AIDS Adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1% (2001 est.) People living with HIV/AIDS: 200 (2001 est.) Deaths: less than 10 (2001 est.) Nationality Noun: Croat(s), Croatian(s) Adjective: Croatian Ethnic groups Croat 89.6%, Serb 4.5%, Bosniak 0.5%, Italians 0.4%, Hungarian 0.4%, Slovene 0.3%, Czech 0.2%, Roma 0.2%, Albanian 0.1%, Montenegrin 0.1%, others 4.1% (2001 census) Religions Roman Catholic 87.8%, Orthodox 4.4%, other Christian 0.4%, Muslim 1.3%, other and unspecified 0.9%, none 5.2% (2001 census) Languages Croatian 96.1%, Serbian 1%, other and undesignated 2.9% (including Italian, Hungarian, Czech, Slovak, Slovene, and German) (2001 census). In some villages of Istria there are also some speakers of Istriot and Istro-Romanian. Literacy Definition: age 15 and over can read and write Total population: 98.5% Male: 99.4% Female: 97.8% (2003 est.) School Life Expectancy total: 14 years male: 13 years female: 14 years Education Expenditure: (% of GDP) 4.5 (2004) Ethnic groups according to the 2001 census PopulationStructure (%) Total4,437,460100 Croats3,977,17189.63 National minorities Total331,3837,47 Albanians15,0820.34 Austrians2470.01 Bosniaks20,7550.47 Bulgarians3310.01 Czechs10,5100.24 Germans2,9020.07 Hungarians16,5950.37 Italians19,6360.44 Jews5760.01 Macedonians4.2700.10 Montenegrins4,9260.11 Poles5670.01 Roma9,4630.21 Romanians4750.01 Russians9060.02 Rusyns2,3370.05 Serbs201,6314.54 Slovaks4,7120.11 Slovenes13,1730.30 Turks3000.01 Ukrainians1,9770.04 Vlachs120.00 Others121,8010.49 Refrained from stating their nationality Total89,1302.01 stated regional affiliation9,3020.21 Unknown17,9750.41 1 This mode includes, among others, Yugoslavs (176) and Muslims by nationality (19,677). Changes in the late 20th century See also: Recent history of the Serbs of Croatia The census of 1991 was the last one held before the war in Croatia, marked by ethnic conflict between Serbs and Croats. In the ethnic and religious composition of the population of Croatia of that time, these two sets of numbers are quoted as important: Croats 78.1%, Catholics 76.5% Serbs 12.2%, Orthodox Christians 11.1% There was also a significant drop in people who declared Yugoslav ethnicity. There were two major sets of population movements during this period - the first one during the earlier stage of the war, around 1991, and the second one during the later stage of the war, around 1995. The first movement peaked at around 200,000 on the Croatian side; the second movement peaked at around 550,000 on the Serbian side. After the end of the war of the 1990s, as a result of all which took place previously, the ethno-religious structure for the two largest nations were: Croats 89.6%, Catholics 87.8% Serbs 4.5%, Orthodox Christians 4.4% Most Croat refugees have since returned to their homes, while two thirds of the Serbs remain in exile; the other third either returned or had remained in Zagreb and other parts of Croatia not directly affected by war. See also Croatia History of Croatia History of Yugoslavia Demographic history of Croatia References Croatian Bureau of Statistics, official census data External links Croatian Bureau of Statistics, Census 2001 Human Rights Watch Report "Broken Promises: Impediments to Refugee Return to Croatia" United Nations Statistics Division Millennium Indicators for Croatia Population of Croatia 1931-2001
Demographics_of_Croatia |@lemmatized demographic:6 feature:1 population:15 croatia:14 include:4 density:1 ethnicity:2 education:2 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:3 affiliation:1 aspect:1 inhabit:1 mostly:1 croat:7 minority:2 group:3 serb:5 bosniaks:1 hungarian:3 italian:3 slovene:3 german:2 czech:3 romani:1 people:3 others:3 catholicism:1 predominant:1 religion:2 also:5 eastern:1 orthodoxy:1 islam:1 negative:1 natural:1 growth:2 rate:8 complete:1 transition:1 life:3 expectancy:3 literacy:2 reasonably:1 high:1 data:2 fao:1 year:16 number:2 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 cia:3 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:5 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 million:1 july:1 age:3 structure:2 male:13 female:13 est:12 median:1 total:6 birth:8 death:7 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 live:4 hiv:2 aid:2 adult:1 prevalence:1 less:2 nationality:3 noun:1 croatian:6 adjective:1 ethnic:4 bosniak:1 rom:1 albanian:1 montenegrin:1 census:7 roman:1 catholic:3 orthodox:3 christian:3 muslim:2 unspecified:1 none:1 languages:1 serbian:2 undesignated:1 slovak:1 village:1 istria:1 speaker:1 istriot:1 istro:1 romanian:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 school:1 expenditure:1 gdp:1 accord:1 populationstructure:1 national:1 refrain:1 state:2 regional:1 mode:1 among:1 yugoslav:2 change:1 late:2 century:1 see:2 recent:1 history:4 last:1 one:3 hold:1 war:5 mark:1 conflict:1 composition:1 time:1 two:4 set:2 quote:1 important:1 serbs:2 significant:1 drop:1 declare:1 major:1 movement:3 period:1 first:2 early:1 stage:2 around:4 second:2 peak:2 side:2 end:1 result:1 take:1 place:1 previously:1 ethno:1 large:1 nation:2 refugee:2 since:1 return:3 home:1 third:2 remain:2 exile:1 either:1 zagreb:1 part:1 directly:1 affect:1 yugoslavia:1 reference:1 bureau:2 official:1 external:1 link:1 human:1 right:1 watch:1 report:1 broken:1 promise:1 impediment:1 united:1 division:1 millennium:1 indicator:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 serb_bosniaks:1 eastern_orthodoxy:1 life_expectancy:3 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 expectancy_birth:1 hiv_aid:2 adult_prevalence:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 croat_serb:1 croatian_serbian:1 czech_slovak:1 slovak_slovene:1 literacy_definition:1 serb_croat:1 external_link:1
4,723
Kiel_Canal
North Sea locks on the River Elbe at Brunsbüttel The Kiel Canal (, NOK), until 1948 known as the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Kanal, is a 61 miles (98 kilometres) long canal in the German Bundesland Schleswig-Holstein that links the North Sea at Brunsbüttel to the Baltic Sea at Kiel-Holtenau. An average of 280 nautical miles (519 kilometers) is saved by using the Kiel Canal instead of going around the Jutland Peninsula. This not only saves time but also avoids potentially dangerous storm-prone seas. According to the canal's website, it is the most heavily used artificial seaway in the world; over 43,000 ships passed through in 2007, excluding small craft. Kiel Canal official web-site History The first connection between the North and Baltic Seas was the Eider Canal, which used stretches of the Eider River for the link between the two seas. The Eiderkanal was completed in 1784 and was a 27 mile (43 kilometre) part of a 109 mile (175 kilometre) long waterway from Kiel to the Eider River's mouth at Tönning on the west coast. It was only 29 metres (32 yards) wide with a depth of three metres (3.25 yards), which limited the vessels that could use the canal to 300 tonnes displacement. 1888 map A combination of naval interests—the German navy wanted to link its bases in the Baltic and the North Sea without sailing around Denmark—and commercial pressure encouraged the development of a new canal. In June 1887, construction works started at Holtenau near Kiel. It took the 9,000 workers eight years to build. On June 21, 1895 the canal was officially opened by Kaiser Wilhelm II for transiting from Brunsbüttel to Holtenau. A ceremony was held in Holtenau where Wilhelm II named it the Kaiser Wilhelm Kanal, and laid the final stone. The opening of the canal was filmed by British director Birt Acres and surviving footage of this early film is preserved in the Science Museum in London. In order to meet the increasing traffic and the demands of the German Navy, between 1907 and 1914 the canal width was increased. The widening of the canal allowed the passage of a Dreadnought-sized battleship. This meant that these battleships could travel from the Baltic Sea to the North Sea without having to go around Denmark. The enlargement projects were completed by the installation of two larger canal locks in Brunsbüttel and Holtenau. After World War I, the Treaty of Versailles internationalised the canal while leaving it under German administration. Adolf Hitler repudiated its international status in 1936. After the end of World War II the canal was reopened to all traffic. Operation There are detailed traffic rules for the canal. Each vessel in passage is classified in one of six traffic groups according to its dimensions. Depending on their classification, ships may be obliged to accept assistance of a tugboat, or to accept pilots or specialised canal helmsmen. Furthermore, there are regulations regarding the passing of oncoming ships. In some cases a ship is required to moor at the bollards provided at intervals along the canal to allow the passage of oncoming vessels. Special rules apply to pleasure craft. View west-southwest from the aft lounge of the cruise ship Norwegian Dream While most large, modern cruise ships cannot pass through this canal due to clearance limits under bridges, one medium sized ship, the M. S. Norwegian Dream has special funnels and masts that can be lowered for passage, and is used to make Baltic cruises from Dover, passing through the Kiel canal one way and round the north of Denmark the other. This route was discontinued in 2007, but Swan Hellenic's Minerva is able to pass through the canal and in 2008 is making Baltic cruises which include a transit. Fred Olsen Cruises' new ship Balmoral, 43,000 tonnes, began a series of cruises to the Baltic using the Canal in 2008 under the title Gardens and Palaces. Oceania Cruises' Regatta now also uses the Kiel canal for at least two itineraries. References
Kiel_Canal |@lemmatized north:6 sea:9 lock:2 river:3 elbe:1 brunsbüttel:4 kiel:8 canal:23 nok:1 know:1 kaiser:3 wilhelm:4 kanal:2 mile:4 kilometre:3 long:2 german:4 bundesland:1 schleswig:1 holstein:1 link:3 baltic:7 holtenau:5 average:1 nautical:1 kilometer:1 save:2 use:7 instead:1 go:2 around:3 jutland:1 peninsula:1 time:1 also:2 avoid:1 potentially:1 dangerous:1 storm:1 prone:1 accord:2 website:1 heavily:1 artificial:1 seaway:1 world:3 ship:8 pass:3 exclude:1 small:1 craft:2 official:1 web:1 site:1 history:1 first:1 connection:1 eider:3 stretch:1 two:3 eiderkanal:1 complete:2 part:1 waterway:1 mouth:1 tönning:1 west:2 coast:1 metre:2 yard:2 wide:1 depth:1 three:1 limit:2 vessel:3 could:2 tonne:2 displacement:1 map:1 combination:1 naval:1 interest:1 navy:2 want:1 base:1 without:2 sail:1 denmark:3 commercial:1 pressure:1 encourage:1 development:1 new:2 june:2 construction:1 work:1 start:1 near:1 take:1 worker:1 eight:1 year:1 build:1 officially:1 open:1 ii:3 transit:2 ceremony:1 hold:1 name:1 lay:1 final:1 stone:1 opening:1 film:2 british:1 director:1 birt:1 acre:1 survive:1 footage:1 early:1 preserve:1 science:1 museum:1 london:1 order:1 meet:1 increase:2 traffic:4 demand:1 width:1 widening:1 allow:2 passage:4 dreadnought:1 size:2 battleship:2 meant:1 travel:1 enlargement:1 project:1 installation:1 large:2 war:2 treaty:1 versailles:1 internationalise:1 leave:1 administration:1 adolf:1 hitler:1 repudiate:1 international:1 status:1 end:1 reopen:1 operation:1 detailed:1 rule:2 classify:1 one:3 six:1 group:1 dimension:1 depend:1 classification:1 may:1 oblige:1 accept:2 assistance:1 tugboat:1 pilot:1 specialise:1 helmsman:1 furthermore:1 regulation:1 regard:1 passing:1 oncoming:2 case:1 require:1 moor:1 bollard:1 provide:1 interval:1 along:1 special:2 apply:1 pleasure:1 view:1 southwest:1 aft:1 lounge:1 cruise:7 norwegian:2 dream:2 modern:1 cannot:1 pas:1 due:1 clearance:1 bridge:1 medium:1 funnel:1 mast:1 lower:1 make:2 dover:1 way:1 round:1 route:1 discontinue:1 swan:1 hellenic:1 minerva:1 able:1 include:1 fred:1 olsen:1 balmoral:1 begin:1 series:1 title:1 garden:1 palace:1 oceania:1 regatta:1 least:1 itinerary:1 reference:1 |@bigram kiel_canal:5 kaiser_wilhelm:3 schleswig_holstein:1 baltic_sea:3 nautical_mile:1 jutland_peninsula:1 potentially_dangerous:1 treaty_versailles:1 adolf_hitler:1
4,724
Coral_Sea_Islands
Map of the Coral Sea Islands Map of the Coral Sea Islands Territory The Coral Sea Islands Territory includes a group of small and mostly uninhabited tropical islands and reefs in the Coral Sea, northeast of Queensland, Australia. The only inhabited island is Willis Island. The territory covers 780,000 km², extending east and south from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef, and including Heralds Beacon Island, Osprey Reef, the Willis Group, and fifteen other reef/island groups. Geoscience Australia. Coral Sea Islands History The Coral Sea Islands were first charted in 1803; in the 1870 and 1880s the islands were mined for guano but the absence of a permanent supply of fresh water prevented long-term habitation. The territory was created in 1969 by the Coral Sea Islands Act (before, the area was considered part of Queensland) and extended in 1997 to include Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs nearly 800 km further South, already in the Tasman Sea. The two latter reefs are much closer to Lord Howe Island, New South Wales (about 150 km) than to the southernmost island of the rest of the territory, Cato Island. The islands, cays and reefs of the Great Barrier Reef are not part of the territory, belonging to Queensland instead. The outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef is the boundary between Queensland and the Coral Sea Islands Territory. The territory is a possession of Australia, administered from Canberra by the Attorney-General's Department (before 29 November 2007 administration was carried out by the Department of Transport and Regional Services). Defence is the responsibility of Australia, and the territory is visited regularly by the Royal Australian Navy. Australia maintains automatic weather stations on many of the isles and reefs, and claims a 200 nautical mile (370 km) exclusive fishing zone. There is no economic activity (except for a significant but as yet unquantified charter fishing and diving industry), and only a staff of three or four people to run the meteorological station on Willis Island (South Islet), established in 1921. Geography There are about 30 separate reefs and atolls, twelve being wholly submerged or drying only during low tide, and 18 others with a total of about 51 islets and cays (18 alone on the atoll Lihou Reef and Cays), some of which are vegetated. The atolls exhibit a wide range of size, from a few kilometres in diameter to perhaps the second largest atoll in the world by total area (including lagoon): Lihou Reef, with a lagoon size of 100 by 30 km and an area of 2,500 km², which compares to a combined land area of the 18 individual islets of only 0.91 km². The islands are all very low. The territory's FIPS 10-4 code is CR, whereas ISO 3166 includes it in Australia (AU). The Willis Islets are important nesting areas for birds and turtles, but their natural resources are negligible. They comprise less than three square kilometres of land. There is no port or harbour, only offshore anchorage. Most of the atolls fall into two groups, while Mellish Reef to the east, and Middleton Reef and Elizabeth Reef to the south are grouped separately: Northwestern Group Osprey Reef (submerged atoll roughly oval in shape, measuring 25 by 12 km, covering around 195 km², with lagoon up to 30 m deep) Shark Reef (small elongated submerged reef 15 km South of Osprey Reef, with a least depth of 7.8 m) Bougainville Reef (small submerged atoll, 2.5 by 4 km, area 8 km² with lagoon, dries at half tide) East Holmes Reef (submerged atoll, about 14 by 10 km, area 125 km² with lagoon) West Holmes Reef (submerged atoll 6 km East of East Holmes Reef, about 18 by 7 km, area 125 km² with lagoon that is open on the West side, two small cays) Flora Reef (small submerged atoll, 5 by 4 km, about 12 km²) Diane Bank (sunken atoll, depths of less than 10 m over an area of 65 by 25 km, or 1300 km², along the northern edge 3 m deep, with Sand Cay in the Northwest, 3 m high) North Moore Reef (small submerged atoll, 4 by 3 km, area 8 km² including lagoon that is open on the Northwest side) South Moore Reef (small submerged reef 5 km South of North Moore Reef) Willis Islets (sunken atoll, bank 45 by 19 km, bank area more than 500 km², 3 islets on the Northwestern side: North Cay, Mid Islet almost 8 m high, South Islet or Willis Island 10 m high) Magdelaine Cays & Coringa Islets (one large, partially sunken atoll structure, almost 90 by 30 km, bank area about 1500 km², 2 islets of the Magdelaine Cays in the North: North West Islet (area approximately 0.2 km²) and South East Cay (area 0.37 km²); 2 islets of the Coringa Islets 50 to 60 km further Southwest: Southwest Islet or Coringa Islet (area 0.173 km²), and Chilcott Islet (area 0.163 km²)) Herald Cays, Northeast Cay (encircled by a reef of 3 by 3 km, total area 6 km², land area 0.34 km²) Herald Cays, Southwest Cay (4 km Southwest of Northeast Cay, encircled by a reef of 2 by 2 km, total area 3 km², land area 0.188 km²) Lihou Reef and Cays (largest atoll in the coral sea, with a size of 2500 km², land area 0.91 km²) Diamond Islets & Tregosse Reefs (large, partially sunken atoll, 100 by 52 km, area of the bank over 3000 km², with 4 islets and 2 small submerged reefs in the Northeast and Southeast: West Diamond Islet, Central Diamond Islet, East Diamond Islet on the Northeastern rim of the former atoll, and South Diamond Islet, East Tregosse Reef and West Tregosse Reef on the Southern rim) North Flinders Reef (large atoll, 34 by 23 km, area 600 km², with 2 islets, Flinders Cay being the larger one with a length of 200 m and a height of 3 m) South Flinders Reef (atoll, 15 by 5 km, 60 km²) Herald's Surprise (small submerged reef North of Flinders Reefs, 3 by 2 km) Dart Reef (small submerged reef Northwest of Flinders Reefs, 3 by 3 km, area 6 km² including small lagoon that is open to the North) Malay Reef (small submerged reef, not clearly defined, no breakers, difficult to see) Abington Reef (submerged reef, nearly awash, 4 by 2.5 km, area 7 km²) Marion Reef (large circular atoll formation that is comprised of three main units located on the Eastern side: Marion, Long and Wansfell; and a number of smaller reefs on the west. The formation sits atop a submarine feature known as the Marion Plateau which is separated from the larger Coral Sea Plateau to the north by the Townsville Trough. Three small sand cays are located on the eastern side of Marion Reef: Paget Cay, on Long Reef, Carola Cay, south of Long Reef, and Brodie Cay, on Wansfell Reef. The atolls of the Northwestern Group, except Osprey Reef and Shark Reef in the North, and Marion Reef in the South, are located on the Coral Sea Plateau (Queensland Plateau), a contiguous area of depths less than 1000 m. Flinders Reefs (North and South), Herald's Surprise and Dart Reef form a cluster of reefs of 66 by 26 km. Magdelaine Cays, Coringa Islets and Herald Cays are part of the 8856 km² Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve, created on 16 August 1982 and located around 400 km east of Cairns and 220 to 320 km from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef. The 6 islets of the nature reserve have areas from 0.16 to 0.37 km², for a total of 1.24 km². Lihou Reef was declared a Nature Reserve on 16 August 1982, with an area of 8440 km². The Nature Reserves were created to protect wildlife in the respective areas of the territory. Mellish Reef Mellish Reef, being about 300 kilometres to the east of the Northwestern Group, thus the most distant from the Australian continent of all the reefs and atolls of the Coral Sea Islands Territory, is not considered to be part of any group. It has the outline of a boomerang-shaped platform around 10 km in length and 3 km across, area 25 km². The surrounding reefs, which enclose a narrow lagoon, are completely submerged at high tide. Near the centre of the lagoon is the only permanent land of the reef - Heralds-Beacon Islet. The island is a small cay measuring 600 m by 120 m, area 57,000 m², only rising a few meters above the high water mark. Oceandots.com Southeasterly Group Frederick Reefs: The reefs form a semi-enclosed lagoon, known as Anchorage Sound, with an opening on the North side. The complex measures about 10 by 4 km, with an area of 30 km². On the southern side of the reef lies Observatory Cay, the only permanently dry land, although there are a few of others cays that can be awash at high tide. Kenn Reefs, submerged atoll of about 15 by 8 km, area 40 km², islet Observatory Cay in the Southeast, 2 m high Saumarez Reefs, southernmost reefs to be located on the Coral Sea Shelf; three main reefs and numerous smaller reefs that form a large crescent-shaped formation open to the northwest, about 27 by 14 km, area less than 300 km². There are two sand cays: North East Cay and South West Cay. Wreck Reefs: atoll 25 by 5 km, area 75 km², open on the North. Islets found on the reefs include Bird Islet, West Islet and Porpoise Cay. Cato Reef: Cato bank 21 by 13 km, area 200 km² of depths less than 17 m; Cato Reef encircles an area of 3.3 by 1.8 km, area 5 km² including lagoon; Cato Island, in the West of the lagoon, 650 by 300 m, area 1.5 km², 6 m high. Close to the Southeast corner of Cato bank is Hutchison Rock, with 1 m depth over it. Extreme South Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, together with reefs around Lord Howe Island (New South Wales) 150 km to the south, are regarded as the southernmost coral reefs in the world. Their location, where tropical and temperate ocean currents meet, contributes to an unusually diverse assemblage of marine species. These mostly submerged atolls which dry only during low tide were added to the territory only in 1989. They are located on the Lord Howe Rise in the Tasman Sea which joins the Coral Sea in the South. Already on 23 December 1987, they were protected as Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Nature Reserve, which has an area of 1880 km². Middleton Reef, atoll about 8.9 by 6.3 km, area 37 km² including lagoon, one islet: Elizabeth island (Elizabeth cay), no vegetation, 600 meters by 400 meters (area 0.2 km²), highest point close to the Northern end 1.5 meters. At low tides much of the reef flat is exposed. Elizabeth Reef, atoll about 8.2 by 5.5 km, area 51 km² including lagoon, one islet: The Sound, 100 by 70 meters (area 5,000 m²), highest point 0.8 meters. At low tides much of the reef flat is exposed. Overview of islets and cays Complex Type Islets/cays</tr> West Holmes Reef atoll 2</tr> Diane Bank atoll (mostly sunken) 1</tr> Willis Group atoll (partially sunken) 3</tr> Magdelaine Cays and Coringa Islets atoll (partially sunken) 4</tr> Herald Cays (North) reef 1</tr> Herald Cays (South) reef 1</tr> Lihou Reef and Cays atoll 18</tr> Diamond Islands and Tregosse Reefs atoll (partially sunken) 4</tr> Flinders Reefs (North) atoll 2</tr> Marion Reef atoll 4</tr> Mellish Reef atoll 1</tr> Frederick Reefs atoll 1</tr> Kenn Reef atoll 1</tr> Saumarez Reef atoll 2</tr> Wreck Reef atoll 3</tr> Cato Reef atoll 1</tr> Middleton Reef atoll 1</tr> Elizabeth Reef atoll 1</tr> Total number of islands/cays 51</tr> Man-made objects Automatic, unmanned weather stations are located on following reefs or atolls: Bougainville Reef Cato Island Flinders Reef (Flinders Coral Cay) Frederick Reef Holmes Reef Lihou Reef (Turtle Islet) Marion Reef Moore Reef Lighthouses are located on following reefs or islands: Bougainville Reef East Diamond Islet Frederick Reefs Lihou Reef Saumarez Reef See also List of islands of Australia Notes External links History of the Australian claim to the Coral Sea Islands
Coral_Sea_Islands |@lemmatized map:2 coral:17 sea:17 island:31 territory:13 include:11 group:11 small:16 mostly:3 uninhabited:1 tropical:2 reef:114 northeast:4 queensland:5 australia:7 inhabited:1 willis:7 cover:2 extend:2 east:12 south:21 outer:3 edge:4 great:4 barrier:4 herald:10 beacon:2 osprey:4 fifteen:1 geoscience:1 history:2 first:1 chart:1 mine:1 guano:1 absence:1 permanent:2 supply:1 fresh:1 water:2 prevent:1 long:4 term:1 habitation:1 create:3 act:1 area:44 consider:2 part:4 elizabeth:8 middleton:6 nearly:2 km:40 far:1 already:2 tasman:2 two:4 latter:1 much:3 closer:1 lord:3 howe:3 new:2 wale:2 southernmost:3 rest:1 cato:8 cay:37 belong:1 instead:1 boundary:1 possession:1 administer:1 canberra:1 attorney:1 general:1 department:2 november:1 administration:1 carry:1 transport:1 regional:1 service:1 defence:1 responsibility:1 visit:1 regularly:1 royal:1 australian:3 navy:1 maintain:1 automatic:2 weather:2 station:3 many:1 isle:1 claim:2 nautical:1 mile:1 exclusive:1 fishing:2 zone:1 economic:1 activity:1 except:2 significant:1 yet:1 unquantified:1 charter:1 dive:1 industry:1 staff:1 three:5 four:1 people:1 run:1 meteorological:1 islet:36 establish:1 geography:1 separate:2 atoll:44 twelve:1 wholly:1 submerge:17 dry:4 low:5 tide:7 others:2 total:6 alone:1 lihou:7 vegetate:1 exhibit:1 wide:1 range:1 size:3 kilometre:3 diameter:1 perhaps:1 second:1 large:9 world:2 lagoon:15 compare:1 combined:1 land:7 individual:1 fips:1 code:1 cr:1 whereas:1 iso:1 au:1 important:1 nesting:1 bird:2 turtle:2 natural:1 resource:1 negligible:1 comprise:2 less:5 square:1 port:1 harbour:1 offshore:1 anchorage:2 fall:1 mellish:4 separately:1 northwestern:4 roughly:1 oval:1 shape:1 measure:3 around:4 deep:2 shark:2 elongate:1 least:1 depth:5 bougainville:3 half:1 holmes:5 west:10 open:5 side:7 flora:1 diane:2 bank:8 sunken:4 along:1 northern:2 sand:3 northwest:4 high:10 north:16 moore:4 mid:1 almost:2 magdelaine:4 coringa:6 one:4 partially:5 structure:1 cays:2 approximately:1 islets:1 southwest:4 chilcott:1 encircle:3 diamond:7 tregosse:4 southeast:3 central:1 northeastern:1 rim:2 former:1 southern:2 flinders:9 length:2 height:1 surprise:2 dart:2 malay:1 clearly:1 define:1 breaker:1 difficult:1 see:2 abington:1 awash:2 marion:7 circular:1 formation:3 main:2 unit:1 locate:8 eastern:2 wansfell:2 number:2 sit:1 atop:1 submarine:1 feature:1 know:2 plateau:4 townsville:1 trough:1 paget:1 carola:1 brodie:1 contiguous:1 form:3 cluster:1 national:2 nature:5 reserve:5 august:2 cairn:1 declare:1 protect:2 wildlife:1 respective:1 thus:1 distant:1 continent:1 outline:1 boomerang:1 shaped:2 platform:1 across:1 surround:1 enclose:1 narrow:1 completely:1 near:1 centre:1 rise:2 meter:6 mark:1 oceandots:1 com:1 southeasterly:1 frederick:4 semi:1 enclosed:1 sound:2 opening:1 complex:2 lie:1 observatory:2 permanently:1 although:1 kenn:2 saumarez:3 shelf:1 numerous:1 crescent:1 wreck:2 find:1 porpoise:1 close:2 corner:1 hutchison:1 rock:1 extreme:1 together:1 regard:1 location:1 temperate:1 ocean:1 current:1 meet:1 contributes:1 unusually:1 diverse:1 assemblage:1 marine:2 specie:1 add:1 join:1 december:1 vegetation:1 point:2 end:1 flat:2 expose:2 overview:1 type:1 tr:20 sink:4 man:1 make:1 object:1 unmanned:1 follow:2 lighthouse:1 also:1 list:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram geoscience_australia:1 middleton_reef:6 nautical_mile:1 mile_km:1 reef_atoll:19 lihou_reef:7 square_kilometre:1 offshore_anchorage:1 reef_submerge:5 submerge_atoll:8 submerge_reef:7 sand_cay:3 herald_cay:5 diamond_islet:6 flinders_reef:7 marion_reef:5 sit_atop:1 coral_reef:1 atoll_tr:12 external_link:1
4,725
Economy_of_the_Falkland_Islands
The economy of the Falkland Islands, previously heavily over-dependent on sheep farming (and historically whaling), has become more diversified in the last decades and now also has income from tourism and commercial fishing as well as a service base for the fishing industry. Historical development A squid trawler, and a cruise ship in Port William representing two trends in recent economic development During the 19th century, the supply and maintenance depot for ships at Stanley developed into a port serving ships rounding Cape Horn, and trade in cow hides from the wild descendants of cattle introduced by French settlers in the late 18th century. Sheep farming was introduced, taking over from the cattle trade in the 1870s and becoming self-supporting by 1885. The islands also provided a base for whaling and sealing, with factories being built on East Falkland and South Georgia, but these industries ended, leaving the wool trade as the mainstay of the islands' economy. By the 1980s, the economic viability of the islands was in doubt, but in the aftermath of the Falklands War there was a new commitment from the United Kingdom government and in mid-1984 the Falkland Islands Development Corporation was formed. In its annual report at the end of that year, it set out to increase employment opportunities by encouraging diversification of, to increase population levels through selective immigration, to aim for long-term self-sufficiency and to improve community facilities. To achieve this, it identified as areas to tackle agricultural improvements, tourism, self-sufficiency in energy, development of the industrial and service sector, fisheries, and land subdivision. By April 2002, the Guardian reported, the Falklands' economy was booming, with income from tourism and the sale of squid fishing licences as well as from indigenous fishing companies with locally registered boats. Fishing boats visit the islands from Spain, Korea, Taiwan and Japan, and obtain supplies and services from the islands. An agreement with Argentina set the terms for exploitation of offshore resources, though hopes of oil production have yet to materialise. An islander told the BBC that "we were the luckiest people that was ever mixed up in a war." Tourist interest was stirred by the publicity given to the islands, and as well as introducing holiday facilities and guided tours, the islands became a regular port of call for the growing market of cruise ships, giving visitors a glimpse of what the islanders had previously thought of as their humdrum existence, as well as tours to see the scenery and wildlife, particularly penguins, seabirds, seals and sealions, and to visit battlefields. However, diplomatic disputes with Argentina caused a slight disruption in 2004, when charter flights from Chile to serve cruise ships were refused permission to fly over Argentina to reach the islands. Large numbers of 19th century shipwrecks around the islands are an attraction for recreational divers, and trout fishing, golf, horse riding and sailing are also on offer. Overview from CIA Factbook The economy was formerly based on agriculture, mainly sheep farming, but today fishing contributes the bulk of economic activity. In 1987 the government began selling fishing licenses to foreign travelers operating within the Falklands exclusive fishing zone. These license fees total more than $40 million per year, which goes to support the island's health, education, and welfare system. Squid accounts for 75% of the fish taken. Dairy farming supports domestic consumption; crops furnish winter fodder. Exports feature shipments of high-grade wool to the UK and the sale of postage stamps and coins. The islands are now self-financing except for defence. The British Geological Survey announced a 200-mile (370 km) oil exploration zone around the islands in 1993, and early seismic surveys suggest substantial reserves capable of producing 500,000 barrels per day; to date no exploitable site has been identified. An agreement between Argentina and the UK in 1995 seeks to defuse licensing and sovereignty conflicts that would dampen foreign interest in exploiting potential oil reserves. Tourism, especially eco-tourism, is increasing rapidly, with about 30,000 visitors in 2001. Another large source of income is interest paid on money the government has in the bank. The British military presence also provides a sizeable economic boost. Population below poverty line: NA% Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% Industries: fish and wool processing; tourism Industrial production growth rate: NA% Electricity - production: 22.23 million kWh (2003) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 20.68 million kWh (2003) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) Agriculture - products: fodder and vegetable crops; sheep, dairy products Debt - external: $NA Economic aid - recipient: $0 (1997 est.) Exchange rates: Falkland pounds per US dollar - 0.54 (2005), 0.5462 (2004), 0.6125 (2003), 0.6672 (2002), 0.6947 (2001) note: the Falkland pound is at par with the British Pound Sterling See also Falkland Islands Holdings External links CIA - The World Factbook -Falkland Islands (Malvinas) (last updated 10 January, 2006) Falkland Islands Development Corporation - Annual Report 1984 A Visitor's View of the Falkland Islands Guardian Unlimited - Special Reports - Share the Falklands Four Seasons and more than 3,000 Tourists in One Day "Falklands Experience" tours Falklandsinfo: Welcome to our Spectacular Islands! Britain sends minister to resolve Falklands air row with Argentina Guardian Unlimited - Special Reports - The Falklands' rise to riches
Economy_of_the_Falkland_Islands |@lemmatized economy:4 falkland:9 island:17 previously:2 heavily:1 dependent:1 sheep:4 farming:3 historically:1 whale:2 become:3 diversified:1 last:2 decade:1 also:5 income:4 tourism:6 commercial:1 fishing:6 well:4 service:3 base:3 industry:3 historical:1 development:5 squid:3 trawler:1 cruise:3 ship:5 port:3 william:1 represent:1 two:1 trend:1 recent:1 economic:5 century:3 supply:2 maintenance:1 depot:1 stanley:1 develop:1 serve:2 round:1 cape:1 horn:1 trade:3 cow:1 hide:1 wild:1 descendant:1 cattle:2 introduce:3 french:1 settler:1 late:1 take:2 self:4 supporting:1 provide:2 seal:2 factory:1 build:1 east:1 south:1 georgia:1 end:2 leave:1 wool:3 mainstay:1 viability:1 doubt:1 aftermath:1 falklands:7 war:2 new:1 commitment:1 united:1 kingdom:1 government:3 mid:1 islands:2 corporation:2 form:1 annual:2 report:5 year:2 set:2 increase:3 employment:1 opportunity:1 encourage:1 diversification:1 population:2 level:1 selective:1 immigration:1 aim:1 long:1 term:2 sufficiency:2 improve:1 community:1 facility:2 achieve:1 identify:2 area:1 tackle:1 agricultural:1 improvement:1 energy:1 industrial:2 sector:1 fishery:1 land:1 subdivision:1 april:1 guardian:3 booming:1 sale:2 licence:1 indigenous:1 fish:5 company:1 locally:1 register:1 boat:2 visit:2 spain:1 korea:1 taiwan:1 japan:1 obtain:1 agreement:2 argentina:5 exploitation:1 offshore:1 resource:1 though:1 hope:1 oil:3 production:4 yet:1 materialise:1 islander:2 tell:1 bbc:1 lucky:1 people:1 ever:1 mix:1 tourist:2 interest:3 stir:1 publicity:1 give:2 holiday:1 guide:1 tour:3 regular:1 call:1 grow:1 market:1 visitor:3 glimpse:1 think:1 humdrum:1 existence:1 see:2 scenery:1 wildlife:1 particularly:1 penguin:1 seabird:1 sealions:1 battlefield:1 however:1 diplomatic:1 dispute:1 cause:1 slight:1 disruption:1 charter:1 flight:1 chile:1 refuse:1 permission:1 fly:1 reach:1 large:2 number:1 shipwreck:1 around:2 attraction:1 recreational:1 diver:1 trout:1 golf:1 horse:1 riding:1 sailing:1 offer:1 overview:1 cia:2 factbook:2 formerly:1 agriculture:2 mainly:1 today:1 contribute:1 bulk:1 activity:1 begin:1 sell:1 license:2 foreign:2 traveler:1 operate:1 within:1 exclusive:1 zone:2 fee:1 total:1 million:3 per:3 go:1 support:2 health:1 education:1 welfare:1 system:1 account:1 dairy:2 farm:1 domestic:1 consumption:3 crop:2 furnish:1 winter:1 fodder:2 export:2 feature:1 shipment:1 high:2 grade:1 uk:2 postage:1 stamp:1 coin:1 financing:1 except:1 defence:1 british:3 geological:1 survey:2 announce:1 mile:1 km:1 exploration:1 early:1 seismic:1 suggest:1 substantial:1 reserve:2 capable:1 produce:1 barrel:1 day:2 date:1 exploitable:1 site:1 seek:1 defuse:1 licensing:1 sovereignty:1 conflict:1 would:1 dampen:1 exploit:1 potential:1 especially:1 eco:1 rapidly:1 another:1 source:2 pay:1 money:1 bank:1 military:1 presence:1 sizeable:1 boost:1 poverty:1 line:1 na:5 household:1 percentage:1 share:2 low:1 processing:1 growth:1 rate:2 electricity:5 kwh:4 fossil:1 fuel:1 hydro:1 nuclear:1 import:1 product:2 vegetable:1 debt:1 external:2 aid:1 recipient:1 est:1 exchange:1 pound:3 u:1 dollar:1 note:1 par:1 sterling:1 holding:1 link:1 world:1 malvinas:1 update:1 january:1 view:1 unlimited:2 special:2 four:1 season:1 one:1 experience:1 falklandsinfo:1 welcome:1 spectacular:1 britain:1 send:1 minister:1 resolve:1 air:1 row:1 rise:1 rich:1 |@bigram falkland_islands:2 self_sufficiency:2 recreational_diver:1 horse_riding:1 cia_factbook:1 postage_stamp:1 geological_survey:1 mile_km:1 eco_tourism:1 household_income:1 kwh_electricity:3 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 export_kwh:1 import_kwh:1 kwh_agriculture:1 dairy_product:1 pound_sterling:1 external_link:1 guardian_unlimited:2
4,726
Albert_III,_Duke_of_Saxony
Albert III (; 27 January 1443 – 12 September 1500) was a Duke of Saxony. He was nicknamed Albert the Bold or Albert the Courageous and founded the Albertine line of the House of Wettin. Albert was born in Grimma as the third and youngest son (but fifth child in order of birth) of Frederick II the Gentle, Elector of Saxony, and Margarete of Austria, sister of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor. Later, he was a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece. After escaping from the hands of Kunz von Kaufungen, who had abducted him together with his brother Ernest, he passed some time at the court of the emperor Frederick III in Vienna. In Eger (Cheb) on 11 November 1464 Albert married with Zdenka (Sidonie), daughter of George of Podebrady, King of Bohemia; but failed to obtain the Bohemian Crown on the death of George in 1471. After the death of his father in 1464, Albert and Ernest ruled their lands together, but in 1485 a division was made by the Treaty of Leipzig, and Albert received Meissen, together with some adjoining districts, and founded the Albertine branch of the House of Wettin. Regarded as a capable soldier by the emperor, Albert (in 1475) took a prominent part in the campaign against Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and in 1487 led an expedition against Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, which failed owing to lack of support on the part of the emperor. In 1488 he was appointed Stattholder of the Netherlands (until 1493) and marched with the imperial forces to free the Roman king Maximilian from his imprisonment at Bruges, and when, in 1489, the King returned to Germany, Albert was left as his representative to prosecute the war against the rebels. He was successful in restoring the authority of Maximilian in Holland, Flanders and Brabant, but failed to obtain any repayment of the large sums of money which he had spent in these campaigns. His services were rewarded in 1498 when Maximilian bestowed upon him the title of Hereditary governor (potestat) of Friesland, but he had to make good his claim by force of arms. He had to a great extent succeeded, and was paying a visit to Saxony, when he was recalled by news of a fresh rising. Groningen was captured, but soon afterwards the duke died at Emden. He was buried at Meissen. Albert, who was a man of great strength and considerable skill in feats of arms, delighted in tournaments and knightly exercises. His loyalty to the emperor Frederick, and the expenses incurred in this connection, aroused some irritation among his subjects, but his rule was a period of prosperity in Saxony. Ancestry +Albert's ancestors in three generations Albert, Duke of Saxony Father:Frederick II, Elector of Saxony Paternal Grandfather:Frederick I, Elector of Saxony Paternal Great-grandfather:Frederick III, Landgrave of Thuringia Paternal Great-grandmother:Katherina von Henneberg Paternal Grandmother:Catherine of Brunswick Paternal Great-grandfather:Henry the Mild, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg Paternal Great-grandmother:Sophie of Pomerania Mother:Margarete of Austria Maternal Grandfather:Ernest, Duke of Austria Maternal Great-grandfather:Leopold III, Duke of Austria Maternal Great-grandmother:Viridis Visconti Maternal Grandmother:Cymburgis of Masovia Maternal Great-grandfather:Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia Maternal Great-grandmother:Alexandra of Lithuania Family and children With his wife Sidonie, Albrecht had nine children: Katharina (b. Meissen, 24 July 1468 - d. Göttingen, 10 February 1524), married firstly on 24 February 1484 in Innsbruck to Duke Sigismund of Austria, and secondly on 1497 to Duke Erich I of Braunschweig-Kalenberg. Georg "der Bärtige" (b. Meissen, 27 August 1471 - d. Dresden, 17 April 1539). Heinrich V "der Fromme" (b. Dresden, 16 March 1473 - d. Dresden, 18 August 1541). Frederick (b. Torgau, 26 October 1474 - d. Rochlitz, 14 December 1510), Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights. Anna (b. Dresden, 3 August 1478 - d. Dresden, 1479). Stillborn child (1479). Ludwig (b. Torgau, 28 September 1481 - d. Torgau?, some days later / d. Torgau?, young after 1498) [?]. Johann (b. and d. Torgau, 24 June 1484). Johann (b. Torgau, 2 December 1498 - d. Torgau?, some days later / d. Torgau?, young in September of the same year as his brother Ludwig) [?]. I276588: Josepha Octavia Mlinaric References
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4,727
The_Beverly_Hillbillies
The Beverly Hillbillies is an American sitcom that was one of the most successful comedies in the history of American television. It ranked among the top 12 most watched series on television for seven of its nine seasons, twice ranking as the #1 series of the year with a number of episodes that remain among the most-watched television episodes of alltime. The series was about a hillbilly family transplanted to Beverly Hills, California after finding oil on their land. A Filmways production, the series aired on CBS from September 26, 1962 – September 7, 1971 and comprises 274 episodes—106 in black-and-white (1962–1965) and 168 in color (1965–1971). The show starred Buddy Ebsen as Jed Clampett, Irene Ryan as Daisy May "Granny" Moses, Donna Douglas as Elly May Clampett and Max Baer, Jr. as Jethro Bodine. Overview At the beginning of The Beverly Hillbillies series, the OK Oil Company discovers oil in a swamp owned by family patriarch Jed Clampett. Jed moves with his family to the wealthy Los Angeles County city of Beverly Hills, California, where he attempts to live a rural lifestyle despite his wealth. This sequence of events was recapitulated in the title credits for each show and was described in the lyrics of the theme song, so that new viewers would easily understand who the Hillbillies were and why they were in Beverly Hills (although the credits and song portray Jed finding the oil while hunting as opposed to knowing the oil was there but being unaware of the value). Lasting nine seasons and accumulating seven Emmy nominations, it remains in syndication on several cable stations including TV Land. The Hillbillies themselves were Buddy Ebsen as the widowed patriarch Jed "J.D." Clampett; Irene Ryan as his mother-in-law, Daisy May "Granny" Moses; Donna Douglas as his daughter Elly May Clampett; and Max Baer Jr. as his cousin's son Jethro Bodine. While Granny frequently mentioned that she was from Tennessee, the series never specified the state from which the Clampetts moved to California. However, they often referred to nearby towns such as Joplin, Branson, and Silver Dollar City, all of which are in southwest Missouri. Early episodes also contained several references to Eureka Springs, which is in northwest Arkansas. The supporting cast featured Raymond Bailey as Jed's greedy banker Milburn Drysdale; Harriet E. MacGibbon as Drysdale's snobbish wife Margaret Drysdale; and Nancy Kulp as Drysdale's secretary, "Miss" Jane Hathaway, who pined for the clueless Jethro. Jed's cousin Pearl Bodine (played by Bea Benaderet) was Jethro's mother. She appeared in several episodes during the first season, as did Jethro's twin sister Jethrine, played by Baer in drag, using Linda Kaye Henning's voiceover. Veteran canine actor Stretch portrayed Jed's bloodhound Duke, and the many other animal actors on the series came to be known as "Elly May's critters". A three-act stageplay based on the pilot was written by David Rogers in 1968. The Beverly Hillbillies stageplay, adapted by David Rogers Theme music The theme song "The Ballad of Jed Clampett" was written by producer and writer Paul Henning and originally performed by Bluegrass artists Flatt and Scruggs. The song was sung by Jerry Scoggins (backed by Flatt and Scruggs) over the opening and end credits of each episode. It was #44 on the music charts in 1962 and a #1 country hit. Flatt and Scruggs also had another Billboard country top ten hit with the comic "Pearl, Pearl, Pearl," an ode to the feminine charms of Miss Pearl Bodine who was featured in the episode "Jed Throws a Wingding," the first of several Flatt and Scruggs appearances on the show. The six main cast members participated on a 1963 Columbia Records soundtrack album which featured original song numbers in character. Additionally, Ebsen, Ryan and Douglas each made a few solo recordings following the show's success, including Ryan's 1966 novelty single, "Granny's Miniskirt". The series generally featured no country music beyond the bluegrass banjo theme song, although country star Roy Clark and the team of Flatt and Scruggs occasionally played on the program. Pop singer Pat Boone appeared on one episode as himself, with the premise that he hailed from the same area of the country as the Clampetts (Boone is, in fact, a native of Jacksonville, Florida although he spent most of his childhood in Tennessee). Popularity Despite being panned by some critics, the show shot to the top of the Nielsen Ratings shortly after its premiere and stayed there for several seasons. During its first two seasons, it was the number one program in the U.S. During its second season, it earned some of the highest ratings ever recorded for a half-hour sitcom. The season two episode "The Giant Jackrabbit" also became the most watched telecast up to the time of its airing, and remains the most watched half-hour episode of a sitcom as well. The Beverly Hillbillies: The Giant Jackrabbit - TV.com The series enjoyed excellent ratings throughout its run, although it had fallen out of the top 20 most-watched shows during its final season. The series received two Emmy nominations for Best Comedy Series (1963, 1964) as well as nominations for cast members Irene Ryan (twice nominated as Best Series Actress, 1963, 1964) and Nancy Kulp (nominated for Best Comedy Series Supporting Actress, 1966)]. Nielsen Ratings 1962-1963: #1 ClassicTVHits.com: TV Ratings > 1960's 1963-1964: #1 ClassicTVHits.com: TV Ratings > 1960's 1964-1965: #12 ClassicTVHits.com: TV Ratings > 1960's 1965-1966: #8 ClassicTVHits.com: TV Ratings > 1960's 1966-1967: #9 ClassicTVHits.com: TV Ratings > 1960's 1967-1968: #12 ClassicTVHits.com: TV Ratings > 1960's 1968-1969: #10 ClassicTVHits.com: TV Ratings > 1960's 1969-1970: #18 ClassicTVHits.com: TV Ratings > 1960's 1970-1971: #33 Influence on other television shows Because of the show's high ratings, CBS asked creator Paul Henning to pen two more folksy comedies, spawning a mini-genre of rural sitcoms during the 1960s. Petticoat Junction featured an extended family, including three pretty young women of marrying age, running a small hotel in the isolated rural town of Hooterville. Green Acres flipped the Clampetts' fish-out-of-water concept by depicting two city sophisticates moving to Hooterville, which was populated by oddball country bumpkins. Certain actors appeared on more than one of these series: Bea Benaderet, who had played Jethro's mother during the first season of The Beverly Hillbillies, was the mother of the family on Petticoat Junction. Linda Kaye Henning, who provided the voiceover for the Beverly Hillbillies character Jethrine, portrayed Benaderet's daughter Betty Jo Bradley on Petticoat Junction. Edgar Buchanan, who starred in all 222 episodes of Petticoat Junction and guest-starred in 17 episodes of Green Acres, also guested in three episodes of The Beverly Hillbillies, always as the character Uncle Joe Carson. Charles Lane (actor) played Homer Bedloe, vice president of the C. & F. W. Railroad, on both shows. Sam Drucker, played by Frank Cady, of both Petticoat Junction and Green Acres, also appeared in several episodes of the Beverly Hillbillies. Several animal actors trained by Frank Inn, including Higgins the dog, also moved between series as needed. Despite the actor cross-overs and the character Uncle Joe Carson's multiple appearances (which made it clear that the three shows were set in the same fictional universe), the two Hooterville series retained identities that were distinct from The Beverly Hillbillies. Cancellation and "the Rural Purge" Nielsen ratings for the 1970-71 season show that the bottom had dropped out for the perennial Top 30 series but was still fairly popular when it was canceled in 1971 after 274 episodes. The CBS network, prompted by pressure from advertisers seeking a more sophisticated urban audience, decided to refocus its schedule on several "hip" new urban-themed shows, and to make room for them, all of CBS's rural-themed comedies were simultaneously canceled. This action came to be known as "the Rural Purge". Pat Buttram, who played Mr. Haney on Green Acres, famously remarked that, "It was the year CBS killed everything with a tree in it." Ken Berry interview In addition to The Beverly Hillbillies, the series that were eliminated included Green Acres, Mayberry R.F.D. and Hee Haw, the latter of which was resurrected in first-run syndication, where it ran for another 21 years. Petticoat Junction had been canceled a year earlier due to declining ratings following the death of its star, Benaderet. Main Cast Jed Clampett Although he had received little formal education, Jed Clampett had a good deal of common sense. A good-natured man, he is the apparent head of the family. Jed's wife (Elly May's mother) died, but is referred to in the episode "Duke Steals A Wife" as Rose Ellen. Jed was shown to be an expert marksman and was extremely loyal to his family and kinfolk. The huge oil pool in the swamp he owned was the beginning of his rags-to-riches journey to Beverly Hills. Although he longed for the old ways back in the hills of Tennessee, he made the best of being in Beverly Hills. Whenever he had anything on his mind, he would sit on the curbstone of his mansion and whittle until he came up with the answer. Jedediah, the version of Jed's name used in the 1993 Beverly Hillbillies theatrical movie, was never mentioned in the original television series (though ironically, on Ebsen's subsequent series, Barnaby Jones, Barnaby's nephew J.R. was also named Jedediah). In one episode Jed and Granny reminisce about seeing Buddy Ebsen and Vilma Ebsen—a joking reference to the Ebsens' song and dance act. Jed appears in all 274 episodes. Granny (Daisy Moses) Called "Granny" by all, relatives or not, shotgun-toting Daisy Moses, Jed's mother-in-law, is a hot-tempered daughter of Dixie who loathed the move to California. She styled herself an "M.D." — "mountain doctor" — claiming to have a complete knowledge of herbs (which she pronounced "yarbs"), potions and tonics. She was extremely scrappy and was an expert at wielding a double-barreled, 12-gauge shotgun, although the one time she actually fired it, unknown to her, Mr. Drysdale had replaced the shotgun pellets with bacon rind and rock salt after he arranged for Hollywood stuntmen to dress up as fake Native Americans to "attack" the Clampett mansion. She was also able to tell the precise time, to the minute and even the second, by looking at the position of the sun. Paul Henning, the series' creator, clearly disposed of the idea of Granny being Jed's mother, which would have changed the show's dynamics, making Granny the matriarch and Jed subordinate to her. She could be feisty, but her ideas could also be overruled. Two of Granny's phobias were "Injuns" (she actually bought wigs so the Clampetts wouldn't be "scalped") and the "cement pond" (swimming pool–she has a fear of water). In a long story arc in the show's eighth season, Elly May dates a U.S. Navy frogman, which confuses Granny: After seeing the frogman climb out of the pool in his skin-diving wear, she thinks that anyone who swims in the pool will be turned into a frog. She also had a peculiar way of retelling the Civil War, where she thought that the South had won, and Jefferson Davis was the President. Any attempts to correct her met with failure. She was also known for slicing off switches to use on Jethro mainly, whenever he went too far with his dumb and idiotic schemes. There are references to Granny growing up in the Smokey Mountains of Tennessee. From episode 9: "When I was a girl back in Tennessee, I set so many boys hearts on fire that they took to calling that neck of the woods The Smokey Mountains." Granny's full name, Daisy Moses, allegedly a homage to the popular and dearly loved folk artist Anna Mary Robertson, known to the world as Grandma Moses. (Grandma Moses died in 1961, a year before The Beverly Hillbillies made its television debut.) Granny is frequently referred to as "Granny Clampett" in a number of episodes but technically she was a Moses. Granny appears in all 274 episodes. Elly May Clampett Elly May, Jed's only child, is a mountain beauty with the body of a pinup girl and the soul of a tomboy. She could throw a fastball as well as "rassle" most men to a fall. She could be as tender with her friends, animals and people, as she was tough with Jethro or anyone else she was rasslin'. She said once that animals could be better companions than people, but as she grew older she saw that, "fellas kin be more fun than critters." Elly was squired about by eager young Hollywood actors with stage names like "Dash Riprock" and "Bolt Upright". Other boyfriends for Elly included Sonny Drysdale, Beau Short, beatnik Sheldon Epps and Mark Templeton, a frogman. Elly's most notable weakness, oft mentioned when she was being "courted", was her lack of kitchen skills. Family members would cringe when, for plot reasons, Elly would take over the kitchen. Rock-like donuts and cookies, for example, were a plot function in an episode featuring Wally Cox as bird watching Professor Biddle. Elly is briefly considered for film stardom at the movie studio owned by Jed. In one episode, hearing Rock Hudson and Cary Grant are both single, Granny asks that Elly be introduced to them. During the final season's episodes, Elly May takes a job as a secretary at the Commerce Bank although why she should be the only Clampett working is never explained. In the 1981 TV movie of The Beverly Hillbillies, Elly May is head of a zoo. Elly May appearas in all 274 episodes. Jethro Bodine Jethro is the son of Jed's cousin, Pearl Bodine. He drove the Clampett family to their new home in California and stayed on with them to further his education. The whole family boasted of Jethro's "sixth grade education" but nevertheless felt he was a bit of an idiot. Jethro was simply naive in the first season of the show, but became incredibly ignorant and pompous as the series progressed. He often showed off his cyphering abilities with multiplication and "go-zin-ta's", as in "five gozinta five one times, five gozinta ten two times," etc. After that, he decided to go to college. He managed to enroll late in the semester at a local secretarial school due to his financial backing and earned his diploma by the end of the day because he didn't understand what was going on in class and was too disruptive. (This was an in-joke--in real life Max Baer, Jr., has a college degree in Business). Many stories in the series involved Jethro's endless career search, which included such diverse vocations as brain surgeon, street car conductor, Double-naught spy, Hollywood producer (a studio flunky remarks Jethro has the right qualifications for being a producer-a 6th grade education and his uncle owns the studio. The in joke gag of Jethro as a movie producer was replayed in the 1981 movie), soda jerk, short order cook, and once as a bookkeeper for Milburn Drysdale's bank. More often than not, his overall goal in these endeavors was to obtain as many pretty girls as humanly possible, which were usually the catalyst that prompted him to do so. While working as a producer, Jethro called himself "Beef Jerky", a wannabe playboy and man-about-town sophisticate. Out of all the Clampett clan, he was the one who made the most changes from 'country bumpkin' to 'city boy.' Another running gag is that Jethro was known as the "six foot stomach" for his ability to eat: in one episode he ate a jetliner's entire supply of steaks; in another episode Jethro tried to set himself up as a Hollywood agent for cousin "Bessie"-with a fee of 10,000 bananas for Bessie and 1,000 bananas for Jethro. Jethro could never succeed in any career he tried. Jethro appears in 273 episodes, he is not in the second-to-last episode but Baer of course remains billed in the title credits. Baer claimed he only auditioned for the role of Jethro for fun, and never expected to get the part. Supposedly, he clinched the part largely because of his grin. Duke The Clampetts' family dog. He's an old bloodhound that Jed had bought for four bits (50 cents) when he was a puppy. In early episodes, Jethro tried to teach Duke to fetch sticks, though to Jed, it looked as if Duke taught Jethro how to do that trick. In a couple of episodes, Duke got involved with a French poodle that was brought in to mate with Mrs. Drysdale's pampered pooch Claude. Apparently, the poodle had better taste and had Duke's puppies instead. When Mrs. Drysdale wanted Claude to get revenge against Duke, Jed warned her that he'd seen that old hound dog hold his own against a bobcat. The Drysdales The Drysdales are the Clampetts' neighbors. Although Mrs. Drysdale had obvious disdain for their neighbors, he was willing to do anything to keep them next door so he would not lose control of the Clampett fortune, which was on deposit in his bank. Between Mrs. Drysdale and Mr. Drysdale there existed a subtle social commentary on class issues, specifically whether "breeding" or actual wealth should be the determinants that entitle a person to join the privileged class. Milburn Drysdale appears in 247 episodes. Mrs. Drysdale was a major player in Beverly Hills society and was outraged to the fact that her neighbors were "peasants" from the South. She was, plainly, a snob. She spent much of her time trying to cook up schemes to drive them back home. She disliked the whole family but her most heated rivalry was with Granny with whom she occasionally had physical "scraps". The Margaret/Granny feud, however, didn't kick into full gear until after Cousin Pearl had moved back home as most of Granny's spats were with Jed's cousin in the first season. Margaret's family were old money from Boston but apparently her aged father had gambled much of it away. Mr. Drysdale, like the Clampetts, had country roots, although his were in the distant past. One very early episode had Granny chasing Mr. Drysdale with a shotgun after he told her his family was also from Tennessee -- a family that was in a feud with Granny's family.Mr. Drysdale, unlike his wife, placed wealth above prestige. He clung to people with money and had far more respect for the Clampetts, despite their backwoods ways, than he did for Mrs. Drysdale's son, Sonny, who didn't believe in getting his hands dirty with work. Drysdale had a nephew, named after him, called Milby. The swindling Milby (who opened a pawn shop at age six; and was expelled from three military schools in one year for usury) attempted to con the Clampetts out of tens of thousands of dollars of antiques, paintings and the like; but was stopped in this by his uncle, who took away his money belt, to the screaming Milby's disdain. Mr. Drysdale's reverence for the Clampetts was so great that, although they had a backwoods approach to life, he saw everything they did as unquestionably right (because they were wealthy) and bent over backwards to rearrange the rest of the world to cater to their whims. For instance, when Jethro wanted to enroll in an elite boarding school, the headmistress has problems with the situation for several obvious reasons, but Mr. Drysdale leveraged his deed on the school mortgage as clout to force the school to admit Jethro. Another example was to get them a gorilla, so he hired an actor who played a gorilla to be their "servant", which met with disastrous results (Drysdale ended up in the monkey suit). His favorite comic book hero and alter-ego is Superbanker-who is dressed in a green custume with golden dollar signs. {Once Drysdale dresses as "Superbanker" in a commercial featuring his banks with the Clampets as "bank robbers" only to have it backfire on him when Drysdale is knocked out by a retiring bank clerk whom Drysdale had tried to cheat out of $7.50!} During World War II Drysdale was a stateside Quartermaster Sergeant who was nicknamed "Dracula" Drysdale for charging 40% daily interest on loans. One of Drysdale's clients had to transfer to the Paratroops for more pay and ended up a POW; years later as Sheriff's Deputy he had the satisfaction of arresting Drysdale for dressing up like Paul Von Hindenburg in a tank at a city Park. (Drysdale had dressed up like a German Field Marshal to please Jethro who was dressed like George S. Patton. Raymond Bailey had a brief scene as a US Navy Admiral in the 1961 comedy The Absent-Minded Professor; by coincidence Harriet MacGibbon starred in the "Flubber" 1963 sequel Son of Flubber.) Margaret Drysdale appears in 55 episodes between 1962 and 1969, she is not seen in the last two seasons of the show although is occasionally mentioned. Jane Hathaway Jane Hathaway, whom the Clampetts addressed as "Miss Jane," is Drysdale's loyal and efficient assistant. Though she always carried out his wishes, she was inherently decent and was frequently put off by her boss' greed. When she was annoyed with him, as was often especially when one of Drysdale's schemes went too far, she would usually and forcefully say "Chief!" Unlike Drysdale (who was merely interested in the Clampetts' wealth), Jane was genuinely fond of them (to the Clampetts, she was considered family; even Granny, the one most dead-set against living in California, liked her very much and thought of her as part of the family), in fact, she actually harbored something of a crush on Jethro for most of the series' run. At first, she mistook the Clampetts as the servants, until she realized who they really were (which almost cost her her job). Miss Hathaway frequently has to "rescue" Drysdale from his idiotic schemes, receiving little or no thanks for her efforts. In one episode, she and Granny, disguised as "geisha girls," finally have enough and "crown" Drysdale and Jethro, who have made one too many comments about women serving men. Jane is loyal to Drysdale as well, despite her misgivings toward his avarice and greed. In one episode, the Clampetts, feeling money has corrupted them, give all of their money to Jenny Jennings (Sheila Kuehl), a college student. While Drysdale moans the loss of the money, Jane immediately tells him to stop thinking about the Clampetts and start trying to get the Jennings account. Eventually, everyone discovered Jennings' real motives, and she was gone, with the Clampetts getting their money back, and things were as they were before. In one episode, it is established that Miss Jane sacrificed her job as the top secretary of the top executive of the top insurance company to join Mr. Drysdale at the Commerce Bank. Miss Jane was a Vassar graduate. Jane Hathaway appears in 246 episodes. Semi-Regulars Pearl Jed's cousin Pearl Bodine–portrayed by Bea Benaderet–was Jethro's mother. She was a generally well-meaning mother to Jethro. She also was a popular character, often used as a foil for Granny, and became a regular part way through the first season (the end credits were even refilmed to include Pearl with the other family members). She disappeared after the first year because Benaderet had become the star of another Paul Henning series, Petticoat Junction. Like Elly May, Pearl's name came from that of a character (Pearl Lester) in the popular rural-life novel, play, and film Tobacco Road. Pearl Bodine appears in 22 of the first season's episodes, 1962-63, and later makes a cameo in a 1967 episode. Jetherine Bodine Jetherine is Pearl's king-sized daughter, Jethro's twin (and is also played by Baer, though voice by Linda Kaye). Jetherine appears in 11 episodes in the 1962-63, she moves with her mother to the Clampett mansion later that season but occasionally is not seen in episodes during her stay in California. Jetherine was upset in leaving the hills as it meant separation from her "sweetie", traveling salesman Jazzbo Depew, late in the season it was explained in an episode that Jetherine had returned home to marry Depew although the wedding was never seen in the series (nor was Jetherine ever seen again, although she was occasionally referenced.) Jethro and Jetherine rarely appeared in the same scene in any of the programs and then they were never on-camera at the same time except for the rare back-of-the-head shot of one done by a double. Dash Riprock Dash (Larry Pennell) was the handsome Hollywood actor that Mr. Drysdale forced into courting Elly May by threatening to put him in a television show called Crabman. Once Dash saw the beautiful Elly in her bathing suit, however, he gathered considerably more enthusiasm for his task. Elly initially liked Dash and enjoyed being with him on dates. Jethro, however, was more enamored with Dash and his playboy persona than was his comely cousin. Riprock was a send-up of the blatantly fake screen names employed by a number of movie actor's of the period ( Riprock's real name (before being changed by Hollywood moguls) was "Homer Noodleman," and he was from Peoria, Illinois. Dash Riprock was in 10 episodes. Sonny Drysdale Sonny was Mrs. Drysdale's ne'er-do-well son, Mr. Drysdale's stepson by marriage, Sonny (played by Louis Nye), a mama's boy whose "career" consisted of going to college for decades. (Although Sonny is not Milburn's son, he is repeatedly referred to as "Sonny Drysdale".) Sonny was at one point a potential husband for Elly May. Although the character was well-remembered by fans, Sonny only appeared in four episodes, three in 1962 and a final appearance in 1966. Lowell Farquhar Lowell is the elderly father of Mrs. Drysdale whom Granny considers a potential beau. Lowell (played by Charles Ruggles) is in three episodes, 1965-66. Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs Country music stars Flatt and Scruggs play themselves in seven episodes, 1963-68, who are longtime friends of the Clampetts "back home" (which gives some credence to the belief the Clampetts are from Tennessee) who visit with the Clampetts when they are on tour in California. The duo had a number-one Billboard country single with the show's "The Ballad of Jed Clampett" (although the song is actually performed in the credits by Jerry Scroggins to Flatt and Scruggs' instrumental). Actress Joi Lansing plays Flatt's wife, Louise, in five episods, 1963-68. John Brewater Brewster (played by Frank Wilcox), is the oil tycoon who purchases the oil rights to the gusher on the Clampett home back in the hills. The Clampetts are quite fond of him and he and his wife occasionally visit them in California. John Brewster appears in 14 episodes, 1962-1966. Janet Trego Janet (played by Sharon Tate) is a beautiful secretary at the Commerce Bank. Although Janet appears in 15 episodes, 1963-65, her role is generally quite minor. Shorty Kellums Shorty is Jed's longtime buddy from back home whom Jed reunites with in 1969 when the Clampetts go back for an extended period to the Hills. Shorty is a wiry little man who is crazy about voluptuous girls half his age. Shorty (played by Shug Fisher) later moves into the Clampett mansion in Beverly Hills for a period. Shorty Kellums appears in 17 episodes in the 1969-70 season. Elverna Bradshaw Elverna is Granny's longtime rival back in the Hills, a gossip second to none. She makes a brief appearance in a 1963 episode when the Clampetts go back to the Hills to fetch Pearl to California but is not seen again until 1969 when the Clampetts return to their native land for an extended visit. However, both Granny and Jed referred to the character in several episodes throughout the series' run. Elverna (played by Elvia Allman) and Granny rekindle their feud in a match to see who will be first wed, Elvia's daughter or Elly May. For reasons not really explained, Elverna also moves into the Clampett Beverly Hills mansion during the same period that Shorty does, both of them however are gone from the estate for the final 1970-71 season, presumably having returned back home. {A running gag was Shorty literally running to keep from being married to Elverna and Jed Clampet having to catch Shorty}. Elverna Bradshaw appears in 13 episodes, 1963-1970. Matthew Templeton/Mark Templeton The Templetons are two brothers both played by actor Roger Torrey. Matthew is seen in three episodes in October 1969 during the Clampetts stay in the Hills where Granny tags the preacherman as a prospective husband for Elly. Unfortunately, Granny learns that Matthew is married. Just a year later back in California, Elly meets Matthew's brother, Mark Templeton, who is a marine biologist, a frogman whom Granny believes is actually part frog. The Mark Templeton storyline is considered by many Hillbillies fans as the nadir of the series and played out for nine unpopular episodes and was abruptly dropped although advance publicity for the show indicated Elly May and Mark would be marrying during the season. Many fans feel the show never recovered from this lame storyline which led in part to its cancellation at the end of the season despite fairly good ratings. Roger Torrey auditioned for the part of Jethro, and many believe he would have gotten the part had Max Baer not auditioned for it. The "Critters" In addition to the family dog, Duke, a number of animals lived on the Clampett estate thanks to animal-lover Elly. These animals were collectively known as her "critters". The most prominent pets were chimpanzees. The first chimp on the show was named "Skipper", who was a Christmas present from Mr. Drysdale. The following season, Ellie Mae acquired a female chimp named "Cousin Bessie", so named because she was Skipper's cousin. She was a regular for the remainder of the series. A running gag is that Cousin Bessie frequently proves to be smarter than "educated" Jethro. There was also a chimp called Maybelle. As well as typical pets such as dogs/puppies and cats/kittens Elly was also shown to keep exotic animals such as deer, virginia opossums, a bear named Fairchild, some goats, a raccoon named Elmer, a kangaroo, Earl the rooster, Charlie the skunk, Gem the mink, a puma named Jethro, a hippo named Harold, a sea lion named Shorty and many more. There was also a mutt named Jojo. The trainer of all the animals in the series was Frank Inn, who also trained the animals for the contemporaneous rural comedy series Petticoat Junction and Green Acres. Series storylines Most episodes revolved around the clash between the "uncivilized" hillbilly culture represented by the Clampetts and the "civilized" American culture of the Drysdales. The Clampetts lived as they always had, even in their large, elegant mansion, never abandoning their mountain attire or replacing the old rattletrap truck in which they had moved to California. All the Hillbillies were handy with firearms and always seemed to have their weapons close at hand and ready to draw. They continued to grow their own food, and Granny made lye soap and moonshine. The extreme potency of the moonshine liquor and the harshness of the lye soap were running gags throughout the run of the series. As another running joke, the movie theaters back in the hills were still showing films from the silent movie era and the Hillbillies were unaware of talking pictures or more contemporary movie stars. Granny's favorite actor was Hoot Gibson, but she also had an intense crush on William S. Hart, and the whole Clampett family adored Mary Pickford. Silent movie legend Gloria Swanson made a memorable guest appearance on the show as herself in an episode that featured a comic parody of a silent melodrama. The Clampetts did, however, have a television, on which they watched soap operas and "rasslin'", as well as John Wayne movies, as he was apparently one of the few "talkie" movie stars of whom they were aware. Wayne made a brief cameo as himself after the Clampett mansion was "attacked" by stuntmen dressed as Native Americans. Pearl and Granny often fought for kitchen supremacy. Pearl once told Granny "a blood cousin trumps a mother-in-law". This underscored a familial disconnect between Jethro and Granny; although they shared no bloodlines, Jethro still called her "Granny" (as did everyone else on the show, including Jane and the Drysdales). Other than their kitchen wars, relations between Granny and Pearl were generally friendly. The second season began with a brief mention of Pearl having moved back to the hills, an ironic departure, as it was Pearl who had urged Jed to move to California. The change came about because actress Bea Benaderet had left the show to star in Petticoat Junction). Mrs. Drysdale soon became Granny's main sparring partner. Although both Douglas and Baer were well into their twenties when the series started, during the first years of the series, their characters were supposed to be teenagers. Elly May was enrolled in an elite girls' school in the first season, although no further mention was made of her education in later episodes. Jethro was enrolled in a sixth-grade class with much younger students; a few episodes later on, the scripts suggested that he was still in school. A running theme during the series involved the outlandish efforts Mr. Drysdale took to keep the Clampetts in Beverly Hills (and their money in his bank). Their desires to return to the mountains were often prompted by Granny after some perceived slight she received from the "city-folk" around them. Drysdale went so far as to recreate the log cabin the Clampetts had lived in and place it right next to the "cee-ment pond" and the still Granny had installed to make moonshine. Another time Drysdale followed the Clampetts to the "Hills" and bought up the Silver Dollar City "bank" just to make sure he had a controlling interest in the Clampetts' money. One running gag was that when Jed would take money out of his pocket, Drysdale's blood pressure would go up. A similar running joke was that when it seemed the Clampetts would take their money out of his bank, Drysdale's face would turn green. A variation of the joke of Drysdale's face changing color is in one episode when, after being given some of Granny's "Tennessee Tranquilizer" (moonshine), Drysdale's face turns red. Another frequent source of humor dealt with Jethro's endless career search, which included such diverse vocations as soda jerk, brain surgeon, Hollywood celebrity, and secret "double naught" agent/spy. Jethro coveted movie star fame and relished becoming a "playboy" like Elly's beau Dash Riprock. Jethro's stupidity usually caused such career attempts to fail spectacularly, as when he decided to open a "topless" restaurant ("The Happy Gizzard"), where the waiters and waitresses were hatless. The one time in the series when Jethro almost succeeded as a "Hollywood celebrity" was when "Cousin Roy" (Roy Clark) tried to get Jethro to back him up as a country singer in Hollywood; Jethro refused and failed as usual. Jethro did have one success, of sorts. When he rescued a Bird Watchers girl troop who fell into the "cement pond" (they were attacked by ants), Jethro got a "lifesaving badge"! Misunderstandings were a general source of humor in the program: when the Clampetts did not understand something they had never encountered before (such as a water faucet), or when various city dwellers could not comprehend something the Clampetts were talking about. A group of businessmen overheard Jed talking about "crawdads" and concluded that he was discussing a new type of military vehicle, which they wanted to invest in. The Clampetts went back to the hills for Christmas during the first season but did not return there until the eighth season, during which several episodes were filmed on location at Silver Dollar City in Branson, Missouri. During this period, Shug Fisher and Elvia Allman joined the cast as Shorty and Elverna (Allman had appeared on an episode in the first season playing the same character). One constant throughout the series was that the Hillbillies, who were scrupulously honest, were surrounded by cynical, conniving and money-hungry "city-folk," whose plans were always foiled (usually unknowingly) by the Clampetts. Merchandise The 1960s saw a plethora of tie-in merchandise hit store shelves, particularly toys. Several different coloring books and jigsaw puzzles were released, as was a fairly long-running comic book. There were even Hillbillies Halloween costumes. A "Beverly Hillbillies lunchbox is among the most valuable pieces of memorabilia from the era. The Beverly Hillbillies made the cover of TV Guide nine times between 1962 and 1970. Donna Douglas is the only cast member pictured on every cover. Donna Douglas was also one of the most publicized actresses of the era, making the covers of many movie magazines. In 1993, a 110-card set of Beverly Hillbillies trading cards was released by Eclipse Comics. Although timed to coincide with the release of the 1993 Beverly Hillbillies film, these cards featured photos from the original television series, with storylines and character details on the back. An earlier card series from 1963 is highly sought by collectors and is among the most expensive non-sports cards sets. 1981 CBS TV movie In 1981, a Return of the Beverly Hillbillies Television movie, written and produced by series creator Paul Henning, was aired on the CBS network. Irene Ryan had passed away in 1973, and Raymond Bailey had died in 1980. The script acknowledged Granny's passing but featured Imogene Coca as Granny's Mother. Max Baer decided against reprising the role that both started and stymied his career, so the character of Jethro Bodine was given to another actor, Ray Young. The film's plot had Jed back in his old homestead in Bugtussle, having divided his massive fortune among Elly May and Jethro, both of whom stayed on the West Coast. Jane Hathaway had become a Department of Energy agent and was seeking Granny's "White Lightnin'" recipe to combat the energy crisis. Since Granny had gone on to "her re-ward", it was up to Granny's centenarian "Maw" (Imogene Coca) to divulge the secret brew's ingredients. Subplots included Jethro playing an egocentric, starlet-starved Hollywood producer, Jane and her boss (Werner Klemperer) having a romance and Elly May owning a large petting zoo. The four main characters finally got together by the end of the story. Having been filmed a mere decade after the final episode of the original series, viewer consensus was that the series' original spirit was lost to the film on many fronts, chief of which being the deaths of Ryan and Bailey and Baer's abstinence, which left only three of the six original cast members available to reprise their respective roles. Further subtracting from the familiarity was the fact that the legendary Clampett mansion was unavailable for a location shoot as the owners' lease was too expensive. Henning himself admitted sheer embarrassment when the finished product aired, blaming his inability to rewrite the script due to the 1981 Writers Guild strike. The Last Hillbilly Hurrah In 1993, Ebsen, Douglas, and Baer reunited onscreen for the only time in the CBS-TV retrospective television special, "The Legend of the Beverly Hillbillies" which ranked as the 4th most watched television program of the week - a major surprise given the mediocre rating for the 1981 TV-movie. It was a rare tribute from the "Tiffany network" which owed much of its success in the 1960s to the series but has often seemed embarrassed by it in hindsight, often down-playing the show in retrospective television specials on the network's history and rarely inviting cast members to participate in such all-star broadcasts. "The Legend of The Beverly Hillbillies" special ignored several plot twists of the tv movie, notably Jethro was now not a film director but a leading Los Angeles physican. Critter-loving Elly May was still in California with her animals but Jed was back home in the Hills, having lost his fortune, stolen by the now-deceased banker Drysdale (a plot twist that many fans found unsettling for this good-natured show.) Nancy Kulp had died in 1991 and was little referred to beyond the multiude of film clips that dotted the special (which curiously failed to include a single film clip of Harriet MacGibbon.) The special was released on VHS tape by CBS/Fox Video in 1995 and as a bonus feature on The Official Third Season DVD Set in 2009. Reruns and Syndication The Beverly Hillbillies are still televised daily around the world in syndication. In the United States, the show is broadcast on TV Land many times throughout each day of the week, including weekends, albeit heavily edited. The show also airs on WGN America. The show is distributed by CBS Television Distribution, the syndication arm of CBS Paramount Television. The repeats of the show that debuted on CBS Daytime on September 5-9, 1966 as "Mornin' Beverly Hillbillies" through September 10, 1971 and on September 13-17, 1971 as "The Beverly HILLBILLIES" lasted up to Winter 1971–1972. It aired at 11:00-11:30am Eastern/10:00-10:30am Central through September 3, 1971, then moved to 10:30-11:00am Eastern/9:30-10:00am Central for the last season on CBS Daytime. Media VHS and DVD releases Many episodes of the first two seasons of the series are in the public domain because CBS, having bought the rights to the series shortly after its cancellation, neglected to renew their copyrights. As a result, these episodes have been unofficially released on home video and DVD on many low-budget labels and shown on low-power television stations and low-budget networks in prints. In many video prints of the public domain episodes, the original and much-loved theme music has been replaced by generic music due to copyright issues. However, before his death, Paul Henning, whose estate now holds the original film elements to the public domain episodes, authorized MPI Home Video to officially release the best of the first two seasons on DVD, the first "ultimate collection" of which was released in the fall of 2005. These collections include the original, uncut versions of the first season's episodes, complete with their original theme music and opening sponsor plugs. Vol. 1 has, among its bonus features, the alternate, un-aired version of the pilot film, The Hillbillies Of Beverly Hills (the version of the episode that sold the series to CBS), and the "cast commercials" (cast members pitching the products of the show's sponsors) originally shown at the end of each episode. For many years, 20th Century Fox, through a joint venture with CBS called CBS/Fox Video, officially released select episodes of Hillbillies on videocassette. After Viacom merged with CBS, Paramount Home Entertainment (which was acquired by Viacom in 1994) took over the video rights. In 2006, Paramount announced plans to release the copyrighted episodes in boxed sets through CBS DVD later that year. The show's second season (consisting of the public domain episodes from that season) was released on DVD in Region 1 on October 7, 2008 as "...The Official Second Season". The third season was released on February 17, 2009. Season Sets DVD name Ep# Release date Additional Information Distributor The Beverly Hillbillies - Ultimate Collection Volume 126 September 27, 2005 Contains Episodes 1-27 from Season 1, excluding Christmas episode unedited MPI Home Video The Beverly Hillbillies - Ultimate Collection Volume 227 February 28, 2006 Contains Episodes 28-36 from Season 1, select episodes from Season 2 unedited MPI Home Video The Beverly Hillbillies - The Official Second Season36 October 7, 2008 Original episode sponsor openings and closing Irene Ryan screen test as "Granny" Clip from "The Stars' Address is CBS" - 1963 Fall Preview Show CBS network promo (1963/64) Paul Henning Interview (1969) CBS Home Entertainment The Beverly Hillbillies - The Official Third Season34 February 17, 2009 The Legend of the Beverly Hillbillies Original episode sponsor openings and closings Photo gallery CBS Home Entertainment See also The Beverly Hillbillies (1993), a movie based on the series was released List of The Beverly Hillbillies episodes Money For Nothing/Beverly Hillbillies, a song by "Weird Al" Yankovic Zeke Manners, who led a band called The Beverly Hillbillies in the 1930s Rural purge References External links The Beverly Hillbillies at the Museum of Broadcast Communications Beverly Hillbillies Theme Bluegrass Lyrics (The Ballad of Jed Clampett) A Baptist sermon preached by Prophet Todd Hall comparing the virtuous Beverly Hillbillies with wealthy preachers who love their own wealth too much. Accessed January 26 2008.
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Nirvana_(band)
Nirvana was an American rock band that was formed by singer/guitarist Kurt Cobain and bassist Krist Novoselic in Aberdeen, Washington in 1987. Nirvana went through a succession of drummers, the longest-lasting being Dave Grohl, who joined the band in 1990. With the lead single "Smells Like Teen Spirit" from the band's second album Nevermind (1991), Nirvana entered into the mainstream, bringing along with it a subgenre of alternative rock called grunge. Other Seattle grunge bands such as Alice in Chains, Pearl Jam, and Soundgarden also gained popularity, and as a result, alternative rock became a dominant genre on radio and music television in the United States during the early-to-mid-1990s. As Nirvana's frontman, Kurt Cobain found himself referred to in the media as the "spokesman of a generation", with Nirvana the "flagship band" of Generation X. Azerrad, Michael. "Inside the Heart and Mind of Nirvana." Rolling Stone. April 16, 1992. Cobain was uncomfortable with the attention and placed his focus on the band's music, believing the band's message and artistic vision to have been misinterpreted by the public, challenging the band's audience with its third studio album In Utero (1993). Nirvana's brief run ended with Cobain's death in April 1994, but the band's popularity continued in the years that followed. In 2002, "You Know You're Right", an unfinished demo from the band's final recording session, topped radio playlists around the world. Since their debut, the band has sold over twenty-five million albums in the US alone, and over fifty million worldwide. Armstrong, Mark. "Nirvana Tops 50 Million Mark In Worldwide Sales, 'Journals' Number One". Yahoo! Music. November 17, 2002. Retrieved August 18, 2007. Selling Artists. RIAA.com. Retrieved September 22, 2008. History Early years Cobain and Novoselic met in 1985. Both were fans of the Melvins, and frequented the band's practice space. After a couple of false starts at forming their own band, the duo recruited drummer Aaron Burckhard, creating the first incarnation of what would eventually become Nirvana. Cobain later described the sound of the band when they first started as "a Gang of Four and Scratch Acid ripoff." Azerrad, Michael. Come as You Are: The Story of Nirvana. Doubleday, 1994. ISBN 0-385-47199-8, p. 294 Within a few months, Burckhard was fired from the band. He was temporarily replaced by Dale Crover of the Melvins, who played on the band's first demos. Dave Foster then began a brief tenure as the band's drummer. During its initial months, the band went through a series of names, including Skid Row, Pen Cap Chew, and Ted Ed Fred. The band finally settled on Nirvana in early 1988, which Cobain said was chosen because "I wanted a name that was kind of beautiful or nice and pretty instead of a mean, raunchy punk rock name like the Angry Samoans." Azerrad, 1994. p. 62 Nirvana played their first show under the name that March. A couple of months later, the band finally settled on a drummer, Chad Channing. Nirvana's first release was the single "Love Buzz/Big Cheese" in 1988 on Seattle independent record label Sub Pop. The following year, the band released its first album, Bleach. To record Bleach, the band turned to noted local producer Jack Endino, who had recorded the band's first studio demos. Bleach was highly influenced by the Melvins, by the heavy dirge-rock of Mudhoney, 1980s punk rock, the Pixies, and by the 1970s heavy metal of Black Sabbath. Novoselic noted in a 2001 interview with Rolling Stone that the band had played a tape in their van while on tour that had an album by The Smithereens on one side and an album by the black metal band Celtic Frost on the other, and noted that the combination probably played an influence as well. Fricke, David. "Krist Novoselic". Rolling Stone. September 13, 2001. Bleach became a favorite of college radio stations nationally, but gave few hints of where the band would find itself two years later. The money for the recording sessions for Bleach, listed as $606.17 on the album sleeve, was supplied by Jason Everman. Everman was introduced to Cobain by Dylan Carlson, but had known Channing since the fifth grade. Everman began hanging out with the band, and offered to lend the money to them for the recording. Azerrad, 1994. p. 91 Though Everman did not actually play on the album, he was credited for playing guitar on Bleach because, according to Novoselic, they "wanted to make him feel more at home in the band." Azerrad, 1994. p. 91–2 After the album was completed, Everman had a brief and contentious stay with the band as a second guitar player, but was fired following their first US tour. In a late 1989 interview, Cobain noted that the band's music was changing. He said, "The early songs were really angry ... But as time goes on the songs are getting poppier and poppier as I get happier and happier. The songs are now about conflicts in relationships, emotional things with other human beings." Robb, John. "White Heat." Sounds. October 21, 1989 In April 1990, the band began working with producer Butch Vig at Smart Studios in Madison, Wisconsin on recordings for the follow-up to Bleach. Azerrad, 1994. p. 137 During the sessions, Kurt and Krist became disenchanted with Channing's drumming, and Channing expressed frustration at not being actively involved in songwriting. Azerrad, 1994. p. 138 Not long after the sessions were complete, Channing was gone from the band. After a few weeks with Dale Crover of the Melvins filling in, Nirvana hired Mudhoney drummer Dan Peters, with whom they recorded the song "Sliver". A few weeks later, Buzz Osborne of the Melvins introduced them to Dave Grohl, who was looking for a new band following the sudden break-up of D.C. hardcore punks Scream. Azerrad, 1994. p. 151 A few days after arriving in Seattle, Novoselic and Cobain auditioned Grohl, with Novoselic later stating, "We knew in two minutes that he was the right drummer." Azerrad, 1994. p. 154 Breakthrough success Disenchanted with Sub Pop and with the Smart Studios sessions generating interest, Nirvana decided to look for a deal with a major record label. Azerrad, 1994. p. 136–37 Following repeated recommendations by Sonic Youth's Kim Gordon, Nirvana signed to DGC Records in 1990. Azerrad, 1994. p. 162 The band subsequently began recording its first major label album, Nevermind. They were offered a number of producers to choose from, but ultimately held out for Butch Vig. Azerrad, 1994. p. 164–65 Rather than recording at Vig's Madison studio as they had in 1990, they shifted to Sound City Studios in Van Nuys, Los Angeles, California. For two months, the band worked through a variety of songs in their catalog. Some of the songs, including "In Bloom" and "Breed", had been in the band's repertoire for years, while others, including "On a Plain" and "Stay Away", lacked finished lyrics until mid-way through the recording process. Azerrad, 1994. p. 176–77 After the recording sessions were completed, Vig and the band set out to mix the album. However, the recording sessions had run behind schedule and the resulting mixes were deemed unsatisfactory. Slayer mixer Andy Wallace was brought in to create the final mix. After the album's release members of Nirvana expressed dissatisfaction with the polished sound the mixer had given Nevermind. Azerrad, 1994. p. 179–80 Initially, DGC Records was hoping to sell 250,000 copies of Nevermind, which was the same level they had achieved with Sonic Youth's Goo. Wice, Nathaniel. "How Nirvana Made It". Spin. April 1992. However, the album's first single "Smells Like Teen Spirit" quickly gained momentum, thanks in part to significant airplay of the song's music video on MTV. As they toured Europe during late 1991, the band found that the shows were dangerously oversold, that television crews were becoming a constant presence onstage, and that "Smells Like Teen Spirit" was almost omnipresent on radio and music television. Azerrad, 1994. p. 203 By Christmas 1991, Nevermind was selling 400,000 copies a week in the US. Lyons, James. Selling Seattle: Representing Contemporary Urban America. Wallflower, 2004. ISBN 1-903354-96-5, p. 120 On January 11, 1992, the album reached number one on the Billboard album charts, replacing Michael Jackson's album Dangerous. "The Billboard 200". Billboard. January 11, 1992. The album also topped the charts in numerous countries worldwide. Azerrad, 1994. p. 239 The month Nevermind reached number one, Billboard proclaimed, "Nirvana is that rare band that has everything: critical acclaim, industry respect, pop radio appeal, and a rock-solid college/alternative base." "Nirvana Achieves Chart Perfection!" Billboard. January 25, 1992. In February 1992, following the band's Pacific Rim tour, Cobain married Hole frontwoman Courtney Love in Hawaii. Love gave birth to a daughter, Frances Bean Cobain, the following August. Citing exhaustion, the band decided not to undertake another U.S. tour in support of Nevermind, instead opting to make only a handful of performances later that year. Azerrad, 1994. p. 256 Just days after Frances Bean's birth, Nirvana performed one of its best-known concerts, headlining at the Reading Festival in England. Amid rumors about Cobain's health and the possibility the band might break up, Cobain entered the stage in a wheelchair as a practical joke, then proceeded to get up and join the rest of the band in tearing through an assortment of old and new material. Azerrad, Michael. "Performance: The Reading Festival." Rolling Stone. October 29, 1992. Dave Grohl related in 2005 on the radio program Loveline Loveline Archive that the band was genuinely concerned beforehand that the show would be a complete disaster, given all that had happened in the months leading up to the show. Instead, the performance ended up being one of the most memorable of their career. Less than two weeks later, Nirvana performed at the MTV Video Music Awards. During the first rehearsal for the show, Cobain announced that they were going to play a new song during the broadcast, and the band rehearsed "Rape Me". MTV's executives were appalled by the song, and, according to show producer Amy Finnerty, the executives believed that the song was about them. They insisted that the band could not play "Rape Me", even threatening to throw Nirvana off the show and stop airing their videos entirely. After a series of intense discussions, MTV and Nirvana agreed that the band would play "Lithium", their latest single. Cross, Charles. Heavier Than Heaven: A Biography of Kurt Cobain. Hyperion, 2001. ISBN 0-7868-8402-9 When the band began their performance, Cobain strummed and sang the first few bars of "Rape Me", one last jab at MTV's executives, before breaking into "Lithium". Near the end of the song, frustrated that his amp had stopped functioning, Novoselic decided to toss his bass into the air for dramatic effect. He misjudged the landing, and the bass ended up bouncing off his forehead, causing him to stumble off the stage in a daze. As Cobain trashed their equipment, Grohl ran to the mic and began yelling "Hi, Axl!" repeatedly, referring to Guns N' Roses singer Axl Rose, with whom the band and Courtney had had a bizarre encounter before the show. Azerrad, 1993. p. 279: Cobain's version of the story was that Courtney had jokingly asked Rose to be the godfather of Frances Bean. Rose responded by telling Cobain to "shut up his bitch". Cobain turned to Courtney and said, "Shut up, bitch!" eliciting laughter from the Nirvana entourage. Nirvana released Incesticide, a collection of rarities and B-sides, in December 1992. Many of Nirvana's radio sessions and unreleased early recordings were starting to circulate via trading circles and illegal bootlegs, so the album served to circumvent the bootleggers. Incesticide Review - AMG retrieved 6th August 2008 The album contained songs from previously released singles and EPs, including "Sliver" and "Dive", as well as material from the band's sessions for the BBC, including "Been a Son", "Aneurysm", and covers of songs by The Vaselines and Devo. In Utero For 1993's In Utero, the band brought in producer Steve Albini, well-known for his work on the Pixies album Surfer Rosa. As Nevermind had brought in a new audience of listeners who had little or no experience with the alternative, obscure, or experimental bands Nirvana saw as their forebears, bringing in Albini appeared to be a deliberate move on Nirvana's part to give the album a raw, less-polished sound. For example, one song on In Utero featuring long periods of shrill feedback noise was titled, ironically, "Radio Friendly Unit Shifter" (in the industry, a "radio-friendly unit shifter" describes an "ideal" album: one capable of heavy radio play and ultimately selling many copies, or "units"). However, Cobain insisted that Albini's sound was simply the one he had always wanted Nirvana to have: a "natural" recording without layers of studio trickery. Azerrad, 1994. p. 317 The sessions with Albini were productive and notably quick, and the album was recorded and mixed in two weeks for a cost of $25,000 at Pachyderm Studios in Cannon Falls, Minnesota. DeRogatis, Jim. Milk It!: Collected Musings on the Alternative Music Explosion of the 90's. Cambridge: Da Capo, 2003. ISBN 0-306-81271-1, p. 4 Several weeks after the completion of the recording sessions, stories ran in the Chicago Tribune and Newsweek that quoted sources claiming DGC considered the album "unreleasable." DeRogatis, 2003. p. 17 As a result, fans began to believe that the band's creative vision might be compromised by their label. Azerrad, 1994. p. 332 While the stories about DGC shelving the album were untrue, the band actually was unhappy with certain aspects of Albini's mixes. Specifically, they thought the bass levels were too low, Fricke, David. "Kurt Cobain: The Rolling Stone Interview." Rolling Stone. January 27, 1994. and Cobain felt that "Heart-Shaped Box" and "All Apologies" did not sound "perfect". Azerrad, 1994. p. 336–37 Longtime R.E.M. producer Scott Litt was called in to help remix those two songs, with Cobain adding additional instrumentation and backing vocals. Azerrad, 1994. p. 338 In Utero debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 album chart in September 1993. "In Numero Uno." Entertainment Weekly. October 8, 1993. Time'''s Christopher John Farley wrote in his review of the album, "Despite the fears of some alternative-music fans, Nirvana hasn't gone mainstream, though this potent new album may once again force the mainstream to go Nirvana." Farley, Christopher John. "To The End Of Grunge." Time. September 20, 1993. Although commercially successful, the album did not achieve the same success as Nevermind. That fall, Nirvana embarked on its first major tour of the United States in two years. For the tour, the band added Pat Smear of the punk rock band Germs as a second guitarist. Azerrad, 1994. p. 352 Final months and Cobain's death In November 1993, Nirvana performed for MTV Unplugged. The band opted to stay away from their most recognizable songs, playing only two of their hits, "All Apologies" and "Come as You Are". Grohl later related, "We knew we didn't want to do an acoustic version of Teen Spirit. ... That would've been horrendously stupid." Di Perna, Alan. "Behind Unplugged". Guitar World. March 1995. The setlist also included a few relatively obscure covers, with members of the Meat Puppets joining the band for covers of three of their songs. While rehearsals for the show had been problematic, MTV Unplugged producer Alex Coletti noted that the actual taping went exceedingly well, with every song performed in one take and with the complete set lasting under an hour, which were both unusual for Unplugged sessions. Following the band's set-ending performance of Lead Belly's "Where Did You Sleep Last Night", Coletti tried to convince the band to perform an encore. "Kurt said, 'I can't top that last song.' And when he said that, I backed off. 'Cause I knew he was right." The band's performance debuted on MTV on December 14, 1993. In early 1994, the band embarked on a European tour. Following a tour stop at Terminal Eins in Munich, Germany, on March 1, Cobain was diagnosed with bronchitis and severe laryngitis. Kurt Cobain bio retrieved 6th August 2008 The next night's show, at the same venue, was canceled. In Rome, on the morning of March 4, Love found Cobain unconscious in their hotel room and he was rushed to the hospital. A doctor from the hospital told a press conference that Cobain had reacted to a combination of prescription Rohypnol and alcohol. The rest of the tour was canceled, including a planned leg in the UK. People Magazine article retrieved 6th August 2008 In the ensuing weeks, Cobain's heroin addiction resurfaced. An intervention was organized, and Cobain was convinced to admit himself into drug rehabilitation. After less than a week in rehabilitation, Cobain climbed over the wall of the facility and took a plane back to Seattle. A week later, on Friday, April 8, 1994, Cobain was found dead of an apparently self-inflicted shotgun wound to the head at his Seattle home, effectively dissolving Nirvana. History Link biog of Cobain retrieved 6th August 2008 Aftermath In the years following Nirvana's disbanding, both surviving members remained musically active. Not long after Cobain's death, Grohl recorded a series of demos that eventually became the debut album for Foo Fighters. Foo Fighters became Grohl's main project, releasing several commercially successful records over the next decade. Beyond Foo Fighters, Grohl also drummed for numerous bands, including Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, Mike Watt, Queens of the Stone Age, Tenacious D, Nine Inch Nails, and Killing Joke. He also recorded an album of metal songs featuring many of his favorite early-80s metal singers under the name Probot. After the end of Nirvana, Novoselic formed Sweet 75. VH1 S75 biog. retrieved 6th August 2008 Later, he founded Eyes Adrift with Curt Kirkwood (formerly of the Meat Puppets) and Bud Gaugh (formerly of Sublime). He also performed in a one-off band called the No WTO Combo with Kim Thayil of Soundgarden and Jello Biafra of the Dead Kennedys that coincided with the WTO Meeting of 1999. In December 2006, Novoselic replaced bass player Bruno DeSmartas in the band Flipper for a UK/Ireland tour and several US shows. Jasmin, Ernest. "Krist Novoselic to play with Flipper". TheNewsTribune.com. September 25, 2006. Novoselic also became a political activist, founding the political action committee JAMPAC to support musicians' rights. Fair Vote JAMPAC web-site retrieved 6th August 2008 In 2004, he released a book titled Of Grunge and Government: Let's Fix This Broken Democracy, which covered his musical past as well as his political endeavors. Posthumous releases Several Nirvana albums have been released since Cobain's death. The first came in November 1994 with the release of the band's performance for MTV Unplugged, MTV Unplugged in New York. Two weeks after the release of Unplugged in New York, a video compilation of Nirvana performances, titled Live! Tonight! Sold Out!!, was released. Cobain himself had compiled a significant part of the video, which documented much of the Nevermind tour. The original intention was to release the MTV Unplugged set in a double-disc package, along with a second disc of live electric material to balance the acoustic set. However, for the two surviving band members, sorting through Nirvana recordings so soon after Cobain's passing became too emotionally overwhelming. Ali, Lorraine. "One Last Blast". Rolling Stone. October 17, 1996. The live disc, a compilation of Nirvana concert recordings, finally saw release in October 1996, titled From the Muddy Banks of the Wishkah. In August 1997, online music news website Wall of Sound reported that Grohl and Novoselic were organizing a box set of Nirvana rarities. Graff, Gary. "Nirvana Box Set Coming Someday". Wall of Sound. August 28, 1997. Four years later, the band's label announced that the box set was complete and would see release in September to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the release of Nevermind. However, shortly before the release date, Love filed an injunction to stop the box set's release and sued Grohl and Novoselic, claiming that Cobain's former band mates were hijacking Nirvana's legacy for their own personal interests. What followed was a protracted legal battle over the ownership of Nirvana's music that lasted for more than a year. Heath, Chris. "The Nirvana Wars: Who Owns Kurt Cobain?". Rolling Stone. June 6, 2002. Much of the legal wrangling centered on a single unreleased song, "You Know You're Right", the band's final studio recording. Grohl and Novoselic wanted to include the song on the box set, essentially releasing all of the rarities at one time. Love, however, argued that the song was more important than just a generic "rarity", and should be included on a single-disc greatest hits compilation. After more than a year of often public and sometimes bizarre legal maneuvering, the parties settled, agreeing on the immediate release of the greatest hits package including "You Know You're Right", titled simply Nirvana. In turn, Love agreed to donate cassette demos recorded by Cobain for use on the box set. The compilation album, Nirvana, was released on October 29, 2002. On top of "You Know You're Right", the album contained hit singles from their three studio albums as well as several alternate mixes and recordings of familiar Nirvana songs. The box set, With the Lights Out, was finally released in November 2004. The release contained a vast array of early Cobain demos, rough rehearsal recordings, and live tracks recorded throughout the band's history. A best-of-the-box compilation titled Sliver: The Best of the Box was released in late 2005. The CD compiled nineteen tracks from the box set plus three previously unreleased tracks, including a version of the song "Spank Thru" from the 1985 Fecal Matter demo tape. In a 2002 interview with Jim DeRogatis, Love described the countless rehearsal tapes, demos, and bedroom recordings that were left behind after Cobain's death. DeRogatis, Jim. "A Piece of Kurt Cobain". Chicago Sun-Times. March 10, 2002. In April 2006, Love announced that she had arranged to sell twenty-five percent of her stake in the Nirvana song catalog in a deal estimated at $50 million. The share of Nirvana's publishing was purchased by Primary Wave Music, which was founded by Larry Mestel, a former CEO of Virgin Records. In an accompanying statement, Love sought to assure Nirvana's fanbase that the music would not simply be licensed to the highest bidder, noting, "We are going to remain very tasteful and true to the spirit of Nirvana while taking the music to places it has never been before." Vineyard, Jennifer. "Courtney Love Sells Substantial Share Of Nirvana Publishing Rights". MTVNews.com. April 13, 2006. Retrieved September 5, 2007 Further releases have since been made. This includes releasing Live! Tonight! Sold Out!! on DVD in 2006. Furthermore, a full uncut DVD version of MTV Unplugged in New York was released in 2007. Band members Kurt Cobain – vocals, guitar (1987–1994) Krist Novoselic – bass guitar (1987–1994) Dave Grohl – drums, backing vocals (1990–1994) Former members Aaron Burckhard – drums (1987–1988) Dale Crover – drums (1988, 1990) Dave Foster – drums (1988) Chad Channing – drums (1988–1990) Jason Everman – guitar (1989) Dan Peters – drums (1990) Touring members Pat Smear – guitar, backing vocals (1993–1994) Lori Goldston – cello (1993–1994) Melora Creager – cello (1994) Discography 1989: Bleach 1991: Nevermind 1993: In UteroAwards and nominations The band received several awards and nominations in their debut year in 1992, including nominations for Favorite New Heavy Metal/Hard Rock Artist from the American Music Awards, Best Alternative Music Performance for Nevermind from the Grammy Awards, and Video of the Year and Viewer's Choice for "Smells Like Teen Spirit" from the MTV Video Music Awards. They received the Best Alternative Video award for "Smells Like Teen Spirit" and Best New Artist from the MTV Video Music Awards in the same year. The song "Smells Like Teen Spirit" was also nominated for Best Rock Song at the 1993 Grammy Awards, but it lost to "Layla" by Eric Clapton. Clapton's win over Nirvana would later be named one of the "10 biggest upsets" in Grammy history by Entertainment Weekly. After receiving five nominations from the Grammy Awards without winning any of them, the band finally received the Best Alternative Music Performance award for MTV Unplugged In New York in 1996. Overall, Nirvana has received nine awards from twenty-one nominations. American Music Awards The American Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony created by Dick Clark in 1973. |- | || Nirvana || Favorite New Heavy Metal/Hard Rock Artist || |- | || Nirvana || Favorite Heavy Metal/Hard Rock Artist || BRIT Awards The BRIT Awards are the British Phonographic Industry's annual pop music awards. |- | 1993 || Nirvana || Best International Newcomer || Grammy Awards The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States. |- | || Nevermind || Best Alternative Music Performance || |- | || "Smells Like Teen Spirit" || Best Rock Song || |- | || In Utero || Best Alternative Music Performance || |- |rowspan="2"| ||rowspan="2"| "All Apologies" || Best Rock Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group || |- | Best Rock Song || |- | || MTV Unplugged In New York || Best Alternative Music Performance || MTV Video Music Awards The MTV Video Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony established in 1984 by MTV. |- |rowspan="4"| ||rowspan="3"| "Smells Like Teen Spirit" || Best Alternative Video || |- | Video of the Year || |- | Viewer's Choice || |- | Nirvana || Best New Artist || |- | || "In Bloom" || Best Alternative Video || |- |rowspan="5"| ||rowspan="5"| "Heart-Shaped Box" || Best Alternative Video || |- | Best Art Direction || |- | Video of the Year || |- | Best Cinematography || |- | Viewer's Choice || NME Awards Founded by the British music magazine NME, the NME Awards are awarded annually. |- | 2005 || With the Lights Out || Best Music DVD || |- | 2008 || MTV Unplugged in New York'' || Best Music DVD || See also List of alternative rock artists List of best-selling music artists List of musicians from Seattle Notes External links NirvanaClub.com – Nirvana Fan Club with extensive media section, interviews, info and more Nirvana – Official label website Live Nirvana – Exhaustive guides to Nirvana studio sessions output and Nirvana live concerts Nirvana Live Guide – Comprehensive guide to Nirvana's live performances and recordings be-x-old:Nirvana
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First_Council_of_Constantinople
Early manuscript illustration of I ConstantinopleHomilies of Gregory Nazianzus, Biblothèque nationale de France (879-882) The First Council of Constantinople is believed to be the Second Ecumenical Council by the Assyrian Church of the East, the Oriental Orthodox, the Eastern Orthodox, the Roman Catholics, the Old Catholics, and a number of other Western Christian groups. This being the first Ecumenical Council held in Constantinople, it was called by Theodosius I in 381 Socrates Scholasticus, Church History, book 5, chapters 8 & 11, puts the council in the same year as the revolt of Magnus Maximus and death of Gratian. Heather and Matthews, Goths in the Fourth Century, p. 136. which confirmed the Nicene Creed and dealt with other matters such as Arian controversy. The council took place in the church of Hagia Irene from May to July 381. Background Gregory of Nazianzus presided over part of the Council The Council of Nicaea did not end the Arian controversy which it had been called to clarify. By 327, Emperor Constantine I had begun to regret the decisions that had been made at the Nicene Council. He granted amnesty to the Arian leaders and exiled Athanasius because of Eusebius of Nicomedia. Even during numerous exiles, Athanasius continued to be a vigorous defender of Nicene Christianity against Arianism. Athanasius then famously said "Athanasius against the world". The Cappadocian Fathers also took up the torch, their Trinitarian discourse was influential in the council at Constantinople. Up until about 360, theological debates mainly dealt with the Divinity of Jesus, the 2nd person of the Trinity. However, because the Council of Nicaea had not clarified the divinity of the Holy Spirit, the 3rd person of the Trinity, it became a topic of debate. The Macedonians denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit. This was also known as Pneumatomachianism. The proceedings Timothy of Alexandria, Meletius of Antioch, Gregory Nazianzus, and Archbishop Nectarius of Constantinople successively presided. Gregory Nazianzus was appointed Archbishop of Constantinople, but soon resigned from the position a few months later, and Nectarius was then put in his place. The council affirmed the original Nicene creed of faith as true and an accurate explanation of Scripture. This council also developed a statement of faith which included the language of Nicaea, but expanded the discussion on the Holy Spirit to combat the heresy of the Pneumatomachi. It is called the Nicene Creed of 381 and was a commentary on the original Nicene formula. It expanded the third article of the creed dealing with the Holy Spirit, as well as some other changes. About the Holy Spirit the article of faith said he is "the Lord, the Giver of Life, Who proceeds from the Father, With the Father and the Son he is worshipped and glorified". The statement of proceeding from the Father is seen as significant because it established that the Holy Spirit must be of the same being (ousia) as God the Father. This Council's decision regarding the Holy Spirit also gave official endorsement to the concept of the Trinity. By the end of the 4th century, the Byzantine Emperor Theodosius "issued a decree that the doctrine of the Trinity was to be the official state religion and that all subjects shall adhere to it" (See "Constantine, the first Christian emperor," Antiquity Online) Seven canons, four of these doctrinal canons and three disciplinary canons, are attributed to the Council and accepted by both the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches; the Roman Catholic Church accepts only the first four NPNF2-14. The Seven Ecumenical Councils | Christian Classics Ethereal Library . The first canon NPNF2-14. The Seven Ecumenical Councils | Christian Classics Ethereal Library is an important dogmatic condemnation of all shades of Arianism, also of Macedonianism and Apollinarianism. The second canon NPNF2-14. The Seven Ecumenical Councils | Christian Classics Ethereal Library renews the Nicene legislation imposing upon the bishops the observance of diocesan and patriarchal limits. The famous third canon reads: The Bishop of Constantinople, however, shall have the prerogative of honour after the Bishop of Rome because Constantinople is New Rome. NPNF2-14. Canon III, First Council of Constantinople, The Seven Ecumenical Councils | Christian Classics Ethereal Library This canon was a first step in the rising importance of the new imperial capital, just fifty years old, and was notable in that it demoted the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria. Jerusalem, as the site of the first Church, retained its place of honor. By 451, in the Council of Chalcedon (Canon IX), Constantinople would be recognized as the ecumenical jurisdiction of highest ecclesiastical appeal. The Seven Ecumenical Councils | Christian Classics Ethereal Library Baronius maintained the non-authenticity of the third canon, while some medieval Greeks maintained that it did not declare supremacy of the Bishop of Rome, but the primacy; "the first among equals," similar to how they today view the Bishop of Constantinople. Throughout the next several centuries, the Western Church asserted that the Bishop of Rome had supreme authority, and by the time of the Great Schism the Roman Catholic Church based its claim to supremacy on the succession of St. Peter. When the First Council of Constantinople was approved, Rome protested the diminished honor to be afforded the bishops of Antioch and Alexandria. The status of these Eastern patriarchs would be brought up again by the Papal Legates at the Council of Chalcedon. Pope Leo the Great Ep. cvi in P.L., LIV, 1003, 1005. , declared that this canon had never been submitted to Rome and that their lessened honor was a violation of the Nicene order. At the repudiated Fourth Council of Constantinople (869), the Roman legates J. D. Mansi, XVI, 174. asserted the place of the bishop of Rome's honor over the bishop of Constantinople's; nine years later, this latrocinium council was replaced. After the Great Schism (1054), in 1215 at the Fourth Lateran Council op. cit., XXII, 991. , Roman supremacy over the whole world was formally claimed by the new Latin patriarch. The Roman correctores of Gratian (1582), at dist. xxii, c. 3. , insert the words: "canon hic ex iis est quos apostolica Romana sedes a principio et longo post tempore non recipit." The fourth canon NPNF2-14. The Seven Ecumenical Councils | Christian Classics Ethereal Library declares invalid the consecration of Maximus of Constantinople, the Cynic philosopher and rival of Gregory of Nazianzus, as Bishop of Constantinople. The fifth canon NPNF2-14. The Seven Ecumenical Councils | Christian Classics Ethereal Library might have been passed the next year, 382, and is in regard to a Tome of the Western bishops, perhaps that of Pope Damasus I. The sixth canon NPNF2-14. The Seven Ecumenical Councils | Christian Classics Ethereal Library might belong to the year 382 as well and was passed at the Quinisext Council as #95 and limits the ability to accuse bishops of wrongdoing. The seventh canon NPNF2-14. The Seven Ecumenical Councils | Christian Classics Ethereal Library regards procedures for receiving certain heretics into the church. Pope Damasus I was not invited (or declined to attend), thus sometimes this council is called the unecumenical council. However, it was affirmed as ecumenical at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Aftermath This council condemned Arianism and it began to die out with more condemnations at a council by Ambrose of Milan in 381. With the discussion of Trinitarian doctrine now developed and well under agreement to orthodox and Biblical understanding, it led to Christology. Christology would be the topic of the Council of Ephesus of 431 and the Council of Chalcedon of 451. The 150 individuals at the council are commemorated in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on February 17. Notes External links Catholic Encyclopedia: First Council of Constantinople Council of Constantinople Council of Constantinople The Creed from the Council in Greek and English side by side. (Precedence of the bishop of Rome is not mentioned.)
First_Council_of_Constantinople |@lemmatized early:1 manuscript:1 illustration:1 constantinoplehomilies:1 gregory:5 nazianzus:5 biblothèque:1 nationale:1 de:1 france:1 first:11 council:43 constantinople:18 believe:1 second:2 ecumenical:13 assyrian:1 church:11 east:1 oriental:2 orthodox:5 eastern:3 roman:6 catholic:5 old:2 number:1 western:3 christian:11 group:1 hold:1 call:4 theodosius:2 socrates:1 scholasticus:1 history:1 book:1 chapter:1 put:2 year:5 revolt:1 magnus:1 maximus:2 death:1 gratian:2 heather:1 matthew:1 goth:1 fourth:4 century:3 p:2 confirm:1 nicene:8 creed:5 dealt:1 matter:1 arian:3 controversy:2 take:2 place:4 hagia:1 irene:1 may:1 july:1 background:1 preside:2 part:1 nicaea:3 end:2 clarify:2 emperor:3 constantine:2 begin:2 regret:1 decision:2 make:1 grant:1 amnesty:1 leader:1 exile:2 athanasius:4 eusebius:1 nicomedia:1 even:1 numerous:1 continue:1 vigorous:1 defender:1 christianity:1 arianism:3 famously:1 say:2 world:2 cappadocian:1 father:5 also:5 torch:1 trinitarian:2 discourse:1 influential:1 theological:1 debate:2 mainly:1 deal:2 divinity:3 jesus:1 person:2 trinity:4 however:3 holy:7 spirit:7 become:1 topic:2 macedonian:1 deny:1 know:1 pneumatomachianism:1 proceeding:1 timothy:1 alexandria:3 meletius:1 antioch:3 archbishop:2 nectarius:2 successively:1 appoint:1 soon:1 resign:1 position:1 month:1 later:2 affirm:2 original:2 faith:3 true:1 accurate:1 explanation:1 scripture:1 develop:2 statement:2 include:1 language:1 expand:2 discussion:2 combat:1 heresy:1 pneumatomachi:1 commentary:1 formula:1 third:3 article:2 well:3 change:1 lord:1 giver:1 life:1 proceed:2 son:1 worship:1 glorify:1 see:2 significant:1 establish:1 must:1 ousia:1 god:1 regard:3 give:1 official:2 endorsement:1 concept:1 byzantine:1 issue:1 decree:1 doctrine:2 state:1 religion:1 subject:1 shall:2 adhere:1 antiquity:1 online:1 seven:10 canon:16 four:2 doctrinal:1 three:1 disciplinary:1 attribute:1 accept:2 classic:9 ethereal:9 library:9 important:1 dogmatic:1 condemnation:2 shade:1 macedonianism:1 apollinarianism:1 renew:1 legislation:1 impose:1 upon:1 bishop:13 observance:1 diocesan:1 patriarchal:1 limit:2 famous:1 read:1 prerogative:1 honour:1 rome:8 new:3 iii:1 step:1 rise:1 importance:1 imperial:1 capital:1 fifty:1 notable:1 demote:1 patriarch:3 jerusalem:1 site:1 retain:1 honor:4 chalcedon:4 ix:1 would:3 recognize:1 jurisdiction:1 high:1 ecclesiastical:1 appeal:1 baronius:1 maintain:2 non:2 authenticity:1 medieval:1 greek:2 declare:2 supremacy:3 primacy:1 among:1 equal:1 similar:1 today:1 view:1 throughout:1 next:2 several:1 assert:2 supreme:1 authority:1 time:1 great:3 schism:2 base:1 claim:2 succession:1 st:1 peter:1 approve:1 protest:1 diminished:1 afford:1 status:1 bring:1 papal:1 legate:1 pope:3 leo:1 ep:1 cvi:1 l:1 liv:1 never:1 submit:1 lessened:1 violation:1 order:1 repudiated:1 legates:1 j:1 mansi:1 xvi:1 nine:1 latrocinium:1 replace:1 lateran:1 op:1 cit:1 xxii:2 whole:1 formally:1 latin:1 correctores:1 dist:1 c:1 insert:1 word:1 hic:1 ex:1 ii:1 est:1 quos:1 apostolica:1 romana:1 sedes:1 principio:1 et:1 longo:1 post:1 tempore:1 recipit:1 declares:1 invalid:1 consecration:1 cynic:1 philosopher:1 rival:1 fifth:1 might:2 pass:2 tome:1 perhaps:1 damasus:2 sixth:1 belong:1 quinisext:1 ability:1 accuse:1 wrongdoing:1 seventh:1 procedure:1 receive:1 certain:1 heretic:1 invite:1 decline:1 attend:1 thus:1 sometimes:1 unecumenical:1 aftermath:1 condemn:1 die:1 ambrose:1 milan:1 agreement:1 biblical:1 understanding:1 lead:1 christology:2 ephesus:1 individual:1 commemorate:1 calendar:1 saint:1 armenian:1 apostolic:1 february:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 encyclopedia:1 english:1 side:2 precedence:1 mention:1 |@bigram gregory_nazianzus:5 ecumenical_council:12 oriental_orthodox:2 eastern_orthodox:2 socrates_scholasticus:1 nicene_creed:3 arian_controversy:2 council_nicaea:2 eusebius_nicomedia:1 cappadocian_father:1 holy_spirit:7 lord_giver:1 emperor_theodosius:1 classic_ethereal:9 ethereal_library:9 patriarch_antioch:1 council_chalcedon:4 papal_legate:1 pope_leo:1 fourth_lateran:1 lateran_council:1 op_cit:1 pope_damasus:2 ambrose_milan:1 armenian_apostolic:1 external_link:1
4,730
LAME
LAME is a free software application used to encode audio into the MP3 file format. The name LAME is a recursive acronym for LAME Ain't an MP3 Encoder, reflecting LAME's early history when it was not actually an encoder, but merely a set of patches against the freely available ISO demonstration source code. Name At one time, LAME was simply a set of patches against the separately distributed ISO demonstration source, hence the claim that it "ain't an encoder". The ISO code had a restrictive license but was available without charge. In May 2000, the LAME project reimplemented the last of the ISO source code, and thus LAME was then a totally new implementation—compiling recent versions of LAME no longer requires the ISO source code. As recent LAME releases are no longer a patch against ISO encoder code, the LAME acronym has become a misnomer—LAME is now an MP3 encoder. History and development LAME development started around mid-1998. Mike Cheng started it as a set of modifications against the "8Hz-MP3" encoder sources, creating LAME 1.0. After some quality concerns raised by others, he decided to start again from scratch based on the "dist10" MPEG reference software sources. His goal was only to speed up the dist10 sources, and leave its quality untouched. That branch (a patch against the reference sources) became Lame 2.0. The project quickly became a team project. Mike Cheng eventually left leadership and started working on tooLAME (an MP2 encoder). Mark Taylor then started pursuing increased quality in addition to better speed, and released version 3.0 featuring gpsycho, a new psychoacoustic model he developed. This marked the beginning of the development toward quality. A few key improvements, in chronological order: May 1999: a new psychoacoustic model (gpsycho) is released along with LAME 3.0 June 1999: The first variable bitrate implementation is released. Soon after this, LAME also became able to target lower sampling frequencies from MPEG-2 November 1999: LAME switches from a GPL license to an LGPL license, allowing it to be used within closed-source applications. May 2000: the last pieces of the original ISO demonstration code are removed. LAME is not a patch anymore, but a full encoder. December 2003: substantial improvement to default settings, along with improved speed. LAME no longer requires user to use complicated parameters to produce good results May 2007: default variable bitrate encoding speed is vastly improved Patents and legal issues Like all MP3 encoders, LAME implements some technology covered by patents owned by the Fraunhofer Society and other entities. mp3licensing.com - Home The developers of LAME do not license themselves the technology described by these patents. Distributing compiled binaries of LAME, its libraries, or programs which are derivative works of LAME in countries which recognize those patents, may be considered infringing on the relevant patents. The LAME developers state that since their code is only released in source code form, it should only be considered as a description of an MP3 encoder, and thus does not infringe any patent by itself when released as source code only. At the same time, they advise obtaining a patent license for any relevant technologies that LAME may implement before including a compiled version of the encoder into a product. http://lame.sourceforge.net/tech-FAQ.txt Some software is released using this strategy; companies use the LAME library, but obtain patent licenses. In November 2005, there were reports that the Extended Copy Protection software included on some Sony Compact Discs utilized portions of the LAME library without complying with the terms of the LGPL. - Sony BMG Software May Contain Open-Source Code - Is Sony in violation of the LGPL? - Sony's XCP DRM LAME-compatible software Microsoft Windows ALL2LAME - A minimalist frontend for LAME that allows piping from commandline decoders of other formats, such as FLAC and Monkey's Audio. Audiograbber BonkEnc is a CD ripper, audio encoder and converter for various formats. Burrrn - a simple Cdrdao-based gapless audio CD burning utility that uses LAME in decoding mode to maximize audio quality. CDex, Windows CD audio extractor dBpoweramp Music Converter Easy CD-DA Extractor Exact Audio Copy (EAC), Windows audio grabber for CD-ROM drives foobar2000, an audio player that supports transcoding to LAME Goldwave J. River Media Center - A media player/manager which supports transcoding to LAME Jack! The Knife Lamedrop - easy to use front-end in Windows, similar to oggdrop LameXP is a graphical front-end for various audio encoders, including LAME. Quintessential Player RazorLame - a Microsoft Windows front-end user interface for the commandline LAME Encoder executable. SunEnc mitsu - an open source front-end for Microsoft Windows with access to almost every parameter of LAME and ID3 editing. SynthFont - a freeware MIDI file player SoundFont synthesizer which can use LAME to export an audio file in mp3 format. Winamp winLAME - a Windows front-end for LAME. Zortam Mp3 Media Studio - a front end that integrates LAME with Zortam Mp3 Media Studio on Windows. Mac OS X iTunes-LAME - a front end that integrates LAME with iTunes on Mac OS X. LameBrain - Free LAME-based mp3 encoder with drag-and-drop batch file processing, CD ripping with FreeDB support, and saving of encoding "profiles" (note: uses the obsolete LAME 3.95). Max is an application for creating high-quality audio files in LAME or various other formats, from compact discs or files. BarbaBatch is an audio file format converter using LAME for mp3 encoding. iLAS - simple application that allows you to import a CD or encode a playlist in iTunes using Lame. XLD - a versatile application capable of converting between many lossy and lossless formats including MP3, FLAC, Apple Lossless, MPEG-4 AAC, Ogg Vorbis, and others. Peak - an audio recording and editing application. Projects can be encoded to MP3 after adding LameLib as a plug-in. SoundStudio - an audio recording and editing application, which can also encode using LAME after installing the LAME quicktime plugin. Unix-like operating systems Grip, a front-end for use with GNOME SoundJuicer, part of the GNOME desktop KAudioCreator, part of the KDE desktop K3b, KDE's CD-R and DVD authoring software can rip audio CDs as well Cross platform jRipper - a Java-based frontend for LAME which includes Windows and GNU/Linux binaries. Audacity, an audio recording, editing and transforming program, available for Windows, Linux, BSD, and Macintosh. Stickloader is another Java-based Lame frontend allowing files to be encoded easily via drag-and-drop. LAMEOnJ - open source Java API wrapping the LAME API exported by native binaries (Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, Solaris supported). Rubyripper, a secure audiodisc ripper for Linux and Mac OS X See also List of codecs Lossy data compression Audio data compression TooLame References External links LAME website LAME directory, including links to software/binary downloads for various operating systems LAME at HydrogenAudio Wiki LAME Mp3 Info Tag revision 1 Specifications
LAME |@lemmatized lame:55 free:2 software:8 application:7 use:13 encode:7 audio:18 file:8 format:7 name:2 recursive:1 acronym:2 encoder:13 reflect:1 early:1 history:2 actually:1 merely:1 set:3 patch:5 freely:1 available:3 iso:7 demonstration:3 source:14 code:10 one:1 time:2 simply:1 separately:1 distribute:2 hence:1 claim:1 restrictive:1 license:6 without:2 charge:1 may:7 project:4 reimplemented:1 last:2 thus:2 totally:1 new:3 implementation:2 compile:1 recent:2 version:3 longer:3 require:2 release:7 become:4 misnomer:1 development:3 start:5 around:1 mid:1 mike:2 cheng:2 modification:1 create:2 quality:6 concern:1 raise:1 others:2 decide:1 scratch:1 base:5 mpeg:3 reference:3 goal:1 speed:4 leave:2 untouched:1 branch:1 quickly:1 team:1 eventually:1 leadership:1 work:2 toolame:2 mark:2 taylor:1 pursue:1 increase:1 addition:1 good:2 feature:1 gpsycho:2 psychoacoustic:2 model:2 develop:1 beginning:1 toward:1 key:1 improvement:2 chronological:1 order:1 along:2 june:1 first:1 variable:2 bitrate:2 soon:1 also:3 able:1 target:1 low:1 sample:1 frequency:1 november:2 switch:1 gpl:1 lgpl:3 allow:4 within:1 closed:1 piece:1 original:1 remove:1 anymore:1 full:1 december:1 substantial:1 default:2 setting:1 improved:1 user:2 complicated:1 parameter:2 produce:1 result:1 vastly:1 improve:1 patent:8 legal:1 issue:1 like:2 encoders:2 implement:2 technology:3 cover:1 fraunhofer:1 society:1 entity:1 com:1 home:1 developer:2 describe:1 compiled:2 binary:4 library:3 program:2 derivative:1 country:1 recognize:1 consider:2 infringe:2 relevant:2 state:1 since:1 form:1 description:1 advise:1 obtain:2 include:6 product:1 http:1 sourceforge:1 net:1 tech:1 faq:1 txt:1 strategy:1 company:1 report:1 extended:1 copy:2 protection:1 sony:4 compact:2 disc:2 utilized:1 portion:1 comply:1 term:1 bmg:1 contain:1 open:3 violation:1 xcp:1 drm:1 compatible:1 microsoft:3 window:9 minimalist:1 frontend:3 pip:1 commandline:2 decoder:1 flac:2 monkey:1 audiograbber:1 bonkenc:1 cd:9 ripper:2 converter:3 various:4 burrrn:1 simple:2 cdrdao:1 gapless:1 burn:1 utility:1 decode:1 mode:1 maximize:1 cdex:1 windows:2 extractor:2 dbpoweramp:1 music:1 easy:2 da:1 exact:1 eac:1 grabber:1 rom:1 drive:1 player:4 support:4 transcoding:2 goldwave:1 j:1 river:1 medium:4 center:1 manager:1 jack:1 knife:1 lamedrop:1 front:8 end:8 similar:1 oggdrop:1 lamexp:1 graphical:1 quintessential:1 razorlame:1 interface:1 executable:1 sunenc:1 mitsu:1 access:1 almost:1 every:1 editing:1 synthfont:1 freeware:1 midi:1 soundfont:1 synthesizer:1 export:2 winamp:1 winlame:1 zortam:2 studio:2 integrate:2 mac:4 os:2 x:4 itunes:3 lamebrain:1 drag:2 drop:2 batch:1 processing:1 rip:2 freedb:1 save:1 profile:1 note:1 obsolete:1 max:1 high:1 barbabatch:1 encoding:1 ilas:1 import:1 playlist:1 xld:1 versatile:1 capable:1 convert:1 many:1 lossy:2 lossless:2 apple:1 aac:1 ogg:1 vorbis:1 peak:1 recording:3 edit:3 add:1 lamelib:1 plug:1 soundstudio:1 instal:1 quicktime:1 plugin:1 unix:1 operate:2 system:2 grip:1 gnome:2 soundjuicer:1 part:2 desktop:2 kaudiocreator:1 kde:2 r:1 dvd:1 author:1 well:1 cross:1 platform:1 jripper:1 java:3 gnu:1 linux:4 audacity:1 transform:1 bsd:1 macintosh:1 stickloader:1 another:1 easily:1 via:1 lameonj:1 api:2 wrap:1 native:1 solaris:1 rubyripper:1 secure:1 audiodisc:1 see:1 list:1 codecs:1 data:2 compression:2 external:1 link:2 website:1 directory:1 downloads:1 hydrogenaudio:1 wiki:1 info:1 tag:1 revision:1 specification:1 |@bigram psychoacoustic_model:2 gpl_license:1 license_lgpl:1 vastly_improve:1 sourceforge_net:1 compact_disc:2 sony_bmg:1 microsoft_window:3 cd_rom:1 user_interface:1 mac_os:2 lossy_lossless:1 mpeg_aac:1 ogg_vorbis:1 gnome_desktop:1 gnu_linux:1 linux_bsd:1 linux_solaris:1 external_link:1
4,731
Mafic
Mafic is an adjective describing a silicate mineral or rock that is rich in magnesium and iron; the term was derived by contracting "magnesium" and "ferric". Most mafic minerals are dark in color and the specific gravity is greater than 3. Common rock-forming mafic minerals include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite. Common mafic rocks include basalt and gabbro. In terms of chemistry, mafic rocks are on the other side of the rock spectrum from the felsic rocks. The term roughly corresponds to the older basic rock class. Mafic lava, before cooling, has a low viscosity, in comparison to felsic lava, due to the lower silica content in mafic magma. Water and other volatiles can more easily and gradually escape from mafic lava, so eruptions of volcanoes made of mafic lavas are less explosively violent than felsic lava eruptions. Most mafic lava volcanoes are oceanic volcanoes, like Hawaii. Rock TextureName of Mafic Rock PegmatiticGabbro pegmatite Coarse grained (phaneritic)Gabbro Coarse grained and porphyriticPorphyritic gabbro Fine grained (aphanitic)Basalt Fine grained and porphyriticPorphyritic basalt PyroclasticBasalt tuff or breccia VesicularVesicular basalt AmygdaloidalAmygdaloidal basalt Many small vesiclesScoria GlassyTachylyte, sideromelane, palagonite See also QAPF diagram List of minerals List of rock types
Mafic |@lemmatized mafic:11 adjective:1 describe:1 silicate:1 mineral:4 rock:10 rich:1 magnesium:2 iron:1 term:3 derive:1 contract:1 ferric:1 dark:1 color:1 specific:1 gravity:1 great:1 common:2 forming:1 include:2 olivine:1 pyroxene:1 amphibole:1 biotite:1 basalt:5 gabbro:3 chemistry:1 side:1 spectrum:1 felsic:3 roughly:1 correspond:1 old:1 basic:1 class:1 lava:6 cooling:1 low:2 viscosity:1 comparison:1 due:1 silica:1 content:1 magma:1 water:1 volatile:1 easily:1 gradually:1 escape:1 eruption:2 volcano:3 make:1 less:1 explosively:1 violent:1 oceanic:1 like:1 hawaii:1 texturename:1 pegmatiticgabbro:1 pegmatite:1 coarse:2 grain:4 phaneritic:1 porphyriticporphyritic:2 fine:2 aphanitic:1 pyroclasticbasalt:1 tuff:1 breccia:1 vesicularvesicular:1 amygdaloidalamygdaloidal:1 many:1 small:1 vesiclesscoria:1 glassytachylyte:1 sideromelane:1 palagonite:1 see:1 also:1 qapf:1 diagram:1 list:2 type:1 |@bigram silicate_mineral:1 mafic_mineral:2 mafic_rock:3 felsic_rock:1 eruption_volcano:1 coarse_grain:2
4,732
Aldous_Huxley
Aldous Leonard Huxley (26 July 1894 – 22 November 1963) was an English writer and one of the most prominent members of the famous Huxley family. He spent the later part of his life in the United States, living in Los Angeles from 1937 until his death in 1963. Best known for his novels and wide-ranging output of essays, he also published short stories, poetry, travel writing, and film stories and scripts. Huxley was a humanist and pacifist, but was also latterly interested in spiritual subjects such as parapsychology and philosophical mysticism. He was also well known for advocating and taking psychedelics. By the end of his life Huxley was considered, in some academic circles, a leader of modern thought and an intellectual of the highest rank. Biography Early years Aldous Huxley was born in Godalming, Surrey, England in 1894. He was the third son of the writer and school-master Leonard Huxley and first wife, Julia Arnold who founded Prior's Field School. Julia was the niece of Matthew Arnold and the sister of Mrs. Humphrey Ward. Aldous was the grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley, the zoologist, agnostic and controversialist ("Darwin's Bulldog"). His brother Julian Huxley and half-brother Andrew Huxley also became outstanding biologists. Huxley had another brother Noel Trevenen (1891-1914) who committed suicide after a period of clinical depression. Huxley began his learning in his father's well-equipped botanical laboratory, then continued in a school named Hillside. His teacher was his mother who supervised him for several years until she became terminally ill. After Hillside, he was educated at Eton College. Huxley's mother died in 1908, when he was fourteen. In 1911, he suffered an illness (keratitis punctata) which "left [him] practically blind for two to three years". Aldous's near-blindness disqualified him from service in World War I. Once his eyesight recovered sufficiently, he was able to study English literature at Balliol College, Oxford. He graduated in 1916 with first class honours. "I believe his blindness was a blessing in disguise. For one thing, it put paid to his idea of taking up medicine as a career...His uniqueness lay in his universalism. He was able to take all knowledge for his province." Julian Huxley 1965. Aldous Huxley 1894–1963: a memorial volume. Chatto & Windus, London. p22 Following his education at Balliol, Huxley was financially indebted to his father and had to earn a living. He taught French for a year at Eton, where Eric Blair (later known by the pen name George Orwell) and Stephen Runciman were among his pupils, but was remembered by another as an incompetent and hopeless teacher who couldn’t keep discipline. Nevertheless, Blair and others were impressed by his use of words. For a short while in 1918, he was employed acquiring provisions at the Air Ministry. Significantly, Huxley also worked for a time in the 1920s at the technologically-advanced Brunner and Mond chemical plant in Billingham, Teesside, and the most recent introduction to his famous science fiction novel Brave New World (1932) states that this experience of "an ordered universe in a world of planless incoherence" was one source for the novel. Huxley completed his first (unpublished) novel at the age of seventeen and began writing seriously in his early twenties. His earlier work includes important novels on the dehumanizing aspects of scientific progress, most famously Brave New World, and on pacifist themes (for example, Eyeless in Gaza). In Brave New World Huxley portrays a society operating on the principles of mass production and Pavlovian conditioning. Huxley was strongly influenced by F. Matthias Alexander and included him as a character in Eyeless in Gaza. Middle years During World War I, Huxley spent much of his time at Garsington Manor, home of Lady Ottoline Morrell, working as a farm labourer. Here he met several Bloomsbury figures including D. H. Lawrence, Bertrand Russell and Clive Bell. Later, in Crome Yellow (1921) he caricatured the Garsington lifestyle. In 1919 he married Maria Nys (10 September 1898 - 12 February 1955), a Belgian woman he met at Garsington. They had one child, Matthew Huxley (19 April 1920 - 10 February 2005), who had a career as an epidemiologist. The family lived in Italy part of the time in the 1920s, where Huxley would visit his friend D. H. Lawrence. Following Lawrence's death in 1930, he edited his letters (1933). In 1937, Huxley moved to Hollywood, California with his wife Maria, son Matthew, and friend Gerald Heard. He lived in the U.S., mainly in southern California, until his death, but also for a time in Taos, New Mexico, where he wrote Ends and Means (published in 1937). In this work he examines the fact that although most people in modern civilization agree that they want a world of "liberty, peace, justice, and brotherly love", they have not been able to agree on how to achieve it. Heard introduced Huxley to Vedanta, meditation, and vegetarianism through the principle of ahimsa. In 1938 Huxley befriended J. Krishnamurti, whose teachings he greatly admired. He also became a Vedantist in the circle of Swami Prabhavananda, and introduced Christopher Isherwood to this circle. Not long after, Huxley wrote his book on widely held spiritual values and ideas, The Perennial Philosophy, which discussed the teachings of renowned mystics of the world. Huxley became a close friend of Remsen Bird, president of Occidental College. He spent much time at the college, which is in the Eagle Rock neighborhood of Los Angeles. The college appears as "Tarzana College" in his satirical novel After Many a Summer Dies the Swan (1939). The novel won Huxley that year's James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction. Huxley also incorporated Bird into the novel. During this period Huxley earned some Hollywood income as a writer. In March 1938, his friend Anita Loos, a novelist and screenwriter, put him in touch with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer who hired Huxley for Madame Curie which was originally to star Greta Garbo and be directed by George Cukor. (The film was eventually filmed by MGM in 1943 with a different director and stars.) Huxley received screen credit for Pride and Prejudice (1940) and was paid for his work on a number of other films, including Jane Eyre (1944). However, his experience in Hollywood was not a success. When he wrote a synopsis of Alice in Wonderland, Walt Disney rejected it on the grounds that "he could only understand every third word". Huxley's leisurely development of ideas, it seemed, was not suitable for the movie moguls, who demanded fast, dynamic dialogue above all else. With respect to details about the true quality of Huxley’s eyesight at specific points in his life, there are differing accounts. Around 1939, Huxley encountered the Bates Method for better eyesight, and a teacher, Margaret Corbett, who was able to teach him in the method. In 1940, Huxley relocated from Hollywood to a ranchito in the high desert hamlet of Llano, California, in northernmost Los Angeles County. Huxley then said that his sight improved dramatically with the Bates Method and the extreme and pure natural lighting of the southwestern American desert. He reported that for the first time in over 25 years, he was able to read without glasses and without strain. He even tried driving a car along the dirt road beside the ranch. He wrote a book about his successes with the Bates Method, The Art of Seeing which was published in 1942 (US), 1943 (UK). It was from this period, with the publication of the generally disputed theories contained in the latter book, that a growing degree of popular controversy arose over the subject of Huxley’s eyesight. It was, and to a noticeable extent, still is widely held that, for most of his life, since the illness in his teens which left Huxley nearly blind, that his eyesight was exceedingly poor (despite the partial recovery which had enabled him to study at Oxford). For instance, some ten years after publication of The Art of Seeing, in 1952, Bennett Cerf was present when Huxley spoke at a Hollywood banquet, wearing no glasses and apparently reading his paper from the lectern without difficulty: "Then suddenly he faltered—and the disturbing truth became obvious. He wasn't reading his address at all. He had learned it by heart. To refresh his memory he brought the paper closer and closer to his eyes. When it was only an inch or so away he still couldn't read it, and had to fish for a magnifying glass in his pocket to make the typing visible to him. It was an agonizing moment." From Bennet Cerf’s column in The Saturday Review, 12 April 1952, quoted in On the other hand, Huxley’s second wife, Laura Archera Huxley, would later emphasize in her biographical account, This Timeless Moment, “One of the great achievements of his life: that of having regained his sight.” Here, she portrays the accomplishment as both metaphorical and considerably physiological in nature, attributing that which she cites J. Krishnamurti as naming the spirit of “freedom from the known,” which she suggests that Huxley applied, nonexhaustively, in writing The Art of Seeing and utilizing the Bates Method. After revealing a letter she wrote to the Los Angeles Times disclaiming the label of Huxley as a “poor fellow who can hardly see” by Walter C. Alvarez, she tempers her more abstract claims with the admission: “...Although I feel it was an injustice to treat Aldous as though he were blind, it is true there were many indications of his impaired vision. For instance, although Aldous did not wear glasses, he would quite often use a magnifying lens...” She proceeds to elaborate a few nuances of inconsistency peculiar to Huxley’s vision. Her account, in this respect, is discernibly congruent with the following sample of Huxley’s own words from The Art of Seeing: "The most characteristic fact about the functioning of the total organism, or any part of the organism, is that it is not constant, but highly variable." Nevertheless, the topic of Huxley’s eyesight continues to endure similar, significant controversy, regardless of how trivial a subject matter it might initially appear. On 21 October 1949, Huxley wrote to George Orwell, author of Nineteen Eighty-Four, congratulating Orwell on "how fine and how profoundly important the book is." In his letter to Orwell, he predicted that "Within the next generation I believe that the world's leaders will discover that infant conditioning and narco-hypnosis are more efficient, as instruments of government, than clubs and prisons, and that the lust for power can be just as completely satisfied by suggesting people into loving their servitude as by flogging them and kicking them into obedience." Post-war After World War II Huxley applied for United States citizenship, but his application was continuously deferred on the grounds that he would not say he would take up arms to defend the U.S., so he withdrew it. Nevertheless, he remained in the country, and in 1959 he turned down an offer of a Knight Bachelor by the Macmillan government. During the 1950s Huxley's interest in the field of psychical research grew keener, and his later works are strongly influenced by both mysticism and his experiences with psychedelic drugs. In October 1930, the occultist Aleister Crowley dined with Huxley in Berlin, and to this day rumours persist that Crowley introduced Huxley to peyote on that occasion. He was introduced to mescaline (considered to be the key active ingredient of peyote) by the psychiatrist Humphry Osmond in 1953. Martin, Douglas. Friday, August 22, 2008 "Humphry Osmond, 86, Who Sought Medicinal Value in Psychedelic Drugs, Dies". New York: New York Times On 24 December 1955, Huxley took his first dose of LSD. Indeed, Huxley was a pioneer of self-directed psychedelic drug use "in a search for enlightenment", famously taking 100 micrograms of LSD as he lay dying. His psychedelic drug experiences are described in the essays The Doors of Perception (the title deriving from some lines in the book The Marriage of Heaven and Hell by William Blake), and Heaven and Hell. Some of his writings on psychedelics became frequent reading among early hippies. While living in Los Angeles, Huxley was a friend of Ray Bradbury. According to Sam Weller's biography of Bradbury, the latter was dissatisfied with Huxley, especially after Huxley encouraged Bradbury to take psychedelic drugs. In 1955, Huxley's wife, Maria, died of breast cancer. In 1956 he married Laura Archera (1911-2007), also an author. She wrote This Timeless Moment, a biography of Huxley. In 1960 Huxley himself was diagnosed with cancer, and in the years that followed, with his health deteriorating, he wrote the Utopian novel Island, Peter Bowering Aldous Huxley: A Study of the Major Novels, p. 197, Oxford University Press, 1969 ASIN B0006CDQZ8 and gave lectures on "Human Potentialities" at the Esalen institute, which were fundamental to the forming of the Human Potential Movement. On his deathbed, unable to speak, Huxley made a written request to his wife for "LSD, 100 µg, intramuscular". According to her account of his death, in This Timeless Moment, she obliged with an injection at 11:45 am and another a couple of hours later. He died at 5:21 pm on 22 November 1963, aged 69. Media coverage of his death was overshadowed by the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, on the same day, as was the death of the Irish author C. S. Lewis. This coincidence was the inspiration for Peter Kreeft's book Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis, & Aldous Huxley . Huxley's ashes were interred in the family grave at the Watts Cemetery, home of the Watts Mortuary Chapel in Compton a village near, Guildford, Surrey, England. Huxley's only child, Matthew, was also an author, as well as an educator, anthropologist, and prominent epidemiologist. His work ranged from promoting universal health care to establishing standards of care for nursing home patients and the mentally ill to investigating the question of what is a socially sanctionable drug. Author, NIMH Epidemiologist Matthew Huxley Dies at 84 (washingtonpost.com) Matthew's first marriage, in April 1950, was to documentary filmmaker Ellen Hovde, and ended in divorce in 1961. His second wife, author and Washington Post food columnist Judith Wallet Bordage, whom he married on 22 March 1963, died in 1983. He was survived by his third wife, Franziska Reed Huxley, and two children from his first marriage, Trevenen Huxley (b. 20 October 1951) and Tessa Huxley (b. October 1953). Association with Vedanta Beginning in 1939 and continuing until his death in 1963, Huxley had an extensive association with the Vedanta Society of Southern California, founded and headed by Swami Prabhavananda. Together with Gerald Heard, Christopher Isherwood, and other followers he was initiated by the Swami and was taught meditation and spiritual practices. From 1941 through 1960 Huxley contributed 48 articles to Vedanta and the West, published by the Society. He also served on the editorial board with Isherwood, Heard, and playwright John van Druten from 1951 through 1962. Huxley also occasionally lectured at the Hollywood and Santa Barbara Vedanta temples. After the publication of The Doors of Perception, Huxley and the Swami disagreed about the meaning and importance of the LSD drug experience, which may have caused the relationship to cool, but Huxley continued to write articles for the Society, lecture at the temple, and attend social functions. Literary themes Crome Yellow (1921) attacks Victorian and Edwardian social principles which led to World War I and its terrible aftermath. Together with Huxley's second novel, Antic Hay (1923), the book expresses much of the mood of disenchantment of the early 1920s. It was intended to reflect, as Huxley stated in a letter to his father, "the life and opinions of an age which has seen the violent disruption of almost all the standards, conventions and values current in the present epoch." Huxley's reputation for iconoclasm and emancipation grew. He was condemned for his explicit discussion of sex and free thought in his fiction. Antic Hay, for example, was burned in Cairo and in the years that followed many of Huxley's books were received with disapproval or banned at one time or another. The exclusion of Brave New World, Point Counter Point and Island from Time magazine's Best 100 novels list in 2006 created an uproar. Huxley, however, said that a novel should be full of interesting opinions and arresting ideas, describing his aim as a novelist as being 'to arrive, technically, at a perfect fusion of the novel and the essay'; and with Point Counter Point (1928), Huxley wrote his first true 'novel of ideas', the type of thought-provoking fiction with which he is now associated. One of his main ideas was pessimism about the cultural future of society, a pessimism which sprang largely from his visit to the United States between September 1925 and June 1926. He recounted his experiences in Jesting Pilate (1926): "The thing which is happening in America is a reevaluation of values, a radical alteration (for the worse) of established standards", and it was soon after this visit that he conceived the idea of writing a satire of what he had encountered. Brave New World (1932) as well as Island (1962) form the cornerstone of Huxley's damning indictment of commercialism based upon goods generally manufactured from other countries. Indeed also, Brave New World (along with Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four and Yevgeni Zamyatin's We) helped form the anti-utopian or dystopian tradition in literature and has become synonymous with a future world in which the human spirit is subject to conditioning and control. Island acts as an antonym to Brave New World; it is described as "one of the truly great philosophical novels". The Times He devoted his time at his small house at Llano in the Mojave Desert to a life of contemplation, mysticism, and experimentation with hallucinogenic drugs. His suggestions in The Doors of Perception (1954) that mescaline and lysergic acid were 'drugs of unique distinction' which should be exploited for the 'supernaturally brilliant' visionary experience they offered provoked even more outrage than his passionate defense of the Bates method in The Art of Seeing (1942). However, the book went on to become a cult text in the psychedelic 1960s, and inspire the name of the rock band The Doors. Huxley also appears on the sleeve of The Beatles' landmark 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.. Awards In 1959 Aldous Huxley received the American Academy of Arts and Letters Award of Merit for the novel Brave New World. He received the James Tait Black Memorial Prize in 1939 for After Many a Summer Dies the Swan. Films Notable works include the original screenplay for Disney's animated Alice in Wonderland (which was rejected because it was too literary ), two productions of Brave New World, one of Point Counter Point, one of Eyeless in Gaza, and one of Ape and Essence. He was a credited screenwriter for Pride and Prejudice (1940), co-authored the screenplay for Jane Eyre (1944) with John Houseman, A Woman's Vengeance (1947), and contributed to the screenplays of Madame Curie (1943) and Alice in Wonderland (1951) without credit. Director Ken Russell's 1971 film The Devils, starring Vanessa Redgrave and Oliver Reed, was adapted from Huxley's The Devils of Loudun. A made-for-television adaptation of Brave New World was made in 1990. Quotations On truth: "Great is truth, but still greater, from a practical point of view, is silence about truth. By simply not mentioning certain subjects... totalitarian propagandists have influenced opinion much more effectively than they could have by the most eloquent denunciations." On psychological totalitarianism More Than 54,000 Great Quotations To Inspire You! (1959): "And it seems to me perfectly in the cards that there will be within the next generation or so a pharmacological method of making people love their servitude, and producing ... a kind of painless concentration camp for entire societies, so that people will in fact have their liberties taken away from them but will rather enjoy it, because they will be distracted from any desire to rebel by propaganda, brainwashing, or brainwashing enhanced by pharmacological methods." On social organizations: "One of the many reasons for the bewildering and tragic character of human existence is the fact that social organization is at once necessary and fatal. Men are forever creating such organizations for their own convenience and forever finding themselves the victims of their home-made monsters." On heroin: "Who lives longer: the man who takes heroin for two years and dies, or the man who lives on roast beef, water, and potatoes till ninety-five? One passes his twenty-four months in eternity. All the years of the beef-eater are lived only in time." On experience: "Experience is not what happens to a man; it is what a man does with what happens to him." – Texts and Pretexts, 1932 "After silence, that which comes nearest to expressing the inexpressible is music." Music at Night, 1931 "Liberty? Why it doesn't exist. There is no liberty in this world, just gilded cages." Antic Hay, 1923 "Democracy and freedom will be the theme of every broadcast and editorial - but democracy and freedom in a strictly Pickwickian sense." - Brave New World Revisited On religion: "You never see animals going through the absurd and often horrible fooleries of magic and religion... Dogs do not ritually urinate in the hope of persuading heaven to do the same and send down rain. Asses do not bray a liturgy to cloudless skies. Nor do cats attempt, by abstinence from cat's meat, to wheedle the feline spirits into benevolence. Only man behaves with such gratuitous folly. It is the price he has to pay for being intelligent but not, as yet, quite intelligent enough." "God deliver us from such criminal imbecility." Ends and Means "LSD, 100 micrograms I.M." His last words before dying, to his wife. She complied and he was injected twice before his death. http://books.google.com/books?id=Wc-UlRRWQ1EC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252&dq=Try+LSD,+100+mm+intramuscular&source=bl&ots=jhgSksKrZ8&sig=XjQRLHsQY96FPJ7VzRm8o4zqnMc&hl=en&ei=dGHaSeWhJp_utQPq6IGtCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4 Works Novels Crome Yellow (1921) Antic Hay (1923) Those Barren Leaves (1925) Point Counter Point (1928) Brave New World (1932) Eyeless in Gaza (1936) After Many a Summer Dies the Swan (1939) Time Must Have a Stop (1944) Ape and Essence (1948) The Genius and the Goddess (1955) Island (1962) Short stories Limbo (1920) Mortal Coils (1922) Little Mexican (U.S. - Young Archimedes) (1924) Two or Three Graces (1926) Brief Candles (1930) Jacob's Hands: A Fable (Late 1930s, rediscovered 1997) co-written with Christopher Isherwood Collected Short Stories (1957) Poetry The Burning Wheel (1916) Jonah (1917) The Defeat of Youth (1918) Leda (1920) Arabia Infelix (1929) The Cicadas (1931) First Philosopher's Song Travel writing Along The Road (1925) Jesting Pilate (1926) The author recounts his experiences travelling through six countries, offering his observations on their people, cultures and customs. Beyond the Mexique Bay (1934) Drama Now More Than Ever (University of Texas, Austin, 1997) The Ambassador of Captripedia (1967) The Genius and the Goddess (stage version, co-written with Betty Wendel, 1958) Mortal Coils - A Play (stage version of The Gioconda Smile, 1948) The World of Light (1931) The Discovery (adapted from Francis Sheridan, 1924) Essay collections On the Margin (1923) Along the Road (1925) Essays New and Old (1926) Proper Studies (1927) Do What You Will (1929) Vulgarity in Literature (1930) Music at Night (1931) Texts and Pretexts (1932) The Olive Tree (1936) Words and their Meanings (1940) The Art of Seeing (1942) The Perennial Philosophy (1945) Science, Liberty and Peace (1946) Themes and Variations (1950) Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Tomorrow (1952) The Doors of Perception (1954) Heaven and Hell (1956) Adonis and the Alphabet (1956) Collected Essays (1958) Brave New World Revisited (1958) Literature and Science (1963) Articles written for Vedanta and the West (A publication of the Vedanta Society of Southern California from 1938 to 1970) Distractions (1941) Distractions II (1941) Action and Contemplation (1941) An Appreciation (1941) The Yellow Mustard (1941) Lines (1941) Some Replections of the Lord's Prayer (1941) Reflections of the Lord's Prayer (1942) Reflections of the Lord's Prayer II (1942) Words and Reality (1942) Readings in Mysticism (1942) Man and Reality (1942) The Magical and the Spiritual (1942) Religion and Time (1943) Idolatry (1943) Religion and Temperament (1943) A Note on the Bhagavatam (1943) Seven Meditations (1943) On a Sentence From Shakespeare (1944) The Minimum Working Hypothesis (1944) From a Notebook (1944) The Philosophy of the Saints (1944) That Art Thou (1945) That Art Thou II (1945) The Nature of the Ground (1945) The Nature of the Ground II (1945) God In the World (1945) Origins and Consequences of Some Contemporary Thought-Patterns (1946) The Sixth Patriarch (1946) Some Reflections on Time (1946) Reflections on Progress (1947) Further Reflections on Progress (1947) William Law (1947) Notes on Zen (1947) Give Us This Day Our Daily Bread (1948) A Note on Gandhi (1948) Art and Religion (1949) Foreword to an Essay on the Indian Philosophy of Peace (1950) A Note on Enlightenment (1952) Substitutes for Liberation (1952) The Desert (1954) A Note on Patanjali (1954) Who Are We? (1955) Foreword to the Supreme Doctrine (1956) Knowledge and Understanding (1956) The "Inanimate" is Alive (1957) Symbol and Immediate Experience (1960) Philosophy Ends and Means (1937) The Perennial Philosophy (1944) (ISBN 0-06-057058-X) Biography and nonfiction The Devils of Loudun (1953) (ISBN 0-7867-0368-7) Grey Eminence (1941) (ISBN 0-7011-0802-9) Selected Letters (2007) (ISBN 1-56663-629-9) Children's literature The Crows of Pearblossom (1967) The Travails and Tribulations of Geoffrey Peacock (1967) Collections Texts and Pretexts (1933) Collected Short Stories (1957) Collected Essays (1958) Moksha: Writings on Psychedelics and the Visionary Experience (1977) The Human Situation: Lectures at Santa Barbara, 1959 (1977) . References External links LitWeb.net: Aldous Huxley Biography Video interviews of Huxley from the 1950s, exploring Brave New World, Island, and psychedelics somaweb.org Comprehensive information on Aldous Huxley and Brave New World. Including: biography, quotes, bibliography, discussion forum, etc.. The Ultimate Revolution (talk at UC Berkeley, 20 March 1962) Huxley interviewed on The Mike Wallace interview, 18 May 1958. Select Quotes of Aldous Huxley
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Golden_Gate_Bridge
The Golden Gate Bridge is a suspension bridge spanning the Golden Gate, the opening of the San Francisco Bay onto the Pacific Ocean. As part of both U.S. Route 101 and California State Route 1, it connects the city of San Francisco on the northern tip of the San Francisco Peninsula to Marin County. The Golden Gate Bridge was the longest suspension bridge span in the world when it was completed during the year 1937, and has become an internationally recognized symbol of San Francisco and California. Since its completion, the span length has been surpassed by eight other bridges. It still has the second longest suspension bridge main span in the United States, after the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge in New York City. In 2007, it was ranked fifth on the List of America's Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects. History Ferry service Golden Gate, circa 1891. Before the bridge was built, the only practical short route between San Francisco and what is now Marin County was by boat across a section of San Francisco Bay. Ferry service began as early as 1820, with regularly scheduled service beginning in the 1840s for purposes of transporting water to San Francisco. The Sausalito Land and Ferry Company service, launched in 1867, eventually became the Golden Gate Ferry Company, a Southern Pacific Railroad subsidiary, the largest ferry operation in the world by the late 1920s. Once for railroad passengers and customers only, Southern Pacific's automobile ferries became very profitable and important to the regional economy. The ferry crossing between the Hyde Street Pier in San Francisco and Sausalito in Marin County took approximately 20 minutes and cost US$1.00 per vehicle, a price later reduced to compete with the new bridge. The trip from the San Francisco Ferry Building took 27 minutes. Many wanted to build a bridge to connect San Francisco to Marin County. San Francisco was the largest American city still served primarily by ferry boats. Because it did not have a permanent link with communities around the bay, the city’s growth rate was below the national average. Many experts said that a bridge couldn’t be built across the strait. It had strong, swirling tides and currents, with water in depth at the center of the channel, and frequent strong winds. Experts said that ferocious winds and blinding fogs would prevent construction and operation. Viewing from edge of Baker Beach. Conception Although the idea of a bridge spanning the Golden Gate was not new, the proposal that eventually took root was made in a 1916 San Francisco Bulletin article by former engineering student James Wilkins. San Francisco's City Engineer estimated the cost at $100 million, impractical for the time, and fielded the question to bridge engineers of whether it could be built for less. One who responded, Joseph Strauss, was an ambitious but dreamy engineer and poet who had, for his graduate thesis, designed a long railroad bridge across the Bering Strait. At the time, Strauss had completed some 400 drawbridges—most of which were inland—and nothing on the scale of the new project. Denton, Harry et al. (2004) "Lonely Planet San Francisco" Lonely Planet, United States. 352 pp. ISBN 1-74104-154-6 Strauss's initial drawings were for a massive cantilever on each side of the strait, connected by a central suspension segment, which Strauss promised could be built for $17 million. Local authorities agreed to proceed only on the assurance that Strauss alter the design and accept input from several consulting project experts. A suspension-bridge design was considered the most practical, because of recent advances in metallurgy. Strauss spent more than a decade drumming up support in Northern California. The bridge faced opposition, including litigation, from many sources. The Department of War was concerned that the bridge would interfere with ship traffic; the navy feared that a ship collision or sabotage to the bridge could block the entrance to one of its main harbors. Unions demanded guarantees that local workers would be favored for construction jobs. Southern Pacific Railroad, one of the most powerful business interests in California, opposed the bridge as competition to its ferry fleet and filed a lawsuit against the project, leading to a mass boycott of the ferry service. In May 1924, Colonel Herbert Deakyne held the second hearing on the Bridge on behalf of the Secretary of War in a request to use Federal land for construction. Deakyne, on behalf of the Secretary of War, approved the transfer of land needed for the bridge structure and leading roads to the "Bridging the Golden Gate Association" and both San Francisco County and Marin County, pending further bridge plans by Strauss. Miller, John B. (2002) "Case Studies in Infrastructure Delivery" Springer. 296 pp. ISBN 0-7923-7652-8. Another ally was the fledgling automobile industry, which supported the development of roads and bridges to increase demand for automobiles. The bridge's name was first used when the project was initially discussed in 1917 by M.H. O'Shaughnessy, city engineer of San Francisco, and Strauss. The name became official with the passage of the Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District Act by the state legislature in 1923. Design South pillar seen from walkway Viewpoint of North end Strauss was chief engineer in charge of overall design and construction of the bridge project. However, because he had little understanding or experience with cable-suspension designs, responsibility for much of the engineering and architecture fell on other experts. Irving Morrow, a relatively unknown residential architect, designed the overall shape of the bridge towers, the lighting scheme, and Art Deco elements such as the streetlights, railing, and walkways. The famous International Orange color was originally used as a sealant for the bridge. Many locals persuaded Morrow to paint the bridge in the vibrant orange color instead of the standard silver or gray, and the color has been kept ever since. Senior engineer Charles Alton Ellis, collaborating remotely with famed bridge designer Leon Moisseiff, was the principal engineer of the project. Moisseiff produced the basic structural design, introducing his "deflection theory" by which a thin, flexible roadway would flex in the wind, greatly reducing stress by transmitting forces via suspension cables to the bridge towers. Although the Golden Gate Bridge design has proved sound, a later Moisseiff design, the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge, collapsed in a strong windstorm soon after it was completed, because of an unexpected aeroelastic flutter K. Billah and R. Scanlan (1991), Resonance, Tacoma Narrows Bridge Failure, and Undergraduate Physics Textbooks, American Journal of Physics, 59(2), 118–124 (PDF) . Ellis was a Greek scholar and mathematician who at one time was a University of Illinois professor of engineering despite having no engineering degree (he eventually earned a degree in civil engineering from University of Illinois prior to designing the golden gate bridge and spent the last twelve years of his career as a professor at Purdue University). He became an expert in structural design, writing the standard textbook of the time. Ellis did much of the technical and theoretical work that built the bridge, but he received none of the credit in his lifetime. In November 1931, Strauss fired Ellis and replaced him with a former subordinate, Clifford Paine, ostensibly for wasting too much money sending telegrams back and forth to Moisseiff. Ellis, obsessed with the project and unable to find work elsewhere during the Depression, continued working 70 hours per week on an unpaid basis, eventually turning in ten volumes of hand calculations. With an eye toward self-promotion and posterity, Strauss downplayed the contributions of his collaborators who, despite receiving little recognition or compensation, are largely responsible for the final form of the bridge. He succeeded in having himself credited as the person most responsible for the design and vision of the bridge. Only much later were the contributions of the others on the design team properly appreciated. In May 2007, the Golden Gate Bridge district issued a formal report on 70 years of stewardship of the famous bridge and decided to right an old wrong by giving Ellis major credit for the design of the bridge. Finance The Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District, authorized by an act of the California Legislature, was incorporated in 1928 as the official entity to design, construct, and finance the Golden Gate Bridge. However, after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the District was unable to raise the construction funds, so it lobbied for a $35 million bond measure. The bonds were approved in November 1930, by votes in the counties affected by the bridge. Jackson, Donald C. (1995) "Great American Bridges and Dams" John Wiley and Sons. 360 pp. ISBN 0-471-14385-5 The construction budget at the time of approval was $30.1 million. However, the District was unable to sell the bonds until 1932, when Amadeo Giannini, the founder of San Francisco–based Bank of America, agreed on behalf of his bank to buy the entire issue in order to help the local economy. On the south side of the bridge, a wide cross-section of the cable, containing 27,572 separate wires, is on display. Construction Construction began on January 5, 1933. The project cost more than $35 million. Strauss remained head of the project, overseeing day-to-day construction and making some groundbreaking contributions. A graduate of the University of Cincinnati, he had placed a brick from his alma mater's demolished McMicken Hall in the south anchorage before the concrete was poured. He innovated the use of movable safety netting beneath the construction site, which saved the lives of many otherwise-unprotected steelworkers. Of eleven men killed from falls during construction, ten were killed (when the bridge was near completion) when the net failed under the stress of a scaffold that had fallen. Nineteen others who were saved by the net over the course of construction became proud members of the (informal) Halfway to Hell Club. The project was finished by April 1937, $1.3 million under budget. Opening festivities A photograph of the bridge from a boat underneath. The bridge-opening celebration began on 27 May 1937 and lasted for one week. The day before vehicle traffic was allowed, 200,000 people crossed by foot and roller skate. On opening day, Mayor Angelo Rossi and other officials rode the ferry to Marin, then crossed the bridge in a motorcade past three ceremonial "barriers," the last a blockade of beauty queens who required Joseph Strauss to present the bridge to the Highway District before allowing him to pass. An official song, "There's a Silver Moon on the Golden Gate," was chosen to commemorate the event. Strauss wrote a poem that is now on the Golden Gate Bridge entitled "The Mighty Task is Done." The next day, President Roosevelt pushed a button in Washington, DC signaling the official start of vehicle traffic over the Bridge at noon. When the celebration got out of hand, the SFPD had a small riot in the uptown Polk Gulch area. Weeks of civil and cultural activities called "the Fiesta" followed. A statue of Strauss was moved in 1955 to a site near the bridge. Description Fog at the Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco Specifications The center span was the longest among suspension bridges until 1964 when the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge was erected between the boroughs of Staten Island and Brooklyn in New York City. The Golden Gate Bridge also had the world's tallest suspension towers at the time of construction and retained that record until more recently. In 1957, Michigan's Mackinac Bridge surpassed the Golden Gate Bridge's length to become the world's longest two-tower suspension bridge in total length between anchorages. Structure The weight of the roadway is hung off of two cables that pass through the two main towers and are fixed in concrete at each end. Each cable is made of 27,572 strands of wire. There are 80,000 miles (129,000 km) of wire in each of the two main cables; the total is sufficient to go around the world 5.79 times. The bridge has approximately 1,200,000 total rivets. Traffic Traffic crossing the Bridge during a foggy morning As the only road to exit San Francisco to the north, the bridge is part of both U.S. Route 101 and California Route 1. The median markers between the lanes are moved to conform to traffic patterns. On weekday mornings, traffic flows mostly southbound into the city, so four of the six lanes run southbound. Conversely, on weekday afternoons, four lanes run northbound. Although there has been discussion concerning the installation of a movable barrier since the 1980s, the Bridge Board of Directors, in March 2005, committed to finding funding to complete the $2 million study required prior to the installation of a movable median barrier. The eastern walkway is for pedestrians and bicycles during the weekdays and during daylight hours only, and the western walkway is open to bicyclists on weekday afternoons, weekends, and holidays. The speed limit on the Golden Gate Bridge was reduced from to on 1 October 1983. Aesthetics Advection fog at the Golden Gate Bridge. The Golden Gate Bridge by night, with part of downtown San Francisco visible in the background at far left. Despite its red appearance, the color of the bridge is officially an orange vermilion called international orange. The color was selected by consulting architect Irving Morrow because it blends well with the natural surroundings yet enhances the bridge's visibility in fog. The bridge is said to be one of the most beautiful examples of bridge engineering, both as a structural design challenge and for its aesthetic appeal. It was declared one of the modern Wonders of the World by the American Society of Civil Engineers. According to Frommer's travel guide, the Golden Gate Bridge is "possibly the most beautiful, certainly the most photographed, bridge in the world" (although Frommers also bestows the "most photographed" honor on Tower Bridge in London, England). Aesthetics was the foremost reason why the first design of Joseph Strauss was rejected. Upon re-submission of his bridge construction plan, he added details, such as lighting, to outline the bridge's cables and towers. Rodriguez, Joseph A. (2000) Planning and Urban Rivalry in the San Francisco Bay Area in the 1930s. Journal of Planning Education and Research v. 20 pp. 66-76. The Golden Gate Bridge has a similar sister bridge in Lisbon, Portugal. The red-painted Ponte 25 de Abril (25 April Bridge) has a total length of with a central span of . Paintwork The bridge was originally painted with red lead primer and a lead-based topcoat, which was touched up as required. In the mid-1960s, a program was started to improve corrosion protection by stripping the original paint off and repainting the bridge with zinc silicate primer and, originally, vinyl topcoats. Acrylic topcoats have been used instead since 1990 for air-quality reasons. The program was completed in 1995, and there is now maintenance by 38 painters to touch up the paintwork where it becomes seriously eroded. Golden Gate Bridge, with its approach arch over Fort Point at the San Francisco terminus (right). Behind the arch is Angel Island, and to the left of that, Tiburon, California, mostly obscuring the East Bay hills. Current issues Economics The last of the construction bonds were retired in 1971, with $35 million in principal and nearly $39 million in interest raised entirely from bridge tolls. In November 2006, the Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District recommended a corporate sponsorship program for the bridge to address its operating deficit, projected at $80 million over five years. The District promised that the proposal, which it called a "partnership program," would not include changing the name of the bridge or placing advertising on the bridge itself. In October 2007, the Board unanimously voted to discontinue the proposal and seek additional revenue through other means, most likely a toll increase. On 2 September 2008, the auto cash toll for all southbound motor vehicles was raised from $5 to $6, and the FasTrak toll was increased from $4 to $5. Northbound motor vehicle, bicycle, and pedestrian traffic remains toll free. http://goldengate.org/toll/index.php . For vehicles with more than two axles, the toll rate is $2.50 per axle. Schulte-Peevers, Andrea (2003) "Lonely Planet California" Lonely Planet, United States. 737 pp. ISBN 1-86450-331-9 http://goldengatebridge.org/tolls_traffic/toll_rates_carpools.php Congestion pricing In March 2008, the Golden Gate Bridge District board approved a resolution to implement congestion pricing at the Golden Gate Bridge, charging higher tolls during peak hours, but rising and falling depending on traffic levels. This decision allowed the Bay Area to meet the federal requirement to receive $158 million in federal transportation funds from USDOT Urban Partnership grant. As a condition of the grant, the congestion toll must be in place by September 2009. The first results of the study, called the Mobility, Access and Pricing Study (MAPS), showed that a congestion pricing program is feasible. The different pricing scenarios considered were presented in public meetings in December 2008 and the final study results are expected for late 2009. San Francisco and the Golden Gate Bridge as viewed from the Marin Headlands Suicides The Golden Gate Bridge is the most popular place to commit suicide in the United States and is one of the most popular in the world . The deck is approximately above the water. Suspension Bridges, page 5. "Depth to span ratio (of truss is) 1:168." Span of 4200 ft means truss is 25 ft deep. After a fall of approximately four seconds, jumpers hit the water at some , which is often fatal in and by itself. Some of those who survive the initial impact, drown or die of hypothermia in the cold water. There is no accurate figure on the number of suicides or successful jumps since 1937, because many were not witnessed. People have been known to travel to San Francisco specifically to jump off the bridge, and may take a bus or cab to the site; police sometimes find abandoned rental cars in the parking lot. Currents beneath the bridge are very strong, and some jumpers have undoubtedly been washed out to sea without ever being seen. The water may be as cold as . An official suicide count was kept, sorted according to which of the bridge's 128 lamp posts the jumper was nearest when he or she jumped. The count exceeded 1,200 in 2005, and new suicides were averaging one every two weeks. For comparison, the reported second-most-popular place to commit suicide in the world, Aokigahara Forest in Japan, has a record of 78 bodies, found within the forest in 2002, with an average of 30 a year. There were 34 bridge-jump suicides in 2006 whose bodies were recovered, in addition to four jumps that were witnessed but whose bodies were never recovered, and several bodies recovered suspected to be from bridge jumps. The California Highway Patrol removed 70 apparently suicidal people from the bridge that year. The fatality rate of jumping is roughly 98%. As of 2006, only 26 people are known to have survived the jump. Those who do survive strike the water feet-first and at a slight angle, although individuals may still sustain broken bones or internal injuries. One young man survived a jump in 1979, swam to shore, and drove himself to a hospital. The impact cracked several of his vertebrae. Engineering professor Natalie Jeremijenko, as part of her Bureau of Inverse Technology art collective, created a "Despondency Index" by correlating the Dow Jones Industrial Average with the number of jumpers detected by "Suicide Boxes" containing motion-detecting cameras, which she claimed to have set up under the bridge. ART IN REVIEW: The Bureau of Inverse Technology nytimes.com. The boxes purportedly recorded 17 jumps in three months, far greater than the official count. The Whitney Museum, although questioning whether Jeremijenko's suicide-detection technology actually existed, nevertheless included her project in its prestigious Whitney Biennial. As a suicide prevention initiative, this sign promotes a special telephone available on the bridge that connects to a crisis hotline Various methods have been proposed and implemented to reduce the number of suicides. The bridge is fitted with suicide hotline telephones, and staff patrol the bridge in carts, looking for people who appear to be planning to jump. The bridge is now closed to pedestrians at night. Cyclists are still permitted across at night, but must be buzzed in and out through the remotely controlled security gates. Attempts to introduce a suicide barrier had been thwarted by engineering difficulties, high costs, and public opposition. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/07/09/MNR111LQTT.DTL Judging the bridge's 5 suicide barrier designs, sfgate.com One recurring proposal had been to build a barrier to replace or augment the low railing, a component of the bridge's original architectural design. New barriers have eliminated suicides at other landmarks around the world, but were opposed for the Golden Gate Bridge for reasons of cost, aesthetics, and safety (the load from a poorly designed barrier could significantly affect the bridge's structural integrity during a strong windstorm). Strong appeals for a suicide barrier, fence, or other preventive measures were raised once again by a well-organized vocal minority of psychiatry professionals, suicide barrier consultants, and families of jumpers after the release of the controversial 2006 documentary film The Bridge, in which filmmaker Eric Steel and his production crew spent one year (2004) filming the bridge from several vantage points, capturing a number of suicide jumps as well as a handful of thwarted attempts. The film also contained interviews with surviving family members of those who jumped; interviews with witnesses; and, in one segment, an interview with Kevin Hines who, as a 19-year-old in 2000, survived a suicide plunge from the span and is now a vocal advocate for some type of bridge barrier or net to prevent such incidents from occurring. Suicide net On October 10, 2008, the Golden Gate Bridge Board of Directors voted 14 to 1 to install a plastic-covered stainless-steel net below the bridge as a suicide deterrent. The net will extend 18 feet (six meters) on either side of the bridge and is expected to cost $40–50 million to complete. . A study conducted by Dr. Richard Seiden of the University of California, Berkeley concluded that, of 515 people prevented from jumping off the Golden Gate Bridge, 94 percent were still alive or had died of natural causes an average of 26 years later. His study, which was conducted in the winter of 1978, aided the Golden Gate Bridge Board of Directors in their decision to implement the net. Wind Air show over Golden Gate BridgeSince its completion, the Golden Gate Bridge has been closed due to weather conditions only three times: on 1 December 1951, because of gusts of ; on 23 December 1982, because of winds of ; and on 3 December 1983, because of wind gusts of . Seismic retrofit Modern knowledge of the effect of earthquakes on structures led to a program to retrofit the Golden Gate to better resist seismic events. The proximity of the bridge to the San Andreas Fault places it at risk for a significant earthquake. Once thought to have been able to withstand any magnitude of foreseeable earthquake, the bridge was actually vulnerable to complete structural failure (i.e., collapse) triggered by the failure of supports on the arch over Fort Point. A $392 million program was initiated to improve the structure's ability to withstand such an event with only minimal (repairable) damage. The retrofit's planned completion date is 2012. In popular culture As such a prominent American landmark, the Golden Gate bridge has been used in countless pieces of media. Notable examples include the movies It Came From Beneath The Sea, Superman: The Movie, A View To A Kill, Interview With The Vampire, Vertigo, Boys And Girls, The Core, X-Men: The Last Stand, Monsters vs. Aliens, 10.5 , Mega Shark Vs. Giant Octopus, several movies and television episodes of the Star Trek media franchise, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas and Sudden Attack. In the Sliders episode "Post-Traumatic Slide Syndrome", the Golden Gate Bridge is blue, which reveals to Quinn and Wade that the Earth they were on was not their Earth. The Bridge, a 2006 documentary film by Eric Steel, tells the stories of a handful of individuals who committed suicide at the Golden Gate Bridge in 2004. The film was inspired by an article entitled "Jumpers," written by Tad Friend appearing in The New Yorker magazine in 2003. Notes References Tad Friend: Jumpers: The fatal grandeur of the Golden Gate Bridge, The New Yorker, October 13, 2003 v79 i30 page 48 "Golden Gate Bridge Natural Frequencies", Vibrationdata.com, April 5, 2006 Eric Steel: The Bridge, a 2006 documentary film regarding suicides occurring at the Golden Gate Bridge. </div> External links Golden Gate Bridge official site "Images of the Golden Gate Bridge" from San Francisco Public Library's Historical Photograph database
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4,734
Julmust
Julmust Julmust (Swedish jul "Christmas" or "Yule" and must "must") is a soft drink that is consumed mainly in Sweden and Norway around Christmas. During the rest of the year it is usually hard to find in stores, but sometimes it is sold at other times of the year under the name must . At Easter the name is påskmust (påsk "Easter"). Only recently has Sommarmust (sommar, "summer") been available in stores. The content is the same regardless of the marketing name although the length of time it is stored before bottling differs; however, the beverage is more closely associated with Christmas, somewhat less with Easter and traditionally not at all with the summer. 45 million litres of julmust are consumed during December (to be compared with roughly 9 million Swedes), which is around 50% of the total soft drink volume in December and 75% of the total yearly must sales. Must was created by Harry Roberts and his father Robert Roberts in 1910 as a non-alcoholic alternative to beer. The syrup is still made exclusively by Roberts AB in Örebro. The original recipe is said to be locked up in a safe with only one person knowing the full recipe. Must is made of carbonated water, sugar, hop extract, malt extract, spices, caramel colouring, citric acid, and preservatives. The hops and malt extracts give the must a somewhat beer-like taste, but much sweeter and, since it is not fermented, it contains no alcohol. It can be aged provided it is stored in a glass bottle. Some people buy must in December only to store it a year before drinking it. In Sweden, julmust outsells Coca-Cola during the Christmas season; A Swedish Christmas! in fact, the consumption of Coca-Cola drops by as much as 50% over Christmas. Aftonbladet: Julmust eller Coca-Cola? This was quoted as one of the main reasons that The Coca-Cola Company broke away from their contract with Pripps and started Coca-Cola Drycker Sverige AB instead. Coca-Cola Drycker Sverige AB produced its own julmust, albeit very anonymous with The Coca-Cola Company's name very subtle on the label. Their julmust was never advertised until 2004, when Coca-Cola started marketing their julmust under the brand "Bjäre julmust", but they bought the syrup from Roberts AB. Metro: Med julmust i blodet Under 2007 the "Bjäre julmust" was only sold at McDonald's restaurants and it had completely disappeared from Coca-Colas range of products to Christmas 2008. Swedish Wikipedia: Julmust Those outside Sweden who are curious to try julmust might be able to purchase and sample a bottle from a nearby IKEA store. Realtid: Ingen jul utan must från Roberts i Örebro However, availability is not guaranteed; one is most likely to find it in stock in early December. Kristall Beverage Inc. in Massachusetts, USA bottles julmust for sale in the USA. Kristall website In November 2004 PepsiCo marketed a product somewhat similar in taste to julmust in the United States called Pepsi Holiday Spice. It was on sale during the 2004 and 2006 Christmas seasons. Recently Julmust has also become available at some Cost Plus World Market http://www.worldmarket.com/Kinderpunsch-Julmust-Soda-or-Glogg-Winter-Drink/lev/4/productId/9619/Ntt/julmust/Ntx/mode+matchallpartial/Ntk/Def/N/0/Nty/1/Ssr/Y/index.pro stores. Notes
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4,735
Cell_biology
See also Outline of cell biology. Cell biology (formerly cytology, from the Greek kytos, "container") is an academic discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level. Cell biology research encompasses both the great diversity of single-celled organisms like bacteria and protozoa, as well as the many specialized cells in multicellular organisms like humans. Knowing the components of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences. Appreciating the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly important to the fields of cell and molecular biology as well as to biomedical fields such as cancer research and developmental biology. These fundamental similarities and differences provide a unifying theme, sometimes allowing the principles learned from studying one cell type to be extrapolated and generalized to other cell types. Hence, research in cell biology is closely related to genetics, biochemistry, molecular biology and developmental biology. Understanding cells in terms of their molecular components. Processes Movement of proteins Proteins (red 'RFP' and green 'GFP' fluorescent genetically enhanced proteins) at different locations in a cell. Each type of protein is usually sent to a particular part of the cell. An important part of cell biology is the investigation of molecular mechanisms by which proteins are moved to different places inside cells or secreted from cells. Most proteins are synthesized by ribosomes in the cytoplasm. This process is also known as protein biosynthesis or simply protein translation. Some proteins, such as those to be incorporated in membranes (known as membrane proteins), are transported into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) during synthesis. This process can be followed by transportation and processing in the Golgi apparatus. From the Golgi, membrane proteins can move to the plasma membrane, to other subcellular compartments, or they can be secreted from the cell. The ER and Golgi can be thought of as the "membrane protein synthesis compartment" and the "membrane protein processing compartment", respectively. There is a semi-constant flux of proteins through these compartments. ER and Golgi-resident proteins associate with other proteins but remain in their respective compartments. Other proteins "flow" through the ER and Golgi to the plasma membrane. Motor proteins transport membrane protein-containing vesicles along cytoskeletal tracks to distant parts of cells such as axon terminals. Some proteins that are made in the cytoplasm contain structural features that target them for transport into mitochondria or the nucleus. Some mitochondrial proteins are made inside mitochondria and are coded for by mitochondrial DNA. In plants, chloroplasts also make some cell proteins. Extracellular and cell surface proteins destined to be degraded can move back into intracellular compartments upon being incorporated into endocytosed vesicles. Some of these vesicles fuse with lysosomes where the proteins are broken down to their individual amino acids. The degradation of some membrane proteins begins while still at the cell surface when they are cleaved by secretases. Proteins that function in the cytoplasm are often degraded by proteasomes. Other cellular processes Active transport and Passive transport - Movement of molecules into and out of cells. Autophagy - The process whereby cells "eat" their own internal components or microbial invaders. Adhesion - Holding together cells and tissues. Cell division - a eukaryotic cell process resulting in the formation of daughter cells; there are two major types, that of mitosis and meiosis, asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction, respectively. Cell movement: Chemotaxis, Contraction, cilia and flagella. Cell signaling - Regulation of cell behavior by signals from outside. DNA repair and Cell death Metabolism: Glycolysis, respiration, Photosynthesis Transcription and mRNA splicing - gene expression. Internal cellular structures Electron micrograph. Chloroplast - key organelle for photosynthesis Cilia - motile microtubule-containing structures of eukaryotes Cytoplasm - contents of the main fluid-filled space inside cells Cytoskeleton - protein filaments inside cells Endoplasmic reticulum - major site of membrane protein synthesis Flagella - motile structures of bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes Golgi apparatus - site of protein glycosylation in the endomembrane system Lipid bilayer - fundamental organizational structure of cell membranes Membrane lipid and protein barrier Mitochondrion - major energy-producing organelle by releasing it in the form of ATP Nucleus - holds most of the DNA of eukaryotic cells and controls all cellular activities Organelle - term used for major subcellular structures Ribosome - RNA and protein complex required for protein synthesis in cells Vesicle - small membrane-bounded spheres inside cells Techniques used to study cells Cells may be observed under the microscope. This includes the Optical Microscope, Transmission Electron Microscope, Scanning Electron Microscope, Fluorescence Microscope, and by Confocal Microscopy. Several different techniques exist to study cells. Cell culture is the basic technique of growing cells in a laboratory independent of an organism. Immunostaining, also known as immunohistochemistry, is a specialized histological method used to localize proteins in cells or tissue slices. Unlike regular histology, which uses stains to identify cells, cellular components or protein classes, immunostaining requires the reaction of an antibody directed against the protein of interest with the tissue or cell. Through the use of proper controls and published protocols (need to add reference links here), specificity of the antibody-antigen reaction can be achieved. Once this complex is formed, it is identified via either a "tag" attached directly to the antibody, or added in an additional technical step. Commonly used "tags" include fluorophores or enzymes. In the case of the former, detection of the location of the "immuno-stained" protein occurs via fluorescence microscopy. With an enzymatic tag, such as horse radish peroxidase, a chemical reaction is carried out that results in a dark color in the location of the protein of interest. This darkened pattern is then detected using light microscopy. Computational genomics is used to find patterns in genomic information Cristianini, N. and Hahn, M. Introduction to Computational Genomics, Cambridge University Press, 2006. (ISBN 9780521671910 | ISBN 0521671914) DNA microarrays identify changes in transcript levels between different experimental conditions. Gene knockdown mutates a selected gene. In situ hybridization shows which cells are expressing a particular RNA transcript. PCR can be used to determine how many copies of a gene are present in a cell. Transfection introduces a new gene into a cell, usually an expression construct. Purification of cells and their parts Purification may be performed using the following methods: Cell fractionation Release of cellular organelles by disruption of cells. Separation of different organelles by centrifugation. Flow cytometry Immunoprecipitation Proteins extracted from cell membranes by detergents and salts or other kinds of chemicals. See also Cell disruption Cellular microbiology Important publications in cell biology Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology The American Society for Cell Biology Topic outline of cell biology Notable cell biologists Peter Agre Günter Blobel Geoffrey M. Cooper Christian de Duve Robert Hooke H. Robert Horvitz Marc Kirschner Anton van Leeuwenhoek Ira Mellman Peter D. Mitchell Paul Nurse George Emil Palade Keith R. Porter Jan Evangelista Purkyně Michael Swann Roger Tsien Edmund Beecher Wilson References Cell and Molecular Biology by Karp 5th Ed. External links Cell Centered Database
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Cuisine_of_the_Midwestern_United_States
Midwestern cuisine is a regional cuisine of the American Midwest. It draws its culinary roots most significantly from the cuisines of Central, Northern and Eastern Europe. Midwestern cuisine generally showcases simple and hearty dishes that make use of the abundance of locally grown foods. Its culinary profiles may seem synonymous with "American food." Quoted in an interview with the Daily Herald published Jan. 17, 2007, Chef Stephen Langlois, described it thus: "Think of Thanksgiving dinner. Turkey and cranberry sauce and wild rice and apple pie." Daily Herald, Jan. 17, 2007 Stephen Langlois was one of the pioneering chefs who brought local food to national attention during the height of the contemporary awakening to American cuisine when he opened the groundbreaking Prairie in Printers Row. Characteristics Sometimes called "the breadbasket of America," the Midwest serves as a center for grain production, particularly wheat, corn and soybeans. Midwestern states also produce most of the country's wild rice. Beef and pork processing always have been important Midwestern industries, with a strong role in regional diets. Chicago and Kansas City were historically stockyard and processing centers of the beef trade, while Iowa remains the center of pork production in the U.S. Far from the oceans, Midwesterners traditionally ate little seafood, relying on local freshwater fish, such as perch and trout, supplemented by canned tuna and canned or cured salmon and herring, although modern air shipping of ocean seafood has been increasing Midwesterners' taste for fish. Dairy products, especially cheese, form an important group of regional ingredients, with Wisconsin known as "America's Dairy Capital," although other Midwest states make cheese as well. The upper Midwest, a prime fruit-growing region, sees the extensive use of apples, blueberries, cranberries, cherries, peaches and other cold-climate fruit in its cuisine. As with many American regional cuisines, Midwestern cooking has been heavily influenced by immigrant groups. Throughout the northern Midwest, northern European immigrant groups predominated, so Swedish pancakes and Polish pierogi are common. Wisconsin, Missouri, Kansas, Ohio and Illinois were destinations for many ethnic German immigrants, so pork sausages and potatoes are prevalent. In the Rust Belt, many Greeks became restaurateurs, imparting a Mediterranean influence. Native American influences show up in the uses of corn and wild rice. Traditionally, Midwestern cooks used a light hand with seasonings, preferring sage, dill, caraway, mustard and parsley to hot, bold and spicy flavors. However, with new waves of immigrants from Latin America and Asia moving into the region, these tastes are changing. This section of the country is also headquarters for several seminal hamburger chains, notably McDonald's in Oak Brook, Illinois (founded in California, but turned into the iconic franchise by Ray Kroc beginning with a still-standing store in Des Plaines, Illinois). The Midwest is also home to Culver's in Sauk City, Wisconsin; Steak n Shake, founded in Normal, Illinois, and now based in Indianapolis; Wendy's in Dublin, Ohio; and White Castle in Columbus, Ohio. Also, diner chain Big Boy is headquartered in Warren, Michigan. Urban centers Major urban areas in the Midwest often have distinctive cuisines that can be very different from those of the region's rural areas. Chicago Chicagoland has a distinctive cuisine of restaurant foods exclusive to the area, such as Italian beef, the Maxwell Street Polish, the Chicago-style hot dog, Chicago-style pizza, chicken Vesuvio and the jibarito, as well as a large number of steakhouses. Chicago also boasts many gourmet restaurants, as well as a wide variety of ethnic food stores and eateries, most notably Mexican, Polish, Italian, Greek, Indian/Pakistani and Asian, often clustered in ethnic neighborhoods. Many of these cuisines have evolved significantly in Chicago. For example, the cheese dish saganaki was first flambéed at the table in Greektown. North Shore Magazine: Olives and Ends Forty years ago, the Parthenon restaurant in Chicago's Greektown neighborhood took a patron's suggestion and began flambéing their saganaki tableside. The Swedish neighborhood of Andersonville on the North Side is home to Ann Sather's, a famous Swedish restaurant featured by Rachael Ray on Food Network. The Midwest is sometimes thought to be behind the coasts in culinary trends, yet, perhaps ironically, Chicago is now the country's leading center of molecular gastronomy. New York Times: Sci-Fi Cooking Tries Dealing With Reality Chicago … has emerged as an American center for this cuisine. As a major rail hub, Chicago historically had access to a broad range of the country's foodstuffs, so even in the 19th century, Chicagoans could easily buy items like live oysters VOICES, THE KANSAS COLLECTION ONLINE MAGAZINE Chicago's busy rail yards received "hundreds of thousands of barrels of oysters" and reasonably fresh shrimp. Chicago's oldest signature dish, shrimp de Jonghe, was invented around the turn of the 20th century. Today, flights into O'Hare Airport bring Chicago fresh food from all over the world. Cincinnati Cincinnati is known for its namesake Greek-influenced "Cincinnati chili", piled onto spaghetti. Goetta, a sausage made from pork and oats, often eaten at breakfast, and opera cream chocolates are less-famous local specialties. The city also has a strong German heritage and was home to several major breweries in the past. The queen city was formerly known as Porkopolis--currently manifested in the form of Montgomery Inn, famous for their ribs. Cleveland Cleveland's many immigrant groups have long played an important role in defining the regional cuisine. Polish and Eastern European foods, such as beer, pierogi, and kielbasa are popular in and around the city. The city is home to Hector Boiardi and Michael Ruhlman who have been noted for their contributions in the culinary world. The West Side Market is home to vendors selling many kinds of ethnic food, fresh produce, and ethnic restaurants can be found in the Little Italy, Slavic Village, and Tremont neighborhoods, among others. Little Italy has been known to have some of the best Italian cuisine outside of Italy, including pizza, Italian ice, and cassata cake. http://www.cleveland.com/goingout/index.ssf/2008/07/clevelands_best_as_seen_throug.html Cleveland also has Pizza Pan, Mr. Hero, Malley's Chocolates, and the Great Lakes Brewing Company. Columbus The Columbus, Ohio area is the home and birthplace of many well-known fast food chains, especially those known for hamburgers. Wendy's opened its first store in Columbus in 1969, and is now headquartered in nearby Dublin. America's oldest hamburger chain, White Castle, is based there. Max & Erma's originated in German Village. Besides burgers, Columbus is also the home of Charley's Grilled Subs, Steak Escape, Bob Evans Restaurants, Damon's Grill (a sports bar best known for ribs), and Donatos Pizza. Detroit Detroit specialties include the chili dogs called Coney Island hot dogs, found at hundreds of unaffiliated "Coney Island" restaurants. Famous examples include Lafayette Coney Island and American Coney Island, which stand next to each other, serving Coneys all night in downtown Detroit. Detroit also has its own style of pizza, a thick-crusted, Sicilian cuisine-influenced, rectangular type called square pizza. Other Detroit foods include zip sauce, served on steaks; the triple-decker Dinty Moore sandwich; and a Chinese-American dish called warr shu gai or almond boneless chicken. The Detroit area has many large groups of immigrants. A large Arabic-speaking population reside in and around the suburb of Dearborn, home to many Lebanese storefronts. Detroit also has a substantial number of Greek restaurateurs. Thus, numerous Mediterranean restaurants dot the region and typical foods such as gyros, hummus and falafel can be found in many run-of-the-mill grocery stores and restaurants. Polish food is also prominent in the region, including popular dishes such as pierogi, borscht, and paczki. Bakeries concentrated in the Polish enclave of Hamtramck, Michigan, a suburb within the city, are celebrated for their paczki, especially on Fat Tuesday. Indianapolis Indianapolis was settled predominately by Americans of British decent, Irish and German immigrants, so much of the cities food draws upon these influences. Much of the food is considered to be "Classic American Cuisine". Later immigrants included many Jews, Poles, Eastern Europeans and Italians, all of whom influenced local food. Two of the city's most distinct dishes are the pork tenderloin sandwich and strawberry shortcake. A fast-growing immigrant population from places such as Mexico and India is also beginning to influence the local food. The area offers many diverse, locally owned ethic restaurants, as well as nationally and internationally renowned restaurants. Indy is also home to many local pubs, including the Slippery Noodle Inn, a favorite hangout of the famous bank robber John Dillinger. Kansas City Kansas City is an important barbecue and meat-processing center with a distinctive barbecue style. The Kansas City metropolitan area has more than 100 barbecue restaurants and proclaims itself to be the "world's barbecue capital." The Kansas City Barbeque Society spreads its influence across the nation through its barbecue-contest standards. Milwaukee Milwaukee is home to many descendants of German and Eastern European immigrants and bratwurst, beer and other traditional favorites continue to feature prominently. The area is home to several breweries and German restaurants such as Mader's and Karl Ratzsch's. Milwaukee is nicknamed "Cream City" because Frozen custard is so popular, or the actual reason that many of the city's original buildings were built with cream colored bricks. Milwaukee also offers a diverse selection of ethnic restaurants. Minneapolis and Saint Paul Minneapolis and Saint Paul are cosmopolitan cities that offer a range of dining options. While the rest of Minnesota is often associated with regional fare such as hotdish, wild rice, and lefse, Minneapolis offers diverse and upscale offerings. The area is also home traditional Midwestern cuisine. The Twin Cities share the obscure distinction (along with Green Bay, Wisconsin) of being associated with the neighborhood booyah, a cuisine and cultural event. The influx of Asian immigrants is encouraging new combinations as traditional Midwestern dishes are paired with Asian techniques and spices. Chinese preparations of walleye, for example, are offered. The Twin Cities-based University of Minnesota has been a center for food research; such inventions as the Honeycrisp apple have come from the "U of M." Additionally, many important agricultural conglomerates, including General Mills/Pillsbury, International Multifoods and Cargill, make their home in Minneapolis-Saint Paul. The Betty Crocker food brand (named after a non-existent housewife) was born there. The Twin Cities claim that the all-American corn dog made its first appearance there, as well as the Pronto Pup. One dish associated with the Twin Cities is the Jucy Lucy (or "Juicy Lucy"), a hamburger with a core of melted cheese. Several national restaurant chains, such as Buca di Beppo and Famous Dave's, got their start in the Twin Cities area. Dairy Queen, T.G.I. Friday's of Carlson Companies and Buffalo Wild Wings are also headquartered in the Twin Cities. Immigration from Somalia has brought an unusual number of restaurants serving cuisine from that country. The Somali Resource Center's website lists 20 Somali community restaurants, most of them concentrated in the South Minneapolis and West Bank neighborhoods. In St. Paul, there is a preponderance Southeast Asian restaurants, including Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Laotian food, along University Avenue. Perhaps the most iconic Minnesota dishes are lefse and lutefisk. Both brought to Minnesota with Norwegian immigrants. Lefse and Lutefisk dinners are held near Christmas and have become associated with that holiday. Omaha Omaha boasts unique steakhouses, several of which are Sicilian in origin or adjacent to the Omaha Stockyards. Central European and Southern influences can be seen in the local popularity of carp and South 24th Street contains a multitude of Mexican restaurants. North Omaha also has its own barbecue style. Omaha is one of the locations claiming to have invented the reuben sandwich, supposedly named for Reuben Kulakofsky, a grocer from the Dundee neighborhood. Bronco's, Godfather's Pizza, and the Garden Cafe are among the chain restaurants that originated in Omaha. St. Louis The large number of German immigrants who came to St. Louis beginning in the early nineteenth century contributed significantly to the shaping of local cuisine as confirmed by a variety of uses of beef, pork and chicken, often roasted or grilled, as well as a variety of desserts including rich cakes, stollens, fruit pies, doughnuts and cookies. Mayfair salad dressing was invented at a St. Louis hotel of the same name, and is richer than Caesar salad dressing. St. Louis is also known for popularizing the ice cream cone and for gooey butter cake (a rich, soft-centered coffee cake), and frozen custard. St. Louis-style barbecue uses pork steaks or St. Louis-style pork ribs and a unique type of barbecue sauce and beer and bratwursts remain a standby at family barbeques, baseball games and street festivals. Restaurants on The Hill reflect the lasting influence of the early twentieth century Milanese and Sicilian immigrant community. Two unique Italian-American style dishes include "toasted" ravioli, which is breaded and fried, and St. Louis-style pizza, which has a crispy thin crust and is usually made with Provel cheese instead of traditional mozzarella cheese. A poor boy sandwich is the traditional name in St. Louis for a submarine sandwich. A St. Paul sandwich is a unique St. Louis treat available in Chinese-American restaurants. A Slinger is a diner and late night specialty consisting of a plate smothered with breakfast staples and chili, cheese and onion. Regional specialties Indiana A popular dish seen almost exclusively in Indiana is sugar cream pie, which most likely originated in the state's Amish community. The pork tenderloin sandwich is also a popular state food. Beef and noodles is another homespun Hoosier dish. Photo: Allen County Community Album Assistant Fire Chief Robert A. Kiles tasting beef & noodles Fried biscuits with apple butter are served at many restaurants in southern Indiana. Iowa Cuisine of Iowa includes the pork tenderloin sandwich, consisting of a lean, tenderloin-cut pork chop which is pounded flat, breaded, and deep fried before being served on a seeded hamburger bun with any or all of ketchup, mustard, mayonnaise, and dill pickle slices. The main ingredient of this dish bears a striking similarity to schnitzel and as such, may be related to the large population of German immigrants that originally populated central Iowa. Iowa is also the center for creamed corn production and consumption. Yet it is also popular in the other Midwestern states. Iowa is the center for loose-meat sandwiches, such as those popularized by Maid-Rite, although they can also be found in western Illinois, Indiana Loose Meat Sandwiches at Madvek's, Hammond IN and Nebraska. Beer or Kid.com Tastee Inn Their claim to fame is the tastee sandwich, kind of a loose meat not quite sloppy joe kind of thing. Michigan Western and northern Michigan are notable fruit-growing and wine-making regions. Miners looking for a convenient meal to bring to work popularized the pasty, which is now the iconic dish of Michigan's Upper Peninsula. Minnesota Popular dishes statewide include walleye, hotdish, jello salads, dessert bars, lefse and lutefisk. It's a productive area for wild rice, soybeans, dairies, chicken and turkey farms, sugar beets and corn. It's known for its church potlucks. Walleye is the state fish of Minnesota. Its popularity with Minnesota residents means that the residents of that state consume more of the fish than in any other jurisdiction. Hotdish is any of a variety of casserole dishes popular throughout the United States, although the term is used mainly in Minnesota, Wisconsin, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Hotdishes are generally filling, comfort foods, convenient and easy to make, and well-suited for potlucks. Lutefisk is a traditional dish of the Nordic countries made from stockfish (air-dried whitefish) and soda lye (lut). Other regional dishes include glorified rice, krumkake, and dessert bars. Ohio A buckeye candy is a peanut butter and chocolate candy made to resemble the nut of an Ohio Buckeye tree, available throughout the Buckeye State. JoJo Potatoes are also a popular dish at many Ohio Pizza chains. These are essentially quartered potatoes rolled in the same seasoned flour as broasted chicken and then fried in a pressure cooker. Wisconsin The Friday night fish fry, typically fried perch or walleye, is ubiquitous throughout Wisconsin, while in northeast Wisconsin along Lake Michigan, the Door County fish boil holds sway. Besides beer, Wisconsinites drink large quantities of brandy, OnMilwaukee.com Bars & Clubs: Wisconsinites love affair with brandy often mixed into the unique Badger libation, the "brandy old fashioned sweet." The drink originated in 1947 at "Chissy's Pub", in Waldo, Wisconsin. The pub was owned by Harry Chisholm at that time. Seymour, Wisconsin, claims to be the birthplace of the modern hamburger, although several other locations make similar claims. The southern Wisconsin town of Racine is known for its Danish kringle. Wisconsin is "America's Dairyland," and it's home to numerous frozen custard stands, particularly around Milwaukee and along the Lake Michigan corridor, as well as many cheesemakers, ranging from artisans who hand-craft their product from the milk of their own dairy herds to large factories. Cheese curds are common as a snack or fried as an appetizer. Wisconsin is also well known for summer sausage and bratwurst. Dishes These dishes, while not all exclusively Midwestern, are commonly thought of as typical or exemplary of Midwestern foods or tastes. Many are shared with Southern cuisine and Northeast cuisine, though some are unique to the Midwest, or have a Midwestern preparation style. barbecue beans beef, especially steak, pot roast and prime rib bread-and-butter pickles beer beer cheese soup brain sandwiches brandy bratwurst cabbage cheese, including cheese curds chicken Vesuvio chislic cole slaw diner fare Door County fish boil doughnuts duck freshwater fish, including catfish, perch, trout, walleye and whitefish and other panfish fried chicken frogs' legs frozen custard fruit, especially apples, blueberries, cherries, cranberries, peaches and strawberries fruit wines fruit pies hamburgers head cheese Horseshoe/Ponyshoe hot dogs, with several regional styles hotdish or casseroles ice cream cone Italian beef gyros (loaf-style) Jell-O salads Johnny Marzetti lefse lutefisk maple syrup meatloaf morel mushrooms pancakes pasties pea salad persimmon pudding pierogi pizza, with several regional styles pork potatoes, including mashed potatoes, potato pancakes, and potato salads ramps roast beef sauerbraten sauerkraut sausage, including bratwurst, kielbasa, summer sausage, and other ethnic types shrimp DeJonghe steak stollen sugar cream pie sweet corn, on the cob, in creamed corn and in corn relish turkey wild rice domo rice Language Many Midwesterners in more north central states refer to carbonated beverages as "pop." However, "soda" is preferred in Saint Louis, Milwaukee, Indianapolis and the surrounding areas. Areas of the southern Midwest may also use the term "soda." The Pop vs. Soda Page Serving In the home, Midwesterners traditionally serve meals family-style, with platters of food all put on the table at once or passed hand-to-hand, or as a smorgasbord or buffet, rather than in individually plated, set courses. References External links Eating Habitats St. Louis's Italian Neighborhood website, known for Toasted Ravioli
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Hangul
