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4,500 | Drum_kit | A drum set (also drum kit or trap set) is a collection of drums, cymbals and sometimes other percussion instruments, such as cowbells, wood blocks, triangles, chimes, or tambourines, arranged for convenient playing by a single person (drummer.) The term "drum kit" seems to have come from Great Britain. It was first created in the 1700s. In the U.S., the terms "drum set", and "trap set" were more prevalent historically. The individual instruments of a drum set are struck by a variety of implements held in the hand, including sticks, brushes, and mallets. Two notable exceptions include the bass drum, played by a foot-operated pedal, and the hi hat cymbals, which may be struck together using a foot pedal in addition to being played with sticks or brushes. Although other instruments can be played using a pedal, the feet are usually occupied by the bass drum and hi hat. Percussion notation is often used by drummers to signify which drum set components are to be played. A full size drum set without all the extras has a bass drum, floor tom, snare drum, tom-toms, hi-hat cymbals, a ride cymbal and a crash cymbal. Various music genres dictate the stylistically appropriate use of the drum kit's set-up. For example, in most forms of rock music, the bass drum, hi-hat and snare drum are the primary instruments used to create a drum beat: Rhythm pattern characteristic of much popular music including rock In jazz, however, the ride cymbal and hi hats (or brushed snare drum and hi hats) usually fill this role. History and development Top view: 1 ride cymbal, 3 crash cymbals, 1 splash cymbal, 1 china cymbal, 2 bass drums, 2 mounted toms, 2 floor toms, 1 snare drum, 1 hi-hat, 1 throne Drum sets were first developed due to financial and space considerations in theaters where drummers were encouraged to cover as many percussion parts as possible. Up until then, drums and cymbals were played separately in military and orchestral music settings. Initially, drummers played the bass and snare drums by hand, then in the 1890s they started experimenting with foot pedals to play the bass drum. William F. Ludwig made the bass drum pedal system workable in 1909, paving the way for the modern drum kit. By World War I drum kits were characterized by very large marching bass drums and many percussion items suspended on and around it, and they became a central part of jazz music. At that time it consisted of only a bass and snare drum and only occasionally a hi hat. Later, cymbals and a floor tom were added. Finally the mounted toms were added to the set to make it what it is today as a complete set. Hi-hat stands appeared around 1926. Metal consoles were developed to hold rack toms, with swing out stands for snare drums and cymbals. On top of the console was a "contraptions" (shortened to "trap") tray used to hold whistles, klaxons, and cowbells, thus drum kits were dubbed "trap kits." By the 1930s, Gene Krupa and others popularized streamlined trap kits leading to a basic four piece drum set standard: bass, snare, rack toms, and floor tom. In time legs were fitted to larger floor toms, and "consolettes" were devised to hold smaller tom-toms on the bass drum. In the 1940s, Louie Bellson pioneered use of two bass drums, or the double bass drum kit. With the ascendancy of rock and roll, the role of the drum kit player became more visible, accessible, and visceral. The watershed moment occurred in 1964, when Ringo Starr of The Beatles played his Ludwig kit on American television; an event that motivated legions to take up the drums. The trend toward bigger drum kits in Rock music began in the 1960s and gained momentum in the 1970s. By the 1980s, widely popular drummers like Neil Peart, Billy Cobham, Carl Palmer, Bill Bruford, and Terry Bozzio were using large numbers of drums and cymbals The Drum Book: The History of the Rock Drum Kit (Geoff Nichols, 1997), p. 4–12 and had also begun using electronic drums. John Bonham of Led Zeppelin also helped to revolutionize the drum kit and master new unheard of beats. Double bass pedals (Often used in heavy metal) were developed to play on one bass drum, eliminating the need for a second bass drum. In the 1990s and 2000s, many drummers in popular music and indie music have reverted back to basic four piece drum set standard. http://www.billbruford.co.uk/equipment Bill Bruford Drum Sets In the present, it is not uncommon for drummers to use a variety of auxiliary percussion instruments, found objects, and electronics as part of their "drum" kits. Popular electronics include: electronic sound modules; laptop computers used to activate loops, sequences and samples; metronomes and tempo meters; recording devices; and personal sound reinforcement equipment. Drum kit components The exact collection of drum kit components depends on factors like musical style, personal preference, financial resources, and transportation options of the drummer. Cymbal, hi-hat, and tom-tom stands, as well as bass drum pedals and drummer thrones are usually standard. Most mass produced drum kits are sold in one of two five-piece configurations (referring to the number of drums only) which typically include a bass drum, a snare drum, and three toms. The standard sizes (sometimes called ‘rock’ sizes) are 22” (head size diameter) bass drum, 14” snare drum, 12” and 13” mounted toms, and a 16” floor tom. The other popular configuration is called Fusion, a reference to Jazz fusion music, which usually includes a 20” (or sometimes 22") bass drum, a 14” snare drum, and 10”, 12” and 14” mounted toms. The standard hardware pack includes a hi hat stand, a snare drum stand, two or three cymbal stands, and a bass drum pedal. Drum kits are usually offered as either complete kits which include drums and hardware, or as “shell packs” which include only the drums and perhaps some tom mounting hardware. Cymbals are usually purchased separately and are also available in either packs or as individual pieces, which enables the buyer to test for their perfect cymbal. {| class="wikitable" border="1" Audio samples Component Content Audio (Vorbis: click the arrow to play)SnareUnmuffled snare drum Muffled snare drum Rim click on a snare Bass drumMuffled bass drum Toms8-inch (20 cm) rack tom 12-inch (30 cm) rack tom Floor tom Hi-hatClosed hi-hat Open hi-hat Hi-hat being opened and closed by its foot pedal CrashCrash cymbal RideHit normally Hit on the bell of the cymbal Hit on the edge BeatA typical rock beat on hi-hat Typical rock beat on ride cymbal See the Drums category at Wikipedia Commons for more Modern drum kit The basic, most popular drum kit around today is of a five piece set arranged in a "2 up, 1 down" formation. It comprises of a bass drum, two rack toms (tom toms above the bass drum, either secured by a tom arm that is attatched to the bass drum or another stand), one floor tom, a snare drum, a hi hat and a collection of cymbals (most commonly a crash cymbal, ride cymbal and any others the drummer wishes to have). Another variant of the five piece set is a "1 up, 2 down" formation, comprising of the usual bass drum, snare drum, hi hats, collection of cymbals, but with 1 rack tom and 2 floor toms. The most common manufacturer for this setup is Drum Workshop. Other common formations, or set-ups, are as follows. A four piece set, arranged in a "1 up, 1 down" formation, comprises of a bass drum, one rack tom, one floor tom, one snare drum, a hi hat and a collection of cymbals. A six piece set comprises of a bass drum, snare drum, hi hats, a collection of cymbals and either 3 rack toms and one floor tom or two rack toms and two floor toms. A seven piece will usually comprise of a bass drum, 3 rack toms, 2 floor toms, a snare drum, hi hats and a collection of cymbals. Another type of set is a fusion set, with alternate standard sizing. Sizing Snare, tom and bass drum sizes are commonly expressed as diameter x depth, both in inches, for example 14 x 5 is a common snare drum size. However, some manufacturers, including Drum Workshop, Slingerland, and Tama Drums, use the opposite convention, and put the depth first, so they would call this size 5 x 14. Makers who use the diameter-first convention include Premier Percussion, Pearl Drums, Sonor, Mapex, and Yamaha Drums The standard sizes for a 5 piece, "2 up, 1 down" rock kit are: 22" x 18" bass drum, 12" x 9" rack tom, 13" x 11" rack tom, 16" x 16" floor tom and a 14" x 5.5" snare drum. Another common sized drum kit is a fusion set. A standard 5 piece fusion drum kit will consist of a 20" x 16" bass drum, 10" x 8" rack tom, 12" x 9" rack tom, 14" x 14" floor tom and a 14" x 5.5" snare drum. See also References External links DrumsDatabase: Largest Drum Lessons Portal. Over 500 free Lessons and Drum Tabs on-line. Drumdojo : Long Established Drum Information Site be-x-old:Бубен | Drum_kit |@lemmatized drum:97 set:22 also:5 kit:25 trap:5 collection:7 cymbal:28 sometimes:3 percussion:6 instrument:5 cowbell:2 wood:1 block:1 triangle:1 chime:1 tambourine:1 arrange:3 convenient:1 playing:1 single:1 person:1 drummer:10 term:2 seem:1 come:1 great:1 britain:1 first:4 create:2 u:1 prevalent:1 historically:1 individual:2 strike:2 variety:2 implement:1 hold:4 hand:2 include:11 stick:2 brush:3 mallet:1 two:7 notable:1 exception:1 bass:34 play:10 foot:5 operate:1 pedal:9 hi:21 hat:20 may:1 together:1 use:14 addition:1 although:1 usually:7 occupy:1 notation:1 often:2 signify:1 component:4 full:1 size:10 without:1 extra:1 floor:15 tom:45 snare:24 ride:5 crash:3 various:1 music:9 genre:1 dictate:1 stylistically:1 appropriate:1 example:2 form:1 rock:9 primary:1 beat:4 rhythm:1 pattern:1 characteristic:1 much:1 popular:6 jazz:3 however:2 fill:1 role:2 history:2 development:1 top:2 view:1 splash:1 china:1 mount:5 throne:2 develop:3 due:1 financial:2 space:1 consideration:1 theater:1 encourage:1 cover:1 many:3 part:3 possible:1 separately:2 military:1 orchestral:1 setting:1 initially:1 start:1 experiment:1 william:1 f:1 ludwig:2 make:2 system:1 workable:1 pave:1 way:1 modern:2 world:1 war:1 characterize:1 large:4 march:1 item:1 suspend:1 around:3 become:2 central:1 time:2 consist:2 occasionally:1 later:1 add:2 finally:1 today:2 complete:2 stand:7 appear:1 metal:2 console:2 rack:14 swing:1 contraption:1 shorten:1 tray:1 whistle:1 klaxon:1 thus:1 dub:1 gene:1 krupa:1 others:2 popularize:1 streamlined:1 lead:2 basic:3 four:3 piece:11 standard:8 leg:1 fit:1 consolettes:1 devise:1 small:1 louie:1 bellson:1 pioneer:1 double:2 ascendancy:1 roll:1 player:1 visible:1 accessible:1 visceral:1 watershed:1 moment:1 occur:1 ringo:1 starr:1 beatles:1 american:1 television:1 event:1 motivate:1 legion:1 take:1 trend:1 toward:1 big:1 begin:2 gain:1 momentum:1 widely:1 like:2 neil:1 peart:1 billy:1 cobham:1 carl:1 palmer:1 bill:2 bruford:2 terry:1 bozzio:1 number:2 book:1 geoff:1 nichols:1 p:1 electronic:2 john:1 bonham:1 zeppelin:1 help:1 revolutionize:1 master:1 new:1 unheard:1 heavy:1 one:7 eliminate:1 need:1 second:1 indie:1 revert:1 back:1 http:1 www:1 billbruford:1 co:1 uk:1 equipment:2 present:1 uncommon:1 auxiliary:1 find:1 object:1 electronics:2 sound:2 module:1 laptop:1 computer:1 activate:1 loop:1 sequence:1 sample:2 metronome:1 tempo:1 meter:1 record:1 device:1 personal:2 reinforcement:1 exact:1 depend:1 factor:1 musical:1 style:1 preference:1 resource:1 transportation:1 option:1 well:1 mass:1 produce:1 sell:1 five:3 configuration:2 refer:1 typically:1 three:2 call:3 head:1 diameter:3 fusion:5 reference:2 hardware:3 pack:3 offer:1 either:4 shell:1 perhaps:1 purchase:1 available:1 enable:1 buyer:1 test:1 perfect:1 class:1 wikitable:1 border:1 audio:2 content:1 vorbis:1 click:2 arrow:1 snareunmuffled:1 muffle:1 rim:1 drummuffled:1 inch:3 cm:2 hatclosed:1 open:2 close:1 crashcrash:1 ridehit:1 normally:1 hit:2 bell:1 edge:1 beata:1 typical:2 see:2 category:1 wikipedia:1 common:5 formation:4 comprise:2 secure:1 arm:1 attatched:1 another:4 commonly:2 wish:1 variant:1 comprising:1 usual:1 manufacturer:2 setup:1 workshop:2 ups:1 follow:1 comprises:2 six:1 seven:1 type:1 alternate:1 sizing:1 express:1 x:14 depth:2 slingerland:1 tama:1 opposite:1 convention:2 put:1 would:1 maker:1 premier:1 pearl:1 sonor:1 mapex:1 yamaha:1 external:1 link:1 drumsdatabase:1 lesson:2 portal:1 free:1 tab:1 line:1 drumdojo:1 long:1 establish:1 information:1 site:1 old:1 бубен:1 |@bigram drum_kit:20 drum_cymbal:4 percussion_instrument:2 hi_hat:20 hat_cymbal:2 snare_drum:21 ride_cymbal:5 crash_cymbal:3 rack_tom:14 gene_krupa:1 double_bass:2 ringo_starr:1 neil_peart:1 bill_bruford:2 http_www:1 drum_snare:5 class_wikitable:1 inch_cm:2 external_link:1 |
4,501 | International_Formula_3000 | The Formula 3000 International Championship (initially entitled the European Formula 3000 Championship) was created by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) in 1985 to become the final preparatory step for drivers hoping to enter the Formula One championship. Formula Two had become too expensive, and was dominated by works-run cars with factory engines; the hope was that Formula 3000 would offer quicker, cheaper, more open racing. The series began as an open specification, then tyres were standardized from 1986 onwards, followed by engines and chassis in 1996. The series ran annually through 2004, and was replaced in 2005 by the GP2 Series Engines Formula 3000 replaced Formula Two, and was so named because the engines used initially were 3.0 L (183ci) Cosworth DFV engines made obsolete by Formula One's change in engine rules. (It has been observed Bernie Ecclestone had purchased a job-lot of DFVs in 1984, with no obvious use for them at the time). The rules permitted any 90-degree V8 engine, fitted with a rev-limiter to keep power output under control. As well as the Cosworth, a Honda engine based on an Indy V8 by John Judd also appeared; a rumoured Lamborghini V8 never raced. In later years, a Mugen-Honda V8 became the thing to have, eclipsing the DFV; Cosworth responded with the brand new AC engine. Costs, not unlike the senior series, were getting out of control. Chassis A Lola chassis in the 2000 season. The first chassis from March, AGS and Ralt were developments of their existing 1984 Formula Two designs, although Lola's entry was based on and looked very much like an IndyCar. A few smaller teams tried obsolete three-litre Formula One cars (from Tyrrell, Williams, Minardi and RAM), with little success -- the Grand Prix and Indycar-derived entries were too unwieldy - their fuel tanks were about twice the size of those needed for F3000 races, and the weight distribution was not ideal. The first few years of the championship saw March establishing a superiority over Ralt and Lola - there was little to choose between the chassis, but more Marches were sold and ended up in better hands. The form book was rewritten in 1988 with the entry of the ambitious Reynard marque with a brand new chassis; Reynard had won their first race in every formula they'd entered. This would continue in F3000. The next couple of years saw Lola improve slightly - their car was arguably marginally superior to the Reynard in 1990 - and March slip, but both were crushed by the Reynard teams and by the mid-90s, F3000 was a virtual Reynard monopoly, although Lola did eventually return with a promising car and the Japanese Footwork and Dome chassis were seen in Europe. Dallara briefly tried the series before moving up to Formula One, and AGS moved up from Formula Two but never recaptured their occasional success. At least one unraced F3000 chassis existed - the Wagner fitted with a straight-six short-stroke BMW. This was converted into a sports car, however. Politics The series was not without controversy. Definitive rules for the 1985 season did not appear until the championship was well under way. In 1987 questions were asked about the ability of some of the drivers, given the high number of accidents in the formula. In 1989 the eligibility of the new Reynard chassis was challenged - it was raced with a different (but safer and no faster) nose to the one that had been crash tested. This season also saw problems with driver changes - the cost of F3000 was escalating to the point that teams were finding it difficult to run drivers for a whole season. A badly-implemented "two driver changes per car per season" rule meant that some cars had to sit idle while drivers with budgets could not race them (rather than allowing two drivers to share a drive through the season on a race-by-race basis, teams could only change the driver of any entry twice in a year). In 1991 the performance of some Italian teams attracted attention - they had started using Agip's "jungle juice" Formula One fuel, worth an estimated 15 bhp -- giving their drivers a significant advantage. In the early years of the formula there was much concern about safety, with a high number of accidents resulting in injuries to drivers and, unfortunately, one fatality in the International Championship - Marco Campos in the very last round of the 1995 series. Races Formula 3000 races during the "open chassis" era tended to be of about 100-120 miles in distance, held at major circuits, either headlining meetings or paired with other international events. The "jewel in the crown" of the F3000 season was traditionally the Pau Grand Prix street race, rivalled for a few years by the Birmingham round. Most major circuits in France, Italy, Spain, Germany and the United Kingdom saw the series visit at least once. The spec-chassis years In 1996, new rules introduced a single engine (a detuned Judd V8 engine, re-engineered by and badged as a Zytek) and chassis (Lola), to go along with tyre standardization (Avon) introduced in 1986. The following year the calendar was combined with that of Formula One, so the series became support races for the Grand Prix. Several Grand Prix teams established formal links with F3000 teams to develop young drivers (and engineering talent); these relationships varied from formal "junior teams" (such as the one McLaren set up for Nick Heidfeld) to fairly distant relationships based mostly upon shared sponsors and the use of the 'parent' team's name. The series grew dramatically through the late nineties, reaching an entry of nearly 40 cars - although this in itself was problematic as it meant many drivers failed to qualify. In 2000, the series was restricted to 15 teams of two cars each. However, by 2002 expenses were once more very high and the number of entries, and sponsors, rapidly dwindled. Formula 3000 was experiencing tough competition with cheaper formulae, such as European F3000 (using ex-FIA 1999 and 2002 Lola chassis), World Series by Nissan (also known as Formula Nissan) and Formula Renault V6 Eurocup, as well as the North American CART series. While drivers from these series such as Juan Pablo Montoya (CART), Cristiano da Matta (CART), and Felipe Massa (EF3000) found top rides in Formula One, the F3000 drivers seemed to have inordinate difficulty in moving onwards. By the end of 2003, car counts had fallen to new lows. The 2004 season was the last F3000 campaign, due in part to dwindling field sizes. In 2005 it was replaced with a new series known as GP2, with Renault backing. Champions For a complete list of drivers, see List of International Formula 3000 drivers. SeasonDriverTeamCarPoints1985 Christian Danner BS AutomotiveMarch 85D-Cosworth521986 Ivan Capelli GenoaMarch 86D-Cosworth391987 Stefano Modena OnyxMarch-Cosworth411988 Roberto Moreno Bromley MotorsportReynard-Cosworth431989 Jean Alesi Eddie Jordan RacingReynard-Cosworth391990 Érik Comas DAMSLola-Mugen511991 Christian Fittipaldi Pacific RacingReynard-Mugen471992 Luca Badoer Crypton EngineeringReynard-Cosworth461993 Olivier Panis DAMSReynard-Cosworth321994 Jean-Christophe Boullion DAMSReynard-Cosworth361995 Vincenzo Sospiri Super Nova RacingReynard-Cosworth421996 Jörg Müller RSM MarkoLola-Zytek521997 Ricardo Zonta Super Nova RacingLola-Zytek391998 Juan Pablo Montoya Super Nova RacingLola-Zytek651999 Nick Heidfeld West CompetitionLola-Zytek592000 Bruno Junqueira PetrobrasLola-Zytek482001 Justin Wilson Nordic RacingLola-Zytek712002 Sébastien Bourdais Super Nova RacingLola-Zytek562003 Björn Wirdheim Arden InternationalLola-Zytek782004 Vitantonio Liuzzi Arden InternationalLola-Zytek86 Three past F3000 champions (Müller, Junqueira and Wirdheim) have never been entered in an F1 race. Bourdais, Fittipaldi, Junqueira, Montoya, Moreno, Wilson, and Wirdheim have all raced in Champ Cars. Müller became a BMW driver in WTCC touring car racing after having been a test driver for the BMW-Williams F1 project in 1999 as well as a racer of the BMW V12 LMR Le Mans winner. Sospiri attempted to qualify for one Formula One race but failed to make it, having raced for a highly unprepared team with poor equipment. Wirdheim has been third driver in practice sessions for Jaguar Racing, but has never participated in a race. Three past F3000 champions have won an F1 Grand Prix: Alesi, Panis and Montoya (who also won the Indy 500 once). By taking the 2008 World Drivers Championship, Lewis Hamilton became the first ever European Formula Two, Formula 3000 or GP2 champion to become World Champion (although Alberto Ascari won the World Championship for two years running when all qualifying races apart from the Indianapolis 500 were run to Formula Two rules). Other F3000 series A small British Formula 3000 series ran for several years in the late 1980s and early 1990s, usually using year-old cars. Founded in 1989 as the British Formula 3000 Championship, the series was renamed the British Formula Two Championship in 1992, but grids diminished quickly and it was ended after the 1994 season. It was restarted in 1996 and cancelled once more the following year, after one race had been held with only three cars. Two other attempts at restarting F3000 racing in the UK failed. An Italian series evolved into a second-level one, Euro Formula 3000 (now Euroseries 3000), running the previous generation of spec Lolas. An Italian national series started in 2005 with the arrival of the GP2 Series, but has now been merged with Euroseries 3000, running both B02/50 and B99/50 cars. The American Racing Series, a predecessor of Indy Lights, ran with March F3000 chassis (called Wildcats) and Buick V6 engines, before turning to Lolas some years later. Japan persisted with Formula Two rules for a couple of years after the demise of F2 in Europe, but then adopted basically F3000 rules in 1987. Unlike European F3000, the Japanese Championship featured a lot of competition between tyre companies, and tended to feature highly-paid drivers (both local and European) in cars tending to be more developed and tested than those in the European series. The Mugen engine dominated this series, and was also competitive in European F3000. Japanese F3000 was renamed Formula Nippon in 1996. In Australia Formula 4000 continued to use old F3000 chassis (predominantly Reynard) until 2006, as had its predecessors Formula Brabham and Formula Holden. | International_Formula_3000 |@lemmatized formula:37 international:4 championship:11 initially:2 entitle:1 european:7 create:1 fédération:1 internationale:1 de:1 l:2 automobile:1 fia:2 become:7 final:1 preparatory:1 step:1 driver:21 hop:1 enter:3 one:15 two:13 expensive:1 dominate:2 work:1 run:8 car:16 factory:1 engine:13 hope:1 would:2 offer:1 quick:1 cheap:2 open:3 racing:5 series:24 begin:1 specification:1 tyre:3 standardize:1 onwards:2 follow:1 chassis:15 annually:1 replace:3 name:2 use:7 cosworth:3 dfv:2 make:2 obsolete:2 change:4 rule:8 observe:1 bernie:1 ecclestone:1 purchase:1 job:1 lot:2 dfvs:1 obvious:1 time:1 permit:1 degree:1 fit:2 rev:1 limiter:1 keep:1 power:1 output:1 control:2 well:4 honda:2 base:3 indy:3 john:1 judd:2 also:5 appear:2 rumoured:1 lamborghini:1 never:4 race:18 late:3 year:14 mugen:2 thing:1 eclipse:1 respond:1 brand:2 new:6 ac:1 cost:2 unlike:2 senior:1 get:1 lola:7 season:9 first:4 march:5 ag:2 ralt:2 development:1 existing:1 design:1 although:4 entry:6 look:1 much:2 like:1 indycar:2 small:2 team:11 try:2 three:4 litre:1 tyrrell:1 williams:2 minardi:1 ram:1 little:2 success:2 grand:5 prix:5 derive:1 unwieldy:1 fuel:2 tank:1 twice:2 size:2 need:1 weight:1 distribution:1 ideal:1 saw:4 establish:2 superiority:1 choose:1 sell:1 end:3 good:1 hand:1 form:1 book:1 rewrite:1 ambitious:1 reynard:7 marque:1 win:4 every:1 continue:2 next:1 couple:2 improve:1 slightly:1 arguably:1 marginally:1 superior:1 slip:1 crush:1 mid:1 virtual:1 monopoly:1 eventually:1 return:1 promising:1 japanese:3 footwork:1 dome:1 see:2 europe:2 dallara:1 briefly:1 move:3 recapture:1 occasional:1 least:2 unraced:1 exist:1 wagner:1 straight:1 six:1 short:1 stroke:1 bmw:4 convert:1 sport:1 however:2 politics:1 without:1 controversy:1 definitive:1 way:1 question:1 ask:1 ability:1 give:2 high:3 number:3 accident:2 eligibility:1 challenge:1 different:1 safe:1 faster:1 nose:1 crash:1 test:3 problem:1 escalate:1 point:1 find:2 difficult:1 whole:1 badly:1 implement:1 per:2 mean:2 sit:1 idle:1 budget:1 could:2 rather:1 allow:1 share:2 drive:1 basis:1 performance:1 italian:3 attract:1 attention:1 start:2 agip:1 jungle:1 juice:1 worth:1 estimated:1 bhp:1 significant:1 advantage:1 early:2 concern:1 safety:1 result:1 injury:1 unfortunately:1 fatality:1 marco:1 campos:1 last:2 round:2 era:1 tend:3 mile:1 distance:1 hold:2 major:2 circuit:2 either:1 headline:1 meeting:1 pair:1 event:1 jewel:1 crown:1 traditionally:1 pau:1 street:1 rival:1 birmingham:1 france:1 italy:1 spain:1 germany:1 united:1 kingdom:1 visit:1 spec:2 introduce:2 single:1 detuned:1 engineer:1 badge:1 zytek:1 go:1 along:1 standardization:1 avon:1 following:2 calendar:1 combine:1 support:1 several:2 formal:2 link:1 develop:1 young:1 engineering:1 talent:1 relationship:2 vary:1 junior:1 mclaren:1 set:1 nick:2 heidfeld:2 fairly:1 distant:1 mostly:1 upon:1 sponsor:2 parent:1 grow:1 dramatically:1 ninety:1 reach:1 nearly:1 problematic:1 many:1 fail:3 qualify:3 restrict:1 expense:1 rapidly:1 dwindle:2 experience:1 tough:1 competition:2 ex:1 world:4 nissan:2 know:2 renault:2 eurocup:1 north:1 american:2 cart:3 juan:2 pablo:2 montoya:4 cristiano:1 da:1 matta:1 felipe:1 massa:1 top:1 ride:1 seem:1 inordinate:1 difficulty:1 count:1 fall:1 low:1 campaign:1 due:1 part:1 field:1 backing:1 champion:5 complete:1 list:2 christian:2 danner:1 bs:1 automotivemarch:1 ivan:1 capelli:1 genoamarch:1 stefano:1 modena:1 onyxmarch:1 roberto:1 moreno:2 bromley:1 motorsportreynard:1 jean:2 alesi:2 eddie:1 jordan:1 racingreynard:3 érik:1 coma:1 damslola:1 fittipaldi:2 pacific:1 luca:1 badoer:1 crypton:1 engineeringreynard:1 olivier:1 panis:2 damsreynard:2 christophe:1 boullion:1 vincenzo:1 sospiri:2 super:4 nova:4 jörg:1 müller:3 rsm:1 markolola:1 ricardo:1 zonta:1 racinglola:4 west:1 competitionlola:1 bruno:1 junqueira:3 petrobraslola:1 justin:1 wilson:2 nordic:1 sébastien:1 bourdais:2 björn:1 wirdheim:4 arden:2 internationallola:2 vitantonio:1 liuzzi:1 past:2 champ:1 wtcc:1 touring:1 project:1 racer:1 lmr:1 le:1 man:1 winner:1 attempt:2 highly:2 unprepared:1 poor:1 equipment:1 third:1 practice:1 session:1 jaguar:1 participate:1 take:1 lewis:1 hamilton:1 ever:1 alberto:1 ascari:1 apart:1 indianapolis:1 british:3 usually:1 old:2 found:1 rename:2 grid:1 diminish:1 quickly:1 restart:2 cancel:1 uk:1 evolve:1 second:1 level:1 euro:1 euroseries:2 previous:1 generation:1 lolas:2 national:1 arrival:1 merge:1 predecessor:2 light:1 ran:1 call:1 wildcat:1 buick:1 turn:1 later:1 japan:1 persist:1 demise:1 adopt:1 basically:1 feature:2 company:1 pay:1 local:1 developed:1 competitive:1 nippon:1 australia:1 predominantly:1 brabham:1 holden:1 |@bigram fédération_internationale:1 automobile_fia:1 cosworth_dfv:1 dfv_engine:1 bernie_ecclestone:1 grand_prix:5 juan_pablo:2 pablo_montoya:2 felipe_massa:1 jean_alesi:1 jean_christophe:1 alberto_ascari:1 |
4,502 | Bo_Diddley | Bo Diddley (December 30, 1928 – June 2, 2008), born Ellas Otha Bates, was an original and influential American rock & roll singer, guitarist, and songwriter. He was known as "The Originator" because of his key role in the transition from blues music to rock & roll, influencing a host of legendary acts including Buddy Holly, Jimi Hendrix and Eric Clapton. He introduced more insistent, driving rhythms and a hard-edged guitar sound on a wide-ranging catalog of songs. Accordingly, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and received Lifetime Achievement Awards from the Rhythm and Blues Foundation " Rhythm and Blues Foundation and the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (Grammy). He was also known for his technical innovations, including his trademark rectangular guitar. Early life and career Born in McComb, Mississippi, as Ellas Otha Bates, Some sources give his name as Otha Ellas Bates. he was adopted and raised by his mother's cousin, Gussie McDaniel, whose surname he assumed, becoming Ellas McDaniel. In 1934, the McDaniel family moved to the largely black South Side area of Chicago, where the boy dropped the name Otha and became known as Ellas McDaniel, until his musical ambitions demanded that he take on a more catchy identity. In Chicago he was an active member of his local Ebenezer Baptist Church, where he studied the trombone and the violin, becoming proficient enough on the latter for the musical director to invite him to join the orchestra, with which he performed until the age of 18. He was more impressed, however, by the pulsating, rhythmic music he heard at a local Pentecostal Church. Also, he became interested in the guitar. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/2066171/Bo-Diddley.html http://www.tsimon.com/diddley.htm Further inspired musically after seeing John Lee Hooker, he supplemented his work as a carpenter and mechanic with a developing career playing on street corners with friends, including Jerome Green (c. 1934–1973), http://members.tripod.com/~Originator_2/jerome.html Jerome Green in a band called The Hipsters (later The Langley Avenue Jive Cats). During the summer of 1943–44, he played for tips at the Maxwell Street market in a band with Earl Hooker. http://cowdery.home.netcom.com/maxwell/bo.html 1997 Interview By 1951 he was playing on the street with backing from Roosevelt Jackson (on washtub bass) and Jody Williams (whom he taught to play guitar). Dahl, Bill (2002). Jody Williams - Return Of A Legend [CD liner notes] http://members.tripod.com/~Originator_2/musicians.html Jody Williams later played lead guitar on "Who Do You Love?" (1956). Dahl, Bill (2002). Jody Williams - Return Of A Legend [CD liner notes] In 1951 he landed a regular spot at the 708 Club on Chicago's South Side, with a repertoire influenced by Louis Jordan, John Lee Hooker, and Muddy Waters. In late 1954, he teamed up with harmonica player Billy Boy Arnold, drummer Clifton James and bass player Roosevelt Jackson, and recorded demos of "I'm A Man" and "Bo Diddley". They re-recorded the songs at Chess Studios with a backing ensemble comprising Otis Spann (piano), Lester Davenport (harmonica), Frank Kirkland (drums) and Jerome Green (maracas). The record was released in March 1955, and the A-side, "Bo Diddley", became a #1 R&B hit. McDaniel would adopt the stage name "Bo Diddley". The origin of the name is somewhat unclear, as several differing stories and claims exist. Some sources state that it was his nickname as a teenage Golden Gloves boxer, while others claim that it originates from the a one-stringed instrument called the diddley bow. Bo Diddley himself has said that the name first belonged to a singer his adoptive mother was familiar with, while harmonicist Billy Boy Arnold once said in an interview that it was originally the name of a local comedian that Leonard Chess borrowed for the song title and artist name for Bo Diddley's first single. Chris Morris, I'm A Man: The Chess Masters, 1955-1958 liner notes, Geffen Records, February 2007 The Bo Diddley beat and guitar Bo Diddley was well known for the "Bo Diddley beat," a rumba-like beat similar to "hambone", a style used by street performers who play out the beat by slapping and patting their arms, legs, chest, and cheeks while chanting rhymes. Roscetti, Ed (2008). Stuff! Good Drummers Should Know, p. 16. Hal Leonard Corporation. ISBN 142342848X. Somewhat resembling "shave and a haircut, two bits" beat, Diddley came across it while trying to play Gene Autry's "(I've Got Spurs That) Jingle, Jangle, Jingle". Blues Reflections Three years before Bo's "Bo Diddley", a song that closely resembles it, "Hambone", was cut by Red Saunders' Orchestra with The Hambone Kids. In its simplest form, the Bo Diddley beat can be counted out as a two-bar phrase: "One and two and three and four and one and two and three and four and..." The bolded counts are the clave rhythm. "Shave and a haircut, two bits", another clave derivative, also fits, as does the non-musician's count of "one-two-three one-two". His songs (for example, "Hey Bo Diddley" and "Who Do You Love?") often have no chord changes; that is, the musicians play the same chord throughout the piece, so that the rhythms create the excitement, rather than having the excitement generated by harmonic tension and release. In his other recordings, Bo Diddley used a variety of rhythms, from straight back beat to pop ballad style to doo-wop, frequently with maracas by Jerome Green. Bo Diddley during an April 21, 2005 concert at the Lucerna Bar in Prague. Also an influential guitar player, he developed many special effects and other innovations in tone and attack. Bo Diddley's trademark instrument was the rectangular-bodied Gretsch nicknamed "The Twang Machine" (referred to as "cigar-box shaped" by music promoter Dick Clark). Although he had other similar-shaped guitars custom-made for him by other manufacturers, he fashioned this guitar himself around 1958 and wielded it in thousands of concerts over the years. In a 2005 interview on JJJ radio in Australia, Bo implied that the design sprang from an embarrassing moment. During an early gig, while jumping around on stage with a Gibson L5 guitar, he landed awkwardly hurting his groin. http://www.abc.net.au/triplej/jayandthedoctor/listen/boone_m1035862.mp3 http://www.abc.net.au/triplej/jayandthedoctor/listen/bodidleytw_m1035870.mp3 He then went about designing a smaller, less restrictive guitar that allowed him to keep jumping around on stage while still playing his guitar. He also played the violin, which is featured on his mournful instrumental "The Clock Strikes Twelve", a 12-bar blues. Bo Diddley - I'm a Man: The Chess Masters, 1955-1958 - CD review He often created lyrics as witty and humorous adaptations of folk music themes. The song "Bo Diddley" was based on the lullaby "Hush Little Baby." Likewise, "Hey Bo Diddley" is based on the folk song "Old MacDonald". The rap-style boasting of "Who Do You Love", a wordplay on hoodoo, used many striking lyrics from the African-American tradition of toasts and boasts. His "Say Man" and "Say Man, Back Again," both songs later cited as the progenerators of rap music, share a strong connection to the insult game known as "the dozens". For example: "You got the nerve to call somebody ugly, why you so ugly the stork that brought you into the world ought to be arrested". "Say Man" (McDaniels) 1958 Success in the 1950s and 1960s On November 20, 1955, he appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show, a popular television variety show, where he infuriated the host. "I did two songs and he got mad," Bo Diddley later recalled. "Ed Sullivan said that I was one of the first colored boys to ever double-cross him. Said that I wouldn't last six months". The show had requested that he sing the Merle Travis penned, Tennessee Ernie Ford hit "Sixteen Tons", but when he appeared on stage, he sang "Bo Diddley" instead. This substitution resulted in his being banned from further appearances. The request came about because Sullivan's people heard Diddley casually singing "Sixteen Tons" in the dressing room. Diddley's accounts of the event have been inconsistent. TV-a-Go-Go: Rock on TV from American Bandstand to American Idol. Jake Austen. Edition: illustrated. Chicago Review Press. 2005. pages 14, 15. ISBN 1556525729, 9781556525728 Diddley has stated that he was the first black performer to appear on Sullivan's show, when in fact blacks had been appearing on the show since 1949. TV-a-Go-Go: Rock on TV from American Bandstand to American Idol. Jake Austen. Edition: illustrated. Chicago Review Press. 2005. page 15. ISBN 1556525729, 9781556525728 http://www.tv.com/toast-of-the-town/rudy-vallee---pat-c.-flick---the-ravens---irv-harmon/episode/114782/summary.html Chess 1960 Chess included Diddley's recording of "Sixteen Tons" on the album "Bo Diddley is a Gunslinger, which was originally released in 1960. He continued to have hits through the late 1950s and the 1960s, including "Pretty Thing" (1956), "Say Man" (1959), and "You Can't Judge a Book By the Cover" (1962). He released a string of albums whose titles — including Bo Diddley Is a Gunslinger and Have Guitar, Will Travel — bolstered his self-invented legend. Between 1958 and 1963, Checker Records released 11 full-length albums by Bo Diddley. Although he broke through as a crossover artist with white audiences (appearing at the Alan Freed concerts, for example), he rarely tailored his compositions to teenage concerns. In 1963, he starred in a UK concert tour with the Everly Brothers and Little Richard. The Rolling Stones, still barely known outside London at that time, appeared as a supporting act on the same bill. In addition to the many songs recorded by him, in 1956 he co-wrote, with Jody Williams, the pioneering pop song "Love Is Strange", a hit for Mickey & Sylvia in 1957. BO DIDDLEY - The Originator Bo Diddley is one of the first American male musicians to include women in his band, including Peggy Jones (aka Lady Bo, born 1940), Norma-Jean Wofford (aka The Duchess, c. 1942–2005), Cornelia Redmond (aka Cookie) and Debby Hastings, who led his band for the final 25 years of his performing career. He also set up one of the first home recording studios. Bo Diddley The later years Over the decades, Bo Diddley's venues have ranged from intimate clubs to stadiums. On March 25, 1972, he played with The Grateful Dead at the Academy of Music in New York City. The Grateful Dead released part of this concert as volume 30 Dick's Picks of their concert album series. Also in the early 1970s, the soundtrack for the ground-breaking animated film "Fritz The Cat" contained his song "Bo Diddley", in which a crow idly finger-pops along to the track. He appeared as an opening act for The Clash in their 1979 US tour; in "Legends of Guitar" (filmed live in Spain, 1991) with BB King, Les Paul, Albert Collins, George Benson, among others, and joined The Rolling Stones as a guest on their 1994 concert broadcast of "Voo Doo Lounge" performing "Who Do You Love?" with the band. Sheryl Crow and Robert Cray also appeared on the pay-per-view special. Bo Diddley achieved numerous accolades in recognition of his significant role as one of the founding fathers of rock and roll. 1986 - inducted into the Washington Area Music Association's Hall of Fame. 1987 - inducted the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and the Rockabilly Hall of Fame. 1990 - Lifetime Achievement Award from Guitar Magazine, 1998 - Lifetime Achievement Awards from the Rhythm and Blues Foundation the National Academy of Recorded Arts and Sciences.. 1999 - His 1955 recording of his song "Bo Diddley" inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame as a recording of lasting qualitative or historical significance. 2000 - inducted into the Mississippi Musicians Hall of Fame and into the North Florida Music Association's Hall of Fame. 2002 - Pioneer in Entertainment Award from the National Association of Black Owned Broadcasters, and an Icon Award from Broadcast Music Incorporated (BMI) 2008 - Although confirmed before his death in June, 2008, an honorary degree was conferred upon Bo by the University of Florida in August, 2008. His pawnbroker character's offering Louis Winthorpe III "fifty bucks" created one of more quoted scenes in 1983's Trading Places. In the late 1980s, he teamed with Bo Jackson in Nike's famous "Bo Knows" commercials, saying his one line: "Bo, you don't know Diddley!" In 2003, U.S. Representative John Conyers paid tribute to Bo Diddley in the United States House of Representatives describing him as "one of the true pioneers of rock and roll, who has influenced generations". Ellas Bates McDaniel, Bo Diddley biography - S9.com In 2004, Mickey and Sylvia's 1956 recording of his song, "Love Is Strange," was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame as a recording of qualitative or historical significance, and he was inducted into the Blues Foundation's Blues Hall of Fame. In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked him #20 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. . In 2005, Bo Diddley celebrated his 50th anniversary in music with successful tours of Australia and Europe, and with coast-to-coast shows across North America. He performed his song "Bo Diddley" with Eric Clapton, Robbie Robertson and longtime bassist and musical director Debby Hastings at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 20th annual induction ceremony and in the UK, Uncut magazine included his 1958 debut album "Bo Diddley" in its listing of the '100 Music, Movie & TV Moments That Have Changed The World'. In 2006, Bo Diddley participated as the headliner of a grassroots organized fundraiser concert, to benefit the town of Ocean Springs, Mississippi, which had been devastated by Hurricane Katrina. The "Florida Keys for Katrina Relief" had originally been set for October 23, 2005, when Hurricane Wilma barreled through the Florida Keys on October 24, causing flooding and economic mayhem. In January 2006, the Florida Keys had recovered enough to host the fundraising concert to benefit the more hard-hit community of Ocean Springs. When asked about the fundraiser Bo Diddley stated, "This is the United States of America. We believe in helping one another." Musical Performers . In an interview with Holger Petersen, on Saturday Night Blues on CBC Radio in the fall of 2006 CBC Radio | Saturday Night Blues | Past Shows Bo Diddley commented about the racism that existed in the music industry establishment during the early part of his career that saw him deprived of his royalty revenue from the most successful part of his career. Bo Diddley spent many years in New Mexico, living in Los Lunas from 1971 to 1978 while continuing his musical career. He served for two and a half years as Deputy Sheriff in the Valencia County Citizens' Patrol; during that time he personally purchased and donated three highway patrol pursuit cars. New Mexico Music Commission | Notable New Mexicans | For the remainder of his life he resided in Archer, Florida, a small farming town near Gainesville, Florida. Bo Diddley performed a number of shows around the country in 2005 and 2006 with the fellow Rock and Roll Hall of Famer Johnnie Johnson Band, featuring Johnson on keyboards, Richard Hunt on drums and Gus Thornton on bass. But from 1985 until he died, his touring band consisted of Debby Hastings (bass/musical director), Frank Daley (guitar), Yoshi Shimada or Sandy Gennaro (drums), and his personal manager, Margo Lewis (Keyboards). Illness On May 13, 2007, Bo Diddley was admitted to intensive care in Creighton University Medical Center in Omaha, Nebraska, following a stroke after a concert at Council Bluffs, Iowa on May 12. Rock Pioneer Bo Diddley Sidelined by Stroke E!News Starting the show, he had complained that he didn't feel well. He referred to smoke from the wildfires that were ravaging South Georgia and blowing south to the area near his home in Archer, Florida. Nonetheless, he delivered an energetic performance to an enthusiastic crowd. The next day, as Bo Diddley was heading back home, he seemed dazed and confused at the airport. His manager, Margo Lewis, called 911 and airport security and Bo was immediately taken by ambulance to Creighton University Medical Center and admitted to ICU, where he stayed for several days. After numerous tests, it was confirmed that Bo Diddley had suffered a stroke. Bo Diddley Bouncing Back E!News He had a history of hypertension and diabetes, and the stroke affected the left side of his brain, causing receptive and expressive aphasia (speech impairment). Publicist: Bo Diddley Hospitalized After Stroke - Entertainment News Story - WTAE Pittsburgh The stroke was followed by a heart attack, suffered in Gainesville, Florida, on August 28, 2007. Ben Ratliff, "Bo Diddley, Who Gave Rock His Beat, Dies at 79". New York Times, June 3, 2008, p. A1 While recovering from the stroke and heart attack, Diddley came back to his home town of McComb, Mississippi, in early November 2007 for the unveiling of a plaque devoted to him on the National Blues Trail stating that he was "acclaimed as a founder of rock and roll." He was not supposed to perform, but as he listened to the music of local musician Jesse Robinson who sang a song written for this occasion, Robinson sensed that he wanted to perform and handed him a microphone. That was the first and last time that Bo Diddley performed publicly after suffering a stroke. WLBT 3 - Jackson, MS: Bo Diddley Honored In Hometown Death Bo Diddley died on June 2, 2008 of heart failure at his home in Archer, Florida. Bo Diddley dead at age 79, spokesman says. Associated Press. June 2 2008. Garry Mitchell, a grandson of Diddley and one of more than 35 family members at the musician's home when he died at 1:45 a.m. EDT (05:45 GMT), said his death was not unexpected. "There was a gospel song that was sung (at his bedside) and (when it was done) he said 'wow' with a thumbs up," Mitchell told Reuters, when asked to describe the scene at Diddley's deathbed. "The song was 'Walk Around Heaven' and in his last words he said 'I'm going to heaven.'" Rock 'n roll legend Bo Diddley dies in Florida At the time of his death, Diddley's survivors included his 4 children, Evelyn Kelly, Ellas A. McDaniel, Tammi D. McDaniel and Terri Lynn McDaniel; 15 grandchildren, 15 great-grandchildren and 3 great-great-grandchildren; and a brother, Kenneth Haynes of Biloxi, MS. Kot, Greg. "Bo Diddley, Dead at 79. Chicago Tribune (June 2 2008) (http://209.85.173.104/search?q=cache:4P8DxbI-NPYJ:www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/chi-bo-diddley,0,6515788.story+%22bo+didley%22+%22great+grandchildren%22&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us&client=safari (accessed: 8 June 2008) His funeral, a four-hour "homecoming" service, took place on June 7, 2008, at Showers of Blessings Church in Gainesville, Florida and kept in tune with the vibrant spirit of Bo Diddley's life and career. The many in attendance chanted "Hey Bo Diddley" as a gospel band played the legend's music. A number of music notables sent flowers, including: George Thorogood, Tom Petty, and Jerry Lee Lewis. Farrington, Brendon. "Bo Diddley Gets a Rocking Sendoff at Fla. Funeral," Miami Herald (June 8, 2008) (http://www.miamiherald.com/775/story/561840.html accessed: 09 June 2008 "Bo Diddley." Calgary Herald (June 8, 2008) (http://www.canada.com/calgaryherald/news/story.html?id=55a1635a-bd00-4662-9dfd-26fe5f5eb6e6 accessed 8 June 2008) Little Richard, who had been asking his audiences to pray for Bo Diddley throughout his illness, had to fulfill concert commitments in Westbury and New York City the weekend of the funeral. He took time to remember Bo Diddley, his friend of a half-century, performing his namesake tune in his honor. Perrucci, Dino. "Weekend of Legends" JamBase.com (June 6, 2008 (http://www.jambase.com/Articles/14179/Weekend-of-Legends-06.06-06.08-NYC) After the funeral service, a tribute concert was held at the Martin Luther King Center, also in Gainesville, and featured his touring band, The Debby Hastings Band, and guest artist Eric Burdon. In the days following his death, tributes were paid to him by President George W. Bush, the United States House of Representatives, and countless musicians and performers, including Eric Burdon, Elvis Costello, Ronnie Hawkins, Mick Jagger, B. B. King, Tom Petty, Robert Plant, Bonnie Raitt, George Thorogood. Robert Randolph and the Family Band and Ronnie Wood. He was posthumously awarded a Doctor of Fine Arts degree by the University of Florida for his influence on American popular music and in its "People in America" radio series about influential people in American history, the Voice of America radio service paid tribute to him, describing how "his influence was so widespread that it is hard to imagine what rock and roll would have sounded like without him." Mick Jagger stated that "he was a wonderful, original musician who was an enormous force in music and was a big influence on The Rolling Stones. He was very generous to us in our early years and we learned a lot from him." Jagger also praised the late star as a one-off musician, adding, "We will never see his like again. "http://showbizspy.com/news/06032008/mick-jagger-leads-tribute-for-diddley]] As his bass player Debby Hastings said: he was the rock that the roll was built on." His stage name is echoed in the name of Bo, chosen in April 2009 by United States President Barack Obama's family as the "first dog". The Obamas' new dog: Hey, Bo (Diddley)! The Bo Diddley beat used by other artists: cover versions and tributes The Bo Diddley beat has been used in compositions by many other artists, including: Buddy Holly "Not Fade Away" The Rolling Stones "I'm Alright", "Please Go Home", "Not Fade Away" The Who "Magic Bus" Elvis Presley "His Latest Flame" Bruce Springsteen "She's the One" U2 "Desire" The Jesus and Mary Chain "Bo Diddley Is Jesus", "Who Do You Love?" Stevie Ray Vaughan "Willie the Wimp" The Smiths "How Soon Is Now?" The 13th Floor Elevators "Before You Accuse Me" Roxette "Harleys and Indians (Riders in the Sky)" Dee Clark, a former member of the Hambone Kids (see above) "Hey Little Girl" Johnny Otis "Willie and the Hand Jive" Eric Clapton "Willie and the Hand Jive" George Michael "Faith" Normaal "Kearl van Stoahl" Elton John "Billy Bones and the White Bird" The Strangeloves "I Want Candy" Ace Frehley "New York Groove" KT Tunstall "Black Horse and the Cherry Tree" Primal Scream "Movin' on Up" Tom Petty "A Mind with a Heart of Its OwnDavid Bowie "Panic in Detroit" Joan Jett and the Blackhearts "Be Straight" The Pretenders "Cuban Slide", "Break Up the Concrete" The Police "Deathwish" The Guess Who "Follow Your Daughter Home" Wayne Fontana & The Mindbenders "The Game of Love" The Supremes "When the Lovelight Starts Shining Through His Eyes" Jefferson Airplane "She Has Funny Cars" The White Stripes "Screwdriver" The Byrds "Don't Doubt Yourself, Babe" Medicine Show "Lucy, Go Lightly" The Stooges "1969" "Weird Al" Yankovic "Party at the Leper Colony" Guns N' Roses "Mr Brownstone" Green Day "Castaway" Pat Benatar "Love Is a Battlefield" Sha Na Na "Born to Hand Jive" (from the soundtrack of the musical Grease) Allman Brothers Band "No One to Run With" The Miracles "Mickey's Monkey" Nick Lowe "I Love the Sound of Breaking Glass" The Saints "Swing for the Crime" The Electric Prunes "Get me to the World on Time" Mickey Jupp "Joggin'" "The Ballad of Billy Bonney" The Clash "Rudie Can't Fail" Tenpole Tudor "There Are Boys" Eels "My Beloved Monstrosity" The Beat Farmers "Big Big Man" The Fall "Bo Demmick" Bobby Fuller Four "I Fought The Law" George Thorogood "Who Do You Love" Dion DiMucci "Who Do You Love" In addition, Diddley's own songs have been frequently covered. The early Rolling Stones covered numerous Bo Diddley numbers in concert and in BBC Radio broadcasts; they released "I Need You Baby (Mona)" on the UK version of their first album (the US version featured the Diddley-inspired "Not Fade Away"). The Clash recorded "Mona" during the London Calling sessions. "The Story of Bo Diddley" was recorded by both The Animals and Bob Seger, the former including an Eric Burdon rap about meeting Bo, Jerome and the Duchess, and their reactions to the Animals using their material. The Who, The Remains and The Yardbirds covered "I'm a Man", and The Woolies, George Thorogood, Ronnie Hawkins and Juicy Lucy had hits with "Who Do You Love", Patti Smith and The Jesus and Mary Chain, and was a concert favorite of The Doors. Quicksilver Messenger Service covered both "Who Do You Love" and "Mona". Dr. Feelgood led off their second album, Malpractice (1975), with "I Can Tell." Chris Isaak covered "Diddley Daddy" on his third album, Heart Shaped World. Diddley's "Road Runner" was the opening track on The Pretty Things' eponymous first album in 1965, and was also frequently covered in concert by bands including Humble Pie and The Who, and on Aerosmith's album Honkin' on Bobo. Guru Guru - a Krautrock band - performed "Bo Diddley" on their live album Essen 1970, though the track cuts off rather abruptly at the twelve-minute mark. Both Eric Clapton and Creedence Clearwater Revival covered "Before You Accuse Me". Velvet Underground drummer Maureen Tucker counts Diddley as one of her chief influences and covered "Bo Diddley" on her solo album, Life in Exile After Abdication. Tom Petty has played "I Need You Baby (Mona)" in concert, and performed it with Diddley himself in 1999. A short version of "Who Do You Love" appears as a bonus track on the CD reissue of the Grateful Dead's album Europe '72. The B-side of Buddy Holly's 1958 hit "Oh Boy", namely "Not Fade Away" (co-written by Holly under his pen name Charles Hardin), featured the classic Bo Diddley beat and inspired The Rolling Stones' 1964 version. The song has also been covered numerous times by the Grateful Dead. In 1963, Holly's rendition of "Bo Diddley" provided Holly with a top-ten posthumous hit in the UK, peaking at No. 7 in the summer of that year. Muddy Waters' "Mannish Boy" (originally "Manish Boy") was an adaptation of Bo Diddley's "I'm a Man" and also an answer song, the title being Muddy Waters' take on his younger rival. Tiny Letters recorded a song called "song to Jerome Green," about Bo's maraca player. "Say Man" was Bo Diddley's only Top 40 hit. David Lindley recorded a tribute song entitled "Pay Bo Diddley". The Jesus and Mary Chain covered "Who Do You Love" on their 12" "April Skies" in 1987 and in the same year recorded a tribute song "Bo Diddley is Jesus" on a 2x7". Elliott Murphy used both his name and beat in his song "Bilbao Bo Diddley". Ronnie Hawkins recorded and covered "Hey Bo Diddley", "Bo Diddley" and "Who Do You Love" during his many recording sessions, including those with his backing band of the time, The Hawks, who later became known as The Band. The Finnish rock/blues band Max on the Rox also covered "Who Do You Love" in their second album, Rox II. Warren Zevon sang "Bo Diddley Is a Gunslinger. The country singer Kenny Rogers is a big fan of Bo Diddley; he invited him to his TV show several times in the 1970s and sometimes sang "Bo Diddley" in concert. Diddley was popular with proto-punk musicians and later in the punk scene. For example both the New York Dolls and The Lurkers recorded their own version of his song "Pills", and Diddley was the opening act on The Clash's first US tour. Diddley's song "Who Do You Love" can be heard in the intro credits to the movie La Bamba. He appeared on a 2003 episode of the sitcom According to Jim entitled "Bo Diddley", had a small role as a pawnbroker in the 1983 film Trading Places, starring Eddie Murphy and Dan Aykroyd, and appeared in George Thorogood's "Bad To The Bone" video. The song "Bad to the Bone" itself is a re-work of Diddley's "I'm a Man." Eric Clapton's 1989 Journeyman and 1992 Unplugged included electric and acoustic covers of Diddley's "Before You Accuse Me". Historic marker and other Dedications Bo Diddley was honored by the Mississippi Blues Commission with a Mississippi Blues Trail historic marker placed in McComb, his birthplace, in recognition of his enormous contribution to the development of the blues in Mississippi. On June 5, 2009 the city of Gainesville, FL will officially rename and dedicate its downtown plaza the "Bo Diddley Community Plaza." The plaza was the site of many benefit concerts at which Bo peformed during his lifetime to raise money for local charities, including the Red Cross. Discography Bo Diddley (1958) Go Bo Diddley (1959) Have Guitar Will Travel (1960) Have Gun- Will Travel Bo Diddley in the Spotlight (1960) Bo Diddley Is a Gunslinger (1960) Bo Diddley Is a Lover (1961) Bo Diddley's a Twister (1962) Bo Diddley (1962) Bo Diddley & Company (1962) Surfin' with Bo Diddley (1963) Bo Diddley's Beach Party (1963) Bo Diddley's 16 All-Time Greatest Hits (1964) Two Great Guitars (with Chuck Berry) (1964) Hey Good Lookin' (1965) 500% More Man (1965) The Originator (1966) Super Blues (with Muddy Waters & Little Walter) (1967) Super Super Blues Band (with Muddy Waters & Howlin' Wolf) (1967) The Black Gladiator (1970) Another Dimension (1971) Where It All Began (1972) Got My Own Bag of Tricks (1972) The London Bo Diddley Sessions (1973) Big Bad Bo (1974) 20th Anniversary of Rock & Roll (1976) I'm a Man (1977) Ain't It Good To Be Free (1983) Bo Diddley & Co - Live (1985) Hey...Bo Diddley in Concert (1986) Breakin' Through the BS (1989) Living Legend (1989) Rare & Well Done (1991) Live at the Ritz (with Ronnie Wood) (1992) This Should Not Be (1993) Promises (1994) A Man Amongst Men (1996) Moochas Gracias (with Anna Moo) (2002) Dick's Picks #30'' (1972 5-song Live Session with The Grateful Dead) (2003) References External links Official website The Official Bo Diddley MySpace Page Exclusive Estate Representatives Bo Diddley-The Originator IMDB listing of his soundtrack compositions BoDiddleyTributePage.com | Bo_Diddley |@lemmatized bo:115 diddley:124 december:1 june:14 bear:3 ellas:7 otha:4 bates:4 original:2 influential:3 american:9 rock:18 roll:16 singer:3 guitarist:1 songwriter:1 know:10 originator:4 key:4 role:3 transition:1 blue:17 music:18 influence:7 host:3 legendary:1 act:4 include:18 buddy:3 holly:6 jimi:1 hendrix:1 eric:8 clapton:5 introduce:1 insistent:1 drive:1 rhythm:7 hard:3 edge:1 guitar:18 sound:3 wide:1 range:2 catalog:1 song:30 accordingly:1 induct:7 hall:11 fame:10 receive:1 lifetime:4 achievement:3 award:6 foundation:4 national:4 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4,503 | Functional_decomposition | Functional decomposition refers broadly to the process of resolving a functional relationship into its constituent parts in such a way that the original function can be reconstructed (i.e., recomposed) from those parts by function composition. In general, this process of decomposition is undertaken either for the purpose of gaining insight into the identity of the constituent components (which may reflect individual physical processes of interest, for example), or for the purpose of obtaining a compressed representation of the global function, a task which is feasible only when the constituent processes possess a certain level of modularity (i.e., independence or non-interaction). Basic mathematical definition An example of a sparsely connected dependency structure. Direction of causal flow is upward.For a multivariate function , functional decomposition generally refers to a process of identifying a set of functions such that where is some other function. Thus, we would say that the function is decomposed into functions . This process is intrinsically hierarchical in the sense that we can (and often do) seek to further decompose the functions into a collection of constituent functions such that where is some other function. Decompositions of this kind are interesting and important for a wide variety of reasons. In general, functional decompositions are worthwhile when there is a certain "sparseness" in the dependency structure; that is, when constituent functions are found to depend on approximately disjoint sets of variables. Thus, for example, if we can obtain a decomposition of into a hierarchical composition of functions such that , , , as shown in the figure at right, this would probably be considered a highly valuable decomposition. Example: Decomposition of continuous functions Motivation for decomposition As to why the decomposition is valuable, the reason is twofold. Firstly, decomposition of a function into non-interacting components generally permits more economical representations of the function. For example, on a set of quaternary (i.e., 4-ary) variables, representing the full function requires storing values, the value of the function for each element in the Cartesian product , i.e., each of the 1024 possible combinations for . However, if the decomposition into given above is possible, then requires storing 4 values, requires storing values, and again requires storing just 4 values. So in virtue of the decomposition, we need store only values rather than 1024 values, a dramatic savings. Causal influences on West Side Highway traffic. Weather and GW Bridge traffic screen off other influences.Intuitively, this reduction in representation size is achieved simply because each variable depends only on a subset of the other variables. Thus, variable only depends directly on variable , rather than depending on the entire set of variables. We would say that variable screens off variable from the rest of the world. Practical examples of this phenomenon surround us, as discussed in the "Philosophical Considerations" below, but let's just consider the particular case of "northbound traffic on the West Side Highway." Let us assume this variable () takes on three possible values of {"moving slow", "moving deadly slow", "not moving at all"}. Now let's say variable depends on two other variables, "weather" with values of {"sun", "rain", "snow"}, and "GW Bridge traffic" with values {"10mph", "5mph", "1mph"}. The point here is that while there are certainly many secondary variables that affect the weather variable (e.g., low pressure system over Canada, butterfly flapping in Japan, etc.) and the Bridge traffic variable (e.g., an accident on I-95, presidential motorcade, etc.) all these other secondary variables are not directly relevant to the West Side Highway traffic. All we need (hypothetically) in order to predict the West Side Highway traffic is the weather and the GW Bridge traffic, because these two variables screen off West Side Highway traffic from all other potential influences. That is, all other influences act through them. Outside of purely mathematical considerations, perhaps the greatest value of functional decomposition is the insight it provides into the structure of the world. When a functional decomposition can be achieved, this provides ontological information about what structures actually exist in the world, and how they can be predicted and manipulated. For example, in the illustration above, if it is learned that depends directly only on , this means that for purposes of prediction of , it suffices to know only . Moreover, interventions to influence can be taken directly on , and nothing additional can be gained by intervening on variables , since these only act through in any case. Philosophical considerations The philosophical antecedents and ramifications of functional decomposition are quite broad, as functional decomposition in one guise or another underlies all of modern science. Here we review just a few of these philosophical considerations. Reductionist tradition One of the major distinctions that is often drawn between Eastern philosophy and Western Philosophy is that the Eastern philosophers tended to espouse ideas favoring holism while the Western thinkers tended to espouse ideas favoring reductionism. While this distinction between East and West — like other such philosophical distinctions that have been drawn (e.g., realism vs. anti-realism) — almost certainly simplifies matters too much, there is still a kernel of truth to be had. Some examples of the Eastern holistic spirit: "Open your mouth, increase your activities, start making distinctions between things, and you'll toil forever without hope." — The Tao Te Ching of Lao Tzu (Brian Browne Walker, translator) "It's a hard job for [people] to see the meaning of the fact that everything, including ourselves, depends on everything else and has no permanent self-existence." — Majjhima Nikaya (Anne Bankroft, translator) "A name is imposed on what is thought to be a thing or a state and this divides it from other things and other states. But when you pursue what lies behind the name, you find a greater and greater subtlety that has no divisions..." — Visuddhi Magga (Anne Bankroft, translator) The Western tradition, from its origins among the Greek philosophers, preferred a position in which drawing correct distinctions, divisions, and contrasts was considered the very pinnacle of insight. In the Aristotelian/Porphyrian worldview, to be able to distinguish (via strict proof) which qualities of a thing represent its essence vs. property vs. accident vs. definition, and by virtue of this formal description to segregate that entity into its proper place in the taxonomy of nature — this was to achieve the very height of wisdom. Characteristics of hierarchy and modularity In natural or artificial systems that require components to be integrated in some fashion, but where the number of components exceeds what could reasonably be fully interconnected (due to exponential growth in number of connections), one often finds that some degree of hierarchicality must be employed in the solution. The general advantages of sparse hierarchical systems over densely-connected systems—and quantitative estimates of these advantage—are presented by . In prosaic terms, a hierarchy is "a collection of elements that combine lawfully into complex wholes which depend for their properties upon those of their constituent parts," and wherein novelty is "fundamentally combinatorial, iterative, and transparent" . An important notion that always arises in connection with hierarchies is modularity, which is effectively implied by the sparseness of connections in hierarchical topologies. In physical systems, a module is generally a set of interacting components that relates to the external world via a very limited interface, thus concealing most aspects of its internal structure. As a result, modifications that are made to the internals of a module (to improve efficiency for example) do not necessarily create a ripple effect through the rest of the system . This feature makes the effective use of modularity a centerpiece of all good software and hardware engineering, notably object oriented programming . Other examples of the use of hierarchy in the manufacture of artifacts, including computer software (,), are too obvious to bear mention. Inevitability of hierarchy and modularity There are many compelling arguments regarding the prevalence and necessity of hierarchy/modularity in nature . points out that among evolving systems, only those that can manage to obtain and then reuse stable subassemblies (modules) are likely to be able to search through the fitness landscape with a reasonably quick pace; thus, Simon submits that "among possible complex forms, hierarchies are the ones that have the time to evolve." This line of thinking has led to the even stronger claim that although "we do not know what forms of life have evolved on other planets in the universe, ... we can safely assume that 'wherever there is life, it must be hierarchically organized'" . This would be a fortunate state of affairs since the existence of simple and isolable subsystems is thought to be a precondition for successful science . In any case, experience certainly seems to indicate that much of the world possesses hierarchical structure. It has been proposed that perception itself is a process of hierarchical decomposition , and that phenomena which are not essentially hierarchical in nature may not even be "theoretically intelligible" to the human mind (,). In Simon's words, Applications Practical applications of functional decomposition are found in Bayesian networks, structural equation modeling, linear systems, and database systems. Knowledge representation Processes related to functional decomposition are prevalent throughout the fields of knowledge representation and machine learning. Hierarchical model induction techniques such as Logic circuit minimization, decision trees, decision rules, grammatical inference, hierarchical clustering, and quadtree decomposition are all examples of function decomposition. A review of other applications and function decomposition can be found in , which also presents methods based on information theory and graph theory. Many statistical inference methods can be thought of as implementing a function decomposition process in the presence of noise; that is, where functional dependencies are only expected to hold approximately. Among such models are mixture models and the recently popular methods referred to as "causal decompositions" or Bayesian networks. Database theory See database normalization. Machine learning In practical scientific applications, it is almost never possible to achieve perfect functional decomposition because of the incredible complexity of the systems under study. this complexity is manifested in the presence of "noise," which is just a designation for all the unwanted and untraceable influences on our observations. However, while perfect functional decomposition is usually impossible, the spirit lives on in a large number of statistical methods that are equipped to deal with noisy systems. When a natural or artificial system is intrinsically hierarchical, the joint distribution on system variables should provide evidence of this hierarchical structure. The task of an observer who seeks to understand the system is then to infer the hierarchical structure from observations of these variables. This is the notion behind the hierarchical decomposition of a joint distribution, the attempt to recover something of the intrinsic hierarchical structure which generated that joint distribution. As an example, Bayesian network methods attempt to decompose a joint distribution along its causal fault lines, thus "cutting nature at its seams". The essential motivation behind these methods is again that within most systems (natural or artificial), relatively few components/events interact with one another directly on equal footing . Rather, one observes pockets of dense connections (direct interactions) among small subsets of components, but only loose connections between these densely connected subsets. There is thus a notion of "causal proximity" in physical systems under which variables naturally precipitate into small clusters. Identifying these clusters and using them to represent the joint provides the basis for great efficiency of storage (relative to the full joint distribution) as well as for potent inference algorithms. Computer programming and software engineering For most of the same reasons already stipulated, functional decomposition has a prominent role in computer programming, where a major goal is to modularize processes to the greatest extent possible. For example, a library management system may be broken up into an inventory module, a patron information module, and a fee assessment module. In the early decades of computer programming, this was manifested as the "art of subroutining," as it was called by some prominent practitioners. Signal processing Functional decomposition is used in the analysis of many signal processing systems, such as LTI systems. The input signal to an LTI system can be expressed as a function, . Then can be decomposed into a linear combination of other functions, called component signals: Here, are the component signals. Note that are constants. This decomposition aids in analysis, because now the output of the system can be expressed in terms of the components of the input. If we let represent the effect of the system, then the output signal is , which can be expressed as: In other words, the system can be seen as acting separately on each of the components of the input signal. Commonly used examples of this type of decomposition are the Fourier series and the Fourier transform. Systems engineering Functional decomposition of engineering systems is a method for analyzing engineered systems. The basic idea is to try to divide a system in such a way that each block of the block diagram can be described without an "and" or "or" in the description. This exercise forces each part of the system to have a pure function. When a system is composed of pure functions, they can be reused, or replaced. A usual side effect is that the interfaces between blocks become simple and generic. Since the interfaces usually become simple, it is easier to replace a pure function with a related, similar function. For example, say that one needs to make a stereo system. One might functionally decompose this into speakers, amplifier, a tape deck and a front panel. Later, when a different model needs an audio CD, it can probably fit the same interfaces. See also Bayesian networks Database normalization Function composition Inductive inference Knowledge representation References . . . . | Functional_decomposition |@lemmatized functional:16 decomposition:33 refers:1 broadly:1 process:10 resolve:1 relationship:1 constituent:6 part:4 way:2 original:1 function:28 reconstruct:1 e:7 recomposed:1 composition:3 general:3 undertaken:1 either:1 purpose:3 gain:2 insight:3 identity:1 component:11 may:3 reflect:1 individual:1 physical:3 interest:1 example:15 obtain:3 compressed:1 representation:6 global:1 task:2 feasible:1 posse:1 certain:2 level:1 modularity:6 independence:1 non:2 interaction:2 basic:2 mathematical:2 definition:2 sparsely:1 connected:1 dependency:3 structure:9 direction:1 causal:5 flow:1 upward:1 multivariate:1 generally:3 refer:2 identify:2 set:5 thus:7 would:4 say:4 decompose:5 intrinsically:2 hierarchical:14 sense:1 often:3 seek:2 far:1 collection:2 kind:1 interesting:1 important:2 wide:1 variety:1 reason:3 worthwhile:1 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4,504 | First-person_shooter | First-person shooter (FPS) is a video game genre which centers the gameplay around gun- or projectile weapon-based combat through the first person perspective; i.e., the action is seen through the eyes of a protagonist, and thus the player. Generally speaking, the first-person shooter shares common traits with other shooter games, which in turn fall under the heading action game. From the genre's inception, advanced 3D or pseudo-3D graphics elements have challenged hardware development, and multiplayer gaming has been integral. The first person shooter has since been traced as far back as Maze War, development of which began in 1973, and 1974's Spasim. 1987's MIDI Maze for the Atari ST was one of the first network multiplayer action games and also saw release on game consoles. The genre coalesced with 1992's Wolfenstein 3D, which is generally credited with redefining the genre and the basic archetype upon which subsequent titles were based. One such title, and the progenitor of the genre's wider mainstream acceptance and popularity was Doom, released the following year and perhaps the most influential first-person shooter. Half-Life, released in 1998, enhanced the narrative and puzzle elements, and along with its 2004 sequel Half-Life 2, showcases the considerable development of the genre's potential. GoldenEye 007 (1997) was the first landmark first-person shooter for home consoles, with the Halo series heightening the console's commercial and critical appeal as a platform for first-person shooter titles. In the 21st century, the first-person shooter is one of the most widely played and fastest growing video game genres. Definition First-person shooters are a type of 3D shooter game, featuring a first person point of view with which the player sees the action through the eyes of the player character. The primary design element is combat, mainly involving firearms. First person shooters may be considered a distinct genre in itself, or a type of shooter game, in turn a subgenre of the wider action game genre. Following the release of the influential Doom in 1993, games in this style were commonly termed "Doom clones"; Doom, Encyclopædia Britannica, Accessed February 25, 2009 in time this term has largely been replaced by "first person shooter". Wolfenstein 3D, released in 1992, the year before Doom, is generally credited with inventing the genre, but critics have since identified similar though less advanced games completed as far back as 1974. There is sometimes disagreement regarding exactly what design elements constitute a first-person shooter: for example, Deus Ex is sometimes considered a first person shooter, but may also be considered a role-playing game as it borrows from this genre extensively. Perry, Douglass C., BioShock: Ken Levine Talks First-Person Shooters, IGN, September 15, 2006, Accessed February 25, 2009 Some commentators may extend the definition obliquely to include combat flight simulators, as opposed to characters on foot. Game design Like most shooter games, first person shooters involve an avatar, one or more ranged weapons, and a varying number of enemies. Because they take place in a 3D environment, these games tend to be somewhat more realistic than 2D shooter games, and have more accurate representations of gravity, lighting, sound and collisions. First person shooters played on personal computers are controlled with a combination of a keyboard and mouse. This system is often considered superior to that found in console games, Beradini, Cesar A., Play Halo on Xbox with a Keyboard & Mouse, Team Xbox, October 4, 2004, Accessed February 23, 2009 Schiesel, Seth, Balletic Finesse Amid the Science-Fiction Carnage, The New York Times, March 2, 2009, Accessed March 7, 2009 which frequently use two analog sticks, one used for running and sidestepping, the other for looking and aiming. Treit, Ryan, Novice Guides: First Person Shooter, Xbox.com, Accessed February 23, 2009 It is common to display the character's hands and weaponry in the main view, with a head up display showing health, ammunition and location details. Often, it is possible to overlay a map of the surrounding area. Lahti, Martti, "As We Become Machines: Corporealized Pleasures in Video Games", Wolf, Mark J. P. & Perron, Bernard (eds.), The Video Game Theory Reader, Routledge, p. 161 Combat and power-ups First person shooters often focus on action gameplay, with fast-paced and bloody firefights, though some place a greater emphasis on narrative, problem-solving and logic puzzles. In addition to shooting, melee combat may still be used extensively. In some games, melee weapons are especially powerful, a reward for the risk the player must take in maneuvering his character into close proximity to the enemy. Hong, Tim, Shoot to Thrill: Bio-Sensory Reactions to 3D Shooting Games, GamaSutra, December 2, 2008, Accessed February 23, 2009 In other situations, a melee weapon may be less effective, but necessary as a last resort. Tactical shooters," are more realistic, and require teamwork and strategy to succeed; the player often commands a squad of characters, which may be controlled by the game or by human teammates. These games typically give players a choice of weapons, which have a large impact on how the player will play the game. Some have highly realistic models of real weapons, including their rate of fire, size of ammunition, and accuracy. However, they may allow players to carry many of them at the same time, with no reduction in speed or mobility. Thus, the standards of realism varies between design elements. The protagonist can generally be healed and re-armed by means of items such as first aid kits, simply by walking over them. Staff, The Wednesday 10: First-Person Shooter Cliches, IGN, February 11, 2009, Accessed February 23, 2009 Some games allow players to accumulate experience points similar to those found in role-playing games, which can unlock new weapons and abilities. Staff, The Art Of FPS Multiplayer Design, Game Informer, May 3, 2008, Accessed February 24, 2009 Level design First person shooters may be structurally composed of levels, or use the technique of a continuous narrative in which the game never leaves the first person perspective. Others feature large sandbox environments, which are not divided into levels and can be explored freely. Biessener, Adam, S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl, Game Informer, Accessed February 23, 2009 In first person shooters, protagonists interact with the environment to varying degrees, from basics such as using doors, to problem solving puzzles based on a variety of interactive objects. The environment can be damaged, also to varying degrees: one common device is the use of barrels containing explosive material which the player can shoot, destroying them and harming nearby enemies. Other games feature environments which are extensively destructible, allowing for additional visual effects. Reed, Kristan, Black, EuroGamer, June 2, 2005, Accessed February 23, 2009 The game world will often make use of science fiction, historic (particularly World War II) or modern military themes, with such antagonists as aliens, monsters, terrorists and soldiers of various types. FPS Field Guide: A Look At Common Enemies, GameInformer, May 6, 2008, Accessed February 23, 2009 Games feature multiple difficulty settings; in harder modes, enemies are tougher, more aggressive and do more damage, and power-ups are limited. In easier modes, the player can succeed through reaction times alone; on more difficult settings, it is necessary to memorize the levels through trial and error. Boutros, Daniel, Difficulty is Difficult: Designing for Hard Modes in Games, GamaSutra, September 16, 2008, Accessed March 10, 2009 Multiplayer First person shooters may feature a multiplayer mode, taking place on specialized levels. Some games are designed specifically for multiplayer gaming, and have very limited single player modes in which the player competes against game-controlled characters termed "bots". Massively multiplayer online first-person shooters allow thousands of players to compete at once in a persistent world. The Worlds First MMOFPS is nearly complete, IGN, May 5, 2003, Accessed February 23, 2009 Large scale multiplayer games allow multiple squads, with leaders issuing commands and a commander controlling the team's overall strategy. Kosak, Dave, Battlefield 2 (PC), GameSpy, June 17, 2005, Accessed February 23, 2009 Multiplayer games have a variety of different styles of match. The classic types are the deathmatch (there is also a team-based version) in which players score points by killing other players' characters, and capture the flag, in which teams attempt to penetrate the opposing base, capture a flag and return it to their own base whilst preventing the other team from doing the same. Other game modes may involve attempting to capture enemy bases or areas of the map, attempting to take hold of an object for as long as possible while evading other players, or deathmatch variations involving limited lives or in which players fight over a particularly potent power-up. These match types may also be customizable, allowing the players to vary weapons, health and power-ups found on the map, as well as victory criteria. Halo Guide, IGN, Accessed March 10, 2009 Games may allow players to choose between various classes, each with its own strengths, weaknesses, equipment and roles within a team. Quake Wars Guide, IGN, Accessed March 10, 2009 History Early first person shooters: 1970s and 1980s The earliest two documented first-person shooters were Maze War and Spasim. Maze War features on-foot gameplay that evokes modern first-person shooter games. Development of the game began in 1973 and its exact date of completion, as well as release details, are unknown. Spasim had a documented debut at the University of Illinois in 1974. The game was a rudimentary space flight simulator, which featured a first-person perspective. Garmon, Jay, Geek Trivia: First shots fired, TechRepublic, May 24, 2005, Accessed February 16, 2009 Spasim led to more detailed combat flight simulators and eventually to a tank simulator, developed for the U.S. army, in the later 1970s. These games were not available to consumers and it was not until 1980 that a tank game, Battlezone, was released in arcades. A version was released in 1983 for home computers, the first successful mass-market game featuring a first-person viewpoint and 3D graphics. Shahrani, Sam, Educational Feature: A History and Analysis of Level Design in 3D Computer Games - Pt. 1, GamaSutra, April 26, 2006, Accessed March 7, 2009 MIDI Maze was an early first-person shooter released in 1987 for the Atari ST. It was unique in featuring network multiplayer through the MIDI interface long before mainstream Ethernet and Internet play became commonplace. It is considered the first multiplayer 3D shooter on a mainstream system and the first major network multiplayer action game, with support for as many as 16 players. It was followed up by ports to various platforms in 1991 under the title Faceball 2000, including the Game Boy and Super NES, making it possibly the first handheld and multiplatform first-person shooter and an early console example of the genre. Parish, Jeremy, The Essential 50: Faceball 2000, 1UP, Accessed April 24, 2009 Id Software released Hovertank 3D in 1991, which pioneered ray casting technology to enable faster gameplay than 1980s vehicle simulators. Later developers added texture mapping with Ultima Underworld: The Stygian Abyss (by Looking Glass Technologies), a role-playing game featuring a first person viewpoint and an advanced graphics engine, released in 1992. During development, this led to Catacomb 3-D which was actually released first, in late 1991, and introduced the display of the protagonist's hand and weapon (magical spells) on the screen. Rise in popularity: 1992–1995 Wolfenstein 3D (created by id Software and released in 1992) was an instant success and is generally credited with inventing the first person shooter genre proper. Cifaldi, Frank, The Gamasutra Quantum Leap Awards: First-Person Shooters, GamaSutra, September 1, 2006, Accessed February 16, 2009 It built on the ray casting technology pioneered in earlier games to create a revolutionary template for shooter game design, which first person shooters are still based upon today. Hasselberger, Cheese, Guide to FPS, UGO, Accessed February 16, 2009 Despite the violent themes, it largely escaped the controversy generated by the later Doom, although it was banned in Germany due to the use of Nazi iconography; When Two Tribes Go to War: A History of Video Game Controversy, GameSpot, Accessed February 24, 2009 the Nintendo version replaced the enemy attack dogs with giant rats. Kushner, David, Nintendo Grows Up and Goes for the Gross-Out, The New York Times, May 10, 2001, Accessed February 24, 2009 Apogee Software, the publisher of Wolfenstein 3D, followed up its success with Blake Stone: Aliens of Gold in 1993. The game was initially well received but sales rapidly declined in the wake of the success of id's Doom, released a week later. Guifoil, John, The Old Shoebox: Download Blake Stone: Aliens of Gold, Blast, August 1, 2008, Accessed February 16, 2009 Doom, released as shareware in 1993, refined Wolfenstein 3D's template by adding improved textures, variations in height (such as stairs the player's character could climb) and lighting effects such as flickering lights and patches of total darkness, creating a more believable 3D environment than Wolfensteins 3D's repetitive levels. Shoemaker, Brad, The Greatest Games of All Time: Doom, GameSpot, Accessed February 18, 2009 Doom allowed competitive matches between multiple players, termed "deathmatches", and the game was responsible for the word's subsequent entry into the video gaming lexicon. The game become so popular that its multiplayer features began to cause problems for companies whose networks were used to play the game. Doom has been considered the most important first person shooter ever made: it was highly influential not only on subsequent shooter games but on video gaming in general, and has been available on almost every video gaming system since. Multiplayer gaming, which is now integral to the first person shooter genre, was first achieved successfully on a large scale with Doom. While its combination of gory violence, dark humor and hellish imagery garnered acclaim from critics, Perry, Douglass C., Doom Review, IGN, October 3, 2006, Accessed February 24, 2009 these attributes also generated controversy from religious groups, with other commentators labelling the game a "murder simulator." Silverman, Ben, Controversial Games, Yahoo! Games, September 17, 2007, Accessed February 24, 2009 There was further controversy when it emerged that the perpetrators of the Columbine High School massacre were fans of the game; the families of several victims later unsuccessfully attempted to sue id Software, among numerous other video game companies, claiming they inspired the massacre. Star Wars: Dark Forces was released in 1995 after LucasArts decided Star Wars would make appropriate material for a game in the style of Doom; however, Star Wars: Dark Forces added several technical features that Doom lacked, such as the ability to crouch or look up and down. Turner, Benjamin & Bowen, Kevin, Bringin' in the DOOM Clones, GameSpy, December 11, 2003, Accessed February 19, 2009 A Brief History of Star War Games, Part 1, Tom's Hardware, May 20, 2007, Accessed February 19, 2009 Descent, (released by Parallax Software in 1995) a game in which the player pilots a spacecraft around caves and factory ducts, was the first truly three dimensional first person shooter. It abandoned sprites and ray casting and introduced polygons and six degrees of freedom. Apogee's Duke Nukem 3D, released in 1996, was the last successful sprite-based first person shooter, winning acclaim for its humor based around stylised machismo as well as its gameplay; however some found the game's (and later the whole series') treatment of women to be derogatory and tasteless. Soete, Tim, Duke Nukem 3D Review, GameSpot, May 1, 1996, Accessed February 19, 2009 Arrival of 3D graphics: 1996–1999 Shortly after the release of Duke Nukem 3D, id Software released the much anticipated Quake, which used 3D polygons instead of sprites. Like Doom, Quake was influential and genre-defining, featuring fast paced, gory gameplay. It was centered around online gaming and featured multiple match types still found in first person shooter games today. It was the first game to have a following of clans, attracted increased modification and expanded the market for video card hardware. Ward, Trent C., Quake Review, GameSpot, June 22, 1996, Accessed February 19, 2009 Science fiction settings with alien antagonists are common themes in first person shooters; this game features 3D graphics rather than the sprites found in earlier games, such as Doom. Console first person shooters can be traced to MIDI Maze for SNES (1992) as well as the SNES port of Wolfenstein 3D (1993), but the graphics were notably lacking according to the power of the platform. The first landmark, best-selling console first-person shooter was Rare's GoldenEye 007, based on the James Bond film and released on the Nintendo 64 in 1997. Highly acclaimed for its atmospheric single-player levels and well designed multiplayer maps, it featured the ability to aim at a precise spot on the screen, a sniper rifle, the ability to perform headshots, and the incorporation of stealth elements. Gerstmann, Jeff, GoldenEye 007 Review, GameSpot, August 19, 1997, Accessed February 19, 2009 Berghammer, Billy, A Rare Look at Rare, 1UP, Accessed February 19, 2009 Released in 1998, Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six started a popular trend of tactical first person shooters, though it was not the first of its kind. It featured a team-based, realistic design and themes based around counter-terrorism, requiring missions to be planned before execution and in it, a single hit was enough to kill a character. Dunkin, Alan, Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Review, GameSpot, September 9, 1998, Accessed February 19, 2009 Game Collector: This Means War!, GameSpot, September 7, 2001, Accessed February 19, 2009 1999s well designed Medal of Honor started a long running proliferation of first person shooters set during World War II. Valve's Half-Life was released in 1998. Initially met with only mild anticipation, it went on to become an unprecedented commercial success. Ocampo, Jason, Half-Life 10th Anniversary, IGN, November 19, 2008, Accessed February 19, 2009 While previous first person shooters had focused on visceral gameplay with comparatively weak plots, Half-Life had a strong narrative; the game featured no cut scenes but remained in the first person perspective at all times. It featured innovations such as non-enemy characters but did not employ power-ups. Half-Life was acclaimed for its artificial intelligence, set of weapons and attention to detail and, along with its sequel Half-Life 2 (released in 2004), is consistently reviewed as one of finest examples of the genre. The Greatest Games of All Time: Half-Life, GameSpot, May 18, 2007, Accessed February 19, 2009 Starsiege: Tribes, also released in 1998, was a multiplayer online shooter allowing more than 32 players in a single match. It featured team-based gameplay with a variety of specialized roles, and an unusual jet pack feature. The game was highly popular and later imitated by games such as the Battlefield series. IGN's Top 100 Games, IGN, July 25, 2005, Accessed February 19, 2009 Id's Quake III Arena and Epic's Unreal Tournament, both released in 1999, were popular for their frenetic and accessible online multiplayer modes; both featured very limited single player gameplay. Counter-Strike was also released in 1999, a Half-Life modification with a counter-terrorism theme. The game and later versions (the latest being Counter Strike: Source, released in 2004) went on to become by far the most popular multiplayer first person shooters. Recent milestones: 2000–present At the E3 game show in 1999, Bungie unveiled a real-time strategy game called Halo; at the following E3, an overhauled 3rd person shooter version was displayed. Later in 2000 Bungie was bought by Microsoft, and Halo was revamped and released as a first person shooter, one of the launch titles for the Xbox console. It was a runaway critical and commercial success, and is considered a premier console first person shooter. It featured narrative and level design inspired by Half-Life and also received acclaim for its characters, both the protagonist, Master Chief and its alien antagonists. The sequel, Halo 2 (2004), brought the popularity of online-gaming to the console market through the medium of Xbox Live, on which it was the most played game for almost two years. Deus Ex, released by Ion Storm in 2000, featured a levelling system similar to that found in role-playing games; it also had multiple narratives depending on how the player completed missions and won acclaim for its serious, artistic style. Metroid Prime, released in 2002 for the Nintendo GameCube, another highly praised console first person shooter, incorporated action adventure elements such as jumping puzzles and built on the Metroid series of 2D platformers. Battlefield 1942, a World War II shooter released in 2002, featured large scale battles and allowed players to use vehicles such as airplanes and tanks. In 2003, Planetside allowed hundreds of players at once to compete in a persistent world, and was promoted as the world's first massively multiplayer online first person shooter. Doom 3, released in 2004, placed a greater emphasis on horror and frightening the player than previous games in the series and was a critically acclaimed best seller, Doom 3 (PC), GameSpy, Accessed March 9, 2009 Fahey, Rob, UK Charts: Doom 3 scores first 2004 No.1 for PC platform, EuroGamer, August 17, 2004, Accessed March 9, 2009 though some commentators felt it lacked gameplay substance and innovation, putting too much emphasis on impressive graphics. In 2005, a film based on Doom emulated the viewpoint and action of a first person shooter, but was critically derided as deliberately unintelligent and gratuitously violent. Lyttle, John, John Lyttle - Shoot 'em up, New Statesman, December 5, 2005, Accessed March 7, 2009 Bioshock was acclaimed by some commentators as the best game of 2007 for its artistry, narrative and innovation. Fitzpatrick, Paul, "Bioshock", PlayStation Official Magazine UK, December 2008 (issue 25), pp. 90-91 Cowen, Nick, The top 10 video games of 2007, The Telegraph, December 6, 2007, Accessed March 8, 2009 Hoggins, Tom, Why videogamers are artists at heart, The Telegraph, November 10, 2008, Accessed March 8, 2009 Crysis (2007) and Far Cry 2 (2008) broke new ground in terms of graphics and large, open-ended level design, Hurley, Leon, "Far Cry 2", PlayStation Official Magazine UK, December 2008 (issue 25), pp. 98-100 whereas Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare (2007), Resistance: Fall of Man (2006) and its sequel Resistance 2 (2008) presented increasingly refined linear levels and narratives. Ditum, Nathan, "Resistance 2", PlayStation Official Magazine UK, December 2008 (issue 25), pp. 79-82 As of 2006, in terms of revenue for publishers, the first person shooter was one of the biggest and fastest growing video game genres. Cifaldi, Frank, Analysts: FPS 'Most Attractive' Genre for Publishers, GamaSutra, February 21, 2006, Accessed February 23, 2009 See also First-person shooter engine List of free first-person shooters References | First-person_shooter |@lemmatized first:74 person:58 shooter:62 fps:5 video:12 game:88 genre:18 center:2 gameplay:10 around:5 gun:1 projectile:1 weapon:10 base:15 combat:6 perspective:4 e:2 action:9 see:3 eye:2 protagonist:5 thus:2 player:31 generally:5 speak:1 share:1 common:5 trait:1 turn:2 fall:2 head:2 inception:1 advance:1 pseudo:1 graphic:8 element:6 challenge:1 hardware:3 development:5 multiplayer:19 gaming:6 integral:2 since:3 trace:2 far:6 back:2 maze:6 war:13 begin:3 spasim:4 midi:4 atari:2 st:2 one:9 network:4 also:11 saw:1 release:33 console:11 coalesce:1 wolfenstein:6 credit:3 redefine:1 basic:2 archetype:1 upon:2 subsequent:3 title:5 progenitor:1 wider:1 mainstream:3 acceptance:1 popularity:3 doom:22 following:2 year:3 perhaps:1 influential:4 half:10 life:11 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man:1 increasingly:1 linear:1 ditum:1 nathan:1 revenue:1 big:1 analyst:1 attractive:1 list:1 free:1 reference:1 |@bigram person_shooter:51 multiplayer_gaming:3 midi_maze:3 encyclopædia_britannica:1 deus_ex:2 flight_simulator:3 science_fiction:3 problem_solving:1 massively_multiplayer:2 multiplayer_online:3 strength_weakness:1 texture_mapping:1 duke_nukem:3 review_gamespot:4 doom_quake:1 best_selling:1 sniper_rifle:1 tom_clancy:2 counter_terrorism:2 artificial_intelligence:1 unreal_tournament:1 gaming_console:1 metroid_prime:1 nintendo_gamecube:1 critically_acclaim:1 |
4,505 | Kremlin | The Moscow Kremlin seen from the river. A wall of Smolensk Kremlin in 1912.Remains of the Kolomna Kremlin. Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin. Kremlin (, Kreml ) is the Russian word for "fortress", "citadel" or "castle" and refers to any major fortified central complex found in historic Russian cities. This word is often used to refer to the best-known one, the Moscow Kremlin, or metonymically to the government that is based there. Outside Russia, the name "Kremlin" is sometimes mistakenly thought of as being Saint Basil's Cathedral because of its distinctive environment, although this is not a part of the Moscow Kremlin. The name Kremlin (or Kreml) has been allocated to various Soviet Navy vessels during construction. In each case, the name was changed prior to commissioning. Vessels which have briefly carried this name included Admiral Kuznetsov and Ulyanovsk. "A Brief Look at Russian Aircraft Carrier Development," Robin J. Lee Russia's presidential administration is located in the Kremlin. During the Soviet era the government of the USSR was located in the Kremlin, but now the Russian government occupies a building outside it. List of Russian cities and towns with kremlins World Heritage Sites Moscow Kremlin Novgorod Kremlin Kazan Kremlin Suzdal Kremlin Solovetsky Monastery Extant Astrakhan Kremlin Kolomna Kremlin Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin Pskov Kremlin Rostov Veliky Kremlin Smolensk Kremlin Tobolsk Kremlin Tula Kremlin Zaraysk Kremlin Troitse Sergiyeva Lavra (Monastery) Ivangorod Fortress Oreshek Staraya Ladoga Alexandrov Kremlin Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery Pskovo-Pechersky Monastery Korela Fortress In ruins Gdov Kremlin Izborsk Kremlin Porkhov Kremlin Serpukhov Kremlin Velikie Luki Kremlin Torzhok Kremlin Mozhaysk Kremlin Fortress of Koporye Vyazma Kremlin (one tower) Syzran Kremlin (one tower, 1683) Unwalled Vladimir Kremlin Dmitrov Ryazan Vologda Yaroslavl Pereslavl-Zalessky Khlynov (Vyatka) Only traces Borovsk Opochka Zvenigorod Starodub Tver – burned down by Muscovites during the Golden Horde occupation Sknyatino – underwater since flooding during the 1930s. Fortress of Jama Fortress of Radonezh Old Ryazan (60 km from modern Ryazan) Unknown state Ostrov Volokolamsk Many Russian monasteries have been built in a fortress-like style similar to that of a kremlin. For a partial list, see :Category:Monasteries in Russia. See also References | Kremlin |@lemmatized moscow:4 kremlin:37 see:3 river:1 wall:1 smolensk:2 remains:1 kolomna:2 nizhny:2 novgorod:3 kreml:2 russian:6 word:2 fortress:7 citadel:1 castle:1 refers:1 major:1 fortified:1 central:1 complex:1 find:1 historic:1 city:2 often:1 use:1 refer:1 best:1 know:1 one:3 metonymically:1 government:3 base:1 outside:2 russia:3 name:4 sometimes:1 mistakenly:1 thought:1 saint:1 basil:1 cathedral:1 distinctive:1 environment:1 although:1 part:1 allocate:1 various:1 soviet:2 navy:1 vessel:2 construction:1 case:1 change:1 prior:1 commission:1 briefly:1 carry:1 include:1 admiral:1 kuznetsov:1 ulyanovsk:1 brief:1 look:1 aircraft:1 carrier:1 development:1 robin:1 j:1 lee:1 presidential:1 administration:1 locate:2 era:1 ussr:1 occupy:1 building:1 list:2 town:1 world:1 heritage:1 sit:1 kazan:1 suzdal:1 solovetsky:1 monastery:6 extant:1 astrakhan:1 pskov:1 rostov:1 veliky:1 tobolsk:1 tula:1 zaraysk:1 troitse:1 sergiyeva:1 lavra:1 ivangorod:1 oreshek:1 staraya:1 ladoga:1 alexandrov:1 kirillo:1 belozersky:1 pskovo:1 pechersky:1 korela:1 ruin:1 gdov:1 izborsk:1 porkhov:1 serpukhov:1 velikie:1 luki:1 torzhok:1 mozhaysk:1 koporye:1 vyazma:1 tower:2 syzran:1 unwalled:1 vladimir:1 dmitrov:1 ryazan:3 vologda:1 yaroslavl:1 pereslavl:1 zalessky:1 khlynov:1 vyatka:1 trace:1 borovsk:1 opochka:1 zvenigorod:1 starodub:1 tver:1 burn:1 muscovite:1 golden:1 horde:1 occupation:1 sknyatino:1 underwater:1 since:1 flood:1 jama:1 radonezh:1 old:1 km:1 modern:1 unknown:1 state:1 ostrov:1 volokolamsk:1 many:1 build:1 like:1 style:1 similar:1 partial:1 category:1 also:1 reference:1 |@bigram moscow_kremlin:4 nizhny_novgorod:2 admiral_kuznetsov:1 golden_horde:1 |
4,506 | Ice_age_(disambiguation) | Ice age may refer to: Climate related Ice age, a period of lower temperatures, resulting in an expansion of ice sheets (in particular the antarctic) and glaciers Quaternary glaciation, the current ice age, which started about 2.58 million years ago Glacial period, an interval of time within an ice age marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances, in particular Last glacial period, colloquially known as the "last ice age," refers to the last glacial period of the current ice age, marked by ice advances, from about 72,000 to 11,550 years before the present Little Ice Age, a period of lower temperatures in the second half of 2nd millennium Karoo Ice Age, the ice age that preceded the current one The Pleistocene epoch Entertainment Ice Age (film), a 2002 computer-animated film produced by Blue Sky Studios and released by 20th Century Fox Ice Age: The Meltdown, a 2006 computer-animated sequel film produced by Blue Sky Studios and released by 20th Century Fox Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs, a 2009 computer-animated sequel film to be produced by Blue Sky Studios and released by 20th Century Fox Ice Age Entertainment, record label created by Mike Jones Ice Age (Magic: The Gathering), an expansion set released in 1995 for the collectible card game Music Ice Age (band), progressive metal band Ice Ages, Richard Lederer's dark electronic music project Ice Age (song), a song by Joy Division See also Global cooling | Ice_age_(disambiguation) |@lemmatized ice:19 age:17 may:1 refer:1 climate:1 related:1 period:5 low:2 temperature:3 result:1 expansion:2 sheet:1 particular:2 antarctic:1 glacier:2 quaternary:1 glaciation:1 current:3 start:1 million:1 year:2 ago:1 glacial:3 interval:1 time:1 within:1 mark:2 colder:1 advance:2 last:3 colloquially:1 know:1 refers:1 present:1 little:1 second:1 half:1 millennium:1 karoo:1 precede:1 one:1 pleistocene:1 epoch:1 entertainment:2 film:4 computer:3 animated:3 produce:3 blue:3 sky:3 studio:3 release:4 century:3 fox:3 meltdown:1 sequel:2 dawn:1 dinosaur:1 record:1 label:1 create:1 mike:1 jones:1 magic:1 gathering:1 set:1 collectible:1 card:1 game:1 music:2 band:2 progressive:1 metal:1 richard:1 lederer:1 dark:1 electronic:1 project:1 song:2 joy:1 division:1 see:1 also:1 global:1 cooling:1 |@bigram ice_sheet:1 pleistocene_epoch:1 magic_gathering:1 collectible_card:1 richard_lederer:1 |
4,507 | Fencing | Fencing is a family of sports and activities that feature armed combat involving cutting, stabbing, or slapping bludgeoning weapons that are directly manipulated by hand, rather than shot, thrown or positioned. Examples include swords, knives, pikes, bayonets, batons, clubs, and similar weapons. In contemporary common usage, fencing tends to refer specifically to European schools of swordsmanship and to the modern Olympic sport that has evolved out of them. Fencing is one of the four sports which has been featured at every modern Olympic Games. Currently, three types of weapon are used in Olympic fencing: Foil — a light thrusting weapon; the valid target is restricted to the torso, the chest, shoulders, and back; double touches are not allowed (see priority rules below). This weapon follows the rule of "right of way" Épée — a heavy thrusting weapon; the valid target area covers the entire body; double touches are allowed. There is no "right of way" Sabre — a light cutting and thrusting weapon; the valid target area is the saddle line, which is from one side of your hip to the other and up, this also includes the head. The target area does not include the hands. This weapon follows "right of way" The word fence was originally a shortening of the Middle English defens, which came from an Italian word, defensio, in origin a Latin word. The first known use of defens in reference to English swordsmanship is in William Shakespeare's Merry Wives of Windsor: "Alas sir, I cannot fence." Harper, Douglas (2001), Online Etymology Dictionary History Renaissance Fencing teachers and schools can be found in European historical records dating back at least to the 12th century. In later times some of these teachers were paid by rich nobles to produce books about their fighting systems, called treatises. The earliest known surviving treatise on fencing, stored at the Royal Armouries Museum in Leeds, England, dates from around 1300 AD and is from Germany. It is written in medieval Latin and Middle High German and deals with an advanced system of using the sword and buckler (small shield) together. From 1400 AD onwards there are an increasing number of fencing treatises surviving from across Europe, with the majority from the 15th century coming from Germany and Italy. In this period these arts were largely seen as 'knightly' and for the nobility - hence most of these treatises deal with the knightly weapons, such as rondel dagger, longsword, spear, pollaxe and armoured fighting mounted and on foot. Some treatises do cover the weapons more usually used by the common classes however, such as großes Messer and sword and buckler. Wrestling, both with and without weapons, is also featured heavily in the early fencing treatises. By the sixteenth century, with the widespread adoption of the printing press and the increase in the urban population, together with other social changes, the number of fencing treatises being produced increased dramatically. Fencing schools had been forbidden in some European cities (particularly in England and France) during the medieval period, though court records show that such schools were kept illegally. After around 1500 it seems to have become more socially and legally acceptable to carry swords openly in most parts of Europe, and the increasing fortunes of the middle classes meant that more men were aspiring to carry swords, learn fencing and be seen as gentlemen. By the middle of the 16th century many European cities contained great numbers of fencing schools, often clustered together, such as in London in 'Hanging Sword Lane'. Italian fencing masters were particularly popular in the 16th century and they went abroad and set up schools in many foreign cities. The Italian styles of fencing at this time, bringing concepts of science to the art, were seen as revolutionary and new, and they appealed to the new Renaissance mindset. In 16th century Germany compendia of older Fechtbücher techniques were produced, some of them printed, notably by Paulus Hector Mair (in the 1540s) and by Joachim Meyer (in the 1570s), based on the teachings of the 14th century Liechtenauer tradition. In the 16th century German fencing developed sportive tendencies. Eventually the newer Italian attitude to fencing grew in popularity in Germany as well as elsewhere. Today there are many groups around the world recreating the old fencing systems, using the surviving treatises. Historical European Martial Arts (HEMA) are growing fast, bringing in people from many backgrounds, including those who have taken part in modern sport fencing and Asian martial arts. Early modern period Strictly, the European dueling sword is a basket and cage hilted weapon specifically used in duels from the late 17th to the 19th century. It developed through several forms of the rapier to the smallsword — reflecting the changes from a cutting style of swordplay to a thrusting style ('foining'). This was a result of increasing specialization in their use on the dueling field, and the social stigma attached to carrying and using swords too obviously adapted to the actual "work" of warfare. The smallsword, and the last version of the rapier, were made possible only by metallurgical advances in the seventeenth century as high toughness steels became more readily available.. In England, it was not uncommon for fencing masters to take on other fencing masters in a fight, often to the death, often with intervals for medical staff to dress wounds. Such spectacles were generally held in beargardens, particularly in the Southwark neighborhood near London. A Description of England and Ireland, in the 17th Century, by Mons. Jorevin, section reprinted in: The Every-day Book and Table Book; or, Everlasting Calendar of Popular Amusements, Sports, Pastimes, Ceremonies, Manners, Customs, and Events, Each of the Three Hundred and Sixty-Five Days, in Past and Present Times; Forming a Complete History of the Year, Months, and Seasons, and a Perpetual Key to the Almanac, Including Accounts of the Weather, Rules for Health and Conduct, Remarkable and Important Anecdotes, Facts, and Notices, in Chronology, Antiquities, Topography, Biography, Natural History, Art, Science, and General Literature; Derived from the Most Authentic Sources, and Valuable Original Communication, with Poetical Elucidations, for Daily Use and Diversion. Vol III., ed. William Hone, (London: 1838) p 495. Retrieved on 2008-06-20. The foil was invented in France as a training technique in the middle of the 18th century; it provided practice of fast and elegant thrust fencing with a smaller and safer weapon than an actual dueling sword. Fencers blunted its point by wrapping a foil around the blade or fastening a knob on the point ("blossom", French fleuret). In addition to practice, some fencers took away the protection and used the sharp foil for duels. German students took up that practice and developed the Pariser ("Parisian") thrusting small sword for the Stoßmensur ("thrusting mensur"). After the dress sword was abolished, the Pariser became the only weapon for thrust fencing in German colleges and universities. Since thrust fencing with a sharply pointed blade of any kind is quite dangerous, many students died from (especially) pierced lungs (Lungenfuchser). However, a counter movement had already started in Göttingen in the 1750s, with the invention of the Göttinger Hieber, a predecessor of the modern Korbschläger, a new weapon for cut fencing. In the following years, the Glockenschläger was invented in Eastern Germany universities, also for cut fencing. 1800 to 1918 Thrust fencing (using the Pariser), and cut fencing (using Korbschläger or Glockenschläger), existed in parallel in Germany during the first decades of the 19th century, according to local preferences. Thrust fencing was especially popular in Jena, Erlangen, Würzburg and Ingolstadt/Landshut, two towns where the predecessors of Munich University were located. The last thrust Mensur is recorded to have taken place in Würzburg in 1860. Until the first half of the 19th century all types of academic fencing can be seen as duels, since all fencing with sharp weapons was about honour. No combat with sharp blades took place without a formal insult. For duels involving non-students, e.g. military officers, the academic sabre became usual, apparently being derived from the military sabre. It was then a heavy weapon with a curved blade and a hilt similar to the Korbschläger. The term "Classical Fencing" is a relatively new invention, retroactively applied to select periods and methods. As it is understood today, classical fencing derives most directly from the 19th and early-20th century national fencing schools, especially in Italy and France, although other pre-World War II styles such as Russian and Hungarian are also considered classical. Masters and legendary fencing figures such as Giuseppe Radaelli, Louis Rondelle, Masaniello Parise, the Greco brothers, Aldo Nadi and his rival Lucien Gaudin are today considered typical practitioners of this period. Fencing was one of the disciplines at the very first Olympics Games in the summer of 1896. Épée and Sabre events have been held at every Summer Olympics; foil events have been held at every Summer Olympics except 1908. Scoring was done by means of four judges who determined whether a touch had been made. Two side judges stood behind and to the side of each fencer, and watched for hits made by that fencer on the opponent's target. A director followed the fencing from a point several feet away from the centre of the action. At the end of each action, after calling "Halt!", the director would describe the action, and then poll the judges in turn. If the judges differed, or abstained, the director could overrule them. This method had serious limitations, though it was universally used. As described in an article in the London newspaper, The Daily Courier, on June 25, 1896: "Every one who has watched a bout with the foils knows that the task of judging the hits is with a pair of amateurs difficult enough, and with a well-matched pair of maîtres d’escrime well-nigh impossible." There also were problems with bias: well-known fencers were often given the benefit of mistakes (so-called "reputation touches"), and in some cases there was outright cheating. Aldo Nadi complained about this in his autobiography The Living Sword in regard to his famous match with Lucien Gaudin. The Daily Courier article is an early description of a new invention, the electrical scoring machine, that would revolutionize fencing. 1918 to present Dueling went into sharp decline after World War I. After World War II, dueling went out of use in Europe except for very rare exceptions. Training for duels, once fashionable for males of aristocratic backgrounds (although fencing masters such as Hope suggest that many people had only taken one or two lessons, and thus considering themselves trained), all but disappeared, along with the classes themselves. Fencing continued as a sport, with tournaments and championships. However, the need to actually prepare for a duel with "sharps" vanished, changing both training and technique. Starting with épée in the 1930s, side judges were replaced by an electrical scoring apparatus, with an audible tone and a red or green light indicating when a touch landed. Foil was electrified in the 1950s, sabre in the 1980s. The scoring box reduced the bias in judging, and permitted more accurate scoring of faster actions, lighter touches, and more touches to the back and flank than were possible with human judges. Forms of fencing Contemporary fencing is divided in three broad categories: Competitive fencing Fencing as a Western martial art Other forms of fencing Competitive fencing There are numerous inter-related forms of competitive fencing in practice, all of which approach the activity as a sport, with varying degrees of connectedness to its historic past. Olympic fencing (or simply "fencing") refers to the fencing seen in most competitions, including the Olympic Games and the World Cup. Competitions are conducted according to rules laid down by the Fédération Internationale d'Escrime (FIE), the international governing body. These rules evolved from a set of conventions developed in Europe between mid 17th and early 20th century with the specific purpose of regulating competitive activity. The three weapons used in Olympic fencing are foil, épée, and sabre. In competition, the validity of touches is determined by the electronic scoring apparatus, so as to minimize human error and bias in refereeing. Wheelchair fencing, also known as jousting, an original Paralympic sport, was developed in post-World War II England. Minor modifications to the FIE rules allow disabled fencers to fence all three weapons. The most apparent change is that each fencer sits in a wheelchair fastened to a frame. Footwork is replaced by torso or arm movement, depending on the fencer's disability. The proximity of the two fencers tends to increase the pace of bouts, which require considerable skill. The weapons are identical to those used in Olympic fencing. Other variants include one-hit épée (one of the five events which constitute modern pentathlon) and the various types of competitive fencing, whose rules are similar but not identical to the FIE rules. One example of this is the American Fencing League (distinct from the United States Fencing Association): the format of competitions is different, there is no electronic scoring, and the priority rules are interpreted in a different way. In a number of countries, the accepted practice at school and university level deviates slightly from the FIE format. Fencing as a Western martial art Some practitioners of fencing approach it as a Western martial art, with the goal being to train for a theoretical duel. The element of sport is absent (or nearly so) from these forms of fencing, but they all share a common origin with each other and with competitive fencing. Classical fencing is differentiated from competitive fencing as being theoretically closer to swordplay as a martial art. Those who call themselves classical fencers may advocate the use of what they see as more authentic practices, including little or no emphasis on sport competition. There is strong interest within the classical fencing community in reviving the European fencing practices of the 19th and early 20th century, when fencers were expected to be able to fight a duel using their training. Weapons used are the standard (non-electric) foil, standard épée (often equipped with pointe d'arret), and the blunted dueling sabre. AFL fencing is often referred to as classical fencing, but this is a misnomer. Historical fencing is a type of historical martial arts reconstruction based on surviving texts and traditions. Predictably, historical fencers study an extremely wide array of weapons from different regions and periods. They may work with bucklers, daggers, polearms, navajas, bludgeoning weapons, etc. One main preoccupation of historical fencers is with weapons of realistic weight, which demand a different way of manipulating them from what is the norm in modern Fencing. For example, light weapons can be manipulated through the use of the fingers (more flexibility), but more realistically-weighted weapons must be controlled more through the wrist and elbow. This difference is great and can lead to drastic changes even in the carriage of the body and footwork in combat. There is considerable overlap between classical and historical fencing, especially with regard to 19th-century fencing practices. Other forms of fencing Finally, there are several other forms of fencing which have little in common besides history with either of the other two classifications. Academic fencing, or mensur, is a German student tradition that has become mostly extinct but is still sometimes practiced in Germany, Switzerland and Austria as well as in Flanders and Latvia. The combat, which uses a cutting weapon known as the schläger, uses sharpened blades and takes place between members of student corporations - "Studentenverbindungen" - in accordance with a strictly delineated set of conventions. It uses special protective gear that leaves most of the head and face, excluding the eyes, unprotected. (The special goggles are called Paukbrille.) The ultimate goal is to develop personal character, therefore there is no winner or loser and flinching is not allowed. Acquiring a proper cut on the face with the sharp blade, called a Schmiss (German for "smite"), was considered a visible sign of manly courage and status as "Akademiker", or member of the professional upper class. However, tales of cuts being intentionally manipulated by sewing in horsehairs or rubbing wounds with vinegar or salt have been discredited as popular myths since the 1880s. Stage fencing seeks to achieve maximum theatrical impact in representing a wide range of styles, including both modern and historical forms of fencing. Theatrical fight scenes are choreographed by a Fight Director, and fencing actions are amended so that an audience with no understanding of the minutiae of fencing techniques can follow the narrative of the action, both physical and dramatic. Recreational roleplaying often incorporates fencing in the context of historical or fantasy themes in the Society for Creative Anachronism or live-action roleplaying games. Technique and scoring systems vary widely from one group to the next, as do the weapons. Depending on local conventions, participants may use modern sport fencing weapons, period weapons, or weapons invented specifically for the purpose, such as boffers. Modern weapons Three weapons survive in modern competitive fencing: foil, épée, and sabre. The spadroon and the heavy cavalry-style sabre, both of which saw widespread competitive use in the 19th century, fell into disfavour in the early 20th century with the rising popularity of the lighter and faster weapon used today. The singlestick was featured in the 1904 Olympic Games, but it was already declining in popularity at that time. Bayonet fencing experienced a somewhat slower decline, with competitions organized by some armed forces as late as the 1940s and 1950s. While the weapons fencers use differ in shape and purpose, their basic construction remains similar across the disciplines. Every weapon has a blade and a hilt. The tip of the blade is generally referred to as the point. The hilt consists of a guard and a grip. The guard (also known as the coquille, the bell, or the bellguard) is a metal shell designed to protect the fingers. The grip is the weapon's actual handle. There are a number of commonly used variants. In foil and épée the more traditional French grip is approximately straight and usually terminates with a pommel (a heavy nut intended to act as a counterweight for the blade and to hold the handle on the weapon). Some modern designs of French grip do not use a heavy pommel nut, in an effort to construct the lightest épée possible. The French grip has been entirely replaced in higher level foil fencing, and partially replaced in épée fencing, by a variety of ergonomic designs, called as a group pistol grips or orthopaedic grips. All of the weapons used for modern competition have electrical wiring which allows them to register a touch on the opponent. Foil The foil is a light and flexible weapon, originally developed in the mid 17th century as a training weapon for the small sword, a light one-handed sword designed almost exclusively for thrusting. In modern competitive fencing, 'electric' weapons are used. These have a push-button on the point of the blade, which allows hits to be registered by the electronic scoring apparatus. In order to register, the button must be depressed with a force of at least 4.90 newtons (500 grams-force) for at least 15 milliseconds. Foil fencers wear conductive (lamé) jackets covering their target area, which allow the scoring apparatus to differentiate between on- and off-target hits. The target area is restricted to the torso, including the front and back. When fencing with electrical equipment, there is an area around each armpit that is not covered by the lamé, and is thus effectively not legal target as well. A modification in FIE rules from 1 January 2009 onwards means that the valid target area includes that part of the bib below a straight line drawn between the shoulders; prior to this, the bib of the mask was not a valid target. This rule has not been implemented uniformly in all National fencing organizations. For instance, the USFA has not decided on a timetable for adopting the rule, while the European nations have generally decided on September 1 2009 as the date for all competitions to use the new rule. The wisdom of this rule is currently widely disputed; the prevailing attitude in the US is that the rule will lead to a great increase in equipment failures and costs, while European opinion is that this will help prevent fencers from covering target. The target must be hit with the tip of the foil; a touch with any other part of the foil it has no effect whatsoever and fencing continues uninterrupted. A touch on an off-target area stops the bout but does not score a point. Foil fencing also features rules of right of way or priority, which determine which fencer's hit will prevail when both fencers have hit. The basic principle of priority is that the hit of the fencer who begins an offensive action first will prevail over his/her opponent's hit, unless the action of the former fails. A fencer's action fails when it falls short of his/her opponent, when it misses, or when it is parried. When one fencer's action fails, the other's current or next offensive action gains priority, unless they delay too long (longer than one period of "fencing time", the time taken to perform one action at the current tempo of the exchange), in which case the previously defending fencer loses priority. If priority cannot be determined when both fencers have hit each other, no point is awarded. The original idea behind the rules of foil fencing was to encourage fencers to defend and attack vital areas, and to fight in a methodical way with initiative passing back and forth between the combatants, thus minimizing the risk of a double death. When an exchange ends in a hit, the referee will call "halt", and fencing will cease. The referee will then analyse the exchange and phrase it in official terminology. The first offensive action is called the attack. All defensive actions successfully deflecting an opponent's blade are called parries. An offensive action of a parrying fencer directly following the parry is called a riposte. An offensive action of a fencer, who attacks without first withdrawing the arm directly after being parried, is called a remise. An offensive action of a fencer from the on-guard position, after being parried and then returning to the on-guard position, is called a reprise. An offensive action of a fencer after his/her opponent has lost the right to riposte via inaction is called a redouble. An offensive action begun by a fencer who is being attacked by his/her opponent is called a counter-attack. Épée Épée, as the sporting weapon known today, was invented in the second half of the 19th century by a group of French students, who felt that the conventions of foil were too restrictive, and the weapon itself too light; they wanted an experience closer to that of an actual duel. At the point of its conception, the épée was, essentially, an exact copy of a small sword but without the needle-sharp point. Instead, the blade terminated in a point d'arrêt, a three-pronged tip which would snag on the clothing without penetrating the flesh. Like the foil, the épée is a thrusting weapon: to score a valid hit, the fencer must fix the point of his weapon on his opponent's target. However, the target area covers the entire body, and there are no rules regarding who can hit when (unlike in foil and sabre, where there are priority rules). In the event of both fencers making a touch within 40 milliseconds of each other, both are awarded a point (a double hit), except when the score is equal and the point would mean the win for both, such as in modern pentathlon's one-hit épée, where neither fencer receives a point. Otherwise, the first to hit always receives the point, regardless of what happened earlier in the phrase. Also épées are the heaviest of the weapons. However, with today's techniques, we see some épée blades as light as 150g. An épée is composed of a blade, a point, a bell guard, and a handle or grip (french or pistol grip). The 'electric' épée, used in modern competitive fencing, terminates in a push-button, similar to the one on the 'electric' foil. In order for the scoring apparatus to register a hit, it must arrive with a force of at least 7.35 newtons (750 grams-force) (a higher threshold than the foil's 4.9 newtons), and the push-button must remain fully depressed for 1 millisecond. All hits register as valid, unless they land on a grounded metal surface, such as a part of the opponent's weapon, in which case they do not register at all. At large events, grounded conductive pistes are often used in order to prevent the registration of hits against the floor. At smaller events and in club fencing, it is generally the responsibility of the referee to watch out for floor hits. These often happen by accident, when an épéeist tries to hit the opponent's foot and misses. This results in a pause in the action but no points. However, deliberate hits against the floor are treated as "dishonest fencing," and penalized accordingly. Épée has less restrictive rules for footwork and physical contact than the other two weapons. In Épée, a corps-à-corps (collision between fencers) is not penalized unless initialized with intent to harm or if it is excessively violent. There are no restrictions on crossing of the feet or use of the flèche attack in épée; if the fencers pass each other, the attacking fencer may score until he passes his opponent. The defending fencer has the right to one continuous riposte, and may still score after the attacker has passed. The counterattack is very important in épée; direct, unprepared attacks are vulnerable to counterattacks to the hand or arm, or to the body if the attacker is shorter than his opponent. High level épée is often a game of provocation, with each player trying to lure the other into an attack. Distance in épée is even more important than in the conventional weapons. Sabre Sabre is the 'cutting' weapon: points may be scored with edges and surfaces of the blade, as well as the point. Although the current design with a light and flexible blade (marginally stiffer than a foil blade which bends easily up and down while a sabre blade bends easier side to side) appeared around the turn of the 19th and 20th century, similar sporting weapons with more substantial blades had been used throughout the Victorian era. There is some debate as to whether the modern fencing sabre is descended from the cavalry sabres of Turkic origin, which became popular in Central and Western Europe around the time of Napoleonic Wars, or one of Europe's indigenous edged duelling weapons, such as the cutting rapier. In practice, it is likely to be a hybrid of the two. Most of the conventions and vocabulary of modern sabre fencing were developed by late 19th and early 20th century masters from Italy and Hungary, perhaps most notable among them being Italo Santelli (1866–1945). The sabre target covers everything above the waist, except the hands (wrists are included) and the back of the head. Today, any contact between any part of the blade and any part of the target counts as a valid touch. This was not always the case, and earlier conventions stipulated that a valid touch must be made with the point or either the front or back cutting edge, and that a point attack must not merely graze the target and slip along (pass) the opponent's body. These requirements had to be abandoned, because of technical difficulties, shortly after electronic scoring was introduced into sabre fencing in late 1980s. Like foil, sabre is subject to right of way rules, but there are differences in the definition of a correctly executed attack and parry. These differences, together with a much greater scoring surface (the whole of the blade, rather than the point alone), make sabre parries more difficult to execute effectively. As a result, sabre tactics rely much more heavily on footwork with blade contact kept to a minimum. Also, play is not halted by an off-target (below the waist) hit in sabre. To prevent both fencers from immediately charging each other at the beginning of fencing action, crossing of the feet is not allowed, which also prohibits use of the flèche. This results in a penalty against the offending fencer (a warning, followed by awarding a penalty touch if the offense is repeated). A maneuver called a 'Flunge' is sometimes used as a replacement for the outlawed flèche: the fencer leaps at the opponent, being sure to keep his rear foot behind his front as long as possible. Safely landing following this move requires crossing the feet, thus the hit must be scored while airborne. Sabre matches are often decided very quickly compared to the other weapons. Protective clothing The clothing which is worn in modern fencing is made of tough cotton or nylon. Kevlar was added to top level uniform pieces (jacket, breeches, underarm protector, lamé, and the bib of the mask) following the Smirnov incident at the 1982 World Championships in Rome. However, kevlar breaks down in chlorine and UV light, so the act of washing one's uniform and/or hanging it up in the sun to dry actually damaged the kevlar's ability to do the job. In recent years other ballistic fabrics such as Dyneema have been developed that perform the puncture resistance function and which do not have kevlar's weakness. In fact, the FIE rules state that the entirety of the uniform (meaning FIE level clothing, as the rules are written for FIE tournaments) must be made of fabric that resists a force of 800 newtons (1600N in the mask bib). The complete fencing kit includes the following items of clothing: Form-fitting jacket covering groin and with strap (croissard) which goes between the legs (note that in sabre fencing, jackets that are cut along the waist and exclude the groin padding are also sometimes used), a small gorget of folded fabric is also sewn in around the collar to prevent a blade from slipping upwards towards the neck. Under-arm protector (plastron) which goes underneath the jacket and provides double protection on the sword arm side and upper arm. It is required to not have a seam in the armpit, which would line up with the jacket seam and provide a weak spot. One glove for the sword arm with a gauntlet that prevents blades from going up the sleeve and causing injury, as well as protecting the hand and providing a good grip Breeches or knickers which are a pair of short trousers. The legs are supposed to hold just below the knee. Knee-length or Thigh high socks which should cover knee and thighs. Shoes with flat soles and reinforcement on the inside of the back foot and heel of front foot, to prevent wear from lunging. Mask, including a bib which protects the neck. The mask can usually support 350 Newtons, however FIE regulation masks must withstand much more, 1600 Newtons. Some modern masks have a see-through visor in the front of the mask. These can be used at high level competitions (World Championships etc.). Plastic chest protector, mandatory for female fencers. While male versions of the chest protector are also available, they were, until recently, primarily worn by instructors, who are hit far more often during training than their students. Since the change of the depression timing (see above), these are increasingly popular in foil, as the hard surface increases the likelihood of point bounce and thus a failure for a hit to register. Plastrons are still mandatory, though the chest protector must be worn next to the skin. Fencing Masters will often wear a heavier protective jacket, usually reinforced by plastic foam to cushion the numerous hits an instructor has to endure. Sometimes in practice, masters wear a protective sleeve or a leg leather for protection of their fencing arm or leg. Electric Fencing-In electric foil and sabre there is a layer of electrically conductive material (called a lamé) worn over the fencing jacket, and entirely covers the valid target area. In foil the lamé is sleeveless, and in sabre the lamé has sleeves and ends in a straight line across the waist. In all weapons, a body cord is also necessary to register scoring: it attaches to the weapon and is worn inside the sleeve of the normal jacket, down the fencer's back and is then attached to the scoring box. In sabre and foil, the body cord is connected to the lamé in order to create a circuit to the scoring box, where another part of the body cord attaches, can record where one has been hit. Traditionally, the fencers' uniform is white in color (black being the traditional color for instructors). This may be to some extent due to the occasional pre-electric practice of covering the point of the weapon in dye, soot, or colored chalk in order to make it easier for the referee to determine the placing of the touches. Recently the FIE rules have been relaxed to allow colored uniforms (black still being reserved for the coaches). The guidelines delineating the permitted size and positioning of sponsorship logos are however still extremely strict. Practice and techniques Competition formats Fencing tournaments are varied in their format, and there are both individual and team competitions. A tournament may comprise all three weapons, both individual and team, or it may be very specific, such as an Épée Challenge, with individual épée only. And, as in many sports, men and women compete separately in high-level tournaments. Mixed-gender tournaments are commonplace at lower-level events, especially those held by individual fencing clubs. There are two types of event, individual and team. An individual event consists of two parts: the pools, and the direct eliminations. In the pools, fencers are divided into groups, and every fencer in a pool will have the chance to fence every other fencer once. There are typically seven fencers in a pool. If the number of fencers competing is not a multiple of seven, then there will usually be several pools of six or eight. After the pools are finished, the fencers are given a ranking, or "seed," compared to all other fencers in the tournament, based primarily on the percent of bouts they won, then based secondarily on the difference between the touches they scored and the touches they received. Once the seeds have been determined, the direct elimination round starts. Fencers are sorted in a table of some power of 2 (16, 32, 64, etc.) based on how many people are competing. Due to the fact that it is highly unlikely for the number of fencers to be exactly a power of two, the fencers with the best results in the pools are given byes or the bottom seeded fencers are eliminated. The winner carries on in the tournament, and loser is eliminated. Typically no one has to fence for third place (the exception is if the tournament is a qualifying tournament with limited slots for continuation). Instead, two bronze medals are given to the losers of the semi-final round. Team competition involves teams of three fencers. A fourth fencer can be allowed on the team as an alternate, but as soon as the fourth has been subbed in, they cannot substitute again. The modern team competition is similar to the pool round of the individual competition. The fencers from opposing teams will each fence each other once, making for a total of nine matches. Matches between teams are three minutes long, or to 5 points, and the points then carry onto the next bout, thus making it a forty-five touch bout fought by six fencers. Unlike individual tournaments, team tournaments almost always fence for bronze. Universities and schools Fencing has a long history of association with universities and schools. At least one style of Fencing, Mensur in Germany is practiced only within universities. University students compete against each other at an international level at the World University Games. The United States also holds a national level university tournament including the NCAA championship tournament in the USA and the BUCS Fencing Championships in the UK. The cost of equipment and the relatively small scale of the sport means fencing at the school level has traditionally been dominated by a small number of schools. National fencing organizations have set up programs to encourage a greater number of students to get involved with fencing at a school level examples include the Regional Youth Circuit program US Fencing Youth Development Website, Regional Youth Circuit or the Leon Paul Youth Development series in the UK. In the UK there are two national competitions in which schools compete against each other directly; the Public Schools Fencing Championship, a competition only open to Independent Schools Home :: Public Schools Fencing Championships , and the Scottish Secondary Schools Championships, open to all secondary schools in Scotland it contains both a teams and individual event and is one of the most anticipated competition in Scottish youth fencing. However schools also organise matches directly against one another and school age pupils can compete individually against one another in the British Youth Championships. See also Fencing terms Fencing at the Summer Olympics Intercollegiate Fencing Association Kendo List of American epee fencers List of American foil fencers List of American sabreursList of NCAA fencing schools List of notable fencers List of Olympic medalists in fencing (men) List of Olympic medalists in fencing (women) USFA Hall of Fame Commonwealth Fencing Championships References Evangelista, Nick (1996). The Art and Science of Fencing. Indianapolis: Masters Press. ISBN 1-57028-075-4. Evangelista, Nick (2000). The Inner Game of Fencing: Excellence in Form, Technique, Strategy, and Spirit. Chicago: Masters Press. ISBN 1-57028-230-7. United States Fencing Association (September, 2005). United States Fencing Association Rules for Competition. Official document. Retrieved 1 December 2005. Amberger, Johann Christoph (1999). The Secret History of the Sword. Burbank: Multi-Media. ISBN 1-892515-04-0 British Fencing (September, 2008). FIE Competition Rules (English) . Official document. Retrieved 16 December 2008. 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4,508 | Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current | The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is the strongest current system in the world oceans, the one that links the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific basins. Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is an ocean current that flows from west to east around Antarctica. An alternate name for the ACC is the West Wind Drift. The ACC is the dominant circulation feature of the Southern Ocean and, at approximately 125 Sverdrups, the largest ocean current . It keeps warm ocean waters away from Antarctica, enabling that continent to maintain its huge ice sheet. The ACC has been known to sailors for many years; circumstances preceding the Mutiny on the Bounty and Jack London's story "Make Westing" poignantly illustrated the difficulty it caused for mariners seeking to round Cape Horn on the clipper ship route between New York and California. The current creates two Antarctic gyres. Structure The ACC connects the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Ocean basins, and as such serves as a principal pathway of exchange between these basins. The current is strongly constrained by landform and bathymetric features. Starting at South America, it flows through the Drake Passage between South America and the Antarctic Peninsula and then is split by the Scotia Arc to the east, with a shallow warm branch flowing to the north in the Falkland Current and a deeper branch passing through the Arc more to the east before also turning to the north. Passing through the Indian Ocean, the current is split by the Kerguelen Plateau in the Indian Ocean, with most of the transport passing to the north. South of New Zealand, it follows the contours of the Campbell Plateau, first deflecting far to the south and then moving northward again. Deflection is also seen as it passes over the mid-ocean ridge in the Southeast Pacific. The current consists of a number of fronts. The northern boundary of the ACC is defined by the Subtropical Front. This marks the boundary between warm, salty subtropical waters (generally with a salinity of greater than 34.9 parts per thousand) and fresher, cooler subpolar waters. Moving southward we find the Subantarctic Front, along which much of the ACC transport is carried, which is defined as the latitude at which a subsurface salinity minimum or a thick layer of unstratified Subantarctic Mode Water first appears. Still further south lies the Polar Front, which is marked by a transition to very cold, relatively fresh, Antarctic Surface Water at the surface. Further south still is the Southern Boundary front, which is determined as the point where very dense abyssal waters upwell to within a few hundred meters of the surface. The bulk of the transport is carried in the middle two fronts. The total transport of the ACC at Drake Passage is estimated to be around 135 Sverdrups (135,000,000 m³/s), or about 135 times the transport of all the world's rivers combined. There is a relatively small addition of flow in the Indian Ocean, with the transport south of Tasmania reaching around 147 Sv, at which point the current is probably the largest on the planet. Dynamics The Circumpolar Current is driven by the strong westerly winds which are found in the latitudes of the Southern Ocean. In latitudes where there are continents, winds blowing on light surface water can simply pile up light water against these continents. But in the Southern Ocean, the momentum imparted to the surface waters cannot be balanced in this way. Different theories of the Circumpolar Current balance the momentum imparted by the winds in different ways. The increasing eastward momentum imparted by the winds causes water parcels to drift outwards from the axis of the Earth's rotation (in other words, northward) as a result of the Coriolis force. This northward transport is balanced by a southward, pressure-driven flow below the depths of the major ridge systems. Some theories connect these flows directly, implying that there is significant upwelling of dense deep waters within the Southern Ocean, transformation of these waters into light surface waters, and a transformation of waters in the opposite direction to the north. Such theories link the magnitude of the Circumpolar Current with the global thermohaline circulation, particularly the properties of the North Atlantic. Alternatively, ocean eddies, the oceanic equivalent of atmospheric storms, or the large scale meanders of the Circumpolar Current may directly transport momentum downwards in the water column. This is because such flows can produce a net southward flow in the troughs and a net northward flow over the ridges without requiring any transformation of density. In practice both the thermohaline and the eddy/meander mechanisms are likely to be important. The current flows at a rate of about four km per hour. Recent studies have indicated that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current varies with time. Evidence of this is the Antarctic Circumpolar Wave, a periodic oscillation that affects the climate of much of the southern hemisphere. There is also the Antarctic oscillation, which involves changes in the location and strength of Antarctic winds. Trends in the Antarctic Oscillation have been hypothesized to account for an increase in the transport of the Circumpolar Current over the past two decades. Formation The Antarctic Circumpolar Current formed during Late Eocene through Early Oligocene, as Antarctica and South America finally separated enough for the Drake Passage to form some 30 to 34 million years ago. As Antarctica became isolated from warmer waters it cooled and glaciers began to form on the formerly forested continent. Studies An expedition in May 2008 by 19 scientists studied the geology and biology of eight Macquarie Ridge sea mounts, as well as the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to investigate the effects of climate change of the southern Ocean. The circumpolar current merges the waters of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans and carries up to 150 times the volume of water flowing in all of the world's rivers. After studying the circumpolar current it is clear that it strongly influences regional and global climate as well as underwater biodiversity. Millions of tiny starfish inhabit undersea volcano - Yahoo! News References Orsi, A.H., T. Whitworth and W.D. Nowling, 1995, On the meridional extent and fronts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, Deep Sea Research, Series I, 42, 641-673. Southern Ocean changing but still major CO2 sink, Environmental News Network, November 24, 2008 External links http://www.literaturecollection.com/a/london/149/ http://oceancurrents.rsmas.miami.edu/southern/antarctic-cp.html http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/ocng_textbook/chapter13/chapter13_04.htm http://earth.usc.edu/~stott/Catalina/Oceans.html Good graphics later in article. | Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current |@lemmatized antarctic:14 circumpolar:14 current:23 acc:9 strong:2 system:2 world:3 oceans:1 one:1 link:3 atlantic:4 indian:6 pacific:4 basin:3 courtesy:1 nasa:1 jpl:1 caltech:1 ocean:17 flow:11 west:2 east:3 around:3 antarctica:4 alternate:1 name:1 wind:6 drift:2 dominant:1 circulation:2 feature:2 southern:9 approximately:1 sverdrup:2 large:3 keep:1 warm:4 water:18 away:1 enable:1 continent:4 maintain:1 huge:1 ice:1 sheet:1 know:1 sailor:1 many:1 year:2 circumstance:1 precede:1 mutiny:1 bounty:1 jack:1 london:2 story:1 make:1 westing:1 poignantly:1 illustrate:1 difficulty:1 cause:2 mariner:1 seek:1 round:1 cape:1 horn:1 clipper:1 ship:1 route:1 new:2 york:1 california:1 create:1 two:3 gyre:1 structure:1 connect:2 serf:1 principal:1 pathway:1 exchange:1 strongly:2 constrain:1 landform:1 bathymetric:1 start:1 south:8 america:3 drake:3 passage:3 peninsula:1 split:2 scotia:1 arc:2 shallow:1 branch:2 north:5 falkland:1 deep:3 pass:2 also:3 turn:1 passing:2 kerguelen:1 plateau:2 transport:9 zealand:1 follow:1 contour:1 campbell:1 first:2 deflect:1 far:2 move:2 northward:4 deflection:1 see:1 mid:1 ridge:4 southeast:1 consist:1 number:1 front:7 northern:1 boundary:3 define:2 subtropical:2 mark:2 salty:1 generally:1 salinity:2 great:1 part:1 per:2 thousand:1 fresher:1 cool:2 subpolar:1 southward:3 find:2 subantarctic:2 along:1 much:2 carry:3 latitude:3 subsurface:1 minimum:1 thick:1 layer:1 unstratified:1 mode:1 appear:1 still:3 lie:1 polar:1 transition:1 cold:1 relatively:2 fresh:1 surface:6 determine:1 point:2 dense:2 abyssal:1 upwell:1 within:2 hundred:1 meter:1 bulk:1 middle:1 total:1 estimate:1 time:3 river:2 combine:1 small:1 addition:1 tasmania:1 reach:1 sv:1 probably:1 planet:1 dynamics:1 drive:1 westerly:1 blow:1 light:3 simply:1 pile:1 momentum:4 impart:3 cannot:1 balance:3 way:2 different:2 theory:3 increase:2 eastward:1 parcel:1 outwards:1 axis:1 earth:2 rotation:1 word:1 result:1 coriolis:1 force:1 pressure:1 driven:1 depth:1 major:2 directly:2 imply:1 significant:1 upwelling:1 transformation:3 opposite:1 direction:1 magnitude:1 global:2 thermohaline:2 particularly:1 property:1 alternatively:1 eddy:2 oceanic:1 equivalent:1 atmospheric:1 storm:1 scale:1 meander:2 may:2 downwards:1 column:1 produce:1 net:2 trough:1 without:1 require:1 density:1 practice:1 mechanism:1 likely:1 important:1 rate:1 four:1 km:1 hour:1 recent:1 study:4 indicate:1 varies:1 evidence:1 wave:1 periodic:1 oscillation:3 affect:1 climate:3 hemisphere:1 involve:1 change:2 location:1 strength:1 trend:1 hypothesize:1 account:1 past:1 decade:1 formation:1 form:3 late:1 eocene:1 early:1 oligocene:1 finally:1 separate:1 enough:1 million:2 ago:1 become:1 isolated:1 glacier:1 begin:1 formerly:1 forest:1 expedition:1 scientist:1 geology:1 biology:1 eight:1 macquarie:1 sea:2 mount:1 well:2 investigate:1 effect:1 merge:1 volume:1 clear:1 influence:1 regional:1 underwater:1 biodiversity:1 tiny:1 starfish:1 inhabit:1 undersea:1 volcano:1 yahoo:1 news:2 reference:1 orsi:1 h:1 whitworth:1 w:1 nowling:1 meridional:1 extent:1 research:1 series:1 changing:1 sink:1 environmental:1 network:1 november:1 external:1 http:4 www:1 literaturecollection:1 com:1 oceancurrents:1 rsmas:1 miami:1 edu:3 cp:1 html:2 oceanworld:1 tamu:1 resource:1 htm:1 usc:1 stott:1 catalina:1 good:1 graphic:1 later:1 article:1 |@bigram antarctic_circumpolar:7 circumpolar_current:13 ice_sheet:1 clipper_ship:1 westerly_wind:1 thermohaline_circulation:1 southern_hemisphere:1 pacific_ocean:1 undersea_volcano:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