This article is mainly about the native Korean writing system. See Korean language for details on the Korean spoken language. Hangul (, or Korean , in Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl (in South Korea) or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul (in North Korea)) is the native alphabet of the Korean language, as distinguished from the logographic Sino-Korean hanja system. It was created in the mid-fifteenth century, and is now the official script of both North Korea and South Korea, being co-official in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture of China. Hangul is a phonemic alphabet organized into syllabic blocks. Each block consists of at least two of the 24 Hangul letters (jamo), with at least one each of the 14 consonants and 10 vowels. These syllabic blocks can be written horizontally from left to right as well as vertically from top to bottom in columns from right to left. Originally, the alphabet had several additional letters (see obsolete jamo). For a phonological description of the letters, see Korean phonology. Names Official names The word hangeul, written in Hangul The modern name Hangul () was coined by Ju Sigyeong in 1912. Han () meant "great" in archaic Korean, while geul () is the native Korean word for "script". Han could also be understood as the Sino-Korean word 韓 "Korean", so that the name can be read "Korean script" as well as "great script". is pronounced and would be romanized in one of the following ways: Hangeul or han-geul in the Revised Romanization of Korean, which the South Korean government uses in all English publications and encourages for all purposes. Han'gŭl in the McCune-Reischauer system. When used as an English word, it is often rendered without the diacritics: hangul, often capitalized as Hangul. This is how it appears in many English dictionaries. Hankul in Yale Romanization, a system recommended for technical linguistic studies. North Koreans prefer to call it Chosŏn'gŭl (), for reasons related to the different names of Korea. The original name was Hunminjeongeum (훈민정음; 訓民正音; see history). Due to objections to the names Hangeul, Chosŏn'gŭl, and urigeul (우리글) (see below) by the Korean minority in Manchuria, the otherwise uncommon short form jeongeum may be used as a neutral name in some international contexts. Other names Until the early twentieth century, Hangul was denigrated as vulgar by the literate elite who preferred the traditional hanja writing system. They gave it such names as: Eonmun (Hangul: 언문, hanja: "vernacular script") Amgeul (암글 "women's script"; also written Amkeul 암클). Am (암) is a prefix that signifies a noun is feminine Ahaetgeul or Ahaegeul (아햇글 or 아해글 "children's script") Achimgeul (아침글 "writing you can learn within a morning") Choi Seung-un; Structures et particularités de la langue coréenne Gungmun (Hangul: 국문, hanja: "national script") However, these names are now archaic, as the use of hanja in writing has become very rare in South Korea and completely phased out in North Korea. History Statue of Sejong the Great A page from the Hunmin Jeong-eum Eonhae. The Hangul-only column, fourth from left, (나랏말ᄊᆞ미), has pitch-accent diacritics to the left of the syllable blocks. Hangul was promulgated by the fourth king of the Joseon Dynasty, Sejong the Great. The Hall of Worthies (Jiphyeonjeon, 집현전) is often credited for the work. The project was completed in late December 1443 or January 1444, and described in 1446 in a document titled Hunmin Jeongeum ("The Proper Sounds for the Education of the People"), after which the alphabet itself was named. The publication date of the Hunmin Jeong-eum, October 9, became Hangul Day in South Korea. Its North Korean equivalent is on January 15. Various speculations about the creation process were put to rest by the discovery in 1940 of the 1446 Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye ("Hunmin Jeong-eum Explanation and Examples"). This document explains the design of the consonant letters according to articulatory phonetics and the vowel letters according to the principles of yin and yang and vowel harmony. In explaining the need for the new script, King Sejong explained that the Korean language was different from Chinese; using Chinese characters (known as hanja) to write was so difficult for the common people that only privileged aristocrats (yangban), usually male, could read and write fluently. The majority of Koreans were effectively illiterate before the invention of Hangul. Hangul was designed so that even a commoner could learn to read and write; the Haerye says "A wise man can acquaint himself with them before the morning is over; a stupid man can learn them in the space of ten days." Hunmin Jeongeum Haerye, postface of Jeong Inji, p. 27a, translation from Gari K. Ledyard, The Korean Language Reform of 1446, p. 258 Hangul faced opposition by the literate elite, such as Choe Manri and other Confucian scholars in the 1440s, who believed hanja to be the only legitimate writing system, and perhaps saw it as a threat to their status. However, it entered popular culture as Sejong had intended, being used especially by women and writers of popular fiction. Pratt, Rutt, Hoare, 1999. Korea: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary. Routledge. It was effective enough at disseminating information among the uneducated that Yeonsangun, the paranoid tenth king, forbade the study or use of Hangul and banned Hangul documents in 1504, and King Jungjong abolished the Ministry of Eonmun (언문청 諺文廳, governmental institution related to Hangul research) in 1506. The late 16th century, however, saw a revival of Hangul, with gasa literature and later sijo flourishing. In the 17th century, Hangul novels became a major genre. http://enc.daum.net/dic100/viewContents.do?&m=all&articleID=b24h2804b Korea Britannica article By this point spelling had become quite irregular. Due to growing Korean nationalism in the 19th century, Japan's attempt to sever Korea from China's sphere of influence, and the Gabo Reformists' push, Hangul was eventually adopted in official documents for the first time in 1894. Elementary school texts began using Hangul in 1895, and the Dongnip Sinmun, established in 1896, was the first newspaper printed in both Hangul and English. After Korea was annexed by Japan in 1910, Japanese became the official language and main educational language, but Hangul was also taught in the Japanese-established schools of colonial Korea, and Korean was written in a mixed Hanja-Hangul script, where most lexical roots were written in hanja and grammatical forms in Hangul. The orthography was partially standardized in 1912, with arae a restricted to Sino-Korean, the emphatic consonants written ㅺ sg, ㅼ sd, ㅽ sb, ㅆ ss, ㅾ sj, and final consonants restricted to ㄱ g, ㄴ n, ㄹ l, ㅁ m, ㅂ b, ㅅ s, ㅇ ng, ㄺ lg, ㄻ lm, ㄼ lb (no ㄷ d, as it was replaced by s). Long vowels were marked by a diacritic dot to the left of the syllable, but this was dropped in 1921. A second colonial reform occurred in 1930. Arae a was abolished; the emphatic consonants were changed to ㄲ gg, ㄸ dd, ㅃ bb, ㅆ ss, ㅉ jj; more final consonants (ㄷㅈㅌㅊㅍㄲㄳㄵㄾㄿㅄ) were allowed, making the orthography more morphophonemic; ㅆ ss was written alone (without a vowel) when it occurred between nouns; and the nominative particle 가 ga was introduced after vowels, replacing ㅣ i. (ㅣ i had been written without an ㅇ iung. The nominative particle had been unvarying i in Sejong's day, and perhaps up to the eighteenth or nineteenth century.) Ju Sigyeong, who had coined the term Hangul "great script" to replace eonmun "vulgar script" in 1912, established the Korean Language Research Society (朝鮮語研究會; later renamed Hangul Society, 한글學會) which further reformed orthography with Standardized System of Hangul (한글 맞춤법 통일안) in 1933. The principal change was to make Hangul as morphophonemic as practical given the existing letters. A system for transliterating foreign orthographies was published in 1940. However, the Korean language was banned from schools in 1938 as part of a policy of cultural assimilation, and all Korean-language publications were outlawed in 1941. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/krtoc.html, under The Media The definitive modern orthography was published in 1946, just after independence from Japan. In 1948 North Korea attempted to make the script perfectly morphophonemic through the addition of new letters, and in 1953 Syngman Rhee in South Korea attempted to simplify the orthography by returning to the colonial orthography of 1921, but both reforms were abandoned after only a few years. Since independence from Japan, the Koreas have used Hangul or mixed Hangul as their sole official writing system, with ever-decreasing use of hanja. Since the 1950s, it has become uncommon to find hanja in commercial or unofficial writing in the South, with some South Korean newspaper only using hanja as abbreviations or disambiguation of homonyms. There has been widespread debate as to the future of hanja in South Korea. North Korea instated Hangul as its exclusive writing system in 1949, and banned the use of hanja completely. Jamo Jamo (자모; 字母) or natsori (낱소리) are the units that make up the Hangul alphabet. Ja means letter or character, and mo means mother, so the name suggests that the jamo are the building-blocks of the script. There are 51 jamo, of which 24 are equivalent to letters of the Latin alphabet. The other 27 jamo are clusters of two or sometimes three of these letters. Of the 24 simple jamo, fourteen are consonants (ja-eum 자음, 子音 "child sounds") and ten are vowels (mo-eum 모음, 母音 "mother sounds"). Five of the simple consonant letters are doubled to form the five "tense" (faucalized) consonants (see below), while another eleven clusters are formed of two different consonant letters. The ten vowel jamo can be combined to form eleven diphthongs. Here is a summary: 14 simple consonant letters: ㄱ, ㄴ, ㄷ, ㄹ, ㅁ, ㅂ, ㅅ, ㅇ, ㅈ, ㅊ, ㅋ, ㅌ, ㅍ, ㅎ, plus obsolete ᄛ, ㅱ, ㅸ, ᄼ, ᄾ, ㅿ (alveolar), ㆁ (velar), ᅎ, ᅐ, ᅔ, ᅕ, ㆄ, ㆆ 5 double letters (glottalized): ㄲ, ㄸ, ㅃ, ㅆ, ㅉ, plus obsolete ㅥ, ᄙ, ㅹ, ᄽ, ᄿ, ᅇ, ᇮ, ᅏ, ᅑ, ㆅ 11 consonant clusters: ㄳ, ㄵ, ㄶ, ㄺ, ㄻ, ㄼ, ㄽ, ㄾ, ㄿ, ㅀ, ㅄ, plus obsolete ᇃ, ᄓ, ㅦ, ᄖ, ㅧ, ㅨ, ᇉ, ᄗ, ᇋ, ᄘ, ㅪ, ㅬ, ᇘ, ㅭ, ᇚ, ᇛ, ㅮ, ㅯ, ㅰ, ᇠ, ᇡ, ㅲ, ᄟ, ㅳ, ᇣ, ㅶ, ᄨ, ㅷ, ᄪ, ᇥ, ㅺ, ㅻ, ㅼ, ᄰ, ᄱ, ㅽ, ᄵ, ㅾ, ᄷ, ᄸ, ᄹ, ᄺ, ᄻ, ᅁ, ᅂ, ᅃ, ᅄ, ᅅ, ᅆ, ᅈ, ᅉ, ᅊ, ᅋ, ᇬ, ᇭ, ㆂ, ㆃ, ᇯ, ᅍ, ᅒ, ᅓ, ᅖ, ᇵ, ᇶ, ᇷ, ᇸ, and obsolete triple clusters ᇄ, ㅩ, ᇏ, ᇑ, ᇒ, ㅫ, ᇔ, ᇕ, ᇖ, ᇞ, ㅴ, ㅵ, ᄤ, ᄥ, ᄦ, ᄳ, ᄴ 6 simple vowel letters: ㅏ, ㅓ, ㅗ, ㅜ, ㅡ, ㅣ, plus obsolete ㆍ 4 simple iotized vowel letters (semi consonant-semi vowel): ㅑ, ㅕ, ㅛ, ㅠ, plus obsolete ᆜ, ᆝ, ᆢ 11 diphthongs: ㅐ, ㅒ, ㅔ, ㅖ, ㅘ, ㅙ, ㅚ, ㅝ, ㅞ, ㅟ, ㅢ, plus obsolete ᅶ, ᅷ, ᅸ, ᅹ, ᅺ, ᅻ, ᅼ, ᅽ, ᅾ, ᅿ, ᆀ, ᆁ, ᆂ, ᆃ, ㆇ, ㆈ, ᆆ, ᆇ, ㆉ, ᆉ, ᆊ, ᆋ, ᆌ, ᆍ, ᆎ, ᆏ, ᆐ, ㆊ, ㆋ, ᆓ, ㆌ, ᆕ, ᆖ, ᆗ, ᆘ, ᆙ, ᆚ, ᆛ, ᆟ, ᆠ, ㆎ Four of the simple vowel jamo are derived by means of a short stroke to signify iotation (a preceding i sound): ㅑ ya, ㅕ yeo, ㅛ yo, and ㅠ yu. These four are counted as part of the 24 simple jamo because the iotating stroke taken out of context does not represent y. In fact, there is no separate jamo for y. Of the simple consonants, ㅊ chieut, ㅋ kieuk, ㅌ tieut, and ㅍ pieup are aspirated derivatives of ㅈ jieut, ㄱ giyeok, ㄷ digeut, and ㅂ bieup, respectively, formed by combining the unaspirated letters with an extra stroke. The doubled letters are ㄲ ssang-giyeok (kk: ssang- 쌍 "double"), ㄸ ssang-digeut (tt), ㅃ ssang-bieup (pp), ㅆ ssang-siot (ss), and ㅉ ssang-jieut (jj). Double jamo do not represent geminate consonants, but rather a "tense" phonation. Stroke order All hangul letters follow the rules of Chinese calligraphy. ㅇ and ㅎ use a circle, which is not used in printed Chinese characters, but is found in cursive styles. For the iotized vowels, which are not shown, the short stroke is simply doubled. Jamo design Numerous linguists have praised Hangul for its featural design, describing it as "remarkable," "the most perfect phonetic system devised," and "brilliant, so deliberately does it fit the language like a glove." Cited in Taylor, Insup (1980). "The Korean writing system: An alphabet? A syllabary? A logography?". Processing of Visual Language 2: 65. New York: Plenum Press. The principal reason Hangul has attracted this praise is its partially featural design: The shapes of the graphs are related to the phonemes they represent. The shapes of consonant letters are based on the shape of the mouth and tongue in the production of that sound, sometimes with extra marks showing features such as aspiration. In addition, vowels are built from vertical or horizontal lines so that they are easily distinguishable from consonants. Scripts may transcribe languages at the level of morphemes (logographic scripts like hanja), of syllables (syllabic scripts like kana), or of segments (alphabetic scripts like the Roman alphabet used to write English and many other languages.). Hangul goes one step further in some cases, using distinct strokes to indicate distinctive features such as place of articulation (labial, coronal, velar, or glottal) and manner of articulation (plosive, nasal, sibilant, aspiration) for consonants, and iotation (a preceding i- sound), harmonic class, and I-mutation for vowels. For instance, the consonant jamo ㅌ t is composed of three strokes, each one meaningful: the top stroke indicates ㅌ is a plosive, like ㆆ ’, ㄱ g, ㄷ d, ㅈ j, which have the same stroke (the last is an affricate, a plosive-fricative sequence); the middle stroke indicates that ㅌ is aspirated, like ㅎ h, ㅋ k, ㅊ ch, which also have this stroke; and the curved bottom stroke indicates that ㅌ is coronal, like ㄴ n, ㄷ d, and ㄹ l. (The ㄴ element is said to represent the shape of the tongue when pronouncing coronal consonants.) Two consonants, ㆁ and ㅱ, have dual pronunciations, and appear to be composed of two elements corresponding to these two pronunciations: /silence for ㆁ and / for obsolete ㅱ. With vowel jamo, a short stroke connected to the main line of the letter indicates that this is one of the vowels which can be iotated; this stroke is then doubled when the vowel is iotated. The position of the stroke indicates which harmonic class the vowel belongs to, "light" (top or right) or "dark" (bottom or left). In modern jamo, an additional vertical stroke indicates i-mutation, deriving ㅐ , ㅔ , ㅚ , and ㅟ from ㅏ , ㅓ , ㅗ , and ㅜ . However, this is not part of the intentional design of the script, but rather a natural development from what were originally diphthongs ending in the vowel ㅣ . Indeed, in many Korean dialects, including the standard dialect of Seoul, some of these may still be diphthongs. Although the design of the script may be featural, for all practical purposes it behaves as an alphabet. The jamo ㅌ isn't read as three letters coronal plosive aspirated, for instance, but as a single consonant t. Likewise, the former diphthong ㅔ is read as a single vowel e. Beside the jamo, Hangul originally employed diacritic marks to indicate pitch accent. A syllable with a high pitch (거성) was marked with a dot (ჿᅠᆧ〮) to the left of it (when writing vertically); a syllable with a rising pitch (상성) was marked with a double dot, like a colon (ჿᅠᆧ〯). These are no longer used. Although vowel length was and still is phonemic in Korean, it was never indicated in Hangul, except that syllables with rising pitch (ჿᅠᆧ〯) necessarily had long vowels. Although some aspects of Hangul reflect a shared history with the Phagspa script, and thus Indic phonology, such as the relationships among the homorganic jamo and the alphabetic principle itself, other aspects such as organization of jamo into syllablic blocks, and which Phagspa letters were chosen to be basic to the system, reflect the influence of Chinese writing and phonology. Consonant jamo design The letters for the consonants fall into five homorganic groups, each with a basic shape, and one or more letters derived from this shape by means of additional strokes. In the Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye account, the basic shapes iconically represent the articulations the tongue, palate, teeth, and throat take when making these sounds. SimpleAspiratedTenseㅈㅊㅉㄱㅋㄲㄷㅌㄸㅂㅍㅃㅅㅆ The Korean names for the groups are taken from Chinese phonetics: Velar consonants (아음, 牙音 a-eum "molar sounds") ㄱ g , ㅋ k Basic shape: ㄱ is a side view of the back of the tongue raised toward the velum (soft palate). (For illustration, access the external link below.) ㅋ is derived from ㄱ with a stroke for the burst of aspiration. Coronal consonants (설음, 舌音 seoreum "lingual sounds"): ㄴ n , ㄷ d , ㅌ t , ㄹ r Basic shape: ㄴ is a side view of the tip of the tongue raised toward the alveolar ridge (gum ridge). The letters derived from ㄴ are pronounced with the same basic articulation. The line topping ㄷ represents firm contact with the roof of the mouth. The middle stroke of ㅌ represents the burst of aspiration. The top of ㄹ represents a flap of the tongue. Bilabial consonants (순음, 唇音 suneum "labial sounds"): ㅁ m , ㅂ b , ㅍ p Basic shape: ㅁ represents the outline of the lips in contact with each other. The top of ㅂ represents the release burst of the b. The top stroke of ㅍ is for the burst of aspiration. Sibilant consonants (치음, 齒音 chieum "dental sounds"): ㅅ s , ㅈ j , ㅊ ch Basic shape: ㅅ was originally shaped like a wedge ʌ, without the serif on top. It represents a side view of the teeth. The line topping ㅈ represents firm contact with the roof of the mouth. The stroke topping ㅊ represents an additional burst of aspiration. Glottal consonants (후음, 喉音 hueum "throat sounds"): ㅇ ng , ㅎ h Basic shape: ㅇ is an outline of the throat. Originally ㅇ was two letters, a simple circle for silence (null consonant), and a circle topped by a vertical line, ㆁ, for the nasal ng. A now obsolete letter, ㆆ, represented a glottal stop, which is pronounced in the throat and had closure represented by the top line, like ㄱㄷㅈ. Derived from ㆆ is ㅎ, in which the extra stroke represents a burst of aspiration. The phonetic theory inherent in the derivation of glottal stop ㆆ and aspirate ㅎ from the null ㅇ may be more accurate than Chinese phonetics or modern IPA usage. In Chinese theory and in the IPA, the glottal consonants are posited as having a specific "glottal" place of articulation. However, recent phonetic theory has come to view the glottal stop and [h] to be isolated features of 'stop' and 'aspiration' without an inherent place of articulation, just as their Hangul representations based on the null symbol assume. Vowel jamo design Vowel letters are based on three elements: A horizontal line representing the flat Earth, the essence of yin. A point for the Sun in the heavens, the essence of yang. (This becomes a short stroke when written with a brush.) A vertical line for the upright Human, the neutral mediator between the Heaven and Earth. Short strokes (dots in the earliest documents) were added to these three basic elements to derive the simple vowel jamo: Simple vowels Horizontal letters: these are mid-high back vowels. bright ㅗ o dark ㅜ u dark ㅡ eu (ŭ) Vertical letters: these were once low vowels. bright ㅏ a dark ㅓ eo (ŏ) neutral ㅣ i Compound jamo. Hangul never had a w, except for Sino-Korean etymology. Since an o or u before an a or eo became a sound, and occurred nowhere else, could always be analyzed as a phonemic o or u, and no letter for was needed. However, vowel harmony is observed: "dark" ㅜ u with "dark" ㅓ eo for ㅝ wo; "bright" ㅏ a with "bright" ㅗ o for ㅘ wa: ㅘ wa = ㅗ o + ㅏ a ㅝ wo = ㅜ u + ㅓ eo ㅙ wae = ㅗ o + ㅐ ae ㅞ we = ㅜ u + ㅔ e The compound jamo ending in ㅣ i were originally diphthongs. However, several have since evolved into pure vowels: ㅐ ae = ㅏ a + ㅣ i ㅔ e = ㅓ eo + ㅣ i ㅙ wae = ㅘ wa + ㅣ i ㅚ oe = ㅗ o + ㅣ i (formerly pronounced , see Korean phonology) ㅞ we = ㅝ wo + ㅣ i ㅟ wi = ㅜ u + ㅣ i (formerly pronounced , see Korean phonology) ㅢ ui = ㅡ eu + ㅣ i Iotized vowels: There is no jamo for Roman y before a vowel. Instead, this sound is indicated by doubling the stroke attached to the base line of the vowel letter. Of the seven basic vowels, four could be preceded by a y sound, and these four were written as a dot next to a line. (Through the influence of Chinese calligraphy, the dots soon became connected to the line: ㅓㅏㅜㅗ.) A preceding y sound, called "iotation", was indicated by doubling this dot: ㅕㅑㅠㅛ yeo, ya, yu, yo. The three vowels which could not be iotated were written with a single stroke: ㅡㆍㅣ eu, (arae a), i. SimpleIotizedㅏㅑㅓㅕㅗㅛㅜㅠㅡㅣ The simple iotated vowels are, ㅑ ya from ㅏ  a ㅕ yeo from ㅓ  eo ㅛ yo from ㅗ  o ㅠ yu from ㅜ  u There are also two iotated diphthongs, ㅒ yae from ㅐ  ae ㅖ ye from ㅔ  e The Korean language of the 15th century had vowel harmony to a greater extent than it does today. Vowels in grammatical morphemes changed according to their environment, falling into groups which "harmonized" with each other. This affected the morphology of the language, and Korean phonology described it in terms of yin and yang: If a root word had yang ('bright') vowels, then most suffixes attached to it also had to have yang vowels; conversely, if the root had yin ('dark') vowels, the suffixes needed to be yin as well. There was a third harmonic group called "mediating" ('neutral' in Western terminology) that could coexist with either yin or yang vowels. The Korean neutral vowel was ㅣ i. The yin vowels were ㅡㅜㅓ eu, u, eo; the dots are in the yin directions of 'down' and 'left'. The yang vowels were ㆍㅗㅏ ə, o, a, with the dots in the yang directions of 'up' and 'right'. The Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye states that the shapes of the non-dotted jamo ㅡㆍㅣ were chosen to represent the concepts of yin, yang, and mediation: Earth, Heaven, and Human. (The letter ㆍ ə is now obsolete except in the Jeju dialect.) There was yet a third parameter in designing the vowel jamo, namely, choosing ㅡ as the graphic base of ㅜ and ㅗ, and ㅣ as the graphic base of ㅓ and ㅏ. A full understanding of what these horizontal and vertical groups had in common would require knowing the exact sound values these vowels had in the 15th century. Our uncertainty is primarily with the three jamo ㆍㅓㅏ. Some linguists reconstruct these as , respectively; others as . A third reconstruction is to make them all middle vowels as . The Japanese/Korean Vowel Correspondences by Bjarke Frellesvig and John Whitman. Section 3 deals with Middle Korean vowels. With the third reconstruction, Middle Korean vowels actually line up in a tidy vowel harmony pattern, albeit with only one front vowel and four middle vowels: ᅵ ᅳ ᅮ ᅥ ᆞ ᅩ ᅡ However, the horizontal jamo ㅡㅜㅗ eu, u, o do all appear to have been mid to high back vowels, , and thus to have formed a coherent group phonetically in every reconstruction. Traditional account on the design of Hangul The generally accepted account Korean orthography rules on the design of the jamo is that the vowels are derived from various combinations of the following three components: ㆍ ㅡ ㅣ. Here, ㆍ symbolically stands for the heaven, ㅡ stands for the earth, and ㅣ stands for a human. The original sequence of the Korean vowels Hunminjeongeum listed these three vowels first, followed by a various combinations. Thus, the original order for the vowels was: ㆍ ㅡ ㅣ ㅗ ㅏ ㅜ ㅓ ㅛ ㅑ ㅠ ㅕ. Note that two positive vowels (ㅗ ㅏ) including one ㆍ are followed by two negative vowels including one ㆍ, then by two positive vowels each including two of ㆍ, and then by two negative vowels each including two of ㆍ. The same theory provides the most simple explanation of the shapes of the consonants as approximation of the shapes of the most representative organ needed to form that sound. The original order of the consonants in Hunmin Jeong-eum was: ㄱ ㅋ ㆁ ㄷ ㅌ ㄴ ㅂ ㅍ ㅁ ㅈ ㅊ ㅅ ㆆ ㅎ ㅇ ㄹ ㅿ. For example, ㄱ representing the "g" sound geometrically describes a tongue at the moment of pronunciation. ㅋ representing the "k" sound is derived from ㄱ by adding another stroke. ㆁ representing the "ŋ" sound geometrically describes an open mouth while the tongue is touching the upper ceiling. ㄷ representing the "d" sound geometrically describes the combination of the ceiling of the mouth and the tongue. ㅌ representing the "t" sound is derived from ㄷ by adding a stroke. ㄴ representing the "n" sound geometrically describes a tongue while making the "n" sound. ㅂ representing the "b" sound geometrically describes a closed mouth ready to burst at the moment of pronunciation. ㅍ representing the "p" sound is a variant of ㅂ, which is obtained by a 90 degree rotation and extension the horizontal strokes. ㅁ representing the "m" sound geometrically describes a closed mouth before opening the lips. ㅈ representing the "dʒ" sound geometrically describes the touching of the ceiling of the mouth with the tongue. ㅊ representing the "ch" sound is derived from ㅈ by adding a stroke. ㅅ representing the "s" sound geometrically describes a near contact between the tongue and the frontal ceiling of the mouth. ㆆ representing a weak "h" sound geometrically describes an open throat with a bar to indicate that there is an aspiration. ㅎ representing the "h" sound is derived from ㆆ with the extra stroke representing a stronger flow of the aspiration. ㅇ representing the absence of a consonant geometrically describes an open mouth, which necessarily accompanies the following vowel. ㄹ representing a sound between "r" and "l" geometrically describes a backward-bending tongue. ㅿ representing a weak "s" sound is derived from ㅅ by placing an extra stroke. Therefore, according to the standard theory, all alphabets in Hangul are pure geometric representations of either the shapes of pronunciation organs or abstract symbols. Ledyard's theory below is rejected by the majority of Korean scholars. Ledyard's theory of consonant jamo design (Top) Phagspa letters , and their supposed Hangul derivatives . Note the lip on both Phagspa and Hangul ㄷ. (Bottom) Derivation of Phagspa w, v, f from variants of the letter (left) plus a subscript [w], and analogous composition of Hangul w, v, f from variants of the basic letter plus a circle. Although the Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye explains the design of the consonantal jamo in terms of articulatory phonetics, as a purely innovative creation, there are several theories as to which external sources may have inspired or influenced King Sejong's creation. Professor Gari Ledyard of Columbia University believes that five consonant letters were derived from the Mongol Phagspa alphabet of the Yuan dynasty. A sixth basic letter, the null initial ㅇ, was invented by Sejong. The rest of the jamo were derived internally from these six, essentially as described in the Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye. However, the five borrowed consonants were not the graphically simplest letters considered basic by the Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye, but instead the consonants basic to Chinese phonology: ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, ㅈ, and ㄹ. The Hunmin Jeong-eum states that King Sejong adapted the 古篆 ("Gǔ Seal Script") in creating Hangul. The 古篆 has never been identified. The primary meaning of 古 gǔ is "old" ("Old Seal Script"), frustrating philologists because Hangul bears no functional similarity to Chinese 篆字 seal scripts. However, Ledyard believes 古 gǔ may be a pun on 蒙古 Měnggǔ "Mongol", and that 古篆 is an abbreviation of 蒙古篆字 "Mongol Seal Script", that is, the formal variant of the Phagspa alphabet written to look like the Chinese seal script. There were Phagspa manuscripts in the Korean palace library, including some in the seal-script form, and several of Sejong's ministers knew the script well. If this was the case, Sejong's evasion on the Mongol connection can be understood in light of Korea's relationship with Ming China after the fall of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, and of the literati's contempt for the Mongols as "barbarians". According to Ledyard, the five borrowed letters were graphically simplified, which allowed for jamo clusters and left room to add a stroke to derive the aspirate plosives, ㅋㅌㅍㅊ. But in contrast to the traditional account, the non-plosives (ng ㄴㅁ and ㅅ) were derived by removing the top of the basic letters. He points out that while it's easy to derive ㅁ from ㅂ by removing the top, it's not clear how to derive ㅂ from ㅁ in the traditional account, since the shape of ㅂ is not analogous to those of the other plosives. The explanation of the letter ng also differs from the traditional account. Many Chinese words began with ng, but by King Sejong's day, initial ng was either silent or pronounced in China, and was silent when these words were borrowed into Korean. Also, the expected shape of ng (the short vertical line left by removing the top stroke of ㄱ) would have looked almost identical to the vowel ㅣ . Sejong's solution solved both problems: The vertical stroke left from ㄱ was added to the null symbol ㅇ to create ㆁ (a circle with a vertical line on top), iconically capturing both the pronunciation in the middle or end of a word, and the usual silence at the beginning. (The graphic distinction between null ㅇ and ㆁ was eventually lost.) Another letter composed of two elements to represent two regional pronunciations was ㅱ, which transcribed the Chinese initial 微. This represented either m or w in various Chinese dialects, and was composed of ㅁ [m] plus ㅇ (from Phagspa [w]). In Phagspa, a loop under a letter represented w after vowels, and Ledyard proposes this became the loop at the bottom of ㅱ. Now, in Phagspa the Chinese initial 微 is also transcribed as a compound with w, but in its case the w is placed under an h. Actually, the Chinese consonant series 微非敷 w, v, f is transcribed in Phagspa by the addition of a w under three graphic variants of the letter for h, and Hangul parallels this convention by adding the w loop to the labial series ㅁㅂㅍ m, b, p, producing now-obsolete ㅱㅸㆄ w, v, f. (Phonetic values in Korean are uncertain, as these consonants were only used to transcribe Chinese.) As a final piece of evidence, Ledyard notes that most of the borrowed Hangul letters were simple geometric shapes, at least originally, but that ㄷ d [t] always had a small lip protruding from the upper left corner, just as the Phagspa d [t] did. This lip can be traced back to the Tibetan letter d, ད. If Ledyard's theory is correct, Hangul would be part of the great family of alphabets ultimately developing out of the Middle Eastern Phoenician alphabet, along the route Phoenician > Aramaic > Brāhmī > Gupta > Siddham > Tibetan > Phagspa > Hangul. Jamo order The alphabetical order of Hangul does not mix consonants and vowels as Western alphabets do. Rather, the order is that of the Indic type, first velar consonants, then coronals, labials, sibilants, etc. However, the vowels come after the consonants rather than before them as in the Indic systems. Historical orders The consonantal order of the Hunmin Jeongeum in 1446 was, ㄱ ㅋ ㆁ ㄷ ㅌ ㄴ ㅂ ㅍ ㅁ ㅈ ㅊ ㅅ ㆆ ㅎ ㅇ ㄹ ㅿ and the order of vowels was, ㆍ ㅡ ㅣ ㅗ ㅏ ㅜ ㅓ ㅛ ㅑ ㅠ ㅕ In 1527, Choe Sejin reorganized the alphabet: ㄱ ㄴ ㄷ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅅ ㆁ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅈ ㅊ ㅿ ㅇ ㅎ ㅏ ㅑ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ ㆍ This is the basis of the modern alphabetic orders. It was before the development of the Korean tense consonants and the double jamo that represent them, and before the conflation of the letters ㅇ (null) and ㆁ (ng). Thus when the South Korean and North Korean governments implemented full use of Hangul, they ordered these letters differently, with South Korea grouping similar letters together, and North Korea placing new letters at the end of the alphabet. South Korean order In the Southern order, double jamo are placed immediately after their single counterparts. No distinction is made between silent and nasal ㅇ: ㄱ ㄲ ㄴ ㄷ ㄸ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅃ ㅅ ㅆ ㅇ ㅈ ㅉ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ ㅏ ㅐ ㅑ ㅒ ㅓ ㅔ ㅕ ㅖ ㅗ ㅘ ㅙ ㅚ ㅛ ㅜ ㅝ ㅞ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅢ ㅣ The modern monophthongal vowels come first, with the derived forms interspersed according to their form: first added i, then iotized, then iotized with added i. Diphthongs beginning with w are ordered according to their spelling, as ㅏ or ㅓ plus a second vowel, not as separate digraphs. The order of the final jamo is, (none) ㄱ ㄲ ㄳ ㄴ ㄵ ㄶ ㄷ ㄹ ㄺ ㄻ ㄼ ㄽ ㄾ ㄿ ㅀ ㅁ ㅂ ㅄ ㅅ ㅆ ㅇ ㅈ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ "None" stands for no final jamo. North Korean order North Korea maintains a more traditional order: ㄱ ㄴ ㄷ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅅ ㅈ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ ㄲ ㄸ ㅃ ㅆ ㅉ ㅇ ㅇ used as an initial, goes at the very end, as it is a placeholder for the vowels which follow. (A syllable with no final is ordered before all syllables with finals, however, not with null ㅇ.) The new letters, the double jamo, are placed at the end of the consonants, just before the null ㅇ, so as not to alter the traditional order of the rest of the alphabet. The order of the vocalic jamo is, ㅏ ㅑ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ ㅐ ㅒ ㅔ ㅖ ㅚ ㅟ ㅢ ㅘ ㅝ ㅙ ㅞ All digraphs and trigraphs, including the old diphthongs ㅐ and ㅔ, are placed after all basic vowels, again maintaining Choe's alphabetic order. The order of the final jamo is, (none) ㄱ ㄳ ㄴ ㄵ ㄶ ㄷ ㄹ ㄺ ㄻ ㄼ ㄽ ㄾ ㄿ ㅀ ㅁ ㅂ ㅄ ㅅ ㅇ ㅈ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ ㄲ ㅆ Unlike the order of the initial jamo, on the other hand, this ㅇ is the nasal ㅇ ng, which occurs only as a final in the modern language. The double jamo are placed to the very end, like the initial jamo order, but the combined consonants are placed right after their first counterparts. Jamo names The Hangul arrangement is called the ganada order, (가나다 순) which is basically an alphabetical order named after the first three jamo (g, n, d) affixed to the first vowel (a). The jamo were named by Choe Sejin in 1527. North Korea regularized the names when it made Hangul its official orthography. Consonantal jamo names The modern consonants have two-syllable names, with the consonant coming both at the beginning and end of the name, as follows: Consonant Name ㄱ giyeok (기역), or kiŭk (기윽) in North Korea ㄴ nieun/niŭn (니은) ㄷ digeut (디귿), or tiŭt (디읃) in North Korea ㄹ rieul/riŭl (리을) ㅁ mieum/miŭm (미음) ㅂ bieup/piŭp (비읍) ㅅ siot (시옷), or siŭt (시읏) in North Korea ㅇ ieung/iŭng (이응) ㅈ jieut/chiŭt (지읒) ㅊ chieut/ch'iŭt (치읓) ㅋ kieuk/k'iŭk (키읔) ㅌ tieut/t'iŭt (티읕) ㅍ pieup/p'iŭp (피읖) ㅎ hieut/hiŭt (히읗) Korean Consonants All jamo in North Korea, and all but three in the more traditional nomenclature used in South Korea, have names of the format of letter + i + eu + letter. For example, Choe wrote bieup with the hanja 非 bi 邑 eup. The names of g, d, and s are exceptions because there were no hanja for euk, eut, and eus. 役 yeok is used in place of euk. Since there is no hanja that ends in t or s, Choi chose two hanja to be read in their Korean gloss, 末 kkeut "end" and 衣 ot "clothes". Originally, Choi gave j, ch, k, t, p, and h the irregular one-syllable names of ji, chi, ki, ti, pi, and hi, because they should not be used as final consonants, as specified in Hunmin jeong-eum. But after the establishment of the new orthography in 1933, which allowed all consonants to be used as finals, the names were changed to the present forms. The double jamo precede the parent consonant's name with the word 쌍 ssang, meaning "twin" or "double", or with 된 doen in North Korea, meaning "strong". Thus: Letter South Korean Name North Korean name ㄲ ssanggiyeok (쌍기역) toen'giŭk (된기윽) ㄸ ssangdigeut (쌍디귿) toendiŭt (된디읃) ㅃ ssangbieup (쌍비읍) toenbiŭp (된비읍) ㅆ ssangsiot (쌍시옷) toensiŭt (된시읏) ㅉ ssangjieut (쌍지읒) toenjiŭt (된지읒) In North Korea, an alternate way to refer to the jamo is by the name letter + ŭ (ㅡ), for example, 그 kŭ for the jamo ㄱ, 쓰 ssŭ for the jamo ㅆ, etc. Vocalic jamo names The vocalic jamo names are simply the vowel itself, written with the null initial ㅇ ieung and the vowel being named. Thus: Letter Name Letter Name ㅏ a (아) ㅐ ae (애) ㅑ ya (야) ㅒ yae (얘) ㅓ eo (어) ㅔ e (에) ㅕ yeo (여) ㅖ ye (예) ㅗ o (오) ㅚ oe (외) ㅛ yo (요) ㅙ wae (왜) ㅜ u (우) ㅘ wa (와) ㅠ yu (유) ㅟ wi (위) ㅡ eu (으) ㅝ wo (워) ㅣ i (이) ㅢ ui (의) ㅞ we (웨) Image:Aya.ogg Obsolete jamo A brand name, Hankido, using the obsolete vowel arae-a (top) Several jamo are obsolete. These include several that represent Korean sounds that have since disappeared from the standard language, as well as a larger number used to represent the sounds of the Chinese rime tables. The most frequently encountered of these archaic letters are: ㆍ (transcribed (arae-a 아래아 "lower a"): Presumably , similar to modern eo. It is written as a dot, positioned beneath (Korean for "beneath" is arae) the consonant. The arae-a is not entirely obsolete, as it can been found in various brand names and is often used in spelling the dialect of Jeju Island, Korea's southernmost province, where it is . Even so, it was not transcribed in the official Korean Romanization and thus modern renderings of the Jeju dialect transcribe it the same way as ㅗ, that is, o. Korean words that were written with ㆍ long ago are now usually written with ㅏ . The ə formed a medial of its own, or was found in the diphthong ㆎ arae-ae, written with the dot under the consonant and ㅣ (transcribed i) to its right — in the same fashion as ㅚ or ㅢ. ㅿ z (bansiot 반시옷): A rather unusual sound, perhaps IPA (a nasalized palatal fricative). Modern Korean words previously spelled with ㅿ substitute ㅅ. ㆆ (yeorinhieut 여린히읗 "light hieut" or doenieung 된 이응 "strong ieung"): A glottal stop, "lighter than ㅎ and harsher than ㅇ". ㆁ ŋ (yesieung 옛이응): The original jamo for ; now conflated with ㅇ ieung. (With some computer fonts such as Arial Unicode MS, yesieung is shown as a flattened version of ieung, but the correct form is with a long peak, longer than what you would see on a serif version of ieung.) ㅸ β (gabyeounbieup 가벼운비읍): IPA . This letter appears to be a digraph of bieup and ieung, but it may be more complicated than that. There were three other less common jamo for sounds in this section of the Chinese rime tables, ㅱ w ( or ), a theoretical ㆄ f, and ㅹ ff ; the bottom element appears to be only coincidentally similar to ieung. There were two other now-obsolete double jamo, ㆅ x (ssanghieut 쌍히읗 "double hieut"): IPA or . ᅇ (ssang-ieung 쌍이응 "double ieung"): Another jamo used in the Chinese rime table. In the original Hangul system, double jamo were used to represent Chinese voiced (濁音) consonants, which survive in the Shanghainese slack consonants, and were not used for Korean words. It was only later that a similar convention was used to represent the modern "tense" (faucalized) consonants of Korean. The sibilant ("dental") consonants were modified to represent the two series of Chinese sibilants, alveolar and retroflex, a "round" vs. "sharp" distinction which was never made in Korean, and which was even being lost from southern Chinese. The alveolar jamo had longer left stems, while retroflexes had longer right stems: Original consonants ㅅ ㅆ ㅈ ㅉ ㅊ Chidueum (alveolar sibilant) ᄼ ᄽ ᅎ ᅏ ᅔ Jeongchieum (retroflex sibilant) ᄾ ᄿ ᅐ ᅑ ᅕ There were also consonant clusters that have since dropped out of the language, such as the initials ㅴ bsg and ㅵ bsd, as well as diphthongs that were used to represent Chinese medials, such as ㆇ, ㆈ, ㆊ, ㆋ. Some of the Korean sounds represented by these obsolete jamo still exist in some dialects. Unicode Chart Extended jamo The words 놉니다, 흘렀다, 깨달으니, 지어, 고와, 왕, 가져서 written in New Orthography. In order to make Hangul a perfect morphophonological fit to the Korean language, North Korea introduced six new jamo, which were published in the New Orthography for the Korean Language and used officially from 1948-1954. Two obsolete jamo were resurrected: <ㅿ> (리읃), which alternated in pronunciation between initial /l/ and final /d/; and <ㆆ> (히으), which was only pronounced between vowels. Two modifications of the letter ㄹ were introduced, one for a ㄹ which is silent finally, and one for a ㄹ which doubles between vowels. A hybrid ㅂ-ㅜ letter was introduced for words which alternate between those two sounds (that is, a /b/ which becomes /w/ before a vowel). Finally, a vowel <1> was introduced for variable iotation. Morpho-syllabic blocks Except for a few grammatical morphemes prior to the twentieth century, no letter may stand alone to represent elements of the Korean language. Instead, jamo are grouped into syllabic or morphemic blocks of at least two and often three: (1) a consonant or a doubled consonant called the initial (초성, 初聲 choseong syllable onset), (2) a vowel or diphthong called the medial (중성, 中聲 jungseong syllable nucleus), and, optionally, (3) a consonant or consonant cluster at the end of the syllable, called the final (종성, 終聲 jongseong syllable coda). When a syllable has no actual initial consonant, the null initial ㅇ ieung is used as a placeholder. (In modern Hangul, placeholders are not used for the final position.) Thus, a block contains a minimum of two jamo, an initial and a medial. Although the Hangul has historically been organized into syllables, in modern orthography it is instead first organized into morphemes, and only secondarily into syllables within those morphemes, with the exception that single-consonant morphemes may not be written alone. (See Orthography.) The sets of initial and final consonants are not the same. For instance, ㅇ ng only occurs in final position, while the doubled jamo that can occur in final position are limited to ㅆ ss and ㄲ kk. For a list of initials, medials, and finals, see Hangul consonant and vowel tables. Not including obsolete jamo, there are 11 172 possible Hangul blocks. Jamo placement within a block The placement or "stacking" of jamo in the block follows set patterns based on the shape of the medial. The components of complex jamo, such as ㅄ bs, ㅝ wo, or obsolete ㅵ bsd, ㆋ üye are written left to right. Medials are written under the initial, to the right, or wrap around the initial from bottom to right, depending on their shape: If the medial has a horizontal axis like ㅡ eu, then it is written under the initial; if it has a vertical axis like ㅣ i, then it is written to the right of the initial; and if it combines both orientations, like ㅢ ui, then it wraps around the initial from the bottom to the right: initialmedialinitialmedialinitialmed.2med. 1 A final jamo, if there is one, is always written at the bottom, under the medial. This is called 받침 batchim "supporting floor": initialmedialfinalinitialmedialfinalinitialmed.2med.final A complex final is written left to right: initialmedialfinal 1final 2initialmedialfinal 1final 2initialmed.2med.fin. 1fin. 2 Blocks are always written in phonetic order, initial-medial-final. Therefore, Syllables with a horizontal medial are written downward: 읍 eup; Syllables with a vertical medial and simple final are written clockwise: 쌍 ssang; Syllables with a wrapping medial switch direction (down-right-down): 된 doen; Syllables with a complex final are written left to right at the bottom: 밟 balp. Block shape Normally the resulting block is written within a square of the same size and shape as a hanja (Chinese character) by compressing or stretching the jamo to fill the bounds of the block; therefore someone not familiar with the scripts may mistake Hangul text for Hanja or Chinese text. However, some recent fonts (for example Eun, HY깊은샘물M, UnJamo) move towards the Western practice of letters whose relative size is fixed, and the use of whitespace to fill letter positions not used in a particular block, and away from the East Asian tradition of square block characters (方块字). They break one or more of the traditional rules: Do not stretch initial consonant vertically, but leave white space below it if no lower vowel and/or no final consonant. Do not stretch right-hand vowel vertically, but leave white space below it if no final consonant. (Often the right-hand vowel extends farther down than the left-hand consonant, like a descender in Western typography) Do not stretch final consonant horizontally, but leave white space to left of it. Do not stretch or pad each block to be a fixed width, but allow variable width (kerning) where syllable blocks with no right-hand vowel and no double final consonant can be narrower than blocks that do have a right-hand vowel or double final consonant. So far, these fonts have been used as design accents on signs or headings, rather than for typesetting large volumes of body text. Linear Hangul There was a minor and unsuccessful movement in the early twentieth century to abolish syllabic blocks and write the jamo individually and in a row, in the fashion of the Western alphabets: e.g. ㅎㅏㄴㄱㅡㄹ for 한글 hangeul. http://books.google.com/books?id=vj8ShHzUxrYC&pg=PA162&vq=karo+ssugi&dq=%22karo+ssŭgi%22&sig=39QrEwqbXzROfdlEpz3DFo_GJKQ Avant-garde typographer Ahn Sang-Soo made a font for the "Hangul Dada" exposition that exploded the syllable blocks; but while it strings out the jamo horizontally, it retains the distinctive vertical position each letter would normally have within a block, unlike the century-old linear writing proposals. http://www.flickr.com/photos/oded_ezer/317881477/ While Koreans have largely accepted the Western-derived conventions of writing successive syllables left-to-right in horizontal lines instead of in vertical columns, adding spaces between words, and Western-style punctuation, they have completely resisted getting rid of syllabic blocks, the most distinctive feature of this writing system. Orthography Until the 20th century, no official orthography of Hangul had been established. Due to liaison, heavy consonant assimilation, dialectical variants and other reasons, a Korean word can potentially be spelled in various ways. King Sejong seemed to prefer morphophonemic spelling (representing the underlying root forms) rather than a phonemic one (representing the actual sounds). However, early in its history, Hangul was dominated by phonemic spelling. Over the centuries the orthography became partially morphophonemic, first in nouns, and later in verbs. Today it is as morphophonemic as is practical. The difference between phonetic Romanization, phonemic orthography, and morpho-phonemic orthography can be illustrated with the phrase motaneun sarami: Phonetic transcription and translation: motaneun sarami a person who cannot do it Phonemic transcription: 모타는사라미 Morphophonemic transcription: 못하는사람이 Morpheme-by-morpheme gloss: 못–하–는사람=이  mos-ha-neunsaram=i  cannot-do-[attributive]person=[subject] Modern orthography: 못하는 사람이 After the Gabo Reform in 1894, the Joseon Dynasty and later the Korean Empire started to write all official documents in Hangul. Under the government's management, proper usage of Hangul, including orthography, was discussed, until Korea was annexed by Japan in 1910. The Japanese Government-General of Chosen established the writing style of a mixture of hanja and Hangul, as in the Japanese writing system. The government revised the spelling rules in 1912, 1921 and 1930, which were relatively phonemic. The Hangul Society, originally founded by Ju Si-gyeong, announced a proposal for a new, strongly morphophonemic orthography in 1933, which became the prototype of the contemporary orthographies in both North and South Korea. After Korea was divided, the North and South revised orthographies separately. The guiding text for Hangul orthography is called Hangeul Machumbeop, whose last South Korean revision was published in 1988 by the Ministry of Education. Mixed scripts Since the Late Joseon dynasty period, various Hanja-Hangul mixed systems were used. In these systems, hanja was used for lexical roots, and Hangul for grammatical words and inflections, much as kanji and kana are used in Japanese. Today however, hanja have been almost entirely phased out of daily use in North Korea, and in South Korea they are now mostly restricted to parenthetical glosses for proper names and for disambiguating homonyms. Arabic numerals can also be mixed in with Hangul, as in 2007년 3월 22일 (22 March 2007). The Roman alphabet, and occasionally other alphabets, may be sprinkled within Korean texts for illustrative purposes, or for unassimilated loanwords. Readability The organization of Hangul syllables—with individual phonemes clustered into a syllable, rather than organized in a horizontal line as in English—is thought by some observers to be a powerful reading aid. Because of the clustering of syllables, words are shorter on the page than their linear counterparts would be, and the boundaries between syllables are easily visible (which may aid reading, if segmenting words into syllables is natural for the reader than dividing them up into phonemes). Taylor, Insup (1980). "The Korean writing system: An alphabet? A syllabary? A logography?". Processing of Visual Language 2: 71. New York: Plenum Press. Because the component parts of the syllable are relatively simple phonemic characters, the number of strokes per character on average is lower than in Chinese characters. Unlike syllabaries, such as Japanese kana, or Chinese logographs, none of which encode the constituent phonemes within a syllable, the graphic complexity of Korean syllabic blocks varies in direct proportion with the phonemic complexity of the syllable. Taylor, Insup (1980). "The Korean writing system: An alphabet? A syllabary? A logography?". Processing of Visual Language 2: 73. New York: Plenum Press. Unlike linear alphabets such as English, the Korean orthography allows the reader to "utilize both the horizontal and vertical visual fields;" Taylor, Insup (1980). "The Korean writing system: An alphabet? A syllabary? A logography?". Processing of Visual Language 2: 70. New York: Plenum Press. finally, since Hangul syllables are represented both as collections of phonemes and as unique-looking graphs, they may allow for both visual and aural retrieval of words from the lexicon. Although many experts hold similar views about the advantages of Hangul for readability and literacy, most of these theories have not yet been subject to rigorous testing, or the tests have not shown the specific features of the Hangul orthography to produce any significant effects on readers' visual processing. Taylor, Insup (1980). "The Korean writing system: An alphabet? A syllabary? A logography?". Processing of Visual Language 2: 76-7. New York: Plenum Press. Style Hangul may be written either vertically or horizontally. The traditional direction is from top to bottom, right to left. Horizontal writing in the style of the Roman alphabet was promoted by Ju Sigyeong, and has become overwhelmingly prevalent. In Hunmin Jeongeum, Hangul was printed in sans-serif angular lines of even thickness. This style is found in books published before about 1900, and can be found today in stone carvings (on statues, for example). Three Korean type styles (gungche, batang, dotum) next to analogous Latin type styles Over the centuries, an ink-brush style of calligraphy developed, employing the same style of lines and angles as Chinese calligraphy. This brush style is called gungche (궁체 宮體), which means "Palace Style" because the style was mostly developed and used by the maidservants (gungnyeo, 궁녀 宮女) of the court in Joseon dynasty. Modern styles that are more suited for printed media were developed in the 20th century, which were more or less influenced by Japanese typefaces, the serifed Myeongjo (derived from Japanese minchō) and sans-serif Gothic (from Japanese Gothic) being the foremost examples. Variations of these styles are widely used today in books, newspapers, and magazines, and several computer fonts. In 1993, new names for both Myeongjo and Gothic styles were introduced when Ministry of Culture initiated an effort to standardize typographic terms, and the names Batang (바탕, meaning "background") and Dotum (돋움, meaning "stand out") replaced Myeongjo and Gothic respectively. These names are also used in Microsoft Windows. A sans-serif style with lines of equal width is popular with pencil and pen writing, and is often the default typeface of Web browsers. A minor advantage of this style is that it makes it easier to distinguish -eung from -ung even in small or untidy print, as the jongseong ieung (ㅇ) of such fonts usually lacks a serif that could be mistaken for the ㅜ (u) jamo's short vertical line. See also Featural alphabet Hangul Day Hangul orthography Hangul supremacy Hanja Hunminjeongeum Korean language and computers Korean mixed script Korean romanization Sejong the Great of Joseon Notes References (Volume 4 of the London Oriental and African Language Library). Kim-Renaud, Y-K. (ed) 1997. The Korean Alphabet: Its History and Structure. University of Hawai`i Press. Lee, Iksop. (2000). The Korean Language. (transl. Robert Ramsey) Albany, NJ: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-4831-2 The Ministry of Education of South Korea. (1988) Hangeul Matchumbeop. Silva, David J. (2003). Western attitudes toward the Korean language: An Overview of Late NineteenthandEarly Twentieth-Century Mission Literature. Korean Studies. 2008, vol 26(2), pp270-286 Silva, David J. (2008). Missionary contributions toward the revaluation of Hangeul in late nineteenth-century Korea. Int'l J. Soc. Lang. 2008, vol 192, pp57-74 Sohn, H.-M. (1999). The Korean Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Song, J,J. (2005). The Korean Language: Structure, Use and Context. London: Routledge. External links Korean alphabet and pronunciation by Omniglot Linguistic and Philosophical Origins of the Korean Alphabet (Hangul) Online Hangul tutorial at Langintros.com
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4,738
Maltese_language
Maltese () is the national language of Malta, and a co-official language of the country alongside English, Constitution of Malta, I.5.(1), while also serving as an official language of the European Union, the only Semitic language so distinguished. Maltese is descended from Siculo-Arabic (the Arabic dialect that developed in Sicily, Malta and the rest of Southern Italy) . About half of the vocabulary is borrowed from Italian and Sicilian, and the English words make up to 20% of the Maltese vocabulary. It is the only Semitic language written in the Latin alphabet in its standard form. History Maltese became an official language of Malta in 1934, alongside English, when Italian was dropped from official use. The oldest reference to Maltese comes from the Benedictine Monks of Catania, who were unable to open a monastery in Malta, in 1364, because they could not understand the native language. In 1436, in the will of a certain Pawlu Peregrino, Maltese is first identified as lingua maltensi. The oldest known document in Maltese is "Il Cantilena" (Maltese:Xidew il-Qada) a poem from the 15th century, written by Pietro Caxaro and the first known Maltese dictionary was written by the French Knight Francois de Vion Thezan Court in 1640. It includes notes about Maltese grammar and a concluding section detailing, in Italian and Maltese, phrases to be used when giving orders to soldiers. Facsimilies of the work are currently published. In his book Dell’Istoria della Sacra Religione et Illustrissima Militia di San Giovanni Gierosolimitano (), written between 1594 and 1602, Giacomo Bosio endorses the notion that Maltese descended from Carthaginian. Bosio writes that when the cornerstone of Valletta was placed, a group of Maltese elders said "Iegi zimen en fel wardia col sceber raba iesue uquie" (Which in modern Maltese reads, "Jiġi żmien li fil-Wardija [l-Għolja Sciberras] kull xiber raba’ jiswa uqija," and in English, "There will come a time when every piece of land on Sciberras Hill will be worth its weight in gold"). This is the oldest example of printed Maltese. Pasquale Vassallo, a Dominican friar, wrote a collection of songs in Italian and Maltese in 1584. They were burned at the order of the Inquisition in 1585 for allegedly 'obscene' content. Demographics In 1975, there were an estimated 371,000 Maltese speakers, of whom 300,000 resided in Malta. Thousands of Maltese emigrants in Australia, Canada, Gibraltar, Italy, the , and the US still speak the language, and in 2007 it was reported that Maltese is still spoken by descendants of Maltese immigrants in Tunisia. Times of Malta, 11 February 2007 Classification Maltese is a Semitic language descended from Siculo-Arabic, C.F. & F.M. Voegelin. 1977. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. Elsevier.Merritt Ruhlen. 1991. A Guide to the World's Languages, Volume 1: Classification. Stanford.David Dalby. 2000. The Linguasphere Register of the World's Languages and Speech Communities. Linguasphere Observatory.Gordon, Raymond G., Jr., ed. 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. 15th ed. Summer Institute of Linguistics.Alan S. Kaye & Judith Rosenhouse. 1997. "Arabic Dialects and Maltese," The Semitic Languages. Ed. Robert Hetzron. Routledge. Pages 263-311. that in the course of its history has been influenced by Sicilian and Standard Italian, to a lesser extent French, and more recently from English. Today, the core vocabulary (including both the most commonly used vocabulary and function words) is Semitic, with large numbers of loan words. Due to the Sicilian influence on Siculo-Arabic Maltese has many language contact features and is most commonly described as a language with a large number of loanwords. Alexander Borg. 1997. "Maltese Phonology," Phonologies of Asia and Africa, Vol. 1. Ed. Alan S. Kaye. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. Pp. 245-285. The Maltese language has historically been classified in various ways, which are completely contradictory to the views of linguists today. Some claimed that the ancient Punic language was the base of the language, instead of Siculo-Arabic, while others believed the language to be Berber, and under Fascist Italy, it was considered simply a dialect of Italian. Phonology Consonants + Consonants of Maltese   Bilabial Labio-dental Dental Post-alveolar Velar Pharyn-geal Glottal Nasal           Plosive voiceless       voiced         Affricate voiceless           voiced           Fricative voiceless       voiced           Trill             Approximant Vowels Maltese has five short vowels, , written a e i o u; six long vowels, , written a, e, ie, i, o, u, and seven diphthongs, , written aj or għi, aw or għu, ej or għi, ew, iw, oj, and ow or għu. Maltese. Albert J. Borg, Marie Azzopardi-Alexander, Azzopardi-Alexa. Routledge, 1997. Orthography Alphabet The modern system of Maltese orthography was introduced in 1924 . Below is the Maltese alphabet, with IPA symbols and approximate English pronunciation: Letter Name Maltese example IPA Approximate English pronunciation A aa anġlu (angel)similar to 'u' in nut in RP B b be ballun (ball)bar, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to . Ċ ċ ċe ċavetta (key)church (note: undotted 'c' has been replaced by 'k', so when 'c' does appear, it is to be spoken the same way as 'ċ') D d de dar (home)day, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to . E e e envelopp (envelope)end F f effe fjura (flower)far Ġ ġ ġe ġelat (ice-cream)gem, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to . G g ge gallettina (biscuit)game, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to . GĦ għ ajn għasfur (bird), has the effect of lengthening and pharyngealizing associated vowels (għi and għu are and ). When found at the end of a word or immediately before 'h' it has the sound of a double 'ħ' (see below). H h akka hu (he) not pronounced unless it is at the end of a word, in which case it has the sound of 'ħ'. Ħ ħ ħe ħanut (shop)no English equivalent; sounds similar to but is articulated with a lowered larynx. I i i ikel (food)bit IE ie ie ieqaf (stop), no English equivalent; sounds similar to , as in yield, but opened up slightly towards towards J j je jum (day)yard K k ke kelb (dog)kettle L l elle libsa (dress)line M m emme mara (woman) march N n enne nanna (granny)next O o o ors (bear)like 'aw' in law, but shorter. P p pe paġna (page, sheet)part Q q qe qattus (cat)glottal stop, found in the Cockney English pronunciation of "bottle" or the phrase "uh-oh". R r erre re (king)road S s esse sliem (peace)sand T t te tieqa (window)tired U u u uviera (egg-cup)but V v ve vjola (violet)vast, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to . W w we widna (ear)west X x exxe xadina (monkey)shade, sometimes as measure; when doubled the sound is elongated, as in "Cash shin" vs. "Cash in." Z z ze zalza (sauce)pizza; when doubled may change to lots Ż ż że żraben (shoes)maze, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to . Final vowels with grave accents (à, è, ì, ò, ù) are also found in some Maltese words of Italian origin, such as libertà ("freedom"), sigurtà (old Italian: sicurtà, "security"), or soċjetà (Italian: "società; "society"). The official rules governing the structure of the Maltese language are found in the official guidebook issued by the Akkademja tal-Malti, the Academy of the Maltese language, which is named Tagħrif fuq il-Kitba Maltija, that is, Knowledge on Writing in Maltese. The first edition of this book was printed in 1924 by the Maltese government's printing press. The rules were further expanded in the 1984 book, iż-Żieda mat-Tagħrif, which focused mainly on the increasing influence of Romance and English words. In 1992 the Academy issued the Aġġornament tat-Tagħrif fuq il-Kitba Maltija, which updated the previous works. All these works were included in a revised and expanded guidebook published in 1996. Nowadays, the National Council for the Maltese Language (KNM) is the main regulator of the Maltese language (see Maltese Language Act, below) and not the Akkademja tal-Malti. However, these orthography rules are still valid and official. Written Maltese Since Maltese evolved after the Normans ended the Arab rule of the islands, a standard, written form of the language was not developed for a long time after the Arabs' expulsion in the eleventh century. Throughout the centuries the use of the Maltese language was discouraged with varying degrees of success. Under the rule of the Order of the Knights of Malta both French and Italian were used for official documents and correspondence. During the British colonial period the use of English was encouraged through education, with Italian regarded as the next most important language. It was not until 1934 that Maltese was recognised as an official language. In the nineteenth century, philologists and academics such as Mikiel Anton Vassalli made a concerted effort to transcribe spoken Maltese in a comprehensive written form. Many examples of written Maltese exist from before this period, always in the Latin alphabet. Sample From the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe: EnglishMalteseThe Union is founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities. These values are common to the Member States in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail.L-Unjoni hija mibnija fuq il-valuri ta' rispett għad-dinjità tal-bniedem, ta' libertà, ta' demokrazija, ta' ugwaljanza, ta' l-istat tad-dritt u tar-rispett għad-drittijiet tal-bniedem, inklużi d-drittijiet ta' persuni li jagħmlu parti minn minoranzi. Dawn il-valuri huma komuni għall-Istati Membri f'soċjetà karatterizzata mill-pluraliżmu, in-non-diskriminazzjoni, it-tolleranza, il-ġustizzja, is-solidarjetà u l-ugwaljanza bejn in-nisa u l-irġiel. Vocabulary Although the original vocabulary of the language was Sicilian Arabic, it has incorporated a large number of borrowings from Romance sources of influence (Sicilian, Italian, and French), and more recently Germanic ones (from English). The historical source of modern Maltese vocabulary is 52% Italian/Sicilian, 32% Siculo-Arabic, and 6% English, with some of the remainder being French. About Malta; GTS; retrieved on [2008-02-24] Today, most function words are Semitic. In this way, it is similar to English, which is a Germanic language that had large influence from French - although less so than Maltese. As a result of this, Romance language-speakers may easily be able to comprehend more complex ideas expressed in Maltese, such as "Ġeografikament, l-Ewropa hi parti tas-superkontinent ta' l-Ewrasja" (Geographically, Europe is part of the Supercontinent of Eurasia), while not understanding a single word of a simple sentence such as "Ir-raġel qiegħed fid-dar" (The man is in the house). Romance An analysis of the etymology of the 41,000 words in Aquilina's Maltese-English Dictionary shows that words of Romance origin make up 52% of the Maltese vocabulary, although other sources claim from as low as 40%, BBC Education - Languages to as high as 55%. These vocabulary tend to deal with more complicated concepts. They are mostly derived from Sicilian and thus exhibit Sicilian phonetic characteristics, such as in place of , and in place of (e.g. tiatru not teatro and fidi not fede). Also, as with Old Sicilian, (English 'sh') is written 'x' and this produces spellings such as: ambaxxata ('embassy'), xena ('scene' cf. Italian ambasciata, scena). Maltese Sicilian Italian English skola scola scuola school gvern cuvernu governo government repubblika ripùbblica repubblica republic re re re king natura natura natura nature pulizija pulizzìa polizia police ċentru centru centro centre teatru tiatru teatro theatre Siculo-Arabic Siculo-Arabic was the ancestor of the Maltese language, Brincat, Joseph, M;Maltese – an unusual formula MED Magazine; [2005-02]; retrieved on [2008-02-22] and between 32% and 40% of the language's vocabulary today is from its Arabic roots. Maltese Siculo-Arabic English bebbuxu babbaluciu snail kapunata caponata caponata qassata cassata [Sicilian cake] ġiebja gebbia cistern ġunġlier giuggiulena sesame seed saqqajja saia canal kenur tanura oven żaffran zaffarana saffron zahar zagara blossom żbib zibbibbu raisins zokk zuccu tree trunk tebut tabbutu coffin found that 40% of a sample of 1,820 Quranic Arabic roots were found in Maltese, a lower percentage than found in Moroccan (58%) and Lebanese Arabic (72%). An analysis of the etymology of the 41,000 words in Aquilina's Maltese-English Dictionary shows that 32% of the Maltese vocabulary is of Arabic origin, although another source claims 40%. Usually, words expressing basic concepts and ideas, such as raġel (man), mara (woman), tifel (boy), dar (house), xemx (sun), sajf (summer), are of Arabic origin. Moreover, belles lettres in Maltese tend to aim mainly at diction belonging to this group. The Maltese language has merged many of the original Arabic consonants together, in particular the emphatic consonants, with others that are common in European languages. Thus, original Arabic , , and all merged into Maltese . The vowels, however, separated from the three in Arabic () to five as is more typical of other European languages (). Some unstressed short vowels have been elided. The common Arabic greeting as salāmu 'alaykum is cognate with sliem għalikhom in Maltese. Since the attested vocabulary of Siculo-Arabic is limited, the following table compares cognates in Maltese and some other varieties of Arabic: All forms are written phonetically, as in the source Alan S. Kaye & Judith Rosenhouse. 1997. "Arabic Dialects and Maltese," The Semitic Languages. Routledge. Pp. 263-311. Maltese Cairene Damascene Iraqi(Jewish Baghdad) Negev(bedouin) Yemenite[Sanaani] Moroccan English qalp 'alb 'alb qalb galb galb qəlb heart waqt wa't wa't -- wagt wagt wʌqt time qamar 'amar 'amar qamaɣ gumar gamar qəmr moon kelp kalb kalb kalb čalb kalb kəlb dog English It is estimated that English loanwords, which are becoming more commonplace, make up 20% of the Maltese vocabulary , although other sources claim amounts as low as 6%. This percentage discrepancy is due to the fact that a number of new English loanwords are sometimes not officially considered part of the Maltese vocabulary, hence they are not included in certain dictionaries. English loanwords are generally transliterated, although standard English pronunciation is virtually always retained. Below are a few examples: Maltese English futbol football baskitbol basketball mowbajl mobile [phone] lift lift/elevator friġġ fridge Grammar Maltese grammar is fundamentally derived from Siculo-Arabic, although Romance and English noun pluralization patterns are also used on borrowed words. Adjectives and adverbs Adjectives follow nouns. There are no separately formed native adverbs, and word order is fairly flexible. Both nouns and adjectives of Semitic origin take the definite article (for example It-tifel il-kbir, lit. "The boy the elder"="The elder boy"). This rule does not apply to adjectives of Romance origin. Nouns Nouns are pluralized and also have a dual marker. Semitic plurals are complex; if they are regular, they are marked by -iet/-ijiet, e.g., art, artijiet "lands (territorial possessions or property)" (cf. Arabic -at and Hebrew -ot) or -in (cf. Arabic -īn and Hebrew -im). If irregular, they fall in the pluralis fractus category, in which a word is pluralized by internal vowel changes: ktieb, kotba "books", raġel, irġiel "man", "men". Words of Romance origin are usually pluralized in two manners: addition of -i or -jiet. For example lingwa, lingwi "languages", from Sicilian lingua, lingui. Words of English origin are pluralized by adding either an "-s" or "-jiet", for example friġġ, friġis from the word fridge. Some words can be pluralized with either of the suffixes to denote the plural. A few words borrowed from English can amalgamate both suffixes together, like brikksa from the English brick, which can adopt either collective form brikks or the plural form brikksiet. Article The proclitic il- is the definite article, equivalent to "the" in English. The Maltese article becomes l- before or after a vowel. l-omm (the mother) rajna l-Papa (we saw the Pope) il-missier (the father) The Maltese article assimilates to a following coronal consonant (called konsonanti xemxin "sun consonants"), namely: Ċ iċ-ċikkulata (the chocolate) D id-dar (the house) N in-nar (the fire) R ir-razzett (the farm) S is-serrieq (the saw) T it-tifel (the boy) X ix-xemx (the sun) Ż iż-żarbun (the shoe) Z iz-zalzett (the sausage) Maltese il- is coincidentally identical in pronunciation to the one of the Italian masculine articles, il, which is also l’ before, but not after, a vowel. Because of this many nouns borrowed from Standard Italian did not change their original article when used in Maltese. Romance vocabulary taken from Sicilian did change where the Sicilian articles u and a, before a consonant, are used. Verbs Verbs show a triliteral Semitic pattern, in which a verb is conjugated with prefixes, suffixes, and infixes (for example ktibna, Arabic katabna, Hebrew katavnu "we wrote"). There are two tenses: present and perfect. The Maltese verb system incorporates Romance verbs and adds Maltese suffixes and prefixes to them (for example iddeċidejna "we decided" < (i)ddeċieda "decide", a Romance verb + -ejna, a Maltese first person plural perfect marker). Arabic only rarely does this, although several Arabic dialects do. Dialects Urban varieties of Maltese are closer to Standard Maltese than rural varieties, Isserlin. Studies in Islamic History and Civilization. BRILL 1986, ISBN 965264014X which have some characteristics that distinguish them from Standard Maltese. They tend to show some archaic features such as the realization of kh and gh and the imala of Arabic ā into ē (or ī especially in Gozo)-considered archaic because they are reminiscent of 15th century transcriptions of this sound. Another archaic feature is the realization of Standard Maltese ā as ō in rural dialects. There is also a tendency to diphthongize simple vowels, e.g., ū becomes eo or eu. Rural dialects also tend to employ more Semitic roots and broken plurals than Standard Maltese. In general, rural Maltese is less distant from the Arabic of the Western Mediterranean than Standard Maltese. Media With Malta being a multilingual country, the usage of Maltese in the mass media is shared with other European languages, namely English and Italian. The majority of television stations broadcast from Malta are in English or Maltese, although broadcasts from Italy in Italian are also received on the islands. Similarly, there are more Maltese language radio programs than English ones broadcast from Malta, but again, as with television, Italian broadcasts are also picked up. Maltese generally receives equal usage in newspaper periodicals to English. The use of the Maltese language on the internet is not altogether common and the number of websites written in Maltese are few. Out of a survey conducted on 13 Maltese websites, 12 of them were English only, and the remainder was bilingual with neither language being Maltese. Country report for MINERVA Plus in 2005; Multilingual issues in Malta; Retrieved on [2008-02-24] Trends Declining usage Amongst the population, a language shift towards English has begun, and some argue that Maltese is even comparable to a language like Irish, which has been largely displaced by English in its native country. http://www.gaelport.com/index.php?page=clippings&id=366&viewby=date Increasing input from English and Italian A tendency in modern Maltese is to adopt further influences from English and Italian. English words adopted into Maltese are often given Italianate or Sicilianate forms , even if the resulting words do not appear in either of those languages. For instance the words "evaluation", "industrial action" and "chemical armaments" become "evalwazzjoni", "azzjoni industrjali", and "armamenti kemikali" in Maltese, while the Italian terms are valutazione, vertenza sindicale and armi chimiche'' respectively. Code-switching The Maltese population, being fluent in both Maltese and English, is more and more frequently code-switching them as Maltenglish. See also Languages of Malta External links Dictionaries Malta Online Dictionary English-Maltese-English dictionary English-Maltese dictionary Collection of Maltese dictionaries English-Maltese-English online translator Literature and linguistics The Technical Committee for Literature within the National Council for the Maltese Language Maltese Language in Broadcasting Laws Technology Download the Maltese keyboard driver (Id-driver tat-Tastiera Maltija) Unicode for Maltese Maltese Spellchecker YahooGroup Kelmet - The Maltese language online forum Organisations Il-Kunsill Nazzjonali ta' l-Ilsien Malti L-Akkademja tal-Malti Għaqda tal-Malti - Università Għaqda Poeti Maltin Glossaries and resources Rimarju Malti Kappelli Maltin Ġonna Maltin L-ewro Il-Lingwa tas-Sinjali Maltija Ikteb l-inviti tat-tieġ bil-Malti Translation services Technical Documentation for Europe: Malta Maltese Style Guide (interinstitutional) Notes References . .
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Albinism
Albinism (from Latin albus, "white"; see extended etymology, also called achromia, achromasia, or achromatosis) is a form of hypopigmentary congenital disorder, characterized by a partial (in hypomelanism, also known as hypomelanosis) or total (amelanism or amelanosis) lack of melanin pigment in the eyes, skin and hair, or more rarely in the eyes alone. Albinism results from inheritance of recessive alleles. The condition is known to affect mammals (including humans), fish, birds, reptiles and amphibians. While the most common term for an organism affected by albinism is "albino" (noun and adjective), the word is sometimes used in derogatory ways towards people; more neutral terms are "albinistic" (adjective) and "person with albinism" (noun). Additional clinical adjectives sometimes used to refer to animals are "albinoid" and "albinic". It is not the same as leucism, where all integumental pigment is absent at least in patches but the eyes have their usual color. Types of human albinism Albino King penguin on South Georgia Island Albinism is hereditary; it is not an infectious disease and cannot be transmitted through contact, blood transfusions, or other vectors. The principal gene which results in albinism prevents the body from making the usual amounts of the pigment melanin. Most forms of albinism are the result of the biological inheritance of genetically recessive alleles (genes) passed from both parents of an individual, though some rare forms are inherited from only one parent. There are other genetic mutations which are proven to be associated with albinism. All alterations, however, lead to changes in melanin production in the body. "Albinism", by Dr. Raymond E. Boissy, Dr. James J. Nordlund, et al., at eMedicine, 22 August 2005; retrieved 31 March 2007 Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man Database, at Johns Hopkins University (see also Mendelian Inheritance in Man for more information about this source). Albinism was formerly categorized as tyrosinase-positive or -negative. In cases of tyrosinase-positive albinism, the enzyme tyrosinase is present. The melanocytes (pigment cells) are unable to produce melanin for any one of a variety of reasons that do not directly involve the tyrosinase enzyme. In tyrosinase-negative cases, either the tyrosinase enzyme is not produced or a nonfunctional version is produced. This classification has been rendered obsolete by recent research. The chance of offspring with albinism resulting from the pairing of an organism with albinism and one without albinism is low, as discussed in more detail below. However, because organisms can be carriers of genes for albinism without exhibiting any traits, albinistic offspring can be produced by two non-albinistic parents. Albinism usually occurs with equal frequency in both genders. An exception to this is ocular albinism, because it is passed on to offspring through X-linked inheritance. Thus, males more frequently have ocular albinism as they do not have a second X chromosome. "Facts about Albinism", by Richard King et al. Because organisms with albinism have skin that lacks (sufficiently or entirely) the dark pigment melanin, which helps protect the skin from ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun, they can sunburn easily from overexposure. (See human skin color for more information). Lack of melanin in the eye also results in problems with vision, related and unrelated to photosensitivity, which are discussed further below. Most humans and many animals with albinism appear white or very pale; the multiple types of melanin pigment are responsible for brown, black, gray, and some yellow colorations. In some animals, especially albinistic birds and reptiles, ruddy and yellow hues or other colors may be present on the entire body or in patches (as is common among pigeons), due to the presence of other pigments unaffected by albinism such as porphyrins, pteridines and psittacins, as well as carotenoid pigments derived from the diet. Some animals are white or pale due to chromatophore (pigment cell) defects, do not lack melanin production, and have normal eyes; they are referred to as leucistic. The direct opposite of albinism, an unusually high level of melanin pigmentation (and sometimes absence of other types of pigment in species that have more than one), is known as melanism, and results in an appearance darker than non-melanistic specimens from the same genepool. "Feather Colors: What We See" by Dr. Julie Feinstein of the American Museum of Natural History (NY), in Birder's World Magazine online archive; sourced December 2006, actual authoring/publication date unspecified. Albinism-like conditions may affect other pigments or pigment-production mechanisms in some animals (e.g. "whiteface", a lack of psittacins that can affect some parrot species.). "The Parblue Puzzle: Part 4—Common Parblue Varieties: The Cockatiel [Nymphicus hollandicus]" by Clive Hesford, The Genetics of Colour in the Budgerigar and Other Parrots, January 1998 Another is common in reptiles and amphibians: axanthism, in which xanthophore metabolism, instead of synthesis of melanin, is affected, resuling in reduction or absence of red and yellow pteridine pigments. "Amphibian Biology & Physiology: Caudata" at Amphibian Information Resource: An Educational Web Project About Amphibian Species; sourced December 2006, actual authoring/publication date unspecified. Of all these conditions, only albinism and melanism affect humans. px280|An albino Wistar rat, a strain commonly used for both biomedical and basic research. The eyes of an animal with albinism occasionally appear red due to the underlying retinal blood vessels showing through where there is not enough pigment to cover them. In humans this is rarely the case, as a human eye is quite large and thus produces enough pigment to lend opacity to the eye, often colouring the iris pale blue. However, there are cases in which the eyes of an albinistic person appear red or purple, depending on the amount of pigment present. The albinistic are generally (but see related disorders below) as healthy as the rest of their species, with growth and development occurring as normal, and albinism by itself does not cause mortality (though the lack of pigment is an elevated risk for skin cancer and other problems.) Many animals with albinism lack their protective camouflage and are unable to conceal themselves from their predators or prey; the survival rate of animals with albinism in the wild is usually quite low. Ilo Hiler, Albinos. Young Naturalist. The Louise Lindsey Merrick Texas Environment Series, No. 6, pp. 28-31. Texas A&M University Press, College Station (1983) S. Dobosz, K. Kohlmann, K. Goryczko, H. Kuzminski (2000) Growth and vitality in yellow forms of rainbow trout. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 16, 117–120. However the novelty of albino animals has occasionally led to their protection by groups such as the Albino Squirrel Preservation Society. Intentionally-bred albinistic strains of some animal species are commonly used as model organisms in biomedical study and experimentation. Examples include the BALB/c mouse and Wistar and Sprague Dawley rat strains, while albino rabbits were historically used for Draize toxicity testing. Draize, J.H., Woodard, G. & Calvery, H.O. (1944) Methods for the study of irritation and toxicity of substances applied topically to the skin and mucous membranes. J. Pharmacol. and Exp. Therapeutics. 82, 377–390. Albino axolotls, zebrafish, medaka and frogs are other common laboratory animals. The yellow mutation in fruit flies is their version of albinism. The incidence of albinism can be artificially increased in fish by exposing the eggs to heavy metals. About 1 in 17,000 human beings has some type of albinism, although up to 1 in 70 is a carrier of albinism genes. "Albinism" by Carol A. Turkington at answers.com Classification Green turtle (Chelonia mydas), albino. There are two main categories of albinism in humans: In oculocutaneous albinism (despite its Latin-derived name meaning "eye-and-skin" albinism), pigment is lacking in the eyes, skin and hair. (The equivalent mutation in non-humans also results in lack of melanin in the fur, scales or feathers.) People with oculocutaneous albinism can have anywhere from no pigment at all to almost-normal levels. In ocular albinism, only the eyes lack pigment. People who have ocular albinism have generally normal skin and hair color, and many even have a normal eye appearance. Other conditions include albinism as part of their presentation. These include Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome, Chediak-Higashi syndrome, Griscelli syndrome, Waardenburg syndrome, and Tietz syndrome. These conditions are sometimes classified with albinism. Several have sub-types. Some are easily distinguished by appearance, but in most cases genetic testing is the only way to be certain. Symptoms and conditions associated with albinism Genetic testing can confirm albinism and what variety it is, but offers no medical benefits except in the cases of non-OCA disorders (see below) that cause albinism along with other medical problems which may be treatable. The symptoms of albinism can be treated by various methods detailed below. Eye conditions common in albinism may include: Nystagmus, irregular rapid movement of the eyes back and forth, or in circular motion. Strabismus, eye misalignment ("crossed eyes" or "lazy eye"). Refractive errors such as myopia or hyperopia and especially astigmatism are more likely "Albinism: Modern molecular diagnosis" Photophobia, hypersensitivity to bright light and glare. Foveal hypoplasia, underdevelopment of the fovea, the center of the retina Optic nerve hypoplasia, underdevelopment of the optic nerve Abnormal decussation (crossing) of the optic nerve fibers in the optic chiasm Amblyopia, decrease in acuity of one or both eyes due to poor transmission to the brain, often due to other conditions such as strabismus. Albinistic girl from Papua New Guinea Organisms with albinism usually have impaired vision due to one or more of the listed conditions. While a person with albinism may suffer from common refractive errors like nearsightedness or farsightedness, the visual problems particularly associated with albinism arise from a poorly-developed retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) due to the lack of melanin . This degenerate RPE causes foveal hypoplasia (a failure in the development of normal foveae), which results in eccentric fixation and lower visual acuity, and often a minor level of strabismus. Nystagmus is usually seen, as is photophobia or light sensitivity (see below). The iris is a sphincter with pigmented tissue (which makes up the color of the eyes) that contracts to limit the amount of light that can enter through the pupil and relaxes again to allow for better vision in darkness. This mechanism can be observed in humans and mammals (like in cat's eyes) and is needed because too much light is uncomfortable or even painful and decreases vision. In people with albinism, the iris does not have enough pigment to block the light, thus the decrease of pupil diameter is only partially successful in reducing the amount of light that enters the eye. . Additionally, the improper development of the RPE, which in normal eyes absorbs most of the reflected sunlight, further increases glare due to light scattering within the eye. "Albinism - Review of Optometry Online" The resulting sensitivity (photophobia) generally leads to a dislike of and discomfort in bright light, but does not prevent people with albinism enjoying the outdoors, especially when using sunglasses and/or brimmed hats. "Facts about Albinism", by Dr. Richard King et al. The lack of pigment also makes the skin unusually sensitive to sunlight and thus susceptible to sunburn, so people with albinism should either avoid prolonged exposure to bright sunlight or protect their skin. Treatment of the symptoms Albinism is a condition that cannot be "cured", but small things can be done to improve the quality of life for those affected. Most importantly to improve vision, protect the eyes from bright lights, and avoid skin damage from sunlight. The extent and success rate of these measures depend on the type of albinism and severity of the symptoms; in particular, people with ocular albinism are likely to have normally-pigmented skin, and thus do not need to take special precautions against skin damage. Surgical treatment For the most part, treatment of the eye conditions consists of visual rehabilitation. Surgery is possible on the ocular muscles to decrease nystagmus, strabismus and common refractive errors like astigmatism. Strabismus surgery may improve the appearance of the eyes. Nystagmus-damping surgery can also be performed, to reduce the "shaking" of the eyes back and forth. by John Lee The effectiveness of all these procedures varies greatly and depends on individual circumstances. More importantly, since surgery will not restore a normal RPE or foveae, surgery will not provide fine binocular vision. In the case of esotropia (the "crossed eyes" form of strabismus), surgery may help vision by expanding the visual field (the area that the eyes can see while looking at one point). Vision aids Glasses and other vision aids, large-print materials and closed captioning, as well as bright but angled reading lights, can help individuals with albinism, even though their vision cannot be corrected completely. Some albinistic people do well using bifocals (with a strong reading lens), prescription reading glasses, and/or hand-held devices such as magnifiers or monoculars. Contact lenses may be colored to block light transmission through the iris. Some use bioptics, glasses which have small telescopes mounted on, in, or behind their regular lenses, so that they can look through either the regular lens or the telescope. Newer designs of bioptics use smaller light-weight lenses. Some US states allow the use of bioptic telescopes for driving motor vehicles. (See also NOAH bulletin "Low Vision Aids".) Although still disputed among the experts, many ophthalmologists recommend the use of glasses from early childhood onward to allow the eyes the best development possible. Optometrists or ophthalmologists who are experienced in working with low vision patients can recommend various optical aids. Some low-vision clinics provide these aids on trial loan, with instruction in their use. Sun protection It is vital that people with albinism use sunscreen when exposed to sunlight to prevent premature skin aging or skin cancer. This poses a problem for those who cannot afford sunscreen, especially in regions with high exposure to sunlight, as in Africa. Use of sunglasses and hats with wide brims can make the glare outside bearable. Other things that can help people with albinism are avoiding sudden changes of the lighting situation (switching the light on in complete darkness), using dimmable switches and adding tint to car windows or blinds to normal windows. Lights should be yellowish rather than blue and not point towards the usual position of a person with albinism (like their seat at a table). Misconceptions While some of the very rare albinism disorders that are coupled with deafness and immunodeficiency appear to be linked with inbreeding, the vast majority of sufferers of common albinism are not the product of such unions; the more usual albinism genes are widespread enough that they can easily produce albinistic offspring from parents that are not related. A common misconception is that albinistic individuals of a species are sterile; they are in fact fully capable of reproducing. It is also thought by many that people with albinism live short life spans. This is not true in general, but may be a distorted view of a more reasonable fact that people with albinism have a higher risk of skin cancer if they do not use proper skin protection when in the sun. (Some very rare variants of albinism are lethal by adulthood or sooner, but they are so little-known by the general public that they are unlikely to have contributed to this belief.) It has also been misunderstood that a person or other animal with albinism will become blind halfway through life; this is incorrect. Not all albinos are photophobic. Culture Afro-Brazilian albino pride parade during Bahia carnival In physical terms, humans with albinism commonly have vision problems and need sun protection. But they also face social and cultural challenges (even threats) as the condition is often a source of ridicule, discrimination, or even fear and violence. Cultures around the world have developed many beliefs regarding people with albinism. This folklore ranges from harmless myth to dangerously superstitious legends that cost human lives. In Tanzania starting in 2007 persecution of albinism was initiated by witch doctors and their helpers to provide magic potions for clients. (See Persecution of albinism for details.) Other examples: In Zimbabwe, belief that sex with an albinistic woman will cure a man of HIV has led to rapes (and subsequent HIV infections). In Jamaica, the albinistic have long been degraded, and regarded as "cursed". Severe discrimination almost always happens in less developed countries where the general scientific knowledge of such occurrences are not widespread and superstition takes hold. it is also more frequent in countries where the skin color varies from people with albinism the most likely because they are more easily differentiated from the general population. Portrayals of people with albinism in literature and films have historically rarely been positive. This fact is sometimes referred to as the "evil albino" stereotype, or albino bias. While this stereotype is common, in recent years a few more positive roles have also been cast for mock-albino actors and occasionally genuinely albinistic ones. (See Albinism in popular culture for lists of such portrayals.) A number of real people with albinism have become famous, including historical figures such as Emperor Seinei of Japan, and Oxford don William Archibald Spooner; actor/comedian Victor Varnado; musicians such as Johnny and Edgar Winter, Salif Keita, Winston "King Yellowman" Foster, Brother Ali, and Willie "Piano Red" Perryman; even a fashion model, Connie Chiu. (See Albinism in popular culture for a list.) There have also been some famed albino animals, including Migaloo, a whale off the coast of Australia; Floquet de Neu a Barcelona Zoo gorilla; Snowdrop, a Bristol Zoo penguin; the Pink Dolphin in Louisiana and the sperm whale Mocha Dick, the inspiration for Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick. (See Albinism in popular culture for details.) See also Albinism in popular culture Albinism in birds Leucism, a condition similar to albinism in animals, characterized by reduced pigmentation in general Melanism (or melanosis), unusually dark melanin pigmentation Xanthochromism, unusually yellow pigmentation Vitiligo (or leukoderma), the patchy loss of skin pigmentation Ukerewe Island List of Mendelian traits in humans Human variability References External links Albinism support organizations Positive Exposure—Non-profit organization founded by photographer Rick Guidotti, "dedicated to celebrating the spirit of difference". Focuses on genetic conditions, especially albinism. NOAH—National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation (USA); also has an online support group International Albinism Center (research project based at the University of Minnesota, USA) Albinism Fellowship (UK and Ireland) AFA—Albinism Fellowship of Australia Albino Alliance A support group/forum for people living with albinism in Australia TAF—The Albino Foundation (Nigeria & USA) ALBA—Asociación de Ayuda a Personas con Albinismo [Aid Association to Persons with Albinism] (Spain) OLA—Organización Latinoamericana de Albinismo [Latin-American Albinism Organization] (Mexico) Albinizm.ru community site Hermansky-Pudlak Syndrome Network (US-based) Other "The Golden Child: People of African Ancestry with Albinism" Portraits of people with albinism by Pieter Hugo Albinism in animals Albino cobra. It retains some yellow and red pigment, because it is not also axanthic. An albino rat, due to its reddish colored eyesA Domesticated Albino Hamster . Albino and white mammals and birds Albino frogs Albino tiger barb fish Albino catfish (Corydoras paleatus) Albino squirrels Albino redfoot tortoise (Geochelone carbonaria) Albino Chimpanzee
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Heretic_II
Heretic II is a fantasy action-adventure game developed by Raven Software and published by Activision in 1998 continuing the story of Corvus, the main character from its predecessor, Heretic. Using a modified id Tech 2 engine, the game features a mix of a third-person camera with a first-person shooter's action, making for a new gaming experience at the time. While progressive, this was a controversial design decision among fans of the original title, a well-known first-person shooter built on the Doom engine. The score was composed by Kevin Schilder. The art design and some of the artwork itself were created by Gerald Brom. Heretic II was later ported to Linux by Loki Software and to the Amiga by Hyperion Entertainment. Plot A mysterious plague has swept the land of Parthoris, taking the sanity of those it does not kill. Corvus, the protagonist of the first game, is forced to flee his hometown of Silverspring after the infected attack him, but not before he is infected himself. The effects of the disease are held at bay in Corvus’ case because he holds one of the Tomes of Power, but he still must find a cure before he succumbs. His search leads him to an ancient Seraph named Morcalavin. Morcalavin is trying to reach immortality using the seven Tomes of Power, but he uses a false tome, as Corvus has one of them. This has caused Morcalavin to go insane and create the plague. During a battle between Corvus and Morcalavin, Corvus switches the false tome for his real one, curing Morcalavin’s insanity and ending the plague. External links Official Heretic II FAQ
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4,741
Asteraceae
The family Asteraceae or Compositae (known as the aster, daisy, or sunflower family) is the second largest family of flowering plants, in terms of number of species. The name Asteraceae is derived from the type genus Aster, while Compositae, an older but still valid International Code of Botanical Nomenclature Art. 18.5 name, means composite and refers to the characteristic inflorescence, a special type of pseudanthium found in only a few other angiosperm families. The study of this family is known as synantherology. According to the Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew, the family comprises more than 1,600 genera and 23,000 species. The largest genera are Senecio (1,500 species), Vernonia (1,000 species), Cousinia (600 species), Centaurea (600 species). The circumscription of the genera is often problematic and some of these have been frequently divided into minor subgroups. Judd & al., Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach Asteraceae are cosmopolitan, but most common in the temperate regions and tropical mountains. Taxonomy The family has been universally recognised and placed in the order Asterales. Traditionally two subfamilies were recognised: Asteroideae (or 'Tubuliflorae') and Cichorioideae (or 'Liguliflorae'). The latter is paraphyletic and has been divided into many minor groups in most newer systems. The phylogenetic tree presented below is based on Panero & Funk (2002) and also shown in the APG system. A tentative cladogram is shown below. The diamond denotes a very poorly supported branching (<50%), the dot a poorly supported branching (<80%).<ref name="APW">Stevens, P.F., Angiosperm Phylogeny Website]</ref> It is noteworthy that the four subfamilies Asteroideae, Cichorioideae, Carduoideae and Mutisioideae comprise 99% of the specific diversity of the whole family (appr. 70%, 14%, 11% and 3% respectively). Other subfamilies have been recognised by some authors, e.g. Helianthoideae. Description Asteraceae are most usually herbs, but some shrubs, trees and climbers do exist. They are generally easy to distinguish, mainly because of their characteristic inflorescence and many shared apomorphies. Leaves and stems The leaves and the stems very often contain secretory canals with resin or latex (particularly common among the Cichorioideae). The leaves can be alternate, opposite, or whorled. They may be simple, but are often deeply lobed or otherwise incised, often conduplicate or revolute. The margins can be entire or dentate. Flowers A typical Asteraceae flower head (here Bidens torta) showing the individual flowers The most evident characteristic of Asteraceae is perhaps their inflorescence: a specialised capitulum, technically called a calathid or calathidium, but generally referred to as flower head or, alternatively, simply capitulum. Usher, 1966 The capitulum is a contracted raceme composed of numerous individual sessile flowers, called the florets, all sharing the same receptacle. The capitulum of the Asteraceae has evolved many characteristics that make it look superficially like a big single flower. This kind of flower-like inflorescences are quite widespread amongst plants and have been given the name of pseudanthia. Flower diagram of Carduus (Carduoideae) Many bracts form an involucre under the basis of the capitulum; these are called "phyllaries", or "involucral bracts". They may simulate the sepals of the pseudanthium. These are mostly herbaceous but can also be brightly coloured (e.g. Helichrysum) or have a scarious texture. The bracts can be free or fused, and arranged in one to many rows, overlapping like the tiles of a roof (imbricate) or not (this variation is important in identification of tribes and genera). Each floret may itself be subtended by a bract, called a "palea" or "receptacular bract". These bracts as a group are often called "chaff". The presence or absence of these bracts, their distribution on the receptacle, and their size and shape are all important diagnostic characteristics for genera and tribes. The florets have five petals fused at the base to form a corolla tube and they may be either actinomorphic or zygomorphic. Disc florets are usually actinomorphic, with five petal lips on the rim of the corolla tube. The petal lips may be either very short, or long, in which case they form deeply lobed petals. The latter is the only kind of floret in the Carduoideae, while the first kind is more widespread. Ray florets are always highly zygomorphic and are characterised by the presence of a ligule, a strap-shaped structure on the edge of the corolla tube consisting of fused petals. In the Asteroideae and other minor subfamilies these are usually borne only on florets at the circumference of the capitulum and have a 3+2 scheme – above the fused corolla tube, three very long fused petals form the ligule, with the other two petals being inconspicuously small. The Cichorioidea has only ray florets, with a 5+0 scheme – all five petals form the ligule. A 4+1 scheme is found in the Barnadesioideae. The tip of the ligule is often divided into teeth, each one representing a petal. Some marginal florets may have no petals at all (filiform floret). The calyx of the florets may be absent, but when present it is always modified into a pappus of two or more teeth, scales or bristles and this is often involved in the dispersion of the seeds. As with the bracts, the nature of the pappus is an important diagnostic feature. There are usually five stamens. The filaments are fused to the corolla, while the anthers are generally connate (syngenesious anthers), thus forming a sort of tube around the style (theca). They commonly have basal and/or apical appendages. Pollen is released inside the tube and is collected around the growing style, expelled with a sort of pump mechanism (nüdelspritze) or a brush. The pistil is made of two connate carpels. The style has two lobes; stigmatic tissue may be located in the interior surface or form two lateral lines. The ovary is inferior and has only one ovule, with basal placentation. Fruits and seeds Seeds are dispersed by the wind in Carlina The fruit of the Asteraceae is a specialised type of achene, sometimes called cypsela (plural cypselae). One seed per fruit is formed. It may sometimes be flat, winged or spiny and it adheres to the persistent pappus. Its morphology is often used to help determine plant relationships at the genus and species level. The seeds usually have little or lack endosperm. Metabolites Asteraceae generally store energy in the form of inulin. They produce iso/chlorogenic acid, sesquiterpene lactones, pentacyclic triterpene alcohols, various alkaloids, acetylenes (cyclic, aromatic, with vinyl end groups), tannins. They have terpenoid essential oils which never contain iridoids. Ecology Epizoochory in Bidens tripartita Asteraceae are especially common in open and dry environments. Many members of the Asteraceae are pollinated by insects, which explains their value in attracting beneficial insects, but anemophyly is also present (e.g. Ambrosia, Artemisia). There are many apomictic species in the family. Seeds are ordinarily dispersed intact with the fruiting body, the cypsela. Wind dispersal is common (anemochory) assisted by a hairy pappus. Another common variation is epizoochory, in which the dispersal unit, a single cypsela (e.g. Bidens) or entire capitulum (e.g. Arctium) provided with hooks, spines or some equivalent structure, sticks to the fur or plumage of an animal (or even to clothes, like in the photo) just to fall off later far from its mother plant. Evolution Diversification of Asteraceae may have been within 42-36 million years, the stem group perhaps being up to 49 million years old. It is still unknown whether the precise cause of their great success was the development of the calathid, their ability to store energy as fructans (mainly inulin), which is an advantage in relatively dry zones, or some combination of these and possibly other factors. Uses Sunflowers are a commonly cultivated member of Asteraceae Commercially important plants in the Asteraceae include the food crops Lactuca sativa (lettuce), Cichorium (chicory), Cynara scolymus (globe artichoke), Helianthus annuus (sunflower), Smallanthus sonchifolius (yacón), Carthamus tinctorius (safflower) and Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem artichoke). Other commercially important species include Compositae used as herbs and in herbal teas and other beverages. Chamomile which comes from two different species, the annual Matricaria recutita or German chamomile, and the perennial Chamaemelum nobile, also called Roman chamomile. Calendula, also called the pot marigold is grown commercially for herbal teas and the potpourri industry. Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea), used as a medicinal tea. Winter tarragon, also called Mexican mint marigold, Tagetes lucida is commonly grown and used as a tarragon substitute in climates where tarragon will not survive. Finally, the wormwood genus Artemisia includes absinthe (A. absinthium) and tarragon (A. dracunculus). Industrial use of Compositae is also known. Common in all commercial poultry feed, marigold (Tagetes patula) is grown primarily in Mexico. Marigold oil, extracted from Tagetes minuta is used by the metric ton in the cola and cigarette industry. Plants in Asteraceae are medically important in areas that don't have access to Western medicine. They are also commonly featured in medical and phytochemical journals because the sesquiterpene lactone compounds contained within them are an important cause of allergic contact dermatitis. Allergy to these compounds is the leading cause of allergic contact dermatitis in florists in the US. Odom & al., 2000 Pollen from Ragweed Ambrosia is among the main causes of so called hay fever in the United States. Ragweed Allergy Many members of the family are grown as ornamental plants for their flowers and some are important ornamental crops for the cut flower industry. Some examples are Chrysanthemum, Gerbera, Calendula, Dendranthema, Argyranthemum, Dahlia, Tagetes, Zinnia and many others. [[Image:Unidentified Pink Flower Closeup 2048px.jpg|thumb|right|A Dahlia cultivar] Many members of Asteraceae are copious nectar producers and are useful for evaluating pollinator populations during their bloom. Centaurea (knapweed), Helianthus annuus (domestic sunflower), and some species of Solidago (goldenrod) are major "honey plants" for beekeepers. Solidago produces relatively high protein pollen, which helps honey bees overwinter. Some members of the Asteraceae are economically important as weeds. Notably in the United States are the ragwort, Senecio jacobaea, groundsel Senecio vulgaris and Taraxacum (dandelion). The genera Tanacetum, Chrysanthemum and Pulicaria contain species with insecticidal properties. Parthenium argentatum (Guayule) is a source of hypoallergenic latex. Genera Image gallery See also Terminology for Asteraceae Damned yellow composite Footnotes References Panero J. L. and V. A. Funk. 2002. Toward a phylogenetic subfamilial classification for the Compositae (Asteraceae). Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 115: 909-922. Stevens, P. F. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website Judd & al. Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (VIENNA CODE) Art. 18.5 ITIS report 2002-09-10 Walters, Dirk R. and David J. Keil (1996). Vascular plant taxonomy. 4th ed. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Dubuque, Iowa. Wagner,W.L., D.R. Herbst, and S.H. Sohmer. 1990. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i'', Vol. I. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 988 pp. D. J. N. Hind, C. Jeffrey & G. V. Pope (eds.), Advances in Compositae systematics. - Royal Bot. Gardens, Kew, 469 pp., 1995 External links
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4,742
Progressive_education
Educational progressivism is the belief that education must be based on the principle that humans are social animals who learn best in real-life activities with other people. Progressivists claimed to rely on the best available scientific theories of learning. Most progressive educators believe that children learn as if they were scientists, following a process similar to John Dewey's model of learning: Become aware of the problem. Define the problem. Propose hypotheses to solve it. Evaluate the consequences of the hypotheses from one's past experience. Test the likeliest solution. Given this view of human nature, a progressivist teacher desires to provide not just reading and drill, but also real-world experiences and activities that center on the real life of the students. A typical progressivist slogan is "Learn by Doing!" Philosophy Progressive education is a pedagogical movement that began in the late nineteenth century and has persisted in various forms to the present. More recently, it has been viewed as an alternative to the test-oriented instruction legislated by the No Child Left Behind educational funding act. The term "progressive" was engaged to distinguish this education from the traditional curriculum of the 19th century, which was rooted in classical preparation for the university and strongly differentiated by socioeconomic level. By contrast, progressive education finds its roots in present experience. Most progressive education programs have these qualities in common: Emphasis on learning by doing – hands-on projects, experiential learning Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units Strong emphasis on problem solving and critical thinking Group work and development of social skills Understanding and action as the goals of learning as opposed to rote knowledge Collaborative and cooperative learning projects Education for social responsibility and democracy Integration of community service and service learning projects into the daily curriculum Selection of subject content by looking forward to ask what skills will be needed in future society De-emphasis on textbooks in favor of varied learning resources Emphasis on life-long learning and social skills Assessment by evaluation of child’s projects and productions Development in the United States The most famous early practitioner of progressive education was Francis Parker; its best-known spokesperson was the philosopher John Dewey. In 1875 Francis Parker became superintendent of schools in Quincy, Massachusetts after spending two years in Germany studying emerging educational trends on the continent. Parker was opposed to rote learning, believing that there was no value in knowledge without understanding. He argued instead that schools should encourage and respect the child’s creativity. Parker’s Quincy System called for child-centered and experience-based learning. He replaced the traditional curriculum with integrated learning units based on core themes that related knowledge of different disciplines. He replaced traditional readers, spellers and grammar books with children’s own writing, literature, and teacher prepared materials. In 1883 Parker left Massachusetts to become Principal of the Cook County Normal School in Chicago, a school that also served to train teachers in Parker’s methods. In 1894 Parker’s Talks on Pedagogics, which drew heavily on the thinking of Froebel, Pestalozzi and Herbart, became one of the first American writings on education to gain international fame. That same year, philosopher John Dewey moved from the University of Michigan to the newly established University of Chicago where he became chair of the department of philosophy, psychology and education. He and his wife enrolled their children in Parker’s school before founding their own school two years later. Whereas Parker started with practice and then moved to theory, Dewey began with hypotheses and then devised methods and curricula to test them. By the time Dewey moved to Chicago at the age of thirty-five, he had already published two books on psychology and applied psychology. He had become dissatisfied with philosophy as pure speculation and was seeking ways to make philosophy directly relevant to practical issues. Moving away from an early interest in Hegel, Dewey proceeded to reject all forms of dualism and dichotomy in favor of a philosophy of experience as a series of unified wholes in which everything can be ultimately related. In 1896, John Dewey opened what he called the laboratory school to test his theories and their sociological implications. With Dewey as the director and his wife as principal, the University of Chicago Laboratory school, was dedicated “to discover in administration, selection of subject-matter, methods of learning, teaching, and discipline, how a school could become a cooperative community while developing in individuals their own capacities and satisfy their own needs.” (Cremin, 136) For Dewey the two key goals of developing a cooperative community and developing individuals’ own capacities were not at odds; they were necessary to each other. This unity of purpose lies at the heart of the progressive education philosophy. At Columbia, Dewey worked with other educators such as Charles Eliot and Abraham Flexner to help bring progressivism into the mainstream of American education. In 1917 Columbia established the Lincoln School of Teachers College “as a laboratory for the working out of an elementary and secondary curriculum which shall eliminate obsolete material and endeavor to work up in usable form material adapted to the needs of modern living.” (Cremin, 282) Based on Flexner’s demand that the modern curriculum “include nothing for which an affirmative case can not be made out” (Cremin, 281) the new school organized its activities around four fundamental fields: science, industry, aesthetics and civics. The Lincoln School built its curriculum around “units of work” that reorganized traditional subject matter into forms embracing the development of children and the changing needs of adult life. The first and second grades carried on a study of community life in which they actually built a city. A third grade project growing out of the day to day life of the nearby Hudson river became one of the most celebrated units of the school, a unit on boats, which under the guidance of its legendary teacher Miss Curtis, became an entrée into history, geography, reading, writing, arithmetic, science, art and literature. Each of the units was broadly enough conceived so that different children could concentrate on different aspects depending on their own interests and needs. Each of the units called for widely diverse student activities, and each sought to deal in depth with some critical aspect of contemporary civilization. Finally each unit engaged children working together cooperatively and also provided opportunities for individual research and exploration. From 1919 to 1955 the Progressive Education Association founded by Stanwood Cobb and others worked to promote the a more student-centered approach to education. During the Great Depression the organization conducted an Eight Year study evaluating the effects of progressive programs. More 1500 students over four years were compared to an equal number of carefully matched students at conventional schools. When they reached college, the experimental students were found to equal or surpass traditionally educated students on all outcomes: grades, extracurricular participation, dropout rates, intellectual curiosity, and resourcefulness. Moreover, the study found that the more the school departed from the traditional college preparatory program, the better was the record of the graduates. (Kohn, Schools, 232) By mid-century many public school programs had also adopted elements of progressive curriculum. At mid-century Dewey believed that progressive education had “not really penetrated and permeated the foundations of the educational institution.”(Kohn, Schools, 6,7) As the influence of progressive pedagogy grew broader and more diffuse, practitioners began to vary their application of progressive principles. As varying interpretations and practices made evaluation of progressive reforms more difficult to assess, critics began to propose alternative approaches. The seeds of the debate over progressive education can be seen in the differences of Parker and Dewey. These have to do with how much and by whom curriculum should be worked out from grade to grade, how much the child’s emerging interests should determine classroom activities, the importance of child-centered vs. societal–centered learning, the relationship of community building to individual growth, and especially the relationship between emotion, thought and experience. In 1955 the publication of Why Johnny Can’t Read leveled criticism of reading programs at the progressive emphasis on reading in context. The conservative McCarthy era raised questions about the liberal ideas at the roots of the progressive reforms. The launching of Sputnik in 1958 at the height of the cold war gave rise to number of intellectually competitive approaches to disciplinary knowledge, such as BSCS biology PSSC physics, led by university professors such as Jerome Bruner and Jerrold Zacharias. Interestingly, some of the cold war reforms incorporated elements of progressivism. For example, the work of Zacharias and Bruner was based in the developmental psychology of Jean Piaget and incorporated many of Dewey’s ideas of experiential education. Bruner’s analysis of developmental psychology became the core of a pedagogical movement known as constructivism, which argues that that the child is an active participant in making meaning and must be engaged in the progress of education for learning to be effective. This psychological approach has deep connections to the work of both Parker and Dewey and led to a resurgence of their ideas in second half of the century. In 1963 President Johnson inaugurated the Great Society and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act suffused public school programs with funds for sweeping education reforms. At the same time the influx of federal funding also gave rise to demands for accountability and the behavioral objectives approach of Mager and others foreshadowed the No Child Left Behind Act passed in 2002. Against these critics eloquent spokespersons stepped forward in defense of the progressive tradition. The Open Classroom movement, led by Herb Kohl and George Dennison, recalled many of Parker's child centered reforms. More recently Alfie Kohn has been an outspoken critic of the No Child Left Behind Act and a passionate defender of the progressive tradition. Barrow Street Nursery School--A private progressive nursery school in the West Village of Manhattan. New York, NY 10014 World Book 2004 /A Brief Overview of Progressive Education / International Journal of Progressive Education / Progressive Education: Contrasting Methodologies by Steven Nelson Taxpayer revolts, leading to cuts in funding for public education in many states, have led to the founding of an unprecedented number of independent schools, many of which have progressive philosophies. The charter school movement has also spawned an increase in progressive programs. Most recently, public outcry against No Child Left Behind testing and teaching to the test has brought progressive education again into the limelight. Despite the variations that still exist among the progressive programs throughout the country, most progressive schools today are vitalized by these common practices: The curriculum is more flexible and is influenced by student interest Teachers are facilitators of learning who encourage students to use a wide variety of activities to learn Progressive teachers use a wider variety of materials allowing for individual and group research. Progressive teachers encourage students to learning by discovery Progressive education programs often include the use of community resources and encourage service-learning projects. Education outside of schools Organizations like the Boy Scouts of America arose amidst concerns of the progressive movement in the United States from people who sought to promote the social welfare of young men through education. After decades of growing interest in and development of experiential education and scouting (not Scouting) in the United States, and the emergence of the Scout Movement in 1907, in 1910 Boy Scouts of America was founded in the merger of three older Scouting organizations: Boy Scouts of the United States, the National Scouts of America and the Peace Scouts of California. Its founder, Chicago publisher W. D. Boyce was visiting London, in 1909, when he met the Unknown Scout and learned of the Scouting movement. Soon after his return to the U.S., Boyce incorporated the Boy Scouts of America on February 8, 1910. Edgar M. Robinson and Lee F. Hanmer became interested in the nascent BSA program and convinced Boyce to turn the program over to the YMCA for development. Robinson enlisted Ernest Thompson Seton, Daniel Carter Beard and other prominent leaders in the early youth movements. After initial development, Robinson turned the movement over to James E. West who became the first Chief Scout Executive and the Scouting movement began to expand in the U.S. As BSA grew, it absorbed other Scouting organizations. Recent developments Changes in educational establishments came about as Americans and Europeans felt they had fallen behind the Soviet Union technologically. A rethinking of education theory followed that, together with the prevailing conservative political climate, helped to cause progressivism to fall from favor. However, today many schools use progressive education methods, such as hands on activities and science experiments in Junior High Schools. Numerous schools also self-identify as progressive in educational philosophy. Ayn Rand's Criticism Twentieth century philosopher Ayn Rand referred to progressive educators as "the Comprachicos of the mind." She accused them of "crippling a child's mind by arresting his cognitive development.". Rand, Ayn: "The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution", pp. 41-95. Signet, 1975 http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?JServSessionIdr005=vqt6kzx6s2.app7a&page=NewsArticle&id=6151&news_iv_ctrl=1069 Schools and Colleges employing the Dewey model of Progressive Education Bank Street College of Education - A Progressive Children's School and College of Education in New York, New York, founded in 1916. Queen Anne Community School - A progressive, independent Pre-K to Fifth Grade School in Seattle, Washington. Westland School - A Progressive elementary school in Los Angeles, California, founded in 1949. Our Community School - A Progressive elementary charter school in North Hills, California, founded in 2005. The Park School of Buffalo - A Progressive school for grades K-12 in Snyder, New York, founded in 1912. Park Day School - A Progressive elementary school in Oakland, California Windrush School - A progressive Kindergarten to Eighth Grade School in El Cerrito, California Christa McAuliffe School - A progressive K-8 school in the Cupertino Union School District in California The Peninsula School - A Progressive elementary school in Menlo Park, California Friends School of Minnesota - A Progressive K-8 Quaker school in St. Paul, Minnesota. Friends Community School - A Progressive K-8 school in College Park, Maryland The Children's School of Oak Park - A Progressive Education elementary school in Oak Park, Illinois The Children's Community School - A progressive elementary school in Los Angeles, California The Manhattan Country School - A progressive elementary school in New York, New York The City and Country School - A progressive elementary school in New York, New York The Little Red Schoolhouse and Elisabeth Irwin High School - A progressive elementary school in New York, New York Wingra School - A progressive school for 5 to 14 year olds in Madison, Wisconsin Oakwood School - A progressive junior high to high school in North Hollywood, California Sequoyah School - A child-centered/progressive school for 5 to 14 year olds in Pasadena, California The Little School - A Progressive school for ages 3-12 in Bellevue, Washington, founded in 1959 The Park School of Baltimore - A Progressive school for grades K-12 in Pikesville, Maryland, founded in 1912. The Philadelphia School - A Progressive elementary school in Philadelphia, PA Greenwood Friends School-A progressive PK-8 school in Millville, PA Buxton School A Progressive coed boarding/day school for grade 9-12 in Williamstown, MA, founded in 1928. The Putney School - A Progressive coed boarding/day school for grades 9-12 in Putney, VT, founded in 1935 San Roque School - A progressive K-12 school in Santa Barbara, California St. Francis School - A progressive K-8 school in Goshen, Kentucky The Dragon Academy - A progressive museum based middle and high school in Toronto, Canada The School in Rose Valley - A progressive preschool through sixth grade near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Oak Lane Day School - A progressive preschool through sixth grade near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, founded in 1916 Presidio Hill School - A progressive K-8 school in San Francisco, California, founded in 1918 The Miquon School - A progressive PK-6 school founded in 1932 near Philadelphia PA Foundations School Community - A Progressive K-8 school in Los Angeles, California, unique as the only kindergarten, elementary and middle progressive school in the San Fernando Valley. Chatsworth Hills Academy - Preschool through 8th grade located in Chatsworth, California (San Fernando Valley) Walden Center & School - A progressive K-6 School in Berkeley, California Colleges Bank Street College of Education - Founded in 1916, Bank Street is known for its progressive educational approach. Combining current scholarship on child-centered education, psychological development, and practical experience, the College offers three program areas: The Graduate School of Education, Children's Programs, and the Division of Continuing Education. The Bank Street Bookstore specializes in children's books and educational materials for children and educators, and is considered one of the best children's bookstores in New York City. Goddard College - A progressive college founded on the ideals and work of John Dewey. Goddard offers BA, MA and MFA low residency programs in Writing, Education, Psychology, Health Arts, Interdisciplinary Arts and Individually designed programs for working adults. Eight day residencies in Plainfield, Vermont and Port Townsend, Washington Soka University of America - A four year college founded in 2001 in Aliso Viejo, California. Antioch University - A six-campus American university with campuses with campuses in Los Angeles, Seattle, Santa Barbara, Ohio, and New England. It is founded on principles of rigorous liberal arts education, innovative experiential learning and socially engaged citizenship. Antioch College is the result of American educator Horace Mann's dream to establish a college comparable to Harvard but with some notable differences. This college was to be completely non-sectarian and co-educational, and with a curriculum that would not only include the traditional treatment of the classics, but would emphasize science and the scientific method, history and modern literature. Union Institute & University BA program in Montpelier and Brattleboro, Vermont, offering Bachelor of Arts in low-residency and online programs, a leader in progressive student-centered higher education for working adults. Offering Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Studies with concentrations in Women's and Gender Studies, Literature and Writing, Psychology, Education, Historical,Social and Cultural Studies, the Arts, Religious, Spiritual and Holitistic Studies, Environmental Studies, and a Teacher Licensure Program. The low-residency M.Ed. in Montpelier, Vermont is designed for working adults and uses a progressive, student-centered model. Further reading Bernstein, Richard J. “John Dewey,” Encyclopedia of Philosophy, New York: Macmillan, 1967, 380-385 Kevin J. Brehony, What's Left of Progressive Primary Education. Rethinking Radical Education. A. Rattansi and D. Reeder. London, Lawrence and Wishart: 1992: 196-221. Kevin J. Brehony. "An ‘undeniable’ and ‘disastrous’ Influence? John Dewey and English Education (1895-1939)." Oxford Review of Education 23(4) 1997: 427-445. Kevin J. Brehony "From the particular to the general, the continuous to the discontinuous: progressive education revisited." History of Education 30(5) 2001: 413-432. Bruner, Jerome. The Process of Education. New York: Random House, 1960 Bruner, Jerome. The Relevance of Education. New York: Norton, 1971. Cappel, Constance, "Utopion Colleges," Peter Lang, 1999. Cremin, Lawrence. The Transformation of the School: Progressivism in American Education, 1876-1957. New York: Knopf, 1962 Dewey, John. Experience and Education. New York: Kappa Delta Pi 1938 Dewey, John. Dewey on Education, edited by Martin Dworkin. New York: Teachers college Press, 1959 Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. New York: Free Press, 1944. Dewey, John. Experience and Nature. New York: Dover, 1958. Harms, William and De Pencier, Ida. Experiencing Education: 100 Years of Learning at the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools. University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, 1996 Hayes, William, The Progressive Education Movement: Is it Still a Factor in Today’s’ Schools? New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006 Flesch, Rudolf, Why Johnny Can’t Read, New York: Harper and Row, 1955 Holt, John, How Children Fail, New York: Pitman, 1964 Kohn, Alfie. The Case Against Standardized Testing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2000 Kohn, Alfie. The Schools Our Children Deserve. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1999 Kozol, Jonathon. Free Schools, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972 Kohl, Herb. The Discipline of Hope, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998 Kohl, Herb. Teaching the Unteachable, New York Review of Books, 1967. Mager, Robert F. Preparing Behavioral Objectives, Atlanta, Georgia, Center for Effective Instruction, 1969 Noddings, Nel. “What Does it Mean to Educate the Whole Child?” Educational Leadership, September 2005, volume 63, no 1 Progressive Education Network. www.progressiveed.org Ravitch, Dianne. Left Back: A Century of Battles over School Reform. New York, Simon and Schuster, 2000. See also Constructionist learning (Seymour Papert) Student voice Experiential education Educational philosophies Education reform Humanistic education Laboratory school Learning by teaching (LdL) Teaching for social justice Minnesota State University, Mankato Masters Degree in Experiential Education References
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Organization_of_American_States
The Organization of American States (OAS, or, as it is known in the three other official languages, OEA) is an international organization, headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States. Coordinates of OAS headquarters: Its members are the thirty-five independent states of the Americas. History The notion of closer hemispheric union in the Americas was first put forward by Simón Bolívar who, at the 1826 Congress of Panama, proposed creating a league of American republics, with a common military, a mutual defense pact, and a supranational parliamentary assembly. This meeting was attended by representatives of Gran Colombia (comprising the modern-day nations of Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela), Peru, the United Provinces of Central America, and Mexico, but the grandly titled "Treaty of Union, League, and Perpetual Confederation" was ultimately only ratified by Gran Colombia. Bolívar's dream soon floundered with civil war in Gran Colombia, the disintegration of Central America, and the emergence of national rather than continental outlooks in the newly independent American republics. Bolívar's dream of American unity was meant to unify Latin American nations against imperial domination by external power. The pursuit of regional solidarity and cooperation again came to the forefront in 1889–90, at the First International Conference of American States. Gathered together in Washington, D.C., 18 nations resolved to found the International Union of American Republics, served by a permanent secretariat called the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics (renamed the "International Commercial Bureau" at the Second International Conference in 1901–02). These two bodies, in existence as of 14 April 1890, represent the point of inception to which today's OAS and its General Secretariat trace their origins. At the Fourth International Conference of American States (Buenos Aires, 1910), the name of the organization was changed to the "Union of American Republics" and the Bureau became the "Pan American Union". Pan American Union headquarters building in Washington, D.C., 1943 The experience of World War II convinced hemispheric governments that unilateral action could not ensure the territorial integrity of the American nations in the event of extra-continental aggression. To meet the challenges of global conflict in the postwar world and to contain conflicts within the hemisphere, they adopted a system of collective security, the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty) signed in 1947 in Rio de Janeiro. The Ninth International Conference of American States was held in Bogotá between March and May 1948 and led by United States Secretary of State George Marshall, a meeting which led to a pledge by members to fight communism in America. This was the event that saw the birth of the OAS as it stands today, with the signature by 21 American countries of the Charter of the Organization of American States on 30 April 1948 (in effect since December 1951). The meeting also adopted the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, the world's first general human rights instrument. The transition from the Pan American Union to OAS was smooth. The Director General of the former, Alberto Lleras Camargo, became the Organization's first Secretary General. The current Secretary General is former Chilean foreign minister José Miguel Insulza. Significant milestones in the history of the OAS since the signing of the Charter have included the following: 1959: Inter-American Commission on Human Rights created. 1961: Charter of Punta del Este signed, launching the Alliance for Progress. 1969: American Convention on Human Rights signed (in force since 1978). 1970: OAS General Assembly established as the Organization's supreme decision-making body. 1979: Inter-American Court of Human Rights created. 1991: Adoption of Resolution 1080, which requires the Secretary General to convene the Permanent Council within ten days of a coup d'état in any member country. 1994: First Summit of the Americas (Miami), which resolved to establish a Free Trade Area of the Americas by 2005. 2001: Inter-American Democratic Charter adopted. Goals and purpose In the words of Article 1 of the Charter, the goal of the member nations in creating the OAS was "to achieve an order of peace and justice, to promote their solidarity, to strengthen their collaboration, and to defend their sovereignty, their territorial integrity, and their independence." Article 2 then defines eight essential purposes: To strengthen the peace and security of the continent. To promote and consolidate representative democracy, with due respect for the principle of nonintervention. To prevent possible causes of difficulties and to ensure the pacific settlement of disputes that may arise among the member states. To provide for common action on the part of those states in the event of aggression. To seek the solution of political, judicial, and economic problems that may arise among them To promote, by cooperative action, their economic, social, and cultural development. To eradicate extreme poverty, which constitutes an obstacle to the full democratic development of the peoples of the hemisphere. To achieve an effective limitation of conventional weapons that will make it possible to devote the largest amount of resources to the economic and social development of the member states. Over the course of the 1990s, with the end of the Cold War, the return to democracy in Latin America, and the thrust toward globalization, the OAS made major efforts to reinvent itself to fit the new context. Its stated priorities now include the following: Strengthening democracy: Between 1962 and 2002, the Organization sent multinational observation missions to oversee free and fair elections in the member states on more than 100 occasions. The OAS also works to strengthen national and local government and electoral agencies, to promote democratic practices and values, and to help countries detect and defuse official corruption. Working for peace: Special OAS missions have supported peace processes in Nicaragua, Suriname, Haiti, and Guatemala. The Organization has played a leading part in the removal of landmines deployed in the Americas and it has led negotiations to resolve the continent's remaining border disputes (Guatemala/Belize; Peru/Ecuador). Work is also underway on the construction of a common inter-American counter-terrorism front. Defending human rights: The agencies of the inter-American human rights system provide a venue for the denunciation and resolution of human rights violations in individual cases. They also monitor and report on the general human rights situation in the member states. Fostering free trade: The OAS is one of the three agencies currently engaged in drafting a treaty that will establish a hemispheric free trade area from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego. Fighting the drugs trade: The Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission was established in 1986 to coordinate efforts and crossborder cooperation in this area. Promoting sustainable development: The goal of the OAS's Inter-American Council for Integral Development is to promote economic development and combating poverty. OAS technical cooperation programs address such areas as river basin management, the conservation of biodiversity, preservation of cultural diversity, planning for global climate change, sustainable tourism, and natural disaster mitigation. Article 19 of the OAS Charter prohibits any State from interferring with the internal or external affairs of a member state. Article 21 prohibits any State from the military occupation — even temporarily — of a Member State's territory. The Charter subscribes to international law but goes further, saying that Charter rights depend not on power but follow from the existence of the state. The United States is signatory to the OAS Charter, meaning that the U.S. (like other Members) is legally bound by Article 19, 21, and other Charter provisions. {See Membership]. Organizational Structure The OAS is composed of a Permanent Council, and a number of committees, including: General Secretariat; Secretariat on Juridical and Political Affairs; Executive Secretariat for Integral Development; Secretariat on Administrative and Budgetary Affairs; Secretariat on Hemispheric Security; Secretariat on Inter-American Summits Management; as well as Civil Society Participation in OAS Activities. General Assembly Thirty-fifth General Assembly session in Fort Lauderdale, United States of America, June 2005 Thirty-ninth regular session: San Pedro Sula, Honduras, June 2009. The 39th General Assembly of the Organization of American States OAS will be held the week following a 7.3 Mw 2009 Honduras earthquake Thirty-eight regular session: Medellín, Colombia, June 2008. Thirty-seventh regular session: Panama City, Republic of Panama, June 2007. Thirty-sixth regular session: Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, June 2006. Thirty-fifth regular session: Fort Lauderdale, United States of America, June 2005. Thirty-fourth regular session: Quito, Ecuador, June 2004. Thirty-third regular session: Santiago, Chile, June 2003. Thirty-second regular session: Bridgetown, Barbados, June 2002. Thirty-first regular session: San José, Costa Rica, June 2001. Thirtieth regular session: Windsor, Canada, June 2000. Twenty-ninth regular session: Guatemala City, Guatemala, June 1999. Twenty-eight regular session: Caracas, Venezuela, June 1998. Twenty-seventh regular session: Lima, Peru, June 1997. Twenty-sixth regular session: Panama City, Republic of Panama, June 1996. Twenty-fifth regular session: Montrouis, Haiti, June 1995. Twenty-fourth regular session: Belém do Pará, Brazil, June 1994. Twenty-third regular session: Managua, Nicaragua, June 1993. Twenty-second regular session: Nassau, The Bahamas, May 1992. Twenty-first regular session: Santiago, Chile, June 1991. Twentieth regular session: Asunción, Paraguay, June 1990. Nineteenth regular session: Washington, D.C., United States of America, November 1989. Eighteenth regular session: San Salvador, El Salvador, November 1988. Seventeenth regular session: Washington, D.C., United States of America, November 1987. Sixteenth regular session: Guatemala City, Guatemala, November 1986. Fifteenth regular session: Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, December 1985. Fourteenth regular session: Brasília, Brazil, November 1984. Thirteenth regular session: Washington, D.C., United States of America, November 1983. Twelfth regular session: Washington, D.C., United States of America, November 1982. Eleventh regular session: Castries, Saint Lucia, December 1981. Tenth regular session: Washington, D.C., United States of America, November 1980. Ninth regular session: La Paz, Bolivia, October 1979. Eighth regular session: Washington, D.C., United States of America, June/July 1978. Seventh regular session: St. George's, Grenada, June 1977. Sixth regular session: Santiago, Chile, June 1976. Fifth regular session: Washington, D.C., United States of America, May 1975. Fourth regular session: Atlanta, United States of America, April/May 1974. Third regular session: Washington, D.C., United States of America, April 1973. Second regular session: Washington, D.C., United States of America, April 1972. First regular session: San José, Costa Rica, April 1971. Membership and adhesions All 35 independent (excludes French Guiana, Puerto Rico and Greenland) nations of the Americas are members of the OAS. Upon foundation on 5 May 1948 there were 21 members: * The later expansion of the OAS included the newly independent nations of the Caribbean (most of whom gained independence only after World War II) and Canada. Members with later admission dates (sorted chronologically): (member since 1967) (1967) (1969) (1975) (1977) (1979) (1979) (1981) (1981) (1982) (1984) (1990) (1991) (1991) Canada and the OAS Although Canada obtained independence in its foreign policy from Great Britain in 1931, it chose not to join the OAS when it was first formed, despite its close relations with the United States. Canada became a Permanent Observer in the OAS in 1972 and a full member in 1990. In 2004-2005, Canada was the second largest contributor to the OAS, with an annual assessed contribution representing 12.36% of the OAS Regular Budget (US$ 9.2 million) and an additional CAD$9 million in voluntary contributions to specific projects. Canada and the Organization of American States (OAS), Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada (DFAIT), 2005. Canada and the Organization of American States by Dr. Ludwil J. Kos-Rabcewicz-Zubkowski, Air University Review, September-October 1967. Shortly after joining as a full member, Canada was instrumental in the creation of the Unit for the Promotion of Democracy, which provides support for the strengthening and consolidation of democratic processes and institutions in OAS member states. Canada and the OAS: A Vigorous Partnership, Canada World View, Issue 8, Summer 2000. Status of Cuba The current government of Cuba is excluded from participation in the Organization under a decision adopted by the Eighth Meeting of Consultation in Punta del Este, Uruguay, on 31 January 1962. The vote was passed by 14 in favor, with one against (Cuba) and six abstentions (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, and Mexico). The operative part of the resolution reads as follows: That adherence by any member of the Organization of American States to Marxism-Leninism is incompatible with the inter-American system and the alignment of such a government with the communist bloc breaks the unity and solidarity of the hemisphere.</blockquote> That the present Government of Cuba, which has officially identified itself as a Marxist-Leninist government, is incompatible with the principles and objectives of the inter-American system.</blockquote> That this incompatibility excludes the present Government of Cuba from participation in the inter-American system. </blockquote> This means that the Cuban nation is still technically a member state, but that the current government is denied the right of representation and attendance at meetings and of participation in activities. The OAS's position is that although Cuba's participation is suspended, its obligations under the Charter, the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, etc. still hold: for instance, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights continues to publish reports on Cuba's human rights situation and to hear individual cases involving Cuban nationals. However, this stance is occasionally questioned by other individual member states. Cuba's position was stated in an official note sent to the Organization "merely as a courtesy" by Minister of Foreign Affairs Dr. Raúl Roa on 4 November 1964: "Cuba was arbitrarily excluded... The Organization of American States has no juridical, factual, or moral jurisdiction, nor competence, over a state which it has illegally deprived of its rights." The reincorporation of Cuba as an active member regularly arises as a topic within the inter-American system (e.g., it was intimated by the outgoing ambassador of Mexico in 1998) Organization of American States. but most observers do not see it as a serious possibility while the present government remains in power. Since 1960, the Cuban administration has repeatedly characterized the OAS as the "Ministry of Colonies" of the United States of America. On 6 May 2005, President Fidel Castro reiterated that the island nation would not "be part of a disgraceful institution that has only humiliated the honor of Latin American nations". After Fidel Castro's recent retirement and the ascent of his brother Raúl to power, this official position was reasserted. Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez promised to veto any final declaration of the 2009 Summit of the Americas due to Cuba's exclusion. On 17 April 2009, after a trading of warm words between the administrations of US President Barack Obama and Cuban leader Raúl Castro, OAS Secretary General José Miguel Insulza said he will ask the 2009 General Assembly to annul the 1962 resolution excluding Cuba. Observer countries As of 2009, there are 61 permanent observer countries, including the international body European Union. Department of International Affairs Official languages of the OAS The Organization's official languages are Spanish, English, Portuguese, and French, the national languages of the majority of its member nations. The Charter, the basic instrument governing OAS, makes no reference to the use of official languages. These references are to be found in the Rules of Procedure governing the various OAS bodies. Article 51 of the Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly, General Assembly of the OAS, Amendments to the Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly, June 5, 2000 the supreme body of the OAS, which meets once a year, states that English, French, Portuguese and Spanish are the four official languages. Article 28 stipulates that a Style Committee shall be set up with representatives of the four official languages to review the General Assembly resolutions and declarations. Article 53 states that proposals shall be presented in the four official languages. The Rules of Procedure and Statutes of other bodies, such as the Inter-American Council for Integral Development (CIDI), the Permanent Executive Committee of the Inter-American Council for Integral Development (CEPCIDI), the Inter-American Commission of Women (CIM), the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD), the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) and the Inter-American Juridical Committee (CJI), technical bodies of the OAS, also mention the four official languages in which their meetings are to be conducted. Policy is therefore dictated through these instruments that require use of the four official languages at meetings. Marguerite Groves (Coordinator, Division of Language Services, OAS), Information on the use of language at the OAS: multilingualism, Inter-American Languages Management Seminar, Conseil supérieur de la langue française (Quebec), Quebec City, August 20 to 22, 2002 Although a number of other languages have official status in one or more member states of OAS (Dutch in Suriname, Haitian Creole in Haiti, Quechua and Aymara in Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, Guarani in Paraguay), they are not official languages of the Organization. See also Regional integration Organization of Ibero-American States Union of South American Nations Rio Group Statues of the Liberators References External links OAS official site OAS Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression OAS Foreign Trade Information System - SICE Outdoor sculpture at the OAS headquarters building Educational Portal of the Americas
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4,744
Bing_Crosby
{{Infobox musical artist | Name = Bing Crosby | Img = Bing Crosby in Road to Singapore trailer.jpg | Img_capt = from the film trailer for Road to Singapore (1940) | Background = solo_singer | Birth_name = Harry Lillis Crosby | Born = Tacoma, Washington, U.S. | Died = Madrid, Spain | Instrument = Vocals | Genre = Traditional pop, Jazz, vocal<ref>Music Genre: Vocal music.Allmusic. Retrieved October 23, 2008.</ref> | Occupation = Singer, Actor | Years_active = 1926–1977 | Label = Brunswick, Decca, Reprise, RCA Victor, Verve, United Artists | Associated_acts = Bob Hope, Dixie Lee, Dean Martin, Frank Sinatra, Fred Astaire, The Rhythm Boys, Rosemary Clooney, David Bowie Louis Armstrong | URL = http://www.bingcrosby.com }} Harry Lillis "Bing" Crosby (May 3, 1903 – October 14, 1977) was an American popular singer and actor whose career lasted from 1926 until his death. One of the first multimedia stars, from 1934 to 1954 Bing Crosby held a nearly unrivaled command of record sales, radio ratings and motion picture grosses. Widely recognized as one of the most popular musical acts in history, Crosby is also credited as being the major inspiration for most of the male singers of the era that followed him, including Frank Sinatra, Perry Como, and Dean Martin. Yank magazine recognized Crosby as the person who had done the most for American G.I. morale during World War II and, during his peak years, around 1948, polls declared him the "most admired man alive," ahead of Jackie Robinson and Pope Pius XII. Also during 1948, the Music Digest estimated that Crosby recordings filled more than half of the 80,000 weekly hours allocated to recorded radio music. Crosby exerted an important influence on the development of the postwar recording industry. In 1947, he invested US$50,000 in the Ampex company, which developed North America's first commercial reel-to-reel tape recorder, and Crosby became the first performer to pre-record his radio shows and master his commercial recordings on magnetic tape. He gave one of the first Ampex Model 200 recorders to his friend, musician Les Paul, which led directly to Paul's invention of multitrack recording. Along with Frank Sinatra, he was one of the principal backers behind the famous United Western Recorders studio complex in Los Angeles. Cogan, Jim and William Clark. Temples Of Sound: Inside the Great Recording Studios. (Chronicle Books, 2003) ISBN 0-8118-3394-1 In 1962, Crosby was the first person to receive the Global Achievement Award. Grammy.com Lifetime Achievement Award. Past Recipients He won an Academy Award for Best Actor for his role as Father Chuck O'Malley in the 1944 motion picture Going My Way. Crosby is one of the few people to have three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Early life Harry Lillis Crosby was born in Tacoma, Washington, on May 3, 1903, in a house his father built at 1112 North J Street. Bing Crosby had no birth certificate and his birth date was unconfirmed until his childhood Roman Catholic church in Tacoma, Washington, released the baptismal record that revealed his date of birth. His family moved to Spokane, Washington in 1906 to find work. He was the fourth of seven children: five boys, Larry (1895–1975), Everett (1896–1966), Ted (1900–1973), Harry 'Bing' (1903–1977), and Bob (1913–1993); and two girls, Catherine (1904–1974) and Mary Rose (1906–1990). His parents were English-American Harry Lincoln Crosby (1870–1950), a bookkeeper, and Irish-American Catherine Helen (affectionately known as Kate) Harrigan (1873–1964). Kate was the daughter of Canadian-born parents Dennis and Catherine Harrigan who had emigrated to the Stillwater,Mn from Miramichi, New Brunswick. . His maternal grandfather and grandmother, Dennis and Catherine Harrigan, came from Schull, County Cork in Ireland. His paternal ancestors, Thomas Prence and Patience Brewster, were born in England and immigrated to the U.S. in the 17th century; Brewster's family came over on the Mayflower. In 1910, Crosby was forever renamed. The six-year-old Harry Lillis discovered a full-page feature in the Sunday edition of the Spokesman-Review, "The Bingville Bugle." The "Bugle," written by humorist Newton Newkirk, was a parody of a hillbilly newsletter complete with gossipy tidbits, minstrel quips, creative spelling, and mock ads. A neighbor, 15-year-old Valentine Hobart, shared Crosby's enthusiasm for "The Bugle," and noting Crosby's laugh, took a liking to him and called him "Bingo from Bingville." The last vowel was dropped and the name shortened to "Bing," which stuck. In 1917, Crosby took a summer job as property boy at Spokane's "Auditorium," where he witnessed some of the finest acts of the day, including Al Jolson, who held Crosby spellbound with his ad-libbing and spoofs of Hawaiian songs. In the fall of 1920, Crosby enrolled in the Jesuit-run Gonzaga University in Spokane, Washington, with the intention of becoming a lawyer. He sent away for a set of mail-order drums. After much practice, he soon became good enough and was invited to join a local band made up of mostly local high school kids called the "Musicaladers," managed by Al Rinker. He made so much money doing this that he decided to drop out of school during his final year to pursue a career in show business. Popular success Music In 1926, while singing at Los Angeles Metropolitan Theatre, Crosby and his vocal duo partner Al Rinker caught the eye of Paul Whiteman, arguably the most famous bandleader at the time. Hired for $150 a week, they made their debut on December 6, 1926 at the Tivoli Theatre (Chicago). Their first recording, "I've Got The Girl," with Don Clark's Orchestra, was issued by Columbia and did them no vocal favors as it sounded as iof they were singing in a key much too high for them. It was later revealed that the 78rpm was recorded at a speed slower than it should have been, which increased the pitch when played at 78rpm. As popular as the Crosby and Rinker duo was, Whiteman added another member to the group, pianist and aspiring songwriter Harry Barris. Whiteman dubbed them The Rhythm Boys, and they joined the Whiteman vocal team, working and recording with musicians Bix Beiderbecke, Jack Teagarden, Tommy Dorsey, Jimmy Dorsey, and Eddie Lang and singers Mildred Bailey and Hoagy Carmichael. Crosby soon became the star attraction of the Rhythm Boys, not to mention Whiteman's band, and in 1928 had his first number one hit, a jazz-influenced rendition of "Ol' Man River." However, his repeated youthful peccadilloes and growing dissatisfaction with Whiteman forced him, along with the Rhythm Boys, to leave the band and join the Gus Arnheim Orchestra. During his time with Arnheim, The Rhythm Boys were increasingly pushed to the background as the vocal emphasis focused on Crosby. Fellow member of The Rhythm Boys Harry Barris wrote several of Crosby's subsequent hits including "At Your Command," "I Surrender Dear," and "Wrap Your Troubles In Dreams"; however, shortly after this, the members of the band had a falling out and split, setting the stage for Crosby's solo career. In 1931, he signed with Brunswick Records and recording under Jack Kapp and signed with CBS Radio to do a weekly 15 minute radio broadcast; almost immediately he became a huge hit. As the 1930s unfolded, it became clear that Bing was the number one man, vocally speaking. Ten of the top 50 songs for 1931 either featured Crosby solo or with others. Apart from the short-lived "Battle of the Baritones" with Russ Columbo, "Bing Was King," signing long-term deals with Jack Kapp's new record company Decca and starring in his first full-length features, 1932's The Big Broadcast, the first of 55 such films in which he received top billing. He appeared in 79 pictures. Around this time Crosby made his solo debut on radio, co-starring with The Carl Fenton Orchestra on a popular CBS radio show, and by 1936 replacing his former boss, Paul Whiteman, as the host of NBC's Kraft Music Hall, a weekly radio program where he remained for the next ten years. As his signature tune he used "Where the Blue of the Night (Meets the Gold of the Day)", which also showcased his whistling skill. He was thus able to take popular singing beyond the kind of "belting" associated with a performer like Al Jolson, who had to reach the back seats in New York theatres without the aid of the microphone. With Crosby, as Henry Pleasants noted in The Great American Popular Singers, something new had entered American music, something that might be called "singing in American," with conversational ease. The oddity of this new sound led to the epithet "crooner." Crosby gave great emphasis to live appearances before American troops fighting in the European Theater. He also learned how to pronounce German from written scripts and would read them in propaganda broadcasts intended for the German forces. The nickname "der Bingle" for him was understood to have become current among German listeners, and came to be used by his English-speaking fans. In a poll of U.S. troops at the close of WWII, Crosby topped the list as the person who did the most for G.I. morale, beating out President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, General Dwight Eisenhower, and Bob Hope. Crosby's biggest musical hit was his recording of Irving Berlin's "White Christmas", which he introduced through a 1942 Christmas-season radio broadcast and the movie Holiday Inn. Crosby's recording hit the charts on October 3, 1942, and rose to #1 on October 31, where it stayed for 11 weeks. In the following years, his recording hit the Top 30 pop charts another 16 times, topping the charts again in 1945 and January 1947. The song remains Crosby's best-selling recording, and the best-selling single and best-selling song of all time. In 1998, after a long absence, his 1947 version hit the charts in Britain, and remains the North American holiday-season standard. According to Guinness World Records, Crosby's recording of "White Christmas" has "sold over 100 million copies around the world, with at least 50 million sales as singles." Guinness Book of Records 2007: ISBN 1-904994-11-3 Motion pictures Crosby (1942) with golf balls for the Scrap Rubber Drive during World War II According to ticket sales, Crosby is, at 1,077,900,000 tickets sold, the third most popular actor of all time, behind Clark Gable and John Wayne. Crosby Movies Crosby is, according to Quigley Publishing Company's International Motion Picture Almanac, tied for second on the "All Time Number One Stars List" with Clint Eastwood, Tom Hanks, and Burt Reynolds. Top 10 lists. Crosby's most popular film, White Christmas, grossed $30 million in 1954 ($229 million in 2007 dollars). Crosby Movies. Crosby won an Academy Award for Best Actor for Going My Way in 1944, a role he reprised in the 1945 sequel The Bells of Saint Mary's, for which he was nominated for another Academy Award for Best Actor. He received critical acclaim for his performance as an alcoholic entertainer in The Country Girl, receiving his third Academy Award nomination. He partnered with Bob Hope in seven Road to musical comedies between 1940 and 1962 and the two actors remained linked for generations in general public perception as arguably the most popular screen team in film history, despite never officially declaring themselves a "team" in the sense that Laurel and Hardy or Martin and Lewis were teams. By the late 1950s, Crosby's popularity had peaked, and the adolescence of the baby boom generation began to affect record sales to younger customers. In 1960, Crosby starred in High Time, a collegiate comedy with Fabian and Tuesday Weld that foretold the emerging gap between older Crosby fans and a new generation of films and music. TelevisionThe Fireside Theater (1950) was Crosby's first television production. The series of 26-minute shows was filmed at Hal Roach Studios rather than performed live on the air. The "telefilms" were syndicated to individual television stations. Bing Crosby Productions, affiliated with Desilu Studios and later CBS Paramount Television, produced a number of television series, including Crosby's own unsuccessful ABC sitcom The Bing Crosby Show in the 1964-1965 season (with co-stars Beverly Garland and Frank McHugh), and two ABC medical dramas, Ben Casey (1961-1966) and Breaking Point (1963-1964), and the popular Hogan's Heroes military comedy on CBS, as well as the lesser-known show Slattery's People (1964-1965). Style Crosby perfected an idea that Al Jolson had hinted at, that the popular performer did not have to limit himself to a mere series of shticks but could be a genuine artist — in this case, a musician. Before Crosby, art was art and pop was pop; opera singers worried about staying in tune and reaching the upper balcony, vaudevillians concerned themselves with their costumes and facial expressions. Crosby rendered the difference between the two irrelevant. Where earlier recording artists had displayed strictly one-dimensional attitudes, Crosby not only perfected the fully rounded persona, but brought with it the technical ability of a true concert artist. Crosby projected with a majestic sense of intonation that afforded Tin Pan Alley the musical stature of European classics and a jazz influenced time that made him the dominant voice of both the Jazz age and the Swing era. Crosby also elaborated on a further idea of Al Jolson's, one that Frank Sinatra would ultimately extend: phrasing, or the art of making a song's lyric ring true. "I used to tell (Sinatra) over and over," said Tommy Dorsey, "there's only one singer you ought to listen to and his name is Crosby. All that matters to him is the words, and that's the only thing that ought to for you, too." The greatest trick of Crosby's virtuosity was covering it up. It is often said that Crosby made his singing and acting "look easy," or as if it were no work at all: he simply was the character he portrayed, and his singing, being a direct extension of conversation, came just as naturally to him as talking, or even breathing. Journalist Donald Freeman said of Crosby, "There is only one Bing Crosby and — the time has come now to face the issue squarely — he happens to be that unique, awesome creature, an artist." Vocal characteristics Crosby with Bob Hope in Road to Bali (1952) Crosby is usually considered to be among the most talented singers of his time. Crosby could, as musicologist J.T.H. Mize asserts, "melt a tone away, scoop it flat and sliding up to the eventual pitch as a glissando, sometimes sting a note right on the button, and take diphthongs for long musical rides." J.T.H. Mize also inventoried the Crosby arsenal of vocal effects, including "interpolating pianissimo whistling variations, sometimes arpeggic, at other times trilling." While vocal critic Henry Pleasants states that "the octave B flat to B flat in Bing's voice at that time [1930s] is, to my ears, one of the loveliest I have heard in forty-five years of listening to baritones, both classical and popular, it dropped conspicuously in later years. From the mid-1950s, Bing was more comfortable in a bass range while maintaining a baritone quality, with the best octave being G to G, or even F to F. In a recording he made of 'Dardanella' with Louis Armstrong in 1960, he attacks lightly and easily on a low E flat. This is lower than most opera basses care to venture, and they tend to sound as if they were in the cellar when they get there." Mel Tormé concurred with Henry Pleasants stating that "(Crosby's) low notes could make your bass woofers beg for mercy." Career statistics Crosby's sales and chart statistics place him among the most popular and successful musical acts of the 20th century. Although the Billboard charts operated under a different methodology for the bulk of Crosby's career, his numbers remain astonishing: 1,700 recordings, 383 of those in the top 30, and of those, 41 hit #1. Crosby had separate charting singles in every calendar year between 1931 and 1954; the annual re-release of White Christmas extended that streak to 1957. He had 24 separate popular singles in 1939 alone. Billboard's statistician Joel Whitburn determined Crosby to be America's most successful act of the 1930s, and again in the 1940s. For 15 years (1934, 1937, 1940, 1943-1954), Crosby was among the top 10 in box office draw, and for five of those years (1944-49) he was the largest in the world. He sang four Academy Award-winning songs — "Sweet Leilani" (1937), "White Christmas" (1942), "Swinging on a Star" (1944), "In the Cool, Cool, Cool of the Evening" (1951) — and won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his role in Going My Way (1944). Crosby with Danny Kaye in White Christmas (1954) He collected 23 gold and platinum records, according to Joseph Murrells, author of the book, "Million Selling Records." The Recording Industry Association of America did not institute its gold record certification program until 1958, by which point Crosby's record sales were barely a blip, so gold records prior to that year were awarded by an artist's record company. Universal Music, current owner of Crosby's Decca catalog, has never requested RIAA certification for any of his hit singles. In 1962, Crosby became the first recipient of the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. He has been inducted into the halls of fame for both radio and popular music. His music sales are estimated at between 500,000,000 and 900,000,000. Crosby is a member of the exclusive club of the biggest record sellers that include Frank Sinatra, Elvis Presley, Michael Jackson, and The Beatles. In 2007 Crosby was inducted into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame, and in 2008 into the Western Music Hall of Fame. http://www.westernmusic.com/performers/hof-crosby.html Entrepreneurship Mass media Crosby's desire to pre-record his radio shows, combined with a dissatisfaction with the available lacquer/aluminum recording disks, was a significant factor in the development of magnetic tape sound recording and the radio industry's adoption of it. Hammar, Peter. Jack Mullin: The man and his machines. Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, 37 (6): 490-496, 498, 500, 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512; June 1989. An afternoon with Jack Mullin. NTSC VHS tape, 1989 AES. History of Magnetic tape, section: "Enter Bing Crosby" (WayBack Machine) He used his power to innovate new methods of reproducing audio of himself. In 1946, he wanted to shift from live performance to recorded transcriptions for his weekly radio show on NBC sponsored by Kraft. But NBC and competitor CBS refused to allow recorded radio programs (except for advertisements). The live production of radio shows was a deeply-established tradition reinforced by the musicians' union and ASCAP. The Mutual network, on the other hand, had pre-recorded some of its programs as early as the Summer 1938 run of The Shadow with Orson Welles. The new ABC network, formed out of the sale of the old NBC Blue network in 1943 to Edward Noble, the "Lifesaver King," was willing to join Mutual in breaking the tradition. It would pay Crosby $30,000 per week to produce a recorded show every Wednesday sponsored by Philco. He would also get $40,000 from 400 independent stations for the rights to broadcast the 60-minute show that was sent to them every Monday on three 16-inch lacquer/aluminum discs that played ten minutes per side at 33⅓ rpm. Crosby wanted to change to recorded production for several reasons. The legend that has been most often told is that it would give him more time for his golf game. And he did record his first Philco program in August 1947 so he could enter the Jasper National Park Invitational Golf Tournament in September when the new radio season was to start. But golf was not the most important reason. Crosby was always an early riser and hard worker. He sought better quality through recording, not more spare time. He could eliminate mistakes and control the timing of performances. Because his own Bing Crosby Enterprises produced the show, he could purchase the latest and best sound equipment and arrange the microphones his way; mic placement had long been a hotly-debated issue in every recording studio since the beginning of the electrical era. No longer would he have to wear the hated toupee on his head previously required by CBS and NBC for his live audience shows (he preferred a hat). He could also record short promotions for his latest investment, the world's first frozen orange juice to be sold under the brand name Minute Maid. The transcription method had problems, however. The acetate surface coating of the aluminum discs was little better than the wax that Edison had used at the turn of the century, with the same limited dynamic range and frequency response. In June 1947, Murdo MacKenzie of Bing Crosby Enterprises saw a demonstration of the German Magnetophon that Jack Mullin had brought back from Radio Frankfurt with 50 reels of tape at the end of the war. This machine was one of the magnetic tape recorders that BASF and AEG had built in Germany starting in 1935. The ½-inch ferric-coated tape could record 20 minutes per reel of high-quality sound. Alexander M. Poniatoff ordered his Ampex company (founded in 1944 from his initials A.M.P. plus the starting letters of "excellence") to manufacture an improved version of the Magnetophone. Crosby hired Mullin and his German machine to start recording his Philco show in August 1947 with the same 50 reels of Farben magnetic tape that Mullin had found at a radio station at Bad Nauheim near Frankfurt while working for the U.S. Army Signal Corps. The crucial advantage was editing. As Bing wrote in his autobiography, "By using tape, I could do a thirty-five or forty-minute show, then edit it down to the twenty-six or twenty-seven minutes the program ran. In that way, we could take out jokes, gags, or situations that didn't play well and finish with only the prime meat of the show; the solid stuff that played big. We could also take out the songs that didn't sound good. It gave us a chance to first try a recording of the songs in the afternoon without an audience, then another one in front of a studio audience. We'd dub the one that came off best into the final transcription. It gave us a chance to ad lib as much as we wanted, knowing that excess ad libbing could be sliced from the final product. If I made a mistake in singing a song or in the script, I could have some fun with it, then retain any of the fun that sounded amusing." Mullin's 1976 memoir of these early days of experimental recording agrees with Crosby's account: "In the evening, Crosby did the whole show before an audience. If he muffed a song then, the audience loved it — thought it was very funny — but we would have to take out the show version and put in one of the rehearsal takes. Sometimes, if Crosby was having fun with a song and not really working at it, we had to make it up out of two or three parts. This ad lib way of working is commonplace in the recording studios today, but it was all new to us." Crosby invested US$50,000 in Ampex to produce more machines. In 1948, the second season of Philco shows was taped with the new Ampex Model 200 tape recorder (introduced in April) using the new Scotch 111 tape from the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing (3M) company. Mullin explained that new techniques were invented on the Crosby show with these machines: "One time Bob Burns, the hillbilly comic, was on the show, and he threw in a few of his folksy farm stories, which of course were not in Bill Morrow's script. Today they wouldn't seem very off-color, but things were different on radio then. They got enormous laughs, which just went on and on. We couldn't use the jokes, but Bill asked us to save the laughs. A couple of weeks later he had a show that wasn't very funny, and he insisted that we put in the salvaged laughs. Thus the laugh-track was born." Crosby had launched the tape recorder revolution in America. In his 1950 film Mr. Music, Bing Crosby can be seen singing into one of the new Ampex tape recorders that reproduced his voice better than anything else. Also quick to adopt tape recording was his friend Bob Hope, who would make the famous "Road to..." films with Crosby and Dorothy Lamour. Mullin continued to work for Crosby to develop a videotape recorder. Television production was mostly live in its early years, but Crosby wanted the same ability to record that he had achieved in radio. The Fireside Theater, sponsored by Procter and Gamble, was his first television production for the 1950 season. Mullin had not yet succeeded with videotape, so Crosby filmed the series of 26-minute shows at the Hal Roach Studios. The "telefilms" were syndicated to individual television stations. Crosby did not remain a television producer but continued to finance the development of videotape. Bing Crosby Enterprises (BCE), gave the world's first demonstration of a videotape recording in Los Angeles on November 11, 1951. Developed by John T. Mullin and Wayne R. Johnson since 1950, the device gave what were described as "blurred and indistinct" images, using a modified Ampex 200 tape recorder and standard quarter-inch (0.6 cm) audio tape moving at 360 inches (9.1 m) per second. "Tape Recording Used by Filmless 'Camera'," New York Times, Nov. 12, 1951, p. 21. Eric D. Daniel, C. Denis Mee, and Mark H. Clark (eds.), Magnetic Recording: The First 100 Years, IEEE Press, 1998, p. 141. ISBN 0-070-41275-8 Mullin demonstrated an improved picture on December 30, 1952, but he was not able to solve the problem of high tape speed. It was the Ampex team led by Charles Ginsburg that made the first videotape recorder. Rather than speeding tape across fixed heads at 100 ips, Ginsburg used rotating heads to record at a slant on tape moving at only 15 ips. The quadruplex scan model VR-1000 was demonstrated at the National Association of Broadcasters show in Chicago on April 14, 1956, and was an immediate success. Ampex made $4 million in sales during the NAB convention. By this time, Crosby had sold his videotape interests to the 3M company and no longer played the role of tape recorder pioneer. Yet his contribution had been crucial. He had opened the door to Mullin's machine in 1948 and financed the early years of the Ampex company. The rapid spread of the tape recorder revolution was in no small measure caused by Crosby's efforts. The decade following the end of World War II witnessed what has been called the "revolution in sound." The Decca Company introduced FFRR (Full Frequency Range Recording) 78 rpm records that had the finest frequency response (80-15,000 cps) of any recording process before magnetic tape recording. Decca's method of reducing the size of the groove and designing a delicate elliptical stylus to track on the sides of the groove would be the same innovation of the new microgroove process introduced by Columbia in 1948 on the new 33⅓ rpm LP vinyl record. Crosby's sponsor Philco would join Columbia in selling a new $29.95 record player with jeweled stylus (not steel) tracking at only 10 grams (not 200) for these LPs. No longer would records wear out after 75 plays. Crosby's Ampex Company would be joined by Magnecord, Webcor, Revere, and Fairchild in selling one million tape recorders to a rapidly growing consumer audio component market by 1953. The 1949 Magnecord tape recorder had stereo capability eight years before any vinyl record had it. These components soon began to feature the transistor invented by Bell Labs in 1948. Thoroughbred horse racing Crosby was a fan of Thoroughbred horse racing and bought his first racehorse in 1935. In 1937, he became a founding partner and member of the Board of Directors of the Del Mar Thoroughbred Club that built and operated the Del Mar Racetrack at Del Mar, California. One of Crosby's closest friends was Lindsay Howard, for whom he named his son Lindsay and from whom he would purchase his 40-room Hillsborough estate in 1965. Lindsay Howard was the son of millionaire businessman Charles S. Howard, who owned a successful racing stable that included Seabiscuit. Charles S. Howard joined Crosby as a founding partner and director of the Del Mar Thoroughbred Club. Crosby and Lindsay Howard formed Binglin Stable to race and breed thoroughbred horses at a ranch in Moorpark in Ventura County, California. They also established the Binglin stock farm in Argentina, where they raced horses at Hipódromo de Palermo in Palermo, Buenos Aires. Binglin stable purchased a number of Argentine-bred horses and shipped them back to race in the United States. On August 12, 1938, the Del Mar Thoroughbred Club hosted a $25,000 winner-take-all match race won by Charles S. Howard's Seabiscuit over Binglin Stable's Ligaroti. Binglin's horse Don Bingo won the 1943 Suburban Handicap at Belmont Park in Elmont, New York. The Binglin Stable partnership came to an end in 1953 as a result of a liquidation of assets by Crosby in order to raise the funds necessary to pay the federal and state inheritance taxes on his deceased wife's estate. A friend of jockey Johnny Longden, Crosby was a co-owner with Longden's friend Max Bell of the British colt Meadow Court, which won the 1965 King George VI & Queen Elizabeth Stakes and the Irish Derby. In the Irish Derby's winner's circle at the Curragh, Crosby sang "When Irish Eyes Are Smiling." The Bing Crosby Breeders' Cup Handicap at Del Mar Racetrack is named in his honor. Personal life Crosby was married twice, first to actress/nightclub singer Dixie Lee from 1930 until her death from ovarian cancer in 1952. They had four sons: Gary, twins Dennis and Phillip, and Lindsay. The 1947 film Smash-Up: The Story of a Woman is indirectly based on her life. After Dixie's death, Crosby had a relationship with actress Inger Stevens. He later dated Playboy model Pat Sheehan, proposing to her, before marrying the much younger actress Kathryn Grant in 1957. They had three children, Harry, Mary (best known for portraying Kristin Shepard, the woman who shot J.R. Ewing on TV's Dallas), and Nathaniel. Crosby was a member of the Roman Catholic Church. Kathryn converted to Roman Catholicism in order to marry him. Crosby had an interest in sports. From 1946 until the mid-1960s he was part-owner of the Pittsburgh Pirates and helped form the nucleus of the Pirates' 1960 championship club. In 1978, he and Bob Hope were voted the Bob Jones Award, the highest honor given by the United States Golf Association in recognition of distinguished sportsmanship in golf. Crosby reportedly overindulged in alcohol in his youth, and may have been dismissed from Paul Whiteman's orchestra because of it, but he later got a handle on his drinking. A 2001 biography of Crosby by Village Voice jazz critic Gary Giddins says that Louis Armstrong's influence on Crosby "extended to his love of marijuana." Bing smoked it during his early career when it was legal and "surprised interviewers" in the 1960s and 70s by advocating its decriminalization, as did Armstrong. According to Giddins, Crosby told his son Gary to stay away from alcohol ("It killed your mother") and suggested he smoke pot instead. Gary said, "There were other times when marijuana was mentioned and he'd get a smile on his face." Gary thought his father's pot smoking had influenced his easy-going style in his films. Crosby also smoked two packs of cigarettes a day until his second wife made him stop. He finally quit smoking his pipe and cigars following lung surgery in 1974. Following his recovery from a life-threatening fungal infection of his right lung in 1974, Crosby emerged from semi-retirement to produce several notable albums and concert tours. In March 1977, after videotaping a concert for CBS to commemorate his 50th anniversary in show business, Crosby backed off the stage into an orchestra pit, rupturing a disc in his back that required a month of hospitalization. In his first performance after the accident and his last American concert, on August 16, 1977 in Concord, California, the power went out, and he continued singing without amplification. In September, Crosby, his family, and singer Rosemary Clooney began a concert tour of England that included two weeks at the London Palladium. While in England, Crosby recorded his final album, Seasons, and his final TV Christmas special with guests David Bowie and Twiggy. His duet with Bowie on "Peace on Earth/Little Drummer Boy," generated so much interest that it was later released as a single and became an annual holiday classic. At the end of the century, TV Guide listed the Crosby-Bowie duet as one of the 25 most memorable musical moments of 20th century television. His last concert was in Brighton two days before his death, with British entertainer Dame Gracie Fields in attendance. Crosby's last photograph was taken with Fields. At the conclusion of his work in England, Crosby flew alone to Spain to hunt and play golf. Shortly after 6:00 p.m. on October 14, Crosby died suddenly from a massive heart attack after a round of 18 holes of golf near Madrid where he and his Spanish golfing partner had just defeated their opponents. It is widely written that his last words were "That was a great game of golf, fellas." Because of incorrect instructions from his family, the year of birth engraved on Crosby's tombstone is 1904 rather than 1903. He was interred in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California next to his first wife. He was buried nine feet deep so that his second wife could be buried with him. At his death, because of Crosby's shrewd investments in oil, real estate, and other commodities, he was one of Hollywood's wealthiest residents, along with Fred MacMurray, Lawrence Welk, and best friend Bob Hope. A clause in his will stated that his sons from his first marriage could not collect their inheritance money until they were 65. Crosby felt that they had already been amply taken care of by a trust fund set up by their mother, Dixie Lee. All four sons continued to collect monies from that fund until their deaths. After Crosby's death, his eldest son, Gary, wrote a highly critical memoir, Going My Own Way, depicting his father as cold, remote, and both physically and psychologically abusive. Younger son Phillip frequently disputed his brother Gary's claims about their father. In an interview conducted in 1999 by the Globe, Phillip said, "My dad was not the monster my lying brother said he was; he was strict, but my father never beat us black and blue, and my brother Gary was a vicious, no-good liar for saying so. I have nothing but fond memories of Dad, going to studios with him, family vacations at our cabin in Idaho, boating and fishing with him. To my dying day, I'll hate Gary for dragging Dad's name through the mud. He wrote Going My Own Way out of greed. He wanted to make money and knew that humiliating our father and blackening his name was the only way he could do it. He knew it would generate a lot of publicity. That was the only way he could get his ugly, no-talent face on television and in the newspapers. My dad was my hero. I loved him very much. He loved all of us too, including Gary. He was a great father." However, Lindsay and Dennis publicly agreed with many of Gary's criticisms of their father and Lindsay eventually committed suicide. Dennis ended his life two years later, grieving over his brother's death, and battered, just as his brother had been, by alcoholism, failed relationships, and a lackluster career. Both brothers died of self-inflicted gunshot wounds to the head. Their mother had struggled with alcoholism since her teens. Phillip Crosby died in 2004. Denise Crosby, Dennis' daughter, is also an actress and known for her role as Tasha Yar on Star Trek: The Next Generation, and for the recurring role of the Romulan Sela (daughter of Tasha Yar) after her withdrawal from the series as a regular cast member. She also appeared in the film adaptation of Stephen King's novel Pet Sematary. Nathaniel Crosby, Crosby's youngest son from his second marriage, was a high-level golfer who won the U.S. Amateur at age 19 in 1981, the youngest winner of that event (a record later broken by Tiger Woods). Nathaniel praised his father in a June 16, 2008, Sports Illustrated article. Sports Illustrated. Nathaniel Crosby. Widow Kathryn Crosby dabbled in local theater productions intermittently, and appeared in television tributes to her late husband. Although left very comfortable in Crosby's will, Kathryn's allowance was controlled by a foundation that Crosby had carefully set up. In 2006, Crosby's niece, Carolyn Schneider, attempted to dispel the impressions created by some of the more vitriolic books penned about her uncle, publishing "Me and Uncle Bing," in which she offered an intimate glimpse of her family, and gratitude for Crosby's generosity to her and to other family members. Since publication of her book, Schneider has been a favorite at gatherings of Crosby fans, and has offered her memories of "Uncle Bing" to the BBC. Legacy Crosby's childhood home in Spokane, Washington is the Alumni Association office for Gonzaga University. His dorm blanket hangs in the stairwell, and other memorabilia are on the first floor and in the "Crosbyana Room" at the Crosby Student Center, where his Oscar for Going My Way is on display. A statue of Crosby is at the front steps of the student center, although his pipe has frequently been stolen as a prank. There is a campus legend that Crosby was asked to leave Gonzaga after trying (and failing) to use a pulley to bring a piano to his fourth floor dorm room in DeSmet Hall; the piano reportedly shattered on the ground below. However, the story is apocryphal, as the dorm in question was not built until a year after Crosby left Gonzaga. In 2006, the Met Theater in Spokane, Washington was renamed "The Bing" in his honor. He is a member of the National Association of Broadcasters Hall of Fame in the radio division. Composition Crosby co-wrote 15 songs. His composition "At Your Command" was no.1 for three weeks on the U.S. pop singles chart in 1931, beginning with the week of August 8, 1931. "I Don't Stand a Ghost of a Chance With You" was his most successful composition, recorded by Duke Ellington, Linda Ronstadt, Thelonious Monk, Billie Holiday, and Mildred Bailey. The songs Crosby co-wrote are: "That's Grandma" (1927), with Harry Barris and James Cavanaugh "From Monday On" (1928), with Harry Barris and recorded with the Paul Whiteman Orchestra featuring Bix Beiderbecke on cornet "What Price Lyrics?" (1928), with Harry Barris and Matty Malneck "At Your Command" (1931), with Harry Barris and Harry Tobias "Where the Blue of the Night (Meets the Gold of the Day)" (1931), with Roy Turk and Fred Ahlert "I Don't Stand a Ghost of a Chance with You" (1932), with Victor Young and Ned Washington "My Woman" (1932), with Irving Wallman and Max Wartell "Love Me Tonight" (1932), with Victor Young and Ned Washington "Waltzing in a Dream" (1932), with Victor Young and Ned Washington "I Would If I Could But I Can't" (1933), with Mitchell Parish and Alan Grey "Where the Turf Meets the Surf" (1941) "Tenderfoot" (1953) "Domenica" (1961) "That's What Life is All About" (1975) "Sail Away to Norway" (1977) Golf Crosby is a member of the World Golf Hall of Fame. Aside from Bobby Jones and Arnold Palmer, Crosby may be the person most responsible for popularizing the game of golf. Since 1937 the Crosby Clambake—now the AT&T Pebble Beach National Pro-Am—has been a leading event in the world of professional golf. Crosby first took up the game at 12 as a caddy, dropped it, and started again in 1930 with some fellow cast members in Hollywood during the filming of The King of Jazz. Although he made his name as a singer, vaudeville performer, and silver screen luminary, he would probably prefer to be remembered as a two handicap who competed in both the British and U.S. Amateur championships, a five-time club champion at Lakeside Golf Club in Hollywood, and as one of only a few players to have made a hole-in-one on the 16th at Cypress Point. He conceived his tournament as a friendly little pro-am for his fellow members at Lakeside Golf Club and any stray touring pros who could use some pocket change. The first Clambake was played at Rancho Santa Fe C.C., in northern San Diego county, where Crosby was a member. He kicked in $3,000 of his own money for the purse, which led inaugural champion Sam Snead to ask if he might get his $700 in cash instead of a check. Snead's suspicions notwithstanding, the tournament was a rollicking success, thanks to the merry membership of Lakeside, an entertainment industry enclave in North Hollywood. That first tournament set the precedent for all that followed as it was as much about partying as it was about golf. http://www.wgv.com/hof/member.php?member=1040 The family has established an official website. It was launched October 14, 2007, the 30th anniversary of Bing's death. In his 1990 autobiography Don't Shoot, It's Only Me! Bob Hope states, "Dear old Bing. As we called him, the Economy sized Sinatra. And what a voice. God I miss that voice. I can't even turn on the radio around Christmastime without crying anymore." Don't Shoot, It's Only Me! Bob Hope, 1990, Random House Publishers Filmography Discography Radio The Radio Singers (1931, CBS), sponsored by Warner Brothers, 6 nights a week, 15 minutes. The Cremo Singer (1931-1932, CBS), 6 nights a week, 15 minutes. Unsponsored (1932, CBS), initially 3 nights a week, then twice a week, 15 minutes. Chesterfield's Music that Satisfies (1933, CBS), broadcast two nights, 15 minutes. Bing Crosby Entertains for Woodbury Soap (1933-1935, CBS), weekly, 30 minutes. Kraft Music Hall (1935-1946, NBC), Thursday nights, 60 minutes until Jan. 1943, then 30 minutes. Armed Forces Radio (1941-1945; World War II). Philco Radio Time (1946-1949, ABC), 30 minutes weekly. Chesterfield (1949-1952, CBS), 30 minutes weekly. The Minute Maid Show (1949-1950, CBS), 15 minutes each weekday morning; Bing as disc jockey. The General Electric Show (1952-1954, CBS), 30 minutes weekly. The Bing Crosby Show (1954-1956, CBS), 15 minutes, 5 nights a week. A Christmas Sing with Bing (1955-1962, CBS, VOA and AFRS), 1 hour each year, sponsored by the Insurance Company of North America. Ford Road Show (1957-1958, CBS), 5 minutes, 5 days a week. The Crosby-Clooney Show (1960-1962, CBS), 20 minutes, 5 mornings a week, with Rosemary Clooney. RIAA certification AlbumRIAA Merry ChristmasGoldBing sings2x platinumWhite Christmas4x platinum </div> References Notes Further reading Macfarlane, Malcolm. Bing Crosby - Day By Day. Scarecrow Press, 2001. (Find it at Amazon: .) Osterholm, J. Roger. Bing Crosby: A Bio-Bibliography. Greenwood Press, 1994. (Find it at Amazon: .) Prigozy, R. & Raubicheck, W., ed. Going My Way: Bing Crosby and American Culture''. The Boydell Press, 2007. (Find it at Amazon: .) External links Bing Crosby's Official Site Bing Crosby on Facebook Bing Crosby on Twitter Bing Crosby Internet Museum The Bing Crosby Discography Bing Crosby Collection at Gonzaga University Most Popular Entertainer of the Twentieth Century Most popular Singers of the 20th century Conference Bing Crosby (November 2002) Bing Crosby Article - by Dr. Frank Hoffmann The International Club Crosby Fan Club BING magazine (a publication of the ICC) "Bing still matters" (2007) by Ted Nesi, The Sun Chronicle Bob Hope: The Road to Bed in TimesOnline Bing Crosby Official 10" (78Rpm) Discography
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4,745
Main
Main may refer to any of the following: The Main, a river in Germany The Main, a river in Far Eastern Siberia. Main River (Newfoundland), a river in Newfoundland, Canada Main (Northern Ireland), a river in Northern Ireland as seen at Map of Northern Ireland near Ballymena city. Boulevard Saint-Laurent in Montreal, Quebec, Canada is known as "The Main" Spanish Main, a name given to the Caribbean coast MAIN, Mid-America Interconnected Network (electric power grid) Main Street, a generic street name Main (lunar crater), a crater on the moon Main function (programming), a common function in some programming languages Main (surname), people with the surname Main Main (band), experimental musicians Ma'in, alternate spelling for the Minaeans, an ancient people of modern-day Yemen during the 1st millennium BC Water main Chas. T. Main, an engineering company, later bought by Parsons Corporation See also Maine (disambiguation) Mains Mane
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Project_Gutenberg
Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, in order to "encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks." Founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart, it is the oldest digital library. Most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books. The project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, open formats that can be used on almost any computer. , Project Gutenberg claimed over items in its collection. Project Gutenberg is affiliated with many projects that are independent organizations which share the same ideals, and have been given permission to use the Project Gutenberg trademark. Wherever possible, the releases are available in plain text, but other formats are included, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI and Plucker. Most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, including regional and language-specific works. Project Gutenberg is also closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. History Michael Hart and Gregory Newby of Project Gutenberg, 2006 Project Gutenberg was started by Michael Hart in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence. Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the university's Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with a virtually unlimited amount of computer time; its value at that time has since been variously estimated at $100,000 or $100,000,000. Hart has said he wanted to "give back" this gift by doing something that could be considered to be of great value. 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4,747
Kary_Mullis
Kary Banks Mullis (born December 28, 1944) is an American biochemist and Nobel laureate. Mullis shared the 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Michael Smith. Mullis received the prize for his development of the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), a process first described by Kjell Kleppe and 1968 Nobel laureate H. Gobind Khorana that allows the amplification of specific DNA sequences. The improvements provided by Mullis have made PCR a central technique in biochemistry and molecular biology. Mullis also received the Japan Prize in 1993. Early life and education Mullis was born in Lenoir, North Carolina, near the Blue Ridge Mountains, Official Nobel Autobiography on December 28, 1944. His family had a background in farming in this rural area. As a child, Mullis recalls, he was interested in observing biological organisms in the countryside. [http://books.google.com/books?id=HarCo_xmABIC&pg=PA184&dq=%22kary+mullis%22&ie=ISO-8859-1&sig=Hba9aK4gxxZdBSqM7rFefYcnZOA 'Biotechnology 101 by Brian Robert Shmaefsky]</ref> He grew up in Columbia, South Carolina, where he attended Dreher High School. Mullis earned a Bachelor of Science degree in chemistry from the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta in 1966, during which time he got married and started a business. He then received a Ph.D. in biochemistry from the University of California, Berkeley in 1972; his research focused on synthesis and structure of proteins. Following his graduation, Mullis became a postdoctoral fellow in pediatric cardiology at the University of Kansas Medical School, going on to complete two years of postdoctoral work in pharmaceutical chemistry at the University of California, San Francisco. Career After receiving his PhD, Mullis left science to write fiction, but quit and became a biochemist at a medical school in Kansas City. He then managed a bakery for two years. "Scientist at Work/Kary Mullis; After the 'Eureka', a Nobelist Drops Out" Nicholas Wade, The New York Times, September 15, 1998. Mullis returned to science at the encouragement of friend Thomas White, who later got Mullis a job with the biotechnology company Cetus Corporation of Emeryville, California. Mullis worked as a DNA chemist at Cetus for seven years; it was there, in 1983, that Mullis invented his prize-winning improvements to the polymerase chain reaction. The Economist, 2004 After leaving Cetus in 1986, Mullis served as director of molecular biology for Xytronyx, Inc. in San Diego for two years. Mullis has consulted on nucleic acid chemistry for multiple corporations. In 1992, Mullis founded a business with the intent to sell pieces of jewelry containing the amplified DNA of deceased famous people like Elvis Presley and Marilyn Monroe. The Hastings Center Report, 1998 Mullis participated in the inaugural San Diego Science Festival's "Lunch with a Laureate" program. http://www.sdsciencefestival.com/school-programs/lunch-with-laureates.html PCR and other inventions In 1983, Mullis was working for Cetus Corp. as a chemist. That spring, according to Mullis, he was driving his vehicle late one night with his girlfriend, who was also a chemist at Cetus, when he had the idea to use a pair of primers to bracket the desired DNA sequence and to copy it using DNA polymerase, a technique which would allow a small strand of DNA to be copied almost an infinite number of times. Cetus took Mullis off his usual projects to concentrate on PCR full-time, and Mullis spent more than a year trying to show his idea would work, but could not produce "definitive proof" of the concept. Mullis eventually succeeded on December 16, 1983. In his Nobel Prize lecture, he remarked that the success didn't make up for his girlfriend breaking up with him shortly before: "I was sagging as I walked out to my little silver Honda Civic. Neither [assistant] Fred, empty Beck's bottles, nor the sweet smell of the dawn of the age of PCR could replace Jenny. I was lonesome." He received a $10,000 bonus from Cetus for the invention. Other Cetus scientists, including Randall Saiki and Henry Erlich, were placed on PCR projects to work on developing AIDS and other tests utilizing PCR. Saiki generated the needed data within months and authored the first paper on the improved technique, while Mullis was still working on his paper that would describe PCR itself. A further complication was that the DNA polymerase was destroyed by the high heat used at the start of each replication cycle and had to be replaced. In 1986, Mullis started to use Thermophilus aquaticus (Taq) DNA polymerase to amplify segments of DNA. The Taq polymerase was heat resistant and would only need to be added once, thus making the technique dramatically more affordable and subject to automation. This has created revolutions in biochemistry, molecular biology, genetics, medicine and forensics. Mullis has also invented a UV-sensitive plastic that changes color in response to light, and most recently has been working on an approach for mobilizing the immune system to neutralize invading pathogens and toxins, leading to the formation of his current venture, Altermune LLC. Mullis described this idea this way: It is a method using specific synthetic chemical linkers to divert an immune response from its nominal target to something completely different which you would right now like to be temporarily immune to. Let's say you just got exposed to a new strain of the flu. You're already immune to alpha-1,3-galactosyl-galactose bonds. All humans are. Why not divert a fraction of those antibodies to the influenza strain you just picked up? A chemical linker synthesized with an alpha-1,3-gal-gal bond on one end and a DNA aptamer devised to bind specifically to the strain of influenza you have on the other end will link anti-alpha-Gal antibodies to the influenza virus and presto!--you have fooled your immune system into attacking the new virus. Accreditation of the PCR technique Mullis was not the first to propose the ideas behind PCR. The main principles were described in 1971 by 1968 Nobel Prize laureate H. Gobind Khorana and Kjell Kleppe, a Norwegian scientist. Kleppe and Khorana released a 20-page research paper on PCR in the 1971 Journal of Molecular Biology. As early as June 18, 1969, Kleppe had presented his work at the Gordon Conference in New Hampshire. Using repair replication (the principle of PCR), he duplicated and then quadrupled a small synthetic molecule with the help of two primers and DNA-polymerase. Among those present (according to Arthur Kornberg in interview) was Stuart Linn, who then used Kleppe's material in his own teachings to his students, including Mullis. The suggestion that Mullis was solely responsible for the idea of using Taq polymerase in the PCR process has been refuted by his co-workers at the time, who were embittered by his abrupt departure from Cetus. However, other scientists have said that "the full potential [of PCR] was not realized" until Mullis' work in 1983, Artificial DNA: Methods and Applications by Yury E. Khudyakov, Howard A. Fields and at least one book has reported that Mullis' colleagues failed to see the potential of the technique when he presented it to them. Life on the Edge: Amazing Creatures Thriving in Extreme Environments by Michael Gross As a result, some controversy surrounds the balance of credit that should be given to Mullis versus the team at Cetus. In practice, credit has accrued to both the inventor and the company (although not its individual workers) in the form of a Nobel Prize and a $10,000 Cetus bonus for Mullis and $300 million for Cetus when the company sold the patent to Roche Molecular Systems. After DuPont lost out to La Roche on that sale, the company unsuccessfully disputed Mullis's patent on the alleged grounds that PCR had been previously described in 1971. Mullis took Cetus' side in the case, and Khorana refused to testify for DuPont; the jury upheld Mullis's patent in 1991. The anthropologist Paul Rabinow wrote a book on the history of the PCR method in 1996 (entitled Making PCR) in which he questioned whether or not Mullis "invented" PCR or "merely" came up with the concept of it. Rabinow, a Foucault scholar interested in issues of the production of knowledge, used the topic to argue against the idea that scientific discovery is the product of individual work, writing, "Committees and science journalists like the idea of associating a unique idea with a unique person, the lone genius. PCR is, in fact, one of the classic examples of teamwork." Ethnography of a Nobel Prize Views on science Mullis has said that the never-ending quest for more grants and staying with established dogmas has hurt science. He believes that "Science is being practiced by people who are dependent on being paid for what they are going to find out," not for what they actually produce. Controversies AIDS denialism Mullis has also drawn controversy for his association with prominent AIDS denialist Peter Duesberg and his rejection of the evidence that HIV causes AIDS. Reason, June 1994 At a 1994 conference in Toledo, Spain, Mullis changed the topic of his speech at the last minute, and instead lectured the crowd on his idea that HIV does not cause AIDS. According to The New York Times, his supporting slides were "photographs he had taken of naked women with colored lights projected on their bodies." Mullis wrote in an introduction to Duesberg's Inventing the Aids Virus (1997), "No one has ever proven that HIV causes AIDS. We have not been able to discover any good reasons why most of the people on earth believe that AIDS is a disease caused by a virus called HIV." Insight on the News, March 11, 1996 Mullis has stated that AIDS is an arbitrary diagnosis in which common medical conditions are mislabeled as AIDS when antibodies to HIV are found in a patient. Washington Informer, May 31, 2000 Medical and scientific consensus rejects such statements as disproven. Global warming Mullis is skeptical about global warming, disagreeing with the theory that human activity is a factor. http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/kary_mullis_on_what_scientists_do.html Mullis also denies the scientific evidence that CFCs can cause ozone depletion.<ref>Dancing Naked in the Mind Field". 1998, Vintage Books p.115 Personal life Mullis enjoys beach surfing, Time Magazine, December 13, 2000 has had three divorces, and was very popular with women after winning the Nobel Prize. He has three children by two separate ex-wives, including a son, Christopher. Use of LSD In a Q&A interview published in the September, 1994, issue of California Monthly, Mullis said, "Back in the 1960s and early '70s I took plenty of LSD. A lot of people were doing that in Berkeley back then. And I found it to be a mind-opening experience. It was certainly much more important than any courses I ever took." During a symposium held for centenarian Albert Hofmann, "Hofmann revealed that he was told by Nobel-prize-winning chemist Kary Mullis that LSD had helped him develop the polymerase chain reaction that helps amplify specific DNA sequences." Books authored The Polymerase Chain Reaction, 1994, with Richard A. Gibbs Dancing Naked in the Mind Field. 1998, Vintage Books. Mullis's 1998 autobiography Dancing Naked in the Mind Field, gives his account of the commercial development of PCR, as well as providing insights into the opinions and experiences of the author. In the book, Mullis chronicles his romantic relationships, use of LSD, synthesis and self-testing of novel psychoactive substances, belief in astrology and an encounter with an extraterrestrial in the form of a fluorescent raccoon. Awards and honors 1990 - William Allan Memorial Award of the American Society of Human Genetics | Preis Biochemische Analytik of the German Society of Clinical Chemistry and Boehringer Mannheim 1991 - National Biotechnology Award | Gairdner Award | R&D Scientist of the Year 1992 - California Scientist of the Year Award 1993 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry | Japan Prize | Thomas A. Edison Award 1994 - Honorary degree of Doctor of Science from the University of South Carolina 1998 - Inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame Hall of Fame/Inventor Profile | Ronald H. Brown American Innovator Award Nobel Prize Winner Among Rondal H. Brown Award Recipients 2004 - Honorary degree in Pharmaceutical Biotechnology from the University of Bologna, Italy Mullis also received the John Scott Award in 1991, given by the City Trusts of Philadelphia to others including Thomas Edison and the Wright Brothers. John Scott Award Winners See also AIDS denialism Global warming controversy Nobel Prize controversies References Additional sources Celia Farber, "Interview Kary Mullis", Spin (July 1994). (Focuses on his position regarding HIV and AIDS.) Anthony Liversidge, "Kary Mullis, the great gene machine", Omni magazine (April 1992). Kary Mullis, Dancing Naked in the Mind Field (Pantheon Books, 1998). ISBN 0-679-77400-9 Paul Rabinow, Making PCR: a story of biotechnology (University of Chicago Press, 1996). ISBN 0-226-70147-6 Charles A. Thomas Jr., Kary B. Mullis, and Phillip E. Johnson, "WHAT CAUSES AIDS? It's An Open Question" Reason (June 1994). External links Sarah Klipfel's interview with Kary Mullis, July 14, 1998. Focuses on his position regarding HIV and AIDS. Kary Mullis's personal website Georgia Tech alumni site Article on Mullis as "Georgia Tech's only Nobel Laureate." "Nobel Dude" A Salon.com writer tries to make sense of Mullis' place in the world. "Nobel Savage" London Review of Books review of Dancing Naked in the Mind Field. The Norwegian State Research Counsel online version of an interview in the Norwegian scientific journal "Research" with Ruth Kleppe Aakvaag (Wife of Kjell Kleppe)
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Film_crew
Film crew and equipment on a location shoot. For the comedic team, see The Film Crew. A film crew is a group of people hired by a production company for the purpose of producing a film or motion picture. Crew are distinguished from cast, the actors who appear in front of the camera or provide voices for characters in the film. Crew are also separate from producers, those who own a portion of either the film company or the film's intellectual property rights. A film crew is divided into different departments, each of which specializes in a specific aspect of the production. Production “Production” is generally not considered a department as such, but rather as a series of functional groups. These include the "front office" staff such as the Production Manager, the Production Coordinator, and their assistants; the accounting staff; the various Assistant Directors; and sometimes the Locations Manager and his or her assistants. The Director is considered to be a separate entity, not within the departmental structure. Executive Producer is usually an investor in the project or just a credit that the filmmaker gave to someone who paid for the credit. You can have as many executive producers as you want but generally keep it to a minimum. Producer A film producer creates the conditions for making movies. The producer initiates, coordinates, supervises and controls matters such as raising funding, hiring key personnel, and arranging for distributors. The producer is involved throughout all phases of the filmmaking process from development to completion of a project. Production Manager The production manager supervises the physical aspects of the production (not the creative aspects) including personnel, technology, budget, and scheduling. It is the production manager's responsibility to make sure the filming stays on schedule and within its budget. The PM also helps manage the day-to-day budget by managing operating costs such as salaries, production costs, and everyday equipment rental costs. The PM often works under the supervision of a line producer and directly supervises the Production Coordinator. Unit Manager The unit manager fulfills the same role as the production manager but for secondary "unit" shooting. In some functional structures, the unit manager subsumes the role of the Transport Coordinator. Production Coordinator The Production Coordinator is the information nexus of the production, responsible for organizing all the logistics from hiring crew, renting equipment, and booking talent. The PC is an integral part of film production. Post-production supervisor Director The director is responsible for overseeing the creative aspects of a film, including controlling the content and flow of the film's plot, directing the performances of actors, organizing and selecting the locations in which the film will be shot, and managing technical details such as the positioning of cameras, the use of lighting, and the timing and content of the film's soundtrack. Though the director wields a great deal of power, he or she is ultimately subordinate to the film's producer or producers. Some directors, especially more established ones, take on many of the roles of a producer, and the distinction between the two roles is sometimes blurred. First Assistant Director The first assistant director (1st AD) assists the production manager and director. The ultimate aim of any 1st AD is to ensure the film comes in on schedule while maintaining a working environment in which the director, principal artists (actors) and crew can be focussed on their work. He or she is in charge of overseeing the day-to-day management of the cast and crew scheduling, equipment, script, and set. A 1st AD may also be responsible for directing background action for major shots or the entirety of relatively minor shots, at the director's discretion. Second Assistant Director The second assistant director (2nd AD) is the chief assistant of the 1st AD and helps carry out those tasks delegated to the 1st AD. The 2nd AD may also direct background action and extras in addition to helping the 1st AD with scheduling, booking, etc. The 2nd AD is responsible for creating Call Sheets that let the crew know the schedule and important details about the shooting day. In Canadian and British functional structures there are 3rd ADs and even Trainee ADs; in the American system there are 2nd 2nd ADs. Production Assistant A production assistant assists the first assistant director with set operations. Production assistants, almost always referred to as PAs, also assist in the production office with general tasks. Script Supervisor Also known as the "continuity person", the script supervisor keeps track of what parts of the script have been filmed and makes notes of any deviations between what was actually filmed and what appeared in the script. He or she makes notes on every shot, also keeping track of props, blocking, and other details to ensure that continuity is maintained from shot to shot, and from scene to scene. The Script Supervisor's notes are given to the Editor to expedite the editing process. The script supervisor works very closely with the director on set. Stunt Coordinator Where the film requires a stunt, and involves the use of stunt performers, the stunt coordinator will arrange the casting and performance of the stunt, working closely with the director. Art Department The Art Department in a major feature film can often number hundreds of people. Usually it is considered to include several sub-departments: the art department proper, with its art director, set designers and draughtsmen; set decoration, under the set decorator; props, under the propmaster; construction, headed by the construction coordinator; scenic, headed by the key scenic artist; and special effects. Production Designer A production designer is responsible for creating the physical, visual appearance of the film - settings, costumes, properties, character makeup, all taken as a unit. The production designer works closely with the director and the cinematographer to achieve the 'look' of the film. Art Within the overall Art Department is a sub-department, called the Art Department, which can be confusing. This consists of the people who design the sets and create the graphic art. Art Director The art director reports to the production designer, and more directly oversees artists and craftspeople, such as the set designers, graphic artists, and illustrators who give form to the production design as it develops. The art director works closely with the construction coordinator to oversee the aesthetic and textural details of sets as they are realized. Assistant art director The first, second and third assistant art directors carry out the instructions of the art director. Their work often involves measuring locations, creating graphics and paper props, collecting information for the production designer and drawing sets. Sometimes a set designer is also the first assistant art director; in this capacity, he or she manages the work flow and acts as the 'foreman' of the drawing office. Set Designer The set designer is the draftsman, often an architect, who realizes the structures or interior spaces called for by the production designer. Illustrator The illustrator illustrates visual representations of the designs to communicate the ideas imagined by the production designer. Sets Set Decorator The set decorator is in charge of the decorating of a film set, which includes the furnishings and all the other objects that will be seen in the film. He or she works closely with the production designer and coordinates with the art director. In recognition of the set decorator's importance, the Academy Award for Art Direction is given jointly to both the production designer and the set decorator. Buyer The buyer is the number two person in the set department below the set decorator. The buyer locates, and then purchases or rents the set dressing. Lead Man The lead man is the foreman of the sets crew, often referred to as the “swing gang”. Set Dresser The set dressers apply and remove the "dressing", i.e., furniture, drapery, carpets—everything one would find in a location, even doorknobs and wall sockets. Most of the swing gang's work occurs before and after the shooting crew arrives but one set dresser remains with the shooting crew and is known as the on-set dresser. In some countries, such as Great Britain and the Republic of Ireland, the set dressing department is referred to as dressing props department. Props Props Master The property master, more commonly known as the props master, is in charge of finding and managing all the props that appear in the film. The propsmaster usually has several assistants. Props builder The props builder, or more frequently propmaker, as the name implies, builds the props that are used for the film. Props builders are often technicians skilled in construction, plastics casting, machining, and electronics. Armourer The armourer is a specialized props technician who deals with firearms. In most jurisdictions this requires special training and licenses. Construction Construction Coordinator The construction coordinator oversees the construction of all the sets. The coordinator orders materials, schedules the work, and supervises the often sizeable construction crew of carpenters, painters and labourers. In some jurisdictions the construction coordinator is called the construction manager. Head Carpenter The head carpenter is the foreman of a "gang" of carpenters and laborers. Scenic Key Scenic The key scenic artist is responsible for the surface treatments of the sets. This includes special paint treatments such as aging and gilding, as well as simulating the appearance of wood, stone, brick, metal, stained glass--anything called for by the production designer. The key scenic artist supervises the crew of painters, and is often a master craftsperson. Greens Greensman The greensman is a specialised set dresser dealing with the artistic arrangement or landscape design of plant material, sometimes real and sometimes artificial, and usually a combination of both. Depending on the scope of the greens work in a film, the greensman may report to the art director or may report directly to the production designer. If a significant amount of greens work is required in a film, then the Greens may be an identifiable sub-department, with its own team - often of a size numbering double figures - and hierarchy (eg. Greensmaster, Greens Supervisor, Foreperson, Leading Hand, Laborers). Specialists from other areas of the Art Dept. (eg. Fabricators, Sculptors, Painters/Scenics) may also be drafted to work exclusively on Greens. Hair and make-up Make-up Artist Make-up artists work with makeup, hair and special effects to create the characters look for anyone appearing on screen. Their role is to manipulate an actors on screen appearance whether it makes them look more youthful, larger, older, or in some cases monstrous. There are also body makeup artists who concentrate their abilities on the body rather than the head. Hairdresser The hair stylist is responsible for maintaining and styling the hair of anyone appearing on screen. He or she works in conjunction with the makeup artist. Wardrobe Costume Designer The costume designer is responsible for all the clothing and costumes worn by all the actors that appear on screen. He or she is also responsible for designing, planning, and organizing the construction of the garments down to the fabric, colors, and sizes. The costume designer works closely with the director to understand and interpret "character", and counsels with the production designer to achieve an overall tone of the film. Costume Supervisor The Costume Supervisor works closely with the designer. In addition to helping with the design of the costumes, the he or she manages the wardrobe workspace. He or she is responsible for supervising the construction or sourcing of garments, the hiring and firing of support staff, the budget, paperwork, and department logistics. Key Costumer The Key Costumer is employed on larger productions to manage the set costumers, and to handle the Star's wardrobe needs. Costume Standby The Costume Standby is present on set at all times. It is his/her responsibility to monitor the quality and continuity of the actors and actresses costumes before and during takes. (S)he will also assist the actors and actresses with dressing. This person is also known as a 'set costumer'. Art Finisher An Art Finisher may be employed during the pre-production stage to "break down" garments. This specialised job includes making new clothing appear dirty, faded and worn. They are also known as breakdown artists. Buyer On large productions a Buyer may be employed to source and purchase fabrics and garments. A buyer might also be referred to as a shopper. This distinction is often made when the lead actor in a production has control over their wardrobe, and they may personally hire this person. Cutter/Fitter A costume technician who fits or tailors costumes, usually on-set. They can also be called cutters, seamstresses or tailors. Some celebrity actors have favorite cutters, and larger productions may hire several and have them on set at the same time, particularly in period film projects that might have complicated or extremely expensive extras wardrobe. Camera A Camera operator filming a scene from the 1950 Hollywood film Julius Caesar starring Charlton Heston Director of Photography The director of photography is the chief of the camera and lighting crew of the film. The DP makes decisions on lighting and framing of scenes in conjunction with the film's director. Typically, the director tells the DP how he or she wants a shot to look, and the DP then chooses the correct aperture, filter, and lighting to achieve the desired effect. Cinematographer The term cinematographer has been a point of contention for some time now. It is usually synonymous with "director of photography", though some professionals insist that it only applies when the director of photography and camera operator are the same person. Camera Operator The camera operator uses the camera at the direction of the cinematographer, director of photography, or the film director to capture the scenes on film. Generally, a cinematographer or director of photography does not operate the camera, but sometimes these jobs may be combined. First Assistant Camera (Focus Puller) The first assistant camera (1st AC) is responsible for keeping the camera in focus as it is shooting. Second Assistant Camera (Clapper Loader) The second assistant camera (2nd AC) operates the clapperboard at the beginning of each take and loads the raw film stock into the camera magazines between takes, if there is no additional specifically designated film loader. The 2nd AC is also in charge of overseeing the meticulously kept notebooks that records when the film stock is received, used, and sent to the lab for processing. Additionally, the 2nd AC oversees organization of camera equipment and transport of the equipment from one shooting location to another. Loader The loader is the designated film loader. They transfer motion picture film from the manufacturer's light-tight canisters to the camera magazines for attachment to the camera by the 2nd AC. After exposure during filming, the loader then removes the film from the magazines and places it back into the light-tight cans for transport to the laboratory. It is the responsibility of the loader to manage the inventory of film and communicate with the 1st AC on the film usage and remaining stock throughout the day. On small production crews, this job is often combined with the 2nd AC. With the prevalence of digital photography, this position is often eliminated. Camera Production Assistant (camera intern) Usually a volunteer or trainee in the camera department, the camera PA assists the crew with menial details while learning the trade of the camera assistant, operator or cinematographer. Digital Imaging Technician ("DIT") On digital photography productions the digital imaging technician is responsible for the coordination of the internal workings of the digital camera. Under the direction of the cinematographer or director of photography, the DIT will make adjustments to the multitude of variables available in most professional digital cameras to creatively or technically manipulate the resulting image. Steadicam operator A Steadicam operator is someone who is skilled at operating a Steadicam rig (the genericized trademark for a camera stabilization rig). Motion Control Technician/Operator This technician operates a motion control rig, which is essentially a 'camera robot' that is able to consistently repeat camera moves for special effects use. Motion control rigs are typically rented with an experienced operator. Production Sound Production Sound Mixer The production sound mixer is head of the sound department on set, responsible for recording all sound during filming. This involves the choice and deployment of microphones, operation of a sound recording device, and sometimes the mixing of audio signals in real time. Boom Operator The boom operator is an assistant to the production sound mixer, responsible for microphone placement and movement during filming. The boom operator uses a boom pole, a long, special piece of equipment made from light aluminum or carbon fiber, that allows precise positioning of the microphone above or below the actors, just out of the camera's frame. As well as the Placement of Radio Mics and other Microphones 'Hidden' on set. In France, the boom operator is known as the perchman. Utility Sound Technician The utility sound technician has a dynamic role in the sound department, most typically pulling cables, but often acting as an additional boom operator or mixer when required by complex filming circumstances. Not all films employ a utility sound technician, but the increasing complexities of location sound recording in modern film have made the job more prevalent. This role is sometimes credited as "cable man" or "python wrangler". Grip Grips are trained lighting and rigging technicians. The main responsibility of a grip is to work closely with the electrical department to put in the lighting set-ups necessary for a shot. On the sound stage, they are responsible for moving and adjusting major set pieces when something needs to be moved to get a camera into position. They may belong to the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees. Key grip The key grip is the chief grip on a set, and is the head of the set operations department. The key grip works with the director of photography to help set up the set and to achieve the correct lighting and blocking. Best boy (Grip) The best boy grip is the chief assistant to the key grip. He or she is also responsible for organizing the grip truck throughout the day. Dolly grip The grip in charge of operating the camera dolly is called the dolly grip. He/she places, levels, and moves the dolly track, then pushes and pulls the dolly and usually a camera operator and camera assistant as riders. Electrical Gaffer The gaffer is the head of the electrical department, responsible for the design and execution of the lighting plan for a production. Sometimes the gaffer is credited as "Chief Lighting Technician". Best boy (Electrical) The best boy electric is the chief assistant to the gaffer. Lighting Technician Lighting technicians are involved with setting up and controlling lighting equipment. Editorial Film Editor The film editor is the person who assembles the various shots into a coherent film, with the help of the director. Film editors may belong to the American Cinema Editors (A.C.E.) Colorist With a photochemical process, the color timer adjusts the color of the film via printer lights for greater consistency in the film's colors. With a digital intermediate process, the colorist can use digital tools in manipulating the image and has greater creative freedom in changing the aesthetic of a film. Negative Cutter The negative cutter cuts and splices the negatives as directed by the film editor, and then provide the assembled negative reels to the lab in order for prints (positives for projection) to be made. Visual Effects Visual Effects Supervisor The visual effects supervisor is in charge of the visual effects department. Visual effects refer to post-production alterations to the film's images. They are not to be confused with special effects, which are done during production (on set). Compositor A compositor is a visual effects artist responsible for compositing images from different sources such as video, film, computer generated 3-D imagery, 2-D animations, matte paintings, photographs, and text. Roto, paint These artists may rotoscope the footage, manually creating mattes for use in compositing. They may also paint visual information into or out of a scene, such removing wires and rigs, logos, dust busting, scratch removal, etc. Matte Painter These artists draw/paint entire sets or extend portions of an existing set. Sound/Music Sound Designer The sound designer, or "supervising sound editor", is in charge of the post-production sound of a movie. Sometimes this may involve great creative license, and other times it may simply mean working with the director and editor to balance the sound to their liking. Dialogue Editor Responsible for assembling and editing all the dialog in the soundtrack. Sound Editor Responsible for assembling and editing all the sound effects in the soundtrack. Re-recording Mixer Balances all of the sounds prepared by the dialogue, music and effects editors, and finalizes the films audio track. Music Supervisor The music supervisor, or "music director", works with composer, mixers and editors to create and integrate the film's music. In Hollywood, a music supervisor's primary responsibility is to act as liaison between the film production and the recording industry, negotiating the use rights for all source music used in a film. Composer The composer is responsible for writing the musical score for a film. Foley Artist The foley artist is the person who creates and records many of the sound effects for a film. References External links A Few Things I Learned From My First Experience as a Production Assistant An editorialized synopsis of the production departments, from the perspective of a Production Assistant.