4,509 | Dune_Messiah | Dune Messiah is a science fiction novel by Frank Herbert, the second in a series of six novels. It was originally serialized in Galaxy magazine in 1969. The American and British editions have different prologues summarizing events in the previous novel. The novels Dune Messiah and Children of Dune were adapted by the Sci-Fi Channel in 2003 into a mini-series entitled Frank Herbert's Children of Dune. In 2002, the Science Fiction Book Club also published the two novels in one volume. Herbert, Frank. Dune Messiah and Children of Dune. 1st SFBC Printing edition (2002), 592 pages. ISBN 0-739-42399-1. __FORCETOC__ Plot summary Twelve years after the events described in Dune (1965), Paul "Muad'Dib" Atreides rules as Emperor, following a jihad which conquered most of the human universe "Muad'dib's Qizarate missionaries carried their religious war across space in a Jihad whose major impetus endured only twelve standard years, but in that time, religious colonialism brought all but a fraction of the human universe under one rule." 'Excerpts from the Death Cell Interview with Bronso of IX', Dune Messiah . Paul unleashed this jihad by accepting the role of messiah to the Fremen. While Paul is the most powerful Emperor ever known, he is ironically powerless to stop the lethal excesses of the religious juggernaut he has created. Although sixty-one billion people have perished, Paul's prescient visions indicate that this is far from the worst possible outcome for humanity. Motivated by this knowledge, Paul hopes to set humanity on a course that will not inevitably lead to stagnation and destruction, while at the same time acting as ruler of the Empire and focal point of the Fremen religion. The Bene Gesserit, Spacing Guild and Tleilaxu enter into a conspiracy to dethrone Paul, the Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Gaius Helen Mohiam enlisting Paul's own consort Princess Irulan, daughter of the deposed Padishah Emperor Shaddam Corrino IV. Paul has refused to father a child with Irulan, but his rule is unstable owing to his failure to produce an heir with his Fremen concubine Chani. Desperate both to secure her place in the Atreides dynasty and to preserve the Atreides bloodline for the Bene Gesserit breeding program, Irulan has secretly been giving contraceptives to Chani; Paul is aware of this, but has foreseen that the birth of his heir will bring Chani's death, and does not want to lose her. With the Guild Navigator Edric shielding the conspiracy from Paul's prescience, the Tleilaxu Face Dancer Scytale gives Paul a gift he cannot resist: a Tleilaxu-grown ghola of Duncan Idaho, Paul's childhood teacher and friend, now called "Hayt." The conspirators hope the presence of Hayt will undermine Paul's ability to rule by forcing Paul to question himself and the empire he has created. Furthermore, Paul's acceptance of the gift weakens his support among the Fremen, who see the Tleilaxu and their tools as unclean. Chani then conceives after switching to a traditional Fremen fertility diet, preventing Irulan from being able to tamper with her food. Otheym, one of Paul's former Fedaykin death commandos, reveals evidence of a Fremen conspiracy against Paul. Otheym gives Paul his little Tleilaxu servant Bijaz who, like a recording machine, can remember faces, names, and details. Paul accepts reluctantly, seeing the strands of a Tleilaxu plot. As Paul's soldiers attack the conspirators, others set off an atomic weapon called a stone burner, purchased from the Tleilaxu, that destroys the area and blinds Paul. By tradition, all blind Fremen are abandoned in the desert, but Paul is able to continue in leadership by fixing his actions precisely in line with what his previous oracular visions showed him; by moving through his life in lockstep with his previous visions, he can see even the slightest details of the world around him. The disadvantage of this is his inability to change any part of his destiny so long as he wishes to appear sighted. The unraveling of the Fremen conspiracy reveals that Korba, a former Fedaykin and now high priest of Paul's church, is among Paul's enemies. Hayt interrogates Bijaz, but the little man — secretly an agent of the Tleilaxu — uses a specific humming intonation that renders Hayt open to implanted commands. Bijaz programs Hayt to offer Paul a bargain when Chani dies: Chani's rebirth as a ghola, and the hope that Duncan Idaho's memories might be reawakened, in return for Paul sacrificing the throne and going into exile. Unknown to Hayt, this also activates a hidden compulsion that will force him to kill Paul, given the appropriate circumstances. News is brought that Chani has died giving birth to two healthy children; like Paul's sister Alia, they are "pre-born" — born fully conscious with Kwisatz Haderach-like access to ancestral memories, in their case because of in utero exposure to the spice. News of the birth is delivered to Paul and his reaction to it triggers the compulsions in the mind of Hayt, who attempts to kill Paul. Reacting against its own programming owing to the trauma of the attempt, Hayt's body remembers itself, and a new consciousness arises that is a mix of Duncan Idaho and Hayt, unconditioned by the Tleilaxu programming. Because Paul had foreseen the birth of only a daughter (and not twins), his prophetic visions fail, rendering him totally blind. As he nears a crucial decision point, he is thrust into a deadly standoff: Scytale holds a knife to the necks of Paul's children. The ability to restore a ghola's memory proven, Scytale offers to revive Chani as a ghola in return for Paul's abdication. Paul receives a prescient vision from the perspective of his newborn son Leto, and is able to throw a dagger and kill Scytale. With Paul's visions gone, he is now blind, and he chooses to walk into the desert in the Fremen tradition, winning the fealty of the Fremen for his children, who will inherit his mantle of Emperor. Paul leaves Alia, now romantically involved with Duncan, as regent for the twins, whom he has named Leto and Ghanima. Duncan notes the irony that Paul and Chani's deaths had enabled them to triumph against their enemies, and that Paul has escaped deification by walking into the desert as a man, while guaranteeing Fremen support for the Atreides line. Characters in Dune Messiah Paul Atreides – Emperor of the known universe and Messiah of the Fremen. His formal name is Muad'dib and Fremen sietch name is Usul. Princess Irulan – Princess-consort of Emperor Paul Atreides Chani – of Paul's Fremen tribe, Imperial concubine and chosen mother-to-be Alia – Paul's sister, born with prescient awareness, a Reverend Mother Gaius Helen Mohiam – a Reverend Mother of the Bene Gesserit and conspirator Edric – a prescient Guild Navigator and conspirator Scytale – a Tleilaxu Face Dancer and conspirator Hayt – a revived Tleilaxu ghola of Paul's childhood teacher, Duncan Idaho Stilgar – Previous leader of the Fremen, now loyal to Paul Atreides References External links | Dune_Messiah |@lemmatized dune:9 messiah:7 science:2 fiction:2 novel:5 frank:3 herbert:3 second:1 series:2 six:1 originally:1 serialize:1 galaxy:1 magazine:1 american:1 british:1 edition:2 different:1 prologue:1 summarize:1 event:2 previous:4 child:7 adapt:1 sci:1 fi:1 channel:1 mini:1 entitle:1 book:1 club:1 also:2 publish:1 two:2 one:4 volume:1 sfbc:1 printing:1 page:1 isbn:1 plot:2 summary:1 twelve:2 year:2 describe:1 paul:44 muad:3 dib:3 atreides:7 rule:4 emperor:6 follow:1 jihad:3 conquer:1 human:2 universe:3 qizarate:1 missionary:1 carry:1 religious:3 war:1 across:1 space:2 whose:1 major:1 impetus:1 endure:1 standard:1 time:2 colonialism:1 bring:3 fraction:1 excerpt:1 death:4 cell:1 interview:1 bronso:1 ix:1 unleashed:1 accept:2 role:1 fremen:15 powerful:1 ever:1 know:1 ironically:1 powerless:1 stop:1 lethal:1 excess:1 juggernaut:1 create:2 although:1 sixty:1 billion:1 people:1 perish:1 prescient:4 vision:6 indicate:1 far:1 bad:1 possible:1 outcome:1 humanity:2 motivate:1 knowledge:1 hope:3 set:2 course:1 inevitably:1 lead:1 stagnation:1 destruction:1 act:1 ruler:1 empire:2 focal:1 point:2 religion:1 bene:4 gesserit:4 guild:3 tleilaxu:11 enter:1 conspiracy:4 dethrone:1 reverend:3 mother:4 gaius:2 helen:2 mohiam:2 enlist:1 consort:2 princess:3 irulan:5 daughter:2 deposed:1 padishah:1 shaddam:1 corrino:1 iv:1 refuse:1 father:1 unstable:1 owe:2 failure:1 produce:1 heir:2 concubine:2 chani:10 desperate:1 secure:1 place:1 dynasty:1 preserve:1 bloodline:1 breed:1 program:2 secretly:2 give:5 contraceptive:1 aware:1 foresee:2 birth:4 want:1 lose:1 navigator:2 edric:2 shield:1 prescience:1 face:3 dancer:2 scytale:5 gift:2 cannot:1 resist:1 grown:1 ghola:5 duncan:6 idaho:4 childhood:2 teacher:2 friend:1 call:2 hayt:10 conspirator:5 presence:1 undermine:1 ability:2 force:2 question:1 furthermore:1 acceptance:1 weaken:1 support:2 among:2 see:3 tool:1 unclean:1 conceive:1 switch:1 traditional:1 fertility:1 diet:1 prevent:1 able:3 tamper:1 food:1 otheym:2 former:2 fedaykin:2 commando:1 reveals:2 evidence:1 little:2 servant:1 bijaz:3 like:3 recording:1 machine:1 remember:1 name:4 detail:2 reluctantly:1 strand:1 soldier:1 attack:1 others:1 atomic:1 weapon:1 stone:1 burner:1 purchase:1 destroy:1 area:1 blind:4 tradition:2 abandon:1 desert:3 continue:1 leadership:1 fix:1 action:1 precisely:1 line:2 oracular:1 show:1 move:1 life:1 lockstep:1 even:1 slight:1 world:1 around:1 disadvantage:1 inability:1 change:1 part:1 destiny:1 long:1 wish:1 appear:1 sight:1 unraveling:1 korba:1 high:1 priest:1 church:1 enemy:2 interrogate:1 man:2 agent:1 use:1 specific:1 hum:1 intonation:1 render:2 open:1 implanted:1 command:1 offer:2 bargain:1 die:2 rebirth:1 memory:3 might:1 reawaken:1 return:2 sacrifice:1 throne:1 go:2 exile:1 unknown:1 activate:1 hidden:1 compulsion:2 kill:3 appropriate:1 circumstance:1 news:2 healthy:1 sister:2 alia:3 pre:1 born:1 bear:2 fully:1 conscious:1 kwisatz:1 haderach:1 access:1 ancestral:1 case:1 utero:1 exposure:1 spice:1 deliver:1 reaction:1 trigger:1 mind:1 attempt:2 react:1 programming:2 trauma:1 body:1 remembers:1 new:1 consciousness:1 arises:1 mix:1 unconditioned:1 twin:2 prophetic:1 fail:1 totally:1 near:1 crucial:1 decision:1 thrust:1 deadly:1 standoff:1 hold:1 knife:1 neck:1 restore:1 proven:1 revive:2 abdication:1 receive:1 perspective:1 newborn:1 son:1 leto:2 throw:1 dagger:1 choose:1 walk:2 win:1 fealty:1 inherit:1 mantle:1 leave:1 romantically:1 involve:1 regent:1 ghanima:1 note:1 irony:1 enable:1 triumph:1 escape:1 deification:1 guarantee:1 character:1 known:1 formal:1 sietch:1 usul:1 tribe:1 imperial:1 chosen:1 awareness:1 stilgar:1 leader:1 loyal:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram dune_messiah:5 science_fiction:2 frank_herbert:2 sci_fi:1 muad_dib:3 powerless_stop:1 prescient_vision:2 bene_gesserit:4 duncan_idaho:4 romantically_involve:1 paul_atreides:3 external_link:1 |
4,510 | Egyptian_Armed_Forces | The Armed Forces of Egypt are the largest on the African continent and one of the largest in the world (ranked 11th), consisting of the Egyptian Army, Egyptian Navy, Egyptian Air Force and Egyptian Air Defense Command. Egypt maintains a large paramilitary force under the control of the Ministry of Interior. They number around 350,000 strong and are known as the Central Security Forces. The government also has a relatively strong National Guard and Border Security Forces however they, unlike the Central Security Forces, come under the control of the Ministry of Defence and are reported to number 60,000 and 20,000 respectively. The Commander-in-Chief is Field Marshal Mohamed Hussein Tantawi and the General Chief of Staff is Lt. Gen. Sami Hafez Anan. The armed forces inventory includes equipment from the United States, France, Italy, the United Kingdom, the former Soviet Union, and the People's Republic of China. Equipment from the former Soviet Union is being progressively replaced by more modern American, French, and British equipment, a significant portion of which is built under license in Egypt, such as the M1 Abrams tank. To bolster stability and moderation in the region, Egypt has provided military assistance and training to a number of African and Arab states. Although not a NATO member, Egypt remains a strong military and strategic partner and is a participant in NATO's Mediterranean Dialogue forum. The Egyptian military is one of the strongest in the region , and gives Egypt regional military supremacy rivaled only by Israel , besides being the strongest in Africa . Egypt is the only Arab country with a spy satellite and has launched another one in 2007. The Egyptian Air Force The Egyptian Air Force or EAF is the aviation branch of the Egyptian Armed Forces. Currently, the backbone of the EAF is the F-16. The EAF (planes and Pilot training) is considered to be the strongest in Africa and one of the strongest in the Middle East. The Mirage 2000 is the other modern interceptor used by the EAF. The Egyptian Airforce has 240 F-16s (plus 24 on order) making it the 4th largest operator of the F-16 in the World. It has about 579 combat aircraft and 149 armed helicopters as it continues to fly extensively upgraded MiG-21s, F-7 Skybolts, F-4 Phantoms, Dassault Mirage Vs, and the C-130 Hercules among other planes. The Air Force is undergoing massive modernization. Mikoyan confirmed that talks with Egypt are underway for the sale of 40 Mig-29SMT jet-fighters, with a possible additional batch of 60-80 planes. The Egyptian Air Defense Command The Egyptian Air Defense Command or ADF (Quwwat El Diffaa El Gawwi in Arabic) is Egypt's military command responsible for air defense. Egypt patterned its Air Defense Force (ADF) after the Soviet Anti-Air Defenses, which integrated all its air defense capabilities – antiaircraft guns, rocket and missile units, interceptor planes, and radar and warning installations. Its current commander is Major General Abdel-Aziz Seif. It consists of 30,000 officers & soldiers plus 40,000 conscripts. The Egyptian Navy Although the Egyptian Navy is the smallest branch of the military, it is large by Middle Eastern standards. It has a total of 60,000 personnel. The Egyptian Navy is known to be the strongest in the African continent, and the second largest in the Middle East after the Turkish navy in spite of the rapid growing of other countries navies within the region. Some fleet units are stationed in the Red Sea, but the bulk of the force remains in the Mediterranean. Navy headquarters and the main operational and training base are located at Ras at Tin near Alexandria. The current commander is lieutenant general Said Pa'gora. See list of naval ships of Egypt for a list of vessels in service. The Egyptian Paramilitary Forces Paramilitary Forces number around 435,000 and consist of: Central Security Forces: under the control of the Ministry of the Interior. It is the law enforcement authority in the country. The Central Security Forces, number around 350,000 personnel. Republican Guard: under the control of the Ministry of Defense and numbers about 60,000 personnel and they are mainly for ceremonials and parades. The Republican Guard armored division is not a part of the Corps, it is rather for the defence of the Presidential institution and the Capital. Its current commander is Major General Samy Dyab Border Guard Forces: under the control of the Ministry of Defense. The Border Guard is a lightly armed paramilitary unit of about 25,000 personnel, mostly Bedouins, responsible for border surveillance, general peacekeeping, drug interdiction, and prevention of smuggling. During the late 1980s, the force was equipped with remote sensors, night-vision binoculars, communications vehicles, and high-speed motorboats. Coast Guard: is responsible for the onshore protection of public installations near the coast and the patrol of coastal waters to prevent smuggling. With a force of 5,000 personnel, it has an inventory consisting of about thirty five large patrol craft (each between twenty and thirty meters in length) and twenty smaller Bertram-class coastal patrol craft built in the United States. Egyptian Military Schools There is an undergraduate military school for each branch of the Egyptian Military establishment, and they include: The Egyptian Military Academy The Egyptian Naval Academy The Egyptian Air Academy The Egyptian Air Defense Academy The Egyptian Military Technical College The Egyptian Technical Institute Nasser Military Academy College of the Commanders and the Chiefs of Staffs College of the Reserve Officers See also Flags of the Egyptian Armed Forces Egyptian Military Industry References Notes Bibliography Egyptian Armed Forces CIA World Factbook FAS GlobalSecurity Further Reading: see Kenneth M. Pollack, Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness 1948-91, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, 2002, and Pollack's book reviewed in International Security, Vol. 28, No.2. | Egyptian_Armed_Forces |@lemmatized armed:3 force:22 egypt:11 large:7 african:3 continent:2 one:4 world:3 ranked:1 consisting:2 egyptian:26 army:1 navy:7 air:13 defense:10 command:4 maintain:1 paramilitary:4 control:5 ministry:5 interior:2 number:6 around:3 strong:8 know:2 central:4 security:6 government:1 also:2 relatively:1 national:1 guard:6 border:4 however:1 unlike:1 come:1 defence:2 report:1 respectively:1 commander:5 chief:3 field:1 marshal:1 mohamed:1 hussein:1 tantawi:1 general:5 staff:2 lt:1 gen:1 sami:1 hafez:1 anan:1 inventory:2 include:2 equipment:3 united:3 state:3 france:1 italy:1 kingdom:1 former:2 soviet:3 union:2 people:1 republic:1 china:1 progressively:1 replace:1 modern:2 american:1 french:1 british:1 significant:1 portion:1 build:2 license:1 abrams:1 tank:1 bolster:1 stability:1 moderation:1 region:3 provide:1 military:14 assistance:1 training:3 arab:3 although:2 nato:2 member:1 remain:2 strategic:1 partner:1 participant:1 mediterranean:2 dialogue:1 forum:1 give:1 regional:1 supremacy:1 rival:1 israel:1 besides:1 africa:2 country:3 spy:1 satellite:1 launch:1 another:1 eaf:4 aviation:1 branch:3 arm:4 currently:1 backbone:1 f:5 plane:4 pilot:1 consider:1 middle:3 east:2 mirage:2 interceptor:2 use:1 airforce:1 plus:2 order:1 make:1 operator:1 combat:1 aircraft:1 helicopter:1 continue:1 fly:1 extensively:1 upgraded:1 mig:2 skybolts:1 phantom:1 dassault:1 v:1 c:1 hercules:1 among:1 undergo:1 massive:1 modernization:1 mikoyan:1 confirm:1 talk:1 underway:1 sale:1 jet:1 fighter:1 possible:1 additional:1 batch:1 adf:2 quwwat:1 el:2 diffaa:1 gawwi:1 arabic:1 responsible:3 pattern:1 anti:1 integrate:1 capability:1 antiaircraft:1 gun:1 rocket:1 missile:1 unit:3 radar:1 warn:1 installation:2 current:3 major:2 abdel:1 aziz:1 seif:1 consist:2 officer:2 soldier:1 conscript:1 small:2 eastern:1 standard:1 total:1 personnel:5 second:1 turkish:1 spite:1 rapid:1 growing:1 within:1 fleet:1 station:1 red:1 sea:1 bulk:1 headquarters:1 main:1 operational:1 base:1 locate:1 ra:1 tin:1 near:2 alexandria:1 lieutenant:1 say:1 pa:1 gora:1 see:3 list:2 naval:2 ship:1 vessel:1 service:1 law:1 enforcement:1 authority:1 republican:2 mainly:1 ceremonial:1 parade:1 armor:1 division:1 part:1 corp:1 rather:1 presidential:1 institution:1 capital:1 samy:1 dyab:1 lightly:1 mostly:1 bedouins:1 surveillance:1 peacekeeping:1 drug:1 interdiction:1 prevention:1 smuggle:2 late:1 equip:1 remote:1 sensor:1 night:1 vision:1 binoculars:1 communication:1 vehicle:1 high:1 speed:1 motorboat:1 coast:2 onshore:1 protection:1 public:1 patrol:3 coastal:2 water:1 prevent:1 thirty:2 five:1 craft:2 twenty:2 meter:1 length:1 bertram:1 class:1 school:2 undergraduate:1 establishment:1 academy:5 technical:2 college:3 institute:1 nasser:1 reserve:1 flag:1 industry:1 reference:1 note:1 bibliography:1 cia:1 factbook:1 fas:1 globalsecurity:1 far:1 reading:1 kenneth:1 pollack:2 war:1 effectiveness:1 university:1 nebraska:1 press:1 lincoln:1 london:1 book:1 review:1 international:1 vol:1 |@bigram commander_chief:2 chief_staff:2 lt_gen:1 soviet_union:2 dassault_mirage:1 abdel_aziz:1 patrol_craft:2 |
4,511 | Cardinal_number | This article describes cardinal numbers in mathematics. For number words indicating quantity ("three" apples, "four" birds, etc.) see Names of numbers in English. Aleph-0, the smallest infinite cardinal In mathematics, cardinal numbers, or cardinals for short, are a generalization of the natural numbers used to measure the cardinality (size) of sets. The cardinality of a finite set is a natural number, the number of elements in the set. The transfinite cardinal numbers describe the sizes of infinite sets. Cardinality is defined in terms of bijective functions. Two sets have the same cardinal number if and only if there is a bijection between them. In the case of finite sets, this agrees with the intuitive notion of size. In the case of infinite sets, the behavior is more complex. A fundamental theorem due to Georg Cantor shows that it is possible for infinite sets to have different cardinalities, and in particular the set of real numbers and the set of natural numbers do not have the same cardinal number. It is also possible for a proper subset of an infinite set to have the same cardinality as the original set, something that cannot happen with proper subsets of finite sets. There is a transfinite sequence of cardinal numbers: This sequence starts with the natural numbers (finite cardinals), which are followed by the aleph numbers (infinite cardinals of well-ordered sets). The aleph numbers are indexed by ordinal numbers. Under the assumption of the axiom of choice, this transfinite sequence includes every cardinal number. If one rejects that axiom, the situation is more complicated, with additional infinite cardinals that are not alephs. Cardinality is studied for its own sake as part of set theory. It is also a tool used in branches of mathematics including combinatorics, abstract algebra, and mathematical analysis. History The notion of cardinality, as now understood, was formulated by Georg Cantor, the originator of set theory, in 1874–1884. Cantor first established cardinality as an instrument to compare finite sets; e.g. the sets {1,2,3} and {2,3,4} are not equal, but have the same cardinality, three. Cantor identified the fact that one-to-one correspondence is the way to tell that two sets have the same size, called "cardinality", in the case of finite sets. Using this one-to-one correspondence, he applied the concept to infinite sets; e.g. the set of natural numbers N = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}. He called these cardinal numbers transfinite cardinal numbers, and defined all sets having a one-to-one correspondence with N to be denumerable (countably infinite) sets. Naming this cardinal number , aleph-null, Cantor proved that any unbounded subset of N has the same cardinality as N, even if this might appear at first view, to run contrary to intuition. He also proved that the set of all ordered pairs of natural numbers is denumerable (which implies that the set of all rational numbers is denumerable), and later proved that the set of all algebraic numbers is also denumerable. Each algebraic number z may be encoded as a finite sequence of integers which are the coefficients in the polynomial equation of which it is the solution, i.e. the ordered n-tuple together with a pair of rationals such that z is the unique root of the polynomial with coefficients that lies in the interval . In his 1874 paper, Cantor proved that there exist higher-order cardinal numbers by showing that the set of real numbers has cardinality greater than that of N. His original presentation used a complex argument with nested intervals, but in an 1891 paper he proved the same result using his ingenious but simple diagonal argument. This new cardinal number, called the cardinality of the continuum, was termed c by Cantor. Cantor also developed a large portion of the general theory of cardinal numbers; he proved that there is a smallest transfinite cardinal number (, aleph-null) and that for every cardinal number, there is a next-larger cardinal . His continuum hypothesis is the proposition that c is the same as , but this has been found to be independent of the standard axioms of mathematical set theory; it can neither be proved nor disproved under the standard assumptions. Motivation In informal use, a cardinal number is what is normally referred to as a counting number, provided that 0 is included: 0, 1, 2, .... They may be identified with the natural numbers beginning with 0. The counting numbers are exactly what can be defined formally as the finite cardinal numbers. Infinite cardinals only occur in higher-level mathematics and logic. More formally, a non-zero number can be used for two purposes: to describe the size of a set, or to describe the position of an element in a sequence. For finite sets and sequences it is easy to see that these two notions coincide, since for every number describing a position in a sequence we can construct a set which has exactly the right size, e.g. 3 describes the position of 'c' in the sequence <'a','b','c','d',...>, and we can construct the set {a,b,c} which has 3 elements. However when dealing with infinite sets it is essential to distinguish between the two — the two notions are in fact different for infinite sets. Considering the position aspect leads to ordinal numbers, while the size aspect is generalized by the cardinal numbers described here. The intuition behind the formal definition of cardinal is the construction of a notion of the relative size or "bigness" of a set without reference to the kind of members which it has. For finite sets this is easy; one simply counts the number of elements a set has. In order to compare the sizes of larger sets, it is necessary to appeal to more subtle notions. A set Y is at least as big as, or greater than or equal to a set X if there is an injective (one-to-one) mapping from the elements of X to the elements of Y. A one-to-one mapping identifies each element of the set X with a unique element of the set Y. This is most easily understood by an example; suppose we have the sets X = {1,2,3} and Y = {a,b,c,d}, then using this notion of size we would observe that there is a mapping: 1 → a 2 → b 3 → c which is one-to-one, and hence conclude that Y has cardinality greater than or equal to X. Note the element d has no element mapping to it, but this is permitted as we only require a one-to-one mapping, and not necessarily a one-to-one and onto mapping. The advantage of this notion is that it can be extended to infinite sets. We can then extend this to an equality-style relation. Two sets X and Y are said to have the same cardinality if there exists a bijection between X and Y. By the Schroeder-Bernstein theorem, this is equivalent to there being both a one-to-one mapping from X to Y and a one-to-one mapping from Y to X. We then write | X | = | Y |. The cardinal number of X itself is often defined as the least ordinal a with | a | = | X |. This is called the von Neumann cardinal assignment; for this definition to make sense, it must be proved that every set has the same cardinality as some ordinal; this statement is the well-ordering principle. It is however possible to discuss the relative cardinality of sets without explicitly assigning names to objects. The classic example used is that of the infinite hotel paradox, also called Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel. Suppose you are an innkeeper at a hotel with an infinite number of rooms. The hotel is full, and then a new guest arrives. It's possible to fit the extra guest in by asking the guest who was in room 1 to move to room 2, the guest in room 2 to move to room 3, and so on, leaving room 1 vacant. We can explicitly write a segment of this mapping: 1 ↔ 2 2 ↔ 3 3 ↔ 4 ... n ↔ n+1 ... In this way we can see that the set {1,2,3,...} has the same cardinality as the set {2,3,4,...} since a bijection between the first and the second has been shown. This motivates the definition of an infinite set being any set which has a proper subset of the same cardinality; in this case {2,3,4,...} is a proper subset of {1,2,3,...}. When considering these large objects, we might also want to see if the notion of counting order coincides with that of cardinal defined above for these infinite sets. It happens that it doesn't; by considering the above example we can see that if some object "one greater than infinity" exists, then it must have the same cardinality as the infinite set we started out with. It is possible to use a different formal notion for number, called ordinals, based on the ideas of counting and considering each number in turn, and we discover that the notions of cardinality and ordinality are divergent once we move out of the finite numbers. It can be proved that the cardinality of the real numbers is greater than that of the natural numbers just described. This can be visualized using Cantor's diagonal argument; classic questions of cardinality (for instance the continuum hypothesis) are concerned with discovering whether there is some cardinal between some pair of other infinite cardinals. In more recent times mathematicians have been describing the properties of larger and larger cardinals. Since cardinality is such a common concept in mathematics, a variety of names are in use. Sameness of cardinality is sometimes referred to as equipotence, equipollence, or equinumerosity. It is thus said that two sets with the same cardinality are, respectively, equipotent, equipollent, or equinumerous. Formal definition Formally, assuming the axiom of choice, the cardinality of a set X is the least ordinal α such that there is a bijection between X and α. This definition is known as the von Neumann cardinal assignment. If the axiom of choice is not assumed we need to do something different. The oldest definition of the cardinality of a set X (implicit in Cantor and explicit in Frege and Principia Mathematica) is as the set of all sets which are equinumerous with X: this does not work in ZFC or other related systems of axiomatic set theory because this collection is too large to be a set, but it does work in type theory and in New Foundations and related systems. However, if we restrict from this class to those equinumerous with X that have the least rank, then it will work (this is a trick due to Dana Scott: it works because the collection of objects with any given rank is a set). Formally, the order among cardinal numbers is defined as follows: | X | ≤ | Y | means that there exists an injective function from X to Y. The Cantor–Bernstein–Schroeder theorem states that if | X | ≤ | Y | and | Y | ≤ | X | then | X | = | Y |. The axiom of choice is equivalent to the statement that given two sets X and Y, either | X | ≤ | Y | or | Y | ≤ | X |. A set X is Dedekind-infinite if there exists a proper subset Y of X with | X | = | Y |, and Dedekind-finite if such a subset doesn't exist. The finite cardinals are just the natural numbers, i.e., a set X is finite if and only if | X | = | n | = n for some natural number n. Any other set is infinite. Assuming the axiom of choice, it can be proved that the Dedekind notions correspond to the standard ones. It can also be proved that the cardinal (aleph-0, where aleph is the first letter in the Hebrew alphabet, represented ) of the set of natural numbers is the smallest infinite cardinal, i.e. that any infinite set has a subset of cardinality The next larger cardinal is denoted by and so on. For every ordinal α there is a cardinal number and this list exhausts all infinite cardinal numbers. Cardinal arithmetic We can define arithmetic operations on cardinal numbers that generalize the ordinary operations for natural numbers. It can be shown that for finite cardinals these operations coincide with the usual operations for natural numbers. Furthermore, these operations share many properties with ordinary arithmetic. Successor cardinal If the axiom of choice holds, every cardinal κ has a successor κ+ > κ, and there are no cardinals between κ and its successor. For finite cardinals, the successor is simply κ+1. For infinite cardinals, the successor cardinal differs from the successor ordinal. Cardinal addition If X and Y are disjoint, addition is given by the union of X and Y. If the two sets are not already disjoint, then they can be replaced by disjoint sets, i.e. replace X by X×{0} and Y by Y×{1}. Zero is an additive identity κ + 0 = 0 + κ = κ. Addition is associative (κ + μ) + ν = κ + (μ + ν). Addition is commutative κ + μ = μ + κ. Addition is non-decreasing in both arguments: If the axiom of choice holds, addition of infinite cardinal numbers is easy. If either or is infinite, then Subtraction If the axiom of choice holds and given an infinite cardinal σ and a cardinal μ, there will be a cardinal κ such that μ + κ = σ if and only if μ ≤ σ. It will be unique (and equal to σ) if and only if μ < σ. Cardinal multiplication The product of cardinals comes from the cartesian product. κ·0 = 0·κ = 0. κ·μ = 0 (κ = 0 or μ = 0). One is a multiplicative identity κ·1 = 1·κ = κ. Multiplication is associative (κ·μ)·ν = κ·(μ·ν). Multiplication is commutative κ·μ = μ·κ. Multiplication is non-decreasing in both arguments: κ ≤ μ (κ·ν ≤ μ·ν and ν·κ ≤ ν·μ). Multiplication distributes over addition: κ·(μ + ν) = κ·μ + κ·ν and (μ + ν)·κ = μ·κ + ν·κ. If the axiom of choice holds, multiplication of infinite cardinal numbers is also easy. If either κ or μ is infinite and both are non-zero, then Division If the axiom of choice holds and given an infinite cardinal π and a non-zero cardinal μ, there will be a cardinal κ such that μ · κ = π if and only if μ ≤ π. It will be unique (and equal to π) if and only if μ < π. Cardinal exponentiation Exponentiation is given by where XY is the set of all functions from Y to X. κ0 = 1 (in particular 00 = 1), see empty function. If 1 ≤ μ, then 0μ = 0. 1μ = 1. κ1 = κ. κμ + ν = κμ·κν. κμ·ν = (κμ)ν. (κ·μ)ν = κν·μν. Exponentiation is non-decreasing in both arguments: (1 ≤ ν and κ ≤ μ) (νκ ≤ νμ) and (κ ≤ μ) (κν ≤ μν). Note that 2| X | is the cardinality of the power set of the set X and Cantor's diagonal argument shows that 2| X | > | X | for any set X. This proves that no largest cardinal exists (because for any cardinal κ, we can always find a larger cardinal 2κ). In fact, the class of cardinals is a proper class. Neither roots nor logarithms can be defined uniquely for infinite cardinals. All the remaining propositions in this section assume the axiom of choice: If κ and μ are both finite and greater than 1, and ν is infinite, then κν = μν. If κ is infinite and μ is finite and non-zero, then κμ = κ. If 2 ≤ κ and 1 ≤ μ and at least one of them is infinite, then: Max (κ, 2μ) ≤ κμ ≤ Max (2κ, 2μ). Using König's theorem, one can prove κ < κcf(κ) and κ < cf(2κ) for any infinite cardinal κ, where cf(κ) is the cofinality of κ. The logarithm of an infinite cardinal number κ is defined as the least cardinal number μ such that κ ≤ 2μ. Logarithms of infinite cardinals are useful in some fields of mathematics, for example in the study of cardinal invariants of topological spaces, though they lack some of the properties that logarithms of positive real numbers possess. Robert A. McCoy and Ibula Ntantu, Topological Properties of Spaces of Continuous Functions, Lecture Notes in Mathematics 1315, Springer-Verlag. Eduard Cech, Topological Spaces, revised by Zdenek Frolík and Miroslav Katetov, John Wiley & Sons, 1966. D.A. Vladimirov, Boolean Algebras in Analysis, Mathematics and Its Applications, Kluwer Academic Publishers. The continuum hypothesis The continuum hypothesis (CH) states that there are no cardinals strictly between and The latter cardinal number is also often denoted by c; it is the cardinality of the continuum (the set of real numbers). In this case The generalized continuum hypothesis (GCH) states that for every infinite set X, there are no cardinals strictly between | X | and 2| X |. The continuum hypothesis is independent of the usual axioms of set theory, the Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms together with the axiom of choice (ZFC). See also Counting Names of numbers in English Large cardinal Nominal number Ordinal number Serial number Regular cardinal The paradox of the greatest cardinal Aleph number Beth number References Hahn, Hans, Infinity, Part IX, Chapter 2, Volume 3 of The World of Mathematics. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1956. Halmos, Paul, Naive set theory. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1960. Reprinted by Springer-Verlag, New York, 1974. ISBN 0-387-90092-6 (Springer-Verlag edition). Notes External links Cardinality at ProvenMath formal proofs of the basic theorems on cardinality. | Cardinal_number |@lemmatized article:1 describe:9 cardinal:77 number:71 mathematics:9 word:1 indicate:1 quantity:1 three:2 apple:1 four:1 bird:1 etc:1 see:7 name:5 english:2 aleph:8 small:3 infinite:39 short:1 generalization:1 natural:13 use:13 measure:1 cardinality:33 size:10 set:78 finite:18 element:10 transfinite:5 define:9 term:2 bijective:1 function:5 two:10 bijection:4 case:5 agree:1 intuitive:1 notion:12 behavior:1 complex:2 fundamental:1 theorem:5 due:2 georg:2 cantor:12 show:5 possible:5 different:4 particular:2 real:5 also:11 proper:6 subset:8 original:2 something:2 cannot:1 happen:2 sequence:8 start:2 follow:2 well:2 order:6 index:1 ordinal:9 assumption:2 axiom:15 choice:12 include:3 every:7 one:27 reject:1 situation:1 complicated:1 additional:1 alephs:1 study:2 sake:1 part:2 theory:8 tool:1 branch:1 combinatorics:1 abstract:1 algebra:2 mathematical:2 analysis:2 history:1 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generalize:3 behind:1 formal:4 definition:6 construction:1 relative:2 bigness:1 without:2 reference:2 kind:1 member:1 simply:2 count:3 necessary:1 appeal:1 subtle:1 least:6 big:1 x:43 injective:2 mapping:8 identifies:1 easily:1 understand:1 example:4 suppose:2 would:1 observe:1 hence:1 conclude:1 note:4 map:1 permit:1 require:1 necessarily:1 onto:1 advantage:1 extend:2 equality:1 style:1 relation:1 say:2 schroeder:2 bernstein:2 equivalent:2 write:2 often:2 von:2 neumann:2 assignment:2 make:1 sense:1 must:2 statement:2 principle:1 discuss:1 explicitly:2 assign:1 object:4 classic:2 hotel:4 paradox:3 hilbert:1 grand:1 innkeeper:1 room:6 full:1 guest:4 arrive:1 fit:1 extra:1 ask:1 move:3 leave:1 vacant:1 segment:1 second:1 motivate:1 want:1 coincides:1 infinity:2 exists:2 base:1 idea:1 turn:1 discover:2 ordinality:1 divergent:1 visualize:1 question:1 instance:1 concern:1 whether:1 recent:1 time:1 mathematician:1 property:4 common:1 variety:1 sameness:1 sometimes:1 equipotence:1 equipollence:1 equinumerosity:1 thus:1 respectively:1 equipotent:1 equipollent:1 equinumerous:3 assume:4 α:3 know:1 need:1 old:1 implicit:1 explicit:1 frege:1 principia:1 mathematica:1 work:4 zfc:2 related:2 system:2 axiomatic:1 collection:2 type:1 foundation:1 restrict:1 class:3 rank:2 trick:1 dana:1 scott:1 give:6 among:1 mean:1 state:3 either:3 dedekind:3 correspond:1 letter:1 hebrew:1 alphabet:1 represent:1 denote:2 list:1 exhaust:1 arithmetic:3 operation:5 ordinary:2 usual:2 furthermore:1 share:1 many:1 successor:6 hold:5 κ:55 differs:1 addition:7 disjoint:3 union:1 already:1 replace:2 additive:1 identity:2 associative:2 μ:34 ν:18 commutative:2 decreasing:3 subtraction:1 σ:5 multiplication:6 product:2 come:1 cartesian:1 multiplicative:1 distribute:1 division:1 π:5 exponentiation:3 xy:1 empty:1 κμ:6 κν:4 μν:3 νκ:1 νμ:1 power:1 always:1 logarithm:3 uniquely:1 remain:1 section:1 max:2 könig:1 κcf:1 cf:2 cofinality:1 useful:1 field:1 invariant:1 topological:3 space:3 though:1 lack:1 logarithms:1 positive:1 possess:1 robert:1 mccoy:1 ibula:1 ntantu:1 continuous:1 lecture:1 springer:3 verlag:3 eduard:1 cech:1 revise:1 zdenek:1 frolík:1 miroslav:1 katetov:1 john:1 wiley:1 son:1 vladimirov:1 boolean:1 application:1 kluwer:1 academic:1 publisher:1 ch:1 strictly:2 latter:1 gch:1 zermelo:1 fraenkel:1 axioms:1 nominal:1 serial:1 regular:1 beth:1 hahn:1 han:1 ix:1 chapter:1 volume:1 world:1 york:2 simon:1 schuster:1 halmos:1 paul:1 naive:1 princeton:1 nj:1 van:1 nostrand:1 company:1 reprint:1 isbn:1 edition:1 external:1 link:1 provenmath:1 proof:1 basic:1 |@bigram georg_cantor:2 axiom_choice:12 abstract_algebra:1 countably_infinite:1 aleph_null:2 ordered_pair:1 cardinality_continuum:2 continuum_hypothesis:6 prove_disprove:1 von_neumann:2 cantor_diagonal:2 principia_mathematica:1 cardinal_κ:6 κ_κ:9 κ_μ:20 μ_ν:8 ν_κ:8 μ_μ:2 μ_κ:10 μ_σ:2 cartesian_product:1 multiplicative_identity:1 multiplication_commutative:1 cardinal_exponentiation:1 κ_cf:2 cf_κ:1 topological_space:2 springer_verlag:3 wiley_son:1 boolean_algebra:1 kluwer_academic:1 hypothesis_gch:1 zermelo_fraenkel:1 simon_schuster:1 princeton_nj:1 van_nostrand:1 external_link:1 |
4,512 | Java_(programming_language) | Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java platform. The language derives much of its syntax from C and C++ but has a simpler object model and fewer low-level facilities. Java applications are typically compiled to bytecode that can run on any Java virtual machine (JVM) regardless of computer architecture. The original and reference implementation Java compilers, virtual machines, and class libraries were developed by Sun from 1995. As of May 2007, in compliance with the specifications of the Java Community Process, Sun made available most of their Java technologies as free software under the GNU General Public License. Others have also developed alternative implementations of these Sun technologies, such as the GNU Compiler for Java and GNU Classpath. History James Gosling initiated the Java language project in June 1991 for use in one of his many set-top box projects. Jon Byous, Java technology: The early years. Sun Developer Network, no date [ca. 1998]. Retrieved April 22, 2005. The language, initially called Oak after an oak tree that stood outside Gosling's office, also went by the name Green and ended up later renamed as Java, from a list of random words. http://blogs.sun.com/jonathan/entry/better_is_always_different. Gosling aimed to implement a virtual machine and a language that had a familiar C/C++ style of notation. Heinz Kabutz, Once Upon an Oak. Artima, Retrieved April 29, 2007. Sun released the first public implementation as Java 1.0 in 1995. It promised "Write Once, Run Anywhere" (WORA), providing no-cost run-times on popular platforms. Fairly secure and featuring configurable security, it allowed network- and file-access restrictions. Major web browsers soon incorporated the ability to run Java applets within web pages, and Java quickly became popular. With the advent of Java 2 (released initially as J2SE 1.2 in December 1998), new versions had multiple configurations built for different types of platforms. For example, J2EE targeted enterprise applications and the greatly stripped-down version J2ME for mobile applications. J2SE designated the Standard Edition. In 2006, for marketing purposes, Sun renamed new J2 versions as Java EE, Java ME, and Java SE, respectively. In 1997, Sun Microsystems approached the ISO/IEC JTC1 standards body and later the Ecma International to formalize Java, but it soon withdrew from the process. Java Study Group; Why Java Was - Not - Standardized Twice; What is ECMA—and why Microsoft cares Java remains a de facto standard, controlled through the Java Community Process. Java Community Process website At one time, Sun made most of its Java implementations available without charge, despite their proprietary software status. Sun generated revenue from Java through the selling of licenses for specialized products such as the Java Enterprise System. Sun distinguishes between its Software Development Kit (SDK) and Runtime Environment (JRE) (a subset of the SDK); the primary distinction involves the JRE's lack of the compiler, utility programs, and header files. On 13 November 2006, Sun released much of Java as free and open source software under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL). On 8 May 2007 Sun finished the process, making all of Java's core code available under free software / open-source distribution terms, aside from a small portion of code to which Sun did not hold the copyright. open.itworld.com - JAVAONE: Sun - The bulk of Java is open sourced Philosophy Primary goals There were five primary goals in the creation of the Java language: 1.2 Design Goals of the JavaTM Programming Language It should be "simple, object oriented, and familiar". It should be "robust and secure". It should be "architecture neutral and portable". It should execute with "high performance". It should be "interpreted, threaded, and dynamic". Java Platform One characteristic of Java is portability, which means that computer programs written in the Java language must run similarly on any supported hardware/operating-system platform. One should be able to write a program once, compile it once, and run it anywhere. This is achieved by compiling the Java language code, not to machine code but to Java bytecode – instructions analogous to machine code but intended to be interpreted by a virtual machine (VM) written specifically for the host hardware. End-users commonly use a Java Runtime Environment (JRE) installed on their own machine for standalone Java applications, or in a Web browser for Java applets. Standardized libraries provide a generic way to access host specific features such as graphics, threading and networking. In some JVM versions, bytecode can be compiled to native code, either before or during program execution, resulting in faster execution. A major benefit of using bytecode is porting. However, the overhead of interpretation means that interpreted programs almost always run more slowly than programs compiled to native executables would, and Java suffered a reputation for poor performance. This gap has been narrowed by a number of optimization techniques introduced in the more recent JVM implementations. One such technique, known as just-in-time (JIT) compilation, translates Java bytecode into native code the first time that code is executed, then caches it. This results in a program that starts and executes faster than pure interpreted code can, at the cost of introducing occasional compilation overhead during execution. More sophisticated VMs also use dynamic recompilation, in which the VM analyzes the behavior of the running program and selectively recompiles and optimizes parts of the program. Dynamic recompilation can achieve optimizations superior to static compilation because the dynamic compiler can base optimizations on knowledge about the runtime environment and the set of loaded classes, and can identify hot spots - parts of the program, often inner loops, that take up the most execution time. JIT compilation and dynamic recompilation allow Java programs to approach the speed of native code without losing portability. Another technique, commonly known as static compilation, or ahead-of-time (AOT) compilation, is to compile directly into native code like a more traditional compiler. Static Java compilers translate the Java source or bytecode to native object code. This achieves good performance compared to interpretation, at the expense of portability; the output of these compilers can only be run on a single architecture. AOT could give Java something close to native performance, yet it is still not portable since there are no compiler directives, and all the pointers are indirect with no way to micro manage garbage collection. Java's performance has improved substantially since the early versions, and performance of JIT compilers relative to native compilers has in some tests been shown to be quite similar. Performance of Java versus C++, J.P.Lewis and Ulrich Neumann, Computer Graphics and Immersive Technology Lab, University of Southern California FreeTTS - A Performance Case Study, Willie Walker, Paul Lamere, Philip Kwok The performance of the compilers does not necessarily indicate the performance of the compiled code; only careful testing can reveal the true performance issues in any system. One of the unique advantages of the concept of a runtime engine is that even the most serious errors (exceptions) in a Java program should not 'crash' the system under any circumstances, provided the JVM itself is properly implemented. Moreover, in runtime engine environments such as Java there exist tools that attach to the runtime engine and every time that an exception of interest occurs they record debugging information that existed in memory at the time the exception was thrown (stack and heap values). These Automated Exception Handling tools provide 'root-cause' information for exceptions in Java programs that run in production, testing or development environments. Such precise debugging is much more difficult to implement without the run-time support that the JVM offers. Implementations Sun Microsystems officially licenses the Java Standard Edition platform for Microsoft Windows, Linux, Mac OS X, and Solaris. Through a network of third-party vendors and licensees Java SE - Licensees , alternative Java environments are available for these and other platforms. Sun's trademark license for usage of the Java brand insists that all implementations be "compatible". This resulted in a legal dispute with Microsoft after Sun claimed that the Microsoft implementation did not support RMI or JNI and had added platform-specific features of their own. Sun sued in 1997, and in 2001 won a settlement of $20 million as well as a court order enforcing the terms of the license from Sun. As a result, Microsoft no longer ships Java with Windows, and in recent versions of Windows, Internet Explorer cannot support Java applets without a third-party plugin. Sun, and others, have made available free Java run-time systems for those and other versions of Windows. Platform-independent Java is essential to the Java EE strategy, and an even more rigorous validation is required to certify an implementation. This environment enables portable server-side applications, such as Web services, servlets, and Enterprise JavaBeans, as well as with embedded systems based on OSGi, using Embedded Java environments. Through the new GlassFish project, Sun is working to create a fully functional, unified open-source implementation of the Java EE technologies. Sun also distributes a superset of the JRE called the Java 2 SDK (more commonly known as the JDK), which includes development tools such as the Java compiler, Javadoc, Jar and debugger. Automatic memory management Java uses an automatic garbage collector to manage memory in the object lifecycle. The programmer determines when objects are created, and the Java runtime is responsible for recovering the memory once objects are no longer in use. Once no references to an object remain, the unreachable object becomes eligible to be freed automatically by the garbage collector. Something similar to a memory leak may still occur if a programmer's code holds a reference to an object that is no longer needed, typically when objects that are no longer needed are stored in containers that are still in use. If methods for a nonexistent object are called, a "null pointer exception" is thrown. NullPointerException Exceptions in Java One of the ideas behind Java's automatic memory management model is that programmers be spared the burden of having to perform manual memory management. In some languages memory for the creation of objects is implicitly allocated on the stack, or explicitly allocated and deallocated from the heap. Either way the responsibility of managing memory resides with the programmer. If the program does not deallocate an object, a memory leak occurs. If the program attempts to access or deallocate memory that has already been deallocated, the result is undefined and difficult to predict, and the program is likely to become unstable and/or crash. This can be partially remedied by the use of smart pointers, but these add overhead and complexity. Garbage collection may happen at any time. Ideally, it will occur when a program is idle. It is guaranteed to be triggered if there is insufficient free memory on the heap to allocate a new object; this can cause a program to stall momentarily. Where performance or response time is important, explicit memory management and object pools are often used. Java does not support C/C++ style pointer arithmetic, where object addresses and unsigned integers (usually long integers) can be used interchangeably. This allows the garbage collector to relocate referenced objects, and ensures type safety and security. As in C++ and some other object-oriented languages, variables of Java's primitive types are not objects. Values of primitive types are either stored directly in fields (for objects) or on the stack (for methods) rather than on the heap, as commonly true for objects (but see Escape analysis). This was a conscious decision by Java's designers for performance reasons. Because of this, Java was not considered to be a pure object-oriented programming language. However, as of Java 5.0, autoboxing enables programmers to proceed as if primitive types are instances of their wrapper classes. Syntax The syntax of Java is largely derived from C++. Unlike C++, which combines the syntax for structured, generic, and object-oriented programming, Java was built almost exclusively as an object oriented language. All code is written inside a class and everything is an object, with the exception of the intrinsic data types (ordinal and real numbers, boolean values, and characters), which are not classes for performance reasons. Java suppresses several features (such as operator overloading and multiple inheritance) for classes in order to simplify the language and to prevent possible errors and anti-pattern design. Java uses the same commenting methods as C++. There are two different methods of commenting, the first is generally used for single line comments // two forward slashes and the second is generally used for multiple line commenting, this requires an open and close. In order to use the second method of commenting you must use the forward slash asterisk (/*) and it must end with an asterisk forward slash (*/) Example: //This is an example of a single line comment using two forward slashes /* This is an example of a multiple line comment using the forward slash and asterisk. This type of comment can be used to hold a lot of information but it is very important to remember to close the comment. */ Examples Hello world The traditional Hello world program can be written in Java as: /* * Outputs "Hello, world!" and then exits */ public class HelloWorld { public static void main(String[] args) { System.out.println("Hello, world!"); } } By convention, source files are named after the public class they contain, appending the suffix .java, for example, HelloWorld.java. It must first be compiled into bytecode, using a Java compiler, producing a file named HelloWorld.class. Only then can it be executed, or 'launched'. The java source file may only contain one public class but can contain multiple classes with less than public access and any number of public inner classes. A class that is declared private may be stored in any .java file. The compiler will generate a class file for each class defined in the source file. The name of the class file is the name of the class, with .class appended. For class file generation, anonymous classes are treated as if their name was the concatenation of the name of their enclosing class, a $, and an integer. The keyword public denotes that a method can be called from code in other classes, or that a class may be used by classes outside the class hierarchy. The class hierarchy is related to the name of the directory in which the .java file is. The keyword static in front of a method indicates a static method, which is associated only with the class and not with any specific instance of that class. Only static methods can be invoked without a reference to an object. Static methods cannot access any method variables that are not static. The keyword void indicates that the main method does not return any value to the caller. If a Java program is to exit with an error code, it must call System.exit() explicitly. The method name "main" is not a keyword in the Java language. It is simply the name of the method the Java launcher calls to pass control to the program. Java classes that run in managed environments such as applets and Enterprise Java Beans do not use or need a main() method. A java program may contain multiple classes that have main methods, which means that the VM needs to be explicitly told which class to launch from. The main method must accept an array of objects. By convention, it is referenced as args although any other legal identifier name can be used. Since Java 5, the main method can also use variable arguments, in the form of public static void main(String... args), allowing the main method to be invoked with an arbitrary number of String arguments. The effect of this alternate declaration is semantically identical (the args parameter is still an array of String objects), but allows an alternate syntax for creating and passing the array. The Java launcher launches Java by loading a given class (specified on the command line or as an attribute in a JAR) and starting its public static void main(String[]) method. Stand-alone programs must declare this method explicitly. The String[] args parameter is an array of objects containing any arguments passed to the class. The parameters to main are often passed by means of a command line. Printing is part of a Java standard library: The class defines a public static field called . The out object is an instance of the class and provides many methods for printing data to standard out, including which also appends a new line to the passed string. The string "Hello world!" is automatically converted to a String object by the compiler. A more comprehensive example // OddEven.java import javax.swing.JOptionPane; public class OddEven { // "input" is the number that the user gives to the computer private int input; // a whole number("int" means integer) /* * This is the constructor method. It gets called when an object of the OddEven type * is being created. */ public OddEven() { //Code not shown } // This is the main method. It gets called when this class is run through a Java interpreter. public static void main(String[] args) { /* * This line of code creates a new instance of this class called "number" (also known as an * Object) and initializes it by calling the constructor. The next line of code calls * the "showDialog()" method, which brings up a prompt to ask you for a number */ OddEven number = new OddEven(); number.showDialog(); } public void showDialog() { /* * "try" makes sure nothing goes wrong. If something does, * the interpreter skips to "catch" to see what it should do. */ try { /* * The code below brings up a JOptionPane, which is a dialog box * The String returned by the "showInputDialog()" method is converted into * an integer, making the program treat it as a number instead of a word. * After that, this method calls a second method, calculate() that will * display either "Even" or "Odd." */ input = new Integer(JOptionPane.showInputDialog("Please Enter A Number")); calculate(); } catch (NumberFormatException e) { /* * Getting in the catch block means that there was a problem with the format of * the number. Probably some letters were typed in instead of a number. */ System.err.println("ERROR: Invalid input. Please type in a numerical value."); } } /* * When this gets called, it sends a message to the interpreter. * The interpreter usually shows it on the command prompt (For Windows users) * or the terminal (For Linux users).(Assuming it's open) */ private void calculate() { if (input % 2 == 0) { System.out.println("Even"); } else { System.out.println("Odd"); } } } The import statement imports the class from the package. The OddEven class declares a single private field of type int named input. Every instance of the OddEven class has its own copy of the input field. The private declaration means that no other class can access (read or write) the input field. OddEven() is a public constructor. Constructors have the same name as the enclosing class they are declared in, and unlike a method, have no return type. A constructor is used to initialize an object that is a newly created instance of the class. The dialog returns a String that is converted to an int by the method. The calculate() method is declared without the static keyword. This means that the method is invoked using a specific instance of the OddEven class. (The reference used to invoke the method is passed as an undeclared parameter of type OddEven named this.) The method tests the expression input % 2 == 0 using the if keyword to see if the remainder of dividing the input field belonging to the instance of the class by two is zero. If this expression is true, then it prints Even; if this expression is false it prints Odd. (The input field can be equivalently accessed as this.input, which explicitly uses the undeclared this parameter.) OddEven number = new OddEven(); declares a local object reference variable in the main method named number. This variable can hold a reference to an object of type OddEven. The declaration initializes number by first creating an instance of the OddEven class, using the new keyword and the OddEven() constructor, and then assigning this instance to the variable. The statement number.showDialog(); calls the calculate method. The instance of OddEven object referenced by the number local variable is used to invoke the method and passed as the undeclared this parameter to the calculate method. input = new Integer(JOptionPane.showInputDialog("Please Enter A Number")); is a statement that converts the type of String to the primitive type int by taking advantage of the wrapper class Integer. Special classes Applet Java applets are programs that are embedded in other applications, typically in a Web page displayed in a Web browser. // Hello.java import javax.swing.JApplet; import java.awt.Graphics; public class Hello extends JApplet { public void paintComponent(Graphics g) { g.drawString("Hello, world!", 65, 95); } } The import statements direct the Java compiler to include the and classes in the compilation. The import statement allows these classes to be referenced in the source code using the simple class name (i.e. JApplet) instead of the fully qualified class name (i.e. javax.swing.JApplet). The Hello class extends (subclasses) the JApplet (Java Applet) class; the JApplet class provides the framework for the host application to display and control the lifecycle of the applet. The JApplet class is a JComponent (Java Graphical Component) which provides the applet with the capability to display a graphical user interface (GUI) and respond to user events. The Hello class overrides the method inherited from the superclass to provide the code to display the applet. The paint() method is passed a Graphics object that contains the graphic context used to display the applet. The paintComponent() method calls the graphic context method to display the "Hello, world!" string at a pixel offset of (65, 95) from the upper-left corner in the applet's display. <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"> <!-- Hello.html --> <html> <head> <title>Hello World Applet</title> </head> <body> <applet code="Hello" width="200" height="200"> </applet> </body> </html> An applet is placed in an HTML document using the <applet> HTML element. The applet tag has three attributes set: code="Hello" specifies the name of the JApplet class and width="200" height="200" sets the pixel width and height of the applet. Applets may also be embedded in HTML using either the object or embed element Using the applet Tag (The Java Tutorials > Deployment > Applets) , although support for these elements by Web browsers is inconsistent. Deploying Applets in a Mixed-Browser Environment (The Java Tutorials > Deployment > Applets) However, the applet tag is deprecated, so the object tag is preferred where supported. The host application, typically a Web browser, instantiates the Hello applet and creates an for the applet. Once the applet has initialized itself, it is added to the AWT display hierarchy. The paint method is called by the AWT event dispatching thread whenever the display needs the applet to draw itself. Servlet Java Servlet technology provides Web developers with a simple, consistent mechanism for extending the functionality of a Web server and for accessing existing business systems. Servlets are server-side Java EE components that generate responses (typically HTML pages) to requests (typically HTTP requests) from clients. A servlet can almost be thought of as an applet that runs on the server side—without a face. // Hello.java import java.io.*; import javax.servlet.*; public class Hello extends GenericServlet { public void service(ServletRequest request, ServletResponse response) throws ServletException, IOException { response.setContentType("text/html"); final PrintWriter pw = response.getWriter(); pw.println("Hello, world!"); pw.close(); } } The import statements direct the Java compiler to include all of the public classes and interfaces from the and packages in the compilation. The Hello class extends the class; the GenericServlet class provides the interface for the server to forward requests to the servlet and control the servlet's lifecycle. The Hello class overrides the method defined by the interface to provide the code for the service request handler. The service() method is passed a object that contains the request from the client and a object used to create the response returned to the client. The service() method declares that it throws the exceptions and if a problem prevents it from responding to the request. The method in the response object is called to set the MIME content type of the returned data to "text/html". The method in the response returns a object that is used to write the data that is sent to the client. The method is called to write the "Hello, world!" string to the response and then the method is called to close the print writer, which causes the data that has been written to the stream to be returned to the client. JavaServer Page JavaServer Pages (JSPs) are server-side Java EE components that generate responses, typically HTML pages, to HTTP requests from clients. JSPs embed Java code in an HTML page by using the special delimiters <% and %>. A JSP is compiled to a Java servlet, a Java application in its own right, the first time it is accessed. After that, the generated servlet creates the response. Swing application Swing is a graphical user interface library for the Java SE platform. It is possible to specify a different look and feel through the pluggable look and feel system of Swing. Clones of Windows, GTK and Motif are supplied by Sun. Apple also provides an Aqua look and feel for Mac OS X. Where prior implementations of these looks and feels may have been considered lacking, Swing in Java SE 6 addresses this problem by using more native widget drawing routines of the underlying platforms. This example Swing application creates a single window with "Hello, world!" inside: // Hello.java (Java SE 5) import java.awt.BorderLayout; import javax.swing.*; public class Hello extends JFrame { public Hello() { super("hello"); setDefaultCloseOperation(WindowConstants.EXIT_ON_CLOSE); setLayout(new BorderLayout()); add(new JLabel("Hello, world!")); pack(); } public static void main(String[] args) { new Hello().setVisible(true); } } The first import statement directs the Java compiler to include the class from the package in the compilation; the second import includes all of the public classes and interfaces from the package. The Hello class extends the class; the JFrame class implements a window with a title bar and a close control. The Hello() constructor initializes the frame by first calling the superclass constructor, passing the parameter "hello", which is used as the window's title. It then calls the method inherited from JFrame to set the default operation when the close control on the title bar is selected to — this causes the JFrame to be disposed of when the frame is closed (as opposed to merely hidden), which allows the JVM to exit and the program to terminate. Next, the layout of the frame is set to a BorderLayout; this tells Swing how to arrange the components that will be added to the frame. A is created for the string "Hello, world!" and the method inherited from the superclass is called to add the label to the frame. The method inherited from the superclass is called to size the window and lay out its contents, in the manner indicated by the BorderLayout. The main() method is called by the JVM when the program starts. It instantiates a new Hello frame and causes it to be displayed by calling the method inherited from the superclass with the boolean parameter true. Once the frame is displayed, exiting the main method does not cause the program to terminate because the AWT event dispatching thread remains active until all of the Swing top-level windows have been disposed. Generics In 2004 generics were added to the Java language, as part of J2SE 5.0. Prior to the introduction of generics, each variable declaration had to be of a specific type. For container classes, for example, this is a problem because there is no easy way to create a container that accepts only specific types of objects. Either the container operates on all subtypes of a class or interface, usually Object, or a different container class has to be created for each contained class. Generics allow compile-time type checking without having to create a large number of container classes, each containing almost identical code. Class libraries Java libraries are the compiled byte codes of source code developed by the JRE implementor to support application development in Java. Examples of these libraries are: The core libraries, which include: Collection libraries that implement data structures such as lists, dictionaries, trees and sets XML Processing (Parsing, Transforming, Validating) libraries Security Internationalization and localization libraries The integration libraries, which allow the application writer to communicate with external systems. These libraries include: The Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) API for database access Java Naming and Directory Interface (JNDI) for lookup and discovery RMI and CORBA for distributed application development JMX for managing and monitoring applications User Interface libraries, which include: The (heavyweight, or native) Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT), which provides GUI components, the means for laying out those components and the means for handling events from those components The (lightweight) Swing libraries, which are built on AWT but provide (non-native) implementations of the AWT widgetry APIs for audio capture, processing, and playback A platform dependent implementation of Java virtual machine (JVM) that is the means by which the byte codes of the Java libraries and third party applications are executed Plugins, which enable applets to be run in Web browsers Java Web Start, which allows Java applications to be efficiently distributed to end users across the Internet Licensing and documentation. Documentation Javadoc is a comprehensive documentation system, created by Sun Microsystems, used by many Java developers. It provides developers with an organized system for documenting their code. Whereas normal comments in Java and C are set off with /* and */, the multi-line comment tags, Javadoc comments have an extra asterisk at the beginning, so that the tags are /** and */. Examples The following is an example of java code commented with simple Javadoc-style comments: /** * A program that does useful things. */ public class Program { /** * A main method. * @param args The arguments */ public static void main(String[] args) { //do stuff } } Editions Sun has defined and supports four editions of Java targeting different application environments and segmented many of its APIs so that they belong to one of the platforms. The platforms are: Java Card for smartcards. Java Platform, Micro Edition (Java ME) — targeting environments with limited resources. Java Platform, Standard Edition (Java SE) — targeting workstation environments. Java Platform, Enterprise Edition (Java EE) — targeting large distributed enterprise or Internet environments. The classes in the Java APIs are organized into separate groups called packages. Each package contains a set of related interfaces, classes and exceptions. Refer to the separate platforms for a description of the packages available. The set of APIs is controlled by Sun Microsystems in cooperation with others through the Java Community Process program. Companies or individuals participating in this process can influence the design and development of the APIs. This process has been a subject of controversy. Sun also provided an edition called PersonalJava that has been superseded by later, standards-based Java ME configuration-profile pairings. Criticism See also Comparison of programming languages Comparison of Java and C++ Comparison of Java and C# JavaOne Javapedia List of Java virtual machines List of Java APIs List of JVM languages List of Java scripting languages C# Java version history Notes References Jon Byous, Java technology: The early years. Sun Developer Network, no date [ca. 1998]. Retrieved April 22, 2005. James Gosling, A brief history of the Green project. Java.net, no date [ca. Q1/1998]. Retrieved April 29, 2007. James Gosling, Bill Joy, Guy Steele, and Gilad Bracha, The Java language specification, third edition. Addison-Wesley, 2005. ISBN 0-321-24678-0 (see also online edition of the specification). Tim Lindholm and Frank Yellin. The Java Virtual Machine specification, second edition. Addison-Wesley, 1999. ISBN 0-201-43294-3 (see also online edition of the specification). External links Java home page Java for developers Java Language Specification 3rd Edition A Brief History of the Green Project Java: The Inside Story Java Was Strongly Influenced by Objective-C The Java Saga A history of Java The Long Strange Trip to Java M254 Java Everywhere (free open content documents from the Open University) List of programming languages for a Java Virtual Machine be-x-old:Java | Java_(programming_language) |@lemmatized java:162 programming:4 language:22 originally:1 develop:4 james:4 gosling:6 sun:31 microsystems:6 release:4 core:3 component:8 platform:18 derive:2 much:3 syntax:5 c:16 simpler:1 object:46 model:2 low:1 level:2 facility:1 application:18 typically:7 compile:9 bytecode:7 run:16 virtual:8 machine:11 jvm:9 regardless:1 computer:4 architecture:3 original:1 reference:11 implementation:13 compiler:18 class:81 library:14 may:10 compliance:1 specification:6 community:4 process:8 make:6 available:6 technology:7 free:7 software:5 gnu:4 general:2 public:30 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4,513 | Peppermint | Peppermint (Mentha × piperita) is a hybrid mint, a cross between the watermint (Mentha aquatica) and spearmint (Mentha spicata). The plant, indigenous to Europe, is now widespread in cultivation throughout all regions of the world Euro+Med Plantbase Project: Mentha × piperita . It is found wild occasionally with its parent species. Flora of NW Europe: Mentha × piperita Botany Peppermint flowers Peppermint was first described by Carolus Linnaeus from specimens that had been collected in England; he treated it as a species, Linnaeus, C. (1753). Species Plantarum 2: 576–577. but it is now universally agreed to be a hybrid. Harley, R. M. (1975). Mentha L. In: Stace, C. A., ed. Hybridization and the flora of the British Isles page 387. It is a herbaceous rhizomatous perennial plant growing to tall, with smooth stems, square in cross section. The rhizomes are wide-spreading, fleshy, and bare fibrous roots. The leaves are from long and cm broad, dark green with reddish veins, and with an acute apex and coarsely toothed margins. The leaves and stems are usually slightly hairy. The flowers are purple, long, with a four-lobed corolla about diameter; they are produced in whorls (verticillasters) around the stem, forming thick, blunt spikes. Flowering is from mid to late summer. The chromosome number is variable, with 2n counts of 66, 72, 84, and 120 recorded. Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). Flora of Britain and Northern Europe. ISBN 0-340-40170-2 Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-47494-5. Ecology Peppermint typically occurs in moist habitats, including stream sides and drainage ditches. Being a hybrid, it is usually sterile, producing no seeds and reproducing only vegetatively, spreading by its rhizomes. If placed, it can grow anywhere, with a few exceptions. It is an invasive species in the Great Lakes region, noted since 1843 . Uses 1887 illustration Peppermint is sometimes regarded as 'the world's oldest medicine', with archaeological evidence placing its use at least as far back as ten thousand years ago. Peppermint has a high menthol content, and is often used as a flavouring in tea, ice cream, confectionery, chewing gum, and toothpaste. The oil also contains menthone and menthyl esters, particularly menthyl acetate. PDR for Herbal Medicines, 4th Edition, Thomson Healthcare, page 640. ISBN 978-1563636783 It is the oldest and most popular flavour of mint-flavoured confectionery. Peppermint can also be found in some shampoos and soaps, which give the hair a minty scent and produce a cooling sensation on the skin. Freeze-dried leaves In 2007, Italian investigators reported that 75% of the patients in their study who took peppermint oil capsules for four weeks had a major reduction in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) symptoms, compared with just 38% of those who took a placebo. Similarly, some poorly designed earlier trials found that peppermint oil has the ability to reduce colicky abdominal pain due to IBS with an NNT (number needed to treat) around 3.1, Bandolier Journal: Peppermint oil for irritable bowel syndrome but the oil is an irritant to the stomach in the quantity required and therefore needs wrapping for delayed release in the intestine. Peppermint relaxes the gastro-esophageal sphincter, thus promoting belching. Restaurants usually take advantage of this effect by taking advantage of its use as a confectionery ingredient, which they then call "after-dinner mints." Peppermint flowers are large nectar producers and honey bees as well as other nectar harvesting organisms forage them heavily. A mild, pleasant varietal honey can be produced if there is a sufficient area of plants. Peppermint oil is used by commercial pesticide applicators, in the EcoSmart Technologies line of products, as a natural insecticide. EcoSMART Product label Outside of its native range, areas where peppermint was formerly grown for oil often have an abundance of feral plants, and it is considered invasive in Australia, the Galápagos Islands, New Zealand, Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk: Mentha x piperita and in the United States. USDA Plants Profile: Mentha x piperita Cultivation Peppermint generally thrives in shade and expands quickly by underground stolons. If you choose to grow peppermint, it is advisable to plant it in a container, otherwise it can rapidly take over a whole garden. It needs a good water supply, and is ideal for planting in part-sun to shade areas. The leaves and flowering tops are the usable portion of the plant. They are collected as soon as the flowers begin to open and then are carefully dried. The wild form of the plant is less suitable for this purpose, with cultivated plants having been selected for more and better oil content. Seeds sold at stores labelled peppermint generally will not germinate into true peppermint, but into a particularly poor-scented spearmint plant. The true peppermint might rarely produce seeds, but only by fertilization from a spearmint plant, and contribute only their own spearmint genes. Cultivars A number of cultivars have been selected for garden use: Mentha × piperita 'Candymint'. Stems reddish. Mentha × piperita 'Citrata' (Eau De Cologne Mint). Leaves aromatic, hairless. Mentha × piperita 'Crispa'. Leaves wrinkled. Mentha × piperita 'Lime Mint'. Foliage lime-scented. Mentha × piperita 'Variegata'. Leaves mottled green and pale yellow. Mentha × piperita 'Chocolate Mint'. Flowers open from bottom up; reminiscent of flavour in Andes Chocolate Mints, a popular confection. Mountain Valley Growers: Mentha piperita cv. Chocolate Mint References See also Altoids Candy cane Mint chocolate Peppermint tea Spearmint (Mentha spicata) | Peppermint |@lemmatized peppermint:20 mentha:16 piperita:12 hybrid:3 mint:9 cross:2 watermint:1 aquatica:1 spearmint:5 spicata:2 plant:12 indigenous:1 europe:3 widespread:1 cultivation:2 throughout:1 region:2 world:2 euro:1 med:1 plantbase:1 project:1 find:3 wild:2 occasionally:1 parent:1 specie:4 flora:3 nw:1 botany:1 flower:6 first:1 describe:1 carolus:1 linnaeus:2 specimen:1 collect:2 england:1 treat:2 c:3 plantarum:1 universally:1 agree:1 harley:1 r:1 l:1 stace:1 ed:2 hybridization:1 british:1 isle:1 page:2 herbaceous:1 rhizomatous:1 perennial:1 grow:4 tall:1 smooth:1 stem:4 square:1 section:1 rhizome:2 wide:1 spreading:1 fleshy:1 bare:1 fibrous:1 root:1 leaf:5 long:2 cm:1 broad:1 dark:1 green:2 reddish:2 vein:1 acute:1 apex:1 coarsely:1 toothed:1 margin:1 usually:3 slightly:1 hairy:1 purple:1 four:2 lob:1 corolla:1 diameter:1 produce:5 whorl:1 verticillasters:1 around:2 form:2 thick:1 blunt:1 spike:1 flowering:1 mid:1 late:1 summer:1 chromosome:1 number:3 variable:1 count:1 record:1 blamey:1 grey:1 wilson:1 britain:1 northern:1 isbn:3 huxley:1 new:2 rh:1 dictionary:1 gardening:1 macmillan:1 ecology:1 typically:1 occur:1 moist:1 habitat:1 include:1 stream:1 side:1 drainage:1 ditch:1 sterile:1 seed:3 reproduce:1 vegetatively:1 spread:1 place:2 anywhere:1 exception:1 invasive:2 great:1 lakes:1 note:1 since:1 us:1 illustration:1 sometimes:1 regarded:1 old:2 medicine:2 archaeological:1 evidence:1 use:5 least:1 far:1 back:1 ten:1 thousand:1 year:1 ago:1 high:1 menthol:1 content:2 often:2 flavouring:1 tea:2 ice:1 cream:1 confectionery:3 chew:1 gum:1 toothpaste:1 oil:8 also:3 contain:1 menthone:1 menthyl:2 ester:1 particularly:2 acetate:1 pdr:1 herbal:1 edition:1 thomson:1 healthcare:1 popular:2 flavour:2 flavoured:1 shampoo:1 soap:1 give:1 hair:1 minty:1 scent:3 cool:1 sensation:1 skin:1 freeze:1 dry:2 italian:1 investigator:1 report:1 patient:1 study:1 take:5 capsule:1 week:1 major:1 reduction:1 irritable:2 bowel:2 syndrome:2 ibs:2 symptom:1 compare:1 placebo:1 similarly:1 poorly:1 design:1 earlier:1 trial:1 ability:1 reduce:1 colicky:1 abdominal:1 pain:1 due:1 nnt:1 need:3 bandolier:1 journal:1 irritant:1 stomach:1 quantity:1 require:1 therefore:1 wrap:1 delayed:1 release:1 intestine:1 relax:1 gastro:1 esophageal:1 sphincter:1 thus:1 promote:1 belch:1 restaurant:1 advantage:2 effect:1 ingredient:1 call:1 dinner:1 large:1 nectar:2 producer:1 honey:2 bee:1 well:1 harvest:1 organisms:1 forage:1 heavily:1 mild:1 pleasant:1 varietal:1 sufficient:1 area:3 commercial:1 pesticide:1 applicator:1 ecosmart:2 technologies:1 line:1 product:2 natural:1 insecticide:1 label:2 outside:1 native:1 range:1 formerly:1 abundance:1 feral:1 consider:1 australia:1 galápagos:1 island:2 zealand:1 pacific:1 ecosystems:1 risk:1 x:2 united:1 state:1 usda:1 profile:1 generally:2 thrive:1 shade:2 expands:1 quickly:1 underground:1 stolon:1 choose:1 advisable:1 container:1 otherwise:1 rapidly:1 whole:1 garden:2 good:2 water:1 supply:1 ideal:1 part:1 sun:1 top:1 usable:1 portion:1 soon:1 begin:1 open:2 carefully:1 less:1 suitable:1 purpose:1 cultivate:1 select:2 sell:1 store:1 germinate:1 true:2 poor:1 might:1 rarely:1 fertilization:1 contribute:1 gene:1 cultivars:1 cultivar:1 candymint:1 citrata:1 eau:1 de:1 cologne:1 leave:2 aromatic:1 hairless:1 crispa:1 wrinkle:1 lime:2 foliage:1 variegata:1 mottle:1 pale:1 yellow:1 chocolate:4 bottom:1 reminiscent:1 andes:1 confection:1 mountain:1 valley:1 grower:1 cv:1 reference:1 see:1 altoids:1 candy:1 cane:1 |@bigram mentha_piperita:10 carolus_linnaeus:1 invasive_specie:1 archaeological_evidence:1 ice_cream:1 chew_gum:1 herbal_medicine:1 irritable_bowel:2 bowel_syndrome:2 abdominal_pain:1 honey_bee:1 galápagos_island:1 pale_yellow:1 candy_cane:1 |
4,514 | Equation | An equation is a mathematical statement, in symbols, that two things are exactly the same (or equivalent). Equations are written with an equal sign, as in . The equations above are examples of an equality: a proposition which states that two constants are equal. Equalities may be true or false. Equations are often used to state the equality of two expressions containing one or more variables. In the reals we can say, for example, that for any given value of it is true that The equation above is an example of an identity, that is, an equation that is true regardless of the values of any variables that appear in it. The following equation is not an identity: It is false for an infinite number of values of , and true for only two, the roots or solutions of the equation, and . Therefore, if the equation is known to be true, it carries information about the value of To solve an equation means to find its solutions. Many authors reserve the term equation for an equality which is not an identity. The distinction between the two concepts can be subtle; for example, is an identity, while is an equation, whose roots are and . Whether a statement is meant to be an identity or an equation, carrying information about its variables can usually be determined from its context; or by making a distinction between the equality sign () for a statement not true except perhaps in particular situations, and the equivalence symbol () for statements know to be true without further specification. Letters from the beginning of the alphabet like a, b, c... often denote constants in the context of the discussion at hand, while letters from end of the alphabet, like x, y, z..., are usually reserved for the variables, a convention initiated by Descartes. Properties If an equation in algebra is known to be true, the following operations may be used to produce another true equation: Any quantity can be added to both sides. Any quantity can be subtracted from both sides. Any quantity can be multiplied to both sides. Any nonzero quantity can divide both sides. Generally, any function can be applied to both sides. (However, caution must be exercised to ensure that one does not encounter extraneous solutions.) The algebraic properties (1-4) imply that equality is a congruence relation for a field; in fact, it is essentially the only one. The most well known system of numbers which allows all of these operations is the real numbers, which is an example of a field. However, if the equation were based on the natural numbers for example, some of these operations (like division and subtraction) may not be valid as negative numbers and non-whole numbers are not allowed. The integers are an example of an integral domain which does not allow all divisions as, again, whole numbers are needed. However, subtraction is allowed, and is the inverse operator in that system. If a function that is not injective is applied to both sides of a true equation, then the resulting equation will still be true, but it may be less useful. Formally, one has an implication, not an equivalence, so the solution set may get larger. The functions implied in properties (1), (2), and (4) are always injective, as is (3) if we do not multiply by zero. Some generalized products, such as a dot product, are never injective. See also Cubic equation Differential equation Diophantine equation Formula editor Functional equation Indeterminate equation Inequality Inequation Integral equation Linear equation List of equations Quadratic equation Quartic equation Quintic equation Parametric equation Polynomial equation Scientific equations named after people Theory of equations External links Mathematical equation plotter: Plots 2D mathematical equations, computes integrals, and finds solutions online. Equation plotter: A web page for producing and downloading pdf or postscript plots of the solution sets to equations and inequations in two variables (x and y). WZGrapher: A Windows freeware program that plots Cartesian and polar equations, with both integration and differentiation solvers and graphing capabilities. EqWorld — contains information on solutions to many different classes of mathematical equations. EquationSolver: A webpage that can solve single equations and linear equation systems. WebGraphing.com: Online Equation Plotter with Automatic Table of Coordinates Online Equation Solver be-x-old:Раўнаньне | Equation |@lemmatized equation:43 mathematical:4 statement:4 symbol:2 two:6 thing:1 exactly:1 equivalent:1 write:1 equal:2 sign:2 example:7 equality:6 proposition:1 state:2 constant:2 may:5 true:11 false:2 often:2 use:2 expression:1 contain:2 one:4 variable:5 real:2 say:1 give:1 value:4 identity:5 regardless:1 appear:1 following:2 infinite:1 number:7 root:2 solution:7 therefore:1 know:3 carry:2 information:3 solve:2 mean:2 find:2 many:2 author:1 reserve:2 term:1 distinction:2 concept:1 subtle:1 whose:1 whether:1 usually:2 determine:1 context:2 make:1 except:1 perhaps:1 particular:1 situation:1 equivalence:2 without:1 specification:1 letter:2 beginning:1 alphabet:2 like:3 b:1 c:1 denote:1 discussion:1 hand:1 end:1 x:3 z:1 convention:1 initiate:1 descartes:1 property:3 algebra:1 operation:3 produce:2 another:1 quantity:4 add:1 side:6 subtract:1 multiply:2 nonzero:1 divide:1 generally:1 function:3 apply:2 however:3 caution:1 must:1 exercise:1 ensure:1 encounter:1 extraneous:1 algebraic:1 imply:2 congruence:1 relation:1 field:2 fact:1 essentially:1 well:1 known:1 system:3 allow:4 base:1 natural:1 division:2 subtraction:2 valid:1 negative:1 non:1 whole:2 integer:1 integral:3 domain:1 need:1 inverse:1 operator:1 injective:3 result:1 still:1 less:1 useful:1 formally:1 implication:1 set:2 get:1 large:1 always:1 zero:1 generalized:1 product:2 dot:1 never:1 see:1 also:1 cubic:1 differential:1 diophantine:1 formula:1 editor:1 functional:1 indeterminate:1 inequality:1 inequation:1 linear:2 list:1 quadratic:1 quartic:1 quintic:1 parametric:1 polynomial:1 scientific:1 name:1 people:1 theory:1 external:1 link:1 plotter:3 plot:3 computes:1 online:3 web:1 page:1 download:1 pdf:1 postscript:1 inequations:1 wzgrapher:1 window:1 freeware:1 program:1 cartesian:1 polar:1 integration:1 differentiation:1 solver:2 graph:1 capability:1 eqworld:1 different:1 class:1 equationsolver:1 webpage:1 single:1 webgraphing:1 com:1 automatic:1 table:1 coordinate:1 old:1 раўнаньне:1 |@bigram differential_equation:1 diophantine_equation:1 quadratic_equation:1 quartic_equation:1 quintic_equation:1 external_link:1 |
4,515 | Metre | The metre or meter (from the Greek μέτρον /΄metron/) See American and British English spelling differences is a unit of proper length. Taylor and Thompson (2008a), Appendix 1, p. 77. It is the basic unit of length in the metric system and in the International System of Units (SI), used around the world for general and scientific purposes. Historically, the metre was defined by the French Academy of Sciences as the length between two marks on a platinum-iridium bar, which was designed to represent of the distance from the equator to the north pole through Paris. In 1983, it was redefined by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) as the distance travelled by light in free space in of a second. The symbol for metre is a lower case m. Decimal multiples and submultiples of the metre, such as kilometre (1000 metres) and centimetre ( metre), are indicated by adding SI prefixes to metre. History The word metre is from the Greek (métron), "a measure", via the French mètre. It was first introduced in modern usage (metro cattolico) by Italian scientist Tito Livio Burattini in his work Misura Universale in 1675, in order to rename the universal measure unit proposed by John Wilkins in 1668. Its first recorded usage in English meaning this unit of length is from 1797. Meridional definition In the eighteenth century, there were two favoured approaches to the definition of the standard unit of length. One approach suggested defining the metre as the length of a pendulum with a half-period of one second, a 'seconds pendulum'. The other approach suggested defining the metre as one ten-millionth of the length of the Earth's meridian along a quadrant, that is the distance from the Equator to the North Pole. In 1791, the French Academy of Sciences selected the meridional definition over the pendular definition because the force of gravity varies slightly over the surface of the Earth, which affects the period of a pendulum. In order to establish a universally accepted foundation for the definition of the metre, measurements of this meridian more accurate than those available at that time were imperative. The Bureau des Longitudes commissioned an expedition led by Delambre and Pierre Méchain, lasting from 1792 to 1799, which measured the length of the meridian between Dunkerque and Barcelona. This portion of the meridian, which also passes through Paris, was to serve as the basis for the length of the half meridian, connecting the North Pole with the Equator. However, in 1793, France adopted as its official unit of length a metre based on provisional results from the expedition as its official unit of length. Although it was later determined that the first prototype metre bar was short by a fifth of a millimetre due to miscalculation of the flattening of the Earth, this length became the standard. The circumference of the Earth through the poles is therefore slightly more than forty million metres. Prototype metre bar Historical International Prototype Metre bar, made of an alloy of platinum and iridium, that was the standard from 1889 to 1960. In the 1870s and in light of modern precision, a series of international conferences were held to devise new metric standards. The Metre Convention (Convention du Mètre) of 1875 mandated the establishment of a permanent International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM: Bureau International des Poids et Mesures) to be located in Sèvres, France. This new organisation would preserve the new prototype metre and kilogram standards when constructed, distribute national metric prototypes, and maintain comparisons between them and non-metric measurement standards. The organisation created a new prototype bar in 1889 at the first General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM: Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures), establishing the International Prototype Metre as the distance between two lines on a standard bar composed of an alloy of ninety percent platinum and ten percent iridium, measured at the melting point of ice. Standard wavelength of krypton-86 emission In 1893, the standard metre was first measured with an interferometer by Albert A. Michelson, the inventor of the device and an advocate of using some particular wavelength of light as a standard of distance. By 1925, interferometry was in regular use at the BIPM. However, the International Prototype Metre remained the standard until 1960, when the eleventh CGPM defined the metre in the new system as equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red emission line in the electromagnetic spectrum of the krypton-86 atom in a vacuum. The original international prototype of the metre is still kept at the BIPM under the conditions specified in 1889. Standard wavelength of helium-neon laser light To further reduce uncertainty, the seventeenth CGPM in 1983 replaced the definition of the metre with its current definition, thus fixing the length of the metre in terms of time and the speed of light: This definition effectively fixed the speed of light in a vacuum at precisely 299,792,458 metres per second. Although the metre is now defined in terms of time-of-flight, actual laboratory realizations of the metre are still delineated by counting the required number of wavelengths of light along the distance. Three major factors limit the accuracy attainable with laser interferometers: Uncertainty in vacuum wavelength of the source, Uncertainty in the refractive index of the medium, Laser count resolution of the interferometer. Use of the interferometer to determine the metre is based upon the relation: where λ = determined wavelength; c = speed of light in ideal vacuum; n = refractive index of the medium in which the measurement is made; and f= frequency of the source. In this way the length is related to one of the most accurate measurements available: frequency. An intended byproduct of the 17th CGPM’s definition was that it enabled scientists to measure the wavelength of their lasers with one-fifth the uncertainty. To further facilitate reproducibility from lab to lab, the 17th CGPM also made the iodine-stabilised helium-neon laser “a recommended radiation” for realising the metre. For purposes of delineating the metre, the BIPM currently considers the HeNe laser wavelength to be as follows: λHeNe = 632.991<span style="margin-left:0.2em">398<span style="margin-left:0.25em">22 nm with an estimated relative standard uncertainty (U) of 2.5 × 10–11. See Time Line for the Definition of the Meter (Penzes, 2005), published by the NIST; and these papers from the BIPM database; particularly Optical Frequency - Maintaining the SI Metre (National Research Council of Canada, 2008) This uncertainty is currently the limiting factor in laboratory realisations of the metre as it is several orders of magnitude poorer than that of the second (U = 5 × 10–16). NIST: NIST-F1 Cesium Fountain Atomic Clock. Consequently, a practical realisation of the metre is usually delineated (not defined) today in labs as 1,579,800.298<span style="margin-left:0.25em">728(39) wavelengths of helium-neon laser light in a vacuum. Timeline of definition 1790 May 8 — The French National Assembly decides that the length of the new metre would be equal to the length of a pendulum with a half-period of one second. 1791 March 30 — The French National Assembly accepts the proposal by the French Academy of Sciences that the new definition for the metre be equal to one ten-millionth of the length of the Earth's meridian along a quadrant through Paris, that is the distance from the equator to the north pole. 1795 — Provisional metre bar constructed of brass. 1799 December 10 — The French National Assembly specifies the platinum metre bar, constructed on 23 June 1799 and deposited in the National Archives, as the final standard. 1889 September 28 — The first General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) defines the metre as the distance between two lines on a standard bar of an alloy of platinum with ten percent iridium, measured at the melting point of ice. 1927 October 6 — The seventh CGPM adjusts the definition of the metre to be the distance, at 0 °C, between the axes of the two central lines marked on the prototype bar of platinum-iridium, this bar being subject to one standard atmosphere of pressure and supported on two cylinders of at least one centimetre diameter, symmetrically placed in the same horizontal plane at a distance of 571 millimetres from each other. 1960 October 20 — The eleventh CGPM defines the metre to be equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the 2p10 and 5d5 quantum levels of the krypton-86 atom. 1983 October 21 — The seventeenth CGPM defines the metre as equal to the distance travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of of a second. Taylor and Thompson (2008a), Appendix 1, p. 70. 2002 — The International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) recommends this definition be restricted to "lengths ℓ which are sufficiently short for the effects predicted by general relativity to be negligible with respect to the uncertainties of realisation." SI prefixed forms of metre SI prefixes are often employed to denote decimal multiples and submultiples of the metre, as shown in the table below. Spelling Two spellings of the name of the unit are common in English: metre and meter (U.S.). The most recent official brochure about the International System of Units (SI) was written in French by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM: Bureau international des poids et mesures), in 2006. An English translation is included to make the SI standard "more widely accessible". BIPM, 2006, p. 130ff. The UK English spelling is preferred among the majority of the English-speaking world apart from the United States, as meter is commonly used to describe counting machines such as parking meters and electrical meters. In 2008, the U.S. English translation published by the U.S. National Institute of Science and Technology chose to use meter in accordance with the United States Government Printing Office Style Manual. The Metric Conversion Act of 1975 gives the Secretary of Commerce of the US the responsibility of interpreting or modifying the SI for use in the US. The Secretary of Commerce delegated this authority to the Director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (Turner). In 2008, the NIST published the US version (Taylor and Thompson, 2008a) of the English text of the eighth edition of the BIPM publication Le Système international d'unités (SI) (BIPM, 2006). In the NIST publication, the spellings "meter," "liter," and "deka" are used rather than "metre", "litre", and "deca" as in the original BIPM English text (Taylor and Thompson, 2008a, p. iii). The Director of the NIST officially recognised this publication, together with Taylor and Thompson (2008b), as the "legal interpretation" of the SI for the United States (Turner). Equivalents in other units Metric unitexpressed in non-SI unit Non-SI unitexpressed in metric unit1 metre ≈ 39.37 inches1 inch≡ 0.0254 metres1 centimetre ≈ 0.3937 inch 1 inch≡ 2.54 centimetres 1 millimetre ≈ 0.03937 inch 1 inch≡ 25.4 millimetres 1 metre ≡ 1×1010Ångström 1 Ångström≡ 1×10-10 metre 1 nanometre ≡ 10Ångström 1 Ångström≡ 100 picometres Within this table, "inch" means "international inch". See also Conversion of units for comparisons with other units International System of Units ISO 1 – standard reference temperature for length measurements Metre Convention Metric system Metrication Orders of magnitude (length) SI prefix Speed of light Notes References Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. (2006). The International System of Units (SI). Retrieved 18 August 2008. HTML version. Retrieved 24 August 2008. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. (n.d.). Resolutions of the CGPM (search facility). Retrieved 3 June 2006. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. (n.d.). The BIPM and the evolution of the definition of the metre. Retrieved 3 June 2006. Layer, H.P. (2008). Length—Evolution from Measurement Standard to a Fundamental Constant. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 18 August 2008. Mohr, P., Taylor, B.N., and David B. Newell, D. (28 December 2007). CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2006. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 18 August 2008. National Institute of Standards and Technology. (December 2003). The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty: International System of Units (SI) (web site): SI base units. Retrieved 18 August 2008. Definitions of the SI base units. Retrieved 18 August 2008. Historical context of the SI: Metre. Retrieved 18 August 2008. National Research Council Canada. (16 May 2008). Optical Frequency - Maintaining the SI Metre. Retrieved 18 August 2008. Penzes, W. (29 December 2005). Time Line for the Definition of the Meter. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology - Precision Engineering Division. Retrieved 3 June 2006. Taylor, B.N. and Thompson, A. (Eds.). (2008a). The International System of Units (SI). United States version of the English text of the eighth edition (2006) of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures publication Le Système International d’ Unités (SI) (Special Publication 330). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 18 August 2008. Taylor, B.N. and Thompson, A. (2008b). Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (Special Publication 811). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 23 August 2008. Tibo Qorl. (2005) The History of the Meter (Translated by Sibille Rouzaud). Retrieved 18 August 2008. Turner, J. (Deputy Director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology). (16 May 2008)."Interpretation of the International System of Units (the Metric System of Measurement) for the United States". 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4,516 | Galeazzo_Alessi | Alessi's original project for the façade of Palazzo Marino, Milan, altered in the execution Galeazzo Alessi (1512 - December 30, 1572) was an Italian architect from Perugia, known throughout Europe for his distinctive style based on his enthusiasm for ancient architecture. He studied drawing for civil and military architecture under the direction of Giovanni Battista Caporali. For a number of years he lived in Genoa. He was involved in the lay-out of the streets and the restoration of the city walls, as well as being responsible for many of its impressive palazzi, now a part of the World Heritage List. His work can be found in many other Italian cities, including in Ferrara, Bologna, Naples and Milan, where he designed the facade of Santa Maria presso San Celso. With Vignola, he designed the Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli in Assisi, the seventh largest Christian church at the time. Elsewhere in Europe, he designed churches and palaces in France, Germany and Flanders. He produced designs for El Escorial in Spain, but age and health prevented him from carrying them out. Selected works At Perugia Rocca Paolina, remodelling Loggia at the Oratorio di S. Angelo della Pace S. Maria del Popolo (Camera di Commercio) Loggia for the Palazzo dei Priori, remodelling Convent of Santa Giuliana (S. Caterina) Portale of the Villa del Leone Doorway in the southern flank of the Duomo Works for San Pietro At Assisi Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli Tabernacle of San Francesco Works in the Cathedral of San Rufino At Genoa Villa Giustiniani-Cambiaso, Albaro Basilica of S. Maria Assunta, Carignano Porta del Molo (Porta Siberia), inserted in the city walls Cupola of St. Lawrence Cathedral Villa Pallavicini, called Villa delle Peschiere Villa Grimaldi-Sauli in Bisagno Proposals for the palazzi in the Strada Nuova At Milan Palazzo Marino (Municipio di Milano), for the Genoese Tommaso Marino. San Barnaba Auditorium of the Scuole Canobiane Santa Maria presso San Celso San Raffaele Various projects in the Duomo di Milano, including the monument of the Arcimboldi. Sacro Monte di Varallo City plan Rome Unexecuted designs for the Church of the Gesù References Rossi, Di Galeazzo Alessi memorie (Perugia, 1873) Emmina De Negri, Galeazzo Alessi : architetto a Genova, (Quaderni dell'Istituto di storia dell'arte dell'Università di Genova, number 1, (Genoa) 1957. Galeazzo Alessi e l'architettura del Cinquecento, atti del convegno internazionale di studi : Genoa, 16-20 April 1974, (Genoa 1975) R. L. Torrijos, "Un testamento dimenticato di Galeazzo Alessi", in Architettura, storia e documenti, 1 (1985:97-100) Catholic Encyclopedia | Galeazzo_Alessi |@lemmatized alessi:6 original:1 project:2 façade:1 palazzo:3 marino:3 milan:3 alter:1 execution:1 galeazzo:5 december:1 italian:2 architect:1 perugia:3 know:1 throughout:1 europe:2 distinctive:1 style:1 base:1 enthusiasm:1 ancient:1 architecture:2 study:1 draw:1 civil:1 military:1 direction:1 giovanni:1 battista:1 caporali:1 number:2 year:1 live:1 genoa:5 involve:1 lay:1 street:1 restoration:1 city:4 wall:2 well:1 responsible:1 many:2 impressive:1 palazzi:2 part:1 world:1 heritage:1 list:1 work:4 find:1 include:2 ferrara:1 bologna:1 naples:1 design:5 facade:1 santa:5 maria:6 presso:2 san:7 celso:2 vignola:1 basilica:3 degli:2 angeli:2 assisi:2 seventh:1 large:1 christian:1 church:3 time:1 elsewhere:1 palace:1 france:1 germany:1 flanders:1 produce:1 el:1 escorial:1 spain:1 age:1 health:1 prevent:1 carry:1 select:1 rocca:1 paolina:1 remodelling:2 loggia:2 oratorio:1 di:10 angelo:1 della:1 pace:1 del:5 popolo:1 camera:1 commercio:1 dei:1 priori:1 convent:1 giuliana:1 caterina:1 portale:1 villa:5 leone:1 doorway:1 southern:1 flank:1 duomo:2 pietro:1 tabernacle:1 francesco:1 cathedral:2 rufino:1 giustiniani:1 cambiaso:1 albaro:1 assunta:1 carignano:1 porta:2 molo:1 siberia:1 insert:1 cupola:1 st:1 lawrence:1 pallavicini:1 call:1 delle:1 peschiere:1 grimaldi:1 sauli:1 bisagno:1 proposal:1 strada:1 nuova:1 municipio:1 milano:2 genoese:1 tommaso:1 barnaba:1 auditorium:1 scuole:1 canobiane:1 raffaele:1 various:1 monument:1 arcimboldi:1 sacro:1 monte:1 varallo:1 plan:1 rome:1 unexecuted:1 gesù:1 reference:1 rossi:1 memorie:1 emmina:1 de:1 negri:1 architetto:1 genova:2 quaderni:1 dell:3 istituto:1 storia:2 arte:1 università:1 e:2 l:2 architettura:2 cinquecento:1 atti:1 convegno:1 internazionale:1 studi:1 april:1 r:1 torrijos:1 un:1 testamento:1 dimenticato:1 documenti:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 |@bigram galeazzo_alessi:5 giovanni_battista:1 santa_maria:4 basilica_santa:2 el_escorial:1 del_popolo:1 san_pietro:1 di_milano:2 istituto_di:1 di_storia:1 dell_arte:1 università_di:1 |
4,517 | Kach_and_Kahane_Chai | Flag of the Kach and Kahane Chai. Kach (, an acronym for Kahane LaKnesset (, lit. Kahane to the Knesset)) was a far right political party in Israel. Founded by Rabbi Meir Kahane in the early 1970s, and following his Kahanist ideology, the party entered the Knesset in 1984 after several electoral failures. Knesset Records of Kach Activity However, it was barred from participating in the next election in 1988 under the revised Knesset Elections Law banning parties that incited racism. After Kahane's assassination in 1990 the party split, with Kahane Chai (, lit. Kahane Lives) breaking away from the main Kach faction. The party was also barred from standing in the 1992 election, and both organisations were banned outright in 1994. Today both groups are considered terrorist organisations by Israel, Canada, the European Union and the United States. Kahane Chai (KACH) Public Safety Canada Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs) U.S. Department of State, 11 October 2005 Council Decision of 21 December 2005 implementing Article 2(3) of Regulation (EC) No 2580/2001 on specific restrictive measures directed against certain persons and entities with a view to combating terrorism and repealing Decision 2005/848/EC Official Journal of the European Union, 23 December 2005 Background Early history Kahane emigrated to Israel from the United States in September 1969, declaring that he would not become involved in politics. The Kach Movement - Background Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 3 March 1994 However, he soon became involved in controversy, initiating protests advocating the expulsion of Arabs from Israel and the Palestinian territories. In 1972 Jewish Defense League leaflets were distributed around Hebron calling for the mayor to stand trial for the 1929 Hebron massacre. Kahane soon founded a new party, Kach, which ran in the 1973 elections. The party won 12,811 votes (0.82%), just 2,857 (0.18%) short of the electoral threshold (1%) and winning a seat. The party was less successful in the 1977 elections, in which it won 4,396 votes, and in 1980 Kahane was sentenced to six months in prison for his involvement in a plan to commit an "act of provocation" on the Temple Mount. The 1981 elections were another failure, with Kach receiving only 5,128 votes. Electoral success Kach poster from the 1984 elections. It reads "This time [vote] Kahane: Because he is one of us! Give him the power to finally take care of them [Arabs]!" However, events in the next couple of years increased the party's popularity. In 1982 Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt as part of the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty which involved evacuating Israeli settlers living in the peninsula. There was fierce resistance, particularly in Yamit, the largest settlement, where several extremists had barricaded themselves inside a synagogue and were threatening to commit suicide. Menachem Begin's government asked Kahane to act as an intermediary and convince them to give in. Prior to the 1984 elections the party was barred by the Central Elections Committee for racism. It successfully appealed to the Supreme Court, which reversed the CEC's decision, ruling that the Knesset Elections Law (one of the Basic Laws of Israel) did not allow a party to be barred on the grounds of racism, but did suggest that the law be amended. In the elections the party won 25,907 votes (1.2%), passing the electoral threshold for the first time, and winning one seat, which was duly taken by Kahane. In response to Kach's election and following up on the recommendation of the Supreme Court, the Knesset passed an amendment to the Elections Law, which stated: A candidates list shall not participate in elections to the Knesset if its objects or actions, expressly or by implication, include one of the following: negation of the existence of the State of Israel as the state of the Jewish people; negation of the democratic character of the State incitement to racism As a result, Kach was disqualified from running in the 1988 elections by the Central Elections Committee. The party once again appealed the decision, with Kahane claiming that security needs were justification for discrimination against Arabs. This time the appeal was unsuccessful, with the court stating that the aims and action of Kach were "manifestly racist." Kahane's death and party split On 5 November 1990, Kahane was assassinated Terror Label No Hindrance To Anti-Arab Jewish Group New York Times, 19 December 2000 after making a speech in New York. The party subsequently split in two, with Binyamin Ze'ev Kahane (Kahane's son) leading a breakaway faction, Kahane Chai, based in Kfar Tapuach (an Israeli settlement in the West Bank) and Kach initially under the leadership of Rabbi Avraham Toledano (later replaced by Baruch Marzel) in Kiryat Arba. Both parties were banned from participating in the 1992 elections on the basis that they were followers of the original Kach. Following both parties noting their support of a grenade attack in Jerusalem's Old City, government minister Amnon Rubinstein asked the Attorney General to launch criminal proceedings against both Kahane and Marzel on the charges of incitement to terrorism. In 1994 both groups were banned outright by the Israeli cabinet under 1948 anti-terrorism laws Key Issues: Protecting Charitable organizations US Department of the Treasury following statements in support of Baruch Goldstein's massacre of 29 Palestinians at the Cave of the Patriarchs (Goldstein himself was a Kach supporter). In the Spotlight: Kach and Kahane Chai Center for Defense Information, 1 October 2002 Many of their leaders spent time in Israeli jail under administrative detention, particularly Noam Federman, who spent more than 6 months in lockup without being indicted. Yigal Amir, who assassinated Yitzhak Rabin in 1995 was a member of Eyal (the Jewish Fighting Organization), linked to Kach and Kahane Chai and established and headed by Avishai Raviv (a paid government informant). After being convicted for sedition for distributing pamphlets advocating violence against Arabs, Binyamin Kahane and his wife were both killed in a Palestinian ambush in December 2000. The Kahanes: Like father, like son BBC News, 31 December 2000 Aftermath Kach logo spraypainted on a cement block reading "Kahana Chai"Kahanist graffiti in Hebron on a Palestinian home. The words to the top right say "Kahane Chai". The fist inside the Star of David is the party logo. Below is the acronym for "Kahane Chai" which is also the Hebrew word for strength. Following the banning of Kach and Kahane Chai, the movements officially disbanded. The leadership of the former Kahane Chai formed an advocacy group known as The Kahane Movement. The group's activities consist mainly of maintaining the Kahane website, kahane.org. However, the Kahane Movement is listed on the United States' list of terrorist organizations as an alias for "Kach", though the group denies this. The New Kach Movement existed during between 2001 and 2003 and maintained websites posting Kahanist political commentary and held meetings with informal members. Headed by Israeli-born student Efraim Hershkovits, it had chapters worldwide as well as a youth movement, Noar Meir. Upon returning to live in Israel in 2003, Hershkovits disbanded the movement to avoid harassment by the Israeli government, advising its former members to support the Kahane Movement. After the organization had disbanded, its name was also added to the United States' list of terrorist organizations as an alias for "Kach". Hershkovits was arrested on August 7, 2005 and placed in administrative detention for three months by Israeli authorities. Today the United States continues to designate the group a terrorist organization and says that it has engaged in terrorist activity by using explosives or fire arms with intent to endanger the safety of individuals or cause substantial damage to property (including an attempt to car bomb a Palestinian girls school in East Jerusalem) U.S. Appeals Court Affirms Designation of Kahane Chai, Kach as Terrorist Groups Washington Report on Middle East Affairs threatening and conspiring to carry out assassinations soliciting funds and members for a terrorist organization The State Department also says that the group is suspected of involvement in a number of low-level attacks since the start of the Second Intifada in 2000. Kach, Kahane Chai (Israel, extremists) Council for Foreign Relations, 20 March 2008 In the 2003 elections former Kach leader Baruch Marzel ran as number two on the Herut – The National Movement party list. The party narrowly missed obtaining a seat. In 2004 he founded the Jewish National Front, which gained 24,824 votes (0.7%) in the 2006 elections, less than half needed to win a seat. Former Kahane Chai chief executive http://www.box.net/shared/ki7ned882t Mike Guzofsky continues to solicit funds in the US, with the support of US Kahanists. Kach’s U.S. Representatives Continue to Solicit Funds for Banned Terrorist Group Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, November 2007, pages 30-32 See also List of terrorist organisations References External links Official Kahane Website Designated as a hate site by the UNHCR*Kach Knesset website Terrorist Group Profiles: Kach and Kahane Chai United States State Department Kach and Kahane Chai International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism Kach & Kahane Chai: US Funders for West Bank Violence DC Indymedia, 24 April 2004 State Department Brief to DC Court of Appeals Defending Redesignation of Kach/Kahane Chai as FTO DC Circuit Court of Appeals Opinion Denying Kach/Kahane Chai's Motion to Overturn Their FTO Designation DC Indymedia 1988 Kach Election Promo Youtube | Kach_and_Kahane_Chai |@lemmatized flag:1 kach:33 kahane:42 chai:19 acronym:2 laknesset:1 lit:2 knesset:8 far:1 right:2 political:2 party:20 israel:11 found:3 rabbi:2 meir:2 early:2 follow:5 kahanist:3 ideology:1 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4,518 | Camp_David | Main Lodge at Camp David during the Nixon administration, February 9, 1971 Naval Support Facility Thurmont, popularly known as Camp David, is a mountain based military camp in Frederick County, Maryland used as a country retreat and for high alert protection of the President of the United States and his guests. First known as Hi-Catoctin, Camp David was originally built as a camp for federal government agents and their families, by the WPA, starting in 1935, opening in 1938. In 1942 it was converted to a presidential retreat by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and renamed U.S.S. Shangri-La. Camp David received its present name from Dwight Eisenhower, in honor of his grandson, Dwight David Eisenhower II. History of Camp David: A brief history of the Presidential mountain retreat and its famous guests by David Johnson The camp is very isolated and quiet. The compound consists of several cabins hidden throughout the woods, connected only by small mulch walking paths. These cabins are all named after various trees, plants, and flowers. There is only one main road on the compound, essentially cutting the camp in two parts: one side in which the Marines and Naval personnel live, eat and train; and the other side consisting of all the guest cabins and presidential recreational facilities. Navy operations Camp David is a United States Navy installation, commanded by a Naval Commander. Sailors are mostly Seabees and most officers are in the civil engineering field. The Navy Seabee Detachment performs maintenance and beautification. The sailors must undergo a "Yankee White" level background check, which involves passing the most rigorous background check conducted by the Department of Defense (DOD). The sailors are hand-picked for their service at Camp David, and represent the best of the U.S. Navy. Some of the sailors include: grounds and maintenance personnel, electricians, carpenters, corpsmen, and the President's cooks (mess specialists). The Camp is alleged to be one of the most secure facilities in the world, as reported by a Department of Defense journal in 1998. The Facility is guarded by one of the United States Marine Corps' most elite units, MSC-CD (Marine Security Company, Camp David). Each Marine is hand-picked from the infantry and sent through a battery of psychological and physical tests. The chosen Marine must then undergo specialized security training at the Marine Corps Security Forces School in Chesapeake, Virginia. The candidate then reports to the Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C. Assuming the Marine successfully completes all of their schooling, they still must undergo the "Yankee White" background check. Only then will the candidate be eligible for the assignment at Camp David. After 12 months of service at Camp David, a Marine is awarded the Presidential Service Badge. Typically tours at Camp David are 18–20 months. Analogous facilities Analogous facilities include: Chequers, country residence of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Harpsund, country residence of the Prime Minister of Sweden Harrington Lake, country residence of the Prime Minister of Canada Marienborg, summer residence of the Prime Minister of Denmark Kultaranta, summer residence of the President of Finland Lohn, country estate of the Swiss Federal Council outside Berne Mansion House, summer residence of the President of the Philippines Palacio de Marivent, summer residence of the King of Spain in Palma de Mallorca. Hacienda Hato Grande, country residence of the President of Colombia Pavillon de la Lanterne (subsidiary structure of the Palace of Versailles), country residence of President of France, Fort de Brégançon, summer residence, Chateau de Rambouillet, guest residence, Domaine National de Marly and Domaine de Souzy-la-Biche, week end residences Isla La Orchila, Naval Facility with Presidential Residence, President of Venezuela the Papal Residence at Castel Gandolfo, summer residence of the Pope Granja do Torto, country residence of the President of Brazil Novo-Ogaryovo and Zavidovo, country residences of the President of Russia Quinta Presidencial de Olivos, country residence of the President of Argentina Gallery See also White House, official residence of the President of the United States List of official residences Site R, nearby bunker and communications center Rapidan Camp, the predecessor of Camp David Camp Misty Mount Historic District and Camp Greentop Historic District, built at the same time in Catoctin Mountain Park as Camps 1 and 2. References External links Camp David official White House page Camp David from the Federation of American Scientists Digital documents regarding Camp David, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library Map and detailed aerial photograph | Camp_David |@lemmatized main:2 lodge:1 camp:24 david:17 nixon:1 administration:1 february:1 naval:4 support:1 facility:7 thurmont:1 popularly:1 know:2 mountain:3 base:1 military:1 frederick:1 county:1 maryland:1 use:1 country:10 retreat:3 high:1 alert:1 protection:1 president:12 united:5 state:4 guest:4 first:1 hi:1 catoctin:2 originally:1 build:2 federal:2 government:1 agent:1 family:1 wpa:1 start:1 open:1 convert:1 presidential:6 franklin:1 roosevelt:1 rename:1 u:2 shangri:1 la:4 receive:1 present:1 name:2 dwight:3 eisenhower:3 honor:1 grandson:1 ii:1 history:2 brief:1 famous:1 johnson:1 isolated:1 quiet:1 compound:2 consist:2 several:1 cabin:3 hide:1 throughout:1 wood:1 connect:1 small:1 mulch:1 walk:1 path:1 various:1 tree:1 plant:1 flower:1 one:4 road:1 essentially:1 cut:1 two:1 part:1 side:2 marine:9 personnel:2 live:1 eat:1 train:1 recreational:1 navy:4 operation:1 installation:1 command:1 commander:1 sailor:4 mostly:1 seabees:1 officer:1 civil:1 engineering:1 field:1 seabee:1 detachment:1 performs:1 maintenance:2 beautification:1 must:3 undergo:3 yankee:2 white:4 level:1 background:3 check:3 involve:1 pass:1 rigorous:1 conduct:1 department:2 defense:2 dod:1 hand:2 picked:1 service:3 represent:1 best:1 include:2 ground:1 electrician:1 carpenter:1 corpsmen:1 cook:1 mess:1 specialist:1 allege:1 secure:1 world:1 report:2 journal:1 guard:1 corps:1 elite:1 unit:1 msc:1 cd:1 security:3 company:1 pick:1 infantry:1 send:1 battery:1 psychological:1 physical:1 test:1 chosen:1 specialized:1 training:1 corp:1 force:1 school:1 chesapeake:1 virginia:1 candidate:2 barrack:1 washington:1 c:1 assume:1 successfully:1 complete:1 schooling:1 still:1 eligible:1 assignment:1 month:2 award:1 badge:1 typically:1 tour:1 analogous:2 chequer:1 residence:19 prime:4 minister:4 kingdom:1 harpsund:1 sweden:1 harrington:1 lake:1 canada:1 marienborg:1 summer:6 denmark:1 kultaranta:1 finland:1 lohn:1 estate:1 swiss:1 council:1 outside:1 berne:1 mansion:1 house:3 philippine:1 palacio:1 de:8 marivent:1 king:1 spain:1 palma:1 mallorca:1 hacienda:1 hato:1 grande:1 colombia:1 pavillon:1 lanterne:1 subsidiary:1 structure:1 palace:1 versailles:1 france:1 fort:1 brégançon:1 chateau:1 rambouillet:1 domaine:2 national:1 marly:1 souzy:1 biche:1 week:1 end:1 residences:1 isla:1 orchila:1 venezuela:1 papal:1 castel:1 gandolfo:1 pope:1 granja:1 torto:1 brazil:1 novo:1 ogaryovo:1 zavidovo:1 russia:1 quinta:1 presidencial:1 olivos:1 argentina:1 gallery:1 see:1 also:1 official:3 list:1 site:1 r:1 nearby:1 bunker:1 communication:1 center:1 rapidan:1 predecessor:1 misty:1 mount:1 historic:2 district:2 greentop:1 time:1 park:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 page:1 federation:1 american:1 scientist:1 digital:1 document:1 regard:1 library:1 map:1 detailed:1 aerial:1 photograph:1 |@bigram franklin_roosevelt:1 shangri_la:1 dwight_eisenhower:2 defense_dod:1 marine_corps:1 marine_corp:1 prime_minister:4 de_mallorca:1 pavillon_de:1 palace_versailles:1 external_link:1 |
4,519 | Karl_Popper | Sir Karl Raimund Popper CH, FRS, FBA (28 July 1902 – 17 September 1994) was an Austrian and British Watkins, J. Obituary of Karl Popper, 1902–1994. Proceedings of the British Academy, 94, pp. 645–684 philosopher and a professor at the London School of Economics. Popper was knighted in 1965, under the British Labour government of Harold Wilson. He is considered one of the most influential philosophers of science of the 20th century, Richard Feldman - Department of Philosophy, University of Rochester and also wrote extensively on social and political philosophy. Popper is known for repudiating the classical observationalist/inductivist account of scientific method by advancing empirical falsification instead; for his opposition to the classical justificationist account of knowledge which he replaced with critical rationalism, "the first non justificational philosophy of criticism in the history of philosophy" William W. Bartley: Rationality versus the Theory of Rationality, In Mario Bunge: The Critical Approach to Science and Philosophy (The Free Press of Glencoe, 1964), section IX. and for his vigorous defense of liberal democracy and the principles of social criticism which he took to make the flourishing of the "open society" possible. Life Karl Popper was born in Vienna (then in Austria-Hungary) in 1902 to middle-class parents of Jewish origins, both of whom had converted to Christianity. Magee, Bryan. The Story of Philosophy. New York: DK Publishing, 2001. p. 221, ISBN 078943511X Popper received a Lutheran upbringing and was educated at the University of Vienna. His father, Dr. Simon Siegmund Carl Popper, was a doctor of law at the Vienna University and a bibliophile who had 12,000–14,000 volumes in his personal library. Raphael, F. The Great Philosophers London: Phoenix, p. 447, ISBN 0753811367 Popper inherited from him both the library and the disposition. Manfred Lube: Karl R. Popper – Die Bibliothek des Philosophen als Spiegel seines Lebens. Imprimatur. Ein Jahrbuch für Bücherfreunde. Neue Folge Band 18 (2003), S. 207–238, ISBN 3-447-04723-2. In 1919 he became attracted by Marxism and subsequently joined the Association of Socialist School Students and also became a member of the Social Democratic Party of Austria, which was at that time a party that fully adopted the marxist ideology. - Stephen Thornton, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy He soon became disillusioned by the philosophical restraints imposed by the historical materialism of Marx, abandoned the ideology and remained a supporter of social liberalism throughout his life. In 1928 he earned a doctorate in Philosophy and taught secondary school from 1930 to 1936. He published his first book, Logik der Forschung (The Logic of Scientific Discovery), in 1934. Here, he criticised psychologism, naturalism, inductionism, and logical positivism, and put forth his theory of potential falsifiability as the criterion demarcating science from non-science. Gravesite of Sir Karl Popper in Lainzer Friedhof, Vienna, Austria. In 1937, the rise of Nazism and the threat of the Anschluss led Popper to emigrate to New Zealand, where he became lecturer in philosophy at Canterbury University College New Zealand (at Christchurch). In 1946, he moved to England to become reader in logic and scientific method at the London School of Economics, where he was appointed professor in 1949. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1958 to 1959. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1965, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1976. He retired from academic life in 1969, though he remained intellectually active for the rest of his life. He was invested with the Insignia of a Companion of Honour in 1982. Popper was a member of the Academy of Humanism and described himself as an agnostic, showing respect for the moral teachings of Judaism and Christianity. Famous Atheists Popper won many awards and honours in his field, including the Lippincott Award of the American Political Science Association, the Sonning Prize, and fellowships in the Royal Society, British Academy, London School of Economics, King's College London, Darwin College Cambridge, and Charles University, Prague. Austria awarded him the Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold. Popper died in Croydon, UK at the age of 92 on 17 September, 1994. After cremation, his ashes were taken to Vienna and buried at Lainzer cemetery adjacent to the ORF Centre, where his wife Josefine Anna Henninger - who had died in Austria several years before - had already been buried. Popper's philosophy Philosophy of Science Popper coined the term critical rationalism to describe his philosophy. The term indicates his rejection of classical empiricism, and of the observationalist-inductivist account of science that had grown out of it. Popper argued strongly against the latter, holding that scientific theories are abstract in nature, and can be tested only indirectly, by reference to their implications. He also held that scientific theory, and human knowledge generally, is irreducibly conjectural or hypothetical, and is generated by the creative imagination in order to solve problems that have arisen in specific historico-cultural settings. Logically, no number of positive outcomes at the level of experimental testing can confirm a scientific theory, but a single counterexample is logically decisive: it shows the theory, from which the implication is derived, to be false. Popper's account of the logical asymmetry between verification and falsifiability lies at the heart of his philosophy of science. It also inspired him to take falsifiability as his criterion of demarcation between what is and is not genuinely scientific: a theory should be considered scientific if and only if it is falsifiable. This led him to attack the claims of both psychoanalysis and contemporary Marxism to scientific status, on the basis that the theories enshrined by them are not falsifiable. Popper also wrote extensively against the famous Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. He strongly disagreed with Niels Bohr's instrumentalism and supported Albert Einstein's realist approach to scientific theories about the universe. Popper's falsifiability resembles Charles Peirce's fallibilism. In Of Clocks and Clouds (1966), Popper remarked that he wished he had known of Peirce's work earlier. In All Life is Problem Solving, Popper sought to explain the apparent progress of scientific knowledge—how it is that our understanding of the universe seems to improve over time. This problem arises from his position that the truth content of our theories, even the best of them, cannot be verified by scientific testing, but can only be falsified. If so, then how is it that the growth of science appears to result in a growth in knowledge? In Popper's view, the advance of scientific knowledge is an evolutionary process characterised by his formula: . In response to a given problem situation (), a number of competing conjectures, or tentative theories (), are systematically subjected to the most rigorous attempts at falsification possible. This process, error elimination (), performs a similar function for science that natural selection performs for biological evolution. Theories that better survive the process of refutation are not more true, but rather, more "fit"—in other words, more applicable to the problem situation at hand (). Consequently, just as a species' "biological fit" does not predict continued survival, neither does rigorous testing protect a scientific theory from refutation in the future. Yet, as it appears that the engine of biological evolution has produced, over time, adaptive traits equipped to deal with more and more complex problems of survival, likewise, the evolution of theories through the scientific method may, in Popper's view, reflect a certain type of progress: toward more and more interesting problems (). For Popper, it is in the interplay between the tentative theories (conjectures) and error elimination (refutation) that scientific knowledge advances toward greater and greater problems; in a process very much akin to the interplay between genetic variation and natural selection. Where does "truth" fit into all this? As early as 1934 Popper wrote of the search for truth as "one of the strongest motives for scientific discovery." Still, he describes in Objective Knowledge (1972) early concerns about the much-criticised notion of truth as correspondence. Then came the semantic theory of truth formulated by the logician Alfred Tarski and published in 1933. Popper writes of learning in 1935 of the consequences of Tarski's theory, to his intense joy. The theory met critical objections to truth as correspondence and thereby rehabilitated it. The theory also seemed, in Popper's eyes, to support metaphysical realism and the regulative idea of a search for truth. According to this theory, the conditions for the truth of a sentence as well as the sentences themselves are part of a metalanguage. So, for example, the sentence "Snow is white" is true if and only if snow is white. Although many philosophers have interpreted, and continue to interpret, Tarski's theory as a deflationary theory, Popper refers to it as a theory in which "is true" is replaced with "corresponds to the facts." He bases this interpretation on the fact that examples such as the one described above refer to two things: assertions and the facts to which they refer. He identifies Tarski's formulation of the truth conditions of sentences as the introduction of a "metalinguistic predicate" and distinguishes the following cases: "John called" is true. "It is true that John called." The first case belongs to the metalanguage whereas the second is more likely to belong to the object language. Hence, "it is true that" possesses the logical status of a redundancy. "Is true", on the other hand, is a predicate necessary for making general observations such as "John was telling the truth about Phillip." Upon this basis, along with that of the logical content of assertions (where logical content is inversely proportional to probability), Popper went on to develop his important notion of verisimilitude or "truthlikeness". The intuitive idea behind verisimilitude is that the assertions or hypotheses of scientific theories can be objectively measured with respect to the amount of truth and falsity that they imply. And, in this way, one theory can be evaluated as more or less true than another on a quantitative basis which, Popper emphasizes forcefully, has nothing to do with "subjective probabilities" or other merely "epistemic" considerations. The simplest mathematical formulation that Popper gives of this concept can be found in the tenth chapter of Conjectures and Refutations.. Here he defines it as: where is the verisimilitude of a, is a measure of the content of truth of a, and is a measure of the content of the falsity of a. Knowledge, for Popper, was objective, both in the sense that it is objectively true (or truthlike), and also in the sense that knowledge has an ontological status (i.e., knowledge as object) independent of the knowing subject (Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach, 1972). He proposed three worlds (see Popperian cosmology): World One, being the physical world, or physical states; World Two, being the world of mind, or mental states, ideas, and perceptions; and World Three, being the body of human knowledge expressed in its manifold forms, or the products of the second world made manifest in the materials of the first world (i.e.–books, papers, paintings, symphonies, and all the products of the human mind). World Three, he argued, was the product of individual human beings in exactly the same sense that an animal path is the product of individual animals, and that, as such, has an existence and evolution independent of any individual knowing subjects. The influence of World Three, in his view, on the individual human mind (World Two) is at least as strong as the influence of World One. In other words, the knowledge held by a given individual mind owes at least as much to the total accumulated wealth of human knowledge, made manifest, as to the world of direct experience. As such, the growth of human knowledge could be said to be a function of the independent evolution of World Three. Many contemporary philosophers have not embraced Popper's Three World conjecture, due mostly, it seems, to its resemblance to Cartesian dualism. Political philosophy In The Open Society and Its Enemies and The Poverty of Historicism, Popper developed a critique of historicism and a defence of the 'Open Society'. Historicism is the theory that history develops inexorably and necessarily according to knowable general laws towards a determinate end. Popper argued that this view is the principal theoretical presupposition underpinning most forms of authoritarianism and totalitarianism. He argued that historicism is founded upon mistaken assumptions regarding the nature of scientific law and prediction. Since the growth of human knowledge is a causal factor in the evolution of human history, and since "no society can predict, scientifically, its own future states of knowledge", it follows, he argued, that there can be no predictive science of human history. For Popper, metaphysical and historical indeterminism go hand in hand. In a 1992 lecture, Popper explained the connection between his political philosophy and his philosophy of science. As he stated, he was in his early years impressed by communism and also active in the Austrian Communist party. What had a profound effect on him was an event that happened in 1918: during a riot, caused by the Communists, the police shot several people, including some of Popper's friends. When Popper later told the leaders of the Communist party about this, they responded by stating that this loss of life was necessary in working towards the inevitable workers' revolution. This statement did not convince Popper and he started to think about what kind of reasoning would justify such a statement. He later concluded that there could not be any justification for it, and this was the start of his later criticism of historicism. Problem of Induction Among his contributions to philosophy is his attempt to answer the philosophical problem of induction as emphasized strongly by David Hume. The problem, in basic terms, can be understood by example: given that the sun has risen every day for as long as anyone can remember, what is the rational proof that it will rise tomorrow? How can one rationally prove that past events will continue to repeat in the future, just because they have repeated in the past? Popper's reply is characteristic, and ties in with his criterion of falsifiability. He states that while there is no way to prove that the sun will rise, we can formulate a theory that every day the sun will rise—if it does not rise on some particular day, our theory will be disproved, but at present it is accepted. Since it is a very well-tested theory, falsification is unlikely. This may be a true description of the pragmatic approach to knowledge adopted by the scientific method, but it does not in itself address the philosophical problem. As Stephen Hawking explains, "No matter how many times the results of experiments agree with some theory, you can never be sure that the next time the result will not contradict the theory." A Brief History of Time, p. 11, ISBN 0553380168. It may be pragmatically useful to accept a well-tested theory as true until it is falsified, but this does not solve the philosophical problem of induction. As Bertrand Russell put it, "the general principles of science . . . are believed because mankind have found innumerable instances of their truth and no instances of their falsehood. But this affords no evidence for their truth in the future, unless the inductive principle is assumed."<ref>"On Induction" in The Problems of Philosophy', ch. 6, ISBN 0486406741</ref> Popper and Hume agreed that there is often a psychological belief that the sun will rise tomorrow, but both denied that there is logical justification for the supposition that it will, simply because it always has in the past. Issue of Darwinism Karl Popper famously stated "Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory, but a metaphysical research program." In the same paper, he continued He also noted that theism presented as explaining adaptation "was worse than an open admission of failure, for it created the impression that an ultimate explanation had been reached." He later said He explained that the difficulty of testing had led some people to describe natural selection as a tautology, and that he too had in the past described the theory as 'almost tautological', and had tried to explain how the theory could be untestable (as is a tautology) and yet of great scientific interest. His Influence By all accounts, Popper has played a vital role in establishing the philosophy of science as a vigorous, autonomous discipline within analytic philosophy, through his own prolific and influential works, and also through his influence on his own contemporaries and students. Popper founded in 1946 the Department of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method at the London School of Economics and there lectured and influenced both Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend, two of the foremost philosophers of science in the next generation of philosophy of science. (Lakatos significantly modified Popper's position, and Feyerabend repudiated it entirely, but the work of both is deeply influenced by Popper and engaged with many of the problems that Popper set.) While there is some dispute as to the matter of influence, Popper had a long-standing and close friendship with economist Friedrich Hayek, who was also brought to the London School of Economics from Vienna. Each found support and similarities in each other's work, citing each other often, though not without qualification. In a letter to Hayek in 1944, Popper stated, "I think I have learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, except perhaps Alfred Tarski." (See Hacohen, 2000). Popper dedicated his Conjectures and Refutations to Hayek. For his part, Hayek dedicated a collection of papers, Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics, to Popper, and in 1982 said, "...ever since his Logik der Forschung first came out in 1934, I have been a complete adherent to his general theory of methodology." (See Weimer and Palermo, 1982). Popper also had long and mutually influential friendships with art historian Ernst Gombrich, biologist Peter Medawar, and neuro-scientist John Carew Eccles. Popper's influence, both through his work in philosophy of science and through his political philosophy, has also extended beyond the academy. Among Popper's students and advocates at the London School of Economics is the multibillionaire investor George Soros, who says his investment strategies are modelled on Popper's understanding of the advancement of knowledge through, the distinctly Hegelian idea of falsification. Among Soros's philanthropic foundations is the Open Society Institute, a think-tank named in honour of Popper's The Open Society and Its Enemies, which Soros founded to advance the Popperian defense of the open society against authoritarianism and totalitarianism. Popperian philosophy also inspired the creation of Taking Children Seriously, a movement which noticed that Popper's general theory of knowledge creation does not differentiate between adults and children. Critics Criticism of his philosophy of science Most criticisms of Popper's philosophy are of the falsification, or error elimination, element in his account of problem solving. In interpreting these, it is important to bear in mind the aims of his idea. It is intended as an ideal, practical method of effective human problem solving; as such, the current conclusions of science are stronger than pseudo-sciences or non-sciences, insofar as they have survived this particularly vigorous selection method. He does not argue that any such conclusions are therefore true, or that this describes the actual methods of any particular scientist. Rather, it is a recommended ideal method that, if enacted by a system or community, will over time lead to slow but steady progress of a sort (relative to how well the system or community enacts the method). It has been suggested that Popper's ideas are often mistaken for a hard logical account of truth because of the historical co-incidence of their appearing at the same time as logical positivism, the followers of which mistook his aims for their own (Bryan Magee 1973: Popper (Modern Masters series)). The Quine-Duhem thesis argues that it's impossible to test a single hypothesis on its own, since each one comes as part of an environment of theories. Thus we can only say that the whole package of relevant theories has been collectively falsified, but cannot conclusively say which element of the package must be replaced. An example of this is given by the discovery of the planet Neptune: when the motion of Uranus was found not to match the predictions of Newton's laws, the theory "There are seven planets in the solar system" was rejected, and not Newton's laws themselves. Popper discussed this critique of naïve falsificationism in Chapters 3 & 4 of The Logic of Scientific Discovery. For Popper, theories are accepted or rejected via a sort of selection process. Theories that say more about the way things appear are to be preferred over those that do not; the more generally applicable a theory is, the greater its value. Thus Newton’s laws, with their wide general application, are to be preferred over the much more specific “the solar system has seven planets”. Thomas Kuhn’s influential book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions argued that scientists work in a series of paradigms, and found little evidence of scientists actually following a falsificationist methodology. Popper's student Imre Lakatos attempted to reconcile Kuhn’s work with falsificationism by arguing that science progresses by the falsification of research programs rather than the more specific universal statements of naïve falsificationism. Another of Popper’s students Paul Feyerabend ultimately rejected any prescriptive methodology, and argued that the only universal method characterizing scientific progress was anything goes. Popper seems to have anticipated Kuhn's observations. In his collection Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (Harper & Row, 1963), Popper writes, "Science must begin with myths, and with the criticism of myths; neither with the collection of observations, nor with the invention of experiments, but with the critical discussion of myths, and of magical techniques and practices. The scientific tradition is distinguished from the pre-scientific tradition in having two layers. Like the latter, it passes on its theories; but it also passes on a critical attitude towards them. The theories are passed on, not as dogmas, but rather with the challenge to discuss them and improve upon them." Another objection is that it is not always possible to demonstrate falsehood definitively, especially if one is using statistical criteria to evaluate a null hypothesis. More generally it is not always clear, if evidence contradicts a hypothesis, that this is a sign of flaws in the hypothesis rather than of flaws in the evidence. However, this is a misunderstanding of what Popper's philosophy of science sets out to do. Rather than offering a set of instructions that merely need to be followed diligently to achieve science, Popper makes it clear in The Logic of Scientific Discovery that his belief is that the resolution of conflicts between hypotheses and observations can only be a matter of the collective judgment of scientists, in each individual case. Popper, Karl, (1934) Logik der Forschung, Springer. Vienna. Amplified English edition, Popper (1959), ISBN 0415278449 Popper's falsificationism can be questioned logically, by asking about statements such as "There are black holes", which cannot be falsified by any possible observation yet seem to be scientifically legitimate claims. Similarly, it is not clear how Popper would deal with a statement like "for every metal, there is a temperature at which it will melt", which can neither be confirmed nor falsified by any possible observation, yet which seems to be a valid scientific hypothesis. These examples were pointed out by Carl Gustav Hempel. Hempel came to acknowledge that Logical Positivism's verificationism was untenable, but argued that falsificationism was equally untenable on logical grounds alone. The simplest response to this is that, because Popper describes how theories attain, maintain and lose scientific status, individual consequences of currently accepted scientific theories are scientific in the sense of being part of tentative scientific knowledge, and both of Hempel's examples fall under this category. For instance, atomic theory implies that all metals melt at some temperature. An early German-speaking adversary of so-called critical rationalism, Karl-Otto Apel attempted a comprehensive refutation Popper's philosophy. In Transformation der Philosophie (1973), Apel charged Popper with being guilty of, amongst other things, a pragmatic contradiction. See: "Apel, Karl-Otto," La philosophie de A a Z, by Elizabeth Clement, Chantal Demonque, Laurence Hansen-Love, and Pierre Kahn, Paris, 1994, Hatier, 19-20. See Also: Towards a Transformation of Philosophy (Marquette Studies in Philosophy, No 20), by Karl-Otto Apel, trans., Glyn Adey and David Fisby, Milwaukee, 1998, Marquette University Press. Other criticisms Other critics seek to vindicate the claims of historicism or holism to intellectual respectability, or psychoanalysis or Marxism to scientific status. It has been argued that Popper's student Imre Lakatos, for example, transformed Popper's philosophy using historicist and updated Hegelian historiographic ideas. Imre Lakatos' Philosophy of Science, Ian Hacking, British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, Vol 30 Nbr 4, 1979, article pg 381–410 (subscription and/or fee required) Charles Taylor accuses Popper of exploiting his worldwide fame as an epistemologist to diminish the importance of philosophers of the 20th century continental tradition. According to Taylor, Popper's criticisms are completely baseless, but they are received with an attention and respect that Popper's "intrinsic worth hardly merits". Taylor, Charles, "Overcoming Epistemology", in Philosophical Arguments, Harvard University Press, 1995, ISBN 0674664779 William W. Bartley defended Popper against such allegations: "Sir Karl Popper is not really a participant in the contemporary professional philosophical dialogue; quite the contrary, he has ruined that dialogue. If he is on the right track, then the majority of professional philosophers the world over has wasted or is wasting their intellectual careers. The gulf between Popper's way of doing philosophy and that of the bulk of professional philosophers is as great as that between astronomy and astrology." Philosophia. Philosophical Quarterly of Israel, William W. Bartley: The Philosophy of Karl Popper, Part I: Biology and Evolutionary Epistemology, Philosophia Vol 6 (1976), pp. 463–494.(deposit account required) In 2004 philosopher and psychologist Michel ter Hark (Groningen, The Netherlands) published a book, called Popper, Otto Selz and the rise of evolutionary epistemology, ISBN 0521830745, in which he claimed that Popper took some of his ideas from his tutor, the German-Jewish psychologist Otto Selz. Selz himself never published his ideas, partly because of the rise of Nazism which forced him to quit his work in 1933, and the prohibition of referring to Selz' work. Karl Popper, the historian of ideas and his scholarship, is severely criticized and rebuked in many academic quarters, especially for his writings on Plato and Hegel. See: "Popper is committing a serious historical error in attributing the organic theory of the state to Plato and accusing him of all the fallacies of post-Hegelian and Marxist historicism--the theory that history is controlled by the inexorable laws governing the behavior of superindividual social entities of which human beings and their free choices are merely subordinate manifestations." Plato's Modern Enemies and the Theory of Natural Law, by John Wild, Chicago, 1964, The University of Chicago Press, 23. See Also: "In spite of the high rating one must accord his initial intention of fairness, his hatred for the enemies of the 'open society,' his zeal to destroy whatever seems to him destructive of the welfare of mankind, has led him into the extensive use of what may be called terminological counterpropaganda ..." and "With a few exceptions in Popper's favor, however, it is noticeable that reviewers possessed of special competence in particular fields--and here Lindsay is again to be included--have objected to Popper's conclusions in those very fields ..." and "Social scientists and social philosophers have deplored his radical denial of historical causation, together with his espousal of Hayek's systematic distrust of larger programs of social reform; historical students of philosophy have protested his violent polemical handling of Plato, Aristotle, and particularly Hegel; ethicists have found contradictions in the ethical theory ('critical dualism') upon which his polemic is largely based." In Defense of Plato, by Ronald B. Levinson, New York, 1970, Russell and Russell, 20. According to Karl Popper, a theory is scientific only in so far as it is falsifiable, and should be given up as soon as it is falsified. Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge, 1963 By applying Popper's account of scientific method, John Gray's Straw Dogs states that this would have killed the theories of Darwin and Einstein at birth. When they were first advanced, each of them was at odds with some available evidence; only later did evidence become available that gave them crucial support. John Gray, Straw Dogs, Granta Books, London, 2002 See also Popperian cosmology Evolutionary epistemology Liberalism Liberalism in Austria Contributions to liberal theory Calculus of predispositions Predispositioning Theory Popper's experiment (quantum mechanics) References BibliographyThe Two Fundamental Problems of the Theory of Knowledge, 1930–33 (as a typescript circulating as Die beiden Grundprobleme der Erkenntnistheorie; as a German book 1979, as English translation 2008), ISBN 0415394317The Logic of Scientific Discovery, 1934 (as Logik der Forschung, English translation 1959), ISBN 0415278449The Poverty of Historicism, 1936 (private reading at a meeting in Brussels, 1944/45 as a series of journal articles in Econometrica, 1957 a book), ISBN 0415065690The Open Society and Its Enemies, 1945 Vol 1 ISBN 0415290635, Vol 2 ISBN 0415290635Quantum Theory and the Schism in Physics, 1956/57 (as privately circulated galley proofs; published as a book 1982), ISBN 0415091128The Open Universe: An Argument for Indeterminism, 1956/57 (as privately circulated galley proofs; published as a book 1982), ISBN 0415078652Realism and the Aim of Science, 1956/57 (as privately circulated galley proofs; published as a book 1983), ISBN 0091514509Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge, 1963, ISBN 0415043182Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach, 1972, Rev. ed., 1979, ISBN 0198750242Unended Quest; An Intellectual Autobiography, 1976, ISBN 0415285909The Self and Its Brain: An Argument for Interactionism (with Sir John C. Eccles), 1977, ISBN 0415058988 Natural Selection and the Emergence of Mind article by Popper, Dialectica 1978In Search of a Better World, 1984, a collection of Popper’s essays and lectures covering a range of subjects from the beginning of scientific speculation in classical Greece to the need for a new professional ethic based on the ideas of tolerance and intellectual responsibility; "All things living are in search of a better world."; Karl Popper, from the Preface of the book. ISBN 0415135486Die Zukunft ist offen (The Future is Open) (with Konrad Lorenz), 1985 (in German), ISBN 349200640XA World of Propensities, 1990, ISBN 1855060000The Lesson of this Century, Interviewer: Giancarlo Bosetti, English translation: Patrick Camiller), 1992, ISBN 0415129583All life is Problem Solving, 1994, ISBN 0415249929The Myth of the Framework: In Defence of Science and Rationality, (Edited by Mark Amadeus Notturno) 1994, ISBN 0415135559Knowledge and the Mind-Body Problem: In Defence of Interaction, (Edited by Mark Amadeus Notturno) 1994 ISBN 0415115043The World of Parmenides, Essays on the Presocratic Enlightenment, 1998, (Edited by Arne F. Petersen with the assistance of Jørgen Mejer), ISBN 0415173019Frühe Schriften, 2006 (Edited by Troels Eggers Hansen, includes Popper's writings and publications from before the Logic, including his previously unpublished thesis, dissertation and journal articles published that relate to the Wiener Schulreform) ISBN 9783161476327After 'The Open Society': Selected Social and Political Writings, 2008 (Edited by Jeremy Shearmur and Piers Norris Turner, it includes previously unpublished and uncollected essays), ISBN 0415309085 Further reading [Comprehensive bibliography:] Lube, Manfred: Karl R. Popper. Bibliographie 1925–2004. Wissenschaftstheorie, Sozialphilosophie, Logik, Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie, Naturwissenschaften. Frankfurt/Main etc.: Peter Lang, 2005. 576 pp. (Schriftenreihe der Karl Popper Foundation Klagenfurt.3.) Stefano Gattei. Karl Popper's Philosophy of Science. 2009. David Miller. Critical Rationalism: A Restatement and Defence. 1994. David Miller (Ed.). Popper Selections. John W. N. Watkins. Science and Skepticism. 1984. Bailey, Richard, Education in the Open Society: Karl Popper and Schooling. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate 2000. The only book-length examination of Popper's relevance to education. Bartley, William Warren III. Unfathomed Knowledge, Unmeasured Wealth. La Salle, IL: Open Court Press 1990. A look at Popper and his influence by one of his students. Berkson, William K., and Wettersten, John. Learning from Error: Karl Popper's Psychology of Learning. La Salle, IL: Open Court 1984 Edmonds, D., Eidinow, J. Wittgenstein's Poker. New York: Ecco 2001. A review of the origin of the conflict between Popper and Ludwig Wittgenstein, focused on events leading up to their volatile first encounter at 1946 Cambridge meeting. Feyerabend, Paul Against Method. London: New Left Books, 1975. A polemical, iconoclastic book by a former colleague of Popper's. Vigorously critical of Popper's rationalist view of science. Hacohen, M. Karl Popper: The Formative Years, 1902 – 1945. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Hickey, J. Thomas. History of the Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Science Book V, Karl Popper And Falsificationist Criticism. www.philsci.com . 1995* Kadvany, John Imre Lakatos and the Guises of Reason. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8223-2659-0. Explains how Imre Lakatos developed Popper's philosophy into a historicist and critical theory of scientific method. Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962. Central to contemporary philosophy of science is the debate between the followers of Kuhn and Popper on the nature of scientific enquiry. This is the book in which Kuhn's views received their classical statement. Levinson, Paul, ed. In Pursuit of Truth: Essays on the Philosophy of Karl Popper on the Occasion of his 80th Birthday. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1982. A collection of essays on Popper's thought and legacy by a wide range of his followers. Includes an interview with Sir Ernst Gombrich. Magee, Bryan. Popper. London: Fontana, 1977. An elegant introductory text. Very readable, albeit rather uncritical of its subject, by a former Member of Parliament. Magee, Bryan. Confessions of a Philosopher, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1997. Magee's philosophical autobiography, with a chapter on his relations with Popper. More critical of Popper than in the previous reference. Munz, Peter. Beyond Wittgenstein's Poker: New Light on Popper and Wittgenstein Aldershot, Hampshire, UK: Ashgate, 2004. ISBN 0-7546-4016-7. Written by the only living student of both Wittgenstein and Popper, an eyewitness to the famous "poker" incident described above (Edmunds & Eidinow). Attempts to synthesize and reconcile the differences between these two philosophers. Niemann, Hans-Joachim. Lexikon des Kritischen Rationalismus, (Encyclopaedia of Critical Raionalism), Tübingen (Mohr Siebeck) 2004, ISBN 3-16-148395-2. More than a thousand headwords about critical rationalism, the most important arguments of K.R. Popper and H. Albert, quotations of the original wording. Edition for students in 2006, ISBN 3-16-149158-0. Notturno, Mark Amadeus. "Objectivity, Rationality, and the Third Realm: Justification and the Grounds of Psychologism". Boston: Martinus Nijhoff, 1985. Notturno, Mark Amadeus. On Popper. Wadsworth Philosophers Series. 2003. A very comprehensive book on Popper’s philosophy by an accomplished Popperian. Notturno, Mark Amadeus. "Science and the Open Society". New York: CEU Press, 2000. O'Hear, Anthony. Karl Popper. London: Routledge, 1980. A critical account of Popper's thought, viewed from the perspective of contemporary analytic philosophy. Radnitzky, Gerard, Bartley, W. W., III eds. Evolutionary Epistemology, Rationality, and the Sociology of Knowledge. La Salle, IL: Open Court Press 1987. ISBN 0-8126-9039-7. A strong collection of essays by Popper, Campbell, Munz, Flew, et al., on Popper's epistemology and critical rationalism. Includes a particularly vigorous answer to Rorty's criticisms. Richmond, Sheldon. Aesthetic Criteria: Gombrich and the Philosophies of Science of Popper and Polanyi. Rodopi, Amsterdam/Atlanta, 1994, 152 pp. ISBN 90-5183-618-X. Schilpp, Paul A., ed. The Philosophy of Karl Popper, 2 vols. La Salle, IL: Open Court Press, 1974. One of the better contributions to the Library of Living Philosophers series. Contains Popper's intellectual autobiography, a comprehensive range of critical essays, and Popper's responses to them. Schroeder-Heister, P. "Popper, Karl Raimund (1902–94)," International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001, pp. 11727–11733. Abstract. Shearmur, Jeremy. The Political Thought of Karl Popper. London and New York: Routledge, 1996. Study of Popper's political thought by a former assistant of Popper's. Makes use of archive sources and studies the development of Popper's political thought and its inter-connections with his epistemology. Stokes, G. Popper: Philosophy, Politics and Scientific Method. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1998. A very comprehensive, balanced study, which focuses largely on the social and political side of Popper's thought. Stove, D.C., Popper and After: Four Modern Irrationalists. Oxford: Pergamon. 1982. A vigorous attack, especially on Popper's restricting himself to deductive logic. Thornton, Stephen. "Karl Popper," Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2006. Weimer, W., Palermo, D., eds. Cognition and the Symbolic Processes. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 1982. See Hayek's essay, "The Sensory Order'' after 25 Years", and "Discussion". External links "Let theories die, not people" Documentary about Karl Popper on North German Broadcasting Cooperation Norddeutscher Rundfunk (in German) Discussion of Popper's Life and Work from Philosophy Talk Radio Program Karl Popper from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy The Karl Popper Web Karl Popper Institute includes complete bibliography 1925–1999 Sir Karl Popper Society International Association for the Promotion of Science and Research, in German University of Canterbury (NZ) brief biography of Popper Audio recordings of Karl Popper speaking Influence on Friesian Philosophy Open Society Institute George Soros foundations network Sir Karl R. Popper in Prague, May 1994 "A Skeptical Look at Karl Popper" by Martin Gardner "A Sceptical Look at 'A Skeptical Look at Karl Popper'" by J C Lester. Sir Karl Popper: Science: Conjectures and Refutations Information on Lakatos/Popper Site maintained by John Kadvany, PhD. Discovering Karl Popper by Peter Singer The New York Review of Books, vol. 21, no. 7 (2 May 1974) An interview with Karl Popper. Persian translation by Khosro Naghed Karl Popper (Il Diogene) (it) "Karl Popper", BBC Radio 4 programme, In Our Time, 8 February 2007. Discussion with John Worrall, Professor of Philosophy of Science at the London School of Economics, Anthony O'Hear, Weston Professor of Philosophy at Buckingham University, Nancy Cartwright, Professor of Philosophy at the LSE and the University of California, hosted by Melvyn Bragg. History of Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Science, BOOK V: Karl Popper Site offers free downloads by chapter available for public use. Karl Popper Archive at LSE British Library This is a microfilm copy of the Stanford University Popper Archive of Popper's papers to whose catalogue a weblink is provided. http://web.archive.org/web/20080101043641/http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/ub/sondersammlungen/karl-popper-sammlung/index.html (Karl Popper Archive at University Library Klagenfurt. Consists of Popper's Library and paper copies of the Popper Papers at The Hoover Institution Archive at Stanford, Cal.) http://www.karlpopper.info (Austrian Karl R. Popper Research Association - University of Graz, Austria) Sound recordings from the Sir Karl R. 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4,520 | Internet_Relay_Chat_takeover | An IRC channel takeover is an acquisition of IRC channel operator status by someone other than the channel's owner. It has largely been eliminated due to the increased use of services on IRC networks. Riding the split The most common variety of channel takeover uses disconnections caused by a netsplit; this is called riding the split. After such mass disconnections, a channel may be left without users, allowing the first rejoining user to recreate the channel and gain operator status. When the servers merge, any pre-existing operators retain their status, allowing the new user to kick out the original operators and take over the channel. A simple prevention mechanism involves timestamping (abbreviated to TS), or checking the creation dates of the channels being merged. This was first implemented by Undernet (ircu) and is now common in many IRC servers. If both channels were created at the same time, all user statuses are retained when the two are combined; if one is newer than the other, special statuses are removed from those in the newer channel. Additionally, a newer protection involving timestamping is used when a server splits away from the main network (when it no longer detects that IRC Services are available), it disallows anyone creating a channel to be given operator privileges. Nick collision Another popular form of channel takeover abuses nickname collision protection, which keeps two users from having the same nickname at once. A user on one side of a netsplit takes the nickname of a target on the other side of the split; when the servers reconnect, the nicks collide and both users are killed from the server. The attacker then reconnects or switches nicks in a second client while the target reconnects, and proceeds to jupe (or block) the target's nickname for a period of time. User timestamping is often used to detect these kinds of attacks in a fashion similar to channel timestamping, with the user who selected that nickname later being kicked from the server. Another protection method, called nickhold, disallows the use of recently split nicknames. This causes fewer kicks, but causes more inconvenience to users. For this reason, timestamping is generally more common. Some servers, such as ircd-ratbox, do both. IRC services and bots can also protect against such attacks by requiring that a password be supplied to use a certain nick. Users who do not provide a password are kicked after a certain amount of time. Other methods Other methods can be used to take over a channel, though they are unrelated to flaws in IRC itself; for example, cracking the computers of channel operators, compromising channel bot shell accounts, having someone add you to a channel service's userlist, or obtaining services passwords through social engineering. | Internet_Relay_Chat_takeover |@lemmatized irc:7 channel:17 takeover:3 acquisition:1 operator:6 status:5 someone:2 owner:1 largely:1 eliminate:1 due:1 increase:1 use:7 service:5 network:2 rid:2 split:5 common:3 variety:1 disconnection:2 cause:3 netsplit:2 call:2 mass:1 may:1 leave:1 without:1 user:11 allow:2 first:2 rejoin:1 recreate:1 gain:1 server:7 merge:2 pre:1 exist:1 retain:2 new:4 kick:4 original:1 take:3 simple:1 prevention:1 mechanism:1 involve:2 timestamping:5 abbreviate:1 ts:1 check:1 creation:1 date:1 implement:1 undernet:1 ircu:1 many:1 create:2 time:3 two:2 combine:1 one:2 special:1 remove:1 additionally:1 protection:3 away:1 main:1 longer:1 detect:2 available:1 disallow:2 anyone:1 give:1 privilege:1 nick:4 collision:2 another:2 popular:1 form:1 abuse:1 nickname:5 keep:1 side:2 target:3 reconnect:1 collide:1 kill:1 attacker:1 reconnects:2 switch:1 second:1 client:1 proceeds:1 jupe:1 block:1 period:1 often:1 kind:1 attack:2 fashion:1 similar:1 select:1 later:1 method:3 nickhold:1 recently:1 nicknames:1 inconvenience:1 reason:1 generally:1 ircd:1 ratbox:1 bot:2 also:1 protect:1 require:1 password:3 supply:1 certain:2 provide:1 amount:1 though:1 unrelated:1 flaw:1 example:1 crack:1 computer:1 compromise:1 shell:1 account:1 add:1 userlist:1 obtain:1 social:1 engineering:1 |@bigram irc_server:1 |
4,521 | Economy_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo | Woman carrying bananas.Sparsely populated in relation to its area, the Democratic Republic of the Congo is home to a vast potential of natural resources and mineral wealth, yet the economy of the DRC has declined drastically since the mid-1980s. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for 57.9% of GDP in 1997. Main cash crops include coffee, palm oil, rubber, cotton, sugar, tea, and cocoa. Food crops include cassava, plantains, maize, groundnuts, and rice. In 1996, agriculture employed 66% of the work force. Rich in minerals, the DRC has a difficult history of predatory mineral extraction, which has been at the heart of many struggles within the country for many decades, but particularly in the 1990s. __NOTOC__ 1990s International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) Trust Fund for the Congo. Poor infrastructure, an uncertain legal framework, corruption, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations remain a brake on investment and growth. A number of IMF and World Bank missions have met with the new government to help it develop a coherent economic plan but associated reforms are on hold. Faced with continued currency depreciation, the government resorted to more drastic measures and in January 1999 banned the widespread use of U.S. dollars for all domestic commercial transactions, a position it later adjusted. The government has been unable to provide foreign exchange for economic transactions, while it has resorted to printing money to finance its expenditure. Growth was negative in 2000 because of the difficulty of meeting the conditions of international donors, continued low prices of key exports, and post-coup instability. 2000s Conditions improved in late 2002 with the withdrawal of a large portion of the invading foreign troops. A number of IMF and World Bank missions have met with the government to help it develop a coherent economic plan, and President Kabila has begun implementing reforms. References External links | Economy_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo |@lemmatized woman:1 carry:1 banana:1 sparsely:1 populated:1 relation:1 area:1 democratic:1 republic:1 congo:2 home:1 vast:1 potential:1 natural:1 resource:1 mineral:3 wealth:1 yet:1 economy:2 drc:2 decline:1 drastically:1 since:1 mid:1 agriculture:2 mainstay:1 account:1 gdp:1 main:1 cash:1 crop:2 include:2 coffee:1 palm:1 oil:1 rubber:1 cotton:1 sugar:1 tea:1 cocoa:1 food:1 cassava:1 plantain:1 maize:1 groundnut:1 rice:1 employ:1 work:1 force:1 rich:1 difficult:1 history:1 predatory:1 extraction:1 heart:1 many:2 struggle:1 within:1 country:1 decade:1 particularly:1 international:2 bank:3 reconstruction:1 development:1 ibrd:1 trust:1 fund:1 poor:1 infrastructure:1 uncertain:1 legal:1 framework:1 corruption:1 lack:1 openness:1 government:5 economic:4 policy:1 financial:1 operation:1 remain:1 brake:1 investment:1 growth:2 number:2 imf:2 world:2 mission:2 meet:3 new:1 help:2 develop:2 coherent:2 plan:2 associated:1 reform:2 hold:1 face:1 continued:1 currency:1 depreciation:1 resort:2 drastic:1 measure:1 january:1 ban:1 widespread:1 use:1 u:1 dollar:1 domestic:1 commercial:1 transaction:2 position:1 later:1 adjust:1 unable:1 provide:1 foreign:2 exchange:1 print:1 money:1 finance:1 expenditure:1 negative:1 difficulty:1 condition:2 donor:1 continue:1 low:1 price:1 key:1 export:1 post:1 coup:1 instability:1 improve:1 late:1 withdrawal:1 large:1 portion:1 invade:1 troop:1 president:1 kabila:1 begin:1 implement:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram sparsely_populated:1 republic_congo:1 cash_crop:1 external_link:1 |
4,522 | Dennis_Ritchie | Dennis MacAlistair Ritchie (username: dmr, born September 9, 1941) is an American computer scientist notable for his influence on C and other programming languages, and on operating systems such as Multics and Unix. He received the Turing Award in 1983 and the National Medal of Technology in 1998. Ritchie was the head of Lucent Technologies System Software Research Department when he retired in 2007. Background Born in Bronxville, New York, Ritchie graduated from Harvard with degrees in physics and applied mathematics. In 1967, he began working at the Bell Labs' Computing Sciences Research Center. C and Unix Ritchie is best known as the creator of the C programming language and a key developer of the Unix operating system, and as co-author of the definitive book on C, The C Programming Language, commonly referred to as 'K/R' or K&R (in reference to the authors Kernighan and Ritchie). Ritchie's invention of C and his role in the development of Unix alongside Ken Thompson have placed him as an important pioneer of modern computing. The C language is still widely used today in application and operating system development, and its influence is seen in most modern programming languages. Unix has also been influential, establishing concepts and principles that are now well-established precepts of computing. Ritchie has said that creating the C language 'looked like a good thing to do' and that anyone else in the same place at the same time would have done the same thing, though Bell Labs colleague Bjarne Stroustrup, developer of C++, said that "if Dennis had decided to spend that decade on esoteric math, Unix would have been stillborn." Following the success of Unix, Ritchie continued research into operating systems and programming languages with contributions to the Plan 9 and Inferno operating systems and the Limbo programming language. Awards Thompson, Ritchie and Clinton Turing Award In 1983, Ritchie and Ken Thompson jointly received the Turing Award for their development of generic operating systems theory and specifically for the implementation of the UNIX operating system. Ritchie's Turing Award lecture was titled, "Reflections on Software Research". National Medal of Technology On April 27 1999, Thompson and Ritchie jointly received the 1998 National Medal of Technology from President Bill Clinton for co-inventing the UNIX operating system and the C programming language which together have led to enormous advances in computer hardware, software, and networking systems and stimulated growth of an entire industry, thereby enhancing American leadership in the Information Age. Ritchie and Thompson [to] Get National Medal of Technology Bell Labs pre-announcement Ritchie and Thompson Receive National Medal of Technology from President Clinton Bell Labs press release Nicknames Dennis Ritchie is often referred to as "dmr" (his Bell Labs email address) in technical discussion groups. Bibliography The C Programming Language (1978 with Brian Kernighan; see K&R) Unix Programmer's Manual (1971) Quotes "I am not now, nor have I ever been, a member of the demigodic party." "Usenet is a strange place." "UNIX is basically a simple operating system, but you have to be a genius to understand the simplicity." References External links Dennis Ritchie's home page Transcript of an interview with Dennis Ritchie – Interview by Michael S. Mahoney Interview with Dennis M. Ritchie - By Manuel Benet (published in LinuxFocus.org in July 1999) Unix.se DMR interview published February 7. 2003 Ritchie and Thompson Receive National Medal of Technology from President Clinton Video - TechNetCast At Bell Labs: Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan (1999-05-14) The future according to Dennis Ritchie - LinuxWorld.com 12/4/00 The Limbo Programming Language by Dennis M. Ritchie | Dennis_Ritchie |@lemmatized dennis:9 macalistair:1 ritchie:22 username:1 dmr:3 born:1 september:1 american:2 computer:2 scientist:1 notable:1 influence:2 c:11 programming:7 language:11 operate:5 system:11 multics:1 unix:12 receive:5 turing:4 award:5 national:6 medal:6 technology:7 head:1 lucent:1 software:3 research:4 department:1 retire:1 background:1 bear:1 bronxville:1 new:1 york:1 graduate:1 harvard:1 degree:1 physic:1 applied:1 mathematics:1 begin:1 work:1 bell:6 lab:5 compute:3 science:1 center:1 best:1 know:1 creator:1 key:1 developer:2 operating:4 co:2 author:2 definitive:1 book:1 commonly:1 refer:2 k:3 r:3 reference:2 kernighan:3 invention:1 role:1 development:3 alongside:1 ken:2 thompson:7 place:3 important:1 pioneer:1 modern:2 still:1 widely:1 use:1 today:1 application:1 see:2 also:1 influential:1 establish:2 concept:1 principle:1 well:1 precept:1 say:2 create:1 look:1 like:1 good:1 thing:2 anyone:1 else:1 time:1 would:2 though:1 colleague:1 bjarne:1 stroustrup:1 decide:1 spend:1 decade:1 esoteric:1 math:1 stillborn:1 follow:1 success:1 continue:1 program:2 contribution:1 plan:1 inferno:1 limbo:2 clinton:4 jointly:2 generic:1 theory:1 specifically:1 implementation:1 lecture:1 title:1 reflection:1 april:1 president:3 bill:1 invent:1 together:1 lead:1 enormous:1 advance:1 hardware:1 network:1 stimulated:1 growth:1 entire:1 industry:1 thereby:1 enhance:1 leadership:1 information:1 age:1 get:1 pre:1 announcement:1 labs:1 press:1 release:1 nickname:1 often:1 email:1 address:1 technical:1 discussion:1 group:1 bibliography:1 brian:2 programmer:1 manual:1 quote:1 ever:1 member:1 demigodic:1 party:1 usenet:1 strange:1 basically:1 simple:1 genius:1 understand:1 simplicity:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 page:1 transcript:1 interview:4 michael:1 mahoney:1 manuel:1 benet:1 publish:2 linuxfocus:1 org:1 july:1 se:1 february:1 video:1 technetcast:1 future:1 accord:1 linuxworld:1 com:1 |@bigram applied_mathematics:1 bell_lab:5 ken_thompson:2 anyone_else:1 bjarne_stroustrup:1 bill_clinton:1 bell_labs:1 dennis_ritchie:7 brian_kernighan:2 external_link:1 |
4,523 | Outline_of_linguistics | Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Someone who engages in this study is called a linguist. Linguistics can be theoretical or applied. The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to linguistics: Essence of linguistics Main article: Linguistics Branches of linguistics Theoretical linguistics Applied linguistics Subfields of linguistics Computational linguistics Comparative linguistics Contrastive linguistics Corpus linguistics Dialectology Discourse analysis Etymology Forensic linguistics Grammar Historical linguistics Interlinguistics Language didactics Language learning Language teaching Language for specific purposes Lexicology Linguistic statistics Linguistic typology Morphology Neurolinguistics Orthography Phonetics Phonology Pragmatics Psycholinguistics Rhetoric Semantics Sociolinguistics Stylistics Text linguistics Schools, movements, and approaches of linguistics Cognitive linguistics Danish School Functionalism Generative linguistics Geneva School Neo-Grammarians Prague School Prescription and description Soviet linguistics Stratificational linguistics Structuralism Systemic linguistics SIL International Tagmemics (See ) History of linguistics Main article: History of linguistics Timeline of discovery of basic linguistics concepts When were the basic concepts first described and by whom? Ancient Sanskrit grammarians Ancient Greek study of language Roman elaborations of Greek study Medieval philosophical work in Latin Beginnings of modern linguistics in the 19th century Behaviorism and mental tabula rasa hypothesis Chomsky and functionalism Generative grammar leads to generative phonology and semantics Alternate syntactic systems develop in 80s Computational linguistics becomes feasible the late 80s Neurolinguistics and the biological basis of cognition Basic questions in linguistics What are the basic questions asked in linguistics? What is language? How did it/does it evolve? How does language serve as a medium of communication? How does language serve as a medium of thinking? What is common to all languages? How do languages differ? Is X a language or a dialect? (The answers are not necessarily basic or easy to understand.) Basic concepts What basic concepts / terms do I have to know to talk about linguistics? Morphology morpheme, inflection, paradigm, derivation, compound Phonology phoneme, segment, syllable, foot, stress Grammar tense, aspect, grammatical number, grammatical gender, declension Syntax phrase, clause, grammatical function, grammatical voice Lexicology word, lexeme, lemma, lexicon, vocabulary, terminology Semantics meaning, sense, entailment, truth condition, compositionality Pragmatics presupposition, implicature, deixis Languages of the world Languages by country Linguistics scholars People who had a significant influence on the development of the field John Langshaw Austin Leonard Bloomfield Franz Bopp Noam Chomsky M.A.K. Halliday Louis Hjelmslev Roman Jakobson Sir William Jones Kenneth L. Pike Rasmus Rask Edward Sapir Ferdinand de Saussure August Schleicher John R. Searle Claude Levi-Strauss Nikolai Trubetzkoy Noah Webster Benjamin Lee Whorf Linguistics lists Main article: List of linguistics topics See also Number of words in English List of linguists Lexicography External links Glottopedia, MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction Subfields according to the Linguistic Society of America Glossary of linguistic terms and French<->English glossary at SIL International "Linguistics" section of A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J. A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) Linguistics and language-related wiki articles on Scholarpedia and Citizendium | Outline_of_linguistics |@lemmatized linguistics:36 scientific:1 study:4 language:14 someone:1 engage:1 call:1 linguist:2 theoretical:2 apply:2 following:1 outline:1 provide:1 overview:1 topical:1 guide:1 essence:1 main:3 article:4 branch:1 subfields:2 computational:2 comparative:1 contrastive:1 corpus:1 dialectology:1 discourse:1 analysis:1 etymology:1 forensic:1 grammar:3 historical:1 interlinguistics:1 didactics:1 learning:1 teaching:1 specific:1 purpose:1 lexicology:2 linguistic:4 statistic:1 typology:1 morphology:2 neurolinguistics:2 orthography:1 phonetics:1 phonology:3 pragmatic:2 psycholinguistics:1 rhetoric:1 semantics:3 sociolinguistics:1 stylistics:1 text:1 school:4 movement:1 approach:1 cognitive:1 danish:1 functionalism:2 generative:3 geneva:1 neo:1 grammarian:2 prague:1 prescription:1 description:1 soviet:1 stratificational:1 structuralism:1 systemic:1 sil:2 international:2 tagmemics:1 see:2 history:2 timeline:1 discovery:1 basic:7 concept:4 first:1 describe:1 ancient:2 sanskrit:1 greek:2 roman:2 elaboration:1 medieval:1 philosophical:1 work:1 latin:1 beginning:1 modern:1 century:1 behaviorism:1 mental:1 tabula:1 rasa:1 hypothesis:1 chomsky:2 lead:1 alternate:1 syntactic:1 system:1 develop:1 become:1 feasible:1 late:1 biological:1 basis:1 cognition:1 question:2 ask:1 evolve:1 serve:2 medium:2 communication:1 think:1 common:1 differ:1 x:1 dialect:1 answer:1 necessarily:1 easy:1 understand:1 term:2 know:1 talk:1 morpheme:1 inflection:1 paradigm:1 derivation:1 compound:1 phoneme:1 segment:1 syllable:1 foot:1 stress:1 tense:1 aspect:1 grammatical:4 number:2 gender:1 declension:1 syntax:1 phrase:1 clause:1 function:1 voice:1 word:2 lexeme:1 lemma:1 lexicon:1 vocabulary:1 terminology:1 meaning:1 sense:1 entailment:1 truth:1 condition:1 compositionality:1 presupposition:1 implicature:1 deixis:1 world:1 languages:1 country:1 scholar:1 people:1 significant:1 influence:1 development:1 field:1 john:2 langshaw:1 austin:1 leonard:1 bloomfield:1 franz:1 bopp:1 noam:1 k:1 halliday:1 louis:1 hjelmslev:1 jakobson:1 sir:1 william:1 jones:1 kenneth:1 l:1 pike:1 rasmus:1 rask:1 edward:1 sapir:1 ferdinand:1 de:1 saussure:1 august:1 schleicher:1 r:1 searle:1 claude:1 levi:1 strauss:1 nikolai:1 trubetzkoy:1 noah:1 webster:1 benjamin:1 lee:1 whorf:1 list:3 topic:1 also:1 english:2 lexicography:1 external:1 link:1 glottopedia:1 mediawiki:1 base:1 encyclopedia:1 construction:1 accord:1 society:1 america:1 glossary:2 french:1 section:1 bibliography:1 literary:1 theory:1 criticism:1 philology:1 ed:1 j:1 garcía:1 landa:1 university:1 zaragoza:1 spain:1 related:1 wiki:1 scholarpedia:1 citizendium:1 |@bigram overview_topical:1 computational_linguistics:2 comparative_linguistics:1 linguistic_typology:1 phonetics_phonology:1 tabula_rasa:1 generative_grammar:1 generative_phonology:1 grammatical_gender:1 leonard_bloomfield:1 franz_bopp:1 noam_chomsky:1 roman_jakobson:1 edward_sapir:1 august_schleicher:1 levi_strauss:1 noah_webster:1 lee_whorf:1 external_link:1 zaragoza_spain:1 |
4,524 | Entscheidungsproblem | In mathematics, the (, German for 'decision problem') is a challenge posed by David Hilbert in 1928. The asks for an algorithm that will take as input a description of a formal language and a mathematical statement in the language and produce as output either "True" or "False" according to whether the statement is true or false. The algorithm need not justify its answer, nor provide a proof, so long as it is always correct. Such an algorithm would be able to decide, for example, whether statements such as Goldbach's conjecture or the Riemann hypothesis are true, even though no proof or disproof of these statements is known. The has often been identified in particular with the decision problem for first-order logic (that is, the problem of algorithmically determining whether a first-order statement is universally valid). In 1936 and 1937, Alonzo Church and Alan Turing, respectively, published independent papers showing that it is impossible to decide algorithmically whether statements in arithmetic are true or false, and thus a general solution to the is impossible. This result is now known as Church's Theorem or the Church–Turing Theorem (not to be confused with the Church–Turing thesis). History of the problem The origin of the goes back to Gottfried Leibniz, who in the seventeenth century, after having constructed a successful mechanical calculating machine, dreamt of building a machine that could manipulate symbols in order to determine the truth values of mathematical statements (Davis 2000: pp. 3–20). He realized that the first step would have to be a clean formal language, and much of his subsequent work was directed towards that goal. In 1928, David Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann posed the question in the form outlined above. In continuation of his "program" with which he challenged the mathematics community in 1900, at a 1928 international conference David Hilbert asked three questions, the third of which became known as "Hilbert's " (Hodges p. 91). As late as 1930 he believed that there would be no such thing as an unsolvable problem (Hodges p. 92, quoting from Hilbert). Negative answer Before the question could be answered, the notion of "algorithm" had to be formally defined. This was done by Alonzo Church in 1936 with the concept of "effective calculability" based on his λ calculus and by Alan Turing in the same year with his concept of Turing machines. It was later recognized that these are equivalent models of computation. The negative answer to the was then given by Alonzo Church in 1935–36 and independently shortly thereafter by Alan Turing in 1936–37 Church's paper was presented to the American Mathematical Society on 19 April 1935 and published on 15 April 1936. Turing, who had made substantial progress in writing up his own results, was disappointed to learn of Church's proof upon its publication (see correspondence between Max Newman and Church in Alonzo Church papers). Turing quickly completed his paper and rushed it to publication; it was received by the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society on 28 May 1936, read on 12 November 1936, and published in January 1937. In September 1936 Turing began two years of study at Princeton University, where he received his PhD under Church. . Church proved that there is no computable function which decides for two given λ calculus expressions whether they are equivalent or not. He relied heavily on earlier work by Stephen Kleene. Turing reduced the halting problem for Turing machines to the . The work of both authors was heavily influenced by Kurt Gödel's earlier work on his incompleteness theorem, especially by the method of assigning numbers (a Gödel numbering) to logical formulas in order to reduce logic to arithmetic. Turing's argument is the following. Suppose we had a general decision algorithm for statements in a first-order language. The question whether a given Turing machine halts or not can be formulated as a first-order statement, which would then be susceptible to the decision algorithm. But Turing had proven earlier that no general algorithm can decide whether a given Turing machine halts. The is related to Hilbert's tenth problem, which asks for an algorithm to decide whether Diophantine equations have a solution. The non-existence of such an algorithm, established by Yuri Matiyasevich in 1970, also implies a negative answer to the Entscheidungsproblem. Some first-order theories are algorithmically decidable; examples of this include Presburger arithmetic, real closed fields and static type systems of (most) programming languages. The general first-order theory of the natural numbers expressed in Peano's axioms cannot be decided with such an algorithm, however. See also Halting problem Hilbert's second problem Oracle machine Footnotes References Alonzo Church, "An unsolvable problem of elementary number theory", American Journal of Mathematics, 58 (1936), pp 345–363 Alonzo Church, "A note on the Entscheidungsproblem", Journal of Symbolic Logic, 1 (1936), pp 40–41. Martin Davis, 2000, Engines of Logic, W.W. Norton & Company, London, ISBN 0-393-32229-7 pbk. Alan Turing, "On computable numbers, with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem", Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Series 2, 42 (1937), pp 230–265. Online versions: from journal website, from Turing Digital Archive, from abelard.org. Errata appeared in Series 2, 43 (1937), pp 544–546. Martin Davis, "The Undecidable, Basic Papers on Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems And Computable Functions", Raven Press, New York, 1965. Turing's paper is #3 in this volume. Papers include those by Godel, Church, Rosser, Kleene, and Post. Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing: The Enigma, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1983. Allen M. Turing's biography. Cf Chapter "The Spirit of Truth" for a history leading to, and a discussion of, his proof. Toulmin, Stephen, "Fall of a Genius", a book review of "Alan Turing: The Enigma by Andrew Hodges", in The New York Review of Books, January 19, 1984, p. 3ff. Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell, Principia Mathematica to *56, Cambridge at the University Press, 1962. Re: the problem of paradoxes, the authors discuss the problem of a set not be an object in any of its "determining functions", in particular "Introduction, Chap. 1 p. 24 "...difficulties which arise in formal logic", and Chap. 2.I. "The Vicious-Circle Principle" p.37ff, and Chap. 2.VIII. "The Contradictions" p.60 ff. | Entscheidungsproblem |@lemmatized mathematics:3 german:1 decision:4 problem:13 challenge:2 pose:2 david:3 hilbert:7 asks:1 algorithm:10 take:1 input:1 description:1 formal:3 language:5 mathematical:5 statement:9 produce:1 output:1 either:1 true:4 false:3 accord:1 whether:8 need:1 justify:1 answer:5 provide:1 proof:4 long:1 always:1 correct:1 would:4 able:1 decide:6 example:2 goldbach:1 conjecture:1 riemann:1 hypothesis:1 even:1 though:1 disproof:1 know:3 often:1 identify:1 particular:2 first:7 order:8 logic:5 algorithmically:3 determine:2 universally:1 valid:1 alonzo:6 church:15 alan:6 turing:21 respectively:1 publish:3 independent:1 paper:7 show:1 impossible:2 arithmetic:3 thus:1 general:4 solution:2 result:2 theorem:3 confuse:1 thesis:1 history:2 origin:1 go:1 back:1 gottfried:1 leibniz:1 seventeenth:1 century:1 construct:1 successful:1 mechanical:1 calculating:1 machine:7 dreamt:1 build:1 could:2 manipulate:1 symbol:1 truth:2 value:1 davis:3 pp:5 realize:1 step:1 clean:1 much:1 subsequent:1 work:4 direct:1 towards:1 goal:1 wilhelm:1 ackermann:1 question:4 form:1 outline:1 continuation:1 program:1 community:1 international:1 conference:1 ask:2 three:1 third:1 become:1 hodges:4 p:6 late:1 believe:1 thing:1 unsolvable:3 quote:1 negative:3 notion:1 formally:1 define:1 concept:2 effective:1 calculability:1 base:1 λ:2 calculus:2 year:2 later:1 recognize:1 equivalent:2 model:1 computation:1 give:4 independently:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 present:1 american:2 society:3 april:2 make:1 substantial:1 progress:1 write:1 disappoint:1 learn:1 upon:1 publication:2 see:2 correspondence:1 max:1 newman:1 quickly:1 complete:1 rush:1 receive:2 proceeding:2 london:3 may:1 read:1 november:1 january:2 september:1 begin:1 two:2 study:1 princeton:1 university:2 phd:1 prove:2 computable:3 function:3 expression:1 rely:1 heavily:2 early:1 stephen:2 kleene:2 reduce:2 halting:1 author:2 influence:1 kurt:1 gödel:2 earlier:2 incompleteness:1 especially:1 method:1 assign:1 number:5 logical:1 formula:1 argument:1 follow:1 suppose:1 halt:3 formulate:1 susceptible:1 relate:1 tenth:1 diophantine:1 equation:1 non:1 existence:1 establish:1 yuri:1 matiyasevich:1 also:2 imply:1 entscheidungsproblem:3 theory:3 decidable:1 include:2 presburger:1 real:1 close:1 field:1 static:1 type:1 system:1 programming:1 natural:1 express:1 peano:1 axiom:1 cannot:1 however:1 second:1 oracle:1 footnote:1 reference:1 elementary:1 journal:3 note:1 symbolic:1 martin:2 engine:1 w:2 norton:1 company:1 isbn:1 pbk:1 application:1 series:2 online:1 version:1 website:1 digital:1 archive:1 abelard:1 org:1 erratum:1 appear:1 undecidable:2 basic:1 proposition:1 raven:1 press:2 new:3 york:3 volume:1 godel:1 rosser:1 post:1 andrew:2 enigma:2 simon:1 schuster:1 allen:1 biography:1 cf:1 chapter:1 spirit:1 lead:1 discussion:1 toulmin:1 fall:1 genius:1 book:2 review:2 alfred:1 north:1 whitehead:1 bertrand:1 russell:1 principia:1 mathematica:1 cambridge:1 paradox:1 discuss:1 set:1 object:1 determining:1 introduction:1 chap:3 difficulty:1 arise:1 vicious:1 circle:1 principle:1 viii:1 contradiction:1 ff:1 |@bigram goldbach_conjecture:1 riemann_hypothesis:1 proof_disproof:1 alonzo_church:6 alan_turing:6 gottfried_leibniz:1 wilhelm_ackermann:1 unsolvable_problem:3 effective_calculability:1 λ_calculus:2 turing_machine:4 shortly_thereafter:1 max_newman:1 rely_heavily:1 stephen_kleene:1 halting_problem:1 kurt_gödel:1 incompleteness_theorem:1 diophantine_equation:1 yuri_matiyasevich:1 peano_axiom:1 w_norton:1 isbn_pbk:1 turing_computable:1 application_entscheidungsproblem:1 undecidable_proposition:1 andrew_hodges:2 simon_schuster:1 bertrand_russell:1 principia_mathematica:1 vicious_circle:1 |
4,525 | Giuseppe_Verdi | Giuseppe Verdi. Portrait by Giovanni Boldini, 1886 The famous portrait of Verdi by Giovanni Boldini was the main inspiration of Luchino Visconti in creating the character of Burt Lancaster in his film Il Gattopardo. Giuseppe Fortunino Francesco Verdi ( in Italian; October 9 or 10, 1813 – January 27, 1901) was an Italian Romantic composer, mainly of opera. He was one of the most influential composers in the 19th century. His works are frequently performed in opera houses throughout the world and, transcending the boundaries of the genre, some of his themes have long since taken root in popular culture - such as "La donna è mobile" from Rigoletto, "Va, pensiero" (The Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves) from Nabucco, and "Libiamo ne' lieti calici" (The Drinking Song) from La traviata. Although his work was sometimes criticized for using a generally diatonic rather than a chromatic musical idiom and having a tendency toward melodrama, Verdi’s masterworks dominate the standard repertoire a century and a half after their composition. Early life Giuseppe Verdi in Vanity Fair (1879) Verdi was born the son of Carlo Giuseppe Verdi and Luigia Uttini in Le Roncole, a village near Busseto, then in the Département Taro which was a part of the French Empire after the annexation of the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza. The baptismal register, on October 11, lists him as being "born yesterday", but since days were often considered to begin at sunset, this could have meant either 9 or 10 October. The next day he was baptized in the Roman Catholic church in Latin as Joseph Fortuninus Franciscus. The day after that (Tuesday), Verdi's father took his newborn the three miles to Busseto where the baby was recorded as Joseph Fortunin Francois; the clerk wrote in French. "So it happened that for the civil and temporal world Verdi was born a Frenchman." Martin, 3 When he was still a child, Verdi's parents moved from Piacenza to Busseto, where the future composer's education was greatly facilitated by visits to the large library belonging to the local Jesuit school. Also in Busseto, Verdi was given his first lessons in composition. Verdi went to Milan when he was twenty to continue his studies and he took private lessons in counterpoint while attending operatic performances, as well as concerts of, specifically, German music. Milan's beaumonde association convinced him that he should pursue a career as a theatre composer. During the mid 1830s, he attended the "Salotto Maffei" salons in Milan, hosted by Clara Maffei. Returning to Busseto, he became town music master and, with the support of Antonio Barezzi, a local merchant and music lover who had long supported Verdi's musical ambitions in Milan, Verdi gave his first public performance at Barezzi’s home in 1830. Because he loved Verdi’s music, Barezzi invited Verdi to be his daughter Margherita's music teacher,and the two soon fell deeply in love. They were married on May 4, 1836 and Margherita gave birth to two children, Virginia Maria Luigia (b. March 26, 1837 - d. August 12, 1838) and Icilio Romano (b. July 11, 1838 - d. October 22, 1839). Both died in infancy while Verdi was working on his first opera and, shortly afterwards, Margherita died on June 18, 1840. Verdi adored his wife and children, and he was devastated by their deaths. Initial recognition The production by Milan's La Scala of his first opera, Oberto in November 1839 achieved a degree of success, after which Bartolomeo Merelli, La Scala's impresario, offered Verdi a contract for two more works. It was while he was working on his second opera, Un giorno di regno, that Verdi's wife died. The opera, given in September 1840, was a flop and he fell into despair vowing to give up musical composition forever. However, Merelli persuaded him to write Nabucco and its opening performance in March 1842 made Verdi famous. Legend has it that it was the words of the famous Va pensiero chorus of the Hebrew slaves that inspired Verdi to write music again. A large number of operas - 14 in all - followed in the decade after 1843, a period which Verdi was to describe as his "galley years". These included his I Lombardi in 1843, and Ernani in 1844. For some, the most original and important opera that Verdi wrote is Macbeth in 1847. For the first time, Verdi attempted an opera without a love story, breaking a basic convention in 19th century Italian opera. In 1847, I Lombardi, revised and renamed Jerusalem, was produced by the Paris Opera. Due to a number of Parisian conventions that had to be honored (including extensive ballets), it became Verdi's first work in the French Grand opera style. Middle years Giuseppina (Peppina) Strepponi Sometime in the mid-1840s, after the death of Margherita Barezzi, Verdi began an affair with Giuseppina Strepponi, a soprano in the twilight of her career. Roger Parker, "Giuseppe Verdi", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 18 May 2008), (subscription access) Their cohabitation before marriage was regarded as scandalous in some of the places they lived, but Verdi and Giuseppina married on August 29, 1859 at Collonges-sous-Salève, near Geneva Phillips-Matz, pp.394-95 . While living in Busseto with Strepponi, Verdi bought an estate two miles from the town in 1848. Initially, his parents lived there, but, after his mother's death in 1851, he made the Villa Verdi at Sant'Agata his home until his death. As the "galley years" were drawing to a close, Verdi created one of his greatest masterpieces, Rigoletto which premiered in Venice in 1851. Based on a play by Victor Hugo (Le roi s'amuse), the libretto had to undergo substantial revisions in order to satisfy the epoch's censorship, and the composer was on the verge of giving it all up a number of times. The opera quickly became a great success. With Rigoletto, Verdi sets up his original idea of musical drama as a cocktail of heterogeneous elements, embodying social and cultural complexity, and beginning from a distinctive mixture of comedy and tragedy. Rigolettos musical range includes band-music such as the first scene or the song La donna è mobile, Italian melody such as the famous quartet "Bella figlia dell'amore", chamber music such as the duet between Rigoletto and Sparafucile and powerful and concise declamatos often based on key-notes like the C and C# notes in Rigoletto and Monterone's upper register. There followed the second and third of the three major operas of Verdi's "middle period": in 1853 Il Trovatore was produced in Rome and La traviata in Venice. The latter was based on Alexandre Dumas, fils' play The Lady of the Camellias. Compositions of the mature Verdi Between 1855 and 1867, an outpouring of great Verdi operas followed, among them such repertory staples as Un ballo in maschera (1859), La forza del destino (commissioned by the Imperial Theatre of Saint Petersburg for 1861 but not performed until 1862), and a revised version of Macbeth (1865). Other somewhat less often performed include Les vêpres siciliennes (1855) and Don Carlos (1867), both commissioned by the Paris Opera and initially given in French. Today, these latter two operas are most often performed in their revised Italian versions. Simon Boccanegra followed in 1857. Giuseppe Verdi in 1876 In 1869, Verdi was asked to compose a section for a requiem mass in memory of Gioachino Rossini and proposed that this requiem should be a collection of sections composed by other Italian contemporaries of Rossini. The requiem was compiled and completed, but it was cancelled at the last minute (and was not performed in Verdi's lifetime). Verdi blamed this on the lack of enthusiasm for the project by the intended conductor, Angelo Mariani, who had been a longtime friend of his. The episode led to a permanent break in their personal relations. The soprano Teresa Stolz (who later had a strong professional - and, perhaps, romantic - relationship with Verdi) was at that time engaged to be married to Mariani, but she left him not long after. Five years later, Verdi reworked his "Libera Me" section of the Rossini Requiem and made it a part of his Requiem Mass, honoring the famous novelist and poet Alessandro Manzoni, who had died in 1873. The complete Requiem was first performed at the cathedral in Milan on May 22, 1874. Verdi's grand opera, Aida, is sometimes thought to have been commissioned for the celebration of the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, but, according to one major critic, Budden,Volume 3 Verdi turned down the Khedive's invitation to write an "ode" for the new opera house he was planning to inaugurate as part of the canal opening festivities. The opera house actually opened with a production of Rigoletto. Later in 1869/70, the organizers again approached Verdi (this time with the idea of writing an opera), but he again turned them down. When they warned him that they would ask Charles Gounod instead and then threatened to engage Richard Wagner's services, Verdi began to show considerable interest, and agreements were signed in June 1870. Teresa Stolz was associated with both Aida and the Requiem (as well as a number of other Verdi roles). The role of Aida was written for her, and although she did not appear in the world premiere in Cairo in 1871, she created Aida in the European premiere in Milan in February 1872. She was also the soprano soloist in the first and many later performances of the Requiem. It was widely believed that she and Verdi had an affair after she left Angelo Mariani, and a Florence newspaper criticised them for this in five strongly worded articles. Whether there is any truth to the accusation may never be known with any certainty. However, after Giuseppina Strepponi's death, Teresa Stolz became a close companion of Verdi until his own death. Verdi and Wagner, who were the leaders of their respective schools of music, seemed to resent each other greatly. They never met. Verdi's comments on Wagner and his music are few and hardly benevolent ("He invariably chooses, unnecessarily, the untrodden path, attempting to fly where a rational person would walk with better results"), but at least one of them is kind: upon learning of Wagner's death, Verdi lamented: "Sad, sad, sad! ... a name that will leave a most powerful impression on the history of art." Of Wagner's comments on Verdi, only one is well-known. After listening to Verdi's Requiem, the great German, prolific and eloquent in his comments on some other composers, said, "It would be best not to say anything." Twilight and death During the following years, Verdi worked on revising some of his earlier scores, most notably new versions of Don Carlos, La forza del destino, and Simon Boccanegra. Otello, based on William Shakespeare's play, with a libretto written by the younger composer of Mefistofele, Arrigo Boito, premiered in Milan in 1887. Its music is "continuous" and cannot easily be divided into separate "numbers" to be performed in concert. Some feel that although masterfully orchestrated, it lacks the melodic lustre so characteristic of Verdi's earlier, great, operas, while many critics consider it Verdi's greatest tragic opera, containing some of his most beautiful, expressive music and some of his richest characterizations. In addition, it lacks a prelude, something Verdi listeners are not accustomed to. Arturo Toscanini performed as cellist in the orchestra at the world premiere and began his friendship with Verdi (a composer he revered as highly as Beethoven). Verdi's statue in the Piazza G. Verdi, Busseto Verdi's last opera, Falstaff, whose libretto was also by Boito, was based on Shakespeare's Merry Wives of Windsor and Victor Hugo's subsequent translation. It was an international success and is one of the supreme comic operas which shows Verdi's genius as a contrapuntist. In 1894, Verdi composed a short ballet for a French production of Otello, his last purely orchestral composition. Years later, Arturo Toscanini recorded the music for RCA Victor with the NBC Symphony Orchestra which complements the 1947 Toscanini performance of the complete opera. In 1897, Verdi completed his last composition, a setting of the traditional Latin text Stabat Mater. This was the last of four sacred works that Verdi composed, Quattro Pezzi Sacri, which are often performed together or separately. The first performance of the four works was on April 7, 1898, at the Grande Opéra, Paris. The four works are: Ave Maria for mixed chorus; Stabat Mater for mixed chorus and orchestra; Laudi alla Vergine Maria for female chorus; and Te Deum for double chorus and orchestra. On 29 July 1900 King Umberto I of Italy was assassinated and that deed horrified the aged composer Ernest Newman, Stories of the Great Operas. Philadelphia: The Blakinson Company, 1930, p. 597. Did he feel himself somehow guilty of at least indirectly causing that assassination? For almost 30 operas he composed throughout his long life, at least half dealt with killings, murder and other sort of violent ends of various personage, including assassination plots against kings, leaders, or men in charge in six of them: Attila, Macbeth, Rigoletto, Les vêpres siciliennes, Simon Boccanegra, and Un ballo in maschera. . While staying at the Grand Hotel et de Milan The hotel's website contains a brief history of the composer's stay and a few photographs of those days in Milan, Verdi had a stroke on January 21, 1901. He grew gradually more feeble and died six days later, on January 27, 1901. Arturo Toscanini conducted the vast forces of combined orchestras and choirs composed of musicians from throughout Italy at the state funeral for Verdi in Milan. To date, it remains the largest public assembly of any event in the history of Italy. Role in the Risorgimento Giuseppe Verdi, the bust outside of the Teatro Massimo in Palermo, Italy. Music historians have long perpetuated a myth about the famous Va, pensiero chorus sung in the third act of Nabucco. The myth reports that, when the Va, pensiero chorus was sung in Milan, then belonging to the large part of Italy under Austrian domination, the audience, responding with nationalistic fervor to the exiled slaves' lament for their lost homeland, demanded an encore of the piece. As encores were expressly forbidden by the government at the time, such a gesture would have been extremely significant. However, recent scholarship puts this to rest. Although the audience did indeed demand an encore, it was not for Va, pensiero but rather for the hymn Immenso Jehova, sung by the Hebrew slaves to thank God for saving His people. In light of these new revelations, Verdi's position as the musical figurehead of the Risorgimento has been correspondingly downplayed. Casini, Claudio, Verdi, Milan: Rusconi, 1982 On the other hand, during rehearsals, workmen in the theater stopped what they were doing during Va, pensiero and applauded at the conclusion of this haunting melody Phillips-Matz, Mary Jane p.116 while the growth of the "identification of Verdi's music with Italian nationalist politics" is judged to have begun in the summer 1846 in relation to a chorus from Ernani in which the name of one of its characters, "Carlo", was changed to "Pio", a reference to Pope Pius IX's grant of an amnesty to political prisoners. Phillips-Matz, Mary Jane, pp. 188-191 The myth of Verdi as Risorgimento's composer also led to claims that the slogan "Viva VERDI" was used throughout Italy to secretly call for Vittorio Emanuele ReD'I'''talia (Victor Emmanuel King of Italy), referring to Victor Emmanuel II, then king of Sardinia. The Chorus of the Hebrews (the English title for Va, pensiero) has another appearance in Verdi folklore. Prior to his body being driven from the cemetery to the official memorial service and its final resting place at the Casa di Riposo, Arturo Toscanini conducted a chorus of 820 singers in "Va, pensiero". At the Casa, the Miserere from Il trovatore was sung. Phillips-Matz, p.765 Verdi was elected as a member of the Chamber of Deputies in 1861 following a request of Prime Minister Cavour but in 1865 he resigned from the office. http://www.liberalsocialisti.org/articol.php?id_articol=797 In 1874 he was named Senator of the Kingdom by king Victor Emanuel II Style Verdi's predecessors who influenced his music were Rossini, Bellini, Giacomo Meyerbeer and, most notably, Gaetano Donizetti and Saverio Mercadante. With the exception of Otello and Aida, he was free of Wagner's influence. Although respectful of Gounod, Verdi was careful not to learn anything from the Frenchman whom many of Verdi's contemporaries regarded as the greatest living composer. Some strains in Aida suggest at least a superficial familiarity with the works of the Russian composer Mikhail Glinka, whom Franz Liszt, after his tour of the Russian Empire as a pianist, popularized in Western Europe. Throughout his career, Verdi rarely utilised the high C in his tenor arias, citing the fact that the opportunity to sing that particular note in front of an audience distracts the performer before and after the note appears. However, he did provide high Cs to Duprez in Jérusalem and to Tamberlick in the original version of La forza del destino. The high C often heard in the aria Di quella pira does not appear in Verdi's score. Although his orchestration is often masterful, Verdi relied heavily on his melodic gift as the ultimate instrument of musical expression. In fact, in many of his passages, and especially in his arias, the harmony is ascetic, with the entire orchestra occasionally sounding as if it were one large accompanying instrument - a giant-sized guitar playing chords. Some critics maintain he paid insufficient attention to the technical aspect of composition, lacking as he did schooling and refinement. Verdi himself once said, "Of all composers, past and present, I am the least learned." He hastened to add, however, "I mean that in all seriousness, and by learning I do not mean knowledge of music." However, it would be incorrect to assume that Verdi underestimated the expressive power of the orchestra or failed to use it to its full capacity where necessary. Moreover, orchestral and contrapuntal innovation is characteristic of his style: for instance, the strings producing a rapid ascending scale in Monterone's scene in Rigoletto accentuate the drama, and, in the same opera, the chorus humming six closely grouped notes backstage portrays, very effectively, the brief ominous wails of the approaching tempest. Verdi's innovations are so distinctive that other composers do not use them; they remain, to this day, some of Verdi's signatures. Verdi was one of the first composers who insisted on patiently seeking out plots to suit his particular talents. Working closely with his librettists and well aware that dramatic expression was his forte, he made certain that the initial work upon which the libretto was based was stripped of all "unnecessary" detail and "superfluous" participants, and only characters brimming with passion and scenes rich in drama remained. Many of his operas, especially the later ones from 1851 onwards, are a staple of the standard repertoire. No composer of Italian opera has managed to match Verdi's popularity, perhaps with the exception of Giacomo Puccini. Works Verdi's operas, and their date of première are: Oberto, November 17, 1839 Un giorno di regno, September 5, 1840 Nabucco, March 9, 1842 I Lombardi alla prima crociata, February 11, 1843 Ernani, March 9, 1844 I due Foscari, November 3, 1844 Giovanna d'Arco, February 15, 1845 Alzira, August 12, 1845 Attila, March 17, 1846 Macbeth, March 14, 1847 I masnadieri, July 22, 1847 Jérusalem (a revision and translation of I Lombardi alla prima crociata) November 26, 1847 Il corsaro, 25 October, 1848 La battaglia di Legnano, January 27, 1849 Luisa Miller, December 8, 1849 Stiffelio, November 16, 1850 Rigoletto, March 11, 1851 Il trovatore, January 19, 1853 La traviata, March 6, 1853 Les vêpres siciliennes, June 13, 1855 Simon Boccanegra, March 12, 1857 Aroldo (A major revision of Stiffelio), August 16, 1857 Un ballo in maschera, February 17, 1859 La forza del destino, November 10, 1862 Don Carlos, March 11, 1867 Aida, December 24, 1871 Otello, February 5, 1887 Falstaff, February 9, 1893 Political Significance Unlike most of the visual arts, opera was commercially profitable, accessible to most classes of society, and thus an effective means of reaching the nineteenth-century public. Verdi used musical theater to contrast noble ideals with the corrosive effects of power, love of country with the inevitable call for sacrifice and death, and the lure of passion with the need for social order. Media Eponyms and other cultural references The Verdi Inlet on the Beethoven Peninsula of Alexander Island just off Antarctica Verdi Square at Broadway and West 72nd Street in Manhattan Asteroid 3975 Verdi Verdi's name literally translates as "Joseph Green" in English ([technically, this is incorrect — in Italian, the term verdi is the plural form of "green"]. So if one were to translate his last name into English, the composer would be known as Joseph Greens). Musical comedian Victor Borge often referred to the famous composer as "Joe Green" in his act, saying that "Giuseppe Verdi" was merely his "stage name". The same joke-translation is mentioned in Evil Under the Sun by Patrick Redfern to Hercule Poirot, a prank which inadvertedly gives Poirot the answer to the murder. Notes References Life in and around Busseto Associazione Amici di Verdi (ed.), Con Verdi nella sua terra, Busseto, 1997, (in English) Maestrelli, Maurizio, Guida alla Villa e al Parco (in Italian), publication of Villa Verdi, 2001 Mordacci, Alessandra, An Itinerary of the History and Art in the Places of Verdi, Busseto: Busseto Tourist Office, 2001 (in English) Villa Verdi': the Visit and Villa Verdi: The Park; the Villa; the Room (pamphlets in English), publications of the Villa Verdi External links Giuseppe Verdi Official Site Stanford University list of Verdi operas, premiere locations and dates, etc. I Lombardi alla prima crociata MP3 Creative Commons Recording (Italian) "Album Verdi" from the Digital Library of the National Library of Naples (Italy) London Society for Verdi enthusiasts Listen to a free MP3 recording of Ave Maria with Umeå Akademiska Kör. Free MP3 Verdi's operas Free audio MP3 OnClassical - Creative Commons BY-NC-SA, 1.0 - licensed Un ballo in Maschera Soprano (free MP3) Detailed listing of "complete" recordings of Verdi's operas and of extended excerpts. "Verdi and Milan", lecture by Roger Parker on Verdi, given at Gresham College, London May 14, 2007 Verdi cylinder recordings, from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library. Giuseppe Verdi: listen to Verdi's music (airs, ouvertures, symphonies) on Magazzini-Sonori. 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4,526 | Boogie_Down_Productions | Boogie Down Productions was a hip hop group originally comprised KRS-One, D-Nice, and DJ Scott La Rock. DJ Scott La Rock was murdered on August 27, 1987, months after the release of BDP's debut album Criminal Minded. The name of the group, Boogie Down, derives from a nickname for The Bronx, one of the five boroughs of New York City. The group pioneered the fusion of dancehall reggae and hip hop music and their debut LP Criminal Minded contained frank descriptions of life in the South Bronx of the late 1980s thus setting the stage for what would eventually become gangsta rap.Boogie Down Production's D-Nice also discovered then white rapper and current rocker Kid Rock in 1987 and helped him get a deal with Jive Records in 1988. History While the origins of hip-hop are believed to be from The Bronx, rival hip-hop group Juice Crew's lyrics were misunderstood to contain a claim in the song The Bridge that hip hop was directly a result of artists originating from Queensbridge. Boogie Down and KRS retorted angrily with songs like The Bridge is Over and South Bronx, which started one of the first notable hip hop wars as MC Shan, Marley Marl and Roxanne Shanté all released songs featuring verses personally attacking KRS and Scott La Rock. The Bridge Wars, however, were only short-lived and after the death of Scott La Rock prior to the group's second album, KRS began to concentrate on consciously focused music. While Criminal Minded contained vivid descriptions of South Bronx street life, BDP changed after Scott's death. Producer Lee Smith was dropped and KRS-One adopted "The Teacha" moniker and made a deliberate attempt at creating politically and socially conscious Hip-Hop. BDP were hugely influential in provoking political and social consciousness in Hip-Hop however they were sometimes overshadowed by the political hip hop group Public Enemy. Background and sound Up until and throughout the 1970s, within the black community there was a stigma attached to being from Jamaica. There were many lower-class Jamaican immigrants coming into the United States at the time, and it was not considered cool to be from Jamaica. In fact, even once reggae successfully spread to America, it was first adopted by young white listeners, while many black Americans initially resisted the music. DJ Kool Herc, the legendary DJ who is often credited with being the originator of hip hop, consciously tried to mask his Jamaican accent before coming to the United States, to the extent that once Herc was in the United States, many of his Jamaican friends did not know he shared a similar nationality. KRS-One however, can be credited as being one of the first majorly successful hip hop artists to embrace his Jamaican heritage. This can be seen through Boogie Down Productions' use of dub samples in their beats, as well as KRS-One’s Jamaican accent in songs such as “Remix for P Is Free.” Untitled Document The Jamaican influence present in Criminal Minded is well illustrated by the use of the "Mad Mad" or "Diseases" riddim started in 1981 with reggae star Yellowman's song, "Zunguzung". BDP uses this riff in their song "Remix for P is Free", YouTube - Remix For P Is Free - Boogie Down Productions and it was later resampled by artists like Black Star and dead prez, thus helping to recycle a Jamaican sound. As an album regarded by many as the start of the gangsta rap movement, Criminal Minded played an important role in reaffirming the social acceptance of having Jamaican roots. BDP referenced reggae in a way that helped to solidify Jamaica's place in modern hip-hop culture. Marshall, Wayne. "Follow Me Now: The Zigzagging Zunguzung Meme", May 10, 2007. BDP Crew The membership of BDP changed continuously throughout its existence, the only constant being KRS-One. BDP members and collaborators included Lee Smith, Mad Lion, Channel Live, Run, McBoo, Ms. Melodie, Scottie Morris, Tony Rahsan, Willie D., RoboCop, Harmony, DJ Red Alert, Jay Kramer, D-Square, Rebekah Foster, and Sidney Mills. BDP as a group essentially ended because KRS-One began recording and performing under his own name rather than the group name. Original member Lee Smith, who has co-producer credit on the original 12” "South Bronx" single, was the first to be inexplicably jettisoned by KRS-One and the future new label after Scott’s death. In the liner notes on BDP's 1992 album Sex and Violence, KRS-One writes: "BDP in 1992 is KRS-One, Willie D and Kenny Parker! BDP is not D-Nice, Jamal-ski, Harmony, Ms. Melodie and Scottie Morris. They are not down with BDP so stop frontin'." Steve 'Flash' Juon of RapReviews.com claims that this initiated the ultimate breakup of BDP. Juon, Steve. "Sex and Violence Review", September 22, 2008. Discography Albums Album informationCriminal Minded Released: March 3, 1987 Billboard 200 chart position: - R&B/Hip-Hop chart position: #73 Singles: "South Bronx"/"The P Is Free", "Super Hoe"/"Scott LaRock (Megamix)", "Poetry"/"Elementary", "The Bridge Is Over"/"A Word from Our Sponsor"By All Means Necessary (Gold) Released: May 10, 1988 Billboard 200 chart position: #75 R&B/Hip-Hop chart position: #18 Singles: "I'm Still #1"/"Essays on BDP-ism"/"Jimmy", "Jack of Spades"/"Necessary"/"I'm Still #1", "My Philosophy"/"Stop the Violence", "Stop the Violence"/"Jimmy"Ghetto Music: The Blueprint of Hip Hop (Gold) Released: June 28, 1989 Billboard 200 chart position: #36 R&B/Hip-Hop chart position: #7 Singles: "Jack of Spades", "You Must Learn"/"Jah Rulez"/"World Peace", "Why Is That?"/"Who Protects us From You?"Edutainment (Gold) Released: July 17, 1990 Billboard 200 chart position: #32 R&B/Hip-Hop chart position: #9 Singles: "Love's Gonna Get'cha (Material Love)"/"The Kenny Parker Show", "Ya Know the Rules"Live Hardcore Worldwide Released: March 12, 1991 Billboard 200 chart position: #115 R&B/Hip-Hop chart position: #25 Singles: Sex and Violence Released: February 25, 1992 Billboard 200 chart position: #42 R&B/Hip-Hop chart position: #20 Singles: "Duck Down"/"We in There", "13 & Good"/"Build & Destroy"Man & His Music (Remixes from Around the World) Released: September 23, 1997 CompilationBest of B-Boy Records Released: May 8, 2001 Compilation Sources Compilations Man & His Music (Remixes from Around the World) (1988) Best of B-Boy Records (2001) External links Boogie Down Productions bio The 411 on Boogie Down Productions Myspace Official Music: Boogie Down Productions | Boogie_Down_Productions |@lemmatized boogie:9 production:7 hip:19 hop:19 group:8 originally:1 comprise:1 kr:6 one:12 nice:3 dj:5 scott:7 la:4 rock:5 murder:1 august:1 month:1 release:10 bdp:15 debut:2 album:6 criminal:5 mind:4 name:3 derive:1 nickname:1 bronx:7 five:1 borough:1 new:2 york:1 city:1 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4,527 | Highlander_(franchise) | Connor MacLeod of the Clan MacLeod (Christopher Lambert) Highlander is a film and television franchise that began with a 1986 fantasy movie starring Christopher Lambert, who plays Connor MacLeod, the Highlander. Born in Glenfinnan, in the Scottish Highlands in the 16th century, MacLeod is one of a number of Immortals. Over the years, there have been five Highlander movies, two television series, an animated series, an animated movie, an animated flash-movie series, ten original novels, seventeen comic book issues, and various licensed merchandise. Highlander The first of what became a series of films, Highlander, directed by Russell Mulcahy, was released on March 7, 1986 with the tagline, "There Can Be Only One." The film features a number of flashback scenes establishing Connor MacLeod of the Clan MacLeod's early history, and builds up to his final destiny amongst the last of the mysterious Immortals. Through a mentor and fellow Immortal — Juan Sánchez Villa-Lobos Ramírez played by Sean Connery — he learns of the existence of other Immortals, who occur spontaneously throughout history. An Immortal can die only after being beheaded, and Immortals battle one another in ritual single combat to the death, until the "Gathering," when the few remaining Immortals will fight until only one remains to take "The Prize." The Gathering occurs in modern-day (1985) New York City, and sees the Highlander, who has fallen in love again despite trying to cut himself off from humanity, narrowly defeat his powerful and evil enemy, The Kurgan, whom he has encountered repeatedly over the previous centuries, and who has slain Ramírez and many others. Highlander II: The Quickening Highlander II: The Quickening, directed by Russell Mulcahy, was released on November 1, 1991. The film mainly takes place in 2024, with flashbacks to events in 1999, and also a very distant past on the planet Zeist. MacLeod designs an energy shield to protect the Earth after its ozone layer began to disintegrate, but the Shield's heavy red clouds and blocking of natural sunlight have plunged mankind into despair. The Shield has also fallen under the control of the Shield Corporation, which taxes heavily for its services in the pursuit of profit. Meanwhile, MacLeod has physically aged into a frail old man — his mortality part of winning the Prize – and expects that he will eventually die of natural causes. After he kills one of the Immortals from Zeist sent to kill him, he becomes young and Immortal again, much to his dismay. He then joins with Louise Marcus (Virginia Madsen), who had led a group of terrorists who try to dismantle the Shield. This film offers an alternative origin for the Immortals, who are depicted as aliens exiled to Earth from Zeist. In direct contradiction to the original film, Ramírez and MacLeod were friends before their exile from Zeist. In the original, they first met in Scotland in 1541, with no mention of Zeist whatsoever. This was a primary reason the movie immediately met with harsh criticism from critics and audiences alike. Hicks, Chris. "Highlander II: The Quickening." Deseret News. Russell Mulcahy was disappointed with the movie as originally released, and later made his own "Renegade Version" director's cut with a proper sequencing of various scenes, and the filmmakers' explanation for why the movie turned out as it originally did. Filming had ended late and over-budget, and much of it was done in Argentina, which at the time was experiencing hyperinflation. The insurance company decided to take "creative control" from Mulcahy so that the resulting movie would see maximized revenue. Highlander II: Seduced by Argentina. Dir. Jonathan Gaines. 2004. DVD. Lions Gate Entertainment. One of Mulcahy's most dynamic alterations was the relabeling of the Zeist footage as a flashback to an ancient, technologically-advanced civilization on Earth, much more in line with the later continuity of the first film and the later TV series. Highlander II: To Be or Not to Be a Sequel? 1997. DVD. Republic Pictures. In 2004, a Special Edition was released, featuring several distinct alterations, including new computer-generated visual effects throughout the film. Highlander: The Final Dimension Highlander III: The Final Dimension (alternatively titled Highlander III: The Sorcerer) was first released on November 25, 1994. The third movie contradicts both the second film and the television series, acting as a stand-alone sequel to the original movie. Highlander III: The Final Dimension MacLeod battles a warrior who missed the original Gathering, because he was buried deep in a Japanese cave that is holy ground, isolating him from the supposedly final contest of the first film. Kane (played by Mario Van Peebles) is a master of the "power of illusion," which allows him to create false imagery to deceive his enemies. Connor, who has lived with his adopted son John for years with the belief that he is the final Immortal, must return to New York and finish the job he started back in 1985. Along the way, he finds a new love, Dr. Alex Johnson (Deborah Unger). Highlander: Endgame Highlander: Endgame, first released on September 1, 2000, was an attempt to merge characters from both the original film and from the Highlander TV series. Flipside Movie Emporium: Highlander: Endgame Movie Review The story follows Duncan MacLeod as he confronts Jacob Kell, a renegade Immortal who has assembled a group of fellow warriors, as well as an impressive body-count. Kell, who holds a centuries-old grudge against the elder Connor MacLeod, has taken the lives of Connor's dearest loved ones, and does not follow the traditions of single combat. Connor has spent a decade trying to escape the Game in a hidden Watcher fortress known as the Sanctuary, but he and Duncan are forced to confront this new threat that neither one of them alone can succeed against. As the two MacLeods will not break the single-combat tradition, Connor convinces Duncan to kill him, thus gaining the power that he needs to defeat Kell. Highlander: The Source Highlander: The Source is the fifth installment of the Highlander film series, which premiered on the Sci Fi Channel on September 15, 2007. Sci-Fi Network To Air The Next Highlander Film The film follows Duncan MacLeod and a group of fellow Immortals seeking the source of immortality. Highlander: The Source The film is notable for retconning the meaning of the Game and the phrase, "There can be only one." Remake On May 20, 2008, The Hollywood Reporter announced that Summit Entertainment is planning a re-make of the 1986 Highlander film. Writers Art Marcum and Matt Holloway, who both worked on the Iron Man film will be writing the script. Peter Davis will produce the new film. "There Can Be Only One Highlander Remake." Coming Soon.Net Spin-offs The various spin-offs are typically divided into two categories: one that follows the timeline started by the 1992 television series, and those that function as stand-alone spin-offs of the overall franchise. TV series timeline Duncan MacLeod (Adrian Paul)A 1990s TV series used the same basic ideas as the films, and was simply called Highlander: The Series. Its first episode was aired on October 6, 1992. The series centred on Connor MacLeod's younger Immortal "clansman" Duncan MacLeod (Adrian Paul). Connor (Christopher Lambert) made a guest appearance in the first episode to provide continuity. Highlander: The Raven was a series that took one of the characters in the previous live-action series, Amanda (Elizabeth Gracen), as its central character. She was accompanied by former police officer Nick Wolfe (Paul Johansson). The first episode was aired on November 7, 1998. A 2001 animated flash series, The Methos Chronicles, was an Internet Flash-series based on Methos (voiced by Peter Wingfield), a character drawn from the television show. This short-lived series lasted only one ten-episode season. Big Finish audios Big Finish Productions have announced that they will be releasing Highlander dramatic readings. The reading's format (like many of their other ranges) is one actor reading the script with another playing one other important part. The audios will star Adrian Paul as Duncan MacLeod and will be released monthly from June 2009. Four releases are available for pre-order at this time, more releases may be announced in the future. The four releases available for pre-order are, The Lesson by Trevor Baxendale Love and Hate by Colin Harvey The Secret of the Sword by Jonathan Clements Kurgan Rising by Cavan Scott & Mark Wright Stand-alone A 1994 animated series, Highlander: The Animated Series, was set in the far future, and featured the character of Quentin MacLeod, voiced by Miklos Perlus. A 2007 anime film, Highlander: The Search for Vengeance, featuring the immortal Colin MacLeod in the year 2187. Sci-Fi Channel. http://www.scifi.com/sfw/anime/sfw15995.html Other media The Best of Highlander: The Book by Maureen Russell. Highlander Novels, including a novelization of the first film by Garry Kilworth and a line of books based on the Series by various authors. The new Highlander comic book series from Dynamite Entertainment, featuring the creative team of Brandon Jerwa, Michael Avon Oeming (Red Sonja) and artist Lee Moder. This series takes place around the period of the first film, and was launched with an introductory-priced #0 issue. DYNAMITE-The Boys, Project Superpowers, Red Sonja, Army of Darkness, The Lone Ranger, Zorro & More! It was followed by Highlander: Way of the Sword. Highlander: The Original Scores, a compact disc set featuring music from the first three films. http://www.thelogbook.com/disc/e-h/highfilm.html Highlander: The Last of the MacLeods — a 1995 video game based on Highlander: The Animated Series, developed for the Atari Jaguar. Highlander: The Last of the MacLeods for Jaguar - MobyGames Highlander Video Game — a MMORPG video game has been announced, but after years of work was cancelled in pre-production. – Game announcement Highlander: The Game — an action game published by Eidos Interactive. Continuity To newcomers, the most confusing aspects of the franchise are the inconsistencies and paradoxes between the television series and the films. To explain the paradoxes presented, the entire Highlander franchise may be seen as completely separate storylines, occurring in alternate continuities. The common thread between the realities is the succession from the first film: The continuity of the original film and Highlander II, in which Connor spends his mortal life dedicated to solving the environmental problems of the Earth, until his immortality returns with the arrival of his old rival General Katana and his henchmen. The continuity of the first Highlander and Highlander III, which establishes that a group of Immortals — trapped in a cave centuries prior to The Gathering — escape after MacLeod's fight with the Kurgan, and the battle for The Prize resumes. Any continuity featuring the first film and/or a stand-alone spin-off, such as the 1994 animated series and Highlander: The Search for Vengeance. These are typically loose follow-ups to the original Highlander, at best. The continuity with a retconned Highlander, in which Connor does not win the prize, followed by the Highlander television series, "Highlander III", Highlander: The Raven, Highlander: Endgame, Highlander: The Source, and any subsequent sequels featuring Duncan MacLeod. In this reality, a large number of Immortals are still alive post-1985. In the final (and most prominent) continuity, Connor's battle with the Kurgan (as alluded to in the series pilot, and in one later episode) is simply viewed as the beginning of the Gathering, and not a final fight for "The Prize." The second film, as well as the stand-alone animated spin-offs, are not considered part of the TV series canon, and some debate exists as to the third film's inclusion — however, it was recently referenced in the ongoing Highlander comic book series, itself part of the TV universe. The comic series' canonicity status remains unclear, although writer/producer David Abramowitz is the series' chief creative consultant. "Michael Avon Oeming." Newsarama.com: Talking to Dynamite's Highlander Team. Retrieved 7 May 2007. References in Popular Culture In Adam McKay's popular 2006 comedy, Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby, the protagonist Nascar driver Ricky Bobby (Will Ferrel) remarks to his rival Jean Girard (Sasha Baron Cohen) that The Highlander is one of his favorite movies and that it "won the award." When asked which award it won, Bobby replies, deadpan, "for best movie ever." References See also List of Highlander cast members List of Highlander characters External links Highlander Official web site Highlander comics/comic publisher Dynamite Entertainment Unofficial Highlander WWW and Mailing list Archive Site Highlander Worldwide fan club web site | Highlander_(franchise) |@lemmatized connor:13 macleod:24 clan:2 christopher:3 lambert:3 highlander:61 film:29 television:7 franchise:4 begin:2 fantasy:1 movie:14 star:2 play:4 bear:1 glenfinnan:1 scottish:1 highland:2 century:4 one:17 number:3 immortal:17 year:4 five:1 two:3 series:32 animated:8 flash:3 ten:2 original:9 novel:2 seventeen:1 comic:6 book:5 issue:2 various:4 licensed:1 merchandise:1 first:15 become:2 direct:3 russell:4 mulcahy:5 release:11 march:1 tagline:1 feature:8 flashback:3 scene:2 establish:2 early:1 history:2 build:1 final:8 destiny:1 amongst:1 last:4 mysterious:1 mentor:1 fellow:3 juan:1 sánchez:1 villa:1 lobos:1 ramírez:3 sean:1 connery:1 learn:1 existence:1 occur:3 spontaneously:1 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4,528 | Anna_Kournikova | Anna Sergeyevna Kournikova (Russian: , Anna Sergeevna Kurnikova; born June 7 1981) is a semi-retired Russian professional tennis player and model. Her celebrity status made her one of the best known tennis players worldwide. At the peak of her fame, fans looking for images of Kournikova made her name one of the most common search strings on the Internet search engine Google. Although also successful in singles, reaching #8 in the world in 2000, Kournikova's specialty has been doubles, where she has at times been the world's number one-ranked player. With Martina Hingis as her partner, she won Grand Slam titles in Australia in 1999 and 2002. Kournikova's major-league tennis career has been curtailed for the past several years, and possibly ended, by serious back and spinal problems. Kournikova was born in Moscow in the former Soviet Union to Alla and Sergei Kournikov; she and her mother later emigrated to the United States. Currently, she resides in Miami Beach, Florida, and plays in occasional exhibitions and in doubles for the St. Louis Aces of World Team Tennis. Early life Anna was born in Moscow, Russia (Soviet Union then) on June 7, 1981. Her father, Sergei Kournikov was 20 at the time. About Anna Kournikova Sergei, a former Greco-Roman wrestling champion, had earned a Ph.D and was a professor at the University of Physical Culture and Sport in Moscow. As of 2001, he was still a part-time martial arts instructor there. Her mother Alla, a sturdily built blonde who was 18 when Anna was born, had been a 400-meter runner. Sergei said: "We were young and we liked the clean, physical life, so Anna was in a good environment for sport from the beginning." The family name is spelled in Russian without an "o", so a direct translation would be "Kurnikova", and it is sometimes written that way. But it is pronounced "Kournikova", so the family chose that as their English spelling. Anna received her first tennis racquet as a Christmas gift in 1986 at age 5. Anna says: "I played two times a week from age five. It was a children's program. And it was just for fun; my parents didn't know I was going to play professionally, they just wanted me to do something because I had lots of energy. It was only when I started playing well at seven that I went to a professional academy. I would go to school, and then my parents would take me to the club, and I'd spend the rest of the day there just having fun with the kids." Tennis career Early career In 1986, Anna became a member of the prestigious Spartak Tennis Club, coached by Larissa Preobraschenskaja. Anna Kournikova Official Website - About Me In 1989, at the tender age of eight, Anna began appearing in junior tournaments, and by the following year, was attracting attention from tennis scouts across the world. Anna signed a management deal at age ten and went to Bradenton, Florida to train at Nick Bollettieri's celebrated tennis academy. Following her arrival in the United States, Anna exploded onto the tennis scene, making her the internationally recognized tennis star she is today. At the age of 14, she went on to win the European Championships and the Italian Open Junior tournament. Anna also beat out the competition to win the prestigious Junior Orange Bowl, becoming the youngest player ever to win the 18 and under division at that tournament. By the end of the year, Anna was crowned the ITF Junior World Champion U-18 and Junior European Champion U-18. 1994–1996 In 1994, Anna Kournikova received a wild card into ITF tournament in Moscow qualifications, but lost to the third seed Sabine Appelmans. WTA Profile for Anna Kournikova Kournikova debuted in professional tennis at age 14 in the Fed Cup for Russia, the youngest player ever to participate and win. In 1995, she turned pro, and won two ITF titles, in Midland, Michigan and Rockford, Illinois. At age 15, she made her grand slam debut, when she reached the fourth round of the 1996 U.S. Open, only to be stopped by then-top ranked player, Steffi Graf, eventual champion. After this tournament, her ranking jumped from No. 144 to debut in Top 100 at No. 69. Kournikova was a member of the Russian delegation to the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1996, she was named WTA Newcomer of the Year, and she was ranked No. 57 in the end of the season. 1997 At the Australian Open, Anna Kournikova lost in the first round to World No. 12 Amanda Coetzer, 6–2, 6–2. She also reached the second round of the Pacific Life Open, when she was defeated by World No.3 Anke Huber in three sets (3–6, 6–2, 6–2). She played the fourth round of the Miami Open, when she lost to Jana Novotná in straight sets (6–3, 6–4). Novotná was the third seed at this tournament. She also lost to Coetzer in the second round of the Italian Open in three sets (6–2, 4–6, 6–1). Kournikova reached the quarterfinals of the WTA German Open to Mary Joe Fernandez in two sets, 6–1, 6–4. She then played at the French Open. She lost in the third round to the first seed Martina Hingis 6–1, 6–3. In 1997, Anna Kournikova became the second woman in the open era to reach the semifinals (her first on WTA Tour) in her Wimbledon debut (Chris Evert in 1972 was first). As a 16-year-old, she reached the semi-finals of Wimbledon, where she lost to the eventual champion, Martina Hingis by a score of 6–3, 6–2. En her route to the semifinals, she defeated the World No. 5 Iva Majoli, No. 10 Anke Huber and Barbara Rittner. She then lost in the first round of the Los Angeles Open to Anke Huber, and in the second round of the US Open to the 11th seed Irina Spîrlea. Her last 1997 tournament was Filderstadt, when she lost to Amanda Coetzer in the second round. Kournikova also played doubles. Her best results were the semifinals of the Italian Open (partnering Elena Likhovtseva) and the Los Angeles Open (partnering Ai Sugiyama). On May 19, she broke into the top 50, when she was ranked No. 48. At the end of the season, she was ranked No. 32 in singles and No. 41 in doubles. Anna Kournikova's Official Website - Tennis Stats 1998 Anna Kournikova| 1998 was her breakthrough year, when she broke into the WTA's top 20 rankings for the first time, when she was ranked No. 16. She also scored impressive victories over Martina Hingis, Lindsay Davenport, Steffi Graf and Monica Seles. Kournikova played at the Medibank International in Sydney, when she lost to Lindsay Davenport in the second round. She then reached the third round of the Australian Open where she lost to Martina Hingis in three sets (6–4, 4–6, 6–4). She lost in the second round of the Paris Open to World No.5 Anke Huber. Kournikova reached the semifinals in Hannover. She lost to Jana Novotná in two sets 6–3, 6–3. She again lost to Novotná in the quarterfinals in Linz, and to Conchita Martínez in the fourth round in Indian Wells. Kournikova reached her first WTA Tour final in Miami, where she lost to Venus Williams in three sets, even though she won the first set (2–6, 6–4, 6–1). She then played at Amelia Island, when she reached the quarter finals (lost to Lindsay Davenport). She then lost in the quarter finals of the Italian Open to Martina Hingis. She played the semifinals of the Italian Open, when she lost to Conchita Martínez. During this tournament, she defeated Arantxa Sánchez Vicario and Martina Hingis. Kournikova then played at the French Open. She lost to Jana Novotná in the fourth round. She then played in the semifinals at Eastbourne (lost to Sánchez Vicario). She then lost in the first, second, third and fourth rounds of the tournaments. Her last tournament was the WTA Championships, where she lost in the first round to Monica Seles. In 1998, Kournikova reached her first doubles final, partnering with Larisa Neiland. That was the final of the Paris Open, where they lost to Sabine Appelmans and Miriam Oremans in three sets 1–6, 6–3, 7–6(3). They also lost to Nathalie Tauziat and Alexandra Fusai in the final in Linz. Partnering Monica Seles, she won the Tokyo title. They defeated Mary Joe Fernandez and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario 6–4, 6–4. With Arantxa Sánchez Vicario, she lost to Lindsay Davenport and Natasha Zvereva in the finals at Filderstadt. At the end of the season, she was ranked #10 in doubles. 1999 At the end of the season, Anna Kournikova was ranked #12 in singles and #1 in doubles. Also at times during 1999, she was the most searched athlete in the world on Yahoo!, the premier search engine of the day. On January 31, Anna Kournikova and Martina Hingis won a grand slam title in women's doubles. They defeated Lindsay Davenport and Natasha Zvereva at the finals of the Australian Open. Kournikova played the finals at Hilton Head, where she lost to Hingis. She also played the semifinals in Oklahoma City (lost to Amanda Coetzer), Amelia Island (lost to Ruxandra Dragomir) and Eastbourne (lost to Nathalie Tauziat). She was more successful in doubles. Partnering Martina Hingis, she won the titles in Indian Wells, the Rome, Eastbourne and the WTA Championships, and played the finals of the French Open and Stanford (partnering with Elena Likhovtseva). At the end of the year, Anna Kournikova and Martina Hingis were presented with the WTA Award for Doubles Team of the Year. She lost in the final of the mixed doubles at Wimbledon, partnering Jonas Björkman. 2000 In 2000, Anna Kournikova broke into the top 10, reaching No. 8 in singles. She was also ranked #4 in doubles at the end of the season. In singles she reached the finals of the Kremlin Cup, where she lost to Martina Hingis. She also reached eight semifinals and seven quarter finals. She was again more successful in doubles. She played the finals of the mixed doubles at the US Open, partnering with Max Mirnyi. With Julie Halard-Decugis, she won the tournament in Gold Coast, Australia. Partnering with Barbara Schett, she reached the semifinals of the Australian Open. With Natasha Zvereva, she lost in the finals at Indian Wells. They also won at Hamburg. She lost in the finals at San Diego, partnering with Lindsay Davenport. With Martina Hingis, she won at Zürich, the Kremlin Cup, and at Philadelphia and the WTA Championships. 2001 This season was dominated by injury, including a left foot stress fracture which forced her withdrawal from twelve tournaments, including the French Open and Wimbledon. She underwent surgery in April. She reached her second career grand slam quarter finals, at the Australian Open. Kournikova then withdrew from several events due to continuing problems with her left foot and did not return until Leipzig. With Barbara Schett, she won the doubles title in Sydney. She then lost in the finals in Tokyo, partnering with Iroda Tulyaganova, and at San Diego, partnering with Martina Hingis. Hingis and Kournikova also won the Kremlin Cup. At the end of the 2001 season, she was ranked #74 in singles and #26 in doubles. 2002 In this season, Anna Kournikova was quite successful. She reached the semifinals of Auckland, Tokyo, Acapulco and San Diego, and the finals of Shanghai. She lost to Anna Smashnova. This was Kournikova's last singles finals and the last chance to win a single title. With Martina Hingis, Anna Kournikova lost in the finals of Sydney, but they won their second grand slam title together, Australian Open in women's doubles. They also lost in the quarterfinals of U.S. Open. With Chanda Rubin, Anna Kournikova played the semifinals of Wimbledon, but they lost to Serena and Venus Williams. Partnering Janet Lee, she won the Shangai title. At the end of 2002 season, she was ranked #35 in singles and #11 in doubles. 2003 In 2003, Anna Kournikova collected first grand slam match victory in two years at Australian Open. She defeated Henrieta Nagyová in the 1st round, and then lost to Justine Henin-Hardenne in the 2nd round. She withdrew from Tokyo due to sprained back suffered at Australian Open and did not return to Tour until Miami. Kournikova retired in the 1st round of Charleston due to left adductor strain. She reached the semifinals at ITF tournament in Sea Island, before withdrawing from match versus Maria Sharapova due to adductor injury. She lost in the 1st round of ITF tournament in Charlottesville. She did not compete for rest of season due to continuing back injury At the end of 2003 season and her professional career, she was ranked #305 in singles and #176 in doubles. Career summary Kournikova's two Grand Slam doubles titles came in 1999 and 2002, both at the Australian Open in the Women's Doubles event with partner Martina Hingis, with whom she played frequently starting in 1999. Kournikova proved a successful doubles player on the professional circuit, winning 16 tournament doubles titles, including two Australian Opens and being a finalist in mixed doubles at the U.S. Open and at Wimbledon, and reaching the No.1 ranking in doubles in the Women's Tennis Association tour rankings. Her pro career doubles record was 200–71. However, her singles career plateaued after 1999. For the most part, she managed to retain her ranking between 10 and 15 (her career high singles ranking was No.8), but her expected finals breakthrough failed to occur; she only reached four finals out of 130 singles tournaments, never in a Grand Slam event, and never won one. Her singles record is 209–129. Her final playing years were marred by a string of injuries, especially back injuries, which caused her ranking to erode gradually. Present Kournikova has not played on the WTA Tour since 2003, but still plays exhibition matches for charitable causes. In late 2004, she participated in three events organized by Elton John and by fellow tennis players Serena Williams and Andy Roddick. In January 2005, she played in a doubles charity event for the Indian Ocean tsunami with John McEnroe, Roddick, and Chris Evert. In November 2005, she teamed up with Martina Hingis, playing against Lisa Raymond and Samantha Stosur in the WTT finals for charity. Kournikova is also a member of the St. Louis Aces in the World Team Tennis (WTT), playing doubles only. In September 2008, Kournikova showed up for the 2008 Nautica Malibu Triathlon held at Zuma Beach in Malibu, California. Anna Kournikova showed up yesterday for the 2008 Nautica Malibu Triathlon The Race raised funds for children's Hospital Los Angeles. She won that race for women's K-Swiss team. On September 27, 2008, Kournikova played exhibition matches in Charlotte, North Carolina; she played two mixed doubles matches. Sport Mates Gallery: Mixed Doubles Exhibition in Charlotte, North Carolina She partnered Tim Wilkison and Karel Novacek. Kournikova and Wilkinson defeated Jimmy Arias and Chanda Rubin, and then Kournikova and Novacek defeated Chanda Rubin and Tim Wilkison. On October 12, 2008, Anna Kournikova played one exibitional match for the annual charity event, hosted by Billie Jean King and Sir Elton John, raised more than $400,000 for the Elton John AIDS Foundation and Atlanta AIDS Partnership Fund. The annual charity event raised more than $400,000 for the Elton John AIDS Foundation and Atlanta AIDS Partnership Fund She played doubles with Andy Roddick (they were coached by Sir Elton John) versus Martina Navratilova and Jesse Levine (coached by Billie Jean King); Kournikova and Roddick won 5–4(3). Kournikova competed alongside John McEnroe, Tracy Austin and Jim Courier at the Legendary Night, which was held on May 2, 2009, at the Turning Stone Event Center, Verona, NY. CNY. Big Time Tennis Names to CNY The legendary night of tennis consisted of a grudge match between McEnroe and Courier in singles followed by a mixed doubles match of McEnroe and Austin against Courier and Kournikova. She is the current K-Swiss spokesperson. In a feature for ELLE magazine's July 2005 issue, Kournikova stated that if she were 100% fit, she would like to come back and compete again. Playing style As a player, Kournikova was noted for her footspeed and aggressive baseline play, and excellent angles and dropshots; however, her relatively flat, high-risk groundstrokes tended to produce frequent errors, and her serve was sometimes unreliable in singles. Kournikova holds her racket in her right hand but uses both hands when she plays backhand shots. She is a good player at the net. She can hit forceful groundstrokes and also drop shots. Her playing style fits the profile for a doubles player, and is complemented by her height. Sweet Anna Kournikova - Biography She has been compared to such doubles specialists as Pam Shriver and Peter Fleming. Personal life Kournikova's marital status has been an issue on several occasions. There were conflicting rumors about whether she was engaged to ice hockey player Pavel Bure. There were reports that she married NHL ice hockey star Sergei Fedorov in 2001. Kournikova's representatives have denied this, but Fedorov stated in 2003 that the couple had married and since divorced. Kournikova started dating pop star Enrique Iglesias in late 2001, (in whose video, "Escape", she appeared), and rumors that the couple had secretly married appeared in 2003 and again in 2005. Kournikova herself has consistently refused to directly confirm or deny rumors about the status of her personal relationships. But, in May 2007, Enrique Iglesias was (mistakenly, as he would clarify later) quoted in the New York Sun that he had no intention to marry Anna and settle down because they had split up. The singer would later deny these rumors of "divorce" or simply separation. In June 2008, Iglesias told the Daily Star that he had married Kournikova the previous year and that they are currently separated. Enrique has stated in interviews after that that it was simply a joke, Iglesias says he was married to Diana Valiñas and they are still very much together. Media publicity Most of Kournikova's fame has come from the publicity surrounding her personal life, as well as numerous modeling shoots. During Kournikova's debut at the 1996 U.S. Open at the age of 15, the world noticed her beauty, and soon pictures of her appeared in numerous magazines worldwide. In 2000, Kournikova became the new face for Berlei's shock absorber sports bras, and appeared in the highly successful "only the ball should bounce" billboard campaign. Photographs of her scantily-clad form have appeared in various men's magazines, including one in the much-publicized 2004 Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue, where she posed in bikinis and swimsuits, and in other popular men's publications such as FHM and Maxim. Kournikova was named one of People's 50 Most Beautiful People in 1998, 2000, 2002, and 2003 and was voted "hottest female athlete" and "hottest couple" (with Iglesias) on ESPN.com. In 2002 she also placed first in FHM's 100 Sexiest Women in the World in U.S. and UK editions. By contrast, ESPN—citing the degree of hype as compared to actual accomplishments as a singles player—ranked Kournikova 18th in its "25 Biggest Sports Flops of the Past 25 Years". Kournikova was also ranked #1 in the ESPN Classic series "Who's number 1?" when the series featured sport's most overrated athletes. Anna's popularity has transcended Texas Hold 'em lingo, where the hole cards -King are often referred to as an "Anna Kournikova," not only because the hand shares the AK initials with the tennis star, but also because the hand has the reputation of not playing well. It's often said that a Kournikova hand "looks really good, but rarely wins." Ace King—Anna Kournikova: looks good, never wins Awards 1996: WTA Newcomer of the Year 1999: WTA Doubles Team of the Year (with Martina Hingis) 2002: ESPN Hottest Female Athlete Grand Slam doubles finals (3) Kournikova with Martina Hingis in Sydney in 2002 Wins (2) {| |- |width="50"|Year |width="175"|Championship |width="175"|Partnering |width="200"|Opponents in Final |width="100"|Score in Final |-bgcolor="#CCCCFF" |1999||Australian Open|| Martina Hingis|| Lindsay Davenport Natasha Zvereva||7–5, 6–3 |-bgcolor="#CCCCFF" |2002||Australian Open <small>(2)|| Martina Hingis|| Daniela Hantuchová Arantxa Sánchez Vicario||6–2, 6–7, 6–1 |} Runner-up (1) Year |width="175"|ChampionshipPartnering |width="200"|Opponents in semi finalScore in Final |-bgcolor="#EBC2AF" |1999||French Open|| Martina Hingis|| Serena Williams Venus Williams||6–3, 6–7, 8–6 |} Grand Slam mixed doubles finals (2) Wins (0) Runner-ups (2) {| |- |width="50"|YearChampionship |width="175"|PartneringOpponents in Final |width="100"|Score in Final1999Wimbledon Jonas Björkman Leander Paes Lisa Raymond 6–4, 3–6, 6–32000U.S. Open Max Mirnyi Jared Palmer Arantxa Sánchez Vicario 6–4, 6–3 WTA Tour and ITF Circuit titles (16) Singles (2) Legend Tier I (0) Tier II (0) Tier III (0) Tier IV (0) Grand Slam (0) WTA Tour Championship (0) ITF Circuit (2) #DateTournamentSurfaceOpponent in FinalScore in Final 1. February 26, 1996 ITF / Midland, Michigan, the U.S. Hard Lindsay Lee-Waters 7–6(2), 6–1 2. March 15, 1996 ITF / Rockford, Illinois, the U.S. Hard Yuka Yoshida 6–1, 6–4 Doubles (16) Legend Tier I (4) Tier II (6) Tier III (1) Tier IV (1) Grand Slam (2) WTA Tour Championship (2) ITF Circuit (0) No. Date Tournament Surface Partnering Opponents in the final Score 1. September 27, 1998 Tokyo, Japan Hard Monica Seles Mary Joe Fernández & Arantxa Sánchez Vicario 6–4 6–4 2. January 30, 1999 Australian Open, Melbourne Hard Martina Hingis Lindsay Davenport & Natasha Zvereva 7–5, 6–3 3. March 14, 1999 Indian Wells, California, the U.S. Hard Martina Hingis Mary Joe Fernández & Jana Novotná 6–2, 6–2 4. May 9, 1999 Rome, Italy Clay Martina Hingis Alexandra Fusai & Nathalie Tauziat 6–2, 6–2 5. June 20, 1999 Eastbourne, England Grass Martina Hingis Jana Novotná & Natasha Zvereva 6–4, ret. 6. November 21, 1999 New York City, New York, the U.S. Carpet Martina Hingis Larisa Neiland & Arantxa Sánchez Vicario 6–4, 6–4 7. 01-03-00 Gold Coast, Australia Hard Julie Halard Sabine Appelmans & Rita Grande 6–3, 6–0 8. May 7, 2000 Hamburg, Germany Clay Natasha Zvereva Nicole Arendt & Manon Bollegraf 65–7, 6–2, 6–4 9. October 8, 2000 Filderstadt, Germany Hard (I) Martina Hingis Arantxa Sánchez Vicario & Barbara Schett 6–4, 6–2 10. October 15, 2000 Zürich, Switzerland Carpet Martina Hingis Kimberly Po & Anne-Gaëlle Sidot 6–3, 6–4 11. November 12, 2000 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the U.S. Carpet Martina Hingis Lisa Raymond & Rennae Stubbs 6–2, 7–5 12. November 19, 2000 New York City, New York, the U.S. Carpet Martina Hingis Nicole Arendt & Manon Bollegraf 6–2, 6–3 13. January 14, 2001 Sydney, Australia Hard Barbara Schett Lisa Raymond & Rennae Stubbs 6–2, 7–5 14. October 7, 2001 Moscow, Russia Carpet Martina Hingis Elena Dementieva & Lina Krasnoroutskaya 7–61, 6–3 15. January 27, 2002 Australian Open, Melbourne Hard Martina Hingis Daniela Hantuchová & Arantxa Sánchez Vicario 6–2, 64–7, 6–1 16. September 15, 2002 Shanghai, China Hard Janet Lee Ai Sugiyama & Rika Fujiwara 7–5, 6–3 WTA Tour and ITF Circuit finals (18) Singles (4) Legend Tier I (3) Tier II (0) Tier III (0) Tier IV (1) Grand Slam (0) WTA Tour Championship (0) ITF Circuit (0) No. Date Tournament Surface Opponent in the final Score1. March 29, 1998 Key Brisbane, Florida, the U.S. Hard Venus Williams 6–2, 1–6, 4–6 2. April 4, 1999 Hilton Head, South Carolina, the U.S. Clay Martina Hingis 3–6, 4–6 3. October 29, 2000 Moscow, Russia Carpet Martina Hingis 3–6, 1–6 4. September 15, 2002 Shanghai, China Hard Anna Smashnova 2–6, 3–6 Doubles (12) Legend Tier I (3) Tier II (7) Tier III (1) Tier IV (0) Grand Slam (1) WTA Tour Championship (0) ITF Circuit (0) No. Date Tournament Surface Partnering Opponents in the final Score 1. September 24, 1995 Moscow, Russia Carpet Aleksandra Olsza Meredith McGrath Larisa Neiland 0–6, 1–6 2. February 15, 1998 Paris, France Hard Larisa Neiland Sabine Appelmans Miriam Oremans 6–1, 3–6, 7–6(3) 3. March 1, 1998 Linz, Austria Hard Larisa Neiland Alexandra Fusai Nathalie Tauziat 3–6, 6–3, 4–6 4. October 11, 1998 Filderstadt, Germany Hard Arantxa Sánchez Vicario Lindsay Davenport Natasha Zvereva 4–6, 2–6 5. June 6, 1999 French Open, Paris Clay Martina Hingis Serena Williams Venus Williams 3–6, 7–6(2), 6–8 6. August 11, 1999 Stanford, California, the U.S. Hard Elena Likhovtseva Lindsay Davenport Corina Morariu 4–6, 4–6 7. March 19, 2000 Indian Wells, California, the U.S. Hard Natasha Zvereva Lindsay Davenport Corina Morariu 2–6, 3–6 8. August 6, 2000 San Diego, California, the U.S. Hard Lindsay Davenport Lisa Raymond Rennae Stubbs 6–4, 3–6, 6(6)–7 9. October 29, 2000 Moscow, Russia Carpet Martina Hingis Julie Halard-Decugis Ai Sugiyama 6–4, 4–6, 6(5)–7 10. February 4, 2001 Tokyo, Japan Carpet Iroda Tulyaganova Lisa Raymond Rennae Stubbs 6(5)–7, 6–2, 6(6)–7 11. August 5, 2001 San Diego, California, the U.S. Hard Martina Hingis Cara Black Elena Likhovtseva 4–6, 6–1, 4–6 12. January 13, 2002 Sydney, Australia Hard Martina Hingis Lisa Raymond Rennae Stubbs w/o Mixed doubles (2) No. Date Tournament Surface Partnering Opponents in the final Score 1. July 5, 1999 Wimbledon, London Grass Jonas Björkman Leander Paes Lisa Raymond 4–6, 6–3, 3–6 2. September 11, 2000 U.S. Open, Flushing Meadows Hard Max Mirnyi Arantxa Sánchez Vicario Jared Palmer 4–6, 3–6 Singles performance timeline Tournament 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Career SR Career W-LAustralian OpenAA1R3R4R4RQF1R2R0 / 713–7French OpenAA3R4R4R2RA1RA0 / 59–5WimbledonAASFA4R2RA1RA0 / 49–4U.S. OpenA4R2R4RA3RA1RA0 / 59–5Grand Slam SR0 / 00 / 10 / 40 / 30 / 30 / 40 / 10 / 40 / 10 / 21N/AGrand Slam Win-Loss0–03–18–48–39–37–44–10–41–1N/A40–21WTA Tour ChampionshipsAAAAASFAAA0 / 00–0TokyoAAAAQFQFSFSFA0 / 49–4Indian WellsAA2R3R1R3RA2RA0 / 54–5MiamiAA4RF4R4RA1R1R0 / 612–6CharlestonAAAAF3RA1R1R0 / 45–4BerlinAAQFSF1R2RAAA0 / 47–4RomeAA2RQF3RAA3RA0 / 48–4Montreal/TorontoAAA3RA3RA3RA0 / 35–3Moscow12R2RA1RAF1R2RA0 / 66–5ZurichA2RA1RAQF1RAA0 / 42–4Finals reached000111010N/A4Tournaments Won000000000N/A |align="center"|0|- bgcolor="#efefef" |Hardcourt Win-Loss |align="center"|0–0 |align="center"|7–3 |align="center"|6–6 |align="center"|23–12 |align="center"|11–7 |align="center"|26–13 |align="center"|6–6 |align="center"|18–13 |align="center"|1–3 |align="center"|N/A |align="center"|98–63 |- bgcolor="#efefef" |Clay Win-Loss |align="center"|0–0 |align="center"|0–0 |align="center"|6–3 |align="center"|12–4 |align="center"|13–5 |align="center"|6–5 |align="center"|0–0 |align="center"|6–8 |align="center"|0–2 |align="center"|N/A |align="center"|43–27 |- bgcolor="#efefef" |Grass Win-Loss |align="center"|0–0 |align="center"|0–0 |align="center"|5–1 |align="center"|3–0 |align="center"|6–2 |align="center"|2–2 |align="center"|0–0 |align="center"|0–2 |align="center"|0–0 |align="center"|N/A |align="center"|16–7 |- bgcolor="#efefef" |Carpet Win-Loss |align="center"|1–1 |align="center"|1–2 |align="center"|0–0 |align="center"|2–3 |align="center"|5–5 |align="center"|13–9 |align="center"|4–4 |align="center"|4–1 |align="center"|0–0 |align="center"|N/A |align="center"|30–25 |- bgcolor="#efefef" |Overall Win-Loss|align="center"|1–1|align="center"|8–5|align="center"|17–10|align="center"|40–19|align="center"|35–19|align="center"|47–29|align="center"|10–10|align="center"|28–24|align="center"|1–5|align="center"|N/A |align="center"|187–122² |- bgcolor="#efefef" |Year End Ranking|align="center"|281|align="center"|57|align="center"|32|align="center"|13|align="center"|12|align="center" style="background:#EEE8AA;"|8|align="center"|74|align="center"|35|align="center"|305|align="center"|N/A|align="center"|N/A A = did not participate in the tournament SR = the ratio of the number of singles tournaments won to the number of those tournaments played 1 The Moscow tournament achieved Tier I from 1997. ² If ITF women's circuit and Fed Cup participations are included, overall win-loss record stands at 209–129'. See also World TeamTennis, currently playing for the St. Louis Aces. BooksAnna Kournikova by Susan Holden (2001) (ISBN 9781842224168 / ISBN 1842224166)Anna Kournikova (Women Who Win)'' by Connie Berman (2001) (ISBN 0791065294 / ISBN 978-0791065297) References External links Official Website Anna Kournikova Virgin Media Sport gallery Annasquare - Anna Kournikova Gallery Anna Kurnikova. 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4,529 | Politics_of_Cambodia | The politics of Cambodia formally takes place according to the nation's constitution (enacted in 1993) in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic monarchy, whereby the Prime Minister of Cambodia is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the National Assembly of Cambodia and the Senate Executive branch |King |Norodom Sihamoni | |14 October 2004 |- |Prime Minister |Hun Sen |CPP |1985 |} National Micro Finance Summit, Phom Penh 2007 The Prime Minister of Cambodia is a representative from the ruling party of the National Assembly. He or she is appointed by the King on the recommendation of the President and Vice Presidents of the National Assembly. In order for a person to become Prime Minister, he or she must first be given a vote of confidence by the National Assembly. The Prime Minister is officially the Head of Government in Cambodia. Upon entry into office, he or she appoints a Council of Ministers who are responsible to the Prime Minister. Officially, the Prime Minister's duties include chairing meetings of the Council of Ministers (Cambodia's version of a Cabinet) and appointing and leading a government. The Prime Minister and his government make up Cambodia's executive branch of government. The current Cambodian Prime Minister is Cambodian's People Party (CPP) member Hun Sen. He has held this position since the criticized 1998 election, one year after the CPP staged a bloody coup in Phnom Penh http://cambodia.ohchr.org/Documents/Statements%20and%20Speeches/English/40.pdf http://www.hri.org/docs/statedep/1997/97-07-08.std.html to overthrow elected Prime Minister Prince Norodom Ranariddh, president of the FUNCINPEC party. Legislative branch The legislative branch of the Cambodian government is made up of a bicameral parliament. The National Assembly of Cambodia (Radhsaphea ney Preah Reacheanachak Kampuchea) has 123 members, elected for a five-year term by proportional representation. The Senate (Sénat) has 61 members. Two of these members are appointed by the King, two are elected by the lower house of the government, and the remaining fifty-seven are elected popularly by "functional constituencies." Members in this house serve a five-year term. The official duty of the Parliament is to legislate and make laws. Bills passed by the Parliament are given to the King who gives the proposed bills Royal Assent. The King does not have veto power over bills passed by the National Assembly (the lower house) and, thus, cannot withhold Royal Assent. The National Assembly also has the power to dismiss the Prime Minister and his government by a two-thirds vote of no confidence. Senate The upper house of the Cambodian legislature is called the Senate. It consists of sixty-one members. Two of these members are appointed by the King, two are elected by the lower house of the government, and the remaining fifty-seven are elected popularly by "functional constituencies." Members in this house serve six year terms. Elections were last held for the Senate in 1999. New elections were supposed to have occurred in 2004, but these elections were initially postponed. On January 22, 2006, 11,352 possible voters went to the poll and chose their candidates. This election was criticized by local monitoring non-governmental organizations as being undemocratic. , the Cambodian People's Party holds forty-three seats in the Senate, constituting a significant majority. The two other major parties holding seats in the Senate are the Funcinpec party (holding twelve seats) and the Sam Rainsy Party (holding two seats). National Assembly The lower house of the legislature is called the National Assembly. It is made up of 123 members, elected by popular vote to serve a five-year term. Elections were last held for the National Assembly in 2003, with the next elections scheduled for July 2008. In order to vote in legislative elections, one must be at least eighteen years of age. However, in order to be elected to the Legislature, one must be at least twenty-five years of age. The National Assembly is led by a President and two Vice Presidents who are selected by Assembly members prior to each session. , the Cambodian People's Party holds a majority of the seats in the National Assembly, controlling seventy-three out of the 123 seats. The Funcinpec party holds twenty-six seats, while the Sam Rainsy Party holds the remaining twenty-four seats. Political parties and elections Latest elections 2003-07-27 National Assembly Elections Results Political Parties # seats won # valid votes CPP 73 2,447,259FUNCINPEC 26 1,072,313 Sam Rainsy Party 24 1,130,423Others 0 518,842Total 123 5,168,837 Source: http://www.necelect.org.kh/English/ElectionResult/Result_2003/Result_2003.html 2006-01-22 Senate Elections Results Political Parties # seats won # votes estimated CPP 43 7,854 FUNCINPEC 9 2,320 Sam Rainsy Party 2 1,165Total 54 11,352 Sources: List of Senators Ruling party wins Cambodia poll Judicial branch The judicial branch is independent from the rest of the government, as specified by the Cambodian Constitution. The highest court of judicial branch is the Supreme Council of the Magistracy. Other, lower courts also exist. Until 1997, Cambodia didn't have a judicial branch of government despite the nation's Constitution requiring one. The main duties of the judiciary are to prosecute criminals, settle lawsuits, and, most importantly, protect the freedoms and rights of Cambodian citizens. However, in reality, the judicial branch in Cambodia is highly corrupt and often serves as a tool of the executive branch to silence civil society and its leaders. Monarchy Cambodia is a constitutional monarchy, i.e. the King reigns but does not rule, in similar fashion to Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. The King is officially the Head of State and is the symbol of unity and "eternity" of the nation, as defined by Cambodia's constitution. From September 24 1993 through October 7 2004, Norodom Sihanouk reigned as King, after having previously served in a number of offices (including King) since 1941. Under the Constitution, the King has no political power, but as Norodom Sihanouk was revered in the country, his word often carried much influence in the government. For example, in February 2004, he issued a proclamation stating that since Cambodia is a "liberal democracy," the Kingdom should allow gay marriage. While such views aren't prevalent in Cambodia, his word was respected by his subjects. The King, often irritated over the conflicts in his government, several times threatened to abdicate unless the political factions in the government got along. This put pressure on the government to solve their differences. This influence of the King was often used to help mediate differences in government. After the abdication of King Norodom Sihanouk in 2004, he was succeeded by his son Norodom Sihamoni. While the retired King is highly revered in his country for dedicating his lifetime to Cambodia, the current King has spent most of his life abroad in France. Thus, it remains to be seen whether the new King's views will be as highly respected as his father's. Although in the Khmer language there are many words meaning "king", the word officially used in Khmer (as found in the 1993 Cambodian Constitution) is preahmâhaksat (Khmer regular script:), which literally means: preah- ("sacred", cognate of the Indian word Brahmin) -mâha- (from Sanskrit, meaning "great", cognate with "maha-" in maharaja) -ksat ("warrior, ruler", cognate of the Indian word Kshatriya). On the occasion of HM King Norodom Sihanouk's retirement in September 2004, the Cambodian National Assembly coined a new word for the retired king: preahmâhaviraksat (Khmer regular script:), where vira comes from Sanskrit vīra, meaning "brave or eminent man, hero, chief", cognate of Latin vir, viris, English virile. Preahmâhaviraksat is translated in English as "King-Father" (), although the word "father" does not appear in the Khmer noun. As preahmâhaviraksat, Norodom Sihanouk retains many of the prerogatives he formerly held as preahmâhaksat and is a highly respected and listened-to figure. Thus, in effect, Cambodia can be described as a country with two Kings: the one who is the Head of State, the preahmâhaksat Norodom Sihamoni, and the one who is not the Head of State, the preahmâhaviraksat Norodom Sihanouk. Succession to the Throne Unlike most monarchies, Cambodia's monarchy isn't necessarily hereditary and the King is not allowed to select his own heir. Instead, a new King is chosen by a Royal Council of the Throne, consisting of the president of the National Assembly, the Prime Minister, the Chiefs of the orders of Mohanikay and Thammayut, and the First and Second Vice-President of the Assembly. The Royal Council meets within a week of the King's death or abdication and selects a new King from a pool of candidates with royal blood. It has been suggested that Cambodia's ability to peacefully appoint a new King shows that Cambodia's government has stabilized incredibly from the situation the country was in during the 1970s (see History of Cambodia). International organization participation ACCT, AsDB, ASEAN, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), International Monetary Fund, Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, NAM, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WB, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) Provincial and local governments Below the central government are 24 provincial and municipal administration. Private Solutions for Infrastructure in Cambodia: A Country Framework Report. World Bank (2002), p65. ISBN 0821350765. (In rural areas, first-level administrative divisions are called provinces; in urban areas, they are called municipalities.) The administrations are a part of the Ministry of the Interior and their members are appointed by the central government. Provincial and municipal administrations participate in the creation of nation budget; they also issue land titles and license businesses. Since 2002, commune-level governments (commune councils) have been composed of members directly elected by commune residents every five years. Untitled Document In practice, the allocation of responsibilities between various levels of government is uncertain. This uncertainty has created additional opportunities for corruption and increased costs for investors. Resources Constitution of Cambodia References External links Global Integrity Report: Cambodia reports on corruption and anti-corruption in Cambodia Royalty King of Cambodia, Norodom Sihamoni Official Website of King Norodom Sihamoni King of Cambodia, Norodom Sihanouk Official Website of former King Norodom Sihanouk Official Cambodia.gov.kh Official Royal Government of Cambodia Website (English Version) (Cambodia.gov.kh Khmer Version) CDC Council for the Development of Cambodia Conseil Constitutionnel du Cambodge Constitution council of Cambodia Department of Fisheries Food Security and Nutrition Information System Cambodia Ministry of Commerce Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts Ministry of Economy and Finance Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport Ministry of Environment Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications Ministry of Public Works and Transport Ministry of Tourism NiDA National Information Communications Technology Development Authority NIS National Institute of Statistics of 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4,530 | Book_of_Genesis | The Book of Genesis (Greek: Γένεσις, "birth", "origin") or Bereshit (Hebrew: בְּרֵאשִׁית, "in the beginning" ) is the first book of the Hebrew Bible/Christian Old Testament, and the first of five books of the Jewish Torah or Pentateuch. The book is written in the form of a history, its narrative runs from the creation of the world to the descent of the children of Israel into Egypt, and it contains some of the best-known biblical stories, including Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, Noah's Ark, the Tower of Babel, and the biblical Patriarchs. For Jews the theological importance of Genesis centers on the Covenants linking God to his Chosen People and the people to the Promised Land. Christianity has reinterpreted Genesis as the prefiguration of Christian beliefs, notably the Christian view of Christ as the new Adam and the New Testament as the culmination of the covenants. Structurally, Genesis consists of the "primeval history" (chapters 1-11) and cycles of Patriarchal stories - Abraham, Isaac and Jacob/Israel. http://www.annettereed.com/RS-2VV3/handout1.pdf The narrative of Joseph stands apart from these. Scholars believe that it reached its final form in the 5th century BC, with a previous history of composition reaching back possibly to the 10th century. Title In Hebrew the book is called Bereshit, meaning "in the beginning", from the first word of the Hebrew text, in line with the other four books of the Torah. When the Bible was translated into Greek in the 3rd century BC to produce the Septuagint, the name given was Genesis, meaning "birth" or "origin". This was in line with the Septuagint use of subject themes as book names. The Greek title has continued to be used in all subsequent Latin and English versions of the book, and most other languages. Summary Rolf Rendtorff's division of Genesis into a primeval history and Patriarchal cycles - Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph - is followed here for convenience in organising the summary.Primeval history "When God Genesis uses the words YHWH and Elohim (and El) for God; the combined form in Gen.2 and 3,YHWH Elohim, usually translated as " God", although used commonly throughout the Old Testament, is unique here in Genesis to these two chapters. began to create heaven and earth, and the earth then was welter and waste and darkness over the deep and God's breath hovering over the waters, God said, 'Let there be light.' and there was light"(Genesis chapter 1:3) Robert Alter, 2004, The Five Books of Moses, New York: W.W. Norton & Company page 17. The first verse of Genesis is ambiguous, and can equally be translated as: "When God set about the Create the heaven and the earth - the world being then a formless waste, with darkness over the seas and only an awesome wind sweeping over the water, God said, "Let there by light.' And there was light." (E.A. Speiser, Tha Anchor Bible: Genesis New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell.) ; the "firmament" separating "the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament;" dry land and seas and plants and trees which grew fruit with seed; the sun, moon and stars in the firmament; air-breathing sea creatures, fishes and birds; and on the sixth day, "the beasts of the earth according to their kinds." "Then God said, Let us make man in our image ... in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them." The Hebrew for "man" can have the generalized meaning of "mankind", but creates problems with rendering pronouns in English translation. On Sabbath, God rests from the task of completing the heavens and the earth: "So God blessed the seventh day and hallowed it, because on it God rested from all his work which he had done in creation." Adam and Eve by Titian God forms Adam "from the dust of the ground...and man became a living being." "The Hebrew term נֶפֶשׁ (nefesh, “being”) is often translated “soul,” but the word usually refers to the whole person. The phrase נֶפֶשׁ חַיַּה (nefesh khayyah, “living being”) is used of both animals and human beings." Netbible (see fn. 4) God sets the man in the Garden of Eden and permits him to eat of all the fruit within it, except that of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, "for in the day that you eat of it you shall die." God makes "every beast of the field and every bird of the air, ... and whatever the man called each living creature, that was its name ... but for the man there was not found a helper fit for him." God causes the man to sleep, and makes a woman from one of his ribs, and the man awakes and names his companion Woman, "because she was taken out of Man." Ishah, woman, and ish, man "And the man and his wife were both naked, and were not ashamed." Genesis 2. The serpent tells the woman that she will not die if she eats the fruit of the tree: "When you eat of it your eyes will be opened, and you will be like God, The Hebrew is in the plural: "You shall be as gods." knowing good and evil." So the woman eats and gives to the man who also eats. "Then the eyes of both were opened, and they knew that they were naked; and they sewed fig leaves together and made themselves aprons." God curses the serpent: "upon your belly you shall go, and dust you shall eat all the days of your life;" the woman he punishes with pain in childbirth and with subordination to man: "your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you;" and the man he punishes with a life of toil: "In the sweat of your face you shall eat bread till you return to the ground." The man names his wife Eve, Hebrew Havva, "life". "because she was the mother of all living". "Behold", says God, "the man has become like one of us, knowing good and evil," and expels the couple from Eden, "lest he put forth his hand and take also of the tree of life, and eat, and live for ever." The gate of Eden is sealed by a cherub and a flaming sword "to guard the way to the tree of life." Genesis 3. Adam and Eve have two sons, Cain and Abel, the first a farmer, the second a shepherd. Each bring an offering to God, but God rejects Cain's offering. Cain murders Abel, and God then curses Cain: "When you till the ground, it shall no longer yield to you its strength; you shall be a fugitive and a wanderer on the earth." Cain fears that whoever meets him will kill him, but God places a mark on Cain to protect him, with the promise that "if any slays Cain, vengeance shall be taken on him sevenfold." Cain settles in the land of Nod, Literally, "in the land of Wandering". "away from the presence of the Lord." Genesis 4. The descendants of Cain are Enoch, Irad, Mehujael, Methushael, and Lamech. Seth is born to replace Abel. The generations of Adam are described, including Enoch, who "walked with God...[and] was no more, for God took him", The meaning of this phrase at Genesis 5:24 was the subject of much discussion in later Jewish literature, being taken by the rabbinic commentators to mean that Enoch did not die. Methuselah, and Noah. The antediluvian Patriarchs are notable for their extreme longevity, with Methuselah living 969 years. The list ends with the birth of Noah's sons, from whom all humanity is descended. Genesis 5. God sets the days of man at 120 years. The text seems to imply that God is limiting the human lifespan to 120 years, as reached by Moses; but many individuals after this point are recorded as living longer, and later Jewish commentators interpreted the passage to mean that God was giving mankind 120 years to repent before sending the Flood. "The Nephilim were on the earth in those days, and also afterward, when the sons of God came in to the daughters of men, and they bore children to them. These were the mighty men that were of old, the men of renown." Genesis 6. The term Nephilim is mentioned in Genesis, Enoch and Jubilees as applying to a pre-Flood race; but in Numbers 13:33 the Hebrew scouts sent to spy out the Promised Land report them as living there. References to "post-Flood Nephilim" gave rise to Talmudic traditions that their forebear, Og of Bashan, had survived the Deluge by clinging to the outside of the Ark. Angered by the wickedness of mankind, God selects Noah, Hebrew "Rest": Noah's father Lamech gives this name to his son saying, "Out of the ground which the Lord has cursed this one shall bring us relief from our work and from the toil of our hands." (Gen.5:29) "a righteous man, blameless in his generation," and commands him to build an Ark, and to take on it his family and representatives of the animals. Genesis 6. God destroys the world with a Flood, Genesis 7. and Genesis 8. and afterwards enters into a covenant with Noah and his descendants, the entire human race, promising never again to destroy mankind in this way. Genesis 9. God forbids the eating of flesh with blood, "that is, its life," still in it, forbids murder, and institutes the death penalty for murderers; in return, God promises never again to visit a deluge upon all the world, and places the first rainbow in the clouds as a sign of the covenant. Noah plants a vineyard, drinks wine, and falls into a drunken sleep. Ham "uncovers his fathers nakedness," and Noah places a curse on Ham's son Canaan, saying that he and all his descendants shall henceforth be slaves to Ham's brothers Shem and Japheth Genesis 9. The seventy generations of the descendants of Noah are named, "and from these the nations spread abroad on the earth after the flood." Genesis 10. Men decide to build "a tower with its top in the heavens" in the land of Shinar, "lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth." God fears the ambition of mankind: "This is only the beginning of what they will do; and nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them. Come, let us go down, and there confuse their language, that they may not understand one another's speech." And so mankind is scattered over the face of the earth, and the city "was called Babel, because there the Lord confused the language of all the earth." Hebrew Babal, "confusion"; but if the story is based on the ziggurat of Babylon the etymology is incorrect, as the Akkadian "Babilu", the English Babylon, means "Gate of God". Genesis 11. The Generations of Shem brings the biblical genealogy down to the generation of Abraham. Genesis 12. Abraham Terah leaves Ur of the Chaldees with his son Abram, Hebrew ab, "father", plus ram, "exalted". Abram's wife Sarai, and his nephew Lot, the son of Abram's brother Haran, towards the land of Canaan. They settle in the city of Haran, where Terah dies. God commands Abram, "Go from your country and your kindred and your father's house to the land that I will show you, and I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and him who curses you I will curse; and by you all the families of the earth shall bless themselves." So Abram and his people and flocks journey to the land of Canaan, where God appears to Abram and says, "To your descendants I will give this land. Abram is forced by famine to go into Egypt, where Pharaoh takes possession of his wife, the beautiful Sarai, who Abram has misrepresented as his sister. God strikes the king and his house with plagues, so that he returns Sarai and expels Abram and all his people from Egypt. Abram returns to Canaan and separates from Lot in order to put an end to disputes about pasturage. He gives Lot the valley of the Jordan River, as far as Sodom, whose people "were wicked, great sinners against the ." To Abram God says, "Lift up your eyes, and look ... for all the land which you see I will give to you and to your descendants for ever. I will make your descendants as the dust of the earth; so that if one can count the dust of the earth, your descendants also can be counted. Arise, walk through the length and the breadth of the land, for I will give it to you." Genesis 13. Lot is taken prisoner during a war between the King of Shinar An inexact location, but roughly equivalent to the lands of the Tigris and Euphrates. and the King of Sodom and their allies, "four kings against five." Abram rescues Lot and is blessed by Melchizedek, king of Salem (the future Jerusalem) and "priest of God Most High". Abram refuses the King of Sodom's offer of the spoils of victory, saying: "I have sworn to the God Most High, maker of heaven and earth, that I would not take a thread or a sandal-thong or anything that is yours, lest you should say, `I have made Abram rich.'" Genesis 14. God makes a covenant See Fire pot#Early Jewish Symbol of God with Abram, promising that Abram's descendants shall be as numerous as the stars in the heavens, that they shall suffer oppression in a foreign land for four hundred years, but that they shall inherit the land "from the river of Egypt to the great river, the river Euphrates." Genesis 15. The "river of Egypt", traditionally identified not with the Nile but with Wadi el Arish in the Sinai, and the Euphrates, represent the supposed bounds of Israel at its height under Solomon. Sarai, being childless, tells Abram to take his Egyptian handmaiden, Hagar, as wife. Hagar becomes pregnant with Ishmael, Hebrew Yishmael, "God will hear". and God appears to her to promise that the child will be "a wild donkey of a man, his hand against every man and every man's hand against him," whose descendants "cannot be numbered." Genesis 16. God makes a covenant with Abram: Abram will have a numerous progeny and the possession of the land of Canaan, and Abram's name is changed to "Abraham" The name Abraham has no meaning in Hebrew. It is traditionally supposed to signify "Father of Multitudes," although the Hebrew for this would be "Abhamon". and that of Sarai to "Sarah," and circumcision of all males is instituted as an external sign of the covenant. Abraham asks of God that Ishmael "might live in Thy sight," but God replies that Sarah will bear a son, who will be named Isaac, Hebrew Yitzhak, "he laughed," sometimes rendered as "he rejoiced" - three explanations of the name are given, the first in this chapter where Abraham laughs when told that Sarah will bear a son. and that it is with Isaac and his descendants that the covenant will be established. "As for Ishmael, I have heard you; behold, I will bless him and make him fruitful and multiply him exceedingly; he shall be the father of twelve princes, and I will make him a great nation. But I will establish my covenant with Isaac." Genesis 17. God appears again to Abraham. Three strangers Often translated as "angels", but the Hebrew refers to men. appear, and Abraham receives them hospitably. God tells him that Sarah will shortly bear a son, and Sarah, overhearing, laughs: "After I have grown old, and my husband is old, shall I have pleasure?" The second explanation of the name Isaac - in the first, at chapter 17, it is Abraham who laughs. God tells Abraham that he will punish Sodom, "because the outcry against Sodom and Gomorrah is great and their sin is very grave." The strangers depart. Abraham protests that it is not just "to slay the righteous with the wicked," and asks if the whole city can be spared if even ten righteous men are found there. God replies: "For the sake of ten I will not destroy it." Genesis 18. Abraham's intercession on behalf of the people of Sodom is the foundation of the important Jewish tradition of righteousness. The two Genesis 18 describes three messengers, Genesis 19 two. The traditional gloss is that God was one of the three who came to Abraham and stayed with him while the other two went on to Sodom. messengers are hospitably received by Lot. The men of Sodom surround the house and called to Lot, "Where are the men who came to you tonight? Bring them out to us, so that we may know them." Lot offers his two virgin daughters in place of the messengers, but the men refuse. Lot and his family are led out of Sodom, and Sodom and Gomorrah are destroyed by fire-and-brimstone; but Lot's wife, looking back, is turned to a pillar of salt. Lot's daughters, fearing that they will not find husbands and that Lot's line will die out, make their father drunk and lie with him; their children become the ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites. Genesis 19. Abraham represents Sarah as his sister before Abimelech, Literally, "father-king", apparently a title. king of Gerar. God visits a curse of barrenness upon Abimelech and his household and warns the king that Sarah is Abraham's wife, not his sister. Abimelech restores Sarah to Abraham, loads them both with gifts and sends them away. Genesis 20. Isaac Sarah gives birth to Isaac, saying, "God has made laughter for me, everyone who hears will laugh over me." At Sarah's insistence Ishmael and his mother Hagar are driven out into the wilderness. When Ishmael is near dying, an angel speaks to Hagar and promises that God will not forget them but will make of Ishmael a great nation; "Then God opened her eyes, and she saw a well of water; and she went, and filled the skin with water, "... And God was with the lad, and he grew up..." Abraham enters into a covenant with Abimelech, who confirms his right to the well of Beer-sheba. Genesis 21. God tests Abraham by commanding that he sacrifice Isaac. Abraham obeys; but, as he is about to lay the knife upon his son, God restrains him, promising him numberless descendants. Genesis 22. On the death of Sarah, Abraham purchases Machpelah for a family tomb Genesis 23. and sends his servant to Mesopotamia, Nahor's home, to find among his relations a wife for Isaac; and Rebekah, Nahor's granddaughter, is chosen. Genesis 24. Other children are born to Abraham by another wife, Keturah, among whose descendants are the Midianites; and he dies in a prosperous old age and is buried in his tomb at Hebron. Genesis 25. Jacob Isaac's wife Rebekah is barren, but Isaac prays to God, and she gives birth to the twins Esau, Hebrew Esau, "made" or "completed". and Jacob. Hebrew Yaakov, from a root meaning "crooked, bent", usually interpreted as meaning "heel" - according to the narrative he was born second, holding Esau's heel. The precise meaning is unclear. Isaac represents Rebekah as his sister before Abimelech, king of Gerar. Abimelech learns of the deception and is angered. Isaac is fortunate in all his undertakings in that country. His prosperity excites the jealousy of Abimelech, who sends him away; but the king sees that Isaac is blessed by God and makes a covenant with him at the well of Beer-sheba. Genesis 26. Jacob deceives his father Isaac and obtains the blessing of prosperity "May God give you of the dew of heaven, and of the fatness of the earth, and plenty of grain and wine. 29: Let peoples serve you, and nations bow down to you. Be lord over your brothers, and may your mother's sons bow down to you. Cursed be every one who curses you, and blessed be every one who blesses you!" (Genesis 27:28-29) which should have been Esau's. Fearing Esau's anger he flees to Haran, the home of his mother's brother Laban. Genesis 27. Isaac, prohibiting Jacob from marrying a Canaanite woman, tells him to go and marry one of Laban's daughters. On the way, Jacob falls asleep on a stone and dreams of a ladder stretching from Heaven to Earth and thronged with angels, and God promises him prosperity and many descendants; and when he awakes Jacob sets the stone as a pillar Traditionally the place where this pillar is erected is identified as the site of the Holy of Holies within the Jewish Temple at Jerusalem. and names the place Bethel. Genesis 28. The name Bethel in Hebrew and related West Semitic languages means "House of El;" in later Jewish tradition the name was taken to mean "House of God." Jacob hires himself to Laban on condition that, after having served for seven years as a herdsman, he shall marry the younger daughter, Rachel, with whom he is in love. At the end of this period Laban gives him the elder daughter, Leah, explaining that it is the custom to marry the elder before the younger. Jacob does get to marry Rachel at the same time, but to be allowed to leave with her he must serve another seven years. During the next seven years, he has sons by his two wives and their two handmaidens, the ancestors of the tribes of Israel. Jacob then works another seven years, deceiving Laban to increase his flocks at his uncle's expense, and gains great wealth in sheep, goats, camels, donkeys and slave-girls. Jacob Wrestling with the Angel by Alexander Louis Leloir. Jacob flees with his family and flocks from Laban; Laban pursues and catches him, but God warns Laban not to harm Jacob, and they are reconciled. Genesis 31. On approaching his home he is in fear of Esau, to whom he sends presents under the care of his servants, and then sends his wives and children away. "And Jacob was left alone; and a man wrestled with him until the breaking of the day." Literally, "a stranger," traditionally interpreted as an angel or as God. Neither Jacob nor the stranger can prevail, but the man touches Jacob's thigh<ref>Hebrew wayyiga bekap-yereko. This is usually translated as "struck (or touched) the hollow of his thigh"; but yerek is also applied to male or female genitals, suggesting that the intended meaning is that the stranger seized Jacob's scrotum, and Jacob's subsequent injury can be construed as a hernia rather than a dislocated hip or thigh. See [http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eeslinger/pub/art/deut25.vt31.pdf Lyle Eslinger, "The Case of an Immodest Lady Wrestler", Vetus Testamentum, XXXI 3 (1981), pp273-274]</ref> and pleads to be released before daybreak, but Jacob refuses to release the being until he agrees to give a blessing; the stranger then announces to Jacob that he shall bear the name "Israel", "for you have striven with God and with men, and have prevailed." Hebrew Yisrael, "He will struggle with God;" but the second part of the quoted verse can be translated as: "for you have become great (sar) before God and men," implying that "Israel" means "He will be great (sar) before God." and is freed. "The sun rose upon him as he passed Penuel, Penuel or Peniel, literally "Face of God" - the sentence connects the mysterious stranger and the following passage about the meeting with Esau. limping because of his thigh." Genesis 32. The meeting with Esau proves friendly, and the brothers are reconciled: "to see your face is like seeing the face of God," is Jacob's greeting. The brothers part, and Jacob settles near the city of Shechem. Genesis 33. Jacob's daughter Dinah goes out, and "Shechem the son of Hamor the Hivite, the prince of the land, saw her, he seized her and lay with her and humbled her". This passage is traditionally taken to mean that Shechem raped rather than seduced Dinah, but the text is not conclusive. Shechem asks Jacob for Dinah's hand in marriage, but the sons of Jacob deceive the men of Shechem and slaughter them and take captive their wives and children and loot the city. Jacob is angered that his sons have brought upon him the enmity of the Canaanites, but his sons say, "Should he treat our sister as a harlot?" Genesis 34. Jacob goes up to Bethel; there "God said to him, Your name is Jacob; no longer shall your name be called Jacob, but Israel shall be your name. So his name was called Israel"; and Jacob sets up a stone pillar at the place and names it Bethel. He goes up to his father Isaac at Hebron, and there Isaac dies and is buried. Genesis 35. Joseph Jacob makes a coat of many colours Hebrew Kethoneth passim This is traditionally translated as "coat of many colours", but can also mean long sleeves, or embroidered. Whatever translation is chosen, it means a royal garment. for his favourite son, Joseph. Jacob's son Judah takes a Canaanite wife and has two sons, Er and Onan; Er dies, and his widow Tamar, disguised as a prostitute, tricks Judah into having a child by her (Onan, who should have fathered the child, refused). She gives birth to twins, the elder of whom is Pharez, ancestor of the future royal house of David. Joseph's jealous brothers sell him to some Ishmaelites and show Jacob the coat, dipped in goat's blood, as proof that Joseph is dead. Meanwhile the Midianites The merchants are described first as Ishmaelites and later as Midianites. There have been many attempts to reconcile the discrepancy. sell Joseph to Potiphar, the captain of Pharaoh's guard, Genesis 37. but Potiphar's wife, unable to seduce Joseph, accuses him falsely, and he is cast into prison. [ Genesis 39.] Here he correctly interprets the dreams of two of his fellow prisoners, the king's butler and baker. Genesis 40. Joseph next interprets the dream of Pharaoh, of seven fat cattle and seven lean cattle, as meaning seven years of plenty followed by seven years of famine, and advises Pharaoh to store grain during the good years. He is appointed second in the kingdom, and, in the ensuing famine, "all the earth came to Egypt to Joseph to buy grain, because the famine was severe over all the earth." Genesis 41. Jacob sends his sons to Egypt to buy grain. The brothers appear before Joseph, who recognizes them but does not reveal himself. After having proved them on this and on a second journey, and they having shown themselves so fearful and penitent that Judah even offers himself as a slave, Joseph reveals his identity, forgives his brothers the wrong they did him, and he promises to settle in Egypt both them and his father Genesis 42-45. Jacob brings his whole family to Egypt, where Pharaoh assigns to them the land of Goshen. Genesis 46-47. Jacob receives Joseph's sons Ephraim and Manasseh among his own sons, Genesis 48. then calls his sons to his bedside and reveals their future to them. Genesis 49. Jacob dies and is interred in the family tomb at Machpelah (Hebron). Joseph lives to see his great-grandchildren, and on his death-bed he exhorts his brethren, if God should remember them and lead them out of the country, to take his bones with them. The book ends with Joseph's remains being "put in a coffin in Egypt." Genesis 50. The Book of Joshua describes the later burial of Joseph's bones in Shechem following the Exodus from Egypt. Text, structure and composition Bereshit aleph, or the first chapter of Genesis, written on an egg, which is kept in the Israel Museum. Text The oldest extant Biblical manuscripts (mss) of Genesis are the 24 fragments found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, dating from the few centuries immediately prior to the Christian era. The next oldest manuscripts are the Greek Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus based on the Septuagint and produced by the early Christian church in the 4th century AD. The Masoretic Text which forms the basis of Jewish worship today, is also the youngest of these manuscripts, dating from around 1000 AD. Also worthy of note are the Samaritan and Syriac translations, whose manuscripts are not as old as the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Septuagint, but preserve noteworthy differences which are pointers to the history both of the text and of the communities which produced them. Structure Scholars generally accept the division of Genesis into the Primeval History of Genesis 1-11, the Patriarchal cycles of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and the story of Joseph. The "primeval history" consists of three narrative units separated by two genealogies and an ethnography (or ethno-geography): First narrative: Creation-Eden Genealogy: descendants of Cain and Seth Second narrative: "Sons of God"-Noah-Curse of Ham Ethnography (Table of Nations) Third narrative: Tower of Babel, dispersal of peoples Genealogy: Descendants of Seth to Abraham The highly artificial and literary character of this unit makes it unlikely that any oral traditions lie behind it, and indeed its literary origins have long been identified in the corpus of Babylonian myths, especially the Enuma Elish. A Greek influence has also been discerned - the Table of Nations is apparently based on a 7th century Greek work by Hecataeus. The Patriarchal cycles, in contrast, show strong signs of oral origins. Martin Noth has suggested that the three began as separate cycles, with the Abraham and Isaac stories linking up before being joined by the Jacob cycle. The Joseph story presents a strong contrast to the first three Patriarchal stories - for example, God never appears to Joseph in person or offers him guidance as he does with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, nor is there any mention of the Covenant. These factors, plus the fact that the story is presented as a tightly structured narrative rather than the loose collections of tales which form the three Patriarchal cycles, led Martin Noth to regard it as a consciously contrived fiction the so-called "Joseph novella", added to provide a connection between the Patriarchal stories, which take place in Canaan, and the Exodus story, which begins in Egypt. Composition For much of the 20th century, academic scholarship on the origins of Genesis was dominated by the documentary hypothesis advanced by Julius Wellhausen in the late 19th century. This sees Genesis as a composite work assembled from originally independent sources: the J text, named for its use of the term YHWH (JHWH in German) as the name of God; the E text, named for its characteristic usage of the term "Elohim" for God; and the P, or Priestly source, named for its preoccupation with the Aaronid priesthood. These texts were composed independently between 950 BC and 500 BC and underwent numerous processes of redaction, emerging in their current form in around 450 BC. Several anomalous sources not traceable to any of the three major documents have been identified, notably Genesis 14 (the battle of Abraham and the "Kings of the East"), and the "Blessing of Jacob" contained in the Joseph narrative. One such work, the Book of Generations, was used by the Redactor (final editor of the Pentateuch) to provide the narrative framework for Genesis, ten occurrences of the toledot (Hebrew "generations") formula introducing ten units of the book. See Frank Moore Cross, The Priestly Work, in "Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic", 1973. The toledot are: The generations of the heavens and the earth (2:4). The generations of Adam (5:1). The generations of Noah (6:9). The generations of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the sons of Noah (10:1). The generations of Shem (11:10). The generations of Terah (11:27). The generations of Ishmael (25:12). The generations of Isaac (25:19). The generations of Esau (36:1, 9). The generations of Jacob (37:2). For centuries, Moses had been believed to have been the author of Genesis, and Wellhausen's hypothesis was thus received by traditionally-minded Jews and Christians as an attack on one of their central beliefs. But in the first half of the 20th century the science of Biblical archaeology, developed by William F. Albright and his followers, combined with the new methods of biblical scholarship known as source criticism and tradition history, developed by Hermann Gunkel, Robert Alter and Martin Noth, seemed to demonstrate that the stories of Genesis (or, at least, the stories of the Patriarchs; the early part of Genesis—from the Creation to the Tower of Babel—which were already regarded as legendary by mainstream scholarship) were based in genuinely ancient oral tradition grounded in the material culture of the 2nd millennium BC. Thus by the middle of the 20th century it seemed that archaeology and scholarship had reconciled Wellhausen with a modified version of authorship by Moses. See Gordon Wenham, "Pentateuchal Studies Today", Themelios 22.1, October 1996. This consensus was challenged in the 1970s by the publication of two books, Thomas L. Thompson's "The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives" (1974), and John Van Seters's "Abraham in History and Tradition" (1975), both of which pointed out that the archaeological evidence connecting the author of Genesis to the 2nd millennium BC could equally well apply to the 1st millennium, and that oral traditions were not nearly so easily recoverable as Gunkel and others had said. A third influential work, R. N. Whybray's "The Making of the Pentateuch" (1987), analysed the assumptions underlying Wellhausen's work and found them illogical and unconvincing, and William G. Dever attacked the philosophical foundations of Albrightean biblical archaeology, arguing that it was neither desirable nor possible to use the bible to interpret the archaeological record. The theories currently being advanced can be divided into three: 1). Revisions of Wellhausen's documentary model, of which Richard Elliot Friedman's is one of the better known; Richard Elliot Friedman, "The Bible with Sources Revealed", 2003. 