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4,749
Cross-examination
See Structure of policy debate for cross-examination in policy debate. In law, cross-examination is the interrogation of a witness called by one's opponent. It is preceded by direct examination (in England, Australia, Canada, India and Pakistan known as examination-in-chief) and may be followed by a redirect (re-examination in England, Australia, Canada, India and Pakistan). In the United States, the cross-examining attorney is typically not permitted to ask questions which do not pertain to the facts revealed in direct examination. This is called going beyond the scope of the direct examination. This does not apply in England, Australia, and Canada, where once a witness is called the opponent's lawyer can ask any question relevant to the issues in the trial. Since a witness called by the opposing party is presumed to be hostile, cross examination does permit leading questions. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-hostile-witness.htm "What is a hostile witness?" A witness called by the direct examiner, on the other hand, may only be treated as hostile by that examiner after being permitted to do so by the judge, at the request of that examiner and as a result of the witness being openly antagonistic and/or prejudiced against the opposing party. Ehrhardt, Charles W. and Stephanie J. Young, "Using Leading Questions During Direct Examination," (Florida State University Law Review, 1996). (accessed November 26, 2008). The main purposes of cross-examination are to elicit favorable facts from the witness, or to impeach the credibility of the testifying witness to lessen the weight of unfavourable testimony. Cross-examination frequently produces critical evidence in trials, especially if a witness contradicts previous testimony. The advocate Edward Marshall-Hall built his career on cross-examination which often involved histrionic outbursts designed to sway jurors. Bibliography Alex Johnson - Fairfield High School Class of 2009 References See also Testimony Witness impeachment External links "The Secret to Successful Cross-Examination" Video - The Secret to Successful Cross-Examination
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4,750
Firewall_(construction)
In construction, a firewall is a fire-resistance rated wall assembly intended to slow the spread of fire from one side to the other, and are certification listed. Firewalls subdivide a building into separate fire areas, and are located in accordance with the locally applicable building code. Firewalls are a portion of a building's passive fire protection systems. Types There are two main classifications of fire walls: fire partitions, and true fire walls. To the layperson, the common use of language typically includes both when referring to a firewall unless distinguishing between them is necessary. A fire wall is a wall separating buildings or subdividing a building to prevent the spread of fire and having a fire resistance rating and structural stability. NFPA 221, Standard for High Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls, 2006 Edition, section 3.3.12.6 . There is a further sub-classification of fire walls. A High Challenge Fire Wall is a wall used to separate buildings or subdivide a building with high fire challenge occupancies, having enhanced fire resistance ratings and enhanced appurtenance protection to prevent the spread of fire, and having structural stability. NFPA 221, Standard for High Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls, 2006 Edition, section 3.3.12.7 Portions of structures that are subdivided by fire walls are permitted to be considered separate buildings, in that fire walls have sufficient structural stability to maintain the integrity of the wall in the event of the collapse of the building construction on either side of the wall. NFPA 221, Standard for High Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls, 2006 Edition, section A3.3.12.6 A fire barrier wall, also referred to as a fire partition, is a fire rated wall assembly which is not a fire wall. Typically, the main differences is that a fire barrier wall is not structurally stable, and does not extend through the roof, or to the underside of the floor above. NFPA 221, Standard for High Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls, 2006 Edition, section 3.3.12.5 Fire barrier walls are continuous from an exterior wall to an exterior wall, or from a floor below to a floor or roof above, or from one fire barrier wall to another fire barrier wall, fire wall, or high challenge fire wall having a fire resistance rating of at least equal rating as required for the fire barrier wall. They are continuous through all concealed spaces (e.g., above a ceiling), but are not required to extend through concealed spaces if the construction assembly forming the bottom of the space has a fire resistance rating at least equal of the fire barrier wall. NFPA 221, Standard for High Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls, 2006 Edition, section 3.3.12.7 Characteristics Fire rating - Fire walls are constructed in such a way as to achieve a code-determined fire-resistance rating, thus forming part of a fire compartment's passive fire protection. Design loads – Fire wall must withstand a minimum 5 lb./sq.ft., and additional seismic loads. NFPA 221, Standard for High Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls, 2006 Edition, section 4.2 Germany includes repeated impact force testing upon new fire wall systems. Other codes require impact resistance on a performance basis NFPA 221, Standard for High Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls, 2006 Edition, section 4.6 Firewalls typically extend through the roof and terminate at a code-determined distance above it. They are usually finished off on the top with flashing (sheet metal cap) for protection against the elements. Materials - Firewalls in North America are usually made of concrete block or reinforced concrete. Fire barrier walls are typically constructed of gypsum board partitions. Penetrations – Penetrations through fire walls, such as for pipes and cables, must be protected with a firestop assembly to prevent the spread of fire through the wall at this point. Fire walls must not be penetrated such that the wall is structurally weakened in a fire and could collapse. NFPA 221, Standard for High Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls, 2006 Edition, section 4.9 Openings – Openings in Fire walls, such as doors and windows, must be fire rated as fire door assemblies and fire window assemblies. NFPA 221, Standard for High Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls, 2006 Edition, section 4.8.3 Performance based design Modern fire-testing methods have shown that the traditional concrete or masonry firewall is not always required to provide the degree of safety required of a firewall. For example, the use of a 4-hour fire-rated concrete or masonry firewall to separate buildings constructed of highly combustible wood framing might be unnecessary, since it could be unlikely that the building on either side would actually burn for more than 2 hours without collapsing. Alternate materials Since 2000, the International Building Code (Section 705.3), widely adopted in the United States, has permitted the use of firewalls constructed of non-combustible construction other than concrete or masonry. This departure from traditional methods and techniques has proven to be controversial, especially for more conservative building code officials. Another major critic has been the concrete masonry industry, that sees its niche in the construction industry affected by the shift to other firewall materials. This controversy has resulted in a large number of local authorities adopting amendments to the IBC that restrict the use of firewalls built of other than concrete and masonry within their jurisdictions. Innovation The most novel, lightweight approach to building firewalls that pass the tough German DIN4102 test as well as North American test regimes including the hose-stream test includes the use of mechanically bonded sheet metal and concrete composite boards ("DuraSteel"). Even though this is a much lighter and fast construction method than the norm, it meets code because it contains a small amount of concrete, albeit cellulose reinforced, with a mostly sacrificial exposed side, as its hydrates are quickly spent and the fibres are ineffective in holding together the loose powder that is left over from what used to be integral concrete, after even small fire exposures. As a system, however, with a front and a back on each side of the framework, it works very well under any test regime the world over. Firewalls outside of building construction The firewall in an automobile (indicated by the red line) Jeep Liberty firewall insulation Firewalls are also regularly found in aircraft and in specially prepared cars for compartmentalisation and competition use. For example, a typical conversion of a production car for rallying will include a metal firewall which seals the fuel tank off from the interior of the vehicle. In the event of an accident, resulting in fuel spillage, the firewall can prevent burning fuel from entering the passenger compartment, where it could cause serious injury or death. In regular stock cars, the firewall separates the engine compartment from the cabin and can, at times, contain fibreglass insulation. Automotive firewalls have to be fitted so that they form a complete seal. Usually this is done by bonding the sheet metal to the bodywork using fibreglass resin. The term firewall is also commonly used by automotive mechanics to refer to the barrier between the passenger and engine compartments of any vehicle. Notes See also Compartmentalization Fire-resistance rating Fire protection Passive fire protection Occupancy Fire door Fireproofing Drywall Concrete Listing and approval use and compliance Construction External links
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4,751
Pig_Latin
Pig Latin is a game of alterations played on the English language game. To form the Pig Latin form of an English word the initial consonant sound is transposed to the end of the word and an ay is affixed (Ex.: "banana" would yield anana-bay). The purpose of the alteration is to both obfuscate the encoding and to indicate for the intended recipient the encoding as 'Pig Latin'. The reference to Latin is a deliberate misnomer, as it is simply a form of jargon, used only for its English connotations as a 'strange and foreign-sounding language'. Origins The origins of Pig Latin are unknown. One early mention of it was in Putnam’s Magazine in May 1869: “I had plenty of ammunition in reserve, to say nothing, Tom, of our pig Latin. ‘Hoggibus, piggibus et shotam damnabile grunto’, and all that sort of thing”. The Atlantic January 1896 also included a mention of the subject: “They all spoke a queer jargon which they themselves had invented. It was something like the well-known ‘pig Latin’ that all sorts of children like to play with”. Thomas Jefferson wrote letters to friends in pig Latin, and also recorded his sexual acts in his diary in pig Latin. (see Hailman and Lewis in the references below) Use Pig Latin is mostly used by children for amusement or to converse in perceived privacy from adults or other children. A few Pig Latin words, such as ixnay Definition of ixnay (nix), amscray Definition of amscray (scram), and upidstay (stupid), have been incorporated into English slang. Rules and variations The usual rules for changing standard English into Pig Latin are as follows: In words that begin with consonant sounds, the initial consonant or consonant cluster is moved to the end of the word, and "ay" is added, as in the following examples: beast → east-bay dough → ough-day happy → appy-hay question → estion-quay star → ar-stay three → ee-thray In words that begin with vowel sounds or silent consonants, the syllable "ay" is added to the end of the word. In some dialects, to aid in pronunciation, an extra consonant is added to the beginning of the suffix; for instance, eagle could yield eagle'yay, eagle'way, or eagle'hay. Transcription varies. A hyphen or apostrophe is sometimes used to facilitate translation back into English. Ayspray, for instance, is ambiguous, but ay-spray means "spray" whereas ays-pray means "prays." Other languages In Bernese German, a variety of Pig Latin called Mattenenglisch was used in the Matte, the traditional working class neighborhood. Though it has fallen out of use since mid 20th century, it is still cultivated by voluntary associations. A characteristic of the Mattenenglisch Pig Latin is the complete substitution of the first vowel by i, in addition to the usual moving of the initial consonant cluster and the adding of ee. The Swedish equivalent of Pig Latin is Allspråket, which uses the same or similar rules but with the suffix "-all". Additionally, the Swedish language game Fikonspråket ("Fig language") is similar to Pig Latin. In Fikonspråket, speakers split each word after the first vowel, switch places of the two parts, put "fi" before the second part and "kon" after the first part. The word "kallingar" (underpants) thus translates to "fillingar kakon". The word "fimp", meaning cigarette stump, originated from Fikonspråket ("stump" = "fimp stukon"). French has the loucherbem (or louchébem) coded language, which supposedly was originally used by butchers (boucher in French). In loucherbem, the leading consonant cluster is moved to the end of the word (as in Pig Latin) and replaced by a l , and then a suffix is added at the end of the word (-oche, -em, -oque, depending on the word). ex: fou (crazy) = loufoque See also Back slang Dog Latin Language game Louchébem Rhyming slang Tutnese Ubbi dubbi Notes References Barlow, Jessica. 2001. "Individual differences in the production of initial consonant sequences in Pig Latin". Lingua 111:667-696. Cowan, Nelson. 1989. "Acquisition of Pig Latin: A Case Study". Journal of Child Language 16.2:365-386. Day, R. 1973. "On learning 'secret languages'." Haskins Laboratories Status Report on Speech Research 34:141-150. Hailman, John R. Thomas Jefferson on Wine. University Press of Mississippi, 2006. page 12. Haycock, Arthur. "Pig Latin". American Speech 8:3.81. Lewis, Jan. Sally Hemings & Thomas Jefferson. University of Virginia Press, 1999. page 83. McCarthy, John. 1991. "Reduplicative Infixation in Secret Languages" [L'Infixation reduplicative dans les langages secrets]. Langages 25.101:11-29. Vaux, Bert and Andrew Nevins. 2003. "Underdetermination in language games: Survey and analysis of Pig Latin dialects." Linguistic Society of America Annual Meeting, Atlanta. External links English to Pig Latin translator Pig Latin to English translator "Pig Latin to English translator" Google in Pig Latin
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4,752
No-cloning_theorem
The no cloning theorem is a result of quantum mechanics which forbids the creation of identical copies of an arbitrary unknown quantum state. It was stated by Wootters, Zurek, and Dieks in 1982, and has profound implications in quantum computing and related fields. The state of one system can be entangled with the state of another system. For instance, one can use the Controlled NOT gate and the Walsh-Hadamard gate to entangle two qubits. This is not cloning. No well-defined state can be attributed to a subsystem of an entangled state. Cloning is a process whose end result is a separable state with identical factors. Proof Suppose the state of a quantum system A, which we wish to copy, is (see bra-ket notation). In order to make a copy, we take a system B with the same state space and initial state . The initial, or blank, state must be independent of , of which we have no prior knowledge. The composite system is then described by the tensor product, and its state is There are only two ways to manipulate the composite system. We could perform an observation, which irreversibly collapses the system into some eigenstate of the observable, corrupting the information contained in the qubit. This is obviously not what we want. Alternatively, we could control the Hamiltonian of the system, and thus the time evolution operator U up to some fixed time interval, which yields a unitary operator. Then U acts as a copier provided that and for all and . By definition of unitary operator, U preserves the inner product: i.e. This implies that either or is orthogonal to which is not true in general. Therefore U cannot clone a general quantum state. This proves the no cloning theorem. Generalizations Mixed states and nonunitary operations In the statement of the theorem, two assumptions were made: the state to be copied is a pure state and the proposed copier acts via unitary time evolution. These assumptions cause no loss of generality. If the state to be copied is a mixed state, it can be purified. Similarly, an arbitrary quantum operation can be implemented via introducing an ancilla and perform a suitable unitary evolution. Thus the no cloning theorem holds in full generality. Arbitrary sets of states Non-clonability can be seen as a property of arbitrary sets of quantum states. If we know that a system's state is one of the states in some set S, but we do not know which one, can we prepare another system in the same state? If the elements of S are pairwise orthogonal, the answer is always yes: for any such set there exists a measurement which will ascertain the exact state of the system without disturbing it, and once we know the state we can prepare another system in the same state. If S contains two elements that are not pairwise orthogonal (in particular, the set of all quantum states includes such pairs) then an argument like that given above shows that the answer is no. The cardinality of an unclonable set of states may be as small as two, so even if we can narrow down the state of a quantum system to just two possibilities, we still cannot clone it in general (unless the states happen to be orthogonal). Another way of stating the no-cloning theorem is that amplification of a quantum signal can only happen with respect to some orthogonal basis. This is related to the emergence of classical probability rules in quantum decoherence. No-cloning in a classical context There is a classical analogue to the quantum no-cloning theorem, which we might state as follows: given only the result of one flip of a (possibly biased) coin, we cannot simulate a second, independent toss of the same coin. The proof of this statement uses the linearity of classical probability, and has exactly the same structure as the proof of the quantum no-cloning theorem. Thus if we wish to claim that no-cloning is a uniquely quantum result, some care is necessary in stating the theorem. One way of restricting the result to quantum mechanics is to restrict the states to pure states, where a pure state is defined to be one that is not a convex combination of other states. The classical pure states are pairwise orthogonal, but quantum pure states are not. Consequences The no cloning theorem prevents us from using classical error correction techniques on quantum states. For example, we cannot create backup copies of a state in the middle of a quantum computation, and use them to correct subsequent errors. Error correction is vital for practical quantum computing, and for some time this was thought to be a fatal limitation. In 1995, Shor and Steane revived the prospects of quantum computing by independently devising the first quantum error correcting codes, which circumvent the no cloning theorem. In contrast, the no cloning theorem is a vital ingredient in quantum cryptography, as it forbids eavesdroppers from creating copies of a transmitted quantum cryptographic key. The no-cloning theorem protects the uncertainty principle in quantum mechanics. If one could clone an unknown state, then one could make as many copies of it as one wished, and measure each dynamical variable with arbitrary precision, thereby bypassing the uncertainty principle. Similarly, cloning would violate the no teleportation theorem, which says classical teleportation (not to be confused with entanglement-assisted teleportation) is impossible. In other words, quantum states cannot be measured reliably. The no cloning theorem does not prevent superluminal communication via quantum entanglement, as cloning is a sufficient condition for such communication, however cloning is not necessary for superluminal communication. Nevertheless, consider the EPR thought experiment, and suppose quantum states could be cloned. Assume parts of a maximally entangled Bell state are distributed to Alice and Bob. Alice could send bits to Bob in the following way: If Alice wishes to transmit a "0", she measures the spin of her electron in the z direction, collapsing Bob's state to either or . To transmit "1", Alice does nothing to her qubit. Bob creates many copies of his electron's state, and measures the spin of each copy in the z direction. Bob will know that Alice has transmitted a "0" if all his measurements will produce the same result; otherwise, his measurements will have outcomes +1/2 and -1/2 with equal probability. This would allow Alice and Bob to communicate across space-like separations. Imperfect cloning Even though it is impossible to make perfect copies of an unknown quantum state, it is possible to produce imperfect copies. This can be done by coupling a larger auxiliary system to the system that is to be cloned, and applying a unitary transformation to the combined system. If the unitary transformation is chosen correctly, several components of the combined system will evolve into approximate copies of the original system. Imperfect cloning can be used as an eavesdropping attack on quantum cryptography protocols, among other uses in quantum information science. See also No-broadcast theorem Quantum teleportation Quantum entanglement Quantum information Uncertainty principle References Other sources W.K. Wootters and W.H. Zurek, A Single Quantum Cannot be Cloned, Nature 299 (1982), pp. 802-803. D. Dieks, Communication by EPR devices, Physics Letters A, vol. 92(6) (1982), pp. 271-272. V. Buzek and M. Hillery, Quantum cloning, Physics World 14 (11) (2001), pp. 25-29.
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4,753
Dictatorship
A dictatorship is defined as an autocratic form of government in which the government is ruled by an individual, the dictator, without hereditary ascension. It has three possible meanings: Roman dictator are a republic political office of the Roman Republic. Roman dictators were allocated absolute power during times of emergency. Their power was originally neither arbitrary nor unaccountable, being subject to law and requiring retrospective justification. There were no such dictatorships after the beginning of the 2nd century BC, and later dictators such as Sulla and the Roman Emperors exercised power much more personally and arbitrarily. A government controlled by one person or a small group of people. In contemporary usage, dictatorship refers to an autocratic form of absolute rule by leadership unrestricted by law, constitutions, or other social and political factors within the state. For some scholars, dictatorship is a form of government that has the power to govern without consent of those being governed, while totalitarianism describes a state that regulates nearly every aspect of public and private behavior of the people. In other words, dictatorship concerns the source of the governing power (where the power comes from) and totalitarianism concerns the scope of the governing power (what is the government). In this sense, dictatorship (government without people's consent) is a contrast to democracy (government whose power comes from people) and totalitarianism (government controls every aspect of people's life) opposes pluralism (government allows multiple lifestyles and opinions). Though the definitions of the terms differ, they are related in reality as most of the dictatorship states tend to show totalitarian characteristics. When governments' power does not come from the people, their power is not limited and tend to expand their scope of power to control every aspect of people's life. Examples of distinctive titles adopted by dictators Disparate authoritarian political leaders in various official positions assumed, formally or not, similar titles suggesting the power to speak for the nation itself In the 1930s and 1940s Such titles used by heads of state and/or government during the Second World War include: Vodca ("Leader") monsignor Jozef Tiso, from 1942 self-styled, in Slovakia, President 1939 - 1945 (acting to 26 October 1939). Naczelnik Państwa (Chief of State) Józef Piłsudski, dictator of Poland from 1926-1935. Vozhd (Russian for "Chief" in reference to Stalin being the Chief or a guide to the working class) - referred to Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. There was a Serbian Nationalist precedent, the style Vozhd in the uprising against the Ottomans, meaning Chief (from 26 December 1808, Supreme Chief 14 February 1804 - 3 October 1813 George Karađorđe Petrović, b. 1762 - d. 1817). Poglavnik Nezavisne Drzave Hrvatske ("Chief of the Independent State of Croatia") Ante Pavelic, in power in Croatia 10 April 1941 - 6 May 1945 Vidkun Quisling, Fører ("leader", "guide"), Minister-president of the Nazi puppet government in Norway, and after Reichskommissar Josef Terboven the highest official in occupied Norway, reporting directly to Adolf Hitler. Conducător ("leader"), a title used by Ion Antonescu in Romania. Leider ("leader"), a title used by Anton Mussert, the leader of Nationaal-Socialistische Beweging (National Socialist Movement) in the Netherlands. Though styled "leader" under the German occupation, he was not a real dictator as he had little actual power. In fact Arthur Seyss-Inquart was in charge of the Netherlands on behalf of the nazi regime. Nemzetvezető ("leader of the nation"), a title used by Ferenc Szálasi, the chief of the Nyilaskeresztes Párt (Arrow Cross Party) who succeeded Miklós Horthy in Hungary. Arhigos ("chief" or "leader"), a title used by General Ioannis Metaxas of Greece's 4th of August Regime. Adipati ("chief of state" or "generalissimo"), the title used by Ba Maw of the Japanese satellite State of Burma el Caudillo de España ("the Chieftain of Spain") Generalísimo Francisco Franco Bahamonde, Jefe de Estado (Chief of State) and Prime Minister. He adopted this title for himself and came to power after winning the bloody Spanish civil war. During World War II he maintained the neutrality of Spain. In fact the titles of Franco and Salazar (in Portugal) were used officially and rather than personally (cf: "mein führer" or "mi duce" my duce and my fuhrer). It is alleged that it was often used as a protocolary title; preceded by By the Grace of God it would indicate that the Spanish People had been luckily spared from the Soviet invasion. Other 'leaders' of contemporary political groups who never achieved power: Capitanul 'The Captain' Corneliu Zelea Codreanu of the "Iron Guard" in Romania. El Jefe 'The Chief' Jorge González von Marées of the Chilean Nacistas (Chilean-Spanish word for "Nazis"), who failed a coup d'état in 1938. Vozhd 'Leader' Konstantin Rodzaevsky of the Russian Fascist Party, only active in exile in Manchuria, most admired Mussolini but saw action only in the anti-Communist service of the Japanese Empire. the American Führer Fritz Kuhn. Chief William Dudley Pelley of the U.S. Silver Legion of America. Adrien Arcand, self-proclaimed Canadian Führer Netaji (Leader) Subhas Chandra Bose, a messianic Indian nationalist, a former president of the Indian National Congress, he escaped British surveillance and went over to Germany, and from there went to Japan in a German U-boat and later, a Japanese submarine. While he commanded the Indian National Army and was the leader of the Provisional Government of Free India, which had limited and notional sovereignty over Axis controlled Indian territory, he was dependent on the Japanese, and overseas Indians for logistics, and military support. Fay,Peter W. The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942-1945, University of Michigan Press, 1993, ISBN 0-472-08342-2 / ISBN 81-7167-356-2 Tindis or Tandis (leader of a confederation of barangays) used by the Sakdalista Party leader Benigno Ramos during the Commonwealth of the Philippines (from 1935, under US sovereignty. In areas occupied by the Axis powers, some states or ethnic-cultural communities aspiring to national self-determination found they were not handed real power by their victorious German allies as they had hoped. Their nationalist leaders, too weak to gain control independently, were simply used as pawns. Such Nazi collaborators include De Leider "leader" Staf De Clercq of the VNV (Flemish National League) in Flanders (the Dutch-speaking northern majority of Belgium), who had dreamed of a 'Diets' nation uniting Flanders, the Netherlands and Frans-Vlaanderen (the French part of historic Flanders, united with Belgium into one military occupation zone and Reichskommissariat). Even when the Germans decided in December 1944, after the allied breakthrough, to carve up Belgium, leaving only bicultural capital Brussels under the Reichskommissar, the post of Landsleider van het Vlaamsche Volk ('Land leader of the Flemish people') of the new Reichsgau (integral 'Germanic' part of the Reich, in this case merely on paper) (Flandern, Vlaanderen in Dutch; capital Anwerp) went to another collaborating party, Devlag, in the person of Jef Van de Wiele (1902 - 1979), 15 December 1944 - 1945, in exile in Germany as the Allied controlled all Belgium since September 1944; meanwhile in the Francophone south of Belgium, partially reconquered by German troops (December 1944 - January 1945), the equivalent post of Chef du Peuple Wallon ('Leader of the Walloon People'), at the head of the Reichsgau Wallonien, went to Léon Degrelle (in exile in Germany) of the Belgicist Rex Party. Postwar Era and the Cold War In the postwar era, dictatorship became a frequent feature of military government, especially in Latin America, Asia, and Africa. In the case of many African or Asian former colonies, after achieving their independence in the postwar wave of decolonization, presidential regimes were gradually transformed into personal dictatorships. These regimes often proved unstable, with the personalization of power in the hands of the dictator and his associates, making the political system uncertain. During the Cold War, the United States and the USSR managed to expand or maintain their influence zones by financing paramilitary and political groups and encouraging coups d'état, especially in Africa, that have led many countries to brutal civil wars and consequent manifestations of authoritarianism. In Latin America the threat of either communism or capitalism was often used as justification for dictatorship. Individual cases In the Korean 'dictature of the proletariat' Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il of North Korea, who are both historically and geographically far removed from any European influence, have used the titles Great Leader and Dear Leader, respectively. Muammar al-Gaddafi, the de facto Libyan head of state, uses the titles "Guide of the First of September Great Revolution of the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya" and "Brotherly Leader and Guide of the Revolution". In Romania, Communist Party leader and president Nicolae Ceauşescu even had the same title, Conducător (Romanian for leader), as earlier dictator Marshal Ion Antonescu. Some political leaders have used such titles as part of maintaining a personality cult, such as Başbuğ (commander) Alparslan Türkeş of the Turkish Nationalistic Front. Saparmurat Niyazov, the late president for life of the Republic of Turkmenistan, and former leader of the Turkmen communist party and later of the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan (the country's only political party), assumed from 22 October 1993 the unique, paternalistic national title Turkmenbashi (Türkmenbaşy in Turkmen), which means "Head of (all) the Turkmens". Such official titles must not be confused with informal or even ironical epithets bestowed by others, such as "El Máximo Líder" and El Comandante ("commander") were commonly used for Cuban Communist Party leader and revolutionary President Fidel Castro of Cuba. Dictatorships in fiction In fiction, dictatorship has sometimes been portrayed as the political system of choice for controlling dystopian societies, such as in: Napoleon in George Orwell's "Animal Farm" Big Brother in George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four Yevgeny Zamyatin's We Fritz Leibers Ill Met in Lankhmar Chancellor Adam Susan (called Sutler in the filmed version) in V For Vendetta Chancellor Palpatine (later The Emperor) in the Star Wars trilogies. The Wizard in L. Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz President Maximilian II and then later President Thorne in the film Land of the Blind Jack in William Golding's "Lord of the Flies" See also Democracy Index by The Economist, 2006. Countries marked in dark colors are authoritarian, and most often dictatorships. Most of current dictatorships are in Africa and Asia. Absolute monarchy Totalitarianism Plutocracy Kleptocracy Generalissimo Maximum Leader Military rule Military dictatorship Police state Elective dictatorship Constitutional dictatorship Dictator Tyrant Despotism Fascism Further reading it is also stated in the book we the people that a dictatorial government is a government wich the rulers have unlimeted power wich meaning that whatever the government dicides they have to live with it References be-x-old:Дыктатура
Dictatorship |@lemmatized dictatorship:16 define:1 autocratic:2 form:3 government:17 rule:3 individual:2 dictator:10 without:3 hereditary:1 ascension:1 three:1 possible:1 meaning:2 roman:4 republic:3 political:9 office:1 allocate:1 absolute:3 power:20 time:1 emergency:1 originally:1 neither:1 arbitrary:1 unaccountable:1 subject:1 law:2 require:1 retrospective:1 justification:2 beginning:1 century:1 bc:1 later:5 sulla:1 emperor:2 exercise:1 much:1 personally:2 arbitrarily:1 control:7 one:2 person:2 small:1 group:3 people:12 contemporary:2 usage:1 refers:1 leadership:1 unrestricted:1 constitution:1 social:1 factor:1 within:1 state:14 scholar:1 govern:4 consent:2 totalitarianism:4 describe:1 regulate:1 nearly:1 every:3 aspect:3 public:1 private:1 behavior:1 word:2 concern:2 source:1 come:4 scope:2 sense:1 contrast:1 democracy:2 whose:1 life:3 oppose:1 pluralism:1 allow:1 multiple:1 lifestyle:1 opinion:1 though:2 definition:1 term:1 differ:1 relate:1 reality:1 tend:2 show:1 totalitarian:1 characteristic:1 limited:1 expand:2 example:1 distinctive:1 title:17 adopt:2 disparate:1 authoritarian:2 leader:29 various:1 official:3 position:1 assume:2 formally:1 similar:1 suggest:1 speak:1 nation:3 use:15 head:4 second:1 world:2 war:7 include:2 vodca:1 monsignor:1 jozef:1 tiso:1 self:3 style:2 slovakia:1 president:8 act:1 october:3 naczelnik:1 państwa:1 chief:12 józef:1 piłsudski:1 poland:1 vozhd:3 russian:2 reference:2 stalin:2 guide:4 work:1 class:1 refer:1 soviet:2 joseph:1 serbian:1 nationalist:3 precedent:1 uprising:1 ottoman:1 mean:2 december:4 supreme:1 february:1 george:3 karađorđe:1 petrović:1 b:1 poglavnik:1 nezavisne:1 drzave:1 hrvatske:1 independent:1 croatia:2 ante:1 pavelic:1 april:1 may:1 vidkun:1 quisling:1 fører:1 minister:2 nazi:3 puppet:1 norway:2 reichskommissar:2 josef:1 terboven:1 high:1 occupied:1 report:1 directly:1 adolf:1 hitler:1 conducător:2 ion:2 antonescu:2 romania:3 leider:2 anton:1 mussert:1 nationaal:1 socialistische:1 beweging:1 national:6 socialist:2 movement:1 netherlands:3 styled:1 german:5 occupation:2 real:2 little:1 actual:1 fact:2 arthur:1 seyss:1 inquart:1 charge:1 behalf:1 regime:4 nemzetvezető:1 ferenc:1 szálasi:1 nyilaskeresztes:1 párt:1 arrow:1 cross:1 party:10 succeed:1 miklós:1 horthy:1 hungary:1 arhigos:1 general:1 ioannis:1 metaxas:1 greece:1 august:1 adipati:1 generalissimo:2 ba:1 maw:1 japanese:4 satellite:1 burma:1 el:4 caudillo:1 de:6 españa:1 chieftain:1 spain:2 generalísimo:1 francisco:1 franco:2 bahamonde:1 jefe:2 estado:1 prime:1 win:1 bloody:1 spanish:3 civil:2 ii:2 maintain:3 neutrality:1 salazar:1 portugal:1 officially:1 rather:1 cf:1 mein:1 führer:3 mi:1 duce:2 fuhrer:1 allege:1 often:4 protocolary:1 precede:1 grace:1 god:1 would:1 indicate:1 luckily:1 spar:1 invasion:1 never:1 achieve:2 capitanul:1 captain:1 corneliu:1 zelea:1 codreanu:1 iron:1 guard:1 jorge:1 gonzález:1 von:1 marées:1 chilean:2 nacistas:1 nazis:1 fail:1 coup:2 état:2 konstantin:1 rodzaevsky:1 fascist:1 active:1 exile:3 manchuria:1 admired:1 mussolini:1 saw:1 action:1 anti:1 communist:4 service:1 empire:1 american:1 fritz:2 kuhn:1 william:2 dudley:1 pelley:1 u:3 silver:1 legion:1 america:3 adrien:1 arcand:1 proclaim:1 canadian:1 netaji:1 subhas:1 chandra:1 bose:1 messianic:1 indian:5 former:3 congress:1 escape:1 british:1 surveillance:1 go:4 germany:3 japan:1 boat:1 submarine:1 command:1 army:2 provisional:1 free:1 india:2 limit:1 notional:1 sovereignty:2 axis:2 territory:1 dependent:1 overseas:1 logistics:1 military:5 support:1 fay:1 peter:1 w:1 forgotten:1 arm:1 struggle:1 independence:2 university:1 michigan:1 press:1 isbn:2 tindis:1 tandis:1 confederation:1 barangays:1 sakdalista:1 benigno:1 ramos:1 commonwealth:1 philippine:1 area:1 occupy:1 ethnic:1 cultural:1 community:1 aspire:1 determination:1 find:1 hand:2 victorious:1 ally:1 hop:1 weak:1 gain:1 independently:1 simply:1 pawn:1 collaborator:1 staf:1 clercq:1 vnv:1 flemish:2 league:1 flanders:3 dutch:2 speaking:1 northern:1 majority:1 belgium:5 dream:1 diet:1 unite:1 frans:1 vlaanderen:2 french:1 part:3 historic:1 united:2 zone:2 reichskommissariat:1 even:3 decide:1 allied:2 breakthrough:1 carve:1 leave:1 bicultural:1 capital:2 brussels:1 post:2 landsleider:1 van:2 het:1 vlaamsche:1 volk:1 land:2 new:1 reichsgau:2 integral:1 germanic:1 reich:1 case:3 merely:1 paper:1 flandern:1 anwerp:1 another:1 collaborate:1 devlag:1 jef:1 wiele:1 since:1 september:2 meanwhile:1 francophone:1 south:1 partially:1 reconquer:1 troop:1 january:1 equivalent:1 chef:1 du:1 peuple:1 wallon:1 walloon:1 wallonien:1 léon:1 degrelle:1 belgicist:1 rex:1 postwar:3 era:2 cold:2 become:1 frequent:1 feature:1 especially:2 latin:2 asia:2 africa:3 many:2 african:1 asian:1 colony:1 wave:1 decolonization:1 presidential:1 gradually:1 transform:1 personal:1 prove:1 unstable:1 personalization:1 associate:1 make:1 system:2 uncertain:1 ussr:1 manage:1 influence:2 finance:1 paramilitary:1 encourage:1 lead:1 country:3 brutal:1 consequent:1 manifestation:1 authoritarianism:1 threat:1 either:1 communism:1 capitalism:1 korean:1 dictature:1 proletariat:1 kim:2 il:2 sung:1 jong:1 north:1 korea:1 historically:1 geographically:1 far:2 remove:1 european:1 great:2 dear:1 respectively:1 muammar:1 al:1 gaddafi:1 facto:1 libyan:2 first:1 revolution:2 arab:1 jamahiriya:1 brotherly:1 nicolae:1 ceauşescu:1 romanian:1 early:1 marshal:1 personality:1 cult:1 başbuğ:1 commander:2 alparslan:1 türkeş:1 turkish:1 nationalistic:1 front:1 saparmurat:1 niyazov:1 late:1 turkmenistan:2 turkmen:3 democratic:1 unique:1 paternalistic:1 turkmenbashi:1 türkmenbaşy:1 must:1 confuse:1 informal:1 ironical:1 epithet:1 bestow:1 others:1 máximo:1 líder:1 comandante:1 commonly:1 cuban:1 revolutionary:1 fidel:1 castro:1 cuba:1 fiction:2 sometimes:1 portray:1 choice:1 dystopian:1 society:1 napoleon:1 orwell:2 animal:1 farm:1 big:1 brother:1 nineteen:1 eighty:1 four:1 yevgeny:1 zamyatin:1 leibers:1 ill:1 meet:1 lankhmar:1 chancellor:2 adam:1 susan:1 call:1 sutler:1 filmed:1 version:1 v:1 vendetta:1 palpatine:1 star:1 trilogy:1 wizard:2 l:1 frank:1 baum:1 wonderful:1 oz:1 maximilian:1 thorne:1 film:1 blind:1 jack:1 golding:1 lord:1 fly:1 see:1 also:2 index:1 economist:1 mark:1 dark:1 color:1 dictatorships:1 current:1 monarchy:1 plutocracy:1 kleptocracy:1 maximum:1 police:1 elective:1 constitutional:1 tyrant:1 despotism:1 fascism:1 reading:1 book:1 dictatorial:1 wich:2 ruler:1 unlimeted:1 whatever:1 dicides:1 live:1 x:1 old:1 дыктатура:1 |@bigram józef_piłsudski:1 adolf_hitler:1 ferenc_szálasi:1 miklós_horthy:1 ioannis_metaxas:1 francisco_franco:1 franco_bahamonde:1 prime_minister:1 mein_führer:1 coup_état:2 chandra_bose:1 self_determination:1 van_het:1 du_peuple:1 kim_il:1 il_sung:1 kim_jong:1 jong_il:1 muammar_al:1 al_gaddafi:1 de_facto:1 arab_jamahiriya:1 nicolae_ceauşescu:1 fidel_castro:1 george_orwell:2 orwell_nineteen:1 nineteen_eighty:1 meet_lankhmar:1 v_vendetta:1 frank_baum:1 wonderful_wizard:1 wizard_oz:1 william_golding:1
4,754
Traditional_Chinese_medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine/dried goods shop in Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong Traditional Chinese medicine, also known as TCM (), includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Although well accepted in the mainstream of medical care throughout East Asia, it is considered an alternative medical system in much of the western world. TCM practices include such treatments as herbal medicine (中药), acupuncture, dietary therapy, and both Tui na and Shiatsu massage. Qigong and Taijiquan are also closely associated with TCM. TCM theory originated thousands of years ago through meticulous observation of nature, the cosmos, and the human body. Major theories include those of Yin-yang, the Five Phases, the human body Channel system, Zang Fu organ theory, six confirmations, four layers, etc. History Ancient (classical) TCM history Taijitu Much of the philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine derives from the same philosophy that inform Taoist and Buddhist thought, and reflects the classical Chinese belief that the life and activity of individual human beings have an intimate relationship with the environment on all levels. See Huang neijing Suwen, chapter 3. In legend, as a result of a dialogue with his minister Qibo (岐伯), the Yellow Emperor (2698 - 2596 BCE) is supposed by Chinese tradition to have composed his Neijing Suwen (《内经·素问》) or Inner Canon: Basic Questions, also known as the Huangdi Neijing (Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon). The book's title is often mistranslated as Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine. Modern scholarly opinion holds that the extant text of this title was compiled by an anonymous scholar no earlier than the Han dynasty just over two-thousand years ago. Also another chinese index book of herbs is "Ben Cao Gang Mu" written by Li Shi Zhen. During the Han Dynasty (202 BC –220 AD), Zhang Zhongjing (张仲景/張仲景), the Hippocrates of China, who was mayor of Chang-sha toward the end of the 2nd century AD, wrote a Treatise on Cold Damage, which contains the earliest known reference to Neijing Suwen. Another prominent Eastern Han physician was Hua Tuo (c. 140 – c. 208 AD), who anesthetized patients during surgery with a formula of wine and powdered marijuana. Hua's physical, surgical, and herbal treatments were also used to cure headaches, dizziness, internal worms, fevers, coughing, blocked throat, and even a diagnosis for one lady that she had a dead fetus within her that needed to be taken out. The Jin dynasty practitioner and advocate of acupuncture and moxibustion, Huang-fu Mi (215 - 282 AD), also quoted the Yellow Emperor in his Jia Yi Jing (甲乙经/甲乙經), ca. 265 AD. During the Tang dynasty, Wang Bing claimed to have located a copy of the originals of the Neijing Suwen, which he expanded and edited substantially. This work was revisited by an imperial commission during the 11th century AD. There were noted advances in Chinese medicine during the Middle Ages. Emperor Gaozong (r. 649–683) of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) commissioned the scholarly compilation of a materia medica in 657 that documented 833 medicinal substances taken from stones, minerals, metals, plants, herbs, animals, vegetables, fruits, and cereal crops. Charles Benn, China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-517665-0), pp. 235. In his Bencao Tujing ('Illustrated Pharmacopoeia'), the scholar-official Su Song (1020–1101) not only systematically categorized herbs and minerals according to their pharmaceutical uses, but he also took an interest in zoology. Wu Jing-nuan. (2005). An Illustrated Chinese Materia Medica, p. 5. Needham, Joseph. (1959). Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth (Science and Civilization in China, Vol. III), pp. 645, 648-649. Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 1, Botany. (Taipei: Caves Books Ltd., 1986), pp. 174–175. Schafer, Edward H. "Orpiment and Realgar in Chinese Technology and Tradition," Journal of the American Oriental Society (Volume 75, Number 2, 1955): 73–89. For example, Su made systematic descriptions of animal species and the environmental regions they could be found, such as the freshwater crab Eriocher sinensis found in the Huai River running through Anhui, in waterways near the capital city, as well as reservoirs and marshes of Hebei. West, Stephen H. "Cilia, Scale and Bristle: The Consumption of Fish and Shellfish in The Eastern Capital of The Northern Song," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies (Volume 47, Number 2, 1987): 595–634. Contact with Western culture and medicine has not displaced TCM. While there may be traditional factors involved in the persistent practice, two reasons are most obvious in the westward spread of TCM in recent decades. Firstly, TCM practices are believed by many to be very effective, sometimes offering palliative efficacy where the practices of Western medicine fail or unable to provide treatment, especially for routine ailments such as flu and allergies, or when Western medicine fails to relieve patients suffering from chronic ailments. TCM has been shown to be effective in the treatment of chronic, functional disorders, such as migraines and osteoarthritis, and is traditionally used for a wide range of functional disorders. Secondly, TCM provides an alternative to otherwise costly procedures whom many can not afford, or which is not covered by insurance. There are also many who turn to TCM to avoid the toxic side effects of pharmaceuticals. TCM of the last few centuries is seen by at least some sinologists as part of the evolution of a culture, from shamans blaming illnesses on evil spirits to "proto-scientific" systems of correspondence; "It could be said that the theory of the 5 Elements, and its application to medicine, marks the beginning of what one might call 'scientific' medicine and a departure from Shamanism. No longer do healers look for a supernatural cause of disease: they now observe Nature and, with a combination of the inductive and deductive method, the set out to find patterns within it and, by extension, apply these in the interpretation of disease" - from an introductory textbook used by many acupuncture courses - any reference to supernatural forces is usually the result of romantic translations or poor understanding and will not be found in the Taoist-inspired classics of acupuncture such as the Huang Di Nei Jing. The system's development has, over its history, been analysed both skeptically and extensively, and the practice and development of it has waxed and waned over the centuries and cultures through which it has travelled Needham, Joseph et al. (2002) Celestial Lancets, pp.69-170, 262-302. - yet the system has still survived thus far. It is true that the focus from the beginning has been on pragmatism, not necessarily understanding of the mechanisms of the actions - and that this has hindered its modern acceptance in the West. This, despite that there were times such as the early 18th century when "acupuncture and moxa were a matter of course in polite European society" Needham, Celestial Lancets, p. 296. The term "TCM" describes the modern practice of Chinese medicine as a result of sweeping reforms that took place after 1950 in the People's Republic of China. The term "Classical Chinese medicine" (CCM) often refers to medical practices that rely on theories and methods dating from before the fall of the Qing Dynasty (1911). Advocates of CCM portray it as less influenced by Western and political agendas than TCM. Timeline Macerated medicinal liquor with wolfberry, tokay gecko, and ginseng, for sale at a traditional medicine market in Xi'an. The history of TCM can be summarized by a list of important doctors and books. Unknown, Huángdì nèijīng (黃帝內經/黄帝内经) (Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon) - Sùwèn (素问/素問) and Língshū (灵枢/靈樞). The earliest classic of TCM passed on to the present. Warring States Period (5th century BC to 221 BC): Silk manuscripts recording channels and collaterals, Zubi shiyi mai jiu jing (足臂十一脉灸经/足臂十一脈灸經) (Moxibustion Classic of the Eleven Channels of Legs and Arms), and Yinyang shiyi mai jiu jing (阴阳十一脉灸经/陰陽十一脈灸經) (Moxibustion Classic on the Eleven Yin and Yang Channels). The latter was part of a cache of texts found in Mawangdui in the 1970s. Han Dynasty (206 BC–AD 220) to Three Kingdoms Period (220 - 280 AD): Zhenjiu zhenzhong jing (针灸枕中经/鍼灸枕中經) (Classic of Moxibustion and Acupuncture Preserved in a Pillow) by Huà Tuó (华佗/華佗). Shanghan zabing lun (伤寒杂病论/傷寒雜病論), which has since been split into two texts: the Shānghán lùn (伤寒论/傷寒論) ("Treatise on Cold Damage [Disorders]" - focusing on febrile conditions attributed to "Cold") and the Jingui yaolue (金匱要略) ("Essentials of the Golden Cabinet" - focusing on "miscellaneous illnesses") by Zhāng Zhòngjǐng (张仲景/張仲景). Jìn Dynasty (265-420): Zhēnjiǔ jiǎyǐ jīng (针灸甲乙经/鍼灸甲乙經) (Systematic Classic of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Huángfǔ Mì (皇甫谧/皇甫謐). Tang Dynasty (618–907) Beiji qianjin yaofang (备急千金要方/備急千金要方) (Emergency Formulas Worth a Thousand in Gold) and Qianjin yifang (千金翼方) (Supplement to the Formulas Worth a Thousand in Gold) by Sūn Sīmiǎo (孙思邈/孫思邈). Waitai miyao (外台秘要/外臺秘要) (Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library) by Wang Tao (王焘/王燾). Song Dynasty (960 – 1279): Tóngrén shūxué zhēnjiǔ tújīng (铜人腧穴针灸图经/銅人腧穴鍼灸圖經) (Illustrated Manual of the Practice of Acupuncture and Moxibustion at (the Transmission) (and other) Acu-points, for use with the Bronze Figure) by Wáng Wéiyī (王惟一). Yuan Dynasty (1271 to 1368): Shísì jīng fāhuī (十四经发挥/十四經發揮) (Exposition of the Fourteen Channels) by Huá Shòu (滑寿/滑壽). Ming Dynasty (1368 to 1644): golden age of acupuncture and moxibustion. Many famous doctors and books. To name only a few: Zhēnjiǔ dàquan (针灸大全/鍼灸大全) (A Complete Collection of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Xu Feng (徐凤/徐鳳). Zhēnjiǔ jùyīng fāhuī (针灸聚英发挥/鍼灸聚英發揮) (An Exemplary Collection of Acupuncture and Moxibustion and their Essentials) by Gāo Wǔ (高武). Zhēnjiǔ dàchéng (针灸大成/鍼灸大成) (Compendium of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Yáng Jìzhōu (杨继洲/楊繼洲), completed in 1601. Běncǎo gāngmù (本草冈目/本草綱目) (Compendium of Materia Medica) by Lǐ Shízhēn (李时珍/李時珍), the most complete and comprehensive pre-modern herbal book (completed in 1578). Wenyi lun (温疫论/溫疫論), by Wu Youxing 吴有性 (1642). Qing Dynasty (1644-1912): Yizong jinjian (医宗金鉴/醫宗金鑒) (Golden Mirror of the Medical Tradition) compiled by Wu Quan (吴谦/吴謙) under imperial commission. Zhenjiu fengyuan (针灸逢源/鍼灸逢源) (The Source of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Li Xuechuan (李学川/李學川). Wenre lun (温热论/溫熱論), by Ye Tianshi (叶天士/業天士). Wenbing tiaobian (温病条辨/溫病條辨) (Systematized Identification of Warm-factor disorders) compiled by Wu Jutong (吴鞠通) in 1798. An excerpt of this book is translated in http://www.pacificcollege.edu/alumni/newsletters/winter2004/damp_warmth.html. Theory Dried plants and animals parts are used in traditional Chinese medicines. In the image are dried lingzhi, snake, turtle plastron, Luo Han Guo, and species of ginseng. The foundation principles of Chinese medicine are not necessarily uniform, and are based on several schools of thought. Received TCM can be shown to be influenced by Taoism, Buddhism, and Neo-Confucianism. Since 1200 BC, Chinese academics of various schools have focused on the observable natural laws of the universe and their implications for the practical characterisation of humanity's place in the universe. In the I Ching and other Chinese literary and philosophical classics, Chinese writers described general principles and their applications to health and healing. Porkert, a Western medical doctor, placed Chinese medical theory in context as: Chinese medicine, like many other Chinese sciences, defines data on the basis of the inductive and synthetic mode of cognition. Inductivity corresponds to a logical link between two effective positions existing at the same time in different places in space. (Conversely, causality is the logical link between two effective positions given at different times at the same place in space.) In other words, effects based on positions that are separate in space yet simultaneous in time are mutually inductive and thus are called inductive effects. In Western science prior to the development of electrodynamics and nuclear physics (which are founded essentially on inductivity), the inductive nexus was limited to subordinate uses in protosciences such as astrology. Now Western man, as a consequence of two thousand years of intellectual tradition, persists in the habit of making causal connections first and inductive links, if at all, only as an afterthought. This habit must still be considered the biggest obstacle to an adequate appreciation of Chinese science in general and Chinese medicine in particular. Given such different cognitive bases, many of the apparent similarities between traditional Chinese and European science which attract the attention of positivists turn out to be spurious. The Shen Nong's Herbal Classic, a 2000-year old medicinal Chinese book considered today as the oldest book on oriental herbal medicine, classifies 365 species of roots, grass, woods, furs, animals and stones into three categories of herbal medicine: The first category, called "superior", includes herbs effective for multiple diseases and are mostly responsible for maintaining and restoring the body balance. They have almost no unfavorable side-effects. The second category comprises tonics and boosters, for which their consumption must not be prolonged. The third category must be taken, usually in small doses, and for the treatment of specific ailments only. Lingzhi ranked number one of the superior medicines, and was therefore the most exalted medicine in ancient times. The ancient Chinese use of mushrooms for medicine, has inspired modern day research into mushrooms like shiitake, Agaricus blazei, Trametes versicolor, the table mushroom and of course lingzhi. Although a 2008 Review, by UC Davis, concluded that there is not enough evidence yet to promote the use of mushrooms or mushroom extracts in the treatment of disease, it stressed the urgency of further research and future clinical trials due to large numbers of promising in vivo and in vitro experiments. Basic theory and model of the body An old Chinese medical chart on acupuncture meridians Traditional Chinese medicine is largely based on the philosophical concept that the human body is a small universe with a set of complete and sophisticated interconnected systems, and that those systems usually work in balance to maintain the healthy function of the human body. The balance of yin and yang is considered with respect to qi ("breath", "life force", or "spiritual energy"), blood, jing ("kidney essence", including "semen"), other bodily fluids, the Wu Xing, emotions, and the soul or spirit (shen). TCM has a unique model of the body, notably concerned with the meridian system. Unlike the Western anatomical model which divides the physical body into parts, the Chinese model is more concerned with function. Thus, the TCM spleen is not a specific piece of flesh, but an aspect of function related to transformation and transportation within the body, and of the mental functions of thinking and studying. There are significant regional and philosophical differences between practitioners and schools which in turn can lead to differences in practice and theory. Theories invoked to describe the human body in TCM include: Channels, also known as "meridians" Wu Xing Qi Three jiaos also known as the Triple Burner, the Triple Warmer or the Triple Energiser Yin and Yang Zang and Fu The Yin/Yang and five element theories may be applied to a variety of systems other than the human body, whereas Zang Fu theory, meridian theory and three-jiao (Triple warmer) theories are more specific. There are also separate models that apply to specific pathological influences, such as the Four stages theory of the progression of warm diseases, the Six levels theory of the penetration of cold diseases, and the Eight principles system of disease classification. Diagnostics Following a macro philosophy of disease, traditional Chinese diagnostics are based on overall observation of human symptoms rather than "micro" level laboratory tests. There are four types of TCM diagnostic methods: observe (望 wàng), hear and smell (闻/聞 wén), ask about background (问/問 wèn) and touching (切 qiè). The pulse-reading component of the touching examination is so important that Chinese patients may refer to going to the doctor as "Going to have my pulse felt." Traditional Chinese medicine is considered to require considerable diagnostic skill. A training period of years or decades is said to be necessary for TCM practitioners to understand the full complexity of symptoms and dynamic balances. According to one Chinese saying, A good (TCM) doctor is also qualified to be a good prime minister in a country. Modern practitioners in China often use a traditional system in combination with Western methods. Techniques Palpation of the patient's radial artery pulse (pulse diagnosis) in six positions Observations of patient's tongue, voice, hair, face, posture, gait, eyes, ears, vein on index finger of small children Palpation of the patient's body (especially the abdomen, chest, back, and lumbar areas) for tenderness or comparison of relative warmth or coolness of different parts of the body Observation of the patient's various odors Asking the patient about the effects of their problem. Anything else that can be observed without instruments and without harming the patient Asking detailed questions about their family, living environment, personal habits, food diet, emotions, menstrual cycle for women, child bearing history, sleep, exercise, and anything that may give insight into the balance or imbalance of an individual. Methods of treatment The following methods are considered to be part of Chinese medicine: Acupuncture(针灸/針灸) (from the Latin word acus, "needle", and pungere, meaning "prick") is a technique in which the practitioner inserts fine needles into specific points on the patient's body. Usually about a dozen acupoints are needled in one session, although the number of needles used may range anywhere from just one or two to 20 or more. The intended effect is to increase circulation and balance energy (Qi) within the body. Auriculotherapy (耳灼疗法/耳燭療法), which comes under the heading of Acupuncture and Moxibustion. Chinese food therapy (食疗/食療): Dietary recommendations are usually made according to the patient's individual condition in relation to TCM theory. The "five flavors" (an important aspect of Chinese herbalism as well) indicate what function various types of food play in the body. A balanced diet, which leads to health, is when the five functional flavors are in balance. When one is diseased (and therefore unbalanced), certain foods and herbs are prescribed to restore balance to the body. Chinese herbal medicine (中草药/中药/中藥): In China, herbal medicine is considered as the primary therapeutic modality of internal medicine. Of the approximately 500 Chinese herbs that are in use today, 250 or so are very commonly used. Rather than being prescribed individually, single herbs are combined into formulas that are designed to adapt to the specific needs of individual patients. A herbal formula can contain anywhere from 3 to 25 herbs. As with diet therapy, each herb has one or more of the five flavors/functions and one of five "temperatures" ("Qi") (hot, warm, neutral, cool, cold). After the herbalist determines the energetic temperature and functional state of the patient's body, he or she prescribes a mixture of herbs tailored to balance disharmony. One classic example of Chinese herbal medicine is the use of various mushrooms, like reishi and shiitake, which are currently under intense study by ethnobotanists and medical researchers for immune system enhancement. Cupping (拔罐): A type of Chinese massage, cupping consists of placing several glass "cups" (open spheres) on the body. A match is lit and placed inside the cup and then removed before placing the cup against the skin. As the air in the cup is heated, it expands, and after placing in the skin, cools down, creating a lower pressure inside the cup that allows the cup to stick to the skin via suction. When combined with massage oil, the cups can be slid around the back, offering what some practitioners think of as a reverse-pressure massage. Die-da or Tieh Ta (跌打) is usually practiced by martial artists who know aspects of Chinese medicine that apply to the treatment of trauma and injuries such as bone fractures, sprains, and bruises. Some of these specialists may also use or recommend other disciplines of Chinese medical therapies (or Western medicine in modern times) if serious injury is involved. Such practice of bone-setting (整骨) is not common in the West. Gua Sha (刮痧) Moxibustion: "Moxa," often used in conjunction with acupuncture, consists in burning of dried Chinese mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) on acupoints. "Direct Moxa" involves the pinching of clumps of the herb into cones that are placed on acupoints and lit until warm. Typically the burning cone is removed before burning the skin and is thought, after repeated use, to warm the body and increase circulation. Moxa can also be rolled into a cigar-shaped tube, lit, and held over an acupuncture point, or rolled into a ball and stuck onto the back end of an inserted needle for warming effect. Physical Qigong exercises such as Tai chi chuan (Taijiquan 太极拳/太極拳), Standing Meditation (站樁功), Yoga, Brocade BaDuanJin exercises (八段锦/八段錦) and other Chinese martial arts. Qigong (气功/氣功) and related breathing and meditation exercise. Tui na (推拿) massage: a form of massage akin to acupressure (from which shiatsu evolved). Oriental massage is typically administered with the patient fully clothed, without the application of grease or oils. Choreography often involves thumb presses, rubbing, percussion, and stretches. Some TCM doctors may also utilize esoteric methods that incorporate or reflect personal beliefs or specializations such as Fengshui (风水/風水) or Bazi (八字). Branches Traditional Chinese medicine has many branches, the most prominent of which are the Jingfang (经方学派) and Wenbing (温病学派) schools. The Jingfang school relies on the principles contained in the Chinese medicine classics of the Han and Tang dynasty, such as Huangdi Neijing and Shennong Bencaojing. The more recent Wenbing school's practise is largely based on more recent books including Compendium of Materia Medica from Ming and Qing Dynasty, although in theory the school follows the teachings of the earlier classics as well. Intense debates between these two schools lasted until the Cultural Revolution in mainland China, when Wenbing school used political power to suppress the opposing school. Scientific view Efficacy See also: Acupuncture: Scientific research into efficacy Much of the scientific research on TCM has focused on acupuncture. The effectiveness of acupuncture remains controversial in the scientific community, and a review by Edzard Ernst and colleagues in 2007 found that the body of evidence was growing, research is active, and that the "emerging clinical evidence seems to imply that acupuncture is effective for some but not all conditions". Researchers using the protocols of evidence-based medicine have found good evidence that acupuncture is moderately effective in preventing nausea. A 2008 study suggest that combining acupuncture with conventional infertility treatments such as IVF greatly improves the success rates of such medical interventions. There is conflicting evidence that it can treat chronic low back pain, and moderate evidence of efficacy for neck pain and headache. The Cochrane Collaboration - Acupuncture for idiopathic headache. Melchart D, Linde K, Berman B, White A, Vickers A, Allais G, Brinkhaus B For most other conditions Cochrane Collaboration. [Search all Cochrane reviews for "acupuncture", retrieved 30 January 2008. reviewers have found either a lack of efficacy (e.g., help in quitting smoking Acupuncture and related interventions for smoking cessation ) or have concluded that there is insufficient evidence to determine if acupuncture is effective (e.g., treating shoulder pain Acupuncture for shoulder pain ). While little is known about the mechanisms by which acupuncture may act, a review of neuroimaging research suggests that specific acupuncture points have distinct effects on cerebral activity in specific areas that are not otherwise predictable anatomically. The World Health Organisation (WHO), the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and the American Medical Association (AMA) have also commented on acupuncture http://www.aaom.org/default.asp?pagenumber=47494 AMA (CSAPH) Report 12 of the Council on Scientific Affairs (A-97) Full Text . Though these groups disagree on the standards and interpretation of the evidence for acupuncture, there is general agreement that it is relatively safe, and that further investigation is warranted. The 1997 NIH Consensus Development Conference Statement on acupuncture concluded: ...promising results have emerged, for example, showing efficacy of acupuncture in adult postoperative and chemotherapy nausea and vomiting and in postoperative dental pain. There are other situations such as addiction, stroke rehabilitation, headache, menstrual cramps, tennis elbow, fibromyalgia, myofascial pain, osteoarthritis, low back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and asthma, in which acupuncture may be useful as an adjunct treatment or an acceptable alternative or be included in a comprehensive management program. Further research is likely to uncover additional areas where acupuncture interventions will be useful. Much less scientific research has been done on Chinese herbal medicines, which comprise much of TCM. Some doubts about the efficacy of many TCM treatments are based on their apparent basis in (causation due to analogy or similarity) — for example, that plants with heart-shaped leaves will help the heart. While the doctrine of signatures does underlie the selection of many of the ingredients of herbal medicines, this does not necessarily mean that some substances may not (perhaps by coincidence) possess attributed medicinal properties. For example, it is possible that while herbs may have been originally selected on erroneous grounds, only those that were deemed effective have remained in use. Potential barriers to scientific research include the substantial cost and expertise required to conduct double-blind clinical trials, and the lack of financial incentive from the ability to obtain patents. Traditional practitioners usually have no philosophical objections to scientific studies on the effectiveness of treatments. Pharmacological compounds have been isolated from some Chinese herbal medicines; Chinese wormwood (qinghao) was the source for the discovery of artemisinin, which is now used worldwide to treat multi-drug resistant strains of falciparum malaria, and is also under investigation as an anti-cancer agent. It was one of many candidates then tested by Chinese scientists from a list of nearly 200 traditional Chinese medicines for treating malaria. It was the only one that was effective. Many Chinese herbal medicines are marketed as dietary supplements in the West, and there is considerable controversy over their effectiveness. American Cancer Society. Chinese Herbal Medicine. http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ETO/content/ETO_5_3x_Chinese_Herbal_Medicine.asp Safety In practice Acupressure and acupuncture are largely accepted to be safe from results gained through medical studies. Several cases of pneumothorax, nerve damage and infection have been reported as resulting from acupuncture treatments. These adverse events are extremely rare especially when compared to other medical interventions, and were found to be due to practitioner negligence. Dizziness and bruising will sometimes result from acupuncture treatment. Some governments have decided that Chinese acupuncture and herbal treatments should be administered by persons who have been educated to apply them safely. One Australian report said in 2006, "A key finding is that the risk of adverse events is linked to the length of education of the practitioner, with practitioners graduating from extended traditional Chinese medicine education programs experiencing about half the adverse event rate of those practitioners who have graduated from short training programs." Towards a Safer Choice - The Practice of Traditional Chinese medicine In Australia - Summary of Findings Allergy Certain Chinese herbal medicines involve a risk of allergic reaction and in rare cases involve a risk of poisoning. Cases of acute and chronic poisoning due to treatment through ingested Chinese medicines are found in China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, with a few deaths occurring each year. Many of these deaths do occur however, when patients self prescribe herbs or take unprocessed versions of toxic herbs. The raw and unprocessed form of aconite, or fuzi is the most common cause of poisoning. The use of aconite in Chinese herbal medicine is usually limited to processed aconite, in which the toxicity is denatured by heat treatment. Toxins and contaminants Potentially toxic and carcinogenic compounds such as arsenic trioxide (三氧化二砷) and cinnabar (called zhūshā, 朱砂) are sometimes prescribed as part of a medicinal mixture, in a sense "using poison to cure poison". Unprocessed herbals are sometimes adulterated with chemicals that may alter the intended effect of a herbal preparation or prescription. As with the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, tampering with food and medicine to boost profit is rampant despite knowledge of the dangers and strict regulations in place that are circumvented often due to corruption and profit motive. However, knowledge of processing is being improved with more empirical studies of Chinese herbals and tighter regulations are being put in place, whether heeded to or not, regarding the growing, processing, and prescription of various herbals. A medicine called Fufang Luhui Jiaonang (复方芦荟胶囊) was taken off shelves in UK in July 2004 when it found to contain 11-13% mercury. MHRA finds contaminated Chinese, Ayurvedic medicines In the United States, the Chinese herb má huáng (麻黄; lit. "hemp yellow") — known commonly in the West by its Latin name Ephedra — was banned in 2004 by the FDA, although the FDA's final ruling exempted traditional Asian preparations of Ephedra from the ban. The Ephedra ban was meant to combat the use of this herb in Western weight loss products, a highly modern phenomenon and well removed from traditional Asian uses of the herb. There were no cases of Ephedra based fatalities with patients using traditional Asian preparations of the herb for its traditionally intended uses. This ban was ordered lifted in April 2005 by a Utah federal court judge. However, the ruling was appealed and on August 17, 2006, the Appeals Court upheld the FDA's ban of ephedra, finding that the 133,000-page administrative record compiled by the FDA supported the agency's finding that ephedra posed an unreasonable risk to consumers. Lack of standardization Chinese herbals are often not standardized from one pill to the next, or from one brand to the next, and can be reformulated, remixed, or otherwise altered by any company. To avoid such issues, standardized Japanese Kampo medicine for sale worldwide is a safer alternative based on classical Chinese traditional medicine and strict enforced regulations and is regulated as pharmaceuticals coupled with extensive after-market testing and monitoring. Vague naming Many Chinese medicines have different names for the same ingredient depending on location and time, ingredients with different medical properties have shared similar names. For example, there was a report that mirabilite/sodium sulphate decahydrate (芒硝) was misrecognized as sodium nitrite (牙硝) 香港容易混淆中藥 , resulting in a poisoned victim ¡u¨~µv¡v»P¡u¤úµv¡v¤Å²V²c¨Ï¥Î Chinese medicine Natrii Sulfas not to be confused with chemical Sodium Nitrite . In some Chinese medical texts, both names are interchangeable âÏõͼÆ×-¿óÎïÀà(¿óÎïÀà) . The Chinese Medicine Registration Board of the Australian state of Victoria issued a report in 2004 which noted this was a problem that needed to be addressed. http://www.cmrb.vic.gov.au/current-news/draft/CMRBDisPaperInternet.pdf Relationship with Western medicine As an example of the different roles of TCM in China and the West, a person with a broken bone in the West (i.e. a routine, "straightforward" condition) would almost never see a Chinese medicine practitioner, whereas this is routine in China. Most Chinese in China do not see traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine as being in conflict. In cases of emergency and crisis situations, there is generally no reluctance in using conventional Western medicine. At the same time, belief in Chinese medicine remains strong in the area of maintaining health. As a simple example, you see a Western doctor if you have acute appendicitis, but you exercise or take Chinese herbs to keep your body healthy enough to prevent appendicitis, or to recover more quickly from the surgery. Very few practitioners of Western medicine in China reject traditional Chinese medicine, and most doctors in China will use some elements of Chinese medicine in their own practice. A degree of integration between Chinese and Western medicine also exists in China. For instance, at the Shanghai cancer hospital, a patient may be seen by a multidisciplinary team and be treated concurrently with radiation surgery, Western drugs and a traditional herbal formula. A report by the Victorian state government in Australia on TCM education in China noted: Graduates from TCM university courses are able to diagnose in Western medical terms, prescribe Western pharmaceuticals, and undertake minor surgical procedures. In effect, they practise TCM as a specialty within the broader organisation of Chinese health care. Towards a Safer Choice - The Practice of Traditional Chinese medicine In Australia - Education in Traditional Chinese Medicine 8.1 - 8.3.3 In other countries it is not necessarily the case that traditional Chinese and Western medicine are practiced concurrently by the same practitioner. TCM education in Australia, for example, does not qualify a practitioner to provide diagnosis in Western medical terms, prescribe scheduled pharmaceuticals, nor perform surgical procedures. Towards a Safer Choice - The Practice of Traditional Chinese medicine In Australia - Risks Associated with the Practice of TCM - 4.1 - 4.6 While that jurisdiction notes that TCM education does not qualify practitioners to prescribe Western drugs, a separate legislative framework is being constructed to allow registered practitioners to prescribe Chinese herbs that would otherwise be classified as poisons. It is worth noting that the practice of Western medicine in China is somewhat different from that in the West. In contrast to the West, there are relatively few allied health professionals to perform routine medical procedures or to undertake procedures such as massage or physical therapy. In addition, Chinese practitioners of Western medicine have been less affected by trends in the West that encourage patient empowerment, to see the patient as an individual rather than a collection of parts, and to do nothing when medically appropriate. Chinese practitioners of Western medicine have been widely criticized for over-prescribing drugs such as corticosteroids or antibiotics for common viral infections. It is likely that these medicines, which are generally known to be useless against viral infections, would provide less relief to the patient than traditional Chinese herbal remedies. A more popular and reliable explanation is the financial benefits doctors receive from pharmaceutical companies for prescribing medication that may not be necessary. http://news.sina.com.cn/china/2000-07-18/108885.html Traditional Chinese diagnostics and treatments are often much cheaper than Western methods which require high-tech equipment or extensive chemical manipulation. Modern TCM practitioners will refer patients to Western medical facilities if a medical condition is deemed to have put the body too far out of "balance for traditional methods to remedy. Animal products Dried seahorses like these are extensively used in traditional medicine in China and elsewhere Animal products are used in certain Chinese formulae, which may present a problem for vegans and vegetarians. If informed of such restrictions, practitioners can often use alternative substances. The practice of using endangered species is controversial within TCM. Many substances fall into this category, with modern Materia Medicas such as Bensky, Clavey and Stoger's comprehensive Chinese herbal text dealing with substances derived from endangered species in an appendix, with an emphasis on recommending alternatives. Some claimed uses of certain animal derived ingredients, such as use of the tiger's penis for impotence, cannot be considered true, because the substances in question do not appear in the ingredients lists of the pharmacopoeia. Use of rhinoceros horn (xī jiǎo / 犀角) for "cooling the blood" was replaced with buffalo horn (shuǐ niú jiǎo / 水牛角) starting from perhaps 5CE, and cow (bovine) bile (niú dǎn / 牛膽 / 牛胆) is a modern replacement for bear (ursine) bile (xíong dǎn / 熊膽 / 熊胆). An ingredient like "horny goat weed" (yín yáng hoù / 淫羊藿) is obviously a plant (Epimedium). Medicinal use is having a major impact on the populations of seahorses, which are considered a fundamental ingredient, and used to treat a variety of disorders, including asthma, arteriosclerosis, incontinence, impotence, thyroid disorders, skin ailments, broken bones, heart disease, as well as to facilitate childbirth and even as an aphrodisiac. NOVA Online | Kingdom of the Seahorse | Amanda Vincent Shark fin soup is traditionally regarded as beneficial for health in East Asia, and its status as an "elite" dish has led to huge demand with the increase of affluence in China, but it is surely having a devastating effect on shark populations Shark Fin Soup: An Eco-Catastrophe? . The animal rights movement notes that a few traditional Chinese medicinal solutions still use bear bile (xíong dǎn). Since 1988, the Chinese Ministry of Health started controlling production of this, which previously used bears killed before winter. The bears are often fitted with a sort of permanent catheter, which was more profitable than killing the bears "治人病还是救熊命——对养熊“引流熊胆”的思考"南风窗. November 12, 2002 . The treatment itself and especially the extraction of the bile is very painful for bears, and causes damage to their stomach and intestines, often resulting in their eventual death. However, due to international attention on the issues surrounding its harvesting, bile is now rarely used by practitioners outside of China; gallbladders from butchered cattle (cow bile / niú dǎn) are recommended as a substitute for this ingredient. Opposition Starting from the late 19th century, some politicians and Chinese scholars with background in Western medicine have been trying to phase out TCM totally in China. The attempts to curtail TCM in China always provoke large scale debates but have never completely succeeded. Still, many researchers and practitioners of TCM in China and the United States argue the need to document TCM's efficacy with controlled, double blind experiments. These efforts remain hampered by the difficulty of creating effective placebos for acupuncture studies. The attempt to phase out TCM in Japan partially succeeded after Meiji Restoration. However, in the 1920s a movement emerged that attempted to restore traditional medical practice, especially acupuncture. This movement, known as the Meridian Therapy movement (Keiraku Chiryo in Japanese) persists to this day. Furthermore, many Japanese physicians continue to practice Kampo, a form of traditional medicine based on the Shang Han Lun tradition of Chinese herbal medicine. However, there are many differences such as standardization and strong enforced regulations in Kampo that are absent in TCM. The most scientific derivative of TCM practiced in Japan is ryodoraku (良導絡), which was developed by Yosio Nakatani in 1950. It utilizes objective electricity test instruments and direct current stimulation of acuーpoints instead of subjective interpretation of symptoms and treatment. 　Ryodoraku research is centered at Osaka Medical College, Japan. The use of parts of endangered species (such as seahorses, rhinoceros horns, and tiger bones and claws) has created controversy and resulted in a black market of poachers who hunt restricted animals. Will traditional Chinese medicine mean the end of the wild tiger? Rhino rescue plan decimates Asian antelopes Deep-seated cultural beliefs in the potency of tiger parts are so prevalent across Asia that laws protecting even critically endangered species such as the Sumatran Tiger fail to stop the display and sale of these items in open markets, according to a 2008 report from TRAFFIC Popular "medicinal" tiger parts from poached animals include tiger penis, believed to improve virility, BBC NEWS | Beijing's penis emporium and tiger eyes. In Black Market, photographer Patrick Brown took a deep look at the illegal wildlife trade in Asia. Modernization Traditional Chinese medicine has been to some degree modernized by transforming the plants and ingredients to soluble granules and tablets. Modern formulations in pills and sachets used 675 plant and fungi ingredients and about 25 from non-plant sources such as snakes, geckos, toads, frogs, bees, and earthworms. Investigation of the active ingredients in TCM has produced western style drugs, for example Artemisinin now widely used in the treatment of malaria. See also Alternative medicine Chinese classic herbal formula Chinese patent medicine List of branches of alternative medicine List of topics characterized as pseudoscience Medicinal mushrooms Pharmacognosy Public health in the People's Republic of China TCM Materia Medica (Plant) Traditional Korean medicine Traditional Mongolian medicine Footnotes References Chang, Stephen T. The Great Tao; Tao Longevity; ISBN 0-942196-01-5 Stephen T. Chang Kaptchuck, Ted J., The Web That Has No Weaver; Congdon & Weed; ISBN 0-8092-2933-1Z Jin, Guanyuan, Xiang, Jia-Jia and Jin, Lei: Clinical Reflexology of Acupuncture and Moxibustion; Beijing Science and Technology Press, Beijing, 2004. ISBN 7-5304-2862-4 Maciocia, Giovanni, The Foundations of Chinese Medicine: A Comprehensive Text for Acupuncturists and Herbalists; Churchill Livingstone; ISBN 0-443-03980-1 Ni, Mao-Shing, The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Medicine: A New Translation of the Neijing Suwen with Commentary; Shambhala, 1995; ISBN 1-57062-080-6 Holland, Alex Voices of Qi: An Introductory Guide to Traditional Chinese Medicine; North Atlantic Books, 2000; ISBN 1-55643-326-3 Unschuld, Paul U., Medicine in China: A History of Ideas; University of California Press, 1985; ISBN 0-520-05023-1 Scheid, Volker, Chinese Medicine in Contemporary China: Plurality and Synthesis; Duke University Press, 2002; ISBN 0822328577 Qu, Jiecheng, When Chinese Medicine Meets Western Medicine - History and Ideas (in Chinese); Joint Publishing (H.K.), 2004; ISBN 962-04-2336-4 Chan, T.Y. (2002). Incidence of herb-induced aconitine poisoning in Hong Kong: impact of publicity measures to promote awareness among the herbalists and the public. Drug Saf. 25:823–828. Benowitz, Neal L. (2000) Review of adverse reaction reports involving ephedrine-containing herbal products. Submitted to U.S. Food and Drug Administration. January 17. Porkert, Manfred The Theoretical Foundations of Chinese Medicine MIT Press, 1974 ISBN 0-262-16058-7 Hongyi, L., Hua, T., Jiming, H., Lianxin, C., Nai, L., Weiya, X., Wentao, M. (2003) Perivascular Space: Possible anatomical substrate for the meridian. Journal of Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 9:6 (2003) pp851–859 Further reading Wellcome Historical Medical Museum and Library, Chinese Medicine (1966) Sivin, Nathan, ed. (2000). Medicine. (Science and civilisation in China, Vol. VI, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 6). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10-ISBN 0-521-63262-5; 13-ISBN 978-0-521-63262-1; OCLC 163502797 External links Overview of TCM from the University of Minnesota's Center for Spirituality & Healing Traditional Chinese Medicine Material Mind Meridian QI,Informative Blog from an old TCM sinseh. Comparing modern medicine and traditional holistic medicine. Traditional Chinese Medicine World Foundation, not-for-profit organization dedicated to educating individuals and health-care practitioners about classical traditional Chinese medicine and natural healing. American Journal of Chinese Medicine, academic journal for TCM. Classics of Traditional Chinese Medicine, by the National Library of Medicine (NLM) Chinese Medical Institute and Register Traditional Chinese Medicine repository Acupuncture. NIH Consensus Statement November 3-5, 1997; 15(5):1-34. Effects of acupuncture on gastroparesis study Traditional Chinese Medicine—A Favored Adjunctive Therapy for American Cancer Patients Merging Chinese Traditional Medicine into the American Health System The Chinese Medicine Sampler - Historical roots of traditional Chinese medicine Traditional Chinese Medicine news, information, education, research and discussion - A regularly updated TCM website based in Australia Monthly newsletters on Chinese Medicine and Health (AUS) National Certification Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine (USA) American Association for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine California State Oriental Medical Association (CSOMA) The Journal of Chinese Medicine: academic level journal for TCM Advanced Online Encyclopedia for Chinese Medicine and Acupuncture Chinese Medicine Notes- A Chinese Medicine Blog TCM Directory- Acupuncture and Chinese Medicine Resources The Theory of the Traditional Chinese Medical Science Online databases ("Traditional Chinese Medicine - Free Information Site in English, Chinese and German – 神农氏") Kamwo Herb Guide ("Traditional Functions of Chinese Herbs and Formulas - Free Online Database") 電子中醫藥古籍文獻("Electronic old Chinese Medicine books and texts") Classical texts for FTP is tylonol and advil
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4,755
Java_virtual_machine
A Java Virtual Machine (JVM) is a set of computer software programs and data structures that use a virtual machine model for the execution of other computer programs and scripts. The model used by a JVM accepts a form of computer intermediate language commonly referred to as Java bytecode. This language conceptually represents the instruction set of a stack-oriented, capability architecture. As of 2006, there are an estimated four billion JVM-enabled devices worldwide. Overview Java Virtual Machines operate on Java bytecode, which is normally (but not necessarily) generated from Java source code; a JVM can also be used to implement programming languages other than Java. For example, Ada source code can be compiled to Java bytecode, which may then be executed by a JVM. JVMs can also be released by other companies besides Sun (the developer of Java) — JVMs using the "Java" trademark may be developed by other companies as long as they adhere to the JVM specification published by Sun (and related contractual obligations). The JVM is a crucial component of the Java Platform. Because JVMs are available for many hardware and software platforms, Java can be both middleware and a platform in its own right — hence the trademark write once, run anywhere. The use of the same bytecode for all platforms allows Java to be described as "compile once, run anywhere", as opposed to "write once, compile anywhere", which describes cross-platform compiled languages. The JVM also enables such features as Automated Exception Handling that provides 'root-cause' debugging information for every software error (exception) independent of the source code. The JVM is distributed along with a set of standard class libraries that implement the Java API (Application Programming Interface). An application programming interface is what a computer system, library or application provides in order to allow data exchange between them. They are bundled together as the Java Runtime Environment. Execution environment Programs intended to run on a JVM must be compiled into a standardized portable binary format, which typically comes in the form of .class files. A program may consist of many classes in different files. For easier distribution of large programs, multiple class files may be packaged together in a .jar file (short for Java archive). The JVM runtime executes .class or .jar files, emulating the JVM instruction set by interpreting it, or using a just-in-time compiler (JIT) such as Sun's HotSpot. JIT compiling, not interpreting, is used in most JVMs today to achieve greater speed. Ahead-of-time compilers that enable the developer to precompile class files into native code for a particular platforms also exist. Like most virtual machines, the Java Virtual Machine has a stack-based architecture akin to a microcontroller/microprocessor. The JVM, which is the instance of the JRE (Java Runtime Environment), comes into action when a Java program is executed. When execution is complete, this instance is garbage-collected. JIT is the part of the JVM that is used to speed up the execution time. JIT compiles parts of the byte code that have similar functionality at the same time, and hence reduces the amount of time needed for compilation. Support for dynamic languages Although the JVM was primarily aimed at running compiled Java programs, other languages can now run on top of it , such as: Ruby, with JRuby JavaScript, with Rhino Python, with Jython Groovy PHP , with Quercus Clojure The JVM has currently no built-in support for Dynamically typed languages: the existing JVM instruction set is statically typed. The JVM has a limited support for dynamically modifying existing classes and methods. It currently only works in a debugging environment. Built-in support for dynamic languages is currently planned for Java 7. Bytecode verifier A basic philosophy of Java is that it is inherently "safe" from the standpoint that no user program can "crash" the host machine or otherwise interfere inappropriately with other operations on the host machine, and that it is possible to protect certain functions and data structures belonging to "trusted" code from access or corruption by "untrusted" code executing within the same JVM. Furthermore, common programmer errors that often lead to data corruption or unpredictable behavior such as accessing off the end of an array or using an uninitialized pointer are not allowed to occur. Several features of Java combine to provide this safety, including the class model, the garbage-collected heap, and the verifier. The JVM verifies all bytecode before it is executed. This verification consists primarily of three types of checks: Branches are always to valid locations Data is always initialized and references are always type-safe Access to "private" or "package private" data and methods is rigidly controlled. The first two of these checks take place primarily during the "verification" step that occurs when a class is loaded and made eligible for use. The third is primarily performed dynamically, when data items or methods of a class are first accessed by another class. The verifier permits only some bytecode sequences in valid programs, e.g. a jump (branch) instruction can only target an instruction within the same function or method. Furthermore, the verifier ensures that any given instruction operates on a fixed stack location , allowing the JIT compiler to transform stack accesses into fixed register accesses. Because of this, the fact that JVM is a stack architecture does not imply a speed penalty for emulation on register-based architectures when using a JIT compiler. In the face of the code-verified JVM architecture, it makes no difference to a JIT compiler whether it gets named imaginary registers or imaginary stack positions that need to be allocated to the target architecture's registers. In fact, code verification makes the JVM different from a classic stack architecture whose efficient emulation with a JIT compiler is more complicated and typically carried out by a slower interpreter. Code verification also ensures that arbitrary bit patterns cannot get used as an address. Memory protection is achieved without the need for a Memory management unit (MMU). Thus, JVM is an efficient way of getting memory protection on simple architectures that lack an MMU. This is analogous to managed code in Microsoft's .NET Common Language Runtime, and conceptually similar to capability architectures such as the Plessey 250, and IBM System/38. Bytecode instructions The JVM has instructions for the following groups of tasks: Load and store Arithmetic Type conversion Object creation and manipulation Operand stack management (push / pop) Control transfer (branching) Method invocation and return Throwing exceptions Monitor-based concurrency The aim is binary compatibility. Each particular host operating system needs its own implementation of the JVM and runtime. These JVMs interpret the byte code semantically the same way, but the actual implementation may be different. More complicated than just the emulation of bytecode is compatible and efficient implementation of the Java core API that has to be mapped to each host operating system. Secure execution of remote code A virtual machine architecture allows very fine-grained control over the actions that code within the machine is permitted to take. This is designed to allow safe execution of untrusted code from remote sources, a model used by Java applets. Applets run within a VM incorporated into a user's browser, executing code downloaded from a remote HTTP server. The remote code runs in a restricted "sandbox", which is designed to protect the user from misbehaving or malicious code. Publishers can purchase a certificate with which to digitally sign applets as "safe", giving them permission to ask the user to break out of the sandbox and access the local file system and network. C to bytecode compilers From the point of view of a compiler, the Java Virtual Machine is just another processor with an instruction set, Java bytecode, for which code can be generated. The JVM was originally designed to execute programs written in the Java language. However, the JVM provides an execution environment in the form of a bytecode instruction set and a runtime system that is general enough that it can be used as the target for compilers of other languages. Because of its close association with Java the JVM performs the runtime checks mandated by the Java specification. This can make it technically difficult to translate C code (which is much more lax with regard to runtime checking) to the JVM and expect it to run without issuing any warnings. It can be easier to translate some language, such as C, to machine language first before converting to Java bytecode. This has been demonstrated by the NestedVM project and accompanying paper. Compilers targeting Java bytecode have been written for many programming languages, including Ada and COBOL. Licensing Starting with J2SE 5.0, changes to the JVM specification have been developed under the Java Community Process as JSR 924 JSR 924 – Specifies changes to the JVM specification starting with J2SE 5.0 . , changes to specification to support changes proposed to the class file format (JSR 202 JSR 202 – Specifies a number of changes to the class file format ) are being done as a maintenance release of JSR 924. The specification for the JVM is published in book form, The Java Virtual Machine Specification (the first and second editions are also available online) known as "blue book". The preface states: We intend that this specification should sufficiently document the Java Virtual Machine to make possible compatible clean-room implementations. Sun provides tests that verify the proper operation of implementations of the Java Virtual Machine. Sun's JVM is called HotSpot. Clean-room Java implementations include Kaffe and IBM J9. Sun retains control over the Java trademark, which it uses to certify implementation suites as fully compatible with Sun's specification. See also List of Java virtual machines Comparison of application virtual machines Automated Exception Handling Java performance List of JVM languages Java Virtual Machine heap Notes References Clarifications and Amendments to the Java Virtual Machine Specification, Second Edition includes list of changes to be made to support J2SE 5.0 and JSR 45 JSR 45 – Specifies changes to the class file format to support source-level debugging of languages such as JSP and SQLJ that are translated to Java External links The Java Virtual Machine Specification A decade after Java arrived, there have been improvements in the runtime performance of platform-independent virtual-machine based software. Sun to build virtual machine for iPhone - ComputerWorld Java Virtual Machine Download Links
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4,756
Circuit_Park_Zandvoort
Circuit Park Zandvoort is a motorsport race track located in the dunes near the town of Zandvoort, in the Netherlands, near the North Sea coast line. History Although there were plans for races at Zandvoort before World War II, the first street race was held on June 3, 1939. A real circuit was not built until after the war, built on communications roads built by the German army during its occupation in the Second World War. The circuit mainly designed by John Hugenholtz. The circuit was inaugurated on August, 7, 1948. Next year, in 1949 the circuit hosted the Zandvoort Grand Prix. The following year, the race was called the Dutch Grand Prix, and it was included in the Formula One World Championship in . It remained on the F1 calendar for 30 out of the next 34 years. In , the Dutch Grand Prix was held for the last time. The company that commercially ran the circuit (CENAV) went out of business, marking the end of Circuit Zandvoort. The track, owned by the municipality of Zandvoort, was not used for some time and part of the grounds and approximately half of the track was sold in 1987 to Vendorado, a Bungalow park developer at that time. A plan to save the remaining track was made by a group of people and companies. Circuit Park Zandvoort was born, and the track was remodeled to an interim Club Circuit of in the summer of 1989. In 1995, CPZ got the "A Status" of the Dutch government and began building an international Grand Prix Circuit. This project was finished in 2001 when, after the track was redesigned to a long circuit and a new pits building was realized (by HPG, the development company of John Hugenholtz jr, son of the former director), a new grandstand was situated along the long straight. One of the major events that is held at the circuit, along with DTM and A1GP, is the RTL Masters of Formula 3, where Formula Three cars of several national racing series compete with each other (originally called Marlboro Masters, before tobacco advertising ban). A noise restriction order was responsible for this event moving to the Belgian Zolder circuit for 2007 and 2008. However, the race will return to its historical home in 2009. The circuit gained popularity because of its fast, sweeping corners such as Scheivlak as well as the "Tarzanbocht" (Tarzan corner) hairpin at the end of the start/finish straight. Tarzanbocht is the most famous corner in the circuit which provides excellent overtaking opportunities. This corner is reportedly named after a local character who had earned the nickname of Tarzan and only wanted to give up his vegetable garden in the dunes if the track's designers named a nearby corner after him. On the other hand, many different stories about Tarzan Corner are known. Circuit Park Zandvoort played host to the first race in the 2006/07 season of A1 Grand Prix from 29 September-1 October, 2006. On 21 August 2008, the official A1GP site reported that the 2008/09 season's first race has moved from the Mugello Circuit, Italy to Zandvoort on the 4-5 October 2008 due to the delay in the building the new chassis for the new race cars. Fatal accidents In the history of the circuit, several fatal accidents have occurred. Name Date Description Wim Gerlach June 10, 1957 The corner in which he died was named after him. First fatality on the circuit. Piers Courage June 21, 1970 His car turned over and caught fire. He was pinned down by his De Tomaso car and had no chance to escape. Roger Williamson July 29, 1973 He lost control of his car during the F1 Dutch Grand Prix and crashed into the barriers, spun upside-down and caught fire. David Purley stopped his own race and tried, unsuccessfully, to save Williamson. The circuit was poorly prepared and not enough extinguishers were on hand. Rob Slotemaker July 29, 1979 He broke his neck and died during a non-F1 event. Design Its design has been modified and altered several times over time: 1948-1973: length 1973-1980: length 1980-1989: length 1989-1998: length 1999-present: length The corners are named as follows (the numbers correspond to the image above, starting at the start/finish line): Tarzan corner (1) Gerlach corner (2) Hugenholtz corner (3) Hunzerug (4) Rob Slotemaker corner (5) Scheivlak (6) Masters corner (formerly Marlboro corner) (7) Renault corner (8) Vodafone (9) Audi S corner (10 + 11) Kumho corner (12) Arie Luyendyk (13) The elevation difference is . The main straightaway during the A1GP. Use in simulations / games In 1998, the older "classic" Zandvoort circuit layout from 1967 was modeled in detail and can be driven in the Grand Prix Legends racing simulation for X86-based PCs. This was later converted to NASCAR 4, NASCAR 2002, 2003 and other simulations using a converter from website 'The Pits'. The current layout is used in the SimBin games RACE 07 - Official WTCC Game, TOCA Race Driver 3 and Race Pro. See also List of Formula One circuits References External links Circuit Zandvoort homepage Aerial photo (Google Maps) A1GP Info of Circuit Zandvoort
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Nikola_Tesla
Nikola Tesla (10 July 1856 – 7 January 1943) was an inventor and a mechanical and electrical engineer. Tesla was born in the village of Smiljan near the town of Gospić, Austrian Empire, (today's Croatia). He was an ethnic Serb subject of the Austrian Empire and later became an American citizen. BBC News "Electrical pioneer Tesla honoured" Tesla is often described as an important scientist and inventor of the modern age, a man who "shed light over the face of Earth". Nikola Tesla, genije koji je obasjao svet, produced by Ljubo Vujovic, presented by Time Warner and RCN: quoted also in Ogledalo journal, July 2008 He is best known for many revolutionary contributions in the field of electricity and magnetism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Tesla's patents and theoretical work formed the basis of modern alternating current electric power (AC) systems, including the polyphase power distribution systems and the AC motor, with which he helped usher in the Second Industrial Revolution. After his demonstration of wireless communication (radio) in 1894 and after being the victor in the "War of Currents", he was widely respected as one of the greatest electrical engineers who worked in America. Serbian Unity Congress | 150 Years of Nikola Tesla Much of his early work pioneered modern electrical engineering and many of his discoveries were of groundbreaking importance. During this period, in the United States, Tesla's fame rivaled that of any other inventor or scientist in history or popular culture, Harnessing the Wheelwork of Nature: Tesla's Science of Energy by Thomas Valone but due to his eccentric personality and his seemingly unbelievable and sometimes bizarre claims about possible scientific and technological developments, Tesla was ultimately ostracized and regarded as a mad scientist. Never having put much focus on his finances, Tesla died impoverished at the age of 86. The unit measuring magnetic flux density or magnetic induction (commonly known as the magnetic field "B"), the tesla, was named in his honor (at the Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures, Paris, 1960), as well as the Tesla effect of wireless energy transfer to wirelessly power electronic devices which Tesla demonstrated on a low scale (lightbulbs) as early as 1893 and aspired to use for the intercontinental transmission of industrial energy levels in his unfinished Wardenclyffe Tower project. Aside from his work on electromagnetism and electromechanical engineering, Tesla has contributed in varying degrees to the establishment of robotics, remote control, radar and computer science, and to the expansion of ballistics, nuclear physics, Cheney, Margaret, "Tesla: Man Out of Time", 1979. ISBN 0743215362. Front cover flap and theoretical physics. In 1943, the Supreme Court of the United States credited him as being the inventor of the radio. U.S. Supreme Court, "Marconi Wireless Telegraph co. of America v. United States". 320 U.S. 1. Nos. 369, 373. Argued 9-12 April 1943. Decided 21 June 1943. Many of his achievements have been used, with some controversy, to support various pseudosciences, UFO theories, and early New Age occultism. Tesla is honored in Serbia and Croatia, as well as in the Czech Republic and Romania. He was awarded the highest order of the White Lion by Czechoslovakia. Biography Early years Nikola Tesla's birth house and statue in the village of Smiljan, in Croatia. Tesla was born to Serbian parents in the village of Smiljan near the town of Gospić, in Austrian Empire (today's Croatia). Legend has that he was born precisely at midnight during an electrical storm. His baptismal certificate reports that he was born on 28 June (N.S. 10 July), 1856, to Father Milutin Tesla, a priest in the Serbian Orthodox Church, Metropolitanate of Sremski Karlovci and Đuka Mandić. His paternal origin is thought to be either of one of the local Serb clans in the Tara valley or from the Herzegovinian noble Pavle Orlović His mother Đuka , daughter of a Serbian Orthodox Church priest came from a family domiciled in Lika and Banija, but with deeper origins to Kosovo. She was talented in making home craft tools and memorized many Serbian epic poems, but never learned to read. Seifer, "Wizard" p. 7 Nikola was the fourth of five children, having one older brother (Dane, who was killed in a horse-riding accident when Nikola was five) and three sisters (Milka, Angelina and Marica). Margaret Cheney, Robert Uth, and Jim Glenn, "Tesla, Master of Lightning". Barnes & Noble Publishing, 1999. ISBN 0760710058. His family moved to Gospić in 1862. Tesla went to school in Karlovac. He finished a four year term in the span of three years. Walker, E. H. (1900). Leaders of the 19th century with some noted characters of earlier times, their efforts and achievements in advancing human progress vividly portrayed for the guidance of present and future generations. Chicago: A.B. Kuhlman Co., p, 474. c.1879 at age 23 Tesla then studied electrical engineering at the Austrian Polytechnic in Graz (1875). While there, he studied the uses of alternating current. Some sources say he received Baccalaureate degrees from the university at Graz. "The Book of New York: Forty Years' Recollections of the American Metropolis" says he matriculated 4 degrees (physics, mathematics, mechanical engineering and electrical engineering) Harper's Encyclopædia of United States History from 458 A.D. to 1906. Harper & brothers 1905. Page 52. However, the university claims that he did not receive a degree and did not continue beyond the first semester of his third year, during which he stopped attending lectures. Nikola Tesla: the European Years, D. Mrkich . Cited in Seifer, Marc, The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla, 1996 In December 1878 he left Graz and broke all relations with his family. His friends thought that he had drowned in Mura. He went to Maribor, (today's Slovenia), where he was first employed as an assistant engineer for a year. He suffered a nervous breakdown during this time. Tesla was later persuaded by his father to attend the Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague, which he attended for the summer term of 1880. Here, he was influenced by Ernst Mach. However, after his father died, he left the university, having completed only one term. Tesla engaged in reading many works, memorizing complete books, supposedly having a photographic memory. Tesla related in his autobiography that he experienced detailed moments of inspiration. During his early life, Tesla was stricken with illness time and time again. He suffered a peculiar affliction in which blinding flashes of light would appear before his eyes, often accompanied by hallucinations. Much of the time the visions were linked to a word or idea he might have come across; just by hearing the name of an item, he would involuntarily envision it in realistic detail. Modern-day synesthetes report similar symptoms. Tesla would visualise an invention in his brain in precise form before moving to the construction stage; a technique sometimes known as picture thinking. Tesla also often had flashbacks to events that had happened previously in his life; this began to happen during childhood. 3phase rmf In 1880, he moved to Budapest, (capital of Kingdom of Hungary), to work under Tivadar Puskás in a telegraph company, James Grant Wilson, John Fiske, Appleton's Cyclopædia of American Biography. P. 261. the National Telephone Company. There, he met Nebojša Petrović, a young, Serbian inventor who lived in Austria. Although their encounter was brief, they did work on a project together using twin turbines to create continual power. On the opening of the telephone exchange in Budapest, 1881, Tesla became the chief electrician to the company, and was later engineer for the country's first telephone system. He also developed a device that, according to some, was a telephone repeater or amplifier, but according to others could have been the first loudspeaker. "Did Tesla really invent the loudspeaker?". Twenty First Century Books, Breckenridge, CO. United States and France In 1882 he moved to Paris, France, to work as an engineer for the Continental Edison Company, designing improvements to electric equipment. In the same year, Tesla conceived the induction motor and began developing various devices that use rotating magnetic fields for which he received patents in 1888. Patent Soon thereafter, Tesla was awakened from a dream in which his mother had died, "And I knew that this was so". After her death, Tesla fell ill. He spent two to three weeks recuperating in Gospić and the village of Tomingaj near Gračac, his mother's birthplace. On 6 June 1884, Tesla first arrived in the US in New York City "Master of Lightning" by Public Broadcasting Service. Website with little besides a letter of recommendation from Charles Batchelor, a former employer. In the letter of recommendation to Thomas Edison, Batchelor wrote, "I know two great men and you are one of them; the other is this young man." Edison hired Tesla to work for his Edison Machine Works. Tesla's work for Edison began with simple electrical engineering and quickly progressed to solving some of the company's most difficult problems. Tesla was even offered the task of completely redesigning the Edison company's direct current generators. Tesla claims he was offered US$50,000 (~ US$1.1 million in 2007, adjusted for inflation) http://www.westegg.com/inflation/ Adjusting the reported given amount of money for inflation, the US$50,000 in 1885 would equal US$1,140,112.60 in 2007 if he redesigned Edison's inefficient motor and generators, making an improvement in both service and economy. Tesla said he worked night and day on the project and gave the Edison Company several profitable new patents in the process. In 1885 when Tesla inquired about the payment for his work, Edison replied, "Tesla, you don't understand our American humor," thus breaking his word. Clifford A. Pickover, Strange Brains and Genius: The Secret Lives of Eccentric Scientists and Madmen. HarperCollins, 1999. 352 pages. P. 14. ISBN 0688168949 "My Inventions" by Nikola Tesla, printed in Electrical Experimenter Feb-June, 1919. Reprinted, edited by Ben Johnson, New York: Barnes & Noble, 1982. ISBN Earning a mere US$18 per week, Tesla would have had to work for 53 years to earn the amount he was promised. The offer was equal to the initial capital of the company. Tesla resigned when he was refused a raise to US$25 per week. Jonnes,"Empire of light" p. 110 Tesla eventually found himself digging ditches for a short period of time for the Edison company. Tesla used this time to focus on his AC polyphase system, which Edison (believing DC electricity was the future) had never wanted to hear about. Electromechanical devices and principles developed by Nikola Tesla: Various devices that use rotating magnetic fields (1882) The Induction motor, rotary transformers, and "high" frequency alternators The Tesla coil, his magnifying transmitter, and other means for increasing the intensity of electrical oscillations (including condenser discharge transformations and the Tesla oscillators Routledge, R., & Pepper, J. H. (1876). Discoveries and inventions of the nineteenth century. London: G. Routledge and sons. Page 545. Archie Frederick Collins, Wireless Telegraphy: Its History, Theory and Practice. McGraw publishing company, 1905. Page 131 ) Alternating current long-distance electrical transmission system Tesla, Nikola, "A New System of Alternating Current Motors and Transformers". American Institute of Electrical Engineers, May 1888. (1888) and other methods and devices for power transmission Systems for wireless communication (prior art for the invention of radio) and radio frequency oscillators Robert Routledge, Discoveries and Inventions of the Nineteenth Century. G. Routledge and Sons, 1903. Page 542. Robotics and the "AND" logic gate "Tesla's invention of the AND logic gate". Twenty First Century Books, Breckenridge, CO. (ed., this pertains to the and ) Electrotherapy Tesla currents Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, "The IEEE standard dictionary of electrical and electronics terms". 6th ed. New York, N.Y., Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, c1997. IEEE Std 100-1996. ISBN 1-55937-833-6 [ed. Standards Coordinating Committee 10, Terms and Definitions; Jane Radatz, (chair)] Dugan, William James, "Hand-book of electro-therapeutics". F.A.Davis Company, 1910. Page 123. "[...] speak of "Tesla currents" when we really mean the high frequency currents." Snow, William Benham, "Currents of high potential of high and other frequencies". Scientific authors' publishing Co., 1918. Page 121. Wireless transfer of electricity and the Tesla effect Norrie, H. S., "Induction Coils: How to make, use, and repair them".Norman H. Schneider, 1907, New York. 4th edition. Electrical experimenter, January 1919. Page 615 Tesla impedance phenonomena The Electrical engineer. (1884). London: Biggs & Co. Page 19 Tesla electro-static field Tesla principle Bifilar coil Telegeodynamics Tesla insulation Tesla impulses Bengt Anders Benson, Perseption apparatus for the Blind, Tesla frequencies Houston, E. J. (1889). A dictionary of electrical words, terms and phrases. New York: W.J. Johnston. Page 956. Tesla discharge Forms of commutators and methods of regulating third brushes Tesla turbines (eg., bladeless turbines) for water, steam and gas and the Tesla pumps Tesla igniter Corona discharge ozone generator Tesla compressor X-rays Tubes using the Bremsstrahlung process Devices for ionized gases and "Hot Saint Elmo's Fire". Houston, E. J. (1889). A dictionary of electrical words, terms and phrases. New York: W.J. Johnston. Page 801. Devices for high field emission Devices for charged particle beams Phantom streaming devices Houston, E. J. (1889). A dictionary of electrical words, terms and phrases. New York: W.J. Johnston. Page 878. Arc light systems Methods for providing extremely low level of resistance to the passage of electrical current (predecessor to superconductivity) Voltage multiplication circuitry Devices for high voltage discharges Devices for lightning protection VTOL aircraft Dynamic theory of gravity Concepts for electric vehicles Polyphase systems Middle years In 1886, Tesla formed his own company, Tesla Electric Light & Manufacturing. The initial financial investors disagreed with Tesla on his plan for an alternating current motor and eventually relieved him of his duties at the company. Tesla worked in New York as a common laborer from 1886 to 1887 to feed himself and raise capital for his next project. In 1887, he constructed the initial brushless alternating current induction motor, which he demonstrated to the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (now IEEE) in 1888. In the same year, he developed the principles of his Tesla coil and began working with George Westinghouse at Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company's Pittsburgh labs. Westinghouse listened to his ideas for polyphase systems which would allow transmission of alternating current electricity over long distances. In April 1887, Tesla began investigating what would later be called X-rays using his own single node vacuum tubes (similar to his patent ). This device differed from other early X-ray tubes in that they had no target electrode. The modern term for the phenomenon produced by this device is bremsstrahlung (or braking radiation). We now know that this device operated by emitting electrons from the single electrode through a combination of field electron emission and thermionic emission. Once liberated, electrons are strongly repelled by the high electric field near the electrode during negative voltage peaks from the oscillating HV output of the Tesla Coil, generating X-rays as they collide with the glass envelope. He also used Geissler tubes. By 1892, Tesla became aware of the skin damage that Wilhelm Röntgen later identified as an effect of X-rays. In the early research, Tesla devised several experimental setups to produce X-rays. Tesla held that, with his circuits, the "instrument will [... enable one to] generate Roentgen rays of much greater power than obtainable with ordinary apparatus". N. Tesla, HIGH FREQUENCY OSCILLATORS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTIC AND OTHER PURPOSES. Proceedings of the American Electro-Therapeutic Association, American Electro-Therapeutic Association. Page 25. He also commented on the hazards of working with his circuit and single node X-ray producing devices. Of his many notes in the early investigation of this phenomenon, he attributed the skin damage to various causes. One of the options for the cause, which is not in conformity with conventional X-ray production, was that the ozone generated rather than the radiation was responsible. He believed early on that damage to the skin was not due to the Roentgen rays, but the ozone generated in contact with the skin, and to a lesser extent, Nitrous acid. Tesla held that these were in fact longitudinal waves, such as those produced in waves in plasma. In a plasma or a confined space, there can exist waves which are either longitudinal or transverse, or a mixture of both. There are known examples of this and these plasma waves can occur in the situation of force-free magnetic fields. Griffiths, David J. Introduction to Electrodynamics, ISBN 0-13-805326-X and Jackson, John D. Classical Electrodynamics, ISBN 0-471-30932-X. Proceedings of the American Electro-Therapeutic Association, American Electro-Therapeutic Association. Page 16. His hypotheses and experiments were confirmed by others. George Frederick Shrady, Thomas Lathrop Stedman, Medical Record, 1897. Page 287. Tesla continued research in the field and, later, observed an assistant severely "burnt" by X-rays in his lab. He performed several experiments prior to Roentgen's discovery (including photographing the bones of his hand; later, he sent these images to Roentgen) but didn't make his findings widely known; much of his research was lost in the 5th Avenue lab fire of March 1895. A "world system" for "the transmission of electrical energy without wires" that depends upon the electrical conductivity was proposed in which transmission in various natural media with current that passes between the two point are used to power devices. In a practical wireless energy transmission system using this principle, a high-power ultraviolet beam might be used to form a vertical ionized channel in the air directly above the transmitter-receiver stations. The same concept is used in virtual lightning rods, the electrolaser electroshock weapon, A Survey of Laser Lightning Rod Techniques - Barnes, Arnold A., Jr. ; Berthel, Robert O. and has been proposed for disabling vehicles. Frequently Asked Questions - HSV Technologies Vehicle Disabling Weapon by Peter A. Schlesinger, President, HSV Technologies, Inc. - NDIA Non-Lethal Defense IV 20-22 Mar 2000 Tesla demonstrated "the transmission of electrical energy without wires" that depends upon electrical conductivity as early as 1891. The Tesla effect (named in honor of Tesla) is the archaic term for an application of this type of electrical conduction (that is, the movement of energy through space and matter; not just the production of voltage across a conductor). Norrie, H. S., "Induction Coils: How to make, use, and repair them". Norman H. Schneider, 1907, New York. 4th edition. Wireless transmission of power and energy demonstration during his high frequency and potential lecture of 1891. On 30 July 1891, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States at the age of 35. Tesla established his 35 South Fifth Avenue laboratory in New York during this same year. Later, Tesla would establish his Houston Street laboratory in New York at 46 E. Houston Street. There, at one point while conducting mechanical resonance experiments with electro-mechanical oscillators he generated a resonance of several surrounding buildings but, due to the frequencies involved, not his own building, causing complaints to the police. As the speed grew he hit the resonant frequency of his own building and belatedly realizing the danger he was forced to apply a sledge hammer to terminate the experiment, just as the astonished police arrived. O'Neill, "Prodigal Genius" pp 162-164 He also lit vacuum tubes wirelessly at both of the New York locations, providing evidence for the potential of wireless power transmission. Krumme, Katherine, Mark Twain and Nikola Tesla: Thunder and Lightning. 4 December 2000 (PDF) Some of Tesla's closest friends were artists. He befriended Century Magazine editor Robert Underwood Johnson, who adapted several Serbian poems of Jovan Jovanović Zmaj (which Tesla translated). Also during this time, Tesla was influenced by the Vedic philosophy teachings of the Swami Vivekananda. Grotz, Toby, "The Influence of Vedic Philosophy on Nikola Tesla's Understanding of Free Energy". When Tesla was 36 years old, the first patents concerning the polyphase power system were granted. He continued research of the system and rotating magnetic field principles. It is curious that Nikola Tesla, a pioneer of AC systems, was born approximately 100 km north of Šibenik where the first power plant in Croatia was constructed. It may be a coincidence that in May 1892, Tesla held a lecture on alternating systems in the City Hall of Zagreb (the capital of Croatia) at the time of the beginning of the preparations to construct the Jaruga I hydroelectric power plant. http://www.ieee.org/web/aboutus/history_center/conferences/che2007/prog_comm.html Tesla served, from 1892 to 1894, as the vice president of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the forerunner (along with the Institute of Radio Engineers) of the modern-day IEEE. From 1893 to 1895, he investigated high frequency alternating currents. He generated AC of one million volts using a conical Tesla coil and investigated the skin effect in conductors, designed tuned circuits, invented a machine for inducing sleep, cordless gas discharge lamps, and transmitted electromagnetic energy without wires, building the first radio transmitter. In St. Louis, Missouri, Tesla made a demonstration related to radio communication in 1893. Addressing the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and the National Electric Light Association, he described and demonstrated in detail its principles. Tesla's demonstrations were written about widely through various media outlets. Tesla also investigated harvesting energy that is present throughout space. He believed that it was just merely a question of time when men will succeed in attaching their machinery to the very wheelwork of nature, stating: At the 1893 World's Fair, the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, an international exposition was held which for the first time devoted a building to electrical exhibits. It was a historic event as Tesla and George Westinghouse introduced visitors to AC power by using it to illuminate the Exposition. On display were Tesla's fluorescent lamps and single node bulbs. An observer noted: Nikola Tesla's AC dynamo used to generate AC which is used to transport electricity across great distances. It is contained in . Tesla also explained the principles of the rotating magnetic field and induction motor by demonstrating how to make an egg made of copper stand on end in his demonstration of the device he constructed known as the "Egg of Columbus". Also in the late 1880s, Tesla and Edison became adversaries in part due to Edison's promotion of direct current (DC) for electric power distribution over the more efficient alternating current advocated by Tesla and Westinghouse. Until Tesla invented the induction motor, AC's advantages for long distance high voltage transmission were counterbalanced by the inability to operate motors on AC. As a result of the "War of Currents," Edison and Westinghouse went nearly bankrupt, so in 1897, Tesla released Westinghouse from contract, providing Westinghouse a break from Tesla's patent royalties. Also in 1897, Tesla researched radiation which led to setting up the basic formulation of cosmic rays. Waser, André, "Nikola Tesla’s Radiations and the Cosmic Rays". When Tesla was forty-one years old, he filed the first basic radio patent (). A year later, he demonstrated a radio-controlled boat to the US military, believing that the military would want things such as radio-controlled torpedoes. Tesla had developed the "Art of Telautomatics", a form of robotics, as well as the technology of remote control. Tesla, Nikola, "My Inventions", Electrical Experimenter magazine, Feb, June, and Oct, 1919. ISBN (also "The Strange Life of Nikola Tesla" at rastko.org) In 1898, a radio-controlled boat was demonstrated to the public during an electrical exhibition at Madison Square Garden. These devices had an innovative coherer and a series of logic gates. Tesla called his boat a "teleautomaton" and said of it, "You see there the first of a race of robots, mechanical men which will do the laborious work of the human race." Jonnes, Jill. Empires of Light ISBN 0-375-75884-4. Page 355, referencing O'Neill, John J., Prodigal Genius: The Life of Nikola Tesla (New York: David McKay, 1944), p. 167. Radio remote control remained a novelty until the 1960s. In the same year, Tesla devised an "electric igniter" or spark plug for Internal combustion gasoline engines. He gained , "Electrical Igniter for Gas Engines", on this mechanical ignition system. Tesla lived in the former Gerlach Hotel, renamed The Radio Wave building, at 49 W 27th St. (between Broadway and Sixth Avenue), Lower Manhattan, before the end of the century where he conducted the radio wave experiments. A commemorative plaque was placed on the building in 1977 to honor his work. Colorado Springs Publicity picture of a participant sitting in his laboratory in Colorado Springs with his "Magnifying Transmitter" generating millions of volts. The arcs are about 7 meters (23 ft) long. (Tesla's notes identify this as a multiple exposure photograph.) An experiment in Colorado Springs. This bank of lights is receiving power from a distant transmitter Colorado Springs experiment where grounded tuned coil is in resonance with distant transmitter; a light is glowing near the bottom. In 1899, Tesla decided to move and began research in Colorado Springs, Colorado, where he would have room for his high-voltage, high-frequency experiments. Upon his arrival he told reporters that he was conducting wireless telegraphy experiments transmitting signals from Pikes Peak to Paris. Tesla's diary contains explanations of his experiments concerning the ionosphere and the ground's telluric currents via transverse waves and longitudinal waves. Tesla, Nikola, "The True Wireless". Electrical Experimenter, May 1919. (also at pbs.org) At his lab, Tesla proved that the earth was a conductor, and he produced artificial lightning (with discharges consisting of millions of volts, and up to 135 feet long). Gillispie, Charles Coulston, "Dictionary of Scientific Biography"; Tesla, Nikola. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. ISBN Tesla also investigated atmospheric electricity, observing lightning signals via his receivers. Reproductions of Tesla's receivers and coherer circuits show an unpredicted level of complexity (e.g., distributed high-Q helical resonators, radio frequency feedback, crude heterodyne effects, and regeneration techniques). Corum, K. L., J. F. Corum, and A. H. Aidinejad, "Atmospheric Fields, Tesla's Receivers and Regenerative Detectors". 1994. Tesla stated that he observed stationary waves during this time. Corum, K. L., J. F. Corum, "Nikola Tesla, Lightning Observations, and Stationary Waves". 1994. Tesla researched ways to transmit power and energy wirelessly over long distances (via transverse waves, to a lesser extent, and, more readily, longitudinal waves). He transmitted extremely low frequencies through the ground as well as between the earth's surface and the Kennelly-Heaviside layer. He received patents on wireless transceivers that developed standing waves by this method. In his experiments, he made mathematical calculations and computations based on his experiments and discovered that the resonant frequency of the Earth was approximately 8 Hertz (Hz). In the 1950s, researchers confirmed that the resonant frequency of the Earth's ionospheric cavity was in this range (later named the Schumann resonance). In Colorado, Tesla carried out various long distance power transmission experiments. Tesla effect is the application of a type of electrical conduction (that is, the movement of energy through space and matter; not just the production of voltage across a conductor). Through longitudinal waves, Tesla transferred energy to receiving devices. He sent electrostatic forces through natural media across a conductor situated in the changing magnetic flux and transferred power to a conducting receiving device (such as Tesla's wireless bulbs). In the Colorado Springs lab, Tesla observed unusual signals that he later thought may have been evidence of extraterrestrial radio communications coming from Venus or Mars. Tesla, Nikola, "Talking with Planets". Collier's Weekly, 19 February 1901. (EarlyRadioHistory.us) He noticed repetitive signals from his receiver which were substantially different from the signals he had noted from storms and earth noise. Specifically, he later recalled that the signals appeared in groups of one, two, three, and four clicks together. Tesla had mentioned before this event and many times after that he thought his inventions could be used to talk with other planets. There have even been claims that he invented a "Teslascope" for just such a purpose. It is debatable what type of signals Tesla received or whether he picked up anything at all. Research has suggested that Tesla may have had a misunderstanding of the new technology he was working with, or that the signals Tesla observed may have simply been an observation of a non-terrestrial natural radio source such as the Jovian plasma torus signals. Tesla left Colorado Springs on 7 January 1900. The lab was torn down and its contents sold to pay debts. The Colorado experiments prepared Tesla for his next project, the establishment of a wireless power transmission facility that would be known as Wardenclyffe. Tesla was granted for the means of increasing the intensity of electrical oscillations. The United States Patent Office classification system currently assigns this patent to the primary Class 178/43 ("telegraphy/space induction"), although the other applicable classes include 505/825 ("low temperature superconductivity-related apparatus"). Later years In 1900, with US$150,000 (51 % from J. Pierpont Morgan), Tesla began planning the Wardenclyffe Tower facility. In June 1902, Tesla's lab operations were moved to Wardenclyffe from Houston Street. The tower was finally dismantled for scrap during World War I. Newspapers of the time labeled Wardenclyffe "Tesla's million-dollar folly". In 1904, the US Patent Office reversed its decision and awarded Guglielmo Marconi the patent for radio, and Tesla began his fight to re-acquire the radio patent. On his 50th birthday in 1906, Tesla demonstrated his 200 hp (150 kW) 16,000 rpm bladeless turbine. During 1910–1911 at the Waterside Power Station in New York, several of his bladeless turbine engines were tested at 100–5000 hp. Since the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Marconi for radio in 1909, Thomas Edison and Tesla were mentioned as potential laureates to share the Nobel Prize of 1915 in a press dispatch, leading to one of several Nobel Prize controversies. Some sources have claimed that due to their animosity toward each other neither was given the award, despite their enormous scientific contributions, and that each sought to minimize the other one's achievements and right to win the award, that both refused to ever accept the award if the other received it first, and that both rejected any possibility of sharing it. O'Neill, "Prodigal Genius" pp 228-229 [[Image:BrochureWardenclyffe .PNG|thumb|left|The Wardenclyffe Tower facility.]] In the following events after the rumors, neither Tesla nor Edison won the prize (although Edison did receive one of 38 possible bids in 1915, and Tesla did receive one bid out of 38 in 1937). Seifer, "Wizard" pp 378-380 Earlier, Tesla alone was rumored to have been nominated for the Nobel Prize of 1912. The rumored nomination was primarily for his experiments with tuned circuits using high-voltage high-frequency resonant transformers. In 1915, Tesla filed a lawsuit against Marconi attempting, unsuccessfully, to obtain a court injunction against Marconi's claims. After Wardenclyffe, Tesla built the Telefunken Wireless Station in Sayville, Long Island. Some of what he wanted to achieve at Wardenclyffe was accomplished with the Telefunken Wireless. In 1917, the facility was seized and torn down by the Marines, because it was suspected that it could be used by German spies. Before World War I, Tesla looked overseas for investors to fund his research. When the war started, Tesla lost the funding he was receiving from his patents in European countries. After the war ended, Tesla made predictions regarding the relevant issues of the post-World War I environment, in a printed article (20 December 1914). Tesla believed that the League of Nations was not a remedy for the times and issues. Tesla started to exhibit pronounced symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the years following. He became obsessed with the number three; he often felt compelled to walk around a block three times before entering a building, demanded a stack of three folded cloth napkins beside his plate at every meal, etc. The nature of OCD was little understood at the time and no treatments were available, so his symptoms were considered by some to be evidence of partial insanity, and this undoubtedly hurt what was left of his reputation. At this time, he was staying at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, renting in an arrangement for deferred payments. Eventually, the Wardenclyffe deed was turned over to George Boldt, proprietor of the Waldorf-Astoria, to pay a US$20,000 debt. In 1917, around the time that the Wardenclyffe Tower was demolished by Boldt to make the land a more viable real estate asset, Tesla received AIEE's highest honor, the Edison Medal. Tesla, in August 1917, first established principles regarding frequency and power level for the first primitive radar units. Page, R.M., "The Early History of RADAR", Proceedings of the IRE, Volume 50, Number 5, May, 1962, (special 50th Anniversary Issue). In 1934, Émile Girardeau, working with the first French radar systems, stated he was building said systems "conceived according to the principles stated by Tesla". By the 1920s, Tesla was reportedly negotiating with the United Kingdom government about a ray system. Tesla had also stated that efforts had been made to steal the so called "death ray". It is suggested that the removal of the Chamberlain government ended negotiations. On Tesla's seventy-fifth birthday in 1931, Time magazine put him on its cover. The cover caption noted his contribution to electrical power generation. Tesla received his last patent in 1928 for an apparatus for aerial transportation which was the first instance of VTOL aircraft. By the end of 1931, Tesla released "On Future Motive Power" which covered an ocean thermal energy conversion system. In 1934, Tesla wrote to consul Janković of his homeland. The letter contained a message of gratitude to Mihajlo Pupin who had initiated a donation scheme by which American companies could support Tesla. Tesla refused the assistance, choosing instead to live on a modest pension received from Yugoslavia, and to continue his research. In 1936, Tesla wrote in a telegram to Vladko Maček: "I'm equally proud of my Serbian origin and my Croatian homeland. Long live all Yugoslavs." http://www.teslasociety.com/teslavillage.htm Tesla telegram to Vladko Maček Field theories When he was eighty-one, Tesla stated he had completed a "dynamic theory of gravity". He stated that it was "worked out in all details" and that he hoped to soon give it to the world. Prepared Statement by Nikola Tesla downloadable from www.tesla.hu The theory was never published. The bulk of the theory was developed between 1892 and 1894, during the period that he was conducting experiments with high frequency and high potential electromagnetism and patenting devices for their use. Reminiscent of Mach's principle, Tesla stated in 1925 that: Nikola Tesla, with Ruđer Bošković's book Theoria Philosophiae Naturalis, sits in front of the spiral coil of his high-frequency transformer at East Houston Street, New York. Tesla was critical of Einstein's relativity work, calling it: Tesla also argued: Tesla also believed that much of Albert Einstein's relativity theory had already been proposed by Ruđer Bošković, stating in an unpublished interview: Directed-energy weapon Later in life, Tesla made remarkable claims concerning a "teleforce" weapon. "Tesla's Ray". Time, 23 July 1934. The press called it a "peace ray" or death ray. "Tesla, at 78, Bares New 'Death-Beam"', New York Times, 11 July 1934. "Tesla Invents Peace Ray". New York Sun, 10 July 1934. In total, the components and methods included: "Death-Ray Machine Described", New York Sun, 11 July 1934. "A Machine to End War". Feb. 1935. An apparatus for producing manifestations of energy in free air instead of in a high vacuum as in the past. This, according to Tesla in 1934, was accomplished. A mechanism for generating tremendous electrical force. This, according to Tesla, was also accomplished. A means of intensifying and amplifying the force developed by the second mechanism. A new method for producing a tremendous electrical repelling force. This would be the projector, or gun, of the invention. Tesla worked on plans for a directed-energy weapon from the early 1900s until his death. In 1937, Tesla composed a treatise entitled "The Art of Projecting Concentrated Non-dispersive Energy through the Natural Media" concerning charged particle beams. Seifer, Marc J., "Wizard, the Life and Times of Nikola Tesla". ISBN (HC) p. 454 Tesla published the document in an attempt to expound on the technical description of a "superweapon that would put an end to all war". This treatise of the particle beam is currently in the Nikola Tesla Museum archive in Belgrade. It described an open ended vacuum tube with a gas jet seal that allowed particles to exit, a method of charging particles to millions of volts, and a method of creating and directing nondispersive particle streams (through electrostatic repulsion). Seifer, "Wizard" p. 454 His records indicate that it was based on a narrow stream of atomic clusters of liquid mercury or tungsten accelerated via high voltage (by means akin to his magnifying transformer). Tesla gave the following description concerning the particle guns operation: The weapon could be used against ground based infantry or for antiaircraft purposes. "'Death Ray' for Planes". New York Times, 22 September 1940. Tesla tried to interest the US War Department in the device. "Aerial Defense 'Death-Beam' Offered to U. S. By Tesla" 12 July 1940 He also offered this invention to European countries. O'Neill, John J., "Tesla Tries To Prevent World War II". (unpublished Chapter 34 of Prodigal Genius) (PBS) None of the governments purchased a contract to build the device. He was unable to act on his plans. Velox, Particle beam weapon. everything2.com Theoretical inventions Another of Tesla's theorized inventions is commonly referred to as Tesla's Flying Machine, which appears to resemble an ion-propelled aircraft. The Fantastic Inventions of Nikola Tesla By Nikola Tesla, David Hatcher Childress. p. 256. Google Books Tesla claimed that one of his life goals was to create a flying machine that would run without the use of an airplane engine, wings, ailerons, propellers, or an onboard fuel source. Initially, Tesla pondered about the idea of a flying craft that would fly using an electric motor powered by grounded base stations. As time progressed, Tesla suggested that perhaps such an aircraft could be run entirely electro-mechanically. The theorized appearance would typically take the form of a cigar or saucer. The Lost Journals of NiKola Tesla. by Tim Swartz. Inner Light - Global Communications (October 15, 2000). Also see bibliotecapleyades.net Personal life Tesla was fluent in many languages. Along with Serbo-Croatian, he spoke seven other languages: Czech, English, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, and Latin. Tesla may have suffered from obsessive-compulsive disorder, Kerryr.net and had many unusual quirks and phobias. He did things in threes, and was adamant about staying in a hotel room with a number divisible by three. Tesla was also noted to be physically revolted by jewelry, notably pearl earrings. He was fastidious about cleanliness and hygiene, and was by all accounts mysophobic. He greatly disliked touching human hair other than his own as well as round objects. Tesla was obsessed with pigeons, ordering special seeds for the pigeons he fed in Central Park and even bringing some into his hotel room with him. Tesla was an animal-lover, often reflecting contentedly about a childhood cat, "The Magnificent Macak." Tesla never married. He was celibate and claimed that his chastity was very helpful to his scientific abilities. Nonetheless there have been numerous accounts of women vying for Tesla's affection, even some madly in love with him. Tesla, though polite, behaved rather ambivalently to these women in the romantic sense. Tesla was prone to alienating himself and was generally soft-spoken. However, when he did engage in a social life, many people spoke very positively and admiringly of him. Robert Underwood Johnson described him as attaining a "distinguished sweetness, sincerity, modesty, refinement, generosity, and force." His loyal secretary, Dorothy Skerrit, wrote: "his genial smile and nobility of bearing always denoted the gentlemanly characteristics that were so ingrained in his soul." Tesla's friend Hawthorne wrote that "seldom did one meet a scientist or engineer who was also a poet, a philosopher, an appreciator of fine music, a linguist, and a connoisseur of food and drink." Nevertheless, Tesla displayed the occasional cruel streak; he openly expressed his disgust for overweight people, once firing a secretary because of her weight. He was quick to criticize others' clothing as well, demanding a subordinate to go home and change her dress on several occasions. Tesla was widely known for his great showmanship, presenting his innovations and demonstrations to the public as an artform, almost like a magician. This seems to conflict with his observed reclusiveness; Tesla was a complicated figure. He refused to hold conventions without his Tesla coil blasting electricity throughout the room, despite the audience often being terrified, though he assured them everything was perfectly safe. Mark Twain in Tesla's lab, spring 1894 In middle age, Tesla became very close friends with Mark Twain. They spent a lot of time together in his lab and elsewhere. Tesla remained bitter in the aftermath of his incident with Edison. The day after Edison died the New York Times contained extensive coverage of Edison's life, with the only negative opinion coming from Tesla, who was quoted as saying: Shortly before he died, Edison said that his biggest mistake had been in trying to develop direct current, rather than the vastly superior alternating current system that Tesla had put within his grasp. Tesla was good friends with Robert Underwood Johnson. He had amicable relations with Francis Marion Crawford, Stanford White, Fritz Lowenstein, George Scherff, and Kenneth Swezey. He ripped up a Westinghouse contract that would have made him the world's first billionaire, in part because of the implications it would have on his future vision of free power, and in part because it would run Westinghouse out of business, and Tesla had no desire to deal with the creditors. Tesla lived the last ten years of his life in a two-room suite on the 33rd floor of the Hotel New Yorker, room 3327. There, near the end of his life, Tesla showed signs of encroaching mental illness, claiming to be visited by a specific white pigeon daily. Several biographers note that Tesla viewed the death of the pigeon as a "final blow" to himself and his work. Tesla believed that could not be avoided until the cause for its recurrence was removed, but was opposed to wars in general. Secor, H. Winfield, "Tesla's views on Electricity and the War", Electrical Experimenter, Volume 5, Number 4, August, 1917. He sought to reduce distance, such as in communication for better understanding, transportation, and transmission of energy, as a means to ensure friendly international relations. "Giant Eye to See Round the World" Albany Telegram, 25 February 1923 (doc). Like many of his era, Tesla, a life-long bachelor, became a proponent of a self-imposed selective breeding version of eugenics. In a 1937 interview, he stated: In 1926, Tesla commented on the ills of the social subservience of women and the struggle of women toward gender equality, indicated that humanity's future would be run by "Queen Bees". He believed that women would become the dominant sex in the future. Kennedy, John B., "When woman is boss, An interview with Nikola Tesla". Colliers, 30 January 1926. In his later years Tesla became a vegetarian. In an article for Century Illustrated Magazine he wrote: "It is certainly preferable to raise vegetables, and I think, therefore, that vegetarianism is a commendable departure from the established barbarous habit." Tesla argued that it is wrong to eat uneconomic meat when large numbers of people are starving; he also believed that plant food was "superior to it [meat] in regard to both mechanical and mental performance". He also argued that animal slaughter was "wanton and cruel". Nikola Tesla, "The Problem of Increasing Human Energy". Century Illustrated Magazine, June 1900. In his final years he suffered from extreme sensitivity to light, sound and other influences. O'Neill, "Prodigal Genius" (extract at Electrosensitivity.org - Q&A) Death Bust of Tesla by Ivan Meštrović, 1952, in Zagreb, Croatia Tesla died of heart failure alone in room 3327 of the New Yorker Hotel, some time between the evening of 5 January and the morning of 8 January 1943, at the age of 86. Despite having sold his AC electricity patents, Tesla was destitute and died with significant debts. Later that year the US Supreme Court upheld Tesla's patent number, in effect recognizing him as the inventor of radio. Immediately after Tesla's death became known, the government's Alien Property Custodian office took possession of his papers and property, despite his US citizenship. His safe at the hotel was also opened. At the time of his death, Tesla had been continuing his work on the teleforce weapon, or death ray, that he had unsuccessfully marketed to the US War Department. It appears that his proposed death ray was related to his research into ball lightning and plasma, and was imagined as a particle beam weapon. The US government did not find a prototype of the device in the safe. After the FBI was contacted by the War Department, his papers were declared to be top secret. The so-called "peace ray" constitutes a part of some conspiracy theories as a means of destruction. The personal effects were seized on the advice of presidential advisers; J. Edgar Hoover declared the case most secret, because of the nature of Tesla's inventions and patents. Hoover, John Edgar, et al. One document states that "[he] is reported to have some 80 trunks in different places containing transcripts and plans having to do with his experiments [...]". Charlotte Muzar reported that there were several "missing" papers and property. Tesla's family and the Yugoslav embassy struggled with the American authorities to gain these items after his death due to the potential significance of some of his research. Eventually, his nephew, Sava Kosanoviċ, won possession of some of his personal effects, which are now housed in the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade, Serbia. Nikola Tesla Museum Tesla's funeral took place on 12 January 1943, at the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine in Manhattan, New York City. His body was cremated and his ashes taken to Belgrade, Yugoslavia in 1957. The urn was placed in the Nikola Tesla Museum, where it resides to this day. Tesla's pigeon According to John J. O'Neill, author of Prodigal Genius, the Life of Nikola Tesla, Tesla told him this story in the presence of William L. Laurence, the New York Times science writer. Tesla had been feeding pigeons for years. Among them, there was a very beautiful female white pigeon with light gray tips on its wings that seemed to follow him everywhere. A great deal of rapport developed between them. As Tesla confessed, he loved that pigeon: "Yes, I loved that pigeon, I loved her as a man loves a woman, and she loved me." If the pigeon became ill, he would nurse her back to health and as long as she needed him and he could have her, nothing else mattered and there was purpose in his life. One night as he was lying in bed, she flew in through the window and he knew right away that she had something important to tell him: she was dying. "And then, as I got her message, there came a light from her eyes - powerful beams of light". "...Yes," "...it was a real light, a powerful, dazzling, blinding light, a light more intense than I had ever produced by the most powerful lamps in my laboratory." Tesla admitted to O'Neill that when that particular pigeon died, something went out of his life. Before that time, he could complete the most ambitious programs he could ever dream of but after the pigeon flew into the beyond, he knew his life's work was done for good. John J. O'Neill Prodigal Genius - the Life of Nikola Tesla, pp. 316-7, Ives Washburn Inc., 1964 ASIN: B000KIDNP6; 1st ed. 1944 Legacy and honors Statue of Nikola Tesla in Niagara Falls State Park on Goat Island, New York. He did not like posing for portraits, doing so only once for princess Vilma Lwoff-Parlaghy. The portrait survived in the collection of Ludwig Nissen, Brooklyn, see: Klaus Lengsfeld: Sammlung Ludwig Nissen : Husum 1855 - 1924 New York; Dokumentation d. Kunstsammlung Ludwig Nissens anlässl. d. Ausstellung zu seinem 125. Geburtstag im Nissenhaus zu Husum, 1980, 169 Pages. (= Schriften des Nordfriesischen Museums Ludwig-Nissen-Haus, Nr. 16) His wish was to have a sculpture made by his close friend, Croatian sculptor Ivan Meštrović, who was at that time in United States, but he died before getting a chance to see it. Meštrović made a bronze bust (1952) that is held in the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade and a statue (1955/56) placed at the Ruđer Bošković Institute in Zagreb. This statue was moved to Nikola Tesla Street in Zagreb's city centre on the 150th anniversary of Tesla's birth, with the Ruđer Bošković Institute to receive a duplicate. In 1976, a bronze statue of Tesla was placed at Niagara Falls, New York. A similar statue was also erected in his hometown of Gospić in 1986. The unit tesla (T) for measuring magnetic flux density or magnetic induction (commonly known as the magnetic field B') was named in Tesla’s honor at the Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures, Paris in 1960. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) of which Tesla had been vice president also created an award in recognition of Tesla. Called the IEEE Nikola Tesla Award, it is given to individuals or a team that has made outstanding contributions to the generation or utilization of electric power, and is considered the most prestigious award in the area of electric power. IEEE, "IEEE Nikola Tesla Award. 1 April 2005. The crater Tesla on the far side of the Moon and the minor planet 2244 Tesla are also named after him. 20 Serbian dinar coin minted in 2006 Tesla was featured on several Yugoslav- and Serbian dinar notes and coinage. The largest power plant complex in Serbia, the TPP Nikola Tesla is named in his honor. On 10 July 2006 the biggest airport in Serbia (Belgrade) was renamed Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport in honor of Tesla’s 150th birthday. The company, Tesla was a large, state-owned electrotechnical conglomerate in the former Czechoslovakia. It was renamed in Tesla's honor from the previous Electra on 7 March 1946. Some of its subsidiaries still trade in the Czech Republic. An electric car company, Tesla Motors, named their company in tribute to Tesla. Their website states: The namesake of our Tesla Roadster is the genius Nikola Tesla [...] We‘re confident that if he were alive today, Nikola Tesla would look over our car and nod his head with both understanding and approval. Why the Name "Tesla"?, Tesla Motors, Inc., 2006 The Croatian subsidiary of Ericsson is also named 'Ericsson Nikola Tesla d.d'. ('Nikola Tesla' was a phone hardware company in Zagreb before Ericsson bought it in the 1990s) in honor of Tesla's pioneering work in wireless communication. The year 2006 was celebrated by UNESCO as the 150th anniversary of the birth of Nikola Tesla, scientist , as well as being proclaimed by the governments of Croatia and Serbia to be the Year of Tesla. On this anniversary, 10 July 2006, the renovated village of Smiljan (which had been demolished during the wars of the 1990s) was opened to the public along with Tesla's house (as a memorial museum) and a new multimedia center dedicated to the life and work of Tesla. The parochial church of St. Peter and Paul, where Tesla's father had held services, was renovated as well. The museum and multimedia center are filled with replicas of Tesla's work. The museum has collected almost all of the papers ever published by, and about, Tesla; most of these provided by Ljubo Vujovic from the Tesla Memorial Society. in New York. Alongside Tesla's house, a monument created by sculptor Mile Blazevic has been erected. In the nearby city of Gospić, on the same date as the reopening of the renovated village and museums, a higher education school named Nikola Tesla was opened, and a replica of the statue of Tesla made by Frano Krsinic (the original is in Belgrade) was presented. The song "Tesla's Hotel Room" by the Handsome Family, on their 2006 album Last Days of Wonder, is a fictionalized account of Tesla's later years at the New Yorker hotel. The heavy metal group Tesla, which made famous the rock-ballad "Love Song", was named after Nikola Tesla, and their website provides a link to Nikola Tesla's webpage. In the years since his death, many of his innovations, theories and claims have been used, at times unsuitably and controversially, to support various fringe theories that are regarded as unscientific. Most of Tesla's own work conformed with the principles and methods accepted by science, but his extravagant personality and sometimes unrealistic claims, combined with his unquestionable genius, have made him a popular figure among fringe theorists and believers in conspiracies about "hidden knowledge". Some conspiracy theorists even in his time believed that he was actually an angelic being from Venus sent to Earth to reveal scientific knowledge to humanity. This belief is maintained in present times by followers of Nuwaubianism. Monuments A monument to Tesla was established at Niagara Falls, New York, USA. This monument is a copy of a monument standing in front of the Belgrade University Faculty of Electrical Engineering. Another monument to Tesla, featuring him standing on a portion of an alternator, was established at Queen Victoria Park in Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. Tesla Memorial Society of New York | Tesla Monument in Canada The monument was officially unveiled on Sunday, 9 July 2006 on the 150th anniversary of Tesla's birth. The monument was sponsored by St. George Serbian Church, Niagara Falls, and designed by Les Drysdale of Hamilton, Ontario. Mr. Drysdale's design was the winning design from an international competition. Tesla's most famous statue is the one erected on 23 May 1879 at Sycamore Peak showing him and Dr. Brian S. Whitecross. Belgrade International Airport is called "Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport". Official website, Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport Portrayals in popular culture Nikola Tesla has appeared in popular culture as a character in books, films, radio, TV, live theatre, comics and video games. The lack of recognition received by Tesla during his own lifetime has made him a tragic and inspirational character well suited to dramatic fiction. Tesla has particularly been seen in science fiction where his inventions are well suited. The impact of the technologies invented by Nikola Tesla is a recurring theme in several types of science-fiction. Honorific portrayals on banknotes See also List of Tesla patents Electrical Experimenter Timeline of low-temperature technology Further reading Publications A New System of Alternating Current Motors and Transformers, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, May 1888. Selected Tesla Writings, Written by Tesla and others,. Light Without Heat, The Manufacturer and Builder, January 1892, Vol. 24 Biography - Nikola Tesla, The Century Magazine, November 1893, Vol. 47 Tesla's Oscillator and Other Inventions, The Century Magazine, November 1894, Vol. 49 The New Telegraphy. Recent Experiments in Telegraphy wih Sparks, The Century Magazine, November 1897, Vol. 55 Books Anderson, Leland I., "Dr. Nikola Tesla (1856–1943)", 2d enl. ed., Minneapolis, Tesla Society. 1956. Dr. Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) (OCLC 1284808 : LCCN 56047430 /L), by Leland I. Anderson Auster, Paul, "Moon Palace", 1989. Tells Tesla's story - among other's - within the history of the United States. Cheney, Margaret, "Tesla: Man Out of Time", 1981. ISBN 0139068597. Childress, David H., "The Fantastic Inventions of Nikola Tesla," 1993. ISBN Glenn, Jim, "The Complete Patents of Nikola Tesla," 1994. ISBN Jonnes, Jill "Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World". New York: Random House, 2003. ISBN Martin, Thomas C., "The Inventions, Researches, and Writings of Nikola Tesla," 1894 . ISBN-X O'Neill, John Jacob,"Prodigal Genius," 1944. Paperback reprint 1994, ISBN 978-0914732334. (ed. Prodigal Genius is available online) Lomas, Robert,"The man who invented the twentieth century : Nikola Tesla, forgotten genius of electricity," 1999. ISBN Ratzlaff, John and Leland Anderson, "Dr. Nikola Tesla Bibliography", Ragusan Press, Palo Alto, California, 1979, 237 pages. Extensive listing of articles about and by Nikola Tesla. Seifer, Marc J., "Wizard, the Life and Times of Nikola Tesla," 1998. ISBN (HC), ISBN (SC) Tesla, Nikola, "Colorado Springs Notes, 1899–1900", ISBN-X Tesla, Nikola, "My Inventions" Parts I through V published in the Electrical Experimenter monthly magazine from February through June, 1919. Part VI published October, 1919. Reprint edition with introductory notes by Ben Johnson, New York: Barnes and Noble,1982, ISBN; also online at "Lucid Cafe, et cetera as "The Strange Life of Nikola Tesla", 1919. ISBN Trinkaus, George "TESLA: The Lost Inventions", High Voltage Press, 2002. ISBN 09-7096-182-0 Valone, Thomas, "Harnessing the Wheelwork of Nature: Tesla's Science of Energy," 2002. ISBN Journals Carlson, W. Bernard, "Inventor of dreams". Scientific American, March 2005 Vol. 292 Issue 3 p. 78(7). Jatras, Stella L., "The genius of Nikola Tesla". The New American, 28 July 2003 Vol. 19 Issue 15 p. 9(1) Rybak, James P., "Nikola Tesla: Scientific Savant". Popular Electronics, 1042170X, November 1999, Vol. 16, Issue 11. Lawren, B., "Rediscovering Tesla". Omni, March 1988, Vol. 10 Issue 6. Filmography There are at least two films describing Tesla's life. In the first, filmed in 1977, arranged for TV, Tesla was portrayed by Rade Šerbedžija. In 1980, Orson Welles produced a Yugoslav film named Tajna Nikole Tesle (The Secret of Nikola Tesla), in which Welles himself played the part of Tesla's patron, J.P. Morgan. Film was directed by Krsto Papić, and Nikola Tesla was portrayed by Petar Božović. "Tesla: Master of Lightning". 1999. ISBN (Book) ISBN (PBS Video) Lost Lightning: The Missing Secrets of Nikola Tesla (at Google Video) - Phenomenon: the Lost Archives documentary about Tesla's designs for free energy and defensive weapons systems. David Bowie portrayed Tesla in the 2006 film "The Prestige". Tesla's time in Colorado Springs was the focus of several scenes in the film, which featured speculations on the explosive power of Tesla's electrical experiments. In The Bucket List, the character Carter Chambers, played by Morgan Freeman, tells his co-worker about how Tesla invented radio years before Guglielmo Marconi. Tesla: Master of Lightning, produced by Robert Uth for New Voyage Communications in 2003, tapped Stacy Keach to supply the voice of Tesla. Notes References Margaret Cheney, Robert Uth, and Jim Glenn, "Tesla, Master of Lightning", published by Barnes & Noble, 1999. ISBN 0760710058. Germano, Frank, "Dr. Nikola Tesla". Frank. Germano.com. Lomas, Robert, "The Man who Invented the Twentieth Century". Lecture to South Western Branch of Instititute of Physics. Martin, Thomas Commerford, "The Inventions, Researches, and Writings of Nikola Tesla", New York: The Electrical Engineer, 1894 (3rd Ed.); reprinted by Barnes & Noble, 1995 ISBN-X O'Neill, John J., "Prodigal Genius: The Life of Nikola", 1944. ISBN (Tesla reportedly said of this biographer "You understand me better than any man alive"; also the version at uncletaz.com with other items at uncletaz's site) Penner, John R.H. The Strange Life of Nikola Tesla, corrupted version of My Inventions. Pratt, H., "Nikola Tesla 1856–1943", Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. 44, September, 1956. "Nikola Tesla". IEEE History Center, 2005. Seifer, Marc J. "Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla; Biography of a Genius", Secaucus, NJ: Carol Publishing Group, 1996. ISBN Weisstein, Eric W., "Tesla, Nikola (1856–1943)". Eric Weisstein's World of Science. "Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature", Moon Nomenclature: Crater. USGS, Astrogeology Research Program. Dimitrijevic, Milan S., "Belgrade Astronomical Observatory Historical Review". Publ. Astron. Obs. Belgrade,), 162–170. Also, "Srpski asteroidi, Tesla". Astronomski magazine. Hoover, John Edgar, et al., FOIA FBI files, 1943. Pratt, H., "Nikola Tesla 1856–1943", Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. 44, September, 1956. W.C. Wysock, J.F. Corum, J.M. Hardesty and K.L. Corum, "Who Was The Real Dr. Nikola Tesla? (A Look At His Professional Credentials)". Antenna Measurement Techniques Association, posterpaper, 22 October–25, 2001 (PDF) Roguin, Ariel, "Historical Note: Nikola Tesla: The man behind the magnetic field unit". J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2004;19:369–374. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc. Sellon, J. L., "The impact of Nikola Tesla on the cement industry". Behrent Eng. Co., Wheat Ridge, CO. Cement Industry Technical Conference. 1997. XXXIX Conference Record., 1997 IEEE/PC. Page(s) 125–133. ISBN Valentinuzzi, M.E., "Nikola Tesla: why was he so much resisted and forgotten?" Inst. de Bioingenieria, Univ. Nacional de Tucuman; Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine, IEEE. July/August 1998, 17:4, pp. 74–75. ISSN Waser, André, "Nikola Tesla’s Radiations and the Cosmic Rays". (PDF) Secor, H. Winfield, "Tesla's views on Electricity and the War", Electrical Experimenter, Volume 5, Number 4, August, 1917. Florey, Glen, "Tesla and the Military". Engineering 24, 5 December 2000. Corum, K. L., J. F. Corum, "Nikola Tesla, Lightning Observations, and Stationary Waves". 1994. Corum, K. L., J. F. Corum, and A. H. Aidinejad, "Atmospheric Fields, Tesla's Receivers and Regenerative Detectors". 1994. Meyl, Konstantin, H. Weidner, E. Zentgraf, T. Senkel, T. Junker, and P. Winkels, "Experiments to proof the evidence of scalar waves Tests with a Tesla reproduction". Institut für Gravitationsforschung (IGF), Am Heerbach 5, D-63857 Waldaschaff. Anderson, L. I., "John Stone Stone on Nikola Tesla’s Priority in Radio and Continuous Wave Radiofrequency Apparatus". The Antique Wireless Association Review, Vol. 1, 1986, pp. 18–41. Anderson, L. I., "Priority in Invention of Radio, Tesla v. Marconi". Antique Wireless Association monograph, March 1980. Marincic, A., and D. Budimir, "Tesla's contribution to radiowave propagation". Dept. of Electron. Eng., Belgrade Univ. (5th International Conference on Telecommunications in Modern Satellite, Cable and Broadcasting Service, 2001. TELSIKS 2001. pp. 327–331 vol.1) ISBN-X Page, R.M., "The Early History of Radar", Proceedings of the IRE, Volume 50, Number 5, May, 1962, (special 50th Anniversary Issue). C Mackechnie Jarvis "Nikola Tesla and the induction motor". 1970 Phys. Educ. 5 280–287. "Giant Eye to See Round the World" (DOC) Nichelson, Oliver, "Nikola Tesla's Latter Energy Generation Designs", A description of Tesla's energy generator that "would not consume fuel." 26th IECEC Proceedings, 1991, Boston, MA (American Nuclear Society) Vol. 4, pp. 433-438. Nichelson, Oliver, "The Thermodynamics of Tesla's Fuelless Electrical generator". A theory of the physics of Tesla's new energy generator. (American Chemical Society, 1993. 2722-5/93/0028-63) Toby Grotz, "The Influence of Vedic Philosophy on Nikola Tesla's Understanding of Free Energy''". External links The Nikola Tesla museum Nikola Tesla Niagara Falls Power Tesla Resource Surrounding the PBS "Master of Lightning" documentary Nikola Tesla 150 World of Scientific Biography: Nikola Tesla, by Wolfram Research Nikola Tesla Page Tesla's grand-nephew William H. Terbo's site Nikola Tesla, Forgotten American Scientist The Tesla Wardenclyffe Project. Shoreham, New York. Aims to reuse Wardenclyffe Tower Nikola Tesla's Father - Milutin Tesla Tesla - The European Years Tesla's Case File at The Franklin Institute containing information about his 1894 Franklin Award for research in high-frequency phenomena Dr. James Corum's Tesla Engineering Papers, from Arcs 'N Sparks. Fred Walters' hand-scanned Tesla patents (PDFs) Jim Bieberich's The Complete Nikola Tesla U.S. Patent Collection Online archive of many of Tesla's writings, articles and published papers Seifer, Marc J., and Michael Behar, Electric Mind, Wired Magazine, October 1998. Nikola Tesla on various Yugoslavian and Serbian banknotes. Nikola Tesla's FBI file in pdf Nikola Tesla Complete Patents in pdf Kenneth M. Swezey Papers, 1891–1982, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, archival resources. The Case Files of Nikola Tesla - Franklin Institute
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4,758
Ibn_Battuta
Ibn Battuta (1304–1368 or 1369) Full name: Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Al Lawati Al Tanji Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan scholar and traveller who is known for the account of his travels and excursions called the Rihla (Voyage). His journeys lasted for a period of nearly thirty years and covered almost the entirety of the known Islamic world and beyond, extending from North Africa, West Africa, Southern Europe and Eastern Europe in the West, to the Middle East, Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, Southeast Asia and China in the East, a distance readily surpassing that of his predecessors and his near-contemporary Marco Polo. Early life and his first Hajj An interactive display about Ibn Battuta in Ibn Battuta Mall in Dubai, United Arab Emirates All that is known about Ibn Battuta's life comes from the autobiographical information included in the account of his travels. Ibn Battuta was born into a family of Islamic legal scholars in Tangier, Morocco, on February 25, 1304 during the time of the Marinid dynasty. As a young man he would have studied the Sunni Maliki "school" of Muslim law which was dominant in North Africa at the time. In June 1325, when he was twenty one years old, Ibn Battuta set off from his hometown on a hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca, a journey that would take 16 months, but he would not see Morocco again for 24 years. His journey to Mecca was by land, and followed the North African coast crossing the sultanates of Abd al-Wadid and Hafsid. His route passed through Tlemcen, Béjaïa and then to Tunis where he stayed for two months. As there was always a risk of being attacked, he usually chose to travel as part of a caravan. In Sfax, Ibn Battuta got married for the first of several occasions on his journeys. In the early spring of 1326, after a journey of over , he arrived to the port of Alexandria, then part of the Bahri Mamluk empire. He spent several weeks visiting the sites and then headed inland to Cairo, a large important city and capital of the Mamluk kingdom, where he stayed for about a month. Within Mamluk territory, travelling was relatively safe and he embarked on the first of his many detours. Three commonly used routes existed to Mecca, and Ibn Battuta chose the least-travelled: a journey up the Nile, then east by land to the Red Sea port of Aydhab. Aydhad was a port situated on the west coast of the Red Sea at . See However, upon approaching the town he was forced to turn back due to a local rebellion. Returning to Cairo, he took a second side trip, to Damascus (then controlled by the Mamluks), having encountered a holy man during his first trip who prophesied that Ibn Battuta would only reach Mecca after a journey through Syria. An additional advantage to the side journey was that other holy places were along the route—Hebron, Jerusalem, and Bethlehem, for example—and the Mamluk authorities put special effort into keeping the journey safe for pilgrims. After spending the Muslim month of Ramadan in Damascus, Ibn Battuta joined up with a caravan traveling the from Damascus to Medina, burial place of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. After four days, he journeyed on to Mecca. There he completed the usual rituals of a Muslim pilgrim, and having graduated to the status of al-Hajji as a result, now faced his return home. Upon reflection, he decided to continue journeying instead. His next destination was the Ilkhanate in modern-day Iraq and Iran. Iraq and Persia On 17 November 1326, after a month in Mecca, Ibn Battuta joined a large caravan of pilgrims returning across the Arabian Peninsula to Mesopotamia. The caravan first went north to Medina and then, travelling at night, headed northeastwards across the Nejd plateau to Najaf, a journey lasting approximately 44 days. In Najaf he visited the mausoleum of Ali (Ali ibn Abi Talib), the fourth Rashidun (rightly guided Caliph), and son-in-law of Muhammad, a site venerated by all Muslims but particularly the Shi’a community. At this point, instead of continuing on to Baghdad with the caravan, Ibn Battuta started a 6 month detour that took him into Persia. From Najaf he journeyed to Wasit and then south following the Tigris to Basra. His next destination was the town of Esfahān across the Zagros Mountains in Persia. From there he headed south to Shiraz, a large flourishing city which had been spared the destruction wrought by the Mongol invasion on many more northerly towns. Finally, he headed back across the mountains to Baghdad arriving there in June 1327. Parts of the city were in ruins as it had been heavily damaged by the army of Hulagu Khan. In Baghdad he found that Abu Sa'id, the last Mongol ruler of the unified Ilkhanid state was leaving the city and heading north with a large retinue. Ibn Battuta travelled with the royal caravan for a while, then turned north to Tabriz on the Silk Road. It had been the first major city in the region to open its gates to the Mongols and had become an important trading centre after most of its nearby rivals were razed. On returning again to Baghdad, probably in July, he took an excursion northwards following the Tigris, visiting Mosul, then Cizre and Mardin, both in modern Turkey. On returning to Mosul he joined a "feeder" caravan of pilgrims heading south for Baghdad where they met up with the main caravan that crossed the Arabian Desert to Mecca. Ibn Battuta was ill with diarrhea on this crossing and arrived back in Mecca weak and exhausted for his second hajj. East Africa Ibn Battuta then stayed for some time in Mecca. He suggests in the Rihla that he remained in the town for three years: from September 1327 until autumn 1330. However, because of problems with the chronology, commentators have suggested that he may have spent only one year and left after the hajj of 1328. Ibn Battuta states that he stayed in Mecca for the hajj of 1327, 1328, 1329 and 1330 but gives comparatively little information on his stay. After the hajj of 1330 he left for East Africa, arriving back again in Mecca before the 1332 hajj. He states that he then left for India and arrived at the Indus river on 12 September 1333; however, although he does not specify exact dates, the description of his complex itinerary and the clues in the text to the chronology suggest that this journey to India lasted around three years. He must have therefore either left Mecca two years earlier than stated or arrived in India two years later. The problems with the chronology are discussed by , and . Leaving Mecca after the hajj in 1328 (or 1330) he made his way to the port of Jeddah on the coast of the Red Sea and from there caught a series of boats down the coast. His progress was slow as the vessels had to beat against the south easterly winds. Arriving in the Yemen he visited Zabīd, and then the highland town of Ta'izz where he met the Rasulid Malik (king) Mujahid Nur al-Din Ali. Ibn Battuta also mentions visiting Sana'a, but whether he actually did is doubtful. He likelier went directly from Ta'izz to the port of Aden, arriving at around the beginning of 1329 (or 1331). Aden was an important transit centre in the trade between India and Europe. In Aden, he embarked on a ship heading first to Zeila on the African shore of the Gulf of Aden and then on around Cape Guardafui and down the East African coast. Spending about a week in each of his destinations, he visited Mogadishu, Mombasa, Zanzibar, and Kilwa, among others. With the change of the monsoon, he returned by ship to Arabia and visited Oman and the Strait of Hormuz. He then returned to Mecca for the hajj of 1330 (or 1332). Byzantine Empire, Golden Horde, Anatolia, Central Asia and India Spending another year there, he then resolved to seek employment with the Muslim Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad bin Tughluq. Needing a guide and translator if he was to travel there, he went to Anatolia, then under the control of the Seljuqs, to join up with one of the caravans that went from there to India. A sea voyage from Damascus on a Genoese ship landed him in Alanya on the southern coast of modern-day Turkey. From there he traveled by land to Konya and then Sinope on the Black Sea coast. Crossing the Black Sea, Ibn Battuta landed in Caffa (now Feodosiya), in the Crimea, and entered the lands of the Golden Horde. There he bought a wagon and fortuitously joined the caravan of Ozbeg, the Golden Horde's Khan, on a journey as far as Astrakhan on the Volga River. Upon reaching Astrakhan, the Khan allowed one of his pregnant wives, Princess Bayalun, supposedly an illegitimate daughter of Byzantine Emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos, to go give birth back in her home city—Constantinople. Ibn Battuta talked his way into this expedition, his first beyond the boundaries of the Islamic world. Arriving there towards the end of 1332, he met the Byzantine emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos and saw the outside of Hagia Sophia. After a month in the city, he retraced his route to Astrakhan, then carried on past the Caspian and Aral Seas to Bukhara and Samarkand. From there, he journeyed south to Afghanistan, the mountain passes of which he used to cross into India. The Delhi Sultanate was a new addition to Dar al-Islam, and Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq had resolved to import as many Muslim scholars and other functionaries as possible to consolidate his rule. On the strength of his years of studies while in Mecca, Ibn Battuta was employed as a qadi ("judge") by the sultan. Tughlaq was erratic even by the standards of the time, and Ibn Battuta veered between living the high life of a trusted subordinate, and being under suspicion for a variety of treasons against the government. Eventually he resolved to leave on the pretext of taking another hajj, but the Sultan offered the alternative of being ambassador to China. Given the opportunity to both get away from the Sultan and visit new lands, Ibn Battuta took it. Southeast Asia and China En route to the coast, he and his party were attacked by Hindus, and, separated from the others, he was robbed and nearly lost his life. Nevertheless, he managed to catch up with his group within two days and continued the journey to Khambhat (Cambay). From there, they sailed to Kozhikode (Calicut) (two centuries later, Vasco da Gama also landed at the same place). While Ibn Battuta visited a mosque on shore, however, a storm blew up, and two of the ships of his expedition were sunk. The third then sailed away without him and ended up seized by a local king in Sumatra a few months later. Fearful of returning to Delhi as a failure, he stayed for a time in the south of India under the protection of Jamal-ud-Din. Jamal-ud-Din was ruler of a small but powerful Nawayath sultanate on the banks of the Sharavathi River on the Arabian Sea coast. This place is presently known as Hosapattana and is located in the Honavar tehsil of Uttara Kannada district. When the sultanate was overthrown, it became necessary for Ibn Battuta to leave India altogether. He resolved to carry on to China, with a detour near the beginning of the journey to the Maldives. He spent nine months in the Maldive Islands, much longer than he had intended. As a qadi, his skills were highly desirable in these formerly Buddhist islands that had been recently converted to Islam, and he was half-bribed, half-kidnapped into staying. Appointed chief judge and marrying into the royal family of Omar I, he became embroiled in local politics and ended up leaving after wearing out his welcome by imposing strict judgments in the laissez-faire island kingdom. In the Rihla he mentions his dismay at the local women going about with no clothing above the waist, and remarking his criticism of this practice, but being ignored by the locals. From there, he carried on to Sri Lanka for a visit to Adam's Peak (Sri Pada). Setting sail from Sri Lanka, his ship nearly sank in a storm, then the ship that rescued him was attacked by pirates. Stranded on shore, Ibn Battuta once again worked his way back to Kozhikode, from where he then sailed to the Maldives again before getting on board a Chinese junk and trying once again to get to Yuan Dynasty China. This time he succeeded, reaching in quick succession Chittagong, Sumatra, Vietnam, the Philippines and then finally Quanzhou in Fujian Province, China. From there, he went north to Hangzhou, not far from modern-day Shanghai. He also traveled even further north, through the Grand Canal to Beijing, although there has been some doubt about whether this actually occurred. Return home and the Black Death Returning to Quanzhou, Ibn Battuta decided to return home—though exactly where "home" was a bit of a problem. Returning to Kozhikode once again, he pondered throwing himself on the mercy of Muhammed Tughlaq but thought better of it and decided to carry on to Mecca once again. Returning via Hormuz and the Ilkhanate, he saw that state dissolved into civil war, Abu Sa'id having died since his previous trip there. Returning to Damascus with the intention of retracing the route of his first hajj, he learned that his father had died. Death was the theme of the next year or so, for the Black Death had begun, and Ibn Battuta was on hand as it spread through Syria, Palestine, and Arabia. After reaching Mecca, he decided to return to Morocco, nearly a quarter century after leaving it. During the trip he made one last detour to Sardinia, then returned to Tangier to discover that his mother had also died, a few months before. Andalus and North Africa Having settled in Tangier for all of a few days, Ibn Battuta then set out for a trip to al-Andalus—Muslim Iberia. Alfonso XI of Castile and León was threatening the conquest of Gibraltar, and Ibn Battuta joined up with a group of Muslims leaving Tangier with the intention of defending the port. By the time he arrived, the Black Death had killed Alfonso, and the threat had receded, so Ibn Battuta decided to visit for pleasure instead. He travelled through Valencia and ended up in Granada. Leaving al-Andalus, he decided to travel through one of the few parts of the Muslim world that he had never explored: Morocco. On his return home, he stopped for a while in Marrakech, which was nearly a ghost town after the recent plague and the transfer of the capital to Fes. Once more he returned to Tangier, and once more he moved on. Two years before his own first visit to Cairo, the Malian Mansa (king of kings) Musa had passed through the same city on his own hajj and had caused a sensation with his extravagant riches—West Africa contained vast quantities of gold, previously unknown to the rest of the world. While Ibn Battuta never mentions this specifically, hearing of this during his own trip must have planted a seed in his mind, for he decided to set out and visit the Muslim kingdom on the far side of the Sahara desert. The Sahara Desert to Mali and Timbuktu House in the Medina of Tangier perhaps lodging Ibn Battuta's grave In the autumn of 1351, Ibn Battuta set out from Fes, reaching the Moroccan town of Sijilmasa a bit more than a week later. There he bought some camels and stayed for four months. He set out again with a caravan in February 1352 and after 25 days, arrived at the settlement of Taghaza which was situated in a dry salt lake bed. The buildings were constructed from slabs of salt by slaves of the Massufa tribe, who cut the salt in thick slabs for transport by camel. Taghaza was a profitable commercial center and awash with Malian gold, though Ibn Battuta did not have a favorable impression of the place: the water was brackish and the place was plagued with flies. A long and difficult journey lay ahead, requiring special advance guides or takshif with local experience to arrange a passage. When the takshif became lost, the entire caravan could disappear without a trace. Traversing the open wastes of the Sahara was therefore terrifying to many travelers, and Ibn Battuta noted the difficulty of navigating without landmarks, writing that there was "no visible road or track in these parts, nothing but sand blown here and there by the wind." After another harrowing through the worst part of the desert, Ibn Battuta finally arrived at the oasis town of Iwalatan (Oualata), the southern terminus of the trans-Saharan trade route, which had recently become part of the Mali Empire. From there, he traveled southwest along a river he believed to be the Nile (it was actually the Niger River) until he reached the capital of the Mali Empire. Ibn Battuta's itinerary is uncertain as the location of the Malian capital is not known. There he met Mansa Suleyman, king since 1341. Dubious about the miserly hospitality of the king, he nevertheless stayed for eight months. Ibn Battuta disapproved that female slaves, servants and even the daughters of the sultan went about stark naked. He left the capital in February and journeyed overland by camel to Timbuktu. Though in the next two centuries it would become the most important city in the region, at the time it was small and unimpressive, and Ibn Battuta soon moved on by boat to Gao where he spent a month. While at the oasis of Takedda on his journey back across the desert, he received a message from the Sultan of Morocco commanding him to return home. He set off for Sijilmasa in September 1353 accompanying a large caravan transporting 600 black female slaves. He arrived back in Morocco early in 1354. The Rihla After returning from his travels in 1354 and at the instigation of the Sultan of Morocco, Abu Inan Faris, Ibn Battuta dictated an account of his journeys to a scholar named Ibn Juzayy, whom he had previously met while in Granada. This account, recorded by Ibn Juzayy and interspersed with the latter's own comments, is the only source of information on his adventures. The title of the manuscript تحفة النظار في غرائب الأمصار وعجائب الأسفار may be translated as A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling but is often simply referred to as the Rihla الرحلة, or "The Journey". There is no indication that Ibn Battuta made any notes during his approximate 29 years of traveling, so, when he came to dictate an account of his adventures, he had to rely on his memory and to make use of manuscripts produced by earlier travelers. When describing Damascus, Mecca, Medina and some other places in the Middle East, Ibn Juzayy clearly copied passages from the 12th century account by Ibn Jubayr. Similarly, most of Ibn Juzayy’s descriptions of places in Palestine were copied from an account by the 13th century traveler Muhammad al-Abdari. Western Orientalists do not believe that Ibn Battutta visited all the places that he described and argue that in order to provide a comprehensive description of places in the Moslem world Ibn Battutta relied on hearsay evidence while Ibn Juzayy made use of accounts by earlier travelers. For example, it is considered very unlikely that Ibn Battuta made a trip up the Volga River from New Sarai to visit Bolghar and there are serious doubts about a number of other journeys such as his trip to Sana'a in Yemen, his journey from Balkh to Bistam in Khorasan and his trip around Anatolia. Some orientalists have also questioned whether he really visited China. Nevertheless, whilst apparently fictional in places, the Rihla provides an important account of many areas of the world in the 14th century. Ibn Battuta often experienced culture shock in regions he visited where local customs did not fit his orthodox Muslim background. Among Turks and Mongols recently converted to Islam, he was astonished at the way women behaved, and he felt that dress customs in the Maldives, and some sub-Saharan regions in Africa, were too revealing. He was often given gifts that seemed applicable to his social status. After the completion of the Rihla in 1355, little is known about Ibn Battuta's life. He was appointed a judge in Morocco. Ibn Battuta died in Morocco in 1368 or 1369. For centuries his book was obscure, even within the Muslim world, but in the early 1800s extracts were published in German and English based on manuscripts discovered in the Middle East containing abridged versions of Ibn Juzayy’s Arabic text. When French forces occupied Algeria in the 1830’s they discovered five manuscripts in Constantine including two that contained more complete versions of the text. These manuscripts were brought back to the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris and studied by the French scholars, Charles Defrémery and Beniamino Sanguinetti. Beginning in 1853, they published a series of four volumes containing the Arabic text, extensive notes and a translation into French. Defrémery and Sanguinetti’s printed text has now been translated into many other languages. Ibn Battuta has grown in fame and is now a well-known figure. Places visited by Ibn Battuta Ibn Battuta travelled almost 75,000 miles in his lifetime. Here is a list of places he visited. Morocco Tangier Fes Marrakech Algeria Tlemcen (Tilimsan) Miliana Algiers Djurdjura Mountains Béjaïa Constantine - Named as Qusantînah. Annaba - Also called Bona. Tunisia Tunis - At that time, Abu Yahya (son of Abu Zajaria) was the sultan of Tunis. Sousse - Also called Susah. Sfax Gabès Egypt Cairo Syria Damascus Latakia Arabian Peninsula Jeddah - A major port for pilgrims to Mecca. Mecca - The original plan of his journey was to pilgrimage to Mecca. Rabigh - Small city north of Jeddah on the Red Sea. Medina - Where Ibn Battuta visited the tomb of Muhammad at the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi. Oman Dhofar Bahrain Al-Hasa Strait of Hormuz Yemen Turkey and Eastern Europe Konya Antalya Bulgaria - His intention, as he mentions in his book, is that he wanted to go the Land of Darkness. Azov Kazan Volga River Constantinople Libya Tripoli Central Asia Khwarezm Khorasan Province Afghanistan Pakistan Punjab region India Delhi Kozhikode Malabar Bangladesh Sonargaon Sylhet - Ibn Battuta met Muslim saint Hazrat Shah Jalal Yamani, commonly known as Shah Jalal here. Other places in Asia Burma (Myanmar) Maldives Sri Lanka - Known in his time as Serendip. Coromandel Coast- In India. Brahmaputra River - Ibn Battuta visited the area on his way to China. This place is in Bangladesh. Meghna River - Near Dhaka. Sumatra Malay Peninsula Philippines China Quanzhou - as he called in his book the city of donkeys Hangzhou — Ibn Battuta referred to this city in his book as "Madinat Alkhansa" مدينة الخنساء. He also mentioned that it was the largest city in the world at that time; it took him three days to walk across the city, which is huge even by today's standards. Ibn Battuta was the first Agorhosa in the Muslim world. Beijing - Ibn Battuta mentioned in his journey to Beijing how neat the city was. Somalia Mogadishu East Africa Kilwa Mombasa Mali Oualata (Walata) Timbuktu Gao Takedda During most of his journey in the Mali Empire, Ibn Battuta traveled with a retinue that included slaves, most of whom carried goods for trade but would also be traded as slaves. On the return from Takedda to Morocco, his caravan transported 600 female slaves, suggesting that slavery was a substantial part of the commercial activity of the empire. Candice Goucher, Charles LeGuin, and Linda Walton, Trade, Transport, Temples, and Tribute: The Economics of Power, in In the Balance: Themes in Global History (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1998) See also Geography in medieval Islam List of explorers Ibn Battuta Mall in Dubai Ibn Battuta (crater), the lunar landmark Xuanzang, Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator, who traveled around the same region of the Silk Road and India. Notes References Reissued and revised in 2005. ISBN 0-520-24385-4 Reissued several times. Further reading Gordon, Stewart. 2008. When Asia was the World: Traveling Merchants, Scholars, Warriors, and Monks who created the "Riches of the East." Da Capo Press, Perseus Books. ISBN 0-306-81556-7. External links A Tangerine in Delhi — Saudi Aramco World article by Tim Mackintosh-Smith (March/April 2006). The Longest Hajj: The Journeys of Ibn Battuta — Saudi Aramco World article by Douglas Bullis (July/August 2000). Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354 — excerpts from H.A.R. Gibb's 1929 translation. Google Books — link to a 2004 reissue of Gibb's 1929 translation. Ibn Battuta — educational site of Harcourt School Publishers. The Adventures of Ibn Battuta — excerpts from the book by Ross Dunn on the San Francisco Unified School District site. Journey to Mecca: In the footsteps of Ibn Battuta — A movie on Ibn Battuta. The Defrémery and Sanguinetti (1853-1858) French/Arabic edition is available from Google books. Volume 1, Volume 2, Volume 3, Volume 4. French text from Defrémery and Sanguinetti (1853-1858) with an introduction and footnotes by Stéphane Yérasimos published in 1982:Volume 1, Volume 2,Volume 3.
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4,759
Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is the primary unit in the United States Department of Justice, serving as both a federal criminal investigative body and an internal intelligence agency. The FBI has investigative jurisdiction over violations of more than 200 categories of federal crime. ref name="quickfacts"> Its motto is "Fidelity, Bravery, Integrity," corresponding to the "FBI" initials. The FBI's headquarters, the J. Edgar Hoover Building, are located in Washington, D.C.. Fifty-six field offices are located in major cities throughout the United States as well as over 400 resident agencies in smaller cities and towns across the country. More than 50 international offices called "legal attachés" are in U.S. embassies worldwide. Mission and priorities In the fiscal year 2002, the FBI's total budget was approximately $8.9 billion, including $455 million in program increases to counter-terrorism, counter-intelligence, cybercrime, information technology, security, forensics, training, and criminal programs. According to its congressional budget justification for the fiscal year 1995, for the past several years the FBI has assumed a growing responsibility for collecting foreign intelligence, request from the Director of National Intelligence. FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation (BOI). Its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1935. The FBI's main goal is and foreign intelligence threats, to uphold and enforce the criminal laws of the United States, and to provide leadership and criminal justice services to federal, state, municipal, and international agencies and partners." Currently, the FBI's top investigative priorities are: Protect the United States from terrorist attack (see counter-terrorism); Protect the United States against foreign intelligence operations and espionage (see counter-intelligence); Protect the United States against cyber-based attacks and high-technology crimes (see cyber-warfare); Combat public corruption at all levels; Protect civil rights; Combat transnational/national criminal organizations and enterprises (see organized crime); Combat major white-collar crime; Combat significant violent crime; Upgrade technology for successful performance of the FBI's mission. In August 2007, the top categories of lead criminal charges resulting from FBI investigations were: Bank robbery and incidental crimes (107 charges) Drugs (104 charges) Attempt and conspiracy (81 charges) Material involving sexual exploitation of minors (53 charges) Mail fraud - frauds and swindles (51 charges) Bank fraud (31 charges) Prohibition of illegal gambling businesses (22 charges) Fraud by wire, radio, or television (20 charges) Hobbs Act (17 charges) Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO)-prohibited activities (17 charges) Legal authority An FBI Agent tags the cockpit voice recorder from EgyptAir Flight 990 on the deck of the USS Grapple (ARS 53) at the crash site on November 13, 1999. The FBI's mandate is established in Title 28 of the United States Code (U.S. Code), Section 533, which authorizes the Attorney General to "appoint officials to detect... crimes against the United States." Other federal statutes give the FBI the authority and responsibility to investigate specific crimes. J. Edgar Hoover began using wiretapping in the 1920s during Prohibition to arrest bootleggers. A 1927 case in which a bootlegger was caught through telephone tapping went to the United States Supreme Court, which ruled that the FBI could use wiretaps in its investigations and did not violate the Fourth Amendment as unlawful search and seizure as long as the FBI did not break in to a person's home to complete the tapping. After Prohibition's repeal, Congress passed the 1934 Communications Act, which outlawed non-consensual phone tapping, but allowed bugging. In another Supreme Court case, the court ruled in 1939 that due to the 1934 law, evidence the FBI obtained by phone tapping was inadmissible in court. A 1967 Supreme Court decision overturned the 1927 case allowing bugging, after which Congress passed the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act, allowing public authorities to tap telephones during investigations, as long as they obtain a warrant beforehand. The FBI's chief tool against organized crime is the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) Act. The FBI is also charged with the responsibility of enforcing compliance of the United States Civil Rights Act of 1964 and investigating violations of the act in addition to prosecuting such violations with the United States Department of Justice (DOJ). The FBI also shares concurrent jurisdiction with the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) in the enforcement of the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. The USA PATRIOT Act increased the powers allotted to the FBI, especially in wiretapping and monitoring of Internet activity. One of the most controversial provisions of the act is the so-called sneak and peek provision, granting the FBI powers to search a house while the residents are away, and not requiring them to notify the residents for several weeks afterwards. Under the PATRIOT Act's provisions the FBI also resumed inquiring into the library records of those who are suspected of terrorism (something it had supposedly not done since the 1970s). Information obtained through an FBI investigation is presented to the appropriate U.S. Attorney or Department of Justice official, who decides if prosecution or other action is warranted. History In 1886, the Supreme Court, in Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railroad Company v. Illinois, found that the states had no power to regulate interstate commerce. The resulting Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 created a Federal responsibility for interstate law enforcement. The Justice Department, which had hired few permanent investigators since its establishment in 1870, made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the turn of the century, when Attorney General Charles Joseph Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the Secret Service, for investigators. But Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by Justice, passing a law to that effect in 1908. So the Attorney General moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation (BOI), complete with its own staff of special agents. The Secret Service provided the Department of Justice 12 Special Agents and these agents became the first Agents in the new BOI. Thus, the first FBI agents were actually Secret Service agents. Its jurisdiction derived from the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. The FBI grew out of this force of special agents created on July 26, 1908 during the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt. Its first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution (in preparation for enforcing 'The White Slave Traffic Act' (Mann Act) passed on June 25, 1910). In 1932, it was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year it was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition and rechristened the Division of Investigation (DOI) before finally becoming the FBI in 1935. The director of the old BOI, J. Edgar Hoover, became the first FBI director and served for 48 years combined with the BOI and FBI. After Hoover's death, legislation was passed limiting the tenure of future FBI directors to a maximum of ten years. The Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory, or the FBI Laboratory, officially opened in 1932, largely as a result of Hoover's efforts. Hoover had substantial involvement in most cases and projects the FBI handled during his tenure. During the so-called "war on crime" of the 1930s, FBI agents apprehended or killed a number of notorious criminals who carried out kidnappings, robberies, and murders throughout the nation, including John Dillinger, "Baby Face" Nelson, Kate "Ma" Barker, Alvin "Creepy" Karpis, and George "Machine Gun" Kelly. While this campaign, as well as the campaign to build-up the FBI, was carried out in response to a national crime wave, most historians now believe that if there was a crime wave at all, it was grossly exaggerated during the Great Depression. Other activities of its early decades included a decisive role in reducing the scope and influence of the Ku Klux Klan. Additionally, through the work of Edwin Atherton, the FBI claimed success in apprehending an entire army of Mexican neo-revolutionaries along the California border in the 1920s. Lester J. Gillis, also known as "Baby Face" Nelson. Beginning in the 1940s and continuing into the 1970s, the Bureau investigated cases of espionage against the United States and its allies. Eight Nazi agents who had planned sabotage operations against American targets were arrested, six of whom were executed (Ex parte Quirin). Also during this time, a joint US/UK code breaking effort (Venona)—with which the FBI was heavily involved—broke Soviet diplomatic and intelligence communications codes, allowing the US and British governments to read Soviet communications. This effort confirmed the existence of Americans working in the United States for Soviet intelligence. Hoover was administering this project but failed to notify the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) until 1952. Another notable case is the arrest of Soviet spy Rudolf Abel in 1957. The discovery of Soviet spies operating in the US allowed Hoover to pursue his longstanding obsession with the threat he perceived from the American left, ranging from Communist Party of the United States of America (CPUSA) union organizers to American liberals with no revolutionary aspirations whatsoever. During the 1950s and 1960s, FBI officials became increasingly concerned about the influence of civil rights leaders. In 1956, for example, Hoover took the rare step of sending an open letter denouncing Dr. T.R.M. Howard, a civil rights leader, surgeon, and wealthy entrepreneur in Mississippi who had criticized FBI inaction in solving recent murders of George W. Lee, Emmett Till, and other blacks in the South. The FBI carried out controversial domestic surveillance in an operation called COINTELPRO. It aimed at investigating and disrupting dissident political organizations within the United States, including both militant and non-violent organizations, including the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, a leading civil rights organization. In response to organized crime, on August 25, 1953, the Top Hoodlum Program was created. It asked all field offices to gather information on mobsters in their territories and to report it regularly to Washington for a centralized collection of intelligence on racketeers. Martin Luther King, Jr. was a frequent target of investigation. The FBI found no evidence of any crime, but attempted to use tapes of King involved in sexual activity for blackmail. In his 1991 memoirs, Washington Post journalist Carl Rowan asserted that the FBI had sent at least one anonymous letter to King encouraging him to commit suicide. When President John F. Kennedy was shot and killed, the jurisdiction fell to the local police departments until President Lyndon B. Johnson directed the FBI to take over the investigation. To ensure that there would never be any more confusion over who would handle homicides at the federal level, Congress passed a law that put investigations of deaths of federal officials within FBI jurisdiction. After the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO Act) took effect, the FBI began investigating the former Prohibition-organized groups, which had become fronts for crime in major cities and even small towns. All of the FBI work was done undercover and from within these organizations using the provisions provided in the RICO Act and these groups were dismantled. Although Hoover initially denied the existence of a close-knit organized crime network in the United States, the Bureau later conducted operations against known organized crime syndicates and families, including those headed by Sam Giancana and John Gotti. The RICO Act is still used today for all organized crime and any individuals that might fall under the Act. J. Edgar Hoover, FBI Director (1924–1972) In 1984, the FBI formed an elite unit to help with problems that might arise at the 1984 Summer Olympics, particularly terrorism and major-crime. The formation of the team arose from the 1972 Summer Olympics at Munich, Germany when terrorists murdered Israeli Athletes. The team was named Hostage Rescue Team (HRT) and acts as the FBI lead for a national SWAT team in related procedures and all counter terrorism cases. Also formed in 1984 was the Computer Analysis and Response Team (CART). The end of the 1980s and the early part of the 1990s saw the reassignment of over 300 agents from foreign counter intelligence duties to violent crime and the designation of violent crime as the sixth national priority. But with reduced cuts to other well-established departments, and because terrorism was not longer considered a threat after the end of the Cold War, the FBI became a tool of local police forces for tracking fugitives who had crossed state lines, which was a felony. The FBI Laboratory also helped develop DNA testing, continuing the pioneering role in identification that began with its fingerprinting system in 1924. Between 1993 and 1996, the FBI increased its counter-terrorism role in the wake of the first 1993 World Trade Center bombing in New York, New York and the Oklahoma City bombing in 1995, and the arrest of the Unabomber in 1996. Technological innovation and the skills of FBI Laboratory analysts helped ensure that all three of these cases were successfully prosecuted, but the FBI was also confronted by a public outcry in this period, which still haunts it today. After Congress passed the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA, 1994), the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPA, 1996), and the Economic Espionage Act (EEA, 1996), the FBI followed suit and underwent a technological upgrade in 1998, just as it did with its CART team in 1991. Computer Investigations and Infrastructure Threat Assessment Center (CITAC) and the National Infrastructure Protection Center (NIPC) were created to deal with the increase in Internet-related problems, such as computer viruses, worms, and other malicious programs that might unleash havoc in the US. With these developments, the FBI increased its electronic surveillance in public safety and national security investigations, adapting to how telecommunications advancements changed the nature of such problems. Within months of the September 11 attacks, FBI Director Robert Mueller, who was only sworn in three days before the attacks, called for a re-engineering of FBI structure and operations. In turn, he made countering every federal crime a top priority, including the prevention of terrorism, countering foreign intelligence operations, addressing cyber security threats, other high-tech crimes, protecting civil rights, combating public corruption, organized crime, white-collar crime, and major acts of violent crime. The FBI on October 17, 2008 announced that its two-year long undercover operation against users of the crime forum DarkMarket netted 56 arrests worldwide and prevented $70 million in economic losses, publicly acknowledging the sting for the first time. Organization J. Edgar Hoover Building, FBI Headquarters FBI Mobile Command Center, Washington Field Office The FBI is headquartered at the J. Edgar Hoover Building in Washington, D.C., with 56 field offices in major cities across the United States. The FBI also maintains over 400 resident agencies across the United States, as well as over 50 legal attachés at United States embassies and consulates. Many specialized FBI functions are located at facilities in Quantico, Virginia, as well as in Clarksburg, West Virginia. The FBI is in process of moving its Records Management Division, which processes Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests, to Winchester, Virginia. The FBI Laboratory, established with the formation of the BOI, did not appear in the J. Edgar Hoover Building until its completion in 1974. The lab serves as the primary lab for most DNA, biological, and physical work. Public tours of FBI headquarters ran through the FBI laboratory workspace before the move to the J. Edgar Hoover Building. The services the lab conducts include Chemistry, Combined DNA Index System (CODIS), Computer Analysis and Response, DNA Analysis, Evidence Response, Explosives, Firearms and Tool marks, Forensic Audio, Forensic Video, Image Analysis, Forensic Science Research, Forensic Science Training, Hazardous Materials Response, Investigative and Prospective Graphics, Latent Prints, Materials Analysis, Questioned Documents, Racketeering Records, Special Photographic Analysis, Structural Design, and Trace Evidence. The services of the FBI Laboratory are used by many state, local, and international agencies free of charge. The lab also maintains a second lab at the FBI Academy. The FBI Academy, located in Quantico, Virginia, is home to the communications and computer laboratory the FBI utilizes. It is also where new agents are sent for training to become FBI Special Agents. Going through the twenty-one week course is required for every Special Agent. It was first opened for use in 1972 on 385 acres (1.6 km²) of woodland. The Academy also serves as a classroom for state and local law enforcement agencies who are invited onto the premiere law enforcement training center. The FBI units that reside at Quantico are the Field and Police Training Unit, Firearms Training Unit, Forensic Science Research and Training Center, Technology Services Unit (TSU), Investigative Training Unit, Law Enforcement Communication Unit, Leadership and Management Science Units (LSMU), Physical Training Unit, New Agents' Training Unit (NATU), Practical Applications Unit (PAU), the Investigative Computer Training Unit and the "College of Analytical Studies." The Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS) Division, located in Clarksburg, West Virginia. It is the youngest division of the FBI only being formed in 1991 and opening in 1995. The complex itself is the length of three football fields. Its purpose is to provide a main repository for information. Under the roof of the CJIS are the programs for the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR), Fingerprint Identification, Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS), NCIC 2000, and the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS). Many state and local agencies use these systems as a source for their own investigations and contribute to the database using secure communications. FBI provides these tools of sophisticated identification and information services to local, state, federal, and international law enforcement agencies. The FBI often works in conjunction with other Federal agencies, including the U.S. Coast Guard and U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) in seaport and airport security, and the National Transportation Safety Board in investigating airplane crashes and other critical incidents. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) is the only other agency with the closest amount of investigative power. In the wake of the September 11 attacks, the FBI maintains a role in most federal criminal investigations. The FBI is organized into five functional branches and the Office of the Director, which contains most administrative offices. Each branch is managed by an Executive Assistant Director. Each office and division within the branch is managed by an Assistant Director. The FBI is organized in the following manner. Office of the Director Office of Congressional Affairs Office of Equal Employment Opportunity Affairs Office of the General Counsel Office of Integrity and Compliance Office of the Ombudsman Office of Professional Responsibility Office of Public Affairs Inspection Division Facilities and Logistics Services Division Finance Division Records Management Division Resource Planning Office Security Division National Security Branch Counterintelligence Division Counterterrorism Division Directorate of Intelligence Weapons of Mass Destruction Directorate Criminal, Cyber, Response, and Services Branch Criminal Investigative Division Cyber Division Critical Incident Response Group Office of International Operations Office of Law Enforcement Coordination Human Resources Branch Training Division Human Resources Division Science and Technology Branch Criminal Justice Information Services Division Laboratory Division Operational Technology Division Special Technologies and Applications Office Information and Technology Branch Information Technology Operations Division Office of IT Policy & Planning Office of IT Program Management Office of IT Systems Development Office of the Chief Knowledge Officer BOI and FBI directors FBI Directors are appointed by the President of the United States. They must be confirmed by the United States Senate and serve ten-year terms unless they resign or are fired by the President before their term is up. J. Edgar Hoover, appointed by Calvin Coolidge in 1924, was by far the longest-serving FBI Director, serving until his death in 1972. In 1968, Congress passed legislation as part of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act , June 19, 1968, that specified a 10-year term limit for future FBI Directors, as well as requiring Senate confirmation of appointees. As the incumbent, this legislation did not apply to Hoover, only to his successors. The current FBI Director is Robert Mueller, who was appointed in 2001 by George W. Bush. The FBI director is responsible for the day-to-day operations at the FBI. Along with his deputies, the director makes sure cases and operations are handled correctly. The director also is in charge of making sure the leadership in any one of the FBI field offices are manned with qualified agents. Before the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act was passed in the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks, the FBI director would brief the President of the United States on any issues that arise from within the FBI. Since then, the director now reports to the Director of National Intelligence (DNI) who in turn reports to the President.The FBI Directors had to make sure the FBI got as much training as needed. Hiring process In order to apply to become an FBI agent, an applicant must be between the ages of 23 and 37. The applicant must also hold American citizenship, have a clean record, and hold a four-year degree. All FBI employees require a Top Secret (TS) security clearance, and in many instances, employees need a higher level, TS/SCI clearance. In order to get a security clearance, all potential FBI personnel must pass a series of Single Scope Background Investigations (SSBI), which are conducted by the Office of Personnel Management. Special Agents candidates also have to pass a Physical Fitness Test (PFT) that includes a 300-meter run, one-minute sit-ups, maximum push-ups, and a run. There is also a polygraph test personnel have to pass, with questions including possible drug use. After potential special agent candidates are cleared with TS clearance and the Form SF-312 non-disclosure agreement is signed, they attend the FBI training facility located on Marine Corps Base Quantico in Virginia. Candidates spend approximately 21 weeks at the FBI Academy, where they receive over 500 classroom hours and over 1,000 simulated law enforcement hours to train. Upon graduation, new FBI Special Agents are placed all around the country and the world, depending on their areas of expertise. Professional support staff works out of one of the many support buildings the FBI maintains. However, any Agent or Support staff member can be transferred to any location for any length of time if their skills are deemed necessary at one of the FBI field offices or one of the 400 resident agencies the FBI maintains. As of September 30, 2008, the FBI had a total of 31,244 employees. That includes 12,851 special agents and 18,393 support staff, such as FBI police officers, intelligence analysts, language specialists, scientists, information technology specialists, and other professionals. Publications The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin is published monthly by the FBI Law Enforcement Communication Unit, with articles of interest to state and local law enforcement personnel. First published in 1932 as Fugitives Wanted by Police, the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin covers topics including law enforcement technology and issues, such as crime mapping and use of force, as well as recent criminal justice research, and Vi-CAP alerts, on wanted suspects and key cases. The FBI also publishes some reports for both law enforcement personnel as well as regular citizens covering topics including law enforcement, terrorism, cybercrime, white-collar crime, violent crime, and statistics. However, the vast majority of Federal government publications covering these topics are published by the Office of Justice Programs agencies of the United States Department of Justice, and disseminated through the National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Crime statistics The badge of an FBI Special Agent In the 1920s, the FBI began issuing crime reports by gathering numbers from local police departments. Due to limitations of this system found during the 1960s and 1970s—victims often simply did not report crimes to the police in the first place—the Department of Justice developed an alternate method of tallying crime, the victimization survey. Uniform Crime Reports The Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) compile data from over 17,000 law enforcement agencies across the country. They provide detailed data regarding the volume of crimes to include arrest, clearance (or closing a case), and law enforcement officer information. The UCR focuses its data collection on violent crimes, hate crimes, and property crimes. Created in the 1920s, the UCR system has not proven to be as uniform as its name implies. The UCR data only reflect the most serious offense in the case of connected crimes and has a very restrictive definition of rape. Since about 93% of the data submitted to the FBI is in this format, the UCR stands out as the publication of choice as most states require law enforcement agencies to submit this data. Preliminary Annual Uniform Crime Report for 2006 was released on June 4, 2006. The report shows violent crime offenses rose 1.3%, but the number of property crime offenses decreased 2.9% compared to 2005. National Incident Based Reporting System The National Incident Based Reporting System (NIBRS) crime statistics system aims to address limitations inherent in UCR data. The system used by law enforcement agencies in the United States for collecting and reporting data on crimes. Local, state, and federal agencies generate NIBRS data from their records management systems. Data is collected on every incident and arrest in the Group A offense category. The Group A offenses are 46 specific crimes grouped in 22 offense categories. Specific facts about these offenses are gathered and reported in the NIBRS system. In addition to the Group A offenses, eleven Group B offenses are reported with only the arrest information. The NIBRS system is in greater detail than the summary-based UCR system. As of 2004, 5,271 law enforcement agencies submitted NIBRS data. That amount represents 20% of the United States population and 16% of the crime statistics data collected by the FBI. Media portrayal The FBI has been frequently depicted in popular media since the 1930s. The Bureau has participated to varying degrees, which has ranged from direct involvement in the creative process itself in order to present the FBI in a favorable light, to providing consultation on operations and closed cases. Controversies and criticism In March 1971, a Media, Pennsylvania FBI branch office was robbed; the thieves took secret files and distributed them to a range of newspapers including the Harvard Crimson. The files detailed the FBI's investigations into lives of ordinary citizens—including a black student group at a Pennsylvania military college and the daughter of Congressman Henry Reuss of Wisconsin. The country was "jolted" by the revelations, and the actions were denounced by members of Congress including House Majority Leader Hale Boggs. The phones of some members of Congress, including Boggs, had allegedly been tapped. The FBI has endured public criticism and internal conflict in the past decade. As the FBI attempts to modernize technologically to take on a greater counter-terrorism role, there have been times where the FBI is scrutinized. Most of the recent controversies in the FBI have been involved with "terrorist" organizations or "operational" mishaps. In the early and late 1990s, its role in the Ruby Ridge and Waco incidents caused an uproar over the killings. During the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, the FBI was also criticized for its investigation on the Centennial Olympic Park bombing. It has settled a dispute with Richard Jewell, who was a private security guard at the venue, along with some media organizations, in regards to the leaking of his name during the investigation. In the 1990s, it turned out that the fingerprint unit of the FBI's crime lab had repeatedly done shoddy work. In some cases, the technicians, given evidence that actually cleared a suspect, reported instead that it proved the suspect guilty. Many cases had to be reopened when this pattern of errors was discovered. In 2000, the FBI began the Trilogy project to upgrade its outdated IT infrastructure. This project, originally scheduled to take three years and cost around $380 million, ended up going far over budget and behind schedule. Efforts to deploy modern computers and networking equipment were generally successful, but attempts to develop new investigation software, outsourced to SAIC, were a disaster. Virtual Case File, or VCF, as the software was known, was plagued by poorly defined goals, and repeated changes in management. In January 2005, more than two years after the software was originally planned for completion, the FBI officially abandoned the project. At least $100 million (and much more by some estimates) was spent on the project, which was never operational. The FBI has been forced to continue using its decade-old Automated Case Support system, which is considered woefully inadequate by IT experts. In March 2005, the FBI announced it is beginning a new, more ambitious software project code-named Sentinel expected for completion by 2009. In February 2001, Robert Hanssen was caught selling information to the Russians. It was later learned that Hanssen, who had reached a high position within the FBI, had been selling intelligence since as early as 1979. He pleaded guilty to treason and received a life sentence in 2002, but the incident led many to question the security practices employed by the FBI. There was also a claim that Robert Hanssen might have contributed information that led to the September 11, 2001 attacks. The 9/11 Commission's final report on July 22, 2004 stated that the FBI and CIA were both partially to blame for not pursuing intelligence reports which could have prevented the September 11, 2001 attacks. In its most damning assessment, the report concluded that the country had "not been well served" by either agency and listed numerous recommendations for changes within the FBI. While the FBI has acceded to most of the recommendations, including oversight by the new Director of National Intelligence, some former members of the 9/11 Commission publicly criticized the FBI in October 2005, claiming it was resisting any meaningful changes. On July 8, 2007 the Washington Post published excerpts from UCLA Professor Amy Zegart's book Spying Blind: The CIA, the FBI, and the Origins of 9/11. The article reported that government documents show the CIA and FBI missed 23 potential chances to disrupt the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The primary reasons for these failures included: agency cultures resistant to change and new ideas; inappropriate incentives for promotion; and a lack of cooperation between the FBI, CIA and the rest of the United States Intelligence Community. The article went on to also blame the FBI's decentralized structure which prevented effective communication and cooperation between different FBI offices. The article also claimed that the FBI has still not evolved into an effective counterterrorism or counterintelligence agency, due in large part to deeply ingrained cultural resistance to change within the FBI. For example, FBI personnel practices continue to treat all staff other than Special Agents as support staff, categorizing Intelligence Analysts alongside the FBI's auto mechanics and janitors. A March 2007 report by the inspector general of the Justice Department described the FBI's "widespread and serious misuse" of national security letters, a form of administrative subpoena used to demand records and data pertaining to individuals. The report said that between 2003 and 2005 the FBI had issued more than 140,000 national security letters, many involving people with no obvious connections to terrorism. Faulty Bullet Lead Analysis Testimony For over 40 years, the FBI crime lab in Quantico believed lead in bullets had unique chemical signatures, and that by breaking them down and analyzing them, it was possible to match bullets, not only to a single batch of ammunition coming out of a factory, but to a single box of bullets. The National Academy of Sciences conducted an 18-month independent review of comparative bullet lead analysis. In 2003, its National Research Council published a report calling into question 30 years of FBI testimony. It found the model the FBI used for interpreting results was deeply flawed and that the conclusion that bullet fragments could be matched to a box of ammunition so overstated, that it was misleading under the rules of evidence. One year later, the FBI decided to stop doing bullet lead analysis. Of over 2,500 cases using this analysis, there are potentially hundreds or thousands where FBI lab technicians provided forensic testimony at criminal trials. In each case, the testimony was wrong and misleading. The U.S. Government has a legal obligation to notify defendants about any information that might help prove their innocence, even after they have been convicted. Only the FBI can identify the cases in which bullet lead analysis was performed, yet it has resisted releasing that information. As a result of the 60 Minutes/Washington Post'' investigation in November 2007, (two years later) the bureau said it will identify, review, and release all of the pertinent cases, and notify prosecutors about cases in which faulty testimony was given. FBI Knowingly Assisted In Wrongful Conviction of Murder Protecting an informant, the FBI allowed four innocent men to be convicted of murder in March 1965. Three of the men were sentenced to death (which was later reduced to life in prison). The fourth defendant was sentenced to life in prison, where he spent three decades. In July, 2007, U.S. District Judge Nancy Gertner in Boston found the bureau helped convict the four men of the March 1965 gangland murder of Edward "Teddy" Deegan. The U.S. Government was ordered to pay $100 million in damages to the four defendants. FBI files on specific persons It is possible to obtain a copy of an FBI file on oneself, on a living person who gives you permission to do so, or on a deceased individual, through the U.S. Freedom of Information Act. The FBI has generated files on numerous celebrities including Elvis Presley, Frank Sinatra, John Denver, John Lennon, Jane Fonda, Groucho Marx, Charlie Chaplin, MC5, Lou Costello, Sonny Bono, Bob Dylan, Mickey Mantle, and Gene Autry. The FBI also profiled Jack the Ripper in 1988 but his identity still remains unproven today. See also America's Safest and Most Dangerous Cities Federal Police List of United States federal law enforcement agencies State level organizations State Bureau of Investigation Similar agencies of other nations Europe Bundeskriminalamt, Austria Politiets Efterretningstjeneste (PET), Denmark Bundeskriminalamt, Germany MI5 (The Security Service), United Kingdom National Bureau of Criminal Investigation (NBCI), Republic of Ireland Keskusrikospoliisi (KRP), Finland Police Judiciaire, France Policia Judiciaria, Portugal Policía Nacional, Spain Scotland Yard, United Kingdom Centralne Biuro Śledcze (CBŚ), Poland Serious Organised Crime Agency, United Kingdom Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation Belgische opsporingsbrigade (BOB), Belgium Interpol (International Criminal Police Organization ), World wide, 187 countries Asia Central Bureau of Investigation, India National Bureau of Investigation (NBI), Philippines Shin Bet (Israel) The Bureau of Investigation, Ministry of Justice (MJIB) (Taiwan) North America Canadian Security Intelligence Service Federal Agency of Investigation (Mexico) Kaos Private Security Bureau (Canada) Royal Canadian Mounted Police South America Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad (Colombia) Policia Federal Argentina Policia Federal Brazil Oceania Australian Federal Police New Zealand Police Notable persons Edwin Atherton left the service and founded Atherton & Dunn private investigations firm J. Edgar Hoover first director FBI Richard Miller (first FBI Special Agent to be convicted of espionage) Moses Powell (first black man to train FBI agents in hand-to-hand combat) References Further reading Douglas M. Charles, J. Edgar Hoover and the Anti-interventionists: FBI Political Surveillance and the Rise of the Domestic Security State, 1939-1945 (Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 2007). External links Official FBI website FBI Organizational Chart Original Bureau of Investigation Document Online: William Randolph Hearst ODMP listing of Fallen FBI Agents 1925–2007 Church Committee Report, Vol. 6, "Federal Bureau of Investigation." 1975 congressional inquiry into American intelligence operations.
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4,760
Poetry
"Quatrain on Heavenly Mountain," by China's Emperor Gaozong Poem on a gravestone in an English churchyard Poetry (from the Greek "", , a "making") is a form of literary art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its apparent meaning. Poetry may be written independently, as discrete poems, or may occur in conjunction with other arts, as in poetic drama, hymns or lyrics. Poetry, and discussions of it, have a long history. Early attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotle's Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Heath, Malcolm (ed). Aristotle's Poetics. London, England: Penguin Books, (1997), ISBN 0140446362. Later attempts concentrated on features such as repetition, verse form and rhyme, and emphasized the aesthetics which distinguish poetry from prose. See, for example, Immanuel Kant (J.H. Bernhard, Trans). Critique of Judgment. Dover (2005). From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more loosely defined as a fundamental creative act using language. Dylan Thomas. Quite Early One Morning. New York, New York: New Direction Books, reset edition (1968), ISBN 0811202089. Poetry often uses particular forms and conventions to suggest alternative meanings in the words, or to evoke emotional or sensual responses. Devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly, metaphor, simile and metonymy John R. Strachan & Richard G. Terry, Poetry, (Edinburgh University Press, 2000). pp119. create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between individual verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. Some forms of poetry are specific to particular cultures and genres, responding to the characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. While readers accustomed to identifying poetry with Dante, Goethe, Mickiewicz and Rumi may think of it as being written in rhyming lines and regular meter, there are traditions, such as those of Du Fu and Beowulf, that use other approaches to achieve rhythm and euphony. Much of modern British and American poetry is to some extent a critique of poetic tradition, As a contemporary example of that ethos, see T.S. Eliot, "The Function of Criticism" in Selected Essays. Paperback Edition (Faber & Faber, 1999). pp13-34. playing with and testing (among other things) the principle of euphony itself, to the extent that sometimes it deliberately does not rhyme or keep to set rhythms at all. James Longenbach, Modern Poetry After Modernism (Oxford University Press US, 1997). pp9, pp103, and passim. pp xxvii-xxxiii of the introduction, in Michael Schmidt (Ed.), The Harvill Book of Twentieth Century Poetry in English (Harvill Press, 1999) As would be evident from the sources, particularly reading the previous two sources referenced, it should be noted that, at least in the works of well-known poets, there is usually a poetic reason for non-poetic effects, e.g contrast, surprise, or to allow the use of irregular rhythms in a poetic way. In today's globalized world, poets often borrow styles, techniques and forms from diverse cultures and languages. History The Deluge tablet of the Gilgamesh epic in Akkadian, circa 2nd millennium BC. Poetry as an art form may predate literacy. Many scholars, particularly those researching the Homeric tradition and the oral epics of the Balkans, suggest that early writing shows clear traces of older oral poetic traditions, including the use of repeated phrases as building blocks in larger poetic units. A rhythmic and repetitious form would make a long story easier to remember and retell, before writing was available as an aide-memoire. Many ancient works, from the Indian Vedas (1700–1200 BC) and Zoroaster's Gathas (1200-900 BC) to the Odyssey (800–675 BC), appear to have been composed in poetic form to aid memorization and oral transmission, in prehistoric and ancient societies. For one recent summary discussion, see Frederick Ahl and Hannah M. Roisman. The Odyssey Re-Formed. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, (1996), at 1–26, ISBN 0801483352. Others suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. See, for example, Jack Goody. The Interface Between the Written and the Oral. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, (1987), at 98, ISBN 0521337941. Poetry appears among the earliest records of most literate cultures, with poetic fragments found on early monoliths, runestones and stelae. The oldest surviving poem is the Epic of Gilgamesh, from the 3rd millennium BC in Sumer (in Mesopotamia, now Iraq), which was written in cuneiform script on clay tablets and, later, papyrus. N.K. Sanders (Trans.). The Epic of Gilgamesh. London, England: Penguin Books, revised edition (1972), at 7–8. Other ancient epic poetry includes the Greek epics Iliad and Odyssey, the Old Iranian books the Gathic Avesta and Yasna, the Roman national epic, Virgil's Aeneid, and the Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. The efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in "poetics"—the study of the aesthetics of poetry. Some ancient societies, such as the Chinese through the Shi Jing, one of the Five Classics of Confucianism, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance. More recently, thinkers have struggled to find a definition that could encompass formal differences as great as those between Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Matsuo Bashō's Oku no Hosomichi, as well as differences in context spanning Tanakh religious poetry, love poetry, and rap. See, e.g., Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five. "The Message (song)," Sugar Hill, (1982). Context can be critical to poetics and to the development of poetic genres and forms. Poetry that records historic events in epics, such as Gilgamesh or Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, Abolqasem Ferdowsi (Dick Davis, Trans.). Shahnameh: The Persian Book of Kings. New York, New York: Viking, (2006), ISBN 0-670-03485-1. will necessarily be lengthy and narrative, while poetry used for liturgical purposes (hymns, psalms, suras and hadiths) is likely to have an inspirational tone, whereas elegy and tragedy are meant to evoke deep emotional responses. Other contexts include Gregorian chants, formal or diplomatic speech, For example, in the Arabic world, much diplomacy was carried out through poetic form in the 16th century. See Natalie Zemon Davis. Trickster's Travels. Hill & Wang, (2006), ISBN 0809094355. political rhetoric and invective, Examples of political invective include libel poetry and the classical epigrams of Martial and Catullus. light-hearted nursery and nonsense rhymes, and even medical texts. In ancient Greece, medical and scholarly works were often written in metrical form. A millennium and a half later, many of Avicenna's medical texts were written in verse. The Polish historian of aesthetics, Władysław Tatarkiewicz, in a paper on "The Concept of Poetry," traces the evolution of what is in fact two concepts of poetry. Tatarkiewicz points out that the term is applied to two distinct things that, as the poet Paul Valéry observes, "at a certain point find union. Poetry [...] is an art based on language. But poetry also has a more general meaning [...] that is difficult to define because it is less determinate: poetry expresses a certain state of mind." Władysław Tatarkiewicz, "The Concept of Poetry," Dialectics and Humanism, vol. II, no. 2 (spring 1975), p. 13. Western traditions Aristotle John Keats Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Notably, the existing fragments of Aristotle's Poetics describe three genres of poetry—the epic, the comic, and the tragic—and develop rules to distinguish the highest-quality poetry in each genre, based on the underlying purposes of the genre. Heath (ed), Aristotle's Poetics, 1997. Later aestheticians identified three major genres: epic poetry, lyric poetry and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry. Aristotle's work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, Ibn Rushd wrote a commentary on the Aristotle's Poetics, replacing the original examples with passages from Arabic poets. See, for example, W. F. Bogges. 'Hermannus Alemannus' Latin Anthology of Arabic Poetry,' Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1968, Volume 88, 657–70, and Charles Burnett, 'Learned Knowledge of Arabic Poetry, Rhymed Prose, and Didactic Verse from Petrus Alfonsi to Petrarch', in Poetry and Philosophy in the Middle Ages: A Festschrift for Peter Dronke. Brill Academic Publishers, (2001), ISBN 90-04-11964-7. as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. See, for example, Paul F Grendler. The Universities of the Italian Renaissance. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, (2004), ISBN 0-8018-8055-6 (for example, page 239) for the prominence of Aristotle and the Poetics on the Renaissance curriculum. Later poets and aestheticians often distinguished poetry from, and defined it in opposition to, prose, which was generally understood as writing with a proclivity to logical explication and a linear narrative structure. Immanuel Kant (J.H. Bernard, Trans.). Critique of Judgment at 131, for example, argues that the nature of poetry as a self-consciously abstract and beautiful form raises it to the highest level among the verbal arts, with tone or music following it, and only after that the more logical and narrative prose. This does not imply that poetry is illogical or lacks narration, but rather that poetry is an attempt to render the beautiful or sublime without the burden of engaging the logical or narrative thought process. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic, "Negative Capability." Christensen, A., Crisafulli-Jones, L., Galigani, G. and Johnson, A. (Eds). The Challenge of Keats. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Rodopi, (2000). This "romantic" approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic. This approach remained influential into the twentieth century. During this period, there was also substantially more interaction among the various poetic traditions, in part due to the spread of European colonialism and the attendant rise in global trade. In addition to a boom in translation, during the Romantic period numerous ancient works were rediscovered. 20th-century disputes Archibald MacLeish Some 20th-century literary theorists, relying less on the opposition of prose and poetry, focused on the poet as simply one who creates using language, and poetry as what the poet creates. The underlying concept of the poet as creator is not uncommon, and some modernist poets essentially do not distinguish between the creation of a poem with words, and creative acts in other media such as carpentry. See, for example, Dylan Thomas's discussion of the poet as creator in Quite Early One Morning. New York, New York: New Directions Press, (1967). Yet other modernists challenge the very attempt to define poetry as misguided, as when Archibald MacLeish concludes his paradoxical poem, "Ars Poetica," with the lines: "A poem should not mean / but be." The title of "Ars Poetica" alludes to Horace's commentary of the same title. The poem sets out a range of dicta for what poetry ought to be, before concluding with its classic lines. Disputes over the definition of poetry, and over poetry's distinction from other genres of literature, have been inextricably intertwined with the debate over the role of poetic form. The rejection of traditional forms and structures for poetry that began in the first half of the twentieth century coincided with a questioning of the purpose and meaning of traditional definitions of poetry and of distinctions between poetry and prose, particularly given examples of poetic prose and prosaic poetry. Numerous modernist poets have written in non-traditional forms or in what traditionally would have been considered prose, although their writing was generally infused with poetic diction and often with rhythm and tone established by non-metrical means. See, for example, Walton Liz and Christopher MacGowen (Eds.). Collected Poems of William Carlos Williams. New York, New York: New Directions Publications, (1988), or the works of Odysseus Elytis. While there was a substantial formalist reaction within the modernist schools to the breakdown of structure, this reaction focused as much on the development of new formal structures and syntheses as on the revival of older forms and structures. See, for example, T. S. Eliot's "The Waste Land, in T. S. Eliot. The Waste Land and Other Poems. London, England: Faber & Faber, (1940)." More recently, postmodernism has fully embraced MacLeish's concept and come to regard the boundaries between prose and poetry, and also among genres of poetry, as having meaning only as cultural artifacts. Postmodernism goes beyond modernism's emphasis on the creative role of the poet, to emphasize the role of the reader of a text (Hermeneutics), and to highlight the complex cultural web within which a poem is read. See, Roland Barthes essay "Death of the Author" in Image-Music-Text. New York, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, (1978). Today, throughout the world, poetry often incorporates poetic form and diction from other cultures and from the past, further confounding attempts at definition and classification that were once sensible within a tradition such as the Western canon. Elements of Poetry Prosody Prosody is the study of the meter, rhythm, and intonation of a poem. Rhythm and meter, although closely related, should be distinguished. Robert Pinsky, The Sounds of Poetry at 52. Meter is the definitive pattern established for a verse (such as iambic pentameter), while rhythm is the actual sound that results from a line of poetry. Thus, the meter of a line may be described as being "iambic", but a full description of the rhythm would require noting where the language causes one to pause or accelerate and how the meter interacts with other elements of the language. Prosody also may be used more specifically to refer to the scanning of poetic lines to show meter. Rhythm See also Parallelism, inflection, intonation, foot Robinson Jeffers The methods for creating poetic rhythm vary across languages and between poetic traditions. Languages are often described as having timing set primarily by accents, syllables, or moras, depending on how rhythm is established, though a language can be influenced by multiple approaches. See, for example, Julia Schülter. Rhythmic Grammar, Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter, (2005). Japanese is a mora-timed language. Syllable-timed languages include Latin, Catalan, French, Leonese, Galician and Spanish. English, Russian and, generally, German are stress-timed languages. Varying intonation also affects how rhythm is perceived. Languages also can rely on either pitch, such as in Vedic or ancient Greek, or tone. Tonal languages include Chinese, Vietnamese, Lithuanian, and most subsaharan languages. See Yip. Tone. (2002), which includes a number of maps showing the distribution of tonal languages. Metrical rhythm generally involves precise arrangements of stresses or syllables into repeated patterns called feet within a line. In Modern English verse the pattern of stresses primarily differentiate feet, so rhythm based on meter in Modern English is most often founded on the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables (alone or elided). In the classical languages, on the other hand, while the metrical units are similar, vowel length rather than stresses define the meter. Old English poetry used a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number of strong stresses in each line. Howell D. Chickering. Beowulf: a Dual-language Edition. Garden City, New York: Anchor (1977), ISBN 0385062133. The chief device of ancient Hebrew Biblical poetry, including many of the psalms, was parallelism, a rhetorical structure in which successive lines reflected each other in grammatical structure, sound structure, notional content, or all three. Parallelism lent itself to antiphonal or call-and-response performance, which could also be reinforced by intonation. Thus, Biblical poetry relies much less on metrical feet to create rhythm, but instead creates rhythm based on much larger sound units of lines, phrases and sentences. Some classical poetry forms, such as Venpa of the Tamil language, had rigid grammars (to the point that they could be expressed as a context-free grammar) which ensured a rhythm. See, for example, John Lazarus and W. H. Drew (Trans.). Thirukkural. Asian Educational Services (2001), ISBN 81-206-0400-8. (Original in Tamil with English translation). In Chinese poetry, tones as well as stresses create rhythm. Classical Chinese poetics identifies four tones: the level tone, rising tone, falling tone, and entering tone. Note that other classifications may have as many as eight tones for Chinese and six for Vietnamese. The formal patterns of meter used in Modern English verse to create rhythm no longer dominate contemporary English poetry. In the case of free verse, rhythm is often organized based on looser units of cadence than a regular meter. Robinson Jeffers, Marianne Moore, and William Carlos Williams are three notable poets who reject the idea that regular accentual meter is critical to English poetry. See, for example, Marianne Moore. Idiosyncrasy and Technique. Berkeley, California: University of California, (1958), or, for examples, William Carlos Williams. The Broken Span. Norfolk, Connecticut: New Directions, (1941). Jeffers experimented with sprung rhythm as an alternative to accentual rhythm. Robinson Jeffers. Selected Poems. New York, New York: Vintage, (1965). Meter Homer In the Western poetic tradition, meters are customarily grouped according to a characteristic metrical foot and the number of feet per line. Thus, "iambic pentameter" is a meter comprising five feet per line, in which the predominant kind of foot is the "iamb." This metric system originated in ancient Greek poetry, and was used by poets such as Pindar and Sappho, and by the great tragedians of Athens. Similarly, "dactylic hexameter," comprises six feet per line, of which the dominant kind of foot is the "dactyl." Dactylic hexameter was the traditional meter of Greek epic poetry, the earliest extant examples of which are the works of Homer and Hesiod. More recently, iambic pentameter and dactylic hexameter have been used by William Shakespeare and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, respectively. Meter is often scanned based on the arrangement of "poetic feet" into lines. Paul Fussell. Poetic Meter and Poetic Form. McGraw Hill, (1965, rev. 1979), ISBN 0-07-553606-4. In English, each foot usually includes one syllable with a stress and one or two without a stress. In other languages, it may be a combination of the number of syllables and the length of the vowel that determines how the foot is parsed, where one syllable with a long vowel may be treated as the equivalent of two syllables with short vowels. For example, in ancient Greek poetry, meter is based solely on syllable duration rather than stress. In some languages, such as English, stressed syllables are typically pronounced with greater volume, greater length, and higher pitch, and are the basis for poetic meter. In ancient Greek, these attributes were independent of each other; long vowels and syllables including a vowel plus more than one consonant actually had longer duration, approximately double that of a short vowel, while pitch and stress (dictated by the accent) were not associated with duration and played no role in the meter. Thus, a dactylic hexameter line could be envisioned as a musical phrase with six measures, each of which contained either a half note followed by two quarter notes (i.e. a long syllable followed by two short syllables), or two half notes (i.e. two long syllables); thus, the substitution of two short syllables for one long syllable resulted in a measure of the same length. Such substitution in a stress language, such as English, would not result in the same rhythmic regularity. In Anglo-Saxon meter, the unit on which lines are built is a half-line containing two stresses rather than a foot. Christine Brooke-Rose. A ZBC of Ezra Pound. Faber and Faber, (1971), ISBN 0-571-09135-0. Scanning meter can often show the basic or fundamental pattern underlying a verse, but does not show the varying degrees of stress, as well as the differing pitches and lengths of syllables. Robert Pinsky. The Sounds of Poetry. New York, New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux, (1998), 11–24, ISBN 0374526176. As an example of how a line of meter is defined, in English-language iambic pentameter, each line has five metrical feet, and each foot is an iamb, or an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. When a particular line is scanned, there may be variations upon the basic pattern of the meter; for example, the first foot of English iambic pentameters is quite often inverted, meaning that the stress falls on the first syllable. Robert Pinsky, The Sounds of Poetry. The generally accepted names for some of the most commonly used kinds of feet include: One of Henry Holiday's illustrations to Lewis Carroll's The Hunting of the Snark, which is written predominantly in anapestic tetrameter: "In the midst of the word he was trying to say / In the midst of his laughter and glee / He had softly and suddenly vanished away / For the snark was a boojum, you see." iamb – one unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable trochee – one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable dactyl – one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables anapest – two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable spondee – two stressed syllables together pyrrhic – two unstressed syllables together (rare, usually used to end dactylic hexameter) The number of metrical feet in a line are described in Greek terminology as follows: dimeter – two feet trimeter – three feet tetrameter – four feet pentameter – five feet hexameter – six feet heptameter – seven feet octameter – eight feet There are a wide range of names for other types of feet, right up to a choriamb of four syllable metric foot with a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables and closing with a stressed syllable. The choriamb is derived from some ancient Greek and Latin poetry. Languages which utilize vowel length or intonation rather than or in addition to syllabic accents in determining meter, such as Ottoman Turkish or Vedic, often have concepts similar to the iamb and dactyl to describe common combinations of long and short sounds. Each of these types of feet has a certain "feel," whether alone or in combination with other feet. The iamb, for example, is the most natural form of rhythm in the English language, and generally produces a subtle but stable verse. John Thompson, The Founding of English Meter. The dactyl, on the other hand, almost gallops along. And, as readers of The Night Before Christmas or Dr. Seuss realize, the anapest is perfect for a light-hearted, comic feel. See, for example, "Yertle the Turtle" in Dr. Seuss. Yertle the Turtle and Other Stories. New York: Random House, (1958), lines from "Yurtle the Turtle" are scanned in the discussion of anapestic tetrameter. There is debate over how useful a multiplicity of different "feet" is in describing meter. For example, Robert Pinsky has argued that while dactyls are important in classical verse, English dactylic verse uses dactyls very irregularly and can be better described based on patterns of iambs and anapests, feet which he considers natural to the language. Robert Pinsky, The Sounds of Poetry at 66. Actual rhythm is significantly more complex than the basic scanned meter described above, and many scholars have sought to develop systems that would scan such complexity. Vladimir Nabokov noted that overlaid on top of the regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of verse was a separate pattern of accents resulting from the natural pitch of the spoken words, and suggested that the term "scud" be used to distinguish an unaccented stress from an accented stress. Vladimir Nabokov. Notes on Prosody. New York, New York: The Bollingen Foundation, (1964), ISBN 0691017603. Metrical patterns Different traditions and genres of poetry tend to use different meters, ranging from the Shakespearian iambic pentameter and the Homeric dactylic hexameter to the Anapestic tetrameter used in many nursery rhymes. However, a number of variations to the established meter are common, both to provide emphasis or attention to a given foot or line and to avoid boring repetition. For example, the stress in a foot may be inverted, a caesura (or pause) may be added (sometimes in place of a foot or stress), or the final foot in a line may be given a feminine ending to soften it or be replaced by a spondee to emphasize it and create a hard stop. Some patterns (such as iambic pentameter) tend to be fairly regular, while other patterns, such as dactylic hexameter, tend to be highly irregular. Regularity can vary between language. In addition, different patterns often develop distinctively in different languages, so that, for example, iambic tetrameter in Russian will generally reflect a regularity in the use of accents to reinforce the meter, which does not occur or occurs to a much lesser extent in English. Nabokov. Notes on Prosody. Alexander Pushkin Some common metrical patterns, with notable examples of poets and poems who use them, include: Iambic pentameter (John Milton, Paradise Lost Two versions of Paradise Lost are freely available on-line from Project Gutenberg, Project Gutenberg text version 1 and Project Gutenberg text version 2. ) Dactylic hexameter (Homer, Iliad; The original text, as translated by Samuel Butler, is available at Wikisource. , Virgil, Aeneid; Ovid, Metamorphoses) Iambic tetrameter (Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress"; Aleksandr Pushkin, Eugene Onegin) The full text is available online both in Russian and as translated into English by Charles Johnston. Please see the pages on Eugene Onegin and on Notes on Prosody and the references on those pages for discussion of the problems of translation and of the differences between Russian and English iambic tetrameter. Trochaic octameter (Edgar Allan Poe, "The Raven") The full text of "The Raven" is available at Wikisource. Anapestic tetrameter (Lewis Carroll, "The Hunting of the Snark"; The full text of "The Hunting of the Snark" is available at Wikisource. Lord Byron, Don Juan) The full text of Don Juan is available on-line. Alexandrine (Jean Racine, Phèdre) See the Text of the play in French as well as an English translation, Rhyme, alliteration, assonance The Old English epic poem Beowulf is written in alliterative verse and in paragraph form, not separated into lines or stanzas. Rhyme, alliteration, assonance and consonance are ways of creating repetitive patterns of sound. They may be used as an independent structural element in a poem, to reinforce rhythmic patterns, or as an ornamental element. Rhyme, alliteration, assonance or consonance can also carry a meaning separate from the repetitive sound patterns created. For example, Chaucer used heavy alliteration to mock Old English verse and to paint a character as archaic, and Christopher Marlowe used interlocking alliteration and consonance of "th", "f" and "s" sounds to force a lisp on a character he wanted to paint as effeminate. See, for example, the opening speech in Tamburlaine the Great available online at Project Gutenberg. Rhyme consists of identical ("hard-rhyme") or similar ("soft-rhyme") sounds placed at the ends of lines or at predictable locations within lines ("internal rhyme"). For a good discussion of hard and soft rhyme see Robert Pinsky's introduction to Dante Alighieri, Robert Pinsky (Trans.). The Inferno of Dante: A New Verse Translation. New York, New York: Farar Straus & Giroux, (1994), ISBN 0374176744; the Pinsky translation includes many demonstrations of the use of soft rhyme. Languages vary in the richness of their rhyming structures; Italian, for example, has a rich rhyming structure permitting maintenance of a limited set of rhymes throughout a lengthy poem. The richness results from word endings that follow regular forms. English, with its irregular word endings adopted from other languages, is less rich in rhyme. Dante (1994). The degree of richness of a language's rhyming structures plays a substantial role in determining what poetic forms are commonly used in that language. Alliteration and assonance played a key role in structuring early Germanic, Norse and Old English forms of poetry. The alliterative patterns of early Germanic poetry interweave meter and alliteration as a key part of their structure, so that the metrical pattern determines when the listener expects instances of alliteration to occur. This can be compared to an ornamental use of alliteration in most Modern European poetry, where alliterative patterns are not formal or carried through full stanzas. See the introduction to Burton Raffel. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. New York, New York: Signet Books, (1984), ISBN 0451628233. Alliteration is particularly useful in languages with less rich rhyming structures. Assonance, where the use of similar vowel sounds within a word rather than similar sounds at the beginning or end of a word, was widely used in skaldic poetry, but goes back to the Homeric epic. Because verbs carry much of the pitch in the English language, assonance can loosely evoke the tonal elements of Chinese poetry and so is useful in translating Chinese poetry. Consonance occurs where a consonant sound is repeated throughout a sentence without putting the sound only at the front of a word. Consonance provokes a more subtle effect than alliteration and so is less useful as a structural element. In 'A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry' (Longmans, 1969) Geoffrey Leech identified six different types of sound patterns or rhyme forms. These are defined as six possible ways in which either one or two of the structural parts of the related words can vary. The unvarying parts are in upper case/bold. C symbolises a consonant cluster, not a single consonant, V a vowel: 1) Alliteration: C v c great/grow send/sit 2) Assonance: c V c great/fail send/bell 3) Consonance: c v C great/meat send/hand 4) Reverse Rhyme: C V c great/grazed send/sell 5) Pararhyme: C v C great/groat send/sound 6) Rhyme: c V C great/bait send/end Rhyming schemes Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light surrounded by angels; from Gustave Doré's illustrations to the Divine Comedy, Paradiso, Canto 28. In many languages, including modern European languages and Arabic, poets use rhyme in set patterns as a structural element for specific poet forms, such as ballads, sonnets and rhyming couplets. However, the use of structural rhyme is not universal even within the European tradition. Much modern poetry avoids traditional rhyme schemes. Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not use rhyme. Rhyme entered European poetry in the High Middle Ages, in part under the influence of the Arabic language in Al Andalus (modern Spain). Maria Rosa Menocal. The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary History. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania, (2003), ISBN 0812213246. Irish poetry also employed rhyme relatively early, and may have influenced the development of rhyme in other European languages. Arabic language poets used rhyme extensively from the first development of literary Arabic in the sixth century, as in their long, rhyming qasidas. Some rhyming schemes have become associated with a specific language, culture or period, while other rhyming schemes have achieved use across languages, cultures or time periods. Some forms of poetry carry a consistent and well-defined rhyming scheme, such as the chant royal or the rubaiyat, while other poetic forms have variable rhyme schemes. Most rhyme schemes are described using letters that correspond to sets of rhymes, so if the first, second and fourth lines of a quatrain rhyme with each other and the third line does not rhyme, the quatrain is said to have an "a-a-b-a" rhyme scheme. This rhyme scheme is the one used, for example, in the rubaiyat form. Indeed, in translating the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, Edward FitzGerald sought to retain the scheme in English. The original text is available from the Gutenberg Project on-line for free.etext #246 Similarly, an "a-b-b-a" quatrain (what is known as "enclosed rhyme") is used in such forms as the Petrarchan sonnet. Some types of more complicated rhyming schemes have developed names of their own, separate from the "a-b-c" convention, such as the ottava rima and terza rima. The types and use of differing rhyming schemes is discussed further in the main article. Ottava rima Ottava rima is a rhyming scheme using a stanza of eight lines with an alternating a-b rhyming scheme for the first six lines followed by a closing couplet. First used by Boccaccio, it was developed for heroic epics but has also been used for mock-heroic poetry. Dante and terza rima Dante's Divine Comedy The Divine Comedy at wikisource. is written in terza rima, where each stanza has three lines, with the first and third rhyming, and the second line rhyming with the first and third lines of the next stanza (thus, a-b-a / b-c-b / c-d-c, et cetera.) in a chain rhyme. The terza rima provides a flowing, progressive sense to the poem, and used skilfully it can evoke a sense of motion, both forward and backward. Terza rima is appropriately used in lengthy poems in languages with rich rhyming schemes (such as Italian, with its many common word endings). See Robert Pinsky's discussion of the difficulties of replicating terza rima in English in Robert Pinsky (trans). The Inferno of Dante: A New Verse Translation. (1994). Form Poetic form is more flexible in modernist and post-modernist poetry, and continues to be less structured than in previous literary eras. Many modern poets eschew recognisable structures or forms, and write in free verse. But poetry remains distinguished from prose by its form; some regard for basic formal structures of poetry will be found in even the best free verse, however much it may appear to have been ignored. Similarly, in the best poetry written in the classical style there will be departures from strict form for emphasis or effect. Among the major structural elements often used in poetry are the line, the stanza or verse paragraph, and larger combinations of stanzas or lines such as cantos. The broader visual presentation of words and calligraphy can also be utilized. These basic units of poetic form are often combined into larger structures, called poetic forms or poetic modes (see following section), such as in the sonnet or haiku. Lines and stanzas Poetry is often separated into lines on a page. These lines may be based on the number of metrical feet, or may emphasize a rhyming pattern at the ends of lines. Lines may serve other functions, particularly where the poem is not written in a formal metrical pattern. Lines can separate, compare or contrast thoughts expressed in different units, or can highlight a change in tone. See the article on line breaks for information about the division between lines. Lines of poems are often organized into stanzas, which are denominated by the number of lines included. Thus a collection of two lines is a couplet (or distich), three lines a triplet (or tercet), four lines a quatrain, five lines a quintain (or cinquain), six lines a sestet, and eight lines an octet. These lines may or may not relate to each other by rhyme or rhythm. For example, a couplet may be two lines with identical meters which rhyme or two lines held together by a common meter alone. Stanzas often have related couplets or triplets within them. Alexander Blok's poem, "Noch, ulitsa, fonar, apteka" ("Night, street, lamp, drugstore"), on a wall in Leiden. Other poems may be organized into verse paragraphs, in which regular rhymes with established rhythms are not used, but the poetic tone is instead established by a collection of rhythms, alliterations, and rhymes established in paragraph form. Many medieval poems were written in verse paragraphs, even where regular rhymes and rhythms were used. In many forms of poetry, stanzas are interlocking, so that the rhyming scheme or other structural elements of one stanza determine those of succeeding stanzas. Examples of such interlocking stanzas include, for example, the ghazal and the villanelle, where a refrain (or, in the case of the villanelle, refrains) is established in the first stanza which then repeats in subsequent stanzas. Related to the use of interlocking stanzas is their use to separate thematic parts of a poem. For example, the strophe, antistrophe and epode of the ode form are often separated into one or more stanzas. In such cases, or where structures are meant to be highly formal, a stanza will usually form a complete thought, consisting of full sentences and cohesive thoughts. In some cases, particularly lengthier formal poetry such as some forms of epic poetry, stanzas themselves are constructed according to strict rules and then combined. In skaldic poetry, the dróttkvætt stanza had eight lines, each having three "lifts" produced with alliteration or assonance. In addition to two or three alliterations, the odd numbered lines had partial rhyme of consonants with dissimilar vowels, not necessarily at the beginning of the word; the even lines contained internal rhyme in set syllables (not necessarily at the end of the word). Each half-line had exactly six syllables, and each line ended in a trochee. The arrangement of dróttkvætts followed far less rigid rules than the construction of the individual dróttkvætts. Visual presentation Arabic poetry Even before the advent of printing, the visual appearance of poetry often added meaning or depth. Acrostic poems conveyed meanings in the initial letters of lines or in letters at other specific places in a poem. In Arabic, Hebrew and Chinese poetry, the visual presentation of finely calligraphed poems has played an important part in the overall effect of many poems. With the advent of printing, poets gained greater control over the mass-produced visual presentations of their work. Visual elements have become an important part of the poet's toolbox, and many poets have sought to use visual presentation for a wide range of purposes. Some Modernist poetry takes this to an extreme, with the placement of individual lines or groups of lines on the page forming an integral part of the poem's composition, whether to complement the poem's rhythm through visual caesuras of various lengths, or to create juxtapositions so as to accentuate meaning, ambiguity or irony, or simply to create an aesthetically pleasing form. For examples of different uses of visual space in modern poetry, see E. E. Cummings works or C.J. Moore's poetic translation of the Fables of LaFontaine, which usees color and page placement to complement the illustrations of Marc Chagall. Marc Chagall (illust) and C.J. Moore (trans.). Fables of La Fontaine. The New Press, (1977), ISBN 1565844041. In its most extreme form, this can lead to concrete poetry or asemic writing. A good pre-modernist example of concrete poetry is the poem about the mouse's tale in the shape of a long tail in Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, available in Wikisource. Diction Illustration for the cover of Christina Rossetti's Goblin Market and Other Poems (1862), by Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Goblin Market used complex poetic diction in nursery rhyme form: "We must not look at goblin men, / We must not buy their fruits: / Who knows upon what soil they fed / Their hungry thirsty roots?" Poetic diction treats of the manner in which language is used, and refers not only to the sound but also to the underlying meaning and its interaction with sound and form. Many languages and poetic forms have very specific poetic dictions, to the point where distinct grammars and dialects are used specifically for poetry. Registers in poetry can range from strict employment of ordinary speech patterns, as favoured in much late 20th century prosody, through to highly ornate and aureate uses of language by such as the medieval and renaissance makars. Poetic diction can include rhetorical devices such as simile and metaphor, as well as tones of voice, such as irony. See, for example, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge for a well-known example of symbolism and metaphor used in poetry. The albatross that is killed by the mariner is a traditional symbol of good luck, and its death takes on metaphorical implications. Aristotle wrote in the Poetics that "the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor." See at 22. Since the rise of Modernism, some poets have opted for a poetic diction that deemphasizes rhetorical devices, attempting instead the direct presentation of things and experiences and the exploration of tone. On the other hand, Surrealists have pushed rhetorical devices to their limits, making frequent use of catachresis. Allegorical stories are central to the poetic diction of many cultures, and were prominent in the west during classical times, the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Aesop's Fables, repeatedly rendered in both verse and prose since first being recorded about 500 B.C., are perhaps the richest single source of allegorical poetry through the ages. Other notables examples include the Roman de la Rose, a 13th-century French poem, William Langland's Piers Ploughman in the 14th century, and Jean de la Fontaine's Fables (influenced by Aesop's) in the 17th century (available in French on wikisource).. Rather than being fully allegorical, however, a poem may contain symbols or allusions that deepen the meaning or effect of its words without constructing a full allegory. Another strong element of poetic diction can be the use of vivid imagery for effect. The juxtaposition of unexpected or impossible images is, for example, a particularly strong element in surrealist poetry and haiku. Vivid images are often, as well, endowed with symbolism. Many poetic dictions use repetitive phrases for effect, either a short phrase (such as Homer's "rosy-fingered dawn" or "the wine-dark sea") or a longer refrain. Such repetition can add a somber tone to a poem, as in many odes, or can be laced with irony as the context of the words changes. For example, in Antony's famous eulogy of Caesar in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Antony's repetition of the words, "For Brutus is an honorable man," moves from a sincere tone to one that exudes irony. See Act III, Scene II in Shakespeare's The Tragedy of Julius Caesar, available at Wikisource. Forms Specific poetic forms have been developed by many cultures. In more developed, closed or "received" poetic forms, the rhyming scheme, meter and other elements of a poem are based on sets of rules, ranging from the relatively loose rules that govern the construction of an elegy to the highly formalized structure of the ghazal or villanelle. Described below are some common forms of poetry widely used across a number of languages. Additional forms of poetry may be found in the discussions of poetry of particular cultures or periods and in the glossary. Sonnets Shakespeare Among the most common forms of poetry through the ages is the sonnet, which, by the thirteenth century, was a poem of fourteen lines following a set rhyme scheme and logical structure. The conventions associated with the sonnet have changed during its history, and so there are several different sonnet forms. Traditionally, English poets use iambic pentameter when writing sonnets, with the Spenserian and Shakespearean sonnets being especially notable. In the Romance languages, the hendecasyllable and Alexandrine are the most widely used meters, although the Petrarchan sonnet has been used in Italy since the 14th century. Sonnets are particularly associated with love poetry, and often use a poetic diction heavily based on vivid imagery, but the twists and turns associated with the move from octave to sestet and to final couplet make them a useful and dynamic form for many subjects. Shakespeare's sonnets are among the most famous in English poetry, with 20 being included in the Oxford Book of English Verse. Arthur Quiller-Couch (Ed). Oxford Book of English Verse. Oxford University Press, (1900). Note that the relative prominence of a poet or a set of works is often measured by reference to the Oxford Book of English Verse or the Norton Anthology of Poetry, with many people counting poems or pages allocated to a given poet or subject. Jintishi Du Fu The jintishi (近體詩) is a Chinese poetic form based on a series of set tonal patterns using the four tones of the classical Chinese language in each couplet: the level, rising, falling and entering tones. The basic form of the jintishi has eight lines in four couplets, with parallelism between the lines in the second and third couplets. The couplets with parallel lines contain contrasting content but an identical grammatical relationship between words. Jintishi often have a rich poetic diction, full of allusion, and can have a wide range of subject, including history and politics. One of the masters of the form was Du Fu, who wrote during the Tang Dynasty (8th century). There are several variations on the basic form of the jintishi. Sestina The sestina has six stanzas, each comprising six unrhymed lines, in which the words at the end of the first stanza’s lines reappear in a rolling pattern in the other stanzas. The poem then ends with a three-line stanza in which the words again appear, two on each line. Villanelle W. H. Auden The Villanelle is a nineteen-line poem made up of five triplets with a closing quatrain; the poem is characterized by having two refrains, initially used in the first and third lines of the first stanza, and then alternately used at the close of each subsequent stanza until the final quatrain, which is concluded by the two refrains. The remaining lines of the poem have an a-b alternating rhyme. The villanelle has been used regularly in the English language since the late nineteenth century by such poets as Dylan Thomas, E.g., "Do Not Go Gentle into that Good Night" in Dylan Thomas. In Country Sleep and Other Poems. New York, New York: New Directions Publications, (1952). W. H. Auden, "Villanelle", in W. H. Auden. Collected Poems. New York, New York: Random House, (1945). and Elizabeth Bishop. "One Art", in Elizabeth Bishop. Geography III. New York, New York, Farar, Straus & Giroux, (1976). It is a form that has gained increased use at a time when the use of received forms of poetry has generally been declining. Pantoum The pantoum is a rare form of poetry similar to a villanelle. It is composed of a series of quatrains; the second and fourth lines of each stanza are repeated as the first and third lines of the next. Rondeau The rondeau was originally a French form, written on two rhymes with fifteen lines, using the first part of the first line as a refrain. Tanka Kakinomoto no Hitomaro Tanka is a form of unrhymed Japanese poetry, with five sections totalling 31 onji (phonological units identical to morae), structured in a 5-7-5 7-7 pattern. There is generally a shift in tone and subject matter between the upper 5-7-5 phrase and the lower 7-7 phrase. Tanka were written as early as the Nara period by such poets as Kakinomoto no Hitomaro, at a time when Japan was emerging from a period where much of its poetry followed Chinese form. Tanka was originally the shorter form of Japanese formal poetry, and was used more heavily to explore personal rather than public themes. It thus had a more informal poetic diction. By the 13th century, tanka had become the dominant form of Japanese poetry, and it is still widely written today. The 31-mora rule is generally ignored by poets writing literary tanka in languages other than Japanese. Haiku Haiku is a popular form of unrhymed Japanese poetry, which evolved in the 17th century from the hokku, or opening verse of a renku. Generally written in a single vertical line, the haiku contains three sections totalling 17 onji (see above, at Tanka), structured in a 5-7-5 pattern. Traditionally, haiku contain (1) a kireji, or cutting word, usually placed at the end of one of the poem's three sections; and (2) a kigo, or season-word. The most famous exponent of the haiku was Matsuo Bashō (1644 - 1694). An example of his writing: Etsuko Yanagibori, BASHO'S HAIKU ON THE THEME OF MT. FUJI: FROM THE PERSONAL NOTEBOOK OF Etsuko Yanagibori, link fuji no kaze ya oogi ni nosete Edo miyage the wind of Mt. Fuji I've brought on my fan! a gift from Edo Ruba'i Omar Khayyam Ruba'i is a four-line verse (quatrain) practiced by Arabian and Persian poets. Famous for his rubaiyat (collection of quatrains) is the Persian poet Omar Khayyam. The most celebrated English renderings of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam were produced by Edward Fitzgerald; an example is given below: They say the Lion and the Lizard keep The Courts where Jamshyd gloried and drank deep: And Bahram, that great Hunter—the Wild Ass Stamps o'er his Head, and he lies fast asleep. Sijo Sijo is a short musical lyric practiced by Korean poets. It is usually written as three lines, each averaging 14-16 syllables, for a total of 44-46 syllables. There is a pause in the middle of each line and so, in English, a sijo is sometimes printed in six lines rather than three. An example is given below: You ask how many friends I have? Water and stone, bamboo and pine. The moon rising over the eastern hill is a joyful comrade. Besides these five companions, what other pleasure should I ask? Ode Horace Odes were first developed by poets writing in ancient Greek, such as Pindar, The extant Odes of Pindar as translated by Ernest Myers are freely available on-line from Gutenberg. and Latin, such as Horace. Forms of odes appear in many of the cultures that were influenced by the Greeks and Latins. In particular, the translations of Horace's odes by John Dryden were influential in establishing the form in English, though Dryden utilizes rhyme in his translations where Horace did not. The ode generally has three parts: a strophe, an antistrophe, and an epode. The antistrophes of the ode possess similar metrical structures and, depending on the tradition, similar rhyme structures. In contrast, the epode is written with a different scheme and structure. Odes have a formal poetic diction, and generally deal with a serious subject. The strophe and antistrophe look at the subject from different, often conflicting, perspectives, with the epode moving to a higher level to either view or resolve the underlying issues. Odes are often intended to be recited or sung by two choruses (or individuals), with the first reciting the strophe, the second the antistrophe, and both together the epode. Over time, differing forms for odes have developed with considerable variations in form and structure, but generally showing the original influence of the Pindaric or Horatian ode. One non-Western form which resembles the ode is the qasida in Persian poetry. Ghazal See also: Gazel The ghazal (Arabic: ghazal, Persian: ghazel, Turkish/Azerbaijani: gazel, Urdu: gazal, Bengali/Sylheti: gozol) is a form of poetry common in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Azerbaijani, Urdu and Bengali poetry. In classic form, the ghazal has from five to fifteen rhyming couplets that share a refrain at the end of the second line. This refrain may be of one or several syllables, and is preceded by a rhyme. Each line has an identical meter. Each couplet forms a complete thought and stands alone, and the overall ghazal often reflects on a theme of unattainable love or divinity. The last couplet generally includes the signature of the author. As with other forms with a long history in many languages, many variations have been developed, including forms with a quasi-musical poetic diction in Urdu. Ghazals have a classical affinity with Sufism, and a number of major Sufi religious works are written in ghazal form. The relatively steady meter and the use of the refrain produce an incantatory effect, which complements Sufi mystical themes well. Among the masters of the form is Rumi, a 13th-century Persian poet who lived in Konya, in present-day Turkey. Acrostic An acrostic (from the late Greek akróstichon, from ákros, "top", and stíchos, "verse") is a poem or other form of writing in an alphabetic script, in which the first letter, syllable or word of each line, paragraph or other recurring feature in the text spells out another message. A form of constrained writing, an acrostic can be used as a mnemonic device to aid memory retrieval. A famous acrostic was made in Greek for the acclamation JESUS CHRIST, GOD'S SON, SAVIOUR which in Greek is: Iesous KHristos, THeou Uios, Soter (kh and th being each one letter in Greek and u is also y). The initials spell IKHTHUS same as Ichthys, Greek for fish; hence the frequent use of the fish by early Christians and up to now as a symbol for Jesus Christ.[1] Canzone Literally "song" in Italian, a canzone (plural: canzoni) (cognate with English to chant) is an Italian or Provençal song or ballad. It is also used to describe a type of lyric which resembles a madrigal. Sometimes a composition which is simple and songlike is designated as a canzone, especially if it is by a non-Italian; a good example is the aria "Voi che sapete" from Mozart's Marriage of Figaro. Cinquain While "quintain" is the general term applied to poetic forms using a 5-line pattern, there are specific forms within that category that are defined by specific rules and guidelines. The term "CINQUAIN" (pronounced SING-cane, the plural is "cinquains") as applied by modern poets most correctly refers to a form invented by the American poet Adelaide Crapsey. The first examples of these were published in 1915 in The Complete Poems, roughly a year after her death. Her cinquain form was inspired by Japanese haiku and Tanka (a form of Waka). Other forms Other forms of poetry include: Carmina figurata Concrete poetry: Word arrangement, typeface, color or other visual effects are used to complement or dramatize the meaning of the words used; cinquains, which have five lines with two, four, six, eight, and two syllables, respectively, and free verse, which is based on the irregular rhythmic cadence or the recurrence, with variations, of phrases, images, and syntactical patterns rather than the conventional use of meter. Fixed verse Folk song Free verse Minnesang Murabba Pastourelle Poetry slam: This is a modern style of spoken word poetry, frequently associated with a distinctive style of delivery. Stev Yoik Genres In addition to specific forms of poems, poetry is often thought of in terms of different genres and subgenres. A poetic genre is generally a tradition or classification of poetry based on the subject matter, style, or other broader literary characteristics. For a general discussion of genre theory on the internet, see Daniel Chandler's Introduction to Genre Theory. Some commentators view genres as natural forms of literature. See, for example, Northrup Frye. Anatomy of Criticism. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, (1957). Others view the study of genres as the study of how different works relate and refer to other works. Jacques Derrida, Beverly Bie Brahic (Trans.). Geneses, Genealogies, Genres, And Genius: The Secrets of the Archive. New York, New York: Columbia University Press(2006), ISBN 0231139780. Epic poetry is one commonly identified genre, often defined as lengthy poems concerning events of a heroic or important nature to the culture of the time. Lyric poetry, which tends to be shorter, melodic, and contemplative, is another commonly identified genre. Some commentators may organize bodies of poetry into further subgenres, and individual poems may be seen as a part of many different genres. Shakespeare parodied such analysis in Hamlet, describing the genres as consisting of "tragedy, comedy, history, pastoral, pastoral-comical, historical-pastoral, tragical-historical, tragical-comical-historical-pastoral..." In many cases, poetic genres show common features as a result of a common tradition, even across cultures. Described below are some common genres, but the classification of genres, the description of their characteristics, and even the reasons for undertaking a classification into genres can take many forms. Narrative poetry Chaucer Narrative poetry is a genre of poetry that tells a story. Broadly it subsumes epic poetry, but the term "narrative poetry" is often reserved for smaller works, generally with more appeal to human interest. Narrative poetry may be the oldest type of poetry. Many scholars of Homer have concluded that his Iliad and Odyssey were composed from compilations of shorter narrative poems that related individual episodes and were more suitable for an evening's entertainment. Much narrative poetry—such as Scots and English ballads, and Baltic and Slavic heroic poems—is performance poetry with roots in a preliterate oral tradition. It has been speculated that some features that distinguish poetry from prose, such as meter, alliteration and kennings, once served as memory aids for bards who recited traditional tales. Notable narrative poets have included Ovid, Dante, Juan Ruiz, Chaucer, William Langland, Luís de Camões, Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, Robert Burns, Fernando de Rojas, Adam Mickiewicz, Alexander Pushkin, Edgar Allan Poe and Alfred Tennyson. Epic poetry Valmiki Epic poetry is a genre of poetry, and a major form of narrative literature. It recounts, in a continuous narrative, the life and works of a heroic or mythological person or group of persons. Examples of epic poems are Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Virgil's Aeneid, the Nibelungenlied, Luís de Camões' Os Lusíadas, the Cantar de Mio Cid, the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Mahabharata, Valmiki's Ramayana, Ferdowsi's Shahnama, and the Epic of King Gesar. While the composition of epic poetry, and of long poems generally, became less common in the west after the early 20th century, some notable epics have continued to be written. Derek Walcott won a Nobel prize to a great extent on the basis of his epic, Omeros. See Press Release from the Nobel Committee, , accessed January 20, 2008. Dramatic poetry Goethe Dramatic poetry is drama written in verse to be spoken or sung, and appears in varying, sometimes related forms in many cultures. Verse drama may have developed out of earlier oral epics, such as the Sanskrit and Greek epics.<ref>A. Berriedale Keith, Sanskrit Drama, Motilal Banarsidass Publ (1998).</ref> Greek tragedy in verse dates to the sixth century B.C., and may have been an influence on the development of Sanskrit drama, A. Berriedale Keith at 57-58. just as Indian drama in turn appears to have influenced the development of the bainwen verse dramas in China, forerunners of Chinese Opera. William Dolby, "Early Chinese Plays and Theatre," in Colin Mackerras, Chinese Theatre, University of Hawaii Press, 1983, p. 17. East Asian verse dramas also include Japanese Noh. Examples of dramatic poetry in Persian literature include Nezami's two famous dramatic works, Layla and Majnun and Khosrow and Shirin, The Story of Layla and Majnun, by Nizami, translated Dr. Rudolf Gelpke in collaboration with E. Mattin and G. Hill, Omega Publications, 1966, ISBN 0-930872-52-5. Ferdowsi's tragedies such as Rostam and Sohrab, Rumi's Masnavi, Gorgani's tragedy of Vis and Ramin, Dick Davis (January 6, 2005), "Vis o Rāmin," in Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition. Accessed on April 25, 2008. and Vahshi's tragedy of Farhad. Satirical poetry Poetry can be a powerful vehicle for satire. The punch of an insult delivered in verse can be many times more powerful and memorable than that of the same insult, spoken or written in prose. The Romans had a strong tradition of satirical poetry, often written for political purposes. A notable example is the Roman poet Juvenal's satires, whose insults stung the entire spectrum of society. John Wilmot The same is true of the English satirical tradition. Embroiled in the feverish politics of the time and stung by an attack on him by his former friend, Thomas Shadwell (a Whig), John Dryden (a Tory), the first Poet Laureate, produced in 1682 Mac Flecknoe, one of the greatest pieces of sustained invective in the English language, subtitled "A Satire on the True Blue Protestant Poet, T.S." In this, the late, notably mediocre poet, Richard Flecknoe, was imagined to be contemplating who should succeed him as ruler "of all the realms of Nonsense absolute" to "reign and wage immortal war on wit." Bocage Another master of 17th-century English satirical poetry was John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester. He was known for ruthless satires such as "A Satyr Against Mankind" (1675) and a "A Satyr on Charles II." Another exemplar of English satirical poetry was Alexander Pope, who famously chided critics in his Essay on Criticism (1709). Dryden and Pope were writers of epic poetry, and their satirical style was accordingly epic; but there is no prescribed form for satirical poetry. The greatest satirical poets outside England include Poland's Ignacy Krasicki and Portugal's Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage, commonly known as Bocage. Lyric poetry Christine de Pizan Lyric poetry is a genre that, unlike epic poetry and dramatic poetry, does not attempt to tell a story but instead is of a more personal nature. Rather than depicting characters and actions, it portrays the poet's own feelings, states of mind, and perceptions. While the genre's name, derived from "lyre," implies that it is intended to be sung, much lyric poetry is meant purely for reading. Though lyric poetry has long celebrated love, many courtly-love poets also wrote lyric poems about war and peace, nature and nostalgia, grief and loss. Notable among these are the 15th century French lyric poets, Christine de Pizan and Charles, Duke of Orléans. Spiritual and religious themes were addressed by such mystic lyric poets as St. John of the Cross and Teresa of Ávila. The tradition of lyric poetry based on spiritual experience was continued by later poets such as John Donne, Gerard Manley Hopkins, Antonio Machado and T. S. Eliot. Though the most popular form for western lyric poetry to take may be the 14-line sonnet, as practiced by Petrarch and Shakespeare, lyric poetry shows a bewildering variety of forms, including increasingly, in the 20th century, unrhymed ones. Lyric poetry is the most common type of poetry, as it deals intricately with an author's own emotions and views. Elegy Thomas Gray An elegy is a mournful, melancholy or plaintive poem, especially a lament for the dead or a funeral song. The term "elegy," which originally denoted a type of poetic meter (elegiac meter), commonly describes a poem of mourning. An elegy may also reflect something that seems to the author to be strange or mysterious. The elegy, as a reflection on a death, on a sorrow more generally, or on something mysterious, may be classified as a form of lyric poetry. In a related sense that harks back to ancient poetic traditions of sung poetry, the word "elegy" may also denote a type of musical work, usually of a sad or somber nature. Elegiac poetry has been written since antiquity. Notable practitioners have included Propertius (lived ca. 50 BCE – ca. 15 BCE), Jorge Manrique (1476), Jan Kochanowski (1580), Chidiock Tichborne (1586), Edmund Spenser (1595), Ben Jonson (1616), John Milton (1637), Thomas Gray (1750), Charlotte Turner Smith (1784), William Cullen Bryant (1817), Percy Bysshe Shelley (1821), Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1823), Evgeny Baratynsky (1837), Alfred Tennyson (1849), Walt Whitman (1865), Louis Gallet (lived 1835–98), Antonio Machado (1903), Juan Ramón Jiménez (1914), William Butler Yeats (1916), Rainer Maria Rilke (1922), Virginia Woolf (1927), Federico García Lorca (1935), Kamau Brathwaite (author born 1930). Verse fable Ignacy Krasicki The fable is an ancient, near-ubiquitous literary genre, often (though not invariably) set in verse. It is a succinct story that features anthropomorphized animals, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that illustrate a moral lesson (a "moral"). Verse fables have used a variety of meter and rhyme patterns; Ignacy Krasicki, for example, in his Fables and Parables, used 13-syllable lines in rhyming couplets. Notable verse fabulists have included Aesop (mid-6th century BCE), Vishnu Sarma (ca. 200 BCE), Phaedrus (15 BCE–50 CE), Marie de France (12th century), Robert Henryson (fl.1470-1500), Biernat of Lublin (1465?–after 1529), Jean de La Fontaine (1621–95), Ignacy Krasicki (1735–1801), Félix María de Samaniego (1745 – 1801), Tomás de Iriarte (1750 – 1791), Ivan Krylov (1769–1844) and Ambrose Bierce (1842–1914). All of Aesop's translators and successors owe a debt to that semi-legendary fabulist. An example of a verse fable is Krasicki's "The Lamb and the Wolves": Aggression ever finds cause if sufficiently pressed. Two wolves on the prowl had trapped a lamb in the forest And were about to pounce. Quoth the lamb: "What right have you?" "You're toothsome, weak, in the wood." — The wolves dined sans ado. Prose poetry Charles Baudelaire, by Gustave Courbet. Prose poetry is a hybrid genre that shows attributes of both prose and poetry. It may be indistinguishable from the micro-story (aka the "short short story," "flash fiction"). It qualifies as poetry because of its conciseness, use of metaphor, and special attention to language. While some examples of earlier prose strike modern readers as poetic, prose poetry is commonly regarded as having originated in 19th-century France, where its practitioners included Aloysius Bertrand, Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Rimbaud and Stéphane Mallarmé. The genre has subsequently found notable exemplars in different languages:English: Oscar Wilde, T. S. Eliot, Gertrude Stein, Sherwood Anderson, Allen Ginsberg, Seamus Heaney, Russell Edson, Robert Bly, Charles Simic, Joseph ConradFrench: Francis PongeGreek: Andreas Embirikos, Nikos Engonopoulos Julio CortázarItalian: Eugenio Montale, Salvatore Quasimodo, Giuseppe Ungaretti, Umberto SabaPolish: Bolesław Prus, Zbigniew HerbertPortuguese: Fernando Pessoa, Mário Cesariny, Mário de Sá-Carneiro, Walter Solon, Eugénio de Andrade, Al Berto, Alexandre O'Neill, José Saramago, António Lobo Antunes Russian: Ivan Turgenev, Anatoly KudryavitskySpanish: Octavio Paz, Ángel Crespo, Julio Cortázar, Ruben Dario, Oliverio GirondoSwedish: Tomas Tranströmer Sindhi language: Narin Shiam: Hari Dilgeer Tanyir Abasi: Saikh AyazMukhtiar Malik: Taj Joyo Since the late 1980s especially, prose poetry has gained increasing popularity, with entire journals devoted solely to that genre. See also List of basic poetry topics Poetry terminology Notes References Anthologies Margaret Ferguson, Mary Jo Salter & Jon Stallworthy (Eds). The Norton Anthology of Poetry. New York, New York: W.W. Norton & Co. (4th ed, 1996), ISBN 0393968200. Helen Gardner (Ed). New Oxford Book of English Verse 1250-1950. New York, New York and London, England: Oxford University Press, (1972), ISBN 0-19-812136-9. Donald Hall (Ed). New Poets of England and America. New York, New York: Meridian Press, (1957). Philip Larkin (Ed). The Oxford Book of Twentieth Century English Verse. New York, New York and London, England: Oxford University Press, (1973) James Laughlin (Ed). New Directions in Prose and Poetry Annuals. Norfolk, Connecticut and New York, New York: New Directions Publications (1936–1991). Arthur Quiller-Couch (Ed). Oxford Book of English Verse. Oxford University Press, (1900). W.B. Yeats (Ed). Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892-1935. Oxford University Press, (1936) Scansion and form Alfred Corn. The Poem's Heartbeat: A Manual of Prosody. London, England: Storyline Press (1997), ISBN 1885266405. Stephen Fry. The Ode Less Travelled: Unlocking the Poet Within. London: Arrow Books (2007) Paul Fussell. Poetic Meter and Poetic Form. New York, New York: Random House (1965). John Hollander. Rhyme's Reason (3rd ed). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press (2001). James McAuley. Versification, A Short Introduction. Michigan State University Press (1983), ISBN B0007DTS8K Robert Pinsky. The Sounds of Poetry (1998). Critical and historical works Cleanth Brooks. The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry. New York, New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, (1947). William K. Wimsatt, Jr. & Cleanth Brooks. Literary Criticism: A Short History. New York, New York: Vintage Books, (1957). T. S. Eliot. The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism. London, England: Methuen Publishing, Ltd., (1920). George Gascoigne. Certayne Notes of Instruction Concerning the Making of English Verse or Ryme. Ezra Pound. ABC of Reading. London, England: Faber, (1951). Władysław Tatarkiewicz. "The Concept of Poetry," translated by Christopher Kasparek, Dialectics and Humanism: the Polish Philosophical Quarterly, vol. II, no. 2 (spring 1975), pp. 13–24. John Thompson. The Founding of English Meter. New York, New York: Columbia University Press (1961). Linguistics and language Zhiming Bao. The structure of tone. New York, New York: Oxford University Press (1999) ISBN 0-19-511880-4. Morio Kono. "Perception and Psychology of Rhythm" in Accent, Intonation, Rhythm and Pause. (1997). Moria Yip. Tone. Cambridge textbooks in linguistics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2002) ISBN 0-521-77314-8 (hbk), ISBN 0-521-77445-4 (pbk). Other works Alex Preminger, Terry V.F. Brogan and Frank J. Warnke (Eds). The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics'' (3rd Ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-02123-6. Return to top of page.
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4,761
Aloe
Aloe, also written Aloë, is a genus containing about four hundred species of flowering succulent plants. The most common and well known of these is Aloe vera, or "true aloe". The genus is native to Africa, and is common in South Africa's Cape Province, the mountains of tropical Africa, and neighbouring areas such as Madagascar, the Arabian peninsula, and the islands off Africa. The APG II system (2003) placed the genus in the family Asphodelaceae. In the past it has also been assigned to families Aloaceae and Liliaceaeor lilly family. Members of the closely allied genera Gasteria, Haworthia and Kniphofia, which have a similar mode of growth, are also popularly known as "aloes". Note that the plant sometimes called "American aloe" (Agave americana) belongs to Agavaceae, a different family. Most Aloe species have a rosette of large, thick, fleshy leaves. The leaves are often lance-shaped with a sharp apex and a spiny margin. Aloe flowers are tubular, frequently yellow, pink or red and are borne on densely clustered, simple or branched leafless stems. Many species of Aloe appear to be stemless, with the rosette growing directly at ground level; other varieties may have a branched or unbranched stem from which the fleshy leaves spring. They vary in colour from grey to bright-green and are sometimes striped or mottled. Some Aloes native to South Africa are arborescent. Images of aloe trees. Uses Aloe species are frequently cultivated as ornamental plants both in gardens and in pots. Many Aloe species are highly decorative and are valued by collectors of succulents. Aloe Vera is used both internally and externally on humans, and is claimed to have some medicinal effects, which have been supported by scientific and medical research - see references on article on Aloe vera. Historical uses Historical use of various Aloe species by humans is well documented. Documentation of the clinical effectiveness is available, although relatively limited. Reynolds, T (ed) Aloes: The genus Aloe. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0415306720 Of the 300 species of Aloe, only a few were used traditionally as a herbal medicine, aloe vera again being the most commonly used version of aloe in herbal medicine. Also included are Aloe perryi (found in northeastern Africa) and Aloe ferox (found in South Africa). The Greeks and Romans used aloe vera to treat wounds. In the Middle Ages, the yellowish liquid found inside the leaves was favored as a purgative. It should be noted that processed aloe that contains aloin is generally used as a laxative, whereas processed aloe vera juice that does not contain significant aloin is used for digestive healing. Some species, particularly Aloe vera are used in alternative medicine and in the home first aids. Both the translucent inner pulp and the resinous yellow aloin from wounding the Aloe plant are used externally to relieve skin discomforts. As an herbal medicine, aloe vera juice is commonly used internally to relieve digestive discomfort. Some modern research suggests Aloe vera can significantly slow wound healing compared to normal protocols of treatment. Other reviews of randomised and controlled clinical trials have provided no evidence that Aloe vera has a strong medicinal effect. Today, aloe vera is used both internally and externally on humans. The gel found in the leaves is used for soothing minor burns, wounds, and various skin conditions like eczema and ringworm. The extracted aloe vera juice aloe vera plant is used internally to treat a variety of digestive conditions. The use of this herbal medicine was popularized in the 1950s in many Western Countries. The gel's effect is nearly immediate; it also applies a layer over wounds that is said to reduce the chance of any infection. There have been relatively few studies about possible benefits of Aloe gel taken internally, yet it has been found to be anti-carcinogenic. Data also suggest that components of Aloe inhibit tumor growth. There have been some studies in animal models which indicate that extracts of Aloe have a significant anti-hyperglycemic effect, and may be useful in treating Type II diabetes. These studies have not been confirmed in humans. Aloin in OTC laxative products On May 9, 2002, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration issued a final rule banning the use of aloin, the yellow sap of the aloe plant for use as laxative ingredient in over-the-counter drug products. Most aloe juices today do not contain significant aloin. Chemical properties Split Aloe According to W. A. Shenstone, two classes of aloins are to be recognized: (1) nataloins, which yield picric and oxalic acids with nitric acid, and do not give a red coloration with nitric acid; and (2) barbaloins, which yield aloetic acid (C7H2N3O5), chrysammic acid (C7H2N2O6), picric and oxalic acids with nitric acid, being reddened by the acid. This second group may be divided into a-barbaloins, obtained from Barbados Aloe, and reddened in the cold, and b-barbaloins, obtained from Socotrine and Zanzibar Aloe, reddened by ordinary nitric acid only when warmed or by fuming acid in the cold. Nataloin (2C17H13O7·H2O) forms bright yellow scales. Barbaloin (C17H18O7) prismatic crystals. Aloe species also contain a trace of volatile oil, to which its odour is due. Popular culture Aloe vossii Aloe rubrolutea occurs as a charge in heraldry, such as in the Civic Heraldry of Namibia. Species There are around 400 species in the genus Aloe. For a full list, see List of species of genus Aloe. Species include: Aloe vera - used in healthcare & health products Aloe arborescens - used in healthcare Aloe aristata - Torch Plant, Lace Aloe Aloe dichotoma - quiver tree or kokerboom Aloe nyeriensis Aloe variegata - Partridge-breasted Aloe, Tiger Aloe Aloe barbadensis - Barbados Aloe, Common Aloe, Yellow Aloe, Medicinal Aloe. This is an older name for Aloe vera. Aloe wildii Trivia Aloe tree on Batum stamp, 1919. An Aloe tree appeared on stamps issued in 1919 by Batum, a semi-autonomous region of Georgia in the South Caucasus region. See also List of Aloe species List of Southern African indigenous trees References External links Etymology of Aloe Images
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History_of_science
Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers making use of scientific methods, which emphasize the observation, explanation, and adequate prediction of real world phenomena by experiment. Given the dual status of science as objective knowledge and as a human construct, good historiography of science draws on the historical methods of both intellectual history and social history. Tracing the exact origins of modern science is possible through the many important texts which have survived from the classical world. However, the word scientist is relatively recent—first coined by William Whewell in the 19th century. Previously, people investigating nature called themselves natural philosophers. While empirical investigations of the natural world have been described since Ancient Greece (for example, by Thales, Aristotle, and others), and scientific methods have been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Ibn al-Haytham, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and Roger Bacon), the dawn of modern science is generally traced back to the early modern period, during what is known as the Scientific Revolution that took place in 16th and 17th century Europe. Scientific methods are considered to be so fundamental to modern science that some — especially philosophers of science and practicing scientists — consider earlier inquiries into nature to be pre-scientific. Traditionally, historians of science have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those inquiries. W. C. Dampier Wetham, Science, in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. (New York: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc, 1911); M. Clagett, Greek Science in Antiquity (New York: Collier Books, 1955); D. Pingree, Hellenophilia versus the History of Science, Isis 83, 559 (1982); Pat Munday, entry "History of Science", New Dictionary of the History of Ideas (Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005). Early cultures In prehistoric times, advice and knowledge was passed from generation to generation in an oral tradition. The development of writing enabled knowledge to be stored and communicated across generations with much greater fidelity. Combined with the development of agriculture, which allowed for a surplus of food, it became possible for early civilizations to develop, because more time could be devoted to tasks other than survival. Many ancient civilizations collected astronomical information in a systematic manner through simple observation. Though they had no knowledge of the real physical structure of the planets and stars, many theoretical explanations were proposed. Basic facts about human physiology were known in some places, and alchemy was practiced in several civilizations. Considerable observation of macrobiotic flora and fauna was also performed. Science in the Fertile Crescent From their beginnings in Sumer (now Iraq) around 3500 BC the Mesopotamian peoples began to attempt to record some observations of the world with extremely thorough quantitative and numerical data. But their observations and measurements were seemingly taken for purposes other than for scientific laws. A concrete instance of Pythagoras' law was recorded, as early as the 18th century BC: the Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet Plimpton 322 records a number of Pythagorean triplets (3,4,5) (5,12,13). ..., dated 1900 BC, possibly millennia before Pythagoras, but an abstract formulation of the Pythagorean theorem was not. Paul Hoffman, The man who loved only numbers: the story of Paul Erdös and the search for mathematical truth, (New York: Hyperion), 1998, p.187. ISBN 0-7868-6362-5 Significant advances in Ancient Egypt include astronomy, mathematics and medicine. Homer's Odyssey stated that "the Egyptians were skilled in medicine more than any other art". Their geometry was a necessary outgrowth of surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the Nile river. The 3,4,5 right triangle and other rules of thumb served to represent rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. Egypt was also a center of alchemy research for much of the Mediterranean. Science in the Greco-Roman world In Classical Antiquity, the inquiry into the workings of the universe took place both in investigations aimed at such practical goals as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses and in those abstract investigations known as natural philosophy. The ancient people who are considered the first scientists may have thought of themselves as natural philosophers, as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, physicians), or as followers of a religious tradition (for example, temple healers). The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the pre-Socratics, provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?" F. M. Cornford, Principium Sapientiae: The Origins of Greek Philosophical Thought, (Gloucester, Mass., Peter Smith, 1971), p. 159. The pre-Socratic philosopher Thales, dubbed the "father of science", was the first to postulate non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena such as lightning and earthquakes. Pythagoras of Samos founded the Pythagorean school, which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical in shape. Subsequently, Plato and Aristotle produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature. Their development of deductive reasoning was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry. The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and astronomy; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research. G. E. R. Lloyd, Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle, (New York: W. W. Norton, 1970), pp. 144-6. In the Hellenistic age scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations. Lloyd (1973), p. 177. Thus, clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day. Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Ancient Greeks, but the Socratic method did, along with the idea of Forms, great advances in geometry, logic, and the natural sciences. Benjamin Farrington, former Professor of Classics at Swansea University wrote in 1944: "Men were weighing for thousands of years before Archimedes worked out the laws of equilibrium; they must have had practical and intuitional knowledge of the principles involved. What Archimedes did was to sort out the theoretical implications of this practical knowledge and present the resulting body of knowledge as a logically coherent system." and again: "With astonishment we find ourselves on the threshold of modern science. Nor should it be supposed that by some trick of translation the extracts have been given an air of modernity. Far from it. The vocabulary of these writings and their style are the source from which our own vocabulary and style have been derived." Greek Science, many editions, such as the paperback by Penguin Books. Copyrights in 1944, 1949, 1953, 1961, 1963. The first quote above comes from Part 1, Chapter 1; the second, from Part 2, Chapter 4. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150-100 BC). The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, while the geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. Hipparchus (ca. 190 – ca. 120 BC) produced the first systematic star catalog. In medicine, Herophilos (335 - 280 BC) was the first to base his conclusions on dissection of the human body and to describe the nervous system. Hippocrates (ca. 460 BC – ca. 370 BC) and his followers were first to describe many diseases and medical conditions. Galen (129 – ca. 200 AD) performed many audacious operations—including brain and eye surgeries— that were not tried again for almost two millennia. The mathematician Euclid laid down the foundations of mathematical rigor and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his Elements, considered the most influential textbook ever written. Archimedes, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, is credited with using the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of . He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of hydrostatics and the explanation of the principle of the lever. Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties such as hardness. Pliny the Elder produced what is one of the largest encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 AD, and must be regarded as the rightful successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the octahedral shape of the diamond, and proceeds to mention that diamond dust is used by engravers to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of crystal shape is a precursor to modern crystallography, while mention of numerous other minerals presages mineralogy. He also recognises that other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the crystal habit with the work of lapidaries. He was also the first to recognise that amber was a fossilized resin from pine trees because he had seen samples with trapped insects within them. Science in India The wootz, crucible and stainless steels were invented in India, and were widely exported, resulting in "Damascus steel" by the year 1000. C. S. Smith, A History of Metallography, University Press, Chicago (1960); Juleff 1996; Srinivasan, Sharda and Srinivasa Rangnathan 2004 The Hindus excel in the manufacture of iron, and in the preparations of those ingredients along with which it is fused to obtain that kind of soft iron which is usually styled Indian steel (Hindiah). They also have workshops wherein are forged the most famous sabres in the world. Henry Yule quoted the 12th century Arab Edrizi. Srinivasan, Sharda and Srinivasa Rangnathan. 2004. India’s Legendary Wootz Steel. Bangalore: Tata Steel. 2004 Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) and Aryabhata Siddhanta, worked out an accurate heliocentric model of gravitation, including elliptical orbits, the circumference of the earth, and the longitudes of planets around the Sun. He also introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. In the 7th century, Brahmagupta recognized gravity as a force of attraction. Mainak Kumar Bose, Late Classical India, A. Mukherjee & Co., 1988, p. 277. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic World by the 9th century. Ifrah, Georges. 1999. The Universal History of Numbers : From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer, Wiley. ISBN 0-471-37568-3. O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson. 2000. 'Indian Numerals', MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigometric calculations based on it. During the 14th-16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and calculus. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis". George G. Joseph (1991). The crest of the peacock. London. Science in China China has a long and rich history of technological contribution. The Four Great Inventions of ancient China' (; Pinyin: Sì dà fā míng) are the compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing. These four discoveries had an enormous impact on the development of Chinese civilization and a far-ranging global impact. According to English philosopher Francis Bacon, writing in Novum Organum, Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries." (Novum Organum, Liber I, CXXIX - Adapted from the 1863 translation) There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology. He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi Sheng (990-1051). Shen's contemporary Su Song (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive. The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture." Agustín Udías, Searching the Heavens and the Earth: The History of Jesuit Observatories. (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003). p.53 Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the water-powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields. However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into what could be called "science". According to Needham, it was the religious and philosophical framework of the Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to believe in the ideas of laws of nature: Science in the Middle Ages With the division of the Empire, the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past. The Library of Alexandria, which had suffered since it fell under Roman rule, Plutarch, Life of Caesar 49.3. had been destroyed by 642, shortly after the Arab conquest of Egypt. Abd-el-latif (1203): "the library which 'Amr ibn al-'As burnt with the permission of 'Umar." Europe: A History, p 139. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-820171-0 While the Byzantine Empire still held learning centers such as Constantinople, Western Europe's knowledge was concentrated in monasteries until the development of medieval universities in the 12th and 13th centuries. The curriculum of monastic schools included the study of the few available ancient texts and of new works on practical subjects like medicine Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons", Isis, 70 (1979): 250-268; reprinted in Michael H. Shank, The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000, pp. 163-181. ISBN 0-226-74951-7. and timekeeping. Faith Wallis, Bede: The Reckoning of Time, Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Pr., 2004, pp. xviii-xxxiv. ISBN 0-85323-693-3. Meanwhile, in the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 14th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek and Latin texts from the Byzantine Empire along with Indian sources of learning provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon. Science in the Islamic world Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from circa 1000, in his Book of Optics. David Agar (2001). Arabic Studies in Physics and Astronomy During 800 - 1400 AD. University of Jyväskylä. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method. Bradley Steffens (2006), Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246. Rosanna Gorini writes: Due to the development of the modern scientific method, Robert Briffault wrote in The Making of Humanity: In mathematics, the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Sabian mathematician Al-Battani (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics, while Persian scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine. In astronomy, Al-Battani improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir were later incorporated into the Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories may have also been discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Bartel Leendert van der Waerden (1987). "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), 525–545 [534-537]. Abu-Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al-Sijzi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, and 'Umar al-Katibi al-Qazwini. , in Muslim chemists and alchemists played an important role in the foundation of modern chemistry. Scholars such as Will Durant Will Durant (1980). The Age of Faith (The Story of Civilization, Volume 4), p. 162-186. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671012002. and Fielding H. Garrison Fielding H. Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine with Medical Chronology, Suggestions for Study and Biblographic Data, p. 86 considered Muslim chemists to be the founders of chemistry. In particular, Geber is "considered by many to be the father of chemistry". John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", Third World Quarterly 26 (4-5): 815-830 The works of Arabic scientists influenced Roger Bacon (who introduced the empirical method to Europe, strongly influenced by his reading of Arabic writers), and later Isaac Newton. Some of the other famous scientists from the Islamic world include al-Farabi (polymath), Abu al-Qasim (pioneer of surgery), A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9), p. 877-892. Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (pioneer of Indology, Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette. geodesy and anthropology), Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10. Avicenna (pioneer of momentum Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Islamic Conception Of Intellectual Life", in Philip P. Wiener (ed.), Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Vol. 2, p. 65, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1973-1974. and medicine), Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", Becka J. 119 (1), p. 17-23. Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (forerunner of social sciences Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", Middle East Journal 56 (1), p. 25. such as demography, H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1. cultural history, Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", Islam & Science 5 (1), p. 61-70. historiography, Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569. philosophy of history and sociology), Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3). among many others. Science in Medieval Europe An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, and during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Europeans access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Geber, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes. European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. As well as this, Europeans began to venture further and further east (most notably, perhaps, Marco Polo) as a result of the Pax Mongolica. This led to the increased influence of Indian and even Chinese science on the European tradition. Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight of Eilmer of Malmesbury (who had studied Mathematics in 11th century England), William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum / The history of the English kings, ed. and trans. R. A. B. Mynors, R. M. Thomson, and M. Winterbottom, 2 vols., Oxford Medieval Texts (1998–9) and the metallurgical achievements of the Cistercian blast furnace at Laskill. Thomas Woods, How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005), ISBN 0-89526-038-7 R. W. Vernon, G. McDonnell and A. Schmidt, 'An integrated geophysical and analytical appraisal of early iron-working: three case studies' Historical Metallurgy 31(2) (1998), 72-5 79. David Derbyshire, Henry "Stamped Out Industrial Revolution", The Daily Telegraph (21 June 2002) At the beginning of the 13th century there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. According to Pierre Duhem, the Condemnation of 1277 led to the birth of modern science, because it forced thinkers to break from relying so much on Aristotle, and to think about the world in new ways. The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work being done, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. Edward Grant, The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1996), pp. 127-31. William of Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object Edward Grant, A Source Book in Medieval Science, (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr., 1974), p. 232 and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. David C. Lindberg, Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 140-2. Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. Edward Grant, The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1996), pp. 95-7. The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion. Edward Grant, The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1996), pp. 100-3. In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to the previous period of massive philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was improved after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. New ideas also helped to influence the development of European science at this point: not least the introduction of Algebra. These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, which may also be understood as a resumption of the process of scientific change, halted at the start of the Black Death. Early modern science The renewal of learning in Europe, that began with 12th century Scholasticism, came to an end about the time of the Black Death, and the initial period of the subsequent Italian Renaissance is sometimes seen as a lull in scientific activity. The Northern Renaissance, on the other hand, showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristoteleian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). Allen Debus, Man and Nature in the Renaissance, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1978). Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation; the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus; the Fall of Constantinople; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen (medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by Vesalius on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy. Precise titles of these landmark books can be found in the collections of the Library of Congress. A list of these titles can be found in Leonard C. Bruno (1989), The Landmarks of Science. ISBN 0-8160-2137-6 The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by most historians to have begun in 1543, when the books De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body) by Andreas Vesalius, and also De Revolutionibus, by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, were first printed. The thesis of Copernicus' book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The period culminated with the publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton, representative of the unprecedented growth of scientific publications throughout Europe. Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by Galileo Galilei, Edmond Halley, Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Gottfried Leibniz, and Blaise Pascal. In philosophy, major contributions were made by Francis Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, René Descartes, and Thomas Hobbes. The scientific method was also better developed as the modern way of thinking emphasized experimentation and reason over traditional considerations. Age of Enlightenment The 17th century "Age of Reason" opened the avenues to the decisive steps towards modern science, which took place during the 18th century "Age of Enlightenment". Directly based on the works of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, the way was now clear to the development of modern mathematics, physics and technology by the generation of Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), Georges-Louis Leclerc (1707–1788) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783), epitomized in the appearance of Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie between 1751 and 1772. The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected philosophy (Immanuel Kant, David Hume), religion (notably with the appearance of positive atheism, and the increasingly significant impact of science upon religion), and society and politics in general (Adam Smith, Voltaire), the French Revolution of 1789 setting a bloody cesura indicating the beginning of political modernity. Modern science The Scientific Revolution established science as the preeminent source for the growth of knowledge. The early modern period is seen as a flowering of the Renaissance, in what is often known as the Scientific Revolution, viewed as a foundation of modern science. During the 19th century, the practice of science became professionalized and institutionalized in ways which continued through the 20th century. As the role of scientific knowledge grew in society, it became incorporated with many aspects of the functioning of nation-states. The history of science is marked by a chain of advances in technology and knowledge that have always complemented each other. Technological innovations bring about new discoveries and are bred by other discoveries which inspire new possibilities and approaches to longstanding science issues. Natural sciences Physics The Scientific Revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. Nicolaus Copernicus revived the heliocentric model of the solar system described by Aristarchus of Samos. This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by Kepler in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Galileo ("Father of Modern Physics") also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key element of the scientific method. In 1687, Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton's Law of Gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity. The behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Faraday, Ohm, and others during the early 19th century. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of electromagnetism, by Maxwell (known as Maxwell's equations). The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, the theory of general relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depended, could not exist. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger formulated quantum mechanics, which explained the preceding quantum theories. The observation by Edwin Hubble in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the Big Bang theory by Georges Lemaître. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb. Though the process had begun with the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "Big Science", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications. Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two. Chemistry The history of modern chemistry can be taken to begin with the distinction of chemistry from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist, in 1661 (although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after this) and the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer. Another important step was made by Antoine Lavoisier (Father of Modern Chemistry) through his recognition of oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic table of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries. The synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler opened a new research field, organic chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from whaling. By the twentieth century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in physiological chemistry, the precursor to biochemistry. The twentieth century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. Linus Pauling's book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, the secret of life (in the words of Francis Crick, 1953). In the same year, the Miller-Urey experiment demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple amino acids, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules. Geology Geology existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. Theophrastus' work on rocks Peri lithōn remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. Chinese polymath Shen Kua (1031 - 1095) was the first to formulate hypotheses for the process of land formation. Based on his observation of fossils in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt. Geology was not systematically restructured during the Scientific Revolution, but individual theorists made important contributions. Robert Hooke, for example, formulated theory of earthquakes, and Nicholas Steno developed the theory of superposition and argued that fossils were the remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with Thomas Burnet's Sacred Theory of the Earth in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history. Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 1700s and early 1800s. Benoît de Maillet and the Comte de Buffon argued that Earth was much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars. Jean-Étienne Guettard and Nicolas Desmarest hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps. Abraham Werner created a systematic classification scheme for rocks and minerals--an achievement as significant for geology as that of Linnaeus was for biology. Werner also proposed a generalized interpretation of Earth history, as did contemporary Scottish polymath James Hutton. Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, expanding on the work of Steno, argued that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. The use of index fossils became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities. Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as Charles Lyell, Adam Sedgwick, and Roderick Murchison applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades. Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes. Louis Agassiz and others established the reality of continent-covering ice ages, and "fluvialists" like Andrew Crombie Ramsay argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of radioactivity, radiometric dating methods were developed, starting in the 1900s. Alfred Wegener's theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when it was proposed in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of plate tectonics, which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since 1970 it has been the unifying principle in geology. Geologists' embrace of plate tectonics was part of a broadening of the field from a study of rocks into a study of the Earth as a planet. Other elements of this transformation include: geophysical studies of the interior of the Earth, the grouping of geology with meteorology and oceanography as one of the "earth sciences", and comparisons of Earth and the solar system's other rocky planets. Astronomy Aristarchus of Samos published work on how to determine the sizes and distances of the Sun and the Moon, and Eratosthenes used this work to figure the size of the Earth. Hipparchus later discovered the precession of the Earth. Advances in astronomy and in optical systems in the 19th century resulted in the first observation of an asteroid (1 Ceres) in 1801, and the discovery of Neptune in 1846. George Gamow, Ralph Alpher, and Robert Hermann had calculated that there should be evidence for a Big Bang in the background temperature of the universe. Alpher, Herman, and Gamow. Nature 162,774 (1948). In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson Wilson's 1978 Nobel lecture discovered a 3 kelvin background hiss in their Bell Labs radiotelescope, which was evidence for this hypothesis, and formed the basis for a number of results that helped determine the age of the universe. Supernova SN1987A was observed by astronomers on Earth both visually, and in a triumph for neutrino astronomy, by the solar neutrino detectors at Kamiokande. But the solar neutrino flux was a fraction of its theoretically-expected value. This discrepancy forced a change in some values in the standard model for particle physics. Biology, medicine, and genetics In 1847, Hungarian physician Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis dramatically reduced the occurrency of puerperal fever by the simply requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the germ theory of disease. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against rabies. Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods. Perhaps the most prominent and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of evolution by natural selection put forward by the British naturalist Charles Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859. Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both opposition and support from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's place in the universe". In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel in 1866. Mendel's laws provided the beginnings of the study of genetics, which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research. By 1953, James D. Watson, Francis Crick and Rosalind Franklin clarified the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms. James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick. "Letters to Nature: Molecular structure of Nucleic Acid." Nature 171, 737–738 (1953). In the late 20th century, the possibilities of genetic engineering became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human genome (the Human Genome Project) has been touted as potentially having large medical benefits. Ecology The discipline of ecology typically traces its origin to the synthesis of Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were microbiology and soil science—particularly the cycle of life concept, prominent in the work Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn. The word ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. In the 1930s, Arthur Tansley and others began developing the field of ecosystem ecology, which combined experimental soil science with physiological concepts of energy and the techniques of field biology. The history of ecology in the 20th century is closely tied to that of environmentalism; the Gaia hypothesis in the 1960s and more recently the scientific-religious movement of Deep Ecology have brought the two closer together. Social sciences Successful use of the scientific method in the physical sciences led to the same methodology being adapted to better understand the many fields of human endeavor. From this effort the social sciences have been developed. Political science While the study of politics is first found in Western culture in Ancient Greece, political science is a late arrival in terms of social sciences. However, the discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as moral philosophy, political philosophy, political economy, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal form of government. In each historic period and in almost every geographic area, we can find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding. The antecedents of politics trace their roots back even earlier than Plato and Aristotle, particularly in the works of Homer, Hesiod, Thucydides, Xenophon, and Euripides. Later, Plato analyzed political systems, abstracted their analysis from more literary- and history- oriented studies and applied an approach we would understand as closer to philosophy. Similarly, Aristotle built upon Plato's analysis to include historical empirical evidence in his analysis. During the rule of Rome, famous historians such as Polybius, Livy and Plutarch documented the rise of the Roman Republic, and the organization and histories of other nations, while statesmen like Julius Caesar, Cicero and others provided us with examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's empire and wars. The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments. With the fall of the Roman Empire, there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies. The rise of monotheism and, particularly for the Western tradition, Christianity, brought to light a new space for politics and political action. During the Middle Ages, the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Works such as Augustine of Hippo's The City of God synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of Christianity, redefining the borders between what was religious and what was political. Most of the political questions surrounding the relationship between Church and State were clarified and contested in this period. In the Middle East and later other Islamic areas, works such as the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and Epic of Kings by Ferdowsi provided evidence of political analysis, while the Islamic aristotelians such as Avicenna and later Maimonides and Averroes, continued Aristotle's tradition of analysis and empiricism, writing commentaries on Aristotle's works. During the Italian Renaissance, Niccolò Machiavelli established the emphasis of modern political science on direct empirical observation of political institutions and actors. Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the Enlightenment further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations. In particular, the study of statistics, to study the subjects of the state, has been applied to polling and voting. In the 20th century, the study of ideology, behaviouralism and international relations led to a multitude of 'pol-sci' subdisciplines including voting theory, game theory (also used in economics), psephology, political geography/geopolitics, political psychology/political sociology, political economy, policy analysis, public administration, comparative political analysis and peace studies/conflict analysis. Linguistics Historical linguistics emerged as an independent field of study at the end of the 18th century. Sir William Jones proposed that Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Celtic languages all shared a common base. After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of the world was made throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Publication of Ferdinand de Saussure's Cours de linguistique générale spawned the development of descriptive linguistics. Descriptive linguistics, and the related structuralism movement caused linguistics to focus on how language changes over time, instead of just describing the differences between languages. Noam Chomsky further diversified linguistics with the development of generative linguistics in the 1950s. His effort is based upon a mathematical model of language that allows for the description and prediction of valid syntax. Additional specialties such as sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and computational linguistics have emerged from collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines. Economics The basis for classical economics forms Adam Smith's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. Smith criticized mercantilism, advocating a system of free trade with division of labour. He postulated an "Invisible Hand" that large economic systems could be self-regulating through a process of enlightened self-interest. Karl Marx developed an alternative economical system, called Marxian economics. Marxian economics is based on the labor theory of value and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this assumption, capitalism was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The Austrian school responded to Marxian economics by viewing entrepreneurship as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of supply and demand. In the 1920s, John Maynard Keynes prompted a division between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Under Keynesian economics macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote aggregate demand for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II, Milton Friedman created the concept of monetarism. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into supply-side economics which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion. Other modern schools of economic thought are New Classical economics and New Keynesian economics. New Classical economics was developed in the 1970s, emphasizing solid microeconomics as the basis for macroeconomic growth. New Keynesian economics was created partially in response to New Classical economics, and deals with how inefficiencies in the market create a need for control by a central bank or government. Psychology The end of the 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study. In that year Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in Leipzig). Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in memory studies), Ivan Pavlov (who discovered classical conditioning), and Sigmund Freud. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology. The 20th century saw a rejection of Freud's theories as being too unscientific, and a reaction against Edward Titchener's atomistic approach of the mind. This led to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B.F. Skinner. Behaviorism proposed epistemologically limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be reliably measured. Scientific knowledge of the "mind" was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve. The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again considers the mind as a subject for investigation, using the tools of evolutionary psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as PET scans and CAT scans, began to exert its influence as well. These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence. Sociology Ibn Khaldun can be regarded as the earliest scientific systematic sociologist. Muhammed Abdullah Enan, Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Works, The Other Press, 2007, pp. 104–105. ISBN 9839541536. The modern sociology, emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., Émile Durkheim), the aim of sociology was in structuralism, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote" to social disintegration. Max Weber was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of rationalization, which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought. Some sociologists, including Georg Simmel and W. E. B. Du Bois, utilized more microsociological, qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of George Herbert Mead and his student Herbert Blumer resulting in the creation of the symbolic interactionism approach to sociology. American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by Talcott Parsons, who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore "functional". This structural functionalism approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. In reaction, conflict theory was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of Karl Marx. Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking. Erving Goffman saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing "backstage" and attempting to control their audience through impression management. While these theories are currently prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including feminist theory, post-structuralism, rational choice theory, and postmodernism. Anthropology Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the Age of Enlightenment. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behaviour. Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as Johann Gottfried Herder and later Wilhelm Dilthey whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline. Traditionally, much of the history of the subject was based on colonial encounters between Europe and the rest of the world, and much of 18th- and 19th-century anthropology is now classed as forms of scientific racism. During the late 19th-century, battles over the "study of man" took place between those of an "anthropological" persuasion (relying on anthropometrical techniques) and those of an "ethnological" persuasion (looking at cultures and traditions), and these distinctions became part of the later divide between physical anthropology and cultural anthropology, the latter ushered in by the students of Franz Boas. In the mid-20th century, much of the methodologies of earlier anthropological and ethnographical study were reevaluated with an eye towards research ethics, while at the same time the scope of investigation has broadened far beyond the traditional study of "primitive cultures" (scientific practice itself is often an arena of anthropological study). The emergence of paleoanthropology, a scientific discipline which draws on the methodologies of paleontology, physical anthropology and ethology, among other disciplines, and increasing in scope and momentum from the mid-20th century, continues to yield further insights into human origins, evolution, genetic and cultural heritage, and perspectives on the contemporary human predicament as well. Emerging disciplines During the 20th century, a number of interdisciplinary scientific fields have emerged. Three examples will be given here: Communication studies combines animal communication, information theory, marketing, public relations, telecommunications and other forms of communication. Computer science, built upon a foundation of theoretical linguistics, discrete mathematics, and electrical engineering, studies the nature and limits of computation. Subfields include computability, computational complexity, database design, computer networking, artificial intelligence, and the design of computer hardware. One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by facilitating large-scale archiving of scientific data. Contemporary computer science typically distinguishes itself by emphasising mathematical 'theory' in contrast to the practical emphasis of software engineering. Materials science has its roots in metallurgy, minerology, and crystallography. It combines chemistry, physics, and several engineering disciplines. The field studies metals, ceramics, plastics, semiconductors, and composite materials. Academic study As an academic field, history of science began with the publication of William Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences (first published in 1837). A more formal study of the history of science as an independent discipline was launched by George Sarton's publications, Introduction to the History of Science (published in 1927) and the Isis journal (founded in 1912). The history of mathematics, history of technology, and history of philosophy are distinct areas of research and are covered in other articles. Mathematics is closely related to but distinct from natural science (at least in the modern conception). Technology is likewise closely related to but clearly differs from the search for empirical truth. Philosophy differs from science in its engagement in analysis and normative discourse, among other differences. In practice science, mathematics, technology, and philosophy are obviously deeply entwined, and clear lines demarcating them are not evident until the 19th century (when science first became professionalized). History of science has therefore been deeply informed by the histories of mathematics, technology, and philosophy—even as those fields have become increasingly autonomous. Theories and sociology of the history of science Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science is, how it functions, and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends. What is this thing called science? The sociology of science in particular has focused on the ways in which scientists work, looking closely at the ways in which they "produce" and "construct" scientific knowledge. Since the 1960s, a common trend in science studies (the study of the sociology and history of science) has been to emphasize the "human component" of scientific knowledge, and to de-emphasize the view that scientific data are self-evident, value-free, and context-free. The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations By Robert King Merton A major subject of concern and controversy in the philosophy of science has been the nature of theory change in science. Karl Popper argued that scientific knowledge is progressive and cumulative; Thomas Kuhn, that scientific knowledge moves through "paradigm shifts" and is not necessarily progressive; and Paul Feyerabend, that scientific knowledge is not cumulative or progressive and that there can be no demarcation in terms of method between science and any other form of investigation. Science Teaching: The Role of History and Philosophy of Science By Michael Robert Matthews Since the publication of Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1970, Summary on Google books historians, sociologists, and philosophers of science have debated the meaning and objectivity of science. See also History 2000s in science and technology History of mathematics History of physics History of philosophy History of science and technology History of science and technology in China History of technology Science and technology in Canada Science and technology in India Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world List of discoveries List of famous experiments List of Nobel laureates List of scientists List of years in science Philosophy of history Science Fields of science Behavioural sciences Natural sciences Natural Sciences Tripos University of Cambridge, UK Social sciences History of technology Philosophy of science Imre Lakatos Naïve empiricism Science studies Theories and sociology of the history of science Timelines of science Timeline of scientific discoveries Timeline of scientific experiments Timeline of the history of scientific method List of multiple independent discoveries Notes References Bertrand Russell (1945). A History of Western Philosophy: And Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. New York: Simon and Schuster. Caroline L. Herzenberg. 1986. Women Scientists from Antiquity to the Present Locust Hill Press ISBN 0-933951-01-9 Deepak Kumar (2006). Science and the Raj: A Study of British India, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-568003-0 George Rousseau and Roy Porter, eds., The Ferment of Knowledge: Studies in the Historiography of Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980). ISBN 0-521-22599-X Howard Margolis (2002). It Started with Copernicus. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-138507-X Imre Lakatos History of Science and its Rational Reconstructions published in The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Philosophical Papers Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1978 John L. Heilbron, ed., The Oxford companion to the history of modern science (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003). Joseph Agassi (2007) Science and Its History: A Reassessment of the Historiography of Science (Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 253) Springer. ISBN 1-4020-5631-1, 2008. Joseph Needham. Science and Civilisation in China. Multiple volumes (1954–2004). Nina Byers and Gary Williams, ed. (2006) Out of the Shadows: Contributions of 20th Century Women to Physics, Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-5218-2197-1 Thomas S. Kuhn (1996). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-45807-5 External links The official website of the International Academy of the History of Science The official website of the Division of History of Science and Technology of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science A History of Science, Vols 1–4, online text Contributions of 20th century Women to Physics ("CWP") History of Science Society ("HSS") The CNRS History of Science and Technology Research Center in Paris (France). This center develop differents websites about history of science & tech. : Ampère and history of electricity, Lamarck : works and heritage, Buffon Online, etc. and, recently, the netvibes portal History Of Science In France The official site of the Nobel Foundation. Features biographies and info on Nobel laureates The Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy The Vega Science Trust Free to view videos of scientists including Feynman, Perutz, Rotblat, Born and many Nobel Laureates. Toward the Scientific Revolution From MIT OpenCourseWare, class materials for the history of science up to and including Isaac Newton. Orotava Foundation for the History of Science, Canary Islands, Spain The History of Science in Spain. Free contents (books, lectures and expositions) on History of Science and digital library.
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4,763
Grumman_F-14_Tomcat
The Grumman F-14 Tomcat is a supersonic, twin-engine, two-seat, variable-sweep wing aircraft. The F-14 was the United States Navy's primary maritime air superiority fighter, fleet defense interceptor and tactical reconnaissance platform from 1974 to 2006. It later performed precision strike missions once it was integrated with the Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night LANTIRN system. F-14 Tomcat fighter fact file, United States Navy, 5 July 2003. Retrieved 20 January 2007. The F-14 was developed after the collapse of the F-111B project, and was the first of the American teen-series fighters which were designed incorporating the experience of air combat against MiGs during the Vietnam War. It entered service in 1974 with the U.S. Navy, replacing the F-4 Phantom II. It was later exported to the former Imperial Iranian Air Force in 1976, during a time when the US had good diplomatic relations with Iran. It was retired from the active U.S. Navy fleet on 22 September 2006, having been replaced by the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. "Navy's 'Top Gun' Tomcat Fighter Jet Makes Ceremonial Final Flight". Associated Press, 22 September 2006. Retrieved: 17 July 2008. As of 2008, it remains in service only with the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force. Development The F-14 Tomcat program was initiated when it became obvious that the weight and maneuverability issues plaguing the U.S. Navy variant of the Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX) (F-111B) would not be resolved to the Navy's satisfaction. The Navy requirement was for a fleet air defense fighter (FADF) with the primary role of intercepting Soviet bombers before they could launch missiles against the carrier battle group. The Navy also wanted the aircraft to possess inherent air superiority characteristics. The Navy strenuously opposed the TFX, which incorporated the Air Force's requirements for a low-level attack aircraft, fearing the compromises would cripple the aircraft, but were forced to participate in the program at direction of then Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara who wanted "joint" solutions to the service aircraft needs to reduce developmental costs. The prior example of the F-4 Phantom II which was a Navy and Marine Corps program later adopted by the Air Force (under similar direction) was the order of the day. Vice Admiral Thomas Connolly, DCNO for Air Warfare took the developmental F-111A variant for a flight and discovered it had difficulty going supersonic and had poor landing characteristics. He later testified to Congress about his concerns against the official Department of the Navy position and in May 1968, Congress killed funding for the F-111B allowing the Navy to pursue an answer tailored to their requirements. The Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) shortly issued an RFP for the Naval Fighter Experimental (VFX), a tandem two-seat fighter with maximum speed of Mach 2.2 and a secondary close air support role. Of the five companies that submitted bids (four of which incorporated variable-geometry wings as on the F-111), McDonnell Douglas and Grumman were selected as finalists in December 1968, and Grumman won the contract in January 1969. Grumman had been a partner on the F-111B, and had started work on an alternative when they saw the project deteriorating, and so had an edge on its competitors. Their early design mock-ups and cost projections were discussed with Naval authorities as an alternative to the F-111B. Woolridge, Capt. E.T., ed. Into the Jet Age: Conflict and Change in Naval Aviation 1945-1975, an Oral History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1995. Note: Admiral Thomas F. Connolly wrote the chapter, "The TFX - One Fighter For All", in Into the Jet Age.... The winning Grumman design reused the TF30 engines from the F-111B, though the Navy planned on replacing them with the F401-PW-400 engines then under development by Pratt and Whitney for the Navy (in parallel with the related F100 for the USAF). Spick 2000, p. 112. Though lighter than the F-111B, it was still the largest and heaviest U.S. fighter to ever fly from an aircraft carrier, its size a consequence of the requirement to carry the large AWG-9 radar and AIM-54 Phoenix missiles, also from the F-111B and an internal fuel load of 16,000 lbs (7,300 kg). The F-14 would also share a similar inlet duct, wing, and landing gear geometry with Grumman's A-6 Intruder. Gunston and Spick 1983, p. 112. Upon being granted the contract for the F-14, Grumman greatly expanded its Calverton, Long Island, New York facility to test and evaluate the new swing-wing interceptor. Much of the testing was in the air of the Long Island Sound as well as the first few in-flight mishaps, including the first of many compressor stalls and ejections. In order to save time and forestall interference from Secretary McNamara, the Navy skipped the prototype phase and jumped directly to full-scale development; the Air Force took a similar approach with its F-15. Jenkins, Dennis R. F/A-18 Hornet: A Navy Success Story. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000. ISBN 0-07-134696-1. The F-14 first flew on 21 December 1970, just 22 months after Grumman was awarded the contract, and reached Initial Operational Capability (IOC) in 1973. The United States Marine Corps was initially interested in the F-14 as an F-4 Phantom II replacement and went so far as to send pilots and radar intercept officers to Fighter Squadron One Twenty-Four (VF-124), the Pacific Fleet Replacement Squadron for the F-14, to train as instructors. The Marine Corps was never fully sold on the aircraft and pulled out when the stores management system for ground attack munitions was left undeveloped, leaving the aircraft incapable of dropping air-to-ground munitions. These were not developed until the 1990s. Improvements and changes Firing trials involved the launch against simulated targets of every type, from cruise missiles to high flying bombers. The first AIM-54 Phoenix launch by a Tomcat occurred on 28 April 1972. In November of that year, a single launch was achieved against an incoming target at over 200 km, this being outside the normal range for the Tomcat weapon system of 166 km. Another unusual test was made in 22 November 1973, with six missiles fired in 38 seconds, at Mach 0.78 and 24,800 ft (7600 m), with four scoring direct hits. This missile entered service at the beginning of 1975, just as the Vietnam War was coming to an end. With time, the early versions of all the missiles were replaced by more advanced versions, especially with the move to full solid-state electronics that allowed better reliability, better ECCM and more space for the rocket engine. So the early arrangement of the AIM-54A Phoenix active-radar air-to-air missile, the AIM-7E-2 Sparrow Semi-active radar homing air-to-air missile, and the AIM-9J Sidewinder heat-seeking air-to-air missile was replaced in the 1980s with the B (1983) and C (1986) version of the Phoenix, the F (1977), M (1982), P (1987 or later) for Sparrows, and with the Sidewinder, L (1979) and M (1982). Within these versions there are several improved batches (for example, Phoenix AIM-54C++). The Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance Pod System (TARPS) was developed in the late 1970s for the Tomcat. The TARPS reconnaissance pod was carried on the right rear fuselage tunnel station and required additional connections. Approximately 65 F-14As and all F-14Ds were modified to carry the pod. The system was primarily controlled by the RIO in the back seat who had a specialized TARPS display to observe reconnaissance data. "F-14A Tomcat Described / F-14 Tarps", Vectorsite.net, 1 November 2006. TARPS system was introduced in 1980. The TARPS was upgraded with digital camera in 1996 with the "TARPS Digital (TARPS-DI)". The digital camera was further updated beginning in 1998 with the "TARPS-CD" configuration. Some of the F-14A aircraft underwent engine upgrades to the GE F110-400 in 1987. These upgraded Tomcats were redesignated F-14A+, which was later changed to F-14B in 1991. Anft, Torsent. "F-14 Bureau Numbers." Home of M.A.T.S. Retrieved: 30 September 2006. The F-14D variant was developed during this time. It included the GE F110-400 engines with newer digital avionics systems including a glass cockpit. The F-14D also received systems for Link 16 datalink for secure exchange of data. Tomcats also benefited from the Digital Flight Control System (DFCS). The DFCS improved handling qualities behind the aircraft carrier, at high angle of attack, and in air combat maneuvering situations. Adding ground attack capability An F-14D from VF-213 over Iraq on last Tomcat deployment with LANTIRN pod on starboard glovevane station and LGB underneath fuselage. In the 1990s, with the pending retirement of the A-6 Intruder, the F-14 air-to-ground program was resurrected. The first experiments with bombs were carried out in the late 1980s. However, the main task of the F-14 was air defense in Operation Desert Storm, so most air-to-ground missions were left to A-7 and F/A-18 squadrons. The F-14 was cleared operationally to drop basic iron bombs in 1992. To provide for use of precision munitions, the remaining F-14As and F-14Bs underwent an upgrade program. The upgrade included new digital avionics systems, improved cockpit displays, structural improvements and improved defensive systems. The upgraded fighters had avionics approximately comparable to the F-14Ds and were designated F-14A (Upgrade) and F-14B (Upgrade), respectively. Donald, David. "Northrop Grumman F-14 Tomcat, US Navy today". Warplanes of the Fleet. London: AIRtime Publishing Inc, 2004. ISBN 1-880588-81-1. By 1994 Grumman and the Navy were proposing ambitious plans for Tomcat upgrades to plug that gap between the retirement of the A-6 and F/A-18E/F Super Hornet entering service, but Congress balked. The upgrades were priced in the billions, a bit much for an interim solution, and they would take too long to implement to meet the gap. The solution finally devised was an inexpensive and quick upgrade, with fit of the Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night (LANTIRN) targeting pod system that provided the F-14 with a forward-looking infrared (FLIR) camera for night operations and a laser target designator to direct laser guided bombs (LGB). "Bombcat / Tomcat In Service 1992:2005", Vectorsite.net, 1 November 2006. Although LANTIRN is traditionally a two-pod system, with an AN/AAQ-13 navigation pod with terrain-following radar and a wide-angle FLIR, along with an AN/AAQ-14 targeting pod with a steerable FLIR and a laser target designator, the decision was made to only use the targeting pod. The Tomcat's LANTIRN targeting pod featured some improvements over its baseline configuration, most significantly a Global Positioning System / Inertial Navigation System (GPS-INS) capability that allowed a Tomcat to find its own location at any time. The pod was carried on the right wing glove pylon. An F-14D from VF-31, makes a transonic, low-level fly-by with LANTIRN pod on starboard glovevane station. Fit of the LANTIRN pod didn't require any updates to the F-14's own system software, which would have substantially increased the time and expense of the upgrade. It did require that the Tomcat have the MIL-STD-1553B bus, fitted standard to the F-14D and on upgraded F-14A/Bs. The RIO received pod imagery on his display and guided LGBs using a new hand controller. Initially the hand controller replaced the RIO's TARPS control panel, meaning a Tomcat configured for LANTIRN couldn't carry TARPS and the reverse, but eventually a workaround was developed that allowed a Tomcat to carry LANTIRN or TARPS as needed. An upgraded LANTIRN named "LANTIRN 40K" with 40K laser allowing improved operation up to 40,000 feet (12,200 m) was introduced into service in 2001. Tomcats also added the ability to carry the GBU-38 Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) in 2003, giving it the option of a variety of LGB and GPS-guided weapons. Some F-14Ds were upgraded in 2005 with a ROVER III downlink, a system transmits real-time images from the aircraft's sensors to the laptop of Forward Air Controller (FAC) on the ground. Design Overview The F-14 Tomcat was designed as both an air superiority fighter and a long range, naval interceptor. The F-14 has a two seat cockpit with a canopy that affords 360 degree visibility. The plane features variable geometry wings that swing automatically during flight. For high-speed intercept, they are swept back; they swing forward to allow the F-14 to turn sharply and dogfight. It was designed to improve on the F-4 Phantom's air combat performance in several respects. The F-14's fuselage and wings allow it to climb faster than the F-4, while the twin-tail arrangement offers better stability. The F-14 is equipped with an internal 20 mm M61 Vulcan Gatling-type gun mounted on the left side, and can carry AIM-54 Phoenix, AIM-7 Sparrow, and AIM-9 Sidewinder anti-aircraft missiles. The U.S. Navy wanted the F-14 to have a thrust-to-weight ratio of one or greater, though this was not achieved until the F-14 entered service because of delays in engine development. Fuselage and wings The fuselage consists of a large flat area called the "pancake" between the engine nacelles. Fuel, electronics, flight controls, and the wing-sweep mechanism are all housed in the fuselage "pancake". The "pancake" also provides additional lift. The wings pivot from two extensions on either side of the "pancake", called wing gloves. The twin engines are housed in nacelles below and slightly to the rear, with the fuselage smoothly blending into the shape of the exhaust nozzles. The nacelles are spaced apart 1 to 3 feet. This produces a wide tunnel between the nacelles which causes some drag. However, this tunnel provides space to carry Phoenix or Sparrow missiles, assorted bombs, or the TARPS reconnaissance pod, and increases fuel capacity and room for equipment. The F-14's wing sweep can be varied between 20° and 68° in flight, Dorr 1991, p. 50. and is automatically controlled by an air data computer. This maintains the wing sweep to give the optimum lift-to-drag ratio as the Mach number varies, but the system can be manually overridden by the pilot if necessary. When the aircraft is parked, the wings can be "overswept" to 75°, where they overlap the tail to save space on tight carrier decks. In an emergency, the F-14 can land with the wings fully swept to 68°, although this is far from optimum and presents a significant safety hazard. The F-14 can also fly and land safely with the wings swept asymmetrically, in emergencies. F-14 Association The wings have a two-spar structure with integral fuel tanks. Much of the structure, including the wing box, wing pivots and upper and lower wing skins is made of titanium, Baugher, Joe. "Grumman F-14A Tomcat.", 13 February 2000. a light, rigid and strong material, but also difficult to weld, and costly. Ailerons are not fitted, with roll control being provided by wing mounted spoilers at low speed (which are disabled if the sweep angle exceeds 57°), and by differential operation of the all-moving tailerons at high speed. Full-span slats and flaps are used to increase lift both for landing and combat, with slats being set at 17° for landing and 7° for combat, while flaps are set at 35° for landing and 10° for combat. The twin tail layout helps in maneuvers at high AoA (angle of attack) while reducing the height of the aircraft to fit within the limited roof clearance of hangars aboard aircraft carriers. Two under-engine mount points are provided for external fuel tanks. Two retractable surfaces, called glove vanes, were originally mounted in the forward part of the wing glove, and could be automatically extended by the flight control system at high Mach numbers. They were used to generate additional lift ahead of the aircraft's center of gravity, thus helping to compensate for the nose-down pitching tendencies at supersonic speeds. Automatically deployed at above Mach 1.4, they allowed the F-14 to pull 7.5 g at Mach 2 and could be manually extended at above Mach 1. They were later disabled, however, owing to their additional weight and complexity. The airbrakes consist of top-and-bottom extendable surfaces at the rearmost portion of the fuselage, between the engine nacelles. The bottom surface is split into left and right halves, with the arrestor hook hanging between the two halves. This arrangement is sometimes called the "castor tail", Sgarlato 1988, pp. 40–46. or "beavertail." Beavertail The Tomcat has fully mechanical flying controls, with the only exception being the spoilers, which are hydro-electrically driven. Engines and landing gear An F-14 prepares to refuel with probe extended. The engines are fed by two rectangular air intakes located under the wings. These Pratt & Whitney JT10As (better known as the TF30) were relatively powerful for the time (5.670/9.480 kg/t) and being turbofans, they allowed reduced fuel consumption while cruising, which was important for long patrol missions. Both air intakes have movable ramps and bleed doors that are operated by the air data computer to enable enough air to enter the engine while keeping shockwaves away from the engine. The exhausts also feature variable nozzles with moving petals that open or close depending on engine state. The TF30 engines left much to be desired both in power and reliability. John Lehman, Secretary of the Navy, told Congress that the F-14/TF30 combination was "probably the worst engine/airframe mismatch we have had in years" and said that the TF30 was "a terrible engine", Dorr 1991, p. 50. with F-14 accidents attributed to engine failures accounting for 28% of overall losses. Cracks in the turbines were dangerous to the point that the engine bay was reinforced in case of blade failure, to help reduce damage to the rest of the aircraft. The TF30 engines were also extremely prone to compressor stalls, which could easily result in loss of control due to the wide engine spacing, which causes severe yaw oscillations and can lead to an unrecoverable flat spin. At specific altitudes, the exhaust from a launched missile could cause the engine compressor to stall. This resulted in the development of a bleed system that temporarily reduced the power of the engine and blocked the frontal intake during missile launch. The overall thrust-to-weight ratio at maximum load is around 0.56, which does not compare favorably with the F-15A's ratio of 0.85. Spick 2000, p. 81. Even so, the aircraft itself is able to reach Mach 2.4, and the maximum speed is officially Mach 2.34. Internal fuel capacity is 2,400 US gallons (9100 L): 290 US gallons (1,100 L) in each wing, 690 US gallons (2,600 L) in a series of tanks aft of the cockpit, and a further 457 US gallons (1,730 L) in two feeder tanks. The aircraft can carry two 267 US gallon (1,020 L) external drop tanks under the engine intakes. There is also an air-to-air refueling probe, which folds into the starboard nose. F-14 with landing gear deployed. The undercarriage is very robust, in order to withstand the harsh takeoffs and landings necessary for carrier operation. It comprises a double nose wheel and widely spaced single main wheels. The result is very different from the narrow and high undercarriage of F-15 Eagle. Both have similar weights and a high wing that makes undercarriage stowage impractical. The Tomcat fuselage is wider and the aircraft does not need to hold big external fuel tanks, as the Eagle often does, in the ventral positions. There are no hardpoints on the sweeping parts of the wings, and so all the armaments are fitted on the belly between the air intakes and on pylons under the wing gloves. Avionics and flight controls The cockpit has two seats, arranged in tandem. The pilot and radar intercept officer (RIO) sit in Martin-Baker GRU-7A rocket-propelled ejection seats, rated from zero altitude and zero airspeed up to 450 knots. Dorr 1991, p. 51. They have a 360° view in a canopy that is also fitted with four mirrors, one for the RIO and the others for the pilot. The canopy is still fairly traditional; being in three parts, but the overall structure is large and gives good visibility. The crews have classical controls and many older instruments, with an analog-digital hybrid lay out. Only the pilot has flight controls. No dual control version was ever made for the F-14, so the pilot starts to learn how to fly the machine using other aircraft and simulators. The main control systems are a HUD made by Kaiser, a VSI and a HSI display, that gives data on airspeed, navigation and other information. The F-14A and F-14B Tomcat do not have multi-mode displays, unlike the later F-16s and F/A-18s. The nose of the aircraft is large because it carries not only the two person crew, but also a large number of avionics systems. The ECM and navigation suite are extremely comprehensive and complex. The main element is the Hughes AWG-9 X-band radar, which in the initial version included a lightweight 5400B digital system with 32 kilobytes of RAM. The antenna dish is a 36-inch (91 cm) wide planar array, uses 10 kW of power, and has integrated IFF antennas. There are available several search and tracking modes, such as Track-While-Scan (TWS), Range-While-Search (RWS), Pulse-Doppler Single-Target Track (PDSTT), and Jam Angle Track (JAT). A maximum of 24 targets can be tracked simultaneously, and six can be engaged in TWS mode up to around 60 miles (100 km). Pulse-only STT mode has a maximum range of around 96 statute miles (150 km). The maximum search range can exceed 120 statute miles (190 km) and even a fighter can be locked onto at around 72 - 90 statute miles (120–140 km). Cruise missiles are also possible targets with the AWG-9, since this radar can lock onto and track even small objects at low altitude when in a Pulse-Doppler mode. The radar antenna dish is in the nose, and most of the radar avionics are located just behind the nose, near the pilot's position. Other avionics (such as IFF, communication radios, direction-finding equipment, etc) are near the RIO's position, and are mostly integrated into the AWG-9 display system. Tomcats also feature electronic countermeasures (ECM) and radar warning (RWR) systems, chaff/flare dispensers in the tail, fighter-to-fighter data link, and a precise inertial navigation system. The early navigation system was purely inertial. Initial coordinates were programmed into the navigation computer, and a gyroscope in the system would track the aircraft's every motion. These aircraft motions were sent to the navigation computer, allowing it to calculate the jet's distance and direction from the initial starting point. Later, GPS was integrated into this inertial system, providing not only more precise navigation, but providing redundancy in case either system failed. The chaff/flare dispensers were located on the belly, at the very tip of the tail, just to one side of the arresting hook. The dispenser contained several cylinders, into which either flares or chaff could be loaded in any combination. The RWR system was arranged with 4 antennae around the aircraft, and could roughly calculate the direction and the distance of many different types of radar from various aircraft and missile types. The RWR set could also display the status of the tracking aircraft's radar. It could differentiate between search radar, tracking radar, and missile-homing radar. The electronic countermeasures system could analyze incoming radar signals and send confusing radar signals back to the source. The original set of sensors also comprised an infrared sensor under the nose in a "chin pod": it was AN/ALR-23 with indium antimonide detectors, cooled by a self-contained Stirling cycle cryogenic system, but this proved ineffective, and was replaced with a new system. This was an optical system, Northrop AAX-1, also called TCS (TV Camera Set) and was used to help pilots visually identify and track aircraft, at least on day missions, up to a range of more than 60 miles for large aircraft (a zoom function was included to help with small fighters). The TCS could be "slaved" to the radar to follow whatever the radar is tracking, and the radar could be slaved to the TCS to track whatever the camera "sees." Both the crew have access to the images on their displays. Despite its utility, for a long time most F-14s did not have the system added. Bill Gunston reported that even in 1983, only one in eight aircraft had the system fitted. Gunston and Spick 1983, p. 66. A dual IR/TCS system was adopted for the later F-14D variant, with an ECM antenna fitted as well in the same mast. This meant Tomcats could be configured with only an ECM antenna, or the IR sensor, or TCS, or many combinations thereof. The Tomcat's ESM system consists of many subsystems: RWR, ECM, and chaff/flare dispensers in various parts of the fuselage, nose, tail and wings. This was a marked difference with many previous fighter aircraft in that some did not even include a simple RWR. Armament The Tomcat was originally designed to combat both highly maneuverable aircraft and the Soviet cruise missile/bomber threat. As a result, the aircraft was designed to act effectively in every aspect of air combat. For weaponry, the Tomcat was mainly designed as a platform for the formidable AIM-54 Phoenix, but unlike the stillborn F-111B it could also engage medium and short range threats. As such, the F-14 was a full air superiority fighter and not only a long range interceptor. It had the standard US gun, the M61 Vulcan, with 676 rounds and 4,000 or 6,000 RPM selectable (although the latter is rarely used due to jamming and overheating issues). Over 6,700 kg of stores could be carried for combat missions in several hard points under the belly and on wing-mounted hardpoints. Commonly, this meant a maximum of two - four Phoenixes or Sparrows on the belly stations, two Phoenixes/Sparrows on the wing hardpoints, and two Sidewinders on the wing hardpoints. On occasion, four AIM-7 Sparrows (on the belly) and four AIM-9 Sidewinders (on the wingmounts) were carried, similar to the F-4 and F-15. The maximum load of six Phoenix missiles was never used operationally. Although early testing proved it was possible, there was never a threat requirement to engage six hostile targets simultaneously and the load was too heavy to recover aboard an aircraft carrier. The Phoenix missile has been used twice in combat situations with the US Navy, both over Iraq in 1999, Vinson/CVW-11 Report - VF-213 Highlights Wings of Gold Tony Holmes (2005). Chapter One – OSW, p. 16 and 17. DoD News Briefing January 5, 1999 but the missiles didn't score any kills. It has been claimed that Iranian F-14s did so but, as with many of the activities of the Iranian Air Force, this has not been reliably confirmed. During the height of Cold War operations in the late 1970s and 1980s, the typical weapon loadout on carrier-deployed F-14s was rarely more than one AIM-54 Phoenix, normally augmented by two AIM-9 Sidewinders, two AIM-7 Sparrow IIIs, a full loadout of 20 mm ammunition for the M61 cannon and two drop tanks. Operational history The F-14 Tomcat was the Navy's primary air superiority fighter and tactical reconnaissance platform from 1972 to 2006. The F-14 has served in Iran's Air Force from 1978 to the present day. United States Navy An F-14A of VF-84 Jolly Rogers, in a 1970s color scheme. The F-14 began replacing the F-4 Phantom II in USN service starting in September 1974 with squadrons VF-1 Wolfpack and VF-2 Bounty Hunters aboard USS Enterprise and participated in the American withdrawal of Saigon. The F-14 had its first kills on 19 August 1981 over the Gulf of Sidra in what is known as the Gulf of Sidra incident after two F-14s from VF-41 Black Aces were engaged by two Libyan Su-22 "Fitters". The F-14s evaded the short range heat seeking AA-2 "Atoll" missile and returned fire, downing both Libyan aircraft. U.S. Navy F-14s once again were pitted against Libyan aircraft on 4 January 1989, when two F-14s from VF-32 shot down two Libyan MiG-23 "Floggers" over the Gulf of Sidra in a second Gulf of Sidra incident. Despite the attention given to the Tomcat over aerial encounters in the Gulf of Sidra, its first sustained combat baptism of fire was as a photo reconnaissance platform. The Tomcat was selected to inherit the Reconnaissance mission upon departure of the dedicated RA-5C Vigilante and RF-8G Crusaders from the fleet. A large pod called the Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance Pod System (TARPS) was developed and fielded on the Tomcat in 1981. With the retirement of the last RF-8G Crusaders in 1982, TARPS F-14s became the U.S. Navy's primary tactical reconnaissance system. Baugher, Joe. "TARPS Pod for F-14." F-14 Tomcat, February 13, 2000. One of two Tomcat squadrons per airwing was designated as a TARPS unit and received 3 TARPS capable aircraft and training for 4 TARPS aircrews. An F-14A Tomcat from VF-114 intercepting a Soviet Tu-95RT "Bear-D" maritime patrol aircraft. While the Tomcat was being used by Iran in combat against Iraq in its intended air superiority mission over the skies of Iran in the early 1980s, the US Navy found itself flying regular daily combat missions over Lebanon to photograph activity in the Bekaa Valley. At the time, the Tomcat had been thought too large and vulnerable to be used overland, but the need for imagery was so great that Tomcat aircrews developed high speed medium altitude tactics to deal with considerable AAA and SA-7 SAM threat in the Bekaa area. An urgent combat need was stated to address the Tomcat vulnerability in this type of mission. The first exposure of a Tomcat to a SA-2 was over Somalia in April 1983 when a local battery was unaware of two Tomcats scheduled for a TARPS missions in prelude to an upcoming international exercise in vicinity of Berbera. An SA-2 was fired at the second Tomcat while conducting 10 thousand foot mapping profile at max conserve setting. The Tomcat aircrews spotted the missile launch and dove for the deck thereby evading it without damage. The unexpected demand for combat TARPS laid the way for high altitude sensors such as the KA-93 36 in (91 cm) Long Range Optics (LOROP) to be rapidly procured for the Tomcat as well as an Expanded Chaff Adapter (ECA) to be incorporated in a AIM-54 Phoenix Rail. Commercial "Fuzz buster" type radar detectors were also procured and mounted in pairs in the forward cockpit as a stop gap solution to detect SAM radars such as the SA-6. The ultimate solution was an upgrade to the ALR-67 then being developed, but it would not be ready until the advent of the F-14A+ in the latter 1980s. During the Gulf of Sidra operations in 1986, the Tomcats were used in over-water missions only due to their vulnerability overland. It was not until Desert Shield that US Navy Tomcats were introduced to overland combat operations on a regular basis. An F-14A Tomcat from VF-32 during Desert Storm. A KC-135 Stratotanker and two EA-6B Prowlers can be seen in the background. The participation of the F-14 Tomcat in the 1991 Operation Desert Storm consisted of Combat Air Patrol (CAP) over the Red Sea and Persian Gulf and overland missions consisting of strike escort and reconnaissance. Until the waning days of Desert Storm, in-country air superiority was tasked to USAF F-15 Eagles due to the way the Air Tasking Orders (ATO) delegated primary overland CAP stations to the F-15 Eagle. The governing Rules of Engagement (ROE) also dictated a strict Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) requirement when employing Beyond Visual Range weapons such as the AIM-7 Sparrow and particularly the AIM-54 Phoenix. This hampered the Tomcat from using its most powerful weapon. Furthermore, the powerful emissions from the AWG-9 radar are detectable at great range with a radar warning receiver. Iraqi fighters routinely displayed countertactics as soon as the Tomcats "lit them up" with the AWG-9. The US Navy suffered its only F-14 loss from enemy action on 21 January 1991 when b/n 161430, an F-14A upgraded to an F-14A+, from VF-103 was shot down by an SA-2 surface-to-air missile while on an escort mission near Al Asad airbase in Iraq. Both crew survived ejection with the pilot being rescued by USAF Special Operations Forces and the RIO being captured and held by Iraqi troops as a POW until the end of the war. Baugher, Joe. US Navy and US Marine Corps BuNos, 30 September 2006. Retrieved: 7 January 2007. The F-14 also achieved its final kill, an Mi-8 "Hip" helicopter, with an AIM-9 Sidewinder. In 1995, F-14s from VF-14 and VF-41 participated in Operation Deliberate Force as well as Operation Allied Force in 1999, and in 1998, VF-32 and VF-213 participated in Operation Desert Fox. On 15 February 2001 the Joint Direct Attack Munition or JDAM was added to the Tomcat's arsenal. On 7 October 2001 F-14s would lead some of the first strikes into Afghanistan marking the start of Operation Enduring Freedom and the first F-14 drop of a JDAM occurred on 11 March 2002. F-14s from VF-2, VF-31, VF-32, VF-154, and VF-213 would also participate in Operation Iraqi Freedom. The F-14Ds of VF-2, VF-31, and VF-213 obtained JDAM capability in March 2003. "U.S. Navy's F-14D Tomcats Gain JDAM Capability." Navy Newsstand (United States Navy), 21 March 2003. Retrieved: 20 January 2007. On 10 December 2005, the F-14Ds of VF-31 and VF-213 were upgraded with a ROVER III downlink for transmitting images to a ground Forward Air Controller (FAC). "ROVER System Revolutionizes F-14's Ground Support Capability." Navy Newsstand (United States Navy), 14 December 2005. Retrieved: 20 January 2007. The F-14s of VF-31 and VF-213 deployed on its last combat cruise on USS Theodore Roosevelt in 2005. Replacement An F-14 and F/A-18 prepare to launch from USS Enterprise, 1985. While the F-14 had been developed as a light weight alternative to the 80,000 lb (36,000 kg) F-111B, the F-14 was still the largest and most expensive fighter of its time. VFAX was revived in the 1970s as a lower cost solution to replacing the Navy's fleet of USMC Phantoms, and A-7. VFAX would be merged with the USAF Light Weight Fighter fighter competition, from which the F/A-18 Hornet emerged as roughly a midsize fighter. In 1994, Congress would reject Grumman proposals to the Navy to upgrade the Tomcat beyond the D model (such as the Super Tomcat 21, the cheaper QuickStrike version, and the more advanced Attack Super Tomcat 21). Donald 2004, pp. 13, 15. Instead, the Navy elected to retire the F-14 and chose the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet to fill the roles of fleet defense and strike formerly filled by the F-14. Retirement The F-14 has completed its retirement from US Naval service. At one point, it was slated to remain in service through at least 2008, but all F-14A and F-14B airframes had already been retired, and the last two squadrons, the VF-31 Tomcatters and the VF-213 Black Lions, both flying the "D" models, arrived for their last fly-in at Naval Air Station Oceana on 10 March 2006. Squadron Homecoming Marks End of Era for Tomcats. U.S. Navy, 10 March 2006. Retrieved: 20 January 2007. The last American F-14 to fly a combat mission, an F-14D from VF-213, lands at Sherman Field at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. The last American F-14 combat mission was completed on 8 February 2006, when a pair of Tomcats landed aboard the USS Theodore Roosevelt after one dropped a bomb in Iraq. That aircraft was assigned to VF-31 and the aircrew credited with the last bomb dropped in combat by a Navy Tomcat was pilot Lt. Justin Halligan and RIO Lt. Bill Frank. The other Tomcat on that mission was an F-14D from VF-213 piloted by Commander, Carrier Air Wing Eight, Capt. William G. Sizemore, and became the last F-14 to land on an aircraft carrier after a combat mission. During their final deployment with the USS Theodore Roosevelt, VF-31 and VF-213 collectively completed 1,163 combat sorties totaling 6,876 flight hours, and dropped 9,500 pounds (4,300 kg) of ordnance during reconnaissance, surveillance, and close air support missions in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. Murphy, Stephen. "TR Traps Last Tomcat from Combat Mission". Navy Newsstand, 15 February 2006. Retrieved: 20 January 2007. On 10 March 2006, the 22 planes from these squadrons flew in formation into Naval Air Station Oceana after the last deployment of the F-14. VF-31 remained operational in the F-14 Tomcat under the Fleet Response Plan (FRP) through September and conducted the last carrier qualifications in late July maintaining their ability to deploy right up until the end. VF-213 and VF-31 would transition to the Super Hornet training. The USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71) shot from its catapult an F-14D, assigned to VF-31, for the last time on 28 July 2006. It was piloted by Lt. Blake Coleman and Lt. Cmdr Dave Lauderbaugh as RIO. "Final launch of the F-14 Tomcat" The last trap recovery was made a while before by Lt. Chris Rattigan and Lt. Paul Dort, on aircraft no. 110. The "official" final flight retirement ceremony was on 22 September 2006 at Naval Air Station Oceana. The ceremonial last flight was flown by Lt. Cmdr. Chris Richard and Lt. Mike Petronis as RIO in a backup F-14 (Felix 107), Vanden Brook, Tom. "Navy retires F-14, the Coolest of Cold Warriors". USA Today, 22 September 2006. Retrieved: 20 January 2007. after the primary aircraft experienced a mechanical problem. Tiernan, Bill. "F-14's Final Flight." Virginian-Pilot, 23 September 2006. The actual last flight of the F-14 Tomcat in U.S. service took place 4 October 2006, when an F-14D of VF-31 was ferried from Oceana to Republic Airport on Long Island, NY. The remaining intact US Navy F-14 aircraft have been stored at the 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group "Boneyard", at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona. As of July 2007, many of the remaining 165 aircraft were being shredded to prevent parts from being acquired by Iran, the only other nation to buy the F-14. By July 2007, 23 F-14s had been shredded at a cost of $900,000. Due of the strength of the landing gear, it was removed before shredding and cut up with a torch. The last remaining F-14 after demolition will be located at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. "Pentagon shreds F-14s to keep parts from enemies", AP, 2 July 2007. A U.S. "Top Gun" F-14A, painted to resemble an Iranian fighter for air combat adversary training. Iran The sole foreign customer for the Tomcat was the Imperial Iranian Air Force, during the reign of the last Shah (King) of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In the early 1970s, the Imperial Iranian Air Force (IIAF) was searching for an advanced fighter, specifically one capable of intercepting Soviet MiG-25 "Foxbat" reconnaissance flights. After a visit of U.S. President Richard Nixon to Iran in 1972, during which Iran was offered the latest in American military technology, the IIAF narrowed its choice to the F-14 Tomcat or McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle. Grumman Corporation arranged a competitive demonstration of the Eagle against the Tomcat before the Shah, and in January 1974, Iran ordered 30 F-14s and 424 AIM-54 Phoenix missiles, initiating Project Persian King, worth US$300 million. Only a few months later, this was expanded by an order for 50 additional F-14As and 290 AIM-54s. The Iranian order was for 80 Tomcats and 714 Phoenix missiles, spare parts, and replacement engines for ten years, complete armament package, and support infrastructure (including construction of the huge Khatami Air Base in the desert near Esfahan). The first F-14 arrived in January 1976, modified only by the removal of classified avionics components, but fitted with the TF-30-414 engines. The following year 12 more were delivered. Meanwhile, training of the first groups of Iranian crews by the U.S. Navy, was underway in the USA; and one of these conducted a successful shoot-down with a Phoenix missile of a target drone flying at 50,000 ft (15 km). Following the overthrow of the Shah in 1979, the air force was re-named the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force (IRIAF) and the post-revolution interim government of Iran cancelled most Western arms orders. Knowledge about F-14 use by Iran is limited; deteriorating relations led to an arms embargo being imposed on Iran, including the last Tomcat built for Iran, which was embargoed and eventually turned over to the United States Navy. Large shipments of spares were held back, and many aircraft were cannibalized for their spare parts. Limited reports from the Iran-Iraq war gave some indications Iran was exploiting the range and multi-contact tracking capabilities of the AWG-9 radar to use their Tomcats in the AWACS role, and that this usage was at least partly due to Iran's lack of a stockpile of usable AIM-54 Phoenix missiles. In January 2007, it was announced by the US Department of Defense that sales of spare parts for F-14s would be suspended, due to concerns that they could end up in Iran. It announced that the decision was taken "given the current situation in Iran". US halts sale of F-14 jet parts On 2 July 2007, the remaining American F-14s were being shredded to ensure that F-14 spare parts would not be acquired by governments considered hostile to the US. Iran is estimated to have 44 F-14s with some 13 operational as of January 2009. Cooper, Tom and Liam Devlin. "Iranian Air Power Combat Aircraft". Combat Aircraft, Vol. 9 No. 6, January 2009. Variants A total of 712 F-14s were built F-14 Bureau Numbers at Grumman's factory in Calverton on Long Island from 1969 to 1991. Anft, Torsten. Grumman Memorial Park. Home of M.A.T.S. Retrieved: 28 December 2006. While the F-14 is listed as being produced in Bethpage, NY, all construction and test flights were performed out of Grumman's Calverton facility. The Bethpage facility produced World War II aircraft and was home to the engineers who designed the F-14. However the Bethpage site no longer had the facilities or airport required to produce such a large airplane. Over 160 of the US aircraft were destroyed in accidents. Anft, Torsent. "F-14 Crashes sorted by Date." Home of M.A.T.S. Retrieved: 1 January 2008. F-14A The F-14A was the initial two-seat all-weather interceptor fighter variant for the US Navy. It first flew on 21 December 1970. The first 12 F-14As were prototype versions Spick 2000, pp. 75–79. (sometimes called YF-14As). Modifications late in its service life added precision strike munitions to its armament. The US Navy received 478 F-14A aircraft and 79 were received by Iran. The final 102 F-14As were delivered with improved TF30-P-414A engines. "F-14 Tomcat variants". GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved: 20 September 2006. Additionally, an 80th F-14A was manufactured for Iran, but was delivered to the US Navy. F-14B Close-up view of the distinctive afterburner petals that distinguish the GE F110 engine. The F-14 received its first of many major upgrades in March 1987 with the F-14A Plus (or F-14A+). The F-14A's P&W TF30 engine was upgraded with the GE F110-400. The F-14A+ also received the state-of-the-art ALR-67 Radar Homing and Warning (RHAW) system. Much of the avionics as well as the AWG-9 radar were retained. The F-14A+ was later redesignated F-14B on 1 May 1991. A total of 38 new aircraft were manufactured and 48 F-14A were upgraded to B variants. Anft, Torsent. "F-14 Bureau Numbers." Home of M.A.T.S. Retrieved: 30 September 2006. The TF30 had been plagued from the start with susceptibility to compressor stalls at high AoA and during rapid throttle transients or above The F110 engine provided a significant increase in thrust, producing 27,600 lbf (123 kN) with afterburner. The increased thrust gave the Tomcat a better than 1:1 thrust-to-weight ratio at low fuel quantities. The basic engine thrust without afterburner was powerful enough for carrier launches, further increasing safety. Another benefit was allowing the Tomcat to cruise comfortably above , which increased its range and survivability. The F-14B arrived in time to participate in Desert Storm. In the late 1990s, 67 F-14Bs were upgraded to extend airframe life and improve offensive and defensive avionics systems. The modified aircraft became known as F-14B Upgrade aircraft. F-14D The final variant of the F-14 was the F-14D Super Tomcat. The F-14D variant was first delivered in 1991. The original TF-30 engines were replaced with GE F110-400 engines, similar to the F-14B. The F-14D also included newer digital avionics systems including a Glass cockpit and replaced the AWG-9 with the newer AN/APG-71 radar. Other systems included the Airborne Self Protection Jammer (ASPJ), Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS), SJU-17(V) Naval Aircrew Common Ejection Seats (NACES) and Infrared Search and Track (IRST). Although the F-14D was to be the definitive version of the Tomcat, not all fleet units received the D variant. In 1989, Secretary of Defense, Dick Cheney, recommended that no D model aircraft be purchased for $50 million each and pushed for a $25 million modernization instead. He called the aircraft 1960s technology and planned to replace the F-14 with an Advanced Tactical Fighter variant. Saul, Stephanie. "Cheney Aims Barrage at F-14D Calls keeping jet a jobs program." Newsday Washington Bureau, 24 August 1989, p. 6. Congress decided not to shut production down and funded 55 aircraft as part of a compromise. A total of 37 new aircraft were constructed and 18 F-14A were upgraded to D variants. Operators F-14, front view. Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force (IRIAF) squadrons 72nd TFS: F-14A, 1976 - present 73rd TFS: F-14A, 1977 - present 81st TFS: F-14A, 1977 - present 82nd TFS: F-14A, 1978 - present 83rd TFS: F-14A, re-named former 73rd TFS Cooper, Tom and Chris Davey. Iranian F-14 Tomcat Units in Combat (Osprey Combat Aircraft No. 49). London: Osprey, 2004. ISBN 1-84176-787-5. (Former User) United States Navy (USN) squadrons Pacific Fleet NFWS Navy Fighter Weapons School (TOPGUN) (Merged with Strike U to form Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center (NSAWC) 1996) VF-1 Wolfpack (Disestablished 30 September 1993) VF-2 Bounty Hunters (Redesignated VFA-2 with F/A-18F 1 July 2003) VF-21 Freelancers (Disestablished 31 January 1996) VF-24 Fighting Renegades (Disestablished 20 August 1996) VF-51 Screaming Eagles (Disestablished 31 March 1995) VF-111 Sundowners (Disestablished 31 March 1995; reestablished as VFC-111 with F-5F 1 November 2006) VF-114 Aardvarks (Disestablished 30 April 1993) VF-154 Black Knights (Redesignated VFA-154 with F/A-18F 1 October 2003) VF-191 Satan's Kittens (Disestablished 30 April 1988) VF-194 Red Lightnings (Disestablished 30 April 1988) VF-211 Fighting Checkmates (Redesignated VFA-211 with F/A-18F 1 October 2004) VF-213 Black Lions (Redesignated VFA-213 with F/A-18F in May 2006) Atlantic Fleet VF-11 Red Rippers (Redesignated to VFA-11 with F/A-18F in May 2005) VF-14 Tophatters (Redesignated VFA-14 with F/A-18E 1 December 2001) VF-31 Tomcatters (Redesignated VFA-31 with F/A-18E October 2006) VF-32 Swordsmen (Redesignated VFA-32 with F/A-18F on 1 October 2005) VF-33 Starfighters (Disestablished 1 October 1993) VF-41 Black Aces (Redesignated VFA-41 with F/A-18F, 1 December 2001) VF-74 Bedevilers (Disestablished 30 April 1994) VF-84 Jolly Rogers (Disestablished 1 October 1995; squadron heritage and nickname transferred to VF-103) VF-102 Diamondbacks (Redesignated VFA-102 with F/A-18F in 1 May 2002) VF-103 Sluggers/Jolly Rogers (Redesignated VFA-103 with F/A-18F 1 May 2005) VF-142 Ghostriders (Disestablished 30 April 1995) VF-143 Pukin' Dogs (Redesignated VFA-143 with F/A-18E in early 2005) Test and Evaluation Squadrons VX-4 Evaluators (Disestablished 30 September 1994 and merged into VX-9) VX-9 Vampires (Currently operates F/A-18C/D/E/F, EA-18G, EA-6B, AV-8B, AH-1 and UH-1) VX-23 Salty Dogs (Currently operates F/A-18C/D/E/F, EA-6B, EA-18G and T-45) Fleet Replacement Squadrons VF-101 Grim Reapers (Disestablished 15 September 2005) VF-124 Gunfighters (Disestablished 30 September 1994) Naval Air Reserve Force Squadrons and Squadron Augmentation Units VF-201 Hunters (Redesignated VFA-201 with F/A-18A 1 January 1999, Disestablished 30 June 2007) VF-202 Superheats (Disestablished 31 December 1999) VF-301 Devil's Disciples (Disestablished 11 September 1994) VF-302 Stallions (Disestablished 11 September 1994) VF-1285 Fighting Fubijars (Disestablished) VF-1485 Americans (Disestablished) VF-1486 Fighting Hobos (Disestablished) Aircraft on display YF-14A 157984 outside the National Museum of Naval Aviation in April 2008 Notable F-14s preserved at museums include: Bureau Number (BuNo) - Model - Location. Significance (R): Signifies an F-14B or D manufactured from an F-14A. 157982 YF-14A - Cradle of Aviation Museum, Garden City, NY. Prototype #3 Nonstructural Demonstration Testbed 157984 YF-14A - National Museum of Naval Aviation, NAS Pensacola, FL. Prototype #5 Systems Compatibility Demonstrator/Testbed 159455 F-14A - NAS Patuxent River, Lexington Park, MD. Former VX-23 Flight Test Squadron Aircraft 159600 F-14D(R) - OV-10 Bronco Museum, Fort Worth Texas. On loan from National Museum of Naval Aviation, Pensacola, FL. "Christine", the longest-serving Tomcat in US Navy, remanufactured F-14 originally built in 1976, made final 2006 cruise. "F-14D Tomcat - "Christine" / "Tomcatter 111" / "Felix 111". ov-10bronco.net 159610 F-14D(R) - Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, Dulles, VA. One of the F-14s involved in the second Gulf of Sidra incident. 160661 F-14A - U.S. Space & Rocket Center, Huntsville, AL (Aviation Challenge Camp) has the "Jolly Rogers" Insignia on left tail - Once on 3-day stand-by 160898 F-14A - Palm Springs Air Museum, Palm Springs, CA Palm Springs Air Museum 161166 F-14D(R) - Carolinas Aviation Museum, Charlotte, NC. VF-213, Last F-14 to launch on a combat mission (Iraq February 2006) 161598 F-14A - Tulsa Air and Space Museum, Tulsa, OK. /exhibits.php?nav=exhibits Exhibits. Tulsa Air and Space Museum. Has squadron VF-41, "Black Aces" markings 161605 F-14A - Wings Of Eagles Discovery Center/National Warplane Museum, Horseheads, NY 161623 F-14A - Patuxent River Naval Air Museum, NAS Patuxent River, Lexington Park, MD. Former VX-23 Flight Test Squadron Aircraft 161860 F-14B - Aviation Museum of Kentucky, Blue Grass Airport, Lexington, KY. From VF 32. 161863 F-14A - Heritage Park, NAS Jacksonville, FL 162591 F-14A - Quonset Air Museum (former NAS Quonset Point, North Kingstown, RI 162592 F-14A - Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, Simi Valley, CA 164342 F-14D - Wings Over Miami Air Museum, Miami, FL 164346 F-14D - Virginia Aviation Museum, Richmond, VA. On loan from National Museum of Naval Aviation, Pensacola, FL. Last Tomcat to operationally trap aboard a US Navy 164604 F-14D - NAS Oceana, Virginia Beach, VA. Last F-14 built by Grumman. Specifications (F-14D) Orthographically projected diagram of the Grumman F-14 Tomcat. An F-14 launches an AIM-7 Sparrow. Popular culture The F-14 inspired a number of pop cultural uses worldwide. In 1980, the time-travel film The Final Countdown featured the VF-41 "Black Aces" and VF-84 "Jolly Rogers" F-14 fighter squadrons aboard USS Nimitz. The F-14s of the "Jolly Rogers" were also a primary inspiration for the VF-1 Valkyrie in the 1982-1983 Japanese animated TV series The Super Dimension Fortress Macross (adapted outside Japan as part of Robotech). Kawamori, Shoji. Shoji Kawamori Macross Design Works, Tokyo: Movic, 2001. ISBN 4-89601-512-6. Editors of Koku Fan. F-14 Tomcat. Tokyo: Bunrindo, 2004. The F-14 featured in the prequel OAV series Macross Zero in which the opening scene featured a dogfight between F-14s and Mig 29s in a fictional world war. In 1986, the F-14 was the main aircraft in the film Top Gun, spawning a surge in U.S. Navy recruiting, Down, John. "The Song Machine", opendemocracy.net. Retrieved: 25 July 2006. as well as a video game franchise. The 1995–2005 TV series JAG featured a qualified F-14 pilot as a lead character and a retired F-14 airframe in several episodes. The F-14 has been featured in numerous other video games, and lesser roles in other films and TV series. See also References Notes Bibliography Crosby, Francis. Fighter Aircraft. London: Lorenz Books, 2002. ISBN 0-7548-0990-0. Donald, David. Warplanes of the Fleet. London: AIRtime Publishing Inc., 2004. ISBN 1-880588-81-1. Dorr, Robert F. "F-14 Tomcat: Fleet Defender", World Air Power Journal. Volume 7 Autumn/Winter 1991, pp. 42–99. London: Aerospace Publishing. ISSN 0959-7050. Drendel, Lou. F-14 Tomcat in Action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1977. ISBN 0-89747-031-1. Eden, Paul. Modern Military Aircraft. Phoenix, Arizona: Amber Books, 2004. ISBN 1-904687-08-3. Eshel, D. Grumman F-14 Tomcat (War Data No. 15). Hod Hasharon, Israel: Eshel-Dramit Ltd., 1982. Gunston, Bill and Mike Spick. Modern Air Combat. New York: Crescent Books, 1983. ISBN 0-517-41265-9. Holmes, Tony. US Navy F-14 Tomcat Units of Operation Iraqi Freedom. London: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2005. ISBN 1-84176-801-4. Sgarlato, Nico. "F-14 Tomcat" (in Italian). Aereonautica & Difesa magazine Edizioni Monografie SRL., December 1988. Spick, Mike. "F-14 Tomcat". The Great Book of Modern Warplanes. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company, 2000. ISBN 0-7603-0893-4. Stevenson, J.P. Grumman F-14, Vol. 25. New York: Tab Books, 1975. ISBN 0-8306-8592-8. External links F-14 U.S. Navy fact file and F-14 U.S. Navy history page F-14 page on NASA Langley site Revival of the Air Superiority Fighter, Rand F-14 Tomcat Reference Work, Home of M.A.T.S. TomcatsForever.com - The Most Comprehensive F-14 Tomcat site on the internet Imperial Iranian Air Force F-14 page iiaf.net , recorded 7 February 2006 and accessed 1 February 2009.