2). Fragmentary models such as that of R. N. Whybray, who sees the Torah as the product of a single author working from a multitude of small fragments rather than from large coherent source texts; R. N. Whybray, "The Making of the Pentateuch: A Methodological Study", JSOT Press, Sheffield, 1987. , 3). Supplementary models such as that advanced by John Van Seters, who sees in Genesis the gradual accretion of material over many centuries and from many hands. John Van Seters, "Abraham in History and Tradition", Yale University Press, ISBN, 1975. The 19th century dating of the final form of Genesis and the Pentateuch to c. 500-450 BC continues to be widely accepted irrespective of the model adopted,but with greater respect being made to the ancient nature of the majority of the material. For an overview of current critical theories on the origins of the Pentateuch, see Source Analysis: Revisions and Alternatives. For a more detailed treatment, see "An overlooked message: the critique of kings and affirmation of equality in the primeval history" from Biblical Theology Bulletin, Winter 2006. although a minority of scholars known as biblical minimalists argue for a date largely or entirely within the last two centuries BC. Alongside these new approaches to the history of the text has come an increasing interest in the way the narratives tell their stories, concentrating not on the origins of Genesis but on its meaning, both for the society which produced it and for the modern day, placing "a new emphasis on the narrative's purpose to shape audiences' perceptions of the world around them and to instruct them in how to live in this world and relate to its God." "What's New in Interpreting Genesis", 1995 Themes The Flammarion woodcut portrays the cosmos as described in Genesis chapter 1. The religion of the Patriarchs In 1929 Albrecht Alt proposed that the Hebrews arrived in Canaan at different times and as different groups, each with its nameless "gods of the fathers," In time these gods were assimilated with the Canaanite El, and names such as "El, God of Israel" emerged. The "God of Abraham" then became identified with the "God of Isaac" and so on. Finally "Yahweh" was introduced in the Mosaic period. The authors of Genesis, living in a later period when Yahweh had become the only God, partly obscured and partly preserved this history in their attempt to demonstrate that the patriarchs shared their own monotheistic worship of Yahweh. According to Alt, the theology of the earliest period and of later fully-developed monotheistic Judaism were nevertheless identical: both Yahweh and the tribal gods revealed himself/themselves to the patriarchs, promised them descendants, and protected them in their wanderings; they in turn enjoyed a special relationship with their god, worshipped him, and established holy places in his honour. In 1934 Julius Lewy, drawing on the recently discovered Ugarit texts, argued that the "God of Abraham" was not anonymous, but was probably El Shaddai, "El of the Mountain", El being identified with a mythical holy mountain. The name Shaddai, however, remains mysterious, and has also been identified with both a specific city and with a Hebrew root meaning "breast". See Biblical Studies Org. and David Biale, "The God With Breasts: El Shaddai in the Bible, 1982. In 1962 Frank Moore Cross concluded that the name Yahweh developed as one of the many epithets of El: "El the creator, he who causes to be." For Cross the continuity between El and Yahweh explained how the other El-names could continue to be used in Genesis, and why Baal - in Canaanite mythology a rival to El who gradually took over the father-god's position - was regarded with such hostility. Frank Moore Cross, "Yahweh and the God of the Patriarchs, 1962 and 1973. More recently, Mark S. Smith has returned to the Ugarit texts to show how polytheism "was a feature of Israelite religion down through the end of the Iron Age and how monotheism emerged in the seventh and sixth centuries." Mark S. Smith, "The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts", 2002. Review of "Origins of Biblical Monotheism", Journal of Hebrew Scriptures, Vol.). In contrast to this picture of a Canaanite background to Genesis, Lloyd R. Bailey (1968) and E.L. Abel (1973) have suggested that Abraham worshipped Sin the Amorite moon-god of Harran, pointing, among other things, to Abraham's association with Harran and , both centres of the cult of Sin, to the epithet "Father of the gods" applied to Sin (comparable to Abram's name, "Exalted Father") and to the close similarity between names associated with Abraham and with Sin: Sarah/Sarratu (Sin's wife); Milcah/Malkatu (Sin's daughter); and Terah/Ter (a name of Sin). Lloyd Bailey, "Israelite El Sadday and Amorite Bel Sade" and E.L. Abel, "The Nature of the Patriarchal God El Sadday". M. Haran has also distinguished between Canaanite and Patriarchal religion, pointing out that the Patriarchs never worship at existing shrines but build their own, fitting a semi-nomadic lifestyle. He also points to the invocation of Shaddai by Baalam and the identification of the Patriarchal God with the "sons of Eber" in Genesis 10:21 as evidence that their god was not originally Canaanite. Gordon Wenham has pointed out that Il/El is a well-known member of the third-millennium Mesopotamian pantheon, concluding: "Whether El was ever identified with the moon god is uncertain. To judge from the names of Abraham's relations and the cult of his home town, his ancestors at least were moon-god worshippers. Whether he continued to honour this god identifying him with El, or converted to El, is unclear." Gordon J. Wenham, "The Religion of the Patriarchs" Covenants The covenants are integral to the understanding not only of Genesis but also of the entire Bible. Robertson, O. Palmer, The Christ of the Covenants" Kenneth Kitchen has shown that the form of the contracts with their blessings and curses are datable along with the geo-political context, the price of slaves and the common law precedent. "Yet it has long been recognised that many of the promises are not original parts of the stories in which they are found."J.A. Emerton, "The Origin of the Promises to the Patriarchs in the Older Sources of the Book of Genesis". Otto Eissfeldt, an early scholar of the Ugarit texts, recognised that in Ugarit the promise of a son was given to kings together with promises of blessing and numerous descendants, a clear parallel to the pattern of Genesis. Claus Westermann, (1964 and 1976), analysing the Genesis covenants in the light of Ugarit and Icelandic sagas, came to the conclusion that the Patriarchal stories were usually lacking any promises in their original form. Westermann saw the promise of a son in Genesis 16:11 and 18:1-15 as genuine, as well as the promise of land behind 15:7-21 and 28:13-15; the rest he saw as representing later editors. Westermann distinguished four types of promise: a son; descendents; blessing; land. He regarded promises as early if they were not combined and if they were intrinsic to the narrative. Rolf Rendtorff accepts Westermann's thesis that the Patriarchal stories were originally independent, and suggests that the promises were added to link the stories of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob into cycles which grew through a process of gradual accretion into the final book. John Van Seters, in contrast, sees Genesis as a late and unified composition, from which it is impossible to excise the Covenants without doing damage to the overall narrative. Summarised from "The Patriarchs: History and Religion". although it does refer to certain creation dictation See also Allegorical interpretations of Genesis Biblical Patriarchs Creation according to Genesis Creation myth Dating the Bible Framework interpretation (Genesis) Genesis Rabba Kabbalah Creation Tanakh The Bible and history Weekly Torah portions in Genesis: Bereishit, Noach, Lech-Lecha, Vayeira, Chayei Sarah, Toledot, Vayetze, Vayishlach, Vayeshev, Miketz, Vayigash, Vayechi Wife-sister narratives in Genesis Notes Further reading Umberto Cassuto, From Noah to Abraham. Eisenbrauns, 1984. ISBN (A scholarly Jewish commentary.) Isaac M. Kikawada & Arthur Quinn, Before Abraham was – The Unity of Genesis 1-11. Nashville, Tenn., 1985. (A challenge to the Documentary Hypothesis.) Nehama Leibowitz, New Studies in Bereshit, Genesis. Jerusalem: Hemed Press, 1995. (A scholarly Jewish commentary employing traditional sources.) Henry M. Morris, The Genesis Record: A Scientific and Devotional Commentary on the Book of Beginnings. Baker Books, 1981. ISBN (A creationist Christian commentary.) Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (now Pope Benedict XVI), In the Beginning. Edinburgh, 1995. (A Catholic understanding of the story of Creation and Fall.) Jean-Marc Rouvière, Brèves méditations sur la création du monde. L'Harmattan Paris, 2006. Nahum M. Sarna, Understanding Genesis. New York: Schocken Press, 1966. (A scholarly Jewish treatment, strong on historical perspective.) Nahum M. Sarna, The JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989. (A mainstream Jewish commentary.) E. A. Speiser, Genesis, The Anchor Bible. Volume 1. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1964. (A translation with scholarly commentary and philological notes by a noted Semitic scholar. The series is written for laypeople and specialists alike.) Bruce Vawter, On Genesis: A New Reading. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Co., 1977. (An introduction to Genesis by a fine Catholic scholar. Genesis was Vawter's hobby.) Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg, The Beginning of Desire: Reflections on Genesis. New York: Doubleday, 1995. (A scholarly Jewish commentary employing traditional sources.) See the Genesis Reading Room (Tyndale Seminary) for extensive links to online commentaries and monographs on Genesis. External links Online texts and translations of Genesis Bereshit with commentary in Hebrew בראשית Bereishit - Genesis (Hebrew - English at Mechon-Mamre.org) Hebrew Audiobook of Genesis from Librivox Young's Literal Translation (YLT) New International Version (NIV) New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) Westminster-Leningrad codex Aleppo Codex | Book_of_Genesis |@lemmatized book:18 genesis:107 greek:6 γένεσις:1 birth:6 origin:10 bereshit:5 hebrew:31 ב:1 ר:1 אש:1 ית:1 beginning:6 first:13 bible:10 christian:7 old:9 testament:3 five:3 jewish:14 torah:5 pentateuch:6 write:3 form:10 history:16 narrative:16 run:1 creation:9 world:6 descent:1 child:9 israel:11 egypt:12 contain:2 best:1 know:9 biblical:13 story:18 include:2 adam:7 eve:4 cain:11 abel:6 noah:13 ark:3 tower:4 babel:4 patriarch:12 jew:2 theological:1 importance:1 center:1 covenant:17 link:5 god:102 chosen:1 people:8 promised:2 land:20 christianity:1 reinterpret:1 prefiguration:1 belief:2 notably:2 view:1 christ:2 new:16 culmination:1 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4,531 | Immune_system | A scanning electron microscope image of a single neutrophil (yellow), engulfing anthrax bacteria (orange). An immune system is a collection of biological processes within an organism that protects against disease by identifying and killing pathogens and tumour cells. It detects a wide variety of agents, from viruses to parasitic worms, and needs to distinguish them from the organism's own healthy cells and tissues in order to function properly. Detection is complicated as pathogens can evolve rapidly, producing adaptations that avoid the immune system and allow the pathogens to successfully infect their hosts. To survive this challenge, multiple mechanisms evolved that recognize and neutralize pathogens. Even simple unicellular organisms such as bacteria possess enzyme systems that protect against viral infections. Other basic immune mechanisms evolved in ancient eukaryotes and remain in their modern descendants, such as plants, fish, reptiles, and insects. These mechanisms include antimicrobial peptides called defensins, phagocytosis, and the complement system. Vertebrates such as humans have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms. The immune systems of vertebrates consist of many types of proteins, cells, organs, and tissues, which interact in an elaborate and dynamic network. As part of this more complex immune response, the human immune system adapts over time to recognise specific pathogens more efficiently. This adaptation process is referred to as "adaptive immunity" or "acquired immunity" and creates immunological memory. Immunological memory created from a primary response to a specific pathogen, provides an enhanced response to secondary encounters with that same, specific pathogen. This process of acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination. Disorders in the immune system can result in disease. Immunodeficiency diseases occur when the immune system is less active than normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections. Immunodeficiency can either be the result of a genetic disease, such as severe combined immunodeficiency, or be produced by pharmaceuticals or an infection, such as the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) that is caused by the retrovirus HIV. In contrast, autoimmune diseases result from a hyperactive immune system attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign organisms. Common autoimmune diseases include Hashimoto's Thyroiditis, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus type 1 and lupus erythematosus. Immunology covers the study of all aspects of the immune system which has significant relevance to human health and diseases. Further investigation in this field is expected to play a serious role in promotion of health and treatment of diseases. Layered defense The immune system protects organisms from infection with layered defenses of increasing specificity. Most simply, physical barriers prevent pathogens such as bacteria and viruses from entering the organism. If a pathogen breaches these barriers, the innate immune system provides an immediate, but non-specific response. Innate immune systems are found in all plants and animals. However, if pathogens successfully evade the innate response, vertebrates possess a third layer of protection, the adaptive immune system, which is activated by the innate response. Here, the immune system adapts its response during an infection to improve its recognition of the pathogen. This improved response is then retained after the pathogen has been eliminated, in the form of an immunological memory, and allows the adaptive immune system to mount faster and stronger attacks each time this pathogen is encountered. + Components of the immune systemInnate immune systemAdaptive immune system Response is non-specific Pathogen and antigen specific response Exposure leads to immediate maximal response Lag time between exposure and maximal response Cell-mediated and humoral components Cell-mediated and humoral components No immunological memory Exposure leads to immunological memory Found in nearly all forms of lifeFound only in jawed vertebrates Both innate and adaptive immunity depend on the ability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self molecules. In immunology, self molecules are those components of an organism's body that can be distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system. Smith A.D. (Ed) Oxford dictionary of biochemistry and molecular biology. (1997) Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854768-4 Conversely, non-self molecules are those recognized as foreign molecules. One class of non-self molecules are called antigens (short for antibody generators) and are defined as substances that bind to specific immune receptors and elicit an immune response. Surface barriers Several barriers protect organisms from infection, including mechanical, chemical and biological barriers. The waxy cuticle of many leaves, the exoskeleton of insects, the shells and membranes of externally deposited eggs, and skin are examples of the mechanical barriers that are the first line of defense against infection. However, as organisms cannot be completely sealed against their environments, other systems act to protect body openings such as the lungs, intestines, and the genitourinary tract. In the lungs, coughing and sneezing mechanically eject pathogens and other irritants from the respiratory tract. The flushing action of tears and urine also mechanically expels pathogens, while mucus secreted by the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract serves to trap and entangle microorganisms. Chemical barriers also protect against infection. The skin and respiratory tract secrete antimicrobial peptides such as the β-defensins. Enzymes such as lysozyme and phospholipase A2 in saliva, tears, and breast milk are also antibacterials. Vaginal secretions serve as a chemical barrier following menarche, when they become slightly acidic, while semen contains defensins and zinc to kill pathogens. In the stomach, gastric acid and proteases serve as powerful chemical defenses against ingested pathogens. Within the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts, commensal flora serve as biological barriers by competing with pathogenic bacteria for food and space and, in some cases, by changing the conditions in their environment, such as pH or available iron. This reduces the probability that pathogens will be able to reach sufficient numbers to cause illness. However, since most antibiotics non-specifically target bacteria and do not affect fungi, oral antibiotics can lead to an “overgrowth” of fungi and cause conditions such as a vaginal candidiasis (a yeast infection). There is good evidence that re-introduction of probiotic flora, such as pure cultures of the lactobacilli normally found in unpasteurized yoghurt, helps restore a healthy balance of microbial populations in intestinal infections in children and encouraging preliminary data in studies on bacterial gastroenteritis, inflammatory bowel diseases, urinary tract infection and post-surgical infections. Innate Microorganisms or toxins that successfully enter an organism will encounter the cells and mechanisms of the innate immune system. The innate response is usually triggered when microbes are identified by pattern recognition receptors, which recognize components that are conserved among broad groups of microorganisms, or when damaged, injured or stressed cells send out alarm signals, many of which (but not all) are recognized by the same receptors as those that recognize pathogens. Innate immune defenses are non-specific, meaning these systems respond to pathogens in a generic way. This system does not confer long-lasting immunity against a pathogen. The innate immune system is the dominant system of host defense in most organisms. Humoral and chemical barriers Inflammation Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection. The symptoms of inflammation are redness and swelling, which are caused by increased blood flow into a tissue. Inflammation is produced by eicosanoids and cytokines, which are released by injured or infected cells. Eicosanoids include prostaglandins that produce fever and the dilation of blood vessels associated with inflammation, and leukotrienes that attract certain white blood cells (leukocytes). Common cytokines include interleukins that are responsible for communication between white blood cells; chemokines that promote chemotaxis; and interferons that have anti-viral effects, such as shutting down protein synthesis in the host cell. Growth factors and cytotoxic factors may also be released. These cytokines and other chemicals recruit immune cells to the site of infection and promote healing of any damaged tissue following the removal of pathogens. Complement system The complement system is a biochemical cascade that attacks the surfaces of foreign cells. It contains over 20 different proteins and is named for its ability to “complement” the killing of pathogens by antibodies. Complement is the major humoral component of the innate immune response. Many species have complement systems, including non-mammals like plants, fish, and some invertebrates. In humans, this response is activated by complement binding to antibodies that have attached to these microbes or the binding of complement proteins to carbohydrates on the surfaces of microbes. This recognition signal triggers a rapid killing response. The speed of the response is a result of signal amplification that occurs following sequential proteolytic activation of complement molecules, which are also proteases. After complement proteins initially bind to the microbe, they activate their protease activity, which in turn activates other complement proteases, and so on. This produces a catalytic cascade that amplifies the initial signal by controlled positive feedback. The cascade results in the production of peptides that attract immune cells, increase vascular permeability, and opsonize (coat) the surface of a pathogen, marking it for destruction. This deposition of complement can also kill cells directly by disrupting their plasma membrane. Cellular barriers A scanning electron microscope image of normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several knobby white blood cells including lymphocytes, a monocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Leukocytes (white blood cells) act like independent, single-celled organisms and are the second arm of the innate immune system. The innate leukocytes include the phagocytes (macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells), mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, and natural killer cells. These cells identify and eliminate pathogens, either by attacking larger pathogens through contact or by engulfing and then killing microorganisms. Innate cells are also important mediators in the activation of the adaptive immune system. Phagocytosis is an important feature of cellular innate immunity performed by cells called 'phagocytes' that engulf, or eat, pathogens or particles. Phagocytes generally patrol the body searching for pathogens, but can be called to specific locations by cytokines. Once a pathogen has been engulfed by a phagocyte, it becomes trapped in an intracellular vesicle called a phagosome, which subsequently fuses with another vesicle called a lysosome to form a phagolysosome. The pathogen is killed by the activity of digestive enzymes or following a respiratory burst that releases free radicals into the phagolysosome. Phagocytosis evolved as a means of acquiring nutrients, but this role was extended in phagocytes to include engulfment of pathogens as a defense mechanism. Phagocytosis probably represents the oldest form of host defense, as phagocytes have been identified in both vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Neutrophils and macrophages are phagocytes that travel throughout the body in pursuit of invading pathogens. Neutrophils are normally found in the bloodstream and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, normally representing 50% to 60% of the total circulating leukocytes. During the acute phase of inflammation, particularly as a result of bacterial infection, neutrophils migrate toward the site of inflammation in a process called chemotaxis, and are usually the first cells to arrive at the scene of infection. Macrophages are versatile cells that reside within tissues and produce a wide array of chemicals including enzymes, complement proteins, and regulatory factors such as interleukin 1. Macrophages also act as scavengers, ridding the body of worn-out cells and other debris, and as antigen-presenting cells that activate the adaptive immune system. Dendritic cells (DC) are phagocytes in tissues that are in contact with the external environment; therefore, they are located mainly in the skin, nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines. They are named for their resemblance to neuronal dendrites, as both have many spine-like projections, but dendritic cells are in no way connected to the nervous system. Dendritic cells serve as a link between the bodily tissues and the innate and adaptive immune systems, as they present antigen to T cells, one of the key cell types of the adaptive immune system. Mast cells reside in connective tissues and mucous membranes, and regulate the inflammatory response. They are most often associated with allergy and anaphylaxis. Basophils and eosinophils are related to neutrophils. They secrete chemical mediators that are involved in defending against parasites and play a role in allergic reactions, such as asthma. Natural killer (NK cells) cells are leukocytes that attack and destroy tumor cells, or cells that have been infected by viruses. Adaptive The adaptive immune system evolved in early vertebrates and allows for a stronger immune response as well as immunological memory, where each pathogen is "remembered" by a signature antigen. The adaptive immune response is antigen-specific and requires the recognition of specific “non-self” antigens during a process called antigen presentation. Antigen specificity allows for the generation of responses that are tailored to specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells. The ability to mount these tailored responses is maintained in the body by "memory cells". Should a pathogen infect the body more than once, these specific memory cells are used to quickly eliminate it. Lymphocytes The cells of the adaptive immune system are special types of leukocytes, called lymphocytes. B cells and T cells are the major types of lymphocytes and are derived from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. B cells are involved in the humoral immune response, whereas T cells are involved in cell-mediated immune response. Association of a T cell with MHC class I or MHC class II, and antigen (in red) Both B cells and T cells carry receptor molecules that recognize specific targets. T cells recognize a “non-self” target, such as a pathogen, only after antigens (small fragments of the pathogen) have been processed and presented in combination with a “self” receptor called a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule. There are two major subtypes of T cells: the killer T cell and the helper T cell. Killer T cells only recognize antigens coupled to Class I MHC molecules, while helper T cells only recognize antigens coupled to Class II MHC molecules. These two mechanisms of antigen presentation reflect the different roles of the two types of T cell. A third, minor subtype are the γδ T cells that recognize intact antigens that are not bound to MHC receptors. In contrast, the B cell antigen-specific receptor is an antibody molecule on the B cell surface, and recognizes whole pathogens without any need for antigen processing. Each lineage of B cell expresses a different antibody, so the complete set of B cell antigen receptors represent all the antibodies that the body can manufacture. Killer T cells Killer T cells directly attack other cells carrying foreign or abnormal antigens on their surfaces. Killer T cell are a sub-group of T cells that kill cells infected with viruses (and other pathogens), or are otherwise damaged or dysfunctional. As with B cells, each type of T cell recognises a different antigen. Killer T cells are activated when their T cell receptor (TCR) binds to this specific antigen in a complex with the MHC Class I receptor of another cell. Recognition of this MHC:antigen complex is aided by a co-receptor on the T cell, called CD8. The T cell then travels throughout the body in search of cells where the MHC I receptors bear this antigen. When an activated T cell contacts such cells, it releases cytotoxins, such as perforin, which form pores in the target cell's plasma membrane, allowing ions, water and toxins to enter. The entry of another toxin called granulysin (a protease) induces the target cell to undergo apoptosis. T cell killing of host cells is particularly important in preventing the replication of viruses. T cell activation is tightly controlled and generally requires a very strong MHC/antigen activation signal, or additional activation signals provided by "helper" T cells (see below). Helper T cells Function of T helper cells: Antigen presenting cells (APCs) present antigen on their Class II MHC molecules (MHC2). Helper T cells recognize these, with the help of their expression of CD4 co-receptor (CD4+). The activation of a resting helper T cell causes it to release cytokines and other stimulatory signals (green arrows) that stimulate the activity of macrophages, killer T cells and B cells, the latter producing antibodies. The stimulation of B cells and macrophages succeeds a proliferation of T helper cells. Helper T cells regulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses and help determine which types of immune responses the body will make to a particular pathogen. These cells have no cytotoxic activity and do not kill infected cells or clear pathogens directly. They instead control the immune response by directing other cells to perform these tasks. Helper T cells express T cell receptors (TCR) that recognize antigen bound to Class II MHC molecules. The MHC:antigen complex is also recognized by the helper cell's CD4 co-receptor, which recruits molecules inside the T cell (e.g. Lck) that are responsible for T cell's activation. Helper T cells have a weaker association with the MHC:antigen complex than observed for killer T cells, meaning many receptors (around 200–300) on the helper T cell must be bound by an MHC:antigen in order to activate the helper cell, while killer T cells can be activated by engagement of a single MHC:antigen molecule. Helper T cell activation also requires longer duration of engagement with an antigen-presenting cell. The activation of a resting helper T cell causes it to release cytokines that influence the activity of many cell types. Cytokine signals produced by helper T cells enhance the microbicidal function of macrophages and the activity of killer T cells. In addition, helper T cell activation causes an upregulation of molecules expressed on the T cell's surface, such as CD40 ligand (also called CD154), which provide extra stimulatory signals typically required to activate antibody-producing B cells. γδ T cells γδ T cells possess an alternative T cell receptor (TCR) as opposed to CD4+ and CD8+ (αβ) T cells and share the characteristics of helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells and NK cells. The conditions that produce responses from γδ T cells are not fully understood. Like other 'unconventional' T cell subsets bearing invariant TCRs, such as CD1d-restricted Natural Killer T cells, γδ T cells straddle the border between innate and adaptive immunity. On one hand, γδ T cells are a component of adaptive immunity as they rearrange TCR genes to produce receptor diversity and can also develop a memory phenotype. On the other hand, the various subsets are also part of the innate immune system, as restricted TCR or NK receptors may be used as pattern recognition receptors. For example, large numbers of human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells respond within hours to common molecules produced by microbes, and highly restricted Vδ1+ T cells in epithelia will respond to stressed epithelial cells. An antibody is made up of two heavy chains and two light chains. The unique variable region allows an antibody to recognize its matching antigen. B lymphocytes and antibodies A B cell identifies pathogens when antibodies on its surface bind to a specific foreign antigen. This antigen/antibody complex is taken up by the B cell and processed by proteolysis into peptides. The B cell then displays these antigenic peptides on its surface MHC class II molecules. This combination of MHC and antigen attracts a matching helper T cell, which releases lymphokines and activates the B cell. As the activated B cell then begins to divide, its offspring (plasma cells) secrete millions of copies of the antibody that recognizes this antigen. These antibodies circulate in blood plasma and lymph, bind to pathogens expressing the antigen and mark them for destruction by complement activation or for uptake and destruction by phagocytes. Antibodies can also neutralize challenges directly, by binding to bacterial toxins or by interfering with the receptors that viruses and bacteria use to infect cells. Alternative adaptive immune system Although the classical molecules of the adaptive immune system (e.g. antibodies and T cell receptors) exist only in jawed vertebrates, a distinct lymphocyte-derived molecule has been discovered in primitive jawless vertebrates, such as the lamprey and hagfish. These animals possess a large array of molecules called variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs) that, like the antigen receptors of jawed vertebrates, are produced from only a small number (one or two) of genes. These molecules are believed to bind pathogenic antigens in a similar way to antibodies, and with the same degree of specificity. Immunological memory When B cells and T cells are activated and begin to replicate, some of their offspring will become long-lived memory cells. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory cells will remember each specific pathogen encountered and can mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again. This is "adaptive" because it occurs during the lifetime of an individual as an adaptation to infection with that pathogen and prepares the immune system for future challenges. Immunological memory can either be in the form of passive short-term memory or active long-term memory. Passive memory Newborn infants have no prior exposure to microbes and are particularly vulnerable to infection. Several layers of passive protection are provided by the mother. During pregnancy, a particular type of antibody, called IgG, is transported from mother to baby directly across the placenta, so human babies have high levels of antibodies even at birth, with the same range of antigen specificities as their mother. Breast milk also contains antibodies that are transferred to the gut of the infant and protect against bacterial infections until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies. This is passive immunity because the fetus does not actually make any memory cells or antibodies—it only borrows them. This passive immunity is usually short-term, lasting from a few days up to several months. In medicine, protective passive immunity can also be transferred artificially from one individual to another via antibody-rich serum. The time-course of an immune response begins with the initial pathogen encounter, (or initial vaccination) and leads to the formation and maintenance of active immunological memory. Active memory and immunization Long-term active memory is acquired following infection by activation of B and T cells. Active immunity can also be generated artificially, through vaccination. The principle behind vaccination (also called immunization) is to introduce an antigen from a pathogen in order to stimulate the immune system and develop specific immunity against that particular pathogen without causing disease associated with that organism. This deliberate induction of an immune response is successful because it exploits the natural specificity of the immune system, as well as its inducibility. With infectious disease remaining one of the leading causes of death in the human population, vaccination represents the most effective manipulation of the immune system mankind has developed. Death and DALY estimates for 2002 by cause for WHO Member States. World Health Organization. Retrieved on 2007-01-01. Most viral vaccines are based on live attenuated viruses, while many bacterial vaccines are based on acellular components of micro-organisms, including harmless toxin components. Since many antigens derived from acellular vaccines do not strongly induce the adaptive response, most bacterial vaccines are provided with additional adjuvants that activate the antigen-presenting cells of the innate immune system and maximize immunogenicity. Disorders of human immunity The immune system is a remarkably effective structure that incorporates specificity, inducibility and adaptation. Failures of host defense do occur, however, and fall into three broad categories: immunodeficiencies, autoimmunity, and hypersensitivities. Immunodeficiencies Immunodeficiencies occur when one or more of the components of the immune system are inactive. The ability of the immune system to respond to pathogens is diminished in both the young and the elderly, with immune responses beginning to decline at around 50 years of age due to immunosenescence. Free full-text pdf available In developed countries, obesity, alcoholism, and drug use are common causes of poor immune function. However, malnutrition is the most common cause of immunodeficiency in developing countries. Diets lacking sufficient protein are associated with impaired cell-mediated immunity, complement activity, phagocyte function, IgA antibody concentrations, and cytokine production. Deficiency of single nutrients such as iron; copper; zinc; selenium; vitamins A, C, E, and B6; and folic acid (vitamin B9) also reduces immune responses. Additionally, the loss of the thymus at an early age through genetic mutation or surgical removal results in severe immunodeficiency and a high susceptibility to infection. Immunodeficiencies can also be inherited or 'acquired'. Chronic granulomatous disease, where phagocytes have a reduced ability to destroy pathogens, is an example of an inherited, or congenital, immunodeficiency. AIDS and some types of cancer cause acquired immunodeficiency. Autoimmunity Overactive immune responses comprise the other end of immune dysfunction, particularly the autoimmune disorders. Here, the immune system fails to properly distinguish between self and non-self, and attacks part of the body. Under normal circumstances, many T cells and antibodies react with “self” peptides. One of the functions of specialized cells (located in the thymus and bone marrow) is to present young lymphocytes with self antigens produced throughout the body and to eliminate those cells that recognize self-antigens, preventing autoimmunity. Hypersensitivity Hypersensitivity is an immune response that damages the body's own tissues. They are divided into four classes (Type I – IV) based on the mechanisms involved and the time course of the hypersensitive reaction. Type I hypersensitivity is an immediate or anaphylactic reaction, often associated with allergy. Symptoms can range from mild discomfort to death. Type I hypersensitivity is mediated by IgE released from mast cells and basophils. Type II hypersensitivity occurs when antibodies bind to antigens on the patient's own cells, marking them for destruction. This is also called antibody-dependent (or cytotoxic) hypersensitivity, and is mediated by IgG and IgM antibodies. Immune complexes (aggregations of antigens, complement proteins, and IgG and IgM antibodies) deposited in various tissues trigger Type III hypersensitivity reactions. Type IV hypersensitivity (also known as cell-mediated or delayed type hypersensitivity) usually takes between two and three days to develop. Type IV reactions are involved in many autoimmune and infectious diseases, but may also involve contact dermatitis (poison ivy). These reactions are mediated by T cells, monocytes, and macrophages. Other mechanisms It is likely that a multicomponent, adaptive immune system arose with the first vertebrates, as invertebrates do not generate lymphocytes or an antibody-based humoral response. Many species, however, utilize mechanisms that appear to be precursors of these aspects of vertebrate immunity. Immune systems appear even in the structurally most simple forms of life, with bacteria using a unique defense mechanism, called the restriction modification system to protect themselves from viral pathogens, called bacteriophages. Prokaryotes also possess acquired immunity, through a system that uses CRISPR sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of phage that they have come into contact with in the past, which allows them to block virus replication through a form of RNA interference. Pattern recognition receptors are proteins used by nearly all organisms to identify molecules associated with pathogens. Antimicrobial peptides called defensins are an evolutionarily conserved component of the innate immune response found in all animals and plants, and represent the main form of invertebrate systemic immunity. The complement system and phagocytic cells are also used by most forms of invertebrate life. Ribonucleases and the RNA interference pathway are conserved across all eukaryotes, and are thought to play a role in the immune response to viruses. Unlike animals, plants lack phagocytic cells, and most plant immune responses involve systemic chemical signals that are sent through a plant. When a part of a plant becomes infected, the plant produces a localized hypersensitive response, whereby cells at the site of infection undergo rapid apoptosis to prevent the spread of the disease to other parts of the plant. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is a type of defensive response used by plants that renders the entire plant resistant to a particular infectious agent. RNA silencing mechanisms are particularly important in this systemic response as they can block virus replication. Tumor immunology Macrophages have identified a cancer cell (the large, spiky mass). Upon fusing with the cancer cell, the macrophages (smaller white cells) will inject toxins that kill the tumor cell. Immunotherapy for the treatment of cancer is an active area of medical research. Another important role of the immune system is to identify and eliminate tumors. The transformed cells of tumors express antigens that are not found on normal cells. To the immune system, these antigens appear foreign, and their presence causes immune cells to attack the transformed tumor cells. The antigens expressed by tumors have several sources; some are derived from oncogenic viruses like human papillomavirus, which causes cervical cancer, while others are the organism's own proteins that occur at low levels in normal cells but reach high levels in tumor cells. One example is an enzyme called tyrosinase that, when expressed at high levels, transforms certain skin cells (e.g. melanocytes) into tumors called melanomas. A third possible source of tumor antigens are proteins normally important for regulating cell growth and survival, that commonly mutate into cancer inducing molecules called oncogenes. The main response of the immune system to tumors is to destroy the abnormal cells using killer T cells, sometimes with the assistance of helper T cells. Tumor antigens are presented on MHC class I molecules in a similar way to viral antigens. This allows killer T cells to recognize the tumor cell as abnormal. NK cells also kill tumorous cells in a similar way, especially if the tumor cells have fewer MHC class I molecules on their surface than normal; this is a common phenomenon with tumors. Sometimes antibodies are generated against tumor cells allowing for their destruction by the complement system. Clearly, some tumors evade the immune system and go on to become cancers. Tumor cells often have a reduced number of MHC class I molecules on their surface, thus avoiding detection by killer T cells. Some tumor cells also release products that inhibit the immune response; for example by secreting the cytokine TGF-β, which suppresses the activity of macrophages and lymphocytes. In addition, immunological tolerance may develop against tumor antigens, so the immune system no longer attacks the tumor cells. Paradoxically, macrophages can promote tumor growth when tumor cells send out cytokines that attract macrophages which then generate cytokines and growth factors that nurture tumor development. In addition, a combination of hypoxia in the tumor and a cytokine produced by macrophages induces tumor cells to decrease production of a protein that blocks metastasis and thereby assists spread of cancer cells. Physiological regulation Hormones can act as immunomodulators, altering the sensitivity of the immune system. For example, female sex hormones are known immunostimulators of both adaptive and innate immune responses. Some autoimmune diseases such as lupus erythematosus strike women preferentially, and their onset often coincides with puberty. By contrast, male sex hormones such as testosterone seem to be immunosuppressive. Other hormones appear to regulate the immune system as well, most notably prolactin, growth hormone and vitamin D. . It is conjectured that a progressive decline in hormone levels with age is partially responsible for weakened immune responses in aging individuals. Conversely, some hormones are regulated by the immune system, notably thyroid hormone activity. The immune system is enhanced by sleep and rest, and is impaired by stress. Diet may affect the immune system; for example, fresh fruits, vegetables, and foods rich in certain fatty acids may foster a healthy immune system. Likewise, fetal undernourishment can cause a lifelong impairment of the immune system. In traditional medicine, some herbs are believed to stimulate the immune system, such as echinacea, licorice, ginseng, astragalus, sage, garlic, elderberry, shiitake and lingzhi mushrooms, and hyssop, as well as honey. Studies have suggested that such herbs can indeed stimulate the immune system, although their mode of action is complex and difficult to characterize. Manipulation in medicine The immunosuppressive drug dexamethasone The immune response can be manipulated to suppress unwanted responses resulting from autoimmunity, allergy, and transplant rejection, and to stimulate protective responses against pathogens that largely elude the immune system (see immunization). Immunosuppressive drugs are used to control autoimmune disorders or inflammation when excessive tissue damage occurs, and to prevent transplant rejection after an organ transplant. Anti-inflammatory drugs are often used to control the effects of inflammation. The glucocorticoids are the most powerful of these drugs; however, these drugs can have many undesirable side effects (e.g., central obesity, hyperglycemia, osteoporosis) and their use must be tightly controlled. Therefore, lower doses of anti-inflammatory drugs are often used in conjunction with cytotoxic or immunosuppressive drugs such as methotrexate or azathioprine. Cytotoxic drugs inhibit the immune response by killing dividing cells such as activated T cells. However, the killing is indiscriminate and other constantly dividing cells and their organs are affected, which causes toxic side effects. Immunosuppressive drugs such as cyclosporin prevent T cells from responding to signals correctly by inhibiting signal transduction pathways. Larger drugs (>500 Da) can provoke a neutralizing immune response, particularly if the drugs are administered repeatedly, or in larger doses. This limits the effectiveness of drugs based on larger peptides and proteins (which are typically larger than 6000 Da). In some cases, the drug itself is not immunogenic, but may be co-administered with an immunogenic compound, as is sometimes the case for Taxol. Computational methods have been developed to predict the immunogenicity of peptides and proteins, which are particularly useful in designing therapeutic antibodies, assessing likely virulence of mutations in viral coat particles, and validation of proposed peptide-based drug treatments. Early techniques relied mainly on the observation that hydrophilic amino acids are overrepresented in epitope regions than hydrophobic amino acids; however, more recent developments rely on machine learning techniques using databases of existing known epitopes, usually on well-studied virus proteins, as a training set. A publicly accessible database has been established for the cataloguing of epitopes from pathogens known to be recognizable by B cells. The emerging field of bioinformatics-based studies of immunogenicity is referred to as immunoinformatics. Manipulation by pathogens The success of any pathogen is dependent on its ability to elude host immune responses. Therefore, pathogens have developed several methods that allow them to successfully infect a host, while evading detection or destruction by the immune system. Bacteria often overcome physical barriers by secreting enzymes that digest the barrier — for example, by using a type II secretion system. Alternatively, using a type III secretion system, they may insert a hollow tube into the host cell, providing a direct route for proteins to move from the pathogen to the host. These proteins are often used to shut down host defenses. An evasion strategy used by several pathogens to avoid the innate immune system is to hide within the cells of their host (also called intracellular pathogenesis). Here, a pathogen spends most of its life-cycle inside host cells, where it is shielded from direct contact with immune cells, antibodies and complement. Some examples of intracellular pathogens include viruses, the food poisoning bacterium Salmonella and the eukaryotic parasites that cause malaria (Plasmodium falciparum) and leishmaniasis (Leishmania spp.). Other bacteria, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, live inside a protective capsule that prevents lysis by complement. Many pathogens secrete compounds that diminish or misdirect the host's immune response. Some bacteria form biofilms to protect themselves from the cells and proteins of the immune system. Such biofilms are present in many successful infections, e.g., the chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cenocepacia infections characteristic of cystic fibrosis. Other bacteria generate surface proteins that bind to antibodies, rendering them ineffective; examples include Streptococcus (protein G), Staphylococcus aureus (protein A), and Peptostreptococcus magnus (protein L). The mechanisms used to evade the adaptive immune system are more complicated. The simplest approach is to rapidly change non-essential epitopes (amino acids and/or sugars) on the surface of the pathogen, while keeping essential epitopes concealed. This is called antigenic variation. An example is HIV, which mutates rapidly, so the proteins on its viral envelope that are essential for entry into its host target cell are constantly changing. These frequent changes in antigens may explain the failures of vaccines directed at this virus. The parasite Trypanosoma brucei uses a similar strategy, constantly switching one type of surface protein for another, allowing it to stay one step ahead of the antibody response. Masking antigens with host molecules is another common strategy for avoiding detection by the immune system. In HIV, the envelope that covers the viron is formed from the outermost membrane of the host cell; such "self-cloaked" viruses make it difficult for the immune system to identify them as "non-self" structures. History of immunology Paul Ehrlich Immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. It originates from medicine and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease. The earliest known mention of immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC. Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. This observation of acquired immunity was later exploited by Louis Pasteur in his development of vaccination and his proposed germ theory of disease. Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory. It was not until Robert Koch's 1891 proofs, for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905, that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905 Nobelprize.org Accessed January 8 2007. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, with the discovery of the yellow fever virus by Walter Reed. Major Walter Reed, Medical Corps, U.S. Army Walter Reed Army Medical Center. Accessed January 8, 2007. Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments, in the study of humoral immunity and cellular immunity. Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich, who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction; his contributions to the understanding of humoral immunity were recognized by the award of a Nobel Prize in 1908, which was jointly awarded to the founder of cellular immunology, Elie Metchnikoff. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1908 Nobelprize.org Accessed January 8, 2007 See also Clonal selection Epitope Hapten Human physiology Immunostimulator Monoclonal antibodies Original antigenic sin Polyclonal antibodies Tumor antigens Immune system receptors Polyclonal response Plant disease resistance References External links Vaccine Research Center Information regarding preventative vaccine research studies Immune System - from the University of Hartford Immunobiology; Fifth Edition – Online version of the textbook by Charles Janeway (Advanced undergraduate/graduate level) Immunology - BioMed Central (free content) scientific journal The Inner Life of a Cell - Rendering of the inner functions of the human body The Microbial World - Animal defenses against microbes - Chapter in on-line microbiology textbook Microbiology and Immunology On-Line Textbook - from the University of South Carolina School of Medicine Cell Biology of the Immune Response on-line lecture by Ira Mellman 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4,532 | Long-Term_Capital_Management | Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM) was a U.S. hedge fund which used trading strategies such as fixed income arbitrage, statistical arbitrage, and pairs trading, combined with high leverage. It failed spectacularly in the late 1990s, leading to a massive bailout by other major banks and investment houses, which was supervised by the Federal Reserve. LTCM was founded in 1994 by John Meriwether, the former vice-chairman and head of bond trading at Salomon Brothers. Board of directors members included Myron Scholes and Robert C. Merton, who shared the 1997 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences 1997. Robert C. Merton and Myron S. Scholes pictures. Myron S. Scholes with location named as "Long Term Capital Management, Greenwich, CT, USA" where the prize was received. Initially enormously successful with annualized returns of over 40% (after fees) in its first years, in 1998 it lost $4.6 billion in less than four months following the Russian financial crisis and became a prominent example of the risk potential in the hedge fund industry. The fund folded in early 2000. The collapse of LTCM was the subject of Roger Lowenstein's book When Genius Failed: The Rise and Fall of Long-Term Capital Management, published in 2000. Founding LTCM PartnersJohn MeriwetherFormer vice chair and head of bond trading at Salomon Brothers; MBA, University of Chicago Robert C. Merton Leading scholar in finance; Ph.D., Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Professor at Harvard University Myron Scholes Author of Black-Scholes model; Ph.D., University of Chicago; Professor at Stanford University David W. Mullins Jr. Vice chairman of the Federal Reserve; Ph.D. MIT; Professor at Harvard University; was seen as potential successor to Alan Greenspan Eric Rosenfeld Arbitrage group at Salomon; Ph.D. MIT; former Harvard Business School professor William Krasker Arbitrage group at Salomon; Ph.D. MIT; former Harvard Business School professor Gregory Hawkins Arbitrage group at Salomon; Ph.D. MIT; worked on Bill Clinton's campaign for Arkansas state attorney general Larry Hilibrand Arbitrage group at Salomon; Ph.D. MIT James McEntee Bond-trader Dick Leahy Executive at Salomon Victor Haghani Arbitrage group at Salomon; Masters in Finance, LSE John Meriwether headed Salomon Brothers' bond trading desk until he was forced to resign in 1991 when his top bond trader, Paul Mozer, admitted to falsifying bids on U.S. Treasury auctions. Because Salomon was the largest bidder on treasury bonds at auction, the Treasury department feared that Salomon would be able to take a strategic position on the bonds in order to influence the price. As such, Salomon (or any single bidder) was restricted from purchasing more than 35% of the bonds sold at any auction. Mozer circumvented this limitation by making fraudulent bids on behalf of Salomon clients and then transferring the bonds to Salomon's accounts following the transaction. The revelation of this scandal depressed the company's share price and drove investor Warren Buffett to sack its chief executive officer, John Gutfreund. Though Meriwether was not directly implicated, calls for his ousting rose within the company and he resigned before he was to be let go. In 1993 he announced that he would launch a hedge fund called Long-Term Capital. Meriwether used his well-established reputation to recruit several Salomon bond traders and some brilliant mathematicians. He also recruited two future Nobel Prize winners, Myron Scholes and Robert C. Merton, both of whom worked in Salomon Brothers' fixed income trading department. Other principals in the firm included Eric Rosenfeld, Greg Hawkins, Larry Hilibrand, William Krasker, Dick Leahy, Victor Haghani, James McEntee, Robert Shustak, and David W. Mullins Jr.. Long-Term Capital consisted of Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM), a company incorporated in Delaware but based in Greenwich, Connecticut. LTCM managed trades in Long-Term Capital Portfolio LP, a partnership registered in the Cayman Islands. The fund's operation was designed to have extremely low overhead; trades were conducted through a partnership with Bear Stearns and client relations were handled by Merrill Lynch. Meriwether chose to start a hedge fund to avoid the financial regulation imposed on more traditional investment vehicles, such as mutual funds, as established by the Investment Company Act of 1940—funds which accepted stakes from one hundred or fewer individuals with more than one million dollars in net worth each were exempt from most of the regulations that bound other investment companies. In late 1993, Meriwether approached several "high net-worth individuals" in an effort to secure start-up capital for Long Term Capital Management. With the help of Merrill Lynch, LTCM secured hundreds of millions of dollars from business owners, celebrities and even private university endowments. The bulk of the money, however, came from companies and individuals connected to the financial industry. By 24 February, 1994, the day LTCM began trading, the company had amassed just over $1.01 billion in capital. Trading strategies The company used complex mathematical models to take advantage of fixed income arbitrage deals (termed convergence trades) usually with U.S., Japanese, and European government bonds. Government bonds are a "fixed-term debt obligation", meaning that they will pay a fixed amount at a specified time in the future. Differences in the bonds' present value are minimal, so according to economic theory any difference in price will be eliminated by arbitrage. Unlike differences in share prices of two companies, which could reflect different underlying fundamentals, price differences between a 30 year treasury bond and a 29 and three quarter year old treasury bond should be minimal—both will see a fixed payment roughly 30 years in the future. However, small discrepancies arose between the two bonds because of a difference in liquidity . By a series of financial transactions, essentially amounting to buying the cheaper 'off-the-run' bond (the 29 and three quarter year old bond) and shorting the more expensive, but more liquid, 'on-the-run' bond (the 30 year bond just issued by the Treasury), it would be possible to make a profit as the difference in the value of the bonds narrowed when a new bond was issued. As LTCM's capital base grew, they felt pressed to invest that capital and had run out of good bond-arbitrage bets. This led LTCM to undertake more aggressive trading strategies. Although these trading strategies were non-market directional, i.e. they were not dependent on overall interest rates or stock prices going up (or down), they were not convergence trades as such. By 1998, LTCM had extremely large positions in areas such as merger arbitrage and S&P 500 options (net short long-term S&P volatility). LTCM had become a major supplier of S&P 500 vega, which had been in demand by companies seeking to essentially insure equities against future declines. Because these differences in value were minute—especially for the convergence trades—the fund needed to take highly-leveraged positions to make a significant profit. At the beginning of 1998, the firm had equity of $4.72 billion and had borrowed over $124.5 billion with assets of around $129 billion, for a debt to equity ratio of about 25 to 1. It had off-balance sheet derivative positions with a notional value of approximately $1.25 trillion, most of which were in interest rate derivatives such as interest rate swaps. The fund also invested in other derivatives such as equity options. Long Term Capital Management was found to have entered into certain tax avoidance transactions. Approximately $100 million of losses claimed by LTCM were disallowed by United States District Court of Connecticut. An e-mail dated March 10, 1995, to Jan Blaustein Scholes, Myron's girlfriend at the time and general counsel responsible for setting up leasing transactions associated with the disallowed losses, stated : "For our CHIPS III entity let’s use a name unrelated to CBB. It makes it just a bit harder for the IRS to link all the deals together." Equally alarming, Myron Scholes stated that he was not an expert on tax law. A textbook, "Taxes & Business Strategy" (principally written by Myron Scholes), contains chapters on both economic substance and step transactions, which are the two concepts under which the tax loss was disallowed by the IRS. In a memorandum to Long Term’s management committee dated November 12, 1996, Myron Scholes wrote: "We must decide in the near future (1) how to allocate these capital losses; (2) how to "trade" them so that they are held in high-valued hands; and (3) how to plan to be able to enjoy the benefits of the use of these losses for the longest period of time. If we are careful, most likely we will never have to pay long-term capital gains on the 'loan' from the Government." He went on, "How should LTCM pay those who brought the Tax Losses to Fruition and allocate the expenses of undertaking the trade?" Downturn Although much success within the financial markets arises from immediate-short term turbulence, and the ability of fund managers to identify informational asymmetries, factors giving rise to the downfall of the fund were established prior to the 1997 East Asian financial crisis. In May and June 1998 returns from the fund were -6.42% and -10.14% respectively, reducing LTCM's capital by $461 million. This was further aggravated by the exit of Salomon Brothers from the arbitrage business in July 1998. Such losses were accentuated through the Russian financial crises in August and September 1998, when the Russian Government defaulted on their government bonds. Panicked investors sold Japanese and European bonds to buy U.S. treasury bonds. The profits that were supposed to occur as the value of these bonds converged became huge losses as the value of the bonds diverged. By the end of August, the fund had lost $1.85 billion in capital. As a result of these losses, LTCM had to liquidate a number of its positions at a highly unfavorable moment and suffer further losses. A good illustration of the consequences of these forced liquidations is given by Lowenstein (2000). He reports that LTCM established an arbitrage position in the dual-listed company (or "DLC") Royal Dutch Shell in the summer of 1997, when Royal Dutch traded at an 8 to 10 percent premium relative to Shell. In total $2.3 billion was invested, half of which long in Shell and the other half short in Royal Dutch. LTCM was essentially betting that the share prices of Royal Dutch and Shell would converge. This may have happened in the long run, but due to its losses on other positions, LTCM had to unwind its position in Royal Dutch Shell. Lowenstein reports that the premium of Royal Dutch had increased to about 22 percent, which implies that LTCM incurred a large loss on this arbitrage strategy. LTCM lost $286 million in equity pairs trading and more than half of this loss is accounted for by the Royal Dutch Shell trade. The company, which was providing annual returns of almost 40% up to this point, experienced a flight-to-liquidity. In the first three weeks of September, LTCM's equity tumbled from $2.3 billion to $600 million without shrinking the portfolio, leading to a significant elevation of the already high leverage. 1998 bailout LTCM's financial problems sent shock waves throughout financial markets, as illustrated by the September 21, 1998 cover of Business Week Goldman Sachs, AIG and Berkshire Hathaway offered then to buy out the fund's partners for $250 million, to inject $3.75 billion and to operate LTCM within Goldman's own trading division. The offer was rejected and the same day the Federal Reserve Bank of New York organized a bailout of $3.625 billion by the major creditors to avoid a wider collapse in the financial markets. The contributions from the various institutions were as follows: Wall Street Journal, 25 September 1998 Bloomberg.com: Exclusive $300 million: Bankers Trust, Barclays, Chase, Credit Suisse First Boston, Deutsche Bank, Goldman Sachs, Merrill Lynch, J.P.Morgan, Morgan Stanley, Salomon Smith Barney, UBS $125 million: Société Générale $100 million: Lehman Brothers, Paribas Bear Stearns declined to participate. In return, the participating banks got a 90% share in the fund and a promise that a supervisory board would be established. The fear was that there would be a chain reaction as the company liquidated its securities to cover its debt, leading to a drop in prices, which would force other companies to liquidate their own debt creating a vicious cycle. The total losses were found to be $4.6 billion. The losses in the major investment categories were (ordered by magnitude): $1.6 bn in swaps $1.3 bn in equity volatility $430 mn in Russia and other emerging markets $371 mn in directional trades in developed countries $286 mn in equity pairs (such as VW, Shell) $215 mn in yield curve arbitrage $203 mn in S&P 500 stocks $100 mn in junk bond arbitrage no substantial losses in merger arbitrage Long Term Capital was audited by Price Waterhouse LLP. Unsurprisingly, after the bailout by the other investors, the panic abated, and the positions formerly held by LTCM were eventually liquidated at a small profit to the bailers. Some industry officials said that Federal Reserve Bank of New York involvement in the rescue, however benign, would encourage large financial institutions to assume more risk, in the belief that the Federal Reserve would intervene on their behalf in the event of trouble. Federal Reserve Bank of New York actions raised concerns among some market observers that it could create moral hazard. GAO/GGD-00-67R Questions Concerning LTCM and Our Responses General Accouting Office, February 23, 2000 LTCM's strategies were compared (a contrast with the market efficiency aphorism that there are no $100 bills lying on the street, as someone else has already picked them up) to "picking up nickels in front of a bulldozer" — a likely small gain balanced against a small chance of a large loss, like the payouts from selling an out-of-the-money option. Aftermath After the bailout, Long-Term Capital Management continued operations. In the year following the bailout, it earned 10 percent. By early 2000, the fund had been liquidated, and the consortium of banks that financed the bailout had been paid back; but the collapse was devastating for many involved. Goldman Sachs CEO Jon Corzine, who had been closely involved with LTCM, was forced out of the office in a boardroom coup led by Henry Paulson. Mullins, once considered a possible successor to Alan Greenspan, saw his future with the Reserve dashed. The theories of Merton and Scholes took a public beating. In its annual reports, Merrill Lynch observed that mathematical risk models "may provide a greater sense of security than warranted; therefore, reliance on these models should be limited." After helping unwind LTCM, Meriwether launched JWM Partners. Haghani, Hilibrand, Leahy, and Rosenfeld all signed up as principals of the new firm. By December 1999, they had raised $250 million for a fund that would continue many of LTCM's strategies—this time, using less leverage. See also When Genius Failed: The Rise and Fall of Long-Term Capital Management, the book chronicles the collapse of LTCM Arbitrage Black-Scholes model Game Theory Greenspan put JWM Partners LLC List of business failures Martingale (betting system) Martingale (probability theory) Probability Theory St. Petersburg paradox Value at risk Notes Bibliography Further reading Case Study: Long-Term Capital Management Meriwether and Strange Weather: Intelligence, Risk Management and Critical Thinking | Long-Term_Capital_Management |@lemmatized long:19 term:18 capital:21 management:11 ltcm:31 u:4 hedge:4 fund:18 use:6 trade:12 strategy:7 fixed:5 income:3 arbitrage:18 statistical:1 pairs:1 trading:10 combine:1 high:4 leverage:3 fail:3 spectacularly:1 late:2 lead:6 massive:1 bailout:7 major:4 bank:8 investment:5 house:1 supervise:1 federal:6 reserve:7 found:2 john:3 meriwether:8 former:3 vice:3 chairman:2 head:3 bond:29 salomon:18 brother:6 board:2 director:1 member:1 include:2 myron:9 scholes:12 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4,533 | Occitan_language | Occitan () Pronunciation given in the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 7th edition, 2005.y , known also as Lenga d'òc or Langue d'oc (native name: occitan , Regional pronunciations: occitan = . lenga d'òc ; Regional pronunciations: lenga d'òc = . native nickname: la lenga nòstra i.e. "our [own] language") is a Romance language spoken in Occitania, that is, Southern France, the Occitan Valleys of Italy, Monaco and in the Aran Valley of Spain. It is also spoken in the linguistic enclave of Guardia Piemontese (Calabria, Italy). It is a co-official language in Catalonia, Spain (known as Aranese in Aran Valley). As stated in its Statute of Autonomy approved. See Article 6.5 in the text of the 2006 Statute of Catalonia (PDF) Modern Occitan is the closest relative of Catalan. The languages, as spoken in early medieval times, might be considered variant forms of the same language. The term Provençal is often used to refer to Occitan. The area where Occitan was historically dominant is home to some 14 million inhabitants. It may be spoken as a first language by as many as 1.5 million people http://www.orbilat.com/Languages/Occitan/Occitan.html in France, Italy, Spain and Monaco. In Monaco Occitan coexists with Monégasque Ligurian which is the other native language. BEC Pierre (1995) La langue occitane, coll. Que sais-je? n° 1059, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. ARVEILLER Raymond (1967) Étude sur le parler de Monaco, Monaco: Comité National des Traditions Monégasques, p. ix. Some researchers state that up to seven million people in France understand the language. Written Occitan is generally understandable by readers who have some knowledge in any other Romance language. Name History of the modern term Occitania, the territory of the Occitan language The name Occitan comes from lenga d'òc (i.e. òc language), which comes from òc, the Occitan word for yes. The Italian medieval poet Dante was the first to have recorded the term lingua d'oc. In his De vulgari eloquentia he wrote in Latin: "nam alii oc, alii si, alii vero dicunt oil" ("some say òc, others say sì, others say oïl"), thereby highlighting three major Romance literary languages which were well known in Italy, based on each language's word for "yes", the òc language (Occitan), the oïl language (French), and the sì language (Italian). This was not, of course, the only defining character of each group. The word òc came from Vulgar Latin hoc ("this"), while oïl originated from Latin hoc illud ("this [is] it"). In old Catalan and nowadays in Catalan of Northern Catalonia (France, Catalunya Nord) is hoc (òc) too. Other Romance languages derive their word for yes from the Latin sic, "thus [it is], [it was done], etc.", such as Spanish sí, Modern Catalan sí, Western Lombard sé, Italian sì, or Portuguese sim. Other names for Occitan For many centuries, the Occitan dialects (together with Catalan El nom de la llengua. The name of the language, in Catalan ) were referred to as Lemosin or Provençal, the names of two regions lying within modern "Occitania". After Mistral's Félibrige movement in the 19th century, Provençal achieved the greatest literary recognition, and so became the most popular term for the Occitan language. Nowadays, strictly, linguists use the terms Provençal and Lemosin to refer to specific varieties within Occitania, whereas Occitan is used for the language as a whole. However, many non-specialists continue to refer to the language as Provençal, causing some confusion. History Occitan was the vehicle for the influential poetry of the medieval troubadours. With the gradual imposition of French royal power over its territory, Occitan declined in status from the 14th century on. By the Edict of Villers-Cotterets (1539) it was decreed that the langue d'oïl (Northern French) should be used for all French administration. Occitan's greatest decline was during the French Revolution, during which diversity of language was considered a threat. The literary renaissance of late 19th century (which included a Nobel Prize for Frédéric Mistral) was attenuated by the First World War, where Occitan speakers spent extended periods of time alongside French-speaking comrades. Origins Because Occitan is the most central of the Romance languages, external influences could have impeded its origin and development, making it only a tributary of standard Latin. However, many factors favoured its development as a language of its own. Mountains and seas: The range of Occitan is bounded naturally by the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, the Massif Central, the Pyrenees, and the Alps. Buffer zones: Very dry land, marshes, and areas otherwise impractical for farming and resistant of colonization provide further separation (territory between Loire and Garonne, the Aragon desert plateau). Constant populations: Some Occitan-speaking peoples are descended from people living in the region since prehistory (Bec, 1963). Little Celtic influence (Bec, 1963) Ancient and long-term Roman influence: Julius Caesar once said that the people of Aquitaine could teach the Romans themselves to speak Latin more correctly. According to Müller, "France's linguistic separation began with Roman influence" (Bec, 1963, pp. 20, 21) A separate lexicon: Although Occitan is mid-way between Gallo-Romance and Ibero-Romance language groups, it has "around 550 words inherited from Latin that do not exist in the langues d'oïl nor in franco-provençal" (Bec, 1963, 20, 21). Little germanization: "The Frankish lexicon and its phonetic influence often end above the oc/oïl line" (Bec, 1963, 20, 21) Variety: Occitania has always been a linguistic crossroads, thanks to its commercial importance. In around 1165 the Spanish rabbi Benjamin of Tudela described the Occitanian city of Barcelona in cosmopolitan terms writing, 'Merchants come thither from all quarters with their wares, from Greece, from Pisa, Genoa, Sicily, Alexandria in Egypt, Palestine, Africa and all its coasts' (The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela: critical text, translation and commentary, Marcus Nathan Adler, 1907). http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14981/14981-h/14981-h.htm#bpage_2 . Occitan around the world Usage in France This bilingual street sign in Tolosa (Toulouse), like many such signs found in historical parts of the city, is maintained primarily for its antique charm; it is typical of what little remains of the lenga d'òc in southern French cities.Though it was still an everyday language for most of the rural population of the South well into the 20th century, it has been all but replaced by the imposition of French. According to the 1999 census, there are 610,000 native speakers (almost all of whom are also native French speakers) and perhaps another million persons with some exposure to the language. Following the pattern of languages in decline, most of this remainder is to be found among the eldest populations. Occitan activists (called Occitanists) have attempted, particularly with the advent of Occitan-language preschools (the Calandretas), to reintroduce the language to the young. Nonetheless, the number of proficient speakers of Occitan appears to be dropping precipitously. A tourist in the cities in southern France is unlikely to hear a single Occitan word spoken on the street (or for that matter, in a home), and will likely only find the occasional vestige, such as street signs (and of those, most will have French equivalents more prominently displayed), to remind them of the traditional language of the area. Occitans, as a result of more than 200 years of conditioned suppression and humiliation (see Vergonha), seldom speak their own language in the presence of foreigners, whether they're from abroad or from outside Occitania (in this case, often merely and abusively referred to as Parisiens or Nordistes, which means northerners). Occitan is still spoken by many elderly people in rural areas, but they generally switch to French when dealing with outsiders. Usage outside France In the Aran Valley in the north-west corner of Catalonia, Spain, Aranese (a variety of Gascon, in turn a variety of Occitan) is spoken. It is an official language of Catalonia together with Catalan and Spanish. In Italy, Occitan is also spoken in the Occitan Valleys (Alps) in Piedmont and Liguria. An Occitan-speaking enclave also has existed at Guardia Piemontese (Calabria) since the 14th century. Italy adopted in 1999 a Linguistic Minorities Protection Law, or "Law 482", which includes Occitan; however, Italian is the dominant language. It should be noted that the Piedmontese dialect is extremely close to Occitan. In Monaco, some Occitan speakers coexist with remaining native Monegasque (Ligurian) speakers. French is the dominant language. Scattered Occitan-speaking communities exist in different countries: There were Occitan-speaking colonies in Württemberg (Germany) since the 18th century, the latter as a consequence of the Camisard war. The last Occitan speakers were heard in the 1930s. In the Spanish Basque country, Gascon was spoken in the center of Donostia/San Sebastián, perhaps until the beginning of the 20th century.. In northern Algeria until the Algerian Independence wars of the late 1950s drove out an estimated 50,000 who may have spoken Occitan to France. In the Americas, Occitan speakers exist: in the United States, in Valdese, North Carolina GHIGO F. (1980) The Provençal speech of the Waldensian colonists of Valdese, North Carolina, Valdese: Historic Valdese Foundation; HOLMES U. T. (1934) “Waldensian speech in North Carolina”, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 54: 500–513 in Argentina, in Pigüé. in Mexico, in the state of Guanajuato. in Canada, in Quebec where there are Occitan associations such as Association Occitane du Québec and Association des Occitans. Selection Villes Traditionally Occitan-speaking areas Aquitaine — excluding the Basque-speaking part of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques in the western part of the department and a small part of Gironde where Saintongeais is spoken. The towns of Biarritz, Anglet, and Bayonne are originally Occitan-speaking, with Basque-speaking groups, but their Basque populations grew sharply during the industrial revolution. Midi-Pyrénées — including one of France's largest cities, Toulouse. There are a few street signs in Toulouse in Occitan, but the language is almost never heard spoken. Languedoc-Roussillon (from "Lenga d'òc") — including the areas around the medieval city of Carcassonne, excluding the large part of the Pyrénées-Orientales where Catalan is spoken (Fenolhedés is the only Occitan-speaking area of the Pyrénées-Orientales). Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur — except for the Roya and Bévéra valleys, where there is a transition dialect between Ligurian and Occitan (Roiasc, including Brigasc). There were former and now extinct isolated towns that spoke Ligurian in the Alpes-Maritimes département. Mentonasque, that is spoken in Menton, is an Occitan transition dialect with a strong Ligurian influence. In Monaco, Occitan coexists with Ligurian Monegasque. French is the dominant (and imposed) language. Poitou-Charentes — Use of Occitan has declined here in the few parts it used to be spoken, replaced by French. Only Charente limousine, the eastern part of the region, has resisted. But moreover the natural & historical languages of most of the region are the Poitevin and Saintongeais. Limousin — A rural region (about 710,000 inhabitants) where Occitan (Lemosin dialect, Nord-Occitan family) is still spoken among the oldest residents. Auvergne — The language's use has declined in some urban areas. The departement of Allier is divided between a southern Occitan-speaking area and a northern French-speaking area. Centre region — Some villages, in the extreme South, speak Occitan. Rhône-Alpes — While the south of the region is clearly Occitan-speaking, the central and northern Lyonnais, Forez and Dauphiné parts belong to the Franco-Provençal language area. Occitan Valleys (Piedmont, Liguria) — Italian regions where Occitan is spoken only in the southern and central Alpine valleys. Val d'Aran — part of Catalonia that speaks a mountain dialect of Gascon Occitan. Dialects Dialectal classification According to linguist Pèire Bèc (Pierre Bec), in Manuel pratique d'occitan moderne (Paris, Picard, 1973), here is the most widely accepted dialectal classification. Gascon Northern Occitan (nòrd-occitan) group Lemosin Auvernhat Vivaroalpenc or Vivaro-Alpine Southern Occitan (sud-occitan) group Provençal (Provençau), including the Niçard subdialect Lengadocian Supradialectal classification Pèire Bèc says that another "supradialectal" classification is possible, that follows different criteria: Arvèrnomediterranèu Lemosin Auvernhat Vivaroalpenc or Vivaro-Alpine Provençal (Provençau), including the Niçard subdialect Central Occitan (Occitan central), i. e. the Lengadocian dialect, excepting the Southern Lengadocian subdialect Aquitanopirenenc Southern Lengadocian subdialect Gascon The Catalan language is an Ausbau language which became independent from Occitan during the 13th century. But it comes from the Aquitanopirenenc stem. Codification Standardisation All these regional varieties of the Occitan language are written and valid. Standard Occitan, also called Occitan larg (i.e. "wide Occitan") is a synthesis which respects and admits soft regional adaptations (which are based on the convergence of previous regional koines). So Occitan can be considered as a pluricentric language. Domergue Sumien (2006) La standardisation pluricentrique de l'occitan: nouvel enjeu sociolinguistique, développement du lexique et de la morphologie, Turnhout: Brepols. The standardization process began during the 1970s with the works of Pèire Bèc, Robèrt Lafont, Rogièr Teulat, Jacme Taupiac and Patric Sauzet. But it has not been achieved yet. It is mostly supported by users of the classical norm. Due to the strong situation of diglossia, some users still reject the standardization process and don't conceive Occitan as a language which could work just as other standardized languages. Writing system There are two main linguistic norms currently used for Occitan, one (known as classical) which is based on that of Mediaeval Occitan, and one (sometimes known as Mistralian, due to its use by Frederic Mistral) which is based on modern French orthography. Sometimes, there is some conflict between some users of each system. The classical norm (or less exactly classical orthography) has the advantage of maintaining a link with earlier stages of the language, and reflects the fact that Occitan is not a variety of French. It is used in all Occitan dialects. It also allows speakers of one dialect of Occitan to write intelligibly for speakers of other dialects (e.g. the Occitan for day is written jorn in the classical norm, but could be jour, joun or journ, depending on the writer's origin, in Mistralian orthography). The Occitan classical orthography and the Catalan orthography are quite similar: they show the very close ties of both languages. The digraphs lh and nh, used in the classical orthography, were adopted by the Orthography of Portuguese, most probably after Friar Gerald, a monk from Moissac, became bishop of Braga in Portugal in 1047 and played a major role in modernizing written Portuguese using classical Occitan norms. Jean-Pierre JUGE (2001) Petit précis - Chronologie occitane - Histoire & civilisation, p. 25 The Mistralian norm (or less exactly Mistralian orthography) has the advantage of not forcing Occitan speakers who are already (as is usually the case) literate in French to learn an entirely new system. Nowadays it is mostly used in the Provençal/Niçois dialect, besides the classical norm. It has also been used by a number of eminent writers, particularly in Provençal. However, it is somewhat impractical, since it is based mainly on the Provençal dialect and also uses many digraphs for simple sounds, most notably ou for the [u] sound, written as o under the classical orthography. There are also two other norms but they have a lesser audience. The Escòla dau Pò norm (or Escolo dóu Po norm) is a simplified version of the Mistralian norm and is only used in the Occitan Valleys (Italy), besides the classical norm. The Bonnaudian norm (or écriture auvergnate unifiée, EAU) was created by Pierre Bonnaud and is used only in the Auvergnat dialect, besides the classical norm. Comparison between the four existing norms in Occitan: extract from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights classical norm Mistralian norm Bonnaudian norm Escòla dau Pò normProvençal Totei lei personas naisson liuras e egalas en dignitat e en drech. Son dotadas de rason e de consciéncia e li cau (/fau) agir entre elei amb un esperit de frairesa.Provençal Tóuti li persouno naisson liéuro e egalo en dignita e en dre. Soun doutado de rasoun e de counsciènci e li fau agi entre éli em' un esperit de freiresso.Niçard Provençal Toti li personas naisson liuri e egali en dignitat e en drech. Son dotadi de rason e de consciéncia e li cau agir entre eli emb un esperit de frairesa.Niçard Provençal Touti li persouna naisson liéuri e egali en dignità e en drech. Soun doutadi de rasoun e de counsciència e li cau agì entre eli em' un esperit de frairessa.Auvernhat Totas las personas naisson liuras e egalas en dignitat e en dreit. Son dotadas de rason e de consciéncia e lor chau (/fau) agir entre elas amb un esperit de frairesa.AuvernhatTa la proussouna neisson lieura moé parira pà dïnessà mai dret. Son charjada de razou moé de cousiensà mai lhu fau arjî entremeî lha bei n'eime de freiressà. (Touta la persouna naisson lieura e egala en dïnetàt e en dreit. Soun doutada de razou e de cousiensà e lour chau ajî entre ela am en esprî de freiressà.)Vivaroalpenc Totas las personas naisson liuras e egalas en dignitat e en drech. Son dotaas de rason e de consciéncia e lor chal agir entre elas amb un esperit de fraternitat.Vivaroalpenc Toutes les persounes naisoun liures e egales en dignità e en drech. Soun douta de razoun e de counsiensio e lour chal agir entre eles amb (/bou) un esperit de freireso.Gascon Totas las personas que naishen liuras e egaus en dignitat e en dreit. Que son dotadas de rason e de consciéncia e que'us cau agir enter eras dab un esperit de hrairessa.Gascon (Febusian writing) Toutes las persounes que nachen libres e egaus en dinnitat e en dreyt. Que soun doutades de rasoû e de counscienci e qu'ous cau ayi entre eres dap û esperit de hrayresse.Lemosin Totas las personas naisson liuras e egalas en dignitat e en drech. Son dotadas de rason e de consciéncia e lor chau (/fau) agir entre elas emb un esperit de frairesa.Lengadocian Totas las personas naisson liuras e egalas en dignitat e en drech. Son dotadas de rason e de consciéncia e lor cal agir entre elas amb un esperit de frairesa. The same extract in five neighboring Romance languages for comparisonCatalanTots els éssers humans neixen lliures i iguals en dignitat i en drets. Són dotats de raó i de consciència, i els cal mantenir-se entre ells amb esperit de fraternitat.FrenchTous les êtres humains naissent libres et égaux en dignité et en droits. Ils sont doués de raison et de conscience et doivent agir les uns envers les autres dans un esprit de fraternité.ItalianTutti gli esseri umani nascono liberi ed eguali in dignità e diritti. Essi sono dotati di ragione e di coscienza e devono agire gli uni verso gli altri in spirito di fratellanza.PortugueseTodos os seres humanos nascem livres e iguais em dignidade e em direitos. Dotados de razão e de consciência, devem agir uns para com os outros em espírito de fraternidade.SpanishTodos los seres humanos nacen libres e iguales en dignidad y derechos y, dotados como están de razón y conciencia, deben comportarse fraternalmente los unos con los otros. Debates concerning linguistic classification and orthography The majority of scholars believe that Occitan constitutes a single language. Georg Kremnitz, "Une approche sociolinguistique", in F. Peter Kirsch, & Georg Kremnitz, & Brigitte Schlieben-Lange (2002) Petite histoire sociale de la langue occitane: usages, images, littérature, grammaires et dictionnaires, coll. Cap al Sud, F-66140 Canet: Trabucaire, p. 109-111 [updated version and partial translation from: Günter Holtus, & Michael Metzeltin, & Christian Schmitt (1991) (dir.) Lexikon der Romanistischen Linguistik. Vol. V-2: Okzitanisch, Katalanisch, Tübingen: Niemeyer] Some authors, Philippe Blanchet, Louis Bayle, Pierre Bonnaud and Jean Lafitte constituting a tiny minority, As indicated by: Georg Kremnitz, "Une approche sociolinguistique", in F. Peter Kirsch, & Georg Kremnitz, & Brigitte Schlieben-Lange (2002) Petite histoire sociale de la langue occitane: usages, images, littérature, grammaires et dictionnaires, coll. Cap al Sud, F-66140 Canet: Trabucaire, p. 109-111 [updated version and partial translation from: Günter Holtus, & Michael Metzeltin, & Christian Schmitt (1991) (dir.) Lexikon der Romanistischen Linguistik. Vol. V-2: Okzitanisch, Katalanisch, Tübingen: Niemeyer] reject this opinion and even the name Occitan: they think that there is a family of distinct languages (called langues d'oc / lengas d'oc in plural) rather than dialects. Many Occitan linguists and writers KREMNITZ Georg (2003) “Un regard sociolinguistique sur les changements de la situation de l’occitan depuis 1968” in: CASTANO R., & GUIDA S., & LATELLA F. (2003) (dir.) Scènes, évolutions, sort de la langue et de la littérature d’oc. Actes du VIIe congrès de l’Association Internationale d’Études Occitanes, Reggio di Calabria/Messina, 7-13 juillet 2002, Rome: Viella , particularly those involved with the pan-Occitan movement centred on the Institut d'Estudis Occitans, disagree with the view that Occitan is a family of languages and think that Limousin, Auvergnat, Languedocien, Gascon, Provençal and Alpine Provençal are dialects of a single language. Though there are some noticeable differences between these varieties, there is a very high degree of mutual intelligibility between them See especiallay: From traditional Romance philology: Jules Ronjat (1930–1941), Grammaire istorique [sic] des parlers provençaux modernes, 4 vol. [reed. 1980, Marseilles: Laffitte Reprints, 2 vol., see especially the "Introduction" (vol. 1, p. 1–32)] About the unity of the Occitan diasystem in structural linguistics: Pierre Bec (1973), Manuel pratique d’occitan moderne, coll. Connaissance des langues, Paris: Picard, p. 24–25 ; they also share a common literary history, and in academic and literary circles, have been identified as a collective linguistic entity—the langue d'oc—for centuries. Some Provençal authors Philippe Blanchet, Louis Bayle continue to support the view that Provençal is a separate language. Nevertheless, the vast majority of Provençal authors and associations think that Provençal is a part of Occitan. The most emblematic and productive ones, Frederic Mistral, Robert Lafont, and their followers (Théodore Aubanel, René Merle, Claude Barsotti, Philippe Gardy, Florian Vernet, Bernard Giély, Pierre Pessemesse...), and also the most important and historic Provençal cultural associations as CREO Provença, Felibrige and Parlaren (Assiso de la Lengo Nostro en Prouvènço, 2003) This debate about the status of Provençal should not be confused with the debate concerning the spelling of Provençal. The classical orthography is more phonemic and diasystematic, and so more pan-Occitan. It is used in (and adapted to) all Occitan dialects and regions, including Provençal. Its supporters think that Provençal is a part of Occitan. The Mistralian orthography of Provençal is more or less phonemic but not diasystematic and is closer to the French spelling, and therefore more specific to Provençal; its users are divided between the ones who think that Provençal is a part of Occitan and the ones who think that Provençal is a separate language. For example, the classical (pan-Occitan) spelling writes Polonha where the Mistralian spelling system has Poulougno, for , 'Poland'. The question of Gascon is a little similar. Gascon presents a number of significant differences from the rest of the language; but despite these differences, Gascon and other Occitan dialects share a very important common lexical and grammatical material, so authors such as Pierre Bec argue that they could never be considered as different as, for example, Spanish and Italian. The close ties between Gascon and others Occitan dialects have been demonstrated through a common diasystem: In addition, the fact that Gascon is included within Occitan despite its particular differences, can be also justified Georg Kremnitz, "Une approche sociolinguistique", in F. Peter Kirsch, & Georg Kremnitz, & Brigitte Schlieben-Lange (2002) Petite histoire sociale de la langue occitane: usages, images, littérature, grammaires et dictionnaires, coll. Cap al Sud, F-66140 Canet: Trabucaire, p. 109–111 [updated version and partial translation from: Günter Holtus, & Michael Metzeltin, & Christian Schmitt (1991) (dir.) Lexikon der Romanistischen Linguistik. Vol. V-2: Okzitanisch, Katalanisch, Tübingen: Niemeyer] because there is a common elaboration (Ausbau) process between Gascon and the rest of Occitan. The vast majority of the Gascon cultural movement Per Noste, Reclams/Escòla Gaston Fèbus, Aranaram Au Patac considers itself as a part of the Occitan cultural movement. And the official status of Val d'Aran (Catalonia, Spain), adopted in 1990, says that Aranese is a part of Gascon and Occitan. A grammar of Aranese by Aitor Carrera, published in 2007 in Lleida, presents the same view. The exclusion of Catalan from the Occitan sphere, although Catalan is a language closely related to Occitan, is justified because there has been a consciousness of its being different from Occitan since the later Middle Ages and the elaboration (Ausbau) processes of Catalan and Occitan (including Gascon) have been quite distinct since the 20th century. Nevertheless, some other scholars Lluis Fornés, see his thesis El Pensament Panoccitanista on the Oc-València site. point that the process which lead to the affirmation of Catalan as a distinct language from Occitan was started during the period when the pressure to include Catalan-speaking areas to a mainstream Spanish culture was at its most. Linguistic characterisation Jules Ronjat has sought to characterize Occitan by 19 principal criteria, as generalized as possible. Of those, 11 are phonetic, five morphologic, one syntactic, and two lexical. Close rounded vowels (French: rose, yeux) are rare or absent in Occitan. This characteristic often carries through to an Occitan speaker's French, leading to a distinctive méridional accent. Unlike French, it is a pro-drop language allowing the omission of the subject (canti: I sing; cantas you sing). Among these 19 discriminating criteria, 7 are different from Spanish, 8 from Italian, 12 from Franco-provençal, and 16 from French. Features of Occitan Among the diachronic features of Occitan as a Romance language: Unlike in French, stressed Latin A was preserved (Latin mare > Oc. mar, but > Fr. mer). Like in French, Latin U changed into , shifting around the series of back vowels, > , > . Gascon changed Latin initial into (Latin filiu > Gascon Oc. hilh), like medieval Spanish (possibly under Basque influence). Other lenition and palatalisation phenomena shared with the rest of the Western Romance languages, especially with Catalan. Comparison with other Romance languages + Common words in Romance languages, with English (a Germanic language) for referenceLatin Occitan(including main regional varieties) Catalan French Ladin (Nones) Lombard Italian Spanish Portuguese Romanian Englishcantarecantar (chantar)cantarchanterciantarcantàcantarecantarcantarcânta[to] singcapra(m)cabra (chabra, craba)cabrachèvreciauracavracapracabracabracaprăgoatclave(m)clauclauclef/cléclauciauchiavellavechavecheiekeyecclesia(m), basilica(m)glèisaesglésiaégliseglesiacesachiesaiglesiaigrejabisericăchurchformaticu(m) (Vulgar Latin), caseu(m)formatge (hormatge)formatgefromageformaifurmaiformaggioquesoqueijocaşcheeselingua(m)lenga (lengua)llengualanguelengalengualingualengualíngualimbătongue; languagenocte(m)nuèch (nuèit)nitnuitnotnochnottenochenoitenoaptenightplatea(m)plaçaplaçaplaceplazapiasapiazzaplazapraçapiaţă Modern loanword from Italian or Greek (Iordan, Dift., 145) placeponte(m)pont (pònt)pontpontpòntpuntpontepuentepontepuntebridge Rich lexicon A comparison of terms and word counts between languages is not easy, as it is impossible to precisely count the number of words in a language. (See Lexicon, Lexeme, Lexicography for more information.) Some have claimed around 450,000 words exist in the Occitan language, Avner Gerard Levy & Jacques Ajenstat: The Kodaxil Semantic Manifesto (2006), Section 10 – Modified Base64 / Kodaxil word length, representation, p. 9: "the English language, as claimed by Merriam-Webster, as well as the Occitan language – are estimated to comprise over 450,000 words in their basic form." a number comparable to English (The Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged with 1993 addenda reaches 470,000 words, as does the Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition.) The Merriam-Webster Web site estimates that the number is somewhere between 250,000 and 1 million words. The magazine Géo (2004, p. 79) claims that American English literature can be more easily translated into Occitan than French, excluding modern technological terms that both languages have integrated. A comparison of the lexical content can find more subtle differences between the languages. For example, Occitan has 128 synonyms related to cultivated land, 62 for wetlands, and 75 for sunshine (Géo). The language went through an eclipse during the Industrial Revolution, as the vocabulary of the countryside became less important. At the same time, it was disparaged as a patois. Nevertheless, Occitan has also incorporated new words into its lexicon to describe the modern world. The Occitan word for web is oèb, for example. Differences between Occitan and Catalan The separation of Catalan from Occitan is seen by some as largely politically (rather than linguistically) motivated. However, the variety that has become standard Catalan does differ from that which has become standard Occitan in a number of ways. The following are just a few examples: Phonology (Standard) Catalan is unique in that Latin short e developed into a close vowel (é) and Latin long e developed into an open vowel (è); this is precisely the reverse of the development that took place in the other Catalan dialects, and the rest of the Romance languages, including Occitan. Thus Standard Catalan ésser corresponds to Occitan èsser/èstre 'to be;' Catalan carrer corresponds to Occitan carrièra 'street.' The distinctly Occitan development of word-final -a, pronounced as in standard Occitan (e.g. chifra 'figure' ), did not occur in general Catalan (which has xifra ). However, some Occitan varieties also lack this feature and some Catalan (Valencian) varieties have the pronunciation mostly happening during a vowel harmony process. When in Catalan word stress falls in the antepenultimate syllable, in Occitan the stress is moved to the penultimate syllable: for example, Occitan pagina vs. Catalan pàgina , "page". However, some varieties of Occitan (e.g., around Nice) keep the stress on the antepenultimate syllable (pàgina) while some varieties of Catalan (in Northern Catalonia) keep the stress on the penultimate syllable (pagina). Diphthongisation has evolved in different ways, e.g. Occitan paire vs. Catalan pare 'father;' Occitan carrièra (carrèra, carrèira) vs. Catalan carrera. Some Occitan dialects lack the voiceless postalveolar fricative phoneme but south-western Occitan presents it, e.g. general Occitan caissa vs. Catalan caixa and south-western Occitan caissa, caisha , 'box.' Occitan has developed the close front rounded vowel as a phoneme, often (but not always) corresponding to Catalan , e.g. Occitan musica vs. Catalan música . The distribution of palatal consonants and differs in Catalan and a part of Occitan: while Catalan permits these sounds in word-final position, in central Occitan they are neutralised to and (e.g. central Occitan filh vs. Catalan fill , 'son'). Non-central varieties of Occitan, however, can have a palatal realisation (e.g. filh, hilh ). Also, many words that start with in Occitan start with in Catalan, e.g. Occitan libre vs. Catalan llibre , 'book.' This is perhaps one of the most distinctive characteristics of Catalan amongst the Romance languages. However, some transitional varieties of Occitan, near to the Catalan area, also have initial . Standard Eastern Catalan has a neutral vowel whenever a or e occur in unstressed position (e.g. passar , 'to happen,' but passa , 'it happens'), and also whenever o or u occur in unstressed position (e.g. voler , 'to want,' but vol , 'he wants.' However, this does not apply to Western Catalan dialects, whose vowel system usually retains the a/e distinction in unstressed position, nor to Northern Catalan dialects, whose vowel system does not retain the o/u distinction in stressed position, much like Occitan. Morphology Verb conjugation is slightly different, although there is a great variety amongst dialects. Medieval conjugations were much closer. Occitan tends to add an analogical -a to the feminine forms of adjectives which are invariable in standard Catalan: for example, Occitan legal / legala vs. Catalan legal / legal. Catalan has a distinctive past tense formation, known as the 'periphrastic preterite,' formed from a variant of the verb 'to go' plus the infinitive of the verb: donar 'to give,' va donar 'he gave.' This has the same value as the 'normal' preterite shared by most Romance languages, deriving from the Latin perfect tense: in Catalan, donà 'he gave.' The periphrastic preterite only exists in Occitan as an archaic or as a very local tense. Orthography The writing systems of the two languages differ slightly. The modern Occitan spelling recommended by the Institut d'Estudis Occitans and the Conselh de la Lenga Occitana is designed to be a pan-Occitan system, whereas the Catalan system recommended by the Institut d'Estudis Catalans is specific to Catalan. For example, in Catalan, word-final -n is omitted, as this is not pronounced in any dialect of Catalan (so we have Català, Occità); central Occitan also drops word-final -n, but it is retained in the spelling, as some eastern and western dialects of Occitan do retain the final consonant (so we have Catalan, Occitan). Some digraphs are also written in a different way such as the sound which is –ll– in Catalan (similar to Spanish) and –lh– in Occitan (similar to Portuguese) or the sound written –ny– in Catalan and –nh– in Occitan. Occitano-Romance linguistic group Despite these differences, Occitan and Catalan remain more or less mutually comprehensible, especially when written — more so than either is with Spanish or French, for example. Occitan and Catalan form a common diasystem (or a common Abstandsprache) which is called Occitano-Romance, according to the linguist Pèire Bèc. Pierre Bec (1995) La langue occitane, coll. Que sais-je? nr. 1059, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France [1st ed. 1963] Speakers of both languages share early historical, cultural, and amicable heritage. The combined Occitano-Romance area is 259,000 km² and represents 23 million speakers. However, the regions are not equal in terms of language speakers. According to Bec 1969 (pp.120–121), in France, no more than a quarter of the population in counted regions speak Occitan well, though around half can understand it; it is thought that the number of Occitan users has decreased dramatically since then. By contrast, in Catalonia, nearly three quarters of the population speak Catalan and 95% understand it. www6.gencat.net Occitan quotes According to the testimony of Bernadette Soubirous, the Virgin Mary spoke to her (Lourdes, 25 March 1858) in Gascon saying: Que sòi era Immaculada Concepcion ("I am the Immaculate Conception", the phrase is reproduced under this statue in the Lourdes grotto with a non-standard spelling), confirming the proclamation of this Catholic dogma four years earlier. One of the most notable passages of Occitan in Western literature occurs in the 26th canto of Dante's Purgatorio in which the troubadour Arnaut Daniel responds to the narrator: "Tan m'abellis vostre cortes deman, / qu'ieu no me puesc ni voill a vos cobrire. / Ieu sui Arnaut, que plor e vau cantan; / consiros vei la passada folor, / e vei jausen lo joi qu'esper, denan. / Ara vos prec, per aquella valor / que vos guida al som de l'escalina, / sovenha vos a temps de ma dolor" Modern Occitan: Tan m'abelís vòstra cortesa demanda, / que ieu non pòdi ni vòli m'amagar de vos. / Ieu soi Arnaut, que plori e vau cantant; / consirós vesi la foliá passada, / e vesi joiós lo jorn qu'espèri, davant. / Ara vos prègui, per aquela valor / que vos guida al som de l'escalièr, / sovenhatz-vos tot còp de ma dolor. The above strophe translates to: So pleases me your courteous demand, / I cannot and I will not hide me from you. / I am Arnaut, who weep and singing go;/ Contrite I see the folly of the past, /And joyous see the hoped-for day before me. / Therefore do I implore you, by that power/ Which guides you to the summit of the stairs, / Be mindful to assuage my suffering! Another notable Occitan quotation, this time from Arnaut Daniel's own 10th Canto: "leu sui Arnaut qu'amas l'aura E chatz le lebre ab lo bou E nadi contra suberna" Modern Occitan: Ieu soi Arnaut qu'aimi l'aura e caci [chaci] la lèbre amb lo buòu e nadi contra subèrna. Translation: "I am Arnaut who loves the wind, And chases the hare with the ox, And swims against the torrent." French writer Victor Hugo's classic Les Misérables also contains some Occitan. In Part One, First Book, Chapter IV, "Les œuvres semblables aux paroles", one can read about Monseigneur Bienvenu: "Né provençal, il s'était facilement familiarisé avec tous les patois du midi. Il disait: — E ben, monsur, sètz saget? comme dans le bas Languedoc. — Ont anaratz passar? comme dans les basses Alpes. — Pòrti un bon moton amb un bon formatge gras, comme dans le haut Dauphiné. […] Parlant toutes les langues, il entrait dans toutes les âmes." Translation: "Born a Provençal, he easily familiarized himself with the dialect of the south. He would say, E ben, monsur, sètz saget? as in lower Languedoc; Ont anaratz passar? as in the Basses-Alpes; Pòrti un bon moton amb un bon formatge gras as in upper Dauphiné. […] As he spoke all tongues, he entered into all hearts." E ben, monsur, sètz saget?: So, Mister, everything's fine? Ont anaratz passar?: Which way will you go? Pòrti un bon moton amb un bon formatge gras: I brought some fine mutton with a fine fat cheese The Spanish playwright Lope de Rueda included a Gascon servant for comical effect in one of his short pieces, La generosa paliza. Registro de Representantes by Lope de Rueda, in Spanish. Peirutón speaks a mix of Gascon and Catalan. John Barnes's Thousand Cultures science fiction series (A Million Open Doors, 1992; Earth Made of Glass, 1998; The Merchants of Souls, 2001; and The Armies of Memory, 2006), features Occitan. So does the 2005 best-selling novel Labyrinth by English author Kate Mosse. It is set in Carcassonne, where she owns a house and spends half of the year. Notes See also Internal links Occitan dialects: Gascon (including Aranese), Lemosin, Auvernhat, Vivaroalpenc, Provençal (including Niçard), Lengadocian Occitan alphabet Occitan cross Baìo Institut d'Estudis Occitans Catalan language Languages of France Languages of Italy Languages of Spain Bibliography External links Overview and grammar of Occitan Occitanet – a guide to the language Troubadour & Early Occitan Literature Ostal d'Occitània de Tolosa The house of occitan associations of Toulouse panOccitan.org transdialectal Occitan, Occitan-French French-Occitan dictionnary (71.000 words), conjugation, spell checker, online course. be-x-old:Аксытанская мова | Occitan_language |@lemmatized occitan:188 pronunciation:4 give:4 oxford:2 advance:1 learner:1 dictionary:3 edition:2 know:6 also:22 lenga:9 òc:12 langue:9 oc:11 native:6 name:7 regional:6 nickname:1 la:23 nòstra:1 e:85 language:84 romance:19 speak:33 occitania:6 southern:8 france:14 valley:9 italy:8 monaco:7 aran:5 spain:6 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4,534 | Netherlands_Antilles | The Netherlands Antilles (Dutch: ), previously known as the Netherlands West Indies or Dutch Antilles/West Indies, is part of the Lesser Antilles and consists of two groups of islands in the Caribbean Sea: Curaçao and Bonaire, just off the Venezuelan coast, and Sint Eustatius, Saba and Sint Maarten, located southeast of the Virgin Islands. The islands form an autonomous part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The islands' economy depends mostly upon tourism, international financial services, international commerce and shipping and petroleum. The Netherlands Antilles was scheduled to be dissolved as a unified political entity on December 15, 2008, so that the five constituent islands would attain new constitutional statuses within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, but this dissolution has been postponed to an indefinite future date. St. Maarten-St. Martin - Consensus, but no date set for new status As of December 15, 2008, legislation to amend the charter of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and to define the new status of Bonaire, Saba, and Sint Eustatius was still being reviewed. Results of December 15 2008 Round Table Conference History Both the leeward (Alonso de Ojeda, 1499) and windward (Christopher Columbus, 1493) island groups were discovered and initially settled by Spain. In the 17th century, the islands were conquered by the Dutch West India Company and were used as military outposts and trade bases, most prominent the slave trade. Slavery was abolished in 1863. In 1954, the status of the islands was up-graded from a colonial territory to a part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands as a separate country within the kingdom. The island of Aruba was part of the Netherlands Antilles until 1986, when it was granted status aparte, becoming yet another part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands as a separate country within the kingdom. Between June 2000 and April 2005, each island of the Netherlands Antilles had a referendum on its future status. The four options that could be voted on were: closer ties with the Netherlands remaining within the Netherlands Antilles autonomy as a country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands (status aparte) independence Of the five islands, Sint Maarten and Curaçao voted for status aparte, Saba and Bonaire voted for closer ties to the Netherlands, and Sint Eustatius voted to stay within the Netherlands Antilles. On November 26, 2005 a Round Table Conference (RTC) was held between the governments of the Netherlands, Aruba, the Netherlands Antilles, and each island in the Netherlands Antilles. The final statement to emerge from the RTC stated that autonomy for Curaçao and Sint Maarten, plus a new status for Bonaire, Saba, and Sint Eustatius would come into effect by July 1, 2007. On October 12, 2006, the Netherlands reached an agreement with Saba, Bonaire, and Sint Eustatius; this agreement would make these islands special municipalities. On November 3, 2006, Curaçao and Sint Maarten were granted autonomy in an agreement, but this agreement was rejected by the then island council of Curaçao on November 28. The Curaçao government was not sufficiently convinced that the agreement would provide enough autonomy for Curaçao. nu.nl/algemeen Curaçao verwerpt slotakkoord On July 9, 2007 the new island council of Curaçao approved the agreement previously rejected in November 2006. Constitution The head of state is the ruling monarch of the Netherlands, who is represented in the Netherlands Antilles by a governor. A council of ministers, chaired by a prime minister, forms the local government. Together with the governor, who holds responsibility for external affairs and defense, it forms the executive branch of the government. The legislative branch is two-layered. Delegates of the islands are represented in the government of the Netherlands Antilles, but each island has its own government that takes care of the daily affairs on the island. The Netherlands Antilles are not part of the European Union. Since 2006 the Islands have given rise to diplomatic disputes between Venezuela and the Netherlands. Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez claims that the Netherlands might allow the United States to install military bases that would be necessary for a planned U.S. invasion of Venezuela. Chavez Says Holland Plans to Help US Invade Venezuela Future status Map of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Netherlands and the Caribbean islands are in the same scale. The Netherlands Antilles was to be disbanded on December 15, 2008. This dissolution is still planned, but has been postponed to an indefinite future date. The idea of the Netherlands Antilles as a state never enjoyed the full support of all of the islands, and political relations between islands were often strained. Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986, and formed its own state within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The desire for secession has also been strong in Sint Maarten. In 2004, a commission of the governments of the Netherlands Antilles and the Netherlands reported on a future status for the Netherlands Antilles. The commission advised a revision of the Statute of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in order to dissolve the Netherlands Antilles. Two new associated states within the Kingdom of the Netherlands would be formed, Curaçao and Sint Maarten. Meanwhile, Bonaire, Saba, and Sint Eustatius would become a direct part of the Netherlands as special municipalities (bijzondere gemeente), a form of "public body" (openbaar lichaam) as outlined in article 134 of the Dutch Constitution. These municipalities will resemble ordinary Dutch municipalities in most ways (they will have a mayor, aldermen and a municipal council, for example) and will have to introduce most Dutch law. Residents of these three islands will also be able to vote in Dutch national and European elections. There are, however, some derogations for these islands. Social security, for example, will not be on the same level as it is in the Netherlands, and it is not certain whether the islands will be obliged to introduce the euro ; they may retain the Antillean guilder pending further negotiations. All five of the island territories may also continue to access the Common Court of Justice of Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles (with the Joint Court probably receiving a new name). The three islands will also have to involve the Dutch Minister of Foreign Relations before they can make agreements with countries in the region. Originally the term used for Bonaire, Saba, and St. Eustatius to describe their expected association with the Netherlands was "Kingdom Islands" (Koninkrijkseilanden). The Dutch province of North Holland has offered the three new municipalities the opportunity to become part of the province. Additionally, the Kingdom government would consist of the government of the Netherlands and one mandated minister per Caribbean country. The special municipalities would be represented in the Kingdom Government by the Netherlands, as they can vote for the Dutch parliament. The Netherlands has proposed that the proposed Treaty of Lisbon allow the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba to opt for the status of Outermost Region (OMR) also called Ultra Peripheral Region (UPR), if they wish. The provision reads: Islands Map showing French Saint-Martin (north) and Dutch Sint Maarten (south). The Netherland Antilles have no major administrative divisions, although each island has its own local government. The two island groups of which the Netherlands Antilles consists are: the "Leeward Islands" (Benedenwindse Eilanden), part of the Leeward Antilles island chain off the Venezuelan coast (along with Aruba) (ABC islands). Bonaire, including an islet called Klein Bonaire ("Little Bonaire") Curaçao, including an islet called Klein Curaçao ("Little Curaçao") the "Windward Islands" (Bovenwindse Eilanden) east of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands (SSS islands). These are part of what are in English called the Leeward Islands, but in e.g. French, Spanish, Dutch and the English spoken locally these are considered part of the Windward Islands. Saba Sint Eustatius Sint Maarten, the southern half of the island Saint Martin (the northern half, Saint-Martin, is an overseas collectivity of France). Geography The flat landscape of Klein Bonaire. Map of the Netherlands Antilles The windward islands are all of volcanic origin and hilly, leaving little ground suitable for agriculture. The leeward islands have a mixed volcanic and coral origin. The highest point is Mount Scenery, 862 metres (2,828 ft), on Saba (also the highest point in all the Kingdom of the Netherlands). The Netherlands Antilles have a tropical climate, with warm weather all year round. The windward Islands are subject to hurricanes in the summer months. Economy Tourism, petroleum transshipment and oil refinement (on Curaçao), as well as offshore finance are the mainstays of this small economy, which is closely tied to the outside world. The islands enjoy a high per capita income and a well-developed infrastructure as compared with other countries in the region. Almost all consumer and capital goods are imported, with Venezuela, the United States, and Mexico being the major suppliers, as well as the Dutch government which supports the islands with substantial development aid. Poor soils and inadequate water supplies hamper the development of agriculture. The Antillean guilder has a fixed exchange rate with the United States dollar of 1.79:1. Demographics A large part of the Netherlands Antilleans descends from European colonists and African slaves that were brought and traded here from the 17th to 19th century. The rest of the population originates from other Caribbean islands, Latin America, East Asia and elsewhere in the world. Papiamentu is predominant on Curaçao and Bonaire (as well as the neighboring island of Aruba). This creole descends from Portuguese and West African languages with a strong admixture of Dutch, plus subsequent lexical contributions from Spanish and English. After a decades-long debate, English and Papiamentu have been made official languages alongside Dutch in early March 2007. Legislation is produced in Dutch but parliamentary debate is in Papiamentu or English, depending on the island. Due to the islands' proximity to South America, Spanish is becoming increasingly known and used throughout the archipelago. The majority of the population are followers of the Christian faith, mostly Roman Catholic. Curaçao also hosts a sizeable group of followers of the Jewish faith, descendants of a Portuguese group of Sephardic Jews that arrived from Amsterdam and Brazil in 1654. Most Netherlands Antilleans are Dutch citizens and this status permits and encourages the young and university-educated to emigrate to the Netherlands. This exodus is considered to be to the islands' detriment as it creates a brain drain. On the other hand, immigrants from the Dominican Republic, Haiti, the Anglophone Caribbean and Colombia have increased their presence in recent years. Culture A Bulawaya dance in Curaçao. The origins of the population and location of the islands give the Netherlands Antilles a mixed culture. Tourism and overwhelming media presence from the United States has increased the regional United States influence. On all the islands, the holiday of Carnival is, like in many Caribbean and Latin American countries, an important one. Festivities include "jump-up" parades with beautifully colored costumes, floats, and live bands as well as beauty contests and other competitions. Carnival on the islands also includes a middle-of-the-night j'ouvert (juvé) parade that ends at sunrise with the burning of a straw King Momo, cleansing the island of sins and bad luck. Miscellaneous topics Unlike the metropolitan Netherlands, same-sex marriages cannot be performed here, but those performed in other jurisdictions are recognized. See also References External links Government GOV.an - Main governmental site Chief of State and Cabinet Members Antillenhuis - Cabinet of the Netherlands Antilles' Plenipotentiary Minister in the Netherlands Central Bank of the Netherlands Antilles General information Netherlands Antilles from UCB Libraries GovPubs November:Nederlandani Antiles be-x-old:Нідэрляндзкія Антылы | Netherlands_Antilles |@lemmatized netherlands:58 antilles:30 dutch:17 previously:2 know:2 west:4 indie:2 part:12 less:1 consists:2 two:4 group:5 island:49 caribbean:6 sea:1 curaçao:17 bonaire:12 venezuelan:3 coast:2 sint:15 eustatius:8 saba:9 maarten:9 locate:1 southeast:1 virgin:2 form:6 autonomous:1 kingdom:16 economy:3 depend:2 mostly:2 upon:1 tourism:3 international:2 financial:1 service:1 commerce:1 shipping:1 petroleum:2 schedule:1 dissolve:2 unified:1 political:2 entity:1 december:4 five:3 constituent:1 would:9 attain:1 new:8 constitutional:1 status:13 within:8 dissolution:2 postpone:2 indefinite:2 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4,535 | Nicanor_Parra | Nicanor Parra Sandoval (born in San Fabián de Alico, Chile on September 5, 1914) is a mathematician and poet often considered to be the most influential poet Chile has produced since Pablo Neruda. He describes himself as an "antipoet," due to his distaste for standard poetic pomp and function (after recitations he would exclaim Me retracto de todo lo dicho, or, "I take back everything I said"). Trying to get away from the conventions of poetry, Parra's poetic language renounces the refinement of most Latin American literature and adopts a more colloquial tone similar to prose. His first collection, "Poemas y Antipoemas" (1954) is a classic of Latin American literature, one of the most influential Spanish poetry collections of the twentieth century, and is cited as an inspiration by American Beat Writers such as Allen Ginsberg. Parra has been nominated several times for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Parra comes from the artistically prolific Chilean Parra family of performers, musicians, artists, and writers. His sister, Violeta, is possibly the most important folk singer the nation has produced. Nicanor Parra was born in 1914 in Chillan, a small town in southern Chile, the son of a schoolteacher. In 1933 he entered the Instituto Pedagogico of the University of Chile, and qualified as a teacher of mathematics and physics in 1938, one year after his first book appeared: Cancionero sin Nombre. After teaching in Chilean secondary schools, he went in 1943 to Brown University in the U.S. to continue his studies in physics. He returned to Chile as Professor at the University in 1946. Since 1952 Parra has been Professor of Theoretical Physics in Santiago, and has read his poetry in England, France, Russia, Mexico, Cuba, and the United States. He has published several books. List of works Cancionero sin nombre, 1937. Poemas y antipoemas, 1954. La cueca larga, 1958. Versos de salon, 1962. Manifiesto, 1963. Canciones rusas, 1967. Obra gruesa, 1969. Los profesores, 1971. Artefactos, 1972. Sermones y prédicas del Cristo de Elqui, 1977. Nuevos sermones y prédicas del Cristo de Elqui, 1979. El anti-Lázaro, 1981. Plaza Sésamo, 1981. Poema y antipoema de Eduardo Frei, 1982. Cachureos, ecopoemas, guatapiques, últimas prédicas, 1983. Chistes para desorientar a la policía, 1983. Coplas de Navidad, 1983. Poesía política, 1983. Hojas de Parra, 1985. Poemas para combatir la calvicie, 1993. Páginas en blanco, 2001. Lear Rey & Mendigo, 2004. Obras completas I & algo +, 2006. Discursos de Sobremesa, 2006 (English transl. by Dave Oliphant "After Dinner Declarations", 2009, Host Publications, Inc. See also Other famous members of his family are folk singer and creator of the Nueva Cancion Chilena Violeta Parra and musician Ángel Parra, a former political prisoner under the Pinochet dictatorship, among others. Parra family External links Nicanor Parra Official Web Site Nicanor Parra website at the Universidad de Chile Nicanor Parra | In Konvergencias El proyecto de la Antipoesía de Nicanor Parra Nicanor Parra en Biblioteca Virtual Cervantes Antipoems: How to Look Better and Feel Great New "Antitranslations" by Liz Werner | Nicanor_Parra |@lemmatized nicanor:7 parra:16 sandoval:1 bear:2 san:1 fabián:1 de:12 alico:1 chile:6 september:1 mathematician:1 poet:2 often:1 consider:1 influential:2 produce:2 since:2 pablo:1 neruda:1 describe:1 antipoet:1 due:1 distaste:1 standard:1 poetic:2 pomp:1 function:1 recitation:1 would:1 exclaim:1 retracto:1 todo:1 lo:1 dicho:1 take:1 back:1 everything:1 say:1 try:1 get:1 away:1 convention:1 poetry:3 language:1 renounce:1 refinement:1 latin:2 american:3 literature:3 adopt:1 colloquial:1 tone:1 similar:1 prose:1 first:2 collection:2 poemas:3 antipoemas:2 classic:1 one:2 spanish:1 twentieth:1 century:1 cite:1 inspiration:1 beat:1 writer:2 allen:1 ginsberg:1 nominate:1 several:2 time:1 nobel:1 prize:1 come:1 artistically:1 prolific:1 chilean:2 family:3 performer:1 musician:2 artist:1 sister:1 violeta:2 possibly:1 important:1 folk:2 singer:2 nation:1 chillan:1 small:1 town:1 southern:1 son:1 schoolteacher:1 enter:1 instituto:1 pedagogico:1 university:3 qualify:1 teacher:1 mathematics:1 physic:3 year:1 book:2 appear:1 cancionero:2 sin:2 nombre:2 teach:1 secondary:1 school:1 go:1 brown:1 u:1 continue:1 study:1 return:1 professor:2 theoretical:1 santiago:1 read:1 england:1 france:1 russia:1 mexico:1 cuba:1 united:1 state:1 publish:1 list:1 work:1 la:4 cueca:1 larga:1 verso:1 salon:1 manifiesto:1 canciones:1 rusas:1 obra:1 gruesa:1 los:1 profesores:1 artefactos:1 sermones:2 prédicas:3 del:2 cristo:2 elqui:2 nuevos:1 el:2 anti:1 lázaro:1 plaza:1 sésamo:1 poema:1 antipoema:1 eduardo:1 frei:1 cachureos:1 ecopoemas:1 guatapiques:1 últimas:1 chistes:1 para:2 desorientar:1 policía:1 coplas:1 navidad:1 poesía:1 política:1 hojas:1 combatir:1 calvicie:1 páginas:1 en:2 blanco:1 lear:1 rey:1 mendigo:1 obras:1 completas:1 algo:1 discursos:1 sobremesa:1 english:1 transl:1 dave:1 oliphant:1 dinner:1 declaration:1 host:1 publication:1 inc:1 see:1 also:1 famous:1 member:1 creator:1 nueva:1 cancion:1 chilena:1 ángel:1 former:1 political:1 prisoner:1 pinochet:1 dictatorship:1 among:1 others:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 web:1 site:1 website:1 universidad:1 konvergencias:1 proyecto:1 antipoesía:1 biblioteca:1 virtual:1 cervantes:1 antipoems:1 look:1 good:1 feel:1 great:1 new:1 antitranslations:1 liz:1 werner:1 |@bigram nicanor_parra:7 pablo_neruda:1 twentieth_century:1 allen_ginsberg:1 nobel_prize:1 eduardo_frei:1 la_policía:1 external_link:1 |