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4,764
Linear_timecode
Linear (or Longitudinal) Timecode (LTC) encodes SMPTE timecode data as a Manchester-Biphase encoded audio signal. The audio signal is commonly recorded on a VTR track or other storage media. Each frame is terminated by a 'sync word' which has a special predefined sync relationship with any video or film content. A special bit in the linear timecode frame, the 'biphase mark correction' bit, ensures that there are an even number of AC transitions in each timecode frame. The sound of linear timecode is a jarring and distinctive noise and has been used as a sound-effects shorthand to imply 'telemetry' or 'computers'. Many professional audio engineers see this use of LTC in sound-effects as an exceptionally lazy, unrealistic sound design technique. In the industry "LTC" is pronounced "Litsy" except in the UK where it is pronounced "ell-tee-cee". Generation and Distribution In broadcast video situations, the LTC generator should be tied-in to house black burst, as should all devices using timecode, to ensure correct color framing and correct synchronization of all digital clocks. When synchronizing multiple clock-dependent digital devices together with video, such as digital audio recorders, the devices must be connected to a common word clock signal that is derived from the house black burst signal. This can be accomplished by using by a generator that generates both black burst and video-resolved word clock, or by synchronizing the master digital device to video, and synchronizing all subsequent devices to the word clock output of the master digital device (and to LTC). LTC timecode is essentially an audio signal around 2400 Hz in frequency. This signal can be distributed by standard audio wiring, connectors, distribution amplifiers, and patchbays, and can be ground-isolated with audio transformers. LTC can also be distributed via 75 ohm video cable and video distribution amplifiers, although the voltage attenuation caused by using a 75 ohm system may cause the signal to drop to a level that can not be read by some equipment. Care has to be taken with analog audio to avoid audible 'breakthrough' from the LTC track to the audio tracks. LTC care: Avoid percussive sounds close to LTC Never process an LTC with noise reduction, eq or compressor Allow pre roll and post roll To create negative time code add one hour to time (avoid midnight effect) Always put slowest device as a master Longitudinal timecode data format The basic format is an 80-bit code that gives the time of day to the second, and the frame number within the second. The bits of the longitudinal SMPTE code: 0..3: Frame units 4..7: user-bits field 1 8..9: Frame tens 10: 1=drop frame format (frame 0 and 1 omitted from first second of each minute, but included when minutes divides by ten; approximates 29.97 frame/s) 11: 1="color frame", i.e. the time code is intentionally synchronised with a color TV field sequence. 12..15: user-bits field 2 16..19: seconds units 20..23: user bits field 3 24..26: second tens 27: Bi-phase mark-correction bit; set or cleared so every 80-bit word has an even number of zeros. This can be used to assure that there is no net current flow in the time code system. It also allows a technician to read the bi-phase coding timing with an oscilloscope, without the signal inverting itself continually. Modern equipment regenerates the time code to a fixed timing in the video vertical interval, so this is far less needed than before. 28..31: user bits field 4 32..35: minutes unit digit 36..39: user bits field 5 40..42: minutes tens digit 43: binary group flag bit (with bit 59, 43,59 = 00 = no format for user bits, 10 = eight bit format, 01, 11 are unassigned and reserved). 44..47: user bits field 6 48..51: hours units 52..55: user bits field 7 56..57: hours tens 58: unused, reserved, should transmit zero and ignore on receive for compatibility 59: binary group flag bit (see bit 43 for encoding) 60..63: user bits field 8 64..79: sync word, should be 0011 1111 1111 1101 There are thirty-two bits of user data. These are usually used for a reel number and date. They can be anything at all, as long as bits 43 and 59 are set to zero. The bits are encoded as "biphase". A zero bit has a single transition at the start of the bit period. A one bit has two transitions, at the beginning and middle of the period. This encoding is self-clocking. Longitudinal SMPTE timecode should be played back at a middle-level when recorded on an audio track. Too high or too low will both cause distortion. See also Vertical interval timecode Burnt-in timecode MIDI timecode CTL timecode AES-EBU embedded timecode Rewritable consumer timecode VTR Manchester Code Biphase Mark Code External links Introduction to the Basic Principles of the SMPTE/EBU Time Code
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4,765
Monopoly
In economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos , alone or single + polein , to sell) exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient control over a particular product or service to determine significantly the terms on which other individuals shall have access to it. Monopolies are thus characterized by a lack of economic competition for the good or service that they provide and a lack of viable substitute goods. The verb "monopolize" refers to the process by which a firm gains persistently greater market share than what is expected under perfect competition. A monopoly should be distinguished from monopsony, in which there is only one buyer of a product or service ; a monopoly may also have monopsony control of a sector of a market. Likewise, a monopoly should be distinguished from a cartel (a form of oligopoly), in which several providers act together to coordinate services, prices or sale of goods. Monopolies can form naturally or through vertical or horizontal mergers. A monopoly is said to be coercive when the monopoly firm actively prohibits competitors from entering the field. In many jurisdictions (particularly in the United States and South Korea), competition laws place specific restrictions on monopolies. Holding a dominant position or a monopoly in the market is not illegal in itself, however certain categories of behaviour can, when a business is dominant, be considered abusive and therefore be met with legal sanctions. A government-granted monopoly or legal monopoly, by contrast, is sanctioned by the state, often to provide an incentive to invest in a risky venture or enrich a domestic constituency. The government may also reserve the venture for itself, thus forming a government monopoly. Economic analysis The single price monopoly profit maximization problem Let the price set as a market response be a function of the quantity produced (Q) . Let the cost function be as a function of quantity . Monopoly revenue is the product of the price and quantity. Hence, assuming that the monopolist knows the exact demand function, monopoly profit is: Taking the first order derivative with respect to quantity yields: Setting this equal to zero for maximization: i.e. marginal revenue = marginal cost, provided (the rate of marginal revenue is less than the rate of marginal cost, for maximization). In economics, the study of market structures under imperfect competition begins with the analysis of Monopoly. If there is a single seller in a certain industry and there are no close substitutes for the good being produced by her, then the market structure is that of a Pure monopoly. Sometimes, there are many sellers in an industry and/or there exist many close substitutes for the good being produced, but nevertheless firms retain some market power. This is called Monopolistic competition by economists, whereas Oligopoly refers to the case where the main theoretical framework revolves around firm's strategic interactions. A company with a monopoly does not undergo price pressure from competitors, although it may face pricing pressure from potential competition. If a company raises prices too high, then others may enter the market if they are able to provide the same good, or a substitute, at a lower price. The idea that monopolies in markets with easy entry need not be regulated against is known as the "revolution in monopoly theory". The revolution in monopoly theory, by Glyn Davies and John Davies. Lloyds Bank Review, July 1984, no. 153, p. 38-52. A monopolist can extract only one premium, and getting into complementary markets does not pay. That is, the total profits a monopolist could earn if it sought to leverage its monopoly in one market by monopolizing a complementary market are equal to the extra profits it could earn anyway by charging more for the monopoly product itself. However, the one monopoly profit theorem does not hold true if customers in the monopoly good are stranded or poorly informed, or if the tied good has high fixed costs. A pure monopoly follows the same economic rationality of firms under perfect competition, i.e. to optimize a profit function given some constraints. Under the assumptions of increasing marginal costs, exogenous inputs' prices, and control concentrated on a single agent or entrepeneur, the optimal decision is to equate the marginal cost and marginal revenue of production (see diagram). Nonetheless, a pure monopoly can -unlike a competitive firm- alter the market price for her own convenience: a decrease in the level of production results in a higher price. In the economics' jargon, it is said that pure monopolies "face a downward-sloping demand". An important consequence of such behaviour is worth noticing: typically a monopoly selects a higher price and lower quantity of output than a price-taking firm; again, less is available at a higher price. There are important points for one to remember when considering the monopoly model diagram (and its associated conclusions) displayed here. The result that monopoly prices are higher, and production output lower, than a competitive firm follow from a requirement that the monopoly not charge different prices for different customers. That is, the monopoly is restricted from engaging in price discrimination (this is called first degree price discrimination, where all customers are charged the same amount). If the monopoly were permitted to charge individualized prices (this is called third degree price discrimination), the quantity produced, and the price charged to the marginal customer, would be identical to a competitive firm, thus eliminating the deadweight loss; however, all gains from trade (social welfare) would accrue to the monopolist and none to the consumer. In essence, every consumer would be just indifferent between (1) going completely without the product or service and (2) being able to purchase it from the monopolist. As long as the price elasticity of demand for most customers is less than one in absolute value, it is advantageous for a firm to increase its prices: it then receives more money for fewer goods. With a price increase, price elasticity tends to rise, and in the optimum case above it will be greater than one for most customers. Monopoly and Efficiency Surpluses and deadweight loss created by monopoly price setting According to the standard model, in which a monopolist sets a single price for all consumers, the monopolist will sell a lower quantity of goods at a higher price than would firms under perfect competition. Because the monopolist ultimately forgoes transactions with consumers who value the product or service more than its cost, monopoly pricing creates a deadweight loss referring to potential gains that went neither to the monopolist or to consumers. Given the presence of this deadweight loss, the combined surplus (or wealth) for the monopolist and consumers is necessarily less than the total surplus obtained by consumers under perfect competition. Where efficiency is defined by the total gains from trade, the monopoly setting is less efficient than perfect competition. It is often argued that monopolies tend to become less efficient and innovative over time, becoming "complacent giants", because they do not have to be efficient or innovative to compete in the marketplace. Sometimes this very loss of psychological efficiency can raise a potential competitor's value enough to overcome market entry barriers, or provide incentive for research and investment into new alternatives The theory of contestable markets argues that in some circumstances (private) monopolies are forced to behave as if there were competition because of the risk of losing their monopoly to new entrants. This is likely to happen where a market's barriers to entry are low. It might also be because of the availability in the longer term of substitutes in other markets. For example, a canal monopoly, while worth a great deal in the late eighteenth century United Kingdom,was worth much less in the late nineteenth century because of the introduction of railways as a substitute. In the short run it can be good to allow a firm to attempt to monopolize a market, since practices such as Predatory pricing can benefit consumers. When monopolies are not broken through the open market, sometimes a government will step in, either to regulate the monopoly, turn it into a publicly owned monopoly environment, or forcibly break it up (see Antitrust law). Public utilities, often being naturally efficient with only one operator and therefor less susceptible to efficient breakup, are often strongly regulated or publicly owned. AT&T and Standard Oil are debatable examples of the breakup of a private monopoly. When AT&T was broken up into the "Baby Bell" components, MCI, Sprint, and other companies were able to compete effectively in the long distance phone market and began to take phone traffic from the less efficient AT&T server. Law The existence of a very high market share does not always mean consumers are paying excessive prices since the threat of new entrants to the market can restrain a high-market-share firm's price increases. Competition law does not make merely having a monopoly illegal, but rather abusing the power a monopoly may confer, for instance through exclusionary practices. First it is necessary to determine whether a firm is dominant, or whether it behaves "to an appreciable extent independently of its competitors, customers and ultimately of its consumer." C-27/76 United Brands Continental BV v. Commission [1978] ECR 207 As with collusive conduct, market shares are determined with reference to the particular market in which the firm and product in question is sold. Under EU law, very large market shares raises a presumption that a firm is dominant, C-85/76 Hoffmann-La Roche & Co AG v. Commission [1979] ECR 461 which may be rebuttable. AKZO [1991] If a firm has a dominant position, then there is "a special responsibility not to allow its conduct to impair competition on the common market". Michelin [1983] The lowest yet market share of a firm considered "dominant" in the EU was 39.7%. BA/Virgin [2000] OJ L30/1 Certain categories of abusive conduct are usually prohibited under the country's legislation, though the lists are seldom closed. Continental Can [1973] The main recognized categories are: Predatory pricing Tying (commerce) and product bundling Limiting supply Price discrimination Refusal to deal and exclusive dealing Despite wide agreement that the above constitute abusive practices, there is some debate about whether there needs to be a causal connection between the dominant position of a company and its actual abusive conduct. Furthermore, there has been some consideration of what happens when a firm merely attempts to abuse its dominant position. Historical monopolies The term "monopoly" first appears in Aristotle's Politics, wherein Aristotle describes Thales of Miletus' cornering of the market in olive presses as a monopoly Aristotle: Politics: Book 1 (μονοπωλίαν) Aristotle, Politics . Common salt (sodium chloride) historically gave rise to natural monopolies. Until recently, a combination of strong sunshine and low humidity or an extension of peat marshes was necessary for winning salt from the sea, the most plentiful source. Changing sea levels periodically caused salt "famines" and communities were forced to depend upon those who controlled the scarce inland mines and salt springs, which were often in hostile areas (the Dead Sea, the Sahara desert) requiring well-organized security for transport, storage, and distribution. The "Gabelle", a notoriously high tax levied upon salt, played a role in the start of the French Revolution, when strict legal controls were in place over who was allowed to sell and distribute salt. Robin Gollan argues in The Coalminers of New South Wales that anti-competitive practices developed in the Newcastle coal industry as a result of the business cycle. The monopoly was generated by formal meetings of the local management of coal companies agreeing to fix a minimum price for sale at dock. This collusion was known as "The Vend." The Vend collapsed and was reformed repeatedly through-out the late nineteenth century, cracking under recession in the business cycle. "The Vend" was able to maintain its monopoly due to trade union support, and material advantages (primarily coal geography). In the early twentieth century as a result of comparable monopolistic practices in the Australian coastal shipping business, the vend took on a new form as an informal and illegal collusion between the steamship owners and the coal industry, eventually going to the High Court as Adelaide Steamship Co. Ltd v. R. & AG. Robin Gollan, The Coalminers of New South Wales: a history of the union, 1860-1960, Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1963, 45-134. Examples of alleged and legal monopolies The salt commission, a legal monopoly in China formed in 758. British East India Company; created as a legal trading monopoly in 1600. Standard Oil; broken up in 1911, two of it's surviving "baby companies" are ExxonMobil and Chevron. Major League Baseball; survived U.S. anti-trust litigation in 1922, though its special status is still in dispute as of 2009. Microsoft; settled anti-trust litigation in the U.S. in 2001; fined by the European Commission in 2004 for 497 million Euros , which was upheld for the most part by the Court of First Instance of the European Communities in 2007. The fine was 1.35 Billion USD in 2008 for noncompliance with the 2004 rule. Joint Commission; has a monopoly over whether or not US hospitals are able to participate in the Medicare and Medicaid programs. See also Monopolistic competition Complementary monopoly Duopoly Monopsony Bilateral monopoly Oligopoly Ramsey problem, a policy rule concerning what price a monopolist should set Notes and references Further reading Guy Ankerl, Beyond Monopoly Capitalism and Monopoly Socialism. Cambridge,Mass.: Schenkman Pbl., 1978. ISBN0870739387 Impact of Antitrust Laws on American Professional Team Sports External links Monopoly: A Brief Introduction by The Linux Information Project Monopoly by Elmer G. Wiens: Online Interactive Models of Monopoly (Public or Private) and Oligopoly Monopoly Profit and Loss by Fiona Maclachlan and Monopoly and Natural Monopoly by Seth J. Chandler, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. Criticism Natural Monopoly and Its Regulation The Myth of the Natural Monopoly Natural Monopoly and Its Regulation From rulers' monopolies to users' choices A critical survey of monopolistic practices Body of Knowledge on Infrastructure Regulation Monopoly and Market Power
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4,766
Brigham_Young
Brigham Young (June 1, 1801 – August 29, 1877) was an American leader in the Latter Day Saint movement and a settler of the western United States. He was the president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) from 1847 until his death and was the founder of Salt Lake City and the first governor of Utah Territory, United States. Brigham Young University was named in his honor. Young had a variety of nicknames, among the most popular being "American Moses," Newsroom — The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (alternatively the "Modern Moses" or the "Mormon Moses") Trails of Hope: Overland Diaries and Letters, 1846–1869 - Maps: Their Use by Overlanders because, like the Biblical figure, Young led his followers, the Mormon pioneers, in an exodus through a desert, to what they saw as a promised land. Young was also dubbed the "Lion of the Lord" for his bold personality, and was commonly called "Brother Brigham" by Latter-day Saints. However, Young's legacy is controversial, as he is perhaps best known outside of Mormon circles as the most prominent Mormon polygamist. He is also largely credited by historians for revoking the priesthood and the right to temple ordinances from black members of the church. Additionally, concerns persist about his role in the Utah War against the United States government and in the Mountain Meadows massacre. Early life until Joseph Smith's successor Young was born to a farming family in Whitingham, Vermont and worked as a traveling carpenter and blacksmith, among other trades. Sheret, John G.: Brigham Young: Carpenter and Cabinet Maker Young first married in 1824 to Miriam Angeline Works. Though he had converted to the Methodist faith in 1823, Young was drawn to Mormonism after reading the Book of Mormon shortly after its publication in 1830. He officially joined the new church in 1832 and traveled to Upper Canada as a missionary. After his first wife died in 1832, Young joined many Mormons in establishing a community in Kirtland, Ohio. He was ordained an apostle and joined the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles as one of its inaugural members on February 14, 1835. During the anti-Mormon persecutions in Missouri in the late 1830s, Young suffered the loss of all his property. In 1840 and 1841, he went to England as a missionary. Many of those Young converted moved to the United States to join Mormon communities. In the 1840s Young was among those who established the city of Nauvoo, Illinois on the Mississippi River. It became the headquarters of the church and was comparable in size to the city of Chicago at the time. While in jail awaiting trial for treason charges, Joseph Smith, president of the church, was killed by an armed mob in 1844. Several claimants to the role of church President emerged during the succession crisis that ensued. Before a large meeting convened to discuss the succession in Nauvoo, Sidney Rigdon, the senior surviving member of the church's First Presidency, argued there could be no successor to the deceased prophet and that he should be made the "Protector" of the church. Roberts, B. H. (ed.) History of the Church, vol. 7, ch. XVIII. Young opposed this reasoning and motion. Smith had earlier recorded a revelation which stated the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles were "equal in authority and power" to the First Presidency, Doctrine and Covenants 107:23-24. so Young claimed that the leadership of the church fell to the Twelve Apostles. Roberts, B. H. (ed.) History of the Church, vol. 7, ch. XIX. Many of Young's followers would later reminisce that while Young spoke to the congregation, he looked or sounded similar to Joseph Smith, to which they attributed the power of God. ; Lynne Watkins Jorgensen, "The Mantle of the Prophet Joseph Smith Passes to Brother Brigham: One Hundred Twenty-one Testimonies of a Collective Spiritual Witness" in John W. Welch (ed.), 2005. Opening the Heavens: Accounts of Divine Manifestations, 1820-1844, Provo, Utah: BYU Press, pp. 374-480; Eugene English, "George Laub Nauvoo Diary," BYU Studies, 18 [Winter 1978]: 167 ("Now when President Young arose to address the congregation his voice was the voice of Bro[ther] Joseph and his face appeared as Joseph's face & should I have not seen his face but heard his voice I should have declared that it was Joseph"); William Burton Diary, May 1845. LDS Church Archives ("But their [Joseph Smith and Hyrum Smith's] places were filed by others much better than I once supposed they could have been, the spirit of Joseph appeared to rest upon Brigham"); Benjamin F. Johnson, My Life's Review [Independence, 1928], p. 103-104 ("But as soon as he spoke I jumped upon my feet, for in every possible degree it was Joseph's voice, and his person, in look, attitude, dress and appearance; [it] was Joseph himself, personified and I knew in a moment the spirit and mantle of Joseph was upon him"); Life Story of Mosiah Hancock, p. 23, BYU Library ("Although only a boy, I saw the mantle of the Prophet Joseph rest upon Brigham Young; and he arose lion-like to the occasion and led the people forth"); Wilford Woodruff, Deseret News, March 15, 1892 ("If I had not seen him with my own eyes, there is no one that could have convinced me that it was not Joseph Smith"); George Q. Cannon, Juvenile Instructor, 22 [29 October 1870]: 174-175 ("When Brigham Young spoke it was with the voice of Joseph himself; and not only was it the voice of Joseph which was heard, but it seemed in the eyes of the people as though it was the every person of Joseph which stood before them"). For many in attendance at this meeting, this occurrence was accepted as a sign Young was to lead the church as President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. Young was ordained President of the Church in December 1847, more than two and a half years after Smith's death. Rigdon became the president of a separate church organization based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and other potential successors emerged to lead what became other denominations of the movement. Governor of Utah Territory As colonizer and founder of Salt Lake City, Young was appointed the territory's first governor and superintendent of Indian affairs by President Millard Fillmore. During his time as governor Young directed the establishment of settlements throughout Utah, Idaho, Arizona, Nevada, and parts of southern Colorado and northern Mexico. Under his direction the pioneers built roads and bridges, forts, irrigation projects, and established public welfare, organized a militia, and pacified the Native Americans. Young organized the first legislature and established Fillmore as the territory's first capital. In 1856 he organized an efficient mail service. In 1858 he stepped down to his successor Alfred Cumming. Brigham Young (seated near the middle, wearing a tall beaver hat) and an exploring party camped at the Colorado River in 1870 Church Presidency Initial actions as church president After three years of leading the church as the President of the Quorum of the Twelve, in 1847 Young reorganized a new First Presidency and was declared president of the church. Repeated conflict led Young to relocate his group of Latter-day Saints to a territory in what is now Utah, then part of Mexico. Young organized the journey that would take the faithful to Winter Quarters, Nebraska, in 1846 , then to the Salt Lake Valley. Young arrived in the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847, a date now recognized as Pioneer Day in Utah. Polygamy The LDS church under Brigham Young is perhaps best known for its practice of polygamy. Though most historians think that polygamy among Latter Day Saints was taught and practiced by Joseph Smith, Young's predecessor, many adherents to other Latter Day Saint denominations such as the Community of Christ believe that polygamy in the Mormon church originated under Brigham Young. The church's first official statement on the subject was given by Brigham Young in 1853 after the church had arrived in Utah. Young's words came nine years after the purported original revelation by Joseph Smith, and five years after the Mormon Exodus to Utah following Smith's death in Illinois. Family life Young was perhaps the most famous polygamist of the early American church, marrying a total of 55 wives, 54 of them after becoming a Latter Day Saint. Jeffrey Odgen Johnson, “Determining and Defining ‘Wife’ — The Brigham Young Households”, Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, vol. 20, no. 3 (Fall 1987) pp. 57-70. He stated that upon being taught about plural marriage, "It was the first time in my life that I desired the grave." By the time of his death, Young had 57 children by 16 of his wives; 46 of his children reached adulthood. Sources have varied on the number of Young's wives due to differences in what observers have considered to be a "wife". There were 55 women that Young was sealed to during his lifetime. While the majority of the sealings were "for eternity", some were "for time only". However, it is suspected that not all of the 55 marriages were conjugal, and Young did not live with a number of his wives or publicly hold them out as wives, which has led to confusion on numbering. Of his 55 wives, 21 had never been married before; 16 were widows; six were divorced; six had living husbands; and the marital status of six others are unknown. In 1856, Young built the Lion House to accommodate his sizable family. This building remains a Salt Lake City landmark, together with the Beehive House, another Brigham Young family home. A contemporary of Young wrote: "It was amusing to walk by Brigham Young's big house, a long rambling building with innumerable doors. Each wife has an establishment of her own, consisting of parlor, bedroom, and a front door, the key of which she keeps in her pocket". At the time of Young's death, 19 of his wives had predeceased him, he was divorced from ten, and 23 survived him, with the status of four unknown. In his will, Young shared his estate with the 16 surviving wives who had lived with him; the six surviving non-conjugal wives were not mentioned in the will. Grave marker of Brigham Young. Circumstances leading to banning the priesthood from black members Brigham Young is generally credited with having been responsible for revoking the priesthood and temple blessings from black members of the LDS Church, who had been treated equally in this respect under Joseph Smith's presidency. During the Mormon flight from Illinois towards Utah in 1847, Brigham Young received a letter informing him of an inter-racial marriage by the son of a prominent black member, Walker Lewis. The letter was written by William Ivers Appleby, a conservative Mormon elder, who desired to know if interracial marriage was an acceptable practice. Appleby sent the letter to Young at Winter Quarters, Nebraska, but Young was actually in Utah, and therefore did not receive Appleby's missive until December 1, 1847, when he returned to Winter Quarters. Quite coincidentally, Appleby himself arrived in Winter Quarters on December 2. Young read Appleby's letter and then had him personally report to Young and the eight apostles who were then in Nebraska. In 1863, Young reported that he said, "Shall I tell you the law of God in regard to the African race? If the white man who belongs to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain, the penalty, under the law of God, is death on the spot. This will always be so." (Journal of Discourses, vol. 10, p. 110) http://patriot.lib.byu.edu/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT=/JournalOfDiscourses3&CISOPTR=4266&filename=100504_171800_ep110_Va_M230_J82_v10.pdf After settling in Utah in 1848, Brigham Young announced a priesthood ban which prohibited all men of black African descent from holding the priesthood. In connection, Mormons of African descent could not participate in Mormon temple rites such as the Endowment or sealing. These racial restrictions remained in place until 1978, when the policy was rescinded by President of the Church Spencer W. Kimball. http://scriptures.lds.org/od/2 Conflict with U.S. government Shortly after the arrival of Young's pioneers, the new Mormon colonies were incorporated into the United States through Mexican Cession, Young petitioned the U.S. Congress to create the State of Deseret. The Compromise of 1850 instead carved out Utah Territory, and Young was installed as governor. As governor and church president, Young directed both religious and economic matters. He encouraged independence and self-sufficiency. Many cities and towns in Utah, and some in neighboring states, were founded under Young's direction. Young's leadership style has been viewed as autocratic. Brigham Young — MSN Encarta When federal officials received reports of widespread and systematic obstruction of federal officials in Utah (most notably judges), U.S. President James Buchanan decided to install a non-Mormon governor. Buchanan accepted the reports of the judges without any further investigation, and the new non-sectarian governor was accompanied by troops sent to garrison forts in the new territory. The troops passed by the bloody Kansas–Missouri war without intervening in it, as it was not open warfare and only isolated sporadic incidents. When Young received word that federal troops were headed to Utah with his replacement, he called out his militia to ambush the federal column. During the defense of Deseret, now called the Utah War, Young held the U.S. Army at bay for a winter by taking their cattle and burning supply wagons. The Mormon forces were largely successful thanks to Lot Smith, the famous Mormon commando, who outsmarted the Federal army despite being outnumbered by more than a thousand to one. Young made plans to burn Salt Lake City and move his followers to Mexico, but at the last minute he relented and agreed to step down as governor. He later received a pardon from Buchanan. Relations between Young and future governors and U.S. Presidents were mixed. Mountain Meadows massacre A controversial issue is the extent of Young's involvement in the Mountain Meadows massacre, which took place in Washington County in 1857. Leonard J. Arrington reports that Brigham Young received a rider at his office on the same day. When he learned what was contemplated by the members of the Mormon Church in Parowan and Cedar City, he sent back a letter that the Fancher party be allowed to pass through the territory unmolested. Brigham Young to Isaac C. Haight, Sept. 10, 1857, Letterpress Copybook 3:827–28, Brigham Young Office Files, LDS Church Archives Young's letter supposedly arrived two days too late, on September 13, 1857. As governor, Young had promised the federal government he would protect immigrants passing through Utah Territory. But he had also allegedly told local Native American leaders that they had his permission to steal cattle from these wagon trains. Over 120 men, women and children were killed by the Mormons and their Native American allies. It is clear that local Mormons were the principal perpetrators. United States Army officer James Henry Carleton was sent to investigate the massacre and was convinced that the Mormons were the perpetrators. Only children survived, the murdered members of the wagon train (known as the Fancher Party) were left unburied, and the surviving children were cared for by local Mormon families. The remains of about forty people were found and buried and Carleton had a large cross made from local trees, the transverse beam bearing the engraving, "Vengeance Is Mine, Saith The Lord: I Will Repay" and erected a cairn of rocks at the site. A large slab of granite was put up on which he had the following words engraved: "HERE 120 MEN, WOMEN AND CHILDREN WERE MASSACRED IN COLD BLOOD EARLY IN SEPTEMBER, 1857. THEY WERE FROM ARKANSAS." For two years the monument stood as a warning to those travelling the Spanish Trail through Mountain Meadow. In 1861, Young brought an entourage to Mountain Meadows and had the cairn and cross destroyed. As his men took the cairn apart, Young is reported to have said, "Vengeance is mine and I have taken a little". Sally Denton (2003). American Massacre: The Tragedy at Mountain Meadowns, September 1857 (New York: Vintage Books, ISBN 0375726365) p. 210. Other notable actions Young organized the Mormon Tabernacle Choir and in 1850 founded the University of Deseret, which is now the University of Utah. In 1875, just two years before his death, he founded Brigham Young Academy, which later became Brigham Young University. In 1950, the state of Utah donated a marble statue of Young to the U.S. Capitol's National Statuary Hall Collection. Brigham Young Works LDS Church publication number 35554. Reference in literature Sir Arthur Conan Doyle based his first Sherlock Holmes novel, A Study in Scarlet, on Mormon history, mentioning Young by name. When asked to comment on the story, which had "provoked the animosity of the Mormon faithful", Conan Doyle noted, "all I said about the Danite Band and the murders is historical so I cannot withdraw that though it is likely that in a work of fiction it is stated more luridly than in a work of history." However, Doyle's daughter stated that "You know father would be the first to admit that his first Sherlock Holmes novel was full of errors about the Mormons." Sherlock Holmes creator Arthur Conan Doyle impressed by Mormons Notable descendants Brigham Young has several noteworthy descendants: Brigham Young, Jr., LDS Church apostle John Willard Young, LDS Church apostle Joseph Angell Young, LDS Church apostle Leah D. Widtsoe, wife of apostle John A. Widtsoe, and a leading expert in Home Economics. She coauthored the book The Word of Wisdom: A Modern Interpretation with her husband and wrote a biography of Brigham Young with her mother, Susa Young Gates, listed below. Mahonri Young, sculptor/artist Orson Scott Card, novelist Richard Whitehead Young, U.S. Army general and justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines Sandra Tanner, critic of the LDS Church Susa Young Gates, Utah suffragist and women's rights activist Steve Young, professional American football player William Hooper Young, early 20th-century convicted murderer See also Brigham Young: American Moses Brigham Young (1940 film) Joseph Young Phineas Young Richards–Young family This Is The Place Heritage Park Notes References Arrington, Leonard J., Brigham Young: American Moses; University of Illinois Press; ISBN 0-252-01296-8, (1985; Paperback, 1986). , republished online at . Bergera, Gary James, Conflict in the Quorum: Orson Pratt, Brigham Young, Joseph Smith External links Short biography of Young from Architect of the Capitol Biography from Brigham Young University The Brigham Young period of polygamy Homes of Brigham Young Pictures of some of Brigham Young's houses. Brigham Young's Wives and His Divorce From Ann Eliza Webb Brigham Young: Images of a Mormon Prophet Richard Neitzel Holzapfel, R. Q. Shupe, Eagle Gate and Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, 2000.
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4,767
Nigerian_Armed_Forces
The Military of Nigeria has active duty personnel in three armed services, totalling approximately 85,000 troops and 82,000 paramilitary personnel. IISS Military Balance 2007, Routledge, p.286 It origins lie in the elements of the Royal West African Frontier Force that became Nigerian when independence was granted in 1960. In 1956 the Nigeria Regiment of the RWAFF was renamed the Nigerian Military Forces, RWAFF, and in April 1958 the colonial government of Nigeria took over from the British War Office control of the Nigerian Military Forces. Library of Congress Country Studies, Nigeria Since its creation the Nigerian military has fought in a civil war – the conflict with Biafra in 1967-70 – and sent peacekeeping forces abroad both with the United Nations and as the backbone of the ECOWAS-sponsored ECOWAS Cease-fire Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) in Liberia and Sierra Leone. It has also seized power twice at home (1966 & 1983) and today ‘has become entrenched in all facets of [Nigerian] civic and economic life,’ including manipulation of national political life – General Sani Abacha’s creation of artificial political parties – and a central role in the control and management of Nigeria’s oil wealth. J. ‘Kayode Fayemi, ‘Governing the Security Sector in a Democratising Polity: Nigeria’ in Gavin Cawthra & Robin Luckham (eds) Governing Insecurity: Democratic Control of Military and Security Establishments in Transitional Democracies, Zed Books, London/New York, 2003, pp.57-77 Branches Army Crest of the Nigerian Army Nigerian troops with a US C-130 Hercules The original elements of the RWAFF in Nigeria were formed in 1900. During the Second World War, British-trained Nigerian troops saw action with the 1st (West Africa) Infantry Brigade, the 81st and the 82nd (West Africa) Divisions who fought in the East African Campaign (World War II) and the Far East. The Nigerian Army, the largest of the services, has about 67,000 personnel. IISS Military Balance 2007, p.287 Its formations include the 1st Mechanised Infantry Division, headquartered in Kaduna in the north-west, and 2nd Mechanised Infantry Division (HQ Ibadan in the South-West, includes 32 Artillery Brigade at Abeokuta), Army Games Begin in Abeokuta 3rd Armoured Division (HQ Rukuba Cantonment, Jos in the North-East, and including 21 Armoured Brigade Maiduguri, 23 Brigade Yola, and 33 Artillery Brigades), Nigerian Army 3 Division, verified October 2008 81st Division (Amphibious) HQ in Lagos, which includes the 9th Brigade, based at the Ikeja compound in Lagos, 82nd Division (Airborne and Amphibious) HQ in Enugu in the South-East, which includes the 13 (15?) Brigade at Calabar and 34 Artillery Brigade at Obinze/Owerri, and the Abuja-based Guards Brigade. 3rd Armoured Division was responsible in 1983 for the security of areas bordering Chad. Jimi Peters, The Nigerian military and the state, I.B. Tauris, 1997, p.174, via Google Books Divisions in the Nigerian Army were first formed during the Nigerian Civil War, when in August-September 1967, 1 Area Command at Kaduna was redesignated 1 Infantry Division, 2 Division was formed under Colonel Murtala Mohammed, and the then Lagos Garrison Organisation was renamed 3 Infantry Division, later to become 3 Marine Commando Division. General Olunsegun Obasanjo, 'My Command: An Account of the Nigerian Civil War 1967-70,' Heinemann, Ibadan/London/Nairobi, p.18 (Via Joint Services Command and Staff College Library) Lagos and Abuja have garrison commands with the Lagos garrison as large as a division. 81 Division was the youngest Division in the Nigerian Army. The Division was formed on 26 May 2002 when the Lagos Garrison Command (as it then was) was upgraded to a full-fledged Division. The Division therefore inherited the security roles hitherto performed by the defunct Lagos Garrison Command. Nigerian Army Website, accessed August 2008 However a later undated article in a Nigerian online newspaper says the 81 Division was later again renamed the Lagos Garrison Command. In the 1980s, the Army's brigades included the 7th Infantry Brigade in Sokoto. There are also Divisional Artillery Brigades, among which are the 32 and 34 Artillery Brigades, Saxone Akhaine, Army chief decries military's involvement in politics, Guardian, Kaduna, 13 October 2008 ordinance corps units as well as Combat Engineer Regiments, and many other service support units spread across the country. The Army has demonstrated its capability to mobilize, deploy, and sustain brigade-sized forces in support of peacekeeping operations in Liberia. Smaller forces have been previously sent to the former Yugoslavia, Angola, Rwanda, Somalia, and Sierra Leone. Ex-President, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo promoted and appointed Lt Gen Owoye Andrew Azazi as the Chief of the Defence Staff (CODS). Lt. Gen. Azazi was until his new appointment the Chief of Army Staff (COAS). He replaced General Martin Luther Agwai who was also promoted and appointed as the Commander of African Forces in Darfur (the United Nations African Union Mission in Darfur). Lt. Gen. Azazi's appointment took effect from 1 June 2006, as contained in the statement dated 30 May 2006, issued by the Secretary to the Government of the Federation (SGF), Obong Ufot Ekaette. The current COAS is Maj. Gen. Abdulrahman Bello Dambazau who replaced Lt. Gen. Luka M. Yusuf in August 2008. Dambazau: A General's General, accessed September 2008 Dambazau's previous service includes time with 146 Infantry Battalion as a junior officer, command of 1 Provost Group and 3 Provost Group, and command of 2 Division. Equipment AKM M16 rifle FN FAL rifle Heckler & Koch G3 rifle Daewoo K2 rifle SIG SG 540 rifle FN FNC rifle FN MAG machine gun Beretta M 1951 pistol Walther P5 pistol Blowpipe missile (MANPADS) - 48 launchers forecastinternational.com ZSU-23-4 (SPAAG) ZU-23-2 (air defence gun) - 20 BM-21 (rocket artillery) - 11 L16 81mm Mortar M-46 (field gun) - 7 OTO Melara Mod 56 (howitzer) - 18 Deagel.com T-55 (medium tank) - 50 T-72 (medium tank) - 77 UN nations register BTR-60 (APC) - 6 Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked) BTR-3 (APC) - 47 UN nations register Otokar Cobra light armoured vehicle - 193 Navy The NNS Aradu, a MEKO 360 class frigate, flagship of the Nigerian Navy In 1887, the Colonial Government of Nigeria established the Lagos Marine as a quasi-military organization combining the duties of present day Nigeria Ports Authority, the Inland Waterways and the maritime policing duties of modern day Navy. http://www.nigeriannavy.gov.ng/history.aspx, accessed February 2008 When Northern and Southern Nigeria were brought together as one country in 1914, the two marine forces became the Nigeria Marine, and on 1 June 1956 after lobbying for a full-fledged naval force instead of a ports authority, the Nigerian Naval Force was established. The Nigerian Navy command structure today consists of the Naval Headquarters based in Abuja, two operational commands with headquarters in Lagos and Calabar, two training commands with headquarters in Lagos but with training facilities spread all over Nigeria, two operational bases, five forward operational bases (with two more soon to come on stream), two Dockyards located in Lagos and Port Harcourt and two fleets based in Lagos and Calabar. The Navy has 8,000 personnel, including those of the Coast Guard. IISS Military Balance 2007, p.287 The commander of the Nigerian Navy is Vice Admiral II Ibrahim, the Chief of the Naval Staff (CNS). He is assisted by 7 principal staff officers at the Headquarters known as Branch Chiefs. The PSOs are:, The Chief of Policy and Plans, Rear Admiral PS Adeniyi ,Rear Admiral Os Ibrahim, the Chief of Training and Operations, Chief of Accounts and Budget,Commodore Maculey, Rear Admiral Jonah, the Chief of Naval Engineering, Commodore S Orishamolade, the Chief of Logistics, and Rear Admiral I B Acholonu, the Navy Secretary. Each of the Branches consists of Directorates. The Administration Branch, for instance, consists of Directorate of Education (headed by Cdre TO Olawumi) and Directorate of Medical Services (headed by Cdre K Ibe Lambert). The Directorate of Naval Information, headed by Captain H Babalola, is under the Chief of Policy and Plans. The commands are under the flag officers commanding. Rear Admiral SU Umosen commands the Western Naval Command while Rear Admiral BA Raji commands the Eastern Naval Command. The Naval Training. The newly constituted Logistics Command is headed by Rear Admiral HOG Arogundade. The Navy recently celebrated its Golden Jubilee in Lagos with a parade and a review of the fleet by the Commander in Chief, President Olusegun Obasanjo. To witness this colourful parade were the Chiefs of Naval Staff of African Navies and other friendly nations. In 2004, two Navy rear admirals were dismissed on corruption charges after having been convicted of involvement in the disappearance from Navy custody of the Russian oil tanker African Pride. Naval Open Source Intelligence on the Nigerian Navy, bottom two articles The IISS Military Balance 2007 lists the Nigerian Navy as having one MEKO 360 class frigate, NNS Aradu; one Vosper Mk 9 corvette, Enymiri (F 83); two modified Italian Lerici class coastal minesweepers (Ohue and Marabai, commissioned in 1987 and 1988 respectively); three French Combattante fast missile craft (Siri, Ayam, and Ekun); and four Balsam ocean patrol craft (ex buoy tenders). IISS Military Balance 2007, Routledge, p.287. Most name and pennant number information is from Captain Richard Sharpe RN (ed.), Jane's Fighting Ships 1999-2000, Jane's Information Group, Coulsdon, Surry, p.485-7 All these vessels are listed as having their serviceability in doubt. Vessels which may be operational are a German Lurssen 57-metre coastal patrol craft; twelve Defender patrol boats; the landing ship tank NNS Ambe (LST 1312); and the five logistics and support ships: one survey vessel, three tugs, and the training ship Ruwan Yaro (A 497). There are two Agusta Westland Lynx Mk.89 ASW helicopters and three Agusta A-109 Hirundo/Power helicopters, all except the Lynxs are operational. However in late 2006/early 2007, a naval exercise was held which saw several previously thought unservicable ships involved. Segun Adeyemi, 'Nigerian Navy exercise tests operational capability, 'Jane's Defence Weekly, Vol. 44, No. 5, 31 January 2007, p.16 CONSTRAC is the Chief of the Naval Staff Annual Training Conference. The First CONSTRAC was held at Obudu in Cross River State in Nov 2006. The Nigerian Navy has just concluded the Second Chief of the Naval Staff Training Conference in Sokoto, Nigeria. It was held at Sultan Macido School of Qu'ran and General Studies between 29 Oct 07 and 2 Nov 07. Air Force The Nigerian Air Force (10,000 - IISS Military Balance 2007) flies transport, trainer, helicopter, and fighter aircraft, of which the IISS says there is 'very limited operational capability'. Nigeria also has pursued a policy of developing domestic training and military production capabilities. Nigeria has continued a strict policy of diversification in her military procurement from various countries. Other components There is a Joint Task Force in the Niger Delta region designated "Restore Hope." http://www.punchng.com/Articl.aspx?theartic=Art200809101281020 Nigerian military forces abroad In December 1983, the new Major General Muhammadu Buhari regime announced that Nigeria could no longer afford an activist anti-colonial role in Africa. That policy statement did not deter Nigeria under Generals Ibrahim Babangida in 1990 and Sani Abacha in 1997 from sending ECOMOG peacekeeping forces under the auspices of ECOWAS into Liberia and later Sierra Leone when civil wars broke out in those countries. President Olusegun Obasanjo in August 2003 committed Nigerian troops once again into Liberia, at the urging of the United States, to provide an interim presence until the UN's force UNMIL arrived. Charles Taylor was subsequently eased out of power and exiled to Nigeria. In October 2004, Nigerian troops again deployed into Darfur, Sudan to spearhead an AU force to stop the genocide in Darfur. Nigeria boasts to have contributed more than 20,000 troops/police to various UN missions since 1960. Nigerian Police and troops have served in places like UNIPOM (UN India-Pakistan Observer mission) 1965, UNIFIL in Lebanon 1978, the UN observer mission, UNIIMOG supervising the Iran-Iraq ceasefire in 1988, former Yugoslavia 1998, East Timor 1999, and in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC) 2004. References List of Military Health Care Facilities Under DHML - for unit locations Further reading N.J. Miners, ‘The Nigerian Army 1956-66,’ Methuen and Co. Ltd, London, 1971 Links Nigerian Military School, Zaria External links Nigerian Navy Education Nigerian Navy Education 2 Nigerian Navy Education 3 Jane's Defence news on Nigerian Navy CIA World Fact Book - Nigeria
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4,768
Rail_transport_in_Great_Britain
The railway system in Great Britain is the oldest in the world, with the world's first locomotive hauled public railway opening in 1825. As of 2006, it consists of of standard gauge lines, of which are electrified. United Kingdom: Transport from the CIA World Factbook 2008. These lines are single, double or quadruple track. In addition, a number of narrow gauge lines operate in parts of the country. The British railway network is connected with that of continental Europe by an undersea rail link, the Channel Tunnel, which opened in 1994. Historical overview Rail passenger numbers in Great Britain, 1920-2007 The system was originally built as a patchwork of local rail links operated by small private railway companies. Over the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries these amalgamated or were bought by competitors until only a handful of larger companies remained (see railway mania). The entire network was brought under government control during the First World War, and a number of advantages of amalgamation and planning were revealed. However, the government resisted calls for the nationalisation of the network (first proposed by William Gladstone as early as the 1830s). Instead, from 1 January 1923 almost all the remaining companies were grouped into the "big four", the Great Western Railway, the London and North Eastern Railway, the London, Midland and Scottish Railway and the Southern Railway companies (there were also a number of other joint railways such as the Midland and Great Northern Joint Railway). The "Big Four" were joint-stock public companies and they continued to run the railway system until 31 December 1947. The growth in road transport during the 1920s and 1930s greatly reduced revenue for the rail companies. Rail companies accused the government of favouring road haulage through the subsidised construction of roads. The railways entered a slow decline owing to a lack of investment and changes in transport policy and lifestyles. During the Second World War the companies' managements joined together, effectively forming one company. A maintenance backlog developed during the war, and the private sector only had two years to deal with this after the war ended. After 1945, for both practical and ideological reasons, the government decided to bring the rail service into the public sector. What the rail network would have looked like if the Beeching Axe II plans had been implemented From the start of 1948, the "big four" were nationalised to form British Railways (latterly "British Rail") under the control of the British Transport Commission. Although BR was a single entity, it was divided into six (later five) regional authorities in accordance with the existing areas of operation. Though there were few initial changes to the service, usage increased and the network became profitable. Regeneration of track and stations was completed by 1954. In the same year, changes to the British Transport Commission, including the privatisation of road haulage, ended the coordination of transport in Great Britain. Rail revenue fell and in 1955 the network again ceased to be profitable. The mid-1950s saw the rapid introduction of diesel and electric rolling stock, but the expected transfer back from road to rail did not occur and losses began to mount. The desire for profitability led to a major reduction in the network during the mid-1960s with ICI manager Dr. Richard Beeching given the task by the government of re-organising the railways. Many branch lines were closed because they were deemed uneconomic ("the Beeching Axe"), removing much feeder traffic from main line passenger services. The closure of many freight depots that had been used by larger industries such as coal and iron led to much freight transferring to road haulage. Beeching was going to close all but the "major trunk routes" in the Beeching II report. This was never implemented by BR. Passenger services experienced a renaissance with the introduction of high-speed inter-city trains in the 1970s. Passenger levels have fluctuated since this time, increasing during periods of economic growth and falling during recessions. The 1980s saw severe cuts in government funding and above-inflation increases in fares, and the service became more cost-effective. In the early 1990s the five geographical Regions were replaced by a Sector organisation, where passenger services were organised into Inter City, Network SouthEast, and Other Provincial Services sectors. This new organisation showed promise of being a more efficient organisation of the railways, but within a couple of years of its implementation the structure was fragmented by the privatisation process. Railway operations were privatised during 1994-1997. Ownership of the track and infrastructure passed to Railtrack, whilst passenger operations were franchised to individual private sector operators (originally there were 25 franchises) and the freight services sold outright (six companies were set up, but five of these were sold to the same buyer). The government claimed that privatisation would see an improvement in passenger services. Passenger levels have since increased to above the level they had been at in the late-1940s. The public image of rail travel was severely damaged following the series of significant accidents after privatisation. These included the Hatfield accident, caused by a rail fragmenting due to the development of microscopic cracks. Following the Hatfield accident, the rail infrastructure company Railtrack imposed over 1200 emergency speed restrictions across its network and instigated an extremely costly nationwide track replacement programme. The consequent severe operational disruption to the national network and the company's spiralling costs set in motion the series of events which resulted in the ultimate collapse of the company, and its replacement with Network Rail, a state-owned, not-for-dividend company. At the end of September 2003 the first part of High Speed 1, a high speed link to the Channel Tunnel and on to France and Belgium, was completed, significantly adding to the rail infrastructure of the country. The rest of the link, from north Kent to St Pancras railway station in London, opened in 2007. A major programme of remedial work on the West Coast Main Line started in 1997 and finished in 2009, far over budget (£10bn), many years late and still not bringing the line up to the standards originally proposed by Railtrack. Passenger services First Great Western 43143 and 43183 along with 180136 and Heathrow Express 332011 at Paddington station, London. Passenger train services in Great Britain are, in the main, structured on the basis of regional franchises awarded by the Department for Transport (DfT) to Train Operating Companies. Some slight variations include Merseyrail where the franchise is awarded by Merseyside Passenger Transport Executive and ScotRail where the DfT awards on the advice of the Scottish Government. There were initially twenty-five such franchises, but the number of different operating companies is smaller as some firms, including First Group, National Express Group and Stagecoach Group, have more than one franchise. In addition some franchises have since been combined. There are a number of local or specialised rail services operated on an 'open access' basis outside the franchise arrangements. Examples include the Heathrow Express and Hull Trains. A Virgin CrossCountry Class 220 Voyager at Bristol Temple Meads. These trains are now operated by CrossCountry. In the 2002–3 operating year, franchised services provided 976 million journeys totalling 24.7 billion passenger miles of travel, which was an increase over 1986–7 of 32% in journeys (from 738 million) and 29% in passenger miles (from 30.8 billion). On the other hand, taking a longer term view the number of journeys in 2002–3 was lower than for the 1950–60 period; the passenger kilometres figure, after being a flat from 1965–1995, surpassed the 1947 figure for the first time in 1998, and continues to rise steeply. The key index used to assess passenger train performance is the Public Performance Measure which combines figures for punctuality and reliability. Performance against this metric has been especially poor since mid-2000. From a base of 90% of trains arriving on time in 1998, the measure dipped to 75% in mid 2001, and by the end of the 2002–3 period, had recovered to only 80%. However as of September 2006 the PPM stands at 87.5% after a period of steady increases in the annual moving average since 2003. A Class 170 at Peterborough. These trains are used for local services throughout the country. The real increase in rail fares after accounting for inflation over the 1995–2004 period was 4.7%. For some years Britain has been said to have the highest rail fares in the world BBC News . Average rolling stock age — thought to be an indicator of passenger comfort — fell slightly from the third quarter of 2001–2 to the third quarter of 2003–4, from 20.7 years old to 19.3 years old. Although passengers rarely have cause to refer to either document, all travel is subject to the National Rail Conditions of Carriage, and all tickets are valid subject to the rules set out in a number of so-called technical manuals, which are centrally produced for the network. Freight services There are four main freight operating companies, the largest of which is DB Schenker (formerly the English, Welsh and Scottish Railway (EWS)). There are also several smaller independent operators including Mendip Rail. Types of freight carried include intermodal — in essence containerised freight — and coal, metals, oil, and construction material. Freight services have been in steady decline since the 1950s, although the Department for Transport's Transport Ten Year Plan calls for an 80% increase in rail freight measured from a 2000–1 base. Statistics on freight are specified in terms of the weight of freight lifted, and the net tonne kilometre, being freight weight multiplied by distance carried. 87 million tonnes of freight was lifted in the 2002–3 period, against 138 million tonnes in 1986–7, a decrease of 37%. 18.7 billion net tonne kilometres (11.4 billion net ton miles) of freight movement were recorded in 2002–3, against 16.6 billion (10.1 billion) in 1986–7, an increase of 13%. A symbolic loss to the rail freight industry in Great Britain was the custom of the Royal Mail, which from 2004 discontinued use of its 49-train fleet, and switching to road haulage after a near 170-year-preference for trains. Mail trains had long been part of the tradition of the railways in Great Britain, not least because of the film Night Mail, for which W. H. Auden wrote the poem of the same name. Although Royal Mail suspended the Mail train in January 2004, this decision was reversed in December of the same year and Class 325s are now used on some routes including between London, Warrington and Scotland. High speed rail High speed rail (above 125 mph) was first introduced in Great Britain in the 1970s by British Rail. BR had pursued two development projects in parallel, the development of a tilting train technology, the 'Advanced Passegner Train' (APT), and development of a conventional high speed diesel train, the 'High Speed Train' (HST). The APT project was abandoned, but the HST design entered service as the British Rail Classes 253, 254 and 255 trains. The prototype HST, the British Rail Class 252, reached a world speed record for diesel trains of 143.2 mph, while the main fleet entered service limited to a service speed of 125 mph, and were introduced progressively on main lines across the country, with a rebranding of their services as the InterCity 125. With electrification of the East Coast Main Line, high speed rail in Great Britain was augmented with the introduction of the British Rail Class 91, intended for passenger service at up to 140mph (225 km/h), and thus branded as the InterCity 225. The Class 91 units were designed for a maximum service speed of 140 mph, and running at this speed was trialled with a 'flashing green' signal aspect under the British signalling system. The trains were eventually limited to the same speed as the HST, to 125 mph, with higher speeds deemed to require Cab signalling, which as of 2009 was not in place on the normal British railway network (but was used on the Channel Tunnel Rail Link). A final attempt by the nationalised British Rail at High Speed Rail was the cancelled InterCity 250 project in the 1990s for the West Coast Main Line. The first implementation of high speed rail up to 190 mph in regular passenger service in Great Britain was the Channel Tunnel Rail Link (now known as High Speed 1), when its first phase opened in 2003 linking the British end of the Channel Tunnel at Folkestone with Fawkham Junction in Kent. This is used by international only passenger trains for the Eurostar service, using British Rail Class 373 trains. The line was later extended all the way into London St Pancras in 2007. Post privatisation, a plan to upgrade the West Coast Main Line to speeds of up to 140 mph with infrastructure improvements were finally abandoned, although the tilting train Class 390 Pendolino fleet designed for this maximum speed of service were still built and entered service in 2002, and operates limited to 125 mph. Other routes in the UK were upgraded with trains capable of top speeds of up to 125 mph running with the introduction between 2000 and 2005 of Class 180 Adelante DMUs and the Bombardier Voyager family of DEMUs (Classes 220, 221 and 222). After the building of the first of a new British Rail Class 395 train fleet for use partly on High Speed 1 and parts of the rest of the UK rail network, the first domestic high speed running over 125 mph was due to begin in 2009 with new domestic services and a special Olympic Javelin shuttle for the 2012 Olympics, both operated by the Southeastern franchise. Following several studies and consultations on high speed rail, in 2009 the UK Government formally announced the High Speed 2 project, establishing a company to produce a feasibiliy study to examine route options and financing for a new high speed railway in the UK. This study began on the assumption that the route would be a new purpose built high speed line, from London to the West Midlands, via London Heathrow, relieving traffic on the West Coast Main Line, and would use conventional high speed rail technology as opposed to Maglev. The rolling stock would be capable of travelling on the existing Network Rail infrastructure if required. For replacement of the domestic fleet of Intercity 125 and 225 trains on the existing national network, the Intercity Express Programme was announced. In February 2009 it was announced the preferred rolling stock option for this project was the Hitachi Super Express family of multiple units, expected to enter service in 2013. It was stated by Agility Trains, the consortium building the trains, that they would be capable of a maximum speed of 140mph with "minor modifications", with the necessary signalling modifications required of the Network Rail infrastructure in Britain likely to come from the phased roll out of the Europe wide European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS). As of April 2009 the speeds of the fastest trains operating in Great Britain capable of a top speed of 125 mph were as follows: NameLocomotive ClassTypeMax. Speed (mph (km/h))Max. Speed in service (mph (km/h))EurostarClass 373EMU209 (334.7)186 (300)InterCity 225Class 91EMU162 (261)125 (200)PendolinoClass 390EMU145 (234) 'Rail' Magazine Issue 612 February 25 - March 10 2009 125 (200)InterCity 125Class 43 (HST)DMU148 (238)125 (200)AdelanteClass 180DMU125 (200)125 (200)VoyagerClass 220DMU125 (200)125 (200)Super VoyagerClass 221DMU125 (200)125 (200)MeridianClass 222DMU125 (200)125 (200) The fastest domestic railway journey in the UK is the National Express East Coast service from London King's Cross to Edinburgh Waverley, timetabled to complete the 393 mile journey in 4 hours 20 mintues, giving an average speed of 90mph National Express East Coast Train Timetable . Leasing services Fragonset Railways class 47 railway locomotive, Virginia Water railway station, April 2004 At the time of privatisation, the rolling stock of British Rail was sold either directly to the new operators, as in the case of the freight companies, or to the three ROSCOs (Rolling Stock Operating Companies) which lease or hire stock to passenger and freight train operators. Leasing is relatively commonplace in transport, since it enables operating companies to avoid the complication associated with raising sufficient capital to purchase assets; instead, assets are leased and paid for from ongoing revenue. Since 1994 there has been a growth in smaller spot-hire companies that provide rolling stock on short-term contracts. Many of these have grown thanks to the major selling-off of locomotives by the large freight operators, especially EWS. Unlike other major players in the privatised railway system of Great Britain, the ROSCOs are not subject to close regulation by the economic regulatory authority. They were expected to compete with one another, and they do, although not in all respects. Controversy Since privatisation in 1995, the ROSCOs have faced criticism from a number of quarters - including passenger train operating companies such as GNER, Arriva and FirstGroup - on the basis that they are acting as an oligopoly to keep lease prices higher than would be the case in a more competitive market. In 1998, Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott asked Rail Regulator John Swift QC to investigate the operation of the market and make recommendations. It was believed by many at the time that Prescott favoured much closer regulation of the ROSCOs, perhaps bringing them into the net of contract-specific regulation, i.e. requiring every rolling stock lease to be individually approved by the Rail Regulator before it could be valid. Swift's report did not find major problems with the operation of what was then an infant market, and instead recommended that the ROSCOs sign up to voluntary, non-binding codes of practice in relation to their future behaviour. Prescott did not like this, but he did not have the legislative time allocation to do much about it. Swift's successor as Rail Regulator, Tom Winsor, agreed with Swift and the ROSCOs were happy to go along with codes of practice, coupled with the Rail Regulator's new powers to deal with abuse of dominance and anti-competitive behaviour under the Competition Act 1998. In establishing these codes, the Rail Regulator made it clear that he expected the ROSCOs to adhere to their spirit as well as their letter. The codes of practice were duly put in place and for the next five years the Rail Regulator received no complaints about ROSCO behaviour. White paper 2004 A Virgin Pendolino Train In July 2004, to the surprise of many, the Department for Transport's White Paper on the future of the railways contained a statement that it was dissatisfied with the operation of the rolling stock leasing market and believed that there may have been excessive pricing on the part of the ROSCOs. In June 2006, Gwyneth Dunwoody, the House of Commons Transport Committee chair, called for an investigation into the companies. "Review of train leasing urged" from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/real_story/3434369.stm 1701BST 06/06/2006 Transport commentator Christian Wolmar has asserted that the high cost of leasing is due to the way the franchises are distributed to the train operating companies. While the TOCs are negotiating for a franchise they have some freedom to propose different rolling stock options. It is only once they have won the franchise, however, that they start negotiating with the ROSCOs. The ROSCO will know the TOC's requirements and also knows that the TOC has to obtain a fixed mix of rolling stock which puts the train operating company at a disadvantage in its negotiations with the ROSCO. However, Wolmar considers it a mistake to blame the ROSCOs who are simply behaving in the way commercial companies always behave. Ultimately the problem for Wolmar is the system and that is down to the government who are not prepard to seek a more workable solution (On the Wrong Line 289). Competition Commission On 29 November 2006, following a June 2006 complaint by the Department for Transport alleging excessive pricing by the ROSCOs, the Office of Rail Regulation announced that it was minded to refer the operation of the market for passenger rolling stock to the Competition Commission, citing, amongst other factors, problems in the DfT's own franchising policy as responsible for what may be regarded as a dysfunctional market. ORR said it will consult the industry and the public on what to do, and will publish its decision in April 2007. If the ORR does refer the market to the Competition Commission, there may well be a hiatus in investment in new rolling stock whilst the ROSCOs and their parent companies wait to hear what return they will be allowed to make on their train fleets. This could have the unintended consequence of intensifying the problem of overcrowding on some routes because TOCs will be unable to lengthen their trains or acquire new ones if they need the ROSCOs to co-operate in their acquisition or financing. Some commentators have suggested that such an outcome would be detrimental to the public interest. This is especially striking since the National Audit Office, in its November 2006 report on the renewal and upgrade of the West Coast main line, said that the capacity of the trains and the network will be full in the next few years and advocated train lengthening as an important measure to cope with sharply higher passenger numbers. The Competition Commission is now conducting an investigation (due to be completed on 25 April 2009) and published provisional findings http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/press_rel/2008/aug/pdf/22-08.pdf on 7 August 2008. Leasing companies (ROSCO) Angel Trains - owned by a consortium of private equity investors, mainly comprising pension funds and insurance companies, and has 4,400 vehicles in the UK. HSBC Rail - a lessor of domestic passenger rolling stock, owned by HSBC. Porterbrook - owned by Abbey National, which leases some 3,500 locomotives, trains and freight wagons. In 2008, two further companies have come about to try and break into the leasing market: Sovereign Trains - a company that forms part of the same group as the open-access operators Grand Central and Grand Union. Sovereign Trains owns the rolling stock currently operated by Grand Central. QW Rail Leasing - a joint venture between the National Australia Bank and SMBC Leasing and Finance to provide the EMU rolling stock to London Overground. Diesel Trains Ltd - In March 2009, the Department for Transport also launched its own ROSCO to order 202 new diesel train carriages for the Thames Valley area, around Bristol and on longer distances in northern England. The trains are set to enter service by 2012 subject to negotiations with train operators First Great Western, Trans-Pennine Express and Northern Rail. Lloyds TSB General Leasing - In April 2009, Lloyds TSB directly entered the rolling stock market by funding the purchase of 30 new EMU trains for National Express East Anglia. Spot-hire companies MiddlePeak Railways, a locomotive hire & lease company with a stock of locomotives similar to Class 08 & NS 0-6-0 600 Class shunting locomotives, other locomotives, rolling stock & parts. website Cotswold Rail, a spot-hire company with a stock of Class 08 shunting locomotives, and Class 47 locomotives. This company works closely with National Express East Anglia.website GL Railease owned by GATX Capital, and Lombard, a subsidiary of the Royal Bank of Scotland. Harry Needle Railroad Company Ltd, an industrial and main line locomotive hire and overhaul company. Operates Class 08 shunting locomotives, and Class 20 locomotives. website Riviera Trains, a spot-hire company with a fleet of Class 47 locomotives. This company works closely with English Welsh and Scottish Railwaywebsite RT Rail, a small hire company with a stock of Class 08 shunting locomotives. West Coast Railway Company, a spot-hire and railtour-operator with a stock of Class 37 and Class 47 locomotives, as well as the prototype passenger Class 57 locomotive. Statutory framework Railways in Great Britain are in the private sector. As such, they are not controlled by central government, although they are subject to economic and safety regulation by arms of government. In 2006, using powers in the Railways Act 2005, the Department for Transport took over most of the functions of the now wound up Strategic Rail Authority. The DfT now itself runs competitions for the award of passenger rail franchises, and, once awarded, monitors and enforces the contracts with the private sector franchisees. Franchises specify the passenger rail services which are to be run and the quality and other conditions (for example, the cleanliness of trains, station facilities and opening hours, the punctuality and reliability of trains) which the operators have to meet. Some franchises receive subsidy from the DfT for doing so, and some are cash-positive, which means that the franchisee pays the DfT for the contract. Some franchises start life as subsidised and, over their life, move to being cash-positive. The other regulatory authority for the privatised railway is the Office of Rail Regulation, which, following the Railways Act 2005, is the combined economic and safety regulator. It replaced the Rail Regulator on 5 July 2004. The Rail Safety and Standards Board still exists, however; established in 2003 on the recommendations of a public inquiry, it leads the industry's progress in health and safety matters. The principal modern railway statutes are: Railways Act 1993' Competition Act 1998 (insofar as it confers competition powers on the Office of Rail Regulation) Transport Act 2000 Railways and Transport Safety Act 2003 Railways Act 2005 Local metro and other rail systems A number of towns and cities have rapid transit systems. Heavy rail underground technology is used in the London and Glasgow Underground systems. Light rail with underground sections in the city centre exist in Tyne and Wear and in the London Docklands. The light rail systems in Nottingham, Sheffield, Manchester, Croydon and the West Midlands use a combination of street running in the city centres and former conventional rail lines in the suburbs. Blackpool has the one remaining traditional tram system. Monorails, heritage tramways, miniature railways and funiculars also exist in several places. In addition, there are a number of heritage (mainly steam) standard and narrow gauge railways, and a few industrial railways and tramways. Some lines which appear to be heritage operations are actually part of the public transport network; the Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway in Kent regularly transports schoolchildren. Most major cities have some form of commuter rail network. These include Belfast, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Leeds, Liverpool, London, Manchester and Sheffield. Railway stations Facade of London Victoria Most railway stations in Great Britain date from the Victorian era and are located on the edge of town centres. Major stations lie for the most part, in large cities with the largest conurbations (e.g. Birmingham, Glasgow and Manchester) boasting more than one main line terminus. London is the major hub of the network, with 12 major main line terminuses forming a "ring" around the central area. However some important railway junction stations lie in smaller cities, for example York station, Crewe station and Ely station. Other places expanded into towns and cities because of the railway network, Swindon for example was little more than a village prior to the Great Western Railway siting their locomotive works there. In many instances geography, politics, or military considerations caused stations to originally be located further from the towns they served, until, with time, these issues could be overcome (for example, Portsmouth had its original station at Gosport). Railway industry Statutory authorities Health and Safety Executive — Website Office of Rail Regulation — Website Department for Transport Rail Group — Website UK Notified Bodies — Website Network rail and signalling operations Railtrack (1996–2002) Network Rail (2002—) — Website — (A "not for dividend" company limited by guarantee) Other national entities Association of Train Operating Companies — ATOC — Website Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen — ASLEF — Website Institution of Railway Operators — Website National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers — RMT — Website Rail Freight Group — Website Rail Passengers Council and Committees — Website Rail Safety and Standards Board — RSSB — Website The Railway Forum — Website Railway Mission — Website Railway Study Association — Website Transport Salaried Staffs' Association — TSSA — Website Regional entitiesSee Passenger Transport Executive Centro (West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive) — Website GMPTE (Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive) — Website Merseytravel (Merseyside Passenger Transport Executive) — Website Metro (West Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive) — Website Nexus (Tyne and Wear Passenger Transport Executive) — Website Travel South Yorkshire (South Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive) — Website Strathclyde Passenger Transport — Website Transport for London — TfL — Website See List of companies operating trains in the United Kingdom. Freight railway companies Advenza Advenza Freight Ltd Website EWS (English Welsh and Scottish Railway) Website Freightliner — Website Direct Rail Services — Website FirstGBRf — Website Open access operators and other non-franchised passenger operators Eurostar — Website Heathrow Express — Website Hull Trains — Website Venice Simplon Orient Express (VSOE) Wrexham & Shropshire — Website Early railway companies (1820s–1840s) This is only the earliest of the main line openings: for a more comprehensive list of the hundreds of early railways see List of early British railway companies Canterbury and Whitstable Railway Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway (BDJR) Grand Junction Railway (GJR) Liverpool and Manchester Railway (LMR) London and Birmingham Railway (L&BR) London and Greenwich Railway North Midland Railway (NMR) Midland Counties Railway (MCR) Stockton and Darlington Railway (S&D) Taff Vale Railway (TVR) Heritage and private railways There are a number of private and heritage railways in Britain. A list of British heritage and private railways is available. Railway re-opening Several pressure groups are campaigning for the re-opening of closed railway lines in Great Britain. These include: Ashington-Bedlington-Newcastle SENRUG : South East Northumberland Rail User Group Bourne End-High Wycombe YourHighWycombe - the open forum for everyone who lives and works in High Wycombe Cambridge-Oxford, East West Rail Consortium, EastWestRail - The route Cambridge-St Ives CAST.IRON: The Cambridge and St. Ives Railway Organisation Colne-Skipton, SELRAP, Selrap :: Skipton East Lancashire Railway Action Partnership Uckfield-Lewes, Wealden Line Campaign Stourbridge-Birmingham New Street Woodhead Line See also Rail transport by country History of rail transport in Great Britain Railway electrification in Great Britain List of funicular railways British narrow gauge railways Royal Train Concessionary fares on the British railway network List of British towns with no railway station References 2003–2004 quarter three, from the Strategic Rail Authority DfT Transport Ten Year Plan 2000 from the UK Government's Department for Transport. — National Audit Office report, 14 May 2004 Railway industry topic guides from the Institution of Mechanical EngineersOn The Wrong Line: How Ideology and Incompetence Wrecked Britain's Railways'', Christian Wolmar, Aurum Press Ltd, ISBN 1-85410-998-7 External links National Rail Official UK Rail timetable site National Rail maps page UK railway maps Railplanner Web Timetable software with detailed timings for all station stops on a journey BritRail ATOC site with timetables, maps and cross-network passes for foreign travellers in UK ScotlandRailways Scottish Rail site with timetables, maps and cross-network passes for foreign travellers in Scotland Campaign Against New Beeching Report Northumbrian Railways Great Scenic Railways of Devon and Cornwall Collection of Google Earth locations of National Rail stations (Requires Google Earth software) from the Google Earth Community forum.
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4,769
Felidae
Felidae is the biological family of the cats; a member of this family is called a felid. Felids are the strictest carnivores of the sixteen mammal families in the order Carnivora. The most familiar felid is the Domestic Cat, which first became associated with humans about 10,000 years ago, but the family includes all other wild cats including the big cats. Extant felids belong to one of two subfamilies: Pantherinae (which includes the Lion, the Tiger, the Jaguar, and the Leopard), and Felinae (which includes the Cougar, the Cheetah, the Serval, the Lynxes and Caracal, along with the Ocelot and Domestic Cat). The first felids emerged during the Oligocene, about 25 million years ago. In prehistoric times, there was a third subfamily known as Machairodontinae, which included the "saber-toothed cats" such as the well known Smilodon. There were also other cat-like mammals, such as Thylacosmilus or the Nimravidae which are not included in Felidae despite superficial similarities. Evolution There are 41 known species of felids in the world today, which have all descended from the same ancestor. This taxon originated in Asia and spread across continents by crossing land bridges. As reported in the journal Science, testing of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA by Warren Johnson and Stephen O'Brien of the U.S. National Cancer Institute demonstrated that ancient cats evolved into eight main lineages that diverged in the course of at least 10 migrations (in both directions) from continent to continent via the Bering land bridge and Isthmus of Panama, with the Panthera genus being the oldest and the Felis genus being the youngest. They estimated that 60 percent of the modern species of cats developed within the last million years. Most felids have a haploid number of 18 or 19. New World cats (those in Central and South America) have a haploid number of 18, possibly due to the combination of two smaller chromosomes into one larger chromosome. Prior to this discovery, biologists had been largely unable to establish a family tree of cats from the fossil record because the fossils of different cat species all look very much alike, differing primarily in size. The felids' closest relatives are thought to be the civets, hyenas, and mongooses. All felid species share a genetic anomaly that prevents them from tasting sweetness. Characteristics Felids are purely carnivorous animals, subsisting almost entirely on other vertebrates. Aside from the Lion, they are solitary. They are generally secretive animals, are often nocturnal, and live in relatively inaccessible habitats. Around three-quarters of cat species live in forested terrain, and they are generally agile climbers. However, felids may be found in almost any environment, with some species being native to mountainous terrain or deserts. Wild felids are native to every continent except Australia and Antarctica. Physical appearance Skull of the machairodontine Smilodon (Reconstruction) Lion skull The various species of felid vary greatly in size. One of the smallest is the Black-footed Cat at between 35-40 cm in length, while the largest is the Siberian Tiger. Compared with many other mammals, they have relatively short faces, and good binocular vision. The of felids takes many different forms, being much thicker in those species that live in cold environments, such as the Snow Leopard. The colour of felids is also highly variable - although brown to golden fur is common in most species - often marked with distinctive spots, stripes, or rosettes. Many felid species also have a "tear stripe," a black stripe running from the corner of each eye down the side of the muzzle. The tongue of felids is covered with horny papillae, which help to rasp meat from their prey. Almost all felids have fully retractable claws (one exception is the Cheetah). Cats have five toes on their forefeet and four on their hindfeet, reflecting their reliance on gripping and holding down their prey with their claws. Senses Felids have relatively large eyes, situated to provide binocular vision. Their night vision is especially good, due to the presence of a tapetum lucidum, which reflects light back inside the eyeball, and gives felid eyes their distinctive shine. The ears of felids are also large, and especially sensitive to high-frequency sounds in the smaller cats. Felids also have a highly developed sense of smell, although not to the degree seen in canids; this is further supplemented by the presence of a vomeronasal organ in the roof of the mouth, allowing the animal to "taste" the air. The use of this organ is associated with the Flehmen response, in which the upper lip is curled upwards. Felids possess highly sensitive vibrissa (whiskers) set deep within the skin, and provide the cat with sensory information about the slightest air movement around it. For this reason, whiskers are very helpful to nocturnal hunters. Most felids are able to land on their feet after a fall, an ability which relies on vision and the sense of balance acting together. Dentition With a few exceptions such as the lynx, felids have the dental formula: The canine teeth are large, reaching exceptional size in the extinct saber-tooth species. The upper third premolar and lower molar are adapted as carnassial teeth, suited to tearing and cutting flesh. The jaws of felids can only move vertically. This prevents them from being able to chew, but makes it easier for their powerful masseter jaw muscles to hold struggling prey. Classification Traditionally five subfamilies are distinguished, the Felinae, the Pantherinae, the Acinonychinae (Cheetahs) and the extinct Machairodontinae and Proailurinae. Extant species Cheetah Lion Jaguar Eurasian Lynx Margay Wild Cat FAMILY FELIDAE Subfamily Felinae Genus Felis Chinese Mountain Cat (Felis bieti) Domestic Cat (Felis catus) Jungle Cat (Felis chaus) Pallas's Cat (Felis manul) Sand Cat (Felis margarita) Black-footed Cat (Felis nigripes) Wild Cat (Felis silvestris) Genus Prionailurus Leopard Cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) Iriomote Cat (Prionailurus iriomotensis) Flat-headed Cat (Prionailurus planiceps) Rusty-spotted Cat (Prionailurus rubiginosus) Fishing Cat (Prionailurus viverrinus) Genus Puma Cougar (Puma concolor) Jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi) Genus Lynx Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx) Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus) Bobcat (Lynx rufus) Genus Leopardus Pantanal Cat (Leopardus braccatus) Colocolo (Leopardus colocolo) Geoffroy's Cat (Leopardus geoffroyi) Kodkod (Leopardus guigna) Andean Mountain Cat (Leopardus jacobitus) Pampas Cat (Leopardus pajeros) Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) Oncilla (Leopardus tigrinus) Margay (Leopardus wiedii) Genus Leptailurus Serval (Leptailurus serval) Genus Caracal Caracal (Caracal caracal) Genus Profelis African Golden Cat (Profelis aurata) Genus Catopuma Bay Cat (Catopuma badia) Asian Golden Cat (Catopuma temminckii) Genus Pardofelis Marbled Cat (Pardofelis marmorata) Subfamily Pantherinae Genus Neofelis Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) Bornean Clouded Leopard (Neofelis diardi) Genus Panthera Lion (Panthera leo) Jaguar (Panthera onca) Leopard (Panthera pardus) Tiger (Panthera tigris) Genus Uncia Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) Subfamily Acinonychinae Genus Acinonyx Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) Alternative classification Genetic research gives a more concise classification for the living members of the cat family : Lineage 1: Panthera, Uncia, Neofelis Lineage 2: Pardofelis, Catopuma, Lineage 3: Leptailurus, Caracal, Profelis Lineage 4: Leopardus Lineage 5: Lynx Lineage 6: Puma, Acinonyx Lineage 7: Prionailurus, Otocolobus Lineage 8: Felis The last four lineages are more related to each other than to the first four, and form a clade within Felinae. Fossil felids The American Lion was one of the abundant Pleistocene megafauna, a wide variety of very large mammals who went extinct about 10,000 years ago. Ice Age Animals, Illinois State Museum The oldest known true felid (Proailurus) lived in the late Oligocene and early Miocene epochs. During the Miocene it gave way to Pseudaelurus. Pseudaelurus is believed to be the latest common ancestor of the two extant subfamilies and the extinct subfamily, Machairodontinae. This group, better known as the saber-tooth cats, became extinct in the Late Pleistocene era. The group includes the genera Smilodon, Machairodus and Homotherium. The Metailurini were originally classified as a distinct tribe within the Machairodontinae, though they count as members of the Felinae in recent times. . Most extinct cat-like animals, once regarded as members of the Felidae, later turned out to be members of related, but distinct, families: the "false sabretooths" Nimravidae and Barbourofelidae. As a result, sabretooth "cats" seem to belong to four different lineages. The total number of fossil Felids that are known to science is low compared to other Carnivoran families such as dogs and bears. Felidae radiated quite recently and most of the extant species are relatively young. Genera of the Felidae The list follows McKenna and Bells Classification of Mammals for prehistoric genera (1997) and Wozencraft (2005) in Wilson and Reeders Mammal Species of the World for extant genera. Pseudaelurus is included here in the Felinae according to McKenna & Bell despite its basal position in felid evolution. Inconsistent to McKenna and Bell three additional prehistoric genera, Miracinonyx, Lokontailurus und Xenosmilus are listed. Sivapanthera is included into the Felinae (not Acinonychinae) and Ischrosmilus is included in the genus Smilodon. Proailurus Leopard cat (Prionailurus) Ocelot (Leopardus) Lion (Panthera) Megantereon †Proailurinae †Proailurus Felinae †Pseudaelurus †Sivaelurus †Vishnufelis †Pikermia †Abelia †Nimravides †Pratifelis †Adelphailurus †Metailurus †Dinofelis †Dolichofelis †Sivapardus †Jansofelis †Sivapanthera Acinonyx †Miracinonyx Puma Felis Prionailurus Lynx Leopardus Leptailurus Caracal Profelis Catopuma Pardofelis Pantherinae †Leontoceryx †Dromopanthera †Schaubia †Viretailurus Panthera Neofelis Uncia †Machairodontinae †Machairodus (Late Miocene, Africa, Eurasia, North America) †Homotherium (Pliocene, Pleistocene; Africa, Eurasia, North America) †Xenosmilus (Pleistocene; North America) †Lokontailurus (Latest Miocene; Africa) †Miomachairodus (Middle Miocene; Africa, Asia) †Hemimachairodus †Paramachairodus (Late Miocene; Eurasia, Africa) †Megantereon (Pliocene, Pleistocene; North America, Africa, Eurasia) †Smilodon (Late Pliocene to Late Pleistocene; North- and South America) See also Felid hybrid Panthera hybrid Big cat Cited references General references
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4,770
Latvia
Latvia (; , officially Republic of Latvia () is a North European Baltic country in the European Union. It is bordered to the north by Estonia (343 km), to the south by Lithuania (588 km), and to the east both by Belarus (141 km) and the Russian Federation (276 km). CIA Factbook: Latvia, Across the Baltic Sea to the west lies Sweden. The territory of Latvia covers 64,589 km² and has a temperate seasonal climate. The Latvians are a Baltic people culturally related to the Estonians and Lithuanians, with the Latvian language having many similarities with Lithuanian, but not with the Estonian language. Today the Latvian and Lithuanian languages are the only surviving members of the Baltic languages of the Indo-European family. The modern name of Latvia is thought to originate from the ancient Latvian name Latvji, which, like the name of Lithuania, may have originated from the river named Latuva. Latvia is a unitary parliamentary republic and is divided into 26 districts. The capital and largest city is Riga. Latvia has been a member of the United Nations since September 17, 1991, of the European Union since May 1, 2004 and of NATO since March 29, 2004. History The territory of Latvia has been populated since 9000 BC, after the Ice Age glaciers retreated. Around the beginning of the third millennium BC (3000 BC) the proto-Baltic ancestors of the Latvian people settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. The Balts established trade routes to Rome and Byzantium, trading local amber for precious metals. By 900 AD, four distinct Baltic tribes inhabited Latvia: Couronians, Latgallians, Selonians, Semigallians (in Latvian: kurši, latgaļi, sēļi and zemgaļi), as well as the Livonians (lībieši) speaking a Finno-Ugric language. The Medieval period Although the Balts had previous contacts with the outside world for centuries, they were more fully integrated into European society in the 12th century. The first missionaries, sent by the Pope sailed up the Daugava river by 1180, seeking converts. The Balts, however, did not convert so readily as hoped, and strongly opposed their Christianization. German crusaders were sent into Latvia to convert the pagan population by force of arms. In the thirteenth century, a confederation of feudal nations called Livonia developed under German rule. Livonia included today's Latvia and Southern Estonia. In 1282, Riga and later the cities of Cēsis, Limbaži, Koknese and Valmiera were included in the Hanseatic League. From this time, Riga became an important point in west-east trading. Riga, being the centre of the eastern Baltic region, formed close cultural contacts with Western Europe. The Reformation period The 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries were a time of great changes for the inhabitants of Latvia, notable for the reformation, the collapse of the Livonian state, and time when the Latvian territory was carved up among foreign powers. After the Livonian War (1558–1583), Livonia (Latvia) fell under Lithuanian and Polish rule. The southern part of Estonia and the northern part of Latvia were ceded to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and formed into the Ducatus Ultradunensis (Pārdaugavas hercogiste). Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Order of Livonia, formed the Duchy of Courland. Though the duchy was a vassal state to Poland, it retained a large amount of autonomy and experienced a golden age in the 17th century. Latgale, the easternmost region of Latvia, became a part of Polish Inflanty. The seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries saw a struggle between Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden and Russia for supremacy in the eastern Baltic. After the Polish-Swedish War (1600-1611) northern Livonia (including Vidzeme) came under Swedish rule. Fighting continued sporadically between Sweden and Poland until the Truce of Altmark in 1629. In Latvian, the Swedish period is remembered as labie zviedru laiki or the good swedish times, when serfdom was eased, a network of schools was established for the peasantry, and the power of the regional barons was diminished. Several important cultural changes occurred during this time. Under Swedish and largely German rule, western Latvia adopted Lutheranism as its main religion. The ancient tribes of the couronians, semigallians, selonians, livs and northern latgallians assimilated to form the Latvian people speaking one Latvian language. Meanwhile, largely isolated from the rest of Lativa, south latgallians adopted Catholicism as a part of the Polish/Jesuit influence. The native dialect remained distinct, though it gained many Polish and Russian loanwords. Latvia in the Russian Empire The Treaty of Nystad ending the Great Northern War in 1721 gave Vidzeme to Russia (it became part of the Riga Governorate). The Latgale region remained part of Poland as Inflanty Voivodeship until 1772, when it was joined to Russia. The Duchy of Courland became a Russian province (the Courland Governorate) in 1795, bringing all of what is now Latvia into the Russian Empire. The promises Peter the Great made to the Baltic German nobility at the fall of Riga in 1710, confirmed by the Treaty of Nystad and known as "the Capitulations," largely reversed the Swedish reforms. The 18th century was one of the hardest for the peasantry, in which they received near-property status without rights or education. Peasants were commanded to work on the manor lands as many as six days of the week, leaving one day to look after their own farms. The peasants turned to alcohol for their problems, which the local barons faithfully provided, hoping to addict and exploit the peasantry for further economic gain. These times were known as "Šķidrās Maizes laiki" or the days of liquid bread. The emancipation of the serfs took place in Courland in 1817 and in Vidzeme in 1819. In practice however, the emancipation was actually advantageous to the landowners and nobility. This was because it dispossessed the peasants of their land without compensation, forcing them to return to work at the estates "of their own free will". During the 19th century, the social structure changed dramatically. A class of independent farmers established itself after reforms allowed the peasants to repurchase their land, but many landless peasants persisted. There also developed a growing urban proletariat and an increasingly influential Latvian bourgeoisie. The Young Latvians () movement laid the groundwork for nationalism from the middle of the century, many of its leaders looking to the Slavophiles for support against the prevailing German-dominated social order. The rise in use of Latvian language in literature and society became known as the First National Awakening. Russification began in Latgale after the Polish led January Uprising in 1863 and spread to the rest of what is now Latvia by the 1880s. The Young Latvians were largely eclipsed by the New Current, a broad leftist social and political movement, in the 1890s. Popular discontent exploded in the 1905 Revolution, which took on a nationalist character in the Baltic provinces. Declaration of independence United Baltic Duchy (light brown). Kārlis Ulmanis. World War I devastated the country. Demands for self-determination were at first confined to autonomy, but full independence was proclaimed in Riga on November 18, 1918, by the People's Council of Latvia, Kārlis Ulmanis becoming the head of the provisional government. The War of Independence that followed was a very chaotic period in Latvia's history. By the spring of 1919, there were actually three governments — Ulmanis' government; the Soviet Latvian government led by Pēteris Stučka, whose forces, supported by the Red Army, occupied almost all of the country; and the Baltic German government of "Baltic Duchy" headed by Andrievs Niedra and supported by the Baltische Landeswehr and the German Freikorps unit Iron Division. Estonian and Latvian forces defeated the Germans at the Battle of Cēsis in June 1919, and a massive attack by a German and Russian force under Pavel Bermondt-Avalov was repelled in November. Eastern Latvia was cleared of Red Army forces by Polish, Latvian, and German troops in early 1920. A freely elected Constituent Assembly was convened on May 1, 1920 and adopted a liberal constitution, the Satversme, in February 1922. This was partly suspended by Ulmanis after his coup in 1934, but reaffirmed in 1990. Since then, it has been amended and is the constitution still in use in Latvia today. With most of Latvia's industrial base evacuated to the interior of Russia in 1915, radical land reform was the central political question for the young state. In 1897, 61.2% of the rural population had been landless; by 1930, that percentage had been reduced to 23.2%. The extent of cultivated land surpassed the pre-war level already in 1923. Innovation and rising productivity led to rapid growth of economy, but it soon suffered the effects of the Great Depression. Latvia showed signs of economic recovery and the electorate had steadily moved toward the centre during the parliamentary period. Ulmanis staged a bloodless coup on May 15, 1934, establishing a nationalist dictatorship that lasted until 1940. Revolt against the government was very unlikely however, because during "Ulmaņa Laiki" Latvia experienced one of the highest standards of living in the world. Latvia in World War II Early in the morning of August 24, 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed a 10-year non-aggression pact, called the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact. The pact contained a secret protocol, revealed only after Germany's defeat in 1945, according to which the states of Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into German and Soviet "spheres of influence". Text of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, executed August 23, 1939 In the North, Latvia, Finland and Estonia were assigned to the Soviet sphere. Thereafter, Germany and the Soviet union invaded their respective portions of Poland. Most of the Baltic Germans left Latvia by agreement between Ulmanis' government and Nazi Germany after the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. On October 5, 1939, Latvia was forced to accept a "mutual assistance" pact with the Soviet Union, granting the Soviets the right to station 25,000 troops on Latvian territory. On June 16, 1940, Vyacheslav Molotov presented the Latvian representative in Moscow with an ultimatum accusing Latvia of violations of that pact. When international attention was focused on the German invasion of France, Soviet NKVD troops raided border posts in Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. Wettig, Gerhard, Stalin and the Cold War in Europe, Rowman & Littlefield, Landham, Md, 2008, ISBN 0742555429, page 20-21 Senn, Alfred Erich, Lithuania 1940 : revolution from above, Amsterdam, New York, Rodopi, 2007 ISBN 9789042022256 State administrators were liquidated and replaced by Soviet cadres, in which 34,250 Latvians were deported or killed. Elections were held with single pro-Soviet candidates listed for many positions, with resulting peoples assembly immediately requested admission into the USSR, which was granted by the Soviet Union. Latvia, then a puppet government, was headed by Augusts Kirhenšteins. The annexation was formalised on August 5, 1940. The Soviets dealt harshly with their opponents – prior to the German invasion, in less than a year, at least 27,586 persons were arrested; most were deported, and about 945 persons were shot. While under German occupation, Latvia was administered as part of Reichskommissariat Ostland. Latvian paramilitary and Auxiliary Police units established by occupation authority participated in the Holocaust as well. More than 200,000 Latvian citizens died during World War II, including approximately 70,000 Latvian Jews murdered during the Nazi occupation. Latvian soldiers fought on both sides of the conflict, including in the Latvian Legion of the Waffen-SS, most of them conscripted by the occupying Nazi and Soviet authorities. Refusal to join the occupying army resulted in imprisonment, threats to relatives, or even death. See also Latvian partisans Latvian resistance movement Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940 Stalinism The Holocaust in Latvia Stalin era In 1944 when the Soviet military advances reached the area heavy fighting took place in Latvia between German and Soviet troops which ended with another German defeat. During the course of the war, both occupying forces conscripted Latvians into their armies, in this way increasing the loss of the nation's "live resources". In 1944, part of the Latvian territory once more came under Soviet control. The Soviets immediately began to reinstate the Soviet system. After the German surrender it become clear that Soviet forces were there to stay, and Latvian national partisans, soon to be joined by German collaborators, began their fight against another occupier - the Soviet Union. The Soviets reoccupied the country in 1944–1945, and further mass deportations followed as the country was forcibly collectivised and Sovieticised; 42,975 persons were deported in 1949. The first post-war years were marked by particularly dismal and sombre events in the fate of the Latvian nation. 120,000 Latvian inhabitants were imprisoned or deported to Soviet concentration camps (the Gulag). Some managed to escape arrest and joined the Forest Brothers. 130,000 took refuge from the Soviet army by fleeing to the West. On March 25, 1949, 43,000 rural residents ("kulaks") and Latvian patriots ("nationalists") were deported to Siberia in a sweeping repressive action "Beachcomber" in all three Baltic States, which was carefully planned and approaved in Moscow already on January 29, 1949. An extensive programme to impose bilingualism was initiated in Latvia, limiting the use of minor languages in favor of Latvian and Russian. In some fields there existed either Russification or Latvianization. In the post-war period, Latvia was forced to adopt Soviet farming methods and the economic infrastructure developed in the 1920s and 1930s was eradicated. Rural areas were forced into collectivisation. An influx of labourers, administrators, military personnel and their dependents from Russia and other Soviet republics started, and by 1959, the ethnic Latvian population had fallen to 62%. See also Cult of personality Khrushchev era During the Khrushchev Thaw, attempts by national communists led by Eduards Berklavs to gain a degree of autonomy for the republic and protect the rapidly deteriorating position of the Latvian language were succeeded. Because Latvia had still maintained a well-developed infrastructure and educated specialists it was decided in Moscow that some of the Soviet Union's most advanced manufacturing factories were to be based in Latvia. New industry was created in Latvia, including a major machinery factory RAF and electrotechnical factories, as well as some food and oil processing plants. Brezhnev era However, there were not enough people to operate the newly built factories. In order to expand industrial production, Russian workers were transferred into the country, noticeably decreasing the proportion of ethnic Latvians. Gorbachev era The Latvian SSR, along with the other Baltic Republics was allowed greater autonomy in the late 1980s, and in 1988 the old pre-war Flag of Latvia was allowed to be used, replacing the Soviet Latvian flag as the official flag in 1990. Pro-independence Latvian Popular Front candidates gained a two-thirds majority in the Supreme Council in the March 1990 democratic elections. On May 4, the Council declared its intention to restore full Latvian independence after a transitional period through negotiations with the USSR. This is also the date, when Latvian SSR was renamed Republic of Latvia. However, the central power in Moscow continued to regard Latvia as Soviet republic in 1990-1991. In January 1991, Soviet political and military forces tried unsuccessfully to overthrow the Republic of Latvia authorities by occupying the central publishing house in Riga and establishing a Committee of National Salvation to usurp governmental functions. During the transitional period Moscow maintained many central Soviet state authorities in Latvia. In spite of this, seventy-three percent of all Latvian residents confirmed their strong support for independence on March 3, 1991, in a nonbinding advisory referendum. A large number of ethnic Russians also voted for the proposition. The Republic of Latvia declared the end of the transitional period and restored full independence on August 21, 1991 in the aftermath of the failed Soviet coup attempt. Restoration of independence In 1989, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a resolution on the "Occupation of the Baltic states", in which it declared that the occupation was "not in accordance with law," and not the "will of the Soviet people". A national movement coalescing in the Popular Front of Latvia took advantage of glasnost under Mikhail Gorbachev, opposed by the Interfront. On May 4, 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the Latvian SSR adopted the Declaration of the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia, subject to a transition period that came to an end with Latvian independence on August 21, 1991, after the failure of the August Putsch. The Saeima, Latvia's parliament, was again elected in 1993, and Russia completed its military withdrawal in 1994. The major goals of Latvia in the 1990s, to join NATO and the European Union, were achieved in 2004. Language and citizenship laws have been opposed by many Russophones, although a majority have now become citizens. (Citizenship was not automatically extended to former Soviet citizens who settled during the Soviet occupation or to their subsequent offspring. Children born to non-nationals after the reestablishment of independence are automatically entitled to citizenship.) The government denationalised private property confiscated by the Soviet rule, returning it or compensating the owners for it, and privatised most state-owned industries, reintroducing the prewar currency. Albeit having experienced a difficult transition to a liberal economy and its re-orientation toward Western Europe, its economy has one of the highest growth rates. Geography Map of Latvia showing cities View from atop the tower of Gaizinkalns Located on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, Latvia lies on the East European Plain, however in vegetation is much different than the rest of the plain and shares many similarities with the boreal biome. It consists of fertile, low-lying plains, largely covered by forest, mostly pines, the highest point being the Gaiziņkalns at 311.6 m (1,020 ft). Phytogeographically, Latvia is shared between the Central European and Northern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Latvia belongs to the ecoregion of Sarmatic mixed forests. The major rivers include the Daugava, the Lielupe, the Gauja, the Venta, and the Salaca. An inlet of the Baltic Sea, the shallow Gulf of Riga is situated in the northwest of the country. Latvia's coastline extends for 531 kilometers. Fauna Common species of wildlife in Latvia include deer, wild boar, moose, lynx, bear, fox, beaver and wolves. Non-marine molluscs of Latvia include 159 species. Climate The Latvian climate is humid, continental and temperate owing to the maritime influence of the Baltic Sea. Summers are warm, and the weather in spring and autumn fairly mild; however, the winters can be extreme due to the northern location. Precipitation is common throughout the year with the heaviest rainfall in August. During severe spells of winter weather, Latvia is dominated by cold winds from the interior of Russia, and severe snowfalls are very common. Districts Latvia is divided into 26 districts (rajoni). There are also seven cities (lielpilsētas) that have a separate status. Latvia is also divided into five planning regions. Microsoft Word - Denmark - decentralization.doc <li>Aizkraukle District <li>Alūksne District <li>Balvi District <li>Bauska District <li>Cēsis District <li>Daugavpils District <li>Daugavpils (city) <li>Dobele District <li>Gulbene District <li>Jēkabpils District <li>Jelgava District <li>Jelgava (city) <li>Jūrmala (city) <li>Krāslava District <li>Kuldīga District <li>Liepāja District <li>Liepāja (city)<li>Limbaži District <li>Ludza District <li>Madona District <li>Ogre District <li>Preiļi District <li>Rēzekne District <li>Rēzekne (city) <li>Riga District <li>Riga (city) <li>Saldus District <li>Talsi District <li>Tukums District <li>Valka District <li>Valmiera District <li>Ventspils District <li>Ventspils (city) Abrene District (1919 – 1940), the eastern part of which was annexed to Russia in 1944.The legal status of the annexed portion was disputed — the western part of the former district is now in Balvi District. In January 2007, Latvian Parliament agreed to sign the Border Treaty with Russia, making no open references to the 1920 Border Treaty and Abrene District problem. Town centre of Riga, the capital of Latvia. Regions and cities Latvia is divided into several historical and cultural regions. Kurzeme Latgale Riga Vidzeme Zemgale Sēlija Government and politics The 100-seat unicameral Latvian parliament, the Saeima, is elected by direct popular vote every four years. The president is elected by the Saeima in a separate election, also held every four years. The president appoints a prime minister who, together with his cabinet, forms the executive branch of the government, which has to receive a confidence vote by the Saeima. This system also existed before the Second World War. Constitution of the Republic of Latvia with amendments and revisions (Official english translation) (Retrieved on 24 December 2006) Highest civil servants are sixteen Secretaries of State. Foreign relations Membership in the EU and NATO were major policy goals during the 1990s. In a nation-wide referendum on September 20, 2003, 66.9% of those taking part voted in favour of joining the European Union. Latvia became a member of the European Union on May 1, 2004. Latvia has been a NATO member since March 29, 2004. Treaty delimiting the boundary with Russia has been signed and ratified in 2007, under the treaty the Abrene district passes to Russia; ongoing talks over maritime boundary dispute with Lithuania (primary concern is oil exploration rights) Military Latvia's defense concept is based upon the Swedish-Finnish model of a rapid response force composed of a mobilization base and a small group of career professionals. The armed forces consists of mobile riflemen, an air force, and a navy. Latvia cooperates with Estonia and Lithuania in the joint infantry battalion BALTBAT and naval squadron BALTRON which are available for peacekeeping operations. As of March 29, 2004, Latvia officially joined NATO. Currently, NATO is involved in the patrolling and protection of the Latvian air space as the Latvian army does not have the means to do so effectively. For this goal a rotating force of four NATO fighters, which comes from different nations and switches at two or three month intervals, is based in Lithuania to cover all three Baltic states (see Baltic Air Policing). Economy A high rise building Latvia is a member of the World Trade Organization (1999) and the European Union (2004). Since the year 2000 Latvia had had one of the highest (GDP) growth rates in Europe. However, the chiefly consumption-driven growth in Latvia resulted in the collapse of the Latvian GDP in late 2008 and early 2009, exacerbated by the global economic crisis and shortage of credit. Latvian economy fell 18% in the first three months of 2009, the biggest fall in the European Union. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=ao7qqF0UESqc http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8043972.stm . Real GDP growth in Latvia 1996–2006. This latest scenario has proven the earlier assumptions that the fast growing economy was heading for implosion of the economic bubble, because it was driven mainly by growth of domestic consumption, financed by a serious increase of private debt, as well as a negative foreign trade balance. The prices of real estate, which were at some points appreciating at approximately 5% a month, were long perceived to be too high for the economy, which mainly produces low-value goods and raw materials. Since 2001, Latvia's chief export has been domestic livestock. Latvia plans to introduce the Euro as the country's currency but, due to the inflation being above EMU's guidelines, the government's official target is now 1 January 2012. However in October 2007, with inflation above 11%, the head of the National Bank of Latvia suggested that 2013 may be a more realistic date. Privatisation in Latvia is almost complete. Virtually all of the previously state-owned small and medium companies have been successfully privatized, leaving only a small number of politically sensitive large state companies. Latvian privatization efforts have led to the development of a dynamic and prosperous private sector, which accounted for nearly 68% of GDP in 2000. Foreign investment in Latvia is still modest compared with the levels in north-central Europe. A law expanding the scope for selling land, including to foreigners, was passed in 1997. Representing 10.2% of Latvia's total foreign direct investment, American companies invested $127 million in 1999. In the same year, the United States exported $58.2 million of goods and services to Latvia and imported $87.9 million. Eager to join Western economic institutions like the World Trade Organization, OECD, and the European Union, Latvia signed a Europe Agreement with the EU in 1995--with a 4-year transition period. Latvia and the United States have signed treaties on investment, trade, and intellectual property protection and avoidance of double taxation. Economic contraction 2008 The Latvian economy entered a phase of fiscal contraction during the second half of 2008 after an extended period of credit-based speculation and unrealistic inflation of real estate values. The national account deficit for 2007, for example, represented more than 22% of the GDP for the year while inflation was running at 10%. Paul Krugman, the Nobel Laureate in economics for 2008, wrote in his New York Times Op-Ed column for December 15, 2008: "The most acute problems are on Europe’s periphery, where many smaller economies are experiencing crises strongly reminiscent of past crises in Latin America and Asia: Latvia is the new Argentina " Infrastructure The transport sector is around 14% of GDP. Transit between Russia and the West is large. Latvia, World Bank Key ports are in Riga, Ventspils, and Liepaja. Most transit traffic uses these and half the cargo is crude oil and oil products. Riga International Airport is the largest airport with 3.2 million passengers in 2007. Education University of Latvia is the oldest university in Latvia and is located in Riga. Daugavpils University is the second largest university. Demographics Residents of Latvia by ethnicity Latvians 59.2%</tr> Russians 28.0%</tr> Belarusians 3.7%</tr> Ukrainians 2.5%</tr> Poles 2.4%</tr> Lithuanians 1.3%</tr> Others 2.9% Ethnic and cultural diversity Latvia's population has been multiethnic for centuries, though the demographics shifted dramatically in the twentieth century due to the World Wars, the emigration and removal of Baltic Germans, the Holocaust, and occupation by the Soviet Union. Latvians and Livonians, the indigenous peoples of Latvia, now form about 59.2% of the population; 28% of the inhabitants are Russians , Belorussians 3.7%, Ukrainians 2.5% , Poles 2.4%, Lithuanians 1.3%, Jews 0.5%, Roma people 0.4%, Germans 0.2%, Estonians 0.1% and others 1.7% . Approximately 56% of the ethnic Russians living in Latvia are citizens of Latvia. People who arrived whilst Latvia was occupied by the USSR, and their descendants born before 1991, must be naturalised to receive Latvian citizenship. Over 100,000 persons have been naturalised in recent years. In some large cities, e.g. Riga, Daugavpils and Rēzekne, Russians and other minorities outnumber Latvians. Minorities from other countries such as Belarus, Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania, etc., also live in Latvia. The share of ethnic Latvians had fallen from 77% (1,467,035) in 1935 to 52% (1,387,757) in 1989. In 2005 there were even fewer Latvians than in 1989, though their share of the population was larger — 1,357,099 (57.% of the inhabitants). The official language of Latvia is Latvian, which belongs to the Baltic language group of the Indo-European language family. Another notable language of Latvia is the nearly extinct Livonian language of the Baltic-Finnic subbranch of the Uralic language family, which enjoys protection by law; The Latgalian language — a dialect of Latvian — is also protected by Latvian law as a historical variation of the Latvian language. Russian which was widely spoken during the Soviet period, and also during the Russian Imperial period is by far the most widespread minority language and is also understood by the majority of older Latvians. Culture and arts Latvian country scenery in Sabile. Between the thirteenth and nineteenth century, Baltic Germans, many of whom were originally of non-German ancestry but had been assimilated into German culture, formed the upper class. They developed a distinct cultural heritage, characterised by both Latvian and German influences. It has survived in German Baltic families to this day, in spite of their dispersal to Germany, the USA, Canada and other countries in the early 20th century. However, most indigenous Latvians did not participate in this particular cultural life. Thus, the mostly peasant local pagan heritage was preserved, partly merging with Christian traditions, for example in one of the most popular celebrations today which is Jāņi, a pagan celebration of the summer solstice, celebrated on the feast day of St. John the Baptist. Caraway cheese is traditionally served on the Latvian festival Jāņi. In the nineteenth century Latvian nationalist movements emerged promoting Latvian culture and encouraging Latvians to take part in cultural activities. The nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century is often regarded as a classical era of Latvian culture. Posters show the influence of other European cultures, for example, works of artists such as the Baltic-German artist Bernhard Borchert and the French Raoul Dufy. With the onset of World War II, many Latvian artists and other members of the cultural elite fled the country yet continued to produce their work, largely for a Latvian émigré audience. After incorporation into the USSR, Latvian artists and writers were forced to follow the Socialist realism style of art. During the Soviet era, music became increasingly popular, with the most popular being songs from the 1980s. At this time, songs often made fun of the characteristics of Soviet life and were concerned about preserving Latvian identity. This aroused popular protests against the USSR and also gave rise to an increasing popularity of poetry. Since independence, theatre, scenography and classical music have become the most notable branches of Latvian culture. Society Religion The largest religion is Christianity, although only 7% of population attend religious services regularly. The largest groups in 2006 are: Lutheran — 450,000 Roman Catholic — 450,000 Eastern Orthodox — 350,000 According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005, 37% of Latvian citizens responded that "they believe there is a god", whereas 49% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 10% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force". Lutheranism was much stronger before the Soviet occupation, when it was a majority religion, but since then Lutheranism in all the Baltic States has declined to a much greater extent than Roman Catholicism has. The country's Orthodox Christians belong to the Latvian Orthodox Church, a semi-autonomous body within the Russian Orthodox Church. There are 182 known Muslims living in Latvia though the total number is estimated to be much larger: from 500 to 5,000. There are also Jews (9,743 in 2006) in Latvia. There are more than 600 Latvian neopagans, Dievturi (The Godskeepers), whose religion is based on Latvian mythology. About 40% of the total population is not affiliated with a specific religion. International rankings +RankingsNameYearPlaceOut of #ReferenceCIA World Factbook – GDP per capita (PPP)200866th229CIA World Factbook – life expectancy2008120th223World Economic Forum – Enabling Trade Index ranking200843rd118Yale University / Columbia University - Environmental Performance Index20088th149The Economist Intelligence Unit - e-readiness200837th70The Economist Intelligence Unit - Global Peace Index200839th140United States Patent and Trademark Office's list of patents by country200795th172Save the Children - Mother's Index Rank200725th141Save the Children - Women's Index Rank200721st141Save the Children - Children's Index Rank200733rd141Wall Street Journal / The Heritage Foundation - Index of Economic Freedom200739th157United Nations - Human Development Index200844th179World Economic Forum - Global Competitiveness Report 2007-2008200745th131World Economic Forum - The Global Gender Gap Report 2007200713th128World Bank - Ease of Doing Business Index2007-200829th181Reporters Without Borders - Worldwide Press Freedom Index200712th169Transparency International - Corruption Perceptions Index200749th180The Economist Intelligence Unit - Index of Democracy200743rd167Privacy International - Privacy index (EU and 11 other selected countries)200628th36New Economics Foundation - Happy Planet Index2006160th178The Economist Intelligence Unit - Quality-of-life index200566th111Save the Children - % seats in the national government held by women200423-25th126World Health Organization - suicide rates by country (both sexes)8th101NationMaster's index of civil and political liberties17th140 See also Communications in Latvia Scouting and Guiding in Latvia Latvian Television Tourism in the Baltics LGBT rights in Latvia Sport in Latvia References Notes Bibliography External links The President of Latvia Chief of State and Cabinet Members National Statistics Agency statistical information on economical, demographic, social, and environmental phenomena and processes Historical maps online from Museum of Occupation of Latvia. Latvia from UCB Libraries GovPubs Virtual World of Latvia (Latvian Institute) The Latvian Institute publications on Latvian society, economy, culture and history be-x-old:Латвія
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Mexican_Armed_Forces
The Mexican military forces are composed of the Mexican Army (which includes the Mexican Air Force as a subordinate entity) and the Mexican Navy (including marines). Organization The Army There are three main components of the Army: a national headquarters, territorial commands, and independent units. The Minister of Defense commands the Army by means of a very centralized system and a large number of general officers. The Army uses a modified continental staff system in its headquarters. The Army is the largest branch of Mexico's armed services. Presently, there are 12 "Military Regions", which are further broken down into 44 subordinate "Military Zones." In both cases, a numbering system is used for designation. There is no set number of zones within a region, and these can therefore be tailored to meet operational needs, with a corresponding increase or decrease in troop strength. Today the army consists of 230,000 combat-ready deployable ground troops. The Air Force As mentioned earlier, the Air Force national headquarters is embedded in the Army headquarters in Mexico City. It also follows the continental staff system, with the usual A1, A2, A3, and A4 sections. The tactical forces form what is loosely called an Air Division, but it is dispersed in four regions—Northeast, Northwest, Central, and Southern. The Air Force maintains a total of 18 air bases, and has the additional capability of opening temporary forward operating bases in austere conditions for some of the rotary wing and light fixed-wing assets. The Navy The Ministry of the Navy, the Navy's national headquarters, is located in Mexico City, and is smaller than the Army's headquarters. The "Junta (or Council) of Admirals" plays a unique consultative and advisory role within the headquarters, an indication of the institutional importance placed on seniority and "year groups" that go back to the admirals’ days as cadets in the naval college. They are a very tightly knit group, and great importance is placed on consultation among the factions within these year groups. The Navy's operational forces are organized as two independent groups: the Gulf (East) Force and the Pacific (West) Force. Each group has its own headquarters, a destroyer group, an auxiliary vessel group, a Marine Infantry Group, and a Special Forces group. The Gulf and Pacific Forces are not mirror images of each other, as independence of organization is permitted. Both are subdivided into regions, with Regions 1, 3, and 5 on the Gulf, and 2, 4, and 6 on the Pacific. Each region is further divided into sectors and zones, so a proliferation of headquarters and senior officers exists. The Navy also has an air arm with troop transport, reconnaissance, and surveillance aircraft. Recently the Navy has ceded most of its river responsibilities (formally handled by the Marines) to the Army, and has reduced the size of the Marine force, putting them back aboard ships where they play a vital role in drug interdiction and boarding of suspect vessels in territorial waters. The Navy maintains significant infrastructure, including naval dockyards that have the capability of building ships, such as the Holzinger class offshore patrol vessel. These dockyards have a significant employment and economic impact in the country. Independent forces Several other military organizations exist that are independent of the Army and Navy command structures. Chief among the independent troops is an Army Corps consisting of two mechanized infantry brigades located in Mexico City, with a full complement of combat and support troops. In addition, there are two brigades of the Corps of Military Police, Special Forces units, Presidential Guards (another motorized brigade), and a parachute brigade. All these independent troops are located in Mexico City where they act as a ready reserve and as centers of excellence. At one time, a special "Rural Defense Corps" (or "Rurales") played a role similar to a traditional popular militia, but the role of the "Rurales" has been greatly diminished in recent years. Leadership Infantry Sergeant Cadet 2nd class, holding a golden eagle depicted in the Mexican coat of arms Officially, as there is no Minister of Defense, the Mexican military's two components are not under command of a single, unified forces commander at any level below the President, who has a military role under the national constitution: Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces (Comandante Supremo De Las Fuerzas Armadas). According to the Constitution of Mexico the President is the Army's only five-star general. (This is comparable to most other countries with a presidential system of government, such as the United States.) Instead, a Minister, who is a serving officer — an Army four-star general or a Navy admiral — heads each component. Each minister serves in a dual capacity: as a full cabinet member reporting to the President, and as the operational commander of his branch, but because of politics and rank, the navy is subordinate to the army. Moreover, the Air Force commander and his staff are embedded to Army headquarters; an Air Force officer never has risen to the hierarchy's most trusted, senior positions. This subordination has allowed the Army to identify its organization as the "Secretariat of National Defense" (Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional — SEDENA), resultantly, (to the Navy's annoyance) the current army chief, General Guillermo Galván Galván (and his predecessors) holds the nominal title of "Minister of Defense". The President picks the ministers who do not necessarily have to serve as such for his entire presidential term (sexenio, sexenium, six-year term). During the PRI's single-party rule, ministerial selection was a strict, pro-forma exercise by seniority. However, both Presidents Ernesto Zedillo (1994–2000) and Vicente Fox (2000-2006) strayed from precedent and reached down to the junior levels to select "more progressive" officers to lead the forces. The Army and the Navy are regionally organized, with central, national headquarters in Mexico City and subordinate, regional headquarters. Historically, this has proven to be effective, as the military's main deployments have been domestic. Troops are stationed throughout the country to serve as continuing presence of authority and to allow for immediate critical response. Dispersion by regional military zones has facilitated local recruitment of non-commissioned officers (army sergeants, navy petty officers) and enlisted men and women, allowing them to be stationed near family during their military service, an important cultural consideration. On the other hand, mobility is expected of commissioned officers, moving from assignment to assignment and to the military center, in Mexico City, giving them much experience, and, historically, preventing any senior officer from remaining too long in one place and developing a personal power base through local allegiances, and so becoming too powerful as a war lord. Size and Scope Per a defense ministry report by General Guillermo Galván Galván, the army has 181,356 active duty soldiers, about 0.16 per cent of the population [1]. Its 1989 budget was 0.7 per cent of the Gross Internal Product (GNP). In 1999, Mexico's military budget increased to 0.9 per cent of the GDP, to US$4.0 billion. Since the year 2000, however, with the economic boost that the country has experienced, the defense budget was decreased to 0.5 per cent of the GDP, and currently has annual expenditures of US$10.062 billion (2007). Since President Calderón assumed office (December 2006), he has submitted legislation increasing the budget, in order to fight the drug war against the narcotics cartels, and narcotic drug trafficking in general, that have extended their violent business to each corner of the country. According to the CIA World Fact book, Mexico's available military manpower is 20,000,000 (males age 18-49, 2005 est.), with 19,058,337 males fit for military service, and 1,063,233 males annually reaching military service age. Since 2000, women have been allowed to volunteer for military service. Currently, Mexico's armed forces number some 620,400, including the reserves. Mexico's military is in two branches, the National Defense Secretariat (Army and Air Force) and the Navy Secretariat (Navy, Naval Air Force, Marines). Mission F-5s patch. The Mexican Army works around three preparedness missions, or plans: DN1: Preparation of the military forces to repel external aggressions. No military armed force can leave Mexican territory without a declaration of war, and approval of the Congress. The last time this was invoked was in 1942, to send an expeditionary force to the Philippines, after war was declared against Germany and Japan, following the sinking of two Mexican ships by U-boats. In 1990 President Carlos Salinas de Gortari asked the permission of the Congress to send troops to the Gulf War, but it was refused, since there was no declaration of war against Iraq. DN2: Preparation of the military forces to protect the internal security of the country. This would include police actions against guerrilla forces, counter-drug operations, and, originally, political control. Up to 1970, the Mexican Army had been used as a repressive force to maintain the virtual dictatorship of the single-party PRI government. The most controversial use of the military had been called "The dirty war" in the 1960s, which included the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre of students and unsuspecting bystanders. After 1980 these types of operations had nearly completely ceased (see EZLN). DN3: (Defense against natural disasters) The Army should always be ready to help the civil population in case of disaster. This includes preventive measures. For example, between August and November, military forces are sent to Mexican coastal areas to aid the public in the event of hurricanes or floods. For the Mexican people, the DN3 plan is the most important peacetime operation of the Army. The Army provides food, shelter, medicine, and medical services to the people that need them. This also includes reconstruction of roads and communication services. Because calling the implementation DN3 plan is an acceptance of severe problems, the DN3 plan was not invoked in the 1985 Mexico City earthquake that left large areas of Mexico City in ruins, since the authorities did not want to recognize there was an emergency in the capital, while the army was called to the city, it was just a peacekeeping force. This later became a severe questioning on the government. Also, the Mexican Army provided aid to the US when the hurricanes Katrina and Rita occurred to help the people in need. Furthermore, the DN3 plan was invoked in 2009 when an epidemia of swine flu threatened the population. Conscription The military draft lottery Each year, the SEDENA (Secretary of National Defense) requires every eighteen-year-old man and every man who will be that age within twelve (12) months of the draft date of a designated Clase de Servicio Militar Nacional (National Military Service Class) to report to his municipality's designated military recruitment center. There, he will register to the conscription program with his birth certificate and standard-size, head-and-shoulders portrait photographs in order to be issued a precartilla (pre-military identity card) with a serial number, photograph, right thumb fingerprint, weapons licence number, and personal data (address, current schooling level, etc.) that finally, after the draft lottery and a year of service, earns him full conscript status and a Cartilla de Servicio Militar Nacional (Military National Service Identity Card), informally, cartilla (military I.D. card) attesting to his having fulfilled his civic obligation in duty to the nation. The SEDENA's lottery determines who will be exempted from or drafted for military duty — either with the army or with the navy. Formerly, the military service lottery required the presence of every man of a National Military Service Class; he stood at attention, awaiting either conscription or exemption; each man's name was called aloud and a child drew a colored ball from a bag — the color determined the man's conscription to or exemption from military service. Today, military service status selection is computerized, but the results are announced as before: White ball (Army service), Black ball (exemption), and Blue ball (Navy-Marines service). Currently, a seal is stamped to the "precartilla" identifying the bearer's military draft lottery status. Conscript Soldiers Legally, every Mexican man is obligated to a year of servicio militar nacional — SMN (national military service — NMS), until recently, only a few hours of drill on weekends, not true military training. Most conscripts will have received only one marksmanship session at a rifle range by the time they have completed their NMS obligation. The 1986 National Military Service class was the last class oriented to social service purposes. The NMS was restructured, and conscripts now receive true military training and education. The 1987 class was the first to receive proper marksmanship training. The men of an NMS class who remain after their obligation, are recruited volunteers who have chosen to be career soldiers The Cartilla The drafted men attend and participate in week-end military training comprising basic military training with weapons and combat tactics, yet it emphasizes education, history, physical fitness, and military discipline for one complete year. Afterward, the precartilla (pre-military identity card) is returned to the conscript with an added page certifying his status as having fulfilled his national military service and identifies the military branch, the unit, rank, etc. The document then acquires full status as the Cartilla del Servicio Militar Nacional (Military National Service Identity Card), informally Cartilla; this status is recorded to the National Defense Secretariat files. This document (Military National Service Identity Card) is an important form of Mexican national identification, and its existence was formerly always requested by private and public employers, however, this identity document has ceased being required for obtaining a passport for international travel. Officers Officer candidates for the three services are trained in military colleges; Mexico City for the Army, Guadalajara, Jalisco, for the Air Force, and Veracruz, Veracruz, for the Navy. Generally, officer candidates are from society's lower and middle classes, therefore a military commission is a means of upward social mobility for the poor, yet society respects military officers. The military colleges are not universities, yet provide significant technical training applicable to civil employment after military service. They emphasise military ethics (honour, duty, country), history, discipline, physical fitness, and the perpetuation of the military as a societal institution. The armed forces provide university-level education through the War College (Colegio de Guerra) in Mexico City, to which officers must attend and earn a Diplomado del Estado Mayor (DEM) degree to qualify for promotion to general officer or admiral rank. Career soldiers Mexican citizens who have chosen to be career soldiers, are signed for an initial three year contract, which, at the end of it, are encouraged to sign for another two year contract. If they choose to do so, this second term would become final, unless they apply mandatory exams and tests to become corporals, or apply in order to study in any of the available Military Specialist Technical Schools or for sergeant in the E.M.C.A. (Escuela Militar de Clases de las Armas. Limitations upon the military Article 129 of the 1917 Political Constitution of the Mexican United States establishes that: No military authority may, in time of peace, perform any functions other than those that are directly connected with military affairs, but the Army's temporary replacement of civil police forces, in specific cases, before the creation of the Federal Preventative Police has been much debated in the Congress and in the mass communications media; (cf. U.S. Posse Comitatus Act) Like-wise, per Article 16: No member of the army shall, in time of peace, be quartered in private dwellings without the consent of the owner, nor may he impose any obligation whatsoever. In time of war the military may demand lodging, equipment, provisions, and other assistance, in the manner laid down in the respective martial law; (cf. Third Amendment to the United States Constitution) Military Law Article 13 of the Mexican Constitution specifically provides for military jurisdiction over all military crime and indiscipline; military tribunals execute jurisdiction over military personnel, per the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ). Regarding military personnel labour conditions, discipline, and the chain of command as fundamental to the military, Article 123-B establishes: Military and naval personnel and members of the public security corps, and personnel of the foreign service, shall be governed by their own laws. this is correct Public knowledge of the military's activities As the President of Mexico is Commander in Chief of the armed forces, the chain of command and military discipline are subordinated to him. The military obey him and maintain low public profiles in politico-military debate; they serve, they do not rule. In recent decades, the mass communication media (television and print) were restricted in their coverage of the military's ranks and their activities. Only in the 1990s have Mexicans become publicly aware of the activities of its army, navy, air force, and marines. Since 1995, they are under much domestic and international public scrutiny, given the challenges inherent to greater national political openness, transparent public fiscal accountability, and results from missions pursued. The former defense ministers during President Fox term, General Gerardo Clemente Vega and Admiral Peyrot, were considered progressive and academic in nature and background, though they remained in the monolithic image of the Mexican military man. The Mexican public have little insight to internal debate and dialogue with national military institutions; in public relations terms, both the Army and the Navy continue being reactive rather than proactive. The military then started taking control. Estado Mayor Presidencial There is a specific element of the Mexican Army which takes care of the President, a special group known as the Estado Mayor Presidencial (in command of the Guardias Presidenciales, equivalent to the American Secret Service). Every member of this division is an expert marksman and has tough training for the protection of the President. Activities outside Mexico United Nations peacekeeping A Mexican Army VBL in amphibious mode travelling through a flooded New Orleans street in 2006 As of 2005, intervention in UN peacekeeping operations is being discussed, but with the current political composition of the Congress, it is unlikely to be approved, as according to the Mexican Constitution, no military armed force can leave Mexican territory without a declaration of war. Natural disaster relief 310xp|Mexican Navy Mi-8 The Mexican Military has traveled mainly to Central American countries to aid in disaster relief, and, most recently, to Indonesia after the tsunami disaster; only military support personnel, not combat forces. This includes the relief efforts in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina. This was the first time the Mexican Army entered United States territory since the Mexican-American war and the first time the United States had allowed a foreign military force on its soil. The Canadian Wolseley Expedition had been denied access to US territory in 1870 at the time of the Red River Rebellion. Mexican relief efforts were concentrated in Texas and New Orleans. Equipment Infantry light weapons The Mexican Army makes up about three-quarters of the total military in manpower terms. Army soldiers are armed with license-made Heckler and Koch G3 rifles, currently being replaced by Mexican made FX-05 assault rifle. Weapons of the Mexican army FX-05 Mexican made assault rifle 5.56x45mm NATO round Heckler & Koch G3 7.62 assault rifle, made under Heckler & Koch licence HK21E 7.62 machine gun. Made under license from Heckler & Koch Heckler & Koch MP5 9x19mm Sub-macine gun. Heckler & Koch UMP 45 ACP (11.43x23mm) Sub-machine gun FN P90 5.7x28mm Sub-Machine gun used by army special forces Heckler & Koch G36 Used in limited numbers 5.56x45mm NATO round MK 19 grenade launcher 40 mm . Beretta 92 Service Pistol. M249 Squad Automatic Weapon and FN Minimi. M-2 machine gun 12.7 mm . Heckler & Koch MSG90 7.62x51mm NATO sniper rifle. Barrett M82 .50 Caliber 12.7×99mm NATO sniper rifle Milkor MGL 40 mm grenade launcher MILAN anti-tank missiles. (559 transferred from Qatar in 2006) http://www.deagel.com/Anti-Armor-Weapons-and-Missiles/Milan_a000881001.aspx B-300 82 mm light anti-tank rocket. RL-83 Blindicide light anti-tank rocket. M40 106 mm recoilless rifle over High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle. Brandt 60 mm LR Gun-mortar Mk 19 grenade launcher 40mm automatic granade launcher. M1 Mortar and M29 Mortar (75 Mortar of 120 mm and 1,500 Mortars between 60 mm and 81 mm) Mondragon Fusil M1908 7x57mm automatic rifle used in ceremonial activities. Wheeled combat vehicles High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle with MK 19 grenade launcher, 7.62 mm machine guns, Blindicide 81 mm light anti-tank rocket and 106 mm Recoilless anti-tank gun. (168) Panhard ERC-90 Lynx 6x6 (119) Mexican ERC-90 are known as Lynx 90. They have a Hispano-Suiza Lynx 90 mm turret. Armour: Steel of 10 mm (maximum). It is the more capable vehicle in the Mexican Army. Panhard VBL 4x4 (40) light armoured vehicle used as antitank platform with MILAN - anti-tank missiles and MK 19 grenade launcher 40 mm. Bought new in France in 1985. Panhard VCR 6x6 (Véhicle de Combat á Roues) (40) APC. Armed with a 12.7 mm machine gun. 6x6. Amphibious. Armor: steel of 12 mm (maximum). Crew: 3+9. BDX Armoured personnel carrier (195) 4x4 Armed with a 7.62 mm machine gun (ex Belgian). Armor: Steel of 12.7 mm (maximum) LAV-150ST Armoured Fighting Vehicle (26) Built by Cadillac Gage. 4x4. Amphibious. DN-III APC. (24) Mexican design built (1979) in the Military State Factories (Dirección General de Industria Militar). It is similar to Cadillac Gage Commando LAV-100 and LAV-150. it is a 4x4 whole hull armored. The vehicle is probably based on the base of a US-made Dodge 4x4 truck and is also known as SEDENA 1000. The basic vehicle was armed with only a 7.62 mm machine gun FN MAG on top of a MOWAG-type of turret. DN-IV Caballo (Horse) APC. (40) Mexican design built in the Military State Factories (Dirección General de Industria Militar). The DN-IV (or DN-4) "Caballo" appeared for the first time in 1983. It is based on the DN-III and is powered by a V-8 diesel engine DINA-Cummins V504. There seem to be at least three models: one with a 7.62 mm machine gun on top of a MOWAG turret, and a second one with a 12.7 mm machine gun in a SAMM turret and a MAG at the rear, the last variant of the DN-III is armed with a 20 mm cannon in an open overhead mount. DN-V Toro (Bull). APC (70) Mexican design built in the Military State Factories (Dirección General de Industria Militar). It is similar to LAV-150 and it is a 4x4 whole hull armored. The DN-V is 4x4 APC and reconnaissance vehicle. It was developed in 1984 on the basis of the DN-IV 'Caballo'. The 'Toro' has the same DINA-Cumming V-504 V8 diesel engine. There are at least 4 models of the DN-V and they are often used to tow the TDA 120 mm mortar. The vehicle is fitted with Helio FVT 900 turret with 20 mm gun M62A1. The FVT900 is available in several variants incorporating either the GIAT M621 20 mm, or Oerlikon KAA 20 mm cannon with a 7-62 mm co-axial machine gun (optional). One box of 100 rounds of 20 mm and 1000 rounds (five boxes) of 7-62 mm ammunition can be carried within the turret ready for loading and firing. Another versions are mortar carrier, 75 mm howitzer support fire vehicle (with a WW2 era M8 Howitzer) and Lynx 90 mm turret (last two versions only as prototypes). *MOWAG Roland. APC (25) Made in Switzerland. Light vehicle 4x4. Armour: steel of 8 mm. Crew 2+3. Armed with a single man turret with a 7.62 mm machine gun. Chrysler MAC-1 (Mex-1). (40) The MAC-1 [Lit; medium armoured car No 1] has a combat weight of 8,120 kg and a crew of 4. It is powered by a Chrysler HAT 8-cylinder petrol engine of , has a maximum road speed of 104 km/h and a range of 377 km. Main armament consists of a 20 mm gun. Secondary armament is a 7.62 mm machine gun. Mexico use this vehicle as Armored Reconnaissance Vehicle. It is know in Mexico as Mex-1. Tracked combat vehicles HW-K 11 (40) APC Made by the German Company Henschel for Mexico during the 1960s (1963-1964. Mexico is the only owner. Armed with a 7.62 mm machine gun on turret. Armour: Steel of 15 mm. Some experimental variants were armed with a Helio turret FVT 900 armed with a 20 mm cannon and co-axial machine gun. The FVT900 is available in several variants incorporating either the GIAT M621 2 mm, or Oerlikon KAA 20 mm cannon with a 7.62 mm co-axial machine gun (optional). One box of 100 rounds of 20 mm and 1000 rounds (five boxes) of ammunition can be carried within the turret ready for loading and firing AMX-VCI (409) IFV version of AMX-13. Versions with 20 mm gun, 7.62 mm machine gun on turret and mortar carrier. (ex Belgian Army) Artillery 105 mm M101 howitzer (80) OTO Melara Mod 56 105 mm artillery (80) See also Fuerzas Especiales Grupo Aeromóvil de Fuerzas Especiales Grupo Aeromóvil de Fuerzas Especiales del Alto Mando Mexican Air Force Mexican military ranks Military history of Mexico Brigada de Fusileros Paracaidistas Ixtoc-Alfa Mexican response to Hurricane Katrina Mexican Special Forces Army ranks and insignia of Mexico External links National Defense Secretariat. Navy Secretariat. http://www.fasoc.cl/files/articulo/ART4117e2978fedb.pdf Unofficial Military Forum MEXICAN ARMED FORCES Photo Album of the Mexican Military from militaryphotos.net Photos/MEXICAN ARMY, NATIONAL MARINE AND AIR FORCE Video 2006 Mexican Forces Parade Notes References Entry for Mexico in the CIA World Factbook The Mexican Armed Forces in Transition - Jordi Díez & Ian Nicholls Sergio Aguayo Quezada (Editor) El Almanaque Mexicano. México: Editorial Hechos Confiables. 2000. Christopher F. Foss. (Editor) Jane's Pocket Book of Modern Tanks and Armored Fighting Vehicles. New York: Collier Books. 1974. Christopher F. Foss. Jane's Tank and Combat Vehicles Recognition Guide. New York: Harper Collins Publishers. 2000.
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4,772
IPv6
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the next-generation Internet Layer protocol for packet-switched internetworks and the Internet. IPv4 is the dominant Internet Protocol version, and was the first to receive widespread use. In December 1998, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) designated IPv6 as the successor to version 4 by the publication of a Standards Track specification, RFC 2460. In December 2008, despite celebrating its 10th anniversary as a Standards Track protocol, IPv6 was only in its infancy in terms of general worldwide deployment. A 2008 study Global IPv6 Statistics - Measuring the current state of IPv6 for ordinary users, S.H. Gunderson (Google), RIPE 57 (Dubai, Oct 2008) by Google indicated that penetration was still less than one percent of Internet-enabled machines in any country. The leaders were Russia (0.76%), France (0.65%), Ukraine (0.64%), Norway (0.49%), and the United States (0.45%). Although Asia led in terms of absolute deployment numbers, the relative penetration was smaller (e.g., China: 0.24%). IPv6 has been implemented on all major operating systems in use in commercial, business, and home consumer environments. According to the study, Mac OS X led in IPv6 penetration of 2.44%, followed by Linux (0.93%) and Windows Vista (0.32%). Google: more Macs mean higher IPv6 usage in US IPv6 has a much larger address space than IPv4. This results from the use of a 128-bit address, whereas IPv4 uses only 32 bits. The new address space thus supports 2128 (or 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 ) addresses. This expansion provides flexibility in allocating addresses and routing traffic and eliminates the primary need for network address translation (NAT). NAT gained widespread deployment as an effort to alleviate IPv4 address exhaustion. IPv6 also implements new features that simplify aspects of address assignment (stateless address autoconfiguration) and network renumbering (prefix and router announcements) when changing Internet connectivity providers. The IPv6 subnet size has been standardized by fixing the size of the host identifier portion of an address to 64 bits to facilitate an automatic mechanism for forming the host identifier from Link Layer media addressing information (MAC address). Network security is integrated into the design of the IPv6 architecture. Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) was originally developed for IPv6, but found widespread optional deployment first in IPv4 (into which it was back-engineered). The IPv6 specifications mandate IPsec implementation as a fundamental interoperability requirement. The general requirements for implementing IPv6 on a network host are specified in RFC 4294. Motivation for IPv6 The first publicly used version of the Internet Protocol, Version 4 (IPv4), provides an addressing capability of about 4 billion addresses (232). This was deemed sufficient in the early design stages of the Internet when the explosive growth and worldwide penetration of networks was not anticipated. During the first decade of operation of the TCP/IP-based Internet, by the late 1980s, it became apparent that methods had to be developed to conserve address space. In the early 1990s, even after the introduction of classless network redesign, it became clear that this would not suffice to prevent IPv4 address exhaustion and that further changes to the Internet infrastructure were needed. RFC 1752: The Recommendation for the IP Next Generation Protocol By the beginning of 1992, several proposed systems were being circulated, and by the end of 1992, the IETF announced a call for white papers (RFC 1550) and the creation of the "IP Next Generation" (IPng) area of working groups. History of the IPng Effort The Internet Engineering Task Force adopted IPng on July 25, 1994, with the formation of several IPng working groups. By 1996, a series of RFCs were released defining Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6), starting with RFC 2460. Incidentally, the IPng architects could not use version number 5 as a successor to IPv4, because it had been assigned to an experimental flow-oriented streaming protocol (Internet Stream Protocol), similar to IPv4, intended to support video and audio. It is widely expected that IPv4 will be supported alongside IPv6 for the foreseeable future. IPv4-only nodes are not able to communicate directly with IPv6 nodes, and will need assistance from an intermediary; see Transition mechanisms, below. IPv4 exhaustion Estimates of the time frame until complete exhaustion of IPv4 addresses used to vary widely. In 2003, Paul Wilson (director of APNIC) stated that, based on then-current rates of deployment, the available space would last for one or two decades. Exec: No shortage of Net addresses By John Lui, CNETAsia In September 2005 a report by Cisco Systems suggested that the pool of available addresses would dry up in as little as 4 to 5 years. A Pragmatic Report on IPv4 Address Space Consumption by Tony Hain, Cisco Systems , a daily updated report projected that the IANA pool of unallocated addresses would be exhausted in June 2011, with the various Regional Internet Registries using up their allocations from IANA in March 2012. IPv4 Address Report There is now consensus among Regional Internet Registries that final milestones of the exhaustion process will be passed in 2010 or 2011 at the latest, and a policy process has started for the end-game and post-exhaustion era. Proposed Global Policy for the Allocation of the Remaining IPv4 Address Space Features and differences from IPv4 In most regards, IPv6 is a conservative extension of IPv4. Most transport- and application-layer protocols need little or no change to operate over IPv6; exceptions are application protocols that embed network-layer addresses, such as FTP or NTPv3. IPv6 specifies a new packet format, designed to minimize packet-header processing. Since the headers of IPv4 packets and IPv6 packets are significantly different, the two protocols are not interoperable. Larger address space The most important feature of IPv6 is a much larger address space than that of IPv4: addresses in IPv6 are 128 bits long; this compares with 32 bit addresses in IPv4. The very large IPv6 address space supports a total of 2128 (about 3.4×1038) addresses—or approximately 5×1028 (roughly 295) addresses for each of the roughly 6.5 billion (6.5×109) people alive in 2006. U.S. Census Bureau In a different perspective, this is 252 addresses for every observable star in the known universe. ABC: Number of visible stars put at 70 sextillion While these numbers are impressive, it was not the intent of the designers of the IPv6 address space to assure geographical saturation with usable addresses. Rather, the longer addresses allow a better, systematic, hierarchical allocation of addresses and efficient route aggregation. With IPv4, complex Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) techniques were developed to make the best use of the small address space. Renumbering an existing network for a new connectivity provider with different routing prefixes is a major effort with IPv4, as discussed in RFC 2071 and RFC 2072. With IPv6, however, changing the prefix in a few routers can renumber an entire network ad hoc by using prefix broadcasts, and because the host identifiers (the least-significant 64 bits of an address) can be independently self-configured by a host. The size of a subnet in IPv6 is 264 addresses (64-bit subnet mask); the square of the size of the entire IPv4 Internet. Thus, actual address space utilization rates will likely be small in IPv6, but network management and routing will be more efficient. Stateless address autoconfiguration IPv6 hosts can configure themselves automatically when connected to a routed IPv6 network using ICMPv6 router discovery messages. When first connected to a network, a host sends a link-local multicast router solicitation request for its configuration parameters; if configured suitably, routers respond to such a request with a router advertisement packet that contains network-layer configuration parameters. RFC 4862: IPv6 Stateless Address Autoconfiguration, September 2007 If IPv6 stateless address autoconfiguration (SLAAC) is unsuitable for an application, a host can use stateful configuration (DHCPv6) or be configured manually. Stateless autoconfiguration is not used by routers. RFC 2894: Router Renumbering for IPv6, M. Crawford, August 2000 Multicast Multicast, the ability to send a single packet to multiple destinations, is part of the base specification in IPv6. This is unlike IPv4, where it is optional (although usually implemented). IPv6 does not implement broadcast, the ability to send a packet to all hosts on the attached link. The same effect can be achieved by sending a packet to the link-local all hosts multicast group. Most environments, however, do not have their network infrastructures configured to route multicast packets; multicasting on single subnet will work, but global multicasting might not. IPv6 multicast shares common features and protocols with IPv4 multicast, but also provides changes and improvements. When even the smallest IPv6 global routing prefix is assigned to an organization, the organization is also assigned the use of 4.2 billion globally routable source-specific IPv6 multicast groups to assign for inner-domain or cross-domain multicast applications [RFC 3306]. In IPv4 it was very difficult for an organization to get even one globally routable cross-domain multicast group assignment and implementation of cross-domain solutions was very arcane [RFC 2908]. IPv6 also supports new multicast solutions, including Embedded Rendezvous Point [RFC 3956] which simplifies the deployment of cross domain solutions. Mandatory network layer security Internet Protocol Security (IPsec), the protocol for IP encryption and authentication, forms an integral part of the base protocol suite in IPv6. IPsec support is mandatory in IPv6; this is unlike IPv4, where it is optional (but usually implemented). IPsec, however, is not widely used at present except for securing traffic between IPv6 Border Gateway Protocol routers. Simplified processing by routers A number of simplifications have been made to the packet header, and the process of packet forwarding has been simplified, in order to make packet processing by routers simpler and hence more efficient. Concretely, The packet header in IPv6 is simpler than that used in IPv4, with many rarely used fields moved to separate options; in effect, although the addresses in IPv6 are four times larger, the (option-less) IPv6 header is only twice the size of the (option-less) IPv4 header. IPv6 routers do not perform fragmentation. IPv6 hosts are required to either perform PMTU discovery, perform end-to-end fragmentation, or to send packets smaller than the IPv6 minimum maximum transmission unit size of 1280 bytes. The IPv6 header is not protected by a checksum; integrity protection is assumed to be assured by both a transport layer checksum and a higher layer (TCP, UDP, etc.) checksum. In effect, IPv6 routers do not need to recompute a checksum when header fields (such as the TTL or Hop Count) change. This improvement may have been made less necessary by the development of routers that perform checksum computation at link speed using dedicated hardware, but it is still relevant for software based routers. The Time-to-Live field of IPv4 has been renamed to Hop Limit, reflecting the fact that routers are no longer expected to compute the time a packet has spent in a queue. Mobility Unlike mobile IPv4, Mobile IPv6 (MIPv6) avoids triangular routing and is therefore as efficient as normal IPv6. IPv6 routers may also support Network Mobility (NEMO) [RFC 3963] which allows entire subnets to move to a new router connection point without renumbering. However, since neither MIPv6 nor MIPv4 or NEMO are widely deployed today, this advantage is mostly theoretical. Options Extensibility IPv4 has a fixed size (40 bytes) of option parameters. In IPv6, options are implemented as additional extension headers after the IPv6 header, which limits their size only by the size of an entire packet. The extension header mechanism allows IPv6 to be easily 'extended' to support future yet-to-be invented services for QOS, security, mobility, etc. without a redesign of the basic protocol. Jumbograms IPv4 limits packets to 64 KB of payload. IPv6 has optional support for packets over this limit, referred to as jumbograms, which can be as large as 4 GiB. The use of jumbograms may improve performance over high-MTU networks. The presence of jumbograms is indicated by the Jumbo Payload Option header. IPv6 packet format The IPv6 packet is composed of three main parts: the fixed header, optional extension headers and the payload. Header + Bits 0–3 4–11 12-15 16–23 24–31 0 Version Traffic Class Flow Label 32 Payload Length Next Header Hop Limit 64 Source Address 96 128 160 192 Destination Address 224 256 288 The header is in the first 40 octets (320 bits) of the packet and contains: Version - version 6 (4-bit IP version). Traffic class - packet priority (8 bits). Priority values subdivide into ranges: traffic where the source provides congestion control and non-congestion control traffic. Flow label - QoS management (20 bits). Originally created for giving real-time applications special service, but currently unused. Payload length - payload length in bytes (16 bits). When cleared to zero, the option is a "Jumbo payload" (hop-by-hop). Next header - Specifies the next encapsulated protocol. The values are compatible with those specified for the IPv4 protocol field (8 bits). Hop limit - replaces the time to live field of IPv4 (8 bits). Source and destination addresses - 128 bits each. The protocol field of IPv4 is replaced with a next header field. This field usually specifies the transport layer protocol used by a packet's payload. In the presence of options, however, the next header field specifies the presence of one or more out of six extension headers, which then follow the IPv6 header in distinct order; the payload's protocol itself is specified in the next header field of the last extension header. Extension Header Type Size Description RFCHop-By-Hop Options 0 variable Options that need to be examined by all devices on the path. RFC 2460Routing 43 variable Methods to specify the route for a datagram. (Used with Mobile IPv6) RFC 2460, RFC 3775, RFC 5095Fragment 44 64 bits Contains parameters for fragmentation of datagrams. RFC 2460Authentication Header (AH) 51 variable Contains information used to verify the authenticity of most parts of the packet. (See IPsec) RFC 4302Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) 50 variable Carries encrypted data for secure communication. (See IPsec). RFC 4303Destination Options 60 variable Options that need to be examined only by the destination of the packet. RFC 2460No Next Header 59 empty A placeholder indicating no next header. RFC 2460 The payload can have a size of up to 64KB in standard mode, or larger with a "jumbo payload" option in a Hop-By-Hop Options extension header. Fragmentation is handled only in the sending host in IPv6: routers never fragment a packet, and hosts are expected to use Path MTU discovery. Addressing 128-bit length The length of network addresses emphasize a most important change when moving from IPv4 to IPv6. IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long (as defined by RFC 4291), whereas IPv4 addresses are 32 bits; where the IPv4 address space contains roughly 4 billion addresses, IPv6 has enough room for 3.4×1038 unique addresses. IPv6 addresses are typically composed of two logical parts: a 64-bit (sub-)network prefix, and a 64-bit host part, which is either automatically generated from the interface's MAC address or assigned sequentially. Because the globally unique MAC addresses offer an opportunity to track user equipment, and so users, across time and IPv6 address changes, RFC 3041 was developed to reduce the prospect of user identity being permanently tied to an IPv6 address, thus restoring some of the possibilities of anonymity existing at IPv4. RFC 3041 specifies a mechanism by which time-varying random bit strings can be used as interface circuit identifiers, replacing unchanging and traceable MAC addresses. Notation IPv6 addresses are normally written as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits, where each group is separated by a colon (:). For example, 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334 is a valid IPv6 address. To shorten the writing and presentation of addresses, several simplifications to the notation are permitted. Any leading zeros in a group may be omitted; thus, the given example becomes 2001:db8:85a3:0:0:8a2e:370:7334 One or any number of consecutive groups of 0 value may be replaced with two colons (</tt>::</tt>): 2001:db8:85a3::8a2e:370:7334 This substitution with double-colon may be performed only once in an address, because multiple occurrences would lead to ambiguity. For example, the illegal address notation 2001::FFD3::57ab, could represent any of the following: 2001:0:0:0:0:FFD3:0:57ab 2001:0:0:0:FFD3:0:0:57ab 2001:0:0:FFD3:0:0:0:57ab 2001:0:FFD3:0:0:0:0:57ab Using the double-colon reduction the localhost (loopback) address, fully written as 0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001, may be reduced to ::1 and the undetermined IPv6 address (zero value), i.e., all bits are zero, is simply ::. For example, the addresses below are all valid and equivalent: 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:1428:57ab 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000::1428:57ab 2001:0db8:0:0:0:0:1428:57ab 2001:0db8:0:0::1428:57ab 2001:0db8::1428:57ab 2001:db8::1428:57ab The sequence of the last 4 bytes of the IPv6 address may optionally be written in dot-decimal notation, in the style of IPv4 addresses. This notation is convenient when working in a mixed (dual-stack) environment of IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, and IPv6 addresses are derived from IPv4 ones. The general form of the notation is x:x:x:x:x:x:d.d.d.d, where the x's are the 6 high-order groups of hexadecimal digits and the d's represent the decimal digit groups of the four low-order octets of the address. For example, ::ffff:12.34.56.78 is the same address as ::ffff:0c22:384e. Usage of this notation may not be widely supported. RFC 4291 (IP Version 6 Addressing Architecture) provides additional information. Prefix and network notation An IPv6 network is a contiguous group of IPv6 addresses. The size of this block must be a power of 2, and the beginning of a block must be aligned on a bit boundary of the address space. The leading set of bits of the addresses, which are identical for all hosts in a given network, are called the network's address prefix. Networks are written in CIDR notation: a network is denoted by the first address in the network and the size in bits of the prefix, separated by a slash "/". For example, the network written 2001:0db8:1234::/48 starts at address 2001:0db8:1234:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000 and ends at 2001:0db8:1234:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff. Network addresses should not be confused with the notation used for interface addresses under some operating systems. Under such systems, an interface address is written by combining the address of the interface with the prefix length of the network it is connected to. For example, an interface with address 2001:db8:a::123 connected to a /64 subnet is written 2001:db8:a::123/64. IPv6 address types IPv6 addresses are classified into three types: RFC 2373 - IP Version 6 Addressing Architecture Unicast addresses A unicast address identifies a single network interface. The protocol delivers packets sent to a unicast address to that specific interface. Unicast IPv6 addresses can have a scope which is reflected in more specific address names: global unicast address, link-local address, and unique local unicast address. Anycast addresses An anycast address is assigned to a group of interfaces, usually belonging to different nodes. A packet sent to an anycast address is delivered to just one of the member interfaces, typically the “nearest” according to the routing protocol’s choice of distance. Anycast addresses cannot be identified easily: they have the structure of normal unicast addresses, and differ only by being injected into the routing protocol at multiple points in the network. Multicast addresses A multicast address is also assigned to a set of interfaces that typically belong to different nodes. A packet that is sent to a multicast address is delivered to all interfaces identified by that address. Multicast addresses begin with an octet of one (1) bits, i.e., they have prefix FF00::/8. The four least-significant bits of the second address octet identify the address scope, i.e. the span over which the multicast address is propagated. Commonly implemented scopes are node-local (0x1), link-local (0x2), site-local (0x5), organization-local (0x8), and global (0xE). The least-significant 112 bits of a multicast address form the multicast group identifier. Only the low-order 32 bits of the group ID are commonly used, because of traditional methods of forming 32 bit identifiers from Ethernet addresses. Defined group IDs are 0x1 for all-nodes multicast addressing and 0x2 for all-routers multicast addressing. Another group of multicast addresses are solicited-node multicast addresses which are formed with the prefix FF02::1:FF00:0/104, and where the rest of the group ID (least significant 24 bits) is filled from the interface's unicast or anycast address. These addresses allow link-layer address resolution via Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) on the link without disturbing all nodes on the local network. Special addresses IANA maintains the official list of the IPv6 address space. Global unicast assignments can be found at the various RIRs or at the GRH DFP pages. There are a number of addresses with special meaning in IPv6: Unspecified address ::/128 — the address with all zero bits is called the unspecified address. This address must never be assigned to an interface and is to be used only in software before the application has learned its host's source address appropriate for a pending connection. Routers must not forward packets with the unspecified address. Link local addresses ::1/128 — the loopback address is a unicast localhost address. If an application in a host sends packets to this address, the IPv6 stack will loop these packets back on the same virtual interface (corresponding to 127.0.0.1 in IPv4). fe80::/10 — The link-local prefix specifies that the address is only valid in the scope of a given local link. This is analogous to the Autoconfiguration IP addresses 169.254.0.0/16 in IPv4. Unique local addresses fc00::/7 — unique local addresses (ULA) are routable only within a set of cooperating sites. They were defined in RFC 4193 as a replacement for site-local addresses (see below). The addresses include a 40-bit pseudorandom number in the routing prefix that intends to minimize the risk of conflicts if sites merge or packets are misrouted into the Internet. Despite the restricted, local usage of these addresses, they have a global address scope. This is a departure from the site-local address definition that unique local addresses replaced. Multicast addresses ff00::/8 — The multicast prefix designates multicast addresses IP Version 6 multicast address as defined in "IP Version 6 Addressing Architecture" (RFC 4291). Some of these have been assigned to specific protocols, for example ff0X::101 will reach all local NTP servers (RFC 2375). Solicited-node multicast addresses ff02::1:FFXX:XXXX — XX:XXXX are the 3 low order octets of the corresponding unicast or anycast address. IPv4 transition ::ffff:0:0/96 — this prefix is used for IPv4 mapped addresses (see Transition mechanisms below). 2001::/32 — Used for Teredo tunneling. 2002::/16 — this prefix is used for 6to4 addressing. ORCHID 2001:10::/28 — ORCHID (Overlay Routable Cryptographic Hash Identifiers) as per (RFC 4843). These are non-routed IPv6 addresses used for Cryptographic Hash Identifiers. Documentation 2001:db8::/32 — this prefix is used in documentation (RFC 3849). The addresses should be used anywhere an example IPv6 address is given or model networking scenarios are described. Deprecated or obsolete addresses ::/96 — This is a 96-bit zero-value prefix originally known as IPv4-compatible addresses. This class of addresses were used to represent IPv4 addresses within an IPv6 transition technology. Such an IPv6 address has its first 96 bits set to zero, while its last 32 bits are the IPv4 address that is represented. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) has deprecated the use of IPv4-compatible addresses with publication RFC 4291. The only remaining use of this address format is to represent an IPv4 address in a table or database with fixed size members that must also be able to store an IPv6 address. fec0::/10 — The site-local prefix specifies that the address is valid only inside the local organization. Its use has been deprecated in September 2004 by RFC 3879 and new systems must not support this special type of address. Link-local addresses and zone indices All interfaces have an associated link-local address, that is only guaranteed to be unique on the attached link. Link local addresses are created in the fe80::/10 address space. Because link-local addresses have a common prefix, normal routing procedures cannot be used to choose the outgoing interface when sending packets to a link-local destination. A special identifier, known as a zone index, is needed to provide the additional information; in the case of link-local addresses, zone indices correspond to interface identifiers. When an address is written textually, the zone index is appended to the address, separated by a percent sign "%". The actual syntax of zone indices depends on the operating system: the Microsoft Windows IPv6 stack uses numeric zone indexes, e.g., fe80::3%1. The index is determined by the interface number. Some Unix-like systems (e.g., BSD and Linux) use the interface name as a zone index: fe80::3%eth0. Zone index notations cause syntax conflicts when used in Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI), as the '%' character also designates percent-encoding. Formats for IPv6 Scope Zone Identifiers in Literal Address Formats Relatively few IPv6-capable applications understand address scope syntax at the user level, thus rendering link-local addressing inappropriate for many user applications. However, link-local addresses are not intended for most of such application usage and their primary benefit is in low-level network management functions , for example for logging into a router that for some reason has become unreachable. Literal IPv6 addresses in network resource identifiers Since an IPv6 address contains colon (":") characters, network administrators must take care to avoid conflicts with other syntactic meanings of the colon in network resource labels. In IPv4 the colon is used to separate an IP address from a transport protocol port number. This usage has been extended to IPv6, however, when a port is specified in an address string, the proper IPv6 address must be enclosed in square brackets ("[", "]"). This convention is used in other more complex identifiers. Example: In a URL the IPv6-Address is enclosed in brackets, e.g., http://[2001:0db8:85a3:08d3:1319:8a2e:0370:7348]/. If the URL also contains a port number the notation is: https://[2001:0db8:85a3:08d3:1319:8a2e:0370:7344]:443/ This is not only useful but mandated when using shortform: https://[2001:db8::1428:57ab]:443/ Additional information can be found in "RFC 2732 - Format for Literal IPv6 Addresses in URL's" and "RFC 3986 - Uniform Resource Identifier (URI): Generic Syntax." In Microsoft Windows operating systems, IP addresses were also allowed in Uniform Naming Convention (UNC) path names. Since the colon is an illegal character in a UNC path name, the use of IPv6 addresses is also illegal in UNC names. For this reason, Microsoft has registered a second-level Internet domain, ipv6-literal.net, as a means to facilitate symbolic substitution. IPv6 addresses may be transcribed in the following fashion: 2001:0db8:85a3:08d3:1319:8a2e:0370:7348 is written as 2001-db8-85a3-8d3-1319-8a2e-370-7348.ipv6-literal.net This notation is automatically resolved by Microsoft software without DNS queries to any nameservers. If the IPv6 address contains a zone index, it is appended to the address portion after an 's' character: fe80--1s4.ipv6-literal.net. IPv6 and the Domain Name System IPv6 addresses are represented in the Domain Name System by AAAA resource records (so-called quad-A records) for forward lookups. Reverse lookup takes place under ip6.arpa (previously ip6.int), where name space is allocated by the ASCII representation of nibble units (digits) of the hexadecimal IP address. This scheme, which is an adaptation of the IPv4 method under in-addr.arpa, is defined in RFC 3596. + AAAA record fieldsNAMEDomain nameTYPEAAAA (28)CLASSInternet (1)TTLTime to live in secondsRDLENGTHLength of RDATA fieldRDATAString form of the IPV6 address as described in RFC 3513 RFC 3484 specifies how applications should select an IPv6 or IPv4 address for use, including addresses retrieved from DNS. The DNS protocol is independent of its transport layer. Queries and replies may be transmitted over IPv6 or IPv4 transports regardless of the address family of the data requested. At the design-stage of the IPv6 DNS architecture, the AAAA scheme faced a rival proposal. This alternate approach, designed to facilitate network renumbering, uses A6 records for the forward lookup and a number of other innovations such as bit-string labels and DNAME records. It is defined in RFC 2874 and its references (with further discussion of the pros and cons of both schemes in RFC 3364), but has been deprecated to experimental status. Transition challenges As of 2009, many DNS resolvers in home-networking NAT devices and routers still handle AAAA records improperly. Some of these simply drop DNS requests for such records, instead of properly returning the appropriate negative DNS response. Because the request is dropped, the host sending the request has to wait for a timeout to trigger. This often causes a perceived slow down when connecting to IPv6 hosts. Since there is no result of the request that can be cached locally, even if a DNS cache is running, the problem will persist for subsequent identical lookups. Transition mechanisms Until IPv6 completely supplants IPv4, a number of transition mechanisms IPv6 Transition Mechanism / Tunneling Comparison are needed to enable IPv6-only hosts to reach IPv4 services and to allow isolated IPv6 hosts and networks to reach the IPv6 Internet over the IPv4 infrastructure. For the period while IPv6 hosts and routers co-exist with IPv4 systems, RFC 2893 (Transition Mechanisms for IPv6 Hosts and Routers) and RFC2185 (Routing Aspects of IPv6 Transition) define compatibility and transition mechanisms. These techniques, sometimes collectively called Simple Internet Transition (SIT), include: dual-stack IP implementations for interoperating hosts and routers embedding IPv4 addresses in IPv6 addresses IPv6-over-IPv4 tunneling mechanisms IPv4/IPv6 header translation Dual stack Since IPv6 represents a conservative extension of IPv4, it is relatively easy to write a network stack that supports both IPv4 and IPv6 while sharing most of the code. Such an implementation is called a dual stack, and a host implementing a dual stack is called a dual-stack host. This approach is described in RFC 4213. Most current implementations of IPv6 use a dual stack. Some early experimental implementations used independent IPv4 and IPv6 stacks. IPv4 mapped addresses Dual stack IPv6/IPv4 implementations typically support a special class of addresses, the IPv4 mapped addresses. This address type has its first 80 bits set to zero, the next 16 set to one, while its last 32 bits represent an IPv4 address. For example, ::ffff:c000:280 is the IPv4 mapped address for the IPv4 address 192.0.2.128. As an exception to standard IPv6 addresses notation, IPv4 mapped addresses are commonly represented with their last 32 bits written in the customary dot-decimal notation of IPv4, appended to the standard IPv6 notation of the leading bits, e.g., ::ffff:c000:280 could be written as ::ffff:192.0.2.128. This address type allows the transparent use of the Transport Layer protocols over IPv4 through the IPv6 networking API. A beneficial feature of this mechanism is that server applications only need to open a single listening socket to handle connections from clients using IPv6 or IPv4 protocols. IPv6 clients will be handled natively by default, and IPv4 clients appear as IPv6 clients with an appropriately mapped address. It can also be used to establish IPv4 connections specifically with an IPv6 socket. While the network protocol on the transmission medium is IPv4, the connection is presented as an IPv6 interface to the application. Because of the significant internal differences between IPv4 and IPv6 at all levels of the IP stack, some of the lower level functionality that may be exposed by the IPv6 stack might not work with IPv4 mapped addresses, if there is no direct translation to IPv4. Some common IPv6 stacks do not support the IPv4 mapped address feature, either because the IPv6 and IPv4 stacks are separate implementations (Microsoft Windows prior to Vista/Longhorn: e.g. XP/2003), or because of security concerns (OpenBSD). On these operating systems, it is necessary to open a separate socket for each IP protocol that is to be supported. On some systems (e.g., Linux, NetBSD, FreeBSD) this feature is controlled by the socket option IPV6_V6ONLY as specified in RFC 3493. Tunneling In order to reach the IPv6 Internet, an isolated host or network must use the existing IPv4 infrastructure to carry IPv6 packets. This is done using a technique known as tunneling which consists of encapsulating IPv6 packets within IPv4, in effect using IPv4 as a link layer for IPv6. The direct encapsulation of IPv6 datagrams within IPv4 packets is indicated by IP protocol number 41. IPv6 can also be encapsulated within UDP packets e.g. in order to cross a router or NAT device that blocks protocol 41 traffic. Other encapsulation schemes, such as used in AYIYA or GRE, are also popular. Automatic tunneling Automatic tunneling refers to a technique where the routing infrastructure automatically determines the tunnel endpoints. RFC 3056 recommends 6to4 tunneling for automatic tunneling, which uses protocol 41 encapsulation. RFC 3056: Connection of IPv6 Domains via IPv4 Clouds Tunnel endpoints are determined by using a well-known IPv4 anycast address on the remote side, and embedding IPv4 address information within IPv6 addresses on the local side. 6to4 is widely deployed today. Teredo, an automatic tunneling technique that uses UDP encapsulation, can allegedly cross multiple NAT boxes. RFC 4380: Teredo: Tunneling IPv6 over UDP through Network Address Translations (NATs) Teredo is not widely deployed today, but an experimental version of Teredo is installed with the Windows XP SP2 IPv6 stack. IPv6, including 6to4 and Teredo tunneling, are enabled by default in Windows Vista. The Windows Vista Developer Story: Application Compatibility Cookbook Most Unix systems only implement native support for 6to4, but Teredo can be provided by third-party software such as Miredo. ISATAP RFC 4214: Intra-Site Automatic Tunnel Addressing Protocol (ISATAP) treats the IPv4 network as a virtual IPv6 local link, with mappings from each IPv4 address to a link-local IPv6 address. Unlike 6to4 and Teredo, which are inter-site tunnelling mechanisms, ISATAP is an intra-site mechanism, meaning that it is designed to provide IPv6 connectivity between nodes within a single organisation. Configured tunneling (6in4) In configured tunneling, better known as 6in4 tunneling, the tunnel endpoints are explicitly configured, either by an administrator manually or the operating system's configuration mechanisms, or by an automatic service known as a tunnel broker. RFC 3053: IPv6 Tunnel Broker Configured tunneling is usually more deterministic and easier to debug than automatic tunneling, and is therefore recommended for large, well-administered networks. Configured tunneling uses IP protocol number 41 over the IPv4 tunnel. Proxying and translation for IPv6-only hosts After the Regional Internet Registries have exhausted their pools of available IPv4 addresses, it is likely that hosts newly added to the Internet might only have IPv6 connectivity. For these clients to have backward-compatible connectivity to existing IPv4-only resources, suitable translation mechanisms must be deployed. One form of translation is the use of a dual-stack application-layer proxy; for example a web proxy. NAT-like techniques for application-agnostic translation at the lower layers have also been proposed. Most have been found to be too unreliable in practice because of the wide range of functionality required by common application-layer protocols, and are considered by many to be obsolete. IPv6 readiness Adoption issues Issues of IPv6 adoption include: legacy equipment where the manufacturer no longer exists to provide support the manufacturer refuses to produce updates to support IPv6 or provides them but only at a prohibitive cost. software upgrades are impossible (for example: software in permanent ROM) the device has insufficient resources to implement the IPv6 stack (usually a lack of ROM & RAM) the device can handle IPv6 but only at a much lower performance than IPv4 (an issue with many older routers) manufacturers providing new equipment with sufficient resources for IPv6 manufacturers investing in developing new software for IPv6 support publicity to persuade end-users to prepare to upgrade existing equipment publicity to educate or inform end-users about IPv4 obsolescence to create demand for IPv6-capable equipment ISPs not investing technical resources into preparing for IPv6 There are two distinct classes of users of networking equipment, informed (mainly commercial and professional), and uninformed (mainly consumer). The former understand that network devices are specialist computers which may need software upgrades for security and performance fixes. The latter generally treat their networking equipment as appliances, which are configured only when first unboxed, if at all, and only ever undergo firmware upgrades when absolutely necessary. Inevitably it is the latter group who have no knowledge of IPv4 or v6, but who are most likely to suffer when their equipment has to be replaced, since commercial grade equipment has generally handled IPv6 for quite a few years. Most equipment such as hosts and routers require explicit IPv6 support. Fewer problems arise with equipment which only does low-level transport, such as cables, most ethernet adapters, and most layer-2 switches. As of 2007, IPv6 readiness is currently not considered in most consumer purchasing decisions. If such equipment is not IPv6-capable, it might need to be upgraded or replaced prematurely if connectivity from or to new users and to servers using IPv6 addresses is required. As with the year-2000 compatibility, IPv6 compatibility is mainly a software/firmware issue. However, unlike the year-2000 issue, there seems to be virtually no effort to ensure compatibility of older equipment and software by manufacturers. Furthermore, even compatibility of products now available is unlikely for many types of software and equipment. This is caused by only a recent realisation that IPv4 exhaustion is imminent, and the hope that we will be able to get by for a relatively long time with a combined IPv4/IPv6 situation. There is a tug-of-war going on in the internet community whether the transition will/should be rapid or long. Specifically, an important question is whether almost all internet servers should be ready to serve to new IPv6-only clients by 2012. Universal access to IPv6-only servers will be even more of a challenge. Most equipment would be fully IPv6 capable with a software/firmware update if the device has sufficient code and data space to support the additional protocol stack. However, as with 64-bit Windows and Wi-Fi Protected Access support, manufacturers are likely to try to save on development costs for hardware which they no longer sell, and to try to get more sales from new "IPv6-ready" equipment. Even when chipset makers develop new drivers for their chipsets, device manufacturers might not pass these on to the consumers. Moreover, as IPv6 gets implemented, optional features might become important, such as IPv6 mobile. Home routers are usually not IPv6 ready. As for the CableLabs consortium, the 160 Mbit/s DOCSIS 3.0 IPv6-ready specification for cable modems has only been issued in August 2006. IPv6 capable Docsis 2.0b was skipped while the widely used DOCSIS 2.0 does not support IPv6. The new 'DOCSIS 2.0 + IPv6' standard also supports IPv6, which may on the cable modem side only require a firmware upgrade. It is expected that only 60% of cable modems' servers and 40% of cable modems will be DOCSIS 3.0 by 2011. Other equipment which is typically not IPv6-ready range from Skype and SIP phones to oscilloscopes and printers. Professional network routers in use should be IPv6-ready. Most personal computers should also be IPv6-ready, because the network stack resides in the operating system. Most applications with network capabilities are not ready, but could be upgraded with support from the developers. Since February 2002, with J2SE 1.4, all applications that are 100% Java have implicit support for IPv6 addresses. ADSL services offer a problem if the access networks of the incumbent telephone connection cannot support IPv6, such that independent ADSL providers cannot provide native IPv6 connectivity. IPv6 conformance testing and evaluation A few organizations are involved, locally and internationally, with IPv6 testing and evaluation ranging from the United States Department of Defense to the University of New Hampshire. Fault injection and mutation test equipment is available from companies such as Mu Dynamics, whereby tests can be customized. Other classes of test equipment, including load and performance and conformance are available from companies like Spirent, Ixia and Agilent Technologies. IPv6 deployment Although IPv4 address exhaustion has been slowed by the introduction of classless inter-domain routing (CIDR) and the extensive use of network address translation (NAT), address uptake has accelerated again in recent years. Some forecasts expect complete depletion by the year 2011. IPv4 Address Report As of 2008, IPv6 accounts for a minuscule fraction of the used addresses and the traffic in the publicly-accessible Internet which is still dominated by IPv4. Geoff Huston - An Update on IPv6 Deployment (RIPE 56) The 2008 Summer Olympic Games were a notable event in terms of IPv6 deployment, being the first time a major world event has had a presence on the IPv6 Internet at http://ipv6.beijing2008.cn/en (IP addresses 2001:252:0:1::2008:6 and 2001:252:0:1::2008:8) and all network operations of the Games were conducted using IPv6. It is believed that the Olympics provided the largest showcase of IPv6 technology since the inception of IPv6. Major IPv6 announcements and availability Year Announcements and availability 1996 Alpha quality IPv6 support in Linux kernel development version 2.1.8. Linux IPv6 Development Project 6bone (an IPv6 virtual network for testing) was started. 1997 By the end of 1997, a large number of interoperable IPv6 implementations exist. IETF December 1997 Proceedings IESG: Implementation Report By the end of 1997 IBM's AIX 4.3 is the first commercial platform supporting IPv6. IPv6 support shipping in AIX 3.3 Its AIX 4.3. Also in 1997, Early Adopter Kits for DEC's operating systems, Tru64 and OpenVMS, were available. | DEC/Compaq IPv6 history 1998 Microsoft Research Internet Protocol Version 6 (old Microsoft Research IPv6 release) releases its first experimental IPv6 stack. This support is not intended for use in a production environment. 2000 Production-quality BSD support for IPv6 becomes generally available in early to mid-2000 in FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and NetBSD via the KAME project. KAME project Microsoft releases an IPv6 technology preview version for Windows 2000 in March 2000. Sun Solaris supports IPv6 in Solaris 8 in February. Sun Solaris 8 changes from Solaris 7 Compaq ships IPv6 with Tru64.2001 In January, Compaq ships IPv6 with OpenVMS. Cisco Systems introduces IPv6 support on Cisco IOS routers and L3 switches. Cisco main IPv6 site HP introduces IPv6 with HP-UX 11i v1. HP main IPv6 site 2002 Microsoft Windows NT 4.0 and Windows 2000 SP1 have limited IPv6 support for research and testing since at least 2002. Microsoft Windows XP (2001) supports IPv6 for developmental purposes. In Windows XP SP1 (2002) and Windows Server 2003, IPv6 is included as a core networking technology, suitable for commercial deployment. Microsofts main IPv6 site IBM z/OS supports IPv6 since version 1.4 (generally availability in September 2002). IBM: z/OS operating system 2003 Apple Mac OS X v10.3 "Panther" (2003) supports IPv6 which is enabled by default. Mac OS X 10.3 Using IPv6 *** Document not found error message *** 2008-11-14 In July, ICANN announces that the IPv6 AAAA records for the Japan (.jp) and Korea (.kr) country code Top Level Domain (ccTLD) nameservers are visible in the DNS root server zone files with serial number 2004072000. The IPv6 records for France (.fr) are added a little later. This makes IPv6 operational in a public fashion. 2005 Linux 2.6.12 removes experimental status from its IPv6 implementation. Linux 2.6.12 changelog 2007 Microsoft Windows Vista (2007) supports IPv6 which is enabled by default. Apple's AirPort Extreme 802.11n base station includes an IPv6 gateway in its default configuration. It uses 6to4 tunneling and can optionally route through a manually configured IPv4 tunnel. Apple AirPort Extreme technical specifications. 2008 On February 4, 2008, IANA adds AAAA records for the IPv6 addresses of six root name servers. IPv6: coming to a root server near you IANA - IPv6 Addresses for the Root Servers With this transition, it is now possible for two Internet hosts to fully communicate without using IPv4. On March 12, 2008, Google launches a public IPv6 web interface to its popular search engine at the URL http://ipv6.google.com. Official Google Blog On July 18, 2008, Internode launches a national IPv6 service, the first in Australia. http://www.internode.on.net/news/2008/07/96.php 2009 In January 2009, Google extended its IPv6 initiative with Google over IPv6, which offers IPv6 support for Google services to compatible networks. On January 19, 2009, The Pirate Bay announces native IPv6 support. http://thepiratebay.org/blog/146 Both trackers and web servers are IPv6 enabled (main website at the URL: http://ipv6.thepiratebay.org/). See also IPv4 address exhaustion IPv6 deployment Comparison of IPv6 application support China Next Generation Internet List of IPv6 tunnel brokers Miredo ICMPv6 University of New Hampshire InterOperability Laboratory involvement in the IPv6 Ready Logo Program The US DoD Joint Interoperability Test Command DoD IPv6 Product Certification Program SATSIX References External links IPv6 Backbone Network Topology RFC 4942 - IPv6 Transition/Coexistence Security Considerations draft-itojun-v6ops-v4mapped-harmful Microsoft blog/tech note on mapped address use with dual mode sockets Inventory of IPv6 Websites IPv6.com Information Portal
IPv6 |@lemmatized internet:34 protocol:42 version:20 next:13 generation:4 layer:17 packet:38 switch:3 internetworks:1 dominant:1 first:14 receive:1 widespread:3 use:69 december:3 engineering:3 task:3 force:3 ietf:4 designate:3 successor:2 publication:2 standard:6 track:3 specification:5 rfc:50 despite:2 celebrate:1 anniversary:1 infancy:1 term:3 general:3 worldwide:2 deployment:11 study:2 global:8 statistic:1 measure:1 current:3 state:4 ordinary:1 user:10 h:1 gunderson:1 google:9 ripe:2 dubai:1 oct:1 indicate:4 penetration:4 still:4 less:2 one:10 percent:3 enabled:1 machine:1 country:2 leader:1 russia:1 france:2 ukraine:1 norway:1 united:2 although:4 asia:1 lead:6 absolute:1 number:17 relative:1 small:5 e:11 g:8 china:2 implement:11 major:4 operate:6 system:21 commercial:5 business:1 home:3 consumer:4 environment:4 accord:2 mac:7 x:10 follow:2 linux:7 window:14 vista:5 macs:1 mean:3 high:4 usage:5 u:3 much:3 large:10 address:226 space:18 result:2 bit:44 whereas:2 new:16 thus:5 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4,773
Knights_of_Columbus
The Knights of Columbus is the world's largest Catholic fraternal service organization. Founded in the United States in 1882, it is named in honor of Christopher Columbus . There are more than 1.7 million members in 14,000 councils, with nearly 200 councils on college campuses. Membership is limited to "practical Catholic" men aged 18 or older. Councils have been chartered in the United States, Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America, the Philippines, Guam, Saipan, Japan, Cuba, and most recently in Poland. The Knights' official junior organization, the Columbian Squires, has over 5,000 Circles. All the Order's ceremonials and business meetings are restricted to members though all other events are open to the public. A promise not to reveal any details of the ceremonials except to an equally qualified Knight is required to ensure their impact and meaning for new members; an additional clause subordinates the promise to that Knight's civil and religious duties. In the 2007 fraternal year the Order gave US$ 144,911,781 directly to charity (1.1 Billion in charitable contributions in the last 10 years) and performed over 68,695,768 man hours of voluntary service. For their support for the Church and local communities, as well as for their philanthropic efforts, the Order often refers to itself as the "strong right arm of the Church" . The Order's insurance program has more than $60 billion of life insurance policies in force and holds the highest insurance ratings given by A. M. Best, Standard & Poor's, and the Insurance Marketplace Standards Association. History The Knights of Columbus was founded by an Irish-American Catholic priest, The Venerable Father Michael J. McGivney in New Haven, Connecticut. He gathered a group of men from St. Mary's parish for an organizational meeting on October 2, 1881 and the Order was incorporated under the laws of the U.S. state of Connecticut on March 29, 1882. Though the first councils were all in that state, the Order spread throughout New England and the United States in subsequent years. The primary motivation for the Order was to be a mutual benefit society. As a parish priest in an immigrant community, McGivney saw what could happen to a family when the breadwinner died and wanted to provide insurance to care for the widows and orphans left behind. He himself had to temporarily leave his seminary studies to care for his family when his father died. Brinkley & Fenster, pg. 51 In the late 19th century, Catholics were regularly excluded from labor unions and other organizations that provided social services. Kaufman In addition, Catholics were either barred from many of the popular fraternal organizations, or, as in the case of Freemasonry, forbidden from joining by the Catholic Church itself. McGivney wished to provide them an alternative. He also believed that Catholicism and fraternalism were not incompatible and wished to found a society that would encourage men to be proud of their American-Catholic heritage. Kaufman, p. 17. McGivney traveled to Boston to examine the Massachusetts Catholic Order of Foresters and to Brooklyn to learn about the recently established Catholic Benevolent League, both of which offered insurance benefits. He found the latter to be lacking the excitement he thought was needed if his organization were to compete with the secret societies of the day. He expressed an interest in establishing a New Haven Court of the Foresters, but the charter of Massachusetts Foresters prevented them from operating outside their Commonwealth. The committee of St. Mary's parishioners McGivney had assembled then decided to form a club that was entirely original. Brinkley & Fenster, pp. 116–7 McGivney had originally conceived of the name "Sons of Columbus" but James T. Mullen, who would become the first Supreme Knight, successfully suggested that "Knights of Columbus" would better capture the ritualistic nature of the new organization. Kaufman, pg. 16 The Order was founded 10 years before the 400th anniversary of Columbus' arrival in the New World and in a time of renewed interest in him. Columbus was a hero to many American Catholics, and the naming him as patron was partly an attempt to bridge the division between the Irish-Catholic founders of the Order and Catholic immigrants of other nationalities living in Connecticut. The Connecticut Catholic ran an editorial in 1878 that illustrated the esteem in which American Catholics held Columbus. "As American Catholics we do not know of anyone who more deserves our grateful remembrance than the great and noble man - the pious, zealous, faithful Catholic, the enterprising navigator, and the large-hearted and generous sailor: Christopher Columbus." The name of Columbus was also partially intended as a mild rebuke to Anglo-Saxon Protestant leaders, who upheld the explorer (a Catholic Genovese Italian working for Catholic Spain) as an American hero, yet simultaneously sought to marginalize recent Catholic immigrants. In taking Columbus as their patron, they were sending the message that not only could Catholics be full members of American society, but were, in fact, instrumental in its foundation. By the time of the first annual convention in 1884, the Order was prospering. In the five councils throughout Connecticut were 459 members. Groups from other states were requesting information. Brinkley & Fenster, pg. 171 The Charter of 1899 included four statements of purpose, including "to promote such social and intellectual intercourse among its members as shall be desirable and proper, and by such lawful means as to them shall seem best." Kaufman, pg. 73 The new charter showed members' desire to grow the organization beyond a simple mutual benefit insurance society. The original insurance system devised by McGivney gave a deceased Knight's widow a $1,000 death benefit. Each member was assessed $1 upon a death and when the number of Knights grew beyond 1,000 the assessment decreased according to the rate of increase. Kaufman, pg. 22 Each member, regardless of age, was assessed equally. As a result, younger, healthier members could expect to pay more over the course of their lifetimes than those men who joined when they were older. Kaufman, pp. 36–7 There was also a Sick Benefit Deposit for members who fell ill and could not work. Each sick Knight was entitled to draw up to $5 a week for 13 weeks (roughly equivalent to $125.75 in 2009 dollars http://futureboy.homeip.net/fsp/dollar.fsp?quantity=5&currency=dollars&fromYear=1899 ). If he remained sick after that the council to which he belonged regulated the sum of money given to him. Brinkley & Fenster, pg. 123 Around 1912 it was claimed that fourth degree Knights had to swear an oath to exterminate Freemasons and Protestants. Despite the fact that it was denied, and the real oath published, this was read into the congressional record by Thomas S. Butler. In the 1928 Presidential election a million copies were printed in order to hurt the campaign of the Catholic Democratic candidate Al Smith. Great & Fake Oath (part 2), Time Magazine, September 3, 1928 Today there are more than 14,000 councils around the world and the Knights of Columbus is a multi-billion dollar non-profit charitable organization. Knights may be seen distributing Tootsie Rolls to raise funds to fight developmental disabilities, volunteering for the Special Olympics and other charitable organizations, erecting pro-life billboards and "Keep Christ in Christmas" signs, conducting blood drives and raising funds for disaster victims, or parading at patriotic events with their bright capes, feathered chapeaux, and ceremonial swords. The cause for McGivney's canonization is currently before the Congregation for the Causes of Saints and a guild has been formed to promote his cause. On March 15, 2008, Pope Benedict XVI approved a decree recognizing the heroic virtue of Father Michael J. McGivney, founder of the Knights of Columbus. The pope's declaration significantly advances the priest's process toward sainthood and gives the parish priest the distinction of "Venerable Servant of God." If his cause is successful, he will be the first priest born in the United States to be canonized as a Saint. Organization Supreme Knight Supreme Chaplain Carl A. Anderson Bishop William E. Lori Deputy Supreme Knight Dennis Savoie Supreme Secretary Donald Kehoe Supreme Treasurer John W. O’Reilly Supreme Advocate Paul Devin Supreme Warden Lawrence G. Costanzo The Supreme Council is the governing body of the Order and is composed of elected representatives from each jurisdiction. The Supreme Council acts in similar manner to shareholders at an annual meeting and each year elects seven members to the Supreme Board of Directors for three year terms. The twenty-one member board then chooses from its own membership the senior operating officials of the Order, including the Supreme Knight. Kaufman, pp. 375–6 State Councils in each of the 50 United States, each province in Canada, and other jurisdictions carved out of member countries are led by State Deputies and other officers elected at state conventions. Territorial Deputies are appointed by the Supreme Knight and lead areas not yet incorporated into State Councils. District Deputies are appointed by the Supreme Knight upon the recommendation of the State Deputy and oversee several local councils, each of which is led by a Grand Knight. Other elected council officers include the Deputy Grand Knight, Chancellor, Warden, Recorder, Treasurer, Advocate, Guards and Trustees. A Chaplain is appointed by the Grand Knight and a Financial Secretary by the Supreme Knight. Council officers are properly addressed by using the title "worthy" (e.g. Worthy Grand Knight). Councils are numbered in the order in which they chartered into the Order and are named by the local membership. San Salvador Council #1 was named for the first island Columbus landed on in the New World. The title "Knight" is purely fraternal and is not the equivalent to a sovereign accolade. Therefore Knights of Columbus do not rank with Chevaliers and Commanders of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, the Order of Malta, the Order of St. Gregory the Great, or members of any other historic military or chivalric orders. Degrees and principles The Order is dedicated to the principles of Charity, Unity, Fraternity and Patriotism. A First Degree exemplification ceremony, by which a man joins the Order, explicates the virtue of charity. He is then said to be a First Degree Knight of Columbus and after participating the subsequent degrees, each of which focuses on another virtue, rises to that status. Upon reaching the Third Degree a gentleman is considered a full member. Priests do not participate directly in Degree exemplifications as laymen do, but rather take the degree by observation. The first ritual handbook was printed in 1885 but contained only sections teaching Unity and Charity. Supreme Knight Mullen, along with primary ritual author Daniel Colwell, believed that the initiation ceremony should be held in three sections "in accord with the 'Trinity of Virtues, Charity, Unity, and Brotherly love.'" The third section, expounding Fraternity, was officially adopted in 1891. Kaufman, pg. 33 Fourth degree Rank Color Vice Supreme Master Blue Cape and Chapeau Master Gold Cape and Chapeau District Marshall Green Cape and Chapeau Faithful Navigator White Cape and Chapeau Assembly Commander Purple Cape and Chapeau Color Corps Members Red Cape and White Chapeau The Fourth Degree is the highest degree of the order. Members of this degree are addressed as "Sir Knight". The primary purpose of the Fourth Degree is to foster the spirit of patriotism and to encourage active Catholic citizenship. Fewer than 18% of Knights join the Fourth Degree, which is optional; of a total 1,703,307 Knights there were 292,289 Fourth Degree Knights. A Knight is eligible to join the Fourth Degree after six months from the date of his First Degree, providing he has completed the 2nd and 3rd degrees beforehand. Assemblies are distinct from councils and are led by a separate set of elected officers. The Supreme Board of Directors appoints a Supreme Master, currently Joseph P. Schultz, and twenty Vice Supreme Masters to govern the Fourth Degree. Each Vice Supreme Master oversees a Province which is then broken up into Districts. The Supreme Master appoints District Masters to supervise several assemblies. Each assembly is led by a Navigator. Other elected assembly officers include the Captain, Admiral, Pilot, Scribe, Purser, Comptroller, Sentinels and Trustees. A Friar and Color Corps Commander are appointed by the Navigator. Assembly officers are properly addressed by using the title "faithful" (e.g. Faithful Navigator). Assemblies are numbered in the order in which they chartered into the Order and are named by the local membership. Only Fourth Degree Knights may optionally purchase the full regalia and join the Assembly’s Color Corps. The Color Corps is the most visible arm of the Knights as they are often seen in parades and other local events wearing their colorful regalia. Official dress for the Color Corps is a black tuxedo, baldric, white gloves, cape and naval chapeau. In warm climates and during warm months a white dinner jacket may be worn, if done as a unit Baldrics are worn from the right shoulder to left hip and are color specific by nation. In the United States, Panama and the Philippines, baldrics are red, white and blue. Red and white baldrics are used in Canada; red, white and green in Mexico; and blue and white in Guatamala. Service baldrics include a scabbard for a sword and are worn over the coat while social baldrics are worn under the coat. The colors on a Fourth Degree Knight's cape, and chapeau, denote the office he holds within the Degree. Faithful Navigators and Past Faithful Navigators are permitted to carry a white handled silver sword. Masters and Vice Supreme Masters, as well as Former Masters and Former Vice Supreme Masters, are also denoted by their gold swords. The need for a patriotic degree was first considered in 1886 and a special plea was made at the National Meeting of 1899. The first Fourth Degree exemplification followed in 1900 with 1,100 Knights participating at the Lenox Lyceum in New York City. Kaufman, pp. 137–9 Today there are more than 2,500 Assemblies. Insurance program Many early members were recent immigrants who often lived in unsanitary conditions and performed hazardous jobs for poor pay. Since its founding, a primary mission of the Knights of Columbus has been to protect families against the financial ruin caused by the death of the breadwinner. While this method originally was intended to provide a core group of people who would support a widow and her children after the death of their husband and father, it has expanded into much more. Today the Order offers a modern, professional insurance operation with more than $70 billion of life insurance policies in force as of 2009. Products include permanent and term life insurance as well as annuities and long term care insurance. Insurance sales grew 19% in 2004, more than three times the rate of industry at large. The Order holds $13 billion in assets and had $1.5 billion in revenue and $71 million in profits in 2005. This is large enough to rank 72nd on the A.M. Best list of all life insurance companies in North America and places it on the Fortune 1000 list of top companies. Only three other insurers in North America have received the highest ratings from both A. M. Best and Standard & Poor's. The Order is certified by the Insurance Marketplace Standards Association for ethical sales practices. Charitable giving Charity is the foremost principle of the Knights of Columbus. In the 2005 fraternal year the Order gave $136 million directly to charity and performed over 63.2 million man hours in voluntary service. Endowed funds of over $54 million support a number of Church related causes. A Knight's highest duty is to assist the widow or orphan of a fallen brother Knight. The Knights have a tradition of supporting those with physical and developmental disabilities. More than $382 million has been given over the past three decades to groups and programs that support the intellectually and physically disabled. One of the largest recipients of funds in this area is the Special Olympics. In addition, the Order's highest honor, the Gaudium et Spes Award, was given with its $100,000 honorarium to Jean Vanier, the founder of l'Arche, in 2005. L'Arche is a faith-based network that provides care, in a community setting, for people with severe developmental disabilities. The Vicarius Christi Fund has a corpus of $20 million and has earned more than $35 million, since its establishment in 1981, for the Pope's personal charities. The multimillion dollar Pacem in Terris Fund aids the Catholic Church's efforts for peace in the Middle East. The Order also has eleven separate funds totaling $18 million to assist men and women who are discerning religious vocations pay tuition and other expenses. Days after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 the Order established the $1 million Heroes Fund. Immediate assistance was given to the families of all full-time professional law enforcement personnel, firefighters and emergency medical workers who lost their lives in the rescue and recovery efforts. Orderwide, more than $10 million has been raised for Hurricane Katrina relief efforts. On May 6, 2006, $3 million was disbursed to the Archdiocese of New Orleans and the dioceses of Lafayette, LA, Houma-Thibodaux, LA, Lake Charles, LA, Biloxi, MS and Beaumont, TX. Knightline, Vol. 23, No. 7, May 15, 2006. The Order also donated more than $500,000 to the Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 relief efforts and $50,000 to help victims of Typhoon Durian in the Philippines. At the 2006 American Cardinals Dinner, it was announced that the Knights would be giving a gift of $8 million to The Catholic University of America. The gift is to renovate Kean Hall, an unused building, and rename it McGivney Hall, after Fr. McGivney. The new McGivney Hall will house the John Paul II Institute for Studies on Marriage and Family, a graduate school of theology affiliated with the Pontifical Lateran University in Rome as well as CUA. Supreme Knight Anderson serves on CUA's board of trustees and is the vice president of the John Paul II Institute. The Knights have a long history of donating to CUA. The Knights' Satellite Uplink Program has provided funding to broadcast a number of papal events including the annual Easter and Christmas Masses, as well as the World Day of Peace in Assisi, the Peace Summit in Assisi, World Youth Days, the opening of the Holy Door at St. Peter's Basilica's for the Millennial Jubilee, Pope John Paul II's visit to Nazareth and several other events. In missionary territories the Order also pays for the satellite downlink. United in Charity, a general, unrestricted endowment fund, was introduced at the 2004 Supreme Council meeting to support and ensure the overall long-term charitable and philanthropic goals of the Order. The fund is wholly managed, maintained and operated by Knights of Columbus Charities, Inc., a 501(c)(3) charitable organization. Before United in Charity was formed all requests for funds were met with the general funds of the Order or in combination with specific appeals. Requests from the Church and organizations closely aligned with the mission of the Order often far exceeded the amount available and it is hoped that eventually United in Charity's earnings will be sufficient to completely fund the Order's charitable priorities. Ever since its founding the Knights of Columbus has been involved in evangelization. In 1948, the Knights started the Catholic Information Service (CIS) to provide low-cost Catholic publications for the general public as well as for parishes, schools, retreat houses, military installations, correctional facilities, legislatures, the medical community, and for individuals who request them. Since then, CIS has printed millions of booklets, and thousands of people have enrolled in CIS correspondence and on-line courses. College councils While most Knights of Columbus Councils are located at parishes or near multiple parish communities, many men first join the Knights while in college. Over 14,000 Knights are members of 200+ College Councils worldwide. Squires Newsletter, Vol. 78, No. 5, May, 2006. College Knights are full members of the Order. The first College Council was at The Catholic University of America, Keane Council 353 (it has since moved off-campus). Today, the University of Notre Dame Knights of Columbus Council 1477, founded in 1910, is the longest-running college council in the country, followed by the councils at St. Louis University and Benedictine College. In 1919, Mount St. Mary's College and Seminary council 1965 became the first council attached to a seminary, at what is now Mount St. Mary's University. In 1937, the University of Illinois became the first public university with a Knights of Columbus Council, The Illini Council Number 2782. Some College Councils hold a unique form of the Knights Membership Blitz styled "Go Roman Week". The name is a play on the fact that most fraternities on college campuses are given Greek alphabet designations, while the Knights of Columbus is a Roman Catholic organization. At some Catholic universities, such as the University of St. Thomas, Notre Dame, and Benedictine College, the Knights are the only fraternity permitted on campus. However, councils at some other colleges have difficulty attaining official college recognition because of their all-male composition. Each September, the Supreme Council hosts a College Council Conference at their headquarters in New Haven, Connecticut. Awards are given for the greatest increases in membership, the best Youth, Community, Council, Family and Church activities and the overall Outstanding College Council of the year. Belmont College and Benedictine College lead the nation winning the most titles of Outstanding College Council. In years of an international World Youth Day the Order is represented by members of the College Council Conference Coordinating Committee, who travel with the diocese of the Supreme Chaplain (currently Bishop William E. Lori of the Diocese of Bridgeport). Columbian Squires Squire Advancement Program Level 1: Page Level 2: Shield Bearer Level 3: Swordsman Level 4: Lancer Level 5: Squire of the Body of Christ The Knights' official junior organization is the Columbian Squires. The international fraternity for boys 10–18 has over 5,000 circles. According to Brother Barnabas McDonald, F.S.C., the Squires founder, “The supreme purpose of the Columbian Squires is character building.” Squires have fun and share their Catholic faith, help people in need, and enjoy the company of friends in social, family, athletic, cultural, civic and spiritual activities. Through their local circle, Squires work and socialize as a group of friends, elect their own officers, and develop into Catholic leaders. Each Circle is supervised by a Knights of Columbus Council or Assembly and has an advisory board made up of either the Grand Knight, the Deputy Grand Knight and Chaplain or the Faithful Navigator, the Faithful Captain and Faithful Friar. Circles are either Council based, parish based, or school based, depending on the location of the circle and the Knight counselors. Squire Roses The Squire Roses are a youth fraternity run by individual State Councils within the Knights of Columbus, for Catholic ladies between the ages of 10 and 18. They are a sister organization to the Squires. The Squire Roses were created in 1996 by adoption of the Virginia State Council of Knights of Columbus. The founder of this organization is Russell DeRose, currently a Chief Counselor for Squire Roses Circle #1, St. Mary of Sorrows, in Fairfax Station, Virginia. The Squire Roses are officially recognized in the Jurisdictions of Virginia and Washington DC, with acceptance in New Jersey and California soon to follow. Emblems of the order At the second Supreme Council meeting on May 12, 1883 Supreme Knight James T. Mullen introduced the emblem of the order. It consists of a shield mounted upon a Formée cross. The Formée cross, with its arms expanding at the ends, is an artistic representation of the cross of Christ. The shield harkens back to medieval knights and the cross represents the Catholicity of the Order. Mounted on the shield is a fasces with an anchor and a short sword crossed behind it. The fasces is a symbol of authority while the anchor is the mariner's symbol for Columbus. The sword, like the shield it is mounted on, was used by knights of yesteryear when engaged upon an errand of mercy. Each Knight receives the emblem as a lapel pin. Three elements form the emblem of the Fourth Degree. A dove floats over a globe showing the Western Hemisphere, the New World Columbus is credited with discovering. Both are mounted on the Isabella cross, a variation of the Maltese cross with knobs at the end of each of the 8 points. This cross was often found on the tunics and capes of the crusading knights who fought for the Holy Land. Spiritually, the symbols of the emblem symbolize the three persons of God. The Globe represents God the Father, Creator of the Universe. The Cross is symbolic of God the Son, who redeemed mankind by dying on the cross, and the Dove represents God the Holy Spirit, the Sanctifier of Humanity. The colors of the emblem, the red cross, white dove and blue earth are the colors of the flag of the United States, where the Order was founded. The elements serve as a reminder that the principle of the Degree is patriotism but also that the Order is thoroughly Catholic. Litany The Knights have a strict protocol, sometimes referred to as the "Litany" which dictates the order of rank with the Order, and is typically used at formal functions or presentations in the Order: Hierarchy Clergy Supreme Officers Supreme Directors Vice Supreme Master State or Territorial Officers Masters of the Fourth Degree Immediate Past State or Territorial Deputy Past State or Territorial Deputies Former Masters of the Fourth Degree Executive Staff Supreme Council Insurance General Agents District Deputies Supreme Council Insurance Field Agents State or Territorial Directors Chapter Presidents State or Territorial Chairmen Wardens to the State or Territorial Deputy District Wardens District Marshals Grand Knights Faithful Navigators Past Chapters Presidents Past Grand Knights Past Faithful Navigators Chapter Officers Council Officers Assembly Officers Additionally, only officers elected to the chief position in either a council (Grand Knight), state/territory (State or Territorial Deputy) or national (Supreme Knight) are referred by the title "Past" once they have left office, given that the individual served at least six months and a day in the position. All other members having previously held a chief position are referred by the title "Former," as is the case for District Deputies, Faithful Masters, Vice-Supreme Masters, etc. The distinction is made between having been elected (Past) and having been appointed (Former). Officers Knights of Columbus Councils, Fourth Degree Assemblies, and Columbian Squire Circles have similar officers. In the Councils, officer titles are prefixed with "Worthy" and in the Assemblies, officer titles are prefixed with "Faithful". In addition to the Columbian Squires' officers listed below, there is an adult position of "Chief Counselor" that helps oversee the Circle. Council AssemblyCircle Grand Knight Navigator Chief Squire Chaplain Friar Father Prior Deputy Grand Knight Captain Deputy Chief Squire Chancellor Admiral Deputy Chief Squire Recorder Scribe Notary Financial Secretary Comptroller Bursar Treasurer Purser Bursar Lecturer nonexistent nonexistent Advocate nonexistent nonexistent Warden Pilot Marshall Inside Guard Inner Sentinel Sentry Outside Guard Outer Sentinel Sentry Trustee (3 Year) Trustee (3 Year) nonexistent Trustee (2 Year) Trustee (2 Year) nonexistent Trustee (1 Year) Trustee (1 Year) nonexistent nonexistent Color Corp Commander nonexistent Political activities In 1954, lobbying by the Order helped convince the U.S. Congress to add the phrase "under God" to the Pledge of Allegiance. President Dwight Eisenhower wrote to Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart thanking the Knights for their "part in the movement to have the words 'under God' added to our Pledge of Allegiance." Kaufman, pg. 385. Similar lobbying convinced many state legislatures to adopt October 12 as Columbus Day and led to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's confirmation of Columbus Day as a federal holiday in 1937. While the Knights of Columbus support political awareness and activity, United States councils are prohibited by tax laws from engaging in candidate endorsement and partisan political activity due to their non-profit status. Nevertheless, President George H. W. Bush appeared at the annual convention during the election year of 1992 and President George W. Bush sent videotaped messages before he attended in person at the 2004 election year convention. Public policy activity is limited to issue-specific campaigns, typically dealing with Catholic family and life issues. Bush's Democratic opponent, John Kerry, himself a Catholic and ardent abortion rights supporter, was not invited to address the convention. http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0404254.htm In the United States, the Knights of Columbus often adopt socially conservative positions on public issues. They have adopted resolutions advocating a Culture of Life, defining marriage as the union of one man and one woman, and promoting Roman Catholic practices in public schools, government, and voluntary organizations such as the Boy Scouts of America. The Order also funded a postcard campaign in 2005 in an attempt to stop the Canadian parliament from legalizing same-sex marriage. On April 9, 2006 the Board of Directors commented on the "U.S. immigration policy [which] has become an intensely debated and divisive issue on both sides of the border between the U.S. and Mexico." They called "upon the President and the U.S. Congress to agree upon immigration legislation that not only gains control over the process of immigration, but also rejects any effort to criminalize those who provide humanitarian assistance to illegal immigrants, and provides these immigrants an avenue by which they can emerge from the shadows of society and seek legal residency and citizenship in the U.S." In California’s 2008 election the Knights of Columbus attracted media attention when they donated more than $1.4 million to Proposition 8, becoming the largest financial supporter of Proposition 8 “Campaign Finance, California Secretary of State, 2008.” which succeeded in banning marriages between same-sex couples in the state. A group called “Californians Against Hate”, viewing Proposition 8 as a denial of civil rights and a promotion of inequality, has added the Knights of Columbus to their “Dishonor Roll.” “Dishonor Roll”, [http://www.californiansagainsthate.com/ Californians Against Hate, Retrieved on August 26, 2008. Showing appreciation for the large donation, Ned Dolejsi of the California Catholic Conference stated, “Proposition 8 is honored to have the support of an esteemed organization who has such a strong record of public service and success.” [ http://www.catholicnewsagency.com/new.php?n=13582 “Knights of Columbus contributes $1 million to Prop 8 Campaign, Catholic News Agency,” retrieved September 29, 2008.] Patrick Korten, Vice President of Communications for the Knights of Columbus said of the issue, "We hope that people look to this donation and are inspired by it and add to the resources available to pass this referendum.” http://ebar.com/news/article.php?sec=news&article=3328 “Prop 8 Briefs: Reception to benefit MEUSA, Bay Area Reporter, September 18, 2008. Heads of state The Knights of Columbus invites the head of state of every country they operate in to the Supreme Convention each year. In 1971, U.S. President Richard Nixon gave the keynote address at the States Dinner; Secretary of Transportation and Knight John Volpe was responsible for this first appearance of a U.S. President at a Supreme Council gathering. Christopher Kaufman, Faith and Fraternalism, Harper and Row, 1982, p. 411. President Ronald Reagan spoke at the Centennial Convention in 1982. President George H.W. Bush appeared in 1992. President Bill Clinton sent a written message while he was in office, and President George W. Bush sent videotaped messages before he attended in person at the 2004 convention. http://www.kofc.org/un/news/releases/detail.cfm?id=3923, url accessed June 9, 2006. John F. Kennedy, the only Catholic to be elected President of the United States, was a Fourth Degree member of Bunker Hill Council No. 62 and Bishop Cheverus General Assembly. Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart visited Kennedy at the White House on Columbus Day, 1961. The president told Hart that his younger brother, Ted Kennedy, had received "his Third Degree in our Order three weeks before." Hart presented Kennedy with a poster of the American Flag with the story of how the Order got the words "under God" inserted in the Pledge of Allegiance. Kaufman, pp. 393–4 In 1959 Fidel Castro sent an aide to represent him at a Fourth Degree banquet in honor of the Golden Jubilee of the Order's entry into Cuba. Supreme Knight Hart attended a banquet in the Cuban Prime Minister's honor in April of that year sponsored by the Overseas Press Club and later sent him a letter expressing regret that they were not able to meet in person. Kaufman, pg. 391. Knights of Columbus were among the groups that welcomed Pope Benedict XVI on the South Lawn of the White House on April 16, 2008, the pontiff's 81st birthday. Bush Welcomes Pope With Pomp and Pageantry - US News and World Report Famous Knights Many famous Catholic men from all over the world have been Knights of Columbus. In the United States several of the most notable include John F. Kennedy, Samuel Alito, an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States and Jeb Bush, the former Governor of Florida and Sergeant Major Daniel Daly, a two-time Medal of Honor recipient, once described by the commandant of the Marine Corps as "the most outstanding Marine of all time" was also a Knight of Columbus. Many notable clerics are also Knights, including William Joseph Levada, the Cardinal Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Cardinal Sean O'Malley, the Archbishop of Boston and Cardinal Jaime Sin, the former Archbishop of Manila. In the world of sports, Vince Lombardi, the famed former coach of the Green Bay Packers, Lou Albano Wrestler, James Connolly, the first Olympic Gold Medal champion in modern times, and baseball star Babe Ruth were Knights. Former heavyweight boxing champion, Floyd Patterson, was also a Knight. Stephen Singular, By Their Works: Profiles of Men of FAith Who Made a Difference, HarperCollins, 2006. On October 15, 2006, Bishop Rafael Guizar Valencia (1878–1938) was canonized by Pope Benedict XVI in Rome, thereby becoming the first Knights of Columbus bishop declared a saint. Already in 2000, six other Knights were declared saints by Pope John Paul II. For a more comprehensive list see List of notable Knights of Columbus. Also see :Category:Knights of Columbus. Criticism Accusations of Racism While some councils were integrated, increasing pressure came from Church officials and organizations to change its blackball system and Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart was actively encouraging councils to accept black candidates by the end of the 1950s. Kaufman, pg. 396 In 1963 Hart attended a special meeting at the White House hosted by President Kennedy to discuss civil rights with other religious leaders. A few months later, a Notre Dame alumnus's application was rejected because he was black. Six council officers resigned in protest and the incident made national news. Hart then declared that the process for membership would be revised at the next Supreme Convention, but died before he could see it take place. Kaufman, pg. 397 The 1964 Supreme Convention was scheduled to be held at the Roosevelt Hotel in New Orleans. A few days before the Convention, new Supreme Knight John W. McDevitt learned the hotel admitted only white guests and immediately threatened to move to another hotel. The hotel changed its policy and so did the Order. The Convention amended the admissions rule to require one-third of those voting to reject a new member and in 1972 the Supreme Convention again amended its rules to require a majority of members voting to reject a candidate. Kaufman, pg. 400 Canada Hall Incident In 2005, a local Knights of Columbus council in Canada was fined $2,000 by the British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal. The Council's Hall Manager signed a contract for the use of their facilities with Tracey Smith and Deborah Chymyshynto but canceled it after they became aware that it was for a same-sex wedding reception. The two women claimed they were unaware that the facility was affiliated with the Catholic Church. The local council responded that the hall is on the same compound as a parish church and there were Catholic symbols such as a picture of the Pope and a crucifix inside. The tribunal ruled the Council was within its rights to refuse to rent it based on their religious convictions but fined them "for injury to dignity, feelings and self-respect" of the women. One of the females, Tracey Smith, was also a co-worker of the Knight who was in charge of renting the hall. They both worked at Costco and the Knight David Hauser was fired from his job due to this incident. College Council Recognition Some public and private colleges refuse to recognize Knights of Columbus councils as official student organizations because a men-only membership policy is considered discriminatory. The Supreme Council issues charters to qualifying groups despite lack of college recognition. In order to circumvent this conflict, clubs named the "Friends of the Knights of Columbus" which are open to all students are often created to serve as clubs. The Friends of the Knights of Columbus then sponsor meeting space, event space, and the like for the council. Still other college councils apply for recognition as on-campus fraternities or fraternal organizations, and are made subject to the same rules and regulations that apply to all-male Greek fraternities and similar groups. Similar organizations The Knights of Columbus is a member of the International Alliance of Catholic Knights, which includes fifteen fraternal orders such as the Knights of Saint Columbanus in Ireland, the Knights of Saint Columba in the United Kingdom, the Knights of Peter Claver in the United States, the Knights of the Southern Cross in Australia and New Zealand, and the Knights of St. Mulumba in Nigeria. Many councils also have women's auxiliaries. However, the Supreme Council does not charter them and they may adopt any name they choose. At the turn of the 20th century two were formed by local councils and each took the name the Daughters of Isabella. Using the same name, both groups expanded and issued charters to other Circles but never merged. The newer organization renamed itself the Catholic Daughters of the Americas in 1921 and both have structures independent of the Knights of Columbus. Additionally, the Columbiettes is a female auxiliary conceived to work with the Knights of Columbus. See also Vatican Film Library Notes References External links Official web site of the Knights of Columbus Father Michael J. McGivney Guild Dr Dooley-Father McGivney Council #430 Flushing, Queens New Advent Article The Daughters of Isabella The Catholic Daughters of the Americas Knights of Saint Columba Free Samples of Catholic Information Service publications Catholic Information Service The Columbiettes Knights of Columbus Insurance Program
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4,774
Alexander_III_of_Russia
Alexander III Alexandrovich (10 March 1845 – 1 November/2 November 1894) (, Aleksandr III Aleksandrovich) reigned as Emperor of Russia from 13 March 1881 until his death in 1894. Early life Alexander III was born in Saint Petersburg, the second son of Tsar Alexander II by his wife Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine. In disposition, he bore little resemblance to his soft-hearted, liberal father, and still less to his refined, philosophic, sentimental, chivalrous, yet cunning grand-uncle Alexander I, who coveted the title of "the first gentleman of Europe." Although an enthusiastic amateur musician and patron of the ballet, he was seen as lacking refinement and elegance. Indeed, he rather relished the idea of being of the same rough texture as the great majority of his subjects. His straightforward, abrupt manner savoured sometimes of gruffness, while his direct, unadorned method of expressing himself harmonized well with his rough-hewn, immobile features and somewhat sluggish movements. His education was not such as to soften these peculiarities. He was also noted for his immense physical strength, though the large boil on the left side of his nose caused him to be severely mocked by his contemporaries, hence why he always sat for photographs and portraits with the right side of his face most prominent. Perhaps an account from the memoirs of the artist Alexander Benois best describes an impression of Alexander III: Rise to power During the first twenty years of his life, Alexander had little prospect of succeeding to the throne, because he had an elder brother, Nicholas, who seemed of robust constitution. Even when this elder brother first showed symptoms of delicate health, the notion that he might die young was never seriously taken; Nicholas was betrothed to the charming Princess Dagmar of Denmark. Under these circumstances, the greatest solicitude was devoted to the education of Nicholas as Tsarevich, whereas Alexander received only the perfunctory and inadequate training of an ordinary Grand Duke of that period, which did not go much beyond secondary instruction, with practical acquaintance in French, English and German, and a certain amount of military drill. Education Alexander became heir apparent by the sudden death of his elder brother in 1865. It was then that he began to study the principles of law and administration under Konstantin Pobedonostsev, who was then a professor of civil law at Moscow State University and who later (in 1880) became chief procurator of the Holy Synod. Pobedonostsev awakened in his pupil very little love for abstract studies or prolonged intellectual exertion, but he influenced the character of Alexander's reign by instilling into the young man's mind the belief that zeal for Russian Orthodox thought was an essential factor of Russian patriotism and that this was to be specially cultivated by every right-minded Tsar. <center>Portrait by the artist Georges Becker of the coronation of Tsar Alexander III and Empress Maria Fyodorovna, which took place on at the Uspensky Sobor Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. On the left of the dais can be seen his young son and heir, the Tsarevich Nicholas, and behind Nicholas can be seen a young Grand Duke George. On his deathbed, Alexander's elder brother Nicholas is said to have expressed the wish that his affianced bride, Princess Dagmar of Denmark, should marry his successor. This wish was swiftly realized, when on in the Imperial Chapel of the Winter Palace in St.Petersburg, Alexander wed the Princess of Denmark. The union proved a most happy one and remained unclouded to the end. Unlike that of his parents, there was no adultery in the marriage. During those years when he was heir-apparent—1865 to 1881—Alexander did not play a prominent part in public affairs, but he allowed it to become known that he had certain ideas of his own which did not coincide with the principles of the existing government. Foreign relations Alexander deprecated what he considered undue foreign influence in general, and German influence in particular, so the adoption of genuine national principles was off in all spheres of official activity, with a view to realizing his ideal of a homogeneous Russia—homogeneous in language, administration and religion. With such ideas and aspirations he could hardly remain permanently in cordial agreement with his father, who, though a good patriot according to his lights, had strong German sympathies, often used the German language in his private relations, occasionally ridiculed the exaggerations and eccentricities of the Slavophiles and based his foreign policy on the Prussian alliance. The antagonism first appeared publicly during the Franco-Prussian War, when the Tsar supported the cabinet of Berlin and the Tsarevich did not conceal his sympathies for the French. It reappeared in an intermittent fashion during the years 1875–1879, when the Eastern question produced so much excitement in all ranks of Russian Society. At first the Tsarevich was more Slavophile than the government, but his phlegmatic nature preserved him from many of the exaggerations indulged in by others, and any of the prevalent popular illusions he may have imbibed were soon dispelled by personal observation in Bulgaria, where he commanded the left wing of the invading army. Never consulted on political questions, he confined himself to his military duties and fulfilled them in a conscientious and unobtrusive manner. After many mistakes and disappointments, the army reached Constantinople and the Treaty of San Stefano was signed, but much that had been obtained by that important document had to be sacrificed at the Congress of Berlin. Prince Bismarck failed to do what was confidently expected of him by the Russian Tsar. <center>Portrait by Nikolay Shilder of Tsar Alexander III In return for the Russian support, which had enabled him to create the German Empire, it was thought that he would help Russia to solve the Eastern question in accordance with her own interests, but to the surprise and indignation of the cabinet of Saint Petersburg he confined himself to acting the part of "honest broker" at the Congress, and shortly afterwards he ostentatiously contracted an alliance with Austria for the express purpose of counteracting Russian designs in Eastern Europe. The Tsarevich could point to these results as confirming the views he had expressed during the Franco-Prussian War, and he drew from them the practical conclusion that for Russia the best thing to do was to recover as quickly as possible from her temporary exhaustion and to prepare for future contingencies by a radical scheme of military and naval reorganization. In accordance with this conviction, he suggested that certain reforms should be introduced. Anti-semitism Alexander III engaged in anti-Semitic policies such as tightening restrictions on where Jews could live in the Pale of Settlement and restricting the occupations that Jews could attain. The pogroms of 1881 occurred at the beginning of Alexander III's reign. Antisemitic policies under both Alexander III and his successor, Nicholas II, encouraged the Jewish immigration to the United States from 1880 on. The administration of Alexander III enacted the May Laws in 1882 that imposed harsh conditions on the Jews as a people for the alleged role of some Jews in the assassination of Alexander II. Anti-reforms During the campaign in Bulgaria he had found by painful experience that grave disorders and gross corruption existed in the military administration, and after his return to Saint Petersburg he had discovered that similar abuses existed in the naval department. For these abuses, several high-placed personages—among others two of the grand-dukes—were believed to be responsible, and he called his father's attention to the subject. His representations were not favourably received. Alexander II had lost much of the reforming zeal which distinguished the first decade of his reign, and had no longer the energy required to undertake the task suggested to him. The consequence was that the relations between father and son became more strained. The latter must have felt that there would be no important reforms until he himself succeeded to the direction of affairs. That change was much nearer at hand than was commonly supposed. On 13 March 1881 Alexander II was assassinated by a band of Nihilists, Narodnaya Volya (People's Will), and the autocratic power passed to the hands of his son. In the last years of his reign, Alexander II had been much exercised by the spread of Nihilist doctrines and the increasing number of anarchist conspiracies, and for some time he had hesitated between strengthening the hands of the executive and making concessions to the widespread political aspirations of the educated classes. Finally he decided in favour of the latter course, and on the very day of his death he signed an ukaz, creating a number of consultative commissions which might have been easily transformed into an assembly of notables. Following advice of his political mentor Konstantin Pobedonostsev, Alexander III determined to adopt the opposite policy. He at once canceled the ukaz before it was published, and in the manifesto announcing his accession to the throne he let it be very clearly understood that he had no intention of limiting or weakening the autocratic power which he had inherited from his ancestors. Nor did he afterwards show any inclination to change his mind. <center>Alexander and his wife Empress Maria Fyodorovna on holiday in Copenhagen in 1893. All the internal reforms which he initiated were intended to correct what he considered as the too liberal tendencies of the previous reign, so that he left behind him the reputation of a sovereign of the retrograde type. In his opinion Russia was to be saved from anarchical disorders and revolutionary agitation, not by the parliamentary institutions and so-called liberalism of western Europe, but by the three principles which the elder generation of the Slavophils systematically recommended—nationality, Eastern Orthodoxy and autocracy. His political ideal was a nation containing only one nationality, one language, one religion and one form of administration; and he did his utmost to prepare for the realization of this ideal by imposing the Russian language and Russian schools on his German, Polish and other non-Russian subjects (with the exception of the Finns), by fostering Eastern Orthodoxy at the expense of other confessions, by persecuting the Jews and by destroying the remnants of German, Polish and Swedish institutions in the outlying provinces. These policies were implemented by "May Laws" that banned Jews from rural areas and shtetls even within the Pale of Settlement. In the other provinces he sought to counteract what he considered the excessive liberalism of his father's reign. For this purpose he removed what little power had by zemstvo, an elective local administration resembling the county and parish councils in England, had and placed the autonomous administration of the peasant communes under the supervision of landed proprietors appointed by the government. These came to be known as land captains, who were much feared and resented amongst the peasant communities throughout Russia. At the same time he sought to strengthen and centralize the Imperial administration, and to bring it more under his personal control. In foreign affairs he was emphatically a man of peace, but not at all a partisan of the doctrine of peace at any price, and he followed the principle that the best means of averting war is to be well prepared for it. Though indignant at the conduct of Prince Bismarck towards Russia, he avoided an open rupture with Germany, and even revived for a time the Three Emperors' Alliance. It was only in the last years of his reign, when Mikhail Katkov had acquired a certain influence over him, that he adopted a more hostile attitude towards the cabinet of Berlin, and even then he confined himself to keeping a large quantity of troops near the German frontier, and establishing cordial relations with France. With regard to Bulgaria he exercised similar self-control. The efforts of Prince Alexander and afterwards of Stambolov to destroy Russian influence in the principality excited his indignation, but he persistently vetoed all proposals to intervene by force of arms. With encouragement from the successful assassination of his father, Alexander II, in 1881, the Peoples Will planned the murder of Tsar Alexander III. Though unsuccessful, among the conspirators captured were one Aleksandr Ulyanov, who was sentenced to death and hanged on May 5 1887. Alexander Ulyanov was the brother of Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, who would later take the pseudonym V.I. Lenin. The Emperor also survived the Borki train disaster of 1882. At the moment of the crash the royal family was in the dining car. Its roof collapsed in the crash, and Alexander held the remains of the roof on his shoulders as the children fled outdoors. The onset of Alexander's kidney failure was later linked to the blunt trauma suffered at Borki. In Central Asian affairs he followed the traditional policy of gradually extending Russian domination without provoking a conflict with the United Kingdom, and he never allowed the bellicose partisans of a forward policy to get out of hand. As a whole his reign cannot be regarded as one of the eventful periods of Russian history; but it must be admitted that under his hard, unsympathetic rule the country made considerable progress. He died of nephritis at the Livadia Palace on 1 November 1894 and was buried at the Peter and Paul Fortress in Saint Petersburg. Alexander III was succeeded by his eldest son Nicholas II of Russia. Emperor Alexander and his Danish-born wife regularly spent their summers in their Langinkoski manor near Kotka on the Finnish coast, where their children were immersed in a Scandinavian lifestyle of relative modesty. An equestrian statue of Tsar Alexander sculpted by Paolo Troubetzkoy once graced Znamenskaya Square in front of the Moscow Rail Terminal in St. Petersburg. It was later moved to the inner courtyard of the Marble Palace. Another memorial is located in the city of Irkutsk at the Angara embankment. Ancestors Ancestors of Alexander III of Russia Issue Alexander III with wife and their children Alexander III had six children of his marriage with Princess Dagmar of Denmark, also known as Marie Feodorovna. (NB. all dates prior to 1918 are in Old Style Calendar) NameBirthDeathNotesTsar Nicholas IIMay 6 1868July 17 1918married 1894, Princess Alix of Hesse and by Rhine; had issueGrand Duke Alexander AlexandrovichJune 7 1869May 2 1870 died of meningitisGrand Duke George AlexandrovichMay 6 1871August 9 1899 died of tuberculosis; no issueGrand Duchess Xenia AlexandrovnaApril 6 1875April 20 1960married 1894, Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich Romanov; had issueGrand Duke Michael AlexandrovichNovember 22 1878c.June 12 1918married 1912, Natalya Sergeyevna Wulffert; had issueGrand Duchess Olga AlexandrovnaJune 13 188224 November 1960married first, Peter Friedrich Georg, Duke of Oldenburg; had no issue. married second, Nikolai Kulikovsky; had issue See also Tsars of Russia family tree References Bibliography John F. Hutchinson, Late Imperial Russia: 1890-1917 External links Imperial House of Russia Royal House of Denmark and Royal House of Iceland A short biography Another biography FindAGrave 'Alexander III Alexandrovich Romanov'
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4,775
Land_Rover
Land Rover is an all-terrain vehicle and Multi Purpose Vehicle (MPV) manufacturer, based in Solihull, West Midlands, England, now operated as part of the Jaguar Land Rover business owned by Tata Motors of India. Originally the term Land Rover referred to one specific vehicle (see Land Rover Series), a pioneering civilian all-terrain utility vehicle launched on 30 April 1948, at the Amsterdam Motor Show, but was later used as a brand for several distinct models, all capable of four-wheel drive. Starting out as a model in the Rover Company's product range, the Land Rover brand developed, first as a marque, then as a separate company, developing a range of four-wheel drive capable vehicles under a succession of owners, including British Leyland, British Aerospace and BMW. In 2000, the company was sold by BMW to the Ford Motor Company, becoming part of their Premier Automotive Group. In June 2008, Ford sold its Jaguar and Land Rover operations to Tata Motors. Land Rover is one of the longest surviving Four-wheel drive (4WD) brands, coming in close second to Jeep. History Land Rover Series I Land Rover Series IIa Series 88 The first Land Rover was designed in 1948 in the United Kingdom (on the island of Anglesey in Wales) by Maurice Wilks, chief designer at the British car company Rover on his farm in Newborough, Anglesey Article on page M5 of The Daily Telegraph entitled "The sands of time" by Kevin Hackett about Wilkes' protype (Issue 47,531, dated 29th March 2008) . It is said that he was inspired by an American World War II Jeep that he used one summer at his holiday home in Wales. The first Land Rover prototype 'centre steer' was built on a Jeep chassis. A distinctive feature is their bodies, constructed of a lightweight rustproof proprietary alloy of aluminium and magnesium called Birmabright. This material was used because of post war steel shortages and a plentiful supply of post-war aircraft aluminium. This metal's resistance to corrosion was one of the factors that allowed the vehicle to build up a reputation for longevity in the toughest conditions. Land Rover once advertised that 75% of all vehicles ever built are still in use. In fact, Land Rover drivers sometimes refer to other makes of 4x4 as "disposables". .net report that 75% of Land Rovers ever built are still in use The early choice of colour was dictated by military surplus supplies of aircraft cockpit paint, so early vehicles only came in various shades of light green; all models until recently feature sturdy box section ladder-frame chassis. The early vehicles, such as the Series I, were field-tested at Long Bennington and designed to be field-serviced; advertisements for Rovers cite vehicles driven thousands of miles on banana oil. Now with more complex service requirements this is less of an option. The British Army maintains the use of the mechanically simple 2.5 litre 4-cylinder 300TDi engined versions rather than the electronically controlled 2.5 litre 5-cylinder TD5 to retain some servicing simplicity. This engine also continued in use in some export markets using units built at a Ford plant in Brazil, where Land Rovers were built under license and the engine was also used in Ford pick-up trucks built locally. Production of the TDi engine ended in the United Kingdom in 2006, meaning that Land Rover no longer offers it as an option. International Motors of Brazil offer an engine called the 2.8 TGV Power Torque, which is essentially a 2.8 litre version of the 300TDi, with a corresponding increase in power and torque. All power is combined with an All-Terrain Traction Control which gives active terrain response; Ferrari uses a similar system in race traction. Since its purchase by Ford, Land Rover has been closely associated with Jaguar. In many countries they share a common sales and distribution network (including shared dealerships), and some models now share components and production facilities. Sale to Tata On 11 June 2007, Ford Motor Company announced its plan to sell Land Rover, along with Jaguar. Ford retained the services of Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley and HSBC to advise it on the details of the deal. The buyer was initially expected to be announced by September 2007, but the sale was delayed and an announcement was not made until March 2008. A UK-based private equity firm, Alchemy Partners, Tata Motors and Mahindra and Mahindra (both from India) expressed interest in purchasing Jaguar and Land Rover from the Ford Motor Company. Forbes India's Tata confirms interest in Land Rover, Jaguar CNN India's Tata eyeing Jaguar and Land Rover Before the sale was announced, Anthony Bamford, chairman of British excavators manufacturer JCB, had expressed interest in purchasing Jaguar Cars in August, the year previously; JCB's Sir Anthony Bamford eyes Jaguar - 24/08/2006 - Contract Journal only to back out when told the sale would also involve Land Rover, which he did not wish to buy. JCB will not buy Jaguar - 16/10/2006 - Contract Journal Tata Motors received endorsements from the Transport and General Workers' Union (TGWU)-Amicus combine and Ford as a preferred bidder. On 26 March 2008, Ford announced that it had agreed to sell its Jaguar and Land Rover operations to Tata Motors, and that the sale was expected to be completed by the end of the second quarter of 2008. On 2 June 2008, the sale to Tata Motors was completed by both parties. Included in the deal were the rights to three other British brands: Jaguar's own Daimler, as well as two dormant brands Lanchester and Rover. BMW and Ford had previously retained ownership of the Rover brand to protect the integrity of the Land Rover brand, with which 'Rover' might be confused in the US 4x4 market; the Rover brand was originally used under license by MG Rover until it collapsed in 2005, at which point it was re-acquired by the then Ford Motor Company owned Land Rover Limited. Company timeline A Land Rover dealership in San Jose 1948: Land Rover is designed by the Wilks Brothers and is manufactured by the Rover Car Company 1958: Series II launched 1961: Series IIA began production 1967: Rover becomes part of Leyland Motors Ltd, later British Leyland (BL) as Rover Triumph. 1970: Introduction of the Range Rover 1971: Series III launched. 1975: BL collapses and is nationalised, publication of the Ryder Report recommends that Land Rover be split from Rover and be treated as a separate company within BL and becomes part of the new commercial vehicle division called the Land Rover Leyland Group 1976: One millionth Land Rover leaves the production line. 1978: Land Rover Limited formed as a separate subsidiary of British Leyland 1980: Rover car production ends at Solihull with the transfer of SD1 production to Cowley, Oxford; Solihull is now exclusively for Land Rover manufacture. 5-door Range Rover introduced. 1983: Land Rover 90 (Ninety)/110 (One-Ten)/127 (Land Rover Defender) introduced. 1986: BL plc becomes Rover Group plc; Project Llama started. 1988: Rover Group is privatised and becomes part of British Aerospace, and is now known simply as Rover. 1987: Range Rover is introduced to the U.S market March 16. 1989: Introduction of the Discovery ("Disco I" to enthusiasts) 1994: Rover Group is taken over by BMW. Introduction of second-generation Range Rover. (The original Range Rover was continued under the name 'Range Rover Classic' until 1995) 1997: Land Rover introduces the Special Edition Discovery XD with AA Yellow paint, subdued wheels, SD type roof racks, and a few other off-road upgrades directly from the factory. Produced only for the North American market, the Special Vehicles Division of Land Rover created only 250 of these bright yellow SUV's. Official formation of the Camel Trophy Owners Club by co-founders Neill Browne, Pantelis Giamarellos and Peter Sweetser. 1998: Introduction of the Freelander 1999: Introduction of the second generation of Discovery (Disco II) 2000: BMW breaks up the Rover Group and sells Land Rover to Ford for £1.8 billion BBC NEWS | Business | BMW, Ford seal Land Rover deal 2002: Introduction of third-generation Range Rover 2005: Land Rover 'founder' Rover, collapses under the ownership of MG Rover Group. 2005: Introduction of the third-generation Discovery/LR3 2005: Introduction of Range Rover Sport 2005: Adoption of the Jaguar AJ-V8 engine to replace the BMW M62 V8 in the Range Rover 2006: Announcement of a new 2.4 litre diesel engine, 6-speed gearbox, dash and forward facing rear seats for Defender. Introduction of second generation of Freelander (Freelander 2). Ford acquires the Rover trademark from BMW, who previously licensed its use to MG Rover Group. 8 May 2007: 4,000,000th Land Rover rolls off the production line, a Discovery 3 (LR3), donated to The Born Free Foundation. 12 June 2007: Announcement from the Ford Motor Company that it plans to sell Land Rover and also Jaguar Cars. This effectively dissolves the Premier Automotive Group (PAG) which previously included Aston Martin, until it was sold into private ownership by Ford in March 2007; at this time Ford has made no announcement regarding Volvo Cars. August 2007: India's Tata Motors and Mahindra and Mahindra as well as financial sponsors Cerberus Capital Management, TPG Capital and Apollo Management expressed their interest in purchasing Jaguar Cars and Land Rover from the Ford Motor Company. India's Tata confirms interest in Land Rover, Jaguar - Forbes.com 26 March 2008: Ford agreed to sell their Jaguar Land Rover operations to Tata Motors. 2 June 2008:Tata Motors finalised their purchase of Jaguar and Land Rover from Ford. Manufacturing 80-inch Series I Land Rovers were manufactured primarily at the Solihull plant, near Birmingham, but production of the "Freelander" (2) was moved to the Jaguar car factory at Halewood near Liverpool, a former Ford car plant. Defender models are assembled under license in several locations worldwide, including Spain (Santana Motors), Iran (Pazhan Morattab), Brazil (Karmann)and Turkey (Otokar). geocites.com guide to Land Rover The former BL/Rover Group technical centre at Gaydon in Warwickshire is home to the corporate and R&D headquarters. Models The Land Rover Freelander The 1997 Defender 90 Station Wagon Land Rover Series IIB Forward Control Land Rover 109 Historic Series I, II and III - the original 4x4 Range Rover Classic - the original Range Rover, produced from 1970 to 1996 Current Defender - Updated Series line, with a move from extreme utilitarianism. Freelander - compact 4x4, the second generation of which is known as the LR2 in North America. Discovery - full-size 4x4 Range Rover - full-size luxury 4x4 Range Rover Sport - 4x4 sports tourer 2008 UK Land Rover Model Line-upModelTypePrice RangeLand Rover Defender4x4£22,480–£28,495Land Rover Freelander4x4 SUV(Sport Utility Vehicle)£25,935–£33,990Land Rover Discovery4x4£28,915–£48,720Range Rover4x4£58,695–£84,900Range Rover Sport4x4£35,665–£63,225 2008 US Land Rover Model Line-upModelTypePrice RangeLand Rover LR24x4$31,000–$36,000Land Rover LR34x4$50,000–$58,000Range Rover4x4$81,850–$125,000Range Rover Sport4x4$60,500–$79,200 At the 2004 North American International Auto Show, Land Rover introduced its first concept, the Range Stormer (Gritzinger, 2004). A "green" concept known as Land e was also recently shown. Military Models developed for the UK Ministry of Defence (MoD)include: 101 Forward Control - also known as the "Land Rover One Tonne" 1/2 ton Lightweight - airportable military short wheelbase from the Series 2a Land Rover Wolf - an uprated Military Defender SNATCH Land Rover - Land Rover with composite armoured body in UK Armed Forces Service 109 Series IIa and III ambulance (body by Marshalls of Cambridge) Range Rover '6x6' Fire Appliance (conversion by Carmichael and Sons of Worcester) for RAF airfield use 130 Defender ambulance 'Llama' prototypes for 101 replacement. Engines For more detailed information and specifications on the engines manufactured by Land Rover, see Land Rover engines. During the history of the Land Rover many different engines have been fitted. The inlet-over-exhaust petrol engines, in both four and six cylinder variants, which were used from the very first Land Rovers in 1948, and which had their origins in pre-war Rover cars. The four cylinder overhead valve engines,both petrol and diesel, which first appeared (in diesel form) in 1957, at the tail end of Series One production, and evolved over the years to the 300 TDi turbodiesel, which remains in production today for some overseas markets. The Buick-sourced all aluminium Rover V8 motor. 1997 cc Petrol, inlet-over-exhaust: Series I engine, carried over for the first few months of Series II production. 2052 cc Diesel, overhead valve: Land Rover's first diesel engine, and one of the first small high-speed diesels produced in the UK. It appeared in 1957, and was used in Series II production until 1961. Looks almost identical to the later 2286 cc engine, but many internal differences. At it was underpowered even for the late 1950s. 2286 cc Petrol, overhead valve, 3 bearing crank: Must be the most numerous of all Land Rover engines. 2286 cc Diesel, overhead valve, 3 bearing crank: Appeared in 1961 alongside the redesigned 2286 cc petrol engine at the start of Series IIA production, and shared its cylinder block and some other components. At it was a big improvement over the earlier diesel. 2625 cc Petrol, inlet-over-exhaust: Borrowed from the Rover saloon range, in response to demands from mid-Sixties Land Rover users for more power and torque. 2286 cc petrol/diesel, overhead valve type 11J: 5 bearing crank: In 1980, Land Rover finally did something about the crank failures which had plagued its four cylinder engines for 22 years. The new crank was so strong that Land Rover could (and did) get away with using the same crank for petrol and diesel engines. These engines lasted beyond the end of Series III production and into the first couple of years of the new Ninety and One Ten ranges. 3528 cc V8 Petrol: The ex-Buick all alloy V8 engine appeared in the Range Rover right from the start of production in 1970, but did not make its way into the company's utility vehicles until 1979. 2495 cc petrol, overhead valve: The final development of Land Rover's ohv petrol 'four', with hardened valve seats which allow running on unleaded (or LPG). 2495 cc diesel, overhead valve, type 12J: Land Rover reworked the old 'two and a quarter' diesel for the Eighties. The injection pump was now driven off a toothed belt at the front of the engine (together with the camshaft) which fixed the pump timing drift problem of the older diesels, and the increase in capacity provided a bit more power. Slow but strong, simple and dependable, this engine remains popular. 2495 cc turbodiesel, overhead valve, type 19J: Given the strength and reliability of the 2.5 diesel, Land Rover thought it would cope with turbocharging, but the engine proved to be prone to internal cracks developing in the cylinder block due to the increased pressures brought about by the turbo. 2495 cc turbodiesel, overhead valve, 200TDi and 300TDi: The lessons learned from the 2.5TD were incorporated into the new TDi engines available in the Defender and Discovery from 1990. The cylinder block still looked familiar (although strengthened internally with an aluminium ladder frame bolted to the bearing caps) but the cylinder head was all-new and a direct injection fuel system was used. These engines have gained an reputation for power and durability. 2495 cc turbodiesel, 5-cylinder, TD5: An all-new engine for the second generation Discovery, and this also found its way into the Defender. The TD5 features electronic control of the fuel injection system (with a control unit under the driver's seat), 'drive by wire' throttle and other refinements, all aimed at minimising exhaust emissions. Although this engine was built during BMW's ownership and is commonly mistakenly referred to as a BMW engine, it is a Landrover engine. Codenamed Storm, it was developed by Landrover, and BMW copied it to make a 4-cylinder version for their car. The Freelander was available with various Rover K-series engines which are known for head gasket problems. Non Land Rover engines: The weaknesses of some of the earlier engines resulted in a thriving industry fitting engines from various manufacturers to Land Rovers. Before the 200TDi, if you wanted a powerful, reliable diesel engine in your Land Rover, a conversion was the only way to go. Popular engine swaps over the years have included: Perkins 4.203 and 4.236 - big, slow-revving industrial engines, lots of torque but not much speed Ford 2.5 York diesel and 2.5Di Perkins Prima 2.0 turbodiesel Peugeot 2.3 and 2.5 diesel - slow but durable GM Holden 6 cylinder petrol engine variants, such as 161, 186 and 202 cubic inch in Australia Almost every Japanese diesel between 2.0 and 3.5 litres These days, the most popular engine swap is the 200TDi. This engine, sourced from a Defender, will bolt into any four-cylinder Ninety or One Ten with the minimum of modifications. Electric vehicles Integrated Electric Rear Axle Drive (ERAD) technology, dubbed e-terrain technology http://www.worldcarfans.com/9080722.009/land-rover-announces-diesel-erad-hybrid--e_terrain-technologies , will allow the vehicle to move off without starting the engine as well as supplying extra power over tough terrain. Land Rover’s Diesel ERAD Hybrid was developed as part of a multi-million-pound project supported by the UK Government’s Energy Saving Trust, under the low carbon research and development programme. ERAD programme is one of a broad range of sustainability-focused engineering programmes that Land Rover is pursuing, brought together by the company under the collective name e TERRAIN Technologies. http://www.roversnorth.com/weblog/?p=42 . Land Rover has presented in the 2008 London Motor Show its new ERAD diesel-electric hybrid in a pair of Freelander 2 (LR2) prototypes. The new hybrid system is being designed as a scalable and modular system that could be applied across a variety of Land Rover models and powertrains. http://www.motorauthority.com/land-rover-presents-erad-diesel-hybrid-prototypes.html Land Rover unveiled the LRX hybrid concept at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit, for it to be going into production. http://www.cubiccapacity.com/land-rover-working-diesel-erad-hybrid-and-e_terrain-technologies/ An ERAD will enable the car to run on electric power at speeds below . http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/content/view/full/20388/resources Abilities Land-Rovers at AgQuip, Gunnedah. The use of Land Rovers by the British and Commonwealth military, as well as on long term civilian projects and expeditions, is mainly due to the superior off-road performance of the marque. For example, the short wheelbase version of the Land Rover Defender is capable of tackling a gradient of 45 degrees, an approach angle of up to 50 degrees, a departure angle of 53 degrees and a ramp break-over of up to 25 degrees. A distinctive feature of all Land Rover products has been their exceptional axle articulation (the degree to which the wheels have vertical travel, with high amounts allowing them to maintain contact (and traction) with the ground over uneven surfaces), which is currently 7 inch (178 mm) at the front axle and 8.25 inch (210 mm) at the rear on basic Defender models. Despite the development of more car-like, road-orientated vehicles over years, Land Rover continues to make all its vehicles fully off-road capable- even the Range Rover, which in its current guise competes with luxury saloons is equipped with a two-speed transfer box and long-travel suspension, as well as an array of electronic aids such as Land Rover's 'Terrain Response' system and traction control. The drivetrain and structure is capable of sustained heavy off-roading in all conditions as well as a towing loads of up to 4 tons. Right from the start in 1948, PTOs (Power take-offs) were integral to the Land Rover concept, enabling farm machinery and many other items to be run with the vehicle stationary. Maurice Wilks was very clear about this, and his original instruction was "...to have power take-offs everywhere!" The 1949 report by the British National Institute of Agricultural Engineering and Scottish Machinery Testing Station described it thus: "The power take-off is driven through a Hardy-Spicer propeller shaft from the main gearbox output and two interchangeable pinions giving two ratios. The PTO gearbox casing is bolted to the rear chassis cross-member and an 8 inch x 8 inch belt pulley driven from the PTO shaft through two bevel gears can be bolted to the PTO gearbox casing." PTOs remained regular options on Series I, II and III Land Rovers up to the demise of the Series Land Rover in 1985. It is still possible to order an agricultural PTO on a Defender as a special order. One of the other capabilities of the utility Land Rover (the Series/Defender models) is that they are available in a huge variety of body styles, ranging from a simple canvas-topped pick-up truck to a 12-seat fully trimmed Station Wagon. Both Land Rover and out-of-house contractors have offered a huge range of conversions and adaptations to the basic vehicle, such as fire engines, excavators, 'cherry picker' hydraulic platforms, ambulances, snowploughs, and 6-wheel drive versions, as well as one-off special builds including amphibious Land Rovers and vehicles fitted with tracks instead of wheels. Expedition Use Today's Land Rover Defender model has an impressive 1-tonne payload, making it an exceptional stand-alone expedition vehicle. The Defender's unique combination of thrifty fuel consumption and generous payload means that while comparable vehicles (Mercedes G-Wagon, Mercedes Unimog, Land Cruiser, Jeep, etc.) sometimes match the Defender in off-road driving performance, the Defenders significant payload advantage ensures impressive independence of fuel and water resupply points, allowing the Land Rover to go further into remote areas. For example, with one driver, one passenger, and food and clothing supplies, a stock Turbo Diesel Defender 110 has the payload and fuel consumption ability to enable it to carry 30 jerrycans of fuel and water and attain an off-road driving range of over lasting 10 days, a feat unmatchable by any other vehicle in the world. Military use British Land Rover near Pyongyang, November 1950, during the Korean war A mired Land Rover of the 1st Armoured Division being extracted during the Gulf War. Defenders of the Bermuda Regiment, 1994. Land Rovers on parade with the Italian Army, Navy and Air Force, June 2007. Since the very beginning all Series and Defender models have been used in a military capacity, in fact they are the back bone of the British Armed Forces. Often this has entailed just slightly modifying civilian models (primarily adding military "blackout" lights), but some dedicated military models have also been developed such as the 101 Forward Control and the air-portable 1/2 ton Lightweight. The Discovery has also been used in small numbers, mostly as liaison vehicles. Two models that have been designed for military use from the ground up are the 101 Forward Control from the early 1970s and the Lightweight or Airportable from the late 1960s. The latter was intended to be transported under a helicopter. The famous Royal Air Force Mountain Rescue Service (RAFMRS) teams were early users in the late 1950s and early 1960s, and their convoys of Land Rovers and larger military trucks are a sight often seen in the mountain areas of the United Kingdom. Originally RAFMRS Land Rovers had blue bodies and bright yellow tops, to be better seen from above. In 1981, the colour scheme was changed to green with yellow stripes. More recently, vehicles have been painted white, and are issued with fittings similar to civilian UK Mountain Rescue teams. The teams have recently been threatened with replacement of their Land Rovers by Toyota 4x4 SUV-style vehicles. Military modifications include heavy duty suspension, uprated brakes, 24 volt electrics, convoy lights, electronic suppression of the ignition system, blackout curtains and mounts for special equipment and small arms.Although they also lack the 'creature comforts' that would be associated with a civilian vehicle, such as sound deadening, carpets, air con, and other 'comfort' additions. Military uses include light utility vehicle, communications platform, weapon platform for recoilless rifles, TOWs or machine guns, ambulances and workshops. One famous adaptation of Land Rovers to military purposes is the "Pink Panther" models. Approximately 100 Series IIAs were adapted to reconnaissance use by the British special operations forces the SAS. For desert use they were often painted pink, hence the name. The vehicles were fitted with among other gear a sun compass, machine guns, larger fuel tanks and smoke dischargers. Similar adaptations were later made to Series IIIs and 90/110/Defenders. Bob Morrison: Land Rovers in military service, Brooklands Books 1993, ISBN 1-85520-205-0 The 75th Ranger Regiment of the United States Army also adapted twelve versions of the Land Rover that were officially designated the RSOV (Ranger Special Operations Vehicle.) Series and Defenders have also been uparmoured. The most widespread of these is the Shorts Shorland, built by Shorts Brothers of Belfast. The first of these were delivered in 1965 to the Royal Ulster Constabulary, the Northern Ireland police force. They were originally wheelbase models with an armoured body and a turret from the Ferret armoured car. In 1990 there had been more than 1,000 produced. Shorland.info In the 1970s a more conventional armoured Land Rover was built for the Royal Ulster Constabulary in Wales called the Hotspur. The Land Rover Tangi was built by the Royal Ulster Constabulary's own vehicle engineering team during the 1990s. The British Army has used various armoured Land Rovers, first in Northern Ireland but also in more recent campaigns. They first added protective panels to Series General Service vehicles (the Vehicle Protection Kit (VPK)). Later they procured the Glover Webb APV and finally the Courtaulds (later NP Aerospace) Composite Armoured Vehicle, commonly known as Snatch. These were originally based on heavy duty V8 110 chassis but some have recently been re-mounted on new chassis from Otokar of Turkey and fitted with diesel engines and air-conditioning for Iraq. Although these now have more in common with the 'Wolf' (Defender XD) Land Rovers that many mistakenly confuse them with, the Snatch and the Wolf are different vehicles. The most radical conversion of a Land Rover for military purposes was the Centaur halftrack. It was based on a Series III with a V8 engine and a shortened belt drive from the Alvis Scorpion light tank. A small number was manufactured, and they were used by Ghana, among others. The Land Rover is used by military forces throughout the world. However, it is increasingly being supplemented, and even replaced, by larger vehicles. For instance the Pinzgauer, now built in the UK, is increasingly common in roles previously the preserve of the Land Rover Defender, such as ambulances, artillery tractors and weapons platforms. This is mainly due to the demands of modern warfare- combat vehicles today are generally required to carry much more equipment in the form of weaponry, communications equipment and armour. A 'soft' light 4x4 like the traditional Land Rover simply does not have the load capacity or strength of a larger medium-duty vehicle like the Pinzgauer. Even the current generation of Land Rover used by the British Army, the Snatch 2, have upgraded and strengthened chassis and suspension compared to civilian-specification vehicles. There is also the Land Rover WMIK (weapon mounted installation kit) used by the British Army. The WMIK consists of a driver, a raised gun, usually a Browning heavy machine gun or a grenade machine gun, this used for ground support, and a GPMG (general purpose machine gunner) located next to the driver, this used for vehicle protection. In competition Land Rovers have competed in the Paris Dakar Rally and won the Macmillan 4x4 UK Challenge almost every year, as well as having been the vehicle used for the Camel Trophy and more recently in the Odyssey Driving Around the World expedition series as part of a sponsorship deal. Now, Land Rover has its own G4 challenge. http://www.landroverg4challenge.com . Driver training Land Rover Experience is the company's busy driver training wing. Established in 1998, Land Rover Experience consists of a network of centres throughout the world, set up to help customers get the most out of their vehicle's on and off-road capability. The flagship centre is based in Eastnor, Herefordshire in the UK, which has long been used as an engineering test and development facility. Courses offered include off-road driving, winching, and trailer handling, along with a variety of corporate and individual 'Adventure Days'. Land Rover Experience. Safety Road accident statistics on a model-by-model basis from the UK Department of Transport show that the Land Rover Defender and Land Rover Discovery are the safest cars on British roads (measured in terms of chance of death in two car injury accidents) - between three times safer than the safest Volvo models, twice as safe (half the death-rate per two vehicles injury accident) compared with the Jeep Cherokee and Toyota Land Cruiser and only matched by the Mercedes-Benz S-Class and Jaguar XJ. Quality concerns In the past, Land Rover has shown reliability and build quality problems, and this is reflected in its showing in various industry and consumer quality and dependability related surveys, as detailed below: Land Rover marque ranked last on the US J.D. Power and Associates Vehicle Dependability Survey for 2005 (published 8 July 2005) (Kia second last). This is the fourth year that it has been in the last or second to last place in the survey. This study was based on responses from more than 55,000 US based original owners of 2000 model year cars and light trucks at three years of ownership. In 2004, it narrowly dethroned Kia as the least reliable nameplate, but swapped places in 2005. (Kia last, Land Rover 2nd last). Tied for last (with Hummer and Porsche) in the 2006 Consumer Reports (US) car reliability survey. It was only one of 6 makes that did not have a model whose reliability was "Good" or above (joined by Mercedes-Benz, Volkswagen and Jaguar); its highest-rating car was the LR3, which got a rating of "Poor". In addition, 56 percent of people who owned a 2003 Range Rover reported problems, as did 61 percent of 2002 Freelander owners—both the highest among all cars for that model year. Ranked second-to-last in the 2007 Consumer Reports (US) car reliability survey. (Mercedes-Benz took the bottom place.) In the same survey, the LR3/Discovery with a V8 engine was ranked the second least reliable SUV in the midsized category. (The 2006 model year M-class of Mercedes-Benz took the last place in that category.) It also was ranked as one of the 3 least reliable over the last 10 years in 2007. "Most & least reliable brands - 950,000 readers tell which products really last", Consumer Reports, May 2007, p. 12 Land Rover Discovery 6th-from-the-bottom of 100 models for reliability in an Auto Express 2002 survey in the UK. Joint 16th-from-the-bottom in 144 car 2002 J.D. Power's What Car? (UK) magazine customer satisfaction survey. Land Rover had joint highest average cost in warranty claims for cars up to 10 years old in 2002 UK Warranty Direct index – (based on full-maintenance leasing claims). Land Rover Discovery was joint second-to-last in 2002 Which? (UK) magazine reliability survey of cars up to 2 years old – however, only 35 Land Rovers were in the sample. Land Rover was 3rd least-reliable of 31 makes of car in 2002 Which? (UK) magazine reliability survey of 2000–2002 model-year cars. Least-reliable of 32 makes built 1997–1999. Spate of engine power, gearbox and exploding clutch problems (which Land Rover reportedly has refused to repair under warranty). 89% of Land Rovers were reported breakdown-free in 2003 Which? (UK) magazine's J.D. Power survey. Beginning with the Discovery Series III (LR3 in the US) model, the replacement power plants for the new model is a 4.4 L V8 engine developed by Jaguar and a 4.0 L v6 developed by Ford (Jaguar was part of the Premier Automotive Group (PAG) at Ford Motor Company). Some of the service problems in US specification Land Rover Defender and Discovery models are related to the Rover V8 petrol engine, as Land Rover increased the displacement and otherwise modernized the engine, which was originally designed in the late 1950s by General Motors for Buick. The same engine has powered a variety of other British cars, including the Rover 3500 and Triumph TR8. Most European, South African and Australian specification Defenders and Discovery models are now equipped with the TD5 diesel engine and reliability has still proven a problem as detailed in the surveys above. Part of the problem is also caused by the manufacturing methods used. The Defender is still largely hand-built, with aluminium body panels mounted on a steel chassis. This makes it very hard for the vehicle to have the same rigidity and inter-panel sealing as is found on modern vehicle. The 1980s saw numerous cut-backs to the utility Land Rover line (at that time, the Ninety/One Ten range), which included the replacement of the galvanised metal body cappings (as used since 1948) with simple painted items. This led to rapid corrosion of these parts. Similar economy measures were put in place. Recently increased investment under Ford has seen the return of the galvanised cappings, and design changes to reduce corrosion (such as the introduction of a one-piece rear door on Station Wagon and Hard Top models, which previously had doors made from panels over a steel frame). Despite the recent drops in quality, it is rumoured that 75% of all Land Rovers produced since 1955 are still on the road. This figure may be misleading, due to the wider range of vehicles and much higher production of recent years. The simplicity of build and cross compatibility of parts with many earlier models, together with the enthusiasm of many owners, has ensured many vehicles have stayed on the road. The longevity of individual vehicles may also tend to hide any improvements in production quality as assembly faults, once fixed, may stay fixed, and so may only matter to the first buyer. Enthusiasts of the marque and commercial users often point out that the mechanical components of the vehicles are very tough and reliable- it is the 'non-essential' areas such as interior fit/finish, weather sealing and ancillary electrics that fail. Another point often made is that other manufacturers not only produce models with assembly faults which are recalled, but do not tend to remain as reliable as Land Rover products in the long run. It is also true that a much larger proportion of early Land Rover Discovery, the first vehicle to be produced in very high numbers, remain in everyday use than can be said of rival manufacturers. All Land Rovers are crash tested. Clubs The brand has been elevated to a cult status amongst Land Rover enthusiasts. Nowhere is this more evident than the Land Rover club environment. Hundreds of Land Rover clubs have formed throughout the UK and internationally. Land Rover clubs break down into a number of groups of varying interests. Single Marque Clubs - As the title suggests these clubs bring together owners of a specific model or series of vehicle such as the Series One Club, Land Rover Series One Club website or the Discovery Owners Club. Discovery Owners' Club website Clubs based around ownership of earlier series vehicles tend to attract the purists amongst Land Rover owners whose interests often relate to restoration of their vehicles to their original condition. Special Vehicle Clubs - At various times Land Rover have produced vehicles for specific events or on a specific theme, most notable are the Camel Trophy and G4 Challenge vehicles which have been sold on to the general public, and a range of Defenders that were loosely based on the custom vehicles produced for the Tomb Raider motion picture. Regional Clubs - These break down into two groups, competitive and non-competitive clubs. Non-competitive clubs activities generally relate to social events, off road driving or green laning on un-surfaced public highways or 'pay and play' days at off road centres. Competitive clubs are a phenomenon almost exclusively found within the UK, who as well as the non-competitive activities detailed above run competitive events such as Tyro, Road Taxed Vehicle (RTV) and Cross Country Vehicle (CCV) trials, winch and recovery challenges or speed events such as Competitive Safari's. All UK competitive events are run within the framework of rules created by the Motor Sports Association (MSA) with further vehicle specific rules applied by the host club or association. A number of clubs are affiliated to the Association of Land Rover Clubs Association of Land Rover Clubs website (ALRC) formerly known as the Association of Rover Clubs (ARC) the association applies its own vehicle regulations to all of its member clubs who have the opportunity to compete together at regional events and an annual national event with vehicles approved to the same standard. Club Licensing - In 2005 under Ford ownership the Land Rover company became more interested in the club environment. An internal club was formed, The Land Rover Club Land Rover Club website a club exclusive to employees of the Ford Premier Automotive Group (Now exclusive to the new 'Jaguar - Land Rover' group since the brand moved away from the Ford stable). Also, an agreement was generated to allow other clubs to use the Land Rover green oval logo under licence. In 2006 the Bedfordshire, Hertfortshire and Cambridgeshire Beds, Herts & Cambs Land Rover Club website club were the pilot licensees for the new agreement, who now benefit from a reciprocal arrangement where their own logo is trade marked IPO UK and owned by Land Rover and they can refer to themselves as a 'Land Rover Approved Club'. Bicycles In 1995 Land Rover endorsed the production of a hand-made bicycle using its logo. The bicycle was called the Land Rover APB and was manufactured by Pashley Cycles, of Stratford-upon-Avon, being the collapsible version of their Moulton designed APB (All Purpose Bicycle) model with leading link front suspension with adjustable damping and stroke. It was available in Golden Yellow with Green lettering or British Racing Green with yellow lettering colour scheme. Two more models immediately followed the Land Rover XCB V-20 and was aimed primarily at younger riders (children) and the Land Rover XCB D-26, also available as the M26 being one of the first bicycles offered with hydraulic rim brakes, front suspension and suspension seat pillar. In June 2004 Land Rover released a comprehensive 25 model range of bicycles to complement the automotive range. The three main ranges are the 'Defender' the 'Discovery' and the 'Freelander'. Each range has its different attributes. The 'Discovery' is an all-rounder bicycle and is suited to a mixture of different terrains. The 'Defender' range is most suited to rugged terrain and off road pursuits, whereas the 'Freelander' is designed for an urban lifestyle. All bikes are made from lightweight aluminium and cost from £200-£900. See also Land Rover Series Defender Range Rover Range Rover Sport Discovery Freelander Camel Trophy G4 Challenge Criticism of sport utility vehicles Land Rover Our Planet Programme References External links Land Rover VIN codes on Wikibooks Official Land Rover Website Official Land Rover Experience Website Official Land Rover International Website
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4,776
Apple_Inc.
Apple Inc., () formerly Apple Computer Inc., is an American multinational corporation which designs and manufactures consumer electronics and software products. The company's best-known hardware products include Macintosh computers, the iPod and the iPhone. Apple software includes the Mac OS X operating system, the iTunes media browser, the iLife suite of multimedia and creativity software, the iWork suite of productivity software, and Final Cut Studio, a suite of professional audio and film-industry software products. The company operates more than 250 retail stores in nine countries and an online store where hardware and software products are sold. Established in Cupertino, California on April 1, 1976 and incorporated January 3, 1977, the company was called "Apple Computer, Inc." for its first 30 years, but dropped the word "Computer" on January 9, 2007 to reflect the company's ongoing expansion into the consumer electronics market in addition to its traditional focus on personal computers. Apple has about 35,000 employees worldwide http://seekingalpha.com/article/115797-apple-inc-f1q09-qtr-end-12-27-08-earnings-call-transcript?source=front_page_transcripts&page=-1 and had worldwide annual sales of US$32.48 billion in its fiscal year ending September 29, 2008. For reasons as various as its philosophy of comprehensive aesthetic design to its distinctive advertising campaigns, Apple has established a unique reputation in the consumer electronics industry. This includes a customer base that is devoted to the company and its brand, particularly in the United States. In 2008, Fortune magazine named Apple the most admired company in the United States. History 1976–1980: The early years The Apple I, Apple's first product. Sold as an assembled circuit board, it lacked basic features such as a keyboard, monitor, and case. The owner of this unit added a keyboard and a wooden case. Apple was established on April 1, 1976 by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne, to sell the Apple I personal computer kit. They were hand-built by Wozniak IOL Technology - Co-founder tells his side of Apple story NPR : A Chat with Computing Pioneer Steve Wozniak and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. Wozniak, Stephen. Homebrew and How the Apple Came to Be, Digital Deli. Retrieved on 2007-03-02. The Apple I was sold as a motherboard (with CPU, RAM, and basic textual-video chips)—less than what is today considered a complete personal computer. Kahney, Leander. Rebuilding an Apple From the Past, Wired, 2002-11-19. The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66. BBC News: History of Technology. Accessed January 19, 2008. Computer History Museum (ComputerHistory.org). Accessed January 19, 2008. Game Makers (TV Show): Apple II. Originally aired January 6, 2005. Picture of original ad featuring US666.66 price Wozniak, Steven: "iWoz", page 180. W. W. Norton, 2006. ISBN 978-0-393-06143-7 Apple was incorporated January 3, 1977 Apple Investor Relations FAQ, Apple. Retrieved on 2007-03-02. without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800. Multi-millionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple. http://ca.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761552652/apple_inc_.html, MSN Encarta Retrieved on 2007-03-02. The Apple II was introduced on April 16, 1977 at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its major rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because it came with color graphics and an open architecture. While early models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 1/4 inch floppy disk drive and interface, the Disk II. The Apple II was chosen to be the desktop platform for the first "killer app" of the business world—the VisiCalc spreadsheet program. Hormby, Thomas. VisiCalc and the rise of the Apple II, Low End Mac, 2006-09-22. Retrieved on 2007-03-02. VisiCalc created a business market for the Apple II, and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II—compatibility with the office. According to Brian Bagnall, Apple exaggerated its sales figures and was a distant third place to Commodore and Tandy until VisiCalc came along. Personal Computer Market Share: 1975–2004 The figures show Mac higher, but that is not a single model. By the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line. The Apple II was succeeded by the Apple III in May 1980 as the company competed with IBM and Microsoft in the business and corporate computing market. Coventry, Joshua. Apple III Chaos: What Happened When Apple Tried to Enter the Business Market, Low End Mac, 2006-09-01. Retrieved on 2007-03-02. Jobs and several Apple employees including Jef Raskin visited Xerox PARC in December 1979 to see the Xerox Alto. Xerox granted Apple engineers three days of access to the PARC facilities in return for $1 million in pre-IPO Apple stock. Fool.com: How Xerox Forfeited the PC War [Fool on the Hill] September 18, 2000. Retrieved August 12, 2008. Jobs was immediately convinced that all future computers would use a GUI, and development of a GUI began for the Apple Lisa. Apple at 30 - 1976 to 1986 | World of Apple. Retrieved August 12, 2008. 1981–1985: Lisa and Macintosh The heroine from Apple's 1984 ad, set in a dystopian future modeled after the Orwell novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, set the tone for the introduction of the Macintosh. Steve Jobs began working on the Apple Lisa in 1978 but in 1982 he was pushed from the Lisa team due to infighting, and took over Jef Raskin's low-cost-computer project, the Macintosh. A turf war broke out between Lisa's "corporate shirts" and Jobs' "pirates" over which product would ship first and save Apple. Lisa won the race in 1983 and became the first personal computer sold to the public with a GUI, but was a commercial failure due to its high price tag and limited software titles. Hormby, Thomas. A history of Apple's Lisa, 1979–1986, Low End Mac, 2005-10-06. Retrieved on 2007-03-02. The Macintosh 128K, the first Macintosh computer. In 1984, Apple next launched the Macintosh. Its debut was announced by the now famous $1.5 million television commercial, "1984". It was directed by Ridley Scott, aired during the third quarter of Super Bowl XVIII on January 22, 1984, Apple's 1984: The Introduction of the Macintosh in the Cultural History of Personal Computers and is now considered a watershed event for Apple's success Apple's '1984' Super Bowl commercial still stands as watershed event and a masterpiece. The Macintosh initially sold well, but follow-up sales were not strong. Hormby, Thomas. Good-bye Woz and Jobs: How the first Apple era ended in 1985, Low End Mac, 2006-10-02. Retrieved on 2007-03-02. The machine's fortunes changed with the introduction of the LaserWriter, the first PostScript laser printer to be offered at a reasonable price point, and PageMaker, an early desktop publishing package. The Mac was particularly powerful in this market due to its advanced graphics capabilities, which were already necessarily built-in to create the intuitive Macintosh GUI. It has been suggested that the combination of these three products was responsible for the creation of the desktop publishing market. When was desktop publishing invented? Retrieved on 2007-04-30. With continued strong sales of the Apple II, and the introduction of the Macintosh, Apple's sales reached new highs and the company had its initial public offering on September 7, 1984. A power struggle developed between Jobs and new CEO John Sculley in 1985. Hormby, Thomas. Growing Apple with the Macintosh: The Sculley years, Low End Mac, 2006-02-22. Retrieved on 2007-03-02. Apple's board of directors sided with Sculley and Jobs was removed from his managerial duties. Jobs resigned from Apple and founded NeXT Inc. the same year. Apple's sustained growth during the early 1980s was partly due to its leadership in the education sector, attributed to their adaptation of the programming language LOGO, used in many schools with the Apple II. The drive into education was accentuated in California with the donation of one Apple II and one Apple LOGO software package to each public school in the state. 1986–1993: Rise and fall The Macintosh Portable was Apple's first "portable" Macintosh computer, released in 1989. Having learned several painful lessons after introducing the bulky Macintosh Portable in 1989, Apple introduced the PowerBook in 1991, which established the modern form and ergonomic layout of the laptop computer. Hormby, Thomas. Birth of the PowerBook: How Apple took over the portable market in 1991, Low End Mac, 2005-11-23. Retrieved on 2007-03-02. The same year, Apple introduced System 7, a major upgrade to the operating system which added color to the interface and introduced new networking capabilities. It remained the architectural basis for Mac OS until 2001. The success of the PowerBook and other products led to increasing revenue. For some time, it appeared that Apple could do no wrong, introducing fresh new products and generating increasing profits in the process. The magazine MacAddict named the period between 1989 and 1991 as the "first golden age" of the Macintosh. Following the success of the LC, Apple introduced the Centris line, a low end Quadra offering, and the ill-fated Performa line which was sold in several confusing configurations and software bundles to avoid competing with the various consumer outlets such as Sears, Price Club, and Wal-Mart, the primary dealers for these models. The end result was disastrous for Apple as consumers did not understand the difference between models. During this time Apple experimented with a number of other failed consumer targeted products including digital cameras, portable CD audio players, speakers, video consoles, and TV appliances. Enormous resources were also invested in the problem-plagued Newton division based on John Sculley's unrealistic market forecasts. Ultimately, all of this proved be too-little-too-late for Apple as their market share and stock prices continued to slide. Apple saw the Apple II series as too expensive to produce, while taking away sales from the low end Macintosh. Apple II History Chap 11. Retrieved August 12, 2008. In 1990 Apple released the Macintosh LC with a single expansion slot for the Apple IIe Card to migrate Apple II users to the Macintosh platform. Apple II History Chap 11. Retrieved August 12, 2008. Apple stopped selling the Apple IIe in 1993. Microsoft continued to gain market share with Windows, focusing on delivering software to cheap commodity personal computers while Apple was delivering a richly engineered, but expensive, experience. 1990–1995: Why the World Went Windows. Retrieved August 12, 2008. Apple relied on high profit margins and never developed a clear response. Instead they sued Microsoft for using a graphical user interface similar to the Apple Lisa in Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corporation. Hormby, Thomas. The Apple vs. Microsoft GUI lawsuit, Low End Mac, 2006-08-25. Retrieved on 2007-03-02. The lawsuit dragged on for years before being thrown out of court. At the same time, a series of major product flops and missed deadlines destroyed Apple's reputation and Sculley was replaced by Michael Spindler. Michael Spindler: The Peter Principle at Apple. Retrieved August 12, 2008. 1994–1997: Attempts at reinvention The Newton was Apple's first foray into the PDA markets, as well as one of the first in the industry. A financial flop, it helped pave the way for the Palm Pilot and Apple's own iPhone in the future. By the early 1990s, Apple was developing alternative platforms to the Macintosh, such as the A/UX. The Macintosh platform was becoming outdated since it was not built for multitasking, and several important software routines were programmed directly into the hardware. In addition, Apple was facing competition from OS/2 and UNIX vendors like Sun Microsystems. The Macintosh would need to be replaced by a new platform, or reworked to run on more powerful hardware. 1990–1995: Hitting the Wall. Retrieved August 14, 2008. In 1994, Apple allied with IBM and Motorola in the AIM alliance. The goal was to create a new computing platform (the PowerPC Reference Platform), which would use IBM and Motorola hardware coupled with Apple's software. The AIM alliance hoped that PReP's performance and Apple's software would leave the PC far behind, thus countering Microsoft. The same year, Apple introduced the Power Macintosh, the first of many Apple computers to use IBM's PowerPC processor. Power Macintosh 6100. Retrieved August 12, 2008. In 1996, Michael Spindler was replaced by Gil Amelio as CEO. Gil Amelio made many changes at Apple, including massive layoffs. Chaffin, Bryan. "Former Apple CEO Gil Amelio Lands A New CEO Job || The Mac Observer", The Mac Observer, February 6, 2001. Retrieved August 15, 2008. After multiple failed attempts to improve Mac OS, first with the Taligent project, then later with Copland and Gershwin, Amelio chose to purchase NeXT and its NeXTSTEP operating system, bringing Steve Jobs back to Apple as an advisor. Apple Computer, Inc. Finalizes Acquisition of NeXT Software Inc., Apple Inc., 1997-02-07. Retrieved on 2006-06-25. On July 9, 1997, Gil Amelio was ousted by the board of directors after overseeing a three-year record-low stock price and crippling financial losses. Jobs became the interim CEO and began restructuring the company's product line. At the 1997 Macworld Expo, Steve Jobs announced that Apple would join Microsoft to release new versions of Microsoft Office for the Macintosh, and that Microsoft made a $150 million investment in non-voting Apple stock. Microsoft and Apple Affirm Commitment to Build Next Generation Software for Macintosh, Apple Inc., 1997-08-06. On November 10, 1997, Apple introduced the Apple Store, tied to a new build-to-order manufacturing strategy. Harreld, Heather. "Apple gains tech, agency customers in Next deal", Federal Computer Week, January 5, 1997. Retrieved August 15, 2008. "Apple unveils new marketing strategy. | Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service (November, 1997)". Retrieved August 15, 2008. 1998–2005: Return to profitability Company headquarters on Infinite Loop in Cupertino, California. On August 15, 1998, Apple introduced a new all-in-one computer reminiscent of the Macintosh 128K: the iMac. The iMac design team was led by Jonathan Ive, who would later design the iPod and the iPhone.<ref name="levgrossman">Grossman, Lev. The Apple Of Your Ear, TIME, 2007-01-12. Retrieved on 2007-02-01.</ref> Wilson, Greg. Private iCreator is genius behind Apple's polish, New York Daily News, 2007-01-14. Retrieved on 2007-02-01. The iMac featured current technology and a groundbreaking design. It sold close to 800,000 units in its first five months and returned Apple to profitability for the first time since 1993. 800,000 iMacs Sold in First 139 Days. Retrieved August 15, 2008. Through this period, Apple purchased several companies to create a portfolio of professional and consumer-oriented digital production software. In 1998, Apple announced the purchase of Macromedia's Final Cut software, signaling its expansion into the digital video editing market. Sarkar, Pia. "Friends and Foes/ Despite squabbles, Apple and Adobe have benefited from one another", SFGate, February 25, 2002. Retrieved August 15, 2008. The following year, Apple released two video editing products: iMovie for consumers, and Final Cut Pro for professionals, the latter of which has gone on to be a significant video-editing program, with 800,000 registered users in early 2007. In 2002 Apple purchased Nothing Real for their advanced digital compositing application Shake, Chaffin, Bryan. "Apple Shake: Apple Buys Nothing Real, A High End Compositing Software Maker || The Mac Observer", The Mac Observer, February 7, 2002. Retrieved August 15, 2008. as well as Emagic for their music productivity application Logic, which led to the development of their consumer-level GarageBand application. Apple Acquires Emagic, Apple, July 1, 2002. Retrieved August 15, 2008. Deitrich, Andy. Garage Band: Part 1, ars technica, February 2, 2004. Retrieved August 15, 2008. iPhoto's release the same year completed the iLife suite. Apple Introduces iPhoto, Apple Inc., January 7, 2002. Retrieved August 15, 2008. The entrance of the Apple Store on Fifth Avenue in New York City is a glass cube, housing a cylindrical elevator and a spiral staircase that leads into the subterranean store. Mac OS X, based on NeXT's OPENSTEP and BSD Unix was released on March 24, 2001, after several years of development. Aimed at consumers and professionals alike, Mac OS X aimed to combine the stability, reliability and security of Unix with the ease of use afforded by an overhauled user interface. To aid users in migrating from Mac OS 9, the new operating system allowed the use of OS 9 applications through Mac OS X's Classic environment. Apple - Support - Mac OS X v10.4 Tiger Classic Environment On May 19, 2001, Apple opened the first official Apple Retail Stores in Virginia and California. ifo Apple Store - Apple Stores 2001-2003 The same year, Apple introduced the iPod portable digital audio player. The product was phenomenally successful — over 100 million units were sold within six years. Apple enjoys ongoing iPod demand, BBC News, 2006-01-18. Retrieved on 2007-04-27. Cantrell, Amanda. Apple's remarkable comeback story, CNN, 2006-03-29. Retrieved on 2007-03-02. In 2003, Apple's iTunes Store was introduced, offering online music downloads for $0.99 a song and integration with the iPod. The service quickly became the market leader in online music services, with over 5 billion downloads by June 19, 2008. iTunes Store Tops Five Billion Songs, Apple Inc., 2008-06-19. Retrieved on 2008-09-03. Since 2001 Apple's design team has progressively abandoned the use of translucent colored plastics first used in the iMac G3. This began with the titanium PowerBook and was followed by the white polycarbonate iBook and the flat-panel iMac. "Apple revamps iBook. | Network World (May, 2001)", Network World, May 2, 2001. Retrieved August 19, 2008. Magee, Mike. "iMac "All-in-One" is a trinity - The INQUIRER", The Inquirer, January 26, 2002. Retrieved August 19, 2008. 2005–present: The Intel partnership The MacBook Pro (15.4" widescreen) was Apple's first laptop with an Intel microprocessor. It was announced in January 2006 and is aimed at the professional market. At the Worldwide Developers Conference keynote address on June 6, 2005, Steve Jobs announced that Apple would begin producing Intel-based Mac computers in 2006. Apple to Use Intel Microprocessors Beginning in 2006, Apple Inc., 2005-06-06. Retrieved on 2007-03-02. On January 10, 2006, the new MacBook Pro and iMac became the first Apple computers to utilize Intel's Core Duo CPU. By August 7, 2006 Apple had transitioned the entire Mac product line to Intel chips, over 1 year sooner than announced. The Power Mac, iBook, and PowerBook brands were retired during the transition; the Mac Pro, MacBook, and Macbook Pro became their respective successors. Power Mac to Mac Pro Apple Unveils New MacBook Featuring Intel Core Duo Processors . On April 29 2009, The Wall Street Journal reports that Apple building its own team to design chips. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124104666426570729.html Apple also introduced Boot Camp to help users install Windows XP or Windows Vista on their Intel Macs alongside Mac OS X. Apple's success during this period was evident in its stock price. Between early 2003 and 2006, the price of Apple's stock increased more than tenfold, from around $6 per share (split-adjusted) to over $80. In January 2006, Apple's market cap surpassed that of Dell. Gamet, Jeff. Apple Passes Dell's Market Cap, MacObserver, 2006-01-16. Retrieved on 2007-03-02. Nine years prior, Dell's CEO Michael Dell said that if he ran Apple he would "shut it down and give the money back to the shareholders." Singh, Jal. Dell: Apple should close shop, CNET News, 1997-10-06. Retrieved on 2007-03-02. Delivering his keynote at the Macworld Expo on January 9, 2007, Steve Jobs announced that Apple Computer, Inc. would from that point on be known as Apple Inc. The event also saw the announcement of the iPhone and the Apple TV. Apple - Hot News - Macworld 2007 The following day, Apple shares hit $97.80, an all-time high. In May, Apple's share price passed the $100 mark. AAPL surges past $100, target at $140, MacNN, 2007-04-26. Retrieved on 2007-07-10. On February 7, 2007, Apple indicated that it would sell music on the iTunes Store without DRM (which would allow tracks to be played on third-party players) if record labels would agree to drop the technology. Jobs, Steve. Thoughts on Music, Apple Inc., 2007-02-06. Retrieved on 2007-03-02. On April 2, 2007, Apple and EMI jointly announced the removal of DRM technology from EMI's catalog in the iTunes Store, effective in May. Jim Dalrymple. Apple, EMI offer higher-quality DRM free downloads, Playlist Magazine, 2007-02-06. Retrieved on 2007-04-07. On July 11, 2008, Apple launched the App Store to sell third-party applications for the iPhone and iPod Touch. Flandez, Raymund. "Programmers Jockey for iPhone Users at Apple Site", The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved August 16, 2008. Within a month, the store sold 60 million applications and brought in $1 million daily on average, with Steve Jobs speculating that the App Store could become a billion-dollar business for Apple. McLaughlin, Kevin. "Apple's Jobs Gushes Over App Store Success - The Channel Wire - IT Channel News And Views by CRN and VARBusiness", ChannelWeb, August 11, 2008. Retrieved August 16, 2008. Three months later, it was announced that Apple had become the third-largest mobile handset supplier in the world due to the popularity of the iPhone. On December 16, 2008, Apple announced 2009 would be the last year Apple would be attending the Macworld Expo, and that Phil Schiller would deliver the 2009 keynote in lieu of the expected Steve Jobs. "Chunkier sidekick to replace Jobs at Macworld", DoesWhat. Retrieved December 16, 2008. On January 14, 2009, an internal Apple memo from Steve Jobs announced that he would be taking a six-month leave of absence, until the end of June 2009, to allow him to better focus on his health and to allow the company to better focus on its products. With Steve Jobs' absence, Apple was still able to finish and report its best non-holiday quarter 2009Q1 during the 2009 recession season with revenue $8.16 Billion and profit $1.21 Billion. Current products Mac and accessories The Mac mini, low-cost desktop computer. Mac mini, consumer sub-desktop computer introduced in January 2005. iMac, consumer all-in-one desktop computer that was first introduced by Apple in 1998. Its popularity helped revive the company's fortunes. Mac Pro, workstation-class desktop computer introduced in August 2006, it was previously known as the PowerMac. MacBook, consumer notebook introduced in 2006, available in white and aluminum variants, it was previously known as the iBook. MacBook Air, ultra-thin, ultra-portable notebook, introduced in January 2008. MacBook Pro, professional portable computer alternative to the MacBook, introduced in January 2006, it was previously known as the PowerBook. Xserve, rack mounted, dual core, dual processor 1U server. Apple sells a variety of computer accessories for Mac computers including the AirPort wireless networking products, Time Capsule, Cinema Display, Mighty Mouse, the Apple Wireless Keyboard computer keyboard, and the Apple USB Modem. iPod On October 23, 2001, Apple introduced the iPod digital music player. It has evolved to include various models targeting the needs of different users. The iPod is the market leader in portable music players by a significant margin, with more than 100 million units shipped as of April 9, 2007. Apple has partnered with Nike to introduce the Nike+iPod Sports Kit enabling runners to synchronize and monitor their runs with iTunes and the Nike+ website. Apple currently sells four variants of the iPod. iPod Classic (Previously named iPod from 2001 to 2007), portable media player first introduced in 2001, currently with a 120 GB capacity. iPod Nano, portable media player first introduced in 2005, currently available in 8 and 16 GB models. iPod Shuffle, digital audio player first introduced in 2005, currently available in 1 and 4 GB models. iPod Touch, portable media player first introduced in September 2007, currently available in 8, 16, and 32 GB models. iPhone At the Macworld Conference & Expo in January 2007, Steve Jobs revealed the long anticipated Apple's Chief in the Risky Land of the Handhelds - New York Times iPhone, a convergence of an Internet-enabled smartphone and iPod. Apple Reinvents the Phone with iPhone The original iPhone combined a 2.5G quad band GSM and EDGE cellular phone with features found in hand held devices, running a scaled-down versions of Apple's Mac OS X (dubbed iPhone OS), with various Mac OS X applications such as Safari and Mail. It also includes web-based and Dashboard apps such as Google Maps and Weather. The iPhone features a touch screen display, 8 or 16 GB of memory, Bluetooth, and Wi-Fi (both "b" and "g"). The iPhone first became available on June 29, 2007 for $499 (4 GB) and $599 (8 GB). iPhone Premieres This Friday Night at Apple Retail Stores On June 9, 2008, at WWDC 2008, Steve Jobs announced that the iPhone 3G would be available on July 11, 2008. Apple Introduces the New iPhone 3G This version added support for 3G networking, assisted-GPS navigation, and a price cut to $199 for the 8 GB version, and $299 for the 16 GB version which was available in both black and white. The new version was visually different from its predecessor in that it eliminated the flat silver back, and large antenna square for a curved glossy black or white back. Following complaints from many people, the headphone jack was changed from a recessed jack to a flush jack to be compatible with more styles of headphones. The software capabilities changed as well, with the release of the new iPhone came the release of Apple's App Store; the store provided applications for download that were compatible with the iPhone. It has since surpassed one billion downloads. http://www.apple.com/iphone Apple TV At the 2007 Macworld conference, Jobs demonstrated the Apple TV, (previously known as the iTV), Apple Announces iTunes 7 with Amazing New Features a set-top video device intended to bridge the sale of content from iTunes with high-definition televisions. The device links up to a user's TV and syncs, either via Wi-Fi or a wired network, with one computer's iTunes library and streams from an additional four. The Apple TV originally incorporated a 40 GB hard drive for storage, includes outputs for HDMI and component video, and plays video at a maximum resolution of 720p. Apple TV Coming to Your Living Room On May 31, 2007 a 160 GB drive was released alongside the existing 40 GB model YouTube Coming to Apple TV and on January 15, 2008 a software update was released, which allowed media to be purchased directly from the Apple TV. Apple Introduces New Apple TV Software & Lowers Price to $229 Software Apple develops its own operating system to run on Macs, Mac OS X, the latest version being Mac OS X v10.5 Leopard. Apple also independently develops computer software titles for its Mac OS X operating system. Much of the software Apple develops is bundled with its computers. An example of this is the consumer-oriented iLife software package which bundles iDVD, iMovie, iPhoto, iTunes, GarageBand, and iWeb. For presentation, page layout and word processing, iWork is available, which includes Keynote, Pages, and Numbers. iTunes, QuickTime media player, Safari web browser, and Software Update are available as free downloads for both Mac OS X and Windows. Apple also offers a range of professional software titles. Their range of server software includes the operating system Mac OS X Server; Apple Remote Desktop, a remote systems management application; WebObjects, Java EE Web application server; and Xsan, a Storage Area Network file system. For the professional creative market, there is Aperture for professional RAW-format photo processing; Final Cut Studio, a video production suite; Logic, a comprehensive music toolkit and Shake, an advanced effects composition program. Apple also offers online services with MobileMe (formerly .Mac) which bundles personal web pages, email, Groups, iDisk, backup, iSync, and Learning Center online tutorials. MobileMe is a subscription-based internet suite that capitalizes on the ability to store personal data on an online server and thereby keep all web-connected devices in sync. Announced at MacWorld Expo 2009, iWork.com allows iWork users to upload documents for sharing and collaboration. Culture Corporate Apple was one of several highly successful companies founded in the 1970s that bucked the traditional notions of what a corporate culture should look like in terms of organizational hierarchy (flat versus tall, casual versus formal attire, etc.). Other highly successful firms with similar cultural aspects from the same time period include Southwest Airlines and Microsoft. Originally, the company stood in opposition to staid competitors like IBM more or less by default, thanks to the influence of its founders; Steve Jobs often walked around the office barefoot even after Apple was a Fortune 500 company. By the time of the "1984" TV ad, this trait had become a key way the company attempts differentiated itself from its competitors. Apple Corporate Culture As the company has grown and been led by a series of chief executives, each with his own idea of what Apple should be, some of its original character has arguably been lost, but Apple still has a reputation for fostering individuality and excellence that reliably draws talented people into its employ, especially after Jobs' return. To recognize the best of its employees, Apple created the Apple Fellows program. Apple Fellows are those who have made extraordinary technical or leadership contributions to personal computing while at the company. The Apple Fellowship has so far been awarded to a few individuals including Bill Atkinson, Hertzfeld, Andy. Credit Where Due,Folklore.org, January 1983. Retrieved on 2006-05-26. Steve Capps, Newton Hall of Fame! Rod Holt, Alan Kay, Eisenhart, Mary. Fighting Back For Mac, MicroTimes, 1997. Retrieved on 2006-05-26. Hertzfeld, Andy. Leave of Absence,Folklore.org, March 1984. Retrieved on 2006-05-26. Guy Kawasaki, Kawakami, John. Apple Taps Guy Kawasaki For Apple Fellows Program, MacTech, September 1995. Retrieved on 2006-05-26. Al Alcorn, Wired 4.10: Spawn of Atari Don Norman, Rich Page, and Steve Wozniak. Users According to surveys by J. D. Power, Apple has the highest brand and repurchase loyalty of any computer manufacturer. While this brand loyalty is considered unusual for any product, Apple appears not to have gone out of its way to create it. At one time, Apple evangelists were actively engaged by the company, but this was after the phenomenon was already firmly established. Apple evangelist Guy Kawasaki has called the brand fanaticism "something that was stumbled upon". Huba, Jackie; McConnell, Ben. The father of evangelism marketing. Apple has, however, supported the continuing existence of a network of Mac User Groups in most major and many minor centers of population where Mac computers are available. Mac users meet at the European Apple Expo and the San Francisco Macworld Conference & Expo trade shows where Apple traditionally introduced new products each year to the industry and public. Mac developers in turn gather at the annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference. Apple Store openings can draw crowds of thousands, with some waiting in line as much as a day before the opening or flying in from other countries for the event. Apple Store: Chain of Devotion The New York City Fifth Avenue "Cube" store had a line as long as half a mile; a few Mac fans took the opportunity of the setting to propose marriage. ifo Apple Store - Fifth Avenue Grand Opening The Ginza opening in Tokyo was estimated in the thousands with a line exceeding eight city blocks. JapanConsuming.com: Apple in Osaka John Sculley told The Guardian newspaper in 1997: "People talk about technology, but Apple was a marketing company. It was the marketing company of the decade." Wired News: Apple: It's All About the Brand Market research indicates that Apple draws its customer base from an unusually artistic, creative, and well-educated population, which may explain the platform’s visibility within certain youthful, avant-garde subcultures. Fried, Ian. Are Mac users smarter?, news.com, 2002-07-12. Retrieved on 2006-04-24. Corporate affairs Apple has a history of vertical integration in their products, manufacturing the hardware on which they pre-install their software. During the Mac's early history Apple generally refused to adopt prevailing industry standards for hardware, instead creating their own. Mac Ports This trend was largely reversed in the late 1990s beginning with Apple's adoption of the PCI bus in the 7500/8500/9500 Power Macs. Apple has since adopted USB, AGP, HyperTransport, Wi-Fi, and other industry standards in its computers and was in some cases a leader in the adoption of such standards such as USB. Standards and specs: The ins and outs of USB FireWire is an Apple-originated standard which has seen widespread industry adoption after it was standardized as IEEE 1394. 1394 Trade Association: What is 1394? Ever since the first Apple Store opened, Apple has sold third party accessories. Apple Marks Second Anniversary of Retail Stores This allows, for instance, Nikon and Canon to sell their Mac-compatible digital cameras and camcorders inside the store. Adobe, one of Apple's oldest software partners, Opinion: Adobe's DNA is part of Apple | Macworld also sells its Mac-compatible software, as does Microsoft, who sells Microsoft Office for the Mac. Books from John Wiley & Sons, who publishes the For Dummies series of instructional books, are a notable exception however. The publisher's line of books were banned from Apple Stores in 2005 because Steve Jobs disagreed with their editorial policy. Hafner, Katie: Steve Jobs's Review of His Biography: Ban It, The New York Times, 2005-04-30. Headquarters Apple Inc., 1 Infinite Loop, Cupertino, CA.Apple Inc.'s world corporate headquarters are located in the middle of Silicon Valley, at 1 Infinite Loop, Cupertino, California. This Apple campus has six buildings which total and was built in 1993 by Sobrato Development Cos. Apple gobbles up Cupertino office space - Silicon Valley / San Jose Business Journal: In 2006, Apple announced its intention to build a second campus on assembled from various contiguous plots. The new campus, also in Cupertino, will be about one mile (1.6 km) east of the current campus. CEOs 1977–1981: Michael "Scotty" Scott 1981–1983: A. C. "Mike" Markkula 1983–1993: John Sculley 1993–1996: Michael Spindler 1996–1997: Gil Amelio 1997–Present: Steve Jobs (Interim CEO 1997–2000) Directors Bill Campbell, Chairman of Intuit Inc. Millard Drexler, Chairman and CEO of J.Crew Al Gore, Former Vice President of the United States Steve Jobs, CEO and Co-founder of Apple; also a director of The Walt Disney Company Andrea Jung, Chairman and CEO of Avon Products Arthur D. Levinson, Chairman and CEO of Genentech Eric E. Schmidt, Chairman and CEO of Google Jerry York, Chairman, President, and CEO of Harwinton Capital Executives Steve Jobs, Chief Executive Officer Timothy D. Cook, Chief Operating Officer Peter Oppenheimer, Chief Financial Officer Philip W. Schiller, Senior Vice President of Worldwide Product Marketing Mark Papermaster, Senior Vice President of Devices Hardware Engineering Jonathan Ive, Senior Vice President of Industrial Design Bertrand Serlet, Senior Vice President of Software Engineering Ron Johnson, Senior Vice President of Retail Sina Tamaddon, Senior Vice President of Applications Scott Forstall, Senior Vice President of iPhone Software Bob Mansfield, Senior Vice President Mac Hardware Daniel Cooperman, General Counsel and Secretary Employees Since formation of the Apple Computer Company in 1977, it (as Apple Computer, Inc.) has employed over 75,000 people worldwide. The majority of Apple's employees have been located in the United States but Apple has substantial manufacturing, sales, marketing, and support organizations worldwide, and some engineering operations in Paris and Tokyo. Apple employees include employees of companies acquired by Apple as well as subsidiaries such as FileMaker Inc. and Braeburn Capital. Advertising Since the introduction of the Macintosh in 1984 with the 1984 Super Bowl commercial to the more modern 'Get a Mac' adverts, Apple has been recognized in the past for its efforts towards effective advertising and marketing for its products, though it has been criticized for the claims of some more recent campaigns, particularly 2005 Power Mac ads BBB Tells Apple to Halt Misleading Ads Apple Power Mac ads 'misleading' UK watchdog clears Apple ads and iPhone ads in Britain. LogosSee also: U+F8FF or , seen as the Apple logo in some fonts.Apple’s first logo, designed by Jobs and Wayne, depicts Sir Isaac Newton sitting under an apple tree. Almost immediately, though, this was replaced by Rob Janoff’s “rainbow Apple”, the now-familiar rainbow-colored silhouette of an apple with a bite taken out of it. Janoff presented Jobs with several different monochromatic logos, and Jobs immediately took a liking to the bitten apple. While Jobs liked the logo, he insisted it be in color, as a way to humanize the company. Wired News: Apple Doin' the Logo-Motion ZLOK Logo Design Blog: I Invented … the Apple Logo The original hand drawn logo features Sir Isaac Newton, and one theory states that the symbol references his discoveries of gravity (the apple) and the separation of light by prisms (the colors). Another explanation exists that the bitten apple pays homage to the mathematician Alan Turing, who committed suicide by eating an apple he had laced with cyanide. Turing is regarded as one of the fathers of the computer. The rainbow colors of the logo are rumored to be a reference to the rainbow flag, as a homage to Turing's homosexuality. Understanding the Enigma of the Apple Computer Logo In 1998, with the roll out of the new iMac, Apple began to use a monochromatic logo — supposedly at the insistence of recently returned Jobs — nearly identical in shape to its previous rainbow incarnation. However, no specific color is prescribed throughout Apple's software and hardware line. The logo's shape is one of the most recognized brand symbols in the world, identifies all Apple products and retail stores (the name "Apple" is not even present) and has been included as stickers in nearly all Macintosh and iPod packages through the years. Slogans Apple's first slogan, "Byte into an Apple", was coined in the late 1970s. From 1997–2002, Apple used the slogan Think Different in advertising campaigns. The slogan had a lasting impact on their image and revived their popularity with the media and customers. Although the slogan has been retired, it is still closely associated with Apple. Apple Think Different Campaign | The Inspiration Room Daily. Retrieved August 12, 2008 Apple also has slogans for specific product lines — for example, "iThink, therefore iMac", was used in 1998 to promote the iMac, MacWorld New York: I think, therefore iMac. Retrieved August 13, 2008. and "Say hello to iPhone" has been used in iPhone advertisements. BillDay.com » Say hello to iPhone. Retrieved August 13, 2008. "Hello" was also used to introduce the original Macintosh, Newton, iMac ("hello (again)"), and iPod. Commercials Apple’s product commercials are notorious for launching musicians into stardom as a result of their eye-popping graphics and catchy tunes. Apple ad creates recognition for Yael Naim, New York Daily News, by Jim Farber, March 11, 2008. First, the company popularized Canadian singer Feist’s “1234” song in its ad campaign. Then Apple used the song “New Soul” by French-Israeli singer-songwriter Yael Naim to promote the MacBook Air. The debut single shot to the top of the charts and sold hundreds of thousands of copies in a span of weeks. Environmental record Greenpeace, an environmentalist organization, has confronted Apple on various environmental issues, including promoting a global end-of-life take-back plan, non-recyclable hardware components, and toxins within the iPhone hardware. ABC News: Is the iPhone Toxic? Greenpeace Says So. Retrieved August 12, 2008 Since 2003 they have campaigned against Apple regarding their chemical policies, in particular the inclusion of PVC and BFRs in their products, both of which have serious negative health effects. iTox + iWaste. Retrieved August 12, 2008. On May 2, 2007, Steve Jobs released a report announcing plans to completely eliminate PVC and BFRs by the end of 2008. Apple - A Greener Apple. Retrieved August 12, 2008 Tasty news from Apple! | Greenpeace International. Retrieved August 12, 2008 Greenpeace runs a "Guide to Greener Electronics", which rates companies on chemical-disposal waste-reduction practices. In the first edition, released in August 2006, Apple scored 2.7/10. How the companies line up | Greenpeace International. Retrieved August 12, 2008 In subsequent editions Apple's score has improved steadily. How the companies line up: 2nd Edition | Greenpeace International. Retrieved August 12, 2008 How the companies line up: 3rd Edition | Greenpeace International. Retrieved August 12, 2008 How the companies line up: 4th Edition | Greenpeace International. Retrieved August 12, 2008 How the companies line up: 6th Edition | Greenpeace International. Retrieved August 12, 2008 Apple has soon improved its score to a 4.1/10, placing it in the 45 percentile among 17 other electronic companies and 10th in the rankings. Company scores plummet in Greener Electronics Guide | Greenpeace USA At the 2007 Macworld Expo, Greenpeace presented a critique of Apple. Rick Hind, the legislative director of Greenpeace's toxics campaign, said, "(The company) is getting greener, but not green enough." Hind commented further, "The Macbook Air has less toxic PVC plastic and less toxic BFRs, but it could have zero and that would make Apple an eco-leader." Apple's 'Green' Notebook Doesn't Impress Environmentalists. Retrieved August 12, 2008 In May 2008, Climate Counts, a nonprofit organization dedicated to directing consumers toward the greenest companies, gave Apple 11 points out of a possible 100 which placed the company last among electronics companies. Climate Counts also labeled Apple with a "stuck icon," and the environmental group added that Apple was "a choice to avoid for the climate conscious consumer." Environmental Group Hits Apple Steve Jobs responded "get out of the computer business (and) go save some whales." The Environmental Protection Agency rates Apple highest amongst producers of notebook computers, and fairly well compared to producers of desktop computers and LCD displays. EPA Gives Apple Silver Rating on Environment || The Mac Observer EPA information should make GreenPeace red-faced over Apple targeting, Ars Technica. Retrieved on 2007-01-08. In June 2007 Apple upgraded the MacBook Pro, replacing cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) backlit LCD displays with mercury-free LED backlit LCD displays and arsenic-free glass, and has since done this for all notebooks. However, current iMacs still use CCFL backlit LCD displays. Apple has also phased out BFRs and PVCs from various internal components. Apple: MacBook Pro Graphics. Retrieved on 2007-06-08. Apple also offers detailed information about the emissions, materials, and electrical usage of each product. Apple has also begun to advertise how environmentally friendly their new laptops are including television spots and magazine ads, in addition to touting these facts on their website. Labor practices In 2006, the Mail on Sunday alleged that sweatshop conditions existed in factories in China, where the contract manufacturers, Foxconn and Inventec operate the factories that produce the iPod. The Start Reality of iPod's Chinese Factories The article stated that one iPod factory, for instance, had over 200,000 workers that lived and worked in the factory, with workers regularly doing more than 60 hours of labor per week. The article also reported that workers made around $100 per month were required to live on the premises and pay for rent and food from the company. Living expenses (required to keep the job) generally took up a little over half of the worker's earnings. The article also said that workers were given buckets to wash their clothes. Sweatshop Conditions at IPod Factory Reported Judging Apple Sweatshop Charge The Forbidden City of Terry Gou Immediately after the allegations, Apple launched a full investigation and worked with their manufacturers to ensure that conditions were acceptable to Apple. Apple, IT and the Specter of Sweatshop Labor but the allegations made by the Daily Mail were false, and did not exist in the iPod manufacturing line in China. Apple: No Sweatshop IPod Labor Criticism The Danish Consumer Complaints Board reported a fault with Apple's iBook line and criticized Apple's lackluster response to the issue, indicating customer support problems at Apple. Danes prove Apple iBook G4 has a defect - The INQUIRER A solder joint between two components fractured after a certain number of computer restarts causing the computer to break down, usually outside Apple's warranty period. Websites such as AppleDefects.com have been set up detailing issues on Apples product portfolio. Quality control problems or growing pains at Apple?. The Sydney Morning Herald Blogs: MashUp Apple has been criticized for post-launch price changes, most notably after the price of the iPhone was reduced by $200 just two months after its release, resulting in a flood of complaints to Apple. The Business Ethics Blog: Were iPhone Early-Adopters "Abused?", by Chris MacDonald Apple screwed you: So now what? - The Unofficial Apple Weblog (TUAW) Apple did however attempt to rectify complaints by offering $100 store credit to early iPhone customers. Apple - To all iPhone customers iPhone's $100 Apple Store Credit program goes live - Engadget Apple has been accused of pressuring journalists to release their sources, with regards to leaked information about new Apple products, going as far as filing lawsuits against "John Does". Apple v. Does, EFF, 2006-05-26. Retrieved on 2007-05-14. In particular, Apple fought a protracted battle against the Think Secret web site which resulted in a "positive solution for both sides". No sources were revealed. Apple mugs Think Secret | The Register. Retrieved August 12, 2008 There has been criticism of the iPhone and the iPod being locked into iTunes and creating a iTunes store monopoly for these devices. BBC NEWS | Technology | Time for Apple to face the music? Similarly, Apple has not licensed its FairPlay DRM system to any other company, preventing iPod and iPhone users from listening to DRM-protected music bought from sources other than the iTunes Store. DRM-free music from competing services can be purchased and used on Apple devices. As of April 2009, music from some record labels have become DRM-Free. The batteries in the iPod, Apple acts after battery of iPod complaints - Times Online iPhone, Apple's iPhone battery replacement requires 85 bucks, data backup | Tech news blog - CNET News.com MacBook Air MacBook Air has non-user-replaceable battery & storage - SlashGear and the current, unibody 17-inch MacBook Pro are not easily replaceable for users. See also: Neistat Brothers.Apple was caught up in controversy regarding the online sales of music in the European Union where, as a single market, customers should be free to purchase goods and services from any member state. iTunes Stores there restricted users to only allow the purchase of content from the country to which their payment details originate, which also forced users in some countries to pay higher prices. On December 3, 2004 the British Office of Fair Trading referred the iTunes Music Store to the European Commission for violation of EU free-trade legislation. Apple commented that they did not believe they violated EU law, but were restricted by legal limits to the rights granted to them by the music labels and publishers. PC World commented that it appeared "the Commission's main target is not Apple but the music companies and music rights agencies, which work on a national basis and give Apple very little choice but to offer national stores"''. PC World - European Borders Fracture iTunes. Retrieved August 14, 2008. References History Further reading Gil Amelio, William L. Simon (1999), On the Firing Line: My 500 Days at Apple ISBN 0-88730-919-4 Jim Carlton, Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania and Business Blunders ISBN 0-88730-965-8 Alan Deutschman (2000), The Second Coming of Steve Jobs, Broadway, ISBN 0-76790-432-X Andy Hertzfeld (2004), Revolution in the Valley, O'Reilly Books ISBN 0-596-00719-1 Paul Kunkel, AppleDesign: The Work of the Apple Industrial Design Group ISBN 1-888001-25-9 Steven Levy (1994), Insanely Great: The Life and Times of Macintosh, the Computer That Changed Everything ISBN 0-14-029177-6 Owen Linzmayer (2004), Apple Confidential 2.0, No Starch Press ISBN 1-59327-010-0 Michael S. Malone (1999), Infinite Loop ISBN 0-385-48684-7 Frank Rose (1990), West of Eden: The End of Innocence at Apple Computer, Penguin Books ISBN 0-14-009372-9 John Sculley, John A. Byrne (1987) Odyssey: Pepsi to Apple, Harpercollins, ISBN 0-06-015780-1 Steve Wozniak, Gina Smith (2006), iWoz: From Computer Geek to Cult Icon: How I Invented the Personal Computer, Co-Founded Apple, and Had Fun Doing It, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0-393-06143-4 Jeffrey S. Young (1988). Steve Jobs, The Journey is the Reward, Lynx Books, ISBN 1-55802-378-X Jeffrey S. Young, William L. Simon (2005), iCon Steve Jobs: The Greatest Second Act in the History of Business, Wiley, ISBN 0-47172-083-6 External links Apple Inc. Apple Inc. Hoover's Factsheet Apple Inc. company profile — Google Finance
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Kentucky
The Commonwealth of Kentucky () is a state located in the East Central United States of America. Kentucky is normally included in the group of Southern states (in particular the Upland South), but it is sometimes included, geographically and culturally, in the Midwest. Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a commonwealth (the other three being Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts). Originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 it became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th largest state in terms of land area, and ranks 26th in population. Kentucky is known as the "Bluegrass State", a nickname based on the fact that bluegrass is present in many of the lawns and pastures throughout the state. It is a land with diverse environments and abundant resources, including the world's longest cave system, Mammoth Cave National Park, the greatest length of navigable waterways and streams in the Lower 48 states, and the two largest man-made lakes east of the Mississippi River. It is also home to the highest per capita number of deer and turkey in the United States, the largest free ranging elk herd east of Montana, and the nation's most productive coalfield. Kentucky is also known for thoroughbred horses, horse racing, bourbon distilleries, bluegrass music, automobile manufacturing, tobacco, and college basketball. Origin of name Narrow country roads bounded by stone and wood plank fences are a fixture in the Kentucky Bluegrass. The origin of Kentucky's name (variously spelled Cane-tuck-ee, Cantucky, Kain-tuck-ee, and Kentuckee before its modern spelling was accepted) has never been definitively identified, though some theories have been debunked. For example, Kentucky's name is unlikely to mean "dark and bloody ground" as is commonly believed, because it does not occur with that meaning in any known Native American language. It also is not a combination of "cane" and "turkey". The most likely etymology is that it comes from an Iroquoian word for "meadow" or "prairie" (c.f. Mohawk kenhtà:ke, Seneca këhta'keh). Other possibilities also exist: the suggestion of early Kentucky pioneer George Rogers Clark that the name means "the river of blood", a Wyandot name meaning "land of tomorrow", a Shawnee term possibly referring to the head of a river, or an Algonquian word for a river bottom. Geography Kentucky Kentucky's regions (click on image for color coding information.) Kentucky borders seven states, from both the Midwest and the Southeast. West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more states. Kentucky's northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River; however, the official border is based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792. In several places, the border does not follow the current course of the appropriate river. Northbound travelers on US 41 from Henderson, upon crossing the Ohio River, will find themselves still in Kentucky until they travel about a half-mile (800 m) farther north. A horse racing track, Ellis Park, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the only land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky is the only U.S. state to have a non-contiguous part exist as an exclave surrounded by other states. Fulton County, in the far west corner of the state, includes a small part of land, Kentucky Bend, on the Mississippi River bordered by Missouri and accessible via Tennessee, created by the New Madrid Earthquake. Kentucky can be divided into five primary regions: the Cumberland Plateau in the east, the north-central Bluegrass region, the south-central and western Pennyroyal Plateau, the Western Coal Fields and the far-west Jackson Purchase. The Bluegrass region is commonly divided into two regions, the Inner Bluegrass — the encircling 90 miles (145 km) around Lexington — and the Outer Bluegrass, the region that contains most of the Northern portion of the state, above the Knobs. Much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. Kentucky has 120 counties, third in the U.S. behind Texas' 254 and Georgia's 159. Virginia also has more county-level subdivisions than Kentucky; it has only 95 counties, but also has 39 independent cities, for a total of 134 county-level subdivisions. The original motivation for having so many counties was to ensure that residents in the days of poor roads and horseback travel could make a round trip from their home to the county seat and back in a single day. Later, however, politics began to play a part, with citizens who disagreed with the present county government simply petitioning the state to create a new county. The 1891 Kentucky Constitution placed stricter limits on county creation, stipulating that a new county: Kentucky's Inner Bluegrass Region features hundreds of horse farms must have a land area of at least ; must have a population of at least 12,000 people; must not by its creation reduce the land area of an existing county to less than ; must not by its creation reduce the population of an existing county to fewer than 12,000 people; must not create a county boundary line that passes within of an existing county seat. These regulations have reined in the proliferation of counties in Kentucky. Since the 1891 Constitution, only McCreary County has been created. Because today's largest county by area, Pike County, is , it is now impossible to create a new county from a single existing county under the current constitution. Any county created in this manner will by necessity either be smaller than or reduce the land area of the old county to less than . It is still theoretically possible to form a new county from portions of more than one existing county (McCreary County was created from portions of three counties), but the area and boundary restrictions would make this extremely difficult. Climate Located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate (Koppen Cfa), or that all monthly average high temperatures are above freezing. Monthly average temperatures in Kentucky range from a summer daytime high of 87 °F (30.9 °C) to a winter low of 23 °F (-4.9 °C). The average precipitation is 46 inches (116.84 cm) a year. Kentucky experiences all four seasons, usually with striking variations in the severity of summer and winter from year to year. {| class="wikitable" ! Event ! Death Toll |- | Louisville Tornado of 1890 || est. 76–120+ |- | April 3, 1974 Tornado Outbreak || 72 |- | April 7, 1977 Flooding (Cumberland River toppled Pineville floodwall) || ? |- | March 1, 1997 Flooding || 18 |- | 2008 Super Tuesday tornado outbreak || 7 |- | January 2009 ice storm || 24+ |- Major weather events that have affected Kentucky include: The Mid-Mississippi Valley Tornado Outbreak of March 1890 The Ohio River flood of 1937 The Super Outbreak of tornadoes in 1974 Massive flooding in 1997 The North American blizzard of 2003 (mostly ice in Kentucky) The September 2008 Windstorm The January 2009 ice storm Monthly Normal High and Low Temperatures For Various Kentucky Cities City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Lexington 40/24 45/28 55/36 65/44 74/54 82/62 86/66 85/65 78/58 67/46 54/37 44/28 Louisville 41/25 47/28 57/37 67/46 75/56 83/65 87/70 86/68 79/61 68/48 56/39 45/30 Paducah 42/24 48/28 58/37 68/46 77/55 85/64 89/68 87/65 81/57 71/45 57/36 46/28 Pikeville 46/23 50/25 60/32 69/39 77/49 84/58 87/63 86/62 80/56 71/42 60/33 49/26 Ashland 42/19 47/21 57/29 68/37 77/47 84/56 88/61 87/59 80/52 69/40 57/31 46/23 Lakes and rivers Lake Cumberland is the largest artificial lake, in terms of volume, east of the Mississippi River. Kentucky's of streams provides one of the most expansive and complex stream systems in the nation. Kentucky has both the largest artificial lake east of the Mississippi in water volume (Lake Cumberland) and surface area (Kentucky Lake). It is the only U.S. state to be bordered on three sides by rivers — the Mississippi River to the west, the Ohio River to the north, and the Big Sandy River and Tug Fork to the east. Its major internal rivers include the Kentucky River, Tennessee River, Cumberland River, Green River and Licking River. Though it has only three major natural lakes, the state is home to many artificial lakes. Kentucky also has more navigable miles of water than any other state in the union, other than Alaska. Natural environment and conservation Kentucky has an expansive park system which includes one national park, two National Recreation areas, two National Historic Parks, two national forests, 45 state parks, of state forest, and 82 Wildlife Management Areas. Kentucky has been part of two of the most successful wildlife reintroduction projects in United States history. In the winter of 1997, the state's eastern counties began to re-stock elk, which had been extinct from the area for over 150 years. As of 2006, the state's herd was estimated at 5,700 animals, making it the largest herd east of the Mississippi River. The state also stocked wild turkeys in the 1950s. Once extinct in the state, today Kentucky has more turkeys than any other eastern state. Significant natural attractions Red River Gorge is one of Kentucky's most visited places Cumberland Gap, chief passageway through the Appalachian Mountains in early American history. Cumberland Falls State Park, one of the few places in the Western Hemisphere where a "moon-bow" may be regularly seen. Mammoth Cave National Park, featuring the world's longest known cave system. Red River Gorge Geological Area, part of the Daniel Boone National Forest. Land Between the Lakes, a National Recreation Area managed by the United States Forest Service. Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area near Whitley City. Black Mountain, state's highest point. Runs along the border of Harlan and Letcher counties. Bad Branch Falls State Nature Preserve, state nature preserve on southern slope of Pine Mountain in Letcher County. Includes one of the largest concentrations of rare and endangered species in the state, as well as a waterfall and a Kentucky Wild River. Jefferson Memorial Forest, located south of Louisville in the Knobs region, the largest municipally run forest in the United States. Lake Cumberland, of shoreline located in South Central Kentucky. Natural Bridge, located in Slade, Kentucky Powell County History Daniel Boone Escorting Settlers through the Cumberland Gap (George Caleb Bingham, oil on canvas, 1851–52). Both Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis were born in Kentucky. Although inhabited by Native Americans in prehistoric times, when explorers and settlers began entering Kentucky in the mid-1700s, there were no major Native American settlements in the region. Instead, the state was used as hunting grounds by Shawnees from the north and Cherokees from the south. Much of what is now Kentucky was purchased from Native Americans in the treaties of Fort Stanwix (1768) and Sycamore Shoals (1775). Thereafter, Kentucky grew rapidly as the first settlements west of the Appalachian Mountains were founded, with settlers (primarily from Virginia, North Carolina, Maryland, Delaware, and Pennsylvania) entering the region either over land via Braddock Road and the Cumberland Gap, or by water down the Ohio River from points upstream, or up the Ohio River from the Mississippi. The first part to be settled was the northern part, along the Ohio River, with Lexington and Washington being the first major settlements. A detailed account of this can be read in the memoirs of Spencer Records. Next, the southern part of the state was settled, via the Wilderness Trail, which went along the Great Appalachian Valley and across the Cumberland Gap, blazed by Daniel Boone, traditionally considered one of the founders of the state. > Shawnees north of the Ohio River, however, were unhappy about the settlement of Kentucky, and allied themselves with the British in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783). Kentucky was a battleground during the war; the Battle of Blue Licks, one of the last major battles of the Revolution, was fought in Kentucky. After the American Revolution, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County. Eventually, the residents of Kentucky County petitioned for a separation from Virginia. Ten constitutional conventions were held in the Constitution Square Courthouse in Danville between 1784 and 1792. In 1790, Kentucky's delegates accepted Virginia's terms of separation, and a state constitution was drafted at the final convention in April 1792. On June 1, 1792, Kentucky became the fifteenth state to be admitted to the union and Isaac Shelby, a military veteran from Virginia, was elected the first Governor of the Commonwealth of Kentucky. Kentucky was a border state during the American Civil War. Although frequently described as never having seceded, a group of Kentucky soldiers stationed at Russellville did pass an Ordinance of Secession under the moniker "Convention of the People of Kentucky" on November 20, 1861, establishing a Confederate government of Kentucky with its capital in Bowling Green. Though Kentucky was represented by the central star on the Confederate battle flag, the legitimacy of the Russellville Convention may well be questioned. Only a year earlier, philosopher Karl Marx wrote in a letter to Friedrich Engels that the result of a vote deciding how Kentucky would be represented at a convention of the border states was "100,000 for the Union ticket, only a few thousand for secession." Kentucky officially remained "neutral" throughout the war due to Union sympathies of many of the Commonwealth's citizens. Even today, however, Confederate Memorial Day is observed by some in Kentucky on Confederate President Jefferson Davis' birthday, June 3. Kentucky provided the second largest number of African-American soldiers to the Union during the Civil War. Many enlisted at Camp Nelson in the inner Bluegrass region. Union army refused to enlist black soldiers in state regiments, ten percent of black Kentuckians still enlisted, either directly with the Union army or in regiments from other states. This percentage is greater than the seven percent of white Kentuckians who served in the Civil War. Camp Nelson provided the Union Army with over 10,000 African-American soldiers, making it the third largest recruiting and training depot for African Americans in the nation. The state of Kentucky refused to pass laws to abolish slavery and would not ratify the 13th Amendment. This refusal was directly linked to the slave owners in Kentucky, who equaled only 20% of the state’s population. Slavery officially ended in Kentucky after 13th Amendment was ratified by enough state to become national law. The Black Patch Tobacco Wars, a vigilante action, occurred in the area in the early 1900s. As result of the monopolization of the tobacco industry, tobacco farmers in the area were forced to sell their tobacco at greatly reduced prices. In response, many local farmers and activists united to refuse to sell tobacco to the tobacco industry. A vigilante wing, the "Night Riders" were a group of people who terrorized farmers who sold their tobacco at the low prices demanded by the tobacco corporations. They participated in the firing of several tobacco warehouses, notably in Hopkinsville and Princeton. In the later period of their operation, they also were known to physically assault farmers in the middle of the night who broke the boycott. Designed by the Washington Monument's architect Robert Mills in 1845, the U.S. Marine Hospital in Louisville is considered the best remaining antebellum hospital in the United States On January 30, 1900, Governor William Goebel, flanked by two bodyguards, was mortally wounded by an assailant while walking to the State Capitol in downtown Frankfort. Goebel was in the process of contesting the election of 1899, initially assumed to be won by William S. Taylor. For several months, J. C. W. Beckham, Goebel's running mate, and Taylor fought over who was the real governor until the Supreme Court of the United States decided in May that Beckham was the rightful governor. Taylor fled to Indiana and was later indicted as a co-conspirator in Goebel's assassination. Goebel remains the only governor of a U.S. state to have been assassinated while in office. Law and government Government Map of Kentucky counties Kentucky is a commonwealth, meaning its government is run according to the common consent of its people. There are 3 other commonwealths, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Massachusettes. It is one out of only four states that call themselves commonwealths. Kentucky is also one of only five states that elects its state officials in odd numbered years (The others are Louisiana, Mississippi, New Jersey, and Virginia). Kentucky holds elections for these offices every 4 years in the years preceding Presidential election years. Thus, the last year when Kentucky elected a Governor was 2007; the next gubernatorial election will occur in 2011, with future gubernatorial elections to take place in 2015, 2019, 2023, etc. State government The Kentucky State Capitol building in Frankfort Kentucky's legislative branch consists of a bicameral body known as the Kentucky General Assembly. The Senate is considered the upper house. It has 38 members, and is led by the President of the Senate, currently Republican David L. Williams. The House of Representatives has 100 members, and is led by the Speaker of the House, currently Democrat Greg Stumbo. The executive branch is headed by the governor and lieutenant governor. Under the current Kentucky Constitution, the lieutenant governor assumes the duties of the governor only if the governor is incapacitated. (Prior to 1992, the lieutenant governor assumed power any time the governor was out of the state.) The governor and lieutenant governor usually run on a single ticket (also per a 1992 constitutional amendment), and are elected to four-year terms. Currently, the governor and lieutenant governor are Democrats Steve Beshear and Daniel Mongiardo. The judicial branch of Kentucky is made up of courts of limited jurisdiction called District Courts; courts of general jurisdiction called Circuit Courts; an intermediate appellate court, the Kentucky Court of Appeals; and a court of last resort, the Kentucky Supreme Court. Unlike federal judges, who are usually appointed, justices serving on Kentucky state courts are chosen by the state's populace in non-partisan elections. The state's chief prosecutor, law enforcement officer, and law officer is the attorney general. The attorney general is elected to a four-year term and may serve two consecutive terms under the current Kentucky Constitution. The current Kentucky attorney general is Democrat Jack Conway. Federal representation A map showing Kentucky's six congressional districts Kentucky's two Senators are Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell and Jim Bunning, both Republicans. The state is divided into six Congressional Districts, represented by Republicans Ed Whitfield (1st), Brett Guthrie (2nd), Geoff Davis (4th), and Hal Rogers (5th), and Democrats John Yarmuth (3rd) and Ben Chandler (6th). Judicially, Kentucky is split into two Federal court districts: the Kentucky Eastern District and the Kentucky Western District. Appeals are heard in the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals based in Cincinnati, Ohio. Political leanings Abraham Lincoln Birthplace near Hodgenville Where politics are concerned, Kentucky historically has been very hard fought and leaned slightly toward the Democratic Party, although it was never included among the "Solid South." In 2006, 57.05% of the state's voters were officially registered as Democrats, 36.55% registered Republican, and 6.39% registered with some other political party. From 1964 through 2004, Kentucky voted with the winner of the election for President of the United States. In the 2008 election, however, the state lost its bellwether status when John McCain, who won Kentucky, lost the national popular and electoral vote to Barack Obama (McCain carried Kentucky 57 to 41%). The Commonwealth supported the previous three Democratic candidates elected to the White House, all elected from Southern states: Lyndon B. Johnson (Texas) in 1964, Jimmy Carter (Georgia) in 1976, and Bill Clinton (Arkansas) in 1992 and 1996. Law Kentucky's body of laws, known as the Kentucky Revised Statutes (KRS), were enacted in 1942 to better organize and clarify the whole of Kentucky law. The statutes are enforced by local police, sheriffs, constables, deputy sheriffs and deputy constables. Unless they have completed a police academy elsewhere, these officers are required to complete training at the Kentucky Department of Criminal Justice Training Center on the campus of Eastern Kentucky University. Additionally, in 1948, the Kentucky General Assembly established the Kentucky State Police, making it the 38th state to create a force whose jurisdiction extends throughout the given state. Kentucky is one of 36 states in the United States that sanctions the death penalty for certain crimes. Those convicted of capital crimes after March 31, 1998 are always executed by lethal injection; those convicted before this date may opt for the electric chair. Only three people have been executed in Kentucky since the U.S. Supreme Court reinstituted the practice in 1976. The most notable execution in Kentucky, however, was that of Rainey Bethea on August 14, 1936. Bethea was publicly hanged in Owensboro for the rape and murder of Lischia Edwards. Irregularities with the execution led to this becoming the last public execution in the United States. Kentucky has been on the front lines of the debate over displaying the Ten Commandments on public property. In the 2005 case of McCreary County v. ACLU of Kentucky, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the decision of the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals that a display of the Ten Commandments in the Whitley City courthouse of McCreary County was unconstitutional. Later that year, Judge Richard Fred Suhrheinrich, writing for the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals in the case of ACLU of Kentucky v. Mercer County, wrote that a display including the Mayflower Compact, the Declaration of Independence, the Ten Commandments, the Magna Carta, The Star-Spangled Banner, and the national motto could be erected in the Mercer County courthouse. Demographics Kentucky Population Density Map. As of July 1, 2006, Kentucky has an estimated population of 4,206,074, which is an increase of 33,466, or 0.8%, from the prior year and an increase of 164,586, or 4.1%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 77,156 people (that is 287,222 births minus 210,066 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 59,604 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 27,435 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 32,169 people. As of 2004, Kentucky's population included about 95,000 foreign-born (2.3%). The population density of the state is 101.7 people per square mile. Kentucky's total population has grown during every decade since records began. However, during most decades of the 20th century there was also net out-migration from Kentucky. Since 1900, rural Kentucky counties have experienced a net loss of over 1 million people from migration, while urban areas have experienced a slight net gain. The center of population of Kentucky is located in Washington County, in the city of Willisburg. Race and ancestry The five largest ancestries in the commonwealth are: American (20.9%), German (12.7%), Irish (10.5%), English (9.7%), African American (7.8%). Census 2000 Map - Top U.S. Ancestries by County Only eight Kentucky counties list an ancestry other than "American" as the county's largest, those being Christian and Fulton, where African American is the largest reported ancestry, and the state's most urban counties of Jefferson, Oldham, Fayette, Boone, Kenton, and Campbell, where German is the largest reported ancestry. Southeastern Kentucky was populated by a large group of Native Americans of mixed heritage, also known as Melungeons, in the early 19th century. Groups like the Ridgetop Shawnee are organizing the descendants of those early Native American settlers. African Americans, who made up one-fourth of Kentucky's population prior to the Civil War, declined in number as many moved to the industrial North in the Great Migration. Today 44.2% of Kentucky's African American population is in Jefferson County and 52% are in the Louisville Metro Area. Other areas with high concentrations, besides Christian and Fulton Counties, are the city of Paducah, the Bluegrass, and the city of Lexington. Many mining communities in far Southeastern Kentucky also have populations between five and 10 percent African American. Religion Lexington Theological Seminary (then College of the Bible), 1904. In 2000, The Association of Religion Data Archives reported that of Kentucky's 4,041,769 residents: 33.68% were members of evangelical Protestant churches Southern Baptist Convention (979,994 members, 24.25%) Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ (106,638 members, 2.64%) Church of Christ (58,602 members, 1.45%) 10.05% were Roman Catholics 8.77% belonged to mainline Protestant churches United Methodist Church (208,720 members, 5.16%) Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) (67,611 members, 1.67%) 0.05% were members of orthodox churches 0.88% were affiliated with other theologies 46.57% were not affiliated with any church. Today Kentucky is home to several seminaries. Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville is the principal seminary for the Southern Baptist Convention. Louisville is also the home of the Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary. Lexington has two seminaries, Lexington Theological Seminary, and the Baptist Seminary of Kentucky. Asbury Theological Seminary is located in nearby Wilmore. In addition to seminaries, there are several colleges affiliated with denominations. Transylvania in Lexington is affiliated with the Disciples of Christ. Pikeville College in Pikeville, Kentucky is affiliated with the Presbyterian Church. In Louisville, Bellarmine and Spalding are affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church. In Owensboro, Kentucky, Kentucky Wesleyan College is associated with the Methodist Church and Brescia University is associated with the Roman Catholic Church. Louisville is also home to the headquarters of the Presbyterian Church (USA) and their printing press. Louisville is also home to a sizable Muslim Muslims in Louisville and Jewish population. Religious movements Religious movements were important in the early history of Kentucky. Perhaps the most famous event was the interdenominational revival in August 1801 at the Cane Ridge Meeting house in Bourbon County. As part of what is now known as the "Western Revival", thousands began meeting around a Presbyterian communion service on August 6, 1801, and ended six days later on August 12, 1801 when both humans and horses ran out of food. See E. Michael Rusten, The One Year Book of Christian History, Tyndale House, 2003, pp. 438–439. ISBN 0842355073. Some claim that the Cane Ridge revival was propagated from an earlier camp meeting at Red River Meeting House in Logan County. Economy The best selling car in the United States, the Toyota Camry, is manufactured in Georgetown, Kentucky. The best selling truck in the United States, the Ford F-Series, is manufactured in Louisville, Kentucky. The total gross state product for 2006 was US$146 billion, 27th in the nation. Its per-capita personal income was US$28,513, 43rd in the nation. Kentucky Cabinet for Economic Development - Kentucky Economy Kentucky's agricultural outputs are horses, cattle, tobacco, dairy products, hogs, soybeans, and corn. Its industrial outputs are transportation equipment, chemical products, electric equipment, machinery, food processing, tobacco products, coal, and tourism. The Eastern Kentucky Coal Fields are recognized as being among the most productive in the nation. Kentucky ranks 4th among U.S. states in the number of automobiles and trucks assembled. The Chevrolet Corvette, Cadillac XLR, Ford Explorer, Ford Super Duty trucks, Toyota Camry, Toyota Avalon, Toyota Solara, and Toyota Venza are assembled in Kentucky. Unlike many bordering states which developed a widespread industrial economy, much of rural Kentucky has maintained a farm based economy, with cattle, corn, and soybeans being the main crops. The area immediately outside Lexington is also the leading region for breeding Thoroughbred racing horses, due to the high calcium content in the soil (from the underlying limestone) making the pastures especially productive. Despite being the 14th smallest state in terms of land area, Kentucky still ranks 5th in the total number of farms, with more farms per square mile than any other U.S. state. U.S. Department of Agriculture 2002 Census of Agriculture The average farm size in Kentucky is only . Kentucky ranks 5th nationally in goat farming, 8th in beef cattle production, and 14th in corn production. State taxes There are 5 income tax brackets, ranging from 2% to 6% of personal income. The sales tax rate in Kentucky is 6%. Kentucky has a broadly based classified property tax system. All classes of property, unless exempted by the Constitution, are taxed by the state, although at widely varying rates. Many of these classes are exempted from taxation by local government. Of the classes that are subject to local taxation, three have special rates set by the General Assembly, one by the Kentucky Supreme Court and the remaining classes are subject to the full local rate, which includes the tax rate set by the local taxing bodies plus all voted levies. Real property is assessed on 100% of the fair market value and property taxes are due by December 31. Once the primary source of state and local government revenue, property taxes now account for only about 6% of the Kentucky's annual General Fund revenues. Until January 1, 2006, Kentucky imposed a tax on intangible personal property held by a taxpayer on January 1 of each year. The Kentucky intangible tax was repealed under House Bill 272. Intangible property consisted of any property or investment which represents evidence of value or the right to value. Some types of intangible property included: bonds, notes, retail repurchase agreements, accounts receivable, trusts, enforceable contracts sale of real estate (land contracts), money in hand, money in safe deposit boxes, annuities, interests in estates, loans to stockholders, and commercial paper. "Unbridled Spirit" Kentucky state welcome sign To boost Kentucky's image, give it a consistent reach, and help Kentucky "stand out from the crowd", former Governor Ernie Fletcher launched a comprehensive branding campaign with the hope of making its $12 – $14 million advertising budget more effective. The "Unbridled Spirit" brand was the result of a $500,000 contract with New West, a Kentucky-based public relations advertising and marketing firm to develop a viable brand and tag line. The Fletcher administration aggressively marketed the brand in both the public and private sectors. The "Welcome to Kentucky" signs at border areas have Unbridled Spirit's symbol on them. The previous campaign was neither a failure nor a success. Kentucky's "It's that friendly" slogan hoped to draw more people into the state based on the idea of southern hospitality. Though most Kentuckians liked the slogan, as it embraced southern values, it was also not an image that encouraged tourism as much as initially hoped for. Therefore it was necessary to reconfigure a slogan to embrace Kentucky as a whole while also encouraging more people to visit the Bluegrass. Transportation Roads At long, Kentucky Route 80 is the longest route in Kentucky, pictured here west of Somerset. Kentucky is served by five major interstate highways (I-75, I-71, I-64, I-65, I-24), nine parkways, and three bypasses and spurs. The parkways were originally toll roads, but on November 22, 2006, Governor Ernie Fletcher ended the toll charges on the William H. Natcher Parkway and the Audubon Parkway, the last two parkways in Kentucky to charge tolls for access. The related toll booths have been demolished. Ending the tolls some seven months ahead of schedule was generally agreed to have been a positive economic development for transportation in Kentucky. In June 2007, a law went into effect raising the speed limit on rural portions of Kentucky Interstates from 65 to 70 miles per hour. Greyhound provides bus service to most major towns in the state. Rails High Bridge over the Kentucky River was the tallest rail bridge in the world when it was completed in 1877. Ashland, Kentucky (Amtrak station) South Portsmouth-South Shore (Amtrak station) Fulton (Amtrak station) Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Ashland, South Portsmouth and Fulton, Kentucky. The Cardinal, Trains 50 and 51, is the line that offers Amtrak service to Ashland and South Portsmouth. Amtrak Trains 58 and 59, the City of New Orleans, serve Fulton. The Northern Kentucky area, is served by the Cardinal at the Cincinnati Museum Center at Union Terminal. The Museum Center is just across the Ohio River in Cincinnati. As of 2004, there were approximately 2,640 miles (4,250.4 km) of railways in Kentucky, with about 65% of those being operated by CSX Transportation. Coal was by far the most common cargo, accounting for 76% of cargo loaded and 61% of cargo delivered. Also, Norfolk Southern's main north-south line runs through central and southern Kentucky, starting in Cincinnati. Formerly the CNO&TP subsidiary of Southern Railway, it is NS's most profitable line. Bardstown features a tourist attraction known as My Old Kentucky Dinner Train. Run along a stretch of rail purchased from CSX in 1987, guests are served a four-course meal as they make a two-and-a-half hour round-trip between Bardstown and Limestone Springs. The Kentucky Railway Museum is located in nearby New Haven. Other areas in Kentucky are reclaiming old railways in rail trail projects. One such project is Louisville's Big Four Bridge. If completed, the Big Four Bridge rail trail will contain the second longest pedestrian-only bridge in the world. The longest pedestrian-only bridge is also found in Kentucky — the Newport Southbank Bridge, popularly known as the "Purple People Bridge", connecting Newport to Cincinnati, Ohio. Air Kentucky's primary airports include Louisville International Airport (Standiford Field), Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport (CVG), and Blue Grass Airport in Lexington. Louisville International Airport is home to UPS's Worldport, its international air-sorting hub. There are also a number of regional airports scattered across the state. On August 27, 2006, Kentucky's Blue Grass Airport in Lexington was the site of a crash that killed 47 passengers and 2 crew members aboard a Bombardier Canadair Regional Jet designated Comair Flight 191, or Delta Air Lines Flight 5191, sometimes mistakenly identified by the press as Comair Flight 5191. Crash Kills 49 The lone survivor was the flight's first officer, James Polehinke, who doctors determined to be brain damaged and unable to recall the crash at all. Water A barge hauling coal in the Louisville and Portland Canal, the only man made section of the Ohio River Being bounded by the two largest rivers in North America, water transportation has historically played a major role in Kentucky's economy. Most barge traffic on Kentucky waterways consists of coal that is shipped from both the Eastern and Western Coalfields, about half of which is used locally to power many power plants located directly off the Ohio River, with the rest being exported to other countries, most notably Japan. Many of the largest ports in the United States are located in or adjacent to Kentucky, including: Huntington/Tri-State (includes Ashland, KY), largest inland port and 7th largest overall Cincinnati-Northern Kentucky, 5th largest inland port and 43rd overall Louisville-Southern Indiana, 7th largest inland port and 55th overall As a state, Kentucky ranks 10th overall in port tonnage. Top 20 Inland U.S. Ports for 2003 CY 2001 Tonnage for Selected U.S. Ports by Port Tons The only natural obstacle along the entire length of the Ohio River was the Falls of the Ohio, located just west of Downtown Louisville. Subdivisions and settlements Counties Kentucky is subdivided into 120 counties, the largest being Pike County, Kentucky at 787.6 square miles, and the most populous being Jefferson County, Kentucky (the county containing Louisville Metro) with 693,604 residents as of 2000. Kentucky Counties, University of Kentucky County government, under the Kentucky Constitution of 1891, is vested in the County Judge/Executive), (formerly called the County Judge) who serves as the executive head of the county, and a legislature called a Fiscal Court. Despite the unusual name, the Fiscal Court no longer has judicial functions. Consolidated city-county governments Kentucky's two most populous counties, Jefferson and Fayette, have their governments consolidated with the governments of their largest cities. Louisville-Jefferson County Government (Louisville Metro) and Lexington-Fayette Urban County Government (Lexington Metro) are unique in that their city councils and county Fiscal Court structures have been merged into a single entity with a single chief executive, the Metro Mayor and Urban County Mayor, respectively. Although the counties still exist as subdivisions of the state, in reference the names Louisville and Lexington are used to refer to the entire area coextensive with the former cities and counties. Somewhat incongruously, when entering Lexington-Fayette the highway signs reads "Fayette County" while most signs leading into Louisville-Jefferson simply read "Welcome to Louisville Metro." Cities and towns 15 Largest Cities 2007 Population Louisville 557,789 Lexington 279,044 Owensboro 55,398 Bowling Green 54,244 Covington 43,062 Richmond 32,333 Hopkinsville 31,638 Henderson 27,768 Frankfort 27,281 Florence 27,098 Jeffersontown 26,152 Nicholasville 25,845 Paducah 25,539 Elizabethtown 23,777 Ashland 21,981 The Greater Louisville Metro Area has a 2006 estimated population of 554,496, while the Louisville Combined Statistical Area (CSA) has a population of 1,356,798; including 1,003,025 in Kentucky, which is nearly 1/4 of the state's population. Since 2000 over 1/3 of the state's population growth has occurred in the Louisville CSA. In addition, the top 28 wealthiest places in Kentucky are in Jefferson County and seven of the 15 wealthiest counties in the state are located in the Louisville CSA. Kentucky State Data Center The second largest city is Lexington with a 2006 census estimated population of 270,789 and its CSA, which includes the Frankfort and Richmond statistical areas, having a population of 645,006. The Northern Kentucky area (the seven Kentucky counties in the Cincinnati CSA) had an estimated population of 408,783 in 2006. The metropolitan areas of Louisville, Lexington, and Northern Kentucky have a combined population of 2,169,394 as of 2006, which is 51.5% of the state's total population. The two other fast growing urban areas in Kentucky are the Bowling Green area and the "Tri Cities Region" of southeastern Kentucky, comprising Somerset, London, and Corbin. The largest county in Kentucky, is Pike, which contains Pikeville, home of Hillbilly Days. It also contains the small towns of Elkhorn City, South Williamson, and Coal Run. Pike County contains nearly 70,000 people. Although only one town in the "Tri Cities", namely Somerset, currently has more than 10,000 people, the area has been experiencing heightened population and job growth since the 1990s. Growth has been especially rapid in Laurel County, which outgrew areas such as Scott and Jessamine counties around Lexington or Shelby and Nelson Counties around Louisville. London is currently on pace to double its population in the 2000s from 5,692 in 2000 to 10,879 in 2010. London also landed a Wal-Mart distribution center in 1997, bringing thousands of jobs to the community. In northeast Kentucky, the greater Ashland area is an important transportation, manufacturing, and medical center. Iron and petroleum production, as well as the transport of coal by rail and barge, have been historical pillars of the region's economy. Due to a decline in the area's industrial base, Ashland has seen a sizable reduction in its population since 1990. The population of the area has since stabilized, however, with the medical service industry taking a greater role in the local economy. The Ashland area, including the counties of Boyd and Greenup, are part of the Huntington-Ashland, WV-KY-OH, Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA). As of the 2000 census, the MSA had a population of 288,649. About 20,000 of those people reside within the city limits of Ashland. Only three US states have capitals with smaller populations than Kentucky's Frankfort (pop. 27,408), those being Augusta, Maine (pop. 18,560), Pierre, South Dakota (pop. 13,876), and Montpelier, Vermont (pop. 8,035). Education The University of Kentucky is Kentucky's flagship university The University of Louisville is Kentucky's urban research university Kentucky maintains eight public four-year colleges and universities. The two major research institutions are the University of Kentucky, which is part of the land grant system, and the University of Louisville. Both combine for over 99% of endowment in the system and rank first or second in academic rankings and average ACT scores in the state system. The other six colleges in the state system are regional universities. The state's sixteen public two-year colleges have been governed by the Kentucky Community and Technical College System since the passage of the Postsecondary Education Improvement Act of 1997, commonly referred to as House Bill 1. Prior to the passage of House Bill 1, most of these colleges were under the control of the University of Kentucky. Berea College, located at the extreme southern edge of the Bluegrass below the Cumberland Plateau, was the first coeducational college in the South to admit both black and white students, doing so from its very establishment in 1855. Berea College: Learning, Labor, and Service This policy was successfully challenged in the United States Supreme Court in the case of Berea College v. Kentucky in 1908. Berea College v. Kentucky This decision effectively segregated Berea until the landmark Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. Kentucky has been the site of much educational reform over the past two decades. In 1989, the Kentucky Supreme Court ruled that the state's education system was unconstitutional. [Abstract of A Guide to the Kentucky Education Reform Act of 1990 - provided by Education Resources Information Center (ERIC)] The response of the General Assembly was passage of the Kentucky Education Reform Act (KERA) the following year. Years later, Kentucky has shown progress, but most agree that further reform is needed. Culture Old Louisville is the largest Victorian Historic neighborhood in the United States. Although Kentucky's culture is generally considered to be Southern, it is unique and also influenced by the Midwest and Southern Appalachia. The state is known for bourbon and whiskey distiling, tobacco, horse racing, and gambling. Kentucky is more similar to the Upper South in terms of ancestry which is predominantly American. Nevertheless, during the 19th century, the state Kentucky did receive a substantial number of German and Irish immigrants, who settled primarily in the Midwest. Only Maryland, Delaware, and West Virginia, all also border states, have higher German ancestry percentages than Kentucky among Census-defined Southern states. Kentucky was a slave state, and blacks once comprised over one-quarter of its population. However, it lacked the cotton plantation system and never had the same high percentage of African Americans as most other slave states. With less than 8% of its current population being black, Kentucky is rarely included in modern-day definitions of the Black Belt, despite a relatively significant rural African American population in the Central and Western areas of the state. Kentucky adopted the Jim Crow system of racial segregation in most public spheres after the Civil War, but the state never disenfranchised African American citizens to the level of the Deep South states, and it peacefully integrated its schools after the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education verdict, later adopting the first state civil rights act in the South in 1966. The biggest day in horse racing, the Kentucky Derby, is preceded by the two-week Kentucky Derby Festival in Louisville. Louisville also plays host to the Kentucky State Fair, the Kentucky Shakespeare Festival, and Southern gospel's annual highlight, the National Quartet Convention. Owensboro, Kentucky's third largest city, gives credence to its nickname of "Barbecue Capital of the World" by hosting the annual International Bar-B-Q Festival. Bowling Green, Kentucky's fifth largest city and home to the only assembly plant in the world that manufactures the Chevrolet Corvette, opened the National Corvette Museum in 1994. Old Louisville, the largest historic preservation district in the United States featuring Victorian architecture and the third largest overall, hosts the St. James Court Art Show, the largest outdoor art show in the United States. The neighborhood was also home to the Southern Exposition (1883–1887), which featured the first public display of Thomas Edison's light bulb, and was the setting of Alice Hegan Rice's novel, Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch and Fontaine Fox's comic strip, the "Toonerville Trolley. The more rural communities are not without traditions of their own, however. Hodgenville, the birthplace of Abraham Lincoln, hosts the annual Lincoln Days Celebration, and will also host the kick-off for the National Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Celebration in February 2008. Bardstown celebrates its heritage as a major bourbon-producing region with the Kentucky Bourbon Festival. (Legend holds that Baptist minister Elijah Craig invented bourbon with his black slave in Georgetown, but some dispute this claim.) Glasgow mimics Glasgow, Scotland by hosting the Glasgow Highland Games, its own version of the Highland Games, and Sturgis hosts "Little Sturgis", a mini version of Sturgis, South Dakota's annual Sturgis Motorcycle Rally. The residents of tiny Benton even pay tribute to their favorite tuber, the sweet potato, by hosting Tater Day. Residents of Clarkson in Grayson County celebrate their city's ties to the honey industry by celebrating the Clarkson Honeyfest. The Clarkson Honeyfest is held the last Thursday, Friday and Saturday in September, and is the "Official State Honey Festival of Kentucky." Music The breadth of music in Kentucky is indeed wide, stretching from the Purchase to the eastern mountains. Renfro Valley, Kentucky is home to Renfro Valley Entertainment Center and the Kentucky Music Hall of Fame and is known as "Kentucky's Country Music Capital," a designation given it by the Kentucky State Legislature in the late 1980s. The Renfro Valley Barn Dance was where Renfro Valley's musical heritage began, in 1939, and influential country music luminaries like Red Foley, Homer & Jethro, Lily May Ledford & the Original Coon Creek Girls, Martha Carson, and many others have performed as regular members of the shows there over the years. The Renfro Valley Gatherin' is today America's second oldest continually broadcast radio program of any kind. It is broadcast on local radio station WRVK and a syndicated network of nearly 200 other stations across the United States and Canada every week. Contemporary Christian music star Steven Curtis Chapman is a Paducah native, and Rock and Roll Hall of Famers The Everly Brothers are closely connected with Muhlenberg County, where older brother Don was born. Kentucky was also home to Mildred and Patty Hill, the Louisville sisters credited with composing the tune to the ditty Happy Birthday to You in 1893; Loretta Lynn (Johnson County), and Billy Ray Cyrus (Flatwoods). However, its depth lies in its signature sound — Bluegrass music. Bill Monroe, "The Father of Bluegrass", was born in the small Ohio County town of Rosine, while Ricky Skaggs, Keith Whitley, David "Stringbean" Akeman, Louis Marshall "Grandpa" Jones, Sonny and Bobby Osborne, and Sam Bush (who has been compared to Monroe) all hail from Kentucky. The International Bluegrass Music Museum is located in Owensboro, while the annual Festival of the Bluegrass is held in Lexington. Kentucky is also home to famed jazz musician and pioneer, Lionel Hampton (although this has been disputed in recent years). Blues legend W.C. Handy and R&B singer Wilson Pickett also spent considerable time in Kentucky. The pop bands Midnight Star and Nappy Roots were both formed in Kentucky, as were country acts The Kentucky Headhunters, Montgomery Gentry and Halfway to Hazard, as well as Dove Award-winning Christian groups Audio Adrenaline (rock) and Bride (metal). Indy rock band "My Morning Jacket" with lead singer and guitarist Jim James also originated out of Louisville, on the local independent music Scene. Cuisine The Hot Brown was first served at Louisville's Brown Hotel Kentucky's cuisine, like much of the state's culture, is unique and is considered to blend elements of both the South and Midwest, given its location between the two regions. Southern Recipes - Southern Food and Recipes International Institute of Culinary Arts One original Kentucky dish is called the Hot Brown, a dish normally layered in this order: toasted bread, turkey, bacon, tomatoes and topped with mornay sauce. It was developed at the Brown Hotel in Louisville. The Pendennis Club in Louisville is the birthplace of the Old Fashioned cocktail. Harland Sanders originated Kentucky Fried Chicken at his service station in Corbin, Kentucky, though the first franchised KFC was located in South Salt Lake City, Utah Jenifer K. Nii (2004). "Colonel's landmark KFC is mashed". Deseret Morning News. http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0,1249,595057690,00.html. Retrieved on October 28 2007. Sports Kentucky's Churchill Downs hosts the Kentucky Derby. Kentucky is the home of several sports teams such as Minor League Baseball's Class A Lexington Legends and AAA Louisville Bats. They are also home to the Frontier Leagues Florence Freedom and several teams in the MCFL. The Lexington Horsemen and Louisville Fire of the af2 appear to be interested in making a move up to the "major league" Arena Football League. Major league teams in nearby cities, typically have strong fan support depending on the part of the state, with Nashville teams having strong fan support in South Central and most of Western Kentucky, Nashville and St. Louis teams competing for loyalties in the Purchase, Indianapolis, Cincinnati and Chicago teams predominating in the Louisville area, and Cincinnati teams having strong support in Central and Eastern Kentucky. The northern part of the state lies across the Ohio River from Cincinnati, which is home to a National Football League team, the Bengals, and a Major League Baseball team, the Reds. It is not uncommon for fans to park in the city of Newport and use the Newport Southbank Pedestrian Bridge, locally known as the "Purple People Bridge," to walk to these games in Cincinnati. Many restaurants and stores in Newport rely on business from these fans. Also, Georgetown College in Georgetown is the location for the Bengals' summer training camp. As in many states, especially those without major league professional sport teams, college athletics are very important. This is especially true of the state's three Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) programs, including the Kentucky Wildcats, the Western Kentucky University Hilltoppers, and the Louisville Cardinals. The Wildcats, Hilltoppers, and Cardinals are among the most tradition-rich college basketball teams in the United States, combining for nine championships and 22 NCAA Final Fours; and all three are on the lists of total all-time wins, wins per season, and average wins per season. The Kentucky Wildcats are particularly notable, leading all Division I programs in all time wins, win percentage, NCAA tournament appearances, and being second only to UCLA in NCAA championships. Louisville has also stepped onto the football scene in recent years, with eight straight bowl games, including the 2007 Orange Bowl. Western Kentucky, the 2002 national champion in Division I-AA football (now Division I Football Championship Subdivision (FCS), is currently transitioning to Division I FBS football. Ohio Valley Wrestling in Louisville was the primary location for training and rehab for WWE professional wrestlers from 2000 until February 2008, when WWE ended its relationship with OVW and moved all of its contracted talent to Florida Championship Wrestling. State symbols InsigniaSymbolBinomial nomenclatureYear Adopted Official State BirdCardinalCardinalis cardinalis1926Official State ButterflyViceroy ButterflyLimenitis archippus1990Official State DanceClogging2001Official State BeverageMilk2005Official State FishKentucky Spotted BassMicropterus punctulatus2005Official State FossilBrachiopodundetermined1986Official State FlowerGoldenrodSoldiago gigantea1926Official State FruitBlackberryRubus allegheniensis2004Official State GemstoneFreshwater Pearl 1986State GrassKentucky BluegrassPoa pratensisTraditionalOfficial State Latin Motto "Deo gratiam habeamus" ("Let us be grateful to God")2002Official State HorseThoroughbredEquus caballus1996Official State MineralCoal1998Official State Outdoor Musical"The Stephen Foster Story" (now called "Stephen Foster - The Musical")2002Official State InstrumentAppalachian Dulcimer2001State Nickname"The Bluegrass State"TraditionalOfficial State RockKentucky Agate2000 Official State Slogan"Kentucky: Unbridled Spirit"2004 Official State SoilCrider Soil Series 1990Official State TreeTulip PoplarLiriodendron tulipifera1994Official Wild Animal Game SpeciesGray SquirrelSciurus carolinensis1968Official State Song"My Old Kentucky Home" (revised version)1986Official State Silverware PatternOld Kentucky Blue Grass: The Georgetown Pattern1996 Official State MusicBluegrass music2007 Official state places and events State arboretum: Bernheim Arboretum and Research Forest State botanical garden: The Arboretum: State Botanical Garden of Kentucky State Science Center: Louisville Science Center State center for celebration of African American heritage: Kentucky Center for African American Heritage State honey festival: Clarkson Honeyfest State amphitheater: Iroquois Amphitheater (Louisville) State tug-o-war championship: The Fordsville Tug-of-War Championship Covered Bridge Capital of Kentucky: Fleming County Official Covered Bridge of Kentucky: Switzer Covered Bridge (Franklin County) Official steam locomotive of Kentucky: "Old 152" (located in the Kentucky Railway Museum in New Haven) Official pipe band: Louisville Pipe Band State bourbon festival: Kentucky Bourbon Festival, Incorporated, of Bardstown, Kentucky Unless otherwise specified, all state symbol information is taken from Kentucky State Symbols. Gallery See also Index of Kentucky-related articles References Bibliography Politics Miller, Penny M. Kentucky Politics & Government: Do We Stand United? (1994) Jewell, Malcolm E. and Everett W. Cunningham, Kentucky Politics (1968) History Surveys and reference Bodley, Temple and Samuel M. Wilson. History of Kentucky 4 vols. (1928). Caudill, Harry M., Night Comes to the Cumberlands (1963). ISBN 0-316-13212-8 Channing, Steven. Kentucky: A Bicentennial History (1977). Clark, Thomas Dionysius. A History of Kentucky (many editions, 1937–1992). Collins, Lewis. History of Kentucky (1880). Harrison, Lowell H. and James C. Klotter. A New History of Kentucky (1997). Kleber, John E. et al. The Kentucky Encyclopedia (1992), standard reference history. Klotter, James C. Our Kentucky: A Study of the Bluegrass State (2000), high school text Lucas, Marion Brunson and Wright, George C. A History of Blacks in Kentucky 2 vols. (1992). Notable Kentucky African Americans http://www.uky.edu/Subject/aakyall.html Share, Allen J. Cities in the Commonwealth: Two Centuries of Urban Life in Kentucky (1982). Wallis, Frederick A. and Hambleton Tapp. A Sesqui-Centennial History of Kentucky 4 vols. (1945). Ward, William S., A Literary History of Kentucky (1988) (ISBN 0-87049-578-X). WPA, Kentucky: A Guide to the Bluegrass State (1939), classic guide. Specialized scholarly studies Bakeless, John. Daniel Boone, Master of the Wilderness (1989) Blakey, George T. Hard Times and New Deal in Kentucky, 1929–1939 (1986) Coulter, E. Merton. The Civil War and Readjustment in Kentucky (1926) Davis, Alice. "Heroes: Kentucky's Artists from Statehood to the New Millennium" (2004) Ellis, William E. The Kentucky River (2000). Faragher, John Mack. Daniel Boone (1993) Fenton, John H. Politics in the Border States: A Study of the Patterns of Political Organization, and Political Change, Common to the Border States: Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri (1957) Ireland, Robert M. The County in Kentucky History (1976) Klotter, James C. Kentucky: Portrait in Paradox, 1900–1950 (1992) Pearce, John Ed. Divide and Dissent: Kentucky Politics, 1930–1963 (1987) Remini, Robert V. Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (1991). Sonne, Niels Henry. Liberal Kentucky, 1780–1828 (1939) Tapp, Hambleton and James C Klotter. Kentucky Decades of Discord, 1865–1900 (1977) Townsend, William H. Lincoln and the Bluegrass: Slavery and Civil War in Kentucky (1955) Waldrep, Christopher Night Riders: Defending Community in the Black Patch, 1890–1915 (1993) tobacco wars External links Kentucky.gov: My New Kentucky Home Kentucky State Databases - Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Kentucky state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. Kentucky Department of Tourism The Kentucky Highlands Project USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Kentucky Energy & Environmental Data for Kentucky Kentucky State Facts Kentucky: Unbridled Spirit Kentucky Virtual Library "Science In Your Backyard: Kentucky" U.S. Department of the Interior | U.S. Geological Survey, July 3, 2006, retrieved November 4, 2006 U.S. Census Bureau Kentucky QuickFacts Interactive Kentucky for Kids
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4,778
Moses_Amyraut
Moïse Amyraut Moses Amyraut (September, 1596 – January 8, 1664), also known as Amyraldus, was a French Protestant theologian and metaphysician. He is perhaps most noted for his modifications to Calvinist theology regarding the nature of Christ's atonement, which is referred to as Amyraldism or Amyraldianism. Life Born at Bourgueil, in the valley of the Changeon in the province of Anjou, his father was a lawyer, and, preparing him Moses for his own profession, sent him, on the completion of his study of the humanities at Orléans to the university of Poitiers. At the university he took the degree of licentiate (BA) of laws. On his way home from the university he passed through Saumur, and, having visited the pastor of the Protestant church there, was introduced by him to Philippe de Mornay, governor of the city. Struck with young Amyraut's ability and culture, they both urged him to change from law to theology. His father advised him to revise his philological and philosophical studies, and read over Calvin's Institutions, before finally determining a course. He did so, and decided for theology. He moved to the Academy of Saumur and studied under John Cameron, who ultimately regarded him as his greatest scholar. He had a brilliant course, and was in due time licensed as a minister of the French Protestant Church. The contemporary civil wars and excitements hindered his advancement. His first church was in Saint-Aignan, in the province of Maine. There he remained two years. The eminent theologian Jean Daillé, being then removed to Paris, advised the church at Saumur to secure Amyraut as his successor, praising him "as above himself." The university of Saumur at the same time had fixed its eyes on him as professor of theology. The great churches of Paris and Rouen also contended for him, and to win him sent their deputies to the provincial synod of Anjou. Amyraut had left the choice to the synod. He was appointed to Saumur in 1633, and to the professor's chair along with the pastorate. On the occasion of his inauguration he maintained for thesis De Sacerdotio Christi. His co-professors were Louis Cappel and Josué de la Place, who also were Cameron's pupils. Very beautiful was the lifelong friendship of these three remarkable men, who collaborated in the Theses Salmurienses, a collection of theses propounded by candidates in theology prefaced by the inaugural addresses of the three professors. Full of energy, Amyraut very speedily gave to French Protestantism a new force. In 1631 he published his Traité des religions; and from this year onward he was a foremost man in the church. Chosen to represent the provincial synod of Anjou, Touraine and Maine at the national synod held in 1631 at Charenton, he was appointed as orator to present to the king The Copy of their Complaints and Grievances for the Infractions and Violations of the Edict of Nantes. Previous deputies had addressed the king on their bent knees, whereas the representatives of the Catholics had been permitted to stand. Amyraut consented to be orator only if the assembly authorized him to stand. There was intense resistance. Cardinal Richelieu himself, preceded by lesser dignitaries, condescended to visit Amyraut privately, to persuade him to kneel; but Amyraut held resolutely to his point and carried it. His "oration" on this occasion, which was immediately published in the French Mercure, remains a striking landmark in the history of French Protestantism. During his absence on this matter the assembly debated "whether the Lutherans who desired it, might be admitted into communion with the Reformed Churches of France at the Lord's Table." It was decided in the affirmative previous to his return; but he approved with astonishing eloquence, and thereafter was ever in the front rank in maintaining intercommunion between all churches holding the main doctrines of the Reformation. Pierre Bayle recounts the title-pages of no fewer than thirty-two books of which Amyraut was the author. These show that he took part in all the great controversies on predestination and Arminianism which then so agitated and harassed all Europe. Substantially he held fast the Calvinism of his preceptor Cameron; but, like Richard Baxter in England, by his breadth and charity he exposed himself to all manner of misconstruction. In 1634 he published his Traité de la predestination, in which he tried to mitigate the harsh features of predestination by his Universalismus hypotheticus. God, he taught, predestines all men to happiness on condition of their having faith. This gave rise to a charge of heresy, of which he was acquitted at the national synod held at Alençon in 1637, and presided over by Benjamin Basnage (1580-1652). The charge was brought up again at the national synod of Charenton in 1644, when he was again acquitted. A third attack at the synod of Loudun in 1659 met with no better success. The university of Saumur became the university of French Protestantism. Amyraut had as many as a hundred students in attendance upon his lectures. One of these was William Penn, who would later go on to found the Pennsylvania Colony in America based in part on Amyraut's notions of religious freedom. Another historic part filled by Amyraut was in the negotiations originated by Pierre le Gouz de la Berchère (1600-1653), first president of the parlement of Grenoble, when exiled to Saumur, for a reconciliation and reunion of the Catholics of France with the French Protestants. Very large were the concessions made by Richelieu in his personal interviews with Amyraut; but, as with the Worcester House negotiations in England between the Church of England and nonconformists, they inevitably fell through. On all sides the statesmanship and eloquence of Amyraut were conceded. His De l'elevation de la foy et de l'abaissement de la raison en la creance des mysteres de la religion (1641) gave him early a high place as a metaphysician. Exclusive of his controversial writings, he left behind him a very voluminous series of practical evangelical books, which have long remained the "fireside" favourites of the peasantry of French Protestantism. Amongst these are Estat des fideles apres la mort; Sur l'oraison dominicale; Du merite des oeuvres; Traité de la justification; and paraphrases of books of the Old and New Testament. His closing years were weakened by a severe fall he met with in 1657. He died on 18 January 1664. Seventeenth century opponents There were a number of theologians who defended Calvinistic orthodoxy against Amyraut and Saumur, including Friedrich Spanheim (1600–1649) and Francis Turretin (1623–1687). Ultimately, the Helvetic Consensus was drafted to counteract the theology of Saumur and Amyraldism. References Edm. Saigey, Moses Amyraut, sa vie et ses écrits (1849) Alex. Schweizer in Tüb. theol. Jahrbb., 1852, pp. 41 ff. 155 ff., Protestant. Central-Dogmen (1854 ff.), ii. 225 ff., and in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie Bayle, s.v.; Biog. Univ., s.v. John Quick's Synod. in Gall. Reform. pp. 352-357 ibid. MS. Icones Sacrae Gallicanae: Life of Cameron See also Amyraldism Richard Baxter
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4,779
Showdown_(poker)
In poker, the showdown is when, if more than one player remains after the last betting round, remaining players expose and compare their hands to determine the winner or winners. To win any part of a pot if more than one player has a hand, a player must show all of his cards faceup on the table, whether they were used in the final hand played or not. Cards speak for themselves: the actual value of a player's hand prevails in the event a player mis-states the value of his hand. Robert's Rules of Poker by Bob Ciaffone is a widely referenced set of poker rules. Because exposing a losing hand gives information to an opponent, players may be reluctant to expose their hands until after their opponents have done so and will muck their losing hands without exposing them. Robert's Rules of Poker state that the last player to take aggressive action by a bet or raise is the first to show the hand, otherwise the first player to the left of the dealer button is the first to show the hand. If there is a side pot, players involved in the side pot should show their hands before anyone who is all-in for only the main pot. To speed up the game, a player holding a probable winner is encouraged to show the hand without delay. Any player who has been dealt in may request to see any hand that is eligible to participate in the showdown, even if the hand has been mucked. This option is generally only used when a player suspects collusion or some other sort of cheating by other players. When the privilege is abused by a player (i.e. the player does not suspect cheating, but asks to see the cards just to get insight on another player's style or betting patterns), he may be warned by the dealer, or even removed from the table. There has been a recent trend in public cardroom rules to limit the ability of players to request to see mucked losing hands at the showdown. Specifically, some cardrooms only grant the right to view a mucked losing hand if the requesting player articulates a concern about possible collusion. Under such rules, players do not have an inherent right to view mucked hands. Showdown Shame - Part 1 article in Card Player Magazine by Bob Ciaffone. Showdown Shame - Part 2 article in Card Player Magazine by Bob Ciaffone. Showdown Shame - Part 3 article in Card Player Magazine by Bob Ciaffone. 'I Want to See That Hand': Several cardrooms redefine a rule article in Card Player Magazine by Mike O'Malley. Because the act of folding a losing hand rather than showing it down is so common, some players can take advantage of others who do this with a rare play called a call-bluff. For example, if you know that a player always folds rather than showing his hand if he was bluffing, you might call his last bet even with a hand inferior to the one you suspect him of bluffing with, expecting that he will simply fold before he sees that you don't actually have him beat. References
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4,780
Michael_Nesmith