4,536 | Eurostar | Eurostar is a high-speed railway passenger train service in Western Europe connecting London with Paris and Brussels. All Eurostar services cross under the English Channel via the Channel Tunnel, owned by Eurotunnel. In the United Kingdom, calling points are St Pancras railway station, then Ebbsfleet International and Ashford International within Kent. In France they are Gare de Calais-Fréthun, Gare de Lille-Europe and finally Paris Gare du Nord. Trains to Belgium terminate at Brussels-South railway station. In addition, there are limited services from London to Disneyland Resort Paris at Gare de Marne-la-Vallée - Chessy, and seasonal destinations in France. The service is operated by eighteen-carriage Class 373 trains which run at up to on a network of high-speed lines. The LGV Nord line in France opened before Eurostar services began in 1994 and newer lines enabling faster journeys were added later—HSL 1 in Belgium and High Speed 1 in southern England. The French and Belgian parts of the network are shared with Paris–Brussels Thalys services and other TGV trains. In the United Kingdom the two-stage Channel Tunnel Rail Link project was completed on 14 November 2007, when the London terminus of Eurostar transferred from Waterloo International to St Pancras. Eurostar is operated by the national railway companies of France and Belguim, SNCF and SNCB, and by Eurostar (UK) Ltd (EUKL), a subsidiary of London and Continental Railways (LCR) which in turn also owns the high-speed infrastructure and stations on the British side. Eurostar has become the dominant operator in cross-channel intercity passenger travel on the routes that it operates, carrying more passengers than the airlines combined. Other operators have stated an interest in purchasing EUKL, or starting competing services following deregulation in 2010. History A typical Channel Tunnel cross section, a service tunnel lies in between the twin rail tunnels. Eurostar at Paris Gare du Nord Eurostar train at Vauxhall, on the approach to London Waterloo International Eurostar, Thalys and a TGV train beside one another at Paris Gare du Nord The history of Eurostar can be traced to the 1986 choice of a rail tunnel to provide a cross-Channel link between Britain and France. A previous attempt at constructing a tunnel between the two nations began in 1974, but the project was cancelled by the British government over disagreements with the construction company and spiralling costs during a poor economic period. Ideas for such a tunnel underneath the English Channel had been first mooted as early as 1802; Whiteside, Thomas (1962). The Tunnel under the Channel. Rupert Hart-Davis, p. 17 with the first serious attempt in 1881, which was abandoned due to a hostile press seeing the tunnel as compromising Britain's natural defences. Wilson pp. 14–21" Eurotunnel was created to manage and own the tunnel, and TransManche Link created as the joint construction consortium to build the project. Construction of the physical tunnel began in 1988, and was finished five years later in 1993, before being officially opened the following year. In addition to the tunnel's shuttle trains carrying cars and lorries between Folkestone and Calais, this decision provided for through passenger and freight trains from and to places further afield. British Rail and SNCF contracted with Eurotunnel Eurotunnel, the company that built and runs the Channel Tunnel, is a completely separate entity from Eurostar. to use half the tunnel's capacity. In 1987 Britain, France and Belgium set up an International Project Group to specify a train providing an international, high-speed service through the tunnel. Having been operating high-speed TGV services since 1981, and with construction of a new high-speed line between Paris and the Channel Tunnel, LGV Nord, under way, TGV technology was chosen as the base for the trains. An order for 30 trainsets was placed in December 1989. Testing the trains revealed problems on the 750V third-rail system in Britain. The trains were designed to shut down if causing electrical interference with signalling, and this happened frequently, but the problem was solved before services commenced. On 17 May 1993, the first Eurostar train travelled through the Tunnel to the UK; Launch of Service On 14 November 1994 Eurostar services began between Waterloo International station in London, Gare du Nord in Paris and Brussels-South railway station in Brussels. Offical Waterloo 'Goodbye' video, useful statistics and numbers shown In 1995 Eurostar was achieving an average speed of between London and Paris. On 8 January 1996 Eurostar launched services from a second railway station in the UK when Ashford International was opened. Journey times between London and Brussels were lowered by the opening of HSL 1 on 14 December 1997. On 23 September 2003 passenger services began running upon the first completed section of High Speed 1, marking the introduction of dedicated high speed rail to Britain. Following a highly prestigious opening ceremony and a large advertising campaign, on 14 November 2007 Eurostar services in London transferred from Waterloo to the brand new St Pancras International. Records achieved The Channel Tunnel used by Eurostar services holds the record for having the longest undersea section anywhere in the world, as well as being the second longest tunnel in the world. A Eurostar Class 373 train set a new British speed record of on the first section of High Speed 1 on 30 July 2003; two months before services began running upon the first section of High Speed 1. On 16 May 2006 Eurostar set a new record for the longest non-stop high speed journey, a distance of from London to Cannes taking 7 hours 25 minutes. On 4 September 2007 a record-breaking train left Paris Gare du Nord at 10:44 (09:44 BST) and reached London St Pancras in 2 hours 3 minutes 39 seconds, while transporting journalists and railway workers the train was the first passenger-carrying arrival at the St Pancras International station. On 20 September 2007, the Eurostar service broke another record as it completed the journey from Brussels to London in 1 hour, 43 minutes. Regional Eurostar and Nightstar The original proposals for Eurostar included direct services to Paris and Brussels from cities north of London (NoL): Manchester via Birmingham on the West Coast Main Line and Glasgow via Edinburgh, Newcastle and York on the East Coast Main Line. Seven shorter NoL Eurostar trains for these Regional Eurostar services were built, but with predicted journey times of almost nine hours for Glasgow to Paris, the growth of low-cost air travel during the 1990s made the plans commercially unviable; although both government policy and the privatisation of British Rail has been suggested as reasons for the failure as well. Three of the Regional Eurostar units were leased by Great North Eastern Railway (GNER) to increase domestic services from London King's Cross to York and later Leeds. The leases ended in December 2005, and most of the NoL sets have since been transferred to SNCF for TGV services in northern France. An international Nightstar sleeper train was also planned; this would have travelled the same routes as Regional Eurostar, plus the Great Western Main Line to Cardiff. These were also deemed commercially unviable, and the scheme was abandoned with no services ever operated. In 2000 the coaches were sold to VIA Rail in Canada. Ashford International, in its current appearance. Ashford International station Ashford International station is the original station for Eurostar services in Kent. Once Ebbsfleet International railway station, also designed to serve the Kent region, had opened, only three trains a day to Paris and one to Disneyland Paris called at Ashford for a considerable amount of time. There were considerable fears that Ashford International might be further reduced or closed down as Eurostar planned to make Ebbsfleet the new regional hub instead. However, after a period during which no Brussels trains served the station, to the complaint of the local communities, on 23 February 2009 Eurostar re-introduced a single daily Ashford to Brussels service. Some critics have remained sceptical, as very few ticket distributors sell tickets either coming from or going to Ashford International. Mainline Routes A Eurostar on High Speed 1 passing close to Temple Wood LGV Nord LGV Nord is a French long high-speed rail line that connects Paris to the Belgian border and the Channel Tunnel via Lille that opened in 1993. Its extensions to Belgium and towards Paris, as well as connecting to the Channel Tunnel, have made LGV Nord a part of every Eurostar journey undertaken; a Belgian high speed line, HSL 1, was added to the end of LGV Nord at the Belgian border in 1997. Of all French high-speed lines, LGV Nord sees the widest variety of high-speed rolling stock and is quite busy; a proposed cutoff bypassing Lille, which would reduce Eurostar journey times to Paris, is called LGV Picardie. Channel Tunnel The Channel Tunnel is a crucial part of the route; it is the only means by which Eurostar trains can travel between Great Britain and the European mainland. It links with LGV Nord in France and High Speed One in Britain. Tunnelling commenced in 1988, and the tunnel was officially opened by British Queen Elizabeth II and French President François Mitterrand in a ceremony held in Calais on 6 May 1994. It is owned by Eurotunnel, who charge a significant toll to Eurostar for use of tunnel. In 1996, the American Society of Civil Engineers identified the tunnel as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World. Along the current route of the Eurostar service line speeds are except within the tunnel sections, where lower speeds apply for safety reasons. Since the launch of Eurostar services, severe disruptions and cancellations have been caused by fires happening within the Channel Tunnel, such as the 1996 Channel Tunnel fire, the relatively minor 2006 Channel Tunnel fire, and the 2008 Channel Tunnel fire. A Eurostar on High Speed 1 travelling near the mid-Kent village of Charing HSL 1 Journey times between London and Brussels were improved when a Belgian high-speed line, HSL 1, opened on 14 December 1997. It links in with LGV Nord on the border with France, allowing Eurostar trains heading to Brussels to make the transition between the two without having to use convention slower lines and thus remain at high speeds. A further four-minute improvement for London-Brussels trains was achieved in December 2006 with the opening of the Brussels South Viaduct. Linking the international platforms of Brussels-South railway station with the high-speed line, the viaduct separates Eurostar (and Thalys) from local services. High Speed 1 High Speed 1 (HS1), formerly known as the Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL), is a high-speed railway line running from London through Kent to the British end of the Channel Tunnel. It was built in two stages. The first section between the Tunnel and Fawkham Junction in north Kent opened in September 2003, cutting London–Paris journey times by 21 minutes to 2 hours 35 minutes, and London-Brussels to 2 hours 20 minutes. On14 November commercial services began over the whole of the new HS1 line. The redeveloped St Pancras International station became the new London terminus for all Eurostar services. The completion of High Speed 1 has brought the British part of Eurostar's route up to the same standards as the French and Belgian high-speed lines. Non-stop journey times have been reduced by a further 20 minutes to 2 hours 15 minutes for London-Paris and 1 hour 51 minutes London-Brussels. Service Eurostar departure information - Brussels Eurostar offers seventeen weekday London–Paris services (twenty on Fridays) including six non-stop (eight on Fridays), and eleven London– – Brussels services including three running non-stop. In addition, there is one round-trip London–Disneyland Paris and two seasonal services: from July to September there is a weekly London–Ashford–Avignon service, and in the winter twice-weekly "snow trains" to Bourg-Saint-Maurice, Aime-la-Plagne and Moutiers in the Alps; one runs overnight and the other is a daytime round-trip. Intermediate stations are Ebbsfleet International in northwest Kent, Ashford International in southeast Kent, and Calais-Fréthun and Lille-Europe in northern France. Since 14 November 2007, all Eurostar trains have been routed via High Speed 1 to or from the redeveloped London terminus at St Pancras International; at a cost of £800 million it was extensively rebuilt and extended to cope with long Eurostar trains. It had originally been intended to retain some Eurostar services at Waterloo International terminal, but this was ruled out on cost grounds. Completion of High Speed 1 has increased the potential number of trains serving London. Capacity exists for up to eight trains per hour in each direction from London to Continental Europe, moving the bottleneck to the Channel Tunnel. Separation of Eurostar from British domestic services through Kent meant that timetabling was no longer affected by peak-hour restrictions. Fares Eurostar's fares were significantly higher in its early years, the cheapest fare in 1994 was £99 return. In 2002, Eurostar was planning cheaper fares, an example of which was an offer of £50 day returns to Paris or Brussels. By March 2003, the cheapest fare was £59 return, available all year around. Competition between Eurostar and airline services was a large factor in ticket prices being reduced from the initial levels. Business Premier fares were also a mild undercut of the airlines on similar routes, targeted at regular business travellers. In 2009, Eurostar vastly increased its budget ticket availability to help maintain and grow its dominant market share. The Eurostar ticketing system is very complex, being distributed through no fewer than 48 individual sales systems. Eurostar is a member of the Amadeus CRS distribution system, making its tickets available alongside those of airlines worldwide. The equivalent of first class with Eurostar is travelling in Business Premier; perks include guaranteed faster checking in and meals being personally served at the seat of your choice, as well as the improved furnishings and interior of Business Premier carriages. The rebranding is likely a part of Eurostar's marketing, aiming to attract a large amount of business professionals. Service Connections Without the operation of Regional Eurostar services using the North of London trainsets across the rest of Britain, Eurostar has developed its connections with other transport services instead; such as integrating effectively with traditional UK rail operators' scheduals and routes, making it possible for passengers to easily use Eurostar as a quick connections to further destinations on the continent. All three main terminals used by the Eurostar service, St Pancras International, Paris Gare du Nord, and Brussels Midi/Zuid are heavily served by domestic trains and intergrated into local infrastructure such as the London Underground. Standard Eurostar tickets include several free connections, such as between the terminal for Eurostar services at Brussels Midi/Zuid and the rest of Belgium. Eurostar has announced several partnerships with other rail services, most notably Thalys connections at Lille and Brussels for passengers to go further than current Eurostar routes such as the Netherlands and into Germany. In 2002, Eurostar initiated the Eurostar-Plus program, offering connecting tickets aimed at journeys from Lille and Paris going onwards to dozens of destinations within France. Through fares are available from 68 British towns and cities to destinations in France and Belgium. In May 2009 Eurostar announced that a formal connection to Switzerland had been established. Controls and security Eurostar trains in the renovated train shed at St Pancras International Gare de Lille-Europe in France, a common destination for Eurostar, Thalys, and other TGV services A Eurostar on LGV Interconnexion Est, near Chennevières-lès-Louvres, Val d'Oise, France Eurostars at Paris Gare du Nord running late night services Because the UK is not part of the Schengen Agreement, all Eurostar passengers must submit to border and luggage controls. Both the British Government and the Schengen governments (Belgium and France) have legal obligations to check the travel documents of those entering their respective countries. Eurostar passengers travelling inside the Schengen area (mainly from Brussels to Lille) are also checked by the British police within Belgian territory, since there is no way of separating them out from Brussels–London passengers. When the tripartite agreements were signed, the Belgian Government said that it had serious questions about the compatibility of this agreement with the Schengen Convention and the principle of free movement of people enshrined in various European Treaties. Document législatif du Sénat belge n°1-396/1, Déclarations du Gouvernement belge On several occasions, people have illegally tried to stow away onboard the train, sometimes in large groups, trying to enter the UK; hence border monitoring and security is extremely tight. Eurostar is noted for have good and well funded security measures. In comparison to security at airports, security at Eurostar is less time-consuming for the passengers. Operational performance Eurostar's punctuality has fluctuated from year to year, but usually remains over 90%; in the first quarter of 1999, 89% of services operated were on time, the second quarter it has reached 92%. Eurostar's best record was 97.35% set between 16 and 22 August 2004. In 2006, it was 92.7%, and in 2007, 91.5% were on time. Eurostar uses the airlines' definition of 'on-time': within 15 minutes of scheduled arrival time. The measure used for long-distance services in the UK rail industry is within 10 minutes. In the first quarter of 2009, 96% of Eurostar services were punctual compared with rivalling air routes' 76%. An advantage held by Eurostar is the convenience and less time taken up by the service; with quicker boarding and high punctuality, it takes less time to get between London and Paris by high speed rail than it does through the airports. Eurostar now has a dominant share of the combined rail–air market on its three-capitals routes. In 2004, Eurostar had a 66% share of the London–Paris market, and a 59% share of the London–Brussels market. In 2007, it achieved unprecedented market shares of 71% for London–Paris and 65% for London–Brussels routes. Eurostar's passenger numbers initially failed to meet predictions. In 1996, London and Continental Railways forecast numbers would reach 21.4 million annually by 2004, but only 7.3 million was achieved. Eight-two million passengers used Waterloo International Station from its opening in 1994 to closure in 2007. 2008 was a record year for Eurostar with a 10.3% rise in passenger use, which was attributed to the use of High Speed 1 and the move to St Pancras. The following year, Eurostar saw an 11.5% fall in passengers numbers during the first three months of 2009, which was attributed to the 2008 Channel Tunnel fire and the 2009 recession. As a result of the poor economical conditions, Eurostar received state aid in May 2009 to cancel out some of the mounted debt from the High Speed 1 construction program. In 2006, the Department for Transport published its prediction that by 2037, annual cross-channel passenger numbers would likely reach 16 million, considerably less optimistic than London and Continental Railways's original 1996 forecast. In 2007, Eurostar set a target of carrying 10 million passengers by 2010. The company cited several factors to support this objective, such as increased quality of its services in terms of journey times, punctuality and station facilities. Passengers in general are becoming increasingly aware of the environmental effects of air travel, Eurostar services in comparison emits much less carbon dioxide. and that its remaining carbon emissions are now offset making its services carbon neutral. Continued expansion of the high-speed rail network in Europe, such as HSL-Zuid, continues to bring more destinations within rail-competitive range, giving Eurostar the possibility to open new services. + Eurostar yearly passengers1995199619971998199920002001200220032004200520062007200834.96.06.36.67.16.956.606.317.277.457.858.269.1 All figures in millions. 1995 data are approximate. Awards and accolades Eurostar has been hailed as having set new standards in international rail travel and has won praise several times over, recognising and confirming its high standards. Eurostar won the place of Train Operator of the Year in the HSBC Rail Awards in 2005. Eurostar was declared the Best Train Company in the joint Guardian/Observer Travel Awards 2008. However, Eurostar had previously struggled with its reputation and brand image. Strategic Communication Management's Paul Charles wrote a highly detailed article, defining the situation at the time as: By 2008, Eurostar's environmental credentials have become highly developed and promoted. In 2006 Eurostar's Environment Group was set up, with the aim to make changes in the Eurostar services' daily running to decrease the environmental impact, the organisation setting itself a target to reduce carbon emissions per passenger journey by 25% by 2012. Drivers are instructed in how to drive trains with efficiency and lighting has been minimised; the provider of the bulk of the energy for the Channel Tunnel has been switched to nuclear power stations in France. Eurostar's current target is to reduce emissions by 35 percent per passenger journey by 2012; putting itself beyond the efforts of other railway companies in this field and as such winning the 2007 Network Rail Efficiency Award. In the grand opening ceremony of St Pancras International, one of the Eurostar trains was given the name 'Tread Lightly', described to be due to the smaller impact on the environment compared to planes Statement by Richard Brown, Chief Executive of Eurostar, during the opening ceremony Organisation Eurostar services are unified under a management called the Eurostar Group formed in 1999. In each country, a different company undertakes Eurostar local operations. In Belgium this is done by the national railway service operator company NMBS/SNCB, similarly in France this is done by the state owned rail operator SNCF; however in the United Kingdom ownership of this portion of the Eurostar Group, known as Eurostar (U.K.) Ltd. (EUKL), is more complex and relatively in a state of flux. EUKL is owned by London and Continental Railways (LCR) and managed under contract by InterCapital and Regional Rail (ICRR), which in turn is a consortium of National Express Group, SNCF, NMBS/SNCB, and British Airways. Eurostar Group Ltd ownership 100% Société Nationale des Chemins de fer français (SNCF)62.5% <center>Eurostar (UK) Ltd32.5% SNCB5% InterCapital and Regional Rail100% National Express 40% SNCF 35% SNCB 15% British Airways 10% Eurostar is a member of Railteam, a marketing alliance formed in July 2007 of seven European high-speed rail operators, including Thalys. The alliance plans to allow tickets to be booked from one end of Europe to the other on a single website. Rolling stock Eurostar in Savoie, in the French Alps Current fleet Built between 1992–1996, Eurostar's fleet consists of 38 electric multiple unit trains, designated Class 373 in the United Kingdom and TGV373000 in France. There are two variants: 31 "Three Capitals" sets consisting of two power cars and passenger eighteen carriages. These trains are long and can carry 750 passengers: 206 in first class, 544 in standard class. 7 shorter "North of London" sets which have fourteen passenger carriages and are long. These sets have a capacity of 558 seats: 114 first class, 444 standard and which were designed to operate the aborted Regional Eurostar services. The trains are essentially modified TGV sets, and can operate at up to on high-speed lines, and in the Channel Tunnel. It is possible to go beyond the 300-kilometre per hour speed limit, but only with special permission from the safety authorities in the respective country. Speed limits in the Channel Tunnel are dictated by air-resistance, energy (heat) dissipation and the need to fit in with other, slower trains. The trains were designed with Channel Tunnel safety in mind, and consist of two independent "half-sets" each with its own power car. In the event of a serious fire on board while travelling through the tunnel, passengers would be transferred into the undamaged half of the train, which would then be detached and driven out of the tunnel to safety. If the undamaged part were the rear half of the train, this would be driven by the Chef du Train, who is a fully authorised driver and occupies the rear driving cab while the train travels through the tunnel for this purpose. Interior of a second class Eurostar carriage As 27 of the 31 Three Capitals sets are sufficient to operate the service, four are currently used by SNCF for domestic services; one of these regularly operates the Paris–Lille shuttle. The Eurostar logos have been removed from these sets, but the base colours of white, black, and yellow remain. SNCF's lease of the sets is scheduled to last until 2011, with an option for a further two years. Class Image Type Top speed Number Routes operated Built mph km/h Class 373 EurostarElectric multiple unit18630028London–ParisLondon–BrusselsLondon–Marne-la-Vallée – ChessyLondon–Avignon CentreLondon–Bourg Saint Maurice1992 Fleet updates In 2004–2005 the "Three Capitals" sets still in daily use for international services were refurbished with a new interior designed by Philippe Starck. The old grey-yellow scheme in Standard class and grey-red of First/Premium First were replaced with a grey-brown look in Standard and grey-burnt orange in First class. Power points were added to seats in First class and coaches 1 and 18 in Standard class. Premium First class was renamed BusinessPremier. In 2008, Eurostar announced that it would be carrying out a mid-life update of its Class 373 trains. This process will include the 28 units making up the Eurostar fleet, but not the three Class 373/2 units used by SNCF or the Class 373/3 "North of London" sets. As a part of the update process, the Italian company Pininfarina has been contracted to redesign the interiors, and The Yard Creative was selected to design the new buffet cars; the first refurbished train is due in service in 2012. On 11 May 2009, Eurostar revealed the new look for its First Class compartments. Eurostar plans for the entire process to be complete by 2014, allowing the fleet to remain in service beyond 2020. Eurostar invites bidders to undertake major interior refurbishment of fleet - Rail Management No 162, 08/09/08 Accidents and Incidents there has only been one major accident involving a service: On 5 June 2000, a Eurostar train travelling from Paris to London derailed on the LGV Nord high-speed line whilst travelling at a speed of Fourteen people were treated for light injuries or shock, with no major injures or fatalities. The articulated nature of the trainset was credited with maintaining stability during the incident and all of the train stayed upright. After investigation, the incident was blamed on a component of the transmission system between the electric motors and axles coming loose. To reduce the unsprung mass TGV-style trains have the motors attached to the train rather than the bogies. In order for the train to still be able to go around curves, an extra sliding "tripod" assembly is used, which is what became dislodged. Minor incidents In October 1994 there were teething problems relating to the start of operations. The first preview train, carrying 400 members of the press and media, was delayed for two hours owing to technical issues. On 29 May 2002, a Eurostar train was initially sent down a wrong line—towards London Victoria railway station instead of London Waterloo—causing the service to arrive 25 minutes late. A signalling error that lead to the incorrect routeing was stated to have have caused "no risk" as a result. Past fleet Eurostar had previously operated a number of locomotives: Class Image Type Top speed Number Built Notes mph km/h Class 37Diesel locomotive90145121965Intended to operate sleeper services over non-electrified parts of the railway network in Britain. Eurostar retained three locomotives for the rescue of failed trains, route learning and driver training, but disposed of them when the new Temple Mills Depot opened in November 2007. Class 73Electro-diesel locomotive9014521965Were used primarily to rescue failed trains. Eurostar operated two of these from its North Pole depot until 2007, when they were loaned to a pair of educational initiatives having become redundant following the move to Temple Mills. Class 92Electric locomotive8714071993Intended to operate the sleeper services. Eurostar owned seven units of this class, which never saw service until they were sold in 2007 to Europorte 2. Future fleet In addition to the announced mid-life update of the existing Class 373 fleet, Eurostar in 2009 reportedly entered prequalification bids for eight new trainsets to be purchased. Any new trains would need to meet the same safety rules regarding passage through the Channel Tunnel as the existing Class 373 fleet. Future developments A number of possible future developments affecting the Eurostar service have been brought forward and some planned to go ahead:Stratford International station is currently not in use Stratford International station The original intended purpose of Stratford International station was to act as the London stop for regional Eurostar trains bypassing St Pancras and continuing to other destinations in England and Scotland. However this plan is under review and it remains uncertain whether international trains will call at the station. The Newham Mag, Issue 144, 3 May 2008, page 20. Eurostar has not announced any plans for services to call at Stratford, and there is no mention of international services from the station on the High Speed 1 website; but it is expected that Eurostar trains will stop there after the Docklands Light Railway extension to Stratford International opens in mid-2010. The station will see greater use during the 2012 Olympic Games when the Olympic Javelin service comes into operation. Regional Eurostar Although the original plan for Regional Eurostar services to destinations north of London was abandoned, the significantly improved journey times now available following the opening of High Speed 1—which has connections to both the East Coast Main Line and the North London Line (for the West Coast Main Line) at St Pancras—and recently increased maximum speeds on the West Coast Main Line, may make potential Regional Eurostar services more viable. This would be even more likely if proposals are adopted for a new high-speed line from London to the north of Britain. Simon Montague, Eurostar's Director of Communications, commented that: "...International services to the regions are only likely once High Speed 2 is built." Key pieces of infrastructure still belong to LCR via its subsidiary London & Continental Stations and Property such as the Manchester International Depot, and Eurostar (UK) still owns several track access rights and the rights to paths on both the East Coast and West Coast Main Lines. While no announcement has been made of plans to start Regional Eurostar services, it remains a possibility for the future. In the meantime, the nearest alternative to a Regional Eurostar service is same-station connection with East Midlands Trains trains at St Pancras. The planned renovation of King's Cross will see a new concourse built to aid access with St Pancras, giving National Express, First Hull Trains and Grand Central services better connections with Eurostar. High Speed Two Eurostar has already been involved in reviewing and publishing reports into High Speed Two for the British Goverrnment, and looks favourably upon such an undertaking. Regional Eurostar will not be considered until after High Speed Two is complete. Alternatively future loans of the North of London sets to other operators would then be able use the trains at full capacity, unlike GNER's previous loan between 2000–05 which had been limited to on regular track. A separate company called High Speed Two has been set up to investigate the feasibility and viability of a new line likely replacing the West Coast Main Line. LGV Picardie LGV Picardie is a proposed high-speed line running between Paris and Calais, via Amiens. By cutting off the corner of the LGV Nord at Lille, it would enable Eurostar trains to save 20 minutes on the journey between Paris and Calais, bringing the London to Paris journey time under 2 hours. In 2008, the French Government announced its future investment plans for new LGVs to be built up to 2020; LGV Picardie was not included but was listed as planned in the longer term. Eurostar at Brussels Midi/Zuid New destinations The reduced journey times offered by the opening of High Speed 1 and the opening of the LGV Est and HSL Zuid bring more continental destinations within a range from London where rail is competitive with air travel. At present Eurostar has concentrating on developing its connections with other services,, but direct services to other destinations would be possible. However, the routes that any potential services are likely to take would go off the infrastructure that Eurostar's rolling stock has been built to use — Germany operates trains at 15kV AC, while the Netherlands uses 1.5kV DC (except on HSL Zuid). To operate on these lines would require new or heavily modified rolling stock designed to operate at these different voltages, in addition to those already in use. Signalling systems also differ. In addition to the infrastructure difficulties, any potential Eurostar services beyond Paris and Brussels would also require the installation of stringent security measures, due to the UK's not having signed up to the Schengen Agreement, which allows unrestricted movement across borders of member countries. Richard Brown, Chief Executive of Eurostar, described the difficulties to overcome thus: The difficulties that Eurostar faces in expanding its services would also be faced by any potential competitors to Eurostar: As the UK is outside the Schengen Agreement, London-bound trains must use platforms that are physically isolated, a constraint which other international operators such as Thalys do not face. In addition, the British authorities are required to make security and passport checks prior to boarding the train, which might deter domestic passengers. The Channel Tunnel safety rules stipulate that passenger trains have to be able to split in the case of emergency. Class 373 trains were designed as two half-sets, which when coupled form a complete train. This enables them to be split easily in the event of an emergency while in the Channel Tunnel, with the unaffected set able to be driven out. There have been calls for a relaxation of these rules, but until such time as they are changed, any new operator would require similar rolling stock to Eurostar's fleet. Competition Eurostar and Thalys TGV at Paris Gare du Nord In November 2007, various British newspapers reported that Deutsche Bahn, Germany's national train company, had applied to use the Channel Tunnel and High Speed 1 rail line into St Pancras International. This was swiftly denied by Deutsche Bahn, and the bi-national Channel Tunnel Safety Authority confirmed that it had not received such an application. In December 2008, it was reported that Deutsche Bahn (DB) was interested in buying the British share in Eurostar, which in practice means buying Eurostar (U.K.) Ltd., the 100% subsidiary of London and Continental Railways (LCR) which the British government intends to break up and sell just as it does the other rail-related subsidiary of L&CR, High Speed 1. See the section "ABOUT THE FUTURE" in the menu item "About LCR" on the Website of L&CR, http://www.lcrhq.co.uk/ The buyer of EUKL would become the owner of the 11 British "Three Capitals" Class 373 trains plus all seven "North of London" ones, and would also be responsible for the operations of the Eurostar traffic within Great Britain once the management contract with ICRR expires in 2010. Guillaume Pépy, the president of SNCF, who held a press conference the same day, described DB's interest as "premature, presumptuous and arrogant". SNCF claims to own 62% of the shares of Eurostar Group Ltd. Hartmut Mehdorn, CEO of Deutsche Bahn, confirmed DB's interest in conversations with journalists, but insisted in a letter to Pépy a few days later that DB had only informally requested information and not made any official requests to Britain's Department for Transport. "Chemins de fer: le ton monte entre Deutsche Bahn et la SNCF" Article by AFP of 16.12.2008 In 2010, the European Union will initiate a liberalisation of the European rail network allowing greater competition. Air France-KLM has indicated that it expects to take advantage of the change in the law and apply to run rail services from London to Paris and from Paris to Amsterdam in competition with Eurostar and Thalys, respectively. Notes and references Further reading | Eurostar |@lemmatized eurostar:153 high:51 speed:58 railway:21 passenger:27 train:73 service:85 western:2 europe:7 connect:4 london:57 paris:37 brussels:29 cross:7 english:2 channel:33 via:8 tunnel:50 eurotunnel:5 united:4 kingdom:4 call:8 point:2 st:16 pancras:16 station:27 ebbsfleet:4 international:39 ashford:11 within:10 kent:9 france:19 gare:12 de:7 calais:6 fréthun:2 lille:10 finally:1 du:11 nord:19 belgium:8 terminate:1 south:4 addition:7 limited:1 disneyland:3 resort:1 marne:2 la:4 vallée:2 chessy:1 seasonal:2 destination:11 operate:18 eighteen:2 carriage:5 class:28 run:11 network:6 line:31 lgv:18 open:12 begin:7 new:23 enable:3 faster:2 journey:18 add:3 later:4 hsl:8 southern:1 england:2 french:7 belgian:8 part:9 share:8 thalys:9 tgv:9 two:18 stage:2 rail:29 link:7 project:4 complete:6 november:7 terminus:3 transfer:4 waterloo:8 national:7 company:11 belguim:1 sncf:13 sncb:4 uk:12 ltd:5 eukl:5 subsidiary:4 continental:8 lcr:5 turn:2 also:10 infrastructure:5 british:20 side:1 become:7 dominant:3 operator:10 intercity:1 travel:16 route:13 carry:6 airline:5 combine:1 state:5 interest:3 purchase:2 start:3 compete:1 follow:4 deregulation:1 history:2 typical:1 section:8 lie:1 twin:1 vauxhall:1 approach:1 beside:1 one:11 another:2 trace:1 choice:2 provide:3 britain:12 previous:2 attempt:2 construct:1 nation:1 cancel:2 government:7 disagreement:1 construction:5 spiralling:1 cost:4 poor:2 economic:1 period:2 idea:1 underneath:1 first:23 moot:1 early:2 whiteside:1 thomas:1 rupert:1 hart:1 davis:1 p:1 serious:3 abandon:3 due:4 hostile:1 press:3 see:5 compromise:1 natural:1 defence:1 wilson:1 pp:1 create:2 manage:2 transmanche:1 joint:2 consortium:2 build:10 physical:1 finish:1 five:1 year:10 officially:2 following:2 shuttle:2 car:4 lorry:1 folkestone:1 decision:1 freight:1 place:3 afield:1 contract:4 completely:1 separate:4 entity:1 use:25 half:5 capacity:4 set:23 group:8 specify:1 since:5 way:2 technology:1 choose:1 base:2 order:2 trainsets:3 december:6 test:1 reveal:2 problem:3 third:1 system:6 design:8 shut:1 causing:1 electrical:1 interference:1 signalling:1 happen:2 frequently:1 solve:1 commence:2 may:9 launch:3 offical:1 goodbye:1 video:1 useful:1 statistic:1 number:10 show:1 achieve:5 average:1 january:1 second:5 time:21 lower:1 opening:8 september:5 upon:3 mark:1 introduction:1 dedicated:1 highly:3 prestigious:1 ceremony:4 large:4 advertising:1 campaign:1 brand:2 record:8 hold:4 long:9 undersea:1 anywhere:1 world:3 well:6 july:3 month:2 non:5 stop:6 distance:2 cannes:1 take:5 hour:13 minute:14 breaking:1 leave:1 bst:1 reach:4 transport:4 journalist:2 worker:1 carrying:1 arrival:2 break:2 regional:16 nightstar:2 original:5 proposal:2 include:8 direct:2 city:2 north:12 nol:3 manchester:2 birmingham:1 west:5 coast:8 main:9 glasgow:2 edinburgh:1 newcastle:1 york:2 east:4 seven:5 short:2 predicted:1 almost:1 nine:1 growth:1 low:2 air:7 make:13 plan:13 commercially:2 unviable:2 although:2 policy:1 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4,537 | Kayak | A kayak is a small human-powered boat. It typically has a covered deck, and a cockpit covered by a spraydeck also know as a skirt. The kayak was used by the native Ainu, Aleut and Eskimo hunters in sub-Arctic regions of northeastern Asia, North America and Greenland. It historically was, and often still is, or can be, propelled by a double-bladed paddle in the hands of a sitting paddler. Modern kayaks come in a wide variety of designs and materials for specialized purposes. Kayaks are in some parts of the world referred to as canoes. thouright|Inuit seal hunter in a kayak, armed with a harpoon. Sport kayaker at Great Falls, Virginia Design Kayaks are often used to get closer to marine animals, for example sea otters Traditional kayaks typically accommodate one, two or occasionally three paddlers who sit facing forward in one or more cockpits below the deck of the boat. If used, the spraydeck or similar waterproof garment attaches securely to the edges of the cockpit, preventing the entry of water from waves or spray, and making it possible, in some styles of boat, to roll the kayak upright again without it filling with water or ejecting the paddler. Inuit/ Eskimo Kayaks are a type of a generic class of boat of Canoe Shape. European Canoeing clubs and associations of the 19th Century used similar craft to what are now called Kayaks, but referred to these as types of Canoe. This explains the naming of the International and National Governing bodies of the sport of Canoeing. John MacGregor (sportsman) A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe on Rivers and Lakes of Europe. London: S. Low and Marston, 1866. First edition, illustrated. From Internet Archive. Origins Boys in kayak, Nunivak, Alaska, photographed by Edward S. Curtis, 1930 Kayaks (Inuktitut: qajaq, Inuktitut syllabics: ᖃᔭᖅ) were originally developed by indigenous people living in the Arctic regions, who used the boats to hunt on inland lakes, rivers and the coastal waters of the Arctic Ocean, North Atlantic, Bering Sea and North Pacific oceans. These first kayaks were constructed from stitched animal skins such as seal stretched over a wooden frame made from collected driftwood, as many of the areas of their construction were treeless. Archaeologists have found evidence indicating that kayaks are at least 4000 years old. Made in Anglesey, paddled in the Arctic: the Inuits' plastic kayak rules the waves TimesOnline December 2006 The oldest still existing kayaks are exhibited in the North America department of the State Museum of Ethnology in Munich. www.voelkerkundemuseum-muenchen.de (English) Though the term "kayak" is now used broadly for this class of boat, native people made many different types of boat for different purposes. The baidarka developed by indigenous cultures in Alaska was also made in double or triple cockpit designs, and was used for hunting and transporting passengers or goods. An umiak is a large open sea canoe, ranging from to , made with seal skins and wood. It was originally paddled with single bladed paddles and typically had more than one paddler. The word "kayak" means "man's boat" or "hunter's boat", and native kayaks were a very personal craft, built by the man who would use them (with assistance from his wife, who would sew the skins) fitting his measures, for maximum maneuverability. A special skin jacket, Tuilik, was then laced to the kayak, creating a waterproof seal. This made the eskimo roll the preferred method of regaining posture after turning upside down (from the kayaking point of view, it's not a capsize until you come out of the boat), especially as few Eskimos could swim; their waters are too cold for a swimmer to survive for very long. D.C. Hutchinson, "The Complete Book of Sea Kayaking", 5th ed., Falcon Guides, Connecticut. The modern version of a tuilik is a spraydeck made of waterproof synthetic stretchy enough to fit tightly around the cockpit rim and body of the kayaker, which can however be released rapidly from the cockpit to permit easy exit from the boat. The builder used found materials and anthropomorphic measurements, using his own body, to create a kayak conforming closely to his own body. For example: the length was typically three times the span of his outstretched arms. The width at the cockpit was the width of the builder's hips plus two fists (and sometimes less). The typical depth was his fist plus the outstretched thumb (hitch hiker). Thus typical dimensions were about long by 20-22 inches wide by deep. This measurement style confounded early European explorers who tried to duplicate the kayak because each kayak was a little different. Traditional kayaks encompass three types of boat: Baidarkas, from the Alaskan & Aleutian seas, the oldest design, whose rounded shape and numerous chines give them an almost Blimp-like appearance; West Greenland kayaks, with fewer chines and a more angular shape, with gunwales rising to a point at the bow and stern; and East Greenland kayaks that appear similar to the West Greenland style, but are often more snugly fitted to the paddler and possess a steeper angle between gunwale and stem which lend maneuverability. Most of the Eskimo peoples from the Aleutian Island eastward to Greenland relied on the kayak for hunting a variety of prey — primarily seals, though whales and caribou were important in some areas. Skin on frame kayaks are still being used for hunting by Inuit people in Greenland. In other parts of the world homebuilders are continuing the tradition of skin on frame kayaks albeit with modern skins of canvas or synthetic fabric. Contemporary kayaks trace their origins primarily to the native boats of Alaska, northern Canada, and Southwest Greenland. Wooden kayaks and fabric kayaks on wooden frames (such as the Klepper) dominated the market up until 1950s, when fiberglass boats were first introduced. Rotomolded plastic kayaks first appeared in 1973. The development of plastic kayaks arguably initiated the development of freestyle kayaking as we see it today, since plastic boats could be made smaller, stronger and more resilient than those made of other materials. This Greenland paddle is in length, and much narrower than European paddles. Modern kayaks Types of KayaksSea KayakWhitewater kayakRecreational kayakPlayboatsSlalom kayakSurf skis Modern kayaks have evolved into numerous specialized types, that may be broadly categorized according to their application as sea kayaks, whitewater (or river) kayaks, surf kayaks, and racing kayaks (flat water, white water, or slalom), though many hybrid types exist as well, broadly labeled recreational kayaks. The label "kayak" is often misapplied to other small, human-powered vessels not descended from the kayak tradition, including multi-hull or outrigger boats and those which elevate above the water on hydrofoils. Sea kayaks are typically designed for travel by one or two paddlers on open water and in many cases trade maneuverability for seaworthiness, stability, and cargo capacity. Sea-kayak sub-types include open-deck "sit-on-top" kayaks, recreational kayaks, and collapsible "skin-on-frame" boats. Whitewater kayaks are in some cases highly maneuverable boats, usually for a single paddler, and include such specialized boats as playboats and slalom kayaks. White water racers combine a fast, unstable lower hull portion with a flared upper hull portion to combine flat water racing speed with extra stability in open water: they are not fitted with rudders and have similar manoeuvrability to flat water racers. Surf skis, are specialized narrow and long boats for racing, surfing breaking waves and surf-zone rescues. Racing kayaks are designed for speed, and usually require substantial skill to achieve stability, due to extremely narrow hulls, though downriver racing kayaks are a hybrid style with whitewater boats. Surf Kayaks are in many respects similar to whitewater boats, however often equipped with up to three fins. Specialty surf boats typically have flat bottoms, and hard edges, similar to surf boards. The design of a surf kayak promotes the use of an ocean surf wave (moving wave) as opposed to a river or feature wave (moving water). They are typically made from rotomolded plastic, or fiberglass. Modern kayaks are typically constructed from rotomolded plastic, wood, fabrics over wooden or aluminum frames, fiberglass, Kevlar, or carbon fiber. Most kayaks accommodate one or two paddlers, but some special-purpose boats may accommodate more. Sea kayaks Kayaking in a double on Lake Union in Seattle, Washington, United States The sea kayak, though descended directly from traditional designs and types, is implemented in a wide variety of materials, and with many distinct design choices. Sea kayaks as a class are distinct from whitewater kayaks and other boats by typically having a longer waterline (emphasizing straight travel through the water over extreme maneuverability), and provisions for below-deck storage of cargo. Sea kayaks may also have rudders or skegs (also for enhanced straight-line tracking), and such features as upturned bow or stern profiles for wave shedding. Modern sea kayaks often have two or more internal bulkheads to provide watertight internal sections for flotation and waterproof storage. Sea kayaks, unlike most whitewater kayaks, may be built to accommodate two or sometimes three paddlers. Certain sea kayaks can even be used for surfing. Wooden kayaks Kayaks made from thin wood sheathed in fiberglass have proven successful, especially as the price of epoxy resin has decreased in recent years. Two main types are popular, especially for the homebuilder: Stitch & Glue, and Strip-Built. Stitch & Glue designs use modern, marine-grade plywood -- typically quarter-inch (5mm) thick. After cutting out the required pieces of hull and deck (kits will often have these pre-cut), a series of small holes are drilled along the edges. Copper wire is then used to "stitch" the pieces together through the holes. After the pieces are temporarily stitched together, they are glued with epoxy and the seams reinforced with fiberglass. When the epoxy dries, the copper stitches are typically removed. The entire boat is then covered in fiberglass for additional strength and waterproofing. This construction method is fairly straightforward, but as the plywood does not bend to form curves, design choices are limited. This is a good choice for the first-time kayak builder as the labor and skills required(especially for kit versions) is considerably less than for strip-built boats. Strip-built kayaks are similar in shape to commercially available rigid fiberglass kayaks but are generally both lighter and tougher. Like their fiberglass counterparts the shape and size of the boat determines how they perform and what uses are optimal. The hull and deck are built with thin strips of lightweight wood, often Cedar, Pine or Redwood. The strips are edge-glued together around a form, stapled or clamped in place, and allowed to dry. This forms a wooden shell, which is not inherently strong. The boat's strength comes from a layer of fiberglass cloth and epoxy resin, inside and out. Strip built kayaks are sold commercially by a few companies, priced $4,000 and up. An experienced woodworker can build one for about US$400 in 200 hours, though the exact cost and time will be determined by the builder's skill, the materials chosen and the kayak's size/design. As a second kayak project, or for the serious builder with some woodworking expertise, a strip-built boat can be an impressive piece of work. Kits with pre-cut and milled wood strips are commercially available. Skin on frame kayaks Often an umbrella term for several types of kayaks, Skin on Frame boats are primarily considered a more traditional boat in design, materials, construction, and technique. They are often the lightest kayaks, and were traditionally made of driftwood pegged or lashed together and stretched seal skin, as those were the most readily available materials in the Arctic regions. Today, the seal skin is usually replaced with canvas or nylon cloth covered with paint, neoprene, or a hypalon rubber coating and the wood with aluminum. Folding kayaks A special type of skin-on-frame kayak is the folding kayak, the direct descendant of the original Eskimo kayak. A folder is a modern kayak with a collapsible frame, of wood, aluminum or plastic, or a combination thereof, and a skin, of some sort of water-resistant and durable fabric. Many types have integral air sponsons inside the hull, increasing secondary stability and making the kayaks virtually unsinkable. Folders are known for their durability, stability, and longevity: The Klepper Aerius I, a single-seater, has been used successfully for white-water kayaking, due to its durability and excellent maneuverability, while many Kleppers have been in frequent use for more than 20 years. Folding kayaks exhibit many of the same paddling characteristics as the original skin-and-frame vessels of the circumpolar north. Of all modern kayaks, they are closest relatives to the skin-and-frame boats of the past. Military kayaks Kayaks were adapted for military use in the Second World War. Used mainly by British Commando and Special Forces, principally the Combined Operations Pilotage Parties (COPPs), the Special Boat Service (at that time an Army unit) and the Royal Marines Boom Patrol Detachment. The latter made perhaps the best known use of them in the Operation Frankton raid on Bordeaux harbour. Cockle Mark II . Following the war the SBS was reformed as a Royal Marines unit and the Klepper Aerius II folding kayak became a staple of its training and operations. Sit-on-tops A paddler in a sit on top kayak explores Kealakekua Bay in Hawaii. Sealed-hull (unsinkable) craft were developed in the past for leisure use, as derivatives from surfboards (e.g. paddle or wave skis), or for surf conditions. Variants include planing surf craft, touring kayaks, and sea marathon kayaks. Increasingly, manufacturers are building leisure 'sit-on-top' variants of extreme sports craft these are normally built using polyethylene to ensure strength and keep the price down Common Construction of a Sit on top kayak , often with a skeg (fixed rudder) for directional stability. Water that enters the cockpit drains out through scupper holes - tubes that run from the cockpit to the bottom of the hull. Sit-on-top kayaks usually come in single and double (two paddler) designs, although a few models accommodate three or four paddlers. Sit-on-top kayaks are particularly popular for fishing and SCUBA diving, since participants need to easily enter and exit the water, change seating positions, and access hatches and storage wells. Ordinarily the seat of a sit-on-top is slightly above water level, so the center of gravity for the paddler is higher than in a traditional kayak. To compensate for the center of gravity, a sit-on-top is often wider than a traditional kayak of the same length, and is considered slower as a result. Recreational kayak Recreational kayaks Recreational kayaks are designed for the casual paddler interested in fishing, photography, or a peaceful paddle on a lake or flatwater stream; they presently make up the largest segment of kayak sales. Compared to other kayaks, recreational kayaks have a larger cockpit for easier entry and exit and a wider beam (27–30 inches) for more stability on the water; they are generally less than twelve feet in length and have limited cargo capacity. Using less expensive materials like polyethylene and including fewer options keep these boats inexpensive (US$300–$580). Most canoe/kayak clubs offer introductory instruction in recreational boats as a way to enter into the sport. Sometimes advanced paddlers still use recreational kayaks. They can fit all levels, but sometimes do not perform as well in the sea. The recreational kayak is usually a type of touring kayak. Whitewater kayaks Whitewater kayak Plastic whitewater kayaks are rotomoulded in a semi-rigid, high impact plastic, which is usually polyethylene. Careful construction is needed to ensure that the completed boat will remain structurally sound when subjected to the incredible forces of fast-moving water. A plastic hull allows these kayaks to bounce off rocks without suffering leaks, although they can be scratched and eventually worn through with enough use. Standard whitewater boats are shorter than other types of kayaks, ranging from 4 to 10 feet (1.25 to 3 metres) long. There are two main types of whitewater kayak, and most experienced paddlers own one of each. One type, known as the playboat, is short, with a scooped bow and blunt stern. These are slow and not extremely stable, but they are incredibly maneuverable. Their primary use is performing tricks in single water features or short stretches of river. In playboating or "freestyle" competition (also known in some parts of the US as "rodeo" boating), kayakers exploit the complex currents of rapids to do a series of tricks, which are scored for skill and style. The other primary type is the creekboat, which gets its name from its purpose: running narrow, low-volume waterways. Creekboats are longer and have far more volume than playboats, which makes them faster and higher-floating. They are also designed to be very stable. Many paddlers use creekboats in "short boat" downriver races, and they are often seen on large rivers where their extra stability and speed may be necessary to get through the rapids. Between the creekboat and playboat extremes is a general category called "river running" kayaks. These medium-sized boats are designed for rivers of moderate to high volume, and some, known as "river running playboats", are capable of basic playboating moves. They are typically owned by paddlers who do not have enough involvement in whitewater to merit the purchase of multiple more specialized boats. Most whitewater kayakers consider fiberglass boats old-fashioned, but there are some types of kayak that work much better if made from fiberglass. Squirt boats and racing kayaks are among them. Squirt Boating involves paddling both on the surface of the river and underwater. Squirt boats must be custom-fitted to the paddler in order to ensure comfort while maintaining the low interior volume necessary to allow the paddler to submerge him- or herself completely in the river. Racing whitewater kayaks, like all racing kayaks, are made to regulation lengths and are generally made out of fibre reinforced resin (fiberglass) for speed. This makes them stiffer, lighter, and less readily scratched than plastic hulls, though they are more prone to breakage from impact. Repairs are often necessary, especially if the paddler is inexperienced. Slalom kayaks are flat hulled, highly manoeuvrable, and stable but not very fast in a straight line; downriver white water racers have a combination hull with a fast but unstable lower section similar to a flat water racer's hull flaring out into a wider section higher up similar to a slalom hull to provide stability in big water. Surf kayaks Surf Kayaking competition, Tofino, British Columbia. Traditional Surf Kayaking comes in two main varieties, High Performance (HP) Surf Kayaks and International Class (IC) Surf Kayaks. HP boats tend to have a lot of nose rocker, very little to no tail rocker, very flat hulls, very sharp rails and up to four fins often arranged in either a three fin thruster set up or a quad fin set up. This enables them to generate lots of speed and be able to pull very dynamic moves. IC boats have to be at least 3 m long and until a recent rule change had to have a convex hull, now flat hull and small concaves are also allowed, although fins are still not allowed on IC boats, the surfing of international boats tends to be smoother and more flowing. International class is often thought of as the long boarding of the kayaking world. Surf boats come in a variety of constructions ranging from tough but heavy plastics through to super light, super stiff but rather fragile foam cored Kevlar carbon. Surf Kayaking has become popular in locations were you will find traditional surfboard surfing, as well as new locations such as the Great Lakes. Surf Kayaking, utilizing boats similar to construction as many whitewater varieties, is popular in many coastal areas. Specialty Surf Kayaks, or whitewater kayaks fitted with fins, carry many design similarities with surf boards. See, Surf Kayaking Waveskis A variation on the closed cockpit surf kayak is sit-on-top called a waveski. Although the waveski utilises similar dynamics, in terms of paddling technique and surfing performance on the waves, construction can be very similar to surfboard designs. Elite waveski surfers are able to more closely imitate surfboard maneuvers in speed and aerial performance. Racing kayaks Flatwater racing kayaks A typical racing K2 design, at the Canadian Masters Championships, 2005. Note the extremely narrow beam. The three types of flatwater racing kayaks (sometimes termed 'sprint boats') are K1 (single paddler), K2 (two paddlers) and K4 (four paddlers). These boats are raced at the Olympic level by men and women over courses of 200 m, 500m, and 1000m (women compete on 1000 m since 1997). World Championship events: distances: 200 m, 500m, 1000 m boat units: men and women K1, K2, K4; men canoe C1, C2, C4 All units compete on all distances.Each country can send one unit per event. Olympic events: distances: 500 m, 1000m events: men K1-K2 500m, K1-K2-K4 1000m; women K1-K2-K4 500m, men canoe C1-C2 500m, C1-C2 1000m Each country can send one unit per event. Flatwater racing kayaks are generally made out of extremely lightweight composites such as Kevlar, carbon fiber, or fiberglass. They are not intended for any condition other than flat water. They are narrow, extremely unstable, and expensive, with a competitive K1 or K2 running in the US$2000 - US$4000 range. They require a good level of expertise to paddle well, but are extremely fast in the hands of proficient users. The beam of a flatwater boat is typically barely wider than the hips of the person who paddles it, allowing for a very long and narrow shape to reduce drag. Due to their length (a K1 is 5.2m (17 ft) long and a k2 is 6.2m (20 ft) long), sprint boats come equipped with a rudder to help with turning. The rudder is controlled by the feet of the paddler (the foremost paddler in multi-person designs). In spite of this, these boats have a fairly large turning radius. Flatwater racing kayaks are closely related to flatwater racing canoes, with both styles of boat usually training at the same club or with the same team, although it is rare for paddlers to compete in both canoes and kayaks. Surf Ski Surf Ski kayaks, Alexandra Heads Surf Life Saving Club Queensland A highly specialized variant of flatwater racing kayak called a Surf Ski has an open cockpit and can be up to twenty-one feet long but only eighteen inches wide, requiring expert balance and paddling skill. Surf Skis were originally created for surf and are still used in surf races in New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa. They have become very popular in the United States for ocean races, lake races and even downriver races. Slalom kayak Kayaks designed for Slalom canoeing have a relatively flat hull for maneuverability and—since the early 1970s—low profile decks. Like all racing kayaks, they are usually made of fibre reinforced resin (usually epoxy or polyester reinforced with kevlar, glass fibre, carbon fibre, or some combination). This form of construction is stiffer and has a harder skin than non-reinforced plastic construction such as rotomoulded polyethylene: stiffer means faster, and harder means fewer scratches and therefore also faster. Specialty and multi-type kayaks The term "kayak" is increasingly applied to many craft that evolved substantially from traditional kayaks. Inflatable kayaks Another special type of kayak is the inflatable kayak, also known as the "ducky". Inflatable kayaks usually can be transported by hand using a carry bag. They are made of hypalon (a kind of neoprene), pvc, or polyurethane coated cloth. They can be inflated with foot, hand or electric pumps. Multiple compartments in all but the least expensive increase safety. They generally use low pressure air, almost always below 3 psi. Until recently, inflatable kayaks have been non-rigid boats, essentially pointed rafts, and best suited for use on rivers and calm water. However, recently some manufacturers have combined folding kayak design principles (notably the use of an internal frame) with "Sit-on-top kayak" (see above) overall design using multiple inflatable sections to produce a seaworthy inflatable sea kayak. Besides being portable, inflatable kayaks generally are stable with a small turning radius and are easy to master, but they take more effort to paddle and are slower than traditional kayaks. Pedal kayaks A special type of kayak using pedals allows the kayaker to propel the vessel with a propeller or underwater "flippers" attached to pedals in the cockpit, rather than with a paddle. This allows the kayaker to keep his or her hands free for steering the rudder, fishing and other activities. Multi-hull and outrigger kayaks Traditional multi-hull vessels such as catamarans and trimarans benefit from increased lateral stability without sacrificing their speed but these advantages cannot be successfully applied in all multihull kayak models Outrigger kayaks, are equipped with either a single or a pair of usually smaller hulls (outriggers) attached to the main hull to provide additional stability, especially for fishing, touring and kayak sailing. Twinhull sit-on-top and sit-in kayaks have been on the market for many years. The inflatable models are popular in whitewater and fishing applications and the Polyethylene models in fishing and recreation. Sit-on-top kayak rigged for fishing Fishing kayaks While native people of the Arctic regions did not rely on kayaks for fishing, in recent years sport fishing from kayaks has become popular in both fresh and salt water, especially in warmer regions. Specially designed fishing kayaks have emerged, with designs similar to those of recreational sit-in and sit-on-top kayaks characterized by very wide beams (up to 36 inches) that increase lateral stability. Some fishing kayaks are equipped with outriggers for this reason, and the newer twinhull models are stable enough to enable paddling and fishing in the standing position. In the past several years kayak fishing has become a huge sport. The popularity has grown due to the ease of entry. Kayaks can be purchased inexpensively and have little maintenance costs. Kayaks can be stored in small spaces and launched quickly. Many kayak dealers across the U.S. have started customizing their kayaks for fishing. Standing in Kayaks While paddling in the standing position has been practiced for centuries in canoes (including Umiaks, Pirogues, native dugout canoes worldwide etc.) it is only recently that paddlers have begun to paddle standing in kayaks as a recreational activity. This is called 'Striding', and involves paddling wide, inflatable kayaks down fast rivers while strapping the ankles to the kayak - similar to what is being done with skis in snow sports. Modern kayak design Modern kayaks differ greatly from native kayaks in every aspect – from initial conception through design, manufacturing and usage. Today almost all kayaks are conceived as commercial products intended for sale and not necessarily just for the builders’ personal use. While native kayak builders used their personal experience in combination with knowledge they acquired from orally transmitted traditions, modern kayaks are designed with CAD (Computer Aided Design) software programs, often in combination with naval design software, and in some cases with special kayak design software. Modern kayaks differ greatly from native kayaks in usage and therefore in shape: Nearly one of every three kayaks sold today is a sit-on-top (SOT), which is basically a paddleboard equipped with a seat. Unlike traditional kayaks many kayaks today are designed for whitewater and surf applications, and are extremely short (some measure less than in length). Other modern designs are extremely wide (e.g. recreational, fishing). Some modern kayaks are equipped with one or two extra hulls (outriggers) to increase their stability, some have twin hulls (catamaran kayaks, W kayaks), some are inflatable, and some are no longer propelled by the traditional dual blade paddle (‘kayak paddle’) but by means of pedals that activate a propeller (‘pedal kayaks’). In fact, some modern kayaks are no longer using human powered propulsion at all but are sailed (‘sailing kayaks’) or propelled by a trolling motor – usually an electric one. Even kayaks that copy traditional forms (e.g. monohull sea kayaks, touring kayaks) are considerably different from the original native designs that serve as inspiration for them: They are equipped with specially designed seats and foot braces that no native kayak ever featured, they are often equipped with a rudder system, which is totally alien to native kayak design, and they feature bulkheads, floatation, hatches and eyelets that native kayaks never had. Most kayaks today including the ones inspired by ancient forms are manufactured entirely from plastic resins or from such materials in combination with other materials (e.g. synthetic fibers, plywood, wood strips). This is why hardly any modern kayak features the traditional frame made of ‘ribs’ over which native kayak builders used to stretch sealskins sewn together. In sum, modern kayak designs reflect the diversity in usage as well as the advancement in design and manufacturing technologies. Design of traditional style kayaks The design of different types of kayak is largely a matter of trade-offs between directional stability ("tracking") and maneuverability, and between stability (both Primary stability and secondary stability) and overall speed. Length: As a general rule, a longer kayak is faster while a shorter kayak may be turned more quickly - but the higher potential top speed of the longer kayak is largely offset by increased friction. Kayaks that are built to cover longer distances such as touring and sea kayaks are themselves longer, generally between 16 and . A flat water racing K1's maximum length governed by the ICF is . Whitewater kayaks, which generally depend upon river current for their forward motion, are built quite short, to maximize maneuverability. These kayaks rarely exceed eight feet in length, and some specialized boats such as playboats may be only six feet long. The design of recreational kayaks is an attempt to compromise between tracking and maneuverability, while keeping costs reasonable; their length generally ranges from nine to fourteen feet. Rocker: Length alone does not fully predict the maneuverability of a kayak: a second design element is rocker: the curvature of the kayak from bow to stern. A heavily "rockered" boat has more lengthwise curvature than a boat with little or no rocker, meaning that the effective waterline of the rockered boat is less than for a kayak with no rocker. For example, an kayak with no rocker will be entirely in the water from end to end. In contrast, the bow and stern of an 18 footer with rocker will be out of the water, so its lengthwise waterline may be only . Rocker is generally most evident at the ends, and in moderation improves handling. Similarly, although a whitewater boat may only be a few feet shorter than many recreational kayaks, because the whitewater boat is heavily rockered its waterline is far shorter and its maneuverability far greater. Hull form: Kayak hull designs are divided into categories based on the shape from bow to stern and on the shape of the hull in cross-section. Bow-to-stern shapes include: Symmetrical: the widest part of the boat is halfway between bow and stern. Fish form: the widest part is forward of the midpoint. Swede form: the widest part is aft (in back) of the midpoint. The presence or absence of a V bottom at various points affects the kayak's tracking and maneuverability. A V tends to improve the kayak's ability to travel straight (track), but reduces the ease of turning. Most modern kayaks have steep Vee sections at the bow and stern, and a very shallow Vee amidships. Beam profile: Hull shapes are categorized by the roundness (or flatness) of the bottom, whether the bottom comes to a "V" at various points on the hull, and by the presence, absence, and severity of a chine, where the side and bottom of a hull meet at an angle, creating another edge below the gunwales. This design choice determines the tradeoff between primary and secondary stability. The hull design determines the relative primary stability and secondary stability of a kayak, the resistance of the boat to tipping and to ultimate capsize, respectively. Primary and secondary stability: Although every kayak will rock from side-to-side, wider kayaks with more buoyancy away from the centerline will present more resistance to tipping and thus feel less likely to capsize than a narrow one with less buoyancy away from the centerline. Flat-bottomed boats that push their volume away from the centerline will also feel more stable than rounded or V-shaped hull shapes that distribute buoyancy more evenly. While flat-bottomed boats have more primary (sometimes called "initial") stability, and feel more stable to the beginner they usually have less secondary stability. Once they do begin to tip, they capsize quickly and suddenly. Rounder-bottomed boats are quite the opposite — having lower initial or primary stability and (usually) greater secondary stability. The chine in some boats increases secondary stability by effectively widening the beam of the boat when it is heeled (tipped). Secondary stability refers to final stability, or additional resistance to capsizing as a kayak approaches capsizing. Rounder-bottomed boats present a greater cross-section to the water as they are tipped from level ("heeled"), while very flat-bottomed boats present less. Sea kayaks, designed for open water and rough conditions, are generally narrower (22-25 inches) and have more secondary stability than recreational kayaks, which are wider (26-30+ inches), have a flatter hull shape, and more primary stability. Kayaks with only moderate primary, but excellent secondary are, in general, considered more seaworthy, especially in challenging conditions. Until recently, whitewater kayaks had very rounded and rockered hulls, but changes in design philosophy have led to whitewater kayaks with very flat planing hulls that allow them to surf on top of moving water rather than float in the water (displacement hull). References See also Canoe Canoe Polo Canyoning Creeking Flyak Freeboating Kayak fishing Kayaking Playboating Recreational kayak Royak Sea kayaking Squirt Boating Surf Kayaking Whitewater kayaking Waveski External links Qajaq USA The American Chapter of Qaannat Kattuffiat, the Greenland Kayaking Association KayakPaddling.net Animated kayak paddling tutorials - multilingual The Canadian Museum of Civilization - Native Watercraft in Canada British Canoe Union The National Governing Body of Kayaking in the UK International Canoe Federation The International federation of kayak and canoe bodies USA Canoe and Kayak The National Governing Body of Kayaking in the U.S. KayakWiki A wiki dedicated to kayaking. 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4,538 | Balts | Distribution of the Baltic tribes, circa 1200 CE. The Eastern Balts are shown in brown hues while the Western Balts are shown in green. The boundaries are approximate. Map of the Baltic Sea For the similarly named ethnic group inhabiting northern Pakistani Kashmir, see Balti people The Balts or Baltic peoples (People who live by the Baltic Sea), defined as speakers of one of the Baltic languages, a branch of the Indo-European language family, are descended from a group of Indo-European tribes who settled the area between lower Vistula and upper Daugava and Dnieper rivers on the southeast shore of the Baltic Sea. One of the features of Baltic languages is the number of conservative or archaic features retained. Bojtár page 18. Among the Baltic peoples are modern Lithuanians, Latvians and Latgalians — all Eastern Balts — as well as the Prussians, Yotvingians and Galindians — the Western Balts — whose languages and cultures are now extinct. Adam of Bremen was the first writer to use the term Baltic in its modern sense to mean the sea of that name. Bojtár page 9. Although he must have been familiar with the ancient name, Balcia, Balcia, Abalcia, Abalus, Basilia, Balisia. The linguistic problem with these names is that Balcia cannot become Baltia by known rule. meaning a supposed island in the Baltic Sea, and although he may have been aware of the Baltic words containing the stem balt-, "white", ; ; Latgalian: bolti, lit. "white". as "swamp", he reports that he followed the local use of balticus from baelt ("belt") because the sea stretches to the east "in modum baltei" ("in the manner of a belt"). This is the first reference to "the Baltic or Barbarian Sea, a day's journey from Hamburg." Bojtár cites Bremensis I,60 and IV,10. The Germanics, however, preferred some form of "East Sea" (in different languages) until after about 1600, when they began to use forms of "Baltic Sea." Around 1840 the German nobles of the Governorate of Livonia devised the term "Balts" to mean themselves, the German upper classes of Livonia, excluding the Latvian and Estonian lower classes. They spoke an exclusive dialect, baltisch-deutsch, legally spoken by them alone. For all practical purposes that was the Baltic language until 1919. Bojtár page 10. Meanwhile in 1845 Georg Heinrich Ferdinand Nesselmann proposed a distinct language group for Latvian and Lithuanian to be called Baltic. Book review. It found some credence among linguists but was not generally adopted until the creation of the Baltic states as part of the settlement of World War I in 1919. Gradually the non-Baltic Estonian was excluded from the linguistic meaning of Baltic, as was a now rare Finnic language in Latvia, Livonian, and Old Prussian — long recognized as close to Lithuanian and Latvian — was added. Estonia remained, however, among the Baltic states in the geopolitical sense. Prehistory Finno-Ugrian prelude Neolithic period in Europe The prehistoric cradle of the Baltic peoples according to archaeogenetic research and archaeological studies was the area near the Baltic sea and central Europe at the end of the Ice Age and beginning of the Mesolithic period. Around 4,000-3,000 B.C. the area of Eastern Baltic experienced an influx of Finno-Ugrian peoples and Comb Ceramic culture. They inhabited area stretching from northern Finland to Central parts of modern-day Lithuania. The Y-chromosomal data has revealed a common Finno-Ugric ancestry for the males of Finnic peoples and Baltic peoples. According to the studies, Baltic males are most closely related to the Finno-Ugric-speaking Volga Finns such as the Mari, rather than to Baltic Finns. The indicator of Finno-Ugric origin has been found to be more frequent in Latvians (42%) and Lithuanians (43%) than in Estonians (34%). The results suggest that the territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania have been settled by Finno-Ugric-speaking tribes since the early Mesolithic period. Indo-European arrivals Corded Ware culture in Eurpe Around 3,500-2,500 B.C., there was another massive migration of peoples representing the Corded Ware culture. They came from the southeast and spread all across Eastern and Central Europe, reaching even southern Finland. It is widely and universally accepted that Corded Ware culture peoples were Indo-European ancestors of many Europeans, including Balts. It is widely accepted that those Indo-European newcomers were quite numerous and in the Eastern Baltic assimilated both Finno-ugric peoples and earlier indigenous cultures. Recent comparative DNA studies seem to confirm the theory of assimilation between Indo-Europeans and Finno-ugrians during that period. Over time the new people formed the Baltic peoples and they spread in the area from the Baltic sea in the west to the Volga in the east. Formation of a Baltic homeland The Balts or Baltic peoples, defined as speakers of one of the Baltic languages, a branch of the Indo-European language family, are descended from a group of Indo-European tribes who settled the area between the lower Vistula and upper Daugava and Dnieper rivers on the southeast shore of the Baltic Sea. Because the thousands of lakes and swamps in this area contributed to the Balts' geographical isolation, the Baltic languages retain a number of conservative or archaic features. Some of the major authorities on Balts, such as Būga, Vasmer, Toporov and Trubachov, in conducting etymological studies of eastern European river names, were able to identify in certain regions names of specifically Baltic provenance, which most likely indicate where the Balts lived in prehistoric times. This information is summarized and synthesized by Gimbutas in The Balts (1963) to obtain a likely proto-Baltic homeland. Its borders are approximately: from a line on the Pomeranian coast eastward to include or nearly include the present-day sites of Warsaw, Kiev, and Kursk, northward through Moscow to the River Berzha, westward in an irregular line to the coast of the Gulf of Riga, north of Riga. Proto-history In 98 AD Tacitus described one of the tribes living near the Baltic Sea (Mare Svebicum) as Aestiorum gentes, or amber gatherers. It is believed that these peoples were inhabitants of the Sambian peninsula, although no other contemporary sources exist. This homeland includes all historical Balts and every location where Balts have been said or implied to have been at different periods of time. Over time the huge area of Baltic inhabitation shrank, due to assimilations with other groups and invasions. It is interesting to point out that according to one of the theories, which has gained considerable traction over the years, one of the western Baltic tribes, Galindians, Baltic occupation of Western Russia, Goliad migrated to the Eastern end of Baltic realm around the 4th century AD and settled around modern day Moscow, Russia. Finally, according to Slavic chronics of the time they were waring with Slavs, and perhaps, were defeated and assimilated some time in 11-13 centuries. Balts differentiated into Western and Eastern Balts in late centuries BC. Eastern Baltic was inhabited by ancestors of Western Balts - Old Prussians, Sudovians/Jotvingians, Scalvians, Nadruvians, and Curonians. Eastern Balts, on the other hand were living in modern day Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. Subsequent Germanic, Gothic domination of first half of the first millennium AD in the Northern and Eastern Europe, as well as later Slavic expansion caused large migration of the Balts. First, Galindae or Galindians to the East, and later, Eastern Balts to the West, until they reached the ethnographic area of the Balts as we know since 13th-14th centuries. Many other eastern and Southern Balts either assimilated with other Balts or contributed to the formation of the Slavs in the 4th-7th centuries, and later gradually were slavicized. History In the 12th and the 13th centuries, internal struggles, as well as invasions by Ruthenians and Poles and later the expansion of the Teutonic Order resulted in an almost complete annihilation of the Galindians, Curonians, and Yotvingians. Gradually Old Prussians became Germanized or some Lithuanized during 15 -17 c., especially after the Reformation in Prussia. The cultures of the Lithuanians and Latgalians/Latvians survived and became the ancestors of the populations of the modern countries of Latvia and Lithuania. Summary of Baltic peoples and tribes Regions Tribes and nations Localities Eastern Balts† Eastern Galindians Moscow region Dniepr Balts Dnieper basin Eastern (Middle) Balts Latvians Latgalians Lithuanians Aukštaitians ("highlanders") Samogitians ("lowlanders") Prussian Lithuanians Transitional Balts† Bojtár page 207. Selonians Toponomastic only. Semigallians Toponomastic only. Curonians, Curonian Kings Toponomastic only. Western Balts† Yotvingians or Sudovians Historic region Prussians Sambians Scalvians Nadruvians Natangians Bartians Pomesanians Pogesanians Western Galindians Warmians or Varmians Sasnans Lubavians Pomeranian Balts Pomerania †Extinct See also Aesti References English language Polish language Notes External links E-book of the original. be-x-old:Балты | Balts |@lemmatized distribution:1 baltic:42 tribe:7 circa:1 ce:1 eastern:16 balts:29 show:2 brown:1 hue:1 western:8 green:1 boundary:1 approximate:1 map:1 sea:13 similarly:1 name:6 ethnic:1 group:5 inhabit:3 northern:3 pakistani:1 kashmir:1 see:2 balti:1 people:16 live:4 define:2 speaker:2 one:6 language:13 branch:2 indo:8 european:10 family:2 descend:2 settle:4 area:9 low:3 vistula:2 upper:3 daugava:2 dnieper:3 river:4 southeast:3 shore:2 feature:3 number:2 conservative:2 archaic:2 retain:2 bojtár:5 page:4 among:3 modern:6 lithuanian:7 latvian:7 latgalians:3 well:3 prussian:6 yotvingians:3 galindians:6 whose:1 culture:7 extinct:2 adam:1 bremen:1 first:5 writer:1 use:3 term:2 sense:2 mean:3 although:3 must:1 familiar:1 ancient:1 balcia:3 abalcia:1 abalus:1 basilia:1 balisia:1 linguistic:2 problem:1 cannot:1 become:3 baltia:1 known:1 rule:1 suppose:1 island:1 may:1 aware:1 word:1 contain:1 stem:1 balt:1 white:2 latgalian:1 bolti:1 lit:1 swamp:2 report:1 follow:1 local:1 balticus:1 baelt:1 belt:2 stretch:2 east:4 modum:1 baltei:1 manner:1 reference:2 barbarian:1 day:5 journey:1 hamburg:1 cite:1 bremensis:1 iv:1 germanic:2 however:2 prefer:1 form:3 different:2 begin:1 around:5 german:2 noble:1 governorate:1 livonia:2 devise:1 class:2 exclude:2 estonian:3 speak:2 exclusive:1 dialect:1 baltisch:1 deutsch:1 legally:1 alone:1 practical:1 purpose:1 meanwhile:1 georg:1 heinrich:1 ferdinand:1 nesselmann:1 propose:1 distinct:1 call:1 book:2 review:1 find:2 credence:1 linguist:1 generally:1 adopt:1 creation:1 state:2 part:2 settlement:1 world:1 war:2 gradually:3 non:1 meaning:1 rare:1 finnic:2 latvia:3 livonian:1 old:4 long:1 recognize:1 close:1 add:1 estonia:2 remain:1 geopolitical:1 prehistory:1 finno:8 ugrian:3 prelude:1 neolithic:1 period:5 europe:4 prehistoric:2 cradle:1 accord:4 archaeogenetic:1 research:1 archaeological:1 study:4 near:2 central:3 end:2 ice:1 age:1 beginning:1 mesolithic:2 b:2 c:3 experience:1 influx:1 comb:1 ceramic:1 finland:2 lithuania:3 chromosomal:1 data:1 reveal:1 common:1 ugric:5 ancestry:1 male:2 closely:1 relate:1 speaking:2 volga:2 finn:2 mari:1 rather:1 indicator:1 origin:1 frequent:1 result:2 suggest:1 territory:1 since:2 early:1 arrival:1 cord:3 ware:3 eurpe:1 another:1 massive:1 migration:2 represent:1 come:1 spread:2 across:1 reach:2 even:1 southern:2 widely:2 universally:1 accept:2 ancestor:3 many:2 include:4 newcomer:1 quite:1 numerous:1 assimilate:3 earlier:1 indigenous:1 recent:1 comparative:1 dna:1 seem:1 confirm:1 theory:2 assimilation:2 time:6 new:1 west:2 formation:2 homeland:3 thousand:1 lake:1 contribute:2 geographical:1 isolation:1 major:1 authority:1 būga:1 vasmer:1 toporov:1 trubachov:1 conduct:1 etymological:1 able:1 identify:1 certain:1 region:4 specifically:1 provenance:1 likely:2 indicate:1 information:1 summarize:1 synthesize:1 gimbutas:1 obtain:1 proto:2 border:1 approximately:1 line:2 pomeranian:2 coast:2 eastward:1 nearly:1 present:1 site:1 warsaw:1 kiev:1 kursk:1 northward:1 moscow:3 berzha:1 westward:1 irregular:1 gulf:1 riga:2 north:1 history:2 ad:3 tacitus:1 describe:1 mare:1 svebicum:1 aestiorum:1 gens:1 amber:1 gatherer:1 believe:1 inhabitant:1 sambian:1 peninsula:1 contemporary:1 source:1 exist:1 historical:1 every:1 location:1 say:1 imply:1 huge:1 inhabitation:1 shrank:1 due:1 invasion:2 interest:1 point:1 gain:1 considerable:1 traction:1 year:1 occupation:1 russia:3 goliad:1 migrate:1 realm:1 century:6 finally:1 slavic:2 chronics:1 slav:2 perhaps:1 defeat:1 differentiate:1 late:1 bc:1 sudovians:2 jotvingians:1 scalvians:2 nadruvians:2 curonians:3 hand:1 belarus:1 ukraine:1 subsequent:1 gothic:1 domination:1 half:1 millennium:1 later:4 expansion:2 cause:1 large:1 galindae:1 ethnographic:1 know:1 either:1 slavicized:1 internal:1 struggle:1 ruthenians:1 pole:1 teutonic:1 order:1 almost:1 complete:1 annihilation:1 germanized:1 lithuanized:1 especially:1 reformation:1 prussia:1 survive:1 population:1 country:1 summary:1 tribes:1 nation:1 locality:1 dniepr:1 basin:1 middle:1 aukštaitians:1 highlander:1 samogitians:1 lowlander:1 transitional:1 selonians:1 toponomastic:3 semigallians:1 curonian:1 king:1 historic:1 sambians:1 natangians:1 bartians:1 pomesanians:1 pogesanians:1 warmians:1 varmians:1 sasnans:1 lubavians:1 pomerania:1 also:1 aesti:1 english:1 polish:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 e:1 original:1 x:1 балты:1 |@bigram baltic_sea:9 indo_european:8 dnieper_river:2 lithuanian_latvian:2 adam_bremen:1 latvian_lithuanian:2 finno_ugrian:3 finno_ugric:5 closely_relate:1 estonia_latvia:1 latvia_lithuania:2 cord_ware:3 universally_accept:1 gulf_riga:1 belarus_ukraine:1 external_link:1 |
4,539 | Character_encodings_in_HTML | HTML has been in use since 1991, but HTML 4.0 (December 1997) was the first standardized version where international characters were given reasonably complete treatment. When an HTML document includes special characters outside the range of seven-bit ASCII two goals are worth considering: the information's integrity, and universal browser display. The document character encoding When HTML documents are served there are three ways to tell the browser what specific character encoding is to be used for display to the reader. First, HTTP headers can be sent by the web server along with each web page (HTML document). A typical HTTP header looks like this: Content-Type: text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1 For HTML (not usually XHTML), the other method is for the HTML document to include this information at its top, inside the HEAD element. XHTML documents have a third option: to express the character encoding in the XML preamble, for example <?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?> These methods each advise the receiver that the file being sent uses the character encoding specified. The character encoding is often referred to as the "character set" and it indeed does limit the characters in the raw source text. However, the HTML standard states that the "charset" is to be treated as an encoding of Unicode characters and provides a way to specify characters that the "charset" does not cover. The term code page is also used similarly. It is a bad idea to send incorrect information about the character encoding used by a document. For example, a server where multiple users may place files created on different machines cannot promise that all the files it sends will conform to the server's specification — some users may have machines with different character sets. For this reason, many servers simply do not send the information at all, thus avoiding making false promises. However, this may result in the equally bad situation where the user agent displays the document incorrectly because neither sending party has specified a character encoding. The HTTP header specification supersedes all HTML (or XHTML) meta tag specifications, which can be a problem if the header is incorrect and one does not have the access or the knowledge to change them. Browsers receiving a file with no character encoding information must make a blind assumption. For Western European languages, it is typical and fairly safe to assume windows-1252 (which is similar to ISO-8859-1 but has printable characters in place of some control codes that are forbidden in HTML anyway), but it is also common for browsers to assume the character set native to the machine on which they are running. The consequence of choosing incorrectly is that characters outside the printable ASCII range (32 to 127) usually appear incorrectly. This presents few problems for English-speaking users, but other languages regularly — in some cases, always — require characters outside that range. In CJK environments where there are several different multi-byte encodings in use, auto-detection is often employed. It is increasingly common for multilingual websites to use one of the Unicode/ISO 10646 transformation formats, as this allows use of the same encoding for all languages. Generally UTF-8 is used rather than UTF-16 or UTF-32 because it is easier to handle in programming languages that assume a byte-oriented ASCII superset encoding, and it is efficient for ASCII-heavy text (which HTML tends to be). Successful viewing of a page is not necessarily an indication that its encoding is specified correctly. If the page's creator and reader are both assuming some machine-specific character encoding, and the server does not send any identifying information, then the reader will nonetheless see the page as the creator intended, but other readers with different native sets will not see the page as intended. Character references In addition to native character encodings, characters can also be encoded as character references, which can be numeric character references (decimal or hexadecimal) or character entity references. Character entity references are also sometimes referred to as named entities, or HTML entities for HTML. HTML's usage of character references derives from SGML. Character entity references have the format &name; where "name" is a case-sensitive alphanumeric string. For example, the character 'λ' can be encoded as λ in an HTML 4 document. Characters <, >, " and & are used to delimit tags, attribute values, and character references. Character entity references <, >, " and &, which are predefined in HTML, XML, and SGML, can be used instead for literal representations of the characters. Numeric character references can be in decimal format, &#DD;, where DD is a variable-width string of decimal digits. Similarly there is a hexadecimal format, &#xHHHH;, where HHHH is a variable-width string of hexadecimal digits, though many consider it good practice to never use fewer than four hex digits, and never use an odd number of hex digits (due to the correspondence of two hex digits to one byte). Unlike named entities, hexadecimal character references are case-insensitive in HTML. For example, λ can also be represented as λ, λ or λ. Numeric references always refer to Universal Character Set code points, regardless of the page's encoding. Using numeric references that refer to UCS control code ranges is forbidden, with the exception of the linefeed, tab, and carriage return characters. That is, characters in the hexadecimal ranges 00–08, 0B–0C, 0E–1F, 7F, and 80–9F cannot be used in an HTML document, not even by reference —so "", for example, is not allowed. However, for backward compatibility with early HTML authors and browsers that ignored this restriction, raw characters and numeric character references in the 80–9F range are interpreted by some browsers as representing the characters mapped to bytes 80–9F in the Windows-1252 encoding. Unnecessary use of HTML character references may significantly reduce HTML readability. If the character encoding for a web page is chosen appropriately then HTML character references are usually only required for a few special characters (or not at all if a native Unicode encoding like UTF-8 is used). XML character entity references Unlike traditional HTML with its large range of character entity references, in XML there are only five predefined character entity references. These are used to escape characters that are markup sensitive in certain contexts: & → & (ampersand, U+0026) < → < (less-than sign, U+003C) > → > (greater-than sign, U+003E) " → " (quotation mark, U+0022) ' → ' (apostrophe, U+0027) All other character entity references have to be defined before they can be used. For example, use of é (which gives é, Latin lower-case E with acute accent, U+00E9 in Unicode) in an XML document will generate an error unless the entity has already been defined. XML also requires that the x in hexadecimal numeric references be in lowercase: for example ਛ rather than ਛ. XHTML, which is an XML application, supports the HTML 4 entity set and XML's ' entity, which does not appear in HTML 4. However, use of ' in XHTML should generally be avoided for compatibility reasons. ' or ' may be used instead. & has the special problem that it starts with the character to be escaped. A simple Internet search finds thousands of sequences &amp;amp; ... in HTML pages for which the algorithm to replace an ampersand by the corresponding character entity reference was applied too often. HTML character entity references For a list of all named HTML character entity references, see List of XML and HTML character entity references (approximately 250 entries). See also Information integration Unicode Unicode reference (wikibooks) External links Character entity references in HTML 4 Character Entities for XHTML HTML and XHTML character entities with images for each A Clear and Quick Reference to HTML Symbol Entities Codes | Character_encodings_in_HTML |@lemmatized html:33 use:22 since:1 december:1 first:2 standardized:1 version:2 international:1 character:59 give:2 reasonably:1 complete:1 treatment:1 document:11 include:2 special:3 outside:3 range:7 seven:1 bit:1 ascii:4 two:2 goal:1 worth:1 consider:2 information:7 integrity:1 universal:2 browser:6 display:3 encode:12 serve:1 three:1 way:2 tell:1 specific:2 encoding:10 reader:4 http:3 header:4 send:7 web:3 server:5 along:1 page:9 typical:2 look:1 like:2 content:1 type:1 text:3 charset:3 iso:4 usually:3 xhtml:7 method:2 top:1 inside:1 head:1 element:1 third:1 option:1 express:1 xml:10 preamble:1 example:7 advise:1 receiver:1 file:4 specify:4 often:3 refer:4 set:6 indeed:1 limit:1 raw:2 source:1 however:4 standard:1 state:1 treat:1 unicode:6 provide:1 cover:1 term:1 code:4 also:7 similarly:2 bad:2 idea:1 incorrect:2 multiple:1 user:4 may:5 place:2 create:1 different:4 machine:4 cannot:2 promise:2 conform:1 specification:3 reason:2 many:2 simply:1 thus:1 avoid:2 make:2 false:1 result:1 equally:1 situation:1 agent:1 incorrectly:3 neither:1 party:1 supersede:1 meta:1 tag:2 problem:3 one:3 access:1 knowledge:1 change:1 receive:1 must:1 blind:1 assumption:1 western:1 european:1 language:4 fairly:1 safe:1 assume:4 window:2 similar:1 printable:2 control:2 cod:1 forbid:1 anyway:1 common:2 native:4 run:1 consequence:1 choose:2 appear:2 present:1 english:1 speaking:1 regularly:1 case:4 always:2 require:3 cjk:1 environment:1 several:1 multi:1 byte:4 auto:1 detection:1 employ:1 increasingly:1 multilingual:1 website:1 transformation:1 format:4 allow:2 generally:2 utf:4 rather:2 easy:1 handle:1 program:1 orient:1 superset:1 efficient:1 heavy:1 tends:1 successful:1 viewing:1 necessarily:1 indication:1 correctly:1 creator:2 identifying:1 nonetheless:1 see:4 intend:2 reference:29 addition:1 numeric:6 decimal:3 hexadecimal:6 entity:22 sometimes:1 name:5 usage:1 derive:1 sgml:2 sensitive:2 alphanumeric:1 string:3 λ:6 delimit:1 attribute:1 value:1 predefined:2 instead:2 literal:1 representation:1 dd:2 variable:2 width:2 digit:5 xhhhh:1 hhhh:1 though:1 good:1 practice:1 never:2 four:1 hex:3 odd:1 number:1 due:1 correspondence:1 unlike:2 insensitive:1 represent:2 point:1 regardless:1 ucs:1 forbidden:1 exception:1 linefeed:1 tab:1 carriage:1 return:1 even:1 backward:1 compatibility:2 early:1 author:1 ignore:1 restriction:1 interpret:1 map:1 unnecessary:1 significantly:1 reduce:1 readability:1 appropriately:1 traditional:1 large:1 five:1 escape:2 markup:1 certain:1 context:1 ampersand:2 u:6 less:1 sign:2 great:1 quotation:1 mark:1 apos:3 apostrophe:1 define:2 é:2 latin:1 low:1 e:1 acute:1 accent:1 generate:1 error:1 unless:1 already:1 x:1 lowercase:1 application:1 support:1 start:1 simple:1 internet:1 search:1 find:1 thousand:1 sequence:1 amp:3 algorithm:1 replace:1 corresponding:1 apply:1 list:2 approximately:1 entry:1 integration:1 wikibooks:1 external:1 link:1 image:1 clear:1 quick:1 symbol:1 |@bigram encoding_unicode:1 html_xhtml:2 meta_tag:1 printable_character:1 printable_ascii:1 utf_utf:1 decimal_hexadecimal:1 decimal_digit:1 hexadecimal_digit:1 λ_λ:2 backward_compatibility:1 acute_accent:1 xhtml_xml:1 amp_amp:2 unicode_unicode:1 external_link:1 |
4,540 | Northrop_Grumman_B-2_Spirit | The Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit (also known as the "Stealth Bomber") is a multirole heavy bomber with "low observable" stealth technology capable of penetrating dense anti-aircraft defenses to deploy both conventional and nuclear weapons. Because of its considerable capital and operations costs, the project was controversial in Congress and among Pentagon brass during its development and placement into service. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the United States scaled back initial plans to purchase 132 of the bombers. By the mid 1990s, Congress made appropriations to purchase a total fleet of just 21 of the bombers. The cost of each air vehicle averaged US$737 million in 1997 dollars. United States General Accounting Office (GAO) B-2 Bomber: Cost and Operational Issues (Letter Report, 08/14/97, GAO/NSIAD-97-181). Total procurement costs averaged US$929 million per plane, which includes spare parts, equipment, retrofitting, and software support. The total program cost, which includes development, engineering and testing, averaged US$2.1 billion per aircraft (in 1997 dollars). Twenty B-2s are operated by the United States Air Force. Though originally designed in the 1980s for Cold War operations scenarios, B-2s have been used in combat to drop bombs on Kosovo in the late 1990s, and see continued use during the ongoing wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. One aircraft was lost when it crashed on takeoff in 2008. The crew of two aboard the bomber can drop up to eighty class JDAM "smart" bombs, or sixteen B83 nuclear bombs in a single pass through extremely dense anti-aircraft defenses. It has been the subject of espionage and counter-espionage activity. The bomber has been a prominent public spectacle at air shows since the 1990s. Development ATB project The B-2 Spirit originated from the Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) black project that began in 1979. Pace 1999, pp. 20–27. The Cold War was well underway, and on the campaign trail in 1979 and 1980, candidate Ronald Reagan promised a restoration of American military strength. On 22 August 1980, the incumbent Carter administration publicly disclosed that the Department of Defense was working to develop stealth aircraft including the ATB. Goodall 1992 After the evaluations of the companies' proposals, the ATB competition was reduced to the Northrop/Boeing and Lockheed/Rockwell teams with each receiving a study contract for further work. The Northrop design was larger while the Lockheed design was smaller and included a small tail. Rich, Ben, Leo Janos. Skunk Works. Little, Brown & Company, 1994. ISBN 0-316-74300-3 The black project was funded under the code name "Aurora". The Northrop/Boeing team's ATB design was selected over the Lockheed/Rockwell design on 20 October 1981. Spick 2000, p. 339. The Northrop design received the designation B-2 and the name "Spirit". The bomber's design was changed in the mid-1980s when the mission profile was changed from high-altitude to low-altitude, terrain-following. The redesign delayed the B-2's first flight by two years and added about US$1 billion to the program's cost. An estimated US$23 billion was secretly spent for research and development on the B-2 by 1989. "The Stealth Takes Wing", TIME, 31 July 1989. At the program's peak, approximately 13,000 people were employed at a dedicated plant in Pico Rivera, California for the plane's engineering and portions of its manufacturing. "Pico Rivera". GlobalSecurity.org, 26 April 2005. The B-2 was first publicly displayed on November 22, 1988, at Air Force Plant 42, Palmdale, California, where it was assembled. Its first public flight was on July 17, 1989 from Palmdale. Pace 1999, pp. 29–36. Procurement A procurement of 132 aircraft was planned in the mid-1980s, but was later reduced to 75. Pace 1999, pp. 75–76. By the early 1990s, the Soviet Union had disintegrated, which effectively rendered void the Spirit's primary Cold War mission. In light of budgetary pressures and congressional opposition, in his 1992 State of the Union Address, President George H.W. Bush announced B-2 production would be limited to a total of 20 aircraft. President George H. Bush's State of the Union Address, January 28, 1992. In 1996, however, the Clinton administration, though originally committed to ending production of the bombers once the 20th aircraft was completed, authorized the conversion of a 21st bomber, a prototype test model, to Block 30 full operational status at a cost of nearly $500 million. Graham, Bradley. "US to add one B-2 plane to 20 plane fleet." Washington Post, 22 March 1996, p. A20. The bomber's high costs reflected the innovation of a paperless computer aided design (CAD) system, and a computerized manufacturing control system. The costs also reflect the inefficiencies of separating design teams into different parts of the country for both design intelligence compartmentalization as a counter-espionage measure, and by parceling out the supply chain with the requisite lucrative contracts to congressional districts as a political reward. Northrop made a proposal to the USAF in 1995 to build 20 additional aircraft with a flyaway cost of $566M each. Eden 2004, pp. 350–353. Espionage In 1984 a Northrop employee, Thomas Cavanaugh, was arrested for trying to sell classified information to the Soviet Union, which apparently was smuggled out of the Pico Rivera, California factory. AP. Stealth bomber classified documents missing, New York Times, 24 June 1987. Cavanaugh was eventually sentenced to life in prison and released under parole in 2001. Noshir Gowadia, a design engineer who worked on the B-2's propulsion system, was arrested in October 2005 for selling B-2 related classified information to foreign countries. His trial was initially scheduled for 12 February 2008, but he received a continuance. FBI Honolulu Press Release Gowadia case Program costs In a 1994 live fire exercise near Point Mugu, California, a B-2 depicted dropping forty-seven class Mark 82 bombs, which is more than half of a B-2's total ordnance payload. The program was the subject of public controversy for its costs to American taxpayers. In 1996 the General Accounting Office disclosed that the B-2 bomber "will be, by far, the most costly bombers to operate on a per aircraft basis" costing over three times as much as the B-1B (US$9.6 million annually) and over four times as much as the B-52H ($US6.8 million annually). In September 1997, each hour of B-2 flight necessitated 119 hours of maintenance in turn. Comparable maintenance needs for the B-52 and the B-1B are 53 and 60 hours respectively for each hour of flight. A key reason for this cost are the air-conditioned hangars large enough for the bomber's 172 ft (52.4 m) wingspan, which are needed to maintain the aircraft's stealthy properties, especially its "low-observable" stealthy skins. Capaccio, Tony. "The B-2's Stealthy Skins Need Tender, Lengthy Care." Defense Week, 27 May 1997, p. 1. "Air Force, Options to Retire of Restructure the Force would Reduce Planned Spending, NSIAD-96-192." US General Accounting Office, September 1996, pp. 53, 56. The total "military construction" cost related to the program was projected to be US$553.6 million in 1997 dollars. The cost to procure each B-2 "air vehicle" was US$737 million in 1997 dollars based only on air vehicle cost of US$15.48 billion. The procurement cost per plane as detailed in General Accounting Office (GAO) reports, which include spare parts and software support, was $929 million per plane in 1997 dollars. The total program cost projected through 2004 was US$44.75 billion in 1997 dollars. This includes development, procurement, facilities, construction, and spare parts. The total program cost averaged US$2.13 billion per plane. Opposition In its consideration of the fiscal year 1990 defense budget, the House Armed Services Committee trimmed $800 million from the B-2 research and development budget, while at the same time staving off a motion to kill the bomber. The opposition was bipartisan, with Congressman Ron Dellums (D-CA), John Kasich (R-OH), and John G. Rowland (R-CT) authorizing the motion to kill the bomber; the growing cost of the B-2 appeared to be the factor driving the opposition. At the peak production period specified in 1989, the schedule called for spending US$7 billion to $8 billion per year in 1989 dollars, something Committee Chair Les Aspin (D-WI) said "won't fly financially." Sorenson 1995, p. 168. In 1990, the US Department of Defense accused Northrop of using faulty components in the flight control system. Efforts have also been made to reduce the probability of bird ingestion, which could damage engine fan blades. "Moisture in sensors led to stealth bomber crash, Air Force report says", Kansas City Star, 5 June 2008. In time, a number of prominent members of Congress began to oppose the program's expansion, to include former Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry who cast votes against the B-2 Stealth Bomber in 1989, 1991 and 1992 while a United States Senator representing Massachusetts. By 1992, Republican President George H.W. Bush called for the cancellation of the B-2 and promised to cut military spending by 30% in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union. "Zell Miller's Attack on Kerry: A Little Out Of Date." FactCheck.org, 4 October 2004. Retrieved: 26 October 2004. In May 1995, on the basis of its 1995 Heavy Bomber Force Study, the DOD determined that additional B-2 procurements would exacerbate efforts to develop and implement long term recapitalization plans for the USAF bomber force. In October 1995, former Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, General Mike Ryan, and Former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General John Shalikashvili, strongly recommended against Congressional action to fund the purchase of any additional B-2s, arguing that to do so would require unacceptable cuts in existing conventional and nuclear-capable aircraft to pay for the new bombers, Bender,Brian and John Robinson. Shali. "More Stealth Bombers Mean Less Combat Power". Defense Daily, 5 August 1997, p. 206. and because the military had much higher priorities on which to spend its limited procurement dollars. "Air Force, Options to Retire of Restructure the Force would Reduce Planned Spending, NSIAD-96-192". US General Accounting Office, September 1996, p. 70. Some B-2 advocates argued that procuring twenty additional B-2s would save money because B-2s would be able to deeply penetrate anti-aircraft defenses and use low-cost, short-range attack weapons rather than expensive standoff weapons. However, in 1995, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), and its Director of National Security Analysis, found that additional B-2s would reduce the cost of weapons expended by the bomber force by less than US$2 billion in 1995 dollars during the first two weeks of a conflict, which is when the Air Force envisions bombers would make their greatest contribution. This is a small fraction of the US$26.8 billion (in 1995 dollars) life cycle cost that the CBO projected an additional twenty B-2s would cost. "Air Force, Options to Retire of Restructure the Force would Reduce Planned Spending, NSIAD-96-192". US General Accounting Office, September 1996, p. 72. In 1997, as Ranking Member of the House Armed Services Committee and National Security Committee, Congressman Ron Dellums, a long-time opponent of the bomber, cited five independent studies and offered an amendment to that year's defense authorization bill to cap production of the bombers with the existing 21 aircraft. The amendment was narrowly defeated. "Debate on Dellums Amendment to 1998 Defense Authorization Act", 23 June 1997. Nonetheless, Congress has never approved funding for the purchase of any additional B-2 bombers to date. Upgrades In 2008, the US Congress funded upgrades to the B-2s weapon control systems for hitting moving targets. "Northrop Grumman Adding Mobile Targets to B-2 Bomber Capabilities". Northrop Grumman, 7 February 2008. On 29 December 2008, Air Force officials awarded a production contract to Northrop Grumman to modernize the B-2 fleet's radar. The contract provides advanced state-of-the-art radar components, with the aim of sustained operational viability of the B-2 fleet into the future. The contract has a target value of approximately US$468 million. "B-2 radar modernization program contract awarded". US Air Force, 30 December 2008. The award follows successful flight testing with the upgraded equipment. A modification to the radar was needed since the U.S. Department of Commerce required the B-2 to use a different radar frequency. Warwick, Graham. "USAF Awards B-2 Radar Upgrade Production". Aviation Week, 30 December 2008. On 13 May 2009, an upgrade to the B-2's software was announced. Design The B-2's engines are buried within its wing to conceal the induction fans and minimize their exhaust signature. The crew of two sit side-by-side in the cockpit. As with the B-52 Stratofortress and B-1 Lancer, the B-2 provides the versatility inherent in manned bombers. Like other bombers, its assigned targets can be canceled or changed while in flight, the particular weapon assigned to a target can be changed, and the timing of attack, or the route to the target can be changed while in flight. In addition, its low-observable, or "stealth", characteristics give it the ability to penetrate an enemy's most sophisticated anti-aircraft defenses to attack its most heavily defended targets. The prime contractor, responsible for overall system design, integration and support, is Northrop Grumman. Boeing, Raytheon (formerly Hughes Aircraft), G.E. and Vought Aircraft Industries, are subcontractors. The blending of low-observable technologies with high aerodynamic efficiency and large payload gives the B-2 significant advantages over previous bombers. The U.S. Air Force purports the aircraft has "high aerodynamic efficiency" and states its range is approximately 6,000 nautical miles (. Spick 2000, pp. 340–341. Also, its low-observation ability provides the B-2 greater freedom of action at high altitudes, thus increasing its range and providing a better field of view for the aircraft's sensors. It combines GPS Aided Targeting System (GATS) with GPS-aided bombs such as Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM). This uses its passive electronically scanned array APQ-181 radar to correct GPS errors of targets and gain much better than laser-guided weapon accuracy when "dumb" gravity bombs are equipped with a GPS-aided "smart" guidance tail kit. It can bomb 16 targets in a single pass when equipped with 1,000 or 2,000-pound (450 kg or 900 kg) bombs, or as many as 80 when carrying bombs. The B-2's stealth comes from a combination of reduced acoustic, infrared, visual and radar signatures, making it difficult for opposition defenses to detect, track and engage the aircraft. Many specific aspects of the low-observability process remain classified. A B-2 during aerial refueling which extends its range past 6,000mi to support intercontinental sorties The B-2's low observability originates from stealth technology exploited for the F-117. Russian-born physicist and mathematician Pyotr Ufimtsev, whose theoretical work made the F-117 and B-2 possible, was hired by Northrop at one time. Additionally, the B-2's composite materials, special coatings and flying wing design, which reduces the number of leading edges, contribute to its stealth characteristics. B-2, Encyclopedia.com Each B-2 requires a climate-controlled hangar large enough for its wingspan to protect the operational integrity of its sophisticated radar absorbent material and coatings. Fulghum, D.A. "Away Game". Aviation Week & Space Technology, 8 January 2007. "First F-22 large-scale, air combat exercise wins praise and triggers surprise" (online title). The engines are buried within the wing to conceal the induction fans and hide their exhaust. "B-2." Aerospaceweb.org. The B-2 has a crew of two: a pilot in the left seat, and mission commander in the right. The B-2 has provisions for a third crew member if needed. B-2 Spirit page, Northrop Grumman For comparison, the B-1B has a crew of four and the B-52 has a crew of five. B-2 crews have been used to pioneer sleep cycle research to improve crew performance on long sorties. The B-2 is highly automated, and, unlike two-seat fighters, one crew member can sleep, use a toilet or prepare a hot meal while the other monitors the aircraft. Tirpak, John A. "With the First B-2 Squadron". Air Force Magazine: Journal of the Air Force Association, Vol. 79, No. 4, April 1996. Operational history The first operational aircraft, christened Spirit of Missouri, was delivered to Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, where the fleet is based, on 17 December 1993. Pace 1999, p. 66. The B-2 reached initial operational capability on 1 January 1997. Pace 1999, p. 73. Depot maintenance for the B-2 is accomplished by U.S. Air Force contractor support and managed at Oklahoma City Air Logistics Center at Tinker Air Force Base. B-2 Spirit Fact Sheet, U.S. Air Force, April 2008. Retrieved: 6 July 2008. Originally designed to deliver nuclear weapons, modern usage has shifted towards a flexible role with conventional and nuclear capability. Into combat An Air Force maintenance crew services a B-2 at Andersen AFB, Guam, 2004. The B-2 has seen service in three campaigns. Its combat debut was during the Kosovo War in 1999. It was responsible for destroying 33 percent of selected Serbian bombing targets in the first eight weeks of U.S. involvement in the War. During this war, B-2s flew non-stop to Kosovo from their home base in Missouri and back. The B-2 was the first aircraft to deploy GPS satellite guided JDAM "smart bombs" in combat use in Kosovo. "JDAM continues to be warfighter's weapon of choice". US Air Force, 17 March 2006. The B-2 has been used to drop bombs on Afghanistan in support of the ongoing War in Afghanistan. With the support of aerial refueling, the B-2 flew one of its longest missions to date from Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri to Afghanistan and back. During the ongoing War in Iraq, B-2s have operated from Diego Garcia and an undisclosed "forward operating location". Other sorties in Iraq have launched from Whiteman AFB. This resulted in missions lasting over 30 hours and one mission of over 50 hours. The designated "forward operating locations" have been previously designated as Guam and RAF Fairford, where new climate controlled hangers have been constructed. B-2s have conducted 27 sorties from Whiteman AFB and 22 sorties from a forward operating location, releasing more than 1.5 million pounds of munitions, including 583 JDAM "smart bombs" in 2003. Air Force programs: B-2. Project On Government Oversight (POGO), 16 April 2004. The B-2's combat use preceded a U.S. Air Force declaration of "full operational capability" in December 2003. The Pentagon's Operational Test and Evaluation 2003 Annual Report noted that the B-2's serviceability for Fiscal Year 2003 was still inadequate, mainly due to the maintainability of the B-2's low observable coatings. The evaluation also noted that the Defensive Avionics suite also had shortcomings with pop-up threats. All B-2s, nuclear-capable B-52s, and nuclear intercontinental ballistic missiles have shifted to the new nuclear-focused Global Strike Command scheduled to be set up by September 2009. Chavanne, Bettina H. "USAF Creates Global Strike Command". Aviation Week, 24 October 2008. Operators The "Spirit of Indiana" sits on the ramp at Andersen AFB in Guam on June, 23, 2006. B-2s are operated exclusively by the United States Air Force active units. United States Air Force 509th Bomb Wing, Whiteman Air Force Base (currently has 19 B-2s) 13th Bomb Squadron 393d Bomb Squadron 394th Combat Training Squadron 131st Bomb Wing, Whiteman Air Force Base (Missouri Air National Guard) http://www.131bw.ang.af.mil/units/ 110th Bomb Squadron 412th Test Wing, Edwards Air Force Base (currently has 1 B-2) 419th Flight Test Squadron 53d Wing, Eglin Air Force Base (former) 72d Test and Evaluation Squadron, Whiteman Air Force Base 57th Wing, Nellis Air Force Base (former) 325th Weapons Squadron, Whiteman Air Force Base 715th Weapons Squadron (inactivated) Accidents On 23 February 2008, a B-2 crashed back onto a runway shortly after takeoff from Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. "B-2 Crashes on Takeoff From Guam". Aviation Week, 23 February 2008. The crash of the Spirit of Kansas, 89-0127, which had been operated by the 393rd Bomb Squadron, 509th Bomb Wing, Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, and had logged 5,176 flight hours, was the first ever crash of a B-2. The two person crew ejected from the aircraft and survived the crash. The aircraft was completely destroyed, a hull loss valued at US$1.4 billion. "Air Force: Sensor moisture caused 1st B-2 crash." USA Today, 5 June 2008. Retrieved: 16 February 2009. B-2 crash video. Youtube.com Aircraft on display Mockup of a B-2 Spirit on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force Because of its unparalleled cost, strategic bombing role, and the still-classified aspects of its low observable coatings, no production B-2 has ever been placed on permanent display. However, B-2s have periodically made prominent public spectacle during appearances on ground display at various air shows. In 2004, one of the test articles (s/n AT-1000) built without engines or instruments for static testing was placed on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio. The display airframe and nose wheel door was marked to resemble The Spirit of Ohio, to include its Fire and Ice insignias. The test article passed all structural testing. National Museum of the USAF B-2 fact page The Museum's restoration team spent over a year reassembling the fractured airframe. From 1989 to 2004, the South Dakota Air and Space Museum located on the grounds of Ellsworth Air Force Base displayed the 10-ton (9.1 tonne) "Honda Stealth", a 60% scale mockup of a stealthy bomber which had been built by North American Honda in 1988 for an advertising campaign. "Honda Stealth" Although not an actual replica of a B-2, the mock-up was close enough to the B-2's design to arouse suspicion that Honda had intercepted classified, top secret information, as the B-2 project was still officially classified in 1988. Honda donated the model to the museum in 1989, on condition that the model be destroyed if it was ever replaced with a different aircraft. In 2005, when the museum received a B-1 Lancer for display (Ellsworth being a B-1 base), the museum destroyed the mock-up. Museum slices stealth display B-1 to go on display in museum Specifications (B-2A Block 30) Orthographically projected diagram of the B-2 Spirit Later avionics and equipment improvements allow B-2A to carry JSOW and GBU-28s as well. The Spirit is also designated as a delivery aircraft for the AGM-158 JASSM when the missile enters service. List of B-2 bombers Side view of a B-2 Spirit. B-2 in flight over the Mississippi River (St. Louis, Missouri) with the Gateway Arch and Busch Stadium in the background. B-2 from below Air Vehicle No.Block No. All 21 copies brought to Block 30 standard. USAF s/nFormal nameStatus AV-1 Test/30 82-1066 Spirit of America 2000-07-14 - Active Air Force names final B-2 bomber "Spirit of America" AV-2 Test/30 82-1067 Spirit of Arizona 1997-12-04 - Active AV-3 Test/30 82-1068 Spirit of New York 1997-10-10 - Active, Flight Test AV-4 Test/3082-1069 Spirit of Indiana 1999-05-22 - Active AV-5 Test/20 82-1070 Spirit of Ohio 1997-07-18 - Active AV-6 Test/30 82-1071 Spirit of Mississippi 1997-05-23 - Active AV-7 10 88-0328 Spirit of Texas 1994-08-31 - Active AV-8 10 88-0329 Spirit of Missouri 1994-03-31 - Active AV-9 10 88-0330 Spirit of California 1994-08-17 - Active AV-10 10 88-0331 Spirit of South Carolina 1994-12-30 - Active AV-11 10 88-0332 Spirit of Washington 1994-10-29 - Active AV-12 10 89-0127 Spirit of Kansas 1995-02-17 - Crashed 23 February 2008 AV-13 10 89-0128 Spirit of Nebraska 1995-06-28 - Active AV-14 10 89-0129 Spirit of Georgia 1995-11-14 - Active AV-15 10 90-0040 Spirit of Alaska 1996-01-24 - Active AV-16 10 90-0041 Spirit of Hawaii 1996-01-10 - Active AV-17 20 92-0700 Spirit of Florida 1996-07-03 - Active AV-18 20 93-1085 Spirit of Oklahoma 1996-05-15 - Active AV-19 20 93-1086 Spirit of Kitty Hawk 1996-08-30 - Active AV-20 30 93-1087 Spirit of Pennsylvania 1997-08-05 - Active AV-21 30 93-1088 Spirit of Louisiana 1997-11-10 - ActiveAV-22/AV-165 canceled Sources: FAS.org, B-2 page on fas.org B-2 Spirit (Pace) Pace 1999, Appendix. See also References Notes Bibliography Donald, David, ed. Black Jets: The Development and Operation of America's Most Secret Warplanes. Norwalk, Connecticut: AIRtime Publishing Inc., 2003. ISBN 1-880588-67-6. Eden, Paul. "Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit". Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. New York: Amber Books, 2004. ISBN 1-90468-784-9. Goodall, James C. "The Northrop B-2A Stealth Bomber", America's Stealth Fighters and Bombers: B-2, F-117, YF-22, and YF-23. St. Paul, MN: MBI Publishing Company, 1992. ISBN 0-87938-609-6. Pace, Steve. B-2 Spirit: The Most Capable War Machine on the Planet. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. ISBN 0-07-134433-0. Richardson, Doug. Northrop B-2 Spirit (Classic Warplanes). New York: Smithmark Publishers Inc., 1991. ISBN 0-8317-1404-2. Sorenson, David, S. "The Politics of Stategic Aircraft Modernization. New York: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995 ISBN 0275952584, 9780275952587 Spick, Mike. "B-2 Spirit", The Great Book of Modern Warplanes. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company, 2000. ISBN 0-7603-0893-4. Winchester, Jim, ed. "Northrop B-2 Spirit". Modern Military Aircraft (Aviation Factfile). Rochester, Kent, UK: Grange Books plc, 2004. ISBN 1-84013-640-5. The World's Great Stealth and Reconnaissance Aircraft. New York: Smithmark, 1991. ISBN 0-8317-9558-1. External links B-2 Spirit fact sheet and gallery on U.S. Air Force site B-2 Spirit page on Northrop Grumman site B-2 page on NASA Langley site B-2 Spirit page at GlobalSecurity.org B-2 Bomber page on Center for Defense Information site B-2 Spirit Stealth bomber on airforce-technology.com B-2 Spirit (Stealth Bomber) page on Aircraft-Info.net | Northrop_Grumman_B-2_Spirit |@lemmatized northrop:19 grumman:8 b:124 spirit:47 also:8 know:1 stealth:20 bomber:41 multirole:1 heavy:2 low:11 observable:6 technology:6 capable:4 penetrate:3 dense:2 anti:4 aircraft:33 defense:13 deploy:2 conventional:3 nuclear:8 weapon:11 considerable:1 capital:1 operation:3 cost:25 project:10 controversial:1 congress:5 among:1 pentagon:2 brass:1 development:7 placement:1 service:6 late:2 early:2 united:9 state:13 scale:3 back:4 initial:2 plan:3 purchase:4 mid:3 make:7 appropriation:1 total:8 fleet:5 air:50 vehicle:4 average:4 u:31 million:11 dollar:10 general:8 accounting:6 office:7 gao:3 operational:9 issue:1 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greenwood_publishing:1 spick_mike:1 minnesota_mbi:1 rochester_kent:1 external_link:1 nasa_langley:1 |
4,541 | Charles_Edward_Jones | Colonel Charles Edward ("Chuck") Jones (November 4, 1952 – September 11, 2001) was a United States Air Force officer, a computer programmer, and an astronaut in the USAF Manned Spaceflight Engineer Program. Biography Jones was born in Clinton, Indiana. He graduated from Wichita High School East in 1970. He entered the USAF Manned Spaceflight Engineer program in 1982, and was scheduled to fly on mission STS-71-B in December 1986, but the mission was cancelled after the Challenger Disaster in January 1986. He left the Manned Spaceflight Engineer program in 1987. He was killed at the age of 48 in the attacks of September 11, 2001, aboard American Airlines Flight 11. He had been living as a retired US Air Force Colonel in Bedford, Massachusetts, at the time of his death. He was survived by his wife Jeanette. See also: Casualties of the September 11, 2001 attacks References "Former Military Astronaut Among Hijack Victims", an article by Robert Pearlman on the SPACE.com website, dated September 16, 2001 Spacefacts biography of Charles Edward Jones | Charles_Edward_Jones |@lemmatized colonel:2 charles:2 edward:2 chuck:1 jones:3 november:1 september:4 united:1 state:1 air:2 force:2 officer:1 computer:1 programmer:1 astronaut:2 usaf:2 man:2 spaceflight:3 engineer:3 program:3 biography:2 bear:1 clinton:1 indiana:1 graduate:1 wichita:1 high:1 school:1 east:1 enter:1 schedule:1 fly:1 mission:2 sts:1 b:1 december:1 cancel:1 challenger:1 disaster:1 january:1 leave:1 manned:1 kill:1 age:1 attack:2 aboard:1 american:1 airline:1 flight:1 live:1 retired:1 u:1 bedford:1 massachusetts:1 time:1 death:1 survive:1 wife:1 jeanette:1 see:1 also:1 casualty:1 reference:1 former:1 military:1 among:1 hijack:1 victim:1 article:1 robert:1 pearlman:1 space:1 com:1 website:1 date:1 spacefacts:1 |@bigram chuck_jones:1 challenger_disaster:1 manned_spaceflight:1 |
4,542 | Bilinear_map | In mathematics, a bilinear map is a function of two arguments that is linear in each. An example of such a map is multiplication of integers. Definition Let V, W and X be three vector spaces over the same base field F. A bilinear map is a function B : V × W → X such that for any w in W the map v → B(v, w) is a linear map from V to X, and for any v in V the map w → B(v, w) is a linear map from W to X. In other words, if we hold the first entry of the bilinear map fixed, while letting the second entry vary, the result is a linear operator, and similarly if we hold the second entry fixed. If V = W and we have B(v,w) = B(w,v) for all v,w in V, then we say that B is symmetric. The case where X is F, and we have a bilinear form, is particularly useful (see for example scalar product, inner product and quadratic form). The definition works without any changes if instead of vector spaces we use modules over a commutative ring R. It also can be easily generalized to n-ary functions, where the proper term is multilinear. For the case of a non-commutative base ring R and a right module MR and a left module RN, we can define a bilinear map B : M × N → T, where T is an abelian group, such that for any n in N, m → B(m, n) is a group homomorphism, and for any m in M, n → B(m, n) is a group homomorphism too, and which also satisfies B(mt, n) = B(m, tn) for all m in M, n in N and t in R. Properties A first immediate consequence of the definition is that whenever x=o or y=o. (This is seen by writing the null vector o as 0·o and moving the scalar 0 "outside", in front of B, by linearity.) The set L(V,W;X) of all bilinear maps is a linear subspace of the space (viz. vector space, module) of all maps from V×W into X. a matrix M determines a bilinear map into the real by means of a real-bilinear-form , then associates of this are taken to the another three possibilities using duality and the musical isomorphism If V,W,X are finite-dimensional, then so is L(V,W;X). For X=F, i.e. bilinear forms, the dimension of this space is dimV×dimW (while the space L(V×W;K) of linear forms is of dimension dimV+dimW). To see this, choose a basis for V and W; then each bilinear map can be uniquely represented by the matrix , and vice versa. Now, if X is a space of higher dimension, we obviously have dimL(V,W;X)=dimV×dimW×dimX. Examples Matrix multiplication is a bilinear map M(m,n) × M(n,p) → M(m,p). If a vector space V over the real numbers R carries an inner product, then the inner product is a bilinear map V × V → R. In general, for a vector space V over a field F, a bilinear form on V is the same as a bilinear map V × V → F. If V is a vector space with dual space V*, then the application operator, b(f, v) = f(v) is a bilinear map from V* × V to the base field. Let V and W be vector spaces over the same base field F. If f is a member of V* and g a member of W*, then b(v, w) = f(v)g(w) defines a bilinear map V × W → F. The cross product in R3 is a bilinear map R3 × R3 → R3. Let B : V × W → X be a bilinear map, and L : U → W be a linear operator, then (v, u) → B(v, Lu) is a bilinear map on V × U The null map, defined by for all (v,w) in V×W is the only map from V×W to X which is bilinear and linear at the same time. Indeed, if (v,w)∈V×W, then if B is linear, if B is bilinear. See also Tensor product Multilinear map Sesquilinear form Bilinear filtering External links Use of Bilinear maps in cryptography in NSA sponsored academic research | Bilinear_map |@lemmatized mathematics:1 bilinear:23 map:25 function:3 two:1 argument:1 linear:9 example:3 multiplication:2 integer:1 definition:3 let:4 v:47 w:31 x:15 three:2 vector:8 space:12 base:4 field:4 f:11 b:18 word:1 hold:2 first:2 entry:3 fix:2 second:2 vary:1 result:1 operator:3 similarly:1 say:1 symmetric:1 case:2 form:7 particularly:1 useful:1 see:4 scalar:2 product:6 inner:3 quadratic:1 work:1 without:1 change:1 instead:1 use:3 module:4 commutative:2 ring:2 r:5 also:3 easily:1 generalize:1 n:12 ary:1 proper:1 term:1 multilinear:2 non:1 right:1 mr:1 left:1 rn:1 define:3 abelian:1 group:3 homomorphism:2 satisfy:1 mt:1 tn:1 property:1 immediate:1 consequence:1 whenever:1 write:1 null:2 move:1 outside:1 front:1 linearity:1 set:1 l:4 subspace:1 viz:1 matrix:3 determine:1 real:3 mean:1 associate:1 take:1 another:1 possibility:1 duality:1 musical:1 isomorphism:1 finite:1 dimensional:1 e:1 dimension:3 dimv:3 dimw:3 k:1 choose:1 basis:1 uniquely:1 represent:1 vice:1 versa:1 high:1 obviously:1 diml:1 dimx:1 p:2 number:1 carry:1 general:1 dual:1 application:1 member:2 g:2 cross:1 u:3 lu:1 time:1 indeed:1 tensor:1 sesquilinear:1 filter:1 external:1 link:1 cryptography:1 nsa:1 sponsor:1 academic:1 research:1 |@bigram bilinear_map:16 commutative_ring:1 n_ary:1 finite_dimensional:1 vice_versa:1 external_link:1 |
4,543 | LGBT_in_Islam | Islamic views on homosexuality are influenced by the rulings prescribed by the Qur'an and the teachings of the Islamic prophet Muhammed. Qur'anic verses and hadith condemn sexual acts between members of the same sex. Islam, one of the Abrahamic religions along with Judaism and Christianity, rejected homosexuality from the religion's beginning. The Qur'an cites the story of the "people of Lot" (also known as the Sodomites) who were destroyed by the wrath of Allah because they engaged in homosexual acts. The legal punishment for sodomy has varied among juristic schools: some prescribe capital punishment; while other prescribe a milder discretionary punishment. Homosexuality is a crime and forbidden in most Islamic countries like Saudi Arabia, Iran, etc. In some relatively secular or multi-religious Islamic countries, this is not the case, Indonesia and Turkey being some examples. Despite this, homoerotic themes were present in poetry and other literature by some Muslims which celebrated male love, and were more common than expressions of attraction to women. Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, MacMillan Reference USA, 2004, p.316 Some movements in Islam, such as the Al-Fatiha Foundation, accept and consider homosexuality as natural, either regarding Qur'anic verses as obsolete in the context of modern society, or pointing out that the Qu'ran speaks out against homosexual lust, and is silent on homosexual love. Writer Irshad Manji, a lesbian herself and a staunch critic of orthodox Islam, is of the opinion that homosexuality is permissible within Islam; however, it only remains a minority viewpoint. Within the Shi'a school of thought in Islam, thinkers such as Ayatollah Khomeini have argued the legality of sex-change operations if a man is homosexual, and feels effeminate. 'No homosexuality here' Brian Whitaker, Guardian.co.uk Eminent scholars of Islam, such as Sheikh ul-Islam Imam Malik, Imam Shafi amongst others, rule that Islam disallows homosexuality and ordains capital punishment for a person guilty of it. Homosexuality and Lesbianism: Sexual Perversions Fatwa on Homosexuality from IslamOnline.net Rulings in the Islamic Law 11th Century North African Qur’ān in the British Museum Homosexuality is traditionally deemed forbidden by Islamic law. The Qur'an, the central text of Islam believed by Muslims to be the revelation of God, is explicit in its condemnation of homosexuality. Duran (1993) p. 179 Kligerman (2007) pp. 53-54 The Qur'an proclaims Islam as the "religion of nature," and sanctifies and encourages sexual intercourse within marriages only. Specific verses condemning homosexuality include: The Hadith, which are oral traditions relating to the words and deeds of Muhammad and regarded as important tools for determining the Muslim way of life by all traditional schools of jurisprudence, also contain numerous statements condemning homosexuality.Another Hadith narrative reports Muhammad as having said, "No man should look at the private parts of another man, and no woman should look at the private parts of another woman, and no two men sleep [in bed] under one cover." One narrative, attributed as part of Muhammad's farewell speech, says, "Whoever has intercourse with a woman and penetrates her rectum, or with a man, or with a boy, will appear on the Last Day stinking worse than a corpse; people will find him unbearable until he enters hell fire, and God will cancel all his good deeds." Duran, K. (1993) "Homosexuality in Islam" p. 182. Cited in: Kligerman (2007) p. 54 Another widely reported hadith (from Sunan al-Tirmidhi, which is one of the Sunni Six major Hadith collections) reports Prophet Muhammed as having prescribed the death penalty for homosexuality while saying "Whoever you find committing the sin of the people of Lut, kill them, both the one who does it and the one to whom it is done." Rulings by scholars of Islam Based on the principles of the Qur'an and the Hadith, several eminent scholars of Islam, such as Imam Malik, Imam Shafi, Ahmad and Ishaaq have ruled that the person guilty of homosexuality should be stoned regardless of his married or unmarried nature. Ibn Kathir's commentary on the words of Qur'an with respect to homosexuality are, Ibn al-Qayyim is reported to have said, Ahmad Kutty, senior lecturer and Islamic scholar at the Islamic Institute of Toronto, Ontario, Canada, in his lectures on the subject has expressed the view a Muslim practicing homosexuality needs to give it up since it is considered "one of the most abominable sins in Islam". How to Give Up Homosexuality by Ahmad Kutty Muslims like Dr. Nadia El-Awady, the Health & Science Editor at IslamOnline, have attempted to discuss and understand homosexuality in an Islamic Islamic Stance on Homosexuality, by Nadia El-Awady, IslamOnline.net as well as a scientific light, Diseases Related To Homosexuality, by Nadia El-Awady, IslamOnline.net citing its apparent ill-effects for the Islamic as well as the moral society. Homosexuality in a Changing World: Are We Being Misinformed? by Nadia El-Awady, IslamOnline.net The Islamic UK-based group, the Shari'ah Court of the has issued a fatwa UK Fatwa for 'gay Jesus' writer October 29, 1999, BBC News calling for a death sentence for playwright Terrence McNally for depicting Jesus and his followers as a group of homosexuals. Many scholars of Shari'a, or Islamic law, interpret homosexuality as a punishable offence as well as a sin. There is no specific punishment prescribed, however, and this is usually left to the discretion of the local authorities on Islam. Duran, K. (1993) "Homosexuality in Islam" p. 184. Cited in: Kligerman (2007) p. 54 References in Arabic and other literature According to the Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World Whatever the legal strictures on sexual activity, the positive expression of male homeoerotic sentiment in literature was accepted, and assiduously cultivated, from the late eighth century until modern times. First in Arabic, but later also in Persian, Turkish and Urdu, love poetry by men about boys more than competed with that about women, it overwhelmed it. Anectodtal literature reinforces this impression of general societal acceptance of the public celebration of male-male love (which hostile Western caricatures of Islamic societies in medieval and early modern times simply exaggerate). .... . In a tradition from the Arabian Nights, Muhammad was said to have warned his followers against staring at youth because of their beauty: "Do not gaze at beardless youth, for they have eyes more tempting than the houris." Murray and Roscoe, 1997, p. 90 Qur'an statements on Homosexualiy "Of all the creatures in the world, will ye approach males, And leave those whom Allah has created for you to be your mates? Nay, ye are a people transgressing (all limits)!" (26:165-166). "Would ye really approach men in your lusts rather than women? Nay, ye are a people (grossly) ignorant!" (27:55). "For ye practise your lusts on men in preference to women : ye are indeed a people transgressing beyond bounds." (7:81). "And we rained down on them a shower (of brimstone): Then see what was the end of those who indulged in sin and crime!" (7:84). "He said: "O my Lord! help Thou me against people who do mischief!"" (29:30).Legal status in modern Islamic nations Homosexuality is a crime and forbidden in most Islamic countries, Saudi Arabia, Iran, etc. This is not the case in some secular or multi-religious Islamic countries, Albania, Indonesia and Turkey being examples. However, the governments of Albania, Indonesia, and Turkey are presidential representative democratic republics and are not Islamic Republics, like in the case of Iran. Same-sex intercourse officially carries the death penalty in several Muslim nations: Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, Mauritania, northern Nigeria, Sudan, and Yemen. ILGA:7 countries still put people to death for same-sex acts Homosexuality and Islam - ReligionFacts It formerly carried the death penalty in Afghanistan under the Taliban. The legal situation in the United Arab Emirates is unclear. In many Muslim nations, such as Bahrain, Qatar, Algeria and the Maldives, homosexuality is punished with jail time, fines, or corporal punishment. In some Muslim-majority nations, such as Turkey, Jordan, Indonesia or Mali, same-sex intercourse is not specifically forbidden by law. In Egypt, openly gay men have been prosecuted under general public morality laws. (See Cairo 52.) On the other hand, homosexuality, while not legal, is tolerated to some extent in Lebanon, and has been legal in Turkey for decades. In Saudi Arabia, the maximum punishment for homosexuality is public execution, but the government will use other punishments—e.g., fines, jail time, and whipping—as alternatives, unless it feels that homosexuals are challenging state authority by engaging in LGBT social movements. Is Beheading Really the Punishment for Homosexuality in Saudi Arabia? Iran is perhaps the nation to execute the largest number of its citizens for homosexuality. Since the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran, the Iranian government has executed more than 4,000 people charged with homosexual acts . In Afghanistan after the fall of the Taliban, homosexuality went from a capital crime to one that it punished with fines and prison sentence. Most international human rights organizations, such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, condemn laws that make homosexual relations between consenting adults a crime. Since 1994, the United Nations Human Rights Committee has also ruled that such laws violated the right to privacy guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. However, most Muslim nations (except for Turkey, which has been ruled by secular law since 1856 and recently has modernized its laws in order to meet the requirements of entry to the European Union) insist that such laws are necessary to preserve Islamic morality and virtue. Of the nations with a majority of Muslim inhabitants, only Lebanon has an internal effort to legalize homosexuality. Helem Homosexuality laws in Muslim countries CountryLaws against homosexualityPenaltySame-sex UnionsLaws against discriminationAdoptionAfghanistanNo-NoNo?? - Unsure if homosexuality is a crime or not since the country is undergoing a period of relative chaos due to the continuing battles between NATO forces and the resurgent Taliban, but the death penalty (imposed under the Taliban) is no longer enforced. The Penal Code from 1976 in force, stipulates long imprisonment for adultery and pederasty. and LGBT rights in Afghanistan.AlbaniaNo--NoNoSee LGBT rights in Albania.AlgeriaYesFine - 3 years-NoNoSee LGBT rights in Algeria.AzerbaijanNo--NoNoSee LGBT rights in Azerbaijan.BahrainMale onlyFine - 10 years-NoNoSee LGBT rights in Bahrain.BangladeshYes10 years - Life-NoNo - LGBT rights in Bangladesh.Bosnia-HerzegovinaNo--YesNoAD in Gender Equality Act since 2003. See LGBT rights in Bosnia and HerzegovinaBruneiYesFine - 10 years-NoNoBurkina FasoNo--NoNoSee LGBT rights in Burkina Faso.ChadNo--NoNoSee LGBT rights in Chad.ComorosNo--NoNoSee LGBT rights in Comoros.Côte d'IvoireNo--NoNoDjiboutiYes10 - 12 years-NoNoSee LGBT rights in Djibouti.EgyptNo*-NoNoNoIn Egypt, openly gay men have been prosecuted under general public morality laws. (See Cairo 52.) OR?? and LGBT rights in Egypt.EritreaYes3 - 10 years-NoNoThe GambiaYesFine - 14 years-NoNoGuineaYes6 months - 3 years-NoNoGuinea BissauYesLabour camps-NoNoPage 17 of IndonesiaNo*--NoNo*In 2002, the Aceh province was given the right to instate Islamic sharia by laws by the national parliament. Such law only applies to Muslims, and for example the city of Palembang in Southern Sumatra has introduced jail and hefty fines, for homosexual sex and in 2003, a proposal to nationally criminalize homosexuality failed. See LGBT rights in Indonesia.IranYesFor men: Prison - Death. Situation unclear with women-NoNoSex reassignment surgery have been given official government support as a means to treat gender identity disorder. Law in Iran, in general, is not formally in order and is often abused by government officials. For many years there were no official executions for homosexuality, although some maintain teenagers Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni executed for this and not for rape. See LGBT rights in Iran.IraqNo*--NoNo*No provisions of the current Iraqi criminal code deal with homosexuality. The U.S. occupation restored the criminal code back to its original 1969 edition. Before 2003, the criminal code was amended in 2001 to include the death penalty for homosexuality. However currently, death squads are operating in the country killing gays. and LGBT rights in Iraq.JordanNo*--NoNo*While not a crime, reports have shown that LGBT people can be victims of vigilante "honour killings". See LGBT rights in Jordan.KazakhstanNo--NoNoSee LGBT rights in Kazakhstan.LebanonMale OnlyFine - 1 year-NoNoA small public growing campaign exists to legalize homosexual relations between consenting adults in private. See LGBT rights in Lebanon.MalaysiaYesFine - 20 years-NoNoFormer Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim, who was himself jailed for homosexuality, has called for their repeal. Former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad recently confirmed that the accusation he made to Anwar regarding the homosexuality of Anwar was wrong. Marina Mahathir, the daughter of former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad, has called for an end to discrimination based on sexual orientation. However, during Mahathir's term as Prime Minister, he warned gay ministers in foreign countries not to bring along their partners while visiting the nation. . See LGBT rights in Malaysia.MaldivesMale onlyFine - 10 years-NoNoMaliNo--NoNoSee LGBT rights in Mali.MauritaniaYesDeath-NoNoMoroccoYes6 months - 3 years-NoNoSee LGBT rights in Morocco.NigerNo--NoNoSee LGBT rights in Niger.NigeriaYes*5 - 14 years / Death-NoNo*Areas under Sharia have instituted death for men and women. Any content, avocating groups or associations, support, talking to, marriage, etc regarding LGBT persons can land you in jail for at least four years . See LGBT rights in Nigeria.OmanYesFine - 3 years-NoNoIn Oman it is said that cases only get to court if "public scandal" is involved.PakistanYes*2 years - Life-NoNo*The law applies to both men and women and LGBT rights in Pakistan.QatarYesFine - 5 years-NoNoSaudi ArabiaYesDeath - Other-NoNoJail time, fines or whipping may be used in lieu of the death penalty. See LGBT rights in Saudi ArabiaSenegalYes1 month - 5 years-NoNoSierra LeoneYesLife-Yes*No*The Anti-Corruption Commission stated in a press release that in a bid to attract competent and qualified staff, they operate a transparent recruitment policy, which even forbids discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.SomaliaYes*3 months - 3 years/Death-NoNo*Areas under Sharia have instituted death for men and women.SudanYes5 years - Death-NoNoSyriaYesFine - 3 years-NoNoSee LGBT rights in Syria.TajikistanNo--NoNoTanzaniaYesFine - 25 years-NoNoIn Zanzibar male homosexual acts are punished with up to 25 years imprisonment or fine. Lesbian acts are punished with up 7 years imprisonment or fine. See LGBT rights in Tanzania.TunisiaYesFine - 3 years-NoNoSee LGBT rights in Tunisia.TurkeyNo--NoNoSee LGBT rights in Turkey.TurkmenistanMale onlyFine - 2 years-NoNoUnited Arab EmiratesYesUnknown - Death-NoNoSee LGBT rights in United Arab Emirates.UzbekistanMale only*Fine* - 3 years*-NoNo*"Besoqolbozlik" (Only applies to anal sex) , page 43 of .YemenYesFlogging - Death-NoNo LGBT movements within Islam The Al-Fatiha Foundation is an organization which advances the cause of gay, lesbian, and transgender Muslims. It was founded in 1998 by Faisal Alam, a Pakistani American, and is registered as a nonprofit organization in the United States. The organization was an out shoot of an internet listserve that brought together many gay, lesbian and questioning Muslims from various countries. "Cyber Mecca," The Advocate, March 14, 2000 In 2001, Al-Muhajiroun, a banned and now defunct international organization who sought the establishment of a global Islamic caliphate, issued a fatwa declaring that all members of Al-Fatiha were murtadd, or apostates, and condemning them to death. Because of the threat and coming from conservative societies, many members of the foundation's site still prefer to be anonymous so as to protect their identity while continuing a tradition of secrecy. Tim Herbert, "Queer chronicles", Weekend Australian, October 7, 2006, Qld Review Edition. Al-Fatiha has fourteen chapters in the United States, as well as offices in England, Canada, Spain, Turkey and South Africa. Besides the Al-Fatiha Foundation which supports homosexuality, the Imaan is also social support group for Muslim LGBT people and their families in the UK . Both of these groups were found by gay Pakistani activists. There are also a number of Islamic ex-gay (i.e. people claiming to have experienced a basic change in sexual orientation from exclusive homosexuality to exclusive heterosexuality ) groups aimed at attempting to guide homosexuals towards heterosexuality. The StraightWay Foundation is a UK based ex-gay organization which works with homosexual Muslims who seek to eliminate their same-sex attractions. The StraightWay Foundation Retrieved 2007-04-06 Al-Tawbah is an internet based ex-gay group Al-Tawbah . It should be noted that the efficacy of ex-gay treatments and therapies has been brought into serious doubt by the American Psychological Association and other academic groups. American Psychological Association. (2008). to your questions: For a better understanding of sexual orientation and homosexuality. Washington, DC: Author. [Retrieved from www.apa.org/topics/sorientation.pdf.] While Iran has outlawed homosexuality, Iranian Shi'a thinkers such as Ayatollah Khomeini have allowed for homosexual men and women to change their gender so that they can enter heterosexual relationships. This position has been confirmed by the Supreme Leader of Iran, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, and is also supported by many other Iranian clerics. Despite support for transsexuals from Iranian religious leaders, the Iranian society is not as accepting of them. Some transsexuals point out that in Iran transsexuals can change their gender after a sex change operation, a privilege not recognized in Britain. Iran's sex-change operations, BBC. The state will pay a portion of the cost for a sex-change operation. Rights activists Arsham Parsi is an Iranian LGBT activist for the Persian and Muslim communities. Irshad Manji is a Canadian feminist, author, journalist, activist and scholar. Manji is openly lesbian. "Article on her homosexuality" See also People Afdhere Jama, editor of HuriyahIrshad Manji, Canadian lesbian and human rights activist El-Farouk Khaki, founder of Salaam, the first queer Muslim group in Canada Arsham Parsi, Iranian LGBT activist Maryam Hatoon Molkara, campaigner of transsexual rights in Iran Faisal Alam, Pakistani American LGBT activist and founder of Al-Fatiha Foundation Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni Malik Ayaz Pav Akhtar Usman Sani Waheed Alli, Baron Alli, British gay politician Yusuf Kabir Enchant of Hope Abdellah Taia, writer Other Criticism of the Qur'anA Jihad for Love, documentary about devout gay Muslims Festival of Muslim CulturesGay Muslims, documentary Ghilman Nazar ill'al-murd Notes References Duran, Khalid. Homosexuality in Islam, in: Swidler, Anne (ed.) "Homosexuality and World Religions" (1993). Trinity Press International, Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. ISBN 156338051X Kilgerman, Nicole (2007). Homosexuality in Islam: A Difficult Paradox. Macalester Islam journal 2(3):52-64, Berkeley Electronic press. Khaled El-Rouayheb, Before Homosexuality in the Arab–Islamic World, 1500–1800 Chicago, 2009. ISBN 9780226729893. Everett K. Rowson, J.W. Wright (eds.), Homoeroticism in Classical Arabic Literature New York, 1997 Arno Schmitt and Jehoeda Sofer (eds.), Sexuality and Eroticism Among Males in Moslem Societies Harrington Park Press 1992 Arno Schmitt and Gianni de Martino, Kleine Schriften zu zwischenmännlicher Sexualität und Erotik in der muslimischen Gesellschaft, Berlin, Gustav-Müller-Str. 10 : A. Schmitt, 1985 Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe (eds.), "Islamic Homosexualities: culture, history, and literature" NYU Press New York 1997 Wafer, Jim (1997) "Muhammad and Male Homosexuality" in "Islamic Homosexualities: culture, history, and literature" by Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe (eds.), NYU Press New York Wafer, Jim (1997) "The Symbolism of Male Love in Islamic Mysthical Literature" in "Islamic Homosexualities: culture, history, and literature" by Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe (eds.), NYU Press New York 1997 Vincenzo Patanè, "Homosexuality in the Middle East and North Africa" in: Aldrich, Robert (ed.) Gay Life and Culture: A World History'', Thames & Hudson, London, 2006 External links Homosexuality: What is the real sickness? Illustrative Article from AbdurRahman.org Islam's Stand on Homosexuality Gay Rights: Who are the Real Enemies of Liberation?, Socialist Review The StraightWay Foundation (UK) Intolerant cruelty This special edition of Diabolic Digest explores the question of homosexuality in the Middle East. Islamic law: (much) Theory and (just enough) Practice Homosexuality: An Islamic Perspective by Bilal Phillips Safra Project — Sexuality, Gender and Islam Sodomy in Islamic Jurisprudence (article in German; engl. Summary ) Sexuality and Eroticism Among Males in Moslem Societies by Arno Schmitt and Jehoeda Sofer (eds.), Harrington Park Press 1992 Islam and Homosexuality Islam and Homosexuality Kotb, H.G.: Sexuality in Islam at the Magnus Hirschfeld Archive for Sexology | LGBT_in_Islam |@lemmatized islamic:31 view:2 homosexuality:62 influence:1 ruling:3 prescribe:4 qur:11 teaching:1 prophet:2 muhammed:2 anic:2 verse:3 hadith:6 condemn:5 sexual:8 act:7 member:3 sex:12 islam:28 one:8 abrahamic:1 religion:4 along:2 judaism:1 christianity:1 reject:1 beginning:1 cite:4 story:1 people:13 lot:1 also:8 know:1 sodomite:1 destroy:1 wrath:1 allah:2 engage:2 homosexual:14 legal:6 punishment:9 sodomy:2 vary:1 among:3 juristic:1 school:3 capital:3 milder:1 discretionary:1 crime:7 forbid:4 country:10 like:3 saudi:6 arabia:5 iran:13 etc:3 relatively:1 secular:3 multi:2 religious:3 case:4 indonesia:5 turkey:8 example:3 despite:2 homoerotic:1 theme:1 present:1 poetry:2 literature:9 muslim:21 celebrate:1 male:10 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4,544 | Ainu_people | (also called Ezo in historical texts) are an ethnic group indigenous to Hokkaidō, the Kuril Islands, and much of Sakhalin. There are most likely over 150,000 Ainu today; however the exact figure is not known as many Ainu hide their origin due to racial issues in Japan. In many cases, surviving Ainu may not be even aware of their ancestry, as their parents and grandparents kept their descent private in order to protect their children from social problems. Their most widely known ethnonym is derived from the word ainu, which means "human" (particularly as opposed to kamui, divine beings) in the Hokkaidō dialects of the Ainu language; Emishi, Ezo or Yezo () are Japanese terms, which are believed to derive from the ancestral form of the modern Sakhalin Ainu word enciw or enju, also meaning "human". The term (meaning "comrade" in Ainu) is now preferred by some members of this minority. Note that Yezo was also an earlier name of the island of Hokkaidō, if not of the homonymous prefecture. Origins The origins of the Ainu have not been fully determined. They have often been considered Jōmon-jin, natives to Japan from the Jōmon period. "The Ainu lived in this place a hundred thousand years before the Children of the Sun came" is told in one of their Yukar Upopo (Ainu legends). Ainu culture dates from around 1200 CE and recent research suggests that it originated in a merger of the Okhotsk and Satsumon cultures. Their economy was based on farming as well as hunting, fishing and gathering. Ainu man, circa 1880. Full-blooded Ainu are mostly fair-skinned, with the men generally having dense hair development. Many early investigators proposed a Caucasian ancestry 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ainu , although recent DNA tests have not shown signs of Caucasian ancestry. Genetic testing of the Ainu people has shown them to belong mainly to Y-haplogroup D. The only places outside of Japan in which Y-haplogroup D is common are Tibet and the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean. http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mcdonald/WorldHaplogroupsMaps.pdf In a study by Tajima et al. (2004), two out of a sample of sixteen (or 12.5%) Ainu men were found to belong to Haplogroup C3, which is the most common Y-chromosome haplogroup among the indigenous populations of the Russian Far East and Mongolia; Hammer et al. (2006) tested another sample of four Ainu men and found that one of them belonged to haplogroup C3. Some researchers have speculated that this minority of Haplogroup C3 carriers among the Ainu may reflect a certain degree of unidirectional genetic influence from the Nivkhs, a traditionally nomadic people of northern Sakhalin Island and the adjacent mainland, with whom the Ainu have long-standing cultural interactions. According to Tanaka et al. (2004), their mtDNA lineages mainly consist of haplogroup Y (21.6%) and haplogroup M7a (15.7%). Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup Y is otherwise found mainly among Nivkhs, as well as at lower frequency among Koreans, Mongols, Tungusic peoples, Koryaks, Itelmens, and Austronesians; haplogroup M7a, on the other hand, is found elsewhere almost exclusively among Japanese, Ryukyuans, Koreans, and Waars of the Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, India. Miroslava Derenko, Boris Malyarchuk, Tomasz Grzybowski, Galina Denisova, Irina Dambueva, Maria Perkova, Choduraa Dorzhu, Faina Luzina, Hong Kyu Lee, Tomas Vanecek, Richard Villems, and Ilia Zakharov, "Phylogeographic Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA in Northern Asian Populations," American Journal of Human Genetics, 2007 November; 81(5): 1025–1041. Toomas Kivisild, Helle-Viivi Tolk, Jüri Parik, Yiming Wang, Surinder S. Papiha, Hans-Jürgen Bandelt and Richard Villems, "The Emerging Limbs and Twigs of the East Asian mtDNA Tree," Molecular Biology and Evolution 19:1737–1751 (2002). Reddy BM, Langstieh BT, Kumar V, Nagaraja T, Reddy ANS et al. (2007), "Austro-Asiatic Tribes of Northeast India Provide Hitherto Missing Genetic Link between South and Southeast Asia." PLoS ONE 2(11): e1141. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001141 A recent reevaluation of cranial traits suggests that the Ainu resemble the Okhotsk more than they do the Jōmon. This agrees with the reference to the Ainu culture being a merger of Okhotsk and Satsumon cultures referenced above. Some have speculated that the Ainu may be descendants of a prehistoric group of humans that also produced indigenous Australian peoples. In Steve Olson's book Mapping Human History, page 133, he describes the discovery of fossils dating back 10,000 years, representing the remains of the Jōmon, a group whose facial features more closely resemble those of the indigenous peoples of New Guinea and Australia. After a new wave of immigration, probably from the Korean Peninsula some 2,300 years ago, of the Yayoi people, the Jōmon were pushed into northern Japan. Genetic data suggest that modern Japanese are descended from both the Yayoi and the Jōmon. American continent connection In the late 20th century, much speculation arose that people of the group related to the Jomon may have been one of the first to settle North America. This theory is based largely on skeletal and cultural evidence among tribes living in the western part of North America and certain parts of South America. It is possible that North America had several peoples among its early settlers – these relatives of the Jomon being one of them. The best-known evidence that may support this theory is probably Kennewick Man. Kennewick Man Skeletal Find May Revolutionalize Continent's History, Science Daily ANTHROPOLOGY: Kennewick Man's Contemporaries, Science Groundbreaking genetic mapping studies by Cavalli-Sforza have shown a sharp gradient in gene frequencies centered in the area around the Sea of Japan, and particularly in the Japanese Archipelago, that distinguishes these populations from others in the rest of eastern Asia and most of the American continent. This gradient appears as the third most important genetic movement (in other words, the third principal component of genetic variation) in Eurasia (after the "Great expansion" from the African continent, which has a cline centered in Arabia and adjacent parts of the Middle East, and a second cline that distinguishes the northern regions of Eurasia and particularly Siberia from regions to the south), which would make it consistent with the early Jōmon period, or possibly even the pre-Jōmon period. "The synthetic maps suggest a previously unsuspected center of expansion from the Sea of Japan but cannot indicate dates. This development could be tied to the Jōmon period, but one cannot entirely exclude the pre-Jōmon period and that it might be responsible for a migration to the Americas. A major source of food in those pre-agricultural times came from fishing, then as now, and this would have limited for ecological reasons the area of expansion to the coastline, perhaps that of the Sea of Japan, but also father along the Pacific Coast" "The History and Geography of Human Genes" p253, Cavalli-Sforza ISBN 0-691-08750-4 History Ainu ceremonial dress. British Museum.After initial contact with the immigrants, large settlements of the Japanese newcomers gradually spread into Ainu territory. As the Japanese moved north and took control over Ainu lands, the Ainu often gave up without resistance, with some occasional wars in 1457, 1669, and 1789, where the Ainu were defeated. Notable Ainu revolts include Shakushain's Revolt and the Menashi-Kunashir Battle. The Japanese government was not able to control the Ainu lands from Hokkaido and northward until the 19th century. Report on a New Policy for the Ainu: A Critique Japanese policies became increasingly aimed at assimilating the Ainu in the Meiji period starting in 1868, outlawing their language, forcing them to use Japanese names, redistributing their land to Japanese farmers and restricting them to farming on government-provided plots and as labor in the Japanese fishing industry. As the Japanese government encouraged immigration of ethnic Japanese to populate Hokkaido, the Ainu became increasingly marginalised in their own land. The population was greatly reduced due to hardship and diseases introduced by the immigrant Japanese. The island of Hokkaido was called Ezo or Ezo-chi during the Edo period. Its name was changed to Hokkaido during the Meiji Restoration as part of the program to "unify" the Japanese national character under the aegis of the Emperor, thus reducing the local identity and autonomy of the different regions of Japan. In 1899 the Japanese government passed an act labeling the Ainu as former Aborigines, with the idea they would assimilate. The act was replaced in 1997—until then the government had stated there were no ethnic minority groups. It was not until June 6, 2008 that Japan would formally recognise the Ainu as an indigenous group. As Japanese citizens, the Ainu are now governed by Japanese laws and judged by Japanese tribunals, but in the past, their affairs were administered by hereditary chiefs, three in each village, and for administrative purposes the country was divided into three districts, Saru, Usu and Ishikari, which were under the ultimate control of Saru, though the relations between their respective inhabitants were not close and intermarriages were avoided. The functions of judge were not entrusted to these chiefs; an indefinite number of a community's members sat in judgment upon its criminals. Capital punishment did not exist, nor did the community resort to imprisonment. Beating was considered a sufficient and final penalty. However, in the case of murder, the nose and ears of the culprit were cut off or the tendons of his feet severed. Intermarriages between Japanese and Ainu were actively promoted by the Ainu to lessen the chances of discrimination against their offspring. As a result, many Ainu are indistinguishable from their Japanese neighbors. There are many small towns in the southeastern or Hidaka region where full-blooded Ainu may still be seen such as in Nibutani. In Sambutsu especially, on the eastern coast, many children of such marriages may be seen. Ainu bear sacrifice. Japanese scroll painting, circa 1870.The 400,000 Japanese citizen inhabitants of Sakhalin (including all indigenous Ainu) were deported following the conquest of the southern portion of the island by the Soviet Union in 1945 at the end of World War II. Today, many Ainu dislike the term Ainu because once it had been used with derogatory nuance and prefer to identify themselves as Utari (comrade in the Ainu language). In official documents both names are used. Official recognition On 6 June 2008, a bi-partisan, non-binding resolution was approved by the Japanese Diet calling upon the government to recognize the Ainu people as indigenous to Japan and urge an end to discrimination against the group. The resolution recognised the Ainu people as "an indigenous people with a distinct language, religion and culture" and rescinds the law passed in 1899. Though the resolution is historically significant, Hideaki Uemura, professor at Keisen University in Tokyo and a specialist in indigenous peoples' rights, commented that the motion is "weak in the sense of recognizing historical facts" as the Ainu were "forced" to become Japanese in the first place. The Japan Times | Diet officially declares Ainu indigenous Geography The Ainu were distributed in the northern and central islands of Japan, from Sakhalin island in the north to the Kurile islands and the island of Hokkaidō and Northern Honshū, although some investigators place their former range as throughout Honshū and as far north as the southern tip of Kamchatka. The island of Hokkaido was known to the Ainu as Ainu Moshir, and was formally annexed by the Japanese at the late date of 1868, partly as a means of preventing the intrusion of the Russians, and partly for imperialist reasons. According to the Russian Empire Census of 1897, 1446 persons in the Russian Empire reported Ainu language as their mother tongue, 1434 of them in Sakhalin Island. Russian Empire Census of 1897: Totals Russian Empire Census of 1897: Sakhalin For historical reasons nearly all Ainu live in Japan now. The southern half of Sakhalin was acquired by Japan as a result of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05, but at the end of World War II in 1945, the Soviets declared war on Japan and took possession of the Kurile islands and southern Sakhalin. The Ainu population, as previously Japanese subjects, were "repatriated" to Japan. There are, however, a small number of Ainu living on Sakhalin, most of them descendants of Sakhalin Ainu who were evicted and later returned. There is also an Ainu minority living at the southernmost area of the Kamchatka Peninsula and on the Kurile Islands. However, the only Ainu speakers remaining (besides perhaps a few partial speakers) live solely in Japan. There, they are concentrated primarily on the southern and eastern coasts of the island of Hokkaidō. Due to intermarriage with the Japanese and ongoing absorption into the predominant culture, there are no truly Ainu settlements existing today. The town of Nibutani in Hidaka area (Hokkaido prefecture) has a number of Ainu households and a visit to some of the Ainu owned craft shops close to the Ainu museums (there are two of them in Nibutani) is an opportunity to interact with the Ainu people. Many "authentic Ainu villages" advertised in Hokkaido such as Akan and Shiraoi are tourist attractions and provide an opportunity to see and meet Ainu people. Language The Ainu language is significantly different from the Japanese language in its syntax, phonology, morphology, and vocabulary. Although there have been attempts to show that they are related, the vast majority of modern scholars reject that the relationship goes beyond contact, such as the mutual borrowing of words between Japanese and Ainu. In fact, no attempt to show a relationship with Ainu to any other language has gained wide acceptance, and Ainu is currently considered to be a language isolate. The Ainu language is polysynthetic, and attempts have been made to relate Japanese, Korean and Ainu via an early proto-Ainu language. Words used as prepositions in English such as: to, from, by, in, and at are postpositional in Ainu; they come after the word that they modify. A single sentence in Ainu can be made up of many added or agglutinated sounds or morphemes which represent nouns or ideas. The Ainu language has had no system of writing, and has historically been transliterated by the Japanese kana or the Russian Cyrillic and now Latin alphabets by investigators. The unwieldy nature of the Japanese kana with its inability to accurately represent terminal consonants has contributed to the degradation of the original Ainu, with such words as "Kor" (meaning to hold), being pronounced now with a terminal vowel sound, "Koro", in many Japanese Ainu dialects, as distinct from the Kurile or Sakhalin Ainu. Many of the Ainu dialects even from one end of Hokkaido to the other were not mutually intelligible; however, the classic Ainu language of the Yukar, or Ainu epic stories, was understood by all. Without a writing system, the Ainu were masters of narration, with the Yukar and other forms of narration such as the Uepeker (Uwepeker) tales, being committed to memory and related at gatherings often lasting many hours or even days. Culture Traditional Ainu culture was quite different from Japanese culture. Never shaving after a certain age, the men had full beards and moustaches. Men and women alike cut their hair level with the shoulders at the sides of the head, trimmed semicircularly behind. The women tattooed their mouths, and sometimes the forearms. The mouth tattoos were started at a young age with a small spot on the upper lip, gradually increasing with size. The soot deposited on a pot hung over a fire of birch bark was used for color. Their traditional dress was a robe spun from the inner bark of the elm tree, called attusi or attush. Various styles of clothing were made, and consisted generally of a simple short robe with straight sleeves, which was folded around the body, and tied with a band about the waist. The sleeves ended at the wrist or forearm and the length generally was to the calves. Women also wore an undergarment of Japanese cloth. Modern craftswomen weave and embroider traditional garments which command very high prices. In winter the skins of animals were worn, with leggings of deerskin and in Sakhalin, boots were made from the skin of dogs or salmon. Both sexes are fond of earrings, which are said to have been made of grapevine in former times, as also are bead necklaces called tamasay, which the women prized highly. Their traditional cuisine consists of the flesh of bear, fox, wolf, badger, ox or horse, as well as fish, fowl, millet, vegetables, herbs, and roots. They never ate raw fish or flesh; it was always boiled or roasted. Their traditional habitations were reed-thatched huts, the largest 20 ft. (6 m) square, without partitions and having a fireplace in the center. There was no chimney, only a hole at the angle of the roof; there was one window on the eastern side and there were two doors. The house of the village head was used as a public meeting place when one was needed. Instead of using furniture, they sat on the floor, which was covered with two layers of mats, one of rush, the other of flag; and for beds they spread planks, hanging mats around them on poles, and employing skins for coverlets. The men used chopsticks when eating; the women had wooden spoons. Ainu cuisine is not commonly eaten outside Ainu communities; there are only a few Ainu-run restaurants in Japan, all located in Tokyo or Hokkaidō, serving primarily Japanese fare. Religion For more information see Ainu creation myth. The Ainu are traditionally animists, believing that everything in nature has a kamui (spirit or god) on the inside. There is a hierarchy of the kamui. The most important is grandmother earth (fire), then kamui of the mountain (animals), then kamui of the sea (sea animals), lastly everything else. They have no priests by profession. The village chief performs whatever religious ceremonies are necessary; ceremonies are confined to making libations of rice beer, uttering prayers, and offering willow sticks with wooden shavings attached to them. These sticks are called inau (singular) and nusa (plural). They are placed on an altar used to "send back" the spirits of killed animals. The Ainu people give thanks to the gods before eating and pray to the deity of fire in time of sickness. They believe their spirits are immortal, and that their spirits will be rewarded hereafter by ascending to kamui mosir (Land of the Gods). Some Ainu in the north are members of the Russian Orthodox Church. Institutions Ainu cultural promotion center and museum, in Sapporo (Sapporo Pirka Kotan) In March 1997, the Ainu were recognized by a Japanese court as an indigenous and minority people. Ainu issues did not matter in the sphere of public policy until then. There was a limited outcry when the Saru River was dammed and the upriver town of Nibutani, one of the largest traditional Ainu villages, was flooded and the land expropriated from its Ainu owners. The reservoir was designed to service an industrial development project on the coast of Hokkaido, and despite the industrial project's cancellation, the government persisted in building the dam. Two Ainu residents, Kaizawa Tadashi and Kayano Shigeru, refused to sell their land, and in 1993 filed lawsuit against the expropriation. The expropriation was upheld, but for the first time a Japanese Court recognised that the Ainu's indigenous rights had been violated. Toward a Genuine Redress for an Unjust Past: The Nibutani Dam Case - [1997] MurUEJL 16 As signatories of the United Nations Treaty, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) which was signed by Japan in 1979, the Japanese had been forced to face the issue that the Ainu were indeed indigenous and minority peoples, which supported the Ainu in their pursuit of their rights to their distinct culture and language. There are many different organizations of Ainu trying to further their cause in many different ways. There is an umbrella group of which most Hokkaido Ainu and some other Ainu are members, called the Hokkaido Utari Association, originally controlled by the government with the intention of speeding Ainu assimilation and integration into the Japanese nation-state, which now operates mostly independently of the government and is run exclusively by Ainu. Subgroups Tohoku Ainu (from Honshū, no known living population) Hokkaido Ainu Sakhalin Ainu Kuril Ainu (no known living population) Kamchatka Ainu (extinct since pre-historic times) Amur Valley Ainu (probably none remain) See also Ethnic issues in Japan Ryukyuan people Yamato people Burakumin Ethnocide Human rights in Japan Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Indigenous peoples List of ethnic groups Yukar Ainu music Shogun Kennewick Man Iomante Ainu-ken Ryūkyū independence movement Aterui Notes References and further reading Kayano, Shigeru (1994). Our Land Was A Forest: An Ainu Memoir. Westview Press. ISBN 0813318807. ISBN 9780813318806. Article on the Ainu in Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity. External links The Ainu Museum at Shiraoi Smithsonian Institution Hokkaido Utari Kyokai Sapporo Pirka Kotan Ainu Cultural Center Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Ainu in Samani, Hokkaido Ainu-North American cultural similarities Foundation for Research and Promotion of Ainu Culture (centers located in Sapporo and Tokyo) Ainu Lineage The Boone Collection Nibutani Ainu Cultural Museum (in Japanese) Article in The Christian Science Monitor, June 9, 2008 | Ainu_people |@lemmatized also:9 call:7 ezo:4 historical:3 text:1 ethnic:5 group:9 indigenous:15 hokkaidō:6 kuril:2 island:15 much:2 sakhalin:14 likely:1 ainu:121 today:3 however:5 exact:1 figure:1 know:6 many:14 hide:1 origin:2 due:3 racial:1 issue:4 japan:22 case:3 survive:1 may:8 even:4 aware:1 ancestry:3 parent:1 grandparent:1 keep:1 descent:1 private:1 order:1 protect:1 child:3 social:1 problem:1 widely:1 ethnonym:1 derive:2 word:7 mean:5 human:7 particularly:3 oppose:1 kamui:6 divine:1 dialect:3 language:16 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4,545 | Deng_Xiaoping | {{Infobox President |name = 邓小平 Deng Xiaoping |image = DengXiaoping.jpg |caption = Deng Xiaoping in 1979 |nationality = Chinese |religion = None |order = General Secretary of the Secretariat of the Communist Party |term_start = 1956 |term_end = 1967 |height = 4'11|predecessor = None |successor = Hu Yaobang |birth_date = |birth_place = Guang'an, Sichuan, Qing Dynasty |death_date = |death_place = Beijing, People's Republic of China |profession = Economist |party = Communist Party of China |vice_president = |order2 = 3rd Chairman of the Central Military Commission of CCP |term_start2 = 1981 |term_end2 = 1989 |predecessor2 = Hua Guofeng |successor2 = Jiang Zemin | office3 = 3rd Chairman of the CPPCC | term_start3 = March 1978 | term_end3 = June 1983 | predecessor3 = Zhou Enlaivacant (1976-1978) | successor3 = Deng Yingchao | order4 = 3rd First Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China | term_start4 = 1975 | term_end4 = 1983 | predecessor4 = Lin Biao | successor4 = Wan Li | premier4 = Hua GuofengZhao Ziyang }} Deng Xiaoping (; 22 August 1904 19 February 1997) was a prominent Chinese politician. As leader of the Communist Party of China, Deng became a reformer who led China towards market economics. While Deng never held office as the head of state or the head of government, he nonetheless served as the Paramount leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 to the early 1990s. Inheriting a China wrought with social and institutional woes left over from the devastating Cultural Revolution and other mass political movements of the Mao era, Deng was the core of the second generation Chinese leadership. He was instrumental in introducing a new brand of socialist thinking, having developed Socialism with Chinese characteristics and Chinese economic reform, also known as the socialist market economy and partially opened China to the global market. He is generally credited with advancing China into becoming one of the fastest growing economies in the world and vastly raising the standard of living. For this achievement he is sometimes known as "The Venerated Deng" (Chinese:邓公). Analysts generally see Deng Xiaoping's ouster of Hua Guofeng as the moment when the market policies of economic reform began their adoption, leading to revision of previous policies (popularly called communism). Early life Deng Xiansheng () Deng Xiaoping, the former paramount leader of China, was born into a Hakka family in Guang An county in Sichuan province http://www.gov.cn/english/2008-01/14/content_857292.htm http://www.asiawind.com/pub/forum/fhakka/mhonarc/msg00475.html . Deng's ancestors could be traced back to Meixian. He was educated in France, as were many notable Asian revolutionaries (such as Ho Chi Minh, Zhou Enlai, and Pol Pot), where he discovered Marxism-Leninism. His first wife, one of his schoolmates from Moscow, died when she was 24, a few days after giving birth to Deng's first child, a baby girl, who also died. His second wife, Jin Weiying, left him after he came under political attack in 1933. His third wife, Zhuo Lin, was the daughter of an industrialist in Yunnan Province. She became a member of the Communist Party in 1938, and a year later married Deng in front of Mao's cave dwelling in Yan'an. They had five children: three daughters (Deng Lin, Deng Nan, Deng Rong) and two sons (Deng Pufang, Deng Zhifang). Early career Deng in 1941 In the summer of 1919, Deng Xiaoping graduated from the Chongqing Preparatory School. He and 80 schoolmates, participating in a work-study program for Chinese students, were to board a ship for France (traveling steerage). Deng, the youngest of all the Chinese students, had just turned 15. Spence 1999, 310 The night before his departure, Deng's father took his son aside and asked him what he hoped to learn in France. He repeated the words he had learned from his teachers: "To learn knowledge and truth from the West in order to save China." Deng Xiaoping had been taught that China was weak and poor, and that the Chinese people must have a modern, Western education to save their country. Stewart, Whitney, Deng Xiaoping: Leader in a Changing China, 2001 In October, they arrived in Marseille. He briefly attended middle schools in Bayeux and Chatillon, but he spent most of his time in France working; first at the Le Creusot Iron and Steel plant in central France, then later as a fitter in the Renault factory in the Paris suburb of Billancourt, as a fireman on a locomotive and as a kitchen helper in restaurants. He barely earned enough to survive. Many of these jobs had brutal working conditions, with workers frequently being injured. Deng would later claim that it was here where he got an initial feel for the evils of the capitalist society. In France, under the influence of his seniors (Zhao Shiyan, Zhou Enlai among others), Deng began to study Marxism and did political propaganda work. In 1921 he joined the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe. In the second half of 1923 he joined the Chinese Communist Party and became one of the leading members of the General Branch of the Youth League in Europe. During 1926 Deng studied at Moscow in the then-USSR. He returned to China in early 1926. In 1928 Deng led the Baise Uprising in Guangxi province against the Kuomintang (KMT) government. The uprising soon failed and Deng went to the Central Soviet Area in Jiangxi province. He was a veteran of the Long March, during which Deng served as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party. While acting as political commissar for Liu Bocheng, he organized several important military campaigns during the war with Japan and during the Civil War against the Kuomintang. In late November 1948, Deng led the final assault on the Kuomintang forces, who were under the direct command of Chiang Kai-shek in Sichuan. The city of Chongqing fell to the PLA on 1 December and Deng was immediately appointed mayor and political commissar. (Chiang Kai-shek, who had moved his headquarters to Chongqing in mid-November fled to the provincial capital of Chengdu. This last mainland Chinese city to be held by the KMT fell on 10 December and Chiang fled to Taiwan on the same day.) When the PRC was founded in 1949 Deng was sent to oversee issues in the Southwestern Region, and acted as its First Secretary. Political rise Policy Maker following the Great Leap Forward As a supporter of Mao Zedong, Deng was named by Mao to several important posts in the new government. Chinese poster saying: "Thoroughly pulverize the Liu-Deng reactionary line!", 1967 ("Liu" referring to Liu Shaoqi) After officially supporting Mao Zedong in his Anti-Rightist Campaign of 1957, Deng became General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and ran the country's daily affairs with then President Liu Shaoqi. Amid growing disenchantment with Mao's Great Leap Forward, Deng and Liu gained influence within the CCP. They embarked on economic reforms that bolstered their prestige among the party apparatus and the national populace. Deng and Liu advocated more pragmatic policies, as opposed to Mao's radicalist ideas. In 1961, at the Guangzhou conference, Deng uttered what is perhaps his most famous quotation: "I don't care if it's a white cat or a black cat. It's a good cat so long as it catches mice." Dr. Li Zhisui, The Private Life of Chairman Mao, Random House,1994 This was interpreted to mean that being productive in life is more important than whether one follows a communist or capitalist ideology. Two Purges Mao grew apprehensive that the prestige Deng and Liu gained from these efforts could lead to himself being reduced to a mere figurehead. For this amongst other reasons, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution in 1966, during which Deng fell out of favor and was forced to retire from all his offices. He was sent to the Xinjian County Tractor Factory in rural Jiangxi province to work as a regular worker. While there Deng spent his spare time writing. He was purged nationally, but to a lesser scale than Liu Shaoqi. During the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping and his family were targeted by Red Guards. Red Guards imprisoned Deng's son, Deng Pufang. Deng Pufang was tortured and forced out of the window of a four-story building, becoming a paraplegic. Nonetheless, when Premier Zhou Enlai fell ill from cancer, Deng Xiaoping became Zhou's choice for a successor, and Zhou was able to convince Mao to bring Deng Xiaoping back into politics in 1974 as First Vice-Premier, in practice running daily affairs. Deng focused on reconstructing the country's economy and stressed unity as the first step to raising production. He remained careful, however, of not intruding the basic Maoist line of thinking, at least on paper. In reality, the Cultural Revolution was not yet over, and a radical leftist political group known as the Gang of Four, led by Mao's wife Jiang Qing, competed for power within the Communist Party. The Gang saw Deng as their greatest challenge to power. Deng Rong's Memoirs: Chpt 49 Mao, too, was suspicious that Deng would annul the positive reputation of the Cultural Revolution, what Mao considered one of his greatest policy initiatives. Beginning in late 1975, Deng was asked to draw up a series of self-criticisms. Although Deng admitted to having taken an "inappropriate ideological perspective" while dealing with state and party affairs, he was reluctant to admit that his policies were wrong in essence. Deng's antagonism with the Gang of Four became increasingly clear, and Mao seemed to swing in the Gang's favour. Mao refused to accept Deng's self-criticisms and asked the party's Central Committee to "discuss Deng's mistakes thoroughly". Zhou Enlai died in January 1976, to an outpouring of national grief. Zhou was a very important figure in Deng's political life, and his death eroded the little support within the Party's Central Committee that Deng had left. After delivering Zhou's official eulogy at the state funeral, the Gang of Four, with Mao's permission, began the so-called Criticize Deng and Oppose the Rehabilitation of Right-leaning Elements (批邓、反击右倾翻案风) campaign. Hua Guofeng, not Deng, was selected to become Zhou's successor. On 2 February, the Central Committee issued a Top-priority Directive, officially transferring Deng to work on "external affairs", in reality removing Deng from the party's power apparatus. Deng stayed at home for the subsequent months, awaiting his fate. The political turmoil had brought the economic progress Deng had laboured for in the past year to a halt. On 3 March, Mao issued a directive reaffirming the legitimacy of the Cultural Revolution and specifically pointed to Deng as an internal, rather than external, problem. This was followed by a Central Committee directive issued to all local party organs to study Mao's directive and criticize Deng. Deng's political fortunes were dealt another blow following Qingming Festival, when the mass mourning of Premier Zhou on the traditional Chinese holiday sparked the Tiananmen Incident of 1976, an event the Gang of Four branded as counterrevolutionary and threatening to their power. Furthermore, the Gang deemed Deng the mastermind behind the incident, and Mao himself wrote that "the nature of things has changed". Deng Rong's Memoirs: Chapter 53 This prompted Mao's decision to remove Deng from all leadership positions but keep his party membership. Re-emergence Deng gradually emerged as the de-facto leader of China in the few years following Mao's death in 1976. Prior to Mao's death, the only governmental position he held was that of First Vice-Premier of the State Council. 1975-1976 and 1977-1980, Europa Publications (2002) "The People's Republic of Chine: Introductory Survey" The Europa World Year Book 2003 volume 1, (44th edition) Europa Publications, London, p. 1075, col. 1, ISBN 1-85743-227-4; and Bo, Zhiyue (2007) China's Elite Politics: Political Transition and Power Balancing World Scientific, Hackensack, New Jersey, p. 59, ISBN 981-270-041-2 By carefully mobilizing his supporters within the Chinese Communist Party, Deng was able to outmaneuver Mao's appointed successor Hua Guofeng, who had previously pardoned him, and then oust Hua from his top leadership positions by 1980. In contrast to previous leadership changes, Deng allowed Hua to retain membership in the Central Committee, to quietly retire, and helped to set a precedent that losing a high-level leadership struggle would not result in physical harm. Deng then repudiated the Cultural Revolution and, in 1977, launched the "Beijing Spring", which allowed open criticism of the excesses and suffering that had occurred during the period. Meanwhile, he was the impetus for the abolishment of the class background system. Under this system, the CCP put up employment barriers to Chinese deemed to be associated with the former landlord class, its removal therefore effectively allowed Chinese capitalists to join the Communist Party. Deng gradually outmaneuvered his political opponents. By encouraging public criticism of the Cultural Revolution, he weakened the position of those who owed their political positions to that event, while strengthening the position of those like himself who had been purged during that time. Deng also received a great deal of popular support. As Deng gradually consolidated control over the CCP, Hua was replaced by Zhao Ziyang as premier in 1980, and by Hu Yaobang as party chief in 1981. Deng remained the most influential CCP cadre, although after 1987 his only official posts were as chairman of the state and Communist Party Central Military Commissions. Originally, the president was conceived of as a figurehead head of state, with actual state power resting in the hands of the premier and the party chief, both offices being conceived of as held by separate people in order to prevent a cult of personality from forming (as it did in the case of Mao); the party would develop policy, whereas the state would execute it. Deng's elevation to China's new number-one figure meant that the historical and ideological questions around Mao Zedong had to be addressed properly. Because Deng wished to pursue deep reforms, to continue Mao's hard-line "class struggle" policies and mass public campaigns was unreasonable. In 1982 the Central Committee of the Communist Party released a document entitled On the Various Historical Issues since the Founding of the People's Republic of China. Mao retained his status as a "great Marxist, proletarian revolutionary, militarist, and general", and the undisputed founder and pioneer of the country and the People's Liberation Army. "His accomplishments must be considered before his mistakes", the document declared. Deng personally commented that Mao was "seven parts good, three parts bad." The document also steered the prime responsibility of the Cultural Revolution away from Mao (although it did state that "Mao mistakenly began the Cultural Revolution") to the "counter-revolutionary cliques" of the Gang of Four and Lin Biao. Opening up Deng Xiaoping meeting with Zbigniew Brzezinski, National Security Advisor to President Carter, in 1979 Under Deng's direction, relations with the West improved remarkably. Deng traveled abroad and had a series of amicable meetings with western leaders, and became the first Chinese leader to visit the United States in 1979, meeting with President Carter at the White House. Shortly before this meeting, the U.S. had broken diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan) and established them with the People's Republic of China (PRC). Sino-Japanese relations also improved significantly. Deng used Japan as an example of a rapidly progressing economic power that sets a good example for China's future economic directions. Deng Xiaoping meeting with Jimmy Carter, 1979. Another achievement was the agreement signed by United Kingdom and China on 19 December 1984 (Sino-British Joint Declaration) under which Hong Kong was to be handed over to the PRC in 1997. With the 99-year British lease on the New Territories expiring, Deng agreed that the PRC would not interfere with Hong Kong's capitalist system for 50 years. A similar agreement was signed with Portugal for the return of colony Macau. Dubbed "one country-two systems", this fairly unprecedented approach has been touted by the PRC as a potential framework within which Taiwan could be reunited with the Mainland in more recent years. Deng, however, did little to improve relations with the Soviet Union, continuing to adhere to the Maoist line of the Sino-Soviet Split era that the Soviet Union was a superpower equally as "hegemonist" as the United States, but even more threatening to China because of its geographical proximity. Changing China: economic reforms Improving relations with the outside world was the second of two important philosophical shifts outlined in Deng's program of reform termed Gaige Kaifang (lit. Reforms and Openness). The domestic social, political, and most notably, economic systems would undergo significant changes during Deng's time as leader. The goals of Deng's reforms were summed up by the Four Modernizations, those of agriculture, industry, science and technology and the military. The strategy for achieving these aims of becoming a modern, industrial nation was the socialist market economy. Deng argued that China was in the primary stage of socialism and that the duty of the party was to perfect so-called "socialism with Chinese characteristics", and "seeking truth from facts." This interpretation of Chinese Marxism reduced the role of ideology in economic decision-making and deciding policies of proven effectiveness. Downgrading communitarian values but not necessarily the ideology of Marxism-Leninism himself, Deng emphasized that "socialism does not mean shared poverty". His theoretical justification for allowing market forces was given as such: Unlike Hua Guofeng, Deng believed that no policy should be rejected outright simply because it was not associated with Mao. Unlike more conservative leaders such as Chen Yun, Deng did not object to policies on the grounds that they were similar to ones which were found in capitalist nations. This political flexibility towards the foundations of socialism is strongly supported by quotes such as: Although Deng provided the theoretical background and the political support to allow economic reform to occur, it is in general consensus amongst historians that few of the economic reforms that Deng introduced were originated by Deng himself. Premier Zhou Enlai, for example, pioneered the Four Modernizations years before Deng. In addition, many reforms would be introduced by local leaders, often not sanctioned by central government directives. If successful and promising, these reforms would be adopted by larger and larger areas and ultimately introduced nationally. Many other reforms were influenced by the experiences of the East Asian Tigers. This is in sharp contrast to the pattern in the perestroika undertaken by Mikhail Gorbachev in which most of the major reforms were originated by Gorbachev himself. The bottom-up approach of the Deng reforms, in contrast to the top-down approach of perestroika, was likely a key factor in the success of the former. Deng's reforms actually included the introduction of planned, centralized management of the macro-economy by technically proficient bureaucrats, abandoning Mao's mass campaign style of economic construction. However, unlike the Soviet model, management was indirect through market mechanisms. Deng sustained Mao's legacy to the extent that he stressed the primacy of agricultural output and encouraged a significant decentralization of decision making in the rural economy teams and individual peasant households. At the local level, material incentives, rather than political appeals, were to be used to motivate the labor force, including allowing peasants to earn extra income by selling the produce of their private plots at free market. In the main move toward market allocation, local municipalities and provinces were allowed to invest in industries that they considered most profitable, which encouraged investment in light manufacturing. Thus, Deng's reforms shifted China's development strategy to an emphasis on light industry and export-led growth. Statue of Deng in Shenzhen. Light industrial output was vital for a developing country coming from a low capital base. With the short gestation period, low capital requirements, and high foreign-exchange export earnings, revenues generated by light manufacturing were able to be reinvested in more technologically-advanced production and further capital expenditures and investments. However, in sharp contrast to the similar but much less successful reforms in Yugoslavia and Hungary, these investments were not government mandated. The capital invested in heavy industry largely came from the banking system, and most of that capital came from consumer deposits. One of the first items of the Deng reforms was to prevent reallocation of profits except through taxation or through the banking system; hence, the reallocation in state-owned industries was somewhat indirect, thus making them more or less independent from government interference. In short, Deng's reforms sparked an industrial revolution in China. FlorCruz, Jaime (19 December 2008) "Looking back over China's last 30 years" CNN These reforms were a reversal of the Maoist policy of economic self-reliance. China decided to accelerate the modernization process by stepping up the volume of foreign trade, especially the purchase of machinery from Japan and the West. By participating in such export-led growth, China was able to step up the Four Modernizations by attaining certain foreign funds, market, advanced technologies and management experiences, thus accelerating its economic development. Deng attracted foreign companies to a series of Special Economic Zones, where foreign investment and market liberalization were encouraged. The reforms centered on improving labor productivity as well. New material incentives and bonus systems were introduced. Rural markets selling peasants' homegrown products and the surplus products of communes were revived. Not only did rural markets increase agricultural output, they stimulated industrial development as well. With peasants able to sell surplus agricultural yields on the open market, domestic consumption stimulated industrialization as well and also created political support for more difficult economic reforms. There are some parallels between Deng's market socialism especially in the early stages, and Lenin's New Economic Policy as well as those of Bukharin's economic policies, in that both foresaw a role for private entrepreneurs and markets based on trade and pricing rather than central planning. An interesting anecdote on this note is the first meeting between Deng and Armand Hammer. Deng pressed the industrialist and former investor in Lenin's Soviet Union for as much information on the NEP as possible. Role in the Tiananmen Square protests The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 culminating in the Tiananmen Square Massacre (referred to in Chinese as the June Fourth Incident, to avoid confusion with two other Tiananmen Square protests) were a series of demonstrations in and near Tiananmen Square in the People's Republic of China (PRC) between 15 April and 4 June 1989. Many socialist governments collapsed during the same year. The protests were sparked by the death of Hu Yaobang, a reformist official backed by Deng Xiaoping and ousted by his enemies. Many people were dissatisfied with the party's slow response and relatively subdued funerary arrangements. Public mourning began on the streets of Beijing and elsewhere. In Beijing this was centred on the Monument to the People's Heroes in Tiananmen Square. The mourning became a public conduit for anger against perceived nepotism in the government, the unfair dismissal and early death of Hu, and the behind-the-scenes role of the "old men". By the eve of Yaobang's funeral, the demonstration had reached 100,000 people on the Tiananmen square. While the protests lacked a unified cause or leadership, participants were generally against the authoritarianism and some voiced calls for economic liberalization and democratic reform within the structure of the government while others called for a less authoritarian and less centralized form of socialism. Voices for Tiananmen Square: Beijing Spring and the Democracy Movement http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism_in_China#Status_today 15th Anniversary of Tiananmen Square Massacre During demonstrations, Deng Xiaoping's pro-market ally General Secretary Zhao Ziyang supported demonstrators and distanced himself from the Politburo. Martial law was declared on May 20 by the socialist hardliner Li Peng, but no action was taken until June 4. The movement lasted seven weeks. Soldiers and tanks from the 27th and 28th Armies of the People's Liberation Army were sent to take control of the city on June 4. Many ordinary people in Beijing believed that Deng Xiaoping had ordered the intervention, but political analysts do not know who was the real person behind the order. However, Xiaoping's daughter defends the actions that occurred as a collective decision by the party leadership. To purge sympathizers of Tiananmen demonstrators, the Communist Party initiated a one and half year long program similar to Anti-Rightist Movement. It aimed to deal "strictly with those inside the party with serious tendencies toward bourgeois liberalization" and more than 30,000 communist officers were deployed to the task. Zhao Ziyang was placed in house arrest by socialist hardliners and Deng Xiaoping himself was forced to make concessions to anti-reform communists. He soon declared that "the entire imperialist Western world plans to make all socialist countries discard the socialist road and then bring them under the monopoly of international capital and onto the capitalist road". A few months later he said that the "United States was too deeply involved" in the student movement referring to foreign reporters who had given financial aid to the student leaders and later helped them escape to various Western countries, primarily the United States through Hong Kong and Taiwan. Although at first he made concessions to the socialist hardliners, he soon resumed his reforms after his 1992 southern tour. After his tour, he was able to stop the attacks of the socialist hardliners on the reforms through their "named capitalist or socialist?" campaign. Deng Xiaoping told privately to the Canadian Prime Minister that factions of the Communist Party could have grabbed army units and the country had risked a civil war. The Legacy of Tiananmen By James A. R. Miles Two years later, Deng Xiaoping endorsed Zhu Rongji, a Shanghai Mayor, as a vice-premier candidate. Zhu Rongji had refused to declare martial law in Shanghai during the demonstrations even though socialist hardliners had pressured him. The Politics of China By Roderick MacFarquhar After resignation and the 1992 southern tour Famous billboard of Deng in Shenzhen, one of the most successful Special Economic Zones created under his leadership. Officially, Deng decided to retire from top positions when he stepped down as Chairman of the Central Military Commission in 1989, and retired from the political scene in 1992. China, however, was still in the era of Deng Xiaoping. He continued to be widely regarded as the "paramount leader" of the country, believed to have backroom control. Deng was recognized officially as "The chief architect of China's economic reforms and China's socialist modernization". To the Communist Party, he was believed to have set a good example for communist cadres who refused to retire at old age. He broke earlier conventions of holding offices for life. He was often referred to as simply Comrade Xiaoping, with no title attached. Because of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, Deng's power had been significantly weakened and there was a growing formalist faction opposed to Deng's reforms within the Communist Party. To reassert his economic agenda, in the spring of 1992, Deng made his famous southern tour of China, visiting Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Zhuhai and spending the New Year in Shanghai, in reality using his travels as a method of reasserting his economic policy after his retirement from office. On his tour, Deng made various speeches and generated large local support for his reformist platform. He stressed the importance of economic construction in China, and criticized those who were against further economic and openness reforms. Although there is debate on whether or not Deng actually said it, Los Angeles Times - Column One his perceived catchphrase "To Get Rich Is Glorious", unleashed a wave of personal entrepreneurship that continues to drive China's economy today. He stated that the "leftist" elements of Chinese society were much more dangerous than "rightist" ones. Deng was instrumental in the opening of Shanghai's Pudong New Area, revitalizing the city as China's economic hub. His southern tour was initially ignored by the Beijing and national media, which were then under the control of Deng's political rivals. President Jiang Zemin showed little support. Challenging their media control, Deng penned several articles supporting reforms under the pen name "Huang Fuping" in Shanghai's Liberation Daily newspaper, which quickly gained support amongst local officials and populace. Deng's new wave of policy rhetoric gave way to a new political storm between factions in the Politburo. President Jiang eventually sided with Deng, and the national media finally reported Deng's southern tour several months after it occurred. Observers suggest that Jiang's submission to Deng's policies had solidified his position as Deng's heir apparent. Behind the scenes, Deng's southern tour aided his reformist allies' climb to the apex of national power, and permanently changed China's direction toward economic development. In addition, the eventual outcome of the southern tour proved that Deng was still the most powerful man in China. Deng Xiaoping's Southern Tour: Elite Politics in Post-Tiananmen China Suisheng Zhao, Asian Survey © 1993 University of California Press Deng's insistence on economic openness aided in the phenomenal growth levels of the coastal areas, especially the "Golden Triangle" region surrounding Shanghai. Deng reiterated that "some areas must get rich before others", and asserted that the wealth from coastal regions will eventually be transferred to aid economic construction inland. The theory, however, faced numerous challenges when put into practice, as provincial governments moved to protect their own interests. The policy contributed to a widening wealth disparity between the affluent coast and the underdeveloped hinterlands. Death and reaction Deng Xiaoping's ashes lie in state in Beijing, February 1997. The banner reads Memorial Service of Comrade Deng Xiaoping After being disconnected from life supporting machines, Deng Xiaoping died on 19 February 1997, at age 92 from a lung infection and Parkinson's disease, but his influence continued. Even though Jiang Zemin was in firm control, government policies maintained Deng's ideas, thoughts, methods, and direction. Officially, Deng was eulogized as a "great Marxist, great Proletarian Revolutionary, statesman, military strategist, and diplomat; one of the main leaders of the Communist Party of China, the People's Liberation Army of China, and the People's Republic of China; The great architect of China's socialist opening-up and modernized construction; the founder of Deng Xiaoping theory". CNN: China officially mourns Deng Xiaoping 24 February 1997 Although the public was largely prepared for Deng's death, as rumors had been circulating for a long time, the death of Deng was followed by the greatest publicly sanctioned display of grief for any Chinese leader since Mao Zedong himself. However, in contrast to Mao's death, Deng's death in the media was announced without any titles attached (Mao was called the Great Leader and Teacher, Deng was simply "Comrade"), or any emotional overtones from the news anchors that delivered the message. At 10 A.M. on the morning of 24 February, from all walks of life in the entire nation, people were asked by Premier Li Peng to pause in silence in unison for three minutes. The nation's flags flew at half-staff for over a week. The nationally televised funeral, which was a simple and relatively private affair attended by the country's leaders and Deng's family, was broadcast on all cable channels. Jiang Zemin's tearful eulogy to the late reformist leader declared, "The Chinese people love Comrade Deng Xiaoping, thank Comrade Deng Xiaoping, mourn for Comrade Deng Xiaoping, and cherish the memory of Comrade Deng Xiaoping because he devoted his life-long energies to the Chinese people, performed immortal feats for the independence and liberation of the Chinese nation." Jiang vowed to continue Deng's policies. After the funeral, Deng donated his organs to medical research, was cremated, and his ashes were subsequently scattered at sea, according to his wishes. For the next two weeks, Chinese state media ran news stories and documentaries related to Deng's life and death, with the regular 7 pm National News program in the evening lasting almost two hours over the regular broadcast time. Domestically, in contrast to Zhou's death, during which people wept on the streets, the reaction to Deng's death was largely calm, with no stock market crashes, no business closures, no wearing special armbands of grief, and no interruption to life in general. Certain segments of the Chinese population, notably the modern Maoists and radical reformers (the far left and the far right) both had negative views on Deng. In the year that followed, songs like "Story of Spring" by Dong Wenhua, which were created in Deng's honour shortly after Deng's Southern Tour in 1992, once again were widely played. There was a significant amount of international reaction to Deng's death. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan said Deng was to be remembered "in the international community at large as a primary architect of China's modernization and dramatic economic development". French President Jacques Chirac said "In the course of this century, few men have, as much as Deng Xiaoping, led a vast human community through such profound and determining changes"; British Prime Minister John Major commented about Deng's key role in the return of Hong Kong to Chinese control; Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien called Deng a "pivotal figure" in Chinese history. The Taiwan presidential office also sent its condolences, saying it longed for peace, cooperation, and prosperity. The Dalai Lama voiced regret. CNN:World leaders praise Deng's economic legacy 24 February 1997 Legacy As a pivotal figure in modern Chinese history, Deng Xiaoping's legacy is very complex and opinion remains divided. Deng changed China from a country obsessed with mass political movements to a country focused on economic construction. In the process, Deng was unrelenting of the political clout of the Communist Party of China, as evidenced by the 1989 Tiananmen Square Protests. Although some criticize Deng for his actions in 1989, China's significant economic growth in the 1980s and 1990s was largely credited to Deng's policies. Put into sharp contrast with Mikhail Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika, Deng's socio-economic model of a socialist market economy was a largely novel concept. Deng Xiaoping's policies are among some of the most successful industrializations in human history, comparable to only the rapid industrialization of Japan, the Soviet Union and the homeplace of the industrial revolution itself, Britain. In a little over 30 years, his policies allowed China to move from the peasant society it once was to an industrial superpower with gross output second only to the United States. Despite controversial incidents such as the June 4th incident and the corruption of his son, Deng Xiaoping is largely remembered as a heroic and able leader. The same policies, however, left a large number of issues unresolved. These issues, including unprofitable state-owned enterprises, regional imbalance, urban-rural wealth disparity and official corruption were exacerbated during Jiang Zemin's term (1993-2003). Although some areas and segments of society were notably better off than before, the re-emergence of significant inequality did little to legitimize the Communist Party's founding ideals, as the party faced increasing social unrest. Deng's emphasis in light industry, compounded with China's large population, created a large cheap labour market which became significant on the global stage. Favouring joint-ventures over domestic industry, Deng allowed foreign capital to pour into the country. While some see these policies as a fast method to put China on par with the west, Chinese hardline communists criticize Deng for abandoning the Party's founding ideals and selling out China. Deng was an able diplomat, and he was largely credited with the successes of China in foreign affairs. Deng's time as China's leader saw agreements signed to revert both Hong Kong and Macau to Chinese sovereignty. Deng's era, set under the backdrop of the Cold war, saw the best Sino-American relations in history. Some Chinese nationalists assert, however, that Deng's foreign policy was one of appeasement, and past wrongs such as war crimes committed by Japan during the World War II were forgotten to make way for economic partnership. Memorials When compared to the memorials of other former CCP leaders, those dedicated to Deng have been relatively low profile, in keeping with Deng's pragmatism. Deng's portrait, unlike that of Mao, has never been hung publicly anywhere in China. Likewise, he was cremated after death, as opposed to being embalmed like Mao. There are a few public displays of Deng in the country. A bronze statue of Deng was erected on 14 November 2000, at the grand plaza of Lianhua Mountain Park () of Shenzhen. This statue is dedicated to Deng's role as a great planner and contributor to the development of the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone, starting in 1984. The statue is high, with an additional 3.68-meter base. The statue shows Deng striding forward confidently. In addition, in many coastal areas and on the island province of Hainan, Deng is seen on large roadside billboards with messages emphasizing economic reform or his policy of One Country, Two Systems. Another bronze statue of Deng was dedicated 13 August 2004 in the city of Guang'an, Deng's hometown, in southwest China's Sichuan Province. The statue was erected to commemorate Deng's 100th birthday. The statue shows Deng, dressed casually, sitting on a chair and smiling. The Chinese characters for "Statue of Deng Xiaoping" are inscribed on the pedestal. The original calligraphy was written by Jiang Zemin, then Chairman of the Central Military Commission. China Daily article "Deng Xiaoping statue unveiled" In Bishkek, capital of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan, there is a six-lane boulevard, wide and long, the Deng Xiaoping Prospekt, which was dedicated on 18 June 1997. A two-meter high red granite monument stands at the east end of this route. The epigraph in memory of Deng is written in Chinese, Russian and Kirghiz. Turkistan-Newsletter Volume: 97-1:13, 20 June 1997 John Pomfret, In Its Own Neighborhood, China Emerges as a Leader Washington Post, 10/18/2001 as quoted in Taiwan Security Research John Pomfret, In Its Own Neighborhood, China Emerges as a Leader Washington Post, 10/18/2001 Preview, with option to buy, direct from Washington Post Famous Deng Xiaoping quotations 不管黑猫白猫,能捉老鼠就是好猫. Translation: It does not matter whether the cat is black or white; as long as it catches the mouse, it is a good cat. (Commenting on the whether China should turn to capitalism or remain strictly in adherence with the economic ideologies of communism) 摸着石頭過河. Translation: wading across a river by feeling the rocks. (referring to the fact that China had absolutely no experience with modern capitalism) "Vietnam is a hooligan, we must teach them a lesson." (On December 1978, in a visit several Southeast Asia countries, only a few months before The third Sino-Vietnam war,he said an unforgettable quote while being live on China television network) 小朋友不聴話,該打打屁股了. Translation: It's time to smack the bottom of unruly little children. (While talking to president Jimmy Carter during his brief visit to the United States, thereby informing the USA that China was ready to go to war with Vietnam.) Sources "Fifth Plenary Session of 11th C.C.P. Central Chinese Committee", Beijing Review, No. 10 (10 March 1980), pp. 3–22, which describes the official Liu rehabilitation measures and good name restoration. References Bibliographic sources Evans, Richard. Deng Xiaoping and the Making of Modern China Yang, Benjamin and Yang, Bingzhang. Deng: A Political Biography.M.E. Sharpe, 1998. ISBN 1563247224, ISBN 9781563247224 Spence, Jonathan D. "A Road is Made." In The Search for Modern China. 310. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 1999 Spence, Jonathan D. "Century's End." In The Search for Modern China''. 725. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 1999</small> External links Free searchable biography of Deng Xiaoping at China Vitae Obituary, NY Times, 20 February 1997 Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping Life of Deng Xiaoping China's former 'first family' (from CNN) China officially mourns Deng Xiaoping (from CNN) Deng's Free Market Nightmare (Maoist criticism) China 2002: Building socialism with Chinese characteristics (Communist Party USA) China Daily Biography Video Documentary 52': China on the Catwalk 10th Anniversary of the death of Deng Xiaoping: SINA | Deng_Xiaoping |@lemmatized infobox:1 president:9 name:5 邓小平:1 deng:209 xiaoping:46 image:1 dengxiaoping:1 jpg:1 caption:1 nationality:1 chinese:38 religion:1 none:2 order:5 general:9 secretary:6 secretariat:1 communist:25 party:37 height:1 predecessor:1 successor:4 hu:4 yaobang:4 guang:3 sichuan:4 qing:2 dynasty:1 beijing:9 people:21 republic:10 china:76 profession:1 economist:1 chairman:6 central:16 military:7 commission:4 ccp:6 hua:9 guofeng:5 jiang:10 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4,546 | Book_of_Obadiah | The Book of Obadiah is found in both the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament of the Christian Bible, where it is the shortest book, only one chapter long. Its authorship is generally attributed to a person named Obadiah, which means “servant (or worshipper) of the Lord”. Obadiah is classified as a "minor prophet" in the Christian Bible due to the brevity of the writing (only 21 verses) and the content (prophetic material). An Old Testament prophet was (professedly) not only a person who was given divine insight into future events, but a person whom the Lord used to declare his word. The first nine verses in the book foretell total destruction in the land of Edom at the hand of the Lord. Obadiah writes that this destruction will be so complete that it will be even worse than a thief who comes at night, for not even a thief would destroy everything. The Lord will allow all allies of Edom to turn away and help chase Edom out of its land. What is the reason for such a harsh punishment? Verses ten through fourteen explain that when Israel (the Lord’s chosen people) was attacked, Edom refused to help them, thus acting like an enemy. What is even worse is that Edom and Israel share a common blood line through their founders who were brothers, Jacob and Esau. Because of this gross neglect of a relative, Edom will be covered with shame and destroyed forever. The final verses, fifteen through twenty-one, depict the restoration of Israel and the wiping out of the Edomites. Verse eighteen says that there will be no survivors from the house of Esau once the destruction is complete. Israel will become a holy place and its people will return from exile and inhabit the land once inhabited by the Edomites. The final verse of the prophecy places the Lord as King who will rule over all the mountains of Edom. Historical context The date of composition is disputed among scholars and is difficult to determine due to the lack of personal information about Obadiah, his family, and his historical milieux. The date of composition must therefore be determined based on the prophecy itself. Edom is to be destroyed due to its lack of defense for its brother nation, Israel, when it was under attack. There are two major historical contexts within which the Edomites could have committed such an act. These are during 853 – 841 B.C. when Jerusalem was invaded by Philistines and Arabs during the reign of Jehoram (recorded in 2 Kings 8:20-22 and 2 Chronicles 21:8-20 in the Christian Old Testament) and 605 – 586 B.C. when Jerusalem was attacked by King Nebuchadnezzer of Babylon, which led to the Babylonian exile of Israel (recorded in Psalm 137). The earlier period would place Obadiah as a contemporary of the prophet Elisha, and the latter would place Obadiah as a contemporary of the prophet Jeremiah, both of whom were prophets in the respective time periods. The later period appears to be the scholarly consensus as Obadiah 1-9 parallels Jeremiah 49:7-22. The passage in Jeremiah dates from the fourth year of the reign of Jehoiakim (604 B.C.), and therefore Obadiah 11-14 seems to refer to the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzer (586 B.C.). It is more likely that Obadiah and Jeremiah together were drawing on a common source presently unknown to us than Jeremiah drawing on previous writings of Obadiah as his source. There is also much material found in Obadiah 10-21 which Jeremiah does not quote, and which, had he had it laid out before him, would have suited his purpose admirably. Despite everything, however, there are a number scholars who support both dates and even some who support dates other than the two major possibilities presented. Therefore, any date for the composition Obadiah must be held tentatively. Themes The overwhelming theme found in Obadiah is the destruction of enemies of God’s people. Unlike some other prophets, Obadiah does not present a “turn or burn” message, simply a message of inevitable doom as a consequence of previous actions. A Christian with a knowledge of the New Testament of the Bible would say that although God’s grace and forgiveness abound in situations, there are consequences which result from bad decisions. Even more than all this, Obadiah shows that judgment falls even within the family of God, as Israel and Edom descended from twin brothers, Jacob and Esau. One can therefore expect that Obadiah's purpose was to make it known that according to his God, if members of the same family were to treat each other in the same manner as Edom treated the Israelites, they too may be subject to the wrath of God. There is a second theme which lies under the surface of Obadiah's writing which may be relevant for Christians as a faith group. Just as there is perpetual conflict between the two nations of Israel and Edom who once struggled together within a single womb, Christians may understand from New Testament teaching that there is a similar conflict found within their very lives. Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians in the New Testament presents the idea that the spirit of God and the flesh are in a continual struggle within a person (cf. , ), just like the two nations in Obadiah’s prophecy. Either the spirit or the flesh will ultimately overcome and the other will fail (just as Israel overcame and Edom failed). It is the Christian perspective that the spirit will ultimately prevail in the resurrection of the dead (e.g. ) with the coming of a renewed heavens and earth ( e.g. ). Scholarly issues Aside from this scholarly debate surrounding the date of the prophecy which is discussed above, there is also discussion surrounding verse eighteen which says that once judgment has been carried out, “There will be no survivors from the house of Esau” (NIV). The problem arises when that statement is compared with Amos 9:12. According to Obadiah there will not remain even a remnant after Edom’s judgment; however, Amos talks about such a remnant whose possession will be given to Israel. Some scholars have suggested that Amos’s reference to Edom is symbolic of all nations who were once enemies of Israel and not meant to literally mean Edomites in the flesh. This is certainly the perspective of Luke as he recites the passage from Amos in Acts 15:17. Edom is symbolic of the remnant of men and Gentiles who will eventually bear God’s name. Moreover, Frederick A. Tatford in Prophet of Edom’s Doom says that Obadiah’s prophecy is fulfilled today as there is currently no trace of anyone who may be identified as an Edomite. There is also scholarly discussion about the captivity of Israelites in Sepharad mentioned in verse twenty. "Sepharad" appears to be the ancient Persian Saparda, which was a name for two cities, one of which may be identified with Sardis. In medieval rabbinic tradition it is identified with the modern day land of Spain, so that Sepharad is the name of Spain in Rabbinical (and modern) Hebrew. The same verse also speaks of Zarephath, probably Sarepta near Sidon, which was later identified with France and is the name of France in Rabbinical (and modern) Hebrew. The transference of these names to Europe may be due to the fact that Rabbinic literature identifies Edom with the Roman Empire. If there was a Jewish colony of captives there, however, nothing is otherwise known of it; nor are any circumstances evident which would point to the existence of a colony of sufficient importance to be referred to in Obadiah. Parallels within Scripture Although there are no direct parallels from Obadiah found within the New Testament, there are thematic parallels which were discussed previously. Elsewhere in scripture, we can note that verses 1-8 appear with minor changes in the Book of Jeremiah 49:7-16, and the style and language found in Obadiah is very similar to the Book of Joel, particularly the end. Obadiah frequently uses the term "the Day of the Lord," which also appears in the Book of Joel, as well as in Isaiah 13, Amos 5, Zephaniah 1, and Malachi 3. See also Edom Esau External links Masoretic text from Mechon Mamre Translations: Jewish translations: Ovadiah (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary from Chabad.org Christian translations: Online Bible at GospelHall.org (KJV ESV Darby BBE) Obadiah at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version) Commentary: [http://www.freegrace.net/gill/Obadiah/Obadiah_1.htm - John Gill's Exposition of the Entire Bible - Obadiah. [http://www.ucg.org/brp/brp.asp?get=daily&day=2&month=February&year=2003&Layout= - United Church of God, an International Association - Bible Reading Program - Obadiah This Hebrew scholar provides extensive background information as well as verse-by-verse exposition] Obadiah from Kretzmann's Popular Commentary of the Bible Obadiah: The Lord Will Have His Day by Jonathan Kuske | Book_of_Obadiah |@lemmatized book:7 obadiah:31 find:6 hebrew:4 bible:8 old:3 testament:7 christian:8 short:1 one:4 chapter:1 long:1 authorship:1 generally:1 attribute:1 person:4 name:6 mean:3 servant:1 worshipper:1 lord:8 classify:1 minor:2 prophet:7 due:4 brevity:1 writing:2 verse:12 content:1 prophetic:1 material:2 professedly:1 give:2 divine:1 insight:1 future:1 event:1 use:2 declare:1 word:1 first:1 nine:1 foretell:1 total:1 destruction:5 land:4 edom:18 hand:1 write:2 complete:2 even:7 bad:3 thief:2 come:2 night:1 would:6 destroy:3 everything:2 allow:1 ally:1 turn:2 away:1 help:2 chase:1 reason:1 harsh:1 punishment:1 ten:1 fourteen:1 explain:1 israel:11 choose:1 people:3 attack:3 refuse:1 thus:1 act:3 like:2 enemy:3 share:1 common:2 blood:1 line:1 founder:1 brother:3 jacob:2 esau:5 gross:1 neglect:1 relative:1 cover:1 shame:1 forever:1 final:2 fifteen:1 twenty:2 depict:1 restoration:1 wipe:1 edomites:4 eighteen:2 say:4 survivor:2 house:2 become:1 holy:1 place:4 return:1 exile:2 inhabit:2 prophecy:5 king:3 rule:1 mountain:1 historical:3 context:2 date:7 composition:3 dispute:1 among:1 scholar:4 difficult:1 determine:2 lack:2 personal:1 information:2 family:3 milieu:1 must:2 therefore:4 base:1 defense:1 nation:4 two:5 major:2 within:7 could:1 commit:1 b:4 c:4 jerusalem:3 invade:1 philistine:1 arab:1 reign:2 jehoram:1 record:2 chronicle:1 nebuchadnezzer:2 babylon:1 lead:1 babylonian:1 psalm:1 early:1 period:3 contemporary:2 elisha:1 latter:1 jeremiah:7 respective:1 time:1 late:1 appear:4 scholarly:4 consensus:1 parallel:4 passage:2 fourth:1 year:2 jehoiakim:1 seem:1 refer:2 likely:1 together:2 draw:2 source:2 presently:1 unknown:1 u:1 previous:2 also:6 much:1 quote:1 lay:1 suit:1 purpose:2 admirably:1 despite:1 however:3 number:1 support:2 possibility:1 present:3 hold:1 tentatively:1 theme:3 overwhelming:1 god:8 unlike:1 burn:1 message:2 simply:1 inevitable:1 doom:2 consequence:2 action:1 knowledge:1 new:5 although:2 grace:1 forgiveness:1 abound:1 situation:1 result:1 decision:1 show:1 judgment:3 fall:1 descend:1 twin:1 expect:1 make:1 know:2 accord:2 member:1 treat:2 manner:1 israelite:2 may:6 subject:1 wrath:1 second:1 lie:1 surface:1 relevant:1 faith:1 group:1 perpetual:1 conflict:2 struggle:2 single:1 womb:1 understand:1 teaching:1 similar:2 live:1 paul:1 epistle:1 galatian:1 idea:1 spirit:3 flesh:3 continual:1 cf:1 either:1 ultimately:2 overcome:1 fail:2 overcame:1 perspective:2 prevail:1 resurrection:1 dead:1 e:2 g:2 renew:1 heaven:1 earth:1 issue:1 aside:1 debate:1 surround:2 discuss:2 discussion:2 carry:1 niv:1 problem:1 arise:1 statement:1 compare:1 amos:5 remain:1 remnant:3 talk:1 whose:1 possession:1 suggest:1 reference:1 symbolic:2 literally:1 certainly:1 luke:1 recite:1 men:1 gentile:1 eventually:1 bear:1 moreover:1 frederick:1 tatford:1 fulfil:1 today:1 currently:1 trace:1 anyone:1 identify:4 edomite:1 captivity:1 sepharad:3 mention:1 ancient:1 persian:1 saparda:1 city:1 sardis:1 medieval:1 rabbinic:2 tradition:1 modern:3 day:4 spain:2 rabbinical:2 speak:1 zarephath:1 probably:1 sarepta:1 near:1 sidon:1 later:1 france:2 transference:1 europe:1 fact:1 literature:1 identifies:1 roman:1 empire:1 jewish:2 colony:2 captive:1 nothing:1 otherwise:1 circumstance:1 evident:1 point:1 existence:1 sufficient:1 importance:1 scripture:2 direct:1 thematic:1 previously:1 elsewhere:1 note:1 change:1 style:1 language:1 joel:2 particularly:1 end:1 frequently:1 term:1 well:2 isaiah:1 zephaniah:1 malachi:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 masoretic:1 text:1 mechon:1 mamre:1 translation:4 ovadiah:1 judaica:1 press:1 rashi:1 commentary:3 chabad:1 org:3 online:1 gospelhall:1 kjv:1 esv:1 darby:1 bbe:1 great:1 revise:1 standard:1 version:1 http:2 www:2 freegrace:1 net:1 gill:2 htm:1 john:1 exposition:2 entire:1 ucg:1 brp:2 asp:1 get:1 daily:1 month:1 february:1 layout:1 united:1 church:1 international:1 association:1 reading:1 program:1 provide:1 extensive:1 background:1 kretzmann:1 popular:1 jonathan:1 kuske:1 |@bigram hebrew_bible:1 jacob_esau:2 prophet_jeremiah:1 scholarly_consensus:1 epistle_galatian:1 prophecy_fulfil:1 rabbinic_literature:1 external_link:1 masoretic_text:1 mechon_mamre:1 translation_rashi:1 rashi_commentary:1 commentary_chabad:1 chabad_org:1 bible_gospelhall:1 gospelhall_org:1 http_www:2 |
4,547 | Foreign_relations_of_Iraq | Since 1980, the foreign relations of Iraq were influenced by a number of controversial decisions by the Saddam Hussein administration. Hussein had good relations with the Soviet Union and a number of western countries such as France and Germany, who provided him with advanced weapons systems. He also developed a sane relation with the United States, who supported him during the Iran-Iraq war. However, the Invasion of Kuwait that triggered the Gulf War brutally changed Iraq's relations with the Arab world and the West. Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria and others were among the countries that supported Kuwait in the UN coalition. Since the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the country has now tried to establish relations with various nations. Europe Turkey In 1988 Iraq maintained cordial relations with Turkey, its non-Arab neighbor to the north. Turkey served as an important transshipment point for both Iraqi oil exports and its commodity imports. A pipeline transported oil from the northern oil fields of Iraq through Turkey to the Mediterranean Sea. Trucks carrying a variety of European manufactured goods used Turkish highways to bring imports into Iraq. There was also trade between Turkey and Iraq, the former selling Iraq small arms, produce, and textiles. In addition, Iraq and Turkey have cooperated in suppressing Kurdish guerrilla activities in their common border area. Middle East Egypt Iraq’s relations with the Arab world have been extremely varied. Relations between Iraq and Egypt violently ruptured in 1977, when the two nations broke relations with each other following Iraq's criticism of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat’s peace initiatives with Israel. In 1978, Baghdad hosted an Arab League summit that condemned and ostracized Egypt for accepting the Camp David accords. However, Egypt’s strong material and diplomatic support for Iraq in the war with Iran led to warmer relations and numerous contacts between senior officials, despite the continued absence of ambassadorial-level representation. Since 1983, Iraq has repeatedly called for restoration of Egypt’s “natural role” among Arab countries. In January 1984, Iraq successfully led Arab efforts within the OIC to restore Egypt’s membership. However, Iraqi-Egyptian relations were broken in 1990 after Egypt joined the UN coalition that forced Iraq out of Kuwait. Relations have steadily improved in recent years, and Egypt is now one of Iraq’s main trade partners (formerly under the Oil-for-Food Programme). Iran In 1988 Iraq's main foreign policy issue was the war with Iran. This war had begun in September 1980, when Saddam Hussein sent Iraqi forces across the Shatt al Arab into southwestern Iran. Although the reasons for Saddam Husayn's decision to invade Iran were complicated, the leaders of the Baath Party had long resented Iranian hegemony in the Persian Gulf region and had especially resented the perceived Iranian interference in Iraq's internal affairs both before and after the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Their objectives were to halt any potential foreign assistance to the Shias and to the Kurdish opponents of the regime and to end Iranian domination of the area. The Baathists believed a weakened Iran would be incapable of posing a security threat and could not undermine Iraq's efforts to exercise the regional influence that had been blocked by non-Arab Iran since the mid-1960s. By early 1982, the Iraqi occupation forces were on the defensive and were being forced to retreat from some of their forward lines. In June 1982, Saddam Hussein ordered most of the Iraqi units to withdraw from Iranian territory; after that time, the Baathist government tried to obtain a cease-fire based on a return of all armed personnel to the international borders that prevailed as of September 21, 1979. Iran did not accept Iraq's offer to negotiate an end to the war. Similarly, it rejected a July 1982 United Nations (UN) Security Council resolution calling for an immediate cease-fire. Subsequently, Iranian forces invaded Iraq by crossing the Shatt al Arab in the south and by capturing some mountain passes in the north. To discourage Iran's offensive, the Iraqi air force initiated bombing raids over several Iranian cities and towns. The air raids brought Iranian retaliation, which included the aerial bombing of Baghdad. Although Iraq eventually pushed back and contained the Iranian advances, it was not able to force Iranian troops completely out of Iraqi territory. The perceived threat to Iraq in the summer of 1982 thus was serious enough to force Saddam Hussein to request the Nonaligned Movement to change the venue of its scheduled September meeting from Baghdad to India; nevertheless, since the fall of 1982, the ground conflict has generally been a stalemated war of attrition--although Iran made small but demoralizing territorial advances as a result of its massive offensives in the reed marshes north of Basra in 1984 and in 1985, in Al Faw Peninsula in early 1986, and in the outskirts of Basra during January and February 1987. In addition, as of early 1988 the government had lost control of several mountainous districts in Kurdistan where, since 1983, dissident Kurds have cooperated militarily with Iran. Saddam Hussein's government has maintained consistently since the summer of 1982 that Iraq wants a negotiated end to the war based upon the status quo ante. Iran's stated conditions for ceasing hostilities, namely the removal of Saddam Husayn and the Baath from power, however, have been unacceptable. The main objective of the regime became the extrication of the country from the war with as little additional damage as possible. To further this goal, Iraq has used various diplomatic, economic, and military strategies; none of these had been successful in bringing about a cease-fire as of early 1988. Although the war was a heavy burden on Iraq politically, economically, and socially, the most profound consequence of the war's prolongation was its impact on the patterns of Iraq's foreign relations. Whereas trends toward a moderation of the Baath Party's ideological approach to foreign affairs were evident before 1980, the war helped to accelerate these trends. Two of the most dramatic changes were in Iraq's relationships with the Soviet Union and with the United States. During the course of the war Iraq moved away from the close friendship with the Soviet Union that had persisted throughout the 1970s, and it initiated a rapprochement with the United States. Iraq also sought to ally itself with Kuwait and with Saudi Arabia, two neighboring countries with which there had been considerable friction during much of the 1970s. The alignment with these countries was accompanied by a more moderate Iraqi approach to other Arab countries, such as Egypt and Jordan, which previously Iraq had perceived as hostile. Iraqi-Iranian relations have remained cool since the end of the Iraq-Iran War in 1988. Outstanding issues from that war, including prisoner of war exchanges and support of armed opposition parties operating in each other’s territory, remain to be solved. Relations appear to have improved since March 2008, when Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad made a two-day visit to Iraq. Israel Iraq participated in the Arab-Israeli wars of 1948, 1967 and 1973, and traditionally has opposed all attempts to reach a peaceful settlement between Israel and the Arab States. Israel attacked Iraq's nuclear research reactor under construction near Baghdad in July 1981. During the Iran-Iraq war, Iraq moderated its anti-Israel stance considerably. In August 1982 President Hussein stated to a visiting U. S. Congressman that "a secure state is necessary for both Israel and the Palestinians." Iraq did not oppose then President Reagan's September 1, 1982 Arab-Israeli peace initiative, and it supported the moderate Arab position at the Fez summit that same month. Iraq repeatedly stated that it would support whatever settlement is found acceptable by the Palestinians. However, after the end of the Iran-Iraq war in 1988, Iraq reverted to more stridently anti-Israel statements. During the Gulf War, Iraq fired Scud missiles at Israeli civilian targets in an attempt to divide the U. S. coalition, and, since the end of the Gulf War, Iraq has embraced the most extreme Arab hardline anti-Israel position, including periodically calling for the total elimination of Israel. Jordan Iraq’s relations with Jordan have improved significantly since 1980, when Jordan declared its support for Iraq at the outset of the Iran-Iraq war. Jordan’s support for Iraq during the Gulf War resulted in a further improvement of ties. Relations have cooled since the current King of Jordan took office in 2000, but remain good. King Abdullah of Jordan has become the first Arab leader to visit Iraq since the fall of Saddam Hussein in 2003, a landmark step towards reducing Baghdad's isolation among its Sunni Arab neighbours. Jordan is one of a small number of Arab countries to have named ambassadors to Iraq. Kuwait Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990 resulted in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and most Persian Gulf states severing relations with Baghdad and joining the United Nations coalition that forced Iraqi forces out of Kuwait during the Persian Gulf War. Iraq’s refusal to implement UN Security Council Resolutions and continued threats toward Kuwait have resulted in relations remaining cool. Outside the Middle East Outside the Middle East, Iraq maintained correct relations with other countries. Iraq identified itself as part of the Nonaligned Movement of primarily African and Asian nations, actively participated in its deliberations during the late 1970s, and successfully lobbied to have Baghdad chosen as the site for its September 1982 conference. Although significant resources were expended to prepare facilities for the conference, and Saddam Hussein would have emerged from the meeting as a recognized leader of the Nonaligned Movement, genuine fears of an Iranian bombing of the capital during the summer of 1982 forced the government reluctantly to request that the venue of the conference be transferred to New Delhi. Since that time, preoccupation with the war against Iran, which also is a member of the Nonaligned Movement, has tended to restrict the scope of Iraqi participation in that organization. Pakistan Iraq and Pakistan have had close, friendly, and cooperative relations since the latter's independence in 1947. Issues such as Iraqi support for Pakistan in its' 1971 war with India (which Iraq also has excellent relations with), and Pakistani support for Iraq against Iran in the Iran-Iraq War have forged relations between the two. Relations soured during the Gulf War when Pakistan contributed troops for the UN Coalition, seeing it as a betrayal due to Iraq's constant support for Pakistan in their previous wars with India. In 2002, Saddam Hussein visited India and said he gave his unwavering support to India over the Kashmir dispute. In 2003, Pakistan rejected US's request to send troops for the invasion which have helped soothed relations between the two. Member of International Organizations Iraq belongs to the following international organizations: Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, Arab League, Arab Monetary Fund, Council of Arab Economic Unity, Customs Cooperation Council, Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, G-77, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Monetary Fund, International Maritime Organization, Interpol, International Organization for Standardization, International Telecommunication Union, Non-Aligned Movement, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries, Organisation of the Islamic Conference, United Nations, Universal Postal Union, World Health Organization and World Bank. Ministry of Foreign Affairs Iraq's relations with other countries and with international organizations are supervised by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In 1988 the minister of foreign affairs was Tariq Aziz, who was an influential leader of the Baath Party and had served in that post since 1983. Aziz, Saddam Hussein, and the other members of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) formulated Iraq's foreign policy, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs bureaucracy implemented RCC directives. The Baath maintained control over the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and over all Iraqi diplomatic missions abroad. Since the overthrow of Saddam Hussein in 2003, Hoshyar Zebari was first appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Iraqi Governing Council in Baghdad on 3rd September 2003. On the 28th June 2004, he was reappointed as Minister of Foreign Affairs by the Iraqi Interim Government, under Prime Minister Ayad Allawi. On 3rd May 2005 he was sworn in as Minister of Foreign Affairs by the Iraqi Transitional Government, under Prime Minister Ibrahim al-Jaafari. On 20th May 2006, he was delegated in for the fourth consecutive time as Foreign Minister in the government of Nouri Al-Maliki. International disputes Iran and Iraq restored diplomatic relations in 1990 but are still trying to work out written agreements settling outstanding disputes from their eight-year war concerning border demarcation, prisoners-of-war, and freedom of navigation and sovereignty over the Shatt al-Arab waterway; in November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait which had been spelled out in Security Council Resolutions 687 (1991), 773 (1993), and 883 (1993); this formally ends earlier claims to Kuwait and to Bubiyan and Warbah islands although the government continues periodic rhetorical challenges; dispute over water development plans by Turkey for the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. See also Territorial disputes in the Persian Gulf Disarmament of Iraq Iraq and the European Union Iraq-United States relations Saudi-Iraqi relations Iraq-United Arab Emirates relations Denmark–Iraq relations Iraq-Switzerland relations Franco-Iraqi relations Ukraine-Iraq relations Jordan-Iraq relations Sudanese-Iraqi relations Iraq-Singapore relations Brazil–Iraq relations Holy See–Iraq relations Diplomatic missions of Iraq List of diplomatic missions in Iraq References External links Iraq - Trade and Diplomatic Relations with the EU | Foreign_relations_of_Iraq |@lemmatized since:17 foreign:15 relation:40 iraq:79 influence:2 number:3 controversial:1 decision:2 saddam:12 hussein:12 administration:1 good:3 soviet:3 union:6 western:2 country:13 france:1 germany:1 provide:1 advanced:1 weapon:1 system:1 also:6 develop:1 sane:1 united:8 state:10 support:12 iran:21 war:31 however:5 invasion:4 kuwait:11 trigger:1 gulf:9 brutally:1 change:3 arab:25 world:4 west:1 egypt:10 saudi:4 arabia:3 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4,548 | Actinopterygii | The Actinopterygii (the plural form of Actinopterygius) constitute the class of the ray-finned fishes. The ray-finned fishes are so called because they possess lepidotrichia or "fin rays", their fins being webs of skin supported by bony or horny spines ("rays"), as opposed to the fleshy, lobed fins that characterize the class Sarcopterygii. These actinopterygian fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements, the radials, which represent the link or connection between these fins and the internal skeleton (e.g., pelvic and pectoral girdles). In terms of numbers, actinopterygians are the dominant class of vertebrates, with nearly 30,000 species, and they are ubiquitous throughout fresh water and marine environments from the deep sea to the highest mountain streams. Extant species can range in size from Paedocypris, at , to the massive Ocean Sunfish, at , and the long-bodied Oarfish, to at least . Fossil record Hypsospondylus fossil The earliest known fossil Actinopterygiian is Andreolepis hedei, dating back 420 million years (Late Silurian). This microvertebrate has been uncovered in Russia, Sweden, and Estonia Palaeobase . Classification Traditionally three grades of actinopterygians have been recognised: the Chondrostei, Holostei, and Teleostei. Some morphological evidence suggests that the second is paraphyletic and should be abandoned; however, recent work based on more complete sampling of fossil taxa, and also an analysis of DNA sequence data from the complete mitochondrial genome, supports its recognition. Nearly all living bony fishes are teleosts. A listing of the different groups is given below, down to the level of orders, arranged in what has been suggested to represent the evolutionary sequence down to the level of order based primarily on the long history of morphological studies. This classification, like any other taxonomy based on phylogenetic research is in a state of flux. Many of these ordinal and higher-level groupings have not been supported in both the recent morphological and molecular literature. Examples of demonstrably paraphyletic or unnatural groups include the Paracanthopterygii, Scorpaeniformes, and Perciformes . The listing follows FishBase with notes when this differs from Nelson and ITIS. Subclass Chondrostei Order Polypteriformes, including the bichirs and reedfishes In Nelson, Polypteriformes is placed in its own subclass Cladistia. Order Acipenseriformes, including the sturgeons and paddlefishes Subclass Neopterygii Infraclass Holostei Order Lepisosteiformes, the gars Order Amiiformes, the bowfins Infraclass Teleostei Superorder Osteoglossomorpha Order Osteoglossiformes, the bony-tongued fishes Order Hiodontiformes, including the mooneye and goldeye Superorder Elopomorpha Order Elopiformes, including the ladyfishes and tarpon Order Albuliformes, the bonefishes Order Notacanthiformes, including the halosaurs and spiny eels Order Anguilliformes, the true eels and gulpers Order Saccopharyngiformes, including the gulper eel Superorder Clupeomorpha Order Clupeiformes, including herrings and anchovies Superorder Ostariophysi Order Gonorynchiformes, including the milkfishes Order Cypriniformes, including barbs, carp, danios, goldfishes, loaches, minnows, rasboras Order Characiformes, including characins, pencilfishes, hatchetfishes, piranhas, tetras, dourado / golden (genus Salminus) and pacu. Order Gymnotiformes, including electric eels and knifefishes Order Siluriformes, the catfishes Superorder Protacanthopterygii Order Salmoniformes, including salmon and trout Order Esociformes the pike Order Osmeriformes, including the smelts and galaxiids Superorder Stenopterygii Order Ateleopodiformes, the jellynose fish Order Stomiiformes, including the bristlemouths and marine hatchetfishes Superorder Cyclosquamata Order Aulopiformes, including the Bombay duck and lancetfishes Superorder Scopelomorpha Order Myctophiformes, including the lanternfishes Superorder Lampridiomorpha Order Lampriformes, including the oarfish, opah and ribbonfishes Superorder Polymyxiomorpha Order Polymixiiformes, the beardfishes Superorder Paracanthopterygii Order Percopsiformes, including the cavefishes and trout-perches Order Batrachoidiformes, the toadfishes Order Lophiiformes, including the anglerfishes Order Gadiformes, including cods Order Ophidiiformes, including the pearlfishes Superorder Acanthopterygii Order Mugiliformes, the mullets Order Atheriniformes, including silversides and rainbowfishes Order Beloniformes, including the flyingfishes Order Cetomimiformes, the whalefishes Order Cyprinodontiformes, including livebearers, killifishes Order Stephanoberyciformes, including the ridgeheads Order Beryciformes, including the fangtooths and pineconefishes Order Zeiformes, including the dories Order Gobiesociformes, the clingfishes In ITIS, Gobiesociformes is placed as the suborder Gobiesocoidei of the order Perciformes. Order Gasterosteiformes including sticklebacks Order Syngnathiformes, including the seahorses and pipefishes In Nelson and ITIS, Syngnathiformes is placed as the suborder Syngnathoidei of the order Gasterosteiformes. Order Synbranchiformes, including the swamp eels Order Tetraodontiformes, including the filefishes and pufferfish Order Pleuronectiformes, the flatfishes Order Scorpaeniformes, including scorpionfishes and the sculpins Order Perciformes 40% of all fish including anabantids, Centrarchids (incl. bass and sunfish), Cichlids, gobies, gouramis, mackerel, tuna, perches, scats, whiting, wrasses'' Notes | Actinopterygii |@lemmatized actinopterygii:1 plural:1 form:1 actinopterygius:1 constitute:1 class:3 ray:5 finned:1 fish:6 fin:6 call:1 possess:1 lepidotrichia:1 web:1 skin:1 support:3 bony:3 horny:1 spine:1 oppose:1 fleshy:1 lob:1 characterize:1 sarcopterygii:1 actinopterygian:1 attach:1 directly:1 proximal:1 basal:1 skeletal:1 element:1 radial:1 represent:2 link:1 connection:1 internal:1 skeleton:1 e:1 g:1 pelvic:1 pectoral:1 girdle:1 term:1 number:1 actinopterygians:2 dominant:1 vertebrate:1 nearly:2 specie:2 ubiquitous:1 throughout:1 fresh:1 water:1 marine:2 environment:1 deep:1 sea:1 high:2 mountain:1 stream:1 extant:1 range:1 size:1 paedocypris:1 massive:1 ocean:1 sunfish:2 long:2 bodied:1 oarfish:2 least:1 fossil:4 record:1 hypsospondylus:1 early:1 known:1 actinopterygiian:1 andreolepis:1 hedei:1 date:1 back:1 million:1 year:1 late:1 silurian:1 microvertebrate:1 uncover:1 russia:1 sweden:1 estonia:1 palaeobase:1 classification:2 traditionally:1 three:1 grade:1 recognise:1 chondrostei:2 holostei:2 teleostei:2 morphological:3 evidence:1 suggest:2 second:1 paraphyletic:2 abandon:1 however:1 recent:2 work:1 base:3 complete:2 sampling:1 taxon:1 also:1 analysis:1 dna:1 sequence:2 data:1 mitochondrial:1 genome:1 recognition:1 living:1 teleost:1 listing:2 different:1 group:2 give:1 level:3 order:51 arrange:1 evolutionary:1 primarily:1 history:1 study:1 like:1 taxonomy:1 phylogenetic:1 research:1 state:1 flux:1 many:1 ordinal:1 grouping:1 molecular:1 literature:1 example:1 demonstrably:1 unnatural:1 include:34 paracanthopterygii:2 scorpaeniformes:2 perciformes:3 follow:1 fishbase:1 note:2 differs:1 nelson:3 itis:3 subclass:3 polypteriformes:2 bichirs:1 reedfishes:1 place:3 cladistia:1 acipenseriformes:1 sturgeon:1 paddlefish:1 neopterygii:1 infraclass:2 lepisosteiformes:1 gar:1 amiiformes:1 bowfin:1 superorder:12 osteoglossomorpha:1 osteoglossiformes:1 tongue:1 hiodontiformes:1 mooneye:1 goldeye:1 elopomorpha:1 elopiformes:1 ladyfish:1 tarpon:1 albuliformes:1 bonefish:1 notacanthiformes:1 halosaurs:1 spiny:1 eel:5 anguilliformes:1 true:1 gulper:2 saccopharyngiformes:1 clupeomorpha:1 clupeiformes:1 herring:1 anchovy:1 ostariophysi:1 gonorynchiformes:1 milkfishes:1 cypriniformes:1 barb:1 carp:1 danios:1 goldfish:1 loach:1 minnow:1 rasboras:1 characiformes:1 characin:1 pencilfishes:1 hatchetfishes:2 piranha:1 tetra:1 dourado:1 golden:1 genus:1 salminus:1 pacu:1 gymnotiformes:1 electric:1 knifefishes:1 siluriformes:1 catfish:1 protacanthopterygii:1 salmoniformes:1 salmon:1 trout:2 esociformes:1 pike:1 osmeriformes:1 smelt:1 galaxiids:1 stenopterygii:1 ateleopodiformes:1 jellynose:1 stomiiformes:1 bristlemouths:1 cyclosquamata:1 aulopiformes:1 bombay:1 duck:1 lancetfish:1 scopelomorpha:1 myctophiformes:1 lanternfish:1 lampridiomorpha:1 lampriformes:1 opah:1 ribbonfish:1 polymyxiomorpha:1 polymixiiformes:1 beardfishes:1 percopsiformes:1 cavefishes:1 perch:2 batrachoidiformes:1 toadfish:1 lophiiformes:1 anglerfish:1 gadiformes:1 cod:1 ophidiiformes:1 pearlfish:1 acanthopterygii:1 mugiliformes:1 mullet:1 atheriniformes:1 silverside:1 rainbowfishes:1 beloniformes:1 flyingfishes:1 cetomimiformes:1 whalefishes:1 cyprinodontiformes:1 livebearers:1 killifish:1 stephanoberyciformes:1 ridgeheads:1 beryciformes:1 fangtooths:1 pineconefishes:1 zeiformes:1 dory:1 gobiesociformes:2 clingfish:1 suborder:2 gobiesocoidei:1 gasterosteiformes:2 stickleback:1 syngnathiformes:2 seahorse:1 pipefish:1 syngnathoidei:1 synbranchiformes:1 swamp:1 tetraodontiformes:1 filefish:1 pufferfish:1 pleuronectiformes:1 flatfish:1 scorpionfish:1 sculpin:1 anabantids:1 centrarchid:1 incl:1 bass:1 cichlid:1 goby:1 gouramis:1 mackerel:1 tuna:1 scat:1 white:1 wrasse:1 |@bigram ray_finned:1 finned_fish:1 mitochondrial_genome:1 bony_fish:1 salmon_trout:1 |
4,549 | Kaddish | Kaddish (קדיש Aramaic: "holy") refers to an important and central prayer in the Jewish prayer service. The central theme of the Kaddish is the magnification and sanctification of God's name. In the liturgy, several variations of the Kaddish are used functionally as separators between various sections of the service. The term "Kaddish" is often used to refer specifically to "The Mourners' Kaddish," said as part of the mourning rituals in Judaism in all prayer services as well as at funerals and memorials. When mention is made of "saying Kaddish", this unambiguously denotes the rituals of mourning. The opening words of this prayer are inspired by , a vision of God becoming great in the eyes of all the nations. The central line of the kaddish in Jewish tradition is the congregation's response "May His great name be blessed forever and to all eternity", a public declaration of God's greatness and eternality. This response is a paraphrase of part of . The Mourners', Rabbis' and Complete Kaddish end with a supplication for peace, which is in Hebrew, and comes from the Bible. Along with the Shema and Amidah, the Kaddish is one of the most important and central prayers in the Jewish liturgy. History and background "The Kaddish is in origin a closing doxology to an Aggadic discourse" (Pool). Most of it is written in Aramaic, which at the time of its original composition, was the lingua franca of the Jewish people. It is not composed in the vernacular Aramaic, however, but rather in a "literary, jargon Aramaic" that was used in the academies, and is identical to the dialect of the Targum (Pool). Kaddish was not originally said by mourners, but rather by the rabbis when they finished giving sermons on Sabbath afternoons and later, when they finished studying a section of midrash or aggadah. This practice developed in Babylonia where most people understood only Aramaic and sermons were given in Aramaic so Kaddish was said in the vernacular. This is why it is currently said in Aramaic. This "Rabbinical Kaddish" (Kaddish d'Rabbanan) is still said after studying midrash or aggadah or after reading them as part of the service. It differs from the regular Kaddish because of its inclusion of a prayer for rabbis, scholars and their disciples. While anyone may say this Kaddish, it has become the custom for mourners to say the Rabbinical Kaddish in addition to the Mourner's Kaddish. The oldest version of the Kaddish is found in the Siddur of Rab Amram Gaon, c. 900. The Jewish Virtual Library observes that "The first mention of mourners saying Kaddish at the end of the service is in a thirteenth century halakhic writing called the Or Zarua. The Kaddish at the end of the service became designated as Kaddish Yatom or Mourners' Kaddish (literally, "Orphan's Kaddish")." The Lord's Prayer in Christianity has its roots in the Kaddish and shares similar themes. Variations The various versions of the Kaddish are: Chatzi Kaddish (חצי קדיש) or Kaddish Le'ela (קדיש לעלא) Literally "Half Kaddish", sometimes called the "Readers Kaddish" Kaddish Yatom (קדיש יתום) or Kaddish Yehe Shelama Rabba (קדיש יהא שלמא רבא) Literally "Orphan's Kaddish", although commonly referred to as Kaddish Avelim (קדיש אבלים), the "Mourners' Kaddish" Kaddish Shalem (קדיש שלם) or Kaddish Titkabbal (קדיש תתקבל) Literally "Complete Kaddish" or "Whole Kaddish" Kaddish d'Rabbanan (קדיש דרבנן) or Kaddish al Yisrael (קדיש על ישראל) Literally "Kaddish of the Rabbis" Kaddish achar Hakk'vura (קדיש אחר הקבורה) Literally "Kaddish after a Burial", also called Kaddish d'Itchadata (קדיש דאתחדתא) named after one of the first distinguishing words in this variant. In the presence of a minyan, this version is also said at the siyum upon completion of the comprehensive study of any one of the Talmud's tractates ("volumes") and is printed at the end of most tractates. Most versions of the Kaddish begin with the Chatzi Kaddish (Half Kaddish). (There are some inserted passages in the Kaddish after a burial.) The longer versions contain additional paragraphs, and are often named after distinctive words in those paragraphs. The Kaddish, as used in the services, is chanted. The melody varies depending on the version as well as on the point in the service at which it is recited. While the Chatzi Kaddish generally has a distinctively upbeat melody, the Mourners' Kaddish is recited slowly and contemplatively. The Half Kaddish is used to punctuate divisions within the service: for example, before Barechu, between the Shema and the Amidah and following readings from the Torah. The Kaddish d'Rabbanan is used after any part of the service that includes extracts from the Mishnah or the Talmud, as its original purpose was to close a study session. Kaddish Titkabbal originally marked the end of the service, though now there are a few passages and hymns following it. Kaddish Yehe Shelama Rabba is used as the Mourners' Kaddish, and this is the best known use of Kaddish. The Jewish Encyclopedia's Kaddish article mentions an additional type of Kaddish, called "Kaddish Yachid", or "Individual's Kaddish". This is contained in the Siddur of Amram Gaon, but is a meditation taking the place of Kaddish rather than a Kaddish in the normal sense. Text of the Kaddish The following includes the half, complete, mourners' and rabbis' kaddish. The variant lines of the burial kaddish are given below. # English translation Transliteration Aramaic / Hebrew 1 Exalted and sanctifiedb is God's great name.a Yitgaddal veyitqaddash shmeh rabba יִתְגַּדַּל וְיִתְקַדַּשׁ שְׁמֵהּ רַבָּא. 2 in the world which He has created according to His will Beʻalma di vra khir'uteh בְּעָלְמָא דִּי בְרָא כִרְעוּתֵהּ 3 and may He establish His kingdom veyamlikh malkhuteh וְיַמְלִיךְ מַלְכוּתֵהּ 4 may his salvation blossom and his anointed near.ad [veyatzmakh purqaneh viqarev (Ketz) meshikheh] וְיַצְמַח פֻּרְקָנֵהּ וִיקָרֵב(קיץ) מְשִׁיחֵהּ 5 in your lifetime and your days bekhayekhon uvyomekhon בְּחַיֵּיכוֹן וּבְיוֹמֵיכוֹן 6 and in the lifetimes of all the House of Israel uvkhaye dekhol bet yisrael וּבְחַיֵּי דְכָל בֵּית יִשְׂרָאֵל 7 speedily and soon; and say, Amen.a beʻagala uvizman qariv veʼimru amen בַּעֲגָלָא וּבִזְמַן קָרִיב. וְאִמְרוּ אָמֵן The next two lines are recited by the congregation and then the leader: 8 May His great name be blessed yehe shmeh rabba mevarakh יְהֵא שְׁמֵהּ רַבָּא מְבָרַךְ 9 forever and to all eternity. leʻalam ulʻalme ʻalmaya לְעָלַם וּלְעָלְמֵי עָלְמַיָּא 10 Blessed and praised, glorified and exalted, Yitbarakh veyishtabbakh veyitpaar veyitromam יִתְבָּרַךְ וְיִשְׁתַּבַּח וְיִתְפָּאַר וְיִתְרוֹמַם 11 extolled and honored, elevated and lauded veyitnasse veyithaddar veyitʻalle veyithallal וְיִתְנַשֵּׂא וְיִתְהַדָּר וְיִתְעַלֶּה וְיִתְהַלָּל 12 be the Name of the Holy One, blessed be He.a shmeh dequdsha, brikh hu. שְׁמֵהּ דְקֻדְשָׁא בְּרִיךְ הוּא. 13 beyond (far beyondc) all the blessings leʻella (lʻella mikkol) min kol birkhata לְעֵלָּא (לְעֵלָּא מִכָּל) מִן כָּל בִּרְכָתָא 14 and hymns, praises and consolations veshirata tushbekhata venekhemata וְשִׁירָתָא תֻּשְׁבְּחָתָא וְנֶחֱמָתָא 15 that are spoken in the world; and say, Amen.a daamiran bealma veʼimru amen דַּאֲמִירָן בְּעָלְמָא. וְאִמְרוּ אָמֵן The half kaddish ends here. Here the "complete kaddish" includes: 16 eLet them be accepted: the prayers and supplications Titqabbal tzlothon uvaʻuthon תִּתְקַבל צְלוֹתְהוֹן וּבָעוּתְהוֹן 17 of the entire House of Israel dekhol bet yisrael דְּכָל בֵּית יִשְׂרָאֵל 18 before their Father in Heaven; and say, Amen.a qodam avuhon di bishmayya, veʼimru amen קֳדָם אֲבוּהוֹן דִּי בִשְׁמַיָּא וְאִמְרוּ אָמֵן Here the "kaddish of the rabbis" includes: 19 Upon Israel and its rabbis and their students ʻal yisrael veʻal rabbanan veʻal talmidehon עַל יִשְׂרָאֵל וְעַל רַבָּנָן וְעַל תַּלְמִידֵיהוֹן 20 and upon all their student's students veʻal kol talmidey talmidehon וְעַל כָּל תַּלְמִידֵי תַלְמִידֵיהוֹן. 21 and upon all those who engage in the Torah veʻal kol man deʻos'kin beorayta וְעַל כָּל מָאן דְּעָסְקִין בְּאוֹרַיְתָא. 22 in this [holy]z place and in all other places di beatra [qadisha] haden vedi bekhol atar veatar דִּי בְאַתְרָא [קַדִישָא] הָדֵין וְדִי בְּכָל אֲתַר וַאֲתַר. 23 may they and you have much peace yehe lehon ulkhon shlama rabba יְהֵא לְהוֹן וּלְכוֹן שְׁלָמָא רַבָּא 24 grace and kindness and mercy and long life khinna vekhisda verachamey vechayye arikhe חִנָּא וְחִסְדָּא וְרַחֲמֵי וְחַיֵּי אֲרִיכֵי 25 and plentiful nourishment and salvation umzone reviche ufurqana וּמְזוֹנֵי רְוִיחֵי וּפוְּרְקָנָא 26 from before their Father in Heaven [and Earth]; min qodam avuhon di vishmayya [veʼarʻa]e מִן קֳדָם אֲבוּהוּן דְבִשְׁמַיָּא [וְאַרְעָא] 27 and say, Amen.a veʼimru amen וְאִמְרוּ אָמֵן All variants but the half kaddish conclude: 28 fMay there be much peace from Heaven, Yehe shlama rabba min shmayya יְהֵא שְׁלָמָה רבָּא מִן שְׁמַיָּא, 29 [and] [good] life [ve]khayyim [tovim] [וְ]חַיִּים [טוֹבִים] 30 and satiety, and salvation, and comfort, and saving vesava vishuʻa venekhama veshezava וְשָֹבָע וִישׁוּעָה וְנֶחָמָה וְשֵׁיזָבָה 31 and healing and redemption and forgiveness and atonement urfuʼa ugʼulla uslikha v'khappara וּרְפוּאָה וּגְאֻלָּה וּסְלִיחָה וְכַפָּרָה, 32 and relief and deliveranced verevakh vehatzala וְרֵוַח וְהַצָּלָה 33 for us and for all His people Israel; and say, Amen.a lanu ulkhol ʻammo yisrael veʼimru amen לָנוּ וּלְכָל עַמּוֹ יִשְֹרָאֵל וְאִמְרוּ אָמֵן. 34 fHe who makes peace in His heights ʻose shalom bimromav עוֹשֶֹה שָׁלוֹם בִּמְרוֹמָיו, 35 may He [in his mercy]g make peace upon us hu [berakhamav] yaʻase shalom ʻalenu הוּא [בְּרַחֲמָיו] יַעֲשֶֹה שָׁלוֹם עָלֵינוּ, 36 and upon all [his nation]h Israel; and say, Amen.a veʻal kol [ammo] yisrael, veʼimru amen וְעַל כָּל [עַמּוֹ] יִשְֹרָאֵל וְאִמְרוּ אָמֵן. Text of the Burial Kaddish In the burial kaddishi, lines 2-3 are replaced by: # English translation Transcription Aramaic / Hebrew 37 in the world which will be renewed B'ʻal'ma d'hu ʻatid l'itchaddata בְּעָלְמָא דְהוּא עָתִיד לְאִתְחַדָּתָא 38 and He will give life to the dead ulʼachaya metaya וּלְאַחֲיָאָה מֵתַיָא 39 and raise them to eternal life ulʼassaqa yathon l'chayyey ʻal'ma וּלְאַסָּקָא יָתְהוֹן לְחַיֵּי עָלְמָא 40 and rebuild the city of Jerusalem ulmivne qarta dirushlem וּלְמִבְנֵא קַרְתָּא דִירוּשְׁלֵם 41 and establish his temple within ulshakhlala hekhleh b'gavvah וּלְשַׁכְלָלָא הֵיכְלֵהּ בְּגַוַּהּ 42 removing foreign worship from the earth ulmeʻqar pulchana nukhraʼa m'arʻa וּלְמֶעְקַר פֻּלְחָנָא נֻכְרָאָה מְאַרְעָא 43 and the Heavenly service shall return v'laʼatava pulchana dishmayya l'ʼatreh וּלַאֲתָבָא פֻּלְחָנָא דִשְׁמַיָּא לְאַתְרֵהּ 44 and the Holy One, blessed is He v'yamlikh qudsha b'rikh hu וְיַמְלִיךְ קֻדְשָׁא בְּרִיךְ הוּא 45 in his kingship and splendour ... b'malkhuteh viqareh בְּמַלְכוּתֵהּ וִיקָרֵהּ Notes Bracketed text varies according to personal or communal tradition. (a) The congregation responds with "amen" (אָמֵן) after lines 1, 4, 12, 15, 18, 27, 33, 36. In the Ashkenazi tradition, the response to line 12 is "Blessed be he" (בְּרִיךְ הוּא b'rikh hu). (b) On line 1, some say Yitgaddel veyitqaddesh rather than Yitgaddal veyitqaddash, putting these words into a Hebrew rather than an Aramaic form. (c) Line 13: in the Ashkenazi tradition the repeated "le'ela" is used only during the Ten Days of Repentance. In the Sephardi tradition it is never used. In the Yemenite tradition it is the invariable wording. The phrase "le'ela le'ela" is the Targum's translation of the Hebrew "ma'la ma'la" (Deuteronomy 28:43). (d) Lines 4 and 30-32 are not present in the Ashkenazi tradition. (e) Line 26: Oriental Jews say malka di-shmaya ve-ar'a (the King of Heaven and Earth) instead of avuhon de-vi-shmaya (their Father in Heaven). (f) During the "complete kaddish" some include: Before line 16, "accept our prayer with mercy and favour" Before line 28, "May the name of G-d be blessed, from now and forever" () Before line 34, "My help is from G-d, creator of heaven and earth" () <div id="textnote_g">(g) Line 35: "b'rahamav" is used by Sephardim in all versions of kaddish; by Ashkenazim only in "Kaddish deRabbanan". (h) Line 36: "ammo" is used by most Sephardim, but not by some of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews or Ashkenazim. (i) Lines 37 to 45: these lines are used (i) in the Burial Kaddish; (ii) in the version of the Kaddish DeRabbanan used in a siyum on the completion of a Talmudic tractate; (iii) by Yemenite Jews, in Kaddish DeRabbanan generally. (z) In line 22, the bracketed word is added in the Land of Israel. Customs The Kaddish immediately before Barechu is often sung by the officiant to a rhythmic tune. Every other Kaddish in the service, except for the Mourners' Kaddish (see next section), is usually chanted by the officiant as a recitative. In all cases the congregation makes the necessary responses. In Spanish and Portuguese synagogues, the entire congregation sings Kaddish Yehe Shelama in arvit of Yom Kippur. In Sephardi synagogues the whole congregation sits for Kaddish, except: in the Kaddish immediately before the Amidah, where everyone stands; in the Mourners' Kaddish, where those reciting it stand and everyone else sits. a Half-Kaddish in Arvit on Shabbat is chanted communally while standing (Spanish-Portuguese tradition only). In Ashkenazi synagogues, the custom varies. Very commonly, in both Orthodox and Reform congregations, everyone stands; but in some (especially many Conservative) synagogues, most of the congregants sit. Sometimes, a distinction is made between the different forms of Kaddish, or each congregant stands or sits according to his or her own custom. The Mourners' Kaddish is often treated differently from the other occurrences of Kaddish in the service, as is the Half Kaddish before the maftir. Some Reform synagogues have dropped all use of Kaddish except the Mourners' Kaddish, though in many there is now a move to reinstate it before Barechu and/or the Amidah. Mourners' Kaddish "Mourners' Kaddish" is said at all prayer services and certain other occasions. It takes the form of Kaddish Yehe Shelama Rabba, and is traditionally recited several times, most prominently at or towards the end of the service, after the Aleinu and/or closing Psalms and/or (on the Sabbath) Ani'im Zemirot. Following the death of a parent, child, spouse, or sibling it is customary to recite the Mourners' Kaddish in the presence of a congregation daily for thirty days (eleven months in the case of a parent), and then at every anniversary of the death; and in what follows, a "mourner" means any person present at a service who has the obligation to recite Kaddish in accordance with these rules. Customs for reciting the Mourners' Kaddish vary markedly among various communities. In Sephardi synagogues, the custom is that all the mourners stand and chant the Kaddish together. In Ashkenazi synagogues, the earlier custom was that one mourner be chosen to lead the prayer on behalf of the rest, though most congregations have now adopted the Sephardi custom. In many Reform synagogues, the entire congregation recites the Mourners' Kaddish together. This is sometimes said to be for those victims of the Holocaust who have no one left to recite the Mourner's Kaddish on their behalf. In some congregations (especially Reform and Conservative ones), the Rabbi will read a list of those who have a Yahrzeit on that day (or who have died within the past month), and then ask the congregants to name any people they are mourning, similar to the Misheberach. Some synagogues try to multiply the number of times that the Mourners' Kaddish is recited by, for example, reciting a separate Mourners' Kaddish after both Aleinu and then each closing Psalm. Other synagogues limit themselves to one Mourners' Kaddish at the end of the service. It is important to note that the Mourners' Kaddish does not mention death at all, but instead praises God. Though the Kaddish is often popularly referred to as the "Jewish Prayer for the Dead," that designation more accurately belongs to the prayer called "El Maleh Rachamim," which specifically prays for the soul of the deceased. Creative works Leonard Bernstein's Symphony No. 3, Kaddish, for Orchestra, Mixed Chorus, Boys' Choir, Speaker and Soprano Solo, 1963 (revised in 1977), is a dramatic work dedicated to the memory of John F. Kennedy. Some interpret it as reaction to the Holocaust, but there is no documentary evidence for this view. Kaddish for Naomi Ginsberg (1894-1956) is one of the most famous and celebrated poems of beat poet Allen Ginsberg "Kaddish" is the title for a work by W. Francis McBeth for a concert band, based on the chant of the prayer. McBeth composed this work as a memorial for his teacher J. Clifton Williams. "Inspired by Kaddish" is a fifteen movement musical composition by Lawrence Siegel. One of the movements is the prayer itself; the remaining fourteen movements are stories of the experiences of a number of Holocaust survivors Lawrence interviewed during his research for the piece. It was debuted by the Keene State College Chamber Singers in May, 2008 in Keene, New Hampshire. Ravel also composed a piece titled "Kaddish". Written in 1914 at Saint-Jean-de-Luz. Uses in the arts The Kaddish has been a particularly common theme and reference point for Jewish writers, especially since the Haskalah. "Kaddish" is the title of an episode of the television show The X-Files (season 4, episode 15), in which a Golem is avenging a murder. "Kaddish" is the title of an episode of the television show Homicide: Life on the Street (season 5, episode 17), in which detective John Munch (Richard Belzer), who is Jewish, investigates the rape and murder of his childhood sweetheart. The Mourner's Kaddish can be heard being recited by Collins and Roger during the song "La Vie Boheme" in the musical Rent. In the television series Drawn Together, Toot recites the Mourner's Kaddish in the episode "A Very Special Drawn Together Afterschool Special," after saying that her son was (metaphorically) dead. In Rocky III, Rocky Balboa recites the Mourners' Kaddish for Mickey. In Philip Roth's novel The Human Stain, the narrator states that the Mourners' Kaddish signifies that "a Jew is dead. Another Jew is dead. As though death were not a consequence of life but a consequence of having been a Jew." In Final Fantasy VII Advent Children, one of the antagonists goes by the name of Kadaj, possibly a take on Kaddish, which keeps in line with the common use of religious symbolism throughout Final Fantasy VII (Jenova is another example of this.) In Tony Kushner's play Angels in America (and the subsequent TV miniseries), the characters of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg say the Kaddish over Roy Cohn's dead body. In the television show Everwood, Ephram Brown recites the Mourner's Kaddish at his mother's unveiling. The Kaddish can be heard in the opening credits of Schindler's List. In Yentl, at her father's burial, the rabbi asks who will say Kaddish (Kaddish is traditionally said by a son). Yentl replies that she will and, to the horror of those assembled, grabs the siddur and starts saying Kaddish. Kaddisch is the first of Ravel's two songs Deux mélodies hébraïques. The fictional character Dan Turpin was killed by Darkseid in Superman: The Animated Series, and at his funeral, there was a Rabbi saying Kaddish. After the episode, there was a message that the episode was dedicated to Jack Kirby, a Jewish comic book artist, who influenced the entire comic book community. In Torch Song Trilogy, the main character Arnold Beckoff says the Mourner's Kaddish for his murdered lover, Alan, much to the horror of his mother. Kaddish For Uncle Manny" from the 4th season of Northern Exposure (first aired 5-3-93) relates to Joel's (Rob Morrow) seeking out of ten Jews in remote Alaska to join him for Kaddish in memory of his recently departed Uncle Manny in New York City. Maurice Minnifield (Barry Corbin) takes to Alaska's airwaves and offers a cash stipend for Jews in KBHR's listening area to trek to Cicely in order to form a minyan, or the prerequisite ten adult males, to accompany his recital of the prayer. As strangers appear from nowhere, Joel realizes that his mitzvah to say Kaddish for his uncle is best accomplished through the presence of his new Cicely family, who although Gentile, are most near and dear to him as compared with ten 'mercenary' Jews who are unknown to him. The episode ends with Joel leading the townspeople through the service. Nobel Laureate Imre Kertesz's "Kaddish for an Unborn Child" Zadie Smith's novel "The Autograph Man" revolves around Alex-Li Tandem, a dealer in autograph memorabilia whose father's Yahrzeit is approaching. The epilogue of the novel features a scene in which Alex-Li recites Kaddish with a minyan. In Frederick Forsyth's novel The Odessa File, a Jew who commits suicide in 1960s Germany requests in his diary/suicide note that someone say Kaddish for him in Israel. At the end of the Novel, a Mossad agent involved in the plot, who comes into possession of the diary, fulfils the dead man's wish. References Cyrus Adler, et al. "Kaddish". Jewish Encyclopedia, 1906. pp. 401-403. Pool, D. de S., The Kaddish, Sivan Press, Ltd, Jerusalem, 1909, (3rd printing, 1964). (see David de Sola Pool) External links Everything you need to know about Kaddish, including an online Kaddish trainer chabad.org Kaddish explanation at the Jewish Virtual Library MP3 Audio of Kaddish Prayer Kaddish & Mourning Information Inspiring Kaddish Stories A free kaddish service Free info on Jewish customs related to death, mourning, Kaddish, shiva, yahrtzeit, the soul, & the afterlife A great story about one man's heroic efforts to say kaddish for his mother | Kaddish |@lemmatized kaddish:144 קדיש:12 aramaic:10 holy:4 refers:1 important:3 central:4 prayer:17 jewish:13 service:20 theme:3 magnification:1 sanctification:1 god:5 name:10 liturgy:2 several:2 variation:2 use:16 functionally:1 separator:1 various:3 section:3 term:1 often:5 refer:3 specifically:2 mourner:34 say:30 part:4 mourning:1 ritual:2 judaism:1 well:2 funeral:2 memorial:2 mention:4 make:5 unambiguously:1 denote:1 mourn:4 opening:2 word:5 inspire:3 vision:1 become:3 great:5 eye:1 nation:2 line:19 tradition:8 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4,550 | Chrysler_Building | The Chrysler Building is an Art Deco skyscraper in New York City, located on the east side of Manhattan in the Turtle Bay area at the intersection of 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue. Standing at , "Map." Turtle Bay Association. Retrieved on January 25, 2009. The Chrysler Building – SkyscraperPage.com it was the world's tallest building for 11 months before it was surpassed by the Empire State Building in 1931. After the destruction of the World Trade Center, it was again the second-tallest building in New York City until December 2007, when the spire was raised on the Bank of America Tower, pushing the Chrysler Building into third position. In addition, The New York Times Building which opened in 2007, is exactly level with the Chrysler Building in height. Emporis Data – See Tallest buildings Ranking The Chrysler Building is a classic example of Art Deco architecture and considered by many contemporary architects to be one of the finest buildings in New York City. In 2007, it was ranked ninth on the List of America's Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects. FavoriteArchitecture.org History The Chrysler Building in 1932 View from Empire State Building, 2005 The Chrysler Building was designed by architect William Van Alen to house the Chrysler Corporation. When the ground breaking occurred on September 19, 1928, there was an intense competition in New York City to build the world's tallest skyscraper. Emporis Data "...a celebrated three-way race to become the tallest building in the world." The Manhattan Company – Skyscraper.org; "...'race' to erect the tallest tower in the world." Despite a frantic pace (the building was built at an average rate of four floors per week), no workers died during the construction of this skyscraper. Design beginnings Van Alen's original design for the skyscraper called for a decorative jewel-like glass crown. It also featured a base in which the showroom windows were tripled in height and topped by twelve stories with glass-wrapped corners, creating an impression that the tower appeared physically and visually light as if floating on mid-air. The Silver Spire; How two men's dreams changed the skyline of New York Paragraph 8. Author: James E. Beyer, American Institute of Architects The height of the skyscraper was also originally designed to be . University of Wisconsin-Madison; School of Engineering – The Chrysler Building However, the design proved to be too advanced and costly for building contractor William H. Reynolds, who disapproved of Van Alen's original plan. Emporis.com – Chrysler Building The design and lease were then sold to Walter P. Chrysler, who worked with Van Alen and redesigned the skyscraper for additional stories; it was eventually revised to be tall. As Walter Chrysler was the chairman of the Chrysler Automobile Corporation, various architectural details and especially the building's gargoyles were modeled after Chrysler automobile products like the hood ornaments of the Plymouth; they exemplify the machine age in the 1920s (see below). Emporis Data Construction Construction commenced on September 19, 1928. In total, almost 400,000 rivets were used and approximately 3,826,000 bricks were manually laid, to create the non-loadbearing walls of the skyscraper. The Chrysler Building, Creating a New York icon, day by day. Pages 54, 158, image caption no.39 ISBN 1-56898-354-9 Contractors, builders and engineers were joined by other building-services experts to coordinate construction. Prior to its completion, the building stood about even with a rival project at 40 Wall Street, designed by H. Craig Severance. Severance increased the height of his project and then publicly claimed the title of the world's tallest building Emporis Data – See source no.4 line 4; "Briefly held the world's tallest title until it was eclipsed by the spire of Chrysler Building." (this distinction excluded structures that were not fully habitable, such as the Eiffel Tower CTBUH – Criteria of World's Tallest Building ). In response, Van Alen obtained permission for a long spire The Chrysler Building, Creating a New York icon, day by day. Page 161. Image caption no.39 – ISBN 1-56898-354-9 and had it secretly constructed inside the frame of the building. The spire was delivered to the site in 4 different sections. The Chrysler Building, Creating a New York icon, day by day. Page 161, image caption no.54 ISBN 1-56898-354-9 On October 23, 1929, the bottom section of the spire was hoisted onto the top of the building's dome and lowered into the 66th floor of the building. The other remaining sections of the spire were hoisted and riveted to the first one in sequential order in just 90 minutes. The Chrysler Building, Creating a New York icon, day by day. Pages xiii (Paragraph 10) and 161. Image caption no.39 – ISBN 1-56898-354-9 Completion Upon completion, May 28, 1930, the added height of the spire allowed the Chrysler Building to surpass 40 Wall Street as the tallest building in the world and the Eiffel Tower as the tallest structure. It was the first man-made structure to stand taller than . Van Alen's satisfaction in these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chrysler's later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee. Less than a year after it opened to the public on May 27, 1931, the Chrysler Building was surpassed in height by the Empire State Building, but the Chrysler Building is still the world's tallest steel-supported brick building. The World's Tallest Brick Building – SkyscraperPicture.com A view from Above – The Chrysler Building (The world's tallest brick building without steel is St. Martin's Church in Landshut begun in 1389.) NationMaster Encyclopedia > St. Martin's church (Landshut) Basilica Churches In Europe <small>Quote:"This gothic church is the highest church in Bavaria and the highest brick building in the world, with a height of 130.6 meters (approx 428 feet)."</small> Property The land on which the Chrysler Building stands was donated to The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, Cooper Union and Chrysler Building a private college that offers every admitted student a full tuition scholarship, in 1902. The land was leased to the Chrysler Corporation to construct the building in 1929. The land and the building continue to be owned by the college; The New York Times – Cooper Union however, the lease has changed several times. The Chrysler Corporation moved out in the 1950s, and in 1957 it was leased to real-estate moguls Sol Goldman and Alex DiLorenzo, and later leased to the Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company. The lobby was refurbished and the facade renovated in 1978–1979. The building was leased by Jack Kent Cooke, a Washington, D.C. investor, in 1979. The spire underwent a restoration that was completed in 1995. In 1998, The Cooper Union leased the building to Tishman Speyer Properties and the Travelers Insurance Group. In 2001, a 75% stake in the lease of the building was sold, for US$ 800 million, to TMW, the German arm of an Atlanta-based investment fund. On June 11, 2008 it was reported that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was in negotiations to buy TMW's 75% economic interest in the building and a share of the Trylons retail structure next door for US$ 800 million. On July 9, 2008 it was announced that the transaction had been completed, and that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was now the owner of the building. Architecture Detail of the Art Deco ornamentation at the crown The Chrysler Building is considered a masterpiece of Art Deco architecture. The distinctive ornamentation of the building based on features that were then being used on Chrysler automobiles. The corners of the 61st floor are graced with eagles, replicas of the 1929 Chrysler hood ornaments; Unaccredited image on the 31st floor, the corner ornamentation are replicas of the 1929 Chrysler radiator caps. 1926 Chrysler Radiator Cap Used On The Chrysler Building The building is constructed of masonry, with a steel frame, and metal cladding. In total, the building currently contains 3,862 windows on its facade and 4 banks of 8 elevators designed by the Otis Elevator Corporation. The building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976. and Crown ornamentation The Chrysler Building is also well renowned and recognized for its terraced crown. Composed of seven radiating terraced arches, Van Alen's design of the crown is a cruciform groin vault constructed into seven concentric members with transitioning set-backs, mounted up one behind each other. The City Review.com – Chrysler Building by AIA Carter B. Horsley The stainless-steel cladding is ribbed and riveted in a radiating sunburst pattern with many triangular vaulted windows, transitioning into smaller segments of the seven narrow set-backs of the facade of the terraced crown. The entire crown is clad with silvery "Enduro KA-2" metal, an austenitic stainless steel developed in Germany by Krupp and marketed under the trade name "Nirosta" (a German acronym for nichtrostender Stahl, meaning "rust-proof steel"). Article: Trade names associated with stainless steels Crown usage When the building first opened, it contained a public viewing gallery on the 71st floor, which was closed to the public in 1945. This floor is now the highest-occupied floor, most recently occupied by an office space management firm. MrBellersNeighborhood - Inside the Needle: The Chrysler Building Gets Lit by David Michaelis The private Cloud Club occupied a three-floor high space from the 66th–68th floors, but closed in the late 1970s. Above the 71st floor, the stories of the building are designed mostly for exterior appearance, functioning mainly as landings for the stairway to the spire. Very narrow with low, sloped ceilings, these top stories are useful only for holding radio-broadcasting and other mechanical and electrical equipment. Television station WCBS-TV (Channel 2) originally transmitted from the top of the Chrysler in the 1940s and early 1950s, before moving to the Empire State Building. For many years, WPAT-FM and WTFM (now WKTU) also used the Chrysler Building as a transmission site, but they also moved to the Empire by the 1970s. There are currently no commercial broadcast stations located at the Chrysler Building. Lighting There are two sets of lighting in the top spires and decoration. The first are the V-shaped lighting inserts in the steel of the building itself. Added later were groups of floodlights which are on mast arms directed back at the building. This allows the top of the building to be lit in many colors for special occasions. This lighting was installed by electrician Charles Londner and crew during construction. Recognition and appeal In more recent years, the Chrysler Building has continued to be a favorite among New Yorkers. In the summer of 2005, New York's own Skyscraper Museum asked one hundred architects, builders, critics, engineers, historians, and scholars, among others, to choose their 10 favorites among 25 New York towers. The Chrysler Building came in first place as 90% of them placed the building in their top-10 favorite buildings. "In a City of Skyscrapers, Which Is the Mightiest of the High? Experts Say It's No Contest", The New York Times, September 1, 2005. Accessed April 8, 2008. The Chrysler Building's distinctive profile has inspired similar skyscrapers worldwide, including One Liberty Place in Philadelphia. The NY Times ARCHITECTURE VIEW; Giving New Life to Philadelphia's Skyline. Paragraph 6, line 4, Quote: "...The tower resembles nothing so much as the Chrysler Building..." University of Wisconsin-Madison; School of Engineering – One Liverty Place; Slide 18, Building Materials Cultural depictions As an iconic part of the New York City skyline, the Chrysler Building has been depicted countlessly in almost every medium—film, photography, video games, art, advertising, music, literature, and even fashion, as its use quickly establishes without doubt the location in which the depicted events are occurring. In the music scene, Meat Loaf's 1993 album Bat Out of Hell II: Back Into Hell'''s cover art depicts a demonic bat clinging to the top floors of the Chrysler Building. The artwork was by done by Michael Whelan. A demonic bat on the top of the Chrysler Building The Chrysler building is widely known to be depicted in many films, such as Deep Impact (1998), where a wall of water surrounds the skyscraper and people can be seen on the 61st-floor observation deck fleeing to the other side of the building. The tower was also prominently featured and being destroyed in the 1998 film, Godzilla, and in Armageddon, which featured the tower being struck by a meteor and its spire came crashing to the ground. In another film, Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer, while Johnny Storm chases the Silver Surfer through Manhattan, the Silver Surfer flies straight through the Chrysler Building. Yahoo! Movies: Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer (2007) Movielocationguide – Rise of the Silver Surfer filming location Towards the end of Steven Spielberg's A.I.: Artificial Intelligence, the Chrysler Building is seen totally underwater as the mechas guide their spacecraft through the submerged ruins of Manhattan. The NY Times – In the Background, but No Bit Player In the film Spider-Man, Spider-Man perches on top of one of the building's gargoyles, mourning his Uncle Ben's murder. The Chrysler Building has also appeared in numerous video games such as Grand Theft Auto IV, being replicated as the "Zirconium Building". Paragraph 3, Hilary Goldstein, Chief News and Features Editor, IGN.com quoted: "...with numerous identifiable landmarks, including the Chrysler Building..." Grand Theft Auto IV – Liberty City real World comparisons Quotations "Art Deco in France found its American equivalent in the design of the New York skyscrapers of the 1920s. The Chrysler Building ... was one of the most accomplished essays in the style." –John Julius Norwich, in The World Atlas of Architecture "The design, originally drawn up for building contractor William H. Reynolds, was finally sold to Walter P. Chrysler, who wanted a provocative building which would not merely scrape the sky but positively pierce it. Its 77 floors briefly making it the highest building in the world—at least until the Empire State Building was completed—it became the star of the New York skyline, thanks above all to its crowning peak. In a deliberate strategy of myth generation, Van Alen planned a dramatic moment of revelation: the entire seven-storey pinnacle, complete with special-steel facing, was first assembled inside the building, and then hoisted into position through the roof opening and anchored on top in just one and a half hours. All of a sudden it was there—a sensational fait accompli." –Peter Gossel and Gabriele Leuthauser, in Architecture in the Twentieth Century "One of the first uses of stainless steel over a large exposed building surface. The decorative treatment of the masonry walls below changes with every set-back and includes story-high basket-weave designs, radiator-cap gargoyles, and a band of abstract automobiles. The lobby is a modernistic composition of African marble and chrome steel." –Elliot Willensky and Norval White, in AIA Guide to New York Gallery References Skyscrapers, Antonino Terranova, White Star Publishers, 2003 (ISBN-8880952307) The Chrysler Building: Creating a New York Icon Day by Day'', D Stravitz, Princeton Architectural Press Publishers, 2002 (ISBN 1568983549) Notes See also Buildings and architecture of New York City 50 Tallest buildings in the U.S. Tallest buildings in New York City World's tallest structures List of tallest buildings and structures in the world List of tallest freestanding structures in the world List of buildings External links The story of Chrysler Building – by CBS Forum Salon.com article (02/2002) New York Architecture Images-the Chrysler Building |- |- | Chrysler_Building |@lemmatized chrysler:57 building:91 art:8 deco:5 skyscraper:14 new:24 york:22 city:10 locate:2 east:1 side:2 manhattan:4 turtle:2 bay:2 area:1 intersection:1 street:3 lexington:1 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4,551 | Malcolm_Fraser | John Malcolm Fraser, AC, CH (born 21 May 1930) is an Australian Liberal Party politician who was the 22nd Prime Minister of Australia. He came to power in the 1975 election following the dismissal of the Whitlam Labor government, in which he played a key role. After three election victories, he was defeated by Bob Hawke in the 1983 election, and ended his career alienated from his own party. Early life Malcolm Fraser in 1956 Born in Toorak, he had a Jewish maternal grandfather, of whose ethnicity Fraser claims never to have been mindful. Australian Biography Malcolm Fraser, part 10, 14-April-1994 The Frasers have had a long history in politics. His grandfather, Simon Fraser, had served in the Victorian parliament and later in the Australian Senate. Fraser grew up on the family's pastoral properties, firstly in Deniliquin, New South Wales in the Riverina and later at "Nareen" in the Western District of Victoria. Fraser was educated at Glamorgan (now part of Geelong Grammar School), Melbourne Grammar School, and completed a degree in philosophy, politics and economics ('Modern Greats') at Magdalen College, Oxford in 1952. Fraser contested the seat of Wannon, in Victoria's Western District, in 1954 for the Liberal Party, losing by 17 votes. The following year, however, he won the seat with a majority of more than five thousand, becoming the youngest member of the House of Representatives, and continued to represent Wannon until his retirement. In 1956 he married Tamara "Tamie" Beggs, a grazier's daughter. The couple have four children. Tamie Fraser professed to have no interest in politics. Rise to Leadership Malcolm Fraser in 1966 Fraser developed an early reputation as a right-winger, and he had a long wait for ministerial preferment. He was finally appointed Minister for the Army by Harold Holt in 1966, in which he presided over the controversial Vietnam war conscription. Under John Gorton he became Minister for Education and Science, and in 1968 he was made Minister for Defence: a challenging post at the height of Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War and the protests against it. In March 1971 Fraser resigned abruptly in protest at what he said was Gorton's interference in his ministerial responsibilities. This led to the downfall of Gorton and his replacement by William McMahon. Under McMahon, Fraser once again became Minister for Education and Science. When the Liberals were defeated at the 1972 election by the Labor Party under Gough Whitlam, he became a member of the opposition front bench under Billy Snedden's leadership. Role in "the dismissal" Fraser responded to Snedden's defeat at the 1974 election by successfully challenging for the opposition leadership. In 1975, in the context of a series of ministerial scandals that were rocking the Whitlam government, Fraser opted to use the Coalition opposition Senate numbers to delay the government's budget bills with the objective of achieving an early election (see 1975 Australian constitutional crisis). After several months of deadlock, during which the government secretly explored methods of obtaining supply funding outside the Parliament In Matters for Judgment, Sir John Kerr recounted having to reject (on the ground that it was unsigned) government advice to that end proffered by Attorney General Kep Enderby. Governor-General Sir John Kerr intervened and revoked Whitlam’s commission on 11 November 1975. Fraser was immediately sworn in as caretaker prime minister on condition that he give the Governor-General immediate advice to dissolve both Houses and issue writs for an election for both Houses. Malcolm Fraser's role in "the dismissal" remains one of the most passionately debated subjects in Australian political history. Prime Minister The Liberal-Country Party coalition won a landslide victory with the support of media, notably the Murdoch press, which had previously supported the ALP. The Murdoch papers and the 1975 ‘dismissal’ election: oxfordbigideas.com The Coalition won a second term nearly as easily in 1977. The Liberal Party won a majority in their own right in both elections; there being no need to have a coalition with the Country Party, there was considerable speculation that the Liberals would govern alone, however the coalition was retained. Fraser quickly dismantled some of the programs of the Labor government, such as the Ministry for the Media, and he made major changes to the universal health insurance system Medibank. He initially maintained Whitlam's real level of tax and spending, but real per-person tax and spending soon began to increase. He did manage to rein in inflation which had soared under Whitlam. Although his so-called "Razor Gang" ABC-TV The 7:30 Report, 1 January 2006 implemented stringent budget cuts across many areas of the Commonwealth Public Sector, including the ABC, the Fraser government did not carry out the radically conservative program that his political enemies had predicted, and that some of his followers wanted. He in fact proved surprisingly moderate in office, to the frustration of his Treasurer, John Howard, and other pro-Thatcherite ministers, who were strong adherents of free market economics (see New Right). Fraser's economic record was marred by rising unemployment, which reached record levels under his administration, caused in part by the ongoing effects of the 1973 oil crisis. Fraser was active in foreign policy. He supported the Commonwealth in campaigning to abolish apartheid in South Africa, and refused permission for the aircraft carrying the Springbok rugby team to refuel on Australian territory en route to their controversial 1981 tour of New Zealand. However, an earlier tour by the South African Ski Boat Angling Team was allowed to pass through Australia on the way to New Zealand in 1977, and the transit records were suppressed by Cabinet order. Fraser opposed white minority rule in Rhodesia. During the 1979 Commonwealth Conference, Fraser, together with his Nigerian counterpart, convinced newly-elected British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher to withhold recognition of the internal settlement Zimbabwe Rhodesia government (Thatcher had earlier promised to recognise it). Subsequently, the Lancaster House talks were held and Robert Mugabe was elected leader of an independent Zimbabwe at the inaugural 1980 election. A former deputy secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade has stated that Fraser was 'the principal architect' in the installation of Robert Mugabe. Tanzanian president Julius Nyerere said he considered Fraser's role "crucial in many parts", and Zambian president Kenneth Kaunda called it "vital". Under his government, Australia also recognised Indonesia's annexation of East Timor, although many East Timorese refugees were granted asylum in Australia. Fraser was a strong supporter of the United States and supported the boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. But, although he persuaded some sporting bodies not to compete, Fraser did not try to the prevent the Australian Olympic Committee sending a team to the Moscow games. Fraser also surprised his critics in immigration policy. According to 1977 cabinet documents, the Fraser government adopted a formal policy for "a humanitarian commitment to admit refugees for resettlement". Fraser expanded immigration from Asian countries and allowed more refugees to enter Australia. Fraser supported multiculturalism and established a government-funded multilingual radio and television network, the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS), though their first radio stations were established under the Whitlam government. A brief history of SBS, SBS web site Despite his support for SBS, the Fraser government imposed stringent budget cuts on the national broadcaster, the ABC, which came under repeated attack from the Coalition for its supposed left-wing bias and for allegedly "unfair" or critical coverage on TV programs including This Day Tonight and Four Corners, and on the ABC's new youth-oriented radio station Double Jay (2JJ). One of the results of the cuts was the plan to establish a national youth radio network, of which Double Jay was the first station. The network was delayed for many years, and did not come to fruition until the 1990s. Fraser also legislated to give Indigenous Australians control of their traditional lands in the Northern Territory, but would not impose land rights laws on the conservative governments in the states. Decline and fall At the 1980 election, Fraser saw his majority sharply reduced and his coalition lost control of the Senate. Fraser was convinced, however, that he had the measure of the Labor leader, Bill Hayden. But in 1982 the economy experienced a sharp recession; and also a protracted scandal over tax-avoidance schemes run by prominent Liberals plagued the government. A popular minister, Andrew Peacock, resigned from Cabinet and challenged Fraser's leadership. Although Fraser won, these events left him politically weakened. By the end of 1982 it was obvious that the popular former trade union leader Bob Hawke was going to replace Hayden as Labor leader. Fraser was emboldened by a swing to the coalition in a by-election for the Division of Flinders, and wanting to defeat Hayden before Hawke could replace him, he called a snap election. However, he had left his run too late. On the day Fraser called the election for 5 March, Hawke replaced Hayden as leader of the ALP and Leader of the Opposition. Fraser was heavily defeated by Hawke in the 1983 election. He was the only Prime Minister whose term was marked by double dissolutions at both the beginning and the end. Fraser immediately resigned from Parliament. Over the 13 years that the Liberals then spent in opposition until 1996, they tended to blame the "wasted opportunities" of the Fraser years for their problems, and Fraser grew resentful of this and distanced himself from his old party. The Hawke government supported his bid to become Secretary-General of the Commonwealth of Nations, but it proved unsuccessful. Retirement In retirement Fraser served as Chairman of the United Nations Panel of Eminent Persons on the Role of Transnational Corporations in South Africa 1985, as Co-Chairman of the Commonwealth Group of Eminent Persons on South Africa in 1985-86, and as Chairman of the UN Secretary-General's Expert Group on African Commodity Issues in 1989-90. He was a distinguished international fellow at the American Enterprise Institute from 1984 to 1986. Fraser became president of the foreign aid group Care International in 1991, and worked with a number of other charitable organisations. In 2006, he was appointed Professorial Fellow at the Asia Pacific Centre for Military Law, and in October 2007 he presented his inaugural professorial lecture, "Finding Security in Terrorism’s Shadow: The importance of the rule of law". Memphis trousers affair On 14 October 1986, Fraser, then the Chairman of the Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group, was found in the foyer of the Admiral Benbow Inn, a seedy Memphis hotel, wearing nothing but a towel and confused as to where his trousers were. The hotel was an establishment popular with prostitutes and drug dealers. Though it was rumoured at the time that the former Prime Minister had been with a prostitute, his wife believes it more likely that he was the victim of a practical joke by his fellow delegates. Fraser himself refuses to comment on the matter. The mysterious loss of his trousers resulted in national amusement, the incident passed into Australian folklore, and is still exploited for humorous effect. Estrangement from the Liberal Party Malcolm Fraser at Parliament House in 2008, for Kevin Rudd's national apology to the Stolen Generations. After 1996, Fraser was critical of the Howard Coalition government over foreign policy issues (particularly Howard's alignment with the foreign policy of the Bush administration, which Fraser saw as damaging Australian relationships in Asia). He opposed Howard's policy on asylum-seekers, campaigned in support of an Australian Republic and attacked what he perceived as a lack of integrity in Australian politics, together with former Labor prime minister Gough Whitlam, finding much common ground with his predecessor. 7.30 Report - 10/11/2005: Fraser speaks out on Whitlam dismissal Malcolm Fraser, Gough Whitlam attack political integrity | Herald Sun The 2001 election completed Fraser's estrangement from the Liberal Party. Many Liberals criticised the Fraser years as "a decade of lost opportunity," on deregulation of the Australian economy and other issues. In early 2004, a Young Liberal convention in Hobart called for Fraser's life membership of the Liberal Party to be ended. In 2006, Fraser launched a "scathing attack" on the Howard Liberal government, attacking their policies on areas such as refugees, terrorism and civil liberties, and that "if Australia continues to follow United States policies, it runs the risk of being embroiled in the conflict in Iraq for decades, and a fear of Islam in the Australian community will take years to eradicate". Fraser also said the way the Howard government handled the David Hicks, Cornelia Rau and Vivian Alvarez Solon cases, was questionable. Howard rejects Fraser's concerns On 20 July 2007, Fraser sent an open letter to members of the large activist group GetUp!, encouraging members to support GetUp's campaign for a change in policy on Iraq including a clearly defined exit strategy. Fraser stated: "One of the things we should say to the Americans, quite simply, is that if the United States is not prepared to involve itself in high-level diplomacy concerning Iraq and other Middle East questions, our forces will be withdrawn before Christmas." After defeat of the Howard government at the 2007 federal election, Fraser claimed Howard approached him in a corridor, following a cabinet meeting in May 1977 regarding Vietnamese refugees, and said: "We don't want too many of these people. We're doing this just for show, aren't we?" The claims were made by Fraser in an interview to mark the release of the 1977 cabinet papers. Howard, through a spokesman, denied making the comment. Howard in war refugee snub: Fraser The Australian 1/1/2008 In January 2008, Liberal MP Sophie Mirabella Ms Mirabella boycotted the historic national apology to the 'Stolen Generations' launched an attack on Fraser, after a speech he gave at Melbourne University on "the Bush Administration (reversing) 60 years of progress in establishing a law-based international system", claiming errors and "either intellectual sloppiness or deliberate dishonesty", and that he tacitly supports Islamic fundamentalism, should have no influence on foreign policy, and that his stance on the war on terror has left him open to caricature as a "frothing-at-the-mouth leftie". Liberal MP attacks 'frothing' Fraser National theage.com.au The Malcolm Fraser Collection at the University of Melbourne In 2004, Malcolm Fraser designated the University of Melbourne the official custodian of his personal papers and library to create the Malcolm Fraser Collection at the University of Melbourne. Honours Bust of Malcolm Fraser by political cartoonist, caricaturist and sculptor Peter Nicholson located in the Prime Minister's Avenue in the Ballarat Botanical Gardens Fraser was made a Privy Councillor in 1976, a Companion of Honour in 1977 It's an Honour - Companion of Honour and a Companion of the Order of Australia in 1988. It's an Honour - Companion of the Order of Australia In 2000 he was awarded the Human Rights Medal. He received the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun from the Emperor of Japan in 2006. He has been awarded honorary doctorates from Deakin University, Murdoch University and the University of South Carolina, and is a Professorial Fellow at the Asia Pacific Centre for Military Law at the University of Melbourne. References See also First Fraser Ministry Second Fraser Ministry Third Fraser Ministry Fourth Fraser Ministry Further reading Ayres, Phillip, Malcolm Fraser, a Biography, Heinemann, Melbourne, 1987. Kelly, Paul, "Malcolm Fraser", in Michelle Grattan (ed.), Australian Prime Ministers, New Holland, Sydney, 2000. External links Malcolm Fraser Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia Australian Biography Malcolm Fraser An extensive 1994 interview with Fraser Fraser demands global ban on execution The Malcolm Fraser Collection at the University of Melbourne Malcolm Fraser at the National Film and Sound Archive Video of Malcolm Fraser and Gough Whitlam in their pro-republic commercial How to revive a party that seems to be stuck in opposition: Malcolm Fraser The Age 11/02/2008 Balanced policy the only way to peace: Malcolm Fraser The Age 10/05/2008 | Malcolm_Fraser |@lemmatized john:5 malcolm:20 fraser:85 ac:1 ch:1 born:2 may:2 australian:17 liberal:16 party:12 politician:1 prime:10 minister:16 australia:11 come:3 power:1 election:17 follow:3 dismissal:5 whitlam:11 labor:6 government:20 play:1 key:1 role:5 three:1 victory:2 defeat:6 bob:2 hawke:6 end:5 career:1 alienate:1 early:5 life:2 toorak:1 jewish:1 maternal:1 grandfather:2 whose:2 ethnicity:1 claim:4 never:1 mindful:1 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4,552 | Business_ethics | Business ethics is a form of applied ethics that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a business environment. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and business organizations as a whole. Applied ethics is a field of ethics that deals with ethical questions in many fields such as medical, technical, legal and business ethics. In the increasingly conscience-focused marketplaces of the 21st century, the demand for more ethical business processes and actions (known as ethicism) is increasing. Simultaneously, pressure is applied on industry to improve business ethics through new public initiatives and laws (e.g. higher UK road tax for higher-emission vehicles). Businesses can often attain short-term gains by acting in an unethical fashion; however, such behaviours tend to undermine the economy over time. Business ethics can be both a normative and a descriptive discipline. As a corporate practice and a career specialization, the field is primarily normative. In academia descriptive approaches are also taken. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the degree to which business is perceived to be at odds with non-economic social values. Historically, interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, today most major corporate websites lay emphasis on commitment to promoting non-economic social values under a variety of headings (e.g. ethics codes, social responsibility charters). In some cases, corporations have redefined their core values in the light of business ethical considerations (e.g. BP's "beyond petroleum" environmental tilt). Overview of issues in business ethics General business ethics This part of business ethics overlaps with the philosophy of business, one of the aims of which is to determine the fundamental purposes of a company. If a company's main purpose is to maximize the returns to its shareholders, then it should be seen as unethical for a company to consider the interests and rights of anyone else. Corporate social responsibility or CSR: an umbrella term under which the ethical rights and duties existing between companies and society is debated. Issues regarding the moral rights and duties between a company and its shareholders: fiduciary responsibility, stakeholder concept v. shareholder concept. Ethical issues concerning relations between different companies: e.g. hostile take-overs, industrial espionage. Leadership issues: corporate governance. Political contributions made by corporations. Law reform, such as the ethical debate over introducing a crime of corporate manslaughter. The misuse of corporate ethics policies as marketing instruments. See also: corporate abuse, corporate crime. Ethics of accounting information Creative accounting, earnings management, misleading financial analysis. Insider trading, securities fraud, bucket shops, forex scams: concerns (criminal) manipulation of the financial markets. Executive compensation: concerns excessive payments made to corporate CEO's and top management. Bribery, kickbacks, facilitation payments: while these may be in the (short-term) interests of the company and its shareholders, these practices may be anti-competitive or offend against the values of society. Cases: accounting scandals, Enron, WorldCom Ethics of human resource management The ethics of human resource management (HRM) covers those ethical issues arising around the employer-employee relationship, such as the rights and duties owed between employer and employee. Discrimination issues include discrimination on the bases of age (ageism), gender, race, religion, disabilities, weight and attractiveness. See also: affirmative action, sexual harassment. Issues arising from the traditional view of relationships between employers and employees, also known as At-will employment. Issues surrounding the representation of employees and the democratization of the workplace: union busting, strike breaking. Issues affecting the privacy of the employee: workplace surveillance, drug testing. See also: privacy. Issues affecting the privacy of the employer: whistle-blowing. Issues relating to the fairness of the employment contract and the balance of power between employer and employee: slavery, indentured servitude, employment law. Occupational safety and health. All of the above are also related to the hiring and firing of employees. A employee or future employee can not be hired or fired based on race, age, gender, religion, or any other disciminatory act. Ethics of sales and marketing Marketing, which goes beyond the mere provision of information about (and access to) a product, may seek to manipulate our values and behavior. To some extent society regards this as acceptable, but where is the ethical line to be drawn? Marketing ethics overlaps strongly with media ethics, because marketing makes heavy use of media. However, media ethics is a much larger topic and extends outside business ethics. Pricing: price fixing, price discrimination, price skimming. Anti-competitive practices: these include but go beyond pricing tactics to cover issues such as manipulation of loyalty and supply chains. See: anti-competitive practices, antitrust law. Specific marketing strategies: greenwash, bait and switch, shill, viral marketing, spam (electronic), pyramid scheme, planned obsolescence. Content of advertisements: attack ads, subliminal messages, sex in advertising, products regarded as immoral or harmful Children and marketing: marketing in schools. Black markets, grey markets. See also: memespace, disinformation, advertising techniques, false advertising, advertising regulation Cases: Benetton. Ethics of production This area of business ethics deals with the duties of a company to ensure that products and production processes do not cause harm. Some of the more acute dilemmas in this area arise out of the fact that there is usually a degree of danger in any product or production process and it is difficult to define a degree of permissibility, or the degree of permissibility may depend on the changing state of preventative technologies or changing social perceptions of acceptable risk. Defective, addictive and inherently dangerous products and services (e.g. tobacco, alcohol, weapons, motor vehicles, chemical manufacturing, bungee jumping). Ethical relations between the company and the environment: pollution, environmental ethics, carbon emissions trading Ethical problems arising out of new technologies: genetically modified food, mobile phone radiation and health. Product testing ethics: animal rights and animal testing, use of economically disadvantaged groups (such as students) as test objects. See also: product liability Cases: Ford Pinto scandal, Bhopal disaster, asbestos / asbestos and the law, Peanut Corporation of America. Ethics of intellectual property, knowledge and skills Knowledge and skills are valuable but not easily "ownable" as objects. Nor is it obvious who has the greater rights to an idea: the company who trained the employee, or the employee themselves? The country in which the plant grew, or the company which discovered and developed the plant's medicinal potential? As a result, attempts to assert ownership and ethical disputes over ownership arise. Patent infringement, copyright infringement, trademark infringement. Misuse of the intellectual property systems to stifle competition: patent misuse, copyright misuse, patent troll, submarine patent. Even the notion of intellectual property itself has been criticised on ethical grounds: see intellectual property. Employee raiding: the practice of attracting key employees away from a competitor to take unfair advantage of the knowledge or skills they may possess. The practice of employing all the most talented people in a specific field, regardless of need, in order to prevent any competitors employing them. Bioprospecting (ethical) and biopiracy (unethical). Business intelligence and industrial espionage. Cases: private versus public interests in the Human Genome Project Ethics and Technology The computer and the World Wide Web are two of the most significant inventions of the twentieth century. There are many ethical issues that arise from this technology. It is easy to gain access to information. This leads to data mining, workplace monitoring, and privacy invasion. ethical theory and business (Beauchamp) Medical technology has improved as well. Pharmaceutical companies have the technology to produce life saving drugs. These drugs are protected by patents and there are no generic drugs available. This raises many ethical questions. International business ethics and ethics of economic systems The issues here are grouped together because they involve a much wider, global view on business ethical matters. International business ethics While business ethics emerged as a field in the 1970s, international business ethics did not emerge until the late 1990s, looking back on the international developments of that decade. Many new practical issues arose out of the international context of business. Theoretical issues such as cultural relativity of ethical values receive more emphasis in this field. Other, older issues can be grouped here as well. Issues and subfields include: The search for universal values as a basis for international commercial behaviour. Comparison of business ethical traditions in different countries. Comparison of business ethical traditions from various religious perspectives. Ethical issues arising out of international business transactions; e.g. bioprospecting and biopiracy in the pharmaceutical industry; the fair trade movement; transfer pricing. Issues such as globalization and cultural imperialism. Varying global standards - e.g. the use of child labor. The way in which multinationals take advantage of international differences, such as outsourcing production (e.g. clothes) and services (e.g. call centres) to low-wage countries. The permissibility of international commerce with pariah states. Foreign countries often use dumping as a competitive threat, selling products at prices lower than their normal value. This can lead to problems in domestic markets. It becomes difficult for these markets to compete with the pricing set by foreign markets. In 2009, the International Trade Commission has been researching anti-dumping laws. Dumping is often seen as an ethical issue, as larger companies are taking advantage of other less economically advanced companies. Ethics of economic systems This vaguely defined area, perhaps not part of but only related to business ethics, is where business ethicists venture into the fields of political economy and political philosophy, focusing on the rights and wrongs of various systems for the distribution of economic benefits. John Rawls and Robert Nozick are both notable contributors. Theoretical issues in business ethics Conflicting interests Business ethics can be examined from various perspectives, including the perspective of the employee, the commercial enterprise, and society as a whole. Very often, situations arise in which there is conflict between one or more of the parties, such that serving the interest of one party is a detriment to the other(s). For example, a particular outcome might be good for the employee, whereas, it would be bad for the company, society, or vice versa. Some ethicists (e.g., Henry Sidgwick) see the principal role of ethics as the harmonization and reconciliation of conflicting interests. Ethical issues and approaches Philosophers and others disagree about the purpose of a business ethic in society. For example, some suggest that the principal purpose of a business is to maximize returns to its owners, or in the case of a publicly-traded concern, its shareholders. Thus, under this view, only those activities that increase profitability and shareholder value should be encouraged, because any others function as a tax on profits. Some believe that the only companies that are likely to survive in a competitive marketplace are those that place profit maximization above everything else. However, some point out that self-interest would still require a business to obey the law and adhere to basic moral rules, because the consequences of failing to do so could be very costly in fines, loss of licensure, or company reputation. The noted economist Milton Friedman was a leading proponent of this view. Some take the position that organizations are not capable of moral agency. Under this, ethical behavior is required of individual human beings, but not of the business or corporation. Other theorists contend that a business has moral duties that extend well beyond serving the interests of its owners or stockholders, and that these duties consist of more than simply obeying the law. They believe a business has moral responsibilities to so-called stakeholders, people who have an interest in the conduct of the business, which might include employees, customers, vendors, the local community, or even society as a whole. Stakeholders can also be broken down into primary and secondary stakeholders. Primary stakeholders are people that are affected directly such as stockholders, where secondary stakeholders are people who are not affected directly such as the government. They would say that stakeholders have certain rights with regard to how the business operates, and some would suggest that this includes even rights of governance. Some theorists have adapted social contract theory to business, whereby companies become quasi-democratic associations, and employees and other stakeholders are given voice over a company's operations. This approach has become especially popular subsequent to the revival of contract theory in political philosophy, which is largely due to John Rawls' A Theory of Justice, and the advent of the consensus-oriented approach to solving business problems, an aspect of the "quality movement" that emerged in the 1980s. Professors Thomas Donaldson and Thomas Dunfee proposed a version of contract theory for business, which they call Integrative Social Contracts Theory. They posit that conflicting interests are best resolved by formulating a "fair agreement" between the parties, using a combination of i) macro-principles that all rational people would agree upon as universal principles, and, ii) micro-principles formulated by actual agreements among the interested parties. Critics say the proponents of contract theories miss a central point, namely, that a business is someone's property and not a mini-state or a means of distributing social justice. Ethical issues can arise when companies must comply with multiple and sometimes conflicting legal or cultural standards, as in the case of multinational companies that operate in countries with varying practices. The question arises, for example, ought a company to obey the laws of its home country, or should it follow the less stringent laws of the developing country in which it does business? To illustrate, United States law forbids companies from paying bribes either domestically or overseas; however, in other parts of the world, bribery is a customary, accepted way of doing business. Similar problems can occur with regard to child labor, employee safety, work hours, wages, discrimination, and environmental protection laws. It is sometimes claimed that a Gresham's law of ethics applies in which bad ethical practices drive out good ethical practices. It is claimed that in a competitive business environment, those companies that survive are the ones that recognize that their only role is to maximize profits. Business ethics in the field Corporate ethics policies As part of more comprehensive compliance and ethics programs, many companies have formulated internal policies pertaining to the ethical conduct of employees. These policies can be simple exhortations in broad, highly-generalized language (typically called a corporate ethics statement), or they can be more detailed policies, containing specific behavioral requirements (typically called corporate ethics codes). They are generally meant to identify the company's expectations of workers and to offer guidance on handling some of the more common ethical problems that might arise in the course of doing business. It is hoped that having such a policy will lead to greater ethical awareness, consistency in application, and the avoidance of ethical disasters. An increasing number of companies also requires employees to attend seminars regarding business conduct, which often include discussion of the company's policies, specific case studies, and legal requirements. Some companies even require their employees to sign agreements stating that they will abide by the company's rules of conduct. Many companies are assessing the environmental factors that can lead employees to engage in unethical conduct. A competitive business environment may call for unethical behavior. Lying has become expected in fields such as trading. An example of this are the issues surrounding the unethical actions of the Saloman Brothers. Not everyone supports corporate policies that govern ethical conduct. Some claim that ethical problems are better dealt with by depending upon employees to use their own judgment. Others believe that corporate ethics policies are primarily rooted in utilitarian concerns, and that they are mainly to limit the company's legal liability, or to curry public favor by giving the appearance of being a good corporate citizen. Ideally, the company will avoid a lawsuit because its employees will follow the rules. Should a lawsuit occur, the company can claim that the problem would not have arisen if the employee had only followed the code properly. Sometimes there is disconnection between the company's code of ethics and the company's actual practices. Thus, whether or not such conduct is explicitly sanctioned by management, at worst, this makes the policy duplicitous, and, at best, it is merely a marketing tool. To be successful, most ethicists would suggest that an ethics policy should be: Given the unequivocal support of top management, by both word and example. Explained in writing and orally, with periodic reinforcement. Doable....something employees can both understand and perform. Monitored by top management, with routine inspections for compliance and improvement. Backed up by clearly stated consequences in the case of disobedience. Remain neutral and nonsexist. Ethics officers Ethics officers (sometimes called "compliance" or "business conduct officers") have been appointed formally by organizations since the mid-1980s. One of the catalysts for the creation of this new role was a series of fraud, corruption and abuse scandals that afflicted the U.S. defense industry at that time. This led to the creation of the Defense Industry Initiative (DII), a pan-industry initiative to promote and ensure ethical business practices. The DII set an early benchmark for ethics management in corporations. In 1991, the Ethics & Compliance Officer Association (ECOA) -- originally the Ethics Officer Association (EOA)-- was founded at the Center for Business Ethics(at Bentley College, Waltham, MA) as a professional association for those responsible for managing organizations' efforts to achieve ethical best practices. The membership grew rapidly (the ECOA now has over 1,100 members) and was soon established as an independent organization. Another critical factor in the decisions of companies to appoint ethics/compliance officers was the passing of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations in 1991, which set standards that organizations (large or small, commercial and non-commercial) had to follow to obtain a reduction in sentence if they should be convicted of a federal offense. Although intended to assist judges with sentencing, the influence in helping to establish best practices has been far-reaching. In the wake of numerous corporate scandals between 2001-04 (affecting large corporations like Enron, WorldCom and Tyco), even small and medium-sized companies have begun to appoint ethics officers. They often report to the Chief Executive Officer and are responsible for assessing the ethical implications of the company's activities, making recommendations regarding the company's ethical policies, and disseminating information to employees. They are particularly interested in uncovering or preventing unethical and illegal actions. This trend is partly due to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act in the United States, which was enacted in reaction to the above scandals. A related trend is the introduction of risk assessment officers that monitor how shareholders' investments might be affected by the company's decisions. The effectiveness of ethics officers in the marketplace is not clear. If the appointment is made primarily as a reaction to legislative requirements, one might expect the efficacy to be minimal, at least, over the short term. In part, this is because ethical business practices result from a corporate culture that consistently places value on ethical behavior, a culture and climate that usually emanates from the top of the organization. The mere establishment of a position to oversee ethics will most likely be insufficient to inculcate ethical behaviour: a more systemic programme with consistent support from general management will be necessary. The foundation for ethical behavior goes well beyond corporate culture and the policies of any given company, for it also depends greatly upon an individual's early moral training, the other institutions that affect an individual, the competitive business environment the company is in and, indeed, society as a whole. Religious views on business ethics The historical and global importance of religious views on business ethics is sometimes underestimated in standard introductions to business ethics. Particularly in Asia and the Middle East, religious and cultural perspectives have a strong influence on the conduct of business and the creation of business values. Examples include: Islamic banking, associated with the avoidance of charging interest on loans. Traditional Confucian disapproval of the profit-seeking motive. http://www.stthom.edu/academics/centers/cbes/jonachan.html Quaker testimony on fair dealing. Related disciplines Business ethics should be distinguished from the philosophy of business, the branch of philosophy that deals with the philosophical, political, and ethical underpinnings of business and economics. Business ethics operates on the premise, for example, that the ethical operation of a private business is possible -- those who dispute that premise, such as libertarian socialists, (who contend that "business ethics" is an oxymoron) do so by definition outside of the domain of business ethics proper. The philosophy of business also deals with questions such as what, if any, are the social responsibilities of a business; business management theory; theories of individualism vs. collectivism; free will among participants in the marketplace; the role of self interest; invisible hand theories; the requirements of social justice; and natural rights, especially property rights, in relation to the business enterprise. Business ethics is also related to political economy, which is economic analysis from political and historical perspectives. Political economy deals with the distributive consequences of economic actions. It asks who gains and who loses from economic activity, and is the resultant distribution fair or just, which are central ethical issues. See also Bribery Business culture Business law Corporate behaviour Corporate crime Corporate social responsibility Corruption Ethicism Ethics Ethical implications in contracts Ethical consumerism Ethical code Fiduciary Management Optimism bias Political economy Strategic misrepresentation Strategic planning References Further reading External links EthicsWorld, the gateway to resources on corporate ethics and public sector governance. Podcast interview with Dov Seidman of LRN - Ethical Business Cultures at DishyMix Business Ethics in Knowledge@Wharton, the Wharton School's online business journal. Business ethics section from the website of the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics Economics and Economic Justice in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Commerce with a conscience. Dame Anita Roddick (The Body Shop founder) asks: Can business deliver social change? The Conference Board Ethics Program Baylor University's Hankamer School of Business Annual Business Ethics Forum Grant Thornton IBR Corporate Social Responsibility: a necessity not a choice. | Business_ethics |@lemmatized business:84 ethic:72 form:1 applied:2 examine:2 ethical:51 principle:4 moral:7 problem:8 arise:14 environment:5 apply:3 aspect:2 conduct:11 relevant:1 individual:4 organization:8 whole:4 field:9 deal:7 question:4 many:6 medical:2 technical:1 legal:4 increasingly:1 conscience:2 focused:1 marketplace:4 century:2 demand:1 process:3 action:5 know:2 ethicism:2 increase:3 simultaneously:1 pressure:1 industry:5 improve:2 new:4 public:4 initiative:3 law:14 e:10 g:10 high:2 uk:1 road:1 tax:2 emission:2 vehicle:2 often:6 attain:1 short:3 term:4 gain:3 act:3 unethical:7 fashion:1 however:4 behaviour:4 tend:1 undermine:1 economy:5 time:2 normative:2 descriptive:2 discipline:2 corporate:23 practice:14 career:1 specialization:1 primarily:3 academia:2 approach:4 also:14 take:6 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4,553 | History_of_Niger | Modern Niger. Ancient rock engraving showing herds of giraffe, ibex, and other animals in the southern Sahara near Tiguidit, Niger. The Songhai Empire at its greatest extent, c. 1500. Ruins of the trade oasis of Djado in northeast Niger. French colonial West Africa, c. 1918. Tuareg men in Niger, 1997. This is the history of Niger. See also the history of Africa and the history of West Africa. Pre-Historic Niger Humans have lived in what is now Niger from the earliest times. 3 to 3.5 Million year old Australopithecus bahrelghazali remains have been found in neighboring Chad. Archeologists in Niger have much work to do, with little known of the prehistory of the societies who inhabited the south, the home of the vast majority of modern Nigeriens. Anne C. Haour. One Hundred Years of Archaeology in Niger. Journal of World Prehistory. Volume 17, Number 2, June 2003 , pp. 181-234(54) The deserts and the mountains of the north, though, have garnered attention for the ancient abandoned cities and pre-historic rock carvings found in the Air mountains and the Ténéré desert. Considerable evidence indicates that about 60,000 years ago, humans inhabited what has since become the desolate Sahara of northern Niger. Later, on what was then huge fertile grasslands, from at least 7,000 BCE there was pastoralism, herding of sheep and goats, large settlements and pottery. Cattle were introduced to the Central Sahara (Ahaggar) from 4,000 to 3,500 BCE. Remarkable rock paintings, many found in the Aïr Mountains, dated 3,500 to 2,500 BCE, portray vegetation and animal presence rather different from modern expectations. Shillington, Kevin (1989, 1995). History of Africa, Second Edition. St. Martin's Press, New York. Page 32. One recent find suggests what is now the Sahara of northeast Niger was home to a succession of Holocene era societies. One Saharan site illustrated how sedentary hunter-fisher-gatherers lived at the edge of shallow lakes around 7700–6200 B.C.E., but disappeared during a period of extreme drought that may have lasted for a millennium over 6200–5200 B.C.E. When the climate returned to savanna grasslands -- wetter than today's climate -- and lakes reappeared in what is the modern Ténére desert, a population practicing hunting and fishing, as well as cattle husbandry. This last population survived until almost historical times, from 5200–2500 B.C.E., when the current arid period began. Sereno PC, Garcea EAA, Jousse H, Stojanowski CM, Saliège J-F, et al. (2008) Lakeside Cemeteries in the Sahara: 5000 Years of Holocene Population and Environmental Change. PLoS ONE 3(8): e2995. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002995. As the Sahara dried after 2000 BCE, the north of Niger became the desert it is today, with settlements and trade routes clinging to the Air in the north, the Kaouar and shore of Lake Chad in the west, and (apart for a scattering of oases) most people living along what is now the southern border with Nigeria and the southwest of the country. Metalworking technology A 2002 UNESCO published study suggested that iron smelting at Termit, in eastern Niger may have begun as early as 1500 BC. Iron in Africa: Revisiting the History - Unesco (2002) This finding, which would be of great importance to both the history of Niger and the history of the diffusion of Iron Age metalworking technology in all of sub-Saharan Africa, is as yet contentious. Older accepted studies place the spread of both copper and Iron technology to date from the early first Millennium CE: 1500 years later than the Termit Massif finds. Duncan E. Miller and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Early Metal Working in Sub Saharan Africa' Journal of African History 35 (1994) 1–36; Minze Stuiver and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa' Current Anthropology 1968. Early history By at least the fifth century BCE, Carthage and Egypt became terminals for West African gold, ivory, and slaves trading salt, cloth, beads, and metal goods. With this trade, Niger was on the route between the empires of the Sahel and the empires of the Mediterranean basin. Trade continued into Roman times. Although there are Classical references to direct travel from the Mediterranean to West Africa (Daniels, p. 22f), most of this trade was conducted through middlemen, inhabiting the area and aware of passages through the drying lands. Daniels, Charles (1970). The Garamantes of Southern Libya. Oleander, North Harrow, Middlesex. Page 22. Introduction of the Camel Herodotus wrote of the Garamantes hunting the Ethiopian Troglodytes with their chariots; this account was associated with depictions of horses drawing chariots in contemporary cave art in southern Morocco and the Fezzan, giving origin to a theory that the Garamantes, or some other Saran people, had created chariot routes to provide Rome and Carthage with gold and ivory. However, it has been argued that no horse skeletons have been found dating from this early period in the region, and chariots would have been unlikely vehicles for trading purposes due to their small capacity. Masonen, P: "Trans-Saharan Trade and the West African Discovery of the Mediterranean World." The earliest evidence for domesticated camels in the region dates from the third century. Used by the Berber people, they enabled more regular contact across the entire width of the Sahara, but regular trade routes did not develop until the beginnings of the Islamic conversion of West Africa in the seventh and eighth centuries. Two main trade routes developed. The first ran through the western desert from modern Morocco to the Niger Bend, the second from modern Tunisia to the Lake Chad area. These stretches were relatively short and had the essential network of occasional oases that established the routing as inexorably as pins in a map. Further east of the Fezzan with its trade route through the valley of Kaouar to Lake Chad, Libya was impassable due to its lack of oases and fierce sandstorms. Lewicki, T. (1994). "The Role of the Sahara and Saharians in Relationships between North and South". In UNESCO General History of Africa: Volume 3. University of California Press, ISBN 92-3-601709-6. A route from the Niger Bend to Egypt was abandoned in the tenth century due to its dangers. Medieval Niger Long before the arrival of French influence and control in the area, Niger was an important economic crossroads, and the empires of Songhai, Mali, the Dendi Kingdom, Gao, and Kanem-Bornu, as well as a number of Hausa states, claimed control over portions of the area. During recent centuries, the nomadic Tuareg formed large confederations, pushed southward, and, siding with various Hausa states, clashed with the Fulani Empire of Sokoto, which had gained control of much of the Hausa territory in the late 18th century. Colonization In the 19th century, contact with the West began when the first European explorers--notably Mungo Park (British) and Heinrich Barth (German)--explored the area searching for the mouth of the Niger River. Although French efforts at pacification began before 1900, dissident ethnic groups, especially the desert Tuareg, were not subdued until 1922, when Niger became a French colony. Niger's colonial history and development parallel that of other French West African territories. France administered her West African colonies through a governor general at Dakar, Senegal, and governors in the individual territories, including Niger. In addition to conferring a limited form of French citizenship on the inhabitants of the territories, the 1946 French constitution provided for decentralization of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies. Towards independence A further revision in the organization of overseas territories occurred with the passage of the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of July 23, 1956, followed by reorganizational measures enacted by the French Parliament early in 1957. In addition to removing voting inequalities, these laws provided for creation of governmental organs, assuring individual territories a measure of self-government over internal matters such as education, health, and infrastructure. After the establishment of the Fifth French Republic on 4 October 4 1958, the territories of French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa were given the right to hold a referendum on their membership in the French Community, a modified form of the French Union which both allowed some limited self-government, and was viewed as a path to eventual independence. The December 4th elections (on whether to remain in the French Community, followed shortly by those for the Nigerien territitorial assembly) were contested by the two political blocks of the Territorial Assembly. The Nigerien Progressive Party (PPN), originally a regional branch of the African Democratic Rally (RDA) led the Union Pour L Communaute Franco-Africaine (UCFA) and was headed by PPN leader and deputy-speaker of the Assembly Hamani Diori. The other block was led by the then majority leader of the Assembly, Djibo Bakary. His Movement Socialist Africain (known by the name Sawaba: independence in the Hausa language) called for a "no" vote: one of only two major formations in French West Africa to do so. The other being Guinea's Sekou Toure, which won a no vote. While there have always been questions about French influence in the voting Fuglestad (1983), the major English language history on this says the election was rigged. The results of both elections were confirmed on the 16th. The PPN led UCFA (yes 358,000) defeated SAWABA (no 98,000), winning 54 seats to 4 in the 60 seat assembly. Decalo (1979) p.201 On the 18th Niger declared itself a Republic within the French community and the Territorial Assembly became the Constituent Assembly. This date (18 December 1958) is celebrated as Republic Day, the national holiday of Niger, and considered date of the founding of the nation. In March 1959 this became the Legislative Assembly. Decalo (1979) pp.36-37, 189 In 1958 Diori became president of the provisional government, and then became Prime Minister of Niger in 1959. Having organised a powerful coalition of Hausa, Fula, and Djerma leaders, especially made up of chiefs and traditional leaders, in support of Niger's "Yes" vote in the 1959 referendum, Diori gained French favor. During the 1959-1960 period, the French government banned all political parties except the PPN, effectively making Niger a one-party state. The SAWABA leaders fled into exile, and the member parties of the UCFA were folded into the PPN. Independence The French Fifth Republic passed a revision of the French Community allowing membership of independent states, and on 28 July the Nigerien Legislative Assembly became the Nigerien National Assembly: Independence was declared on 3 August 1960. Diori was elected President of Niger by the national assembly in November 1960. During his presidency, Diori's government favored the maintenance of traditional social structures and the retention of close economic ties with France. He was re-elected unopposed in 1965 and 1970. Diori gained worldwide respect for his role as a spokesman for African affairs and as a popular arbitrator in conflicts involving other African nations. Domestically, however, his administration was rife with corruption, and the government was unable to implement much-needed reforms or to alleviate the widespread famine brought on by the Sahelian drought of the early 1970s. Increasingly criticized at home for his negligence in domestic matters, Diori put down a coup in 1963 and narrowly escaped assassination in 1965. Faced with an attempted military coup and attacks by members of SAWABA, he used French advisers and troops to repress opposition, despite student and union protests against French neocolonialism. However, his relationship with France suffered when his government voiced dissatisfaction with the level of investment in uranium production when Georges Pompidou visited Niger in 1972. The PPN functioned as a platform for a handful of Politburo leaders grouped around Diori and his advisors Boubou Hama and Diamballa Maiga, who were largely unchanged from their first election in 1956. By 1974 the party had not held a congress since 1959 (one was scheduled for late 1974 during the famine induced political crisis, but never held). The PPN election lists were made up of traditional rulers from the main ethnic regions who, upon election to the Assembly, were given only ceremonial power. Ethnic tensions, too, mounted duiring Diori's regime. The Politburo and successive cabinents were made up almost exclusively of Djerma, Songhai and Maouri ethnic groups from the west of the country, the same ethnic base the French had promoted during colonial rule. No Politburo ever contained a member of Hausa or Fula groups, even though the Hausa were the plurality of the population, forming over %40 of Nigeriens. Decalo (1979) p. 180-82. Entry on the "Parti Progressiste Nigerien (PPN)" Widespread civil disorder followed allegations that some government ministers were misappropriating stocks of food aid and accused Diori of consolidating power. Diori limited cabinet appointments to fellow Djerma, family members, and close friends. In addition, he acquired new powers by declaring himself the minister of foreign and defense affairs. for details on this section, see: James Decalo (1979), and especially, Finn Fuglestad (1983) who describes the process of party formation and political horse-trading in the 1950s in great detail 1974 to 1990 On 15 April 1974, Lieutenant colonel Seyni Kountché led a military coup that ended Diori's rule. Diori was imprisoned until 1980 and remained under house arrest. The government that followed, while plagued by coup attempts of its own, survived until 1993. While a period of relative prosperity, the military government of the period allowed little free expression and engaged in arbitrary imprisonment and killing. The first presidential elections took place in 1993 (33 years after independence), and the first municipal elections only took place in 2007. For a detailed account in english of the inner workings of the military regime, see Samuel Decalo (1990), pp.241-285. A member of the FAN Parachute Company, 1988. Upon Kountché's death in 1987, he was succeeded by his Chief of Staff and cousin, Col. Ali Saibou. Saibou liberalized some of Niger's laws and policies, and promulgated a new constitution. He released political prisoners, Including Diori and his old political nemesis Djibo Bakary. However, President Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of union and student demands to institute a multi-party democratic system. The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990. New political parties and civic associations sprang up, and a National Conference was convened in July 1991 to prepare the way for the adoption of a new constitution and the holding of free and fair elections. The debate was often contentious and accusatory, but under the leadership of Prof. André Salifou, the conference developed consensus on the modalities of a transition government. 1990s A transition government was installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put in place in April 1993. While the economy deteriorated over the course of the transition, certain accomplishments stand out, including the successful conduct of a constitutional referendum; the adoption of key legislation such as the electoral and rural codes; and the holding of several free, fair, and nonviolent nationwide elections. Freedom of the press flourished with the appearance of several new independent newspapers. A coalition of parties in 1993 won the Presidential election for Mahamane Ousmane the CDS party candidate. The agreement between the parties fell apart in 1994 leading to governmental paralysis as the CDS on its own no longer had a majority in the assembly. Ousmane dissolved the legislature and called new legislative elections, but the MNSD party won the largest group of seats, so Ousmane was compelled to appoint Hama Amadou of the MNSD as prime minister. As the culmination of an initiative started in 1991, the government signed peace accords in April 1995 with all Tuareg and Toubou groups that had been leading the Tuareg Rebellion since 1990 claiming they lacked attention and resources from the central government. The government agreed to absorb some former rebels in the military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life. The paralysis of government between the President and the Prime Minister who no longer agreed gave Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara a rationale to overthrow the Third Republic and depose the first democratically elected president of Niger, on January 27, 1996. While leading a military authority that ran the government (Conseil de Salut National) during a 6-month transition period, Baré enlisted specialists to draft a new constitution for a Fourth Republic announced in May 1996. Baré organized a Presidential election in June 1996. He ran against four other candidates, including Ousmane. Before voting had finished, Baré dissolved the national electoral committee and appointed another, which announced him the winner with over 50% of the votes cast. When his efforts to justify his coup and subsequent questionable election failed to convince donors to restore multilateral and bilateral economic assistance, a desperate Baré ignored the international embargo on Libya seeking funds for Niger's economy. In repeated violations of basic civil liberties by the regime, opposition leaders were imprisoned; journalists often arrested, beaten, and deported by an unofficial militia composed of police and military; and independent media offices were looted and burned with impunity. In April 1999, Baré was assassinated in a coup led by Maj. Daouda Malam Wanké who established a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution for a Fifth Republic with a French style semi-presidential system. In votes that international observers found to be generally free and fair, the Nigerien electorate approved the new constitution in July 1999 and held legislative and presidential elections in October and November 1999. Heading a MNSD/CDS coalition, Tandja Mamadou won the presidency. The council transitioned to civilian rule in December 1999. 2000s In July 2004, Niger held municipal elections nationwide as part of its decentralization process. Some 3,700 people were elected to new local governments in 265 newly established communes. The ruling MNSD party won more positions than any other political party; however, opposition parties made significant gains. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5474.htm (public domain) In November and December 2004, Niger held presidential and legislative elections. Mamadou Tandja was elected to his second 5-year presidential term with 65% of the vote in an election that international observers called generally free and fair. This was the first presidential election with a democratically elected incumbent and a test to Niger's young democracy. In the 2004 legislative elections, the National Movement for the Development of Society (MNSD), the Democratic and Socialist Convention (CDS), the Rally for Social Democracy (RSD), the Rally for Democracy and Progress (RDP), the Nigerien Alliance for Democracy and Progress (ANDP), and the Social Party for Nigerien Democracy (PSDN) coalition, which backed Tandja, won 88 of the 113 seats in the National Assembly. The Second Tuareg insurgency in Niger began in 2007 when a previously unknown group, the Mouvement des Nigeriens pour la Justice (MNJ), emerged. The predominantly Tuareg group has issued a number of demands, mainly related to development in the north. It has attacked military and other facilities and laid landmines in the north. The resulting insecurity has devastated Niger's tourist industry and deterred investment in mining and oil. The government has labeled the MNJ criminals and traffickers, and refuses to negotiate with the group until it disarms. References James Decalo. Historical Dictionary of Niger. Scarecrow Press/ Metuchen. NJ - London (1979) ISBN 0810812290 Finn Fuglestad. A History of Niger: 1850-1960. Cambridge University Press (1983) ISBN 0521252687 External links Background Note: Niger History of Niger | History_of_Niger |@lemmatized modern:6 niger:42 ancient:2 rock:3 engrave:1 show:1 herd:1 giraffe:1 ibex:1 animal:2 southern:4 sahara:8 near:1 tiguidit:1 songhai:3 empire:5 great:3 extent:1 c:6 ruin:1 trade:9 oasis:4 djado:1 northeast:2 french:26 colonial:3 west:13 africa:14 tuareg:7 men:1 history:14 see:3 also:1 pre:2 historic:2 human:2 live:3 early:9 time:3 million:1 year:7 old:3 australopithecus:1 bahrelghazali:1 remain:3 find:7 neighbor:1 chad:4 archeologist:1 much:3 work:2 little:2 known:1 prehistory:2 society:3 inhabit:3 south:2 home:3 vast:1 majority:3 nigerien:10 anne:1 haour:1 one:7 hundred:1 archaeology:1 journal:3 world:2 volume:2 number:3 june:2 pp:3 desert:6 mountain:3 north:7 though:2 garner:1 attention:2 abandon:2 city:1 carving:1 air:2 ténéré:1 considerable:1 evidence:2 indicate:1 ago:1 since:3 become:9 desolate:1 northern:1 later:2 huge:1 fertile:1 grassland:2 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country:2 metalworking:2 technology:3 unesco:3 publish:1 study:2 iron:5 smelting:1 termit:2 eastern:1 bc:1 revisit:1 finding:1 would:2 importance:1 diffusion:1 age:2 sub:3 yet:1 contentious:2 accepted:1 place:4 spread:1 copper:1 first:8 ce:1 massif:1 duncan:1 miller:1 n:2 van:2 der:2 merwe:2 metal:2 african:8 minze:1 stuiver:1 radiocarbon:1 chronology:1 anthropology:1 fifth:4 century:7 carthage:2 egypt:2 terminal:1 gold:2 ivory:2 slave:1 trading:3 salt:1 cloth:1 bead:1 good:1 sahel:1 mediterranean:3 basin:1 continue:1 roman:1 although:2 classical:1 reference:2 direct:1 travel:1 daniel:2 p:4 conduct:2 middleman:1 area:5 aware:1 passage:2 drying:1 land:1 charles:1 garamantes:3 libya:3 oleander:1 harrow:1 middlesex:1 introduction:1 camel:2 herodotus:1 write:1 hunt:1 ethiopian:1 troglodyte:1 chariot:4 account:2 associate:1 depiction:1 horse:3 draw:1 contemporary:1 cave:1 art:1 morocco:2 fezzan:2 give:4 origin:1 theory:1 saran:1 create:1 provide:3 rome:1 however:5 argue:1 skeleton:1 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part:1 newly:1 commune:1 ruling:1 position:1 significant:1 http:1 www:1 gov:1 r:1 pa:1 ei:1 bgn:1 htm:1 public:1 domain:1 term:1 incumbent:1 test:1 young:1 democracy:5 convention:1 cds:1 rsd:1 progress:2 rdp:1 alliance:1 andp:1 psdn:1 back:1 insurgency:1 previously:1 unknown:1 mouvement:1 des:1 nigeriens:1 la:1 justice:1 mnj:2 emerge:1 predominantly:1 issue:1 mainly:1 relate:1 facility:1 laid:1 landmines:1 insecurity:1 devastate:1 tourist:1 industry:1 deterred:1 mining:1 oil:1 label:1 criminal:1 trafficker:1 refuse:1 negotiate:1 disarm:1 dictionary:1 scarecrow:1 metuchen:1 nj:1 london:1 cambridge:1 external:1 link:1 background:1 note:1 |@bigram songhai_empire:1 vast_majority:1 sheep_goat:1 savanna_grassland:1 hunting_fishing:1 et_al:1 iron_smelting:1 sub_saharan:3 saharan_africa:3 van_der:2 der_merwe:2 trans_saharan:1 kanem_bornu:1 dakar_senegal:1 loi_cadre:1 constituent_assembly:1 legislative_assembly:2 prime_minister:3 elect_unopposed:1 george_pompidou:1 almost_exclusively:1 djerma_songhai:1 lieutenant_colonel:1 seyni_kountché:1 presidential_election:5 samuel_decalo:1 chief_staff:1 mahamane_ousmane:1 hama_amadou:1 tuareg_rebellion:1 ibrahim_baré:1 baré_maïnassara:1 democratically_elect:2 http_www:1 pa_ei:1 ei_bgn:1 bgn_htm:1 mamadou_tandja:1 decalo_historical:1 external_link:1 |
4,554 | Bumin_Qaghan | Bumin Khan (death: 552 AD) was the founder of the Göktürk Empire. He is mentioned as "Tumen" (土門) in the ancient Chinese sources. His name means "smoke cloud". Little is known about his life, and most of the information comes from legends in which he gathers a group of Turkic people living in a legendary place called Ergenekon located in the inaccessible valleys of the Altay Mountains. In 542 he put down a revolt of the Tiele tribes against their overlords the Avars (Rouran, Ruan-Ruan). In return he asked and was refused the hand of an Avar princess. His next move was to successfully establish contact with the Wei state in China. According to Chinese records, in 545 the Sogdian envoy An Nopantuo led a diplomatic mission to China. As a result of the mission, the Göktürk-Chinese alliance was sealed by Bumin's marriage to the princess Wei Chang'le (長樂公主). The beginning of formal diplomatic relations with China propped up Bumin's authority among the Turks. He eventually united the local Turkic tribes and threw off the yoke of the Avar domination. With their defeat he proclaimed the Turkic Empire (Gökturk Khaganate) and assumed the title of Il-Khagan ("great-king", 伊利可汗) at the sacred Mt. Ötüuken. Bumin died within several months after proclaiming himself Il-Khagan. He was succeeded by his brother Istami in the west and by his son Muhan Khan in the east. In less than one century, his empire expanded to comprise most of Central Asia. References | Bumin_Qaghan |@lemmatized bumin:4 khan:2 death:1 ad:1 founder:1 göktürk:2 empire:3 mention:1 tumen:1 土門:1 ancient:1 chinese:3 source:1 name:1 mean:1 smoke:1 cloud:1 little:1 know:1 life:1 information:1 come:1 legend:1 gather:1 group:1 turkic:3 people:1 live:1 legendary:1 place:1 call:1 ergenekon:1 locate:1 inaccessible:1 valley:1 altay:1 mountain:1 put:1 revolt:1 tiele:1 tribe:2 overlord:1 avars:1 rouran:1 ruan:2 return:1 ask:1 refuse:1 hand:1 avar:2 princess:2 next:1 move:1 successfully:1 establish:1 contact:1 wei:2 state:1 china:3 accord:1 record:1 sogdian:1 envoy:1 nopantuo:1 lead:1 diplomatic:2 mission:2 result:1 alliance:1 seal:1 marriage:1 chang:1 le:1 長樂公主:1 beginning:1 formal:1 relation:1 prop:1 authority:1 among:1 turk:1 eventually:1 unite:1 local:1 throw:1 yoke:1 domination:1 defeat:1 proclaim:2 gökturk:1 khaganate:1 assume:1 title:1 il:2 khagan:2 great:1 king:1 伊利可汗:1 sacred:1 mt:1 ötüuken:1 die:1 within:1 several:1 month:1 succeed:1 brother:1 istami:1 west:1 son:1 muhan:1 east:1 less:1 one:1 century:1 expand:1 comprise:1 central:1 asia:1 reference:1 |@bigram göktürk_empire:1 altay_mountain:1 diplomatic_mission:1 diplomatic_relation:1 |
4,555 | Military_of_Equatorial_Guinea | The military of Equatorial Guinea was reorganized in 1979. It consists of approximately 2,500 service members. The army has almost 1,400 soldiers, the police 400 paramilitary men, the navy 200 service members, and the air force about 120 members. There is also a Gendarmerie, but the number of members is unknown. The Gendarmerie is a new branch of the service in which training and education is being supported by the French Military Cooperation in Equatorial Guinea. Overall the military is poorly trained and equipped. It has mostly small arms, RPGs, and mortars. Almost none of its Soviet-style light-armored vehicles or trucks are operational. In 1988, the United States donated a 68-foot patrol boat to the Equatoguinean navy to patrol its exclusive economic zone. The U.S. patrol boat "Isla de Bioko" is no longer operational. U.S. military-to-military engagement has been dormant since 1997 (the year of the last Joint Combined Exchange Training Exercise). Between 1984 and 1992, service members went regularly to the United States on the International Military Education Training program, after which funding for this program for Equatorial Guinea ceased. The government spent 6.5% of its annual budget on defense in 2000 and 4.5% of its budget on defense in 2001. It recently acquired some Chinese artillery pieces, some Ukrainian patrol boats, and some Ukrainian helicopter gunships. The number of paved airports in Equatorial Guinea can be counted on one hand, and as such the number of aeroplanes operated by the airforce is small. The Equatoguineans rely on foreigners to operate and maintain this equipment as they are not sufficiently trained to do so. Military appointments are all reviewed by President Obiang, and few of the native militiamen come from outside of Obiang's Mongomo based Esangui clan. Obiang was a general when he overthrew his uncle, Francisco Macías Nguema. Military branches Army, Navy, Air Force, Rapid Intervention Force, National Police Military manpower - availability Males age 15-49: 105,420 (2000 est.) Military manpower - fit for military service Males age 15-49: 53,564 (2000 est.) Military expenditures - dollar figure $3 million (FY97/98) Military expenditures - percent of GDP 0.6% (FY97/98) Theft of Military Hardware It has been reported that in January 2006 a Saint Kitts & Nevis flagged cargo ship loaded with vehicles and parts meant for the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo was seized while in port within Equatorial Guinea. It is believed that the seized vehicles (which included 15 Belgian Army Pandur APCs leased to Beninise army troops) and parts have been used to equip the Military of Equatorial Guinea, and such seizure are considered by some as an act of piracy. Dude, Where’s My Pandur?” Aircraft inventory The Air Force operates twelve aircraft. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15 2007. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Aero L-39 Albatros || || light attack || 2 || |----- | Antonov An-32 Cline || || tactical transport || 1 || Reported to have crashed |----- | Cessna Skymaster || || liaison || 1 || |----- | Dassault Falcon 900 || || VIP || 1 || |----- | Mil Mi-17 Hip-H || || VIP || 1 || |----- | Mil Mi-24 Hind || || attack || 5 || |----- | Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot || || attack || 4 || |} Navy 1 Daphne patrol boat - 170 tons full load - commissioned 1963 2 Zhuk patrol boats 2 Kalkan patrol craft - 8.5 tons full load References See also Equatorial Guinea | Military_of_Equatorial_Guinea |@lemmatized military:16 equatorial:7 guinea:7 reorganize:1 consist:1 approximately:1 service:6 member:5 army:4 almost:2 soldier:1 police:2 paramilitary:1 men:1 navy:4 air:3 force:4 also:2 gendarmerie:2 number:3 unknown:1 new:1 branch:2 training:2 education:2 support:1 french:1 cooperation:1 overall:1 poorly:1 train:3 equip:2 mostly:1 small:2 arm:1 rpgs:1 mortar:1 none:1 soviet:1 style:6 light:2 armored:1 vehicle:3 truck:1 operational:2 united:3 state:2 donate:1 foot:1 patrol:7 boat:5 equatoguinean:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 zone:1 u:2 isla:1 de:1 bioko:1 longer:1 engagement:1 dormant:1 since:1 year:1 last:1 joint:1 combine:1 exchange:1 exercise:1 go:1 regularly:1 international:1 program:2 funding:1 cease:1 government:1 spend:1 annual:1 budget:2 defense:2 recently:1 acquire:1 chinese:1 artillery:1 piece:1 ukrainian:2 helicopter:1 gunships:1 paved:1 airport:1 count:1 one:1 hand:1 aeroplane:1 operate:3 airforce:1 equatoguineans:1 rely:1 foreigner:1 maintain:1 equipment:1 sufficiently:1 appointment:1 review:1 president:1 obiang:3 native:1 militiaman:1 come:1 outside:1 mongomo:1 base:1 esangui:1 clan:1 general:1 overthrow:1 uncle:1 francisco:1 macías:1 nguema:1 rapid:1 intervention:1 national:1 manpower:2 availability:1 male:2 age:2 est:2 fit:1 expenditure:1 dollar:1 figure:1 million:1 expenditures:1 percent:1 gdp:1 theft:1 hardware:1 report:2 january:2 saint:1 kitts:1 nevis:1 flag:1 cargo:1 ship:1 load:3 part:2 meant:1 nation:1 mission:1 democratic:1 republic:1 congo:1 seize:1 port:1 within:1 believe:1 seized:1 include:1 belgian:1 pandur:2 apc:1 lease:1 beninise:1 troop:1 use:1 seizure:1 consider:1 act:1 piracy:1 dude:1 aircraft:4 inventory:2 twelve:1 text:5 align:5 left:5 background:5 aacccc:5 origin:1 type:1 world:1 aerospace:1 source:1 book:1 aviation:1 week:1 space:1 technology:1 note:1 aero:1 l:1 albatros:1 attack:3 antonov:1 cline:1 tactical:1 transport:1 crash:1 cessna:1 skymaster:1 liaison:1 dassault:1 falcon:1 vip:2 mil:2 mi:2 hip:1 h:1 hind:1 sukhoi:1 su:1 frogfoot:1 daphne:1 ton:2 full:2 commissioned:1 zhuk:1 kalkan:1 craft:1 reference:1 see:1 |@bigram equatorial_guinea:7 patrol_boat:5 francisco_macías:1 macías_nguema:1 manpower_availability:1 manpower_fit:1 military_expenditures:1 expenditures_percent:1 saint_kitts:1 kitts_nevis:1 republic_congo:1 align_left:5 background_aacccc:5 inventory_aerospace:1 l_albatros:1 cessna_skymaster:1 mil_mi:2 mi_hind:1 sukhoi_su:1 load_commissioned:1 patrol_craft:1 |
4,556 | Chomsky_hierarchy | Within the field of computer science, specifically in the area of formal languages, the Chomsky hierarchy (occasionally referred to as Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy) is a containment hierarchy of classes of formal grammars. This hierarchy of grammars was described by Noam Chomsky in 1956[1]. It is also named after Marcel-Paul Schützenberger who played a crucial role in the development of the theory of formal languages. Formal grammars A formal grammar of this type consists of: a finite set of terminal symbols a finite set of nonterminal symbols a finite set of production rules with a left and a right-hand side consisting of a sequence of these symbols a start symbol A formal grammar defines (or generates) a formal language, which is a (usually infinite) set of finite-length sequences of symbols (i.e. strings) that may be constructed by applying production rules to another sequence of symbols which initially contains just the start symbol. A rule may be applied to a sequence of symbols by replacing an occurrence of the symbols on the left-hand side of the rule with those that appear on the right-hand side. A sequence of rule applications is called a derivation. Such a grammar defines the formal language: all words consisting solely of terminal symbols which can be reached by a derivation from the start symbol. Nonterminals are usually represented by uppercase letters, terminals by lowercase letters, and the start symbol by . For example, the grammar with terminals , nonterminals , production rules ε (where ε is the empty string) and start symbol , defines the language of all words of the form (i.e. copies of followed by copies of ). The following is a simpler grammar that defines the same language: Terminals , Nonterminals , Start symbol , Production rules ε The hierarchy The Chomsky hierarchy consists of the following levels: Type-0 grammars (unrestricted grammars) include all formal grammars. They generate exactly all languages that can be recognized by a Turing machine. These languages are also known as the recursively enumerable languages. Note that this is different from the recursive languages which can be decided by an always-halting Turing machine. Type-1 grammars (context-sensitive grammars) generate the context-sensitive languages. These grammars have rules of the form with a nonterminal and , and strings of terminals and nonterminals. The strings and may be empty, but must be nonempty. The rule is allowed if does not appear on the right side of any rule. The languages described by these grammars are exactly all languages that can be recognized by a linear bounded automaton (a nondeterministic Turing machine whose tape is bounded by a constant times the length of the input.) Type-2 grammars (context-free grammars) generate the context-free languages. These are defined by rules of the form with a nonterminal and a string of terminals and nonterminals. These languages are exactly all languages that can be recognized by a non-deterministic pushdown automaton. Context free languages are the theoretical basis for the syntax of most programming languages. Type-3 grammars (regular grammars) generate the regular languages. Such a grammar restricts its rules to a single nonterminal on the left-hand side and a right-hand side consisting of a single terminal, possibly followed (or preceded, but not both in the same grammar) by a single nonterminal. The rule is also allowed here if does not appear on the right side of any rule. These languages are exactly all languages that can be decided by a finite state automaton. Additionally, this family of formal languages can be obtained by regular expressions. Regular languages are commonly used to define search patterns and the lexical structure of programming languages. Note that the set of grammars corresponding to recursive languages is not a member of this hierarchy. Every regular language is context-free, every context-free language is context-sensitive and every context-sensitive language is recursive and every recursive language is recursively enumerable. These are all proper inclusions, meaning that there exist recursively enumerable languages which are not context-sensitive, context-sensitive languages which are not context-free and context-free languages which are not regular. The following table summarizes each of Chomsky's four types of grammars, the class of language it generates, the type of automaton that recognizes it, and the form its rules must have. Grammar Languages Automaton Production rules (constraints) Type-0 Recursively enumerable Turing machine (no restrictions) Type-1 Context-sensitive Linear-bounded non-deterministic Turing machine Type-2 Context-free Non-deterministic pushdown automaton Type-3 Regular Finite state automaton and However, there are further categories of formal languages, some of which are given in the following table: See also Formal language References External links http://www.chomsky.info/ http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/hermann.moisl/ell236/lecture5.htm | Chomsky_hierarchy |@lemmatized within:1 field:1 computer:1 science:1 specifically:1 area:1 formal:12 language:35 chomsky:6 hierarchy:7 occasionally:1 refer:1 schützenberger:2 containment:1 class:2 grammar:23 describe:2 noam:1 also:4 name:1 marcel:1 paul:1 play:1 crucial:1 role:1 development:1 theory:1 grammars:1 type:11 consist:3 finite:6 set:5 terminal:8 symbol:14 nonterminal:5 production:5 rule:16 left:3 right:5 hand:5 side:7 consisting:2 sequence:5 start:6 defines:1 generate:6 usually:2 infinite:1 length:2 e:2 string:5 may:3 construct:1 apply:2 another:1 initially:1 contain:1 replace:1 occurrence:1 appear:3 application:1 call:1 derivation:2 define:5 word:2 solely:1 reach:1 nonterminals:5 represent:1 uppercase:1 letter:2 lowercase:1 example:1 ε:3 empty:2 form:4 copy:2 follow:3 following:3 simpler:1 level:1 unrestricted:1 include:1 exactly:4 recognize:4 turing:5 machine:5 know:1 recursively:4 enumerable:4 note:2 different:1 recursive:4 decide:2 always:1 halt:1 context:15 sensitive:7 must:2 nonempty:1 allow:2 linear:2 bound:3 automaton:7 nondeterministic:1 whose:1 tape:1 constant:1 time:1 input:1 free:8 non:3 deterministic:3 pushdown:2 theoretical:1 basis:1 syntax:1 programming:1 regular:7 restrict:1 single:3 possibly:1 precede:1 state:2 additionally:1 family:1 obtain:1 expression:1 commonly:1 use:1 search:1 pattern:1 lexical:1 structure:1 program:1 correspond:1 member:1 every:4 proper:1 inclusion:1 mean:1 exist:1 table:2 summarizes:1 four:1 languages:1 constraint:1 restriction:1 however:1 category:1 give:1 see:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 http:2 www:2 info:1 staff:1 ncl:1 ac:1 uk:1 hermann:1 moisl:1 htm:1 |@bigram chomsky_hierarchy:2 noam_chomsky:1 nonterminal_symbol:1 uppercase_letter:1 terminal_nonterminals:4 ε_ε:1 turing_machine:5 recursively_enumerable:4 context_sensitive:7 nondeterministic_turing:1 pushdown_automaton:2 deterministic_turing:1 external_link:1 http_www:2 |
4,557 | History_of_Moldova | Inhabited by Dacians in the antiquity and Romanized Dacians in the early middle ages, most of today's Moldova was part of the Principality of Moldavia from its founding in 1359 until 1812, when it was annexed (under the name Bessarabia) by the Russian Empire following one of several Russian-Turkish wars. In 1918, Bessarabia united with Romania, but in 1940 it was occupied by the Soviet Union, to become independent when the latter broke up in 1991. The cultural heritage of the Principality of Moldavia stands at the core of the identity of Moldova. Antiquity and early middle ages The Roman province of Dacia In Antiquity Moldova's territory was inhabited by Dacian tribes. Due to its strategic location on a route between Asia and Europe, Moldova faced several invasions, including those by the Bastarns, Huns, Avars, Magyars, Kievan Rus', Cumans, and the Mongols. Principality of Moldavia The Principality of Moldavia and the modern boundaries Tatar invasions continued also after the establishment of the Principality of Moldavia in 1359, Soldier Khan, Mike Bennighof, Ph.D. bounded by the Carpathian mountains in the west, Dniester river in the east, and Danube and Black Sea in the south. The medieval principality of Moldavia covered the so-called Carpathian-Danube-Dniester area, stretching from Transylvania in the west to the Dniester River in the east. Its territory comprised the present-day territory of the Republic of Moldova, the eastern 8 of the 41 counties of Romania (which, like the present-day republic, is known to the locals as Moldova), the Chernivtsi oblast and Budjak region of Ukraine. In 1538 the principality became a tributary to the Ottoman Empire, but retained internal and partially external autonomy. Its nucleus was in the northwestern part, the Ţara de Sus ("Upper Land"), part of which later became known as Bukovina. The name of the principality originates from the Moldova River. With the notable exception of Transnistria, the territory of today's Republic of Moldova covers most of the historical region of Bessarabia, a part of Principality of Moldavia until 1812, named so since 1812 by the Russians. Before 1812 the term "Bessarabia" was referring only the region between the Danube, Dniester, the Black Sea shores, and the Upper Trajan Wall, slightly larger than what today is called Budjak. The founding of Moldavia is attributed to the Vlach noblemen Dragoş of Bedeu, from Maramureş, who had been ordered in 1343 (1345 according to other sources) by the Hungarian king Louis of Anjou to establish a defense for the historic Kingdom of Hungary against the Tatars, and Bogdan I of Cuhea, Maramureş, who became the first independent prince of Moldavia, when he rejected Hungarian authority in 1359. The greatest Moldavian personality was prince Stephen the Great, who ruled from 1457 to 1504. Stephen was succeeded by weaker and weaker princes. In 1538, Moldavia became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, to which it owed a percentage of the internal revenue, that in time rose to 10%. Moldavia was forbidden to held foreign relations in detriment of the Ottoman Empire (although at times the country managed to circumvent this interdiction), but was allowed internal autonomy, including sole authority over foreign trade. Turks were legally forbidden to owe land or built religious establishments in Moldavia. In the 18th century, the territory of Moldavia often became a transit or war zone during conflicts between the Ottomans, Austrians, and Russians. In 1774, the principality became a Russian protectorate while remaining formally a vassal of the Ottoman Empire. In 1775, Austria annexed ca 11% of the territory of Moldavia, which became known as Bukovina. By the Treaty of Bucharest following the Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812), Russia has annexed further 50% of its territory, which became known as Bessarabia. The remaining part of the principality emancipated from Ottoman domination in the first part of 19th century, and in 1859 united with Wallachia, establishing Romania. Part of the Russian Empire By the Treaty of Bucharest of May 28, 1812 between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire — concluding the Russo-Turkish War, 1806-1812 — the latter annexed the eastern half of the Principality of Moldavia. That region was then called Bessarabia. Initially, after being annexed by the Russian Empire, Bessarabia enjoyed a period of local autonomy until 1828. Organized as a region (oblast) as opposed to gubernia, it was governed by a "provisional government" with 2 departments: a civil administration and a religious administration, the former led by the aged Moldavian boyar Scarlat Sturdza, the latter - by the metropolitan archbishop Gavriil Bănulescu-Bodoni. On top of these was the Russian military administration of Governor General Harting. However, already in 1813, the civil administration was handed to the governor-general. In 1818, reform-minded Russian tsar Alexander I passed a Settlement of the establishment of the region of Bessarabia which divided the legal power between the tsar-appointed Governor General (Bakhmetiev) and a 10-member Hight Council fo the Region with 4 members appointed by the tsar and 6 elected by the local nobility. In lieu of the older 12 lands, the region was divided into 6, later 9 counties. In 1828 however, the conservative tsar Nikolai I abrogated the Settlement and passed a new Reglement, which endowed the Governor General with the supreme power, while a Council of the Region was to have only advisory functions and would meet twice a year. Article 63 of the Reglement formally stated that all administrative personnel must know and perform their duties in Russian. Nevertheless, in practice Romanian language would appear occasionally in documents up to 1854.<ref name=nistor>Ion Nistor, Istoria Basarabiei, 4th edition, Cartea moldovenească, Chişinău, 1991, p. 179-189</ref> At the end of the Crimean War, in 1856, by the Treaty of Paris, two districts of southern Bessarabia - Cahul and Ismail - were returned to Moldavia, and Russia lost access to the Danube river. In 1859, Moldavia, including the two districts Southern part of Bessarabia, and Wallachia united and formed modern Romania. The Romanian War of Independence was fought in 1877-1878, with the help of the Russian allies. Although the treaty of alliance between Romania and Russia specified that Russia would respect the territorial integrity of Romania and not claim any part of Romania at the end of the war, by the Treaty of Berlin, the southern part of Bessarabia was re-annexed to Russia. In exchange, Romania got Dobruja, prior to that moment directly controlled by the Ottomans. In 1870, the institution of zemstva was instated in Bessarabia. Cities, communes, counties, and the entire region would elect each a local council representing in a censored manner noblemen, merchants and peasants. They had substantial activity in economic and sanitary areas, including roads, posts, food, public safety. On the other hand, political (including justice courts of all levels) and cultural matters remained an exclusive domain of the Governor General and were user as a vehicle of Russification. With the accomplishment of these introductions, in 1871, Bessarabia, previously a region (oblast), became a gubernia. Ion Nistor, p.190-191 Public education was entrusted to the religious establishment of the region, which since 1821 had only Russian Archbishops. Dimitrie Sulima (Archbishop in 1821-1855), and Antonie Shokotov (1855-1871) allowed the parallel usage of both Romanian and Russian in church, and did not take any measures to infringe upon the linguistic specifics of the region. With the appointment of Pavel Lebedev (1871-1882), the situation changed radically, and the language of the locals was soon purged from the church. To prevent the printing of religious literature in Romanian, Lebedev closed down the printing press in Chişinău, collected from the region and burned the already printed books in Romanian (in Slavonic Cyrillic alphabet). The following archbishops Sergey Lapidevsky, Isakyi Polozensky, Neofit Novodchikov eased some of Lebedev's measures to help quell the serious dissatisfaction of the population. The next Archbishop Iakov Pyatnitsky (1898-1904) discovered that his desire to popularize a Christian culture and a moral education faced a language barrier, and in 1900 convinced the Russian High Sinod to allow the publication of religious pamphlets in Romanian, while his follower Archbishop Vladimir allowed the printing of books, and from 1908 even of a regular religious journal Luminatorul by Constantin Popovici and Gurie Grosu. The last Russian Archbishops, Serfafim Chichyagov (1908-1914), Platon (1914-1915) and Atanasy (1915-1918) tried to preserve the privileged status of the Russian language in the church in Bessarabia, but did not introduce any new anti-Romanian measures. Left by the last Russian Archbishop on June 23, 1918, the archbishopric was entrusted to the Bishop Nicodem de Huşi from Romania, who appointed a local Archbishop Dionisie Erhan. Then the Clerical Congress on Febrauary 21, 1920 elected Gurie Botoşăneanu as the highest church official in Bessarabia, which afterwards was restored from Archbishop to Metropolitan. Ion Nistor, p. 224-244 Under the protection of Gavriil Bănulescu-Bodoni and Dimitrie Sulima a theological school and a seminary were opened in Chişinău, and public schools throughtout the region: in the cities of Chişinău, Hotin, Cetatea Albă, Briceni, Bender, Bălţi, Cahul, Soroca, Orhei, at the monasteries of Dobruşa and Hârjauca, and even in several villages (Rezeni, Mereni, Volcineţ, Nisporeni, Hârtop). However in 1835, the tsarist authorities declared a 7-year deadline to transfer the education from Romanian to Russian. Although the measure was implemented more gradually, since 1867, Romanian was purged entirely from the education. This had the effect of keeping the peasant population of Bessarabia backward, as witnessed by the fact that in 1912 Moldavians had a literacy rate of only 10.5%, lowest among all ethnic groups of the region (63% for Bessarabian Germans, 50% for Bessarabian Jews, 40% for Russians, 31% for Bessarabian Bulgarians), with a record low 1.7% literacy rate for Moldavian women. Of the 1709 primary schools in Bessarabia in 1912, none was in the language of the basic ethnic group. Ion Nistor, p. 249-255 During 1812-1914, a series of colonizations were made in Bessarabia by the Russian authorities. German colonists from Switzerland (canton Lausanne), France, and Germany (Wurtemberg) settled in 27 localities (most newly settled) in Budjak, and by 1856 Bessarabian Germans were 42,216. Russian veterans of the 1828-1829 war with the Ottomans were settled in 10 localities in Budjak, and 3 other localities were settled by Cossacks from Dobrudja (which got there from the Dniepr region some 50 years earlier). Bassarabian Bulgarians and Gagauzes arrived from modern eastern Bulgaria as early as the second half of the 18th century. In 1817, they were 482 families in 12 localities, in 1856 - 115,000 people in 43 localities. The above settlements were performed under the supervision of the Tsarist authorities. Ukrainians had arrived Bessarabia since before 1812, and already in 1820s they made up 1/3 of the population of the most northern Hotin county. In the following decades further Ukrainians settle throughout the northern part of Bessarabia from Galicia and Podolia. Jews from Galicia, Podolia and Poland also settled in Bessarabia in the 19th century, but mostly in the cities and fairs, in some of these they in time became a plurality. In 1856, there were 78,751 Bessarabian Jews. There was even an attempt by the Russian authorities to create 16 Jewish agricultural colonies, where 10,589 people were settle. However within less than 2 generations, most of them sold the land to the local Molavians and moved to the cities and fairs. Ion Nistor, p.197-214 Union with Romania Declaration of unification of Romania and Bessarabia After the Russian Revolution, a Romanian national emancipation movement started to develop in Bessarabia. To quell the chaos brought about by the Russian revolutions of February and October 1917, a National Council, Sfatul Ţării, was established in Bessarabia, with 120 members elected in county meetings of peasants, and by political and professional organizations from Bessarabia. On December 15, 1917, the Council proclaimed the Moldavian Democratic Republic, as part of a Russian Federation, then formed the government of Moldavia. At the request of the Sfatul Ţării executive, Ion Nistor, Istoria Basarabiei, 4th edition, Chişinău, Cartea moldovenească, 1991, p. 281 Petre P. Panaitescu, Istoria Românilor, 7th edition, Editura didactică şi pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1990, p. 322 Pantelimon Halippa, Anatolie Moraru, Testament pentru urmaşi, München, 1967, reprint Hyperion, Chişinău, 1991, pp. 82-86 approved by the Allies and the Russian White general Dmitriy Shcherbachov, commander-in-chief of the Russian forces on the Romanian Front, on January 26, 1918, Romanian troops entered Bessarabia to help maintain security, which had deteriorated due to large numbers of deserters from the Russian Army. "Activitatea legislativă a Sfatului Ţării şi autodeterminarea Basarabiei" ("The Legislative Activity of Sfatul Ţării and the Self-determination of Bessarabia"), Literatura şi Arta, 11 September 2008 Corneliu Chirieş, "90 de ani de la Unirea Basarabiei cu România" ("90 Years Since the Union of Bessarabia with Romania"), Observator de Bacău, 23 March 2008 The presence of the Romanian army in Bessarabia has caused tension within the Council, with some of its members, notably Ion Inculeţ, president of Sfatul Ţării and Pantelimon Erhan, head of the provisional Moldavian executive protesting against it. Charles Upson Clark, "Bessarabia", Chapter XIX, New York, 1926, available online here (In particular they feared that big land owners-dominated Romanian Government could use the troups to prevent the envisaged Agrarian reform, a cornerstone priority of the Bessarbian government. P.Halippa, A.Moraru, Testament pentru urmasi, 2nd edition, Hyperion, Chisinau, 1991, p.85-87 ) After this, the Council declared the independence of the Moldavian Democratic Republic on . Under pressure from the Romanian army, Cristina Petrescu, "Contrasting/Conflicting Identities:Bessarabians, Romanians, Moldovans" in Nation-Building and Contested Identities, Polirom, 2001, pg. 156 King, C. The Moldovans: Romania, Russia and the Politics of Culture, Hoover Institution Press, 2000, pg. 35 on , Sfatul Ţării, by a vote of 86 to 3, with 36 abstentions, approved the Union of Bessarabia with Romania. The union was recognized by some European countries, but not by the Soviet government, which claimed the area as the Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic, and argued the union was made under conditions of Romanian military occupation by a Council that had not been elected by the people of Bessarabia in elections. Soviet era Beginnings of the Soviet period east of the Dniester Ukrainian SSR in 1933, after the Peace of Riga and the consolidation of USSR. Note the rose border line showing the Soviet claims over the former Russian guberniya of Bessarabia After the creation of the Soviet Union in December 1922, the Soviet government moved in 1924 to establish the Moldavian Autonomous Oblast on the lands to the east of the Dniester River in the Ukrainian SSR. The capital of the oblast was Balta, situated in present-day Ukraine. Seven months later, the oblast was upgraded to the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Moldavian ASSR or MASSR), even though its population was only 30% ethnic Romanian. The capital remained at Balta until 1929, when it was moved to Tiraspol. Establishment of the MSSR In the secret Nazi-Soviet protocol attached to the 1939 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact defining the division of the spheres of influence in Eastern Europe, Nazi Germany declared it had no political interest in Bessarabia, in response to the Soviet Union's expression of interest, thereby consigning Bessarabia to the Soviet "sphere". On June 26, 1940 the Soviet government issued an ultimatum to the Romanian minister in Moscow, demanding Romania immediately cede Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Italy and Germany, which needed a stable Romania and access to its oil fields, urged King Carol II to do so. Under duress, with no prospect of aid from France or Britain, Carol complied, although Romanians have consistently called it a withdrawal. On June 28, Soviet troops crossed the Dniester and occupied Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertza region. According to Malbone W. Graham, from an international legal standpoint, this new status was considered as consenting to the retrocession of Bessarabia and the cession of the North Bukovina, based on a formal agreement contained in an exchange of notes. The Romanian withdrawal was chaotic. Soviet promises of allowing an orderly troop removal were broken. Officials, former Sfatul Ţării members and ordinary citizens were arrested or shot on the spot. The official Soviet press declared that the "peaceful policy of the USSR" had "liquidated the [Bessarabian] Soviet-Romanian conflict". The Soviet republic created following annexation did not follow Bessarabia's traditional border. The Moldovan Soviet Socialist Republic (Moldovan SSR), established August 2, 1940, consisted of six and a half counties of Bessarabia joined with the westernmost part of the already extant MASSR (an autonomous entity within the Ukrainian SSR). Various changes were made to its borders, which were finally settled by November 1940. Territories where ethnic Ukrainians formed a large portion of the population (parts of Northern Bukovina and parts of Hotin, Akkerman, and Izmail) went to the Ukraine, while a small strip of Transnistria east of the Dniester with a significant (49% of inhabitants) Moldovan population was joined to the MSSR. According to Nikita Khrushchev, who led the commission that established the border, the transfer of Bessarabia's Black Sea and Danube frontage to the Ukraine insured its control by a stable Soviet republic. This transfer, along with the division of Bessarabia, was also designed to discourage future Romanian claims and irredentism. World War II In, June-July 1941, allied with Nazi Germany, Romania recaptured and reintegrated the annexed territory. Ignoring the counsel of Romanian democratic politicians Iuliu Maniu and Dinu Brătianu, the Romanian dictator Ion Antonescu pushed beyond Romania's interwar borders. In occupied Transnistria, Romanian forces, working with the Germans, deported 147,000 Jews from Bessarabia and Bukovina, 90,000 of which perished of tiphos and hanger. Comisia prezidenţială pentru alaliza dictaturii comuniste din România. Raport final. Humanitas, Bucureşti, 2008, p. 748-749, see also electronic version By April 1944, northern Moldavia and Transnistria was back in the hands of the Soviets, and in August 1944 the entire territory was recaptured by the Red Army. With Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina again under Soviet administration, the peace treaty signed in February 1947 fixed the Romanian-Soviet border to the one established in June 1940. Ian Sinclair, Boundaries in Daniel Bardonnet, Hague Academy of International Law, Le règlement pacifique des différends internationaux en Europe, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Hague, 1991, ISBN 0792315731, p.36 Charles King, The Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and the politics of culture, Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University, 2000. ISBN 0-8179-9792-X, p.91 Postwar reestablishment of Soviet control The territory remained part of the USSR after WWII as the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. Several social and economic groups were targeted to be murdered, imprisoned, and deported to Siberia due to their economic situation, political views, or ties to the former regime. Secret police struck at dissenting people and groups. Over the years, the state imposed a harsh denationalization policy toward the ethnic majority, "Interethnic Relations, Minority Rights and Security Concerns: A Four-Country Perspective", International Renaissance Foundation while ethnic Russians and Ukrainians were encouraged to immigrate to the Moldavian SSR, especially to large cities and to Transnistria, to cover the lack of personnel in the newly-established industries. Most of these industries were built in Transnistria and around large cities, while in the rest of the republic agriculture was developed. By the late Soviet period, the urban intelligentsia and government officials were dominated mostly by ethnic Moldovans, while Russians and Ukrainians made up most of the technical and engineering specialists. Aleksei Georgievich Arbatov, Managing Conflict in the Former Soviet Union: Russian and American Perspectives, MIT Press, 1997, ISBN 0262510936, p. 154-155. According to mainstream sources, following a historic drought in 1946, the government's policies, such as requisitioning large amounts of agricultural products despite a poor harvest and a labor shortage (due to most WWII conscripts not being decommissioned yet), caused a famine, with 216,000 victims in the Moldavian SSR alone. Tismaneanu Report, p. 749, again on p. 763 There were also 389,000 cases of dystrophy due to malnutrition. Tismaneanu Report, p. 750 Some call it a deliberate policy of the Soviet government. Larisa Turea, Cartea Foametei, Curtea Veche Publishing, 2007 Pitirim Sorokin, Hunger as a Factor in Human Affairs, Florida, 1975 Robert Conquest coined the term famine terror to describe famine as deliberate. Official Soviet figures at the time, however, give much lower numbers of deaths, only 36,000, describing the famine was a consequence of war, severe drought and (sometimes) government mismanagement of food reserves. Zima, V. F. The Famine of 1946-1947 in the USSR: Its Origins and Consequences. Ceredigion, UK: Mellen Press, 1999. (ISBN 0-7734-3184-5) (See also Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union) The worst months were February-March 1947. Tismaneanu Report, p. 750 The conditions imposed during the reestablishment of Soviet rule became the basis of deep resentment toward Soviet authorities, manifested in numerous resistance movements to Soviet rule. Tismaneanu Report, p. 755-758 During Leonid Brezhnev's 1950-1952 tenure as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Moldavia (CPM), he was ruthless comparing to his predecessor N. Coval in putting down numerous resistance groups, and issuing harsh sentences. Tismaneanu Report, p. 758 A wave of repression was aimed at the Romanian intellectuals who decided to remain in Moldova after the war. Most political and academic positions were given to members of non-Romanian ethnic groups (only 17.5% of the Moldavian SSR's political leaders were ethnic Romanians in 1940). E.S. Lazo, Moldavskaya partiynaya organizatsia v gody stroitelstva sotsializma(1924-1940), Chisinău, Ştiinţa, 1981, p. 38 William Crowther, "Ethnicity and Participation in the Communist Party of Moldavia", in Journal of Soviet Nationalities I, no. 1990, p. 148-49 Although Brezhnev and other CPM first secretaries were largely successful in suppressing Moldovan/Romanian nationalism in 1950s-1980s, Mikhail S. Gorbachev's administration facilitated the revival of the movement in the region. His policies of glasnost and perestroika created conditions in which national feelings could be openly expressed and in which the Soviet republics could consider reforms. In 1970s and '80s Moldova received substantial investment from the budget of the USSR to develop industrial, scientific facilities, as well as housing. In 1971 the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a decision "About the measures for further development of Kishinev city" that secured more than one billion rubles of funds for Chisinau alone from the USSR budget. Subsequent decisions directed large amounts of funds and brought qualified specialists from all over the USSR to further develop the Moldavian SSR. Architecture of Chişinău on Kishinev.info, Retrieved on 2008-10-12 Such an allocation of USSR assets was influenced by the fact that the-then leader of the Soviet Union, Leonid Brezhnev, was the First Secretary of the local Communist Party in the 1950s. These investments stopped in 1991 with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, when Moldova became independent. Independence Towards independence In the climate of Mikhail Gorbachov's glasnost, openness and political self-assertion escalated in the Moldavian SSR in 1988. The year 1989 saw the formation of the Popular Front of Moldova, an association of independent cultural and political groups that had finally gained official recognition. Large demonstrations by ethnic Romanians led to the designation on August 31, 1989 of Moldovan/Romanian as the official language and a return to the Latin alphabet. The head of the CPM was also replaced. However, opposition was growing to the Romanian language and to the potentially increasing influence of ethnic Moldovans, especially in Transnistria, where the Yedinstvo-Unitatea (Unity) Intermovement had been formed in 1988 by Slavic minorities, Political Parties, Fedor, Helen, ed. Moldova: A Country Study. GPO for the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., 1995 and in the south, where the organization Gagauz Halkî (Gagauz People), formed in November 1989, came to represent the Gagauz, a Turkic-speaking minority there. The first democratic elections to the Moldavian SSR's Supreme Soviet were held on February 25, 1990. Runoff elections were held in March. The Popular Front won a majority of the votes. After the elections, Mircea Snegur, a reformed communist, was elected chairman of the Supreme Soviet; in September he became president of the republic. The reformist government that took over in May 1990 made many changes that did not please the minorities, including changing the republic's name in June from the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic to the Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova and declaring it sovereign the following month. At the same time, Romanian tricolor with the Moldavian coat-of-arms was adopted as the state flag, and Deşteaptă-te române!'', the Romanian anthem, became the anthem of Moldova. During that period a Movement for unification of Romania and the Republic of Moldova began in each country. In August 1990 a separate "Gagauz Republic" (Gagauz-Yeri) was declared in the south, in the city of Comrat. In September in Tiraspol, the main city on the east bank of the Dniester River, a "Dnestr Moldavian Republic" (commonly called the "Dnestr Republic", later Transnistria) was proclaimed. Although the Parliament of Moldova immediately declared these declarations null, both "republics" went on to hold elections. In mid-October 1990, approximately 30,000 Moldovan nationalist volunteers were sent to Gagauzia and Transnistria, where widespread violence was temporarily averted by the intervention of the Soviet 14th Army. "О ПОЛОЖЕНИИ НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫХ МЕНЬШИНСТВ В РЕСПУБЛИКЕ МОЛДОВА" human rights assesment by Memorial, May, 1992 (The Soviet 14th Army, now the Russian 14th Army, had been headquartered in Chişinău since 1956.) Negotiations in Moscow among the Gagauz, the Transnistrian Slavs, and the government of the Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova failed, and the government refused to join in further negotiations. In May 1991, the country's official name was changed to the Republic of Moldova (Republica Moldova). The name of the Supreme Soviet also was changed, to the Moldovan Parliament. During the 1991 August coup d'état in Moscow against Mikhail Gorbachev, commanders of the Soviet Union's Southwestern Theater of Military Operations attempted to impose a state of emergency in Moldova. They were overruled by the Moldovan government, which declared its support for Russian president Boris Yeltsin, who led the counter-coup in Moscow. On 27 August 1991, following the coup's collapse, Moldova declared its independence from the Soviet Union. The leader of breakaway Transnistria Igor Smirnov was arrested, but later freed. The December elections of Stepan Topal and Igor Smirnov as presidents of their respective "republics," and the official dissolution of the Soviet Union at the end of the year, had further increased tensions in Moldova. Post-independence In December 1991, an ex-communist reformer, Mircea Snegur, ran an unopposed election for the presidency. On March 2, 1992, the country achieved formal recognition as an independent state at the United Nations. The Soviet system was falling apart quickly, and Moldovan leadership decided to rely on itself to bring the breakaway Transnistria back under its control. In April 1992, the Parliament formed a Ministry of Defense, and Moldova began to organize its own armed forces. In 1992, Moldova became involved in a brief conflict against local insurgents in Transnistria, who were aided by locally stationed Russian armed forces and Don Cossacks, which resulted in the failure of Moldova to regain control over the breakaway republic. A ceasefire for this war was negotiated by presidents Mircea Snegur and Boris Yeltsin in July 1992. A demarcation line was to be maintained by a tripartite peacekeeping force (composed of Moldovan, Russian, and Transnistrian forces), and Moscow agreed to withdraw its 14th Army in parallel with finding a permanent solution for Transnistrian conflict. Also, Transnistria would have a special status within Moldova and would have the right to secede if Moldova changed its statehood, Hughes, James and Sasse, Gwendolyn. Ethnicity and Territory in the Former Soviet Union: Regions in Conflict, p.109. Taylor & Francis (2002), ISBN 0714682101 for instance by uniting with Romania. Olga Savceac, Transnistria-Moldova Conflict, ICE Case Studies Number 182, May 2006 However, in subsequent talks the Transnistrian authorities declined this offer, setting course for continued independence instead. As of 2009, this conflict remains unresoved. Starting 1993, Moldova began to distance itself from Romania. The constitution adopted in 1994 used the term "Moldovan language" instead of "Romanian" and changed the national anthem to Limba noastră. New parliamentary elections were held in Moldova on 27 February 1994. Although the election was described by international observers as free and fair, authorities in Transnistria did not allow balloting there and made efforts to discourage the inhabitants from participating. Only some 7,500 inhabitants voted at specially established precincts in right-bank Moldova. The new Parliament, with its Democratic Agrarian Party of Moldova majority, did not face the same gridlock that characterized the old Parliament with its majority of Popular Front hard-line nationalists: legislation was passed, and changes were made. President Snegur signed the Partnership for Peace agreement of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in March 1994. A March 1994 referendum saw an overwhelming majority of voters favoring continued independence. In April, the Parliament approved Moldova's membership in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and in a CIS charter on economic union. On 28 July, Parliament ratified a new constitution, which went into effect 27 August 1994, and provided substantial autonomy to Transnistria and to Gagauzia. Russia and Moldova signed an agreement in October 1994 on the withdrawal of Russian troops from Transnistria, but the Russian government did not ratify it; another stalemate ensued. Although the cease-fire remained in effect, further negotiations that included the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe and the United Nations made little progress. In March and April 1995, Moldovan college and secondary school students participated in a series of strikes and demonstrations in Chişinău to protest the government's cultural and educational policies. The students were joined by others protesting for economic reasons. The most emotional issue was that of the national language - whether it should be called Moldovan, as named in the 1994 constitution, or Romanian. In a 27 April speech to the Parliament, President Snegur asked the Parliament to amend the constitution and change the name of the language to Romanian. The government's final decision was postponed until the fall of 1995 because of the stipulation that six months must pass before a proposed change to the constitution can be made. The student demonstrators declared a moratorium on further strikes until 6 September. The 1996 attempt by President Snegur to change the official language to "Romanian" was dismissed by the Moldovan Parliament as "promoting Romanian expansionism". The Partnership and Cooperation Agreement with the European Union (EU) came into force in July 1998 for an initial period of ten years. It established the institutional framework for bilateral relations, set the principal common objectives, and called for activities and dialogue in a number of policy areas. At the 1999 OSCE summit, Russia signed an agreement to withdraw its troops from Transnistria by January 1, 2002. However, it has yet to follow through on this pledge. In the 2001 elections the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova won majority of seats in the Parliament and appointed the president, Vladimir Voronin. Nevertheless, after a few years in power, the relationship between Moldova and Russia deteriorated over the Transnistrian conflict. In the summer of 2004, Transnistrian authorities forcibly closed four Moldovan schools in Tiraspol, Bender, and Rîbniţa that used the Romanian language in the Latin alphabet. This caused an increase in tensions between the Moldova and the breakaway province, which resulted in Moldova and Transnistria imposing economic sanctions on each other. The conflict was resolved later that year with Transnistrian authorities granting the establishments the status of privately funded schools. In the following election of 2005, the Party of the Communists was re-elected on a pro-Western platform, stressing the need for European integration. Later that year the Moldovan Parliament re-elected Voronin to a second term as president. Moldovan authorities denied entry to a Russian organization (CIS-EMO), that Russia said was to monitor the elections for fairness; some members of the organization who nevertheless entered the country were deported. As a consequence, Russian-Moldovan ties weakened greatly, and the nation was split between building relations with the West or with Russia. Since Romania joined the European Union in 2007 and imposed a visa requirement for Moldovan citizens, as many as 800,000 Moldovan citizens have applied for Romanian citizenship (anyone with at least one grandparent who was a Romanian citizen in 1940 can apply for Romanian citizenship). Notes See also Moldavia Bessarabia History of Romania External links The Republic of Moldova: An Historical Background, Survey by Dr. Vasile Nedelciuc www.moldovanoastra.md http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6268853.stm (Moldavians apply for Romanian citizenship). be-x-old:Малдаўскае княства | History_of_Moldova |@lemmatized inhabit:2 dacians:2 antiquity:3 romanized:1 early:3 middle:2 age:2 today:3 moldova:40 part:16 principality:12 moldavia:22 founding:2 annex:5 name:9 bessarabia:45 russian:41 empire:9 follow:8 one:4 several:4 turkish:3 war:12 unite:2 romania:24 occupy:2 soviet:50 union:19 become:16 independent:6 latter:3 break:2 cultural:4 heritage:1 stand:1 core:1 identity:3 roman:1 province:2 dacia:1 territory:12 dacian:1 tribe:1 due:5 strategic:1 location:1 route:1 asia:1 europe:5 face:3 invasion:2 include:7 bastarns:1 hun:1 avars:1 magyar:1 kievan:1 ru:1 cumans:1 mongol:1 modern:3 boundary:2 tatar:2 continue:1 also:10 establishment:6 soldier:1 khan:1 mike:1 bennighof:1 ph:1 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4,558 | Information_theory | Information theory is a branch of applied mathematics and electrical engineering involving the quantification of information. Historically, information theory was developed by Claude E. Shannon to find fundamental limits on compressing and reliably storing and communicating data. Since its inception it has broadened to find applications in many other areas, including statistical inference, natural language processing, cryptography generally, networks other than communication networks — as in neurobiology, F. Rieke, D. Warland, R Ruyter van Steveninck, W Bialek, Spikes: Exploring the Neural Code. The MIT press (1997). the evolution cf. Huelsenbeck, J. P., F. Ronquist, R. Nielsen and J. P. Bollback (2001) Bayesian inference of phylogeny and its impact on evolutionary biology, Science 294:2310-2314 and function Rando Allikmets, Wyeth W. Wasserman, Amy Hutchinson, Philip Smallwood, Jeremy Nathans, Peter K. Rogan, Thomas D. Schneider, Michael Dean (1998) Organization of the ABCR gene: analysis of promoter and splice junction sequences, Gene 215:1, 111-122 of molecular codes, model selection Burnham, K. P. and Anderson D. R. (2002) Model Selection and Multimodel Inference: A Practical Information-Theoretic Approach, Second Edition (Springer Science, New York) ISBN 978-0-387-95364-9. in ecology, thermal physics, Jaynes, E. T. (1957) Information Theory and Statistical Mechanics, Phys. Rev. 106:620 quantum computing, plagiarism detection Charles H. Bennett, Ming Li, and Bin Ma (2003) Chain Letters and Evolutionary Histories, Scientific American 288:6, 76-81 and other forms of data analysis. A key measure of information in the theory is known as entropy, which is usually expressed by the average number of bits needed for storage or communication. Intuitively, entropy quantifies the uncertainty involved when encountering a random variable. For example, a fair coin flip (2 equally likely outcomes) will have less entropy than a roll of a die (6 equally likely outcomes). Applications of fundamental topics of information theory include lossless data compression (e.g. ZIP files), lossy data compression (e.g. MP3s), and channel coding (e.g. for DSL lines). The field is at the intersection of mathematics, statistics, computer science, physics, neurobiology, and electrical engineering. Its impact has been crucial to the success of the Voyager missions to deep space, the invention of the compact disc, the feasibility of mobile phones, the development of the Internet, the study of linguistics and of human perception, the understanding of black holes, and numerous other fields. Important sub-fields of information theory are source coding, channel coding, algorithmic complexity theory, algorithmic information theory, and measures of information. Overview The main concepts of information theory can be grasped by considering the most widespread means of human communication: language. Two important aspects of a good language are as follows: First, the most common words (e.g., "a", "the", "I") should be shorter than less common words (e.g., "benefit", "generation", "mediocre"), so that sentences will not be too long. Such a tradeoff in word length is analogous to data compression and is the essential aspect of source coding. Second, if part of a sentence is unheard or misheard due to noise — e.g., a passing car — the listener should still be able to glean the meaning of the underlying message. Such robustness is as essential for an electronic communication system as it is for a language; properly building such robustness into communications is done by channel coding. Source coding and channel coding are the fundamental concerns of information theory. Note that these concerns have nothing to do with the importance of messages. For example, a platitude such as "Thank you; come again" takes about as long to say or write as the urgent plea, "Call an ambulance!" while clearly the latter is more important and more meaningful. Information theory, however, does not consider message importance or meaning, as these are matters of the quality of data rather than the quantity and readability of data, the latter of which is determined solely by probabilities. Information theory is generally considered to have been founded in 1948 by Claude Shannon in his seminal work, "A Mathematical Theory of Communication." The central paradigm of classical information theory is the engineering problem of the transmission of information over a noisy channel. The most fundamental results of this theory are Shannon's source coding theorem, which establishes that, on average, the number of bits needed to represent the result of an uncertain event is given by its entropy; and Shannon's noisy-channel coding theorem, which states that reliable communication is possible over noisy channels provided that the rate of communication is below a certain threshold called the channel capacity. The channel capacity can be approached in practice by using appropriate encoding and decoding systems. Information theory is closely associated with a collection of pure and applied disciplines that have been investigated and reduced to engineering practice under a variety of rubrics throughout the world over the past half century or more: adaptive systems, anticipatory systems, artificial intelligence, complex systems, complexity science, cybernetics, informatics, machine learning, along with systems sciences of many descriptions. Information theory is a broad and deep mathematical theory, with equally broad and deep applications, amongst which is the vital field of coding theory. Coding theory is concerned with finding explicit methods, called codes, of increasing the efficiency and reducing the net error rate of data communication over a noisy channel to near the limit that Shannon proved is the maximum possible for that channel. These codes can be roughly subdivided into data compression (source coding) and error-correction (channel coding) techniques. In the latter case, it took many years to find the methods Shannon's work proved were possible. A third class of information theory codes are cryptographic algorithms (both codes and ciphers). Concepts, methods and results from coding theory and information theory are widely used in cryptography and cryptanalysis. See the article ban (information) for a historical application. Information theory is also used in information retrieval, intelligence gathering, gambling, statistics, and even in musical composition. Historical background The landmark event that established the discipline of information theory, and brought it to immediate worldwide attention, was the publication of Claude E. Shannon's classic paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the Bell System Technical Journal in July and October of 1948. Prior to this paper, limited information theoretic ideas had been developed at Bell Labs, all implicitly assuming events of equal probability. Harry Nyquist's 1924 paper, Certain Factors Affecting Telegraph Speed, contains a theoretical section quantifying "intelligence" and the "line speed" at which it can be transmitted by a communication system, giving the relation , where W is the speed of transmission of intelligence, m is the number of different voltage levels to choose from at each time step, and K is a constant. Ralph Hartley's 1928 paper, Transmission of Information, uses the word information as a measurable quantity, reflecting the receiver's ability to distinguish one sequence of symbols from any other, thus quantifying information as , where S was the number of possible symbols, and n the number of symbols in a transmission. The natural unit of information was therefore the decimal digit, much later renamed the hartley in his honour as a unit or scale or measure of information. Alan Turing in 1940 used similar ideas as part of the statistical analysis of the breaking of the German second world war Enigma ciphers. Much of the mathematics behind information theory with events of different probabilities was developed for the field of thermodynamics by Ludwig Boltzmann and J. Willard Gibbs. Connections between information-theoretic entropy and thermodynamic entropy, including the important contributions by Rolf Landauer in the 1960s, are explored in Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory. In Shannon's revolutionary and groundbreaking paper, the work for which had been substantially completed at Bell Labs by the end of 1944, Shannon for the first time introduced the qualitative and quantitative model of communication as a statistical process underlying information theory, opening with the assertion that "The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point, either exactly or approximately, a message selected at another point." With it came the ideas of the information entropy and redundancy of a source, and its relevance through the source coding theorem; the mutual information, and the channel capacity of a noisy channel, including the promise of perfect loss-free communication given by the noisy-channel coding theorem; the practical result of the Shannon–Hartley law for the channel capacity of a Gaussian channel; as well as the bit—a new way of seeing the most fundamental unit of information. Quantities of information Information theory is based on probability theory and statistics. The most important quantities of information are entropy, the information in a random variable, and mutual information, the amount of information in common between two random variables. The former quantity indicates how easily message data can be compressed while the latter can be used to find the communication rate across a channel. The choice of logarithmic base in the following formulae determines the unit of information entropy that is used. The most common unit of information is the bit, based on the binary logarithm. Other units include the nat, which is based on the natural logarithm, and the hartley, which is based on the common logarithm. In what follows, an expression of the form is considered by convention to be equal to zero whenever This is justified because for any logarithmic base. Entropy Entropy of a Bernoulli trial as a function of success probability, often called the binary entropy function, . The entropy is maximized at 1 bit per trial when the two possible outcomes are equally probable, as in an unbiased coin toss. The entropy, , of a discrete random variable is a measure of the amount of uncertainty associated with the value of . Suppose one transmits 1000 bits (0s and 1s). If these bits are known ahead of transmission (to be a certain value with absolute probability), logic dictates that no information has been transmitted. If, however, each is equally and independently likely to be 0 or 1, 1000 bits (in the information theoretic sense) have been transmitted. Between these two extremes, information can be quantified as follows. If is the set of all messages that could be, and is the probability of given , then the entropy of is defined: (Here, is the self-information, which is the entropy contribution of an individual message, and is the expected value.) An important property of entropy is that it is maximized when all the messages in the message space are equiprobable ,—i.e., most unpredictable—in which case . The special case of information entropy for a random variable with two outcomes is the binary entropy function: Joint entropy The joint entropy of two discrete random variables and is merely the entropy of their pairing: . This implies that if and are independent, then their joint entropy is the sum of their individual entropies. For example, if represents the position of a chess piece — the row and the column, then the joint entropy of the row of the piece and the column of the piece will be the entropy of the position of the piece. Despite similar notation, joint entropy should not be confused with cross entropy. Conditional entropy (equivocation) The conditional entropy or conditional uncertainty of given random variable (also called the equivocation of about ) is the average conditional entropy over : Because entropy can be conditioned on a random variable or on that random variable being a certain value, care should be taken not to confuse these two definitions of conditional entropy, the former of which is in more common use. A basic property of this form of conditional entropy is that: Mutual information (transinformation) Mutual information measures the amount of information that can be obtained about one random variable by observing another. It is important in communication where it can be used to maximize the amount of information shared between sent and received signals. The mutual information of relative to is given by: where (Specific mutual Information) is the pointwise mutual information. A basic property of the mutual information is that That is, knowing Y, we can save an average of bits in encoding X compared to not knowing Y. Mutual information is symmetric: Mutual information can be expressed as the average Kullback–Leibler divergence (information gain) of the posterior probability distribution of X given the value of Y to the prior distribution on X: In other words, this is a measure of how much, on the average, the probability distribution on X will change if we are given the value of Y. This is often recalculated as the divergence from the product of the marginal distributions to the actual joint distribution: Mutual information is closely related to the log-likelihood ratio test in the context of contingency tables and the multinomial distribution and to Pearson's χ2 test: mutual information can be considered a statistic for assessing independence between a pair of variables, and has a well-specified asymptotic distribution. Kullback–Leibler divergence (information gain) The Kullback–Leibler divergence (or information divergence, information gain, or relative entropy) is a way of comparing two distributions: a "true" probability distribution p(X), and an arbitrary probability distribution q(X). If we compress data in a manner that assumes q(X) is the distribution underlying some data, when, in reality, p(X) is the correct distribution, the Kullback–Leibler divergence is the number of average additional bits per datum necessary for compression. It is thus defined Although it is sometimes used as a 'distance metric', it is not a true metric since it is not symmetric and does not satisfy the triangle inequality (making it a semi-quasimetric). Other quantities Other important information theoretic quantities include Rényi entropy, (a generalization of entropy,) differential entropy, (a generalization of quantities of information to continuous distributions,) and the conditional mutual information. Coding theory A picture showing scratches on the readable surface of a CD-R. Music and data CDs are coded using error correcting codes and thus can still be read even if they have minor scratches using error detection and correction. Coding theory is one of the most important and direct applications of information theory. It can be subdivided into source coding theory and channel coding theory. Using a statistical description for data, information theory quantifies the number of bits needed to describe the data, which is the information entropy of the source. Data compression (source coding): There are two formulations for the compression problem: lossless data compression: the data must be reconstructed exactly; lossy data compression: allocates bits needed to reconstruct the data, within a specified fidelity level measured by a distortion function. This subset of Information theory is called rate–distortion theory. Error-correcting codes (channel coding): While data compression removes as much redundancy as possible, an error correcting code adds just the right kind of redundancy (i.e., error correction) needed to transmit the data efficiently and faithfully across a noisy channel. This division of coding theory into compression and transmission is justified by the information transmission theorems, or source–channel separation theorems that justify the use of bits as the universal currency for information in many contexts. However, these theorems only hold in the situation where one transmitting user wishes to communicate to one receiving user. In scenarios with more than one transmitter (the multiple-access channel), more than one receiver (the broadcast channel) or intermediary "helpers" (the relay channel), or more general networks, compression followed by transmission may no longer be optimal. Network information theory refers to these multi-agent communication models. Source theory Any process that generates successive messages can be considered a source of information. A memoryless source is one in which each message is an independent identically-distributed random variable, whereas the properties of ergodicity and stationarity impose more general constraints. All such sources are stochastic. These terms are well studied in their own right outside information theory. Rate Information rate is the average entropy per symbol. For memoryless sources, this is merely the entropy of each symbol, while, in the case of a stationary stochastic process, it is that is, the conditional entropy of a symbol given all the previous symbols generated. For the more general case of a process that is not necessarily stationary, the average rate is that is, the limit of the joint entropy per symbol. For stationary sources, these two expressions give the same result. It is common in information theory to speak of the "rate" or "entropy" of a language. This is appropriate, for example, when the source of information is English prose. The rate of a source of information is related to its redundancy and how well it can be compressed, the subject of source coding. Channel capacity Communications over a channel—such as an ethernet wire—is the primary motivation of information theory. As anyone who's ever used a telephone (mobile or landline) knows, however, such channels often fail to produce exact reconstruction of a signal; noise, periods of silence, and other forms of signal corruption often degrade quality. How much information can one hope to communicate over a noisy (or otherwise imperfect) channel? Consider the communications process over a discrete channel. A simple model of the process is shown below: Here X represents the space of messages transmitted, and Y the space of messages received during a unit time over our channel. Let be the conditional probability distribution function of Y given X. We will consider to be an inherent fixed property of our communications channel (representing the nature of the noise of our channel). Then the joint distribution of X and Y is completely determined by our channel and by our choice of , the marginal distribution of messages we choose to send over the channel. Under these constraints, we would like to maximize the rate of information, or the signal, we can communicate over the channel. The appropriate measure for this is the mutual information, and this maximum mutual information is called the channel capacity and is given by: This capacity has the following property related to communicating at information rate R (where R is usually bits per symbol). For any information rate R < C and coding error ε > 0, for large enough N, there exists a code of length N and rate ≥ R and a decoding algorithm, such that the maximal probability of block error is ≤ ε; that is, it is always possible to transmit with arbitrarily small block error. In addition, for any rate R > C, it is impossible to transmit with arbitrarily small block error. Channel coding is concerned with finding such nearly optimal codes that can be used to transmit data over a noisy channel with a small coding error at a rate near the channel capacity. Channel capacity of particular model channels A continuous-time analog communications channel subject to Gaussian noise — see Shannon–Hartley theorem. A binary symmetric channel (BSC) with crossover probability p is a binary input, binary output channel that flips the input bit with probability p. The BSC has a capacity of bits per channel use, where is the binary entropy function: Image:Binary symmetric channel.svg A binary erasure channel (BEC) with erasure probability p is a binary input, ternary output channel. The possible channel outputs are 0, 1, and a third symbol 'e' called an erasure. The erasure represents complete loss of information about an input bit. The capacity of the BEC is 1 - p bits per channel use. Image:Binary erasure channel.svg Applications to other fields Intelligence uses and secrecy applications Information theoretic concepts apply to cryptography and cryptanalysis. Turing's information unit, the ban, was used in the Ultra project, breaking the German Enigma machine code and hastening the end of WWII in Europe. Shannon himself defined an important concept now called the unicity distance. Based on the redundancy of the plaintext, it attempts to give a minimum amount of ciphertext necessary to ensure unique decipherability. Information theory leads us to believe it is much more difficult to keep secrets than it might first appear. A brute force attack can break systems based on asymmetric key algorithms or on most commonly used methods of symmetric key algorithms (sometimes called secret key algorithms), such as block ciphers. The security of all such methods currently comes from the assumption that no known attack can break them in a practical amount of time. Information theoretic security refers to methods such as the one-time pad that are not vulnerable to such brute force attacks. In such cases, the positive conditional mutual information between the plaintext and ciphertext (conditioned on the key) can ensure proper transmission, while the unconditional mutual information between the plaintext and ciphertext remains zero, resulting in absolutely secure communications. In other words, an eavesdropper would not be able to improve his or her guess of the plaintext by gaining knowledge of the ciphertext but not of the key. However, as in any other cryptographic system, care must be used to correctly apply even information-theoretically secure methods; the Venona project was able to crack the one-time pads of the Soviet Union due to their improper reuse of key material. Pseudorandom number generation Pseudorandom number generators are widely available in computer language libraries and application programs. They are, almost universally, unsuited to cryptographic use as they do not evade the deterministic nature of modern computer equipment and software. A class of improved random number generators is termed Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generators, but even they require external to the software random seeds to work as intended. These can be obtained via extractors, if done carefully. The measure of sufficient randomness in extractors is min-entropy, a value related to Shannon entropy through Rényi entropy; Rényi entropy is also used in evaluating randomness in cryptographic systems. Although related, the distinctions among these measures mean that a random variable with high Shannon entropy is not necessarily satisfactory for use in an extractor and so for cryptography uses. Seismic Exploration One early commercial application of information theory was in the field seismic oil exploration. Work in this field made it possible to strip off and separate the unwanted noise from the desired seismic signal. Information theory and digital signal processing offer a major improvement of resolution and image clarity over previous analog methods. The Corporation and Innovation, Haggerty, Patrick, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 2, 97-118 (1981) Miscellaneous applications Information theory also has applications in gambling and investing, black holes, bioinformatics, and music. References Footnotes The classic work Shannon, C.E. (1948), "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", Bell System Technical Journal, 27, pp. 379–423 & 623–656, July & October, 1948. PDF. Notes and other formats. R.V.L. Hartley, "Transmission of Information", Bell System Technical Journal, July 1928 Andrey Kolmogorov(1968) "Three approaches to the quantitative definition of information" in International Journal of Computer Mathematics. Other journal articles J. L. Kelly, Jr., "A New Interpretation of Information Rate," Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 35, July 1956, pp. 917-26. R. Landauer, Information is Physical Proc. Workshop on Physics and Computation PhysComp'92 (IEEE Comp. Sci.Press, Los Alamitos, 1993) pp. 1-4. R. Landauer, "Irreversibility and Heat Generation in the Computing Process" IBM J. Res. Develop. Vol. 5, No. 3, 1961 Textbooks on information theory Claude E. Shannon, Warren Weaver. The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Univ of Illinois Press, 1949. ISBN 0-252-72548-4 Robert Gallager. Information Theory and Reliable Communication. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1968. ISBN 0-471-29048-3 Robert B. Ash. Information Theory. New York: Interscience, 1965. ISBN 0-470-03445-9. New York: Dover 1990. ISBN 0-486-66521-6 Thomas M. Cover, Joy A. Thomas. Elements of information theory, 1st Edition. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1991. ISBN 0-471-06259-6. 2nd Edition. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 2006. ISBN 0-471-24195-4. Imre Csiszar, Janos Korner. Information Theory: Coding Theorems for Discrete Memoryless Systems Akademiai Kiado: 2nd edition, 1997. ISBN 9630574403 Raymond W. Yeung. A First Course in Information Theory Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2002. ISBN 0-306-46791-7 David J. C. MacKay. Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-64298-1 Raymond W. Yeung. Information Theory and Network Coding Springer 2008, 2002. ISBN 978-0-387-79233-0 Stanford Goldman. Information Theory. New York: Prentice Hall, 1953. New York: Dover 1968 ISBN 0-486-62209-6, 2005 ISBN 0-486-44271-3 Fazlollah Reza. An Introduction to Information Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill 1961. New York: Dover 1994. ISBN 0-486-68210-2 Masud Mansuripur. Introduction to Information Theory. New York: Prentice Hall, 1987. ISBN 0-13-484668-0 Christoph Arndt: Information Measures, Information and its Description in Science and Engineering (Springer Series: Signals and Communication Technology), 2004, ISBN 978-3-540-40855-0, ; Other books Leon Brillouin, Science and Information Theory, Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, [1956, 1962] 2004. ISBN 0-486-43918-6 A. I. Khinchin, Mathematical Foundations of Information Theory, New York: Dover, 1957. ISBN 0-486-60434-9 H. S. Leff and A. F. Rex, Editors, Maxwell's Demon: Entropy, Information, Computing, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ (1990). ISBN 0-691-08727-X Tom Siegfried, The Bit and the Pendulum, Wiley, 2000. ISBN 0-471-32174-5 Charles Seife, Decoding The Universe, Viking, 2006. ISBN 0-670-03441-X Jeremy Campbell, Grammatical Man, Touchstone/Simon & Schuster, 1982, ISBN 0-671-44062-4 Henri Theil, Economics and Information Theory, Rand McNally & Company - Chicago, 1967. See also Communication theory List of important publications Philosophy of information Applications Cryptography Cryptanalysis Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory seismic exploration Intelligence (information gathering) Gambling Cybernetics History History of information theory Timeline of information theory Shannon, C.E. Hartley, R.V.L. Yockey, H.P. Theory Coding theory Source coding Detection theory Estimation theory Fisher information Kolmogorov complexity Information Algebra Information geometry Information theory and measure theory Logic of information Network coding Quantum information science Semiotic information theory Philosophy of Information Concepts Self-information Information entropy Joint entropy Conditional entropy Redundancy Channel (communications) Communication source Receiver (information theory) Rényi entropy Variety Mutual information Pointwise Mutual Information (PMI) Differential entropy Kullback-Leibler divergence Channel capacity Unicity distance ban (information) Covert channel Encoder Decoder External links Schneider, T., "Information Theory Primer", Eprint Srinivasa, S. "A Review on Multivariate Mutual Information" PDF. Challis, J. Lateral Thinking in Information Retrieval Journal of Chemical Education, Shuffled Cards, Messy Desks, and Disorderly Dorm Rooms - Examples of Entropy Increase? Nonsense! IEEE Information Theory Society and the review articles. On-line textbook: Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms, by David MacKay - gives an entertaining and thorough introduction to Shannon theory, including state-of-the-art methods from coding theory, such as arithmetic coding, low-density parity-check codes, and Turbo codes. 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4,559 | Apparent_magnitude | The apparent magnitude (m) of a celestial body is a measure of its brightness as seen by an observer on Earth, normalized to the value it would have in the absence of the atmosphere. The brighter the object appears, the lower the value of its magnitude. Explanation The scale upon which magnitude is now measured has its origin in the Hellenistic practice of dividing those stars visible to the naked eye into six magnitudes. The brightest stars were said to be of first magnitude (m = 1), while the faintest were of sixth magnitude (m = 6), the limit of human visual perception (without the aid of a telescope). Each grade of magnitude was considered to be twice the brightness of the following grade (a logarithmic scale). This somewhat crude method of indicating the brightness of stars was popularized by Ptolemy in his Almagest, and is generally believed to have originated with Hipparchus. This original system did not measure the magnitude of the Sun. In 1856, Pogson formalized the system by defining a typical first magnitude star as a star that is 100 times as bright as a typical sixth magnitude star; thus, a first magnitude star is about 2.512 times as bright as a second magnitude star. The fifth root of 100 is known as Pogson's Ratio. Magnitudes of Thirty-six of the Minor Planets for the first day of each month of the year 1857, N. Pogson, MNRAS Vol. 17, pg. 12 (1856) Pogson's scale was originally fixed by assigning Polaris a magnitude of 2. Astronomers later discovered that Polaris is slightly variable, so they first switched to Vega as the standard reference star, and then switched to using tabulated zero points for the measured fluxes. Landolt-Börnstein: Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology - New Series " Gruppe/Group 6 Astronomy and Astrophysics " Volume 2 Schaifers/Voigt: Astronomy and Astrophysics / Astronomie und Astrophysik " Stars and Star Clusters / Sterne und Sternhaufen L. H. Aller et al., ISBN # 3-540-10976-5; 0-387-10976-5 (1982) The magnitude depends on the wavelength band (see below). The modern system is no longer limited to 6 magnitudes or only to visible light. Very bright objects have negative magnitudes. For example, Sirius, the brightest star of the celestial sphere, has an apparent magnitude of −1.4. The modern scale includes the Moon and the Sun; the full Moon has an apparent magnitude of −12.6 and the Sun has an apparent magnitude of −26.73. The Hubble Space Telescope has located stars with magnitudes of 30 at visible wavelengths and the Keck telescopes have located similarly faint stars in the infrared. +Apparent magnitudes of known celestial objects App. Mag. Celestial object −26.73 Sun (449,000 times brighter than full moon) −20 Sun (As seen from Neptune) −12.6 Full Moon −8.0 Maximum brightness of an Iridium (satellite) flare −6.0 The Crab Supernova (SN 1054) of AD 1054 (6500 light years away) −4.7 Maximum brightness of Venus and the International Space Station (when the ISS is at its perigee and fully lit by the sun) −3.9 Faintest objects observable during the day with naked eye −3.8 Minimum brightness of Venus when it is on the far side of the Sun −3.0 Maximum brightness of Mars −2.8 Maximum brightness of Jupiter −1.9 Maximum brightness of Mercury −1.47 Brightest star (except for the sun) at visible wavelengths: Sirius −0.7 Second-brightest star: Canopus −0.24 Maximum brightness of Saturn 0 The zero point by definition: This used to be Vega 3 Faintest stars visible in an urban neighborhood with naked eye 4.6 Maximum brightness of Ganymede 5.1 Maximum brightness of brightest asteroid Vesta 5.5 Maximum brightness of Uranus 6.4 Maximum brightness of asteroid Pallas 6.5 Faintest stars observable with naked eye under perfect conditions 6.7 Maximum brightness of Ceres 7.7 Maximum brightness of Neptune 9.1 Maximum brightness of 10 Hygiea 9.5 Faintest objects visible with binoculars 10.2 Maximum brightness of Iapetus 12.9 Brightest quasar 3C 273 (2.4 Giga-light years away) 13.65 Maximum brightness of Pluto (1,148 times fainter than naked-eye visibility) 15.6 Maximum brightness of centaur Chiron 18.7 Current opposition brightness of Eris 23 Maximum brightness of Pluto's smallest moons Hydra and Nix 27 Faintest objects observable in visible light with 8m ground-based telescopes 30 Faintest objects observable in visible light with Hubble Space Telescope 35 Sedna at aphelion (900 AU) Mike Brown 2007 (see also List of brightest stars) These are only approximate values at visible wavelengths (in reality the values depend on the precise bandpass used) — see airglow for more details of telescope sensitivity. As the amount of light received actually depends on the thickness of the Earth's atmosphere in the line of sight to the object, the apparent magnitudes are normalized to the value it would have in the absence of the atmosphere. The dimmer an object appears, the higher its apparent magnitude. Note that brightness varies with distance; an extremely bright object may appear quite dim, if it is far away. Brightness varies inversely with the square of the distance. The absolute magnitude, M, of a celestial body (outside of the solar system) is the apparent magnitude it would have if it were 10 parsecs (~32 light years) away; that of a planet (or other solar system body) is the apparent magnitude it would have if it were 1 astronomical unit away from both the Sun and Earth. The absolute magnitude of the Sun is 4.83 in the V band (yellow) and 5.48 in the B band (blue). The apparent magnitude in the band x can be defined as (noting that ) where is the observed flux in the band x, and is a reference flux in the same band x, such as the Vega star's for example. See Aller et al. 1982 for the most commonly used system. The variation in brightness between two luminous objects can be calculated another way by subtracting the magnitude number of the brighter object from the magnitude number of the fainter object, then using the difference as an exponent for the base number 2.512; that is to say (; and variation in brightness). Example 1 What is the ratio in brightness between the Sun and the full moon? variation in brightness The apparent magnitude of the Sun is -26.73, and the apparent magnitude of the full moon is -12.6. The full moon is the fainter of the two objects, while the Sun is the brighter. Difference in magnitude Variation in Brightness variation in brightness = 449,000 In terms of apparent magnitude, the Sun is about 449,000 times brighter than the full moon. Example 2 What is the ratio in brightness between Sirius and Polaris? variation in brightness The apparent magnitude of Sirius is -1.44, and the apparent magnitude of Polaris is 1.97. Polaris is the fainter of the two stars, while Sirius is the brighter. Difference in magnitude Variation in brightness In terms of apparent magnitude, Sirius is 23.124 times brighter than Polaris the North Star. The second thing to notice is that the scale is logarithmic: the relative brightness of two objects is determined by the difference of their magnitudes. For example, a difference of 3.2 means that one object is about 19 times as bright as the other, because Pogson's ratio raised to the power 3.2 is 19.054607... A common misconception is that the logarithmic nature of the scale is because the human eye itself has a logarithmic response. In Pogson's time this was thought to be true (see Weber-Fechner law), but it is now believed that the response is a power law (see Stevens' power law). "Misconceptions About Astronomical Magnitudes," E. Schulman and C. V. Cox, American Journal of Physics, Vol. 65, pg. 1003 (1997). Magnitude is complicated by the fact that light is not monochromatic. The sensitivity of a light detector varies according to the wavelength of the light, and the way in which it varies depends on the type of light detector. For this reason, it is necessary to specify how the magnitude is measured in order for the value to be meaningful. For this purpose the UBV system is widely used, in which the magnitude is measured in three different wavelength bands: U (centred at about 350 nm, in the near ultraviolet), B (about 435 nm, in the blue region) and V (about 555 nm, in the middle of the human visual range in daylight). The V band was chosen for spectral purposes and gives magnitudes closely corresponding to those seen by the light-adapted human eye, and when an apparent magnitude is given without any further qualification, it is usually the V magnitude that is meant, more or less the same as visual magnitude. Since cooler stars, such as red giants and red dwarfs, emit little energy in the blue and UV regions of the spectrum their power is often under-represented by the UBV scale. Indeed, some L and T class stars have an estimated magnitude of well over 100, since they emit extremely little visible light, but are strongest in infrared. Measures of magnitude need cautious treatment and it is extremely important to measure like with like. On early 20th century and older orthochromatic (blue-sensitive) photographic film, the relative brightnesses of the blue supergiant Rigel and the red supergiant Betelgeuse irregular variable star (at maximum) are reversed compared to what our eyes see since this archaic film is more sensitive to blue light than it is to red light. Magnitudes obtained from this method are known as photographic magnitudes, and are now considered obsolete. For objects within our Galaxy with a given absolute magnitude, 5 is added to the apparent magnitude for every tenfold increase in the distance to the object. This relationship does not apply for objects at very great distances (far beyond our galaxy), since a correction for General Relativity must then be taken into account due to the non-Euclidean nature of space. See also Absolute magnitude Magnitude (astronomy) Photographic magnitude Luminosity in astronomy List of brightest stars List of nearest bright stars List of nearest stars Lux Surface Brightness References | Apparent_magnitude |@lemmatized apparent:18 magnitude:57 celestial:5 body:3 measure:7 brightness:36 see:11 observer:1 earth:3 normalize:2 value:6 would:4 absence:2 atmosphere:3 brighter:5 object:20 appear:3 low:1 explanation:1 scale:7 upon:1 origin:1 hellenistic:1 practice:1 divide:1 star:28 visible:10 naked:5 eye:8 six:2 bright:16 say:2 first:5 faint:8 sixth:2 limit:2 human:4 visual:3 perception:1 without:2 aid:1 telescope:6 grade:2 consider:2 twice:1 following:1 logarithmic:4 somewhat:1 crude:1 method:2 indicate:1 popularize:1 ptolemy:1 almagest:1 generally:1 believe:2 originate:1 hipparchus:1 original:1 system:7 sun:14 pogson:6 formalize:1 define:2 typical:2 time:8 thus:1 second:3 fifth:1 root:1 know:3 ratio:4 thirty:1 minor:1 planet:2 day:2 month:1 year:4 n:1 mnras:1 vol:2 pg:2 originally:1 fix:1 assign:1 polaris:6 astronomer:1 later:1 discover:1 slightly:1 variable:2 switch:2 vega:3 standard:1 reference:3 use:5 tabulate:1 zero:2 point:2 measured:1 flux:3 landolt:1 börnstein:1 numerical:1 data:1 functional:1 relationship:2 science:1 technology:1 new:1 series:1 gruppe:1 group:1 astronomy:4 astrophysics:2 volume:1 schaifers:1 voigt:1 astronomie:1 und:2 astrophysik:1 cluster:1 sterne:1 sternhaufen:1 l:2 h:1 aller:1 et:2 al:2 isbn:1 depend:4 wavelength:6 band:8 modern:2 longer:1 light:16 negative:1 example:5 sirius:6 sphere:1 include:1 moon:9 full:7 hubble:2 space:4 locate:2 keck:1 similarly:1 infrared:2 app:1 mag:1 neptune:2 maximum:18 iridium:1 satellite:1 flare:1 crab:1 supernova:1 sn:1 ad:1 away:5 venus:2 international:1 station:1 perigee:1 fully:1 observable:4 minimum:1 far:3 side:1 mar:1 jupiter:1 mercury:1 except:1 canopus:1 saturn:1 definition:1 urban:1 neighborhood:1 ganymede:1 asteroid:2 vesta:1 uranus:1 pallas:1 perfect:1 condition:1 cere:1 hygiea:1 binoculars:1 iapetus:1 quasar:1 giga:1 pluto:2 fainter:4 visibility:1 centaur:1 chiron:1 current:1 opposition:1 eris:1 small:1 hydra:1 nix:1 ground:1 base:2 sedna:1 aphelion:1 au:1 mike:1 brown:1 also:2 list:4 approximate:1 reality:1 precise:1 bandpass:1 airglow:1 detail:1 sensitivity:2 amount:1 receive:1 actually:1 thickness:1 line:1 sight:1 dimmer:1 high:1 note:2 varies:3 distance:4 extremely:3 may:1 quite:1 dim:1 inversely:1 square:1 absolute:4 outside:1 solar:2 parsec:1 astronomical:2 unit:1 v:5 yellow:1 b:2 blue:6 x:3 observed:1 commonly:1 used:1 variation:7 two:4 luminous:1 calculate:1 another:1 way:2 subtract:1 number:3 difference:5 exponent:1 term:2 north:1 thing:1 notice:1 relative:2 determine:1 mean:2 one:1 raise:1 power:4 common:1 misconception:2 nature:2 response:2 think:1 true:1 weber:1 fechner:1 law:3 stevens:1 e:1 schulman:1 c:1 cox:1 american:1 journal:1 physic:1 complicate:1 fact:1 monochromatic:1 detector:2 accord:1 vary:1 type:1 reason:1 necessary:1 specify:1 order:1 meaningful:1 purpose:2 ubv:2 widely:1 three:1 different:1 u:1 centre:1 nm:3 near:3 ultraviolet:1 region:2 middle:1 range:1 daylight:1 choose:1 spectral:1 give:3 closely:1 correspond:1 adapt:1 qualification:1 usually:1 less:1 since:4 cooler:1 red:4 giant:1 dwarf:1 emit:2 little:2 energy:1 uv:1 spectrum:1 often:1 represent:1 indeed:1 class:1 estimate:1 well:1 strong:1 need:1 cautious:1 treatment:1 important:1 like:2 early:1 century:1 old:1 orthochromatic:1 sensitive:2 photographic:3 film:2 supergiant:2 rigel:1 betelgeuse:1 irregular:1 reverse:1 compare:1 archaic:1 obtain:1 obsolete:1 within:1 galaxy:2 add:1 every:1 tenfold:1 increase:1 apply:1 great:1 beyond:1 correction:1 general:1 relativity:1 must:1 take:1 account:1 due:1 non:1 euclidean:1 luminosity:1 lux:1 surface:1 |@bigram apparent_magnitude:18 visible_naked:1 naked_eye:5 logarithmic_scale:1 ptolemy_almagest:1 astronomy_astrophysics:2 et_al:2 celestial_sphere:1 maximum_brightness:17 supernova_sn:1 asteroid_vesta:1 asteroid_pallas:1 centaur_chiron:1 absolute_magnitude:4 commonly_used:1 |
4,560 | Despotism | Despotism is a form of government by a single authority, either an individual or tightly knit group, which rules with absolute political power. In its classical form, a despotism is a state where a single individual (the Despot) wields all the power and authority embodying the state, and everyone else is a subsidiary person. This form of despotism was common in the first forms of statehood and civilization; the Pharaoh of Egypt is exemplary of the classical Despot. The term now implies tyrannical rule. Despotism can mean absolutism (dominance through threat of punishment and violence) or dictatorship (a form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator, not restricted by a constitution, laws or opposition, etc). WordNet Search - 3.0 However, in enlightened absolutism (also known as benevolent or enlightened despotism), which came to prominence in 18th century Europe, absolute monarchs used their authority to institute a number of reforms in the political systems and societies of their countries. This movement was quite probably triggered by the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment. Although the word has a pejorative meaning nowadays, it was once a legitimate title of office in the Byzantine Empire. Just as the word "Byzantine" is often used in a pejorative way, the word "Despot" had equally negative connotations. In fact, "Despot" was an Imperial title, first used under Manuel I Komnenos (1143–1180) who created it for his appointed heir Alexius-Béla. According to Gyula Moravcsik, this title was a simple translation of Béla's Hungarian title "úr", but other historians believe it comes from the ancient Greek despotes (literally, "the master"). In the Orthodox Liturgy, if celebrated in Greek, the priest is addressed by the deacon as "despot" even today. It was typically bestowed on sons-in-law and later sons of the Emperor and, beginning in the 13th century, it was bestowed to foreign princes. The Despot wore elaborate costumes similar to the Emperor's and had many privileges. Despots ruled over parts of the empire called Despotates. The British government is cited to have reduced the American people under absolute despotism in the United States Declaration of Independence: "But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security". Contrast with monarchy According to Montesquieu, the difference between monarchy and despotism is that in monarchy, a single person governs by fixed and established laws, whereas a despot governs by his own will and caprice. Montesquieu, "The Spirit of Laws", Book II, 1. Franklin had also previously opposed depotism in his visits to Versailles. See also Dictatorship Enlightened despot Oligarchy Monarchy Tyranny References External links Dictionary of the History of Ideas: despotism | Despotism |@lemmatized despotism:9 form:5 government:4 single:3 authority:3 either:1 individual:2 tightly:1 knit:1 group:1 rule:3 absolute:5 political:2 power:2 classical:2 state:3 despot:9 wield:1 embody:1 everyone:1 else:1 subsidiary:1 person:2 common:1 first:2 statehood:1 civilization:1 pharaoh:1 egypt:1 exemplary:1 term:1 imply:1 tyrannical:1 mean:1 absolutism:2 dominance:1 threat:1 punishment:1 violence:1 dictatorship:2 ruler:1 dictator:1 restrict:1 constitution:1 law:4 opposition:1 etc:1 wordnet:1 search:1 however:1 enlightened:1 also:3 know:1 benevolent:1 enlighten:2 come:2 prominence:1 century:2 europe:1 monarch:1 use:3 institute:1 number:1 reform:1 system:1 society:1 country:1 movement:1 quite:1 probably:1 trigger:1 ideal:1 age:1 enlightenment:1 although:1 word:3 pejorative:2 meaning:1 nowadays:1 legitimate:1 title:4 office:1 byzantine:2 empire:2 often:1 way:1 equally:1 negative:1 connotation:1 fact:1 imperial:1 manuel:1 komnenos:1 create:1 appoint:1 heir:1 alexius:1 béla:2 accord:2 gyula:1 moravcsik:1 simple:1 translation:1 hungarian:1 úr:1 historian:1 believe:1 ancient:1 greek:2 despotes:1 literally:1 master:1 orthodox:1 liturgy:1 celebrate:1 priest:1 address:1 deacon:1 even:1 today:1 typically:1 bestow:2 son:2 late:1 emperor:2 begin:1 foreign:1 prince:1 wear:1 elaborate:1 costume:1 similar:1 many:1 privilege:1 part:1 call:1 despotates:1 british:1 cite:1 reduce:2 american:1 people:1 united:1 declaration:1 independence:1 long:1 train:1 abuse:1 usurpation:1 pursue:1 invariably:1 object:1 evince:1 design:1 right:1 duty:1 throw:1 provide:1 new:1 guard:1 future:1 security:1 contrast:1 monarchy:4 montesquieu:2 difference:1 governs:1 fixed:1 establish:1 whereas:1 govern:1 caprice:1 spirit:1 book:1 ii:1 franklin:1 previously:1 oppose:1 depotism:1 visit:1 versailles:1 see:1 oligarchy:1 tyranny:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 dictionary:1 history:1 idea:1 |@bigram tightly_knit:1 everyone_else:1 wordnet_search:1 negative_connotation:1 manuel_komnenos:1 declaration_independence:1 external_link:1 |