Robert Michael Nesmith (b. December 30, 1942) in Harris County, Texas, Texas Birth Index 1903-97 showing : "Robert Michael Nesmith, born 30 December 1942, Harris County, father Warren Audrey Nesmith, mother Bette Clair McMurray. ] is an American musician, songwriter, actor, producer, novelist, businessman, and philanthropist, perhaps best known for his time in the musical group The Monkees and on the TV series of the same name. Michael Nesmith is also notable as a songwriter, including "Different Drum" sung by Linda Ronstadt with the Stone Poneys, as well as executive producer of the cult film Repo Man. Nesmith won the first Grammy Award (1981) given for Video of the Year for his hour-long Elephant Parts. Biography Nesmith was an only child, and his parents, Warren Audrey Nesmith and Bette Nesmith Graham, separated when he was very young. With his father gone, Nesmith's mother worked as a secretary. Their fortunes changed when Bette invented a typewriter correction fluid later known commercially as Liquid Paper. Nesmith was an indifferent student, and in his teen years an occasional prankster. An urban legend says a prank with a firecracker went wrong, leaving Nesmith with a hand injury, and that a doctor suggested he learn to play guitar to recover his dexterity (the incident never actually happened). Michael Nesmith. Snopes.com. An early accident with a hammer smashed the ring finger on Nesmith's right hand, and he did not learn to play guitar until his twenties. He did, however, participate in choral and drama activities during his years at Thomas Jefferson High School in Dallas. The Monkees: Mike Nesmith biography from Rhino Records He also began to write verse poetry. In 1962, Nesmith's mother married Robert Graham, triggering a rebellious phase for Nesmith. He took the family car without permission and drove to California. Upon his return, he discovered that his mother had enlisted him in the U.S. Air Force. Nesmith was stationed at Sheppard Air Force Base in Wichita Falls, Texas and he later claimed that he had been discharged after he tipped over a general's airplane while washing it. After leaving the Air Force, Nesmith obtained a G.E.D. and then moved in with an uncle, Chick Adair. Nesmith enrolled in San Antonio College, where he met John Kuehne (later to be known as John London) and began a musical collaboration. He also met 16-year-old Phyllis Ann Barbour, whom he later married. During this time John Kuehne decided to move to Los Angeles to pursue a musical career, and Nesmith decided to follow him. Nesmith and Barbour moved back and forth from Texas. Nesmith landed a role in the Monkees pilot, which was filmed in October 1965. In late 1967, Barbour was pregnant with the Nesmiths' second child when she suffered a head injury in a car accident. Because they were practicing Christian Scientists, they decided to just rest instead of seeking medical treatment. Their second son, Jonathan, was born in February 1968. Nesmith was divorced and remarried to Kathryn Bild from 1976 to 1988. In 2000, he married Victoria Kennedy. Career Early work After a tour of duty in the Air Force, Nesmith won a singing spot with a band by knowing a number of Chuck Berry's songs. He bought a guitar with his parents' help, learning as he went, and joined a series of working bands, performing folk, country, and occasionally rock and roll. His verse poems became the basis for song lyrics, and after moving to Los Angeles with Phyllis and friend John London, he published a number of his own songs. Nesmith's "Mary, Mary" was recorded by the Paul Butterfield Blues Band, while "Different Drum" was recorded by Linda Ronstadt and the Stone Poneys. "Pretty Little Princess", written in 1965, was recorded by Frankie Laine and released as a single in 1968 on ABC Records. Later, "Some Of Shelly's Blues" and "Propinquity (I've Just Begun To Care)" were made popular by the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band on their 1970 album Uncle Charlie & His Dog Teddy. Nesmith began his recording career in 1965 with a one-off single released on Edan Records. He followed with two singles recorded under the name "Michael Blessing", released on Colpix Records—coincidentally also the label of Davy Jones, though they had not met. The Monkees From 1965 to early 1970, Nesmith and Jones were members of the pop rock band The Monkees, created for the television situation comedy of the same name. The only Monkee to learn of the audition from the famous press advertisement asking for "four insane boys", Nesmith won his role largely by appearing blasé when he auditioned. He further distinguished himself by carrying a bag of laundry to be done on the way home, and wearing a wool cap to keep his hair out of his eyes, riding his motorcycle to the audition. Producers Bob Rafelson and Bert Schneider remembered "Wool Hat", and called Nesmith back. Once he was cast, Screen Gems bought his songs so they could be used in the show. Many of the songs Nesmith wrote for The Monkees, such as "The Girl I Knew Somewhere", "Mary, Mary", and "Listen to the Band" became minor hits. One song he wrote, "You Just May Be The One," is in mixed meter, interspersing 5/4 bars into an otherwise 4/4 structure. The Gretsch guitar company built a one-off natural finish 12-string electric guitar for Nesmith when he was performing with The Monkees (Gretsch had a promotional deal with the group). The custom-made Gretsch guitar (natural finish 12-string electric guitar) that was frequently cited at that time as being worth $5,000—the equivalent of over $30,000 in 2008 dollars—which was undoubtedly inflated for publicity purposes. He earlier played a customized Gretsch twelve-string, which had originally been a six-string model. As with the other Monkees, Nesmith came to be frustrated by the manufactured image of the whole project. He was permitted to write and produce two songs per album, and his music was frequently featured in episodes of the series. Nesmith (far left) with the Monkees in 1967. The Monkees succeeded in ousting supervisor Don Kirshner (with Nesmith punching a hole in a wall, to make a point with Kirshner and attorney Herb Moelis), and took control of their records and song choices, but they worked as a four-man group on only one album. The band never overcame the credibility problems they faced when word spread that they had not played on their first records (at Nesmith's instigation, calling the band's first non-studio press conference, where he called More of The Monkees "probably the worst record in the history of the world"). However, their singles and albums continued to sell well, until the disastrous release of Head. Nesmith's last Monkees commitment was a Kool-Aid commercial, in April 1970. With the band's fortunes continuing to fall, Nesmith asked to be released from his contract, and had to pay a default: "I had three years left...at $150,000 a year," which he had to pay back. He continued to feel the financial bite for years afterwards, telling Playboy in 1980 "I had to start telling little tales to the tax man while they were putting tags on the furniture.". Indeed, while Nesmith had continued to produce his compositions with the Monkees, he withheld many of the songs from the final Monkees' albums, only to release them on his post-Monkees solo records. Later career As he prepared for his exit from The Monkees, Nesmith was approached by John Ware of The Corvettes, a band that featured Nesmith's friend John London (who played on some of the earliest pre-Monkees Nesmith 45s as well as numerous Monkees sessions) and had 45s produced by Nesmith for the Dot label in 1969. Ware wanted Nesmith to put together a band. Nesmith said he would be interested only if noted pedal steel player Orville "Red" Rhodes would be a part of the project, and a long musical partnership was born that would continue until Rhodes' untimely death in 1995. The new band was christened Michael Nesmith and the First National Band and went on to record three albums for RCA Records in 1970. Nesmith has been considered one of the pioneers of country-rock (along with Gram Parsons) and had moderate commercial success with the First National Band. Their second single, Joanne hit #21 on the Billboard chart & #17 on Cashbox, with the follow-up "Silver Moon" making #42 Billboard/#28 Cashbox. Two more singles charted ("Nevada Fighter" #70 Billboard/#73 Cashbox & "Propinquity" #95 Cashbox) and the first two LP's charted in the lower regions of the Billboard album chart. No clear answer has ever been given for the band's breakup, the albums they recorded remain on par with the Flying Burrito Brothers, Poco and New Riders of the Purple Sage as some of the best country-rock music. Nesmith followed up with the Second National Band, a band that besides Nesmith, consisted of Michael Cohen (keyboards and Moog), Johnny Meeks (bass), Jack Panelli (drums) and the always present Orville Rhodes (pedal steel), as well as an appearance by singer, musician, and songwriter José Feliciano (conga drums). The album, Tantamount to Treason, Volume I, was a commercial and critical disaster. Nesmith then recorded And The Hits Just Keep On Comin, featuring only him on guitar and Red Rhodes on pedal steel. Nesmith got more heavily involved in producing, and was given a label of his own through Elektra Records, Countryside. It featured a number of artists that were produced by Nesmith, including Garland Frady and Red Rhodes. The staff band at Countryside also helped Nesmith on his next, and last, RCA album, Pretty Much Your Standard Ranch Stash. In the mid-1970s Nesmith briefly collaborated as a songwriter with Linda Hargrove, resulting in the tune "I've Never Loved Anyone More," a hit for Lynn Anderson and recorded by many others, as well as the songs "Winonah" and "If You Will Walk With Me" which were both recorded by Hargrove. Of all three songs, only "Winonah" was recorded by Nesmith himself. During this same period, Nesmith started his multimedia company Pacific Arts, which initially put out audio records, 8-tracks and cassettes, followed in 1981 with "video records." Nesmith recorded a number of LPs for his label, and had a moderate worldwide hit in 1977 with his song "Rio", the single taken from the album From A Radio Engine To The Photon Wing. More importantly, Nesmith created a video clip for "Rio" which, in a roundabout way, helped spur Nesmith's creation of a television program called Pop Clips for the Nickelodeon cable network. The concept was sold to Time Warner/Amex, who developed it into the MTV network. His single "Cruisin'" was the first video of the MTV generation. Nesmith also won the first Grammy Award (1981) given for Video of the Year for his hour-long Elephant Parts and also had a short-lived series inspired by the video called "Television Parts". Pacific Arts Video became a pioneer in the home video market, producing and distributing a wide variety of videotaped programs. Pacific Arts eventually ceased operations after an acrimonious contract dispute with PBS over home video licensing rights and payments for several series, including Ken Burns' The Civil War. On February 3, 1999, a jury awarded Nesmith $46.8 million in compensatory and punitive damages, prompting his widely-quoted comment, "It's like finding your grandmother stealing your stereo. You're happy to get your stereo back, but it's sad to find out your grandmother is a thief." PBS appealed the ruling and a settlement was reached with the results kept confidential. He was the executive producer for the movies Repo Man, Tapeheads, and Timerider, as well as his own solo recording and film projects. In 1998, Nesmith published his first novel, The Long Sandy Hair of Neftoon Zamora. His new album, Rays was released on April 4, 2006. Since 1990, Nesmith has hosted the Council on Ideas, a gathering of intellectuals from different fields who are asked to brainstorm solutions to world problems. In 1992, Nesmith undertook a concert tour of North America to promote the CD release of his RCA solo albums (although he included the song "Rio", from the album From a Radio Engine to the Photon Wing. The concert tour ended at the Britt Festival in Oregon. A video, Live at the Britt Festival, and a CD, Live at the Britt Festival were released capturing the 1992 concert allmusic ((( Live at the Britt Festival [Video/DVD] > Overview ))) . In 1995, he reunited with the Monkees to record their last studio album (and first to feature all four since Head) titled Justus, released in 1996. He also wrote and directed a Monkees television special, and briefly toured the UK with the band in 1997. He re-departed when the tour came to America later in the year, following media criticism of his recent stage performances. Nesmith spent a decade as a board of trustees member and nominating member of the American Film Institute and is currently President and chairman of the board of trustees of the Gihon Foundation. Nesmith's current project is Videoranch 3D, a virtual environment on the internet that hosts live performances at various virtual venues inside the Ranch. He performed live inside Videoranch 3D on May 25, 2009. (http://www.videoranch.com/html/musicrise.html) Associations Michael Nesmith is associated with other notable people, organizations, and rock bands, besides The Monkees and First National Band: Nesmith was good friends with late author Douglas Adams, whose body of work includes The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. Nesmith is an avid archivist of early music videos, the bulk of which comprised the rotation of Video Concert Hall and early MTV. The Tragically Hip took their name from a skit in Nesmith's long-form video Elephant Parts. Nesmith is also known as "Papa Nez". (Or, simply, "Nez/Nes".) The back sleeve of Tantamount to Treason contains the "papa nes home-brew recipe" (for beer). It also contains a warning and a line with the text "autoclaving turns this line brown." Nesmith is exactly three years older than fellow Monkee Davy Jones and twelve years younger than fellow First National Band member Orville "Red" Rhodes, who both share his birthday: December 30. Other appearances Nesmith had a cameo appearance as a taxi driver in the Whoopi Goldberg film Burglar. In a promotional video to support for Pacific Arts' video release of "Tapeheads," Michael Nesmith is introduced with a voice-over making fun of his Monkees persona. The narration teases Nesmith, who approaches the camera to speak by poking fun of his "missing hat". An opportunistic lookalike from the US cashed in on his similarity to Nesmith by appearing on talk shows and doing interviews in Australia during the 1980s. The scam was successful, the lookalike being far enough from home to avoid detection as a fraud, as could happen in the US where the real Nesmith has many media and show-business acquaintances. An entertaining interviewee, the impersonator had the last laugh, his charade not being discovered until after he had fled Australia. Discography U.S. Singles DateLabel/Catalog #Titles (A-side / B-side)Billboard Top SinglesCashboxBillboard Adult ContempNotes 1963 Highness HN-13 Wanderin' / Well Well - - - <small>Credited as "Mike Nesmith." Vanity pressing. 1963 Omnibus 239 How Can You Kiss Me / Just A Little Love - - - <small>Credited as "Mike & John & Bill." John London is the bassist, later of Nesmith's First National Band. Bill Sleeper is the drummer. (The trio broke up when Sleeper was drafted into the US Army.) 01/1966 Edan 1001 Just A Little Love / Curson Terrace - - - <small>A-side is same as Omnibus 239. B-side is credited to "Mike & Tony" and has no Nesmith involvement. 10/1965 Colpix CP-787 The New Recruit / A Journey With Michael Blessing - - - <small>Credited to "Michael Blessing." 01/1966 Colpix CP-792 Until It's Time For You To Go / What Seems To Be The Trouble Officer - - - <small>Credited to "Michael Blessing." 04/1966 RCA 47-8807 Do Not Ask For Love / Buttermilk - - - <small>Credited to "The New Society." A-side has no Nesmith involvement. B-side was verified by Bill Chadwick, member of the group, as having Nesmith as a background vocalist. 07/1968 Dot 45-17152 Tapioca Tundra / Don't Cry Now - - - <small>Credited to "The Wichita Train Whistle." Group was created and led by Nesmith, though he does not appear on the recordings as either musician or vocalist. "Don't Cry Now" is edited from LP version. 07/1970 RCA 47-9853 Little Red Rider / Rose City Chimes <center>- <center>- <center>- <small>Credited to "Michael Nesmith and the First National Band." 08/1970 RCA 74-0368 "Joanne"/ One Rose <center>21 <center>17 <center>6 <small>Credited to "Michael Nesmith and the First National Band." 11/1970 RCA 74-0399 Silver Moon / Lady of the Valley <center>42 <center>28 <center>7 <small>Credited to "Michael Nesmith and the First National Band." 04/1971 RCA 74-0453 Nevada Fighter / Here I Am <center>70 <center>73 <center>- <small>Credited to "Michael Nesmith and the First National Band." Issued with picture sleeve. 06/1971 RCA 74-0491 Texas Morning / Tumbling Tumbleweeds <center>- <center>- <center>- <small>Credited to "Michael Nesmith and the First National Band." Single released as promo with both songs on B-side and "Texas" only on A-side with release #SPS-45-263. 06/1971 RCA 74-0540 I've Just Begun To Care (Propinquity) / One Rose <center>- <center>95 <center>- <small>Credited to "Michael Nesmith and the First National Band." 01/1972 RCA 74-0629 Mama Rocker / Lazy Lady <center>- <center>- <center>- <small>Credited to "Michael Nesmith and the Second National Band." "Mama Rocker" is faded out early versus LP version. 08/1972 RCA 74-0804 Roll With The Flow / Keep On <center>- <center>- <center>- <small>"Roll With The Flow" is edited from LP version. 1976 RCA 447-0868 Joanne / Silver Moon <center>- <center>- <center>- <small>Reissue credited to "Michael Nesmith and the First National Band." Early pressings on red label, later pressings on black label. 03/1977 Pacific Arts WIP6373 Rio / Life, The Unsuspecting Captive <center>- <center>- <center>- <small> 06/1978 Pacific Arts PAC-101 Roll With The Flow / I've Just Begun To Care <center>- <center>- <center>- <small>Both songs are edited from the LP versions. 1978? Pacific Arts PAC-104 Rio / Casablanca Moonlight <center>- <center>- <center>- <small>Issued with picture sleeve. 06/1979 Pacific Arts PAC-106 Magic / Dance <center>- <center>- <center>- <small> 08/1979 Pacific Arts PAC-108 Cruisin' / Horserace <center>- <center>- <center>- <small> 1998 Collectibles COL-4759 Joanne / Silver Moon <center>- <center>- <center>- <small>Reissue. U.S. Albums DateLabel/Catalog #TitleHighest Billboard PositionNotes 07/1968 Dot 3861 (mono) / 25861 (stereo) The Wichita Train Whistle Sings 144 <small>Nesmith does not appear on this album vocally or instrumentally. Album is credited to "The Wichita Train Whistle." Mono release is promo-only. 07/1970 RCA LSP-4371 Magnetic South (album) 143 <small>Album is credited to "Michael Nesmith & The First National Band." Some copies came with a "Joanne" sticker on the shrink wrap. 11/1970 RCA LSP-4415 Loose Salute 159 <small>Album is credited to "Michael Nesmith & The First National Band." Some copies came with a circular sticker on the shrink wrap saying "Contains the hit single 'Silver Moon.'" 05/1971 RCA LSP-4497 Nevada Fighter - <small>Album is credited to "Michael Nesmith & The First National Band." 02/1972 RCA LSP-4563 Tantamount to Treason Vol. 1 - <small>Album is credited to "Michael Nesmith & The Second National Band." 08/1972 RCA LSP-4695 And the Hits Just Keep on Comin' - 10/1973 RCA ALPI-0164 Pretty Much Your Standard Ranch Stash - 03/1975 Pacific Arts PAC-101 The Prison - A Book with a Soundtrack - <small>Issued with 48-page book to be read while the LP is playing, allowing for a "soundtrack" to the story. Original copies issued in a box cover, while later copies came in a cardboard slip jacket. Some of these later copies had two stickers on the shrink, one saying "Michael Nesmith" and the other "Contains Record and 48-page Full Color Illustrated Book." Record was also sold in book stores. 02/1977 Pacific Arts PAC7-106 Compilation - 03/1977 Pacific Arts PAC7-107 / Pacific Arts ILPA-9184 From a Radio Engine to the Photon Wing - <small>Early pressings utilized the overseas catalog # ILPA-9184 used by Island Records. ??/1978 Pacific Arts PAC7-113 The Wichita Train Whistle Sings - <small>Reissue of 1968 Dot release with new album jacket design. ??/1978 Pacific Arts PAC7-116 And the Hits Just Keep on Comin' - <small>Reissue of 1972 RCA release with standard jacket (RCA release had gatefold jacket). ??/1978 Pacific Arts PAC7-117 Pretty Much Your Standard Ranch Stash - <small>Reissue of 1973 RCA release with standard jacket (RCA release had gatefold jacket). 08/1978 Pacific Arts PAC7-118 Live At The Palais - <small>Some copies came with a 3" circular sticker on the cover itself proclaiming "Contains the hit single 'Roll With The Flow.'" 05/1979 Pacific Arts PAC7-130 Infinite Rider on the Big Dogma 151 06/1979 Pacific Arts PAC7-1300 The Michael Nesmith Radio Special - <small>Promotional LP featuring all the tracks from "Infinite Rider on the Big Dogma" as well as interview snippets ??/1989 Rhino R1-70168 The Newer Stuff - <small>Contains five new tracks and five tracks from "Photon Wing" and "Infinite Rider." CD release featured additional tracks from the LP release. 1999 Cooking Vinyl Live at the Britt Festival - <small>Recorded live at the Britt Festival in Jacksonville, OR, in 1991. U.S. Non-compilation CD Releases Tropical Campfires (Pacific Arts/Island), (1994) The Garden (Rio), (1994) Timerider: The Adventure Of Lyle Swann (Soundtrack) (Rio), (2000)Rays (Rio) (2006) U.K. Compilation CD-ReleasesThe Newer Stuff (Rhino), (1989)Magnetic South & Loose Salute (Camden), (2008)Nevada Fighter & Tanatamount to Treason (Camden), (2008)And the Hits Just Keep on Commin' & Pretty Much Your Standard Ranch Stash (Camden), (2008)From a Radio Engine to the Photon Wing & Infinite Rider on the Big Dogma (Camden), (2008)The Wichita Train Whistle Sings & Timerider (Camden), (2008) VideoRio and Cruisin (1981)Elephant Parts (1981) (released on DVD 2003)The Television Parts Home Companion (1985)Dr. Duck's Super-Secret All-Purpose Sauce (1986)Nezmusic (1989)Live At The Britt Festival (1991) (released on DVD 1999)Pacific Arts (2008) (music and DVD released 2008) Bibliography Books (n.b. books proper - not including The Prison and The Garden)The Long Sandy Hair of Neftoon Zamora (1998) Audio BooksThe Long Sandy Hair of Neftoon Zamora'' (2004) (with Michael reading the story) References External links Videoranch 3D, a Mike Nesmith company Article in Wired magazine about Michael Nesmith and the Council on Ideas Michael Nesmith biography (Unofficial) Michael Nesmith Home Page SWINDLE Magazine Interview Michael Nesmith: Overcoming The Monkees at NPR.com
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4,781
Harrison_Schmitt
Harrison Hagan "Jack" Schmitt (born July 3, 1935) is an American geologist, a former NASA astronaut, University Professor and a U.S. Senator for one term. He is the last of the Apollo astronauts to arrive and set foot on the Moon (crewmate Eugene Cernan exited the Apollo Lunar Module first). However, as Schmitt re-entered the module first, Cernan became the last astronaut to walk on and depart the moon. He is also the first—and so far only—person to have walked on the Moon who was never a member of the United States Armed Forces (he is not the first civilian, as Neil Armstrong had retired from military service by the time of his landing in 1969). Early life and education Born in Santa Rita, New Mexico, Schmitt grew up in nearby Silver City. He received a B.S. degree in science from the California Institute of Technology in 1957 and then spent a year studying geology at the University of Oslo in Norway. He received a Ph.D. in geology from Harvard University in 1964. NASA career Before joining NASA as a member of the first group of scientist-astronauts in June 1965, he worked at the U.S. Geological Survey's Astrogeology Center at Flagstaff, Arizona, developing geological field techniques that would be used by the Apollo crews. Following his selection, Schmitt played a key role in training Apollo crews to be geologic observers when they were in lunar orbit and competent geologic field workers when they were on the lunar surface. After each of the landing missions, he participated in the examination and evaluation of the returned lunar samples and helped the crews with the scientific aspects of their mission reports. Schmitt posed with the American flag and Earth in the background during Apollo 17's first EVA. Eugene Cernan is visible reflected in Schmitt's helmet visor. Schmitt was the only geologist in the astronaut corps and had spent considerable time becoming proficient in the CSM and LM systems. In March 1970 he became the first of the scientist-astronauts to receive a crew assignment. Harrison Schmitt collects lunar specimens during the Apollo 17 mission He joined Richard F. Gordon, Jr. (Commander) and Vance Brand (Command Module Pilot) on the backup crew for Apollo 15 and was clearly in line to fly as Lunar Module Pilot on Apollo 18. After the cancellation of the Apollo 18 moon mission in September 1970, many people expected that he would be assigned to fly on Apollo 17, the last lunar mission. That assignment was announced in August 1971. During the Apollo 17 flight in December 1972, Schmitt probably took a photograph of the Earth called The Blue Marble, one of the most widely distributed photographic images in existence (NASA officially credits the image to the entire Apollo 17 crew, and Schmitt claims that he personally took the image.) As he returned to the Apollo Lunar Module before his crewmate Gene Cernan, Schmitt is the second to the last person to have set foot on the moon's surface. After the completion of Apollo 17, Schmitt played an active role in documenting the Apollo geologic results and also took on the task of organizing NASA's Energy Program Office. Post-NASA career In August 1975, Schmitt resigned from NASA to seek election as a Republican to the United States Senate representing New Mexico. Schmitt faced two-term Democratic incumbent, Joseph Montoya, whom he defeated 57% to 42%. He served one term and, notably, was the ranking Republican member of the Science, Technology, and Space Subcommittee. He sought a second term in 1982, but due to a deep recession and concerns that he wasn't paying attention to local matters, he was defeated in a re-election bid by the state Attorney General Jeff Bingaman by a 54% to 46% margin. Following his Senate term, he has been a consultant in business, geology, space, and public policy. He lives in Silver City, New Mexico, and spends some of his summer at his northern Minnesota lake cabin. He is also an advocate of returning to the moon (see Project Constellation), as the moon could be used as a source of helium-3, a rare isotope of helium that can be used as a fuel for nuclear fusion reactors. Schmitt is chair of the NASA Advisory Council, NASA Advisory Council whose mandate is to provide technical advice to the NASA Administrator. Schmitt is an adjunct professor of engineering physics at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Schmitt, Harrison J . He is the founder and serves as chairman of Interlune Intermars Initiative Inc., an organization whose goal is to advance the private sector’s acquisition and use of lunar resources. Schmitt in popular culture Schmitt was portrayed by Tom Amandes in the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon. Schmitt was mentioned in Maid in Arlen, an episode of King of the Hill. He appeared in an episode of the television show Bill Nye the Science Guy. Awards and honors He was made an honorary fellow of the Geological Society of America for his efforts in geoscience in 1984. Geological Society of America: Award & Medal Recipients One of the elementary schools in Schmitt's hometown of Silver City, New Mexico was named in his honor in the mid-1970s. An image of the astronaut riding a rocket through space is displayed on the front of Harrison Schmitt Elementary School. Media Schmitt is one of the astronauts featured in the documentary In the Shadow of the Moon. He also contributed to the book "NASA's Scientist-Astronauts" by David Shayler and Colin Burgess. References External links UW prof recounts '72 trip to moon Harrison Schmitt visits University of Malta in 2009 and Handaq School
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4,782
M._C._Escher
Maurits Cornelis Escher (17 June 1898 – 27 March 1972), usually referred to as M.C. Escher (), was a Dutch-Frisian graphic artist. He is known for his often mathematically-inspired woodcuts, lithographs, and mezzotints. These feature impossible constructions, explorations of infinity, architecture, and tessellations. Early life Maurits Cornelis, or "Mauk" as he came to be nicknamed, "We named him Maurits Cornelis after S.'s [Sara's] beloved uncle Van Hall, and called him 'Mauk' for short ....", Diary of Escher's father, quoted in M. C. Escher: His Life and Complete Graphic Work, Abradale Press, 1981, p. 9. was born in Leeuwarden, The Netherlands. He was the youngest son of civil engineer George Arnold Escher and his second wife, Sara Gleichman. He was a sickly child, and was placed in a special school at the age of seven and failed the second grade. In 1903, the family moved to Arnhem where he took carpentry and piano lessons until he was thirteen years old. From 1903 until 1918 he attended primary school and secondary school. Though he excelled at drawing, his grades were generally poor. In 1919, Escher attended the Haarlem School of Architecture and Decorative Arts. He briefly studied architecture, but he failed a number of subjects (partly due to a persistent skin infection) and switched to decorative arts. Here he studied under Samuel Jessurun de Mesquita, with whom he would remain friends for years. In 1922 Escher left the school, having gained experience in drawing and making woodcuts. Later life In 1922, an important year of his life, Escher traveled through Italy (Florence, San Gimignano, Volterra, Siena) and Spain (Madrid, Toledo, Granada). He was impressed by the Italian countryside and by the Alhambra, a fourteenth-century Moorish castle in Granada, Spain. He came back to Italy regularly in the following years. In Italy he met Jetta Umiker, whom he married in 1924. The young couple settled down in Rome and stayed there until 1935, when the political climate under Mussolini became unbearable. Their son, Giorgio Arnaldo Escher, named after his grandfather, was born in Rome. The family next moved to Château-d'Œx, Switzerland where they remained for two years. Escher, who had been very fond of and inspired by the landscapes in Italy, was decidedly unhappy in Switzerland, so in 1937, the family moved again, to Ukkel, a small town near Brussels, Belgium. World War II forced them to move in January 1941, this time to Baarn, the Netherlands, where Escher lived until 1970. Most of Escher's better-known pictures date from this period. The sometimes cloudy, cold, wet weather of the Netherlands allowed him to focus intently on his works, and only during 1962, when he underwent surgery, was there a time when no new images were created. Escher moved to the Rosa-Spier house in Laren in 1970, a retirement home for artists where he had his own studio. He died at the home on 27 March 1972, at 73 years of age. Works Drawing Hands, 1948 Escher's first print of an impossible reality was Still Life and Street, 1937. His artistic expression was created from images in his mind, rather than directly from observations and travels to other countries. Well known examples of his work also include Drawing Hands, a work in which two hands are shown, each drawing the other; Sky and Water, in which light plays on shadow to morph the water background behind fish figures into bird figures on a sky background; and Ascending and Descending, in which lines of people ascend and descend stairs in an infinite loop, on a construction which is impossible to build and possible to draw only by taking advantage of quirks of perception and perspective. He worked primarily in the media of lithographs and woodcuts, though the few mezzotints he made are considered to be masterpieces of the technique. In his graphic art, he portrayed mathematical relationships among shapes, figures and space. Additionally, he explored interlocking figures using black and white to enhance different dimensions. Integrated into his prints were mirror images of cones, spheres, cubes, rings and spirals. In addition to sketching landscape and nature in his early years, he also sketched insects, which frequently appeared in his later work. His first artistic work, completed in 1922, featured eight human heads divided in different planes. Later around 1924, he lost interest in "regular division" of planes, and turned to sketching landscapes in Italy with irregular perspectives that are impossible in natural form. Relativity, 1953 Although Escher did not have mathematical training—his understanding of mathematics was largely visual and intuitive—Escher's work had a strong mathematical component, and more than a few of the worlds which he drew are built around impossible objects such as the Necker cube and the Penrose triangle. Many of Escher's works employed repeated tilings called tessellations. Escher's artwork is especially well-liked by mathematicians and scientists, who enjoy his use of polyhedra and geometric distortions. For example, in Gravity, multi-colored turtles poke their heads out of a stellated dodecahedron. The mathematical influence in his work emerged around 1936, when he was journeying the Mediterranean with the Adria Shipping Company. Specifically, he became interested in order and symmetry. Escher described his journey through the Mediterranean as "the richest source of inspiration I have ever tapped." After his journey to the Alhambra, Escher tried to improve upon the art works of the Moors using geometric grids as the basis for his sketches, which he then overlaid with additional designs, mainly animals such as birds and lions. His first study of mathematics, which would later lead to its incorporation into his art works, began with George Pólya's academic paper on plane symmetry groups sent to him by his brother Berend. This paper inspired him to learn the concept of the 17 wallpaper groups (plane symmetry groups). Utilizing this mathematical concept, Escher created periodic tilings with 43 colored drawings of different types of symmetry. From this point on he developed a mathematical approach to expressions of symmetry in his art works. Starting in 1937, he created woodcuts using the concept of the 17 plane symmetry groups. Circle Limit III, 1959 In 1941, Escher wrote his first paper, now publicly recognized, called Regular Division of the Plane with Asymmetric Congruent Polygons, which detailed his mathematical approach to artwork creation. His intention in writing this was to aid himself in integrating mathematics into art. Escher is considered a research mathematician of his time because of his documentation with this paper. In it, he studied color based division, and developed a system of categorizing combinations of shape, color and symmetrical properties. By studying these areas, he explored an area that later mathematicians labeled crystallography. Around 1956, Escher explored the concept of representing infinity on a two-dimensional plane. Discussions with Canadian mathematician H.S.M. Coxeter inspired Escher's interest in hyperbolic tessellations, which are regular tilings of the hyperbolic plane. Escher's works Circle Limit I–IV demonstrate this concept. In 1995, Coxeter verified that Escher had achieved mathematical perfection in his etchings in a published paper. Coxeter wrote, "Escher got it absolutely right to the millimeter." His works brought him fame: he was awarded the Knighthood of the Order of Orange Nassau in 1955. Subsequently he regularly designed art for dignitaries around the world. An asteroid, 4444 Escher, was named in his honour in 1985. In 1958, he published a paper called Regular Division of the Plane, in which he described the systematic buildup of mathematical designs in his artworks. He emphasized, "Mathematicians have opened the gate leading to an extensive domain." Overall, his early love of Roman and Italian landscapes and of nature led to his interest in the concept of regular division of a plane, which he applied in over 150 colored works. Other mathematical principles evidenced in his works include the superposition of a hyperbolic plane on a fixed 2-dimensional plane, and the incorporation of three-dimensional objects such as spheres, columns and cubes into his works. For example, in a print called "Reptiles," he combined two and three-dimensional images. In one of his papers, Escher emphasized the importance of dimensionality and described himself as "irritated" by flat shapes: "I make them come out of the plane." Waterfall, 1961 Escher also studied the mathematical concepts of topology. He learned additional concepts in mathematics from the British mathematician Roger Penrose. From this knowledge he created Waterfall and Up and Down, featuring irregular perspectives similar to the concept of the Möbius strip. Escher printed Metamorphosis I in 1937, which was a beginning part of a series of designs that told a story through the use of pictures. These works demonstrated a culmination of Escher's skills to incorporate mathematics into art. In Metamorphosis I, he transformed convex polygons into regular patterns in a plane to form a human motif. This effect symbolizes his change of interest from landscape and nature to regular division of a plane. One of his most notable works is the piece Metamorphosis III, which is wide enough to cover all the walls in a room, and then loop back onto itself. After 1953, Escher became a lecturer at many organizations. A planned series of lectures in North America in 1962 was cancelled due to an illness, but the illustrations and text for the lectures, written out in full by Escher, was later published as part of the book Escher on Escher. In July 1969, he finished his last work before his death, a woodcut called Snakes. It features etchings of patterns that fade to infinity both to the center and the edge of a circle. Snakes transverse the circle and the patterns in it, with their heads sticking out of the circle. Escher's legacy The Escher Museum in The Hague Ownership of the Escher intellectual property and of his unique art works have been separated from each other. In 1969, Escher's business advisor, the late Jan W. Vermeulen, author of a biography in Dutch on the artist, established the M.C. Escher Stichting (M.C. Escher Foundation), and transferred into this entity virtually all of Escher's unique work as well as hundreds of his original prints. These works were lent by the Foundation to the Hague Museum. Upon Escher's death, his three sons dissolved the Foundation, and they became partners in the ownership of the art works. In 1980, this holding was sold to an American art dealer and the Hague Museum. The Museum obtained all of the documentation and the smaller portion of the art works. The copyrights remained the possession of the three sons - who later sold them to Cordon Art, a Dutch company. Control of the copyrights was subsequently transferred to The M.C. Escher Company B.V. of Baarn, Netherlands, which licenses use of the copyrights on all of Escher's art and on his spoken and written text, and also controls the trademarks. Filing of the trademark "M.C. Escher" in the United States was opposed, but the Dutch company prevailed in the courts on the grounds that an artist or his heirs have a right to trademark his name. A related entity, the M.C. Escher Foundation of Baarn, promotes Escher's work by organizing exhibitions, publishing books and producing films about his life and work. The primary institutional collections of original works by M.C. Escher are the Escher Museum, a subsidiary of the Haags Gemeentemuseum in The Hague; the National Gallery of Art (Washington, DC); the National Gallery of Canada (Ottawa); the Israel Museum (Jerusalem); Huis ten Bosch (Nagasaki, Japan); and the Boston Public Library. Selected works Trees, ink (1920) St. Bavo's, Haarlem, ink (1920) Flor de Pascua (The Easter Flower), woodcut/book illustrations (1921) Eight Heads, woodcut (1922) Dolphins also known as Dolphins in Phosphorescent Sea, woodcut (1923) Tower of Babel, woodcut (1928) Street in Scanno, Abruzzi, lithograph (1930) Castrovalva, lithograph (1930) The Bridge, lithograph (1930) Palizzi, Calabria, woodcut (1930) Pentedattilo, Calabria, lithograph (1930) Atrani, Coast of Amalfi, lithograph (1931) Ravello and the Coast of Amalfi, lithograph (1931) Covered Alley in Atrani, Coast of Amalfi, wood engraving (1931) Phosphorescent Sea, lithograph (1933) Still Life with Spherical Mirror, lithograph (1934) Hand with Reflecting Sphere also known as Self-Portrait in Spherical Mirror, lithograph (1935) Inside St. Peter's, wood engraving (1935) Portrait of G.A. Escher, lithograph (1935) “Hell”, lithograph, (copied from a painting by Hieronymus Bosch) (1935) Regular Division of the Plane, series of drawings that continued until the 1960s (1936) Still Life and Street (His first impossible reality), woodcut (1937) Metamorphosis I, woodcut (1937) Day and Night, woodcut (1938) Cycle, lithograph (1938) Sky and Water I, woodcut (1938) Sky and Water II, lithograph (1938) Metamorphosis II, woodcut (1939–1940) Verbum (Earth, Sky and Water), lithograph (1942) Reptiles, lithograph (1943) Ant, lithograph (1943) Encounter, lithograph (1944) Doric Columns, wood engraving (1945) Three Spheres I, wood engraving (1945) Magic Mirror, lithograph (1946) Three Spheres II, lithograph (1946) Another World Mezzotint also known as Other World Gallery, mezzotint (1946) Eye, mezzotint (1946) Another World also known as Other World, wood engraving and woodcut (1947) Crystal, mezzotint (1947) Up and Down also known as High and Low, lithograph (1947) Drawing Hands, lithograph (1948) Dewdrop, mezzotint (1948) Stars, wood engraving (1948) Double Planetoid, wood engraving (1949) Order and Chaos (Contrast), lithograph (1950) Rippled Surface, woodcut and linoleum cut (1950) Curl-up, lithograph (1951) House of Stairs, lithograph (1951) House of Stairs II, lithograph (1951) Puddle, woodcut (1952) Gravitation, (1952) Dragon, woodcut lithograph and watercolor (1952) Cubic Space Division, lithograph (1952) Relativity, lithograph (1953) Tetrahedral Planetoid, woodcut (1954) Compass Rose (Order and Chaos II), lithograph (1955) Convex and Concave, lithograph (1955) Three Worlds, lithograph (1955) Print Gallery, lithograph (1956) Mosaic II, lithograph (1957) Cube with Magic Ribbons, lithograph (1957) Belvedere, lithograph (1958) Sphere Spirals, woodcut (1958) Ascending and Descending, lithograph (1960) Waterfall, lithograph (1961) Möbius Strip II (Red Ants) woodcut (1963) Knot, pencil and crayon (1966) Metamorphosis III, woodcut (1967–1968) Snakes, woodcut (1969) See also Gödel, Escher, Bach by Douglas Hofstadter M. C. Escher in popular culture M. C. Escher's legacy Printmaking István Orosz echochrome References Bibliography M.C. Escher, The Graphic Work of M.C. Escher, Ballantine, 1971. Includes Escher's own commentary. M.C. Escher, The Fantastic World of M.C. Escher, Video collection of examples of the development of his art, and interviews, Director, Michele Emmer. Locher, J.L. (2000). The Magic of M. C. Escher. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-8109-6720-0. Ernst, Bruno; Escher, M.C. (1995). The Magic Mirror of M.C. Escher (Taschen Series). TASCHEN America Llc. ISBN 1-886155-00-3 Escher's art with commentary by Ernst on Escher's life and art, including several pages on his use of polyhedra. Abrams (1995). The M.C. Escher Sticker Book. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-2638-5 . "Escher, M. C.." The World Book Encyclopedia. 10th ed. 2001. O'Connor, J. J. "Escher." Escher. 01 2000. University of St Andrews, Scotland. 17 June 2005. http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Escher.html. Schattschneider, Doris and Walker, Wallace. M. C. Escher Kaleidocycles, Pomegranate Communications; Petaluma, California, 1987. ISBN 0-906212-28-6. Schattschneider, Doris. M.C. Escher : visions of symmetry, New York, N.Y. : Harry N. Abrams, 2004. ISBN 0-8109-4308-5. M.C. Escher's legacy: a centennial celebration; collection of articles coming from the M.C. Escher Centennial Conference, Rome, 1998 / Doris Schattschneider, Michele Emmer (editors). Berlin; London: Springer-Verlag, 2003. ISBN 3-540-42458-X (alk. paper), ISBN 3-540-42458-X (hbk). M.C. Escher: His Life and Complete Graphic Work, edited by J. L. Locher, Amsterdam 1981. External links M.C. Escher — Official website World of Escher — Commercial site. gallery, discussion forum and tessellation contests. Math and the Art of M.C. Escher A website devoted to information on Escher and his original works A big Escher gallery with high resolution images Escher and the Droste effect - Applying mathematics to Escher's Print Gallery Escherization problem and its solution If It Moved Him, He Had To Draw It Escher for Real - physical replicas of some of Escher's "impossible" designs. NGA - M.C. Escher: Life and Work Copyright issue regarding Escher
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Dan_Quayle
James Danforth "Dan" Quayle (born February 4, 1947) QUAYLE, James Danforth (Dan) - Biographical Information U.S. Senate: Art & History Home > J. Danforth Quayle, 44th Vice President (1989-1993) is an American politician and was the 44th Vice President of the United States, serving under George H. W. Bush (1989–1993). He served as a U.S. Representative and U.S. Senator from the state of Indiana. Early life Quayle was born in Indianapolis, Indiana, to Martha Corinne Pulliam and James Cline Quayle. He has often been incorrectly referred to as James Danforth Quayle III. In his memoirs, he points out that his birth name was simply James Danforth Quayle. The name Quayle originates from the Isle of Man. Ancestry of Dan Quayle (b. 1947) His maternal grandfather, Eugene C. Pulliam, was a wealthy and influential publishing magnate who founded Central Newspapers, Inc., owner of over a dozen major newspapers such as The Arizona Republic and The Indianapolis Star. James C. Quayle moved his family to Arizona in 1955 to run a branch of the family's publishing empire. While the Quayle family was very wealthy, Dan Quayle was less so; his total net worth by the time of his election in 1988 was less than a million dollars. Ramesh Ponnuru, No Joke: Dan Quayle runs to win, National Review, April 5, 1999, accessed May 16, 2007. After spending much of his youth in Arizona, he graduated from Huntington High School in Huntington, Indiana, in 1965. He then matriculated at DePauw University, where he received his B.A. degree in political science in 1969, and where he was a member of the fraternity Delta Kappa Epsilon (Psi Phi chapter). After receiving his degree, Quayle joined the Indiana Army National Guard and served from 1969–1975, attaining the rank of sergeant. While serving in the Guard, he earned a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree in 1974 at Indiana University School of Law - Indianapolis. At law school, he met his future wife, Marilyn, who was taking night classes at the time. Early political career Quayle became an investigator for the Consumer Protection Division of the Office of the Indiana Attorney General in July 1971. Later that year, he became an administrative assistant to Governor Edgar Whitcomb. From 1973 to 1974, he was the Director of the Inheritance Tax Division of the Indiana Department of Revenue. Upon receiving his law degree, Quayle worked as associate publisher of his family's newspaper, the Huntington Herald-Press, and practiced law with his wife in Huntington. In 1976, Quayle was elected by a margin to the House of Representatives from Indiana's 4th congressional district, defeating eight-term incumbent Democrat J. Edward Roush. He won reelection in 1978 by the greatest percentage margin ever achieved to that date in the northeast Indiana district. In 1980, at age 33, Quayle became the youngest person ever elected to the Senate from the state of Indiana, defeating three-term incumbent Democrat Birch Bayh. Making Indiana political history again, Quayle was reelected to the Senate in 1986 with the largest margin ever achieved to that date by a candidate in a statewide Indiana race. His 1986 victory was notable because several other Republican Senators elected in 1980 were not returned to office. In 1986, Quayle was criticized for championing the cause of Daniel Anthony Manion, a candidate for a federal appellate judgeship, who was in law school one year above Quayle. http://air.fjc.gov/servlet/tGetInfo?jid=1470 The American Bar Association had evaluated him as "qualified", its lowest passing grade. Squeeze Play - TIME According to the ABA, "the rating of 'qualified' means that the nominee satisfies the committee's very high standards... (and) is qualified to perform satisfactorily all the duties and responsibilities required of a federal judge." http://www.abanet.org/media/docs/FedJudSC.pdf Manion was nominated for U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit by President Ronald Reagan on February 21, 1986, and confirmed by the Senate on June 26, 1986. , Manion continues to serve on the Seventh Circuit. Vice Presidential candidate On August 17 at the Republican convention in New Orleans, Louisiana, George H. W. Bush called on Quayle to be his running mate in the 1988 United States presidential election. The choice immediately became controversial. Press coverage of the convention was dominated with questions about "the three Quayle problems", in the phrase of Brent Baker, executive director of the Media Research Center, a conservative group that monitors television coverage. The questions involved his military service, a golf trip to Florida with Paula Parkinson, and whether he had enough experience to be President. Quayle seemed at times rattled and at other times uncertain or evasive as he tried to handle the questions. Delegates to the convention generally blamed television and newspapers for the focus on Quayle's problems, but Bush's staff said they thought Quayle had mishandled the questions about his military record, leaving questions dangling. Ander Plattner et al., "Quayle Under Glass", U.S. News & World Report, August 29, 1988, p.32. Although Republicans were trailing by up to 15 points in public opinion polls taken before the convention, they received a significant boost that put them in the lead, which they did not relinquish for the rest of the campaign. Quayle was heavily criticized after the campaign's televised vice-presidential debate, in which he compared his amount of Congressional experience to that of John F. Kennedy when he was running for president. Democratic candidate Lloyd Bentsen said in rebuttal, "Senator, I served with Jack Kennedy. I knew Jack Kennedy. Jack Kennedy was a friend of mine. Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy," to which a noticeably surprised Quayle replied, "That was really uncalled for, Senator," as both applause and boos were heard from the debate audience. Bentsen replied that it was Quayle who had made the initial comparison. Quayle's reaction to Bentsen's comment was played and replayed by the Democrats in their subsequent television ads as an announcer intoned: "Quayle: just a heartbeat away." Comedians exploited the exchange, and an increasing number of editorial cartoons depicted Quayle as an infant or child. Though the controversy generated much press, public opinion polls did not significantly change, and the Republicans maintained a solid lead. Although Quayle was significantly embarrassed by the incident, in his version of events he contended that he had accomplished what he had planned in the debate, which was to scorn the liberal record of Democratic presidential nominee Michael Dukakis while avoiding direct comparison with Bentsen. Vice Presidency Vice President Quayle bust from the Senate collection. The Bush/Quayle ticket went on to win the November election with a 53–46 percent margin by sweeping 40 states and capturing 426 electoral votes. Bush named Quayle head of the Council on Competitiveness and the first chairman of the National Space Council. As head of the NSC he called for greater efforts to protect Earth against the danger of potential asteroid impacts. Quayle Backs Group's Effort To Head Off Asteroid Threat Seattle Times 1990 Throughout his time as vice president, Quayle was widely ridiculed in the media and by many in the general public, in both the U.S. and overseas, as an intellectual lightweight. The value and vitality of V.P.s | The San Diego Union-Tribune Contributing greatly to the perception of Quayle's incompetence was his tendency to make public statements which were either self-contradictory ("The holocaust was an obscene period in our nation's history.… No, not our nation's, but in World War II. I mean, we all lived in this century. I didn't live in this century, but in this century's history."), impossible ("I have made good judgments in the past. I have made good judgments in the future") or confused and inappropriate, as when he addressed the United Negro College Fund, whose slogan is "A mind is a terrible thing to waste", Quayle said "You take the UNCF model that what a waste it is to lose one's mind or not to have a mind is being very wasteful. How true that is." Dan Quayle, by William Boot - CJR, Sept/Oct 91 Shortly after Bush announced the Space Exploration Initiative, which included a manned landing on Mars, Quayle was asked his thoughts on sending humans to Mars. In his response he made a number of errors: "Mars is essentially in the same orbit [as Earth]....Mars is somewhat the same distance from the Sun, which is very important. We have seen pictures where there are canals, we believe, and water. If there is water, that means there is oxygen. If oxygen, that means we can breathe." William E. Burrows, This New Ocean, p.576. ISBN 0-679-44521-8. His most famous blunder occurred when he corrected student William Figueroa's correct spelling of "potato" to "potatoe" at an elementary school spelling bee in Trenton, New Jersey, on June 15, 1992. Although he was relying on cards provided by the school which included the misspelling, Quayle was widely lambasted for his apparent inability to spell the word "potato". According to his memoirs, Quayle was uncomfortable with the version he gave, but did so because he decided to trust the school's incorrect written materials. Figueroa was a guest on Late Night with David Letterman and was asked to lead the Pledge of Allegiance at the 1992 Democratic National Convention. On May 19, 1992, Quayle gave a speech to the Commonwealth Club of California on the subject of the Los Angeles riots. In this speech, Quayle blamed the violence on a decay of moral values and family structure in American society. In an aside, he cited the title character in the television program Murphy Brown as an example of how popular culture contributes to this "poverty of values", saying: "[i]t doesn't help matters when primetime TV has Murphy Brown — a character who supposedly epitomizes today's intelligent, highly paid, professional woman — mocking the importance of fathers, by bearing a child alone, and calling it just another 'lifestyle choice.'" Quayle drew a firestorm of criticism from feminist and liberal organizations and was widely ridiculed by late-night talk-show hosts for this remark. The "Murphy Brown speech" became one of the most memorable incidents of the 1992 campaign. Long after the outcry had ended, the comment continued to have an effect on U.S. politics. Stephanie Coontz, a professor of family history and the author of several books and essays about the history of marriage, says that this brief remark by Quayle about Murphy Brown "kicked off more than a decade of outcries against the 'collapse of the family.'" For Better, For Worse In 2002, Candice Bergen, the actress who played Brown, said "I never have really said much about the whole episode, which was endless, but his speech was a perfectly intelligent speech about fathers not being dispensable and nobody agreed with that more than I did." Quayle was at one point during his Vice-Presidency accused by the John Birch Society of secretly being a communist agent working to "further the aims and objectives of the International Communist Conspiracy direct from the White House" and of "taking orders directly from the same individuals from whom the Kremlin take theirs". The Birch Society further claimed that Quayle's bumbling persona was a carefully contrived act on his part to minimize suspicion and that in reality Quayle possessed a "formidable intellect and cunning". Although the Birch Society claimed to have "hard evidence" to back up these claims, they never made any such evidence public. Ironically, Quayle's parents had once been members of the John Birch Society themselves. 1992 election During the 1992 election, Bush and Quayle were challenged in their bid for reelection by the Democratic ticket of Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton and Tennessee Senator Al Gore, as well as the independent ticket of Texas businessman Ross Perot and retired Admiral James Stockdale. As Bush lagged in the polls in the weeks preceding the August 1992 Republican National Convention, some Republican strategists (led by Secretary of State James Baker), viewed Quayle as a liability to the ticket and pushed for his replacement. Rumor has it that Cheney's on way out / Theory appears far-fetched but is making the rounds Quayle survived the challenge and secured renomination. Time, "Quayle Vs. Gore", October 19, 1992. Accessed August 29, 2008. Quayle faced off against Gore and Stockdale in the vice-presidential debate on October 13, 1992. Quayle attempted to avoid the one-sided outcome of his debate with Lloyd Bentsen four years earlier by staying on the offensive. Quayle criticized Gore's book Earth in the Balance with specific page references, though his claims were subsequently criticized for inaccuracy. FAIR MEDIA ADVISORY: Post-Debate Fact-Checking Is Media's Main Job Quayle's closing argument sharply asked voters "Do you really believe Bill Clinton will tell the truth?" and "Do you trust Bill Clinton to be your president?", whereas Gore and Stockdale talked more about the policies and philosophies they espoused. "Debate Transcript, Commission on Presidential Debates, http://www.debates.org/pages/trans92d.html Republican loyalists were largely relieved and pleased with Quayle's performance, and the Vice President's camp attempted to portray it as an upset triumph against a veteran debater. However, post-debate polls were mixed on whether Gore or Quayle had won. Columbia Journalism Review, September/October 1993 "http://archives.cjr.org/year/93/5/books-rosensteil.asp It ultimately proved to be a minor factor in the election, which Bush and Quayle would subsequently lose. Post-vice presidency Quayle considered but decided against running for Governor of Indiana in 1996. David Broder on PBS Newshour. September 27, 1999 He declined to run for the 1996 Republican presidential nomination, citing health problems related to phlebitis. In April 1999, he announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination for 2000, attacking George W. Bush by saying "we do not want another candidate who needs on-the-job training". In the first contest among the Republican candidates, the Ames Straw Poll of August 1999, he finished eighth. Commentators said that while he had the most political experience among prospective candidates (over Bush and Bob Dole) and potential grassroots support among conservatives, his campaign was hampered by the legacy of his vice-presidency. He withdrew from the race the following month and supported Bush. It was reported in the May 5, 2007 issue of The New York Times in an article about a lawsuit filed by Greg LeMond against Timothy Blixseth, that Dan Quayle and Bill Gates both have homes in the ultra-exclusive Yellowstone Club, a Rocky Mountains ski and golf club located near Big Sky, Montana, just north of Yellowstone National Park. Robbins, Jim. "New Twists and New Bitterness in Suit Over Montana Resort". The New York Times, May 5, 2007. Accessed August 29, 2008. Dan Quayle is Chairman of an international division of Cerberus Capital Management, a multi-billion dollar private equity firm, and president of Quayle and Associates. He is an Honorary Trustee Emeritus of the Hudson Institute. Quayle authored a memoir, Standing Firm, which became a bestseller. His second book, The American Family: Discovering the Values that Make Us Strong, was published in the spring of 1996 and a third book, Worth Fighting For, in 1999. Quayle writes a nationally syndicated newspaper column, serves on a number of corporate boards, chairs several business ventures, and was chairman of Campaign America, a national political action committee. As chairman of the international advisory board of Cerberus Capital Management, he recruited former Canadian prime minister Brian Mulroney, who would have been installed as chairman if Cerberus had successfully acquired Air Canada. The Quayles live in Paradise Valley, Arizona. Quayle, then working as an investment banker in Phoenix, was mentioned as a candidate for Governor of Arizona prior to the 2002 election, but he declined to run. Dan Quayle signed the statement of principles of the Project for the New American Century. The Dan Quayle Center and Museum is located in Huntington, Indiana, and features information on Quayle and all U.S. vice presidents. Electoral history 1976 Race for U.S. House of Representatives — 4th District Dan Quayle (R), 54% Ed Roush (D) (inc.), 45% 1978 Race for U.S. House of Representatives — 4th District Dan Quayle (R) (inc.) 1980 Race for U.S. Senate Dan Quayle (R), 54% Birch Bayh (D) (inc.), 46% 1986 Race for U.S. Senate Dan Quayle (R) (inc.), 61% Jill Long Thompson (D), 39% 1988 Presidential Race Bush/Quayle (R), 53% (426 Electoral Votes) Dukakis/Bentsen (D), 46% (111 Electoral Votes) 1992 Presidential Race Clinton/Gore (D), 43% (370 Electoral Votes) Bush/Quayle (R), 37% (168 Electoral Votes) Perot/Stockdale (I), 19% (0 Electoral Votes) Published material Standing Firm: A Vice-Presidential Memoir, Harper Collins, May 1994. hardcover, ISBN 0-06-017758-6; mass market paperback, May, 1995; ISBN 0-06-109390-4; Limited edition, 1994, ISBN 0-06-017601-6 The American Family: Discovering the Values That Make Us Strong (with Diane Medved), Harpercollins, April 1996, ISBN 0060173785 (hardcover), ISBN 0060928107 (paperback) Worth Fighting For, W Publishing Group, July 1999, ISBN 0-8499-1606-2 Footnotes Further reading What a Waste It Is to Lose One's Mind: The Unauthorized Autobiography of Dan Quayle, Quayle Quarterly (published by Rose Communications), April 1992, ISBN 0-9629162-2-6. Joe Queenan, Imperial Caddy: The Rise of Dan Quayle in America and the Decline and Fall of Practically Everything Else, Hyperion Books; October 1992 (1st edition). ISBN 1-56282-939-4. Richard F. Fenno, Jr., The Making of a Senator: Dan Quayle, Congressional Quarterly Press, January 1989. ISBN 0-87187-506-3. External links Dan Quayle at IMDB Campaign contributions made by Dan Quayle Speech to the Commonwealth Club of California ("Murphy Brown speech") List of Quayle Quotations Vice Presidential Museum at the Dan Quayle Center nndb Cerberus Capital Management LP Genealogy of the family of J. Danforth Quayle
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Moses
Moses with the Tablets, 1659, by Rembrandt. Moses (Egyptian, Latin: Moyses, ; Greek: in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; Arabic: , ; Ge'ez: , Musse) is a Biblical Hebrew religious leader, lawgiver, and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed. Also called Moshe Rabbeinu in Hebrew (Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּנוּ, Lit. "Moses our Teacher"), he is the most important prophet in Judaism, Maimonides, 13 principles of faith, 7th principle and also an important prophet of Christianity, Islam, the Bahá'í Faith, Rastafari, Chrislam and many other faiths. According to the book of Exodus, Moses was born in a time when war threatened and the large increase in the number of his people concerned the Pharaoh who was worried that they might help Egypt's enemies. His Hebrew mother, Jochebed, hid him when the Pharaoh ordered all newborn Hebrew boys to be killed, and he ended up being adopted into the Egyptian royal family. After killing an Egyptian slave-master, Moses fled across the Red Sea to Midian where he tended the flocks of Jethro, a priest of Midian on the slopes of Mt. Horeb. After the Ten Plagues were unleashed on Egypt, Moses led the Hebrew slaves out of Egypt, across the Red Sea, where they based themselves at Horeb and compassed the borders of Edom. It was at this time, that according to the Bible, Moses received the Ten Commandments. Despite living to 120, Moses died before reaching the Land of Israel. Religious texts In the Bible the narratives of Moses are in Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy while the main source for Moses' life is the Book of Exodus. The Book of Exodus takes up the narrative 230 years after the arrival of Jacob in Egypt. According to the Book of Exodus, Moses was a son of Amram, a member of the Levite tribe of Israel, having descended from Jacob, and his wife Jochebed. Jochebed (also Yocheved) was kin to Amram's father Kehath (Exodus 6:20). Moses had one older (by seven years) sister, Miriam, and one older (by three years) brother, Aaron. According to Genesis 46:11, Amram's father Kehath immigrated to Egypt with 70 of Jacob's household, making Moses part of the second generation of Israelites born during their time in Egypt. Moses in front of Pharaoh by Haydar Hatemi, Persian Artist. In the Exodus account, the birth of Moses, on 7 Adar Talmud Bavli, Megilah 13b, Sotah 12b, Kidushin 38a 2368 Seder Olam. The Seder Olam's calendar starts two years later than the one currently used by Jews. (about Feb-Mar 1391 BC), occurred at a time when the current Egyptian Pharaoh had commanded that all male Hebrew children born be killed by drowning in the river Nile. The Torah and Flavius Josephus leave the identity of this Pharaoh unstated. see Reference Halley's Bible Handbook Jochebed, the wife of the Levite Amram, bore a son and kept him concealed for three months. When she could keep him hidden no longer, rather than deliver him to be killed, she set him adrift on the Nile River in a small craft of bulrushes coated in pitch. In the Biblical account, Moses' sister Miriam observed the progress of the tiny boat until it reached a place where Pharaoh's daughter Thermuthis (Bithiah) was bathing with her handmaidens. It is said that she spotted the baby in the basket and had her handmaiden fetch it for her. Miriam came forward and asked Pharaoh's daughter if she would like a Hebrew woman to nurse the baby. Thereafter, Jochebed was employed as the child's nurse, and he grew and was brought to Pharaoh's daughter and became her son, and a younger brother to Rameses II, the future Pharaoh of Egypt. Moses would not be able to become Pharaoh because he was not the 'blood' son of Bithiah, and he was the youngest. This birth story is in many respects similar to the 7th century BC Neo-Assyrian version of the birth of the king Sargon of Akkad in the 24th century BC who, being born of modest means, was set in the Euphrates river in a basket of bulrushes and discovered by a member of the Akkadian royalty who reared him as their own. Exodus and Flavius Josephus do not mention whether this daughter of Pharaoh was an only child or, if she was not an only child, whether she was an eldest child or an eldest daughter. Nor do they mention whether Thermuthis later had other natural or adopted children. If Rameses II is the Pharaoh of the Oppression as is traditionally thought, identifying her would be extremely difficult as Rameses II is thought to have fathered over a hundred children. The daughter of Pharaoh named him Mosheh, similar to the Hebrew word mashah, "to draw out". In the Moses story related by the Quran, Jochebed is commanded by God to place Moses in an ark and cast him on the waters of the Nile, thus abandoning him completely to God's protection. Pharaoh's wife, not his daughter, found Moses floating in the waters of the Nile. She convinced Pharaoh to keep him as their son because they were not blessed with any children. In Greek translation, Mosheh was Hellenized as Mωυσής (Mousēs or Moses). The finding of Moses, by Edwin Long Names The Classical Rabbis in the Midrash identify Moses as one of seven biblical characters who were called by various names. Midrash Rabbah, Ki Thissa, XL. 3-3, Lehrman, P.463 Moses' other names were: Jekuthiel (by his mother), Heber (by his father), Jered (by Miriam), Avi Zanoah (by Aaron), Avi Gedor (by Kohath), Avi Soco (by his wet-nurse), Shemaiah ben Nethanel (by people of Israel). Yalkut Shimoni, Shemot 166 to Chronicles I 4:18, 24:6; also see Vayikra Rabbah 1:3; Chasidah p.345 Moses is also attributed the names Toviah (as a first name), and Levi (as a family name) (Vayikra Rabbah 1:3), Heman Rashi to Bava Batra 15s, Chasidah p.345 , Mechoqeiq (lawgiver) Bava Batra 15a on Deuteronomy 33:21, Chasidah p.345 and Ehl Gav Ish (Numbers 12:3) Rashi to Berachot 54a), Chasidah p.345 Some medieval Jewish scholars had suggested that Moses' actual name was the Egyptian translation of "to draw out", and that it was translated into Hebrew, either by the Bible, or by Moses himself later in his lifetime. Some modern scholars had suggested that the daughter of the Pharaoh might have derived his name from the Egyptian name element mose, which means "son" or "formed of" or "has provided"; for example, "Thutmose" means "son of Thoth", and Rameses means "Ra has provided (a son)". According to Islamic tradition, his name, Mūsā, is derived from two Egyptian words: Mū which means water and shā meaning tree (or reeds), in reference to the fact that the basket in which the infant Moses floated came to rest by trees close to Pharaoh's residence. Keeler (2006) p.55 A growing number of critical scholars believe that Moses actually had a full Egyptian name, consisting of the root word -mose and the name of a god (similar to Rameses), but the name of the god was later dropped, either when he assimilated into Hebrew culture or by later scribes who were dismayed that their greatest prophet had such an Egyptian name. Shepherd in Midian After Moses had reached adulthood, he went to see how his brethren were faring. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, he killed the Egyptian and buried the body in the sand, supposing that no one who knew about the incident would be disposed to talk about it. The next day, seeing two Hebrews quarreling, he endeavored to separate them, whereupon the Hebrew who was wronging the other taunted Moses for slaying the Egyptian. Flavius Josephus does not mention this incident in his account, so it is uncertain as to its chronological relationship to Moses' expedition against the Ethiopians. Moses soon discovered from a higher source that the affair was known, and that Pharaoh was likely to put him to death for it; he therefore made his escape across the Red Sea to Midian. In Midian he stopped at a well, where he protected seven shepherdesses from a band of rude shepherds. The shepherdesses' father Hobab (also known as Raguel and Jethro , and presumably Shoaib according to Qur'an Mukarram Ahmed (2005), p.100 ), a priest of Midian A region just East of the gulf of Aqaba was immensely grateful for this assistance Moses had given his daughters, and adopted him as his son, gave his daughter Zipporah to him in marriage, and made him the superintendent of his herds. No further mention is made of Moses' first wife Tharbis in either Exodus or Flavius Josephus except in the case where Aaron and Miriam taunted Moses about it. There he sojourned forty years, following the occupation of a shepherd, during which time his son Gershom was born. One day, Moses led his flock to Mount Horeb (), usually identified with Mount Sinai — a mountain that was thought in the Middle Ages to be located on the Sinai Peninsula, but that many scholars now believe was further east, at Elat located at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba between Edom and Moses' home in Midian on the slopes of Mount Horeb. While tending the flocks of Jethro at Mount Horeb, he saw a burning bush that would not be consumed. When he turned aside to look more closely at the marvel, God spoke to him from the bush, revealing his name to Moses. Egypt: the Plagues and the Exodus Moses before the Pharaoh, a 6th century miniature from the Syriac Bible of Paris. God commanded Moses to go to Egypt and deliver his fellow Hebrews from bondage. God had Moses practice transforming his rod into a serpent and inflicting and healing leprosy, and told him that he could also pour river water on dry land to change the water to blood. Flavius Josephus mentions that Moses also practiced the pouring of the river water in Antiquities of the Jews, Book II, Chapter 12, Paragraph 3, but it appears that this might be a mistake on Josephus' part The Quran's account has emphasized Moses' mission to invite the Pharaoh to accept God's divine message as well as give salvation to the Israelites. Moses then set off for Egypt, and was nearly killed by God because his son was not circumcised. (The meaning of this latter obscure passage is debatable, because of the ambiguous nature of the Hebrew and its abrupt presence in the narrative. Several interpretations are therefore possible.) He was met on the way by his elder brother, Aaron, and gained a hearing with his oppressed kindred after they returned to Egypt, who believed Moses and Aaron after they saw the signs that were performed in the midst of the Israelite assembly. It is also revealed that during Moses' absence, the Pharaoh of the Oppression (sometimes identified with Rameses II) had died, and been replaced by a new Pharaoh, known as the Pharaoh of the Exodus. If Rameses II is the Pharaoh of the Oppression, then this new Pharaoh would be Merneptah. Because the story the book of Exodus describes is catastrophic for the Egyptians — involving horrible plagues, the loss of thousands of slaves, and many deaths (possibly including the death of Pharaoh himself, although that matter is unclear in Exodus) — it is conspicuous that no Egyptian records speaking of Israelites in Egypt have ever been found. However, Merneptah is indeed historically known to have been a mediocre ruler, and certainly one weaker than Rameses II. Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh and told him that the Lord God of Israel wanted Pharaoh to permit the Israelites to celebrate a feast in the wilderness. Pharaoh replied that he did not know their God and would not permit them to go celebrate the feast. Pharaoh upbraided Moses and Aaron and made the Israelites find their own straw needed to make the bricks required by their servitude, besides meeting the same daily quota of bricks. Moses and Aaron gained a second hearing with Pharaoh and changed Moses' rod into a serpent, but Pharaoh's magicians did the same with their rods. Moses and Aaron had a third opportunity when they went to meet the Pharaoh at the Nile riverbank, and Moses had Aaron turn the river to blood, but Pharaoh's magicians could do the same. Moses obtained a fourth meeting, and had Aaron bring frogs from the Nile to overrun Egypt, but Pharaoh's magicians were able to do the same thing. Apparently Pharaoh eventually got annoyed by the frogs and asked Moses to remove the frogs and promised to let the Israelites go observe their feast in the wilderness in return. The next day all the frogs died leaving a horrible stench and an enormous mess. This angered Pharaoh and he decided against letting the Israelites leave to observe the feast. Eventually Pharaoh let the Hebrews depart after Moses's God sent ten plagues upon the Egyptians. The third and fourth were the plague of gnats and flies. The fifth was the invasion of diseases on the Egyptians' cattle, oxen, goats, sheep, camels, and horses. The sixth was boils on the skins of Egyptians. Seventh, fiery hail and thunder struck Egypt. The eighth plague was locusts encompassing Egypt. The ninth plague was total darkness. The tenth plague culminated in the slaying of the Egyptian male first-borns, whereupon such terror seized the Egyptians that they ordered the Hebrews to leave in the Exodus. The events are commemorated as Passover, referring to how the plague "passed over" the houses of the Israelites while smiting the Egyptians. The crossing of the Red Sea Moses strikes water from the stone, by Francesco Bacchiacca And so Moses led his people eastward, beginning the long journey to Canaan. The procession moved slowly, and found it necessary to encamp three times before passing the Egyptian frontier — some believe at the Great Bitter Lake, while others propose sites as far south as the northern tip of the Red Sea. Meanwhile, Pharaoh had a change of heart, and was in pursuit of them with a large army. Shut in between this army and the sea, the Israelites despaired, but Exodus records that God divided the waters so that they passed safely across on dry ground. There is some contention about this passage, since an earlier incorrect translation of Yam Suph to Red Sea was later found to have meant Reed Sea . When the Egyptian army attempted to follow, God permitted the waters to return upon them and drown them. According to the Quran the Pharaoh was leading the Egyptian army himself, and drowned along with his army, and in his last words before drowning he asks God for forgiveness, however God made him die with his body in perfect shape, so he would be an example for every tyrant who defies the prophets - surat Yunis:92 (يونس:92) -. The people then continued to Marsa marching for three days along the wilderness of the Shur Shore without finding water. Then they came to Elim where twelve water springs and 70 Palm trees greeted them. Elim and Elat are plurals of the word El in Phoenician and again associated with Asherah worship. The words Elim and Elat refer to the power of the high and mighty terebinth trees that the Phoenicians used for masts and Asherah poles. William Albright has associated Asherah groves with the incense trade spices and perfumes such as frankincense and myrrh. From Elim they set out again and after 45 days they reached the wilderness of Sin Sin is the Sumerian name for the moon god whom the people of Egypt, the Sinai, and Negev worshipped as Iah. between Elim and Sinai. From there they reached the plain of Rephidim, and the rock of Mount Horeb at Elat completing the crossing of the Red Sea. This is where Moses tended the flocks of Jethro, a priest of Midian, talked to a burning bush, produced water by striking the rock of Horeb with his staff, and directed the battle with the Amalekites from the top of the mountain with Aaron holding up one hand and Hur of Midian the other. Moses is reunited with Jethro and delivers the Ten Commandments here. The years in the wilderness Statue of Moses smiting the rock on Mt Horeb. In Albany, NY When the people arrived at Marah, the water was bitter, causing the people to murmur against Moses. Moses cast a tree into the water, and the water became sweet. Later in the journey, after crossing the Red Sea from Elim to Elat the people began running low on supplies and again murmured against Moses and Aaron and said they would have preferred to die in Egypt, but God's provision of manna from the sky in the morning and quail in the evening took care of the situation. When the people camped in Rephidim, there was no water, so the people complained again and said, "Wherefore is this that thou hast brought us up out of Egypt, to kill us and our children and our cattle with thirst?" At Alush on Mt Horeb Moses struck a rock with his staff, and water came forth. Moses at the top of Mt. Horeb holding up his arms during the battle, assisted by Aaron and Hur. Painting by John Everett MillaisAmalekites, the indigenous people of Canaan, Edom, and the Seir arrived and attacked the Israelites. In response, Moses bade Joshua lead the men to fight while he stood on Mt. Horeb with the rod of God in his hand. As long as Moses held the rod up, Israel dominated the fighting, but if Moses let down his hands, the tide of the battle turned in favor of the Amalekites. Because Moses was getting tired, Aaron and Hur had Moses sit on a rock. Aaron held up one arm, Hur held up the other arm, and the Israelites routed the Amalekites. Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, came to see Moses at Mt. Horeb where Moses had tended Jethro's flocks and brought Moses' wife and two sons with him. After Moses had told Jethro how the Israelites had escaped Egypt, Jethro went to offer sacrifices to the Lord, and then ate bread with the elders. The next day Jethro observed how Moses sat from morning to night giving judgement for the people. Jethro suggested that Moses appoint judges for lesser matters, a suggestion Moses heeded. When the Israelites came to Mt. Horeb, they pitched camp near the mountain. Moses commanded the people not to touch the mountain. Moses received the Ten Commandments orally (but not yet in tablet form) and other moral laws. He then went up with Aaron, Nadab, Abihu, and seventy of the elders to see the God of Israel. Before Moses went up the mountain to receive the tablets, he told the elders to direct any questions that arose to Aaron or Hur. While Moses was on Mount Sinai receiving instruction on the laws for the Israelite community, the Israelites went to Aaron and asked him to make gods for them. After Aaron had received golden earrings from the people, he made a golden calf and said, "These are your gods, O Israel, who brought you up out of Egypt." A "solemnity of the Lord" was proclaimed for the following day, which began in the morning with sacrifices and was followed by revelry. According to Quran the one who made for them the golden calf was another man called in Quran "Alsameri". After Moses had persuaded the Lord not to destroy the people of Israel, he went down from the mountain and was met by Joshua. Moses destroyed the calf and rebuked Aaron for the sin he had brought upon the people. Seeing that the people were uncontrollable, Moses went to the entry of the camp and said, "Who is on the Lord's side? Let him come unto me." All the sons of Levi rallied around Moses, who ordered them to go from gate to gate slaying the idolators. Following this, according to the last chapters of Exodus, the Tabernacle was constructed, the priestly law ordained, the plan of encampment arranged both for the Levites and the non-priestly tribes, and the Tabernacle consecrated. Moses was given eight prayer laws that were to be carried out in regards to the Tabernacle. These laws included light, incense and sacrifice. Miriam and Aaron spoke against Moses on account of his marriage to an Ethiopian, Josephus explains the marriage of Moses to this Ethiopian in the Antiquities of the Jews and about him being the only one through whom the Lord spoke. Miriam was punished with leprosy for seven days. The people left Hazeroth and pitched camp in the wilderness of Paran. (Paran is a vaguely defined region in the northern part of the Sinai peninsula, just south of Canaan) Moses sent twelve spies into Canaan as scouts, including most famously Caleb and Joshua. After forty days, they returned to the Israelite camp, bringing back grapes and other produce as samples of the regions fertility. Although all the spies agreed that the land's resources were spectacular, only two of the twelve spies (Joshua and Caleb) were willing to try to conquer it, and are nearly stoned for their unpopular opinion. The people began weeping and wanted to return to Egypt. Moses turned down the opportunity to have the Israelites completely destroyed and a great nation made from his own offspring, and instead he told the people that they would wander the wilderness for forty years until all those twenty years or older who had refused to enter Canaan had died, and that their children would then enter and possess Canaan. Early the next morning, the Israelites said they had sinned and now wanted to take possession of Canaan. Moses told them not to attempt it, but the Israelites chose to disobey Moses and invade Canaan, but were repulsed by the Amalekites and Canaanites. According to the Quran, Moses encourages the Israelites to enter Canaan, but they are unwilling to fight the Canaanites, fearing certain defeat. Moses responds by pleading to Allah that he and his brother Aaron be separated from the rebellious Israelites. The Tribe of Reuben, led by Korah, Dathan, Abiram, and two hundred fifty Israelite princes accused Moses and Aaron of raising themselves over the rest of the people. Moses told them to come the next morning with a censer for every man. Dathan and Abiram refused to come when summoned by Moses. Moses went to the place of Dathan and Abiram's tents. After Moses spoke the ground opened up and engulfed Dathan and Abiram's tents, after which it closed again. Fire consumed the two hundred fifty men with the censers. Moses had the censers taken and made into plates to cover the altar. The following day, the Israelites came and accused Moses and Aaron of having killed his fellow Israelites. The people were struck with a plague that killed fourteen thousand seven hundred persons, and was only ended when Aaron went with his censer into the midst of the people. To prevent further murmurings and settle the matter permanently, Moses had each of the chief princes of the non-Levitic tribes write his name on his staff and had them lay them in the sanctuary. He also had Aaron write his name on his staff and had it placed in the tabernacle. The next day, when Moses went into the tabernacle, Aaron's staff had budded, blossomed, and yielded almonds. After leaving Sinai, the Israelites camped in Kadesh. After more complaints from the Israelites, Moses struck the stone twice, and water gushed forth. However, because Moses and Aaron had not shown the Lord's holiness, they were not permitted to enter the land to be given to the Israelites. This was the second occasion Moses struck a rock to bring forth water; however, it appears that both sites were named Meribah after these two incidents. Moses lifts up the brass serpent, curing the Israelites from poisonous snake bites. Now ready to enter Canaan, the Israelites abandon the idea of attacking the Canaanites head-on in Hebron, a city in the southern part of Canaan. Having been informed by spies that they were too strong, it is decided that they will flank Hebron by going further East, around the Dead Sea. This required that they pass through Edom, Moab, and Ammon. These three tribes are considered Hebrews by the Israelites as descendants of Lot, and therefore cannot be attacked. However they are also rivals, and are therefore not permissive in allowing the Israelites to openly pass through their territory. So Moses leads his people carefully along the eastern border of Edom, the southernmost of these territories. While the Israelites were making their journey around Edom, they complained about the manna. After many of the people had been bitten by serpents and died, Moses made the brass serpent and mounted it on a pole, and if those who were bitten looked at it, they did not die. According to the Biblical Book of Kings this brass serpent remained in existence until the days of King Hezekiah, who destroyed it after persons began treating it as an idol. When they reach Moab, it is revealed that Moab has been attacked and defeated by the Amorites led by a king named Sihon. The Amorites were a non-Hebrew Canaanic people who once held power in the Fertile Crescent. When Moses asks the Amorites for passage and it is refused, Moses attacks the Amorites (as non-Hebrews, the Israelites have no reservations in attacking them), presumably weakened by conflict with the Moabites, and defeats them. The Israelites, now holding the territory of the Amorites just north of Moab, desire to expand their holdings by acquiring Bashan, a fertile territory north of Ammon famous for its oak trees and cattle. It is led by a king named Og. Later rabbinical legends made Og a survivor of the flood, suggesting the he had sat on the ark and was fed by Noah. The Israelites fight with Og's forces at Edrei, on the southern border of Bashan, where the Israelites are victorious and slay every man, woman, and child of his cities and take the spoil for their bounty. Balak, king of Moab, having heard of the Israelites' conquests, fears that his territory might be next. Therefore he sends elders of Moab, and of Midian, to Balaam (apparently a powerful and respected prophet), son of Beor (Bible), to induce him to come and curse the Israelites. Balaam's location is unclear. Balaam sends back word that he can only do what God commands, and God has, via a dream, told him not to go. Moab consequently sends higher ranking priests and offers Balaam honours, and so God tells Balaam to go with them. Balaam thus sets out with two servants to go to Balak, but an Angel tries to prevent him. At first the Angel is seen only by the ass Balaam is riding. After Balaam starts punishing the ass for refusing to move, it is miraculously given the power to speak to Balaam, and it complains about Balaam's treatment. At this point, Balaam is allowed to see the angel, who informs him that the ass is the only reason the Angel did not kill Balaam. Balaam immediately repents, but is told to go on. Russian Orthodox icon of the prophet Moses, gesturing towards the burning bush. 18th century (Iconostasis of Transfiguration church, Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia). Balak meets with Balaam at Kirjath-huzoth, and they go to the high places of Baal, and offer sacrifices at seven altars, leading to Balaam being given a prophecy by God, which Balaam relates to Balak. However, the prophecy blesses Israel; Balak remonstrates, but Balaam reminds him that he can only speak the words put in his mouth, so Balak takes him to another high place at Pisgah, to try again. Building another seven altars here, and making sacrifices on each, Balaam provides another prophecy blessing Israel. Balaam finally gets taken by a now very frustrated Balak to Peor, and, after the seven sacrifices there, decides not to seek enchantments but instead looks on the Israelites from the peak. The spirit of God comes upon Balaam and he delivers a third positive prophecy concerning Israel. Balak's anger rises to the point where he threatens Balaam, but Balaam merely offers a prediction of fate. Balaam then looks on the Kenites, and Amalekites and offers two more predictions of fate. Balak and Balaam then simply go to their respective homes. Later, Balaam informed Balak and the Midianites that, if they wished to overcome the Israelites for a short interval, they needed to seduce the Israelites to engage in idolatry. The Midianites sent beautiful women to the Israelite camp to seduce the young men to partake in idolatry, and the attempt proved successful. Deuteronomy 23:3–6 summarises these incidents, and further states that the Ammonites were associated with the Moabites. Joshua, in his farewell speech, also makes reference to it. Nehemiah, Micah, and Joshua continue in the historical account of Balaam, who next advises the Midianites how to bring disaster on the Israelites by seducing the people with idols and beautiful women, which proves partly successful. Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron, put an end to the matter of the Midianite seduction by slaying two of the prominent offenders, but by that time a plague inflicted on the Israelites had already killed about twenty-four thousand persons. Moses was then told that because Phinehas had averted the wrath of God from the Israelites, Phinehas and his descendents were given the pledge of an everlasting priesthood. After Moses had taken a census of the people, he sent an army to avenge the perceived evil brought on the Israelites by the Midianites. Numbers 31 says Moses instructed the Israelite soldiers to kill every Midianite woman, boy, and non-virgin girl, although virgin girls were shared amongst the soldiers. The Israelites killed Balaam, and the five kings of Midian: Evi, Rekem, Zur, Hur, and Reba. Moses appointed Joshua, son of Nun, to succeed him as the leader of the Israelites. Moses then died at the age of 120. Death After all this was accomplished, Moses was warned that he would not be permitted to lead the nation of Israel across the Jordan river, but would die on its eastern shores (Num. 20:12). He therefore assembled the tribes, and delivered to them a parting address, which forms the Book of Deuteronomy. In this address it is commonly accepted that he recapitulated the Law, reminding them of its most important features. When Moses finished, and he had pronounced a blessing on the people (Deut. 28:1-14), he went up Mount Nebo to the top of Pisgah, looked over the promised land of Israel spread out before him, and died, at the age of one hundred and twenty, on 7 Adar 2488 (about Feb-Mar 1271 BC). God himself buried him in an unknown grave (Deut. 34:6). Moses was thus the human instrument in the creation of the nation of Israel by communicating to it the Torah. More humble than any other man (Num. 12:3), he enjoyed unique privileges, for "there hath not arisen a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses, whom the HaShem knew face to face" (Deut. 34:10). Religion's views of Moses Judaism There is a wealth of stories and additional information about Moses in the Jewish apocrypha and in the genre of rabbinical exegesis known as Midrash, as well as in the primary works of the Jewish oral law, the Mishnah and the Talmud. Jewish historians who lived at Alexandria, such as Eupolemus, attributed to Moses the feat of having taught the Phoenicians their alphabet, Eusebius, Præparatio Evangelica ix. 26 similar to legends of Thoth. Artapanus of Alexandria explicitly identified Moses not only with Thoth / Hermes, but also with the Greek figure Musaeus (whom he calls "the teacher of Orpheus"), and ascribed to him the division of Egypt into 36 districts, each with its own liturgy. He names the princess who adopted Moses as Merris, wife of Pharaoh Chenephres. Eusebius, l.c. ix. 27 Ancient sources mention an Assumption of Moses and a Testimony of Moses. A Latin text was found in Milan in the 19th century by Antonio Ceriani who called it the Assumption of Moses, even though it does not refer to an assumption of Moses or contain portions of the Assumption which are cited by ancient authors, and it is apparently actually the Testimony. The incident which the ancient authors cite is also mentioned in the Epistle of Jude. To Orthodox Jews, Moses is really Moshe Rabbenu, `Eved HaShem, Avi haNeviim zya"a. He is called "Our Leader Moshe", "Servant of God", and "Father of all the Prophets". In their view, Moses not only received the Torah, but also the revealed (written and oral) and the hidden (the `hokhmat nistar teachings, which gave Judaism the Zohar of the Rashbi, the Torah of the Ari haQadosh and all that is discussed in the Heavenly Yeshiva between the Ramhal and his masters). He is also considered the greatest prophet. Arising in part from his age, but also because 120 is elsewhere stated as the maximum age for Noah's descendants (one interpretation of ), "may you live to 120" has become a common blessing among Jews. Christianity For Christians, Moses — mentioned more often in the New Testament than any other Old Testament figure — is often a symbol of God's law, as reinforced and expounded on in the teachings of Jesus. New Testament writers often compared Jesus' words and deeds with Moses' to explain Jesus' mission. In Acts 7:39–43, 51–53, for example, the rejection of Moses by the Jews that worshiped the golden calf is likened to the rejection of Jesus by the Jews that continued in traditional Judaism. Moses also figures in several of Jesus' messages. When he met the Pharisees Nicodemus at night in the third chapter of the Gospel of John, he compares Moses' lifting up of the bronze serpent in the wilderness, which any Israelite could look at and be healed, to his own lifting up (by his death and resurrection) for the people to look at and be healed. In the sixth chapter, Jesus responds to the people's claim that Moses provided them manna in the wilderness by saying that it was not Moses, but God, who provided. Calling himself the "bread of life", Jesus states that he is now provided to feed God's people. He along with Elijah, is presented as meeting with Jesus in all three Gospel accounts of the Transfiguration of Jesus in Matthew 17, Mark 9, and Luke 9, respectively. Later Christians found numerous other parallels between the life of Moses and Jesus to the extent that Jesus was likened to a "second Moses." For instance, Jesus' escape from the slaughter by Herod in Bethlehem is compared to Moses' escape from Pharaoh's designs to kill Hebrew infants. Such parallels, unlike those mentioned above, are not pointed out in Scripture. See the article on typology. His relevance to modern Christianity has not diminished. He is considered to be a saint by several churches; and is commemorated as a prophet in the respective Calendars of Saints of the Lutheran and Eastern Orthodox Churches on September 4. He is commemorated as one of the Holy Forefathers in the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 30. Mormonism Members of the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also called Mormons) generally view Moses in the same way that other Christians do. However, in addition to accepting the Biblical account of Moses, Mormons include the Book of Moses as part of their scriptural canon. This book is believed to be the translated writings of Moses, and is included in the LDS Church's Pearl of Great Price. Latter-day Saints are also unique in believing that Moses was taken to heaven without having tasted death (translated). In addition, Joseph Smith, Jr. and Oliver Cowdery stated that on April 3, 1836, Moses appeared to them in the Kirtland Temple in a glorified, immortal, physical form and bestowed upon them the "keys of the gathering of Israel from the four parts of the earth, and the leading of the ten tribes from the land of the north." the Doctrine and Covenants 110:11 Islam Moses (Arabic: Musa) is mentioned more in the Qur'an than any other individual and his life is narrated and recounted more than any other prophet recognized in Islam. Jewish Quran Moses is defined in Quran as both prophet (Nabi) and messenger (Rasul), which means he was one of the prophets who brought a scripture and law to his people. He has the status of being one of the Ulu al-azm Messengers, that is those Messengers who were endowed with special determination, constancy and forbearance in obeying the commands of God. Among prophets, Moses has been described as the one whose career as a messenger of God, lawgiver and leader of his community most closely parallels and foreshadows that of Muhammad. In the Qur'an, Moses is included in the following passages: 2.49-61, 7.103-160, 10.75-93, 17.101-104, 20.9-97, 26.10-66, 27.7-14, 28.3-46, 40.23-30, 43.46-55, 44.17-31, and 79.15-25. and many others Most of the key events in Moses' life which are narrated in the Bible are to be found dispersed through the different Surahs of Quran, with a story about meeting Khidr which is not found in the Bible. Keeler (2006), p.56 The Bible and Qur'an have different angles of view. The Bible has focused on Moses and the rescue of Israelites, while the Qur'an emphasized on the relation between Moses and God. Keeler (2006), pp.56 and 57 Mandaeism In Mandaeism, Moses is regarded as a false prophet. Academic view The German scholar Martin Noth accepts that Moses may have had some connection with the preparations for the conquest of Canaan and recognizes a historical core "beneath" the Exodus and Sinai traditions. However, Noth holds that two different groups experienced the Exodus and Sinai events, and each group transmitted its own stories independently of the other one, writing that "The biblical story tracing the Hebrews from Egypt to Canaan resulted from an editor's weaving separate themes and traditions around a main character Moses, actually an obscure person from Moab." "Moses." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Other scholars such as William Albright have a more favorable view towards the traditional views regarding Moses, and accept the essence of the biblical story, as narrated between Exodus 1:8 and Deuteronomy 34:12, but recognize the impact that centuries of oral and written transmission have had on the account, causing it to acquire layers of accretions. Historiography The Moses Window at the Washington National Cathedral depicts the three stages in Moses' life.Known extra-Biblical references to Moses date from many centuries after his supposed lifetime, and contain significant departures from the Biblical account. In addition to the Judeo-Roman or Judeo-Hellenic historians Artapanus, Eupolemus, Josephus, and Philo, a few gentile historians including Polyhistor, Manetho, Apion, Chaeremon of Alexandria, Tacitus and Porphyry make reference to him. The extent to which any of these accounts rely on earlier sources is unknown. Moses also appears in other religious texts such as the Midrash, Mishnah and Qur'an No other surviving written records from Egypt, Assyria, etc., indisputably referring to the stories of the Bible or its main characters before ca. 850s BC have been found, Who Were the Early Israelites? by William G. Dever (William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI, 2003 The Bible Unearthed by Neil Asher Silberman and Israel Finkelstein (Simon and Schuster, New York, 2001 and there is no known physical evidence (such as pottery shards or stone tablets) to corroborate Moses' existence. False Testamentby Daniel Lazare (Harper's Magazine, New York, May 2002) Artapanus of Alexandria This account is excerpted from the Hellenistic Jewish historian Artapanus of Alexandria (2nd century BC), as reproduced by Eusebius of Caesarea. In Strabo The following excerpt comes from the Roman historian Strabo (c. 24 AD): The Geography, Book XVI, Chapter 2, Paragraphs 34–36 In Tacitus The Roman historian Tacitus (ca. 100 AD) mentions several possible origins of the Jews that were taught by those of his time. The Antiquities of the Jews Josephus relates several other incidents in connection with the Biblical account of Moses: Before the incident in which Moses slew the Egyptian, Moses had led the Egyptians in a campaign against invading Ethiopians and routed them. While Moses was besieging one of the Ethiopians' cities, Tharbis, the daughter of the Ethiopian king, fell in love with Moses and wished to marry him. He agreed to do so if she would procure the deliverance of the city into his power. She did so immediately, and Moses promptly married her. This marriage is also mentioned in Numbers 12:1. The account of this expedition is also mentioned by Irenaeus, and the event would explain why St. Stephen refers to Moses as "mighty in his words and in his deeds" before Moses slew the Egyptian. Acts 7:22 Flavius Josephus also gives significantly detailed accounts of the aftermath of Baalam's blessings and the events that lead to the slaying of Zimri. Date of the Exodus There is a large variety of estimates as to the supposed date of the Exodus, with suggestions ranging from the 17th to 13th centuries BCE. Some historiographers have suggested the Hyksos era (1648–1540 BCE), as mentioned above; Others suggest 1444 BCE in the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt, extrapolated from the Biblical assertion that King Solomon commenced work on the temple in the fourth year of his reign 480 years after the Exodus took place. Yet others place it around 1400s BCE, since the Amarna letters, written ca. forty years later to Pharaohs Amenhotep III and Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) indicate that Canaan was being invaded by the "Habiru" — whom some scholars in the 1950s to 1970s interpret to mean "Hebrews". However, the Hebrew patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob are also recorded as having conducted military activities in Canaan some centuries before the Exodus. A frequent suggestion is the Egyptian Empire period, in particular the 13th century BCE, as the pharaoh of that time, Ramesses II, is commonly considered to be the pharaoh with whom Moses squabbled — either as the 'Pharaoh of the Exodus' himself, or the preceding 'Pharaoh of the Oppression', who is said to have commissioned the Hebrews to "(build) for Pharaoh treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses." These cities are known to have been built under both Seti I and Rameses II, thus possibly making his successor Merneptah the 'Pharaoh of the Exodus.' This is considered plausible by those who view the famous claim of the Year 5 Merneptah Stele (ca. 1208 BCE) that "Israel is wasted, bare of seed," as propaganda to cover up this king's own loss of an army in the Red Sea. Taken at face value, however, the primary intent of the stela was clearly to commemorate Merneptah's victory over the Libyans and their Sea People allies. The reference to Canaan occurs only in the final lines of the document where Israel is mentioned after the city states of Ashkelon, Gezer and Yanoam perhaps to signal Merneptah's disdain or contempt for this new entity. In Exodus, the Pharaoh of the Exodus did not cross into Canaan since his Army was destroyed at the Red Sea. Hence, the traditional view that Ramesses II was the Pharaoh of either the Oppression or the Exodus is affirmed by the basic contents of the Merneptah Stele. Under this scenario, the Israelites would have been a nation without a state of their own who existed on the fringes of Canaan in Year 5 of Merneptah. This is suggested by the determinative sign written in the stela for Israel — "a throw stick plus a man and a woman over the three vertical plural lines" — which was "typically used by the Egyptians to signify nomadic groups or peoples without a fixed city-state," Carol Redmount, 'Bitter Lives: Israel in and out of Egypt' in "The Oxford History of the Biblical World", ed: Michael D. Coogan, (Oxford University Press: 1999), paperback, p.97 such as the Hebrew's previous life in Goshen. An unverified theory places the birth and/or adoption of Moses during a minor oppression in the reign of Amenhotep III, which was soon lifted, and claims that the more well-known oppression occurred during the reign of Horemheb, followed by the Exodus itself during the reign of Ramesses I. This is supported by the Haggadah of Pesach, which suggests that they were oppressed and then re-oppressed quite a few years later by Pharaoh. The Bible and Haggada suggest that the Pharaoh of the Exodus died in year 2 of his reign, matching Ramses I. The fact that Pi-Tum and Raamses were built during the reign of Ramses I also supports this view. Seti I records that during his reign the Shasu warred with each other, which some see as a reference to the Midyan and Moab wars. Seti's campaigns with the Shasu have also been compared with Balaam's exploits. A more recent and non-Biblical view places Moses as a noble in the court of the Pharaoh Akhenaten (See below). A significant number of scholars, from Sigmund Freud to Joseph Campbell, suggest that Moses may have fled Egypt after Akhenaten's death (ca. 1334 BC) when many of the pharaoh's monotheistic reforms were being violently reversed. The principal ideas behind this theory are: the monotheistic religion of Akhenaten being a possible predecessor to Moses' monotheism, and the "Amarna letters", written by nobles to Akhenaten, which describe raiding bands of "Habiru" attacking the Egyptian territories in Mesopotamia. Transformations of Myth Through Time, Joseph Campbell, p. 87–90, Harper & Row David Rohl, a British historian and archaeologist, author of the book "A Test of Time", places the birth of Moses during the reign of Pharaoh Khaneferre Sobekhotep IV of the 13th Egyptian Dynasty, and the Exodus during the reign of Pharaoh Dudimose (accession to the throne around 1457–1444), when according to Manetho "a blast from God smote the Egyptians". Historicity Although there have been various attempts at placing Moses in a historical context of the Late Bronze Age or the Bronze Age collapse, his historicity cannot be established. Some archaeologists have claimed that surveys of ancient settlements in Sinai do not appear to show a great influx of people around the time of the Exodus (given variously as between 1500–1200 BCE), as would be expected from the arrival of Joshua and the Israelites in Canaan. This suggests that the biblical Exodus may not be a literal depiction. Archaeologists such as Israel Finkelstein, Ze'ev Herzog and William G. Dever, regard the Exodus as non-historical, at best containing a small germ of truth. According to Prof. Ze'ev Herzog, Director of the Institute of Archaeology at Tel Aviv University "This is what archaeologists have learned from their excavations in the Land of Israel: the Israelites were never in Egypt, did not wander in the desert, did not conquer the land in a military campaign and did not pass it on to the 12 tribes of Israel.... The many Egyptian documents that we have make no mention of the Israelites' presence in Egypt and are also silent about the events of the exodus. mideastfacts.org - Deconstructing the walls of Jericho In his book, The Bible Unearthed, Finkelstein points to the appearance of settlements in the central hill country around 1200, recognized by most archaeologists as the earliest of the known settlements of the Israelites. I Finkelstein and N. Na'aman, eds., From Nomadism to Monarchy (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1994) Using evidence from earlier periods, he shows a cyclical pattern to these highland settlements, corresponding to the state of the surrounding cultures. Finkelstein suggests that the local Canaanites would adapt their way of living from an agricultural lifestyle to a nomadic one and vice versa. When Egyptian rule collapsed after the invasion of the Sea Peoples, the central hill country could no longer sustain a large nomadic population, so they went from nomadism to sedentism. Dever agrees with the Canaanite origin of the Israelites but allows for the possibility of a Semitic tribe coming from Egyptian servitude among the early hilltop settlers and that Moses or a Moses-like figure may have existed in Transjordan ca 1250-1200. Biblical minimalists, such as Philip Davies, Niels Peter Lemche and Thomas L. Thompson, regard the Exodus as ahistorical. Hector Avalos, in "The End of Biblical Studies," states that the Exodus, as depicted in the Bible, is an idea that most biblical historians no longer support. In Freud's historical psychoanalysis There is also a psychoanalytical interpretation of Moses' life, put forward by Sigmund Freud in his last book, Moses and Monotheism, in 1937. Freud postulated that Moses was an Egyptian nobleman who adhered to the monotheism of Akhenaten. Following a theory proposed by a contemporary biblical critic, Freud, a committed atheist, believed that Moses was murdered in the wilderness, producing a collective sense of patricidal guilt that has been at the heart of Judaism ever since. "Judaism had been a religion of the father, Christianity became a religion of the son", he wrote. The possible Egyptian origin of Moses and of his message has received significant scholarly attention. Jan Assmann. "Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt in Western Monotheism". Harvard University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-674-58738-3 See also Y. Yerushalmi's monograph on Freud's Moses. The biblical critic had recanted his original theory around the same time as Freud's book, but either the latter was unaware of this or decided to uphold it nevertheless. Opponents of this view observe that the religion of the Torah seems different to Atenism in everything except the central feature of devotion to a single god, although this has been countered by a variety of arguments, e.g. pointing out the similarities between the Hymn to Aten and Psalm 104. Jan Assmann, op. cit. James E. Atwell, "An Egyptian Source for Genesis 1" , The Journal of Theological Studies 2000 51(2), 441–477. Freud's interpretation of the historical Moses is not a prominent theory among historians, and is considered pseudohistory by most. 'Freud and the Legacy of Moses by Richard J. Bernstein Criticism According to the Torah, Moses prescribed the death penalty for a huge range of offences, and for defeated enemies. As he is considered a holy figure, however, by Jews, Christians and Muslims, most criticism of his life and teachings has been left to others. In the late eighteenth century, for example, the deist Thomas Paine commented at length on Moses' Laws in The Age of Reason, and gave his view that "the character of Moses, as stated in the Bible, is the most horrid that can be imagined" Thomas Paine, The Age of Reason part II, 1796 , giving the story at as an example. In the nineteenth century the agnostic Robert G. Ingersoll wrote " ...that all the ignorant, infamous, heartless, hideous things recorded in the 'inspired' Pentateuch are not the words of God, but simply 'Some Mistakes of Moses'". Robert G. Ingersoll, Some Mistakes of Moses chapter XXIX More recently the atheist Richard Dawkins referring, like Paine, to the incident at , concluded drily "No, Moses was not a great role model for modern moralists. Richard Dawkins, The God Delusion, 2006, chapter 7 Depictions Bas-relief of Moses in the U.S. House of Representatives chamber. Moses is depicted in several U.S. government buildings because of his legacy as a lawgiver. Moses is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in marble bas-reliefs in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives in the United States Capitol. His is the only forward facing bas-relief. "Relief Portraits of Lawgivers: Moses." Architect of the Capitol. An image of Moses holding two tablets written in Hebrew representing the Ten Commandments (and a partially visible list of commandments six through ten, the more "secular" commandments, behind his beard) is depicted on the frieze on the south wall of the U.S. Supreme Court building. "Courtroom Friezes: North and South Walls: Information Sheet." Supreme Court of the United States. Moses with horns, by Michelangelo Moses on 1518 baptismal font by Christoph von Urach Horned Moses , according to most translations, tells that after meeting with God the skin of Moses' face became radiant, frightening the Israelites and leading Moses to wear a veil. Jonathan Kirsch, in his book Moses: A Life, thought that, since Moses subsequently had to wear a veil to hide it, Moses' face was disfigured by a sort of "divine radiation burn". This Exodus passage has led to one longstanding tradition that Moses grew horns. This is derived from an alternative interpretation of the Hebrew phrase (). The root (qoph, resh, nun) may be read as either "horn" or "ray of light", depending on context. As a noun, this word turns up some ninety times within the Hebrew Bible, and always means "horn". The alternative meaning, "ray of light", turns up only in the post-Biblical Hebrew literature. As a verb, the three verses describing Moses' appearance are the only three examples in the Biblical and post-Biblical literature of this verb ever being translated as "shine". Aside from the references to Moses, the verb is always understood to mean "have horns" (cf: Ps 69:32, for the one other Biblical occurrence). () translates to "the skin of his face". Traditionally interpreted, these two words form an expression meaning that Moses was enlightened, literally that "the skin of his face shone" (as with a gloriole), as the KJV has it. The Septuagint translates the Hebrew phrase as , "his face was glorified"; but Jerome translated the phrase into Latin as cornuta esset facies sua "his face was horned". With apparent Biblical authority, and the added convenience of giving Moses a unique and easily identifiable visual attribute (something the other Old Testament prophets notably lacked), it remained standard in Western art to depict Moses with small horns until well after the Renaissance. Michelangelo's Moses, is probably the best-known example. Not all the Renaissance Italian painters gave horns to Moses. The Venetian artist Tintoretto depicts Moses' face as radiating light, in his series about the life of the prophet in the San Rocco, Venice. Popular artist renditions of saints include radiant light (a halo) behind the head, or over the crown of the head. Other traditions outside of religion include an aura to show an element of the supernatural, or possible energy field of the body. Portrayals in popular culture Dramatic portrayals Moses appears as the central character in the 1956 Cecil B. DeMille movie, The Ten Commandments. He is portrayed by Charlton Heston. DeMille got the casting idea from the statue of Moses shown on this page as the director felt the famous statue actually looked like Heston. Moses had earlier been portrayed by Theodore Roberts in DeMille's 1923 silent film of the same name. A Ten Commandments television remake was produced in 2006. Moses as depicted in South Park episode Jewbilee. Moses appears as the central character in the 1998 DreamWorks Pictures animated movie, The Prince of Egypt. He is voiced by Val Kilmer. Parodies In the 1981 film History of the World, Part I, Moses is portrayed by Mel Brooks. The webcomic Jesus and Mo occasionally features a character called Moses. Moses appears in the form of the Master Control Program from Tron in Season 3 Episode 9 of the cartoon series South Park, which first aired on 07/28/1999 in the U.S.. Literature In late David Gemmell's Troy series, Moses is exiled Egyptian (Gyppto) prince Ahmose. He joins Helikaon's crew under the name Gershom and becomes one of his closest friends after the death of Zidantas/Ox. He considers his grandfather, the pharaoh, a very wise man. Priam's daughter Kassandra shows him the truth: He was taken from his parents to replace pharaoh's stillborn son. He then goes to Egypt to free his people. When Thera volcano erupts, the sun is blotted out and because it happens right after Ramesses refuses to let them go, Jews believe that Moses did that. See also Moses in rabbinic literature Torah The Exodus Aaron Joshua List of Biblical names List of founders of religious traditions Prophets of Islam Passage of the Red Sea Ipuwer Papyrus Seventh of Adar Mosaic authorship Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions :Category:Moses Articles on Biblical books involving Moses: Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy Articles on Weekly Torah portions involving Moses: Va'eira, Bo, Beshalach, Yitro, Mishpatim, Terumah, Tetzaveh, Ki Tisa, Vayakhel, Pekudei, Tzav, Shemini, Tazria, Metzora, Acharei, Kedoshim, Emor, Behar, Bechukotai, Book of Numbers, Naso, Behaalotecha, Shlach, Korach, Chukat, Balak, Phinehas, Matot, Masei, Deuteronomy, Va'etchanan, Eikev, Re'eh, Shoftim, Ki Teitzei, Ki Tavo, Nitzavim, Vayelech, Haazinu, V'Zot HaBerachah Notes Further reading Asch, Sholem. Moses. New York: Putnam, 1958. ISBN 0742691373 Assmann, Jan. Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt in Western Monotheism. Harvard University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-674-58738-3. Barzel, Hillel. "Moses: Tragedy and Sublimity." In Literary Interpretations of Biblical Narratives. Edited by Kenneth R.R. Gros Louis, with James S. Ackerman & Thayer S. Warshaw, 120–40. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1974. ISBN 0-687-22131-5. Bernier, Michelle. "Charlton Heston: An Incredible Life". Createspace. 2008. ISBN 1440452932. Buber, Martin. Moses: The Revelation and the Covenant. New York: Harper, 1958. Card, Orson Scott. Stone Tables. Deseret Book Co., 1998. ISBN 1-57345-115-0. Chasidah, Yishai, Encyclopaedia of Biblical personalities: anthologized from the Talmud, Midrash and rabbinic writings, Shaar Press, Brooklyn, 2000 Cohen, Joel. Moses: A Memoir. Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8091-0558-6. Daiches, David. Moses: The Man and his Vision. New York: Praeger, 1975. ISBN 0-275-33740-5. Fast, Howard. Moses, Prince of Egypt. New York: Crown Pubs., 1958. Freud, Sigmund. Moses and Monotheism. New York: Vintage, 1967. ISBN 0-394-70014-7. Gjerman, Corey. Moses: The Father I Never Knew. Portland: Biblical Fantasticals, 2007. ISBN 978-1424171132. Halter, Marek. Zipporah, Wife of Moses. New York: Crown, 2005. ISBN 1400052793. Ingraham, J. H.. The Pillar of Fire: Or Israel in Bondage. New York: A.L. Burt, 1859. Reprinted Ann Arbor, Mich.: Scholarly Publishing Office, University of Michigan Library, 2006. ISBN 1425564917. Kirsch, Jonathan. Moses: A Life. New York: Ballantine, 1998. ISBN 0-345-41269-9. Kohn, Rebecca. Seven Days to the Sea: An Epic Novel of the Exodus. New York: Rugged Land, 2006. ISBN 1-59071-049-5. Lehman, S.M., rabbi Dr., (translator), Freedman, H., rabbi Dr., (ed.), Midrash Rabbah, 10 volumes, The Soncino Press, London, 1983 Mann, Thomas. "Thou Shalt Have No Other Gods Before Me." In The Ten Commandments, 3–70. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1943. Sandmel, Samuel. Alone Atop the Mountain. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1973. ISBN 0-385-03877-1. Southon, Arthur E. On Eagles' Wings. London: Cassell and Co., 1937. Reprinted New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954. Wiesel, Elie. “Moses: Portrait of a Leader.” In Messengers of God: Biblical Portraits & Legends, 174–210. New York: Random House, 1976. ISBN 0-394-49740-6. Wildavsky, Aaron. Moses as Political Leader. Jerusalem: Shalem Press, 2005. ISBN 965-7052-31-9. Wilson, Dorothy Clarke. Prince of Egypt. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1949 External links The Geography, Book XVI, Chapter II The entire context of the cited chapter of Strabo's work
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Azores
The Azores (; ) is a Portuguese archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, about 1,500 km (950 mi) from Lisbon and about 3,900 km (2,400 mi) from the east coast of North America. The two westernmost Azorean islands (Flores and Corvo) actually lie on the North American plate, about 1,925 km (1,200 mi) from St. John's in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The Azores' most significant industries are tourism, cattle raising for milk and meat, and fishing. The nine major Azorean islands and the eight small Formigas extend for more than and lie in a northwest-southeast direction. The vast extent of the islands defines an immense exclusive economic zone of 1.1 million km². The westernmost point of this area is from the North American continent. All of the islands have volcanic origins, although Santa Maria also has some reef contribution. The mountain of Pico on Pico Island, at in altitude, is the highest in all of Portugal. The Azores are actually the tops of some of the tallest mountains on the planet, as measured from their base at the bottom of the ocean. The archipelago forms the Autonomous Region of Azores, one of the two autonomous regions of Portugal. Because these once uninhabited, remote islands were settled sporadically over a span of two centuries, their culture, dialect, cuisine and traditions vary considerably from island to island. Farming and fishing are key industries that support the Azorean economy. 240,000 Azoreans live within the archipelago’s 868 square miles. Although it is commonly said that the archipelago is named after the goshawk ( in Portuguese) because it was supposed to be a common bird at the time of discovery, in fact the bird never existed on the islands. Most, however, insist that the name is derived from birds, pointing to a local subspecies of the buzzard (), as the animal the first explorers erroneously identified as goshawks. History Discovery A modern map of the islands. Sixteenth-century map of the Azores Islands. The islands were known in the fourteenth century and parts of them can be seen, for example, in the Atlas Catalan. In 1427, one of the captains sailing for Henry the Navigator, possibly Gonçalo Velho, rediscovered the Azores, but this is not certain. A History of the Azores by Thomas Ashe written in 1813 marks the discovery by Joshua Vander Berg of Bruges in Flanders. Vander Berg was said to have landed there during a storm on his way to Lisbon. Ashe then claims that the Portuguese left to explore the area and claim it for Portugal shortly after. Settlement The settlement of the then-unoccupied islands started in 1439 with people mainly from the continental provinces of Algarve and Alentejo. In 1583, Philip II of Spain, as king of Portugal, sent his fleet to clear the Azores of a combined multinational force of adventurers, mercenaries, volunteers and soldiers who were attempting to establish the Azores as a staging post for a rival pretender to the Portuguese throne. Following the success of his fleet at the Battle of Ponta Delgada, the captured enemy were hanged from yardarms, as they were considered pirates by Philip II. (This was added to the "Black Legend" by his enemies.) An English expedition against the Azores in 1597, the Islands Voyage, also failed. The Azores were the second-to-last part of the Portuguese empire to resist Philip's reign over Portugal (Macau being the last) and were returned to Portuguese control with the end of the Iberian Union in 1668, not by the professional military, who were used in the Restoration War in the mainland, but by local people attacking a fortified Castilian garrison (). Pico viewed from Faial. Portuguese Civil War The Portuguese Civil War (1828–1834) had strong repercussions in the Azores. In 1829, in Vila da Praia, the liberals won over the absolutists, making Terceira Island the main headquarters of the new Portuguese regime and also where the Council of Regency () of Mary II of Portugal was established. Beginning in 1868, Portugal issued its stamps overprinted with "" for use in the islands. Between 1892 and 1906, it also issued separate stamps for the three administrative districts of the time. From 1836 to 1976, the archipelago was divided into three districts, equivalent (except in area) to those in the Portuguese mainland. The division was arbitrary, and did not follow the natural island groups, rather reflecting the location of each district capital on the three main cities (none of which were on the western group). Angra do Heroísmo consisted of Terceira, São Jorge, and Graciosa, with the capital at Angra do Heroísmo on Terceira. Horta consisted of Pico, Faial, Flores, and Corvo, with the capital at Horta on Faial. Ponta Delgada consisted of São Miguel and Santa Maria, with the capital at Ponta Delgada on São Miguel. Angra do Heroísmo. In 1943, during the Second World War, The Portuguese dictator, António de Oliveira Salazar, leased bases in the Azores to the British, despite his previous collaboration with Germany. The Role of Portugal - co-opting Nazi Gold, Jonathan Petropoulos, Dimensions, , Vol 11, No 1, 1997 This was a key turning point in the Battle of the Atlantic, allowing the Allies to provide aerial coverage in the middle of the Atlantic. This helped them to hunt U-boats and protect convoys. In 1944, American forces constructed a small and short-lived air base on the island of Santa Maria. In 1945, a new base was constructed on the island of Terceira and is currently known as Lajes Field. This base is in an area called Lajes, a broad, flat sea terrace that had been a farm. Lajes Field is a plateau rising out of the sea on the northeast corner of the island. This Air Force base is a joint American and Portuguese venture. Lajes Field continues to support United States and Portuguese military operations. During the Cold War, the United States Navy P-3 Orion anti-submarine squadrons patrolled the North Atlantic for Soviet submarines and surface spy vessels. Since its inception, Lajes Field has been used for refuelling aircraft bound for Europe, and more recently, the Middle East. The United States Army operates a small fleet of military ships in the harbour of Praia da Vitória, three kilometres (2 mi) southeast of Lajes Field. The airfield also has a small commercial terminal handling scheduled and chartered passenger flights from other islands in the archipelago, Europe, and North America. In 1976, the Azores became the Autonomous Region of the Azores (), one of the Autonomous regions of Portugal, and the Azorean districts were suppressed. Politics Since becoming a Portuguese autonomous region, the executive branch of the regional authority has been located in Ponta Delgada, the legislative branch in Horta, and the judicial branch in Angra do Heroísmo. The current president of the regional government is Carlos César. Azorean politics is dominated by the two largest Portuguese political parties, the Social Democratic Party (PSD) and the Socialist Party (PS), the latter holding a majority in the Regional Legislative Assembly. The Democratic and Social Center / People's Party (CDS/PP), the Left Bloc (BE), the Unitarian Democratic Coalition (CDU) and the People's Monarchist Party (PPM) are also represented in the local parliament. Even though the PS dominates the administrative scene, the PSD is usually more popular in city and town council elections. Municipalities The Azores are divided into nineteen municipalities (); each municipality is further divided into parishes (), of which there is a total of 156 in all of the Azores. The municipalities, by island, are: Island Group Municipalities Flores IslandWesternLajes das Flores and Santa Cruz das Flores </tr> Corvo Island Western Corvo </tr> Terceira Island Central Angra do Heroísmo and Praia da Vitória </tr> Graciosa Island Central Santa Cruz da Graciosa </tr> São Jorge Island Central Calheta and Velas </tr> Pico Island Central Lajes do Pico, Madalena and São Roque do Pico </tr> Faial Island Central Horta </tr> Santa Maria Island Eastern Vila do Porto </tr> São Miguel Island Eastern Lagoa, Nordeste, Ponta Delgada, Povoação, Ribeira Grande, and Vila Franca do Campo </tr> Cities There are five cities in the Azores: Ponta Delgada and Ribeira Grande on São Miguel Island; Angra do Heroísmo and Praia da Vitória on the island of Terceira, and Horta on the island of Faial. Three of these Ponta Delgada, Angra and Horta are considered capital cities in the regional government, homes to the President (Ponta Delgada), the Judiciary (Angra) and the Regional Assembly (Horta). Geography and environment Lagoa das Sete Cidades Island Area (km2.) Area (sq.mi.) São Miguel Island </tr> Pico Island </tr> Terceira Island </tr> São Jorge Island </tr> Faial Island </tr> Flores Island </tr> Santa Maria Island </tr> Graciosa Island </tr> Corvo Island </tr> The archipelago is spread out in the area between 37° N and the parallels of latitude that pass through the Lisbon area (39° 43' / 39° 55' N), giving it a tepid, oceanic, subtropical climate, with mild annual oscillations. The average annual rainfall increases from east to west, and it ranges from 700 to 1600 annual millimetres (27.6–63 in) on average, reaching on Mount Pico, the highest Portuguese mountain at . The Azores high, an area of high atmospheric pressure, is named after the islands. The Formigas (the Portuguese word for "ants") islands (also known as Dollabarat Reefs) have rich maritime fauna, including exotic species such as the black coral and manta rays, sharks, and sea turtles. The archipelago lies in the Palearctic ecozone, forming a unique biome that includes the macaronesian subtropical laurissilva, with many endemic species of plants. Even though the Azores look very green and sometimes wild, the vegetation has been extremely altered. Most of the original laurisilva has been wiped out for its valuable wood (for tools, buildings, boats, fire wood, etc) and to clear land for agriculture. Many cultivated places (which are traditionally dedicated to pasture or to growing colocasia, potatoes, maize and other crops) have now been abandoned, especially as a result of emigration. Consequently, some invasive plants have filled these deserted and disturbed lands. The two most common of these exotic species are Pittosporum undulatum and Acacia melanoxylon. They are usually restricted to ancient agricultural land and, fortunately, only rarely penetrate into undisturbed native vegetation. The main loss is in the lowlands (below 400 metres), where virtually all laurisilva was eradicated. A few Persea indica and Picconia azorica still survive in some places, but appear to be extremely vulnerable. Only Myrica faya seems to have survived human impact quite well, and it is commonly found in hedges or among exotic trees. More recent introductions could become a serious threat, like Leptospermum scoparium which has the ability to colonize the still nearly-untouched medium-altitude vegetation (Ilex, Myrsine africana, Erica, etc). Hydrangeas are another potential pest, but their threat is less serious. Notwithstanding the fact that Hydrangeas were introduced from America or Asia, some locals consider them to be a symbol of the archipelago and propagate them along roadsides, helping them to escape into the wild. Cryptomeria, the Japanese cedar, is a conifer extensively grown for its timber; many seedlings can be found in the last remnants of medium-altitude native vegetation. The nine islands have a total area of . Their individual areas range between São Miguel's and Corvo's . Three islands (São Miguel, Pico and Terceira) are larger than Malta (composed of three islands), São Miguel Island alone being twice as large. The nine islands are divided into three groups: The Eastern Group () of São Miguel, Santa Maria and Formigas Islets The Central Group () of Terceira, Graciosa, São Jorge, Pico and Faial The Western Group () of Flores and Corvo. Time zone The Azores are located in the UTC-1 N time zone (Cape Verde Time, CVT). However, the Azores observe daylight saving time, while Cape Verde does not. The Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) offset is -0100 (CVT/CVST) / 0000 (CVDT). The relevant coordinates are +3744−02540. Geology The islands are located atop an active triple junction between three large tectonic plates: the North American Plate, the Eurasian Plate and the African Plate. Volcanism associated with the formation of the islands arises from the fact that the Azores Triple Junction involves rifting, a process whereby the crust is spreading along three ridge legs radiating out from the triple junction. The volcanism is also related to the Azores hotspot. The islands began forming during the Tertiary period. Pico, a volcano that stands high on the island of the same name, has the highest altitude in the Azores and all of Portugal. The last volcano to erupt was the Capelinhos Volcano () in 1957, in the western part of Faial Island, increasing the size of the island by 2.4 km, but it's estimated that the great part of it will be washed away in next 20 years. Santa Maria Island is the oldest Azorean island, formed 4.8 million years ago, and is the only island in the Azores with an abundance of sediments where marine fossils have been discovered. The Gruta das Torres, Algar do Carvão, Gruta do Natal, Gruta das Cinco Ribeiras are some of the many caves of the Azores. Demographics On 31 December 2002, the Azores' population was 238,767 at a density of . Island Population (2002) Maincity/town Municipalities</tr> (% of total) São Miguel Island 130,154 54.50 Ponta Delgada 6 Terceira Island 54,996 23.00 Angra do Heroísmo 2 Faial Island 14,934 6.25 Horta 1 Pico Island 14,579 6.11 Madalena 3 São Jorge Island 9,522 3.99 Velas 2 Santa Maria Island 5,490 2.30 Vila do Porto 1 Graciosa Island 4,708 1.97 Santa Cruz da Graciosa 1 Flores Island 3,949 1.65 Santa Cruz das Flores 2 Corvo Island 435 0.18 Vila do Corvo 1 Total 238,767 Total 19 Population The vast majority of the inhabitants of the Azores are Portuguese, descendants of 15th century immigrants from Algarve and from Minho, with a minor Dutch admixture (particularly from Flanders). The nature of the economy dictated that African slavery never became common in the Azores, although the islands sometimes served as a waypoint for ships carrying African slaves. Since the 17th century, many Azoreans have emigrated, mainly to Brazil, the United States and Canada. Southeastern Massachusetts, especially the cities of New Bedford and Fall River, was a primary destination for Azorean emigrants. Northern California was the final destination for many of the Massacheusetts immigrants who then moved onto the San Joachim Valley, the world's richest farming area. Traditional festivals from May through September Holy Ghost Festivals, or Espírito Santo Festivals, are very important to the Azorean people, who are mainly Roman Catholic. The festivals are rooted in medieval traditions and typically held on all the islands from May to September, including lively parades and large feasts. As part of the tradition, soup and bread are handed out to revelers during these events. On Terceira and other islands, decorative houses called Imperios are the staging points for the feeding of the masses. May marks The Festival of Senhor Santo Cristo dos Milagres (Lord Holy Christ of Miracles) in Ponta Delgada on the island of São Miguel. The largest religious event in the Azores is the Festa do Senhor Santo Cristo takes place on the 5th Sunday after Easter. Pilgrims from all over the world unite to parade behind the image of Christ on a three-hour procession along the flower decorated streets of the city. The Sanjoaninas Festivities in Angra do Heroísmo in Terceira are held in June honoring S. Antonio, S. Pedro and St. João, in a large religious celebration. The traditional bullfights in the bullring are ongoing, as is the running of bulls in the streets. The festival of Nossa Senhora de Lourdes, (Our Lady of Lourdes), patron saint to the Whalers, begins in Lajes on Pico on the last Sunday the August and runs through the week - Whalers Week. It is marked by social and cultural events connected to the tradition of whale hunting.
 The Festa das Vindimas, (Wine Harvest Festival), takes place during the first week of September and is a century old custom ways by the people of Pico. In Corvo the people celebrate their patron saints Nossa Senhora dos Milagres, (Our Lady of Miracles), on August 15 every year in addition to the festivals of the Divine Holy Spirit. The Festival da Maré de Agosto (August Sea Festival), takes place every year beginning on 15 August in Praia Formosa on Santa Maria. And, the Semana do Mar (Sea Week), dedicated almost exclusively to water sports, takes place in August in the city of Horta, on Faial. Carnaval is also celebrated in the Azores. Parades and pageants are the heart of the Carnaval festivities. There is lively music, colorful costumes, hand-made masks, and floats. Population genetics As in continental Portugal, the most frequent mtDNA haplogroup in the Azores is H (45.2%), followed by U (16.7%), T (10.1%), K (6.5%), pre-HV clades (5.6%) and a smaller sub-Saharan L haplogroups frequency (3.4%) than in Madeira as the number of sub-Saharan slaves in the Açores never reached the proportions that took place in Madeira. Mitochondrial portraits of the Azores and Açores archipelagos witness different genetic pools of its settlers, Brehm et al. 2003 Concerning the males Y-Dna haplogroups, R1b (particularly R1b3) was found to be the most dominant Y chromosomal lineage in the Azores, covering about 60% of the Y chromosomal lineages. The high frequency of this haplogroup is typical in all West European populations, reflecting a cline and likely continuity of the Paleolithic gene pool in Europe. Haplogroups I and G, also characteristic markers for many different West European populations, were found in the Azores at frequencies above 5%. Together with R1b, haplogroups J (13%) and E1b1b (9%) comprise about 80% of the Y-chromosomal gene pool in the Azores. Haplogroups J and E1b1b consist of lineages with differential distribution within Middle East, North Africa and Europe. The typical berber haplogroup E1b1b (M81) was found like in continental Portugal at a frequency of 5-6%. Y-chromosome lineages from Portugal, Madeira and Açores record elements of Sephardim and Berber ancestry, Goncalves et al. 2005 See also Canary Islands Cape Verde Madeira Macaronesia Postage stamps and postal history of the Azores References External links http://www.azores.gov.pt/ — Website of the Azores Regional Government http://www.azoresweather.com/ — Azores Weather and Climate
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4,786
Australian_Labor_Party
The Australian Labor Party is an Australian political party. Known as the ALP for short, the party is the current governing party of Australia, since the 2007 federal election. Kevin Rudd is the party's federal parliamentary leader and Prime Minister of Australia. Founded in 1891 by the emerging labour movement in Australia, Labor is the country's oldest active political party, having contested state seats from 1891, federal seats following the Federation at the 1901 federal election, and gained Australia's first majority in either house at the 1910 federal election. The ALP predates both the British Labour Party and New Zealand Labour Party among others in both party formation and government. The party today competes with the Liberal/National coalition for political office at the federal and state (and sometimes local) level. Policy Prime Minister Kevin Rudd (right) and Deputy Prime Minister Julia Gillard (left) at their first press conference as Leader and Deputy Leader of the Australian Labor Party, 4 December 2006Chris Watson, first leader of then Federal Labour Party 1901–07 (held the balance of power) and Prime Minister of Australia in 1904 Andrew Fisher, Labor Prime Minister of Australia 1908–09, 1910–13, 1914–15Billy Hughes, Labor Prime Minister of Australia 1915-16James Scullin, Labor Prime Minister of Australia 1929–32John Curtin, Labor Prime Minister of Australia 1941–45Ben Chifley, Labor Prime Minister of Australia 1945–49Gough Whitlam, Labor Prime Minister of Australia 1972–75Bob Hawke, Labor Prime Minister of Australia 1983–91Paul Keating, Labor Prime Minister of Australia 1991–96 (bust image) The policy of the Australian Labor Party is contained in its National Platform, which is approved by delegates to Labor's National Conference, held every three years. According to the Labor Party's website, "The Platform is the result of a rigorous and constructive process of consultation, spanning the nation and including the cooperation and input of state and territory policy committees, local branches, unions, state and territory governments, and individual Party members. The Platform provides the policy foundation from which we can continue to work towards the election of a federal Labor Government." The platform gives a general indication of the policy direction which a future Labor government would follow, but does not commit the party to specific policies. It maintains that "Labor's traditional values will remain a constant on which all Australians can rely." While making it clear that Labor is fully committed to a market economy, it says that: "Labor believes in a strong role for national government — the one institution all Australians truly own and control through our right to vote." Labor "will not allow the benefits of change to be concentrated in fewer and fewer hands, or located only in privileged communities. The benefits must be shared by all Australians and all our regions." The Platform and Labor "believe that all people are created equal in their entitlement to dignity and respect, and should have an equal chance to achieve their potential." For Labor, "government has a critical role in ensuring fairness by: ensuring equal opportunity; removing unjustifiable discrimination; and achieving a more equitable distribution of wealth, income and status." Further sections of the Platform stress Labor's support for Equality, Human Rights, Labour Rights and Democracy. In practice, the Platform provides only general policy guidelines to Labor's federal, state and territory parliamentary leaderships. The policy Labor takes into an election campaign is determined by the Cabinet (if the party is in office) or the Shadow Cabinet (if it is in opposition), in consultation with key interest groups within the party, and is contained in the parliamentary Leader's policy speech delivered during the election campaign. When Labor is in office, the policies it implements are determined by the Cabinet, subject to the Platform. Generally, it is accepted that while the Platform binds Labor governments, how and when it is implemented remains the prerogative of the parliamentary caucus. It is now rare for the Platform to conflict with government policy, as the content of the Platform is usually developed in close collaboration with the party's parliamentary leadership as well as the factions. However, where there is a direct contradiction with the Platform, Labor governments have sought to change the Platform as a prerequisite for a change in policy. For example, privatisation legislation under the Hawke government occurred only after holding a special national conference to debate changing the Platform. Early ideology The Labor Party is commonly described as a social democratic party, but its constitution stipulates that it is a democratic socialist party. The light on the hill is a phrase used to describe the objective of the Australian Labor Party. The phrase was coined in a 1949 conference speech by then Prime Minister Ben Chifley. The party was created by, and has always been influenced to some extent by trade unionists, and its policy at any given time has been the policy of the broader labour movement. Thus at the first federal election 1901 Labor's platform called for a White Australia (a view held by all federal MPs at the time bar Bruce Smith, a Free Trader), a citizen army and compulsory arbitration of industrial disputes. McKinlay (1981) p. 19 Labor has at various times supported high tariffs and low tariffs, conscription and pacifism, White Australia and multiculturalism, nationalisation and privatisation, isolationism and internationalism, as has the conservative side of Australian politics. In the aftermath of World War I and the Russian Revolution, support for socialism grew in trade union ranks, and at the 1921 All-Australian Trades Union Congress a resolution was passed calling for "the socialisation of industry, production, distribution and exchange." As a result, Labor's Federal Conference in 1922 adopted a similarly worded "socialist objective," which remained official policy for many years. The resolution was immediately qualified, however, by the "Blackburn amendment," which said that "socialisation" was desirable only when was necessary to "eliminate exploitation and other anti-social features." McKinlay (1981) p. 53 In practice the socialist objective was a dead letter. Only once has a federal Labor government attempted to nationalise any industry (Ben Chifley's bank nationalisation of 1947), and that was held by the High Court to be unconstitutional. However, the idea that only the socialist working class formed Labor is untrue. Analysis of the early NSW Labor caucus reveals "a band of unhappy amateurs", made up of blue collar workers, a squatter, an MD, and even a mine owner. In addition, many members from the working class supported the liberal notion of free trade between the colonies - in the first grouping of state MPs, 17 of the 35 were free-traders. Some historically declare the party a mix of socialism, liberalism, pragmatism and 'Laborism'. Australian Labor Party history - Oz Politics These commitments are deemed to place Labor closer, intellectually and historically, to the 19th century colonial liberals as the forerunners to the Labor party over the conservatives of the time. The Ideology of the Australian Labor Party: BBC, 16 August 2001 Modern Labor Various ideological beliefs were factionalised under reforms to the ALP under Gough Whitlam, resulting in what is now known as the Socialist Left who tend to favour a more interventionist economic policy and more socially progressive ideals, and Labor Right, the now dominant faction that tends to be more economically liberal and focus to a lesser extent on social issues. The Whitlam government was the first Australian government to use the term economic rationalism. The Gough Whitlam Labor government from 1972 to 1975 was different to previous Labor governments, in that it pursued social democratic policies rather than democratic socialist policies, a precursor to the party's current third way position. Under the Whitlam government, tariffs across the board were cut by 25 percent after 23 years of Labor being in opposition. The Bob Hawke and Paul Keating governments from 1983 to 1996 pursued many economic policies associated with economic rationalism and the "Third Way", such as floating the Australian Dollar in 1983, reductions in trade tariffs, taxation reforms, changing from centralised wage-fixing to enterprise bargaining, the privatisation of Qantas and Commonwealth Bank, and deregulating the banking system. Keating also proposed a GST in 1985, however due to its unpopularity amongst Labor as well as the electorate, was scrapped. The party also refrained from other reforms, such as wholesale labour market deregulation (eg WorkChoices), the eventual GST, the privatisation of Telstra and welfare reform including "work for the dole", which John Howard and the Liberal Party of Australia were to initiate after winning office in 1996. It is also said by a former Tony Blair staffer that UK Labour and Blair learnt from the Hawke government in the 1980s on how to govern when they took power in the UK. How the British came, saw and helped Rudd - National - theage.com.au Current Labor leader Kevin Rudd's first speech to parliament in 1998 stated: Competitive markets are massive and generally efficient generators of economic wealth. They must therefore have a central place in the management of the economy. But markets sometimes fail, requiring direct government intervention through instruments such as industry policy. There are also areas where the public good dictates that there should be no market at all.We are not afraid of a vision in the Labor Party, but nor are we afraid of doing the hard policy yards necessary to turn that vision into reality. Parties of the Centre Left around the world are wrestling with a similar challenge—the creation of a competitive economy while advancing the overriding imperative of a just society. Some call this the `third way'. The nomenclature is unimportant. What is important is that it is a repudiation of Thatcherism and its Australian derivatives represented opposite. It is in fact a new formulation of the nation's economic and social imperatives. Rudd is critical of free market economists such as Friedrich Hayek, although Rudd describes himself as "basically a conservative when it comes to questions of public financial management", pointing to his slashing of public service jobs as a Queensland governmental advisor. History ALP mythology says the first party branch was founded at a meeting of striking pastoral workers under a ghost gum tree (the "Tree of Knowledge") in Barcaldine, Queensland in 1891. The Balmain, New South Wales branch of the party also claims to be the oldest in Australia. The party as a serious electoral force dates from 1891 in New South Wales, 1893 in Queensland and South Australia, and later in the other colonies. In New South Wales in 1891, the first election contested by Labour candidates (as Labor was spelt at the time - see Etymology), 35 of 141 seats were won by Labour candidates. Page 4, So Monstrous a Travesty, Ross McMullen. Scribe Publications 2004. In 1899, Anderson Dawson formed a minority Labour government in Queensland, the first in the world, which lasted one week. Sections of state Labour and the Australian labour movement were mixed in their support for the Federation of Australia. Some labour representatives argued against the proposed constitution, claiming the Senate as proposed was much too powerful, similar to the anti-reformist Colonial upper houses and the British House of Lords. They feared federation would distract attention from the need of social and industrial reform, and further entrench the power of the conservative forces. The first Labour leader and Prime Minister, Chris Watson, was a supporter of federation but not its implementation. After Federation, the Federal Parliamentary Labour Party (informally known as the Caucus) first met on 8 May 1901 at Parliament House, Melbourne, the meeting place of the first Federal Parliament. Faulkner; Macintyre (2001) p. 3 This is now taken as the founding date of the federal Labor Party, but it was some years before there was any significant structure or organisation at a national level. The ALP during its early years was distinguished by its rapid growth and success at a national level, first forming a minority government under Chris Watson, the first Labour Prime Minister in the world, for four months in 1904. Andrew Fisher then formed another minority government 1908-09. At the 1910 federal election, Fisher and Labour became Australia's first federal majority government, held Australia's first Senate majority, was the world's first Labour Party majority government, the first time the Labour Party had controlled any house of a legislature, and the first time it controlled both houses of a bicameral legislature. The state branches were also successful, except in Victoria, where the strength of Deakinite liberalism inhibited the party's growth. The state branches formed their first majority governments in New South Wales and South Australia in 1910, in Western Australia in 1911, and in Queensland in 1915. Such success eluded equivalent social democratic and labour parties in other countries for many years. One of the party's early innovations was the establishment of a federal arbitration system for the resolution of industrial disputes, which formed the basis of the industrial relations system for many decades. Through its membership of the Socialist International, the ALP is affiliated with democratic socialist, social democratic and labour parties in many countries. The party was historically committed to socialist economic policies, but this term was never clearly defined, and no Labor government ever attempted to implement "socialism" in any serious sense. Labor supported national wage fixing and a strong welfare system, it did not nationalise private enterprise. The single exception to this was Ben Chifley's attempt to nationalise the private banks in the 1940s, but this was ruled unconstitutional by the High Court of Australia. Faulkner; Macintyre (2001) p. 87 The commitment to nationalisation was dropped by Gough Whitlam. From its formation until the 1950s Labor and its affiliated unions were the strongest defenders of the White Australia Policy, which banned all non-European migration to Australia. This policy was partly motivated by 19th century theories about "racial purity" (shared by most Australians at this time), and partly by fears of economic competition from low-wage labour. In practice the party opposed all migration, on the grounds that immigrants competed with Australian workers and drove down wages, until after World War II, when the Chifley government launched a major immigration program. The party's opposition to non-European immigration did not change until after the retirement of Arthur Calwell as leader in 1967. Subsequently Labor has become an advocate of multiculturalism, although some of its trade union base and some of its members continue to oppose high immigration levels. Between the 2007 federal election and the 2008 Western Australian state election, the party was in government nationally, as well as in all eight state and territory legislatures. This was the first time any single party or any coalition had achieved this since the ACT and the NT gained self-government. In 1969-1970, before the ACT and NT achieved self-government, the Liberal and National Coalition was also in power federally and in all six states. University of WA elections database Etymology The ALP adopted the formal name "Australian Labour Party" in 1908, but changed the spelling to "Labor" in 1912. While it is standard practice in Australian English both today and at the time to spell the word labour with a "u", the party was influenced by the United States labor movement and a prominent figure in the early history of the party, the North American-born King O'Malley, was successful in having the spelling "modernised". The change also made it easier to distinguish references to the party from the labour movement in general. Clarke, FG, Australia: A Concise Political and Social History (Sydney: Harcourt Brace & Company 1996), p 205 Furthermore, the spelling "labor" had been acceptable in both British and Australian English in earlier periods. (See also: Spelling in Australian English) Labor splits The Labor Party has suffered three major splits: In 1916 over the issue of conscription during the First World War. Hughes, William Morris (Billy) (1862 - 1952), Australian Dictionary of Biography, ANU web site Labor Prime Minister Billy Hughes supported the introduction of conscription, while the majority of his colleagues in the ALP and trade union movement opposed it. After failing to gain majority support for conscription in two national plebiscites which bitterly divided the country in the process, Hughes and his followers were expelled from the Labor Party. He formed the Nationalist Party of Australia in alliance with the conservatives and remained Prime Minister until 1923. At the state level William Holman, also a supporter of conscription, quit the party at the same time and became Nationalist Party Premier of New South Wales. In 1931 over economic issues revolving around how best to handle the Great Depression. The ALP was essentially split three ways, between those who believed in radical policies such as NSW Premier Jack Lang, who wanted to repudiate Australia's debt to British bondholders; proto-Keynesians such as federal Treasurer Ted Theodore; and believers in orthodox finance such as Prime Minister James Scullin and a senior minister in his government, Joseph Lyons. In 1931 Lyons left the party and joined the conservatives, forming the United Australia Party as successors to the Nationalists and becoming Prime Minister in 1932. The 1954 split on communism. During the 1950s the issue of communism and support for communist causes or governments caused great internal conflict in the Labor party and the trade union movement in general. From 1945 onward, staunchly anti-Communist Roman Catholic members (Catholics being an important traditional support base) in opposition to communist infiltration of unions, formed Industrial Groups to gain control of them, fostering intense internal conflict. After Labor's loss of the 1954 election, federal leader Dr H.V. Evatt "issued a statement attacking the Victorian ALP state executive". http://www.smh.com.au:80/news/Gerard-Henderson/Paranoia-split-Labor-for-25-years/2005/04/11/1113071910309.html He blamed subversive activities of the "Groupers" for the defeat. After bitter public dispute many Groupers were expelled from the ALP and formed the Democratic Labor Party (DLP) whose intellectual leader was B.A. Santamaria. The DLP was heavily influenced by Catholic social teaching and had the support of the Catholic Archbishop of Melbourne, Daniel Mannix. Because of its "veto with a view to reunification" stragey, the DLP's preferences (see Australian electoral system) helped the Liberal Party of Australia remain in power for over two decades, but it was successfully undermined by the Whitlam Labor Government during the 1970s, so that after 1978 the DLP was reduced to a small "rump" based in Victoria, which nevertheless continued to contest federal elections as the DLP (according to the parliamentary library election results for 1980 and onward). http://www.aph.gov.au/library/Pubs/RB/2004-05/05rb11.pdf In addition, founding member Joseph Cook left the party in 1894, and went on to be Prime Minister of Australia with the Commonwealth Liberal Party in 1913-14. Structure The Australian Labor Party is a democratic and federal party, which consists of both individual members and affiliated trade unions, who between them decide the party's policies, elect its governing bodies and choose its candidates for public office. The majority of trade unions in Australia are affiliated to the party, and their affiliation fees, based on the size of their memberships, makes up a large part of the party's income. The party consists of six state and two territory branches, each of which consists of local branches which any Australian resident can join, plus affiliated trade unions. Individual members pay a membership fee, which is graduated according to income. Members are generally expected to attend at least one meeting of their local branch each year, although there are differences in the rules from state to state. In practice only a dedicated minority regularly attend meetings. Many members only become active during election campaigns. The party has about 50,000 individual members, although this figure tends to fluctuate along with the party's electoral fortunes. The members and unions elect delegates to state and territory conferences (usually held annually, although more frequent conferences are often held). These conferences decide policy, and elect state or territory executives, a state or territory president (an honorary position usually held for a one-year term), and a state or territory secretary (a full-time professional position). The larger branches also have full-time assistant secretaries and organisers. In the past the ratio of conference delegates coming from the branches and affiliated unions has varied from state to state, however under recent national reforms at least 50% of delegates at all state and territory conferences must be elected by branches. The party holds a National Conference every three years, which consists of delegates representing the state and territory branches (many coming from affiliated trade unions, although there is no formal requirement for unions to be represented at the National Conference). The National Conference approves the party's Platform and policies, elects the National Executive, and appoints office-bearers such as the National Secretary, who also serves as national campaign director during elections. The current National Secretary is Karl Bitar. The most recent National Conference was held in April 2007. The national Leader of the Labor Party is elected by the Labor members of the national Parliament (the Caucus), not by the conference. Until recently the national conference elected the party's National President, a largely honorary position, but since 2003 the position has rotated among people directly elected by the party's individual members. The current National President is Linda Burney. The Labor Party contests national, state and territory elections. In some states it also contests local government elections: in others it does not, preferring to allow its members to run as non-endorsed candidates. The process of choosing candidates is called pre-selection. Candidates are pre-selected by different methods in the various states and territories. In some they are chosen by ballots of all party members, in others by panels or committees elected by the state conference, in still others by a combination of these two. Labor candidates are required to sign a pledge that if elected they will always vote in Parliament in accordance with the Platform and decisions made by a vote of the Caucus. They are also sometimes required to donate a portion of their salary to the party, although this practice has declined with the introduction of public funding for political parties. The Labor Party has always had a left wing and a right wing, but since the 1970s it has been organised into formal factions, to which many party members belong and often pay an additional membership fee. The two largest factions are Labor Unity (on the right) and the Socialist Left. Labor Unity generally supports free-market policies and the US Alliance and tends to be conservative on some social issues. The National Left, although it seldom openly espouses socialism, favours more state intervention in the economy, is generally less enthusiastic about the U.S. Alliance and is often more progressive on social issues. The factions are themselves divided into sub-factions, and there is a constantly changing pattern of factional and sub-factional alliances around particular policy issues or around particular pre-selection disputes. Frequently these alliances and disputes reflect power struggles between or within trade unions. The trade unions are also factionally aligned. The largest unions supporting the right are the Australian Workers Union (AWU), the National Union of Workers (NUW) and the Shop, Distributive and Allied Employees' Association (SDA). Important unions supporting the left include the Australian Manufacturing Workers Union (AMWU), the Liquor, Hospitality and Miscellaneous Union (LHMU), the Construction, Forestry, Mining and Energy Union (CFMEU), the Australian Services Union (ASU) and the Maritime Union of Australia (MUA). But these affiliations are seldom unconditional or permanent. The AWU and the NUW, for example, are bitter rivals and the NUW sometimes aligns itself with the left to further its conflict with the AWU. Moreover, in some cases different branches may have different factional alignment. On some issues, such as opposition to the Howard Government's industrial relations policy, all the unions are in agreement and work as a bloc within the party. Pre-selections are usually conducted along factional lines, although sometimes a non-factional candidate will be given preferential treatment (this happened with Cheryl Kernot in 1998 and again with Peter Garrett in 2004). Deals between the factions to divide up the safe seats between them are also common. Pre-selections, particularly for safe Labor seats, are often bitterly contested, and have often involved practices such as branch stacking (signing up large numbers of nominal party members to vote in pre-selection ballots), personation, multiple voting and, on occasions, fraudulent electoral enrolment. Trade unions were in the past accused of giving inflated membership figures to increase their influence over pre-selections, but party rules changes have stamped out this practice. Pre-selection results are frequently challenged, and the National Executive is sometimes called on to arbitrate these disputes. ALP Federal Parliamentary Leaders Kevin Rudd 2006–current (Prime Minister 2007–current) Kim Beazley 2005–06 Mark Latham 2003–05 Simon Crean 2001–03 Kim Beazley 1996–2001 Paul Keating 1991–96 (Prime Minister 1991–96) Bob Hawke 1983–91 (Prime Minister 1983–91) Bill Hayden 1977–83 Gough Whitlam 1967–77 (Prime Minister 1972–75) Arthur Calwell 1960–67 Herbert "Bert" Evatt 1951–60 Ben Chifley 1945–51 (Prime Minister 1945–49) Frank Forde 1945 (caretaker Prime Minister 1945) John Curtin 1935–45 (Prime Minister 1941–45) James Scullin 1928–35 (Prime Minister 1929–32) Matthew Charlton 1922–28 Frank Tudor 1916–22 Billy Hughes 1915–16 (Prime Minister 1915–23, expelled from Labor Party 1916 and formed the NLP) Andrew Fisher 1907–15 (Prime Minister 1908–09, 1910–13, 1914–15) Chris Watson 1901–07 (Prime Minister 1904) See also: List of ALP federal leaders by time served ALP State and Territory Parliamentary Leaders Current Jon Stanhope - Chief Minister of the Australian Capital Territory since 5 November 2001 Mike Rann - Premier of South Australia since 6 March 2002 John Brumby - Premier of Victoria since 30 July 2007 Anna Bligh - Premier of Queensland since 13 September 2007 Paul Henderson - Chief Minister of the Northern Territory since 26 November 2007 David Bartlett - Premier of Tasmania since 26 May 2008 Nathan Rees - Premier of New South Wales since 5 September 2008 Eric Ripper - Leader of the Opposition of Western Australia since 23 September 2008 Past Premiers and Chief Ministers Northern Territory Clare Martin (2001–2007, first Labor Chief Minister of the Northern Territory, first female Chief Minister of the Northern Territory) Australian Capital Territory Rosemary Follett (1989, 1991–95, inaugural Chief Minister of the ACT, and first female head of government of an Australian state or territory) New South Wales Morris Iemma (2005–08) Bob Carr (1995–2005) Barrie Unsworth (1986–88) Neville Wran (1976–86) Jack Renshaw (1964–65) Robert Heffron (1959–64) Joseph Cahill (1952–59) James McGirr (1947–52) William McKell (1941–47) Jack Lang (1925–27, 1930–32) James Dooley (1921, 1921–22) John Storey (1920–21) William Holman (1913–16) James McGowen (1910–13) Queensland Peter Beattie (1998–2007) Wayne Goss (1989–96) Vince Gair (1952–57) Ned Hanlon (1946–52) Frank Cooper (1942–46) William Forgan Smith (1932–42) William McCormack (1925–29) William Gillies (1925) Ted Theodore (1919–25) T. J. Ryan (1915–19) Anderson Dawson (1899, world's first leader of a parliamentary socialist government) South Australia Lynn Arnold (1992–93) John Bannon (1982–92) Des Corcoran (1979) Don Dunstan (1967–68, 1970–79) Frank Walsh (1965–67) Robert Richards (1933) Lionel Hill (1926–27, 1930–33) John Gunn (1924–26) Crawford Vaughan (1915–17) John Verran (1910–12) Thomas Price (1905–09) Tasmania Paul Lennon (2004–08) Jim Bacon (1998–2004) Michael Field (1989–92) Harry Holgate (1981–82) Doug Lowe (1977–81) Bill Neilson (1975–77) Eric Reece (1958–69, 1972–75) Edward Brooker (1947–48) Robert Cosgrove (1939–47, 1948–58) Edmund Dwyer-Gray (1939) Albert Ogilvie (1934–39) Joseph Lyons (1923–28) John Earle (1909, 1914–16) Victoria Steve Bracks (1999–2007) Joan Kirner (1990–92, first female premier of Victoria) John Cain II (1982–90) John Cain (senior) (1943, 1945–47, 1952–55) Edmond Hogan (1927–28, 1929–32) George Prendergast (1924) George Elmslie (1913) Western Australia Alan Carpenter (2006-08) Geoff Gallop (2001–06) Carmen Lawrence (1990–93, first female premier of an Australian state) Peter Dowding (1988–90) Brian Burke (1983–88) John Tonkin (1971–74) Albert Hawke (1953–59) Frank Wise (1945–47) John Willcock (1936–45) Philip Collier (1924–30, 1933–36) John Scaddan (1911–16) Henry Daglish (1904–05) Other past Labor politicians See :Category:Australian Labor Party politicians For current ALP federal politicians, see: List of members of the Australian House of Representatives List of members of the Australian Senate See also First Rudd Ministry Australian Labor Party National Executive Australian Young Labor Politics of Australia List of political parties in Australia References References External links Australian Labor Party website
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4,787
Hadron
For the particle collider, see Large Hadron Collider. In particle physics, a hadron (, from the , hadrós, "stout, thick") is a bound state of quarks. Hadrons are held together by the strong force, similarly to how molecules are held together by the electromagnetic force. There are two subsets of hadrons: baryons and mesons; the most well known baryons are protons and neutrons. Introduction According to the quark model, C. Amsler et al., Quark Model in Review of Particle Physics, Phys. Lett. B667, 1 (2008) the properties of hadrons are primarily determined by their so-called valence quarks. For example, a proton is composed of two up quarks (each with electric charge +2/3) and one down quark (with electric charge -1/3). Adding these together yields the proton charge of +1. Although the constituent quarks also carry color charge (nothing to do with visual color), a property of the strong nuclear force called color confinement requires that any composite state carry no residual color charge. That is, hadrons must be colorless. There are two ways to accomplish this: three quarks of different colors, or a quark of one color and an anti-quark carrying the corresponding anticolor. Hadrons based on the former are called baryons, and those based on the latter are called mesons. Like all subatomic particles, hadrons are assigned quantum numbers corresponding to the representations of the Poincaré group: JPC(m), where J is the spin quantum number, P, the intrinsic (or P) parity, and C, the charge conjugation, or C parity, and the particle four-momentum, m, (i.e., its mass). Note that the mass of a hadron has very little to do with the mass of its valence quarks; rather, due to mass–energy equivalence, most of the mass comes from the large amount of energy associated with the strong nuclear force. Hadrons may also carry flavor quantum numbers such as isospin (or G parity), and strangeness. All quarks carry an additive, conserved quantum number called a baryon number (B), which is +1/3 for quarks and -1/3 for antiquarks. This means that baryons --which are groups of three quarks-- have B=1 while mesons have B=0. Hadrons have excited states known as resonances. Each ground-state hadron may have several excited states; hundreds of resonances have been observed in particle physics experiments. Resonances decay extremely quickly (within about 10−24 seconds) via the strong nuclear force. In other phases of QCD matter the hadrons may disappear. For example, at very high temperature and high pressure, unless there are sufficiently many flavors of quarks, the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) predicts that quarks and gluons will interact weakly and will no longer be confined within hadrons. This property, which is known as asymptotic freedom, has been experimentally confirmed at the energy scales between a GeV and a TeV. S. Bethke, Experimental tests of asymptotic freedom, Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys. 58, 351 (2007) All free hadrons except the proton are unstable. Baryons All known baryons are made of three valence quarks, and are therefore fermions. They have baryon number B=1, while antibaryons (composed of three antiquarks) have B=-1. In principle, some baryons could be composed of further quark-antiquark pairs in addition to the three quarks (or antiquarks) that make up basic baryons. Baryons containing a single additional quark-antiquark pair are called pentaquarks. Evidence for these states was claimed by several experiments in the early 2000s, though this has since been refuted C. Amsler et al., Pentaquarks by C. G. Wohl in Review of Particle Physics, Phys. Lett. B667, 1 (2008) . No evidence of baryon states with even more quark-antiquark pairs has been found. Mesons Mesons are bosons composed of a quark-antiquark pair. They have baryon number B=0. Examples of mesons commonly produced in particle physics experiments include pions and kaons. The former also play a role holding atomic nuclei together via the residual strong force. Hypothetical mesons have more than one quark-antiquark pair; a meson composed of two of these pairs is called a tetraquark. Currently there is no evidence of their existence. Mesons that lie outside the quark model classification are called exotic mesons. These include glueballs and hybrid mesons (mesons bound by excited gluons). See also Large Hadron Collider (LHC) Leptons List of particles Standard model Subatomic particles Quark star References
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4,788
Osteichthyes
Osteichthyes (), also called bony fish, are a taxonomic group of fish that includes the ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii) and lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii). The split between these two classes occurred about 450 million years ago. In most classification systems A Tree of Life the Osteichthyes are paraphyletic with land vertebrates. That means that the nearest common ancestor of all Osteichthyes includes tetrapods amongst its descendants. Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) are monophyletic, but the inclusion of Sarcopterygii in Osteichthyes causes Osteichthyes to be paraphyletic. Most bony fish belong to the ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii); there are only eight living species of lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii), including the lungfish and coelacanths. They are traditionally treated as a class of vertebrates, with subclasses Actinopterygii and Sarcopterygii, but some newer schemes divide them into several separate classes. The vast majority of fish are osteichthyes. Osteichthyes are an extremely diverse and abundant group consisting of over 29,000 species, making them the largest class of vertebrates in existence today. a fish that has scales, skeletone, and fins. Biology Most bony fish breathe through gills. Lungfish and other osteichthyan species, are capable of respiration through lungs or vascularized swim bladders. Other species can respire through their skin, intestines, and/or stomach Helfman G.S., B.B. Collette and D.E. Facey. The Diversity of Fishes. Blackwell Sciences, 1997 . Osteichthyes are ectothermic (cold blooded), meaning that their body temperature is dependent on that of the water. They can be any type of heterotroph: omnivore, carnivore, herbivore, or detrivore. Some bony fish are hermaphrodites. Fertilization is usually external, but can be internal. Development is usually oviparous (egg-laying) but can be ovoviviparous, or viviparous. Although there is usually no parental care after birth, before birth parents may scatter, hide, guard or brood eggs. THIS ARTICLE NEEDS IMPROVEMENT--CHECK INFO WITH ANOTHER SOURCE Examples The ocean sunfish is the largest bony fish in the world, while the longest is oarfish. Specimens of ocean sunfish have been observed up to in length and weighing up to . Other very large bony fish include the Atlantic blue marlin, some specimens of which have been recorded as in excess of , the black marlin, some sturgeon species, the giant grouper and the goliath grouper, both which can exceed in weight. In contrast, the dwarf pygmy goby measures a minute . Arapaima gigas is the largest species of freshwater bony fish. The largest bony fish ever was Leedsichthys. See also Ostracoderm - armoured jawless fishes. Acanthodians - relatives of the bony fishes References
Osteichthyes |@lemmatized osteichthyes:8 also:2 call:1 bony:9 fish:19 taxonomic:1 group:2 include:4 ray:3 fin:5 actinopterygii:4 lobe:2 sarcopterygii:4 split:1 two:1 class:4 occur:1 million:1 year:1 ago:1 classification:1 system:1 tree:1 life:1 paraphyletic:2 land:1 vertebrate:3 mean:2 near:1 common:1 ancestor:1 tetrapod:1 amongst:1 descendant:1 finned:1 monophyletic:1 inclusion:1 cause:1 belong:1 eight:1 live:1 specie:6 lungfish:2 coelacanth:1 traditionally:1 treat:1 subclass:1 new:1 scheme:1 divide:1 several:1 separate:1 vast:1 majority:1 extremely:1 diverse:1 abundant:1 consist:1 make:1 large:5 existence:1 today:1 scale:1 skeletone:1 biology:1 breathe:1 gill:1 osteichthyan:1 capable:1 respiration:1 lung:1 vascularize:1 swim:1 bladder:1 respire:1 skin:1 intestine:1 stomach:1 helfman:1 g:1 b:2 collette:1 e:1 facey:1 diversity:1 blackwell:1 science:1 ectothermic:1 cold:1 blood:1 body:1 temperature:1 dependent:1 water:1 type:1 heterotroph:1 omnivore:1 carnivore:1 herbivore:1 detrivore:1 hermaphrodite:1 fertilization:1 usually:3 external:1 internal:1 development:1 oviparous:1 egg:2 laying:1 ovoviviparous:1 viviparous:1 although:1 parental:1 care:1 birth:2 parent:1 may:1 scatter:1 hide:1 guard:1 brood:1 article:1 need:1 improvement:1 check:1 info:1 another:1 source:1 examples:1 ocean:2 sunfish:2 world:1 long:1 oarfish:1 specimen:2 observe:1 length:1 weigh:1 atlantic:1 blue:1 marlin:2 record:1 excess:1 black:1 sturgeon:1 giant:1 grouper:2 goliath:1 exceed:1 weight:1 contrast:1 dwarf:1 pygmy:1 goby:1 measure:1 minute:1 arapaima:1 gigas:1 freshwater:1 ever:1 leedsichthys:1 see:1 ostracoderm:1 armoured:1 jawless:1 acanthodians:1 relative:1 reference:1 |@bigram bony_fish:9 ray_finned:1 finned_fish:1 vast_majority:1 swim_bladder:1 egg_laying:1 parental_care:1 jawless_fish:1
4,789
Transport_in_Burma
This details Transportation in Burma. Railways total: Feb. 2008 narrow gauge: 1.000-m gauge Railway links to adjacent countries China - no Thailand - no - defunct Bangladesh - no India - no - see Timeline below Laos - no Maps UN Map Timeline 2007 May 17 - The missing link in India is from Jiribam (in Manipur) to Tamu in Myanmar. The construction of this missing link, as per the feasibility study conducted by the Ministry of External Affairs through RITES Ltd, is estimated to cost Rs 2,941 crore ($725m). According to the Economist, a railway line is to be built through Imphal in India to Moreh near the Myanmar border. 2004 Update from Myanmar Dieter Hettler, Railway Gazette International November 2004. 1988 Jan. 1988: Burma Railways Corporation had 149 Alsthom diesel electric locomotives, 63 Krupp's diesel hydraulic locomotives, 5 Hitachi diesel hydraulic locomotives, 45 Kawasaki diesel hydraulic locomotives, for a total of 262. Railway openings in Myanmar 1988 - 2008 Year Route Length, km Notes 1988 Thaton - Myaingalay 36·3 New branch 1989 Dabein - Hle Lawin 34·6 New branch 1990 Mandalay Circular Railway 21·8 Part later dismantled 1992 Shwenyaung - Yatsauk 60·3 New 1992 Tada-U - Myingyan 99·8 Reinstated after closure c1944 1993 Aungban - Loikaw 164 Connection to the Kayah State capital; gradients between 1 in 25 and 1 in 17 Togyaunggale - Okkphosu 13·6 New line to deep-sea port under construction near Thanlyin (Syriam) Chaung-U - Tawkyaungyi 23·4 } First parts of 406·3 km Chaung-U - Pakokku - Kalay line. Section west of Minywa - Pakokku 54 } Chindwin River isolated, as bridge not completed until 2004 (see below) 1994 Tada-U - Mandalay International Airport 11·8 Pakokku - Myaing - Myozoe 55·7 } 1995 Myozoe - Zipyar 44·2 } Further sections of Chaung-U - Kalay line, leaving a 270 km gap Natchaung - Kalay 22·7 } Namsang - Moe-Ne 44·3 First isolated section of eastern extension of Thazi - Shwenyaung line Dawei - Yephu 17·2 Isolated section of 177 km Mawlamyine - Ye - Dawei line. Gradients of 1 in 25 1996 Gangaw - Natchaung 110·8 Linked to isolated northern section of Kalay line; opening ceremony February 6 Myitkyina - Nantpaung Airport 11·7 Taunggyi - Phamon - Banyin 54·3 Isolated Myingyan Junction - Bagan 56·1 Serves one of the most important tourist sights in Myanmar Ye - Kaloggyi 4·4 Extension of line from Mawlamyine towards Dawei 1997 Kyaukpadaung Junction - Bagan 48·1 Creating a new circular route Zipyar - Kyay 50·6 Extension towards Kalay Pyay - Myade/Aunglan - Satthwa 145·4 Alternative route to Bagan, but heavy grades, sharp curves and danger of washouts mean the line is only used by two trains/week Shwenyaung - Taunggyi 33·5 Connecting with the formerly isolated Banyin line. Owing to the poor and steep route and a good competing road, the army-built line is used for goods only 1998 Kaloggyi - Yephu 141·6 Closing the last gap of the Dawei line 1999 Taungdwingyi - Magway 83·8 New branch to serve town on Ayeyarwady River Tada-U - Mandalay International Airport 6·1 Extension of branch opened in 1994 Sin Phyu Shin Bridge approach 7 Approaches to future bridge over Chindwin River near Chaung-U, opened 2004 2000 Ye-U - Kin-U 25·7 Final section of loop line northwest of Mandalay opened April 9 2000. Line has 270 bridges, including the 23-span Mu River road and rail bridge. 2003 Okkphosu - Thilawa Deep Sea Port 14·8 2004 Sin Phyu Shin Bridge (over Chindwin River) 1·5 Trains from Mandalay now run through as far as Pakokku 2004 Beginning of the Upgrading Yangon - Mandaly track with the use of the Automatic Levelling, Lining and Tamping Machine (first phase between Yangon - Payagyi 91.2km and Mandalay - Tatkon 211km ,second phase Payagyi - Tatkon 313.6km), construction of the Concrete Sleeper Factory at Pyundaza 2005 First Delivery of four YDM-4(1350Hp) Locomotives and 20 Passenger Couches from Rites Ltd. of India 2007 Second deliver of five YDM-4 Locomotives from Rites 2008 1 March first section Kyangin-Okshippin (63km) of Kyangin-Pakokku (under construction 515km) was opened for the public. Between 1988 und 2008 Myanmar Railways built 1936 km of rail tracks. The other track between Katha and Bhamo (152km) is also under construction, which will be played main roll over border of Myanmar-PRC. Myanmar Railways receives another 15 YDM-4 locomotives from Rites Ltd. India. Now Myanmar has 6 Concrete Sleeper Factories Cities served by rail Yangon (Rangoon) - old capital and port Pathein (Bassein) - railhead in the west Pyay {Prome) - railhead in the northwest - on the Ayeyarwady River Bago (Pegu) - junctions Thaton - east Thazi - north line - junctions Pyinmana - north line - junction Toungoo - north line Bago - north line - junctions Mawlamyine (Moulmein) - southeast - new 3223m Thanlwin Bridge (Mawlamyine) over the Thanlwin River (Salween) to Mottama (Martaban). Ye - railhead in the southeast - on the Tanintharyi (Tenasserim) coast Dawei (Tavoy) - railhead extended from Ye - 1998 - Pyinmana - junction - north Meiktila Mandalay Sagaing Shwebo Katha Hopin Myitkyina Lashio Aungban - Loikaw Monywa - railhead in the west Taungdwingyi Chauk Taunggyi Highways total: paved: unpaved: (1996 est.) Waterways ; navigable by large commercial vessels. Orient-Express Hotels Ltd. operates its business in Ayeyarwady River by the name Road to Mandalay River Cruise. Irrawaddy Flotilla Company was also in service along the Ayeyarwady River in the 20th century, until 2003. Pipelines Crude oil ; natural gas . Proposed pipe from Kyaukphyu through Mandalay to Kunming The Weekly Telegraph 23 January 2008 p17 Ports and harbours Sea Yangon Sittwe (Akyab) Dawei - railhead - new deepwater port under construction 2005 River Myitkyina Bhamo Mandalay Chauk Pathein Merchant marine total: 40 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling / Ships by type: bulk carrier 13, cargo ship 20, container ship 2, passenger ship/cargo 3, petroleum tanker 2 (1999 est.) note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 2 countries: Japan owns 2 ships, US 3 (1998 est.) Airports 80 (1999 est.) Airports - with paved runways total: 10 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways total: 70 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 914 to 1,523 m: 22 under 914 m: 32 (1999 est.) Heliports 1 (1999 est.) See also Burma References
Transport_in_Burma |@lemmatized detail:1 transportation:1 burma:3 railway:7 total:7 feb:1 narrow:1 gauge:2 link:4 adjacent:1 country:2 china:1 thailand:1 defunct:1 bangladesh:1 india:5 see:3 timeline:2 lao:1 map:2 un:1 may:1 miss:2 jiribam:1 manipur:1 tamu:1 myanmar:9 construction:6 per:1 feasibility:1 study:1 conduct:1 ministry:1 external:1 affair:1 rite:4 ltd:4 estimate:1 cost:1 rs:1 crore:1 accord:1 economist:1 line:19 build:3 imphal:1 moreh:1 near:3 border:2 update:1 dieter:1 hettler:1 gazette:1 international:3 november:1 jan:1 railways:2 corporation:1 alsthom:1 diesel:4 electric:1 locomotive:7 krupp:1 hydraulic:3 hitachi:1 kawasaki:1 opening:1 year:1 route:4 length:1 km:5 note:2 thaton:2 myaingalay:1 new:8 branch:4 dabein:1 hle:1 lawin:1 mandalay:10 circular:2 part:2 later:1 dismantle:1 shwenyaung:3 yatsauk:1 tada:3 u:10 myingyan:2 reinstate:1 closure:1 aungban:2 loikaw:2 connection:1 kayah:1 state:1 capital:2 gradient:2 togyaunggale:1 okkphosu:2 deep:2 sea:3 port:5 thanlyin:1 syriam:1 chaung:4 tawkyaungyi:1 first:5 pakokku:5 kalay:5 section:7 west:3 minywa:1 chindwin:3 river:11 isolated:5 bridge:7 complete:1 airport:6 myaing:1 myozoe:2 zipyar:2 leave:1 gap:2 natchaung:2 namsang:1 moe:1 ne:1 eastern:1 extension:4 thazi:2 dawei:6 yephu:2 mawlamyine:4 ye:5 gangaw:1 northern:1 open:5 ceremony:1 february:1 myitkyina:3 nantpaung:1 taunggyi:3 phamon:1 banyin:2 isolate:1 junction:7 bagan:3 serve:3 one:1 important:1 tourist:1 sight:1 kaloggyi:2 towards:2 kyaukpadaung:1 create:1 kyay:1 pyay:2 myade:1 aunglan:1 satthwa:1 alternative:1 heavy:1 grade:1 sharp:1 curve:1 danger:1 washout:1 mean:1 use:3 two:1 train:2 week:1 connecting:1 formerly:1 owe:1 poor:1 steep:1 good:2 compete:1 road:3 army:1 close:1 last:1 taungdwingyi:2 magway:1 town:1 ayeyarwady:4 sin:2 phyu:2 shin:2 approach:2 future:1 kin:1 final:1 loop:1 northwest:2 april:1 include:2 span:1 mu:1 rail:3 thilawa:1 run:1 far:1 beginning:1 upgrading:1 yangon:4 mandaly:1 track:3 automatic:1 levelling:1 tamp:1 machine:1 phase:2 payagyi:2 tatkon:2 second:2 concrete:2 sleeper:2 factory:2 pyundaza:1 delivery:1 four:1 ydm:3 passenger:2 couch:1 deliver:1 five:1 march:1 kyangin:2 okshippin:1 public:1 und:1 katha:2 bhamo:2 also:3 play:1 main:1 roll:1 prc:1 receive:1 another:1 city:1 rangoon:1 old:1 pathein:2 bassein:1 railhead:6 prome:1 bago:2 pegu:1 east:1 north:5 pyinmana:2 toungoo:1 moulmein:1 southeast:2 thanlwin:2 salween:1 mottama:1 martaban:1 tanintharyi:1 tenasserim:1 coast:1 tavoy:1 extend:1 meiktila:1 sagaing:1 shwebo:1 hopin:1 lashio:1 monywa:1 chauk:2 highway:1 pave:2 unpaved:2 est:7 waterway:1 navigable:1 large:1 commercial:1 vessel:1 orient:1 express:1 hotel:1 operate:1 business:1 name:1 cruise:1 irrawaddy:1 flotilla:1 company:1 service:1 along:1 century:1 pipeline:1 crude:1 oil:1 natural:1 gas:1 propose:1 pipe:1 kyaukphyu:1 kunming:1 weekly:1 telegraph:1 january:1 harbour:1 sittwe:1 akyab:1 deepwater:1 merchant:1 marine:1 ship:7 volume:1 type:1 bulk:1 carrier:1 cargo:2 container:1 petroleum:1 tanker:1 flag:1 convenience:1 registry:1 japan:1 runway:2 heliport:1 reference:1 |@bigram narrow_gauge:1 gauge_railway:1 diesel_hydraulic:3 hydraulic_locomotive:3 ayeyarwady_river:4 pave_unpaved:1 pipeline_crude:1 crude_oil:1 deepwater_port:1 merchant_marine:1 petroleum_tanker:1 pave_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 est_heliport:1
4,790
Christianity_and_Judaism
Although Christianity and Judaism share historical roots, these two religions diverge in fundamental ways. Judaism places emphasis on actions, focusing primary questions on how to respond to the eternal covenant God made with Israelites and Proselytes, as recorded in the Torah. Ever since the First Council of Nicaea, Christianity places emphasis on correct belief with some Christian denominations going so far as to claim that human actions are irrelevant, see also the discussions at Sola fide and Christian anarchism. The article on Judeo-Christian tradition emphasizes continuities and convergences between the two religions, this article emphasizes the widely diverging views held by Christianity and Judaism. This article only considers the mainstream Jewish views, in contrast to Karaite Judaism. Self-identification The self-described purpose of Christianity is to provide people with what it holds to be the only valid path to salvation as announced by the apostles of what the Book of Acts describes as, The Way (). Only in Gentile (non-Jewish) settings is The Way referred to as Christian (). According to Christian theologian Alister McGrath, the Jewish Christians affirmed every aspect of then contemporary (Second Temple) Judaism with the addition of the belief that Jesus was the messiah McGrath, Alister E., Christianity: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing (2006). ISBN 1405108991. Page 174: "In effect, they [Jewish Christians] seemed to regard Christianity as an affirmation of every aspect of contemporary Judaism, with the addition of one extra belief — that Jesus was the Messiah. Unless males were circumcised, they could not be saved ()." , see also Paleo-orthodoxy. Nevertheless, the Bible teaches that people are, in their current state, sinful, and the New Testament reveals that Jesus is both the Son of man and the Son of God, united in the hypostatic union, God the Son, God made incarnate; that Jesus' death by crucifixion was a sacrifice to atone for all humanity's sins, and that acceptance of Jesus as Savior and Lord saves one from Divine Judgment (), giving Eternal life (). Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant (). His famous Sermon on the Mount is considered by some Christian scholars See also Antithesis of the Law to be the proclamation of the New Covenant ethics, in contrast to the Mosaic Covenant of Moses from Mount Sinai. See also Christian theology. Judaism's "purpose" is to carry out what it holds to be the only Covenant between God and the Jewish people. The Torah (lit. "teaching"), both written and oral, both tells the story of this covenant, and provides Jews with the terms of the covenant. The Torah thus guides Jews to walk in God's ways (), to help them learn how to live a holy life on earth, and to bring holiness, peace and love into the world and into every part of life, so that life may be elevated to a high level of sanctity (, Imitatio dei). This will allow the Jewish people as a community to be a "light unto the nations" (, , ) (i.e., a role model) over the course of history and a part of the divine intent of bringing about an age of peace and sanctity where ideally a faithful life and good deeds should be ends in themselves, not means. See also Jewish principles of faith. National versus universal The subject of the Tanakh is the history of the Children of Israel, especially in terms of their relationship with God. Thus, Judaism has also been characterized as a culture or as a civilization. Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan defines Judaism as an evolving religious civilization. One crucial sign of this is that one need not believe, or even do, anything to be Jewish; the historic definition of 'Jewishness' requires only that one be born of a Jewish mother, or that one convert to Judaism in accord with Jewish law. (Today, Reform and Reconstructionist Jews also include those born of Jewish fathers and Gentile mothers if the children are raised as Jews.) To religious Jews, Jewish ethnicity is closely tied to their relationship with God, and thus has a strong theological component. This relationship is encapsulated in the notion that Jews are a chosen people. For strictly observant Jews, being "chosen" fundamentally means that it was God's wish that a group of people would exist in a covenant, and would be bound to obey a certain set of laws as a duty of their covenant. They view their divine purpose as being ideally a "light upon the nations" and a "holy people" (ie, a people who live their lives fully in accordance with Divine will), not "the one path to God". Jews hold that other nations and peoples are not required (or expected) to obey Jewish law. The only laws Judaism believes are automatically binding (in order to be assured of a place in the world to come) on other nations are known as the Seven Laws of Noah. Thus, as an ethnic religion, Judaism holds that others may have their own, different, paths to God (or holiness, or "salvation"), as long as they are consistent with the Seven Laws of Noah. Christianity, on the other hand, is characterized by its claim to universality, which marks a significant break from Jewish identity and thought. Christians believe that Christianity represents the fulfillment of God's promise to Abraham and the nation of Israel, that Israel would be a blessing to all nations. Although Christians generally believe their religion to be very inclusive (since not only Jews but all gentiles can be Christian), Jews see Christianity as highly exclusive, because some conservative denominations view non-Christians (such as Jews and Pagans) as having an incomplete or imperfect relationship with God, and therefore excluded from grace, salvation, or heaven. This crucial difference between the two religions has other implications. For example, while in a conversion to Judaism a convert must accept Jewish principles of faith, the process is more like a form of adoption, or changing national citizenship (i.e. becoming a formal member of the people, or tribe); also Judaism does not encourage its members to convert others and in fact would require the initiative from the person who would like to convert, whereas conversion to Christianity is generally a declaration of faith (although some denominations view it specifically as adoption into a community of Christ, and orthodox Christian tradition views it as being a literal joining together of the members of Christ's body). Both Christianity and Judaism have been affected by the diverse cultures of their respective members. For example, what Jews from Eastern Europe and from North Africa consider "Jewish food" has more in common with the cuisines of non-Jewish Eastern Europeans and North Africans than with each other, although for religious Jews all food-preparation must conform to the same laws of Kashrut. According to non-Orthodox Jews and critical historians, Jewish law too has been affected by surrounding cultures (for example, some scholars argue that the establishment of absolute monotheism in Judaism was a reaction against the dualism of Zoroastrianism that Jews encountered when living under Persian rule; Jews rejected polygamy during the Middle Ages, influenced by their Christian neighbors). According to Orthodox Jews too there are variations in Jewish custom from one part of the world to another. It was for this reason that Joseph Karo's Shulchan Aruch did not become established as the authoritative code of Jewish law until after Moshe Isserlis added his commentary, which documented variations in local custom. Sacred Texts The Hebrew Bible is comprised of three parts; the Torah (The Law, lit. Instruction), the Nevi'im (Prophets) and the Ketuvim (Writings). Collectively, these are known as the Tanakh. According to Rabbinic Judaism the Torah was revealed by God to Moses; within it, Jews find 613 Mitzvot (commandments). Rabbinic tradition asserts that God revealed two Torahs to Moses, one that was written down, and one that was transmitted orally. Whereas the written Torah has a fixed form, the Oral Torah is a living tradition which includes not only specific supplements to the written Torah (for instance, what is the proper manner of shechita and what is meant by "Frontlets" in the Shema), but also procedures for understanding and talking about the written Torah (thus, the Oral Torah revealed at Sinai includes debates among rabbis who lived long after Moses). The Oral Law elaborations of narratives in the Bible and stories about the rabbis are referred to as aggadah. It also includes elaboration of the 613 commandments in the form of laws referred to as halakha. Elements of the Oral Torah were committed to writing and edited by Judah HaNasi in the Mishnah in 200 CE; much more of the Oral Torah were committed to writing in the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds, which were edited around 600 CE and 450 CE, respectively. The Talmuds are notable for the way they combine law and lore, for their explication of the midrashic method of interpreting tests, and for their accounts of debates among rabbis, which preserve divergent and conflicting interpretations of the Bible and legal rulings. Since the transcription of the Talmud, notable rabbis have compiled law codes that are generally held in high regard: the Mishneh Torah, the Tur, and the Shulchan Aruch. The latter, which was based on earlier codes and supplemented by a commentary that notes other practices and customs practiced by Jews in different communities, is generally held to be authoritative by Orthodox Jews. The Zohar, which was written in the thirteenth century, is generally held as the most important mystical treatise of the Jews. All contemporary Jewish movements consider the Tanakh, including the Written Torah, and the Oral Torah in the form of the Mishnah and Talmuds as sacred, although movements are divided as to claims concerning their divine revelation, and also their authority. For Jews, the Torah - written and oral - is the primary guide to the relationship between God and man, a living document that has unfolded and will continue to unfold whole new insights over the generations and millennia. A saying that captures this goes, "Turn it [the Torah's words] over and over again, for everything is in it." Christians accept the Written Torah and other books of the Hebrew Bible as Scripture, although they occasionally give readings from the Koine Greek Septuagint translation instead of the Biblical Hebrew/Biblical Aramaic Masoretic Text. Two notable examples are: Isaiah 7:14 -- "virgin" instead of "young woman" Psalm 22 -- "they have pierced my hands and feet" instead of "like a lion, (they are at) my hands and feet" Instead of the traditional Jewish order and names for the books, Christians organize and name the books closer to that found in the Septuagint. Some Christian denominations (such as Anglican, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox), include a number of books that are not in the Hebrew Bible (the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books) in their biblical canon that are not in today's Jewish canon, although they were included in the Septuagint. Christians reject the Jewish Oral Torah (), which was still in oral, and therefore unwritten, form in the time of Jesus. Jewish Encyclopedia: Jesus notes: "Jesus, however, does not appear to have taken into account the fact that the Halakah was at this period just becoming crystallized, and that much variation existed as to its definite form; the disputes of the Bet Hillel and Bet Shammai were occurring about the time of his maturity." Jesus depicted delivering the Sermon on the Mount. Christians believe that God has established a New Covenant with people through Jesus, as recorded in the Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, Epistles, and other books collectively called the New Testament (the word testament attributed to Tertullian is commonly confused with the word covenant). Sometimes the New Covenant is referred to as the New Testament, on the basis of passages such as , in its traditional (KJV) translation. This usage reflects the Vulgate, in which the word "covenant" was translated testamentum. Biblical scholars, such as O. Palmer Robertson, have argued against this translation, however, since the word testamentum, in Latin, expresses the concept of a "last will," not an agreement between two parties sealed with a self-maledictory oath. See also Theopedia: "Covenant" and Jewish Encyclopedia: "Covenant: The Old and the New Covenant". For some Christians, such as Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians, this New Covenant includes authoritative Sacred Traditions and Canon law. Others, especially Protestants, reject the authority of such traditions and instead hold to the principle of sola scriptura which accepts only the Bible itself as the final rule of faith and practice. Additionally, some denominations include the oral teachings of Jesus to the Apostles which they believe have been handed down to this day, such as by Apostolic Succession. Christians refer to the Biblical books about Jesus as the New Testament, and to the canon of Hebrew books as the Old Testament, terms associated with Supersessionism. Judaism does not accept the retronymic labeling of its sacred texts as the "Old Testament," and some Jews refer to the New Testament as the Christian Testament or Christian Bible. Judaism rejects all claims that Christian New Covenant ideas supersedes, fulfills, or is the unfolding or consummation of the covenant expressed in the Written and Oral Torahs. It therefore does not accept that the New Testament has any religious authority over Jews. Many Jews view Christians as having quite an ambivalent view of the Torah, or Mosaic law: on one hand Christians treat it as God's absolute word, but on the other, they apply its commandments with an alleged selectivity (compare Biblical law in Christianity). As it seems to some Jews, Christians cite commandments from the Old Testament to support one point of view but then ignore other commandments of a similar class which are also of equal weight. Examples of this are certain commandments which God states explicitly shall abide "for ever" (for example , ), or certain practices which God prohibits as abominations, but which are not prohibited by most Christian denominations. Christians explain that such selectivity is based on rulings made by early Jewish Christians in the Book of Acts, at the Council of Jerusalem, that, while believing Gentiles did not need to fully convert to Judaism, they should follow some aspects of Torah like avoiding idolatry and fornication and blood , , including, according to some interpretations, homosexuality. This view is also reflected by modern Judaism, in that Righteous Gentiles needn't convert to Judaism and need to observe only the Noahide Laws which also contain prohibitions against idolatry and fornication and blood. Jewish Encyclopedia: Gentiles: Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah states: "R. Emden (), in a remarkable apology for Christianity contained in his appendix to "Seder 'Olam" (pp. 32b-34b, Hamburg, 1752), gives it as his opinion that the original intention of Jesus, and especially of Paul, was to convert only the Gentiles to the seven moral laws of Noah and to let the Jews follow the Mosaic law — which explains the apparent contradictions in the New Testament regarding the laws of Moses and the Sabbath. Some Christians (see also Dual-covenant theology) agree that Jews who accept Jesus should still observe all of Torah, based on warnings by Jesus to Jews not to use him as an excuse to disregard it, and they support efforts of those like Messianic Jews to do that, but other forms of Christianity oppose all observance to the Mosaic law, even by Jews, which is sometimes known as Antinomianism. A minority view in Christianity, known as Christian Torah-submission, holds that the Mosaic law as it is written is binding on all followers of God under the New Covenant, even for Gentiles, because it views God’s commands as "everlasting" (, ; , ; ) and "good" (; ; ). Concepts of God Traditionally, both Judaism and Christianity believe in the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, for Jews the God of the Tanakh, for Christians the God of the Old Testament, the creator of the universe. Judaism and major sects of Christianity reject the view that God is entirely immanent (although some see this as the concept of the Holy Ghost) and within the world as a physical presence, (although trinitarian Christians believe in the incarnation of God). Both religions reject the view that God is entirely transcendent, and thus separate from the world, as the pre-Christian Greek Unknown God. Both religions reject atheism on one hand and polytheism on the other. Both religions agree that God shares both transcendent and immanent qualities. How these religions resolve this issue is where the religions differ. Christianity posits that God exists as a Trinity; in this view God exists as three distinct persons who share a single divine essence, or substance. In those three there is one, and in that one there are three; the one God is indivisible, while the three persons are distinct and unconfused, God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. It teaches that God became especially immanent in physical form through the Incarnation of God the Son who was born as Jesus of Nazareth, who is believed to be at once fully God and fully human. There are "Christian" sects that question one or more of these doctrines, however, see also Nontrinitarianism. By contrast, Judaism sees God as a single entity, and views trinitarianism as both incomprehensible and a violation of the Bible's teaching that God is one. It rejects the notion that Jesus or any other object or living being could be 'God', that God could have a literal 'son' in physical form or is divisible in any way, or that God could be made to be joined to the material world in such fashion. Although Judaism provides Jews with a word to label God's transcendence (Ein Sof, without end) and immanence (Shekhinah, in-dwelling), these are merely human words to describe two ways of experiencing God; God is one and indivisible. Some Jewish and Christian philosophers hold that due to these differences; based on these differences, Christianity and Judaism do not believe in the same God at all. Shituf A minority Jewish view which appears in some codes of Jewish law, is that while Christian worship is polytheistic (due to the multiplicity of the Trinity), it is permissible for them to swear in God's name, since they are referring to the one God. This theology is referred to in Hebrew as Shituf (literally "partnership" or "association"). Although worship of a trinity is considered to be no different than any other form of idolatry for Jews, it may be an acceptable belief for non-Jews (according to the ruling of some Rabbinic authorities). Right action Faith versus good deeds Judaism teaches that the purpose of the Torah is to teach us how to act correctly. God's existence is a given in Judaism, and not something that most authorities see as a matter of required belief. Although some authorities see the Torah as commanding Jews to believe in God, Jews see belief in God as a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for a Jewish life. The quintessential verbal expression of Judaism is the Shema Yisrael, the statement that the God of the Bible is their God, and that this God is unique and one. The quintessential physical expression of Judaism is behaving in accordance with the 613 Mitzvot (the commandments specified in the Torah), and thus live one's life in God's ways. Thus fundamentally in Judaism, one is enjoined to bring holiness into life (with the guidance of God's laws), rather than removing oneself from life to be holy. Much of Christianity also teaches that God wants people to perform good works, but all branches hold that good works alone will not lead to salvation, which is called Legalism. The exception is Dual-covenant theology. Some Christian denominations hold that salvation depends upon transformational faith in Jesus which expresses itself in good works as a testament (or witness) to ones faith for others to see (primarily Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Roman Catholicism), while others (including most Protestants) hold that faith alone is necessary for salvation. However, the difference is not as great as it seems, because it really hinges on the definition of "faith" used. The first group generally uses the term "faith" to mean "intellectual and heartfelt assent and submission." Such a faith will not be salvific until a person has allowed it to effect a life transforming conversion (turning towards God) in their being (see Ontotheology). The Christians that hold to "salvation by faith alone" (also called by its Latin name "sola fide") define faith as being implicitly ontological—mere intellectual assent is not termed "faith" by these groups. Faith, then, is life-transforming by definition. See also Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification and Christian View of the Law. Sin In both religions, offenses against the will of God are called sin. These sins can be thoughts, words, or deeds. Catholicism categorizes sins into various groups. A wounding of the relationship with God is often called venial sin; a complete rupture of the relationship with God is often called mortal sin. Without salvation from sin (see below), a person's separation from God is permanent, causing such a person to enter Hell in the afterlife. Both the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church define sin more or less as a "macula," a spiritual stain or uncleanliness which constitutes damage to man's image and likeness of God. Hebrew has several words for sin, each with its own specific meaning. The word pesha, or "trespass", means a sin done out of rebelliousness. The word aveira means "transgression". And the word avone, or "iniquity", means a sin done out of moral failing. The word most commonly translated simply as "sin", het, literally means "to go astray." Just as Jewish law, halakha provides the proper "way" (or path) to live, sin involves straying from that path. Judaism teaches that humans are born with freewill, and morally neutral, with both a yetzer hatov, (literally, "the good inclination", in some views, a tendency towards goodness, in others, a tendency towards having a productive life and a tendency to be concerned with others) and a yetzer hara, (literally "the evil inclination", in some views, a tendency towards evil, and in others, a tendency towards base or animal behavior and a tendency to be selfish). In Judaism all human beings are believed to have free will and can choose the path in life that they will take. It does not teach that choosing good is impossible - only at times more difficult. There is almost always a "way back" if a person wills it. (Although texts mention certain categories for whom the way back will be exceedingly hard, such as the slanderer, the habitual gossip, and the malicious person) The rabbis recognize a positive value to the yetzer hara: one tradition identifies it with the observation on the last day of creation that God's accomplishment was "very good" (God's work on the preceding days was just described as "good") and explain that without the yetzer ha'ra there would be no marriage, children, commerce or other fruits of human labor; the implication is that yetzer ha'tov and yetzer ha'ra are best understood not as moral categories of good and evil but as selfless versus selfish orientations, either of which used rightly can serve God's will. Or as Hillel the Elder famously summarized the Jewish philosophy: "If I am not for myself, who will be for me? "And when I am for myself, what am 'I'? "And if not now, [then] when? Another explanation is, without the existence of the yetzer ha'ra, there would be no merit earned in following God's commandments; choice is only meaningful if there has indeed been a choice made. So whereas creation was "good" before, it became "very good" when the evil inclination was added, for then it became possible to truly say that man could make a true choice to obey God's "mitzvot" (wishes or commandments). This is because Judaism views the following of God's ways as a desirable end in and of itself rather than a means to an end. Jews recognize two kinds of "sin," offenses against other people, and offenses against God. Offenses against God may be understood as violation of a contract (the covenant between God and the Children of Israel). Since the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, Jews have believed that right action (as opposed to right belief) is the way for a person to atone for one's sins. Midrash Avot de Rabbi Natan states the following: One time, when Rabban Yochanan ben Zakkai was walking in Jerusalem with Rabbi Yehosua, they arrived at where the Temple now stood in ruins. "Woe to us" cried Rabbi Yehosua, "for this house where atonement was made for Israel's sins now lies in ruins!" Answered Rabban Yochanan, "We have another, equally important source of atonement, the practice of gemilut hasadim ("loving kindness"), as it is stated "I desire loving kindness and not sacrifice" (Hosea 6:6). The Babylonian Talmud states: Rabbi Yochanan and Rabbi Eleazar both explain that as long as the Temple stood, the altar atoned for Israel, but now, one's table atones [when the poor are invited as guests]. (Tractate Berachot, 55a.) The liturgy of the Days of Awe (the High Holy Days; i.e. Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur) states that prayer, repentance and tzedakah (the dutiful giving of charity) atone for sin. But prayer cannot atone for wrongs done, without an honest sincere attempt to rectify any wrong done to the best of one's ability, and the sincere intention to avoid repetition. Atonement to Jews means to repent and set aside, and the word "T'shuvah" used for atonement actually means "to return". Judaism is optimistic in that it always sees a way that a determined person may return to what is good, and that God waits for that day too. Original sin Original Sin refers to the idea that the sin of Adam and Eve's disobedience (sin "at the origin") has passed on a spiritual heritage, so to speak. Christians teach that human beings inherit a corrupted or damaged human nature in which the tendency to do bad is greater than it would have been otherwise, so much so that human nature would not be capable now of participating in the afterlife with God. This is not a matter of being "guilty" of anything; each person is only personally guilty of their own actual sins. However, this understanding of original sin is what lies behind the Christian emphasis on the need for spiritual salvation from a spiritual Saviour, who can forgive and set aside sin even though humans are not inherently pure and worthy of such salvation. St. Paul in Romans and I Corinthians placed special emphasis on this doctrine, and stressed that belief in Jesus would allow Christians to overcome death and attain salvation in the hereafter. Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and some Protestants teach the Sacrament of Baptism is the means by which each person's damaged human nature is healed and Sanctifying Grace (capacity to enjoy and participate in the spiritual life of God) is restored. This is referred to as "being born of water and the Spirit," following the terminology in the Gospel of St. John. Most Protestants believe this salvific grace comes about at the moment of personal decision to follow Jesus, and that baptism is a symbol of the grace already received. Love Although love is central to both Christianity and Judaism, literary critic Harold Bloom (in his Jesus and Yahweh: The Names Divine) argues that their notions of love are fundamentally different. Specifically, he links the Jewish conception of love to justice, and the Christian conception of love to charity. As in English, the Hebrew word for "love," ahavah אהבה, is used to describe intimate or romantic feelings or relationships, such as the love between parent and child in Genesis 22:2; 25: 28; 37:3; the love between close friends in I Samuel 18:2, 20:17; or the love between a young man and young woman in Song of Songs. Like many Jewish scholars and theologians, Bloom understands Judaism as fundamentally a religion of love. But he argues that one can understand the Hebrew conception of love only by looking at one of the core commandments of Judaism, Leviticus 19:18, "Love your neighbor as yourself", also called the Great Commandment. Talmudic sages Hillel and Rabbi Akiva commented that this is a major element of the Jewish religion. Also, this commandment is arguably at the center of the Jewish faith. As the third book of the Torah, Leviticus is literally the central book. Historically, Jews have considered it of central importance: traditionally, children began their study of the Torah with Leviticus, and the midrashic literature on Leviticus is among the longest and most detailed of midrashic literature (see Bamberger 1981: 737). Bernard Bamberger considers Leviticus 19, beginning with God's commandment in verse 3 "You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God, am holy" to be "the climactic chapter of the book, the one most often read and quoted" (1981:889). Leviticus 19:18 is itself the climax of this chapter. As theologian Franz Rosenzweig has pointed out, "love" in this context is remarkably different from the more common examples of love in that it constitutes an impersonal relationship: ...the neighbor is only a representative. He is not loved for his own sake, nor for his beautiful eyes, but only because he just happens to be standing there, because he happens to be nighest to me. Another could easily stand in his place — precisely at this place nearest me. The neighbor is the other ... (This point is underscored by another verse in the same chapter, Leviticus 19: 34, commanding the Children of Israel to love strangers.) According to Franz Rosenzweig, the commandment to love one's neighbor itself arises out of another unique love: the relationship between God and the Children of Israel. That the relationship between God and the Children of Israel is a romantic relationship and comparable to the marital bond is made clear in Hosea 2:19 (see also Ezekiel 16:8, 60; Isaiah 54:5; Jeremiah 3:14; 31:32). The centrality of love to the relationship between God and Israel is epitomized in Deuteronomy 6: 4-5: "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God; the Lord is one. You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your might." Arguably, this commandment, the Shema, is as central to Judaism as Leviticus 19: 18, as it was recited twice daily in the Temple in Jerusalem, and in the prayers of all observant Jews. Moreover, the Rabbis dictated that all Jews should recite this verse at the moment of their death (this custom contrasts with Mathew 27: 46, "About the ninth hour Jesus cried out in a loud voice, 'Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?' — which means, "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?" see also Mark 15: 33; Luke 23: 46, however, is closer to the spirit of Jewish practice: "Jesus called out with a loud voice, 'Father, into your hands I commit my spirit.' When he had said this, he breathed his last.") Apparently by the Hellenistic period these two commandments were understood to be central to Jewish faith (see ). Rosenzweig believes that these two commandments to love are inextricably connected, but in a complex way. He finds it remarkable that throughout the Pentateuch it is demanded that Israel love God, yet never professes love for Israel (except in the future; that if Israel loves God they will be blessed in return). But he does not see this as evidence that God does not love Israel; on the contrary. Rosenzweig asks, how can someone command love? The only answer, he argues, is that only a lover can do so; only one who loves can demand, "love me!' in return (Rosenzweig 1970: 176-177). The consequences of this demand, according to Rosenzweig, provide the foundation for Judaism. The first consequence of being loved, according to Rosenzweig, is a feeling of shame: In the admission of love, the soul bares itself. To admit that one requites love and in the future wants nothing but to be loved — this is sweet. But it is hard to admit that one was without love in the past. And yet — love would not be the moving, the gripping, the searing experience that it is if the moved, gripped, seared soul were not conscious of the fact that up to this moment it had not been moved or gripped. Thus a shock was necessary before the self could become the beloved soul. And the soul is ashamed of its former self, and that it did not, under its own power, break this spell in which it was confined. This is the shame that blocks the beloved mouth that wishes to make acknowledgment. The mouth has to acknowledge its past and still present weakness by wishing to acknowledge its already present and future bliss. (Rosenzweig 1970: 179) Thus, the immediate response to God's commandment to love is to confess, "I have sinned." For Rosenzweig this confession is not a source of shame; on the contrary, by speaking a truth about the past, it makes love in the present possible and thus "abolishes shame." Consequently, Rosenzweig does not believe that this confession requires absolution: It is not God that need cleanse it [the soul of the beloved, i.e. Israel] of its sin. Rather it cleanses itself in the presence of his love. It is certain of God's love in the very moment that shame withdraws from it and it surrenders itself in free, present admission — as certain as if God had spoken into its ear that "I forgive" which is longed for earlier when it confessed to him its sins of the past. It no longer needs this formal absolution. It is freed of its burden at the very moment of daring to assume all of it on its shoulders. So too the beloved no longer needs the acknowledgment of the lover which she longed for before she admitted her love. At the very moment when she herself dares to admit it, she is as certain of his love as if he were whispering his acknowledgment into her ear. (Rosenzweig 1970: 180-181) In other words, Rosenzweig sees in the Hebrew Bible a "grammar of love" in which God can communicate "I love you" only by demanding "You must love me," and Israel can communicate "I love you" only by confessing "I have sinned." Therefore, this confession does not lead God to offer an unnecessary absolution; it merely expresses Israel's love for God. But "What then is God's answer to this 'I am thine' by which the beloved soul acknowledges him" if it is not "absolution?" Rosenzweig's answer is: revelation: "He cannot make himself known to the soul before the soul has acknowledged him. But now he must do so. For this it is by which revelation first reaches completion. In its groundless presentness, revelation must now permanently touch the ground." (Rosenzweig 1970: 182) Revelation, epitomized by Sinai, is God's response to Israel's love. Contrary to Paul, who argued that "through the law comes knowledge of sin" (Romans 3: 20), Rosenzweig argues that it is because of and after a confession of sin that God reveals to Israel knowledge of the law. For Rosenzweig as for the Rabbis, Song of Songs provides a paradigm for understanding the love between God and Israel, a love that "is strong as death" (Song of Songs 8:6; Rosenzweig 1970: 202). God's love is as strong as death because it is love for the People Israel, and it is as a collective that Israel returns God's love. Thus, although one may die, God and Israel, and the love between them, lives on. In other words, Song of Songs is "the focal book of revelation" (Rosenzweig 1970: 202) where the "grammar of love" is most clearly expressed. But, Rosenzweig argues, this love that is as strong as death ultimately transcends itself, as it takes the form of God's law — for it is the law that binds Israel as a people, and through observance of the law that each Jew relives the moment of revelation at Mt. Sinai. Ultimately, Song of Songs points back to Leviticus and the rest of the Torah. Song of Songs largely describes a clandestine love affair, forbidden by the woman's brothers (Song of Songs 8: 8-9), and scorned by her friends (Song of Songs 5:9). For Rosenzweig, the concealed nature of this romance is emblematic of the way lovers lose themselves in one another. Yet the book itself struggles against this private love. "O that you were like a brother to me," the woman cries, "that nursed at my mother's breast! If I met you outside, I would kiss you, and none would despise me" (Song of Songs 8:1). The point, for Rosenzweig, is that love neither can nor should remain private. Now she is his. Is she? Does not something ultimate still separate them at the pinnacle of love — beyond even that "Thou art mine" of the lover, beyond even that peace which the beloved found in his eyes, this last word of her overflowing heart? Does there not still remain one last separation? The lover has explained his love for her .... But will this explanation do? Does not life demand more than explanation, more than the calling by name? Does it not demand reality? And a sob escapes the blissfully overflowing heart of the beloved and forms into words, words which haltingly point to something unfulfilled, something which cannot be fulfilled in the immediate revelation of love: "O that you were like a brother to me!" Not enough that the beloved lover calls his bride by the name of sister in the flickering twilight of allusion. The name ought to be the truth. It should be heard in the bright light of "the street," not whispered into the beloved ear in the dusk of intimate duo-solitude, but in the eyes of the multitude, officially — "who would grant" that! Yes, who would grant that? Love no longer grants it. In truth, this "who would grant" is no longer directed to the beloved lover. Love after all always remains between two people; it knows only of I and Thou, not the street. This longing cannot be fulfilled in love ... (Rosenzweig 1970: 203-204) It cannot be fulfilled in love. For Rosenzweig, as for the Rabbis, it can be fulfilled only in law. This is the meaning of revelation: Israel's love provides God with the means to enter the world, and through the commandments to Israel their love enters "the street." It is through the revelation of God's commandments, according to Rosenzweig, that the love portrayed in Song of Songs becomes the love commanded in Leviticus. Just as love for the Children of Israel is one of the ways that God is present in the world, the necessary response by the Jews — the way to love God in return — is to extend their own love out towards their fellow human beings. This extension of God's love into the world, through the People Israel, is the point of Leviticus 19:18. According to Bloom, however, this love has a different character than the romantic love celebrated in Song of Songs. He argues that to understand the commandment to love one's neighbor one must look at the other commandments that form its context, beginning with verse 9: When you reap the harvest of your land, you shall not reap all the way to the edges of your field, or gather the gleanings of your harvest. You shall not pick your vineyard bare, or gather the fallen fruit of your vineyard; you shall leave them for the poor and the stranger: I the Lord am your God. You shall not steal; you shall not deal deceitfully or falsely with one another. You shall not swear falsely by My name, profaning the name of your God: I am the Lord. You shall not defraud your neighbor. You shall not commit robbery. The wages of a laborer shall not remain with you until morning. You shall not insult the deaf, or place a stumbling block before the blind. You shall fear your God: I am the Lord. You shall not render an unfair decision: do not favor the poor or show deference to the rich; judge your neighbor fairly. Do not deal basely with your fellows. Do not profit by the blood of your neighbor: I am the Lord. You shall not hate your kinsman in your heart. Reprove your neighbor, but incur no guilt because of him. You shall not take vengeance or bear a grudge against your kinsfolk. Love your neighbor as yourself: I am the Lord. According to Bloom these accompanying commandments reveal that for Israel, love "in the street" takes the form of "just dealing." Similarly, theologian William Herberg argued that "justice" is at the heart of the Jewish notion of love, and the foundation for Jewish law: The ultimate criterion of justice, as of everything else in human life, is the divine imperative — the law of love .... Justice is the institutionalization of love in society .... This law of love requires that every man be treated as a Thou, a person, an end in himself, never merely as a thing or a means to another's end. When this demand is translated into laws and institutions under the conditions of human life in history, justice arises. (1951: 148) The arguments of Rosenzweig, Herberg, and Bloom echo the teachings of the Rabbis, who taught that the written and oral Torahs provide the way to express this love-as-just-dealing. This view is encapsulated in one of the most famous rabbinic stories, that of the time a man once challenged Hillel the Elder, an important Pharisee who lived at the end of the 1st century BCE, to explain the entire law (Torah) while standing on one foot. Hillel replied, "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your friend. That is the whole Torah; the rest is the explanation -- go and study it." Rosenzweig suggests that Hillel presented the commandment from Leviticus in the negative form (do not do it) as a way of setting up his own, affirmative, commandment: to go and study the law — in other words, the only way to fulfil Leviticus 19:18 is to observe all the laws of the Torah, the practical embodiment of the commandment to love. Similarly, Maimonides wrote that it should only be out of love for God, rather than fear of punishment or hope for reward, that Jews should obey the law: "When man loves God with a love that is fitting he automatically carries out all the precepts of love" (Maimonides Yad Chapter 10, quoted in Jacobs 1973: 159). Whereas Jews believe that law is the ultimate fulfillment of love, Christians believe that love is "the fulfillment of the Law" (Romans 13:8-10). Nevertheless, Jesus shared Hillel's — and presumably many Jews' — notion of love and the law, when he echoed the Pharisaic position that "Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your might." This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it: "Love your neighbor as yourself." All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments. () When asked in reference to the latter commandment "And who is my neighbor?" (Luke 10:29), Jesus told the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:30-37), in which the answer to the question is ultimately a foreigner (perhaps echoing Leviticus 19: 34). In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus extended the commandment to include not only "your neighbor" but "your enemy" as well: "You have heard that it was said, 'An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth.' But I say to you, do not resist an evil person; but whoever strikes you on your right cheek, turn the other to him also. If anyone wants to sue you and take your shirt, let him have your cloak also. Whoever forces you to go one mile, go with him two. Give to him who asks of you, and do not turn away from him who wants to borrow from you. You have heard that it was said, 'You shall love your neighbor and hate your enemy.' But I say to you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, so that you may be sons of your Father who is in heaven; for He causes His sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. For if you love those who love you, what reward do you have? Do not even the tax collectors do the same? If you greet only your brothers, what more are you doing than others? Do not even the pagans do the same? Therefore you are to be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect. () Jesus lived out this teaching at the end of his life. During his arrest, trial, scourging, and crucifixion, Jesus offered no resistance, totally submitting to his persecutors, however unjust. During Jesus' arrest, one of his disciples struck with a sword the ear of a man coming to seize Jesus, but Jesus commanded him to put away the sword, and healed the ear. (Luke 22:50-51) Jesus even prayed for his persecutors from the cross, calling out "Forgive them Father, for they know not what they do." (Luke 23:34) Because of this, Jesus' selfless life of service, and the belief that Jesus died for the salvation of God's people, Christian love is personified by Jesus, the supreme example being his martyrdom on the cross. Jesus commanded his disciples to follow his example: "My command is this: Love one another as I have loved you. Greater love has no one than this, that he lay down his life for his friends." (John 15:12-13) Furthermore, this same love is believed to be shared between the Father, the Son, and all Christians: "Just as the Father has loved Me, I have also loved you; abide in My love. If you keep My commandments, you will abide in My love; just as I have kept My Father's commandments and abide in His love" (John 15:9-10). Finally, Jesus proclaimed love to be the defining characteristic of all Christians: "By this all men will know you are my disciples, if you love one another" (John 13:35). Still, even more remarkable statements about love are made in the New Testament by the apostle John and by Paul. The most famous, and widely considered one of the earliest and most succinct summaries of the Christian faith, runs "For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in him might not perish but might have eternal life" (John 3:16). Adding to this is "God demonstrates his own love for us in this: While we were still sinners, Christ died for us" (Romans 5:8). In the first epistle of John, he makes the bold statement "God is Love" (1 John 4:8,16). So love is not merely a characteristic of God, but the characteristic, which alone sums up God's complete essence. Bloom argues that the Hebrew word for love, ahavah אהבה , is fundamentally understood as "just dealing." In the classic characterization of Christian love, Paul's discourse in First Epistle to the Corinthians, sometimes called the "love chapter," rather than using either of the two other Greek words that loosely translate to English as "love" (erōs ερως, meaning erotic love, or philos φιλος , meaning familial love), Paul used the word agápē αγαπη, which is probably more literally translated as "charity," and was first translated as "love" by William Tyndale: If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but have not love, I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have a faith that can move mountains, but have not love, I am nothing. If I give all I possess to the poor and surrender my body to the flames, but have not love, I gain nothing. Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres. Love never fails. (1 Corinthians 13:1-8) ... And now these three remain: Faith, hope, and love. But the greatest of these is love. (1 Corinthians 13:13) Taking all this into account, Christian love can generally be described as: unconditional, self-sacrificing, charitable, altruistic, selfless, service-oriented, obedient, humble, peaceful, and compassionate. The Corinthians passage is not only remarkable for the quality of love it describes. The intent of the passage is clearly to elevate love above other things traditionally considered good, including wisdom, faith, and charitable giving. It also explicitly makes love more important than the things mentioned in the previous passage: supernatural gifts, spiritual strength and positions of leadership. Many assert that this, combined with Jesus' teachings and John's claims, expands Christian love beyond that in Leviticus. Bloom maintains that the difference is in the character of love. Abortion The only statements in the Tanakh about the status of a fetus state that killing an unborn infant does not have the same status as killing a born human being, and mandates a much lesser penalty (Exodus 21: 22-25) Daniel Schiff, 2002,Abortion in JudaismCambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 9-11 . The Talmud states that the fetus is not yet a full human being until it has been born (either the head or the body is mostly outside of the woman), therefore killing a fetus is not murder, and abortion - in restricted circumstances - has always been legal under Jewish law. Rashi, the great 12th century commentator on the Bible and Talmud, states clearly of the fetus lav nefesh hu--it is not a person.' The Talmud contains the expression ubar yerech imo--the fetus is as the thigh of its mother,' i.e., the fetus is deemed to be part and parcel of the pregnant woman's body." The Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 69b states that: "the embryo is considered to be mere water until the fortieth day." Afterwards, it is considered subhuman until it is born. Christians who agree with these views may refer to this idea as abortion before the "quickening" of the fetus. Two additional passages in the Talmud which shed some light on the Jewish belief that the fetus is considered part of the woman, and not a separate entity. One section states that if a man purchases a cow that is found to be pregnant, then he is the owner both of the cow and the calf that is born from it. Another states that if a pregnant woman converts to Judaism, that her conversion applies also to her fetus. Judaism unilaterally supports, in fact mandates, abortion if doctors believe that it is necessary to save the life of the woman. Many rabbinic authorities allow abortions on the grounds of gross genetic imperfections of the fetus. They also allow abortion if the woman were suicidal because of such defects. However, Judaism holds that abortion is impermissible for family planning or convenience reasons. Each case must be decided individually, however, and the decision should lie with the pregnant woman, the man who impregnated her and their Rabbi. Most branches of Christianity have historically held abortion to be generally wrong, referring to Old Testament passages such as Psalm 139 and Jeremiah 1, as well as New Testament passages concerning both Jesus and John the Baptist while they were in utero. Also, the Didache, an early Church document, explicitly forbids abortion along with infanticide, both common practices in the Roman Empire, as murder. The view that abortion is 'equivalent to murder' is not actually widely held outside fundamentalist Protestantism in the United States. The Roman Catholic Church, for example, permits medical procedures to be carried out on a woman for the purpose of saving her life, even if doing so would put the fetus at risk. Many Protestant Christians claim that the Ten Commandments prohibit abortion under the heading of "Do not murder". Others reject this view, as they hold that the context of the entire set of Biblical laws includes those laws which restrict them to already born human beings. War, violence and pacifism Jews and Christians accept as valid and binding many of the same moral principles taught in the Torah. There is a great deal of overlap between the ethical systems of these two faiths. Nonetheless, there are some highly significant doctrinal differences. Judaism has a great many teachings about peace and compromise, and its teachings make physical violence the last possible option. Nonetheless, the Talmud teaches that "If someone comes with the intention to murder you, then one is obligated to kill in self-defense [rather than be killed]". The clear implication is that to bare one's throat would be tantamount to suicide (which Jewish law forbids) and it would also be considered helping a murderer kill someone and thus would "place an obstacle in front of a blind man" (ie, makes it easier for another person to falter in their ways). The tension between the laws dealing with peace, and the obligation to self-defense, has led to a set of Jewish teachings that have been described as tactical-pacifism. This is the avoidance of force and violence whenever possible, but the use of force when necessary to save the lives of one's self and one's people. Although killing oneself is forbidden under normal Jewish law as being a denial of God's goodness in the world, under extreme circumstances when there has seemed no choice but to either be killed or forced to betray their religion, Jews have committed suicide or mass suicide (see Masada First French persecution of the Jews, and York Castle for examples). As a grim reminder of those times, there is even a prayer in the Jewish liturgy for "when the knife is at the throat", for those dying "to sanctify God's Name". (See: Martyrdom). These acts have received mixed responses by Jewish authorities. Where some Jews regard them as examples of heroic martyrdom, but others saying that while Jews should always be willing to face martyrdom if necessary, it was wrong for them to take their own lives. Euthanasia and Judaism Because Judaism focuses on this life, many questions to do with survival and conflict (such as the classic moral dilemma of two people in a desert with only enough water for one to survive) were analysed in great depth by the rabbis within the Talmud, in the attempt to understand the principles a godly person should draw upon in such a circumstance. The Sermon on the Mount records that Jesus taught that if someone comes to harm you, then one must turn the other cheek. This has led four fairly sizable Protestant Christian denominations to develop a theology of pacifism, the avoidance of force and violence at all times. They are known historically as the peace churches, and have incorporated Christ's teachings on nonviolence into their theology so as to apply it to participation in the use of violent force; those denominations are the Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, and the Church of the Brethren. Many other churches have people who hold to the doctrine without making it a part of their doctrines, or who apply it to individuals but not to governments, see also Evangelical counsels. The vast majority of Christian nations and groups have not adopted this theology, nor have they followed it in practice. See also But to bring a sword. Capital punishment This subject is discussed in more detail in Religion and capital punishment. Although the Hebrew Bible has many references to capital punishment, the Jewish sages used their authority to make it nearly impossible for a Jewish court to impose a death sentence. Even when such a sentence might have been imposed, the Cities of Refuge and other sanctuaries, were at hand for those unintentionally guilty of capital offences. It was said in the Talmud about the death penalty in Judaism, that if a court killed more than one person in seventy years, it was a barbarous (or "bloody") court and should be condemned as such. Christianity usually reserved the death penalty for heresy, the denial of the orthodox view of God's view, and witchcraft or similar non-Christian practices. For example, in Spain, unrepentant Jews were exiled, and it was only those crypto-Jews who had accepted baptism under pressure but retained Jewish customs in private, who were punished in this way. It is presently acknowledged by most of Christianity that these uses of capital punishment were deeply immoral. Taboo food and drink Orthodox Jews, unlike most Christians, still practice a restrictive diet which has many rules. Most Christians believe that the kosher food laws do not apply to them as they are no longer under the Law of Moses, although Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy have their own set of dietary observances. Eastern Orthodoxy, in particular has very elaborate and strict rules of fasting, see Fasting in Eastern Orthodoxy, and continues to observe the Apostolic Decree Karl Josef von Hefele's commentary on canon II of Gangra notes: "We further see that, at the time of the Synod of Gangra, the rule of the Apostolic Synod with regard to blood and things strangled was still in force. With the Greeks, indeed, it continued always in force as their Euchologies still show. Balsamon also, the well-known commentator on the canons of the Middle Ages, in his commentary on the sixty-third Apostolic Canon, expressly blames the Latins because they had ceased to observe this command. What the Latin Church, however, thought on this subject about the year 400, is shown by St. Augustine in his work Contra Faustum, where he states that the Apostles had given this command in order to unite the heathens and Jews in the one ark of Noah; but that then, when the barrier between Jewish and heathen converts had fallen, this command concerning things strangled and blood had lost its meaning, and was only observed by few. But still, as late as the eighth century, Pope Gregory the Third (731) forbade the eating of blood or things strangled under threat of a penance of forty days. No one will pretend that the disciplinary enactments of any council, even though it be one of the undisputed Ecumenical Synods, can be of greater and more unchanging force than the decree of that first council, held by the Holy Apostles at Jerusalem, and the fact that its decree has been obsolete for centuries in the West is proof that even Ecumenical canons may be of only temporary utility and may be repealed by disuse, like other laws." . In addition, some Christian denominations observe some Biblical food laws, for example see Ital, and the question "What would Jesus eat?" is popular among Evangelicals. Salvation Judaism does not see human beings as inherently flawed or sinful and needful of being saved from it, but rather capable with a free will of being righteous, and unlike Christianity does not closely associate ideas of "salvation" with a New Covenant delivered by a Jewish messiah, although in Judaism Jewish people will have a renewed national commitment of observing God's commandments under the New Covenant, and the Jewish Messiah will also be ruling at a time of global peace and acceptance of God by all people. JfJ Messiah : The Criteria Judaism holds instead that proper living is accomplished through good works and heartfelt prayer, as well as a strong faith in God. Judaism also teaches that Gentiles can receive a share in "the world to come". This is codified in the Mishna Avot 4:29, the Babylonian Talmud in tractates Avodah Zarah 10b, and Ketubot 111b, and in Maimonides's 12th century law code, the Mishneh Torah, in Hilkhot Melachim (Laws of Kings) 8.11. The Christian view is that every human is a sinner, and being saved by God's grace, not simply by the merit of ones own actions, pardons a damnatory sentence to Hell. Judgment Both Christianity and Judaism believe in some form of judgment. Most Christians (the exception is Full Preterism) believe in the future Second Coming of Jesus which includes the Resurrection of the Dead and the Last Judgment. Those positively judged will be saved and live in God's presence in the Kingdom of Heaven, those who are negatively judged will be cast into the Lake of Fire (eternal Hell or simply annihilated), see for example The Sheep and the Goats. In Jewish liturgy there is significant prayer and talk of a "book of life" that one is written into, indicating that God judges each person each year even after death. This annual judgment occurs on Rosh Hashanah. Additionally, God sits daily in judgment concerning a person's daily activities. Upon the anticipated arrival of the Messiah, God will judge the nations for their persecution of Israel during the exile. Later, God will also judge the Jews over their observance of the Torah. Heaven and Hell There is little Jewish literature on heaven or hell as actual places, and there are few references to the afterlife in the Hebrew Bible. One is the ghostly apparition of Samuel, called up by the Witch of Endor at King Saul's command. Another is a mention by the Prophet Daniel of those who sleep in the earth rising to either everlasting life or everlasting abhorrence. Daniel 12:2 Early Hebrew views were more concerned with the fate of the nation of Israel as a whole, rather than with individual immortality. Resurrection A stronger belief in an afterlife for each person developed during the Second Temple period but was contested by various Jewish sects. Pharisees believed that in death, people rest in their graves until they are physically resurrected with the coming of the Messiah, and within that resurrected body the soul would exist eternally. Pharisees Maimonides also included the concept of resurrection in his Thirteen Principles of Faith. Judaism's view is summed up by a biblical observation about the Torah: in the beginning God clothes the naked (Adam), and at the end God buries the dead (Moses). The Children of Israel mourned for 40 days, then got on with their lives. In Judaism, Heaven is sometimes described as a place where God debates Talmudic law with the angels, and where Jews spend eternity studying the Written and Oral Torah. Jews do not believe in "Hell" as a place of eternal tormenmt. Gehenna is a place or condition of purgatory where Jews spend up to twelve months purifying to get into heaven, depending on how sinful they have been, although some suggest that certain types of sinners can never be purified enough to go to heaven and rather than facing eternal torment, simply cease to exist. Therefore, some violations like suicide would be punished by separation from the community, such as not being buried in a Jewish cemetery (in practice, rabbis often rule suicides to be mentally incompetent and thus not responsible for their actions). Judaism also does not have a notion of hell as a place ruled by Satan since God's dominion is total and Satan is only one of God's angels. Catholics also believe in a purgatory for those who are going to heaven, but Christians in general believe that Hell is a fiery place of torment that never ceases, called the Lake of Fire. A small minority believe this is not permanent, and that those who go there will eventually either be saved or cease to exist. Heaven for Christians is depicted in various ways. As the Kingdom of God described in the New Testament and particularly the Book of Revelation, Heaven is a new or restored earth free of sin and death, with a New Jerusalem led by God, Jesus, and the most righteous of believers starting with 144,000 Jews from every tribe, and all others who received salvation living peacefully and making pilgrimages to give glory to the city. Book of Revelation 20-22 In Christianity, promises of Heaven and Hell as rewards and punishments are often used to motivate good and bad behavior, as threats of disaster were used by prophets like Jeremiah to motivate the Israelites. Modern Judaism generally rejects this form of motivation, instead teaching to do the right thing because it's the right thing to do. As Maimonides wrote: "A man should not say: I shall carry out the precepts of the Torah and study her wisdom in order to receive all the blessings written therein or in order to merit the life of the World to Come and I shall keep away from the sins forbidden by the Torah in order to be spared the curses mentioned in the Torah or in order not to be cut off from the life of the World to Come. It is not proper to serve God in this fashion. For one who serves thus serves out of fear. Such as way is not that of the prophets and sages. Only the ignorant, and the women and children serve God in this way. These are trained to serve out of fear until they obtain sufficient knowledge to serve out of love. One who serves God out of love studies the Torah and practices the precepts and walks in the way of wisdom for no ulterior motive at all, neither out of fear of evil nor in order to acquire the good, but follows the truth because it is true and the good will follow the merit of attaining to it. It is the stage of Abraham our father whom the Holy One, blessed be God, called "My friend" (Isaiah 41:8 ohavi = the one who loves me) because he served out of love alone. It is regarding this stage that the Holy One, Blessed be God, commanded us through Moses, as it is said: "You shall love the Lord your God" (Deuteronomy 6:5). When man loves God with a love that is fitting he automatically carries out all the precepts of love. (Maimonides Yad Chapter 10, quoted in Jacobs 1973: 159) The Messiah Jews believe that a descendant of King David will one day appear to restore the Kingdom of Israel and usher in an era of peace, prosperity, and spiritual understanding for Israel and all the nations of the world. Jews refer to this person as Moshiach or "anointed one", translated as messiah in English. The traditional Jewish understanding of the messiah is that he is fully human and born of human parents without any supernatural element. The messiah is expected to have a relationship with God similar to that of the prophets of the Tanakh. In his commentary on the Talmud, Maimonides (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon) wrote: All of the people Israel will come back to Torah; The people of Israel with be gathered back to the land of Israel; The Temple in Jerusalem will be rebuilt; Israel will live among the nations as an equal, and will be strong enough to defend herself; Eventually, war, hatred and famine will end, and an era of peace and prosperity will come upon the Earth. He adds: "And if a king shall stand up from among the House of David, studying Torah and indulging in commandments like his father David, according to the written and oral Torah, and he will coerce all Israel to follow it and to strengthen its weak points, and will fight The Lord's wars, this one is to be treated as if he were the anointed one. If he succeeded [and won all nations surrounding him. Old prints and mss.] and built a Holy Temple in its proper place and gathered the strayed ones of Israel together, this is indeed the anointed one for certain, and he will mend the entire world to worship the Lord together ... But if he did not succeed until now, or if he was killed, it becomes known that he is not this one of whom the Torah had promised us, and he is indeed like all [other] proper and wholesome kings of the House of David who died." He also clarified the nature of the Messiah: "Do not imagine that the anointed King must perform miracles and signs and create new things in the world or resurrect the dead and so on. The matter is not so: For Rabbi Akiba was a great scholar of the sages of the Mishnah, and he was the assistant-warrior of the king Ben Coziba Simon bar Kokhba... He and all the Sages of his generation deemed him the anointed king, until he was killed by sins; only since he was killed, they knew that he was not. The Sages asked him neither a miracle nor a sign..." The Christian view of Jesus as Messiah goes beyond such claims and is the fulfillment and union of three anointed offices; a prophet like Moses who delivers God's commands and covenant and frees people from bondage, a High Priest in the order of Melchizedek overshadowing the Levite priesthood and a king like King David ruling over Jews, and like God ruling over the whole world and coming from the line of David. For Christians, Jesus is also fully human and fully divine as the Word of God who sacrifices himself so that humans can receive salvation. Jesus sits in Heaven at the right hand of God and will judge humanity in the end times. Christian readings of the Hebrew Bible find many references to Jesus. This takes the form in some cases of specific prophesy, but in most cases of foreshadowing by types or forerunners. Traditionally, most Christian readings of the Bible maintained that almost every prophecy was actually about the coming of Jesus, and that the entire Old Testament of the Bible is a prophecy about the coming of Jesus. Catholic views Catholicism teaches Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus ("Outside the Church there is no salvation"), which some, like Fr. Leonard Feeney, interpreted as limiting salvation to Catholics only. At the same time, it does not deny the possibility that those not visibly members of the Church may attain salvation as well. In recent times, its teaching has been most notably expressed in the Vatican II council documents Unitatis Redintegratio (1964), Lumen Gentium (1964), Nostra aetate (1965), an encyclical issued by Pope John Paul II: Ut Unum Sint (1995), and in a document issued by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Dominus Iesus in 2000. The latter document been criticised for claiming that non-Christians are in a "gravely deficient situation" as compared to Catholics, but also adds that "for those who are not formally and visibly members of the Church, salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally part of the Church, but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation." Pope John Paul II on October 2 2000 emphasized that this document did not say that non-Christians were actively denied salvation: "...this confession does not deny salvation to non-Christians, but points to its ultimate source in Christ, in whom man and God are united". On December 6 the Pope issued a statement to further emphasize that the Church continued to support its traditional stance that salvation was available to believers of other faiths: "The gospel teaches us that those who live in accordance with the Beatitudes--the poor in spirit, the pure of heart, those who bear lovingly the sufferings of life--will enter God's kingdom." He further added, "All who seek God with a sincere heart, including those who do not know Christ and his church, contribute under the influence of Grace to the building of this Kingdom." On August 13 2002 American Catholic bishops issued a joint statement with leaders of Reform and Conservative Judaism, called "Reflections on Covenant and Mission", which affirmed that Christians should not target Jews for conversion. The document stated: "Jews already dwell in a saving covenant with God" and "Jews are also called by God to prepare the world for God's Kingdom." However, some U.S.-led Baptist and other fundamentalist denominations still believe it is their duty to engage in what they refer to as outreach to "unbelieving" Jews. Eastern Orthodox views Eastern Orthodox Christianity emphasizes a continuing life of repentance or metanoia, which includes an increasing improvement in thought, belief and action. Regarding the salvation of Jews, Muslims, and other non-Christians, the Orthodox have traditionally taught that there is no salvation outside the church. Orthodoxy recognizes that other religions may contain truth, to the extent that they are in agreement with Christianity. Many Orthodox theologians believe that all people will have an opportunity to embrace union with God, including Jesus, after their death, and so become part of the Church at that time. God is thought to be good, just, and merciful; it would not seem just to condemn someone because they never heard the Gospel message, or were taught a distorted version of the Gospel by heretics. Therefore, the reasoning goes, they must at some point have an opportunity to make a genuine informed decision. Ultimately, those who persist in rejecting God condemn themselves, by cutting themselves off from the ultimate source of all Life, and from the God who is Love embodied. Jews, Muslims, and members of other faiths, then, are expected to convert to Christianity in the afterlife. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also holds this belief, and holds baptismal services in which righteous people are baptized in behalf of their ancestors who, it is believed, are given the opportunity to accept the ordinance. Proselytizing Judaism is not a proselytizing religion. Orthodox Judaism deliberately makes it very difficult to convert and become a Jew, and requires a significant and full-time effort in living, study, righteousness, and conduct over several years. The final decision is by no means a foregone conclusion. A person cannot become Jewish by marrying a Jew, or by joining a synagogue, nor by any degree of involvement in the community or religion, but only by explicitly undertaking intense, formal, and supervised work over years aimed towards that goal. Some less strict versions of Judaism have made this process somewhat easier but it is still far from common. In the past Judaism was more evangelistic H.H. Ben-Sasson's A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 0674397312, page 288: "Explicit evidence of a systematic attempt to propagate the Jewish faith in the city of Rome is found as early as 139 BCE. With the increase of the Jewish population of Rome, the Jews intensified their efforts to make converts among the Romans. Although the activity of Jewish missionaries in Roman society caused Tiberius to expel them from that city in 19 CE, they soon returned, and Jewish religious propaganda was resumed and maintained even after the destruction of the Temple. Tacitus mentions it regretfully (Histories 5.5), and Juvenal, in his Fourteenth Satire (11. 96ff.), describes how Roman families 'degenerated' into Judaism: the fathers permitted themselves to adopt some of its customs and the sons became Jews in every respect. ... the Bible provided the apostles of Judaism with a literature unparalleled in any other religion." , but this was often more akin just to "greater openness to converts" rather than active soliciting of conversions. Since Jews believe that one need not be a Jew to approach God, there is no religious pressure to convert non-Jews to their faith. The Chabad-Lubavitch branch of Hasidic Judaism has been an exception to this non-proselytizing standard, since in recent decades it has been actively promoting Noahide Laws for Gentiles as an alternative to Christianity. The Seven Laws of Noah and the Non-Jews who Follow Them , 102nd Congress of the United States of America, March 5, 1991. By contrast, Christianity is an explicitly evangelical religion. Christians are commanded by Jesus to "Therefore go and make disciples of all nations". Historically, evangelism has often led to forced conversion under threat of death or mass expulsion. While abuses of this sort are no longer common, at certain times and in certain places, evangelism has veered into high-pressure coercion, in those instances causing significant ill-will. Mutual views Common Jewish views of Christianity Jesus plays no role whatsoever in Judaism. Jews are familiar with Jesus primarily through the western world since it is a relatively Christian-oriented society. Many view Jesus as just one in a long list of failed Jewish claimants to be the messiah, none of whom fulfilled the tests of a prophet specified in the Law of Moses. Others see Jesus as a teacher who worked with the gentiles and ascribe the messianic claims they find objectionable to his later followers. Because much physical and spiritual violence was done to Jews in the name of Jesus and his followers, and because evangelism is still an active aspect of many church's activities, many religious Jews are uncomfortable with discussing Jesus and treat him as a non-person. In answering the question, "What do Jews think of Jesus," philosopher Milton Steinberg claims, for Jews, Jesus cannot be accepted as anything more than a teacher. "In only a few respects did Jesus deviate from the Tradition," Steinberg concludes, "and in all of them, Jews believe, he blundered." M. Steinberg, 1975 Basic Judaism pp. 108, New York: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich On a religious level, Judaism does not believe that God requires the sacrifice of any human. This is emphasized in Jewish traditions concerning the story of the Akedah, the binding of Isaac. In the Jewish explanation, this is a story in the Torah whereby God wanted to test Abraham's faith and willingness, and Isaac was never going to be actually sacrificed. Thus, Judaism rejects the notion that anyone can or should die for anyone else's sin (see Spiegel, 1993). As a religion, Judaism is far more focused on the practicalities of understanding how one may live a sacred life in this world according to God's will, rather than hope a hope of a future one. Judaism does not believe in the Christian concept of hell but does have a punishment stage in the afterlife (i.e. Gehenna, the New Testament word translated as hell) as well as a Heaven (Gan Eden), but the religion does not intend it as a focus. Christmas and other Christian festivals have no religious significance in Judaism and are not celebrated. Celebration of non-Jewish holy days is considered Avodah Zarah or "Foreign Worship" and is forbidden; however some secular Jews in the West treat Christmas as a secular (but not religious) holiday. Common Christian views of Judaism Christians believe that Christianity is the fulfillment and successor of Judaism, retaining much of its doctrine and many of its practices including monotheism, the belief in a Messiah, and certain forms of worship like prayer and reading from religious texts. Other beliefs, like the need for a blood sacrifice for sin, are beliefs that Rabbinical Judaism has since veered away from. Most Christians consider that the Law was necessary as an intermediate stage, but once the crucifixion of Jesus occurred, adherence to civil and ceremonial Law was superseded by the New Covenant Hebrews 7:11-28 since the purpose of these laws was to dictate a proper relationship to God through the tabernacles and the temples in Jerusalem. Some Christians adhere to Replacement theology which states that Jews who reject Jesus as the Messiah and Son of God have ceased being the Chosen People. This position has been softened by some adherents, or completely rejected by other churches where Jews are recognized to have a special status due to their covenant with God through Abraham, so this continues to be an area of ongoing dispute among Christians. Some Christians who view the Jewish people as close to God seek to understand and incorporate elements of Jewish understanding or perspective into their beliefs as a means to respect their "parent" religion of Judaism, or to more fully seek out and return to their Christian roots. Christians embracing aspects of Judaism are sometimes criticized as Biblical Judaizers by Christians when they pressure Gentile Christians to observe Old Testament. Inter-relationship In addition to each having varied views on the other as a religion, there has also been a long and often painful history of conflict, persecution and at times, reconciliation, between the two religions, which have influenced their mutual views of their relationship over time. Genocide, including persecution, forcible conversion, and forcible displacement of Jews (i.e. hate crimes) were common for many centuries, with occasional gestures to reconciliation from time to time. Pogroms were common throughout Christian Europe, including organized violence, restrictive land ownership and professional lives, forcible relocation and ghettoization, mandatory dress codes, and at times humiliating actions and torture. All had major effects on Jewish cultures. What is clear is that formally, there is mostly peaceful living side by side, with strong inter-dialogue at many levels to reconcile past differences between the two groups, and many Christians emphasize common historical heritage and religious continuity with the ancient spiritual lineage of the Jews. Christians and Jews attempt to coexist ultimately by recognizing the fact that they both worship the same Almighty God, that they both recognize several of the same prophets, and that both religions, while having faults, attempt to make the world a better place. Christians view the Jews as keepers of the Old Covenant. Jews view Christians ultimately as themselves, only the followers of who they doubt was the Messiah. What is also likely is that for a long time to come, some within each will continue to consider the other with varying degrees of suspicion and hostility. Notes Further reading Bamberger, Bernard (1981). "Commentary to Leviticus" in The Torah: A Modern Commentary, edited by W. Gunther Plaut, New York: Union of American Hebrew Congregations. ISBN 0-8074-0055-6 Bloom, Harold (2005). Jesus and Yahweh: The Names Divine, Riverhead. ISBN 1-57322-322-0 Herberg, Will (1951). Judaism and Modern Man: An Interpretation of Jewish religion, Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 0689702329 Jacobs, Louis (1973). A Jewish Theology, Behrman House. ISBN 0-87441-226-9 Rosenzweig, Franz (2005). The Star of Redemption, University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-20724-2 Rouvière, Jean-Marc (2006). Brèves méditations sur la création du monde, L'Harmattan Paris. Speigel, Shalom (1993). The Last Trial: On the Legends and Lore of the Command to Abraham to Offer Isaac As a Sacrifice: The Akedah, Jewish Lights Publishing; Reprint edition. ISBN 1-879045-29-X Welker, Carmen (2007). Should Christians be Torah Observant?, Netzari Press. ISBN 978-1-934916-00-1 Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006). "'Etymythological Othering' and the Power of 'Lexical Engineering' in Judaism, Islam and Christianity. A Socio-Philo(sopho)logical Perspective", Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion, edited by Tope Omoniyi and Joshua A. Fishman, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 237–258. ISBN 90 272 2710 1 External links Roman Catholic Church's views on other faiths Jewish Encyclopedia: Christianity in its Relation to Judaism Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament: For and Against the Law A Rival, a Relative, or Both? Differing Christian Stances Toward Judaism Over Two Millennia by Dr. Graham Keith (Middle East Resources)
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4,791
Little_Nemo
Little Nemo is the main fictional character in a series of weekly comic strips by Winsor McCay (1871-1934) that appeared in the New York Herald and William Randolph Hearst's New York American newspapers from October 15, 1905 – April 23, 1911 and April 30, 1911 – July 26, 1914; respectively. The strip was first called Little Nemo in Slumberland and then In the Land of Wonderful Dreams when it changed papers. A brief revival of the original title occurred from 1924-27. Comic strip Full Little Nemo in Slumberland strip Although a comic strip, it was far from a simple children's fantasy; it was often dark, surreal, threatening, and even violent. The strip related the dreams of a little boy: Nemo (meaning "nobody" in Latin), the hero. The last panel in each strip was always one of Nemo waking up, usually in or near his bed, and often being scolded (or comforted) by one of the grownups of the household after crying out in his sleep and waking them. In the earliest strips, the dream event that woke him up would always be some mishap or disaster that seemed about to lead to serious injury or death, such as being crushed by giant mushrooms, being turned into a monkey, falling from a bridge being held up by "slaves", or gaining 90 years in age. The adventures leading to these disasters all had a common purpose: to get to Slumberland, where he had been summoned by King Morpheus, to be the "playmate" of his daughter, the Princess. Sometime during early 1906, Nemo did indeed reach the gates of Slumberland, but had to go through about four months of troubles to reach the Princess. His problem was that he kept being awakened by Flip, who wore a hat with "Wake Up" written on it. One sight of Flip's hat was enough to take Nemo back to the land of the living during these early days. Although at first an enemy, Flip went on to become one of the recurring heroes. The others included: Dr. Pill, The Imp, the Candy Kid and Santa Claus as well as the Princess and King Morpheus. The "Slumberland" of the title soon acquired a double meaning, referring not only to Morpheus's fairy kingdom, but to the state of sleep itself: Nemo would have dream-adventures in other imaginary lands, on the Moon and Mars, and in our own "real" world, made fantastic by the dream-state. The strip was not a great popular success in its time. Most readers preferred the slapstick antics of such strips as Katzenjammer Kids, Happy Hooligan, and Buster Brown to the surreal fantasy of Nemo, and other comic strips like Krazy Kat. However, during the late 20th century and early 21st century, the strip received more recognition. Among the most noticeable of its qualities were its intricate visual style — often with high levels of background detail — its vivid colours, fast pace of movement from panel to panel and the huge variety of strange characters and scenery. Certain episodes of the strip are particularly famous. Any list of these would have to include the Night of the Living Houses (said to be the first comic strip to enter the collection of the Louvre) where Nemo and a friend are chased down a city street by a gang of tenement houses on legs; the Walking Bed, where Nemo and Flip ride over the rooftops on the increasingly long limbs of Nemo's bed (see illustration); and the Befuddle Hall sequence, where Nemo and his friends attempt to find their way out of a funhouse environment of a Beaux Arts interior turned topsy-turvy. McCay's mastery of perspective, and the extreme elegance of his line work, make his visions graphically wondrous. The eccentric dialogue is delivered in a dreamy deadpan, and often appears to be hastily jammed into tiny word balloons that can scarcely contain it. A typical line: "Whoever named this place Befuddle Hall knew his business! I am certainly befuddled." The strips, along with most of the rest of McCay's works, fell into the public domain in most of the world on January 1, 2005, 70 years after McCay's death (see Copyright and the EU's Directive harmonizing the term of copyright protection for details). All of the works published before 1923 are in the public domain in the United States. The complete set of Little Nemo strips is available in a single volume from Taschen: Little Nemo 1905-1914 (ISBN10 3-8228-6300-9), leaving out only the later revival from the 1920s, which is still under copyright in the U.S. 110 of the most famous strips have been reprinted in their original size and colors in the 2005 collection Little Nemo in Slumberland, So Many Splendid Sundays (ISBN13 978-0976888598), a 16x21 inch hardcover book from Sunday Press Books. Adaptations The walking bed, July 26, 1908 In theater An 'operatic spectacle' was based on the strip, with music by Victor Herbert (composer of Babes in Toyland) and lyrics by Harry B. Smith. This lavish production opened on October 20, 1908 in the New Amsterdam Theatre in New York, ran for 111 performances, and closed January 23, 1909. The opera introduced a new character called 'the dancing missionary', who was to appear in several episodes of the comic strip during 1909, and the word whiffenpoof. In spring 2007, an operatic adaptation of the comic strip was announced to be presented in spring 2009 by the Sarasota Opera, composed by the Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Ned Rorem. He announced on July 20, 2008 that he would not be able to complete it, and the Opera announced that it expects a different version by another composer to be ready for a production during the 2010 season. In film James Stuart Blackton and Winsor McCay directed a ten minute short film based on the comic strip, of which two minutes were animated. The film was first released on April 8, 1911. The first animated effort of McCay, it later achieved the status of an early animated classic. Its on screen title is Winsor McCay, the Famous Cartoonist of the N.Y. Herald and his Moving Comics, but it is usually referred to as Little Nemo. In 1984, John Boorman and Arnaud Sélignac produced and directed a film called Nemo or Dream One starring Jason Connery, Harvey Keitel and Carole Bouquet. It involves a little boy called Nemo who also wears pajamas and travels to a fantasy world, but otherwise the connection to McCay's strip is a loose one. In this film the fantasy world is a dark and dismal beach, and Nemo encounters characters from other works of fiction rather than those from the original strip. Instead of Flip or the Princess, Nemo meets Zorro, Alice, and Jules Verne's Nautilus (which was led by Captain Nemo) (see IMDB entry). An animated feature film entitled Little Nemo: Adventures in Slumberland (known simply as "Nemo" in Japan) was finally released in Japan in July 1989 and in the US on August 21, 1992. It was directed by Masami Hata, Masanori Hata and William T. Hurtz from a screenplay by Chris Columbus and Richard Outten. Originally conceived in 1982, this Japanese-American co-production had a long and tumultuous history which included a 1984 pilot by Ghibli director Yoshifumi Kondō. Though regarded as a commercial failure in the States, it nevertheless went on to be nominated for and won several industry awards for its brilliant animation quality. Upon its initial VHS video release in 1993, it topped the charts for more than a month, selling over 2 million copies. The film was later released on DVD in October 2004, and quickly went out of print the following year. The DVD was once again released in January 2009. In other media In 1990, Capcom produced a video game for the NES, titled Little Nemo: The Dream Master (known as Pajama Hero Nemo in Japan), a licensed game based on the 1989 film. The film would not see a US release until 1992, two years after the game's US release, so the game is often thought to be a standalone adaptation of Little Nemo, not related to the film. An arcade game called simply Nemo was also released in 1989. Throughout the years, various pieces of Little Nemo merchandise have been produced. In 1941, Rand, McNally & Co. published a Little Nemo children's storybook. Little Nemo in Slumberland in 3-D was released by Blackthorne Publishing in 1987; this reprinted Little Nemo issues with 3-D glasses. A set of 30 Little Nemo postcards was available through Stewart Tabori & Chang in 1996. In 1993, as promotion for the 1989 animated film, Hemdale produced a Collector's Set which includes a VHS movie, illustrated storybook, and cassette soundtrack. In 2001, Dark Horse Comics released a Little Nemo statue and tin lunchbox. The character and themes from the comic strip Little Nemo were used in a song "Scenes From a Night's Dream" written by Phil Collins and Tony Banks of the popular rock group Genesis in their 1978 recording, ...And Then There Were Three. The German progressive rock group Scara Brae also recorded a musical impression of the comic on their rare self titled disc from 1981 (the track was actually recorded 2 years earlier). Their concept piece was revived on the second album by the Greek band Anger Department, oddly called 'The Strange Dreams of A Rarebit Fiend', again after a McCay-comic. Their 'Little Nemo' was chosen for a theatre play, which was suggested for the cultural program for the Olympic Games in 2004. Characters Cultural influences Since its publishing, Little Nemo has had an influence on other artists, including Alan Moore, in Miracleman #4, when the Miracleman family end up in a palace called "Sleepy Town," which is possessed of similar imagery from Little Nemo. In Moore (and J.H. Williams III)'s Promethea, a more direct pastiche - "Little Margie in Misty Magic Land" - showed Moore's inspiration and debt to McCay's landmark 1905 strip. The Sandman series occasionally references Little Nemo as well. Examples include The Sandman: The Doll's House, where an abused child escapes into dreams styled after McCay's comics and using a similar 'wake-up' mechanism, and The Sandman: Book of Dreams (pub. 1996), which features George Alec Effinger's short "Seven Nights in Slumberland" (where Nemo interacts with Neil Gaiman's characters The Endless). In children's literature, Maurice Sendak has said that this strip inspired his book In the Night Kitchen, and William Joyce included several elements from Little Nemo in his children's book Santa Calls, including appearances by Flip and the walking bed. In 1984, Italian comic artist Vittorio Giardino started producing a number of few-page stories under the title Little Ego, a parodic adaptation of Little Nemo, in the shape of erotic comics. Although not exactly suitable for children (far away from being regarded as pornographic though), Giardino's work succeeded in imitating Winsor McCay's exquisite drawing technique, and the level of surrealism was fairly achieved. Collections Little Nemo 1905-1906 Nostalgia Press Little Nemo in the Palace of Ice and Further Adventures Dover, ISBN 0-486-23234-4 Little Nemo In Slumberland, 1905-07 Fantagraphics ISBN 0-930193-63-6 Little Nemo In Slumberland, 1907-08 Fantagraphics ISBN 0-930193-64-4 Little Nemo In Slumberland, 1908-10 Fantagraphics ISBN 1-56097-025-1 Little Nemo In Slumberland, 1910-11 Fantagraphics ISBN 0-56097-045-6 ISBN 1-85286-153-3 Little Nemo In Slumberland #1 Blackthorne Publishing, 1986 Little Nemo In Land of Wonderful Dream, Part 1, 1911-12 Fantagraphics ISBN 0-924359-35-8 Little Nemo In Land of Wonderful Dream, Part 1, 1913-14 Fantagraphics ISBN 1-56097-130-4 Little Nemo, 1924-25 Fantagraphics, unpublished ? Little Nemo, 1926-27 Fantagraphics, unpublished ? Little Nemo, 1905-14 Evergreen/Taschen, 2000, ISBN 3-8228-6300-9 Little Nemo in Slumberland: So Many Splendid Sundays (1905-10) Sunday Press Books, 2005 ISBN 0-9768885-0-5 Little Nemo in Slumberland: So Many Splendid Sundays, Vol. 2 (1906-24) Sunday Press Books, 2008 ISBN 0-9768885-5-6 Best of Little Nemo in Slumberland Stewart, Tabori, & Chang, ISBN 1-55670-647-2 Little Nemo in Slumberland, v1 (1905-09) Checker Books ISBN 1933160-21-7 Little Nemo in Slumberland, v2 (1910-15, 1926) Checker Books ISBN 1933160-22-5 References External links Winsor McCay Biography Meeting McCay Internet Movie Database profile of the 1911 short film Internet Movie Database profile of the 1984 movie Nemo or Dream One Internet Movie Database profile of the 1990 video game Internet Movie Database profile of the 1992 feature film "Finding 'Little Nemo'" (review of So Many Splendid Sundays!), Douglas Wolk, Salon.com, December 3, 2005. Interview with Peter Maresca (editor of So Many Splendid Sundays) and Art Spiegelman from the KCRW radio show Bookworm - excerpt from the book "Little Nemo in Comicsland" (Winsor McCay's influence on comics), Jeet Heer, Virginia Quarterly Review, Spring 2006. Comic Strip Library - Archive of many strips in high resolution.