4,561 | Beetle | Beetles are the group of insects with the largest number of known species. They are classified in the order Coleoptera (; from Greek , koleos, "sheath"; and , pteron, "wing", thus "sheathed wing"), which contains more described species than in any other order in the animal kingdom, constituting about 25% of all known life-forms. James K. Liebherr and Joseph V. McHugh in Resh, V. H. & R. T. Cardé (Editors) 2003. Encyclopedia of Insects. Academic Press. 40% of all described insect species are beetles (about 350,000 species), and new species are frequently discovered. Estimates put the total number of species, described and undescribed, at between 5 and 8 million. The largest family also belongs to this order- the weevils, or snout beetles,Curculionidae. Beetles can be found in almost all habitats, but are not known to occur in the sea or in the polar regions. They interact with their ecosystems in several ways. They often feed on plants and fungi, break down animal and plant debris, and eat other invertebrates. Some species are prey of various animals including birds and mammals. Certain species are agricultural pests, such as the Colorado potato beetle Leptinotarsa decemlineata, the boll weevil Anthonomus grandis, the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum, and the mungbean or cowpea beetle Callosobruchus maculatus, while other species of beetles are important controls of agricultural pests. For example, beetles in the family Coccinellidae ("ladybirds" or "ladybugs") consume aphids, scale insects, thrips, and other plant-sucking insects that damage crops. Description The name "Coleoptera" was given by Aristotle for the hardened shield-like forewing (coleo = shield + ptera = wing). A cockchafer with its elytra raised, exposing the membranous flight wings, where the veins are visible Trogodendron fasciculatum, a clerid beetle with bright yellow antennae Other characters of this group which are believed to be monophyletic include a holometabolous life cycle; having a prothorax that is distinct from and freely articulating with the mesothorax; the meso- and meta-thoracic segments fusing to form a pterothorax; a depressed body shape with the legs on the ventral surface; the coxae of legs recessed into cavities formed by heavily sclerotized thoracic sclerites; the abdominal sternites more sclerotized than the tergites; antennae with 11 or fewer segments; and terminal genitalic appendages retracted into the abdomen and invisible at rest. The general anatomy of beetles is quite uniform, although specific organs and appendages may vary greatly in appearance and function between the many families in the order. Like all insects, beetles' bodies are divided into three sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. When viewed from below, the thorax is that part from which all three pairs of legs and both pairs of wings arise. The abdomen is everything posterior to the thorax. When viewed from above, most beetles appear to have three clear sections, but this is deceptive: on the beetle's upper surface, the middle "section" is a hard plate called the pronotum, which is only the front part of the thorax; the back part of the thorax is concealed by the beetle's wings. Like all arthropods, beetles are segmented organisms, and all three of the major sections of the body are themselves composed of several further segments, although these are not always readily discernible. This further segmentation is usually best seen on the abdomen. Beetles are generally characterised by a particularly hard exoskeleton and hard forewings (elytra). The beetle's exoskeleton is made up of numerous plates called sclerites, separated by thin sutures. This design creates the armoured defences of the beetle while maintaining flexibility. The elytra are not used for flight, but tend to cover the hind part of the body and protect the second pair of wings (alae). The elytra must be raised in order to move the hind flight wings. A beetle's flight wings are crossed with veins and are folded after landing, often along these veins, and are stored below the elytra. In some beetles, the ability to fly has been lost. These include the ground beetles (family Carabidae) and some "true weevils" (family Curculionidae), but also some desert and cave-dwelling species of other families. Many of these species have the two elytra fused together, forming a solid shield over the abdomen. In a few families, both the ability to fly and the elytra have been lost, with the best known example being the glow-worms of the family Phengodidae, in which the females are larviform throughout their lives. Beetles have mouthparts similar to those of grasshoppers. Of these parts, the most commonly known are probably the mandibles, which appear as large pincers on the front of some beetles. The mandibles are a pair of hard, often tooth-like structures that move horizontally to grasp, crush, or cut food or enemies (see defence, below). Two pairs of finger-like appendages are found around the mouth in most beetles, serving to move food into the mouth. These are the maxillary and labial palpi. The eyes are compound and may display remarkable adaptability, as in the case of whirligig beetles (family Gyrinidae), in which the eyes are split to allow a view both above and below the waterline. Other species also have divided eyes — some longhorn beetles (family Cerambycidae) and weevils — while many beetles have eyes that are notched to some degree. A few beetle genera also possess ocelli, which are small, simple eyes usually situated farther back on the head (on the vertex). Beetles' antennae are primarily organs of smell, but may also be used to feel out a beetle's environment physically. They may also be used in some families during mating, or among a few beetles for defence. Antennae vary greatly in form within the Coleoptera, but are often similar within any given family. In some cases, males and females of the same species will have different antennal forms. Antennae may be clavate (flabellate and lamellate are sub-forms of clavate, or clubbed antennae), filiform, geniculate, moniliform, pectinate, or serrate. For images of these antennal forms see antenna (biology). Acilius sulcatus, a diving beetle showing hind legs adapted for life in water The legs, which are multi-segmented, end in two to five small segments called tarsi. Like many other insect orders beetles bear claws, usually one pair, on the end of the last tarsal segment of each leg. While most beetles use their legs for walking, legs may be variously modified and adapted for other uses. Among aquatic families — Dytiscidae, Haliplidae, many species of Hydrophilidae and others — the legs, most notably the last pair, are modified for swimming and often bear rows of long hairs to aid this purpose. Other beetles have fossorial legs that are widened and often spined for digging. Species with such adaptations are found among the scarabs, ground beetles, and clown beetles (family Histeridae). The hind legs of some beetles, such as flea beetles (within Chrysomelidae) and flea weevils (within Curculionidae), are enlarged and designed for jumping. Oxygen is obtained via a tracheal system. Air enters a series of tubes along the body through openings called spiracles, and is then taken into increasingly finer fibres. Pumping movements of the body force the air through the system. Beetles have hemolymph instead of blood, and the open circulatory system of the beetle is driven by a tube-like heart attached to the top inside of the thorax. Development Scarabaeiform larva of the cockchafer, Melolontha melolontha Beetles are endopterygotes with complete metamorphosis. A single female may lay from several dozen to several thousand eggs during her lifetime. Eggs are usually laid according to the substrate the larva will feed on upon hatching. Among others, they can be laid loose in the substrate (e.g. flour beetle), laid in clumps on leaves (e.g. Colorado potato beetle), or individually attached (e.g. mungbean beetle and other seed borers) or buried in the medium (e.g. carrot weevil). The larva is usually the principal feeding stage of the beetle life cycle. Larvae tend to feed voraciously once they emerge from their eggs. Some feed externally on plants, such as those of certain leaf beetles, while others feed within their food sources. Examples of internal feeders are most Buprestidae and longhorn beetles. The larvae of many beetle families are predatory like the adults (ground beetles, ladybirds, rove beetles). The larval period varies between species but can be as long as several years. Beetle larvae can be differentiated from other insect larvae by their hardened, often darkened head, the presence of chewing mouthparts, and spiracles along the sides of the body. Like adult beetles, the larvae are varied in appearance, particularly between beetle families. Beetles whose larvae are somewhat flattened and are highly mobile are the ground beetles, some rove beetles, and others; their larvae are described as campodeiform. Some beetle larvae resemble hardened worms with dark head capsules and minute legs. These are elateriform larvae, and are found in the click beetle (Elateridae) and darkling beetle (Tenebrionidae) families. Some elateriform larvae of click beetles are known as wireworms. Beetles in the families of the Scarabaeoidea have short, thick larvae described as scarabaeiform, but more commonly known as grubs. All beetle larvae go through several instars, which are the developmental stages between each moult. In many species the larvae simply increase in size with each successive instar as more food is consumed. In some cases, however, more dramatic changes occur. Among certain beetle families or genera, particularly those that exhibit parasitic lifestyles, the first instar (the planidium) is highly mobile in order to search out a host, while the following instars are more sedentary and remain on or within their host. This is known as hypermetamorphosis; examples include the blister beetles (family Meloidae) and some rove beetles, particularly those of the genus Aleochara. As with all endopterygotes, beetle larvae pupate, and from this pupa emerges a fully formed, sexually mature adult beetle, or imago. Adults have an extremely variable lifespan, from weeks to years, depending on the species. Physiology and behaviour Reproduction Punctate Flower Chafers mating A flower beetle, Eudicella gralli, from the forests of Central Africa. The iridescent elytra are used in indigenous marriage ceremonies. Beetles may display extremely intricate behaviour when mating. Pheromone communication is thought to be important in the location of a mate. Conflict can play a part in the mating rituals of species such as burying beetles (genus Nicrophorus) where conflicts between males and females rage until only one of each is left, thus ensuring reproduction by the strongest and fittest. Many male beetles are territorial and will fiercely defend their small patch of territory from intruding males. In such species, the males may often have horns on the head and/or thorax, making their overall body lengths greater than those of the females, unlike most insects. Pairing is generally short but in some cases will last for several hours. During pairing sperm cells are transferred to the female to fertilise the egg. Parental care varies between species, ranging from the simple laying of eggs under a leaf to certain scarab beetles, which construct underground structures complete with a supply of dung to house and feed their young. Other beetles are leaf rollers, biting sections of leaves to cause them to curl inwards, then laying their eggs, thus protected, inside. Defense Brachinus sp., a bombardier beetle Beetles and their larvae have a variety of strategies to avoid being attacked by predators or parasitoids. These include camouflage, mimicry, toxicity, and active defense. Camouflage involves the use of colouration or shape to blend into the surrounding environment. This sort of protective coloration is common and widespread among beetle families, especially those that feed on wood or vegetation, such as many of the leaf beetles (family Chrysomelidae) or weevils. In some of these species, sculpturing or various coloured scales or hairs cause the beetle to resemble bird dung or other inedible objects. Many of those that live in sandy environments blend in with the coloration of the substrate. Another defence that often uses colour or shape to deceive potential enemies is mimicry. A number of longhorn beetles (family Cerambycidae) bear a striking resemblance to wasps, which helps them avoid predation even though the beetles are in fact harmless. This defence can be found to a lesser extent in other beetle families, such as the scarab beetles. Beetles may combine their colour mimicry with behavioural mimicry, acting like the wasps they already closely resemble. Many beetle species, including ladybirds, blister beetles, and lycid beetles can secrete distasteful or toxic substances to make them unpalatable or even poisonous. These same species often exhibit aposematism, where bright or contrasting colour patterns warn away potential predators, and there are, not surprisingly, a great many beetles and other insects that mimic these chemically-protected species. Large ground beetles and longhorn beetles may defend themselves using strong mandibles and/or spines or horns to forcibly persuade a predator to seek out easier prey. Others, such as bombardier beetles (within Carabidae), may spray chemicals from their abdomen to repel predators. Feeding A Fiddler Beetle feeding from a flowering Cotoneaster glaucophyllus shrub Besides being abundant and varied, the Coleoptera are able to exploit the wide diversity of food sources available in their many habitats. Some are omnivores, eating both plants and animals. Other beetles are highly specialised in their diet. Many species of leaf beetles, longhorn beetles, and weevils are very host specific, feeding on only a single species of plant. Ground beetles and rove beetles (family Staphylinidae), among others, are primarily carnivorous and will catch and consume many other arthropods and small prey such as earthworms and snails. While most predatory beetles are generalists, a few species have more specific prey requirements or preferences. Decaying organic matter is a primary diet for many species. This can range from dung, which is consumed by coprophagous species such as certain scarab beetles (family Scarabaeidae), to dead animals, which are eaten by necrophagous species such as the carrion beetles (family Silphidae). Some of the beetles found within dung and carrion are in fact predatory, such as the clown beetles, preying on the larvae of coprophagous and necrophagous insects. Adaptations to the environment Aquatic beetles use several techniques for retaining air beneath the water's surface. Beetles of the family Dytiscidae hold air between the abdomen and the elytra when diving. Hydrophilidae have hairs on their under surface that retain a layer of air against their bodies. Adult crawling water beetles use both their elytra and their hind coxae (the basal segment of the back legs) in air retention while whirligig beetles simply carry an air bubble down with them whenever they dive. Evolutionary history and classification Sphaerius acaroides, a member of the small suborder Myxophaga While some authorities believe modern beetles began about 140 million years ago, research announced in 2007 showed that beetles may have entered the fossil record during the Lower Permian, about 265 to 300 million years ago. Modern Beetles Predate Dinosaurs, Dave Mosher, LiveScience.com, 26 December 2007. The four extant suborders of beetle are these: Polyphaga is the largest suborder, containing more than 300,000 described species in more than 170 families, including rove beetles (Staphylinidae), scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae), blister beetles (Meloidae), stag beetles (Lucanidae) and true weevils (Curculionidae). These beetles can be identified by the cervical sclerites (hardened parts of the head used as points of attachment for muscles) absent in the other suborders. Adephaga contains about 10 families of largely predatory beetles, includes ground beetles (Carabidae), Dytiscidae and whirligig beetles (Gyrinidae). In these beetles the testes are tubular and the first abdominal sternum (a plate of the exoskeleton) is divided by the hind coxae (the basal joints of the beetle's legs). Archostemata contains four families of mainly wood-eating beetles, including reticulated beetles (Cupedidae) and the telephone-pole beetle. Myxophaga contains about 100 described species in four families, mostly very small, including Hydroscaphidae and the genus Sphaerius. These suborders diverged in the Permian and Triassic. Their phylogenetic relationship is uncertain, with the most popular hypothesis being that Polyphaga and Myxophaga are most closely related, with Adephaga as the sister group to those two, and Archostemata as sister to the other three collectively. There are about 350,000 species of beetles. Such a large number of species poses special problems for classification, with some families consisting of thousands of species and needing further division into subfamilies and tribes. Impact on humans Pests Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) larvae Many agricultural, forestry, and household insect pests are beetles. These include the following: The Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, is a notorious pest of potato plants. Crops are destroyed and the beetle can only be treated by employing expensive pesticides, many of which it has begun to develop resistance to. As well as potatoes, suitable hosts can be a number of plants from the potato family (Solanaceae), such as nightshade, tomato, aubergine and capsicum. The boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis, has cost cotton producers in the United States billions of dollars since it first entered that country. The bark beetles Hylurgopinus rufipes and Scolytus multistriatus, the elm leaf beetle, Pyrrhalta luteola, and other beetles attack elm trees. The bark beetles are important elm pests because they carry Dutch elm disease as they move from infected breeding sites to feed on healthy elm trees. The spread of the fungus by the beetle has led to the devastation of elm trees in many parts of the Northern Hemisphere, notably in Europe and North America. The death watch beetle, Xestobium rufovillosum, (family Anobiidae) is of considerable importance as a pest of older wooden buildings in Great Britain. It attacks hardwoods such as oak and chestnut, always where some fungal decay has taken or is taking place. It is thought that the actual introduction of the pest into buildings takes place at the time of construction. Asian long-horned beetle Citrus long-horned beetle Rose chafer, Macrodactylus subspinosus Western corn rootworm Coconut hispine beetle, Brontispa longissima, feeds on young leaves and damages seedlings and mature coconut palms. On September 27, 2007, Philippines' Metro Manila and 26 provinces were quarantined due to having been infested with this pest (to save the $800-million Philippine coconut industry). Inquirer.net, Beetles infest coconuts in Manila, 26 provinces The mountain pine beetle normally attacks mature or weakened lodgepole pine. Under the right circumstances outbreaks make it the most destructive insect pest of mature pine forests. The current infestation in British Columbia is the largest Canada has ever seen. The Mountain Pine Beetle in British Columbia, Natural Resources Canada Beneficial organisms Coccinella septempunctata, a beneficial beetle Both the larvae and adults of some ladybirds (family Coccinellidae) are found in aphid colonies. Other lady beetles feed on scale insects and mealybugs. If normal food sources are scarce, they may feed on other things, such as small caterpillars, young plant bugs, honeydew and nectar. Ground beetles (family Carabidae) are common predators of many different insects and other arthropods, including fly eggs, caterpillars, wireworms and others. Plant-feeding beetles are often important beneficial insects, controlling problem weeds. Some flea beetles of the genus Aphthona feed on leafy spurge, a considerable weed of rangeland in western North America. Some farmers develop beetle banks to foster and provide cover for beneficial beetles. Beetles of the Dermestidae family are often used in taxidermy to clean bones of remaining flesh. Beetles in ancient Egypt and other cultures Ancient Egyptian scene depicting a scarab beetle Several species of dung beetle, most notably Scarabaeus sacer (often referred to as "scarab"), enjoyed a sacred status among the ancient Egyptians, as the creatures were likened to the major god Khepri. Some scholars suggest that the Egyptians' practice of making mummies was inspired by the brooding process of the beetle. Many thousands of amulets and stamp seals have been excavated that depict the scarab. In many artifacts, the scarab is depicted pushing the sun along its course in the sky, much as scarabs push or roll balls of dung to their brood sites. During and following the New Kingdom, scarab amulets were often placed over the heart of the mummified deceased. Some tribal groups, particularly in tropical parts of the world, use the colourful, iridescent elytra of certain beetles, especially certain Scarabaeidae, in ceremonies and as adornment. Study and collection Beetle collection at the Melbourne Museum, Australia The study of beetles is called coleopterology (from Coleoptera, see above, and Greek , -logia), and its practitioners are coleopterists (see this list). Coleopterists have formed organisations to facilitate the study of beetles. Among these is The Coleopterists Society, an international organisation based in the United States. Such organisations may have both professionals and amateurs interested in beetles as members. Research in this field is often published in peer-reviewed journals specific to the field of coleopterology, though journals dealing with general entomology also publish many papers on various aspects of beetle biology. Some of the journals specific to beetle research are: The Coleopterist (United Kingdom beetle fauna) The Coleopterists Bulletin (published by The Coleopterists Society) See also Heteroptera - insect suborder that is superficially similar to beetles Blister beetle dermatitis References General references Poul Beckmann, Living Jewels: The Natural Design of Beetles ISBN 3-7913-2528-0 Arthur V. Evans, Charles Bellamy, and Lisa Charles Watson, An Inordinate Fondness for Beetles ISBN 0-520-22323-3 Entomological Society of America, Beetle Larvae of the World ISBN 0-643-05506-1 David Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, Evolution of the Insects ISBN 0-521-82149-5 Ross H. Arnett, Jr. and Michael C. Thomas, American Beetles (CRC Press, 2001-2). ISBN 0-8493-1925-0 K. W. Harde, A Field Guide in Colour to Beetles ISBN 0-7064-1937-5 Pages 7–24 White, R.E. 1983. Beetles. Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, NY. ISBN 0-395-91089-7 Cited references External links www.coleoptera.org Coleoptera, collecting and preparation The Beetle Ring - websites about beetles (Coleoptera). List of major Beetle collections - worldwide Entomology - online insect museum, entomology, tips and tricks, how to spread and pin insects, etc. Gallery of European beetles Gallery with over 11.000 photos of European beetles. Coleoptera from the Tree of Life, also Beetles Movies Australian borers species Beetles and coleopterologists Russian site with English version, with information about biology, systematics and paleontology of beetles Illustrations from book by G.G. Yakobson "Beetles of Russia" North American Beetles from BugGuide Bibliography on fossil insects Coleoptera families of the world Southeast Asian beetles Kafer German site. Texas beetle information FlickrColeoptera larvae. Photographs Flickr Album Images of imagos. Beetles of North America Collection of diagnostic images Coleop-Terra Images Beetles of Africa Images Beetles of Mauritius Database and photo gallery of Mauritian beetles MCZType database.Excellent compare pics. | Beetle |@lemmatized beetle:185 group:4 insect:21 large:7 number:5 known:2 specie:38 classify:1 order:7 coleoptera:10 greek:2 koleos:1 sheath:1 pteron:1 wing:9 thus:3 sheathed:1 contain:4 described:3 animal:5 kingdom:3 constitute:1 know:6 life:6 form:10 james:1 k:2 liebherr:1 joseph:1 v:3 mchugh:1 resh:1 h:2 r:2 cardé:1 editor:1 encyclopedia:1 academic:1 press:2 describe:4 new:3 frequently:1 discover:1 estimate:1 put:1 total:1 undescribed:1 million:4 family:39 also:9 belong:1 weevil:10 snout:1 curculionidae:4 find:7 almost:1 habitat:2 occur:2 sea:1 polar:1 region:1 interact:1 ecosystem:1 several:9 way:1 often:15 fee:11 plant:10 fungi:1 break:1 debris:1 eat:3 invertebrate:1 prey:5 various:3 include:12 bird:2 mammal:1 certain:7 agricultural:3 pest:10 colorado:4 potato:7 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4,562 | On-base_plus_slugging | On-base plus slugging (OPS) is a baseball statistic calculated as the sum of a player's on-base percentage and slugging percentage. See www.baseballprospectus.com or rec.sport.baseball. The abilities of a player both to get on base and to hit for power, two important hitting skills, are represented, making it an effective way of measuring the player's offensive worth. An OPS of .900 or higher in Major League Baseball puts the player in the upper echelon of offensive ability. Typically, the league leader in OPS will score near, and not necessarily below, the 1.000 mark. Formula The basic formula is where OBP is on-base percentage, and SLG is slugging percentage. These percentages are defined and where: H = Hits BB = Bases on balls HBP = Times hit by pitch AB = At bats SF = Sacrifice flies TB = Total bases Since OBP and SLG have different denominators, it is possible to rewrite the expression for OPS using a common denominator. This expression is mathematically identical to the simple sum of OBP and SLG: Interpretation of OPS Unlike many other statistics, a player's OPS does not have a simple intrinsic meaning, despite its usefulness as a comparative statistic. One fault of OPS is that it weighs on-base average and slugging percentage equally, although on-base average correlates better with scoring runs. Magnifying this fault is that the numerical parts of OPS are not themselves typically equal (league-average slugging percentages are usually 75-100 points higher than league-average on-base percentages). History On-base plus slugging was first popularized in 1984 by John Thorn and Pete Palmer's book, The Hidden Game of Baseball. John Thorn and Pete Palmer, The Hidden Game of Baseball, pp. 69-70. The New York Times then began carrying the leaders in this statistic in its weekly "By the Numbers" box, a feature that continued for four years. Baseball journalist Peter Gammons used and evangelized the statistics, and other writers and broadcasters picked it up. The popularity of OPS gradually spread, and by 2004 it began appearing on Topps baseball cards. Alan Schwarz, The Numbers Game, pp. 165, 233. Leaders The top ten Major League Baseball players in lifetime OPS (with at least 3,000 plate appearances. through May 6, 2009 (active players in bold) are: Babe Ruth, 1.1638 Ted Williams, 1.1155 Lou Gehrig, 1.0798 Albert Pujols, 1.0524 Barry Bonds, 1.0512 Jimmie Foxx, 1.0376 Hank Greenberg, 1.0169 Rogers Hornsby, 1.0103 Manny Ramírez, 1.0059 Todd Helton, 1.0000 Albert Pujols has the highest career OPS for a right-handed batter. Source: Baseball-Reference.com - Career Leaders & Records for OPS The top ten single-season performances in MLB are (all left-handed hitters): Barry Bonds, 1.4217 (2004) Babe Ruth, 1.3818 (1920) Barry Bonds, 1.3807 (2002) Barry Bonds, 1.3785 (2001) Babe Ruth, 1.3586 (1921) Babe Ruth, 1.3089 (1923) Ted Williams, 1.2875 (1941) Barry Bonds, 1.2778 (2003) Babe Ruth, 1.2582 (1927) Ted Williams, 1.2566 (1957) Source: Baseball-Reference.com - Single-Season Records for OPS The highest single-season mark for a right-handed hitter was 1.2449 by Rogers Hornsby in 1925, (13th on the all-time list). Since 1925, the highest single-season OPS for a right-hander is 1.2224 by Mark McGwire in 1998. Adjusted OPS (OPS+) OPS+, Adjusted OPS, is a closely related statistic. OPS+ is OPS adjusted for the park and the league in which the player played, but not for fielding position. An OPS+ of 100 is defined to be the league average. An OPS+ of 150 or more is excellent and 125 very good, while an OPS+ of 75 or below is poor. The basic formula for OPS+ is where *lgOBP is the park adjusted OBP of the league and *lgSLG is the park adjusted SLG of the league. A common misconception is that OPS+ closely matches the ratio of a player's OPS to that of the league. In fact, due to the additive nature of the two components in OPS+, a player with an OBP and SLG both 50% better than league average in those metrics will have an OPS+ of 200 (twice the league average OPS+) while still having an OPS that is only 50% better than the average OPS of the league. Leaders in OPS+ Through May 5, 2009, the career leaders in OPS+ (minimum 3,000 plate appearances, active players in bold) were Babe Ruth, 207 Ted Williams, 191 Barry Bonds, 182 Lou Gehrig, 179 Rogers Hornsby, 175 Mickey Mantle, 172 Albert Pujols, 171 Dan Brouthers, 170 Joe Jackson, 170 Ty Cobb, 167 Jimmie Foxx, 163 Source: Baseball-Reference.com - Career Leaders & Records for Adjusted OPS+ The highest single-season performances were: Barry Bonds, 268 (2002) Barry Bonds, 263 (2004) Barry Bonds, 259 (2001) Fred Dunlap, 258 (1884) * Babe Ruth, 256 (1920) Babe Ruth, 239 (1921) Babe Ruth, 239 (1923) Ted Williams, 235 (1941) Ted Williams, 233 (1957) Ross Barnes, 231 (1876) ** Barry Bonds, 231 (2003) Source: Baseball-Reference.com - Single-Season Leaders & Records for Adjusted OPS+ * - Fred Dunlap's historic 1884 season came in the Union Association, which some baseball experts consider not to be a true major league ** - Ross Barnes was aided by a rule that made a bunt fair if it first rolled in fair territory, he did not play nearly so well when this rule was removed. Another explanation; He became ill. If Dunlap's and Barnes' seasons were to be eliminated from the list, two other Ruth seasons (1926 and 1927) would be on the list. See also On-base percentage Slugging percentage Sabermetrics Gross Production Average Notes References | On-base_plus_slugging |@lemmatized base:11 plus:2 slugging:5 ops:35 baseball:13 statistic:6 calculate:1 sum:2 player:11 percentage:9 see:2 www:1 baseballprospectus:1 com:5 rec:1 sport:1 ability:2 get:1 hit:4 power:1 two:3 important:1 skill:1 represent:1 make:2 effective:1 way:1 measure:1 offensive:2 worth:1 high:6 major:3 league:14 put:1 upper:1 echelon:1 typically:2 leader:8 score:2 near:1 necessarily:1 mark:3 formula:3 basic:2 obp:5 slg:5 slug:2 define:2 h:1 bb:1 ball:1 hbp:1 time:3 pitch:1 ab:1 bat:1 sf:1 sacrifice:1 fly:1 tb:1 total:1 since:2 different:1 denominator:2 possible:1 rewrite:1 expression:2 use:2 common:2 mathematically:1 identical:1 simple:2 interpretation:1 unlike:1 many:1 intrinsic:1 meaning:1 despite:1 usefulness:1 comparative:1 one:1 fault:2 weigh:1 average:9 equally:1 although:1 correlate:1 well:2 run:1 magnify:1 numerical:1 part:1 equal:1 usually:1 point:1 percentages:1 history:1 first:2 popularize:1 john:2 thorn:2 pete:2 palmer:2 book:1 hidden:2 game:3 pp:2 new:1 york:1 begin:2 carry:1 weekly:1 number:2 box:1 feature:1 continue:1 four:1 year:1 journalist:1 peter:1 gammon:1 evangelize:1 writer:1 broadcaster:1 pick:1 popularity:1 gradually:1 spread:1 appear:1 topps:1 card:1 alan:1 schwarz:1 top:2 ten:2 lifetime:1 least:1 plate:2 appearance:2 may:2 active:2 bold:2 babe:9 ruth:10 ted:6 williams:6 lou:2 gehrig:2 albert:3 pujols:3 barry:10 bond:10 jimmie:2 foxx:2 hank:1 greenberg:1 rogers:3 hornsby:3 manny:1 ramírez:1 todd:1 helton:1 career:4 right:3 hand:3 batter:1 source:4 reference:5 record:4 single:6 season:9 performance:2 mlb:1 leave:1 hitter:2 list:3 hander:1 mcgwire:1 adjust:5 closely:2 related:1 park:3 play:2 field:1 position:1 excellent:1 good:3 poor:1 lgobp:1 lgslg:1 misconception:1 match:1 ratio:1 fact:1 due:1 additive:1 nature:1 component:1 metric:1 twice:1 still:1 minimum:1 mickey:1 mantle:1 dan:1 brouthers:1 joe:1 jackson:1 ty:1 cobb:1 adjusted:2 fred:2 dunlap:3 ross:2 barnes:3 historic:1 come:1 union:1 association:1 expert:1 consider:1 true:1 aid:1 rule:2 bunt:1 fair:2 roll:1 territory:1 nearly:1 remove:1 another:1 explanation:1 become:1 ill:1 eliminate:1 would:1 also:1 sabermetrics:1 gross:1 production:1 note:1 |@bigram plus_slugging:2 slugging_percentage:3 league_baseball:2 slug_percentage:2 obp_slg:3 peter_gammon:1 alan_schwarz:1 babe_ruth:9 ted_williams:6 lou_gehrig:2 albert_pujols:3 jimmie_foxx:2 hank_greenberg:1 rogers_hornsby:3 manny_ramírez:1 todd_helton:1 right_hander:1 mark_mcgwire:1 ops_ops:3 closely_related:1 mickey_mantle:1 ty_cobb:1 |
4,563 | Teochew_cuisine | Chiuchow cuisine, Teochew cuisine or Chaozhou cuisine or Chaoshan cuisine () originates from Chaoshan, a region of China in the north-easternmost area of the Guangdong Province, which includes the cities of Chaozhou, Shantou and Jieyang. Teochew cuisine, however, bears more similarities to Fujian cuisine, as which it shares many of the same dishes, than to Cantonese cuisine, under which it is vulnerable to inaccurate categorisation. This is likely due to Chaoshan and Fujian's cultural resemblance and geographic proximity. Background Teochew cuisine is particularly well known for its seafood and vegetarian dishes and is commonly regarded as being healthy. Its use of flavouring is much less heavy-handed than most other Chinese cuisines and depends much on the freshness and quality of the ingredients for taste and flavour. As a delicate cuisine, oil is not often used in large quantities and there is a relatively heavy emphasis on poaching, steaming and braising. Chaozhou cuisine is also known for serving rice soup (潮州糜 or mue), in addition to steamed rice or noodles with meals. The Teochew mue is rather different from the Cantonese counterpart, the former being very watery with the rice sitting loosely at the bottom of the bowl. Authentic Teochew restaurants serve very strong Oolong tea called Tieguanyin in very tiny cups before and after the meal. Presented as Gongfu cha, the tea has a thickly bittersweet taste, colloquially known as gam gam (甘甘). A condiment that is commonly associated with Teochew cuisine is Shacha sauce. This popular paste is also used in Fujian and Taiwanese cuisine. It is made from soybean oil, garlic, shallots, chilis, brill fish, and dried shrimp. The paste has a savory and slightly spicy taste. As an ingredient, it has multiple uses: as a base for soups as a rub for barbecued meats as a seasoning for stir fry dishes as a component for dipping sauces, for example as used in hot pot meals In addition to soy sauce (widely used in all Chinese cuisines), Teochew cuisine is one of the few regional Chinese that makes use of fish sauce due to Chaoshan's coastal land. Teochew chefs often use a special stock called shang tang (上湯). This stock remains on the stove and is continuously replenished. Portrayed in popular media, some Hong Kong chefs allegedly use the same shang tang that is preserved for decades. This stock can as well be seen on Chaozhou TV's cooking programmes of today. There is a famous feast in Teochew cuisine / banquet called "jiat dot" (食桌) which literally means "food table". A myriad dishes are often served, which include shark fins soup, bird's nest soup, lobster, steamed fish and braised goose. Teochew chefs pride themselves in their skills of vegetable carving, and carved vegetables are used as garnishes on cold dishes and on the banquet table. Teochew cuisine is also known for a late night dinner known as "meh siao" (夜宵) locally, or "da lang" (打冷) among the Cantonese. Teochew people enjoy eating out in restaurants or at roadside food stalls close to midnight before they go to bed. Some dai pai dong-like restaurants stay open till dawn. Unlike the typical menu selections of many other Chinese cuisines, Teochew restaurant menus often have a dessert section. Many people of Chaoshan origin, also known as Teochiu or Teochew people, have settled in Southeast Asia during the Chinese Diaspora, especially Singapore and Thailand; influences they bring can be noted in the cuisine of Singapore and that of other settlements. This review article, for example, illustrates a Teochew Noodles House in Singapore. A large number of Teochew people have also settled in Taiwan, evident in Taiwanese cuisine. Famous dishes Some famous Chaozhou dishes include, among others: Braised goose (滷鵝)(Lou Gho) Steamed goose (炊鵝)(Chue Gho) Teo Chew style duck (潮州鹵水鴨)(Teo Chew Lou Zhui Ak) Teo Chew style steamed fish (潮州蒸鱼)(Teo Chew Chue He) - Normally makes use of pomfret and has a distinctive clear broth, seasoned and steamed with shredded ginger, preserved plums, preserved salted vegetables, sliced Shiitake mushrooms, tomatoes and sometimes tofu. Popiah (潤餅) (Bo-BEE-a) - A fresh non-fried spring roll. It is essentially a soft, thin paper-like crepe made from wheat flour and is typically filled with finely grated and steamed or stir-fried turnip, jicama and carrots along with fresh lettuce leaves, shredded omelette, Chinese sausage, thinly sliced fried tofu, crushed peanut or peanut powder and sweet bean sauce. However, there are many variations of popiah, with some including pork (lightly seasoned and stir-fried), shrimp or crab meat. Other condiments may include fried shallots, hoisin sauce and sweetened soy sauce. The name "popiah" means "thin wafer" in the Teochew dialect. White radish cake (菜头粿) (Chai Tao Kueh) - A savoury fried 'cake', made of white radish and rice flour. It is a popular dim sum commonly stir fried with soy sauce, eggs, garlic, spring onion and occasionally dried shrimp. Steamed dumpling (粉餜) (Hung Gue) - This is usually filled with dried radish, garlic chives, ground pork, dried shrimp, Shiitake mushrooms and peanuts. The dumpling wrapper is made from a mixture of flour or plant starches mixed together with water. In Cantonese, these are called 'Chew Zhao Fun Guo' (潮州粉果), where the character used is 'fruit' (果) instead of 'dumpling' (餜). Steamed chives dumplings (韭菜餜) (Gu Chai Gue) - They are sometimes sauteed to give it a crispy texture. Prawn roll (虾卷) (Heh Geng) - Noted for being wrapped in a crisp tofu skin, it is sometimes referred to as Teo Chew style spring roll in restaurant menus. Oyster omelette (蠔烙) (O Luak) - This dish is actually a kind of omelette which is cooked with fresh raw oysters. Yee sang (鱼生) (He Snge) - A lavish raw fish salad where typical ingredients include: fresh salmon, white radish, carrot, red pepper (capsicum), ginger, kaffir lime leaves, Chinese parsley, chopped peanuts, toasted sesame seeds, Chinese shrimp crackers or fried dried shrimp and five spice powder, with the dressing primarily made from plum sauce. It is customarily served as an appetizer to raise 'good luck' for the new year and is usually eaten on Renri, the seventh day of Chinese New Year. This delicacy is known to exist as far back as the Southern Song Dynasty, the original version consisting of a simple salad of raw and julienned vegetables, dressed in condiments. The modern version which is widely known today, was developed by a master chef in Lai Wah Restaurant in Singapore during the 1960's. Thin noodles (面薄) (Mee pok) - A popular noodle dish served with minced pork, braised mushrooms, fish balls, dumplings, sauce and other garnishings. Flat rice noodles (粿汁) (Kueh Chap) - A dish of flat, broad rice sheets in a soup made from dark soy sauce served with pig offal, braised duck meat, various kinds of beancurd, preserved salted vegetables and braised hard-boiled eggs. Bak kut teh (肉骨茶) - A hearty soup that, at its simplest, consists of meaty pork ribs in a complex broth of herbs and spices (including star anise, cinnamon, cloves, dang gui, fennel seeds and garlic), boiled together with pork bones for hours. Dark and light soy sauce may also be added to the soup during the cooking stages. Some Teochew families like to add extra Chinese herbs such as yu zhu (rhizome of Solomon's Seal) and ju zhi (buckthorn fruit) for a sweeter, slightly stronger flavored soup. These herbs are known to be health-giving. The dish is usually eaten with rice or noodles (sometimes as a noodle soup), and often served with youtiao (Chinese fried dough sticks). Garnshings include chopped coriander or green onions and a sprinkling of fried shallots. A variation of "bak kut teh" uses chicken instead of pork, which then becomes "chik kut teh". "Bak kut teh" is particularly popular in Klang where it was brought over with the Chinese diaspora. Chao Zhou chicken (潮州鸡) (Teo Chew Koi) - A dish of sliced, crisp-skinned marinated chicken served with fried spinach leaves. The leaves are fused with a five-spice and Shaoxing wine fragrance. Fish balls (鱼蛋) (He Ee) - These fish balls can be cooked in many ways but are often served in Teo Chew style noodle soups. Fishball noodle soup (鱼丸面) (He Ee Mee) - Any of several kinds of egg and rice noodles may be served either in a light fish-flavoured broth or "dry" with the soup on the side with fish balls, fishcakes, beansprouts and lettuce. Cold crab (潮州凍蟹) (Teo Chew Ngang Hoi) - The whole crab is first steamed then served chilled. The species of crab most commonly used is Charybdis cruciata of the genus Charybdis (genus). Chao Zhou style Congee (粥) (Teo Chew Mue) - A rice soup that has a more watery consistency than its Cantonese cousin. Yam dessert (芋泥) (Ou Ni) - Yams are steamed, mashed and then sweetened to form the dessert which resembles yam dough. It is often served with gingko seeds. This dessert contains fried onion oil to give it a nice fragrance. Crystal balls (水晶包) (Zhui Jin Bao) - A steamed dessert with a variety of fillings such as yellow milk (奶黃)(Ni Ng), yam paste (芋泥) (Ou Ni) or bean paste (荳沙) made from mung beans or red beans. They are similar to the Japanese mochi. Oolong Tea (乌龙茶) (Ou Leng Teh) - Iron Guan Yin Goddess (鐵觀音) (Ti Guan Yim) is one the many renowned Teo Chew Tea. However, Chao Zhou people prefer their own Oolong tea which is the 'Single Phoenix Flying' tea (鳳凰單丛茶) (Hong Wang Dan Cong Teh). Note: Words shown in brackets after the Chinese characters are the pronunciation of the words in the Teo Chew dialect. Gallery See also Fujian cuisine Chinese cuisine Teochew people Cooking Cuisine External links Yeo's Teochew Popiah Recipe | Teochew_cuisine |@lemmatized chiuchow:1 cuisine:23 teochew:20 chaozhou:5 chaoshan:5 originate:1 region:1 china:1 north:1 easternmost:1 area:1 guangdong:1 province:1 include:8 city:1 shantou:1 jieyang:1 however:3 bear:1 similarity:1 fujian:4 share:1 many:6 dish:12 cantonese:5 vulnerable:1 inaccurate:1 categorisation:1 likely:1 due:2 cultural:1 resemblance:1 geographic:1 proximity:1 background:1 particularly:2 well:2 know:9 seafood:1 vegetarian:1 commonly:4 regard:1 healthy:1 use:13 flavouring:1 much:2 less:1 heavy:2 hand:1 chinese:14 depend:1 freshness:1 quality:1 ingredient:3 taste:3 flavour:2 delicate:1 oil:3 often:7 large:2 quantity:1 relatively:1 emphasis:1 poaching:1 steam:11 braise:6 also:7 serve:12 rice:9 soup:13 潮州糜:1 mue:3 addition:2 noodle:10 meal:3 rather:1 different:1 counterpart:1 former:1 watery:2 sit:1 loosely:1 bottom:1 bowl:1 authentic:1 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4,564 | Constructivism_(mathematics) | In the philosophy of mathematics, constructivism asserts that it is necessary to find (or "construct") a mathematical object to prove that it exists. When one assumes that an object does not exist and derives a contradiction from that assumption, one still has not found the object and therefore not proved its existence, according to constructivists. There are many forms of constructivism. Troelstra 1977a:974 These include the program of intuitionism founded by Brouwer, the finitism of Hilbert and Bernays, the constructive recursive mathematics of Markov, and Bishop's program of constructive analysis. Constructivism also includes the study of constructive set theories such as IZF. Constructivism is often identified with intuitionism, although intuitionism is only one constructivist program. Intuitionism maintains that the foundations of mathematics lie in the individual mathematician's intuition, thereby making mathematics into an intrinsically subjective activity. Troelstra 1977b:1 Other forms of constructivism are not based on this viewpoint of intuition, and are compatible with an objective viewpoint on mathematics. Constructivist mathematics Much constructivist mathematics uses intuitionistic logic, which is essentially classical logic without the law of the excluded middle. This is not to say that the law of the excluded middle is denied entirely; special cases of the law will be provable. It is just that the general law is not assumed as an axiom. (The law of non-contradiction, on the other hand, is still valid.) For instance, in Heyting arithmetic, one can prove that for any proposition p which does not contain quantifiers, is a theorem (where x, y, z ... are the free variables in the proposition p). In this sense, propositions restricted to the finite are still regarded as being either true or false, as they are in classical mathematics, but this bivalence does not extend to propositions which refer to infinite collections. In fact, L.E.J. Brouwer, founder of the intuitionist school, viewed the law of the excluded middle as abstracted from finite experience, and then applied to the infinite without justification. For instance, Goldbach's conjecture is the assertion that every even number (greater than 2) is the sum of two prime numbers. It is possible to test for any particular even number whether or not it is the sum of two primes (for instance by exhaustive search), so any one of them is either the sum of two primes or it is not. And so far, every one thus tested has in fact been the sum of two primes. But there is no known proof that all of them are so, nor any known proof that not all of them are so. Thus to Brouwer, we are not justified in asserting "either Goldbach's conjecture is true, or it is not." And while the conjecture may one day be solved, the argument applies to similar unsolved problems; to Brouwer, the law of the excluded middle was tantamount to assuming that every mathematical problem has a solution. With the omission of the law of the excluded middle as an axiom, the remaining logical system has an existence property which classical logic does not: whenever is proven constructively, then in fact is proven constructively for (at least) one particular , often called a witness. Thus the proof of the existence of a mathematical object is tied to the possibility of its construction. Example from real analysis In classical real analysis, one way to define a real number is as an equivalence class of Cauchy sequences of rational numbers. In constructive mathematics, one way to construct a real number is as a function ƒ that takes a positive integer and outputs a rational ƒ(n), together with a function g that takes a positive integer n and outputs a positive integer g(n) such that so that as n increases, the values of ƒ(n) get closer and closer together. We can use ƒ and g together to compute as close a rational approximation as we like to the real number they represent. Under this definition, a simple representation of the real number e is: This definition corresponds to the classical definition using Cauchy sequences, except with a constructive twist: for a classical Cauchy sequence, it is required that, for any given distance, there exists (in a classical sense) a member in the sequence after which all members are closer together than that distance. In the constructive version, it is required that, for any given distance, it is possible to actually specify a point in the sequence where this happens (this required specification is often called the modulus of convergence). In fact, the standard constructive interpretation of the mathematical statement is precisely the existence of the function computing the modulus of convergence. Thus the difference between the two definitions of real numbers can be thought of as the difference in the interpretation of the statement "for all... there exists..." This then opens the question as to what sort of function from a countable set to a countable set, such as f and g above, can actually be constructed. Different versions of constructivism diverge on this point. Constructions can be defined as broadly as free choice sequences, which is the intuitionistic view, or as narrowly as algorithms (or more technically, the computable functions), or even left unspecified. If, for instance, the algorithmic view is taken, then the reals as constructed here are essentially what classically would be called the computable numbers. Cardinality To take the algorithmic interpretation above would seem at odds with classical notions of cardinality. By enumerating algorithms, we can show classically that the computable numbers are countable. And yet Cantor's diagonal argument shows that real numbers have higher cardinality. Furthermore the diagonal argument seems perfectly constructive. To identify the real numbers with the computable numbers would then be a contradiction. And in fact, Cantor's diagonal argument is constructive, in the sense that given a bijection between the real numbers and natural numbers, one constructs a real number which doesn't fit, and thereby proves a contradiction. We can indeed enumerate algorithms to construct a function T, about which we initially assume that it is a function from the natural numbers onto the reals. But, to each algorithm, there may or may not correspond a real number, as the algorithm may fail to satisfy the constraints, or even be non-terminating (T is a partial function), so this fails to produce the required bijection. In short, one who takes the view that real numbers are effectively computable interprets Cantor's result as showing that the real numbers are not recursively enumerable. Still, one might expect that since T is a partial function from the natural numbers onto the real numbers, that therefore the real numbers are no more than countable. And, since every natural number can be trivially represented as a real number, therefore the real numbers are no less than countable. They are, therefore exactly countable. However this reasoning is not constructive, as it still does not construct the required bijection. In fact the cardinality of sets fails to be totally ordered (see Cantor–Bernstein–Schroeder theorem). Axiom of choice The status of the axiom of choice in constructive mathematics is complicated by the different approaches of different constructivist programs. One trivial meaning of "constructive", used informally by mathematicians, is "provable in ZF set theory without the axiom of choice." However, proponents of more limited forms of constructive mathematics would not assert that ZF itself is a constructive system. In intuitionistic theories of type theory (especially higher-type arithmetic), many forms of the axiom of choice are permitted. For example, the axiom AC11 can be paraphrased to say that for any relation R on the set of real numbers, if you have proved that for each real number x there is a real number y such that R(x,y) holds, then there is actually a function F such that R(x,F(x)) holds for all real numbers. Similar choice principles are accepted for all finite types. The motivation for accepting these seemingly nonconstructive principles is the intuitionistic understanding of the proof that "for each real number x there is a real number y such that R(x,y) holds". According to the BHK interpretation, this proof itself is essentially the function F that is desired. The choice principles that intuitionists accept do not imply the law of the excluded middle. However, in certain axiom systems for constructive set theory, the axiom of choice does imply the law of the excluded middle (in the presence of other axioms), as shown by the Diaconescu-Goodman-Myhill theorem. Some constructive set theories include weaker forms of the axiom of choice, such as the axiom of dependent choice in Myhill's set theory. Attitude of mathematicians Traditionally, mathematicians have been suspicious, if not antagonistic, towards mathematical constructivism, largely because of the limitations that it poses for constructive analysis. These views were forcefully expressed by David Hilbert in 1928, when he wrote in Die Grundlagen der Mathematik, "Taking the principle of excluded middle from the mathematician would be the same, say, as proscribing the telescope to the astronomer or to the boxer the use of his fists" Translation from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. . Errett Bishop, in his 1967 work Foundations of Constructive Analysis, worked to dispel these fears by developing a great deal of traditional analysis in a constructive framework. Nevertheless, not every mathematician accepts that Bishop did so successfully, since his book is necessarily more complicated than a classical analysis text would be. More recently, the formalism of constructivist mathematics has been gaining increased credibility since natural applications for it have been found in typed lambda calculi, topos theory and categorical logic, which are extremely notable subjects in foundational mathematics and computer science. The place of constructivism in mathematics Despite the lukewarm reception of the constructivist thesis, that only mathematics done based on constructive methods is sound, interest in those constructive methods is entirely respectable. This is because constructive theories are often of mathematical interest for non-ideological grounds. For example, constructive proofs in analysis may ensure witness extraction, in such a way that working within the constraints of the constructive methods may make finding witnesses to theories easier than using classical methods. In algebra, in for such entities as toposes and Hopf algebras, the structure supports an internal language that is a constructive theory, where working within the contraints of that language is often more intuitive and flexible than working externally by such means as reasoning about the set of possible concrete algebras and their homomorphisms. Measure theory Classical measure theory makes deep usage of the axiom of choice, which is fundamental to, first, distinction between measurable and non-measurable sets, the existence of the latter being behind such famous results as the Banach-Tarski paradox, and secondly the hierarchies of notions of measure captured by notions such as Borel algebras, which are an important source of intuitions in set theory. Measure theory provides the foundation for the modern notion of mathematical integration, the Lebesgue integral. It is possible to rework measure theory on the basis of the computable real line, where the set-theoretic basis for measurability is replaced by notions from order theory. This constructive measure theory provides the basis for computable analogues for Lebesgue integration. Mathematicians who have contributed to constructivism Errett Bishop (constructive analysis) Paul Lorenzen (constructive logic, analysis and metamathematics) A. A. Markov (constructive mathematics and logic) Leopold Kronecker (old constructivism) L. E. J. Brouwer (intuitionism) Arend Heyting (intuitionistic logic) Saul Kripke (intuitionistic logic) Per Martin-Löf (constructive type theory, a foundation for Bishop's analysis) Edward Nelson (predicative arithmetic) Branches Constructivist logic Constructivist type theory Constructivist analysis See also Intuitionism Intuitionistic type theory Finitism Game semantics Constructive proof Notes References Solomon Feferman (1997), Relationships between Constructive, Predicative and Classical Systems of Analysis, http://math.stanford.edu/~feferman/papers/relationships.pdf. A. S. Troelstra (1977a), "Aspects of constructive mathematics", Handbook of Mathematical Logic, pp. 973–1052. A. S. Troelstra (1977b), Choice seqeuences'', Oxford Logic Guides. ISBN 0-19-853163-X A. S. Troelstra (1991), "A History of Constructivism in the 20th Century", University of Amsterdam, ITLI Prepublication Series ML-91-05, http://staff.science.uva.nl/~anne/hhhist.pdf, External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry | Constructivism_(mathematics) |@lemmatized philosophy:3 mathematics:17 constructivism:11 assert:3 necessary:1 find:4 construct:7 mathematical:8 object:4 prove:7 exist:4 one:14 assume:4 derive:1 contradiction:4 assumption:1 still:5 therefore:4 existence:5 accord:2 constructivist:10 many:2 form:5 troelstra:5 include:3 program:4 intuitionism:6 found:1 brouwer:5 finitism:2 hilbert:2 bernays:1 constructive:33 recursive:1 markov:2 bishop:5 analysis:13 also:2 study:1 set:13 theory:21 izf:1 often:5 identify:2 although:1 maintain:1 foundation:4 lie:1 individual:1 mathematician:7 intuition:3 thereby:2 make:3 intrinsically:1 subjective:1 activity:1 base:2 viewpoint:2 compatible:1 objective:1 much:1 use:6 intuitionistic:7 logic:11 essentially:3 classical:12 without:3 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4,565 | HM_Prison_Dartmoor | HM Prison Dartmoor is a Category C men's prison, located in Princetown, high on Dartmoor in the English county of Devon. Its high granite walls dominate this area of the moor. It is easily distinguished at night by its bright red light. The prison is owned by the Duchy of Cornwall, and is operated by Her Majesty's Prison Service. History Early history Designed by Daniel Asher Alexander and constructed originally between 1806 and 1809 by local labour, to hold prisoners of the Napoleonic Wars, it was also used to hold American prisoners from the War of 1812. Although the war ended with the Treaty of Ghent in December 1814, many American prisoners of war still remained in Dartmoor. On April 6, 1815, 7 of them were killed and 31 wounded when guards opened fire at the behest of the allegedly drunk British officer in charge, who thought that they were attempting to escape. A memorial to the 271 POWs (mostly seamen) who are buried in the prison grounds has been erected. Dartmoor Prison was reopened in 1851 as a civilian prison, but was closed again in 1917 to be converted into a Home Office Work Centre for certain conscientious objectors granted release from prison; cells were unlocked, inmates wore their own clothes, and could visit the village in their off-duty time. It was again reopened as a prison in 1920, and then contained some of Britain's most serious offenders. Dartmoor mutiny Main gates of Dartmoor Prison On January 24, 1932, there was a major disturbance at the prison. The cause of the riots is generally attributed to the food, not generally but just on specific days when it was suspected it had been tampered with prior to the disturbance. Fitzgerald, M. (1977) Prisoners In Revolt, Harmondsworth: Penguin pg.123 There had also been other instances of disobedience prior to this, according to the official Du Parcq report into the incident such as a model prisoner attacking a popular guard with a razor blade and rough treatment of a prisoner being removed to solitary. Fitzgerald, M. (1977) Prisoners In Revolt, Harmondsworth: Penguin pg.124 At the parade later that day, 50 prisoners refused orders, and the rest were marched back to their cells but refused to enter. At this point, the prison governor and his staff fled to an unused part of the prison and secured themselves in there. The prisoners then released those held in solitary. There was extensive damage to property, but no prison staff were injured, although a prisoner was shot by one of the staff. Fitzgerald, M. (1977) Prisoners In Revolt, Harmondsworth: Penguin pg.124-5 . According to Fitzgerald (1977) "Reinforcements arrived, and within fifteen minutes these 'vicious brutes', who for some two hours had terrorized well-armed prison staff, and effectively controlled the prison, had surrendered and been locked up again". Fitzgerald, M. (1977) Prisoners In Revolt, Harmondsworth: Penguin pg.126 Recent history In 2001 a Board of Visitors report condemned sanitation at Dartmoor as well as highlighting a list of urgent repairs needed at the prison. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/1656099.stm A year later Dartmoor was converted to a Category C prison for less violent offenders. In 2002 the Prison Reform Trust warned that Dartmoor Prison may be breaching the Human Rights Act 1998 due to severe overcrowding at the jail. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/2266627.stm A year later however the Chief Inspector of Prisons declared that Dartmoor had made substantial improvements to its management and regime. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/devon/3066953.stm In March 2008 staff at the prison passed a vote of no confidence in the governor Serena Watts, claiming they felt bullied by managers and unsafe. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/devon/7305479.stm The prison today Dartmoor still has a misplaced reputation for being a high-security prison that is escape-proof. Now a Category C prison, Dartmoor houses mainly non-violent offenders and white-collar criminals. Dartmoor offers cellular accommodation on 6 wings. Education is available at the prison (full and part time), and ranges from basic educational skills to Open University courses. Vocational training includes electronics, brickwork and carpentry courses up to City & Guilds and NVQ level, Painting and Decorating courses, industrial cleaning and Desk Top Publishing. Full time employment is also available in catering, farming, gardening, laundry, textiles, Braille, contract services, furniture manufacturing and polishing. Employment is supported with NVQ or City & Guilds vocational qualifications. All courses and qualifications at Dartmoor are operated by Stroud College and Cornwall College. There is a small museum of prison life located at Dartmoor, which is open to the public at some times of the year. The 'Dartmoor Jailbreak' is a yearly charity event, where civilians (not prisoners) 'escape' from the prison and must travel as far as possible in 4 days, whilst in convict clothing and without directly paying for transport. http://dartmoorjailbreak.co.uk/ . Notable former inmates Michael Davitt Peter Hammond, founder of Hammond, Louisiana, USA Fred Longden John Rodker Moondyne Joe Thomas William Jones, Baron Maelor Arthur Owens Éamon de Valera John Williams In popular culture Decline and Fall, a novel by Evelyn Waugh, first published in 1928 makes thinly disguised references to Dartmoor Prison. Dartmoor Prison is mentioned in The Thirteen Problems, a short story collection written by Agatha Christie, and first published in 1932. Dressed to Kill, A 1946 Sherlock Holmes film uses Dartmoor Prison in the plot as the supposed location where three music boxes were made that contain a secret code for a criminal gang. The Goon Show episode, Tales of Old Dartmoor has the prison put to sea for a holiday in France, visiting the Chateau D'Ief, and replaced by a cardboard replica after it goes down with all hands after Moriarty and Grytpype-Thinne attempt to find a clue to the Treasure of Monte-Christo. In 1988, the prison played host to a storyline in EastEnders, where Den Watts (played by Leslie Grantham) was being held on remand for arson. He was also joined for some of the storyline by Nick Cotton (played by John Altman), who was imprisoned for a different offence. The prison was called Dickens Hill. Dartmoor is frequently mentioned in the Agent Z series of comical children’s books written by Mark Haddon. Dartmoor prison is implicated in the local Dartmoor 'Hairy hands' ghost story/legend. References External links HM Prison pages on Dartmoor | HM_Prison_Dartmoor |@lemmatized hm:2 prison:36 dartmoor:24 category:3 c:3 men:1 locate:2 princetown:1 high:3 english:1 county:1 devon:3 granite:1 wall:1 dominate:1 area:1 moor:1 easily:1 distinguish:1 night:1 bright:1 red:1 light:1 duchy:1 cornwall:2 operate:2 majesty:1 service:2 history:3 early:1 design:1 daniel:1 asher:1 alexander:1 construct:1 originally:1 local:2 labour:1 hold:4 prisoner:13 napoleonic:1 war:4 also:4 use:2 american:2 although:2 end:1 treaty:1 ghent:1 december:1 many:1 still:2 remain:1 april:1 kill:2 wound:1 guard:2 open:3 fire:1 behest:1 allegedly:1 drunk:1 british:1 officer:1 charge:1 think:1 attempt:2 escape:3 memorial:1 pow:1 mostly:1 seaman:1 bury:1 ground:1 erect:1 reopen:2 civilian:2 close:1 convert:2 home:1 office:1 work:1 centre:1 certain:1 conscientious:1 objector:1 grant:1 release:2 cell:2 unlocked:1 inmate:2 wear:1 clothes:1 could:1 visit:2 village:1 duty:1 time:4 contain:2 britain:1 serious:1 offender:3 mutiny:1 main:1 gate:1 january:1 major:1 disturbance:2 cause:1 riot:1 generally:2 attribute:1 food:1 specific:1 day:3 suspect:1 tamper:1 prior:2 fitzgerald:5 revolt:4 harmondsworth:4 penguin:4 pg:4 instance:1 disobedience:1 accord:2 official:1 du:1 parcq:1 report:2 incident:1 model:1 attack:1 popular:2 razor:1 blade:1 rough:1 treatment:1 remove:1 solitary:2 parade:1 later:3 refuse:2 order:1 rest:1 march:2 back:1 enter:1 point:1 governor:2 staff:5 flee:1 unused:1 part:2 secure:1 extensive:1 damage:1 property:1 injure:1 shoot:1 one:1 reinforcement:1 arrive:1 within:1 fifteen:1 minute:1 vicious:1 brute:1 two:1 hour:1 terrorize:1 well:2 arm:1 effectively:1 control:1 surrender:1 lock:1 recent:1 board:1 visitor:1 condemn:1 sanitation:1 highlight:1 list:1 urgent:1 repair:1 need:1 http:5 news:4 bbc:4 co:5 uk:5 hi:4 england:4 stm:4 year:3 less:1 violent:2 reform:1 trust:1 warn:1 may:1 breach:1 human:1 right:1 act:1 due:1 severe:1 overcrowd:1 jail:1 however:1 chief:1 inspector:1 declare:1 make:3 substantial:1 improvement:1 management:1 regime:1 pass:1 vote:1 confidence:1 serena:1 watt:2 claim:1 felt:1 bully:1 manager:1 unsafe:1 today:1 misplaced:1 reputation:1 security:1 proof:1 house:1 mainly:1 non:1 white:1 collar:1 criminal:2 offer:1 cellular:1 accommodation:1 wing:1 education:1 available:2 full:2 range:1 basic:1 educational:1 skill:1 university:1 course:4 vocational:2 training:1 include:1 electronics:1 brickwork:1 carpentry:1 city:2 guild:2 nvq:2 level:1 painting:1 decorating:1 industrial:1 cleaning:1 desk:1 top:1 publishing:1 employment:2 catering:1 farming:1 gardening:1 laundry:1 textile:1 braille:1 contract:1 furniture:1 manufacturing:1 polishing:1 support:1 qualification:2 stroud:1 college:2 small:1 museum:1 life:1 public:1 jailbreak:1 yearly:1 charity:1 event:1 must:1 travel:1 far:1 possible:1 whilst:1 convict:1 clothing:1 without:1 directly:1 pay:1 transport:1 dartmoorjailbreak:1 notable:1 former:1 michael:1 davitt:1 peter:1 hammond:2 founder:1 louisiana:1 usa:1 fred:1 longden:1 john:3 rodker:1 moondyne:1 joe:1 thomas:1 william:1 jones:1 baron:1 maelor:1 arthur:1 owens:1 éamon:1 de:1 valera:1 williams:1 culture:1 decline:1 fall:1 novel:1 evelyn:1 waugh:1 first:2 publish:2 thinly:1 disguised:1 reference:2 mention:2 thirteen:1 problem:1 short:1 story:2 collection:1 write:2 agatha:1 christie:1 dress:1 sherlock:1 holmes:1 film:1 plot:1 suppose:1 location:1 three:1 music:1 box:1 secret:1 code:1 gang:1 goon:1 show:1 episode:1 tale:1 old:1 put:1 sea:1 holiday:1 france:1 chateau:1 ief:1 replace:1 cardboard:1 replica:1 go:1 hand:2 moriarty:1 grytpype:1 thinne:1 find:1 clue:1 treasure:1 monte:1 christo:1 play:3 host:1 storyline:2 eastenders:1 den:1 leslie:1 grantham:1 remand:1 arson:1 join:1 nick:1 cotton:1 altman:1 imprison:1 different:1 offence:1 call:1 dickens:1 hill:1 frequently:1 agent:1 z:1 series:1 comical:1 child:1 book:1 mark:1 haddon:1 implicate:1 hairy:1 ghost:1 legend:1 external:1 link:1 page:1 |@bigram dartmoor_prison:8 conscientious_objector:1 harmondsworth_penguin:4 razor_blade:1 uk_hi:4 vocational_training:1 vocational_qualification:1 michael_davitt:1 éamon_de:1 de_valera:1 evelyn_waugh:1 thinly_disguised:1 agatha_christie:1 sherlock_holmes:1 external_link:1 |
4,566 | Ambrosiaster | Ambrosiaster is the name given to the writer of a commentary on St Paul's epistles, "brief in words but weighty in matter," and valuable for the criticism of the Latin text of the New Testament. This commentary was erroneously attributed for a long time to St Ambrose. Erasmus in 1527 threw doubt on the accuracy of this ascription, and the author is usually spoken of as Ambrosiaster or pseudo-Ambrose. Because Augustine cites part of the commentary on Romans as by "Sanctus Hilarius" it has been ascribed by various critics at different times to almost every known Hilary. Germain Morin broke new ground by suggesting in 1899 that the writer was Isaac, Rev. d'hist. et de litt. religieuses, tom. iv. 97 f. a converted Jew and writer of a tract on the Trinity and Incarnation, who was exiled to Spain in 378-380 and then relapsed to Judaism; but he afterwards abandoned this theory of the authorship in favour of Decimus Hilarianus Hilarius, proconsul of Africa in 377. With this attribution Alexander Souter agrees. Study of Ambrosiaster (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1905). There is scarcely anything to be said for the possibility of Ambrose having written the book before he became a bishop, and added to it in later years, incorporating remarks of Hilary of Poitiers on Romans. The best presentation of the case for Ambrose is by P. A. Ballerini in his complete edition of that father's works. In the book cited above Souter also discusses the authorship of the Quaestiones Veteris et Novi Testamenti, which the manuscripts ascribe to Augustine. He concludes, on very thorough philological and other grounds, that this is with one possible slight exception the work of the same "Ambrosiaster." The same conclusion had been arrived at previously by Dom Morin. References Notes Bibliography Texts Heinrich Joseph Vogels, Vinzenz Bulhart, and Rudolf Hanslik. 1966. Ambrosiastri qui dicitur Commentarius in Epistulas Paulinas. Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum vol. 81, pt. 1-3. Vindobonae: Hoelder-Pichler-Tempsky. Isaac Judaeus, Isacis Judaei Quae supersunt, ed. A. Hoste, CCL 9 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1957), pp. 331–48. The questions were at this time attributed to Isaac the Jew, but now to Ambrosiaster. also see links below Studies Moreschini, Claudio, and Enrico Norelli. 2005 "Ambrosiaster," in Early Christian Greek and Latin Literature: A Literary History. Peabody, Mass: Hendrickson Publishers. vol. 2, p. 296-98. Mundle, Wilhelm. 1919. Die Exegese der paulinischen Briefe im Kommentar des Ambrosiaster. Queis, Dietrich Traugott von, and Augustine. 1972. Ambrosiaster: Quaestiones Veteris et Novi Testamenti. Quaestio 115: De fato. Basel. Rockliffe, S. 2007. Ambrosiaster's Political Theology. Oxford. Souter, Alexander. 1905. A study of Ambrosiaster. Cambridge [Eng.]: The University Press. Souter, Alexander. 1927. The earliest Latin commentaries on the Epistles of St. Paul; a study. Oxford: Clarendon Press. External links The text of Ambrosiaster's Commentary on the Epistles of Paul, taken from Migne's Patrologia Latina vol 17, and attributed to Ambrose, is available here, listed one epistle at a time. A less readable put printable PDF version of the Migne "Commentaries" is available from Google books. A facsimile of Souter's 1908 edition of the Quaestiones is available from Google books. The text of Ambrosiaster's Quaestiones, taken from Migne's Patrologia Latina vol. 35 and attributed to Augustine, is available here. | Ambrosiaster |@lemmatized ambrosiaster:12 name:1 give:1 writer:3 commentary:6 st:3 paul:3 epistle:4 brief:1 word:1 weighty:1 matter:1 valuable:1 criticism:1 latin:3 text:4 new:2 testament:1 erroneously:1 attribute:4 long:1 time:4 ambrose:5 erasmus:1 throw:1 doubt:1 accuracy:1 ascription:1 author:1 usually:1 speak:1 pseudo:1 augustine:4 cite:2 part:1 roman:2 sanctus:1 hilarius:2 ascribe:2 various:1 critic:1 different:1 almost:1 every:1 known:1 hilary:2 germain:1 morin:2 break:1 ground:2 suggest:1 isaac:3 rev:1 hist:1 et:3 de:3 litt:1 religieuses:1 tom:1 iv:1 f:1 converted:1 jew:2 tract:1 trinity:1 incarnation:1 exile:1 spain:1 relapse:1 judaism:1 afterwards:1 abandon:1 theory:1 authorship:2 favour:1 decimus:1 hilarianus:1 proconsul:1 africa:1 attribution:1 alexander:3 souter:5 agree:1 study:4 cambridge:2 univ:1 press:3 scarcely:1 anything:1 say:1 possibility:1 write:1 book:4 become:1 bishop:1 add:1 later:1 year:1 incorporate:1 remark:1 poitier:1 best:1 presentation:1 case:1 p:2 ballerini:1 complete:1 edition:2 father:1 work:2 also:2 discuss:1 quaestiones:4 veteris:2 novi:2 testamenti:2 manuscript:1 conclude:1 thorough:1 philological:1 one:2 possible:1 slight:1 exception:1 conclusion:1 arrive:1 previously:1 dom:1 reference:1 note:1 bibliography:1 heinrich:1 joseph:1 vogels:1 vinzenz:1 bulhart:1 rudolf:1 hanslik:1 ambrosiastri:1 qui:1 dicitur:1 commentarius:1 epistulas:1 paulinas:1 corpus:1 scriptorum:1 ecclesiasticorum:1 latinorum:1 vol:4 pt:1 vindobonae:1 hoelder:1 pichler:1 tempsky:1 judaeus:1 isacis:1 judaei:1 quae:1 supersunt:1 ed:1 hoste:1 ccl:1 turnhout:1 brepols:1 pp:1 question:1 see:1 link:2 moreschini:1 claudio:1 enrico:1 norelli:1 early:2 christian:1 greek:1 literature:1 literary:1 history:1 peabody:1 mass:1 hendrickson:1 publisher:1 mundle:1 wilhelm:1 die:1 exegese:1 der:1 paulinischen:1 briefe:1 im:1 kommentar:1 queis:1 dietrich:1 traugott:1 von:1 quaestio:1 fato:1 basel:1 rockliffe:1 political:1 theology:1 oxford:2 eng:1 university:1 clarendon:1 external:1 take:2 migne:3 patrologia:2 latina:2 available:4 list:1 less:1 readable:1 put:1 printable:1 pdf:1 version:1 google:2 facsimile:1 |@bigram erroneously_attribute:1 cambridge_univ:1 univ_press:1 hilary_poitier:1 hendrickson_publisher:1 oxford_clarendon:1 clarendon_press:1 external_link:1 migne_patrologia:2 patrologia_latina:2 |
4,567 | Finland | {{Infobox Country |native_name = |conventional_long_name = Republic of Finland |common_name = Finland |image_flag = Flag_of_Finland.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Finland.svg |image_map = EU_location_FIN.png |map_caption = |national_anthem = Maamme(Finnish)Vårt land<small>(Swedish)"Our Land"</small>|official_languages = Finnish, Swedish |regional_languages = Sami |demonym = Finns, Finnish |capital = Helsinki |latd=60 |latm=10 |latNS=N |longd=024 |longm=56 |longEW=E |largest_city = capital |religion = Lutheran |government_type = Semi-presidential republic |leader_title1 = President |leader_title2 = Prime Minister |leader_title3 = Parliament's speaker |leader_name1 = Tarja Halonen (SDP) |leader_name2 = Matti Vanhanen (CP) |leader_name3 = Sauli Niinistö (NCP) |accessionEUdate = January 1, 1995 |area_rank = 64th |area_magnitude = 1 E11 |area_km2 = 338,145 |area_sq_mi = 130,558 |percent_water = 10 |population_estimate = 5,333,607 |population_estimate_rank = 111th |population_estimate_year = 2009 |population_census = 5,155,000 |population_census_year = 2000 |population_density_km2 = 16 |population_density_sq_mi = 40 |population_density_rank = 201st |GDP_PPP = $190.862 billion |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_year = 2008 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $36,217 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal = $273.980 billion |GDP_nominal_rank = |GDP_nominal_year = 2008 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $51,989 |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = |sovereignty_type = Independence |sovereignty_note = from Russian Empire |established_event1 = Autonomy|established_event2 = Declared |established_event3 = Recognised |established_date1 = March 29, 1809|established_date2 = December 6, 1917 |established_date3 = January 4, 1918 |HDI = 0.956 |HDI_rank = 12th |HDI_year = 2008 |HDI_category = high |FSI = 18.5 |FSI_year = 2007 |FSI_rank = 176th |FSI_category = Sustainable |Gini = 26.9 |Gini_year = 2000 |Gini_category = low |currency = Euro (€)² |currency_code = EUR |country_code = |time_zone = EET |utc_offset = +2 |time_zone_DST = EEST |utc_offset_DST = +3 |drives_on = right |cctld = .fi, .ax ³ |calling_code = 358 |footnote1 = Semi-presidential system |footnote2 = Before 2002: Finnish markka |footnote3 = The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states. }} Finland , officially the Republic of Finland "Republic of Finland", or "" in Finnish and "" in Swedish, is the long protocol name, which is not defined by the law. Legislation only recognizes the short name. (), is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. It borders Sweden on the west, Russia on the east, and Norway on the north, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland. The capital city is Helsinki. Around 5.3 million people reside in Finland, with the majority concentrated in the southern part of the country. It is the eighth largest country in Europe in terms of area and the most sparsely populated country in the European Union. The native language for most of the population is Finnish, a member of the Finno-Ugric language family most closely related to Estonian, and is one of only four official EU languages not of Indo-European origin. The other official language of Finland, Swedish, is the mother tongue of 5.5 percent of the population. Finland is a democratic, parliamentary republic with a mostly Helsinki-based central government and local governments in 348 municipalities. A total of a million residents live in Greater Helsinki area (including Helsinki, Espoo and Vantaa) and a third of the country's GDP is produced there. Other major cities include Tampere, Turku, Oulu, Jyväskylä, Kuopio and Lahti. Finland was historically a part of Sweden and from 1809 an autonomous Grand Duchy within the Russian Empire. Finland's declaration of independence from Russia in 1917 was followed by a civil war, wars against the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany, and a period of official neutrality during the Cold War. Finland joined the United Nations in 1955, the OECD in 1969, and the European Union in 1995 and participates in the Eurozone. Finland has been ranked the second most stable country in the world, in a survey based on social, economic, political, and military indicators. The Failed States Index 2008 Finland has good results in many international comparisons of national performance such as the share of high-technology manufacturing, public education, health care, the rate of gross domestic product growth, and the protection of civil liberties. History of Finland Prehistory According to archaeological evidence, the area now composing Finland was settled at the latest around 8500 BCE during the Stone Age as the ice shield of the last ice age receded. The artifacts the first settlers left behind present characteristics that are shared with those found in Estonia, Russia and Norway. PEOPLE, MATERIAL CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT IN THE NORTH Proceedings of the 22nd Nordic Archaeological Conference, University of Oulu, 18-23 August 2004 Edited by Vesa-Pekka Herva GUMMERUS KIRJAPAINO The earliest people were hunter-gatherers, using stone tools. There is also evidence of carved stone animal heads. Dr. Pirjo Uino of the National Board of Antiquities for Virtual Finland – Prehistory: The ice recedes — man arrives. Accessed on June 24, 2008. The first pottery appeared in 3000 BCE when settlers from the East brought in the Comb Ceramic culture. History of Finland and the Finnish People from stone age to WWII Accessed on June 24, 2008. The arrival of the Corded Ware culture in southern coastal Finland between 3,000–2,500 BCE coincided with the start of agriculture. Professor Frank Horn of the Northern Institute for Environmental and Minority Law University of Lappland writing for Virtual Finland on National Minorities of Finland. Accessed on June 24, 2008. Even with the introduction of agriculture, hunting and fishing continued to be important parts of the subsistence economy, especially in the northern and eastern parts of the country. The Bronze Age (1500–500 BCE) and Iron Age (500 BCE–1200 CE) were characterised by extensive contacts with other cultures in the Fennoscandian and Baltic regions. There is no consensus on when Finno-Ugric languages and Indo-European languages were first spoken in the area of contemporary Finland. The first verifiable written documents appeared in the 12th century. Swedish era (1249–1809) Swedish speaking settlers arrived in the coastal regions during the medieval time. Swedish kings established their rule in 1249 Sawyer and Sawyer: Medieval Scandinavia, page 67. University of Minnesota Press, 1993 . The area of present day Finland became fully consolidated part of the Swedish kingdom. Swedish became the dominant language of the nobility, administration and education; Finnish was chiefly a language for the peasantry, clergy and local courts in predominantly Finnish-speaking areas. The Bishop of Turku was the most socially pre-eminent person in Finland before the Reformation. During the Reformation, the Finns gradually converted to Lutheranism. In the 16th century, Mikael Agricola published the first written works in Finnish. The first university in Finland, The Royal Academy of Turku, was established in 1640. Finland suffered a severe famine in 1696-1697 and almost one third of the population died. History of Finland. Finland chronology In the 18th century, wars between Sweden and Russia led to the occupation of Finland twice by Russian forces, known to the Finns as the Greater Wrath (1714–1721) and the Lesser Wrath (1742–1743). By this time Finland was the predominant term for the whole area from the Gulf of Bothnia to the Russian border. Russian Empire era On March 29, 1809, after being taken over by the armies of Alexander I of Russia in the Finnish War, Finland became an autonomous Grand Duchy in the Russian Empire until the end of 1917. During the Russian era, the Finnish language started to gain recognition. From the 1860s onwards, a strong Finnish nationalist movement, known as the Fennoman movement, grew. Milestones included the publication of what would become Finland's national epic, the Kalevala, in 1835, and the Finnish language achieving equal legal status with Swedish in 1892. The Finnish famine of 1866–1868 killed 15 percent of the population, making it one the largest famines in European history. The famine led the Russian Empire to ease financial regulations, and investment rose in following decades. Economic and political development was rapid. Growth and Equity in Finland, World Bank The GDP per capita was still a half of United States and a third of Great Britain. In 1906, universal suffrage was adopted in the Grand Duchy of Finland. However, the relationship between the Grand Duchy and the Russian Empire soured when the Russian government made moves to restrict Finnish autonomy. For example, the universal suffrage was, in practice, virtually meaningless, since the emperor did not have to approve any of the laws adopted by the Finnish parliament. Desire for independence gained ground, first among radical liberals Mickelsson, Rauli. Suomen puolueet – Historia, muutos ja nykypäivä. Vastapaino 2007. and socialists. Civil war and early independence The road to civil war and independence After the February Revolution the position of Finland as part of the Russian Empire was questioned, mainly by the social democrats. Since the head of state was the Czar of Russia, it was not clear who was the chief executive of Finland after the revolution. The parliament, controlled by social democrats, passed the so-called Power Law, which would give the highest authority to the parliament. This was rejected by the Russian Provisional Government and by the right wing parties in Finland. The Provisional Government dissolved the parliament by force, which the social democrats considered illegal, since the right to do so was stripped from the Russians by the Power Law. New elections were conducted, in which right wing parties won a slim majority. Some social democrats refused to accept the result and still claimed that the dissolution of the parliament (and thus the ensuing elections) were extralegal. The two nearly equally powerful political blocs, the right wing parties and the social democratic party, were highly antagonized. The October Revolution in Russia changed the game anew. Suddenly, the right wing parties in Finland started to reconsider their decision to block the transfer of highest executive power from the Russian government to Finland, as radical socialists took power in Russia. Rather than acknowledge the authority of the Power Law of a few months earlier, the right wing government declared independence. The civil war In 1918, months after the Russian October Revolution, the revolutionary wing of the Social Democratic Party staged a coup. They succeeded in controlling southern Finland and Helsinki, but the right wing government continued in exile from Vaasa. The stage was set for a brief but bitter civil war. The Whites, who were supported by Imperial Germany, prevailed over the Reds, supported by Bolshevist Russia. After the war tens of thousands of Reds and suspected sympathizers were interned in camps, where thousands died by execution or from malnutrition and disease. Deep social and political enmity was sown between the Reds and Whites that would last until the Winter War and beyond. The civil war and activist expeditions (see Heimosodat) to the Soviet Union strained Eastern relations. The new republic After a brief flirtation with monarchy, Finland became a presidential republic, with Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg elected as its first president in 1919. The Finnish–Russian border was determined by the Treaty of Tartu in 1920, largely following the historic border but granting Pechenga () and its Barents Sea harbour to Finland. Finnish democracy didn't see any more Soviet coup attempts and survived the anti-Communist Lapua Movement. The relationship between Finland and the Soviet Union was tense. Germany's relations with Finland were also not good. Military was trained in France instead and relations to Western Europe and Sweden were strengthened. In 1917 the population was 3 million. Credit-based land reform was enacted after the civil war, increasing the proportion of capital-owning population. About 70% of workers were occupied in agriculture and 10% in industry. From slash-and-burn fields to post-industrial society – 90 years of change in industrial structure The largest export markets were the United Kingdom and Germany. The Great Depression in the early 1930s was relatively light in Finland. World War II During World War II, Finland fought the Soviet Union twice: in the Winter War of 1939–40 after the Soviet Union had attacked Finland and in the Continuation War of 1941–44, following Operation Barbarossa, in which Germany invaded the Soviet Union. For 872 days during World War II, German and Finnish armies besieged Leningrad, the Soviet Union's second largest city. 900-Day Siege of Leningrad Following German losses on the Eastern Front and the subsequent Soviet advance, Finland was forced to make peace with the Soviet Union and accept their demands for reparations and control. This was followed by the Lapland War of 1944–45, when Finland forced the Germans out of northern Finland. The treaties signed in 1947 and 1948 with the Soviet Union included Finnish obligations, restraints, and reparations as well as further Finnish territorial concessions (cf. the Moscow Peace Treaty of 1940). Finland was force to cede most of Finnish Karelia, Salla, and Pechenga, which amounted to ten percent of its land area and twenty percent of its industrial capacity, including the ice free port of Vyborg (Viipuri). Some 400,000 evacuees, mainly women and children, fled these areas. Finland had to reject Marshall aid. However, the United States provided secret development aid and helped the still non-communist Social Democratic Party in hopes of preserving Finland's independence. Hidden help from across the Atlantic, Helsingin Sanomat Establishing trade with the Western powers, such as the United Kingdom, and the reparations to the Soviet Union caused Finland to transform itself from a primarily agrarian economy to an industrialised one. For example the Valmet corporation was founded to create materials for war reparations. Even after the reparations had been paid off, Finland, which is poor in certain resources necessary for an industrialized nation (such as iron and oil), continued to trade with the Soviet Union in the framework of bilateral trade. Cold War In 1950 half of the Finnish workers were occupied in agriculture and a third lived in urban areas. Population development in independent Finland – greying Baby Boomers The new jobs in manufacturing, services and trade quickly attracted people to the towns. The average number of births per woman declined from a baby boom peak of 3.5 in 1947 to 1.5 in 1973. When baby boomers entered the workforce, the economy did not generate jobs fast enough and hundreds of thousands emigrated to the more industrialized Sweden, with emigration peaking in 1969 and 1970. The 1952 Summer Olympics brought international visitors. Finland took part in trade liberalization in the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Officially claiming to be neutral, Finland lay in the grey zone between the Western countries and the Soviet Union. The YYA Treaty (Finno-Soviet Pact of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance) gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics. This was extensively exploited by President Urho Kekkonen against his opponents. He maintained an effective monopoly on Soviet relations from 1956 on, which was crucial for his continued popularity. In politics, there was a tendency of avoiding any policies and statements that could be interpreted as anti-Soviet. This phenomenon was given the name "Finlandisation" by the German press (fi. suomettuminen). Self-censorship vis-à-vis anything negative associated with the Soviet Union was prevalent in the media. Public libraries pulled from circulation thousands of books that were considered anti-Soviet, and the law made it possible for the authorities to directly censor movies with supposedly anti-Soviet content. Asylum-seeking Soviet citizens were frequently returned to the Soviet Union by the Finnish authorities. Despite close relations with the Soviet Union, Finland remained a Western European market economy. Various industries benefited from trade privileges with the Soviets, which explains the widespread support that pro-Soviet policies enjoyed among business interests in Finland. Economic growth was rapid in the postwar era, and by 1975 Finland's GDP per capita was the 15th highest in the world. In the 1970s and 1980s, Finland built one of the most extensive welfare states in the world. Finland also negotiated a treaty with the EEC (a predecessor of the European Union) that mostly abolished customs duties towards the EEC starting from 1977, although Finland did not fully join. In 1981, President Urho Kekkonen's failing health forced him to retire after holding office for 25 years. Miscalculated macroeconomic decisions, a banking crisis, the collapse of a primary trading partner (the Soviet Union) and a global economic downturn caused a deep recession in Finland in the early 1990s. The depression bottomed out in 1993, and Finland has seen steady economic growth ever since. Recent history Like other Nordic countries, Finland has liberalized its economy since the late 1980s. Financial and product market regulation was loosened. Some state enterprises have been privatized and there have been some modest tax cuts. Finland joined the European Union in 1995, and the Eurozone in 1999. The population is aging with the birth rate at 10.42 births per 1,000 population, or a fertility rate of 1.8. With a median age of 41.6 years, Finland is one of the oldest countries; Median Age (Years) – GlobalHealthFacts.org half of voters are estimated to be over 50 years old. Like most European countries, without further reforms or much higher immigration, Finland is expected to struggle with demographics, even though macroeconomic projections are healthier than in most other developed countries. Etymology The name Suomi (Finnish for "Finland") has uncertain origins but a strong candidate for a cognate is the Proto-Baltic word *zeme, meaning "land". In addition to the close relatives of Finnish (the Baltic-Finnic languages), this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian. According to an earlier theory the name was derived from suomaa (fen land) or suoniemi (fen cape). The exonym Finland has resemblance with, e.g., the Scandinavian placenames Finnmark, Finnveden and hundreds of other toponyms starting with Fin(n) in Sweden and Norway. Some of these names are obviously derived from finnr, a Germanic word for a wanderer/finder and thus supposedly meaning nomadic "hunter-gatherers" or slash and burn agriculturists as opposed to the Germanic sedentary farmers and seafaring traders and pirates. The term "Finn" often refers to Sami people, too. Finn started referring to the people of Finland Proper after the 15th century, when the church appointed a bishop — who became one of the most powerful men in the province — over the whole area corresponding roughly to today's Finland. The fact that there was no other ecclesiastical authority of the same level, coupled with the Bishop's temporal authority, engendered a sense of "the Finns" belonging to one geographical area over which the name spread from the 15th century onwards to refer to the people of the entire country. Among the first documents to mention "a land of the Finns" are two rune-stones. There is one in Söderby, Sweden, with the inscription finlont (U 582) and one in Gotland, a Swedish island in the Baltic Sea, with the inscription finlandi (G 319), dating from the 11th century. Geography and environment Topography and geology Finland is a country of thousands of lakes and islands – 187,888 lakes (larger than 500 m²) and 179,584 islands. One of these lakes, Saimaa, is the fourth largest in Europe. The Finnish landscape is mostly flat with few hills, and its highest point, the Halti at 1,324 metres, is found in the extreme north of Lapland at the border between Finland and Norway. The landscape is covered mostly (seventy-five percent of land area) by coniferous taiga forests and fens, with little arable land. The most common type of rock is granite. It is a ubiquitous part of the scenery, visible wherever there is no soil cover. Moraine or till is the most common type of soil, covered by a thin layer of humus of biological origin. Podzol profile development is seen in most forest soils except where drainage is poor. Gleysols and peat bogs occupy poorly drained areas. The greater part of the islands are found in the southwest in the Archipelago Sea, part of the archipelago of the Åland Islands, and along the southern coast in the Gulf of Finland. Finland is one of the few countries in the world whose surface area is still growing. Owing to the post-glacial rebound that has been taking place since the last ice age, the surface area of the country is growing by about a year. The distance from the most Southern point – Hanko – to the most northern point of Finland – Nuorgam – is (driving distance), which would take approximately 18.5 hours to drive. This is very similar to Great Britain (Land's End to John o' Groats – and 16.5 h). Flora and fauna Phytogeographically, Finland is shared between the Arctic, Central European and Northern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Finland can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Scandinavian and Russian taiga, Sarmatic mixed forests and Scandinavian Montane Birch forest and grasslands. Actual tundra with permafrost is not found in Finland except for a narrow area in the extreme north. Similarly, temperate broadleaf mixed forests, with oak, elm, hazel and maple growing in the wild, are found only in the narrow area extreme south. All terrestrial life in Finland was completely wiped out during the last ice age that ended some 10,000 years ago, following the retreat of the glaciers and the appearance of vegetation. Today, there are over 1,200 species of vascular plant, 800 bryophytes and 1,000 lichen species in Finland, with flora being richest in the southern parts of the country. Plant life, like most of the Finnish ecology, is well adapted to tolerate the contrasting seasons and extreme weather. Many plant species, such as the Scots Pine, spruce, and birch, spread throughout Finland from Norway and only reached the western coast less than three millennia ago. Similarly, Finland has a diverse and extensive range of fauna. There are at least sixty native mammalian species, 248 breeding bird species, over seventy fish species and eleven reptile and frog species present today, many migrating from neighbouring countries thousands of years ago. Large and widely recognised wildlife mammals found in Finland are the Brown Bear (the national animal), Gray Wolf, elk (moose) and reindeer. Other common mammals include the Red Fox, Red Squirrel, and Mountain Hare. Some rare and exotic species include the flying squirrel, Golden Eagle, Saimaa Ringed Seal and Arctic fox. Two of the more striking birds are the Whooper Swan, a large European swan and the national bird of Finland, and the Capercaillie, a large, black-plumaged member of the grouse family. The latter is considered an indicator of old-growth forest connectivity, and has been declining due to landscape fragmentation. The most common breeding birds are the Willow Warbler, Chaffinch and Redwing. Of some seventy species of freshwater fish, the northern pike, perch and others are plentiful. Atlantic salmon remains the favorite of fly rod enthusiasts. The endangered Saimaa Ringed Seal, one of only three lake seal species in the world, exists only in the Saimaa lake system of southeastern Finland, down to only 300 seals today. It has become the emblem of the Finnish Association for Nature Conservation. Due to hunting and persecution in history, many animals such as the Deer, Golden Eagle, Brown Bear and Eurasian Lynx all experienced significant declines in population. However, their numbers have increased again in the 2000s, mainly as a result of careful conservation and the establishment of vast national parks. Climate The Finnish climate is suitable for grain farming in the southernmost regions, but not further north. Finland has a humid and cool semi continental climate. The climate type in southern Finland is a northern temperate climate. Winters of southern Finland (average temperature of day is below 0) are usually 4–5 months long, and the snow covers the land about 4 months of every year, and in the southern coast, it can melt many times during winter, and then come again. The coldest winter days of southern Finland are usually -20 C, and the warmest days of July and early August can be 25-30 C. Summers in the southern Finland last 4 months (from the mid of May to mid of September). In Northern Finland, particularly in the Province of Lapland, a subarctic climate dominates, characterized by cold, occasionally severe, winters and relatively warm summers. Winters in north Finland are nearly 7 months long, and snow covers the land almost 6–7 months every year. Summers in the north are quite short, only 2–3 months. The highest temperatures on the warmest summer days of July, are rarely above 20-25 degrees in northern Finland. The main factor influencing Finland's climate is the country's geographical position between the 60th and 70th northern parallels in the Eurasian continent's coastal zone, which shows characteristics of both a maritime and a continental climate, depending on the direction of air flow. Finland is near enough to the Atlantic Ocean to be continuously warmed by the Gulf Stream, which explains the unusually warm climate considering the absolute latitude. A quarter of Finland's territory lies above the Arctic Circle and the midnight sun can be experienced – for more days, the farther north one travels. At Finland's northernmost point, the sun does not set for 73 consecutive days during summer, and does not rise at all for 51 days during winter. Demographics +Population of Finland, 1750–2000 YearPopulationYearPopulation1750421,00018802,060,8001760491,00018902,380,1001770561,00019002,655,9001780663,00019102,943,4001790705,60019203,147,6001800832,70019303,462,7001810863,30019403,695,61718201,177,50019504,029,80318301,372,10019604,446,22218401,445,60019704,598,33618501,636,90019804,787,77818601,746,70019904,998,47818701,768,80020005,181,000 Population Finland currently numbers 5,332,671 inhabitants and has an average population density of 17 inhabitants per square kilometre. This makes it, after Norway and Iceland, the most sparsely populated country in Europe. Finland's population has always been concentrated in the southern parts of the country, a phenomenon even more pronounced after 20th century urbanisation. The biggest and most important cities in Finland are the cities of the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area – Helsinki, Espoo and Vantaa. Other large cities include Tampere, Turku and Oulu. The share of foreign citizens in Finland is 2.5 percent being among the lowest of the European Union countries. Most of them are from Russia, Estonia and Sweden. Language Most of the Finnish people (92 percent) speak Finnish as their mother tongue. Finnish is a member of the Baltic-Finnic subgroup of the Uralic languages and is typologically between inflected and agglutinative languages. It modifies and inflects the forms of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals and verbs, depending on their roles in the sentence. In practice, this means that instead of prepositions and prefixes there is a great variety of different suffixes and that compounds form a considerable percentage of the vocabulary of Finnish. It has been estimated that approximately 65–70 percent of all words in Finnish are compounds. A close linguistic relative to the Finnish language is Estonian, which, though similar in many aspects, is not mutually intelligible with it. These languages, together with Hungarian (all members of the Uralic language family), are the primary non-Indo-European languages spoken in Europe. Finland is one of three independent countries where an Uralic language is spoken by the majority, the other two being Estonia and Hungary. The largest minority language and the second official language is Swedish spoken by 5.6 percent of the population. Other minority languages are Russian (0.8 percent), Estonian (0.3 percent), Finnish Romani, and Finnish Sign Language (spoken as a first language by 4,000–5,000 people). To the north, in Lapland, are also the Sami people, numbering around 7,000 According to the Finnish Population Registry Center and the Finnish Sami parliament, the Sami population living in Finland was 7,371 in 2003. See Regional division of Sami people in Finland by age in 2003 (in Finnish). and recognized as an indigenous people. About a quarter of them speak a Sami language as their mother tongue. There are three Sami languages that are spoken in Finland: Northern Sami, Inari Sami and Skolt Sami. Unofficial names for Finland in Sami languages are: Suopma (Northern Sami), Suomâ (Inari Sami) and Lää´ddjânnam (Skolt Sami). See . The right of the minority groups (in particular Sami, Swedish-speaking Finns and Romani people) to cherish their culture and language is protected by the constitution. In a 2005 Eurobarometer survey studying languages of the European Union, 60% percent of adult residents claimed to know English, 38% claimed to know Swedish as a second language (41% in 2008), and 17% claimed to know German. Europeans and languages, 2005 Ranking those claiming a knowledge of English, Finland ranked fifth behind Malta, the Netherlands (86%), Sweden (85%), and Denmark (83%). Relatively many Finns knew German, while relatively few knew French or Spanish. Religion Most Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland (80.7 percent). With approximately 4.3 million members, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland is one of the largest Lutheran churches in the world, although its membership is on the decline. A minority belong to the Finnish Orthodox Church (1.1 percent; see Eastern Orthodox Church). Other Protestant denominations and the Roman Catholic Church in Finland are significantly smaller, as are the Muslim, Jewish and other non-Christian communities (totaling 1.2 percent). 15.9 percent of the population has no religious affiliation. Historically, in the prehistoric, ancient and early mediaeval periods of Finnish history, Finnish paganism was the majority religion. It has been revived recently through the form of Finnish neopaganism. The main Lutheran and Orthodox churches are constitutional national churches of Finland with special roles such as in state ceremonies and schools. A university degree in theology is compulsory for Lutheran priests. Representatives at Lutheran Church assemblies are selected in church elections every four years. Over half of Finns say they pray at least once a month, the highest proportion in Nordics. Restoring the Image. By Andrew Walker, Martyn Percy, David Martin. Published in 2001. Most children are baptized and have confirmation at the age of 15. Nearly all funerals are Christian. The majority of Lutherans attend church only for special occasions like Christmas ceremonies, weddings and funerals. According to a 2005 Eurobarometer poll, 41 percent of Finnish citizens responded that "they believe there is a God"; 41 percent answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force"; and 16 percent that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force". Family structure Finnish family life is centered on the nuclear family. Relations with the extended family are often rather distant, and Finnish people do not form politically significant clans, tribes or similar structures. According to UNICEF, Finland ranks fourth in the world in child well-being. Health There are 307 residents for each doctor. About 18.9 % of health care is funded directly by households and 76.6 % by public and other insurances. Finland limits medicine sales to the around 800 licensed pharmacies. Some significant institutions include Ministry of Health and National Public Health Institute. In a comparison of 16 countries by Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions, Finland used the least resources and got average result, making Finland the most efficient public sector health service producer according to the study's authors. Svensk sjukvård i internationell jämförelse 2008 (in Swedish) The life expectancy is 82 years for women and 75 years for men http://indexmundi.com/finland/life_expectancy_at_birth.html . After having one of the highest death rates from heart disease in the world in the 1970s, improvements in the Finnish diet and exercise have paid off. Finland has exceptionally low smoking rates: 26 % for males and 19 % for females. Finland's health problems are similar to other developed countries: circulatory diseases make up about half of all causes of death and cancer is the second most common cause of death. Health Care in Finland, Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, 2004 The total annual consumption of pure alcohol by residents is lower than other European countries, even though heavy drinking is common at parties on the weekend. However, becoming intoxicated has remained the central characteristic of Finnish drinking habits. In the working-age population, diseases or accidents caused by alcohol consumption have recently surpassed coronary artery disease as the biggest single cause of death. YLE Uutiset Schools teach sports, health and hands-on cooking classes. Finnish schoolchildren have one of the lowest amounts of sport classes in the European Union and according to National Public Health Institute only a third of adults exercise enough. Miehet kuntoon! Kansalaiskunnon lasku ja korjaavat toimenpiteet National Public Health Institute claims 54 % male obesity and 38 % female obesity, while other estimates put obesity rates at 70 % and 50 %. The rate of diabetes is predicted to grow to 15 % by 2015. Finland has the world's highest rate of Type I diabetes. Administrative divisions The largest subdivisions are the six administrative provinces (lääni, pl. läänit), which mainly function as divisions of the state organisation, Local Governance in Industrial Countries – ISBN 082136328X i.e. police, prosecutors, and other state services operate under their administration. After 1997 reforms the provinces have been Southern Finland, Western Finland, Eastern Finland, Oulu, Lapland, Åland. The province of Åland Islands is autonomous. The fundamental administrative divisions of the country are the municipalities, which may also call themselves towns or cities. They account for half of public spending. Spending is financed by municipal income tax, state subsidies, and other revenue. As of 2009, there are 348 municipalities and most have less than 6,000 residents. People often identify with their municipality. In addition to municipalities, two intermediate levels are defined. Municipalities co-operate in seventy-four sub-regions and twenty regions. These are governed by the member municipalities, but have only limited powers. The Åland region has a permanent, democratically elected regional council as a part of the autonomy. In the Kainuu region, there is a pilot project underway, with regional elections. Sami people have a semi-autonomous Sami Domicile Area in Lapland for issues on language and culture. In the following chart, the number of inhabitants includes those living in the entire municipality (kunta/kommun), not just in the built-up area. The land area is given in km², and the density in inhabitants per km² (land area). The figures are as of . Notice that the capital region – comprising Helsinki, Vantaa, Espoo and Kauniainen (see Greater Helsinki) – forms a continuous conurbation of one million people. However, common administration is limited to voluntary cooperation of all municipalities, e.g. in Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council. City Population Land area Density</tr> Helsinki </tr> Espoo </tr> Tampere </tr> Vantaa </tr> Turku </tr> Oulu </tr> Jyväskylä </tr> Lahti </tr> Kuopio </tr> Kouvola </tr> Pori </tr> Joensuu </tr> Lappeenranta </tr> Hämeenlinna </tr> Rovaniemi </tr> Politics and government The Constitution of Finland defines the political system. Finland is a representative democracy with a semi-presidential parliamentary system. Aside from state-level politics, residents use their vote in municipal elections and in the European Union elections. According to the Constitution, the President is the head of state and responsible for foreign policy (which excludes affairs related to the European Union) in cooperation with the cabinet. Other powers include Commander-in-Chief, decree, and appointive powers. Direct vote is used to elect the president for a term of six years and maximum two consecutive terms. The current president is Tarja Halonen (SDP). The 200-member unicameral Parliament of Finland exercises the supreme legislative authority in Finland. The parliament may alter laws, the constitution, bring about the resignation of the Council of State, and override presidential vetoes. Its acts are not subject to judicial review. Various parliament committees listen to experts and prepare legislation. Proportional vote in multi-seat constituencies is used to elect the parliament for a term of four years. The Speaker of Parliament is currently Sauli Niinistö (National Coalition Party). The cabinet (the Finnish Council of State) exercises most executive powers. It is headed by the Prime Minister of Finland and includes other ministers and the Chancellor of Justice. Parliament majority decides its composition and a vote of no confidence can be used to modify it. The current prime minister is Matti Vanhanen (Centre Party). Since equal and common suffrage was introduced in 1906, the parliament has been dominated by the Centre Party (former Agrarian Union), National Coalition Party, and Social Democrats, which have approximately equal support, and represent 65–80 percent of voters. After 1944 Communists were a factor to consider for a few decades. The relative strengths of the parties vary only slightly in the elections due to the proportional election from multi-member districts, but there are some visible long-term trends. The autonomous Åland islands has separate elections, where Liberals for Åland was the largest party in 2007 elections. After the parliamentary elections on March 18, 2007, the seats were divided among eight parties as follows: Party Seats Net Gain/Loss % of seats % of votes Centre Party 51 –4 25.5 23.1 National Coalition Party 50 +10 25.0 22.3 Social Democratic Party 45 –8 22.5 21.4 Left Alliance 17 –2 8.5 8.8 Green League 14 +1 7.5 8.5 Swedish People's Party 9 +1 4.5 4.5 Christian Democrats 7 0 3.5 4.9 True Finns 5 +2 2.5 4.1 Others 1* 0 0.5 2.4 Law and court The judicial system of Finland is a civil law system divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts with jurisdiction over litigation between the individuals and the public administration. Finnish law is codified and based on Swedish law and in a wider sense, civil law or Roman law. The court system for civil and criminal jurisdiction consists of local courts (käräjäoikeus), regional appellate courts (hovioikeus), and the Supreme Court (korkein oikeus). The administrative branch of justice consists of administrative courts (hallinto-oikeus) and the Supreme Administrative Court (korkein hallinto-oikeus). In addition to the regular courts, there are a few special courts in certain branches of administration. There is also a High Court of Impeachment for criminal charges against certain high-ranking officeholders. The abovementioned local court of first instance (käräjäoikeus) for civil and criminal cases consists of professional judges, or, in complex cases, 1—2 professional judges and 3—4 lay judges (lautamies) appointed by municipal councils. Administrative courts, appellate courts and supreme courts consist of professional judges only. Like the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, Finland has no constitutional court, and courts may not strike down laws or pronounce on their constitutionality. In principle, the constitutionality of laws in Finland is verified by parliament's constitutional law committee and a simple vote in the parliament. Around 92% of residents are confident in Finland's security institutions. Policing corruption, International Perspectives. Crime in Finland has some unique features. The overall crime rate of Finland is not high in the context. Some crime types are above average, notably the highest homicide rate in Western Europe. The Burden of Crime in the EU. Research Report: A Comparative Analysis of the European Crime and Safety Survey (EU ICS) 2005 Crime is prevalent among lower educational groups and is often committed by intoxicated persons. A day fine system is in effect and also applied to offences such as speeding. Jail sentences tend to be among the world's lowest, with an official emphasis on rehabilitation. Finland has successfully fought against the corruption which was larger in the 1970s and 1980s. The History of Corruption in Central Government By Seppo Tiihonen, International Institute of Administrative Sciences For instance, economic reforms and EU membership introduced stricter requirements for open bidding and many public monopolies were abolished. Today Finland has a very low number of corruption charges; Transparency International ranks Finland as one of the least corrupted countries. Also, Finland's public records are among the world's most transparent. Finland has strict libel standards, and in one case a blogger was convicted for incitement to hatred when referring to statistics about an ethnic group. The voluntary Internet censorship list, similar to other Nordic countries, is classified "nominal" censorship by the ONI. Foreign relations According to the latest constitution of 2000, the President (currently Tarja Halonen) leads foreign policy in cooperation with the government (currently Prime Minister Matti Vanhanen and Foreign Minister Alexander Stubb), except that the government leads EU affairs. During the Cold War, Finland conducted its foreign policy in association with the Soviet Union and simultaneously stressed Nordic cooperation (as a member of the Nordic Council). After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Finland freed itself from the last restrictions imposed on it by the Paris peace treaties of 1947 and the Finno-Soviet Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance. Although opposed by socialists and agrarians, the government filed an EU membership application three months after the dissolution of the USSR and became a member in 1995. Finland did not attempt to join NATO, even though other post-Soviet countries in the Baltic sea and elsewhere joined. Nevertheless, defense policymakers have quietly converted to NATO equipment and contributed troops. President Martti Ahtisaari and the coalition governments led Finland closer to the core EU in the late 1990s. In 2008 Ahtisaari was awarded the Nobel Peace Price. Finland was considered a cooperative model state, and Finland did not oppose proposals for a common EU defence policy. This was reversed in the 2000s, when Tarja Halonen and Erkki Tuomioja made Finland's official policy to resist other EU members' plans for common defense. "Finland's foreign policy idea" ("Suomen ulkopolitiikan idea"), Risto E. J. Penttilä, 2008 However, Halonen allowed Finland to join European Union Battlegroups in 2006 and the NATO Response Force in 2008. Military The Finnish Defence Forces consists of a cadre of professional soldiers (mainly officers and technical personnel), currently serving conscripts and a large reserve. The standard readiness strength is 34,700 people in uniform, of which 25% are professional soldiers. A universal male conscription is in place, under which all male Finnish nationals above 18 years of age serve for 6 to 12 months of armed service or 12 months of civilian (non-armed) service. Alternative non-military service and volunteer service by women (chosen by around 500 annually) <Women's voluntary service (in Finnish) are possible. Finland is the only non-NATO EU country bordering Russia. Finland's official policy states that the 350,000 reservists, armed mostly with ground weaponry are a sufficient deterrent. Finland has one of the largest armies in Europe per capita. The Finnish Defense Forces favor partnerships with Western institutions such as NATO, WEU and the , but are careful to avoid politics. Hägglund, Gustav. Leijona ja kyyhky. Finland's defence budget equals about €2 billion or about 1.4–1.6 % of the GDP. In international comparisons Finnish defense expenditure is around the third highest in the EU. Työvoimakustannukset puuttuvat puolustusmenoista , Statistics Finland (in Finnish): Eurostat ranking is 6th. It's 3rd when conscription is accounted. Voluntary overseas service is popular and troops serve around the world in UN, NATO and EU peace-keeping missions. Residents claim around 80 % homeland defense willingness, one of the highest rates in Europe. Jane's World Armies: Finland The Finnish Defence Forces are under the command of the Chief of Defence (currently Ari Puheloinen), who is directly subordinate to the President of the Republic in matters related to military command. The branches of the military are the Finnish Army, Finnish Navy and Finnish Air Force. The Border Guard is under the Ministry of the Interior but can be incorporated into the Defence Forces when required for defence readiness. Economy Finland has a highly industrialized free-market economy with a per capita output equal to that of other western economies such as France, Germany, Sweden or the UK. The largest sector of the economy is services at 65.7 %, followed by manufacturing and refining at 31.4 %. Primary production is at 2.9 %. With respect to foreign trade, the key economic sector is manufacturing. The largest industries are electronics (21.6 %), machinery, vehicles and other engineered metal products (21.1 %), forest industry (13.1 %), and chemicals (10.9 %). Finland has timber and several mineral and freshwater resources. Forestry, paper factories, and the agricultural sector (on which taxpayers spend around 3 billion euro annually) are politically sensitive to rural residents. The Greater Helsinki area generates around a third of GDP. In a 2004 OECD comparison, high-technology manufacturing in Finland ranked second largest after Ireland. Knowledge-intensive services have also ranked the smallest and slow-growth sectors – especially agriculture and low-technology manufacturing – second largest after Ireland. Finland Economy 2004, OECD Overall short-term outlook was good and GDP growth has been above many EU peers. Inflation has been low, averaging 1.8 % between 2004 and 2006. Finland is highly integrated in the global economy, and international trade is a third of GDP. The European Union makes 60 % of the total trade. The largest trade flows are with Germany, Russia, Sweden, United Kingdom, USA, Netherlands and China. Trade policy is managed by the European Union, where Finland has traditionally been among the free trade supporters, except for agriculture. Finland is the only Nordic country to have joined the Eurozone. The 40 largest Finland-registered companies by turnover in 2007 or 2006 were (Oy and Oyj abbreviations removed): Nokia, Stora Enso, Neste Oil, UPM-Kymmene, Kesko, SOK, Metsäliitto, Outokumpu, Metso, Tamro, Fortum, Sampo, Kone, Elcoteq, Rautaruukki, Wärtsilä, YIT, Varma, Cargotec, Sanoma, Kemira, Ilmarinen Keskinäinen Eläkevakuutusyhtiö, TeliaSonera Finland, Luvata International (former Outokumpu Copper), Huhtamäki, Finnair, Lemminkäinen, HKScan, Onvest, RTF Auto, Tieto, Ahlstrom, Konecranes, Valio, ABB, Itella, Amer Sports, Teboil, Elisa, and Myllykoski. Top list: The largest companies in the Nordic countries by turnover (excl. national subsidiaries): Finland Private sector employees amount to 1.8 million, out of which around a third with tertiary education. The average cost of a private sector employee per hour was 25.1 euro in 2004. Tehdyn työtunnin hinta 23-27 euroa, Statistics Finland As of 2008 average purchasing power-adjusted income levels are similar to those of Italy, Sweden, Germany, and France. Suomalaisten tulot Euroopan keskitasoa. Hyvinvointipalvelut eivät paranna sijoitusta In 2006, 62 % of the workforce worked for enterprises with less than 250 employees and they accounted for 49 % of total business turnover and had the strongest rate of growth . Small enterprises grow faster than the big ones The female employment rate is high. Gender segregation between male-dominated professions and female-dominated professions is higher than in the US. The Nordic Model of Welfare: A Historical Reappraisal, by Niels Finn Christiansen The proportion of part-time workers was one of the lowest in OECD in 1999. Employment rate 68 % and unemployment rate was 6.8 % in early 2008. Statistics Finland: Labour Market 18 % of residents are outside job market at the age of 50 and less than a third working at the age of 61. OECD recommends Finland to do more to help older people stay in work Unfunded pensions and other promises such as health insurances are a dominate future liability, though Finland is much better prepared than countries such as France or Germany. Ikääntymisen taloudelliset vaikutukset ja niihin varautuminen Directly held public debt has been reduced to around 32 percent of GDP in 2007. CIA Factbook: Public Debt In 2007, the average household savings rate was -3.8 and household debt 101 percent of annual disposable income, a typical level in Europe. (in Finnish) Home ownership rate is 60 %. As of 2006, 2.4 million households reside in Finland. The average size is 2.1 persons; 40 % of households consist of a single person, 32 % two persons and 28 % three or more persons. Residential buildings total 1.2 million and the average residential space is 38 m2 per person. The average residential property without land costs 1,187 euro per sq metre and residential land 8.6 euro per sq metre. 74 % of households had a car. There are 2.5 million cars and 0.4 other vehicles. Statistics Finland: Transport and Tourism Around 92 % has a mobile phone and 58 % Internet connection at home. The average total household consumption was 20,000 euro, out of which housing at around 5500 euro, transport at around 3000 euro, food and beverages excluding alcoholic at around 2500 euro, recreation and culture at around 2000 euro. Own-account worker households' consumption has grown most in 2001-2006 Purchasing power-adjusted average household consumption is about the same level as it is in Germany, Sweden and Italy. According to Invest in Finland, private consumption grew by 3 % in 2006 and consumer trends included durables, high quality products, and spending on well-being. Retail growth best in Finland for five years, Invest in Finland Education and science Most pre-tertiary education is arranged at municipal level. Even though many or most schools were started as private schools, today only around 3 % students are enrolled in private schools (mostly Helsinki-based schools such as SYK), many times less than in Sweden and most other developed countries. Summary sheets on education systems in Europe Pre-school education is rare compared to other EU countries. Formal education is usually started at the age of 7. The primary school takes normally 6 years, the lower secondary school 3 years, and most schools are managed by municipal officials. The flexible curriculum is set by the Ministry of Education and the Education Board. Attendance is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 16. According to PISA assessments of the age group 15, Finnish students had a high average score and a low variation among schools and students. PISA 2006 Science Competencies for Tomorrow’s World, Volume 1 – Analysis McKinsey has attributed the result distribution to high teacher education (Master's degree), high continuing teacher training, and emphasis on laggards. "What works in education", McKinsey After lower secondary school, graduates may either enter the workforce directly, or apply to trade schools or gymnasiums (upper secondary schools). Trade schools prepare for professions. Academically oriented gymnasiums have higher entrance requirements and specifically prepare for Abitur and tertiary education. Graduation from either formally qualifies for tertiary education. In tertiary education, two, mostly separate and non-interoperating sectors are found: the profession-oriented polytechnics and the research-oriented universities. Finns used to take student loans and scholarships, but for the past decades the financial risk has been moved solely to the government. There are 20 universities and 30 polytechnics in the country. The World Economic Forum ranks Finland's tertiary education #1 in the world. Around 33% of residents have a tertiary degree, similar to Nordics and more than in most other OECD countries except Canada (44%), United States (38%) and Japan(37%). Tilastokeskus – Artikkelit – Tasa-arvoinen suomineito, osa 1 The proportion of foreign students is 3% of all tertiary enrolments, one of the lowest in OECD, while in advanced programs it is 7.3%, still below OECD average 16.5%. Education at Glance 2007: Finland, OECD More than 30 % of tertiary graduates are in science-related fields. Finnish researchers are leading contributors to such fields as forest improvement, new materials, the environment, neural networks, low-temperature physics, brain research, biotechnology, genetic technology and communications. Finland is highly productive in scientific research. In 2005, Finland had the fourth most scientific publications per capita of the OECD countries. http://www.research.fi/en/performance/scientific_publication In 2007, 1801 patents were filed in Finland. http://www.research.fi/en/performance/patents/patents_with%20numbers Energy Anyone can enter the free and largely privately owned Nordic energy market traded in Nord Pool exchange, which has provided competitive prices compared to other EU countries. As of 2007, Finland has roughly the lowest industrial electricity prices in the EU-15 (equal to France). Electricity prices – industrial users In 2006, the energy market was around 90 terawatt hours and the peak demand around 15 gigawatts in winter. This means that the energy consumption per capita is around 7.2 tons of oil equivalent per year. Industry and construction consumed 51% of total consumption, a relatively high figure reflecting Finland's industries. Statistics Finland – Electricity consumption by sector 2006 Statistics Finland – Total energy consumption increased clearly in 2006 Finland's hydrocarbon resources are limited to peat and wood, while neighboring Norway has oil and Estonia oil shale. Finland has little hydropower capacity compared to Sweden or Norway. Most energy demand is satisfied with fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas. Finland has four privately owned nuclear reactors producing 18 percent of the country's energy, one research reactor in Otaniemi campus, and the fifth AREVA-Siemens-built reactor – the world's largest at 1600 MWe and a focal point of Europe's nuclear industry – is scheduled to be operational by 2011. Renewable energy forms (industry-burned wood, consumer-burned wood, peat, industrial residue, garbage) make high 25 % compared to the EU average 10 %. A varying amount (5–17 percent) of electricity has been imported from Russia (at around 3 gigawatt power line capacity), Sweden and Norway. A new submarine power cable from Russia has been considered a national security issue and one permit application has already been rejected. Finland negotiated itself expensive Kyoto and EU emission terms. They are causing a sharp increase in energy prices and 1-2 billion euro annual cost, amplified by the aging and soon decommissioned production capacity. Päästökaupasta voi tulla miljardilasku teollisuudelle Energy companies are already ready to increase nuclear power production, if parliament granted permits for new reactors. Finland to decide on new nuclear reactors in 2010: govt Transportation The extensive road system is utilized by most internal cargo and passenger traffic. As of 2005, the country's network of main roads has a total length of 13,258 km and all public roads 78,186 km, of which 50,616 km are paved. The motorway network totals 653 km. The annual road network expenditure of around 1 billion euro is paid with vehicle and fuel taxes which amount to around 1.5 billion euro and 1 billion euro. The main international passenger gateway is Helsinki-Vantaa Airport with over 13 million passengers in 2007. Tampere-Pirkkala airport is the second largest and around 25 airports have scheduled passenger services. The Helsinki-Vantaa based Finnair, Blue1 and Finncomm Airlines sell air services both domestically and internationally, and there are many others offering direct flights around the world. Helsinki has an optimal location for great circle routes between Western Europe and the Far East. Hence, many international travelers visit Helsinki-Vantaa airport on a stop-over between Asia and Europe. Despite low population density, taxpayers spend annually around 350 million euro in maintaining 5,865 km railway tracks even to many rural towns. Only one rail company operates in Finland, VR Group, which has 5 % passenger market share (out of which 80 % are urban trips in Greater Helsinki) and 25 % cargo market share. Transport and communications ministry – Rail Helsinki has an urban rail network. The majority of international cargo utilizes ports. Port logistics prices are low. Vuosaari harbour in Helsinki is the largest container port after completion in 2008 and others include Hamina, Hanko, Pori, Rauma, Oulu. There is passenger traffic from Helsinki and Turku, which have ferry connections to Tallinn, Mariehamn and Stockholm. The Helsinki-Tallinn route, one of the busiest passenger sea routes in the world, is also served by a helicopter line. Industry Finland has developed greatly since 1945, when it was a primarily agricultural nation, and created major firms like the electronics firm DICRO Oy, the 55 year old Media company Evia Oyj and the cell phone firm Nokia. Contrary to popular belief Finland does have some heavy industrial firms like the metal components company Rautaruukki, which supply the Finn's construction industry. Shipbuilding industry is important for the Finnish economy and world's biggest cruise ships are build in Finnish shipyards. Forestry is still an important industry, as is the ever growing tourism and holiday sectors. Public policy Finnish politicians have often emulated other Nordics and the Nordic model. The Nordic Model by Torben M. Andersen, Bengt Holmström, Seppo Honkapohja, Sixten Korkman, Hans Tson Söderström, Juhana Vartiainen Nordics have been free-trading and relatively welcoming to skilled migrants for over a century, though in Finland immigration is relatively new. The level of protection in commodity trade has been low, except for agricultural products. Finland's judiciary is efficient and effective. Finland is highly open to investment and free trade. Finland has top levels of economic freedom in many areas, although there is a heavy tax burden and inflexible job market. Finland is ranked 16th (ninth in Europe) in the 2008 Index of Economic Freedom. Economic freedom: Finland Recently, Finland has topped the patents per capita statistics, and overall productivity growth has been strong in areas such as electronics. While the manufacturing sector is thriving, OECD points out that the service sector would benefit substantially from policy improvements. Kilpailuvirasto: OECD:n raportti suosittelee kilpailun lisäämistä palvelualoilla Finland is one of the most fiscally responsible EU countries. IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook 2007 ranked Finland 17th most competitive. World Competitiveness Yearbook 2007 The World Economic Forum 2008 index ranked Finland the 6th most competitive. In both indicators, Finland's performance was next to Germany, and significantly higher than most European countries. In the Business competitiveness index 2007-08 Finland ranked third in the world. Economists attribute much growth to reforms in the product markets. According to OECD, only four EU-15 countries have less regulated product markets (UK, Ireland, Denmark and Sweden) and only one has less regulated financial markets (Denmark). Nordic countries were pioneers in liberalizing energy, postal, and other markets in Europe. The legal system is clear and business bureaucracy less than most countries. Finland economy Property rights are well protected and contractual agreements are strictly honored. Finland is rated one of the least corrupted countries in Corruption Perceptions Index. Finland is rated 13th in the Ease of Doing Business Index. It indicates exceptional ease to trade across borders (5th), enforce contracts (7th), and close a business (5th), and exceptional hardship to employ workers (127th) and pay taxes (83rd). Economy Rankings, Doing Business Report 2008, World Bank Finnish job market regulation is a remaining example of Nordic neocorporatist model. In the 1990s, Denmark liberalized its job market, Sweden moved to more flexible decentralized contracts, and Finnish trade unions blocked most reforms. Finnish law forces all workers to obey the national contracts that are drafted every few years for each profession and seniority level. The agreement becomes universally enforceable provided that more than 50% of the employees support it, in practice by being a member of a relevant trade union. The unionization rate is high (70%), especially in the middle class (AKAVA – 80%). A lack of a national agreement in an industry is considered an exception. More flexibility is generally recommended by economists for various reasons. Overall taxation has been reduced to nearly 10 percentage points lower level than in Sweden, but it is still nearly 10 percentage points higher than in Germany. The middle income worker receives only 40% of his income after the median tax wedge and effective marginal tax rates are high. Economic Survey of Finland in 2004, OECD Value-added tax is 22 percent for most items. Capital gains tax is 28% and corporate tax is 26 percent, about the EU median. Property taxes are low, but there is a stamp duty of 4% for home sellers. For instance, McKinsey estimates that a worker has to pay around 1600 euro for another worker's 400 euro service when both workers' taxes are counted. McKinsey: Finland's Economy Tax cuts have been in every post-depression government's agenda and the overall tax burden is now around 43% of GDP compared to 51.1% in Sweden, 34.7% in Germany, 33.5% in Canada, and 30.5% in Ireland. Government Finance Public consumption is 51.7% of GDP compared to 56.6% in Sweden, 46.9% in Germany, 39.3% in Canada, and 33.5% in Ireland. Much of the taxes are spent on public sector employees, many of which are jobs-for-life and amount to 124,000 state employees and 430,000 municipal employees. That is 113 per 1000 residents (over a quarter of workforce) compared to 74 in the US, 70 in Germany, and 42 in Japan (8% of workforce). Is Japan's bureaucracy still living in the 17th century? | The Japan Times Online The Economist Intelligence Unit's ranking for Finland's e-readiness is high at 13th, compared to 1st for United States, 3rd for Sweden, 5th for Denmark, and 14th for Germany. Also, early and generous retirement schemes have contributed to high pension costs. Social spending such as health or education is around OECD median. Social transfers are also around OECD median. In 2001 Finland outsourced more than most Western European countries, although less than Sweden. Municipalities spend a half of taxes. Numismatics In Finland, the euro was introduced in 2002. As a preparation for this date, the minting of the new euro coins started as early as 1999; this is why the first euro coins from Finland has the year 1999 on it, instead of 2002 like other countries of the Eurozone. Three different designs (one for €2 coin, one for €1 coin and one for the other six coins) were selected for the Finnish coins. In 2007, in order to adopt the new common map like the rest of the Eurozone countries, Finland changed the common side of their coins. Finland also has a rich collection of collectors' coins, with face value ranging from 5 to 100 euro. These coins are a legacy of an old national practice of minting silver and gold commemorative coins. Unlike normal issues, these coins are not legal tender in all the eurozone; for instance, a €5 Finnish commemorative coin cannot be used in any other country. Tourism In 2005, Finnish tourism grossed over €6.7 billion with a five percent increase from the previous year. Much of the sudden growth can be attributed to the globalisation and modernisation of the country as well as a rise in positive publicity and awareness. There are many attractions in Finland which attracted over 4 million visitors in 2005. The Finnish landscape is covered with thick pine forests, rolling hills and complemented with a labyrinth of lakes and inlets. Much of Finland is pristine and virgin as it contains 35 national parks from the Southern shores of the Gulf of Finland to the high fells of Lapland. It is also an urbanised region with many cultural events and activities. Commercial cruises between major coastal and port cities in the Baltic region, including Helsinki, Turku, Tallinn, Stockholm and Travemünde, play a significant role in the local tourism industry. Finland is regarded as the home of Saint Nicholas or Santa Claus, living in the northern Lapland region. Above the Arctic Circle, there is a polar night, a period when the sun doesn't rise for days or weeks, or even months. Lapland, the extreme north of Finland, is so far north that the Aurora Borealis, atmospheric fluorescence, is seen regularly in winter. Outdoor activities range from Nordic skiing, golf, fishing, yachting, lake cruises, hiking, kayaking among many others. At Finland's northernmost point, in the heart of summer, the Sun does not completely set for 73 consecutive days. Wildlife is abundant in Finland. Bird-watching is popular for those fond of flying fauna, however hunting is also popular. Elk, reindeer and hare are all common game in Finland. Olavinlinna in Savonlinna hosts the annual Savonlinna Opera Festival. Culture Throughout Finland's prehistory and history, cultural contacts and influences have concurrently, or at varying times, come from all directions. As a result of Swedish and Russian rule, cultural influences are still notable. Today, cultural influences from North America are prominent. Into the twenty-first century, many Finns have contacted cultures from distantly abroad, such as with those in Asia and Africa. Beyond tourism, Finnish youth in particular have been increasing their contact with peoples from outside Finland by travelling abroad to both work and study. One of the most traditional activities characterised by the Finnish culture is cottage life by a lake, often combined with going to sauna, swimming and barbecuing. Many Finns are emotionally connected to the countryside and nature, as urbanisation is a relatively recent phenomenon. The Finnish mentality is often characterised by less small talk and more honest and straight forward types of communication compared to other cultures. There are still differences between regions, especially minor differences in accents and vocabulary. Minorities, such as the Sami, Swedish-speaking Finns, Romani, and Tatar, maintain their own cultural characteristics. Literature Though Finnish written language could be said to exist since Mikael Agricola translated the New Testament into Finnish in the sixteenth century as a result of the Protestant Reformation, few notable works of literature were written until the nineteenth century, which saw the beginning of a Finnish national Romantic Movement. This prompted Elias Lönnrot to collect Finnish and Karelian folk poetry and arrange and publish them as Kalevala, the Finnish national epic. The era saw a rise of poets and novelists who wrote in Finnish, notably Aleksis Kivi and Eino Leino. After Finland became independent there was a rise of modernist writers, most famously Mika Waltari. Frans Eemil Sillanpää was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1939. The second World War prompted a return to more national interests in comparison to a more international line of thought, characterized by Väinö Linna. Literature in modern Finland is in a healthy state, with detective stories enjoying a particular boom of popularity. Ilkka Remes, a Finnish author of thrillers, is very popular. Visual arts Finns have made major contributions to handicrafts and industrial design. Finland's best-known sculptor of the twentieth century was Wäinö Aaltonen, remembered for his monumental busts and sculptures. Finnish architecture is famous around the world. Among the top of the twentieth century Finnish architects to win international recognition are Eliel Saarinen (designer of the widely recognised Helsinki Central railway station and many other public works) and his son Eero Saarinen. Alvar Aalto, who helped bring the functionalist architecture to Finland, is also famous for his work in furniture and glassware. Music Folk music Much of the music of Finland is influenced by traditional Karelian melodies and lyrics, as comprised in the Kalevala. Karelian culture is perceived as the purest expression of the Finnic myths and beliefs, less influenced by Germanic influence, in contrast to Finland's position between the East and the West. Finnish folk music has undergone a roots revival in recent decades, and has become a part of popular music. Sami music The people of northern Finland, Sweden and Norway, the Sami, are known primarily for highly spiritual songs called Joik. The same word sometimes refers to lavlu or vuelie songs, though this is technically incorrect. Classical and opera The first Finnish opera was written by the German composer Fredrik Pacius in 1852. Pacius also wrote Maamme/Vårt land (Our Land), Finland's national anthem. In the 1890s Finnish nationalism based on the Kalevala spread, and Jean Sibelius became famous for his vocal symphony Kullervo. He soon received a grant to study runo singers in Karelia and continued his rise as the first prominent Finnish musician. In 1899 he composed Finlandia, which played its important role in Finland gaining independence. He remains one of Finland's most popular national figures and is a symbol of the nation. Today, Finland has a very lively classical music scene. Finnish classical music has only existed for about a hundred years, and many of the important composers are still alive, such as Magnus Lindberg, Kaija Saariaho, Aulis Sallinen and Einojuhani Rautavaara. The composers are accompanied with a large number of great conductors such as Sakari Oramo, Mikko Franck, Esa-Pekka Salonen, Osmo Vänskä, Jukka-Pekka Saraste, Susanna Mälkki and Leif Segerstam. Some of the internationally acclaimed Finnish classical musicians are Karita Mattila, Soile Isokoski, Kari Kriikku, Pekka Kuusisto, Réka Szilvay and Linda Brava. Popular music Modern Finnish popular music includes a number of prominent rock bands, jazz musicians, hip hop performers, and dance music acts such as Bomfunk MCs and Darude. Finnish electronic music such as the Sähkö Recordings record label enjoys underground acclaim. Iskelmä (coined directly from the German word Schlager, meaning hit) is a traditional Finnish word for a light popular song. Finnish popular music also includes various kinds of dance music; tango, a style of Argentine music, is also popular. One of the most productive composers of popular music was Toivo Kärki, and the most famous singer Olavi Virta (1915–1972). Among the lyricists, Sauvo Puhtila (born 1928), Reino Helismaa (1913–1965) and Veikko "Vexi" Salmi are the most remarkable authors. The composer and bandleader Jimi Tenor is well known for his brand of retro-funk music. Dance music Notable Finnish dance and electronic music artists include Jori Hulkkonen, Darude, JS16, DJ Proteus and DJ Orkidea. Rock music The Finnish rock-music scene emerged in 1960s with pioneers such as Blues Section and Kirka. In the 1970s Finnish rock musicians, such as Juice Leskinen, started to write their own music instead of translating international hits into Finnish. During the decade some progressive rock groups, such as Tasavallan Presidentti and Wigwam, gained respect abroad but failed to make a commercial breakthrough outside Finland. This was also the fate of the rock and roll group Hurriganes. The Finnish punk scene produced some internationally acknowledged names including Terveet Kädet in 1980s. Hanoi Rocks was a pioneering 1980s glam rock act that left perhaps a deeper mark in the history of popular music than any other Finnish group, giving inspiration for Guns N' Roses. 1980s the first metal bands were constituted including power metal band Stratovarius (1984) inspiring greatly among other things Sonata Arctica, Stone (1985), and Amorphis (1989). In the 90s many successful modern metal bands were founded, such as Nightwish, Sonata Arctica, Children of Bodom, Ensiferum, Norther and Impaled Nazarene. Finnish modern metal has been the most sold metal music in Asian countries from 90s to nowadays, and has had a remarkable influence on loads of other modern metal bands all over the world. In the 2000s, other Finnish rock bands started to sell well internationally. The Rasmus became more known in Europe (and other places, like South America) in the 2000s. Their 2003 album Dead Letters sold 1.5 million units worldwide and garnered them eight gold and five platinum album designations. So far the most successful Finnish band in the United States has been HIM; they were the first band from Finland to ever sell an album that was certified gold by the RIAA. Other notable Finnish rock and metal acts include Apocalyptica and the monster rockers Lordi. Cinema In film industry, notable directors include Aki Kaurismäki, Mauritz Stiller, Spede Pasanen and Hollywood film director and producer Renny Harlin. Media and communications Today there are 200 newspapers; 320 popular magazines, 2,100 professional magazines and 67 commercial radio stations, with one nationwide, five national public service radio channels, three digital radio channels. Each year around twelve feature films are made, 12,000 book titles published and 12 million records sold. SanomaWSOY publishes the newspaper Helsingin Sanomat (the circulation of 434,000 making it the largest newspaper), the tabloid Ilta-Sanomat, the commerce-oriented Taloussanomat, and the television channel Nelonen. The other major publisher Alma Media publishes over thirty magazines, including newspaper Aamulehti, tabloid Iltalehti and commerce-oriented Kauppalehti. Finns, along with other Nordic people and the Japanese, spend the most time in the world reading newspapers. The National Broadcasting Company YLE has five television channels and 13 radio channels in two national languages. YLE is funded through a mandatory license for television owners and fees for private broadcasters. All TV channels are broadcast digitally, both terrestrially and on cable. The most popular television channel MTV3 and the most popular radio channel Radio Nova are owned by Nordic Broadcasting (Bonnier and Proventus Industrier). International newspapers such as Aftonbladet or Financial Times are available, but according to the sole importer the readership is only around 600,000 copies per year or around 2,000 on average day. Swedish tabloids most popular foreign newspapers in Helsinki, Helsingin Sanomat Around 79 percent of the population use the Internet. Finland had around 1.52 million broadband Internet connections by the end of June 2007 or around 287 per 1,000 inhabitants. All Finnish schools and public libraries have Internet connections and computers. Most residents have a mobile phone. It's used mostly for contact and value-added services are rare. Information technology has become part of Finns' everyday life, Statistics Finland Cuisine Traditional Finnish cuisine is a combination of European, Fennoscandian and Western Russian elements; table manners are European. The food is generally simple, fresh and healthy. Fish, meat, berries and ground vegetables are typical ingredients whereas spices are not common due to their historical unavailability. In years past, Finnish food often varied from region to region, most notably between the west and east. In coastal and lakeside villages, fish was a main feature of cooking, whereas in the eastern and also northern regions, vegetables and reindeer were more common. The prototypical breakfast is oatmeal or other continental-style foods such as bread. Lunch is usually a full warm meal, served by a canteen at workplaces. Dinner is eaten at around 16.00 to 18.00 at home. Modern Finnish cuisine combines country fare and haute cuisine with contemporary continental cooking style. Today, spices are a prominent ingredient in many modern Finnish recipes, having been adopted from the east and west in recent decades. Public holidays All official holidays in Finland are established by acts of Parliament. The official holidays can be divided into Christian and secular holidays, although some of the Christian holidays have replaced holidays of pagan origin. The main Christian holidays are Christmas, Epiphany, Easter, Ascension Day, Pentecost, and All Saints Day. The secular holidays are New Year's Day, May Day, Midsummer Day, and the Independence Day. Christmas is the most extensively celebrated holiday: usually at least 23rd to 26th of December are holidays. In addition to this, all Sundays are official holidays, but they are not as important as the special holidays. The names of the Sundays follow the liturgical calendar and they can be categorised as Christian holidays. When the standard working week in Finland was reduced to 40 hours by an act of Parliament, it also meant that all Saturdays became a sort of de facto public holidays, though not official ones. Easter Sunday and Pentecost are Sundays that form part of a main holiday and they are preceded by a kind of special Saturdays. Retail stores are prohibited by law from doing business on Sundays, except during the summer months (May through August) and in the pre-Christmas season (November and December). Business locations that have less than 400 square metres of floor space are allowed Sunday business throughout the year, with the exception of official holidays and certain Sundays, such as Mother's Day and Father's Day. Sports Various sporting events are popular in Finland. Pesäpallo (reminiscent of baseball) is the national sport of Finland, although the most popular sports in Finland in terms of media coverage are Formula One, rallying, ice hockey and football. Finland has won ice-hockey world championship only once in 1995 when the Finland-Sweden final ended 4–1 in their favour. Jari Kurri and Teemu Selänne are the two Finnish-born ice hockey players to have scored 500 goals in their NHL careers. Other prominent NHL players from Finland include Miikka Kiprusoff, the starting goaltender for the Calgary Flames, Mikko Koivu and Niklas Backstrom of the Minnesota Wild, Saku Koivu of the Montreal Canadiens and Valtteri Filppula of the Detroit Red Wings. Kiprusoff and Backstrom are regarded as two of the premier NHL goalies playing today. Football is also popular in Finland, though the national football team has never qualified for a finals tournament of the World Cup or the European Championships. Jari Litmanen and Sami Hyypiä are the most internationally renowned of the Finnish football players. It is also the home country of the pro skateboarder Arto Saari. Relative to its population, Finland has been a top country in the world in automobile racing, measured by international success. Finland has produced three Formula One World Champions – Keke Rosberg (Williams, 1982), Mika Häkkinen (McLaren, 1998 and 1999) and Kimi Räikkönen (Ferrari, 2007). Along with Räikkönen, the other Finnish Formula One driver currently active is Heikki Kovalainen (McLaren). Rosberg's son, Nico Rosberg (Williams), is also currently driving, but under his mother's German nationality. Other notable Finnish Grand Prix drivers include Leo Kinnunen, JJ Lehto and Mika Salo. Finland has also produced most of the world's best rally drivers, including the ex-WRC World Champion drivers Marcus Grönholm, Juha Kankkunen, Hannu Mikkola, Tommi Mäkinen, Timo Salonen and Ari Vatanen. The only Finn to have won a road racing World Championship, Jarno Saarinen, was killed in 1973 while racing. Among winter sports, Finland has been the most successful country in ski jumping, with former ski jumper Matti Nykänen being arguably the best ever in that sport. Most notably, he won five Olympic medals (four gold) and nine World Championships medals (five gold). Among currently active Finnish ski jumpers, Janne Ahonen has been the most successful. Kalle Palander is a well-known alpine skiing winner, who won the World Championship and Crystal Ball (twice, in Kitzbühel). Tanja Poutiainen has won an Olympic silver medal for alpine skiing, as well as multiple FIS World Cup races. Some of the most outstanding athletes from the past include Hannes Kolehmainen (1890–1966), Paavo Nurmi (1897–1973) and Ville Ritola (1896–1982) who won eighteen gold and seven silver Olympic medals in the 1910s and 1920s. They are also considered to be the first of a generation of great Finnish middle and long-distance runners (and subsequently, other great Finnish sportsmen) often named the "Flying Finns". Another long-distance runner, Lasse Virén (born 1949), won a total of four gold medals during the 1972 and 1976 Summer Olympics. Also, in the past, Riku Kiri, Jouko Ahola and Janne Virtanen have been the greatest strength athletes in the country, participating in the World's Strongest Man competition between 1993 and 2000. The 1952 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XV Olympiad, were held in 1952 in Helsinki, Finland. Other notable sporting events held in Finland include the 1983 and 2005 World Championships in Athletics, among others. Some of the most popular recreational sports and activities include floorball, Nordic walking, running, cycling and skiing. See also Lists List of cities and towns in Finland List of Finns List of Finnish companies List of Finnish television stations List of newspapers in Finland List of universities in Finland List of bands from Finland List of Finnish wars History History of Finland Finlandization Finnish Railway Museum Politics Foreign relations of Finland Military of Finland Gun politics in Finland Infrastructure Education in Finland Communications in Finland Crime in Finland Transport in Finland Fire fighting in Finland VR Group (Finnish State Railways) Culture and sports Cuisine of Finland Music of Finland Football in Finland Ethnic issues in Finland Miscellaneous Protected areas of Finland Tourism in Finland International rankings References Further reading Chew, Allen F. The White Death: The Epic of the Soviet-Finnish Winter War (ISBN 0-87013-167-2) Engle, Eloise and Paananen, Pauri,The Winter War: The Soviet Attack on Finland 1939-1940 (ISBN 0-8117-2433-6)Insight Guide: Finland (ISBN 981-4120-39-1) Jakobson, Max. Finland in the New Europe (ISBN 0-275-96372-1) Jutikkala, Eino; Pirinen, Kauko. A History of Finland (ISBN 0-88029-260-1) Klinge, Matti. Let Us Be Finns: Essays on History (ISBN 951-1-11180-9) Lavery, Jason. The History of Finland (The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations), Greenwood Press 2006 (ISBN 0-313-32837-4) (ISSN 1096-2905) Lewis, Richard D. Finland: Cultural Lone Wolf (ISBN 1-931930-18-X)Lonely Planet: Finland (ISBN 1-74059-791-5) Mann, Chris. Hitler's Arctic War: The German Campaigns in Norway, Finland, and the USSR 1940-1945 (ISBN 0-312-31100-1) Rusama, Jaakko. Ecumenical Growth in Finland. (ISBN 951-693-239-8) Singleton, Fred. A Short History of Finland (ISBN 0-521-64701-0) Subrenat, Jean-Jacques – Listen, there's music from the forest; a brief presentation of the Kuhmo Chamber Music Festival (ISBN 952-92-0564-3) Swallow, Deborah. Culture Shock! Finland: A Guide to Customs and Etiquette (ISBN 1-55868-592-8) Trotter, William R.. A Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939-1940 (ISBN 1-56512-249-6) External links The Finnish Government – Official governmental site The President of Finland – Official site of the President of the Republic of Finland Parliament of Finland – Official Parliamentary site Chief of State and Cabinet Members Virtual Finland – Main portal to Finland (administered by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland) Visit Finland – The official travel and tourism guide by the Finnish Tourist Board Helsinki.fi – Capital of Finland's city portal Today's weather by the Finnish Meteorological Institute Finland at UCB Libraries GovPubs'' be-x-old:Фінляндыя | Finland |@lemmatized infobox:1 country:61 republic:9 finland:298 svg:2 coat:1 arm:3 png:1 maamme:2 finnish:132 vårt:2 land:19 small:6 swedish:21 sami:22 demonym:1 finn:20 capital:7 helsinki:28 latd:1 latm:1 latns:1 n:4 longd:1 longm:1 longew:1 e:6 religion:3 lutheran:8 semi:5 presidential:5 president:12 prime:4 minister:6 parliament:20 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4,568 | Intel | Intel (; ) is the world's largest semiconductor company and the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, the processors found in most personal computers. Intel was founded on July 18, 1968, as Integrated Electronics Corporation and based in Santa Clara, California, USA. Intel also makes motherboard chipsets, network cards and ICs, flash memory, graphic chips, embedded processors, and other devices related to communications and computing. Founded by semiconductor pioneers Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore, and widely associated with the executive leadership and vision of Andrew Grove, Intel combines advanced chip design capability with a leading-edge manufacturing capability. Originally known primarily to engineers and technologists, Intel's successful "Intel Inside" advertising campaign of the 1990s made it and its Pentium processor household names. Intel was an early developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips, and this represented the majority of its business until the early 1980s. While Intel created the first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, it was not until the success of the personal computer (PC) that this became their primary business. During the 1990s, Intel invested heavily in new microprocessor designs fostering the rapid growth of the PC industry. During this period Intel became the dominant supplier of microprocessors for PCs, and was known for aggressive and sometimes controversial tactics in defense of its market position, particularly against AMD, as well as a struggle with Microsoft for control over the direction of the PC industry. The 2009 rankings of the world's 100 most powerful brands published by Millward Brown Optimor showed the company's brand value rising 4 places – from number 27 to number 23. In addition to its work in semiconductors, Intel has begun research in electrical transmission and generation. Corporate history Intel headquarters in Santa Clara Intel was founded in 1968 by Gordon E. Moore (a chemist and physicist) and Robert Noyce (a physicist and co-inventor of the integrated circuit) when they left Fairchild Semiconductor. A number of other Fairchild employees also went on to participate in other Silicon Valley companies. Intel's third employee was Andy Grove, The Andrew Grove article explains how a clerical error exchanged the employee ID numbers of Grove and the fourth employee, Leslie L. Vadász, whom Grove had hired. a chemical engineer, who ran the company through much of the 1980s and the high-growth 1990s. Grove is now remembered as the company's key business and strategic leader. By the end of the 1990s, Intel was one of the largest and most successful businesses in the world. Origin of the name At its founding, Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce wanted to name their new company Moore Noyce. The name, however, sounded remarkably similar to more noise — an ill-suited name for an electronics company, since noise is typically associated with bad interference. They then used the name NM Electronics for almost a year, before deciding to call their company INTegrated ELectronics or Intel for short . However, Intel was already trademarked by a hotel chain, so they had to buy the rights for that name at the beginning. Company's evolution Intel has grown through several distinct phases. At its founding, Intel was distinguished simply by its ability to make semiconductors, and its primary products were static random access memory (SRAM) chips. Intel's business grew during the 1970s as it expanded and improved its manufacturing processes and produced a wider range of products, still dominated by various memory devices. While Intel created the first microprocessor (Intel 4004) in 1971 and one of the first microcomputers in 1972, by the early 1980s its business was dominated by dynamic random access memory chips. However, increased competition from Japanese semiconductor manufacturers had, by 1983, dramatically reduced the profitability of this market, and the sudden success of the IBM personal computer convinced then-CEO Grove to shift the company's focus to microprocessors, and to change fundamental aspects of that business model. By the end of the 1980s this decision had proven successful, and Intel embarked on a 10-year period of unprecedented growth as the primary (and most profitable) hardware supplier to the PC industry. After 2000, growth in demand for high-end microprocessors slowed and competitors garnered significant market share, initially in low-end and mid-range processors but ultimately across the product range, and Intel's dominant position was reduced. In the early 2000s then-CEO Craig Barrett attempted to diversify the company's business beyond semiconductors, but few of these activities were ultimately successful. In 2005, CEO Paul Otellini reorganized the company to refocus its core processor and chipset business on platforms (enterprise, digital home, digital health, and mobility) which led to the hiring of over 20,000 new employees. In September 2006 due to falling profits, the company announced a restructuring that resulted in layoffs of 10,500 employees or about 10 percent of its workforce by July 2006. Market history SRAMS and the microprocessor The company's first products were shift register memory and random-access memory integrated circuits, and Intel grew to be a leader in the fiercely competitive DRAM, SRAM, and ROM markets throughout the 1970s. Concurrently, Intel engineers Marcian Hoff, Federico Faggin, Stanley Mazor and Masatoshi Shima invented the first microprocessor. Originally developed for the Japanese company Busicom to replace a number of ASICs in a calculator already produced by Busicom, the Intel 4004 was introduced to the mass market on November 15, 1971, though the microprocessor did not become the core of Intel's business until the mid-1980s. (Note: Intel is usually given credit with Texas Instruments for the almost-simultaneous invention of the microprocessor.) From DRAM to microprocessors In 1983, at the dawn of the personal computer era, Intel's profits came under increased pressure from Japanese memory-chip manufacturers, and then-President Andy Grove drove the company into a focus on microprocessors. Grove described this transition in the book Only the Paranoid Survive. A key element of his plan was the notion, then considered radical, of becoming the single source for successors to the popular 8086 microprocessor. Until then, manufacture of complex integrated circuits was not reliable enough for customers to depend on a single supplier, but Grove began producing processors in three geographically distinct factories, and ceased licensing the chip designs to competitors such as Zilog and AMD. When the PC industry boomed in the late 1980s and 1990s, Intel was one of the primary beneficiaries. Intel, x86 processors, and the IBM PC The integrated circuit from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip. Despite the ultimate importance of the microprocessor, the 4004 and its successors the 8008 and the 8080 were never major revenue contributors at Intel. As the next processor, the 8086 (and its variant the 8088) was completed in 1978, Intel embarked on a major marketing and sales campaign for that chip nicknamed "Operation Crush", and intended to win as many customers for the processor as possible. One design win was the newly created IBM PC division, though the importance of this was not fully realized at the time. IBM introduced its personal computer in 1981, and it was rapidly successful. In 1982, Intel created the 80286 microprocessor, which, two years later, was used in the IBM PC/AT. Compaq, the first IBM PC "clone" manufacturer, produced a desktop system based on the faster 80286 processor in 1985 and in 1986 quickly followed with the first 80386-based system, beating IBM and establishing a competitive market for PC-compatible systems and setting up Intel as a key component supplier. In 1975 the company had started a project to develop a highly advanced 32-bit microprocessor, finally released in 1981 as the Intel iAPX 432. The project was too ambitious and the processor was never able to meet its performance objectives, and it failed in the marketplace. Intel extended the x86 architecture to 32 bits instead. 386 microprocessor During this period Andrew Grove dramatically redirected the company, closing much of its DRAM business and directing resources to the microprocessor business. Of perhaps greater importance was his decision to "single-source" the 386 microprocessor. Prior to this, microprocessor manufacturing was in its infancy, and manufacturing problems frequently reduced or stopped production, interrupting supplies to customers. To mitigate this risk, these customers typically insisted that multiple manufacturers produce chips they could use to ensure a consistent supply. The 8080 and 8086-series microprocessors were produced by several companies, notably Zilog and AMD. Grove made the decision not to license the 386 design to other manufacturers, instead producing it in three geographically distinct factories in Santa Clara, California; Hillsboro, Oregon; and the Phoenix, Arizona suburb of Chandler; and convincing customers that this would ensure consistent delivery. As the success of Compaq's Deskpro 386 established the 386 as the dominant CPU choice, Intel achieved a position of near-exclusive dominance as its supplier. Profits from this funded rapid development of both higher-performance chip designs and higher-performance manufacturing capabilities, propelling Intel to a position of unquestioned leadership by the early 1990s. 486, Pentium, and Itanium Intel introduced the 486 microprocessor in 1989, and in 1990 formally established a second design team, designing the processors code-named "P5" and "P6" in parallel and committing to a major new processor every two years, versus the four or more years such designs had previously taken. The P5 was earlier known as "Operation Bicycle" referring to the cycles of the processor. The P5 was introduced in 1993 as the Intel Pentium, substituting a trademarked name for the former part number (numbers, such as 486, cannot be trademarked). The P6 followed in 1995 as the Pentium Pro and improved into the Pentium II in 1997. New architectures were developed alternately in Santa Clara, California and Hillsboro, Oregon. The Santa Clara