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4,792
The_Alan_Parsons_Project
The Alan Parsons Project was a British progressive rock music band active between 1975 and 1990, initiated by Eric Woolfson and Alan Parsons. History Englishman Alan Parsons met Scotsman Eric Woolfson in the canteen of Abbey Road Studios in the summer of 1974. Parsons had already acted as assistant engineer on The Beatles' Abbey Road and Let It Be, had recently engineered Pink Floyd's Dark Side of the Moon, and had produced several acts for EMI Records. Woolfson, a songwriter and composer, was working as a session pianist; he also composed material for a concept album idea based on the work of Edgar Allan Poe. History alan-parsons-project.com Parsons asked Woolfson to become his manager and Woolfson managed Parsons' career as a producer and engineer through a string of successes including Pilot, Steve Harley, Cockney Rebel, John Miles, Al Stewart, Ambrosia and The Hollies. Parsons commented at the time that he felt frustrated in having to accommodate the opinions of some of the artists, which he felt interfered with his production. Woolfson then had the idea of making an album based on developments in the film business, where directors such as Alfred Hitchcock and Stanley Kubrick were the basis of the film's promotion, rather than individual film stars. If the film business was becoming a director's medium, Woolfson felt the music business might well become a producer's medium. Recalling his earlier Edgar Allan Poe material, Woolfson saw a way to combine his and Parsons' respective talents. Parsons would produce and engineer songs written by the two, and the Alan Parsons Project began. Their first album, Tales of Mystery and Imagination, including major contributions by all members of Pilot, was a success. The song "The Raven" features lead vocals by actor Leonard Whiting, and, according to the 2007 remastered album liner notes, was the first rock music song ever to utilize a digital vocoder, with Alan Parsons speaking lyrics through it. Arista Records subsequently contracted The Alan Parsons Project for further albums. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the group's popularity continued to increase (although they were always more popular in North America and Continental Europe than in their home country, never achieving a UK Top 40 single or Top 20 album), with singles such as "I Wouldn't Want to Be Like You", "Games People Play," "Time" (Woolfson's first lead vocal), and "Eye in the Sky", scoring notably on the popular charts. After the #3 success of the last in the US (and #6 in Canada), however, the group's popularity began to decrease. There were fewer successful singles, and declining album sales. 1987's Gaudi would be the Project's last release, though they did not know it at the time, and planned to record an album called Freudiana next. Although the studio version of Freudiana was produced by Alan Parsons (and featured the regular Project backing musicians, making it an 'unofficial' Project album), it was primarily Eric Woolfson's idea to convert it into a musical. This eventually caused a dispute between the two artists. While Alan Parsons pursued his own solo career and took many members of the Project on the road for the first time in a successful worldwide tour, Eric Woolfson produced musical plays influenced by the Project's music. Freudiana, Gaudi and Gambler were three musicals that included some Project songs like "Eye in the Sky", "Time", "Inside Looking Out," and "Limelight." The live music from Gambler was only distributed at the performance site (in Moenchengladbach, Germany). In 1980 , Parsons/Woolfson and their record company Arista were stalled in contract renegotiations when on March 5th the two submitted an all-instrumental atonal album tentatively titled "The Sicilian Defence" (the name of an aggressive opening move in chess), arguably to get out of their contract. Arista's refusal to release said album had two known effects: the negotiations resulted in a renewed contract and the album has remained unreleased to this day. "The Sicilian Defense was our attempt at quickly fulfilling our contractual obligation after I Robot, Pyramid and Eve had been delivered. The album was rejected by Arista, not surprisingly, and we then renegotiated our deal for the future and the next album, "The Turn Of A Friendly Card." The Sicilian Defense album was never released and never will be, if I have anything to do with it. I have not heard it since it was finished. I hope the tapes no longer exist." Alan Parsons However, in recent interviews, Woolfson did announce his intention of releasing one track from the never-released "Sicilian" album, which in 2008 did appear as a bonus track on a CD re-issue of the Eve album. Parsons released titles under his name (Try Anything Once, On Air, The Time Machine, and A Valid Path), while Woolfson made concept albums named Freudiana (about Sigmund Freud's work on psychology) and Poe - More Tales of Mystery and Imagination (continuing from the Alan Parsons Project's first album about Edgar Allan Poe's literature). Tales of Mystery and Imagination was first remixed in 1987 for release on CD and included narration by Orson Welles which had been recorded in 1975 but arrived too late to be included on the original album. On the 2007 Deluxe Edition release, it is revealed that parts of this tape were used for the 1976 Griffith Park Planetarium debut of the original album, the 1987 remix, and various radio programs, all of which are included as bonus material. On May 24th 2009, Arista announced plans to release The Sicilian Defence as a limited edition double CD. The 'Project sound' Most of the Project's titles, especially the early work, share common traits (likely influenced by Pink Floyd's Dark Side of the Moon, on which Parsons was the audio engineer in 1973). They were concept albums, and typically began with an instrumental introduction which faded into the first song, often had an instrumental piece in the middle of the second LP side, and concluded with a quiet, melancholic, or powerful song. The opening instrumentals were generally ended by 1980; no later Project album except Eye in the Sky featured one (although every album includes at least one instrumental somewhere in the running order). The instrumental on that album, "Sirius," eventually became the best-known (or at least most frequently heard) Parsons instrumental because of its use as entrance music by various American sports teams, most notably by the Chicago Bulls during their 1990s NBA dynasty, as well as during broadcasts of Pittsburgh Steelers games on their flagship station WDVE (which is coincidentally a classic rock station) just before the start of the game itself or the second half. It was also used as the entrance theme of Ricky Steamboat for his professional wrestling during the mid 1980's. The group was notable for using several vocal performers instead of having a single lead vocalist. Lead vocal duties were shared by guest vocalists chosen by their vocal style to complement each song. Woolfson sang lead on many of the group's hits (including "Time" and "Eye In The Sky") and the record company pressured Parsons to use him more, but Parsons preferred "real" singers, which Woolfson admitted he was not. In addition to Woolfson, Chris Rainbow, Lenny Zakatek, John Miles, David Paton and The Zombies' Colin Blunstone made regular appearances. Other singers, such as Arthur Brown, Procol Harum's Gary Brooker, Dave Terry aka Elmer Gantry, Vitamin Z's Geoff Barradale and Marmalade's Dean Ford, have recorded only once or twice with the Project. Parsons himself only sang lead on one song ("The Raven") through a vocoder, and can be heard singing backup on a few others, including "To One in Paradise". Both of those songs appeared on Tales of Mystery and Imagination. Although the vocalists varied, a small number of musicians worked with the Alan Parsons Project regularly. These core musicians contribute to the recognizable style of a Project song in spite of the varied singer lineup. Together with Parsons and Woolfson, the Project originally consisted of the group Pilot, with Ian Bairnson (guitar), David Paton (bass) and Stuart Tosh (drums). Pilot's keyboardist Billy Lyall also contributed. From "Pyramid" on, Tosh was replaced by Stuart Elliott of Cockney Rebel. Bairnson played on all albums and Paton stayed almost until the end. Andrew Powell appeared as arranger of orchestra (and often choirs) on all albums except "Vulture Culture", when he was busy composing the score of Richard Donner's film Ladyhawke. This score was partly in the Project style, recorded by most of the Project regulars, and produced and engineered by Alan Parsons. Powell also composed some material for the first two Project albums. From "Vulture Culture" onwards, Richard Cottle played as a regular member on synthesizers and saxophone. Alan Parsons Live Project, June 1998. The Project never played live during its career. This was because Woolfson and Parsons saw themselves mainly in the roles of writing and production, and also because of the technical difficulties of reproducing on stage the complex instrumentation used in the studio. During the 1990s technology was changed by digital sampling. The only live performance where the band was introduced as "The Alan Parsons Project" was at Night of the proms 1990 (at the time of the group breakup), featuring all Project regulars except Woolfson who was present but behind the scenes, while Parsons stayed at the mixer except during the last song where he played acoustic guitar. Since 1994 Alan Parsons performed live acoustic guitar, keyboards and vocals, with various lineups called "Alan Parsons Live Project" distinctly from "The Alan Parsons Project" due to the breakup with Eric Woolfson. Behind the revolving lineup and the regular sidemen, the true core of the Project was the duo of Parsons and Woolfson. Eric Woolfson was a lawyer by profession, but was a composer and pianist as well. Alan Parsons was a successful producer and accomplished engineer. Both worked together to craft noteworthy songs with impeccable fidelity, and almost all songs on Project albums are credited to "Woolfson/Parsons." Members Eric Woolfson - keyboards, vocals, executive production Alan Parsons - keyboards, acoustic guitar, flute, bass, vocoder, vocals, production, engineering Notable or frequent contributors Note that these are not official members of The Alan Parsons Project, but musicians who have made significant studio contributions Andrew Powell - keyboards, orchestral arrangements John Miles, Laurence Cottle, Ian Bairnson, Contributed to The Allan Parsons Project The Philharmonia Orchestra The English Chorale Ian Bairnson - guitar David Paton - bass, vocals Stuart Elliott - drums, percussion Stuart Tosh - drums, percussion Richard Cottle - keyboards, saxophone Laurence Cottle - bass Duncan Mackay - keyboards Mel Collins - saxophone Lenny Zakatek - vocals Chris Rainbow - vocals John Miles - vocals Colin Blunstone - vocals Dave Terry ("Elmer Gantry") - vocals Jack Harris - vocals Arthur Brown - vocals Graham Dye - vocals Steven Dye - vocals Steve Harley - vocals Allan Clarke - vocals Dean Ford - vocals Kip Winger - vocals David Pack - guitar, vocals Discography Studio albums Tales of Mystery and Imagination (1976) I Robot (1977) Pyramid (1978) Eve (1979) The Turn of a Friendly Card (1980) Eye in the Sky (1982) Ammonia Avenue (1984) Vulture Culture (1985) Stereotomy (1985) Gaudi (1987) Footnotes References Tales of Mystery and Imagination External links The Alan Parsons Project Website: The Official Alan Parsons Project Website The Official Eric Woolfson Website: The Official Eric Woolfson Website Artist Spotlight Audio feature produced in 2007 Alan Parsons Project on charts
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4,793
Index_of_philosophy_articles_(Aâ%80%93C)
0-9 17th-century philosophy - 18th-century philosophy - 19th-century philosophy - 20th-century philosophy A A Conflict of Visions - a fortiori - a fortiori argument - A Grief Observed - A Guide for the Perplexed - a posteriori - a priori - A priori assumption - A-series and B-series - Ab ovo - Abacus logic - Pierre Abailard - abandonment - Nicola Abbagnano - Abderites - abductive reasoning - Abductive validation - Muhammad 'Abduh - Peter Abelard - Pierre Abélard - John Abercrombie - abhidharma - Abhidhamma Pitaka - Abhinavagupta - abhinivesha - Abilene paradox - The Abolition of Work - abortion - Abraham ibn Ezra - Isaac Abravanel - absolute idealism - Absolute Infinite - Absolute idealism - absolute space - Absolute theory - absolute threshold - absolute time - Absolute truth (including "Absolutism") - abstract - abstract art - abstract entity - abstract objects - abstract particulars - abstracta - abstraction (philosophy) - Abstraction - Absurdism - AC - academic freedom - Academy of Athens - accent - acceptance - access - accessibility - accessibility relation - accident - Accident (fallacy) - accidental properties - accidental property - accidentalism - accidie - Accountability - Achilles paradox - acosmism - acquaintance - acrasia - action (philosophy) - action at a distance - action theory - action verb - act utilitarianism - Acts - Actual Idealism - actual infinite - Actual infinity - actualism - actualist - actuality - actualization - Ad captandum - ad hoc - ad hoc hypothesis - ad hominem - ad hominem argument - Ad nauseam - adaptation - adaptive system - addiction - Addition (logic) - adequation - adiaphora - adicity - adjunction - Admissible rule - advaita - Advaita Vedanta - adverbs - Adversarial process - aesthetic distance - aestheticism - Aestheticization as propaganda - Aestheticization of violence - aesthetics - Aesthetics of music - Aeterni Patris - aether - Affection - affective - Affine logic - affirmative action - Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise - Affirming a disjunct - affirming the antecedent - affirming the consequent - African philosophy - āgama - Agama Hindu Dharma - agapē - agathon - Age of reason - The Age of Reason - agent - Aggadah - agglomeration - Aggression - agnostic - Agonistic pluralism - agnosticism - ahamkāra - Ahura Mazda - Ajivika - ākāśa - akrasia - ālaya-vijñāna - alchemy - First Alcibiades - Second Alcibiades - Algebraic normal form - alethic modalities - Alexandrian school - Algazel - algebra - al-Ghazali - Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali - algorithm - algorithmic function - Alhazen - alienation - aliorelative - all - All and Everything - all-things-considered reason - Allais's paradox - allegory of the cave - Also sprach Zarathustra - alterity - alterity and identity - alternative denial - altruism - ambiguity - ambiguous middle - American philosophy - Anton Wilhelm Amo - amoral decision - amoralist - amorality - Amphibology - amphiboly - ampliatio - ampliative argument - ampliative inference - ampliative judgment - An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding - An Sich - Analects - Analects of Confucius - analogical argument - analogical predication - analogies of experience - analogy - analogy of proportion - analysandum - analysans - analysis - analytic - analytic adequacy - analytic and synthetic knowledge - analytic and synthetic statements - analytic ethics - analytic hierarchy - analytic jurisprudence - analytic knowledge - analytic Marxism - analytic philosophy - analytic proposition - analytic-synthetic distinction - analytical definition - analytical functionalism - Analytical hierarchy - analytical jurisprudence - analytical philosophy - analytical philosophy in Latin America - analytical psychology - Analytical Thomism - analyticity - anamnesis - ānanda - ananke - anaphor - anaphora - anarchism - anarcho-capitalism - Anarcho-primitivism - Anarchy, State, and Utopia - Anatta - anattāvāda - ancestral - ancestral relation - ancient atomism - ancient philosophy - ancient skepticism - and - angst - anhomoeomorous - anima mundi - animal consciousness - animal faith - animal language - animal rights - animal souls - animal spirits - animals and ethics - animals in philosophy - Animistic fallacy - anomalism of the mental - anomalous monism - anomaly - Anomie - anotic - Ansatz - Anschauung - ante rem realism - antecedent (logic) - antecedentalism - anthropic principle - anthropocentrism - anthropology - anthroposophy - The Antichrist (book) - anti-communism - Anti-foundationalism - anti-individualism - antilogism - anti-modernism - antinomianism - antinomies - antinomy - Antipater - Antiphon - antiperistasis - anti-positivist thought in Latin America - Anti-psychiatry - Anti-psychologism - anti-razor - anti-realism - anti-realism in the philosophy of mathematics - anti-Semitism - antisymmetrical - antithesis - apagoge - apatheia - apellatio - aperion - aphorism - apocatastasis - apodeitic - apodictic - apodosis - apologism - Apology (Plato) - Apology (Xenophon) - apophantic - Apophasis - apopogetics - apophatic philosophy - apophatic theology - aporetic - aporia - aposteriori - Appeal to authority - Appeal to belief - Appeal to consequences - Appeal to emotion - Appeal to fear - Appeal to flattery - Appeal to motive - Appeal to novelty - Appeal to pity - Appeal to probability - Appeal to ridicule - Appeal to spite - Appeal to tradition - appearance and reality - appearing - appellation - apperception - application - applied ethics - applied philosophy - Apportionment paradox - a priori - aptitude - Apuleius - Arabic philosophy - ārādhya - Arbitration - Philosophy of archaeology - archē - arche - archetype - Archimedean ordering - architectonic - Archytas - Areopagitica - aretaic - Aretaic turn - aretē - Argentinian philosophy - argument - argument form - argument from analogy - argument from authority - argument from design - argument from evil - Argument from fallacy - argument from hallucination - Argument from ignorance - argument from illusion - Argument from morality - Argument from silence - Argumentation theory - arguments for eternity - arguments for the existence of God - argumentum ad baculum - Argumentum ad crumenam - argumentum ad hominem - argumentum ad ignorantium - Argumentum ad lazarum - argumentum ad misericordiam - Argumentum ad numerum - argumentum ad populum - argumentum ad verecundiam - argumentum consensus - Arhat - Arianism - aristocracy - Aristotelian biology - Aristotelian ethics - Aristotelian logic - Aristotelian mathematics - Aristotelian metaphysics - Aristotelian physics - Aristotelian poetics - Aristotelian political philosophy - Aristotelian rhetoric - Aristotelian Society - Aristotelian Society for the Systematic Study of Philosophy - Aristotelian theory of gravity - Aristotelian view of God - Aristotelianism - Aristotelianism in the Ancient World - Aristotelianism in Islamic philosophy - Aristotelianism in the Medieval Europe - Aristotelianism in the Renaissance - Aristotle commentators - Aristotle's theory of universals - arithmetic - arithmetic hierarchy - arity - arkhē - Arminianism - arrow of time - arrow paradox - Arrow's impossibility theorem - Arrow's paradox - Arrow's theorem - art - art and morality - art and truth - art criticism - Art for art's sake - Art of murder - The Art of War - The Art of Worldly Wisdom - art, science, and religion - arthritis in the thigh - Artifact (philosophy) - artifactuality - Artificial consciousness - artificial intelligence - artificial intelligence and multi-valued logic - artificial language - artificial life - artistic expression - artistic forgery - Artistic freedom - artistic interpretation - artistic style - artistic taste - artist's intention - artworld - Arya Samaj - As I was going to St Ives - as if - asceticism - Asclepiades - ascriptivism - aseity - ash'ariyya and mu'tazila - Asian values - aspectual action paradox - assent - assertability - assertability conditions - assertion - assertion sign - assertoric - assisted suicide - association of ideas - associationism - associative law - astrology - asymmetrical - ataraxia - atheism - atheism and agnosticism - Athenian Academy - Athenian democracy - Athenian School - Athens - Atlantis - Atman (Buddhism) - Atman (Hinduism) - atomic fact - Atomic sentence - atomism - atonement - Atrocity story - attitude - Attitude (psychology) - attitude utilitarianism - Attorney/client privilege - attribute - attribution theory - attributive pluralism - attributive use of descriptions - Augustine and neo-platonism - Augustine and free will - Augustinianism - Australian materialism - Australian philosophy - autarkia - authenticity - Authenticity - Authenticity (philosophy) - authoritarianism - authority - autocracy - autological - automata theory - automated reasoning - automatism - automaton - autonomy and heteronomy - autonomy in applied ethics - autonomy in moral philosophy - autonomy in political philosophy - autonomy of biology - autonomy of ethics - autonomy of psychology - Avant-garde - avatar - Avecebrol - Avempace - Averroes - Averroës - Averroism - aversion therapy - Avicebrol - Avicebron - Avicenna - avidya - avowal - The Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna - awareness - axiological ethics - axiology - axiom - axiom of abstraction - axiom of choice - axiom of comprehension - axiom of consistency - axiom of extensionality - axiom of infinity - Axiom of projective determinacy - axiom of reducibility - axiom of replacement - axiom of separation - Axiom S5 - axiom schema - axiomatic method - Axiomatic set theory - axiomatic system - axiomatization - axioms of intuition - Ayurveda B - B-series - B-theory of time - backgammon - background - backward causation - bad faith - Baden School - bald man paradox - ball of wax example - Barbara - barber paradox - Barcan formula - bare particular - bargaining theory - base - base and superstructure - base clause - basic Action - basic belief - basic norm - basic particular - basic proposition - basic sentence - basic statement - basic statements - basing relation - basis clause - basis relation - Bayesian - Bayesian confirmation theory - Bayesian epistemology - Bayesian probability - Bayesian rationality - Bayesianism - Bayes' theorem - Bayes's rule - Bayes's theorem - Bayle's trilema - be - beatitude's kiss - beauty - beauty above beauty - becoming - Bedeutung - begging the question - Begriff - behavior therapy - behavioral equivalence - behavioralism - behaviorism - behaviourism - being - being and becoming - being in itself - being for itself - belief - belief and knowledge - belief-desire model - belief-in - belief in - belief revision - Bell's inequality - Bell's theorem - beneficence - benevolence - bent stick in water - Bernoulli's theorem - Bernoulli's principle - Berry's paradox - Bertrand's box paradox - Bertrand's paradox - best of all possible worlds - Beth's definability theorem - Beth's theorem - Bhagavad Gita - bhakti - Bhartrhari - bhavanga - Bible - biconditional - bilateral reduction sentence - binary opposition - binary quantifier - bioethics - biological naturalism - biology - Birkhoff-von Neumann logic - bivalence - black box - black box theory - black philosophy - bladders of philosophy - blame - bleen - blindsight - block time - bodily continuity - bodily sensations - body and mind - Bohm interpretation - Bohr Einstein debate - Bonaventure - boo-hoorah theory - Book of Causes - Book of Changes - Book of Life - Boolean algebra (logic) - bootstrapping - borderline case - Born interpretation - bottum up - bound variable - Pierre Bourdieu - bourgeois - bourgeoisie - bourgeoisie and proletariat - bracketing - Brahma - Brahman - brahman - Brahmanism - Brahmo Samaj - brain - brain event - brain in a vat - brain-in-a-vat theory - Brazilian philosophy - Brentano's thesis - bridge law - British Empiricists - British Idealism - brute fact - Buchmanism - Buddhahood - Buddhaghosa - Buddhism - Buddhist concept of emptiness - Buddhist philosophy - Buddhist philosophy in Tibet - Buddhist schools - bundle theory - bundle theory of mind - bundle theory of the self - Burali-Forte paradox - Burali-Forti's paradox - Buridan's ass - Bushi philosophy - business ethics - Byzantine philosophy C Cabala - cabbala - Amilcar Cabral - Amílcar Cabral - Cajetan - Calcidius - calculi of relations - calculus - calculus of classes - calculus of individuals - calculus ratiocinator - Callicles - Calvinism - Callicles and Thrasymachus - Cambridge change - Cambridge philosophy - Cambridge Platonism - Cambridge Platonists - Cambridge property - Cambridge School - camera obscura - Canadian philosophy - Cantor's paradox - Cantor's theorem - capacity - capacity responsibility - capital punishment - capitalism - cardinal utility - cardinal virtues - cardinality - care - Carneades - Carolingian renaissance - Cartesian circle - Cartesian demon - Cartesian dualism - Cartesian interactionism - Cartesian product - Cartesianism - Cārvāka - Cārvāka - casuistry - categorematic - categorematica - categorical - categorical grammar - categorical imperative - categorical-in-power - categorical judgement - categorical proposition - categorical theory - categoricity - categories - categories of the understanding - category - category mistake - category of being - category-preserving - category theory - catharsis - causa sui - causal chain - causal closure - causal decision theory - causal dependence - causal determinism - causal-historical theory of reference - causal immediacy - causal law - causal overdetermination - causal processes - causal relation - causal responsibility - causal statement - causal theories of mental content - causal theory of knowledge - causal theory of mental content - causal theory of mind - causal theory of perception - causal theory of proper names - causal theory of reference - causality - causallity and necessity in Islamic thought - causation - causation and manipulability - causative verb - cause - causes and reasons - cellular automaton - Celsus - cement of the universe - central concepts of Christianity - central-state materialism - central state materialism - certainty - ceteris paribus clause - - Chaldean Oracles - chance - change - chaos - chaos argument - chaos theory - chatoic system - character structure - character traits - characteristic - characteristica universalis - charismatic authority - charity - cheapest-cost avoider - chemistry - Ch'en Hsien-chang - cheng - cheng ming - ch'i - chi - Chia I - Chia Yi - Chiao Hung - ch'ien - chien ai - ch'ien and k'un - Ch'ien-fu Lun - Ch'ien Mu - chih - chih-hsing ho-i - Chih-I - Chih Tun - Chinese Classics - Chinese Legalism - Chinese philosophy - Chinese room - Chinese room argument - Chinese world - ching - ch'ing - Chinul - chit - choice - choice sequence - Chomsky hierarchy of languages - choosing - choosing and deciding - chora - Chou Tun-yi - Christology - Chrysippus - Chrysorrhoas - Chu Hsi - ch'uan - chün-tzu - Chung - chung and shu - Chung-yung - Chung Yung - Alonzo Church - church fathers - Church-Turing thesis - Church's theorem - Church's theorem and the decision problem - Church's thesis - circular reasoning - circularity - citizenship - citta-mātra - civic humanism - civil disobedience - civil liberties - civil rights - civil society - claim right - clairvoyance - clandestine literature - class - class paradox - class struggle - classical conditioning - classical liberalism - classical logic - classical mechanics - classical republicanism - Cleanthes - clear and distinct idea - clip an angel's wings - closed formula - closed loop - closed sentence - closure - Coase theorem - coercion - cogency - cogito argument - Cogito ergo sum - cognition - cognitive architecture - cognitive development - cognitive dissonance - cognitive meaning - cognitive neuroscience - cognitive pluralism - cognitive psychology - cognitive psychotherapy - cognitive science - cognitive science of mathematics - cognitive value - cognitivism - coherence (philosophical gambling strategy) - coherence theory of justification - coherence theory of knowledge - coherence theory of truth - coherentism - Coimbra commentaries - Coimbra group - collapse theories (quantum mechanics) - Collegium Conimbricense - collective responsibility - collective unconscious - collectivity - college logic - colligation - color - color realism - color theories - colors - colour - colour and qualia - colour theories - colours - combinatory completeness - combinatory logic - comedy - Comenius - command theory of law - commensurability - commentaries on Aristotle - commentaries on Plato - Comments of a Recluse - Commensurability (ethics) - commission - commisive - common-consent arguments for the existence of God - common effects - common good - common knowledge - common law - common notions - common sense - common sense and the Diallelus - common sense ethics - common sense philosophy - common sense reasoning - Common Sense School - common sensibles - common sensism - commonsensism - communication - communication and intention - communication theory - communicative rationality - communism - communitarianism - community - commutative justice - compactness - compactness theorem - comparative philosophy Chinese and Western - compatibilism - compatibilism and incompatibilism - competence - complement - complementarity - complementary class - complementary term - complementation - complete negation - complete symbol - completeness - completeness theorem - comple - complex idea - complexe significabile - complexity - complexum significabile - composite idea - composition - compositional intention - compositionality - compossible - comprehension - comprehension schema - computability - computability theory - computable - computational - computational complexity - computational theories of mind - computational theory of mind - computer ethics - computer modeling - computer program - computer science - computer theory - computers - conation - conative - conceivability - concept - concepts - concepts of probability - conceptual analysis - conceptual immediacy - conceptual polarity - conceptual priority - conceptual role semantics - conceptual role theory of meaning - conceptual scheme - conceptual truth - conceptualism - conciliarism - concilience - conclusive evidence - conclusive justification - concomitant variation - concomitant variations - concrescence - concrete universal - concretion - concretism - concupiscence - concurrent cause - concursus dei - condition - conditional - conditional probability - conditional proof - conditional proposition - conditionals - conditioning - conditio sine qua non - Condorcet - Condorcet winner - conduct - confectionary fallacy - confederalism - confirmation - confirmation holism - confirmation theory - confirmational holism - Confucian Analects - Confucian philosophy - Confucianism - congruence - Conimbricenses - conjecture - conjunction - conjunction elimination - conjunction introduction - conjunctive normal form - connected - connectionism - connective - connectives - connotation - conscience - consciousness - consciousness and intentionality - consensus reality - consent - consequence - consequence argument - consequence relation - consequent - consequentia mirabilis - consequential property - consequentialism - conservation - conservation principle - conservation principles - conservatism - conservatism and Romanticism - consilience - consistency - consistency proofs - constant - constant conjunction - constant sum game - constative - constatives - constitution - constitutionalism - constitutive principle - construct - constructible universe - constructionism - constructive dilemma - constructive empiricism - constructivism - constructivism in ethics - constructivism in mathematics - consubstantiation - containment - content - content externalism - content of consciousness - context (philosophical term) - context principle - contextual definition - contextualism - contiguity - continence - Continental philosophy - Continental philosophy of law - Continental rationalism - contingency - contingent - contingent and necessary existence - contingent and necessary statements - contingent being - contingent liar - continuant - continuants - continuity - continuum hypothesis - continuum problem - contract theory - contractarianism - contradiction - contradictions - contradictories - contraposition - contrapositive - contraries - contrary-to-duty imperative - contrary-to-fact conditional - contravalid - contributive value - contributory value - control - convention - convention T - conventional implicature - conventional sign - conventionality of simultaneity - conventionalism - convergence - conversational implicature - converse domain - converse relation - conversion - coordination problem - coordinative definition - Copernican revolution - copula - copulatio - corner quotes - corners - corollary - corrective justice - correlativity - correspondence theory of truth - corresponding conditional - corrigibility - corroboration - corruption - cosmogony - cosmological argument - cosmology - cosmology and religious belief - cosmology and theology - cosmopolitanism - cost-benefit analysis - could have done otherwise - count noun - countable - counterdomain - counterexample - counterfactual - counterfactual analysis of causation - counterfactual conditionals - counterfactual theories of causal processes - counterfactuals - counteridenticals - counterinstance - counterpart theory - counting - courage - Antoine-Augustin Cournot - Antoine Augustin Cournot - Victor Cousin - Louis Couturat - covering law model - covering-law model - Craig reduct - Craig's theorem - Cratylus - Cratylus of Athens - Cratylus Zeyl - creation - creation and conservation - creation ex nihilo - creationism - credibility - credo quia absurdum est - credo ut intelligam - Hasdai Crescas - Hasdai ibn Crescas - crime and punishment - criminal law theory - criteria—see criterion - Criteria of Adequacy - criteriological connection - criteriology - criterion - Critical idealism - Critical legal studies - critical philosophy - Critical realism - critical theory - critical thinking - Croatian philosophy - crucial experiment - crucial experiments - cultural evolution - cultural identity - cultural relativism - culture - cum hoc ergo propter hoc - Curry's paradox - curve-fitting problem - curve fitting problem - Cusa - Cusanus - custom - cut-elimination theorem - cybernetics - Cynics - Cyrenaics - Czech philosophy List of philosophical topics (A-C) -- (D-H) -- (I-Q) -- (R-Z)
Index_of_philosophy_articles_(Aâ%80%93C) |@lemmatized century:4 philosophy:45 conflict:1 vision:1 fortiori:2 argument:24 grief:1 observe:1 guide:1 perplexed:1 posteriori:1 priori:3 assumption:1 series:3 b:4 ab:1 ovo:1 abacus:1 logic:11 pierre:3 abailard:1 abandonment:1 nicola:1 abbagnano:1 abderites:1 abductive:2 reason:8 validation:1 muhammad:2 abduh:1 peter:1 abelard:1 abélard:1 john:1 abercrombie:1 abhidharma:1 abhidhamma:1 pitaka:1 abhinavagupta:1 abhinivesha:1 abilene:1 paradox:17 abolition:1 work:1 abortion:1 abraham:1 ibn:2 ezra:1 isaac:1 abravanel:1 absolute:8 idealism:5 infinite:2 space:1 theory:49 threshold:1 time:4 truth:5 include:1 absolutism:1 abstract:5 art:11 entity:1 object:1 particulars:1 abstracta:1 abstraction:3 absurdism:1 ac:1 academic:1 freedom:2 academy:2 athens:3 accent:1 acceptance:1 access:1 accessibility:2 relation:8 accident:2 fallacy:4 accidental:2 property:4 accidentalism:1 accidie:1 accountability:1 achilles:1 acosmism:1 acquaintance:1 acrasia:1 action:7 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von_neumann:1 boolean_algebra:1 pierre_bourdieu:1 burali_forti:1 forti_paradox:1 amílcar_cabral:1 camera_obscura:1 carolingian_renaissance:1 cartesian_dualism:1 cartesian_product:1 categorical_imperative:1 cellular_automaton:1 ch_ien:4 chomsky_hierarchy:1 alonzo_church:1 civil_disobedience:1 classical_liberalism:1 cogito_ergo:1 ergo_sum:1 cognition_cognitive:1 cognitive_dissonance:1 cognitive_neuroscience:1 neuroscience_cognitive:1 cognitive_psychology:1 quantum_mechanic:1 collective_unconscious:1 combinatory_logic:1 compactness_theorem:1 completeness_theorem:1 computational_complexity:1 conclusive_evidence:1 conditional_probability:1 sine_qua:1 confirmation_holism:1 constructible_universe:1 continuum_hypothesis:1 copernican_revolution:1 cosmological_argument:1 ex_nihilo:1 cultural_relativism:1 curve_fitting:2
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Abadan,_Iran
Abadan (film) is also the name of a 2003 Iranian movie from director Mani Haghighi, as well as the name of a town in Turkmenistan Abadan ( ) is a city in the Khuzestan province in southwestern Iran (Persia). It lies on Abadan Island ( long, 3–19 km or 2–12 miles wide, the island is bounded in the west by the Shatt al-Arab waterway and to the east by the Bahmanshir outlet of the Karun River), from the Persian Gulf, near the Iraqi-Iran border. It is the capital of Abadan County. In 2005, the population was estimated to be at 415,139. The civilian population of the city dropped to near zero during the eight-years Iran–Iraq War. In 1992, only 84,774 had returned to live in the city. By 2001, the population had jumped to 206,073, only to double in the past five years. Etymology Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri (d.892) quotes the story that the town was founded by 'Abbad bin Hosayn from the Arabian Tribe of Banu Tamim, who established a garrison there during the governorship of Hajjaj in the Ummayad period. An Iranian etymology of the name (from the Persian word "ab" (water) and the root "pā" (guard, watch) thus "coastguard station"), was suggested by B. Farahvashi. Supporting evidence is the name "Apphana" which Ptolemy applies to an island off the mouth of the Tigris. The Persian version of the name had begun to come into general use before it was adopted by official decree in 1935. Abadan, in Encyclopaedia Iranica, pp.51-52 The geographer Marcian also renders the name "Apphadana" and "Estoban Mendez" in his writings. Geographia Marciani Heracleotae, ed. David Hoeschel, Augsburg 1600 p48 History Darkhuien oil field behind Abadan. Abadan is thought to have originally developed as a port city under the Abbasids' rule. Legendarily, it was founded by a holy man, 'Abbad "Abadan." Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 February 2007 . In this time period, it was a commercial source of salt and woven mats. The siltation of the river delta forced the town further away from water; Ibn Battutah described Abadan as a small city in a flat salty plain. Politically, Abadan was often the subject of dispute between the nearby states; in 1847, Persia acquired it, in which state Abadan has remained since. From the 17th century onward, the island of Abadan was part of the lands of the Arab Ka'ab (Bani Kaab) tribe. One section of this tribe, Mohaysen, had its headquarters at Mohammara''(present-day Khorramshahr), until the removal of Shaikh Khaz'al Khan in 1924. Exploded tank, remains as symbol of Iran–Iraq War (1980-1988). Ruins of a building in Abadan. Abadan had suffered serious damages during Iran–Iraq War (1980-88), including Saddam's deadly chemical weapons. It was not until the 20th century that rich oil fields were discovered in the area. In 1910, the population had been around 400. The Anglo-Persian Oil Company built their first pipeline terminus oil refinery in Abadan, starting in 1909 and completing it in 1913 (see Abadan Refinery). By 1938, it was the largest in the world. To this day it remains a vast facility for refining petroleum. The facilities necessitated an equally vast population: more than 220,000 people in 1956. Only a low 9% of managers (of the oil company) were from Khuzestan. The proportion of natives of Tehran, the Caspian, Azarbaijan and Kurdistan rose from 4% of blue collar workers to 22% of white collar workers to 45% of managers. Thus while Arabic speakers were concentrated on the lower rungs of the work force, managers tended to be brought in from some distance. During World War II, Abadan was a major logistics center for Lend-Lease aircraft being sent to the Soviet Union by the United States. USAFHRA document 00190278 On August 19 1978-the anniversary of the US backed pro-Shah coup d'état which overthrew the nationalists and popular Iranian prime minister, Dr. Mohammed Mossadegh — the Cinema Rex, a movie theatre in Abadan, Iran, was set ablaze by four Islamic Revolution sympathizers in an attempt to help the cause of Iran's Islamic Revolution. The local Abadan police had taken notice, and became suspicious of Hossein Takbali-zadeh and his accomplices, and had started following the arsonists as they were entering Cinema Rex. The police decided to continue their surveillance and track the group after they left the movie theater. This incident ended up causing the Cinema Rex Fire, where over 350 people perished. At the trial, Hossein Takbali-zadeh stated that his three accomplices by the names of Faraj, Falah, and Yadollah had all burned in the fire. In September 1980, Abadan was almost overrun during a surprise attack on Khuzestan by Iraq, marking the beginning of the Iran–Iraq War. For 18 months Abadan was besieged, but never captured, by Iraqi forces. Much of the city, including the oil refinery which was the world's largest refinery with capacity of 680,000 barrels per day, was badly damaged or destroyed by the siege and by bombing. Previous to the war, the city's civilian population was about 300,000, but before it was over, most of the populace had sought refuge elsewhere in Iran. After the war, the biggest concern was the rebuilding of Abadan's oil refinery. In 1993, the refinery began limited operation & and the port reopened. By 1997, the refinery reached the same rate of production it was at before the war. Recent events To honor the 100th anniversary of the refining of oil in Abadan, city officials are planning an "oil museum" The Abadan oil refinery was featured on the reverse side of Iran's 100-rial banknotes printed in 1965 and from 1971 to 1973. Places of interest Taj cinema in Abadan The Abadan Institute of Technology was established in Abadan in 1939. The school specialized in engineering and petroleum chemistry, and was designed to train staff for the refinery in town. The school's name has since changed several times, but since 1989 has been considered a branch campus of the Petroleum University of Technology, centered in Tehran. There is an international airport in Abadan. It is represented by the IATA airport code ABD. Culture of Abadan The people of Abadan have acquired an almost legendary status throughout Iran for various reasons. During the start of the Iran–Iraq War, the neighboring city of Khorramshahr was taken over by the invading Iraqi forces. Since Iran had just gone through a revolution, the armed forces were not adequately prepared so the Iranian military was not able to mobilize efficiently to challenge the invading Iraqis. Instead, the Abadanis (people of Abadan), the extent of which is debated, took up arms and defended their city themselves. How many Abadanis actually fought and how effective they were depends on who you ask, but the Abadanis have not been shy about retelling their war stories which has led people from other parts of the country to claim their war stories are exaggerated since they seem so far-fetched. Abadan and the Khuzestan province is also known for producing many talented soccer players who have gone on to play for the Iranian national team. The local team, Sanat Naft Abadan (Oil Company of Abadan) is called the 'Brazil of Iran' because when the team was formed they tried to imitate the Brazilian style of soccer. They also share the same team colors as the Brazilian national team. Before the Iranian Revolution the city of Abadan was a popular tourist destination. Abadan was the main place for Iranian Singers concert's and many international one. While the whole country of Iran mostly were from religious people, Abadani people had their own music genre which is called Bandari and that's why all people of Iran in memory of Abadan before Iran-Iraq War say:'آبادان گلستان' "Abadan is Garden" , 'گلستان آبادانه' "Garden is Abadan". See also Abadan Crisis Abadan crisis timeline Battle of Abadan References Sunrise at Abadan The British and Soviet Invasion of Iran, 1941 http://www.greenwood.com/catalog/C2793.aspx Prince Abadan http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Prince-Abadan-Posters_i1258868_.htm External links Abadan Oil Refinery - Home page (Persian only) Abadan Photo Gallery from the Khuzestan Governorship Abadan's travel review
Abadan,_Iran |@lemmatized abadan:48 film:1 also:5 name:8 iranian:7 movie:3 director:1 mani:1 haghighi:1 well:1 town:4 turkmenistan:1 city:11 khuzestan:5 province:2 southwestern:1 iran:18 persia:2 lie:1 island:4 long:1 km:1 mile:1 wide:1 bound:1 west:1 shatt:1 al:3 arab:2 waterway:1 east:1 bahmanshir:1 outlet:1 karun:1 river:2 persian:5 gulf:1 near:2 iraqi:4 border:1 capital:1 county:1 population:6 estimate:1 civilian:2 drop:1 zero:1 eight:1 year:2 iraq:7 war:12 return:1 live:1 jump:1 double:1 past:1 five:1 etymology:2 ahmad:1 ibn:2 yahya:1 baladhuri:1 quote:1 story:3 found:2 abbad:2 bin:1 hosayn:1 arabian:1 tribe:3 banu:1 tamim:1 establish:2 garrison:1 governorship:2 hajjaj:1 ummayad:1 period:2 word:1 ab:2 water:2 root:1 pā:1 guard:1 watch:1 thus:2 coastguard:1 station:1 suggest:1 b:1 farahvashi:1 support:1 evidence:1 apphana:1 ptolemy:1 applies:1 mouth:1 tigris:1 version:1 begin:2 come:1 general:1 use:1 adopt:1 official:2 decree:1 encyclopaedia:1 iranica:1 pp:1 geographer:1 marcian:1 render:1 apphadana:1 estoban:1 mendez:1 writing:1 geographia:1 marciani:1 heracleotae:1 ed:1 david:1 hoeschel:1 augsburg:1 history:1 darkhuien:1 oil:12 field:2 behind:1 think:1 originally:1 develop:1 port:2 abbasids:1 rule:1 legendarily:1 holy:1 man:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 february:1 time:2 commercial:1 source:1 salt:1 woven:1 mat:1 siltation:1 delta:1 force:5 far:2 away:1 battutah:1 described:1 small:1 flat:1 salty:1 plain:1 politically:1 often:1 subject:1 dispute:1 nearby:1 state:4 acquire:2 remain:3 since:5 century:2 onward:1 part:2 land:1 ka:1 bani:1 kaab:1 one:2 section:1 mohaysen:1 headquarters:1 mohammara:1 present:1 day:3 khorramshahr:2 removal:1 shaikh:1 khaz:1 khan:1 explode:1 tank:1 symbol:1 ruin:1 building:1 suffer:1 serious:1 damage:2 include:2 saddam:1 deadly:1 chemical:1 weapon:1 rich:1 discover:1 area:1 around:1 anglo:1 company:3 build:1 first:1 pipeline:1 terminus:1 refinery:10 start:3 complete:1 see:2 large:2 world:3 vast:2 facility:2 refine:1 petroleum:3 necessitate:1 equally:1 people:8 low:2 manager:3 proportion:1 native:1 tehran:2 caspian:1 azarbaijan:1 kurdistan:1 rise:1 blue:1 collar:2 worker:2 white:1 arabic:1 speaker:1 concentrate:1 rung:1 work:1 tend:1 bring:1 distance:1 ii:1 major:1 logistics:1 center:2 lend:1 lease:1 aircraft:1 send:1 soviet:2 union:1 united:1 usafhra:1 document:1 august:1 anniversary:2 u:1 back:1 pro:1 shah:1 coup:1 état:1 overthrow:1 nationalist:1 popular:2 prime:1 minister:1 dr:1 mohammed:1 mossadegh:1 cinema:4 rex:3 theatre:1 set:1 ablaze:1 four:1 islamic:2 revolution:4 sympathizer:1 attempt:1 help:1 cause:2 local:2 police:2 take:3 notice:1 become:1 suspicious:1 hossein:2 takbali:2 zadeh:2 accomplice:2 follow:1 arsonist:1 enter:1 decide:1 continue:1 surveillance:1 track:1 group:1 leave:1 theater:1 incident:1 end:1 fire:2 perish:1 trial:1 three:1 faraj:1 falah:1 yadollah:1 burn:1 september:1 almost:2 overrun:1 surprise:1 attack:1 mark:1 beginning:1 month:1 besiege:1 never:1 capture:1 much:1 capacity:1 barrel:1 per:1 badly:1 destroy:1 siege:1 bomb:1 previous:1 populace:1 seek:1 refuge:1 elsewhere:1 big:1 concern:1 rebuilding:1 limited:1 operation:1 reopen:1 reach:1 rate:1 production:1 recent:1 event:1 honor:1 refining:1 plan:1 museum:1 feature:1 reverse:1 side:1 rial:1 banknote:1 print:1 place:2 interest:1 taj:1 institute:1 technology:2 school:2 specialize:1 engineering:1 chemistry:1 design:1 train:1 staff:1 change:1 several:1 consider:1 branch:1 campus:1 university:1 international:2 airport:2 represent:1 iata:1 code:1 abd:1 culture:1 legendary:1 status:1 throughout:1 various:1 reason:1 neighboring:1 invading:2 go:2 armed:1 adequately:1 prepare:1 military:1 able:1 mobilize:1 efficiently:1 challenge:1 instead:1 abadanis:3 extent:1 debate:1 arm:1 defend:1 many:3 actually:1 fight:1 effective:1 depends:1 ask:1 shy:1 retell:1 lead:1 country:2 claim:1 exaggerate:1 seem:1 fetch:1 know:1 produce:1 talented:1 soccer:2 player:1 play:1 national:2 team:5 sanat:1 naft:1 call:2 brazil:1 form:1 try:1 imitate:1 brazilian:2 style:1 share:1 color:1 tourist:1 destination:1 main:1 singer:1 concert:1 whole:1 mostly:1 religious:1 abadani:1 music:1 genre:1 bandari:1 memory:1 say:1 آبادان:1 گلستان:2 garden:2 آبادانه:1 crisis:2 timeline:1 battle:1 reference:1 sunrise:1 british:1 invasion:1 http:2 www:2 greenwood:1 com:2 catalog:1 aspx:1 prince:2 allposters:1 sp:1 htm:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 page:1 photo:1 gallery:1 travel:1 review:1 |@bigram shatt_al:1 persian_gulf:1 ahmad_ibn:1 tribe_banu:1 encyclopaedia_iranica:1 encyclopædia_britannica:1 oil_refinery:5 collar_worker:2 lend_lease:1 soviet_union:1 coup_état:1 prime_minister:1 badly_damage:1 seek_refuge:1 iata_airport:1 tourist_destination:1 http_www:2 external_link:1 photo_gallery:1
4,795
Ashmore_and_Cartier_Islands
Ashmore and Cartier Islands The Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands are two groups of small low-lying uninhabited tropical islands in the Indian Ocean situated on the edge of the continental shelf north-west of Australia and south of the Indonesian island of Roti at . Geography Ashmore Reef in satellite-image (NASA) The territory includes Ashmore Reef (West, Middle, and East Islets) and Cartier Island (70 km east) with, a total area of 199.45 km² within the reefs and including the lagoons, and 114,400 m² of dry land. While they have a total of 74.1 km of shoreline, measured along the outer edge of the reef, there are no ports or harbors, only offshore anchorage. Nearby Hibernia Reef, 42 km Northeast of Ashmore Reef, is not part of the territory, but belongs to Western Australia http://www.statoids.com/uau.html . It has no permanently dry land area, although large parts of the reef become exposed during low tide. Hibernia Reef (NASA satellite image) Ashmore Reef 155.40 km² area within reef (including lagoon) West Islet, 51,200 m² land area; Middle Islet, 21,200 m² land area; East Islet, 25,000 m² land area; Cartier Reef (44.03 km² area within reef (including lagoon) Cartier Island, 17,000 m² land area; There is an automatic weather station on West Islet. Government The territory is administered from Canberra by the Attorney-General's Department (before 29 November 2007 administration was carried out by the Department of Transport and Regional Services). The FIPS-10 date code is AT; the territory is bundled along with Australia in ISO 3166. Defence is the responsibility of Australia, with periodic visits by the Royal Australian Navy and Royal Australian Air Force. The islands are visited by seasonal caretakers. Ashmore Reef is called Pulau Pasir by Indonesians, and considered part of Rote Ndao Regency of East Nusa Tenggara province. Ashmore Reef, Ashmore and Cartier Islands (external territory of Australia) In the Rote Island language, it is called Nusa Solokaek. Both names have the meaning Sand Island. The Settlement of Papela Ecology and environment Cartier Island and surrounding reef (NASA satellite image) The Ashmore Reef Marine National Nature Reserve was established in August 1983. It is of significant biodiversity value as it is in the flow of the Indonesian throughflow current from the Pacific Ocean through the Indonesian Archipelago to the Indian Ocean. It is also in a surface current west from the Arafura Sea and Timor Sea. There are 14 distinct species of sea snake in the area, more than in any other area. There is also an unusually high level of species diversity of coral, mollusks, and fish. A memorandum of understanding between the Australian and Indonesian governments allows Indonesian fishermen access to their traditional fishing grounds within the region, subject to limits. Cartier Island Marine Reserve includes the entire sand cay of Cartier Island, the reef surrounding it, the ocean for a 7.2 km radius around the island, and 1000 m below the seafloor. It was proclaimed in 2000. Economy and migration There is no economic activity in the Territory. As Ashmore Reef is the closest point of Australian territory to Indonesia, it was a popular target for people smugglers transporting asylum seekers to Australia. Inside Indonesia Anita Roberts "Don't let them drown" Inside Indonesia Apr-Jun 2001, vol. 64 Once they had landed on Ashmore, asylum seekers could claim to have entered Australian territory and request to be processed as refugees. The use of Ashmore for this purpose created great notoriety during late 2001, when refugee arrivals became a major political issue in Australia. As Australia was not the country of first asylum for these "boat people", the Australian Government did not consider it had a responsibility to accept them. A number of things were done to discourage the practice such as attempting to have the people smugglers arrested in Indonesia; the so-called Pacific Solution of processing them in third countries; the boarding and forced turnaround of the boats by Australian military forces, and finally excising Ashmore and many other small islands from the Australian migration zone. Two boatloads of asylum seekers were each detained for several days in the lagoon at Ashmore after failed attempts by the Royal Australian Navy to turn them back to Indonesia in October 2001. See also Mandatory detention in Australia References External links Geoscience Australia—Ashmore and Cartier Islands Department of the Environment and Heritage—Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve Department of the Environment and Heritage—Cartier Island Marine Reserve First on list of Australian islands "Ashmore Reef Belongs to Indonesia," posted on East Timor Action Network.
Ashmore_and_Cartier_Islands |@lemmatized ashmore:18 cartier:11 island:18 territory:9 two:2 group:1 small:2 low:2 lying:1 uninhabited:1 tropical:1 indian:2 ocean:4 situate:1 edge:2 continental:1 shelf:1 north:1 west:5 australia:10 south:1 indonesian:6 roti:1 geography:1 reef:20 satellite:3 image:3 nasa:3 include:5 middle:2 east:5 islet:5 km:4 total:2 area:10 within:4 lagoon:4 dry:2 land:7 shoreline:1 measure:1 along:2 outer:1 port:1 harbor:1 offshore:1 anchorage:1 nearby:1 hibernia:2 northeast:1 part:3 belong:1 western:1 http:1 www:1 statoids:1 com:1 uau:1 html:1 permanently:1 although:1 large:1 become:2 expose:1 tide:1 automatic:1 weather:1 station:1 government:3 administer:1 canberra:1 attorney:1 general:1 department:4 november:1 administration:1 carry:1 transport:2 regional:1 service:1 fips:1 date:1 code:1 bundle:1 iso:1 defence:1 responsibility:2 periodic:1 visit:2 royal:3 australian:10 navy:2 air:1 force:3 seasonal:1 caretaker:1 call:3 pulau:1 pasir:1 consider:2 rote:2 ndao:1 regency:1 nusa:2 tenggara:1 province:1 external:2 language:1 solokaek:1 name:1 meaning:1 sand:2 settlement:1 papela:1 ecology:1 environment:3 surround:2 marine:3 national:2 nature:2 reserve:4 establish:1 august:1 significant:1 biodiversity:1 value:1 flow:1 throughflow:1 current:2 pacific:2 archipelago:1 also:3 surface:1 arafura:1 sea:3 timor:2 distinct:1 specie:2 snake:1 unusually:1 high:1 level:1 diversity:1 coral:1 mollusk:1 fish:1 memorandum:1 understand:1 allow:1 fisherman:1 access:1 traditional:1 fishing:1 ground:1 region:1 subject:1 limit:1 entire:1 cay:1 radius:1 around:1 seafloor:1 proclaim:1 economy:1 migration:2 economic:1 activity:1 close:1 point:1 indonesia:6 popular:1 target:1 people:3 smuggler:2 asylum:4 seeker:3 inside:2 anita:1 robert:1 let:1 drown:1 apr:1 jun:1 vol:1 could:1 claim:1 enter:1 request:1 process:2 refugee:2 use:1 purpose:1 create:1 great:1 notoriety:1 late:1 arrival:1 major:1 political:1 issue:1 country:2 first:2 boat:2 accept:1 number:1 thing:1 discourage:1 practice:1 attempt:2 arrest:1 solution:1 third:1 boarding:1 turnaround:1 military:1 finally:1 excise:1 many:1 zone:1 boatload:1 detain:1 several:1 day:1 fail:1 turn:1 back:1 october:1 see:1 mandatory:1 detention:1 reference:1 link:1 geoscience:1 heritage:2 list:1 belongs:1 post:1 action:1 network:1 |@bigram ashmore_cartier:4 low_lying:1 continental_shelf:1 ashmore_reef:10 offshore_anchorage:1 http_www:1 nusa_tenggara:1 pacific_ocean:1 indonesian_archipelago:1 memorandum_understand:1 sand_cay:1 asylum_seeker:3 external_link:1 geoscience_australia:1 east_timor:1
4,796
Ecuadorian_people
Ecuador's population is very diverse, comprising many races and ethnic groups. In general, Ecuadorians trace their origins from four sources of migration: Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. Mestizos (those of mixed Amerindian and Spanish ancestry) are by far the largest of all the ethnic groups, constituting over 65 per cent of the current population. In second place are the Amerindians, who account for approximately a quarter of the population. The whites/Caucasians are mainly criollos, unmixed descendants of Spanish colonists, and account for 7 percent of the Ecuadorian population. Notwithstanding there were more or less large waves of immigration from Palestine, Italy, Germany, France and other european countries. The Afro-Ecuadorian community, including mulattos and zambos, constitutes the remaining 3 percent. In recent decades, there has been high emigration due to the economic crisis that plagued the country during the 1990s after the war with Peru and the corrupt political machine. Consequently, over 400,000 Ecuadorians each live in Spain and Italy, and around 100,000 in the United Kingdom (Ecuadorian Britons) while several hundred thousand Ecuadorians live in the US, 950,000 by some estimates mostly in the city of New York. Other Ecuadorians have emigrated across Latin America, tens of thousands have gone to Japan, and one thousand to Australia. One famous American of Ecuadorian (see Ecuadorian American) descent is pop music vocalist Christina Aguilera Ecuador has seen increased immigration from the Middle East, Asia (especially China and Japan), North America and Europe. Ecuador has about 95,000 American expatriates and 30,000 European Union expatriates. There is a large community of Arab Ecuadorians, numbering in the hundreds of thousands, mostly of Lebanese, Syrian, or Palestinian origin, prominent in commerce and industry, and concentrated in the country's second city, the Pacific port of Guayaquil, all of them Christians. Arab Ecuadorians have many cultural organizations and, although the Ecuadorian-born-generations don't speak Arab, the cultural heritage is very present. Ecuador contains tiny communities of Italians, Jews, Armenians, French and Greek-Ecuadorians. The Ecuadorian Jews, who number less than 500 are mostly of German or Italian descent. There are 225,000 English speakers and 112,000 German speakers in Ecuador of which the great majority reside in Quito, mainly all descendants of immigrants who arrived in the late 1800s. Most of the descendants of European immigrants strive for the preservation of their heritage. Therefore some groups even have their own schools (e.g. German School Guayaquil and German School Quito, Liceo La Condamine (French Heritage), Alberto Einstein (Jewish Heritage) and British School of Quito), cultural and social organizations, churches and country clubs. Their contribution for the social, political and economical development of the country is immense, specially in relation to their percentage in the total population. Most of the families of European heritage belong to the Ecuadorian upper class and own many of the biggest companies in the country. Also a small east Asian-Ecuadorian (see Asian Latino) community estimated at 2500, mainly consists of those having any amount of Japanese and Chinese descent, whose ancestors arrived as miners, farm hands and fishermen in the late 1800s. Although as recently as a century ago the Ecuadorian population was most heavily concentrated in the Sierra region (the mountains, which run down the center of the country), today's population is distributed about equally between the Sierra and the Costa region (the coastal lowlands). Migration toward cities -- particularly larger cities -- in all regions has increased the urban population to about 55 percent. The majority of Ecuador's small but vibrant upper- to middle-class population segment is distributed between the capital, Quito, and Guayaquil, each home to over one million inhabitants. The Oriente region, consisting of Amazonian jungle to the east of the mountains and covering about half the country's land area, remains sparsely populated. It includes the headwaters of the Amazon River. It contains only about 3 percent of the population, many of whom are uninfluenced and unassimilated Native Americans who maintain a wary distance from the recent mestizo and white settlers. The Oriente has nine indigenous peoples: Quichua, Shuar, Achuar, Huaorani, Siona, Secoya, Shiwiar, Záparo, and Cofan, all represented politically by the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of the Ecuadorian Amazon, CONFENIAE. The recent settlers are the result of the small wave of immigration (mainly mestizo migrants from the Sierra) which occurred starting in the 1970s, when government sponsored multinationals began to exploit petroleum reserves in the region. The boom in the petroleum industry has led to the mushrooming of the town of Lago Agrio as well as substantial deforestation, indigenous population loss, and the final disappearance of the Tetete people. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 13,212,742 (July 2004 est.) Urban: 57% Rural: 43% Age structure 0-14 years: 34.9% (male 2,430,303; female 2,351,166) 15-64 years: 60.6% (male 4,116,289; female 4,198,667) 65 years and over: 4.5% (male 284,082; female 329,727) (2003 est.) Median Age Total: 22.5 years Male: 22 years Female: 23 years (2002) Population growth rate 1.50% (2006 est.) Birth rate 24.94 births/1,000 population (2003 est.) Death rate 5.29 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.) Net migration rate -0.52 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.86 male(s)/female total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate Total: 31.97 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 26.39 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.) Male: 37.28 deaths/1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth total population: 71.89 years male: 69.06 years female: 74.86 years (2003 est.) Total fertility rate 2.99 children born/woman (2003 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate 0.3% (2001 est.) HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS 20,000 (2001 est.) HIV/AIDS - deaths 97,732 (2001) Nationality noun: Ecuadorian(s) adjective: Ecuadorian Ethnic groups Mestizo (mixed Amerindian and Spanish) 55%, Amerindian 25%, white/Spanish and others (Chinese and Japanese) 15%, black/Afro-Ecuadorian 5%. Religions Roman Catholic: 95% Protestant: 4% Jewish: below 1% Eastern Orthodox: under 1% Muslim: (Islam) and Buddhism: below 1%. Languages Spanish (official), Amerindian languages (especially Quichua). Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 92.5% male: 94% female: 91% (2003 est.) See also Ecuador Religion in Ecuador
Ecuadorian_people |@lemmatized ecuador:8 population:19 diverse:1 comprise:1 many:4 race:1 ethnic:3 group:4 general:1 ecuadorian:21 trace:1 origin:2 four:1 source:1 migration:3 amerindian:6 european:5 african:1 asian:3 mestizo:4 mixed:2 spanish:5 ancestry:1 far:1 large:4 constitute:2 per:1 cent:1 current:1 second:2 place:1 account:2 approximately:1 quarter:1 white:3 caucasian:1 mainly:4 criollos:1 unmixed:1 descendant:3 colonist:1 percent:4 notwithstanding:1 less:2 wave:2 immigration:3 palestine:1 italy:2 germany:1 france:1 country:8 afro:2 community:4 include:2 mulatto:1 zambos:1 remain:2 recent:3 decade:1 high:1 emigration:1 due:1 economic:1 crisis:1 plague:1 war:1 peru:1 corrupt:1 political:2 machine:1 consequently:1 live:6 spain:1 around:1 united:1 kingdom:1 briton:1 several:1 hundred:2 thousand:4 u:1 estimate:2 mostly:3 city:4 new:1 york:1 emigrate:1 across:1 latin:1 america:2 ten:1 go:1 japan:2 one:3 australia:1 famous:1 american:4 see:4 descent:3 pop:1 music:1 vocalist:1 christina:1 aguilera:1 increase:2 middle:2 east:3 asia:1 especially:2 china:1 north:1 europe:1 expatriate:2 union:1 arab:3 number:2 lebanese:1 syrian:1 palestinian:1 prominent:1 commerce:1 industry:2 concentrate:2 pacific:1 port:1 guayaquil:3 christian:1 cultural:3 organization:2 although:2 bear:2 generation:1 speak:1 heritage:5 present:1 contain:2 tiny:1 italian:2 jew:2 armenian:1 french:2 greek:1 german:4 english:1 speaker:2 great:1 majority:2 reside:1 quito:4 immigrant:2 arrive:2 late:2 strive:1 preservation:1 therefore:1 even:1 school:4 e:1 g:1 liceo:1 la:1 condamine:1 alberto:1 einstein:1 jewish:2 british:1 social:2 church:1 club:1 contribution:1 economical:1 development:1 immense:1 specially:1 relation:1 percentage:1 total:7 family:1 belong:1 upper:2 class:2 big:1 company:1 also:2 small:3 latino:1 consist:2 amount:1 japanese:2 chinese:2 whose:1 ancestor:1 miner:1 farm:1 hand:1 fisherman:1 recently:1 century:1 ago:1 heavily:1 sierra:3 region:5 mountain:2 run:1 center:1 today:1 distribute:2 equally:1 costa:1 coastal:1 lowlands:1 toward:1 particularly:1 urban:2 vibrant:1 segment:1 capital:1 home:1 million:1 inhabitant:1 oriente:2 amazonian:1 jungle:1 cover:1 half:1 land:1 area:1 sparsely:1 populate:1 headwater:1 amazon:2 river:1 uninfluenced:1 unassimilated:1 native:1 maintain:1 wary:1 distance:1 settler:2 nine:1 indigenous:3 people:3 quichua:2 shuar:1 achuar:1 huaorani:1 siona:1 secoya:1 shiwiar:1 záparo:1 cofan:1 represent:1 politically:1 confederation:1 nationality:2 confeniae:1 result:1 migrant:2 occur:1 start:1 government:1 sponsor:1 multinationals:1 begin:1 exploit:1 petroleum:2 reserve:1 boom:1 lead:1 mushrooming:1 town:1 lago:1 agrio:1 well:1 substantial:1 deforestation:1 loss:1 final:1 disappearance:1 tetete:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 demographic:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:13 rural:1 age:3 structure:1 year:12 male:12 female:12 median:1 growth:1 rate:7 birth:7 death:6 net:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 woman:1 hiv:4 aid:4 adult:1 prevalence:1 noun:1 adjective:1 others:1 black:1 religion:2 roman:1 catholic:1 protestant:1 eastern:1 orthodox:1 muslim:1 islam:1 buddhism:1 language:2 official:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 |@bigram mestizo_mixed:2 mixed_amerindian:2 per_cent:1 hundred_thousand:2 christina_aguilera:1 lebanese_syrian:1 la_condamine:1 sparsely_populate:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:4 adult_prevalence:1 nationality_noun:1 eastern_orthodox:1 literacy_definition:1
4,797
Error_detection_and_correction
In mathematics, computer science, telecommunication, and information theory, error detection and correction has great practical importance in maintaining data (information) integrity across noisy channels and less-than-reliable storage media. General definitions of terms Definitions of error detection and error correction: Error detection is the ability to detect the presence of errors caused by noise or other impairments during transmission from the transmitter to the receiver. Error correction is the additional ability to reconstruct the original, error-free data. There are two basic ways to design the channel code and protocol for an error correcting system: Automatic repeat-request (ARQ): The transmitter sends the data and also an error detection code, which the receiver uses to check for errors, and requests retransmission of erroneous data. In many cases, the request is implicit; the receiver sends an acknowledgement (ACK) of correctly received data, and the transmitter re-sends anything not acknowledged within a reasonable period of time. Forward error correction (FEC): The transmitter encodes the data with an error-correcting code (ECC) and sends the coded message. The receiver never sends any messages back to the transmitter. The receiver decodes what it receives into the "most likely" data. The codes are designed so that it would take an "unreasonable" amount of noise to trick the receiver into misinterpreting the data. It is possible to combine the two, so that minor errors are corrected without retransmission, and major errors are detected and a retransmission requested. The combination is called hybrid automatic repeat-request. Error detection schemes In telecommunication, a redundancy check is extra data added to a message for the purposes of error detection. Several schemes exist to achieve error detection, and generally they are quite simple. All error detection codes (which include all error-detection-and-correction codes) transmit more bits than were in the original data. Most codes are "systematic": the transmitter sends a fixed number of original data bits, followed by fixed number of check bits (usually referred to as redundancy in the literature) which are derived from the data bits by some deterministic algorithm. The receiver applies the same algorithm to the received data bits and compares its output to the received check bits; if the values do not match, an error has occurred at some point during the transmission. In a system that uses a "non-systematic" code, such as some raptor codes, data bits are transformed into at least as many code bits, and the transmitter sends only the code bits. Repetition schemes Variations on this theme exist. Given a stream of data that is to be sent, the data is broken up into blocks of bits, and in sending, each block is sent some predetermined number of times. For example, if we want to send "1011", we may repeat this block three times each. Suppose we send "1011 1011 1011", and this is received as "1010 1011 1011". As one group is not the same as the other two, we can determine that an error has occurred. This scheme is not very efficient, and can be susceptible to problems if the error occurs in exactly the same place for each group (e.g. "1010 1010 1010" in the example above will be detected as correct in this scheme). The scheme however is extremely simple, and is in fact used in some transmissions of numbers stations. Parity schemes Main article: Parity bit A parity bit is an error detection mechanism that can only detect an odd number of errors. The stream of data is broken up into blocks of bits, and the number of 1 bits is counted. Then, a "parity bit" is set (or cleared) if the number of one bits is odd (or even). (This scheme is called even parity; odd parity can also be used.) If the tested blocks overlap, then the parity bits can be used to isolate the error, and even correct it if the error affects a single bit: this is the principle behind the Hamming code. There is a limitation to parity schemes. A parity bit is only guaranteed to detect an odd number of bit errors (one, three, five, and so on). If an even number of bits (two, four, six and so on) are flipped, the parity bit appears to be correct, even though the data is corrupt. Checksum Main article: Checksum A checksum of a message is an arithmetic sum of message code words of a certain word length, for example byte values, and their carry value. The sum is negated by means of ones-complement, and stored or transferred as an extra code word extending the message. On the receiver side, a new checksum may be calculated from the extended message. If the new checksum is not 0, an error has been detected. Checksum schemes include parity bits, check digits, and longitudinal redundancy check. Cyclic redundancy checks Main article: Cyclic redundancy check More complex error detection (and correction) methods make use of the properties of finite fields and polynomials over such fields. The cyclic redundancy check considers a block of data as the coefficients to a polynomial and then divides by a fixed, predetermined polynomial. The coefficients of the result of the division is taken as the redundant data bits, the CRC. On reception, one can recompute the CRC from the payload bits and compare this with the CRC that was received. A mismatch indicates that an error occurred. Hamming distance based checks If we want to detect d bit errors in an n bit word we can map every n bit word into a bigger n+d+1 bit word so that the minimum Hamming distance between each valid mapping is d+1. This way, if one receives a n+d+1 word that doesn't match any word in the mapping (with a Hamming distance x <= d+1 from any word in the mapping) it can successfully detect it as an erroneous word. Even more, d or fewer errors will never transform a valid word into another, because the Hamming distance between each valid word is at least d+1, and such errors only lead to invalid words that are detected correctly. Given a stream of m*n bits, we can detect x <= d bit errors successfully using the above method on every n bit word. In fact, we can detect a maximum of m*d errors if every n word is transmitted with maximum d errors. Hash function Any hash function can be used as a redundancy check. Horizontal and vertical redundancy check Other types of redundancy check include horizontal redundancy check, vertical redundancy check and "double", "dual" or "diagonal" parity (used in RAID-DP). Error correction Automatic repeat request Automatic Repeat-reQuest (ARQ) is an error control method for data transmission which makes use of error detection codes, acknowledgment and/or negative acknowledgement messages and timeouts to achieve reliable data transmission. An acknowledgment is a message sent by the receiver to the transmitter to indicate that it has correctly received a data frame. Usually, when the transmitter does not receive the acknowledgment before the timeout occurs (i.e. within a reasonable amount of time after sending the data frame), it retransmits the frame until it is either correctly received or the error persists beyond a predetermined number of retransmissions. A few types of ARQ protocols are Stop-and-wait ARQ, Go-Back-N ARQ and Selective Repeat ARQ. Hybrid ARQ is a combination of ARQ and forward error correction. Error-correcting code An error-correcting code (ECC) or forward error correction (FEC) code is redundant data that is added to the message on the sender side. If the number of errors is within the capability of the code being used, the receiver can use the extra information to discover the locations of the errors and correct them. Since the reciever does not have to ask the sender for retransmission of the data, a back-channel is not necessary in forward error correction, so it is suitable for simplex communication such as broadcasting. Error-correcting codes are used in computer data storage, for example CDs, DVDs and in dynamic RAM. It is also used in digital transmission, especially wireless communication, since wireless communication without FEC often would suffer from packet-error rates close to 100%, and conventional automatic repeat request error control would yield a very low goodput. Two main categories are convolutional codes and block codes. Convolutional codes are processed on a bit-by-bit basis, and only causes a processing delay corresponding to a few bit periods. In convolutional coding, a Viterbi decoder is typically used on the receiver side. Block codes are processed on a block-by-block basis. Early examples of block codes are repetition codes, Hamming codes and multidimensional parity-check codes. More efficient codes, often used in modern systems, are Reed-Solomon codes, turbo codes, BCH codes, Reed-Muller codes, Binary Golay codes, and low-density parity-check codes (LDPC). For example, the code rate of the Reed Solomon block code denoted RS(204,188) processes blocks of 188 bytes of useful information at a time, and appends 204 - 188 = 16 redundant bytes to each block. It can handle 8 incorrect bytes per data block. Shannon's theorem is an important theorem in forward error correction which describes a theoretical upper bound for the attainable spectral efficiency in bit/s/Hz of a channel coding scheme (an error-correcting scheme, typically combined width a digital modulation scheme) for a specific signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). For example, if the SNR is 0 dB, the spectral efficiency can not be higher than 1 bit/s/Hz, resulting in that the information rate in bit/s (the useful bitrate, excluding redundant ECC) can not be higher than the bandwidth in hertz. The effectiveness of the coding scheme may also be measured in terms of code rate k/n, which is the ratio between k information bits and n transmitted data bits. Finally the effectiveness may be expressed as coding gain in decibel, which is the allowable reduction in signal-to-noise ratio whilst still attaining the same bit error rate and data rate as the uncoded system. Error-correcting memory Because soft errors are extremely common in the DRAM of computers used in satellites and space probes, such memory is structured as ECC memory (also called "EDAC protected memory"). Such memory controllers traditionally use a Hamming code, although some use triple modular redundancy. Even though a single cosmic ray can upset many physically neighboring bits in a DRAM, such memory systems are designed so that neighboring bits belong to different words, so that a single event upset (SEU) causes only a single error in any particular word, and so can be corrected by a single-bit error correcting code. As long as no more than a single bit in any particular word is affected by an error between accesses, such a memory system presents the illusion of an error-free memory. Applications Applications that require low latency (such as telephone conversations) cannot use Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ); they must use Forward Error Correction (FEC). By the time an ARQ system discovers an error and re-transmits it, the re-sent data will arrive too late to be any good. Applications where the transmitter immediately forgets the information as soon as it is sent (such as most television cameras) cannot use ARQ; they must use FEC because when an error occurs, the original data is no longer available. (This is also why FEC is used in data storage systems such as RAID and distributed data store). Applications that use ARQ must have a return channel. Applications that have no return channel cannot use ARQ. Applications that require extremely low error rates (such as digital money transfers) must use ARQ. The Internet In a typical TCP/IP stack, error detection is performed at multiple levels: Each Ethernet frame carries a CRC-32 checksum. The receiver discards frames if their checksums do not match. The IPv4 header contains a header checksum of the contents of the header (excluding the checksum field). Packets with checksums that don't match are discarded. The checksum was omitted from the IPv6 header, because most current link layer protocols have error detection. UDP has an optional checksum. Packets with wrong checksums are discarded. TCP has a checksum of the payload, TCP header (excluding the checksum field) and source- and destination addresses of the IP header. Packets found to have incorrect checksums are discarded and eventually get retransmitted when the sender receives a triple-ack or a timeout occurs. Deep-space telecommunications NASA's Deep Space Missions ECC Codes (code imperfectness) NASA has used many different error correcting codes. For missions between 1969 and 1977 the Mariner spacecraft used a Reed-Muller code. The noise these spacecraft were subject to was well approximated by a "bell-curve" (normal distribution), so the Reed-Muller codes were well suited to the situation. The Voyager 1 & Voyager 2 spacecraft transmitted color pictures of Jupiter and Saturn in 1979 and 1980. Color image transmission required 3 times the amount of data, so the Golay (24,12,8) code was used. http://www-math.cudenver.edu/~wcherowi/courses/m6409/mariner9talk.pdf This Golay code is only 3-error correcting, but it could be transmitted at a much higher data rate. Voyager 2 went on to Uranus and Neptune and the code was switched to a concatenated Reed-Solomon code-Convolutional code for its substantially more powerful error correcting capabilities. Current DSN error correction is done with dedicated hardware. For some NASA deep space craft such as those in the Voyager program, Cassini-Huygens (Saturn), New Horizons (Pluto) and Deep Space 1—the use of hardware ECC may not be feasible for the full duration of the mission. The different kinds of deep space and orbital missions that are conducted suggest that trying to find a "one size fits all" error correction system will be an ongoing problem for some time to come. For missions close to the earth the nature of the "noise" is different from that on a spacecraft headed towards the outer planets. In particular, if a transmitter on a spacecraft far from earth is operating at a low power, the problem of correcting for noise gets larger with distance from the earth. Satellite broadcasting (DVB) Block 2D & 3D bit allocation models used by ECC coding systems in terrestrial telecommunications The demand for satellite transponder bandwidth continues to grow, fueled by the desire to deliver television (including new channels and High Definition TV) and IP data. Transponder availability and bandwidth constraints have limited this growth, because transponder capacity is determined by the selected modulation scheme and Forward error correction (FEC) rate. Overview QPSK coupled with traditional Reed Solomon and Viterbi codes have been used for nearly 20 years for the delivery of digital satellite TV. Higher order modulation schemes such as 8PSK, 16QAM and 32QAM have enabled the satellite industry to increase transponder efficiency by several orders of magnitude. This increase in the information rate in a transponder comes at the expense of an increase in the carrier power to meet the threshold requirement for existing antennas. Tests conducted using the latest chipsets demonstrate that the performance achieved by using Turbo Codes may be even lower than the 0.8 dB figure assumed in early designs. Data storage Error detection and correction codes are often used to improve the reliability of data storage media. A "parity track" was present on the first magnetic tape data storage in 1951. The "Optimal Rectangular Code" used in group code recording tapes not only detects but also corrects single-bit errors. Some file formats, particularly archive formats, include a checksum (most often CRC32) to detect corruption and truncation and can employ redundancy and/or parity files to recover portions of corrupted data. Reed Solomon codes are used in compact discs to correct errors caused by scratches. Modern hard drives use CRC codes to detect and Reed-Solomon codes to correct minor errors in sector reads, and to recover data from sectors that have "gone bad" and store that data in the spare sectors. My Hard Drive Died | Scott A. Moulton RAID systems use a variety of error correction techniques, to correct errors when a hard drive completely fails. Information theory and error detection and correction Information theory tells us that whatever the probability of error in transmission or storage, it is possible to construct error-correcting codes in which the likelihood of failure is arbitrarily low, although this requires adding increasing amounts of redundant data to the original, which might not be practical when the error probability is very high. Shannon's theorem sets an upper bound to the error correction rate that can be achieved (and thus the level of noise that can be tolerated) using a fixed amount of redundancy, but does not tell us how to construct such an optimal encoder. Error-correcting codes can be divided into block codes and convolutional codes. Other block error-correcting codes, such as Reed-Solomon codes, transform a chunk of bits into a (longer) chunk of bits in such a way that errors up to some threshold in each block can be detected and corrected. However, in practice errors often occur in bursts rather than at random. This is often compensated for by shuffling (interleaving) the bits in the message after coding. Then any burst of bit-errors is broken up into a set of scattered single-bit errors when the bits of the message are unshuffled (de-interleaved) before being decoded. List of error-correction, error-detection methods This list contains methods of error correction (Reed-Solomon, for example is a method) and practical techniques for error correction (like the Check digit, a practical method). Berger code Chipkill, an application of ECC techniques to volatile system memory. Constant-weight code Convolutional codes are usually decoded with iterative Viterbi decoding techniques Differential space–time codes, related to space–time block codes. Dual modular redundancy, subset of N-modular redundancy, related to triple modular redundancy Erasure codes are a superset of Fountain codes Forward error correction Group code Golay code, the Binary Golay codes are the most commonly used Golay codes Goppa code that is used to create the McEliece cryptosystem Hadamard code Hagelbarger code Hamming code Lexicographic code Longitudinal redundancy check Low-density parity-check code LT codes are near optimal rateless erasure correcting codes. m of n codes Online codes are an example of rateless erasure codes. Parity bit Raptor codes are a class of fountain codes. Reed-Solomon error correction Reed-Muller code Repeat-accumulate code Sparse graph code Space–time code Space–time trellis code Tornado codes are optimal Fountain codes Triple modular redundancy Turbo code Viterbi algorithm Practical uses of Error Correction methods Concatenated error correction codes, the Compact Disc and Voyager Program spacecraft use concatenated error correction technologies Check digit, commonly used on UPC barcodes Luhn algorithm, the most commonly used base 10 checksum that can perform limited error detection but not error correction Luhn mod N algorithm, the above algorithm but implementable in a non base 10 form Verhoeff algorithm, a modular based form not related to the Luhn algorithms that can detect most forms of transposition errors in financial cryptographic applications See also Repetition schemes Triple modular redundancy Error correction standardization Errors and residuals in statistics Link adaptation Research Conferences on Error Correction International Symposium On Turbo Codes, http://www-turbo.enst-bretagne.fr/ References External links The on-line textbook: Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms, by David MacKay, contains chapters on elementary error-correcting codes; on the theoretical limits of error-correction; and on the latest state-of-the-art error-correcting codes, including low-density parity-check codes, turbo codes, and fountain codes. Compute parameters of linear codes - an on-line interface for generating and computing parameters (e.g. minimum distance, covering radius) of linear error-correcting codes. ECC Page be-x-old:Карэкцыя памылак
Error_detection_and_correction |@lemmatized mathematics:1 computer:3 science:1 telecommunication:4 information:11 theory:4 error:106 detection:18 correction:31 great:1 practical:5 importance:1 maintain:1 data:44 integrity:1 across:1 noisy:1 channel:7 less:1 reliable:2 storage:7 medium:2 general:1 definition:3 term:2 ability:2 detect:16 presence:1 cause:4 noise:8 impairment:1 transmission:8 transmitter:11 receiver:12 additional:1 reconstruct:1 original:5 free:2 two:5 basic:1 way:3 design:4 code:105 protocol:3 correct:20 system:12 automatic:6 repeat:9 request:9 arq:14 send:13 also:8 use:46 check:22 retransmission:4 erroneous:2 many:4 case:1 implicit:1 acknowledgement:2 ack:2 correctly:4 receive:11 sends:1 anything:1 acknowledge:1 within:3 reasonable:2 period:2 time:12 forward:8 fec:7 encode:1 correcting:10 ecc:9 coded:1 message:12 never:2 back:3 decode:4 likely:1 would:3 take:2 unreasonable:1 amount:5 trick:1 misinterpret:1 possible:2 combine:2 minor:2 without:2 major:1 combination:2 call:3 hybrid:2 scheme:16 redundancy:20 extra:3 add:3 purpose:1 several:2 exist:3 achieve:4 generally:1 quite:1 simple:2 include:6 transmit:5 bit:53 systematic:2 fixed:4 number:11 follow:1 usually:3 refer:1 literature:1 derive:1 deterministic:1 algorithm:9 apply:1 compare:2 output:1 value:3 match:4 occur:8 point:1 non:2 raptor:2 transform:3 least:2 repetition:3 variation:1 theme:1 give:2 stream:3 break:3 block:20 sending:1 predetermined:3 example:9 want:2 may:6 three:2 suppose:1 one:7 group:4 determine:2 efficient:2 susceptible:1 problem:3 exactly:1 place:1 e:3 g:2 however:2 extremely:3 fact:2 station:1 parity:19 schemes:1 main:4 article:3 bite:1 mechanism:1 odd:4 count:1 set:3 clear:1 even:8 tested:1 overlap:1 isolate:1 affect:2 single:8 principle:1 behind:1 ham:6 limitation:1 guarantee:1 five:1 four:1 six:1 flip:1 appear:1 though:2 corrupt:2 checksum:19 arithmetic:1 sum:2 word:18 certain:1 length:1 byte:4 carry:2 negate:1 mean:1 complement:1 store:3 transfer:2 extend:1 side:3 new:4 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iterative:1 differential:1 relate:3 subset:1 erasure:3 superset:1 fountain:4 commonly:3 goppa:1 create:1 mceliece:1 cryptosystem:1 hadamard:1 hagelbarger:1 lexicographic:1 lt:1 near:1 rateless:2 online:1 class:1 accumulate:1 sparse:1 graph:1 trellis:1 tornado:1 us:1 technology:1 upc:1 barcodes:1 luhn:3 limited:1 mod:1 implementable:1 form:3 verhoeff:1 transposition:1 financial:1 cryptographic:1 see:1 standardization:1 residual:1 statistic:1 adaptation:1 research:1 conference:1 international:1 symposium:1 enst:1 bretagne:1 fr:1 reference:1 external:1 line:2 textbook:1 inference:1 learn:1 david:1 mackay:1 chapter:1 elementary:1 state:1 art:1 compute:2 parameter:2 linear:2 interface:1 generate:1 cover:1 radius:1 page:1 old:1 карэкцыя:1 памылак:1 |@bigram detection_correction:5 noisy_channel:1 error_correction:26 transmitter_receiver:2 correction_fec:4 error_correcting:10 correcting_code:8 redundancy_check:11 odd_parity:1 check_digit:3 cyclic_redundancy:3 horizontal_vertical:1 convolutional_code:5 reed_solomon:9 reed_muller:4 golay_code:6 spectral_efficiency:2 modulation_scheme:3 modular_redundancy:6 cosmic_ray:1 tcp_ip:1 header_checksum:1 jupiter_saturn:1 http_www:2 uranus_neptune:1 cassini_huygens:1 compact_disc:2 external_link:1
4,798
Joris_Ivens
Joris Ivens (November 18 1898, Nijmegen–June 28 1989, Paris) was a Dutch documentary filmmaker and devout communist. Early career Probably the best known of his early films is his 10-minute short Rain (Regen, 1929). Born into a wealthy family, Ivens went to work in his father's photo supply shop and from there developed an interest in film. He completed his first film at 13; in college he studied economics with the goal of continuing his father's business, but an interest in class issues distracted him from that path. Originally his work focused on technique--some argue that it had that focus at the cost of relevance, especially in Rain, filmed over 2 years and featuring impressive cinematography and a number of "characters" (but no information about them aside from what was visible) and in The Bridge (De Brug, 1928), which showed a frank admiration of engineering and also featured a number of "characters" but again did not give any information about them. In 1931 Ivens went to the Soviet-Union to make Song of Heroes, a propaganda film about the construction of the new industrial city of Magnitogorsk. This city was mainly built by forced labourers, who however were portrayed by Ivens as communist volunteers. Ivens later referred to these forced labourers as 'weed'. With Henri Storck, Ivens made Misère au Borinage (Borinage, 1933) with, a moving and militant documentary about life in a coal mining region. In 1943, he also directed two Allied propaganda films for the National Film Board of Canada. U.S. Career and post-World War II From 1936 to 1945, Ivens lived in the United States and made anti-fascist and other propaganda films, including the propaganda piece for the Spanish loyalists The Spanish Earth, narrated by Ernest Hemingway. Due to the US government crackdown on known or suspected Communists, Ivens left the United States. In 1946, commissioned to make a Dutch film about Indonesian "independence," Ivens resigned out of protest of what he considered ongoing imperialism and filmed Indonesia Calling in secret. For about a decade Ivens lived in Eastern Europe, working for several studios there. His position concerning Indonesia and his taking sides for the Eastern Bloc in the Cold War annoyed the Dutch government. Over a period of many years, he was obliged to renew his passport every three or four months. According to later mythology however, he lost his passport for ten years, which is not true. From 1965 to 1970 he filmed life in North Vietnam during the war: 17e parallèle: La guerre du peuple (17th Parallel: Vietnam in War) and participated in the collective work Loin du Vietnam (Far from Vietnam). From 1971 to 1977, he filmed How Yukong Moved the Mountain, a 763-minute documentary about the Cultural Revolution in China. Ivens was knighted by the Dutch government in 1989, and died on June 28 that same year. Shortly before his death he made the last of more than 40 films Une histoire de vent (A Tale of the Wind). Joris Ivens was awarded Lenin Peace Prize for the year 1967. Literature Kees Bakker (ed.), Joris Ivens and the Documentary Context, Paperback edition, Amsterdam University Press 2000 Hans Schoots, Living Dangerously: A Biography of Joris Ivens, Amsterdam University Press 2000 Virgilio Tosi, Cinema e Utopia, Rome, 2002 ISBN 88-8319-745-3 External links European Foundation Joris Ivens Biographer Hans Schoots on Ivens Joris Ivens at the Internet Movie Database Sensesofcinema.com biography Joris Ivens films on UbuWeb: Rain (Regen) and The Bridge (De Brug)
Joris_Ivens |@lemmatized joris:7 ivens:18 november:1 nijmegen:1 june:2 paris:1 dutch:4 documentary:4 filmmaker:1 devout:1 communist:3 early:2 career:2 probably:1 best:1 known:1 film:14 minute:2 short:1 rain:3 regen:2 bear:1 wealthy:1 family:1 go:2 work:4 father:2 photo:1 supply:1 shop:1 develop:1 interest:2 complete:1 first:1 college:1 study:1 economics:1 goal:1 continue:1 business:1 class:1 issue:1 distract:1 path:1 originally:1 focus:2 technique:1 argue:1 cost:1 relevance:1 especially:1 year:5 feature:2 impressive:1 cinematography:1 number:2 character:2 information:2 aside:1 visible:1 bridge:2 de:3 brug:2 show:1 frank:1 admiration:1 engineering:1 also:2 give:1 soviet:1 union:1 make:5 song:1 hero:1 propaganda:4 construction:1 new:1 industrial:1 city:2 magnitogorsk:1 mainly:1 build:1 forced:1 labourer:2 however:2 portray:1 volunteer:1 later:2 refer:1 force:1 weed:1 henri:1 storck:1 misère:1 au:1 borinage:2 moving:1 militant:1 life:2 coal:1 mining:1 region:1 direct:1 two:1 allied:1 national:1 board:1 canada:1 u:2 post:1 world:1 war:4 ii:1 live:3 united:2 state:2 anti:1 fascist:1 include:1 piece:1 spanish:2 loyalists:1 earth:1 narrate:1 ernest:1 hemingway:1 due:1 government:3 crackdown:1 know:1 suspect:1 leave:1 commission:1 indonesian:1 independence:1 resign:1 protest:1 consider:1 ongoing:1 imperialism:1 indonesia:2 call:1 secret:1 decade:1 eastern:2 europe:1 several:1 studio:1 position:1 concern:1 take:1 side:1 bloc:1 cold:1 annoy:1 period:1 many:1 oblige:1 renew:1 passport:2 every:1 three:1 four:1 month:1 accord:1 mythology:1 lose:1 ten:1 true:1 north:1 vietnam:4 parallèle:1 la:1 guerre:1 du:2 peuple:1 parallel:1 participate:1 collective:1 loin:1 far:1 yukong:1 move:1 mountain:1 cultural:1 revolution:1 china:1 knight:1 die:1 shortly:1 death:1 last:1 une:1 histoire:1 vent:1 tale:1 wind:1 award:1 lenin:1 peace:1 prize:1 literature:1 kees:1 bakker:1 ed:1 context:1 paperback:1 edition:1 amsterdam:2 university:2 press:2 han:1 schoots:2 dangerously:1 biography:2 virgilio:1 tosi:1 cinema:1 e:1 utopia:1 rome:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 european:1 foundation:1 biographer:1 hans:1 internet:1 movie:1 database:1 sensesofcinema:1 com:1 ubuweb:1 |@bigram joris_ivens:7 soviet_union:1 ernest_hemingway:1 eastern_bloc:1 la_guerre:1 du_peuple:1 external_link:1
4,799
Book_of_Common_Prayer
The Book of Common Prayer is the common title of a number of prayer books of the Church of England and of other Anglican churches, used throughout the Anglican Communion. The first book, published in 1549 , in the reign of Edward VI, was a product of the English Reformation following the break with Rome. Prayer books, unlike books of prayers, contain the words of structured (or liturgical) services of worship. The work of 1549 was the first prayer book to contain the forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English and to do so within a single volume; it included morning prayer, evening prayer, the Litany, and Holy Communion. The book included the other occasional services in full: the orders for baptism, confirmation, marriage, 'prayers to be said with the sick' and a funeral service. It set out in full the Epistle and Gospel readings for the Sunday Communion Service. Set Old Testament and New Testament readings for daily prayer were specified in tabular format as were the set Psalms; and canticles, mostly biblical, that were provided to be sung between the readings . The 1549 book was rapidly succeeded by a reformed revision in 1552 under the same editorial hand, that of Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury. It never came into use because, on the death of Edward VI, his half-sister Mary I restored Roman Catholic worship. On her death, a compromise version, combining elements of the 1549 and the 1552 editions, was published in 1559. Following the tumultuous events leading to and including the English Civil War, another major revision was published in 1662 . That edition has remained the official prayer book of the Church of England, although in the 21st century, an alternative book called Common Worship has largely displaced the Book of Common Prayer at the main Sunday worship service of most English parish churches. The Book of Common Prayer appears in many variants in churches inside and outside of the Anglican Communion in over 50 different countries and in over 150 different languages . Again in many parts of the world, more contemporary books have replaced it in regular weekly worship. Traditional Lutheran, Methodist and Presbyterian prayer books have borrowed from the Book of Common Prayer, and the marriage and burial rites have found their way into those of other denominations and into the English language. Like the Authorized King James Bible and the works of Shakespeare, many words and phrases from the Book of Common Prayer have entered popular culture. Full title The full name of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer is The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church according to the use of the Church of England together with the Psalter or Psalms of David pointed as they are to be sung or said in churches and the form and manner of making, ordaining, and consecrating of bishops, priests, and deacons. History The forms of parish worship in the late medieval church in England, which followed the Latin Roman Rite, varied according to local practice. These were termed local "use". By far the most common found in Southern England was the Use of Sarum. The rite was not consolidated into a single book. Instead, the forms of service that were to be included in the Book of Common Prayer were drawn from the Missal (for the Mass), Breviary for the daily office, Manual (for the occasional services; Baptism, Marriage, Burial etc), and Pontifical (for the services appropriate to a bishop—Confirmation, Ordination) . The work of producing English-language books for use in the liturgy was largely that of Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury at first under the reign of Henry VIII, only more radically under his son Edward VI. Cranmer was, in his early days, somewhat conservative, an admirer, if a critical one, of John Fisher. It may have been his visit to Germany in 1532 (where he secretly married) which began the change in his outlook. Then in 1538, as Henry began diplomatic negotiations with Lutheran princes, Cranmer came face-to-face with a Lutheran embassy . The Exhortation and Litany, the earliest English-language service book of the Church of England, was the first overt manifestation of his changing views. It was thus no mere translation from the Latin: its Protestant character is made clear by the drastic reduction of the place of saints, compressing what had been the major part into three petitions . Published in 1544, it borrowed greatly from Martin Luther's Litany and Myles Coverdale's New Testament and was the only service that might be considered to be "Protestant" to be finished within the lifetime of King Henry VIII. Prayer Books of Edward VI Cranmer's Prayer book of 1549. It was not until Henry's death in 1547 and the accession of Edward VI that revision could proceed faster. Cranmer finished his work on an English Communion rite in 1548, obeying an order of Convocation of the previous year that Communion was to be given to the people as both bread and wine. The ordinary Roman Rite of the Mass had made no provision for any congregation present to receive Communion. So, Cranmer composed in English an additional rite of congregational preparation and Communion (based on the form of the Sarum rite for Communion of the Sick), to be undertaken immediately following the Communion, in both kinds, of the priest. Further developed, and fully translated into English, this Communion service was included, one year later, in 1549, in a full prayer book, set out with a daily office, readings for Sundays and Holy Days, the Communion Service, Public Baptism, of Confirmation, of Matrimony, The Visitation of the Sick, At a Burial and the Ordinal (added in 1550) . The Preface to this edition, which contained Cranmer's explanation as to why a new prayer book was necessary, began: "There was never any thing by the wit of man so well devised, or so sure established, which in continuance of time hath not been corrupted." Although the work is commonly attributed to Cranmer, its detailed origins are obscure . A group of bishops and divines met first at Chertsey and then at Windsor in 1548, drawn from both conservatives and reformers, agreed only "the service of the church ought to be in the mother tongue". Cranmer collected the material from many sources; even the opening of Preface (above) was borrowed . He borrowed much from German sources, particularly from work commissioned by Hermann von Wied, Archbishop of Cologne; and also from Osiander (to whom he was related by marriage) . The Church Order of Brandenberg and Nuremberg was partly the work of the latter. Many phrases are characteristic of the German reformer Martin Bucer, or of the Italian Peter Martyr, (who was staying with Cranmer at the time of the finalising of drafts), or of his chaplain, Thomas Becon. However, to Cranmer is 'credited the overall job of editorship and the overarching structure of the book' including the systematic amendment of his materials to remove any idea that human merit contributed to their salvation . The Communion service of 1549 maintained the format of distinct rites of Consecration and Communion, that had been introduced the previous year; but with the Latin rite of the Mass (chiefly following the familiar structure in the Use of Sarum), translated into English. By outwardly maintaining familiar forms, Cranmer hoped to establish the practice of weekly congregational Communion, and included exhortations to encourage this; and instructions that Communion should never be received by the priest alone. This represented a radical change from late medieval practice—whereby the primary focus of congregational worship was taken to be attendance at the consecration, and adoration of the elevated Consecrated Host. In late medieval England, congregations only regularly received Communion at Easter; and otherwise individual lay people might expect to receive Communion only when gravely ill, or in the form of a Nuptial Mass on being married. Introduced on Whitsunday 1549, after considerable debate and revision in Parliament—but there is no evidence that it was ever submitted to either Convocation—it was said to have pleased neither reformers nor their opponents, indeed the Catholic Bishop Gardiner could say of it was that it "was patient of a catholic interpretation". It was widely unpopular in the parishes, especially in places such as Devon and Cornwall . Particularly unpopular was the banning of processions and the sending out of commissioners to enforce the new requirements. There was widespread opposition to the introduction of regular congregational Communion, partly because the extra costs of bread and wine that would fall on the parish; but mainly out of an intense resistance to undertaking in regular worship, a religious practice previously associated with marriage or illness. Cranmer's Prayer book of 1552. The book was, from the outset, intended only as a temporary expedient, as Bucer was assured having met Cranmer for the first time in April 1549: 'concessions...made both as a respect for antiquity and to the infirmity of the present age' as he wrote . It kept the appearance of the Mass but abandoned its theology. AH Couratin in a set of unpublished Oxford University lectures from 1958 described it as a "bogus Mass". Both Bucer and Peter Martyr wrote detailed proposals for modification; Bucer's Censura ran to 28 chapters which influenced Cranmer significantly though he did not follow them slavishly and the new book was duly produced in 1552, making "fully perfect" what was already implicit . The policy of incremental reform was now unveiled: more Roman Catholic practices were now excised, as doctrines had in 1549 been subtly changed. Thus, in the Eucharist, gone were the words Mass and altar; the 'Lord have mercy' was interleaved into a recitation of the Ten Commandments and the Gloria was removed to the end of the service. The Eucharistic prayer was split in two so that Eucharistic bread and wine were shared immediately after the words of institution (This is my Body..This is my blood...in remembrance of me.); while its final element, the Prayer of Oblation, (with its reference to an offering of a 'Sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving'), was transferred, much changed, to a position after the priest and congregation had received Communion, and was made optional with an alternative prayer of thanksgiving provided. The Elevation of the Host had been forbidden in 1549; all manual acts were now omitted. The words at the administration of Communion which, in the prayer book of 1549 described the Eucharistic species as 'The body of our Lorde Jesus Christe...', 'The blood of our Lorde Jesus Christe...' were replaced with the words 'Take, eat, in remembrance that Christ died for thee..' etc. The Peace, at which in the early Church the congregation had exchanged a greeting, was removed altogether. Vestments such as the stole, chasuble and cope were no longer to be worn, but only a surplice. It was the final stage of the reformers' work of removing all elements of sacrificial offering from the Latin Mass; so that it should cease to be seen as a ritual at which the priest, on behalf of the faithful offered Christ's body and blood to God; and might rather be seen as a ritual whereby Christ shared his body and blood, according to a different sacramental theology, with the faithful. Cranmer recognized that the 1549 rite of Communion had been capable of conservative misinterpretation and misuse, in that the consecration rite might still be undertaken even when no congregational Communion followed. Consequently, in 1552 he thoroughly integrated Consecration and Communion into a single rite, with congregational preparation preceding the words of institution—such that it would not be possible to mimic the Mass with the priest communicating alone. He appears nevertheless, to have been resigned to being unable for the present to establish in parishes the weekly practice of receiving Communion; so he restructured the service so as to allow ante-Communion as a distinct rite of worship—following the Communion rite through the readings and offertory, as far as the intercessory "Prayer for the Church Militant". Diarmaid MacCulloch suggests that Cranmer's own Eucharistic theology in these years approximated most closely to that of Heinrich Bullinger; but that he intended the Prayer Book to be acceptable to the widest range of Reformed Eucharistic belief, including the high sacramental theology of Bucer and John Calvin . At the same time, however, Cranmer intended that constituent parts of the rites gathered into the Prayer Book should still, so far as possible, be recognizably derived from traditional forms and elements. In the Baptism service the signing with the cross was moved until after the baptism and the exorcism, the anointing, the putting on of the chrysom robe and the triple immersion were omitted. Most drastic of all was the removal of the Burial service from church: it was to take place at the graveside. In 1549, there had been provision for a Requiem (not so called) and prayers of commendation and committal, the first addressed to the deceased. All that remained was a single reference to the deceased, giving thanks for their delivery from 'the myseryes of this sinneful world'. This new Order for the Burial of the Dead was a drastically stripped-down memorial service designed to undermine definitively the whole complex of traditional beliefs about Purgatory and intercessory prayer . In other respects, however, both the Baptism and Burial services imply a theology of salvation that accords notably less with Reformed teachings than do the counterpart passages in the Articles of Religion. In the Burial service, the possibility that a deceased person who has died in the faith may nevertheless not be counted amongst God's elect, is not entertained. In the Baptism service the priest explicitly pronounces the baptised infant as being now regenerate. In both cases, conformity with strict Reformed Protestant principles would have resulted in a conditional formulation. The continued inconsistency between the Articles of Religion and the Prayer Book remained a point of contention for Puritans; and would in the 19th century come close to tearing the Church of England apart, through the course of the Gorham judgement. Cranmer's work of simplification and revision was also applied to the Daily Offices, which were to become Morning, and Evening Prayer; and which he hoped would also serve as a daily form of prayer to be used by the Laity, thus replacing both the late medieval lay observation of the Latin Hours of the Virgin, and its English equivalent, the Primer. This simplification was anticipated by the work of Cardinal Francis Quiñones, a Spanish Franciscan, in his abortive revision of the Roman Breviary published in 1537 . Cranmer took up Quiñones's principle that everything should be sacrificed to secure continuity in singing the Psalter and reading the Bible. His first draft, produced during Henry's reign, retained the traditional seven distinct Canonical hours of Office prayer; but in his second draft, while he retained the Latin, he consolidated these into two . The 1549 book then dispensed with the Latin, and with all non-biblical readings; and established a rigorously biblical cycle of readings for Morning and Evening Prayer (set according to the calendar year, rather than the ecclesiastical year) and a Psalter to be read consecutively throughout each month. He provided that the New Testament (other than the Book of Revelation) be read through three times in a year, while the Old Testament, including the Apocrypha would be read through once. Of the set canticles, only the Te Deum was retained of the non-biblical material. In the 1552 Prayer book, this pattern was retained, (as it was in 1559, except that distinct Old and New Testament readings were now specified for Morning and Evening Prayer on Sundays). Following the publication of the 1552 Prayer Book, a revised English Primer was published in 1553; adapting the Offices and Morning and Evening Prayer, and other prayers, for lay domestic piety . The English Prayer Book in the reign of Mary Before the book was in general use, however, Edward VI died. In 1553, Mary, upon her succession to the throne, restored the old religion. The Mass was re-established, altars, roods and statues were re-instated; an attempt was made to restore the Church to its Roman affiliation. Cranmer was punished for his work in the English Reformation by being burned at the stake on 21 March 1556. Nevertheless, the 1552 book was to survive. After Mary's death in 1558, it became the primary source for the Elizabethan Book of Common Prayer, with subtle if significant changes only. Hundreds of Protestants fled into exile—establishing an English church in Frankfurt am Main. A bitter, and very public, dispute ensued between those, like Edmund Grindal and Richard Cox, who wished to preserve in exile the exact form of worship of the 1552 Prayer Book; and those, like John Knox the pastor of the congregation, who regarded that book as still partially tainted with compromise. Eventually in 1555 the civil authorities expelled Knox and his supporters to Geneva, where they adopted a new Prayer Book The Form of Prayers, that derived chiefly from Calvin's French La Forme des Prières. Consequently, when the accession of Elizabeth I re-asserted the dominance of Protestantism in England, there remained a significant body of Reformed believers who were nevertheless hostile to the Book of Common Prayer. John Knox took The Form of Prayers with him to Scotland, where it formed the basis of the Scots Book of Common Order. 1559 Prayer Book Thus, under Elizabeth, a more permanent enforcement of the Reformed religion was undertaken, and the 1552 book was republished in 1559, scarcely altered . The alterations, though minor, were however to cast a long shadow. One related to what was worn. Instead of the banning of all vestments save the rochet (for bishops) and the surplice for parish clergy, it permitted 'such ornaments...as were in use...in the second year of K. Edward VI'. This allowed substantial leeway for more traditionalist clergy to retain at least some of the vestments which they felt were appropriate to liturgical celebration. It was to be the basis of claims in the 19th Century that vestments such as chasubles, albs, and stoles were legal. At the Communion, the words from the 1549 book 'the Body of our Lord Jesus Christ' etc. was combined with the words of Edward's second book, 'Take eat in remembrance.' etc. The instruction to the congregation to kneel at the Communion was retained; but the accompanying Black Rubric denying any "real and essential presence" of Christ's flesh and blood, was removed . The conservative nature of these changes underlines the fact that Protestantism was by no means universally popular – a fact that the queen herself recognized: her revived Act of Supremacy, giving her the ambiguous title of Supreme Governor passed without difficulty, but the Act of Uniformity 1559 giving statutory force to the Prayer Book, passed through Parliament by only three votes . It made constitutional history in being imposed by the laity alone, as all the bishops, except those imprisoned by the Queen and unable to attend, voted against it . Convocation had made its position clear by affirming the traditional doctrine of the Eucharist, the authority of the Pope, and the reservation by divine law to ecclesiastics 'of handling and defining concerning the things belonging to faith, sacraments, and discipline ecclesiastical' . After the several innovations and reversals, the new forms of worship took time to settle in. Among Cranmer's innovations, retained in the new book was the requirement of weekly communion. In practice, as before the Reformation, many received communion rarely, as little as once a year in some cases; George Herbert estimated it as no more than six times . However practice was variable: very high attendance at festivals was in most places the order of the day and in some places regular communion was very popular, in other places they stayed away or sent "a servant to be the liturgical representative of their household." . Few parish clergy were initially licensed to preach by the bishops; in the absence of a licensed preacher, Sunday services were required to be accompanied by reading one of the homilies written by Cranmer . George Herbert was however, not alone in his enthusiasm for preaching which he regarded as one of the prime functions of a parish priest . Music was much simplified; and a radical distinction developed between, on the one hand, parish worship where only the metrical psalms of Sternhold and Hopkins might be sung; and on the other hand, worship in churches with organs and surviving choral foundations, where the music of John Marbeck and others was developed into a rich choral tradition . The whole act of parish worship might take well over two hours; and accordingly, churches were equipped with pews in which households could sit together (whereas in the medieval church, men and women had worshipped separately). Diarmaid MacCulloch describes the new act of worship as, "a morning marathon of prayer, scripture reading, and praise, consisting of mattins, litany, and ante-communion, preferably as the matrix for a sermon to proclaim the message of scripture anew week by week." . Many ordinary churchgoers—that is those who could afford a copy as it was expensive in terms of most people's incomes—would own a copy of the prayer book. Judith Maltby cites a story of parishioners at Flixton in Suffolk who brought their own prayer books to church in order to shame their Vicar into conforming with it: they eventually ousted him . Between 1549 and 1642, roughly 290 editions of the prayer book were produced . Before the end of the Civil War and the introduction of the 1662 prayer book, something like a half a million prayer books are estimated to have been in circulation . On the queen's death in 1603, this book, substantially the book of 1552, having been regarded as offensive by the likes of Bishop Stephen Gardiner in the sixteenth century as being a break with the tradition of the Western church, as it was, by the seventeenth century had come to be regarded by some as unduly Catholic. The objections of the English Puritans were; firstly, that it was improper for the lay congregation to take any vocal part in prayer (as in the Litany or Lord's Prayer), other than to say "Amen"; secondly, that no set prayer should exclude the option of an extempore alternative from the Minister; thirdly, that the Minister should have the option to omit part of the set liturgy at his discretion; fourthly, that short Collects should be replaced by longer prayers and exhortations; and fifthly, that all surviving "Catholic" ceremonial should be removed . On the accession of James I, following the so-called Millenary Petition, the Hampton Court conference of 1604—the same meeting of bishops and Puritan divines that initiated the Authorized version of the Bible—resisted the pressure for change (save to the catechism) . With the defeat of Charles I (1625-1649) in the Civil War the Puritan pressure, exercised through a much-changed Parliament, had increased. Puritan-inspired petitions for the removal of the prayer book and episcopacy 'root and branch' resulted in local disquiet in many places and eventually the production of locally organized counter petitions. The Parliamentary government had its way but it became clear that the division was not between Catholics and Protestants, but between Puritans and those who valued the Elizabethan settlement. . The 1559 book was finally outlawed by Parliament in 1645 to be replaced by the Directory of Public Worship, which was more a set of instructions than a prayer book. How widely the Directory was used is not certain; there is some evidence of its having been purchased, in churchwardens' accounts, but not widely. The Prayer Book certainly was used clandestinely in some places, not least because the Directory made no provision at all for burial services. Following the execution of Charles I in 1649 and the establishment of the Commonwealth under Lord Protector Cromwell, it would not be reinstated until shortly after the restoration of the monarchy to England. John Evelyn records in his Diary, taking Communion according to the 1559 Prayer Book rite: Christmas Day 1657. I went to London with my wife to celebrate Christmas Day. . . Sermon ended, as [the minister] was giving us the holy sacrament, the chapel was surrounded with soldiers, and all the communicants and assembly surprised and kept prisoners by them, some in the house, others carried away... These wretched miscreants held their muskets against us as we came up to receive the sacred elements, as if they would have shot us at the altar. Prayer Book in Scotland Laud's abortive 1637 Prayer book. In 1557, the Scots Protestant lords had adopted the English Prayer Book of 1552, for reformed worship in Scotland. However, when John Knox returned to Scotland in 1559, he continued to use the Form of Prayer he had created for the English exiles in Geneva, and in 1564, this supplanted the Book of Common Prayer under the title of the Book of Common Order. Following the accession of King James VI of Scotland to the throne of England, his son King Charles I, with the assistance of Archbishop Laud sought to impose the prayer book on Scotland . The book concerned was not, however, the 1559 book but very much that of 1549,the first book of Edward VI. First used in 1637, it was never accepted, having been violently rejected by the Scots. Following the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (including the English Civil War), the Church of Scotland was re-established on a presbyterian basis but by the Act of Comprehension 1690, the rump of Episcopalians were allowed to hold onto their benefices. For liturgy they looked to Laud's book and in 1724 the first of the 'Wee Bookies' was published, containing, for the sake of economy, the central part of the Communion beginning with the Offertory . Between then and 1764, when a more formal revised version was published, a number of things happened which were to separate the Scottish liturgy more firmly from either the English books of 1549 or 1559. First, informal changes were made to the order of the various parts of the service and inserting words indicating a sacrificial intent to the Eucharist; secondly, as a result of Bishop Rattray's researches into the liturgies of St. James and St. Clement, published in 1744, the form of the invocation was changed. These changes were incorporated into the 1764 book which was to be the liturgy of the Scottish Episcopal Church (until 1911 when it was revised) but it was to influence the liturgy of the Episcopal Church in the United States. A completely new revision was finished in 1929, and several alternative orders of the communion service and other services have been prepared since then. 1662 Prayer Book Title page of the Prayer book of 1662, printed by John Baskerville in 1762. The 1662 prayer book was printed only two years after the restoration of the monarchy, following the Savoy Conference convened by Royal Warrant to review the book of 1559 . Attempts by Presbyterians led by Richard Baxter to gain approval for an alternative service book failed. In reply to the Presbyterian Exceptions, some 600 changes were made to the book of 1559, mostly minor; giving the Puritans little of what they wanted, but implementing rather more (though by no means all) of the changes suggested by High Anglicans . Among them was the reference, in the prayer for the Church Militant, those 'departed this life in thy faith and fear' thus contradicting the statement at the beginning of the prayer that it was for the church 'militant here in earth'. Secondly, an attempt was made to restore the Offertory. This was achieved by the insertion of the words 'and oblations' into the prayer for the Church and the revision of the rubric so as to require the monetary offerings to be brought to the Table (instead of being put in the poor box) and the bread and wine placed upon the Table. Previously it had not been clear when and how bread and wine got onto the altar. The so-called manual acts, whereby the priest took the bread and the cup during the prayer of consecration, which had been deleted in 1552, were restored; and an "Amen" was inserted after the words of institution and before the Communion, hence separating the elements of Consecration and Communion that Cranmer had tried to knit together. After the communion, the unused but consecrated bread and wine were to be reverently consumed in church rather than being taken away for the Priest's own use. By such subtle means were Cranmer's purposes further confused, leaving it for generations to argue over the precise theology of the rite. One change made that constituted a concession to the Presbyterian Exceptions, was the updating and re-insertion of the so-called Black Rubric, which had been removed in 1559. This now declared that kneeling in order to receive the communion did not imply adoration of the species of the Eucharist nor 'to any Corporal Presence of Christ's natural Flesh and Blood'—which, said the rubric, were in heaven, not here. Unable to accept the new book 1,760 ministers were deprived of their livings . In effect, the 1662 Prayer Book marked the end of a period of just over 100 years, when a common form of liturgy served for almost all Reformed public worship in England; and the start of the continuing division between Anglicans and Nonconformists . The actual language of the 1662 revision was little changed from that of Cranmer. With two exceptions, some words and phrases which had become archaic were modernized; secondly, the readings for the Epistle and Gospel at the Holy Communion, which had been set out in full since 1549, were now set to the text of the 1611 Authorized Version of the Bible. The Psalter, which had not been printed out in the 1549, 1552 or 1559 Books—was in 1662 provided in Miles Coverdale's translation from the Great Bible of 1538. It was this edition which was to be the official Book of Common Prayer, during the growth of the British Empire, and, as a result, has been a great influence on the prayer books of Anglican churches worldwide, liturgies of other denominations in English, and of the English language as a whole. Further attempts at revision After the 1662 prayer book, development ceased in England until the twentieth century; that it did was, however, a bit of a close run thing. On the death of Charles II his brother, a Roman Catholic, became James II. James wished to achieve toleration for those of his own Roman Catholic faith, whose practices were still banned. This, however, drew the Presbyterians closer to the Church of England in their common desire to resist 'popery'; talk of reconciliation and liturgical compromise was thus in the air. But with the flight of James in 1688 and the arrival of the Calvinist William of Orange the position of the parties changed. The Presbyterians could achieve toleration of their practices without such a right being given to Roman Catholics and without, therefore, their having to submit to the Church of England, even with a liturgy more acceptable to them. They were now in a much stronger position to demand changes that were ever more radical. John Tillotson, Dean of Canterbury pressed the king to set up a Commission to produce such a revision . The so-called Liturgy of Comprehension of 1689, which was the result, conceded two thirds of the Presbyterian demands of 1661; but when it came to Convocation the members, now more fearful of William's perceived agenda, did not even discuss it and its contents were, for a long time, not even accessible . This work, however, did go on to influence the prayer books of many British colonies. Edward Bouverie Pusey, a leader of the Oxford Movement. By the 19th Century other pressures upon the book of 1662 had arisen. Adherents of the Oxford Movement, begun in 1833, raised questions about the relationship of the Church of England to the apostolic church and thus about its forms of worship. Known as Tractarians after their production of 'Tracts for the Times' on theological issues, they advanced the case for the Church of England being essentially a part of the 'Western Church', of which the Roman Catholic Church was the chief representative. The illegal use of elements of the Roman rite, the use of candles, vestments and incense, practices known as Ritualism, had become widespread and led to the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874 which established a new system of discipline, intending to bring the 'Romanisers' into conformity . The Act had no effect on illegal practices: five clergy were imprisoned for contempt of court and after the trial of the much loved Bishop Edward King of Lincoln, it became clear that some revision of the liturgy had to be embarked upon . One branch of the ritualistic movement argued that both 'Romanisers' (by imitating the Church of Rome) and their Evangelical opponents (by imitating Reformed churches) transgressed the Ornaments Rubric of 1559, 'that such Ornaments of the Church, and of the Ministers thereof, at all Times of their Ministration, shall be retained, and be in use, as were in this Church of England, by the Authority of Parliament, in the Second Year of the Reign of King Edward the Sixth'. These adherents of ritualism, among whom one will find Percy Dearmer and others, claimed that the Ornaments Rubric prescribe the ritual usages of the Sarum Rite with the exception of a few minor things already abolished by the early reformation. Following a Royal Commission report in 1906, work began on a new prayer book, work that was to take twenty years. In 1927, this proposed prayer book was finished. It was decided, during development, that the use of the services therein would be decided on by each given congregation, so as to avoid as much conflict as possible with traditionalists. With these open guidelines the book was granted approval by the Church of England Convocations and Church Assembly. Since the Church of England is a state church, a further step; sending the proposed revision to Parliament; was required, but the book was rejected in December of that year when the MPs William Joynson-Hicks and Rosslyn Mitchell "reached and inflamed all the latent Protestant prejudices in the House" and argued strongly against it on the grounds that the proposed book was "papistical" and was a restoration of the Roman Mass and implied the doctrine of Transubstantiation. The next year was spent revising the book to make it more suitable for Parliament, but it was rejected yet again in 1928. The attitude of Parliament however altered nothing except the attitude of the bishops to the law of the land. They authorized the book on their own authority and some clergy used it, including those baptizing in the Crypt Chapel of the House of Commons. The effect of the failure of the 1928 book was salutary: no further attempts were made to change the book, other than those required for the changes to the monarchy. Instead a different process, that of producing an alternative book, led to the publication of Series 1, 2 and 3 in the 1960s, the 1980 Alternative Service Book and subsequently to the 2000 Common Worship series of books. Both differ substantially from the Book of Common Prayer, though the latter includes in the Order Two form of the Holy Communion a very slight revision of the prayer book service altering only one or two words and allowing the insertion of the Agnus Dei (Lamb of God) before Communion. Order One follows the pattern of modern liturgical scholarship. In 2003, a Roman Catholic adaptation of the BCP was published called the Book of Divine Worship. It is a compromise of material drawn from the proposed 1928 book, the 1979 ECUSA book, and the Roman Missal. Catholic converts from Anglicanism within the Anglican Use published it primarily for their use. Prayer Book in the Anglican Communion With British colonial expansion from the seventeenth century onwards, the Anglican Church was planted across the globe. These churches at first used and then revised the use of the Prayer Book, until they, like their parent, produced prayer books, which took into, account the developments in liturgical study and practice in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, which come under the general heading of the Liturgical Movement. Africa Asia India The Church of South India was the first Episcopal uniting church of our age, consisting as it did, from its foundation in 1947, at the time of Indian independence, of Anglicans, Methodists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians and Reformed Christians. Its liturgy, from the first, combined the free use of Cranmer's language with an adherence to the principles of congregational participation and the centrality of the Eucharist, much in line with the Liturgical Movement. Because it was a minority church of widely differing traditions in a non-Christian culture (except in Kerala, where Christianity has a long history), practice varied wildly but the retention of Cranmerian language, and a sympathy with his theology, in the 2004 revision, is a reminder of both the richness of his language and the breadth of his influence. Europe Ireland William Bedell had undertaken an Irish translation of the Book of Common Prayer in 1606. An Irish translation of the revised prayer book of 1662 was effected by John Richardson (1664-1747) and published in 1712. It has been revised several times, and the present edition has been used since 2004. Wales Even after the creation of the Church in Wales 1920, the 1662 book was used until 1966, when trials of new services began. The current book was published in 1984, and is currently under revision. Oceania Australia The Anglican Church of Australia, until 1981 officially known as the Church of England in Australia and Tasmania, became self-governing in 1961. Among other things the General Synod agreed that the Book of Common Prayer was to 'be regarded as the authorised standard of worship and doctrine in this Church ...'. In 1978 An Australian Prayer Book was produced which sought to adhere to this principle, so that where the Liturgical Committee could not agree on a formulation, the words or expressions of the BCP were to be used . The result was conservative revision. In 1995 a similar process could be observed as elsewhere with the production of A Prayer Book for Australia which departed from both the structure and wording of the BCP. The process was accompanied by numerous objections, notably from the deeply conservatively evangelical Diocese of Sydney which noted the loss of BCP wording and of an explicit 'biblical doctrine of substitutionary atonement'. On the other hand, the rest of the Australian church has not proved as difficult as prayer book revisers might have supposed. The Diocese of Sydney has developed its own small prayer book, called Sunday Services, to supplement the existing prayer book and preserve the original theology, which the Sydney diocese asserts has been changed. North and Central America Canada The Anglican Church of Canada developed its first Book of Common Prayer separately from the English version in 1918. The revision of 1962 was much more substantial, bearing a family relationship to that of the abortive 1928 book in England. The language was conservatively modernized, and additional seasonal material was added. As in England, while many prayers were retained the structure of the Communion service was altered: a Prayer of Oblation was added to the Eucharistic prayer after the 'words of institution', thus reflecting the rejection of Cranmer's theology in liturgical developments across the Anglican Communion. More controversially, the Psalter included in the book omitted certain sections, including the entirety of Psalm 58 According to the Tables of Proper Psalms, "The following passages in the Psalter as hitherto used are omitted: Psalm 14. 5-7; 55. 16; 58 (all); 68. 21-23; 69. 23-29; 104. 35 (in part); 109. 5-19; 136. 27; 137. 7-9; 140. 9-10; 141. 7-8. The verses are renumbered." See also the Psalter from 1962 Canadian Book of Common Prayer. . A French translation, Le Recueil des Prières de la Communauté Chrétienne, was published in 1967. After a period of experimentation with the publication of various supplements, the Book of Alternative Services was published in 1985. This book (which owes much to Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican, and other sources) has widely supplanted the 1962 book, though the latter remains authorized. As in other places, there has been a reaction and the Canadian version of the Book of Common Prayer has found supporters. Indigenous Languages The Book of Common Prayer has also been translated into these North American indigenous languages: Cowitchan, Cree, Haida, Ntlakyapamuk, Slavey, Eskimo-Aleut, Dakota, Delaware, Mohawk, Ojibwe. Ojibwa Joseph Gilfillan was the chief editor of the 1911 Ojibwa edition of the Book of Common Prayer entitled Iu Wejibuewisi Mamawi Anamiawini Mazinaigun (Iw Wejibwewizi Maamawi-anami'aawini Mazina'igan) . United States of America The American Prayer book of 1789. The Episcopal Church separated itself from the Church of England in 1789, having been established in the United States in 1607. Its prayer book, published in 1790, had as its sources, the 1662 English book and the 1764 Scottish Liturgy (see above) which Bishop Seabury of Connecticut had brought over following his consecration in Aberdeen in 1784, containing elements of each . The preface to the 1789 Book of Common Prayer says "this Church is far from intending to depart from the Church of England in any essential point of doctrine, discipline, or worship...further than local circumstances require." There were some notable differences. For example, in the Communion service after the words of institution there follows a Prayer of Oblation from 1549, but into which were inserted the words 'which we now offer unto thee' (in small caps) with reference to the 'holy gifts' An epiclesis was included, as in the Scottish book, though modified to meet reformist objections. Overall the book was modelled in the English Prayer Book, the Convention having resisted attempts at deletion and revision . Further revisions occurred in 1892 and 1928, in which minor changes were made, removing, for instance, some of Cranmer's Exhortations and introducing such innovations as prayers for the dead. In 1979, a more substantial revision was made. There were now two rites for the most common services, the first that kept most of the language of 1928, and the second using only contemporary language (some of it newly composed, and some adapted from the older language). Many changes were made in the rubrics and the shapes of the services, which were generally made for both the traditional and contemporary language versions. However, there was arguably a greater degree of continuity than was the case in England, which may account for the fact that all the books of the series, from 1790 to 1979 retain the same title. The 1979 book owes a good deal to the Liturgical Movement and to the 19th century Catholic revival. Many Anglo-Catholics felt alienated by the contemporary language changes to the 1979 BCP and in 1991 The Church of the Good Shepherd in Rosemont, PA published a book entitled, the Anglican Service Book which is "a traditional language adaptation of the 1979 Book of Common Prayer together with the Psalter or Psalms of David and Additional Devotions." Books like this are allowed because of a rubric in the 1979 Prayer Book which allows for the translation of the contemporary language into the traditional language of the 1928 Book of Common Prayer. Even so, the revision caused some controversy and in 2000, the General Convention of the Episcopal Church issued an apology to those "offended or alienated during the time of liturgical transition to the 1979 Book of Common Prayer." The Prayer Book Cross was erected in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park in 1894 as a gift from the Church of England. Prayer Book Cross Created by Ernest Coxhead, it stands on one of the higher points in Golden Gate Park. It is located between John F. Kennedy Drive and Park Presidio Drive, near Cross Over Drive. This sandstone cross commemorates the first use of the Book of Common Prayer in California by Sir Francis Drake's chaplain on June 24, 1579. South America Religious influence The Book of Common Prayer has had a great influence on a number of other denominations. While theologically different, the language and flow of the service of many other churches owes a great debt to the prayer book. In particular, many Christian prayer books have drawn on the Collects for the Sundays of the Churches Year—mostly translated by Cranmer from a wide range of Christian traditions, but including a number of original compositions—which are widely recognized as masterpieces of compressed liturgical construction. John Wesley, an Anglican priest whose revivalist preaching led to the creation of Methodism wrote, "I believe there is no Liturgy in the world, either in ancient or modern language, which breathes more of a solid, scriptural, rational piety than the Common Prayer of the Church of England." Many Methodist churches in England and the United States continued to use a slightly revised version of the book for communion services well into the 20th century. In the United Methodist Church, the liturgy for Eucharistic celebrations is almost identical to what is found in the Book of Common Prayer, as are some of the other liturgies and services. A unique variant was developed in 1785 in Boston, Massachusetts when the historic King's Chapel (founded 1686) left the Episcopal Church and became an independent Unitarian church . To this day, King's Chapel uniquely uses the The Book of Common Prayer According to the Use in King's Chapel in its worship . In the 1960s, when Roman Catholicism adopted a vernacular revised mass, many translations of the English prayers followed the form of Cranmer's translation. Literary influence Together with the Authorized version and the works of Shakespeare, the Book of Common Prayer has been one of the three fundamental underpinnings of modern English. As it has been in regular use for centuries, many phrases from its services have passed into the English language, either as deliberate quotations or as unconscious borrowings. They are used in non-liturgical ways. For example, many authors have used quotes from the prayer book as titles for their books. Some examples of well-known phrases from the Book of Common Prayer are: "Speak now or forever hold your peace" from the marriage liturgy. "Till death us do part", from the marriage liturgy. "Earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust to dust" from the funeral service. "From all the deceits of the world, the flesh, and the devil" from the litany. "Read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest" from the collect for the second Sunday of Advent. The phrase "till death us do part" has been changed to "till death do us part" in some more recent prayer books, such as the 1962 Canadian Book of Common Prayer. References and allusions to Prayer Book services in the works of Shakespeare were tracked down and identified by Richmond Noble . Derision of the Prayer Book or its contents "in any interludes, plays, songs, rhymes, or by other open words" was a criminal offence under the 1559 Act of Uniformity, Act of Uniformity, 1559 and consequently Shakespeare avoids too direct reference; but Noble particularly identifies the reading of the Psalter according to the Great Bible version specified in the Prayer Book, as the biblical book generating the largest number of Biblical references in Shakespeare's plays. Noble found a total of 157 allusions to the Psalms in the plays of the First Folio, relating to 62 separate Psalms—all, save one, of which he linked to the version in the Psalter, rather than those in the Geneva Bible or Bishops' Bible. In addition, there are a small number of direct allusions to liturgical texts in the Prayer Book; e.g. Henry VIII 3:2 where Wolsey states "Vain Pomp and Glory of this World, I hate ye!", a clear reference to the rite of Public Baptism; where the Godparents are asked "Doest thou forsake the vaine pompe and glory of the worlde..?" More recently, P.D. James used phrases from the Book of Common Prayer and made them into bestselling titles—Devices and Desires and The Children of Men, while Alfonso Cuarón's 2006 film Children of Men placed the phrase onto cinema marquees worldwide. Copyright status In most of the world the Book of Common Prayer can be freely reproduced as it is long out of copyright. This is not the case in the United Kingdom itself. In the United Kingdom, the British Crown holds the rights to the Book of Common Prayer. The rights fall outside the scope of copyright as defined in statute law. Instead, they fall under the purview of the royal prerogative and as such, they are perpetual in subsistence. Publishers are licensed to reproduce the Book of Common Prayer under letters patent. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the letters patent are held by the Queen's Printer, and in Scotland by the Scottish Bible Board. The office of Queen's Printer has been associated with the right to reproduce the Bible for many years, with the earliest known reference coming in 1577. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the Queen's Printer is Cambridge University Press. CUP inherited the right of being Queen's Printer when they took over the firm of Eyre & Spottiswoode in the late 20th century. Eyre & Spottiswoode had been Queen's Printer since 1901. Other letters patent of similar antiquity grant Cambridge University Press and Oxford University Press the right to produce the Book of Common Prayer independently of the Queen's Printer. The terms of the letters patent prohibit those other than the holders, or those authorized by the holders from printing, publishing or importing the Book of Common Prayer into the United Kingdom. The protection that the Book of Common Prayer, and the Authorized version, enjoy is the last remnant of the time when the Crown held a monopoly over all printing and publishing in the United Kingdom. This protection should not be confused with Crown copyright, or copyright in works of the United Kingdom's government; that is part of modern UK copyright law. Like other copyrights, Crown copyright is time-limited and potentially enforceable worldwide. The non-copyright Royal Prerogative is perpetual, but applies only to the UK; though many other Royal Prerogatives apply to the other Commonwealth realms, this one does not. It is common misconception that the Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office holds letters patent for being Queen's Printer. The Controller of HMSO holds a separate set of letters patent, which cover the office Queen's Printer of Acts of Parliament. The Scotland Act 1998 defines the position of Queen's Printer for Scotland as being held by the Queen's Printer of Acts of Parliament. The Controller of HMSO holds the position of Government Printer for Northern Ireland. The Episcopal Church's book is always released into the public domain. Canon II.3.6(b)(2) Trial use and supplemental liturgies are however copyrighted by Church Publishing, the official publishing arm of the church. See also Anglican devotions Book of Common Order Prayer Book Society of Canada Prayer Book Rebellion Thirty-Nine Articles The Homilies Editions References Further reading Chronological order of publication (oldest first) Forbes, Dennis (1992). Did the Almighty intend His book to be copyrighted?, European Christian Bookstore Journal, April 1992 External links Books of Common Prayer, from various Provinces of the Anglican Communion, at The Society of Archbishop Justus.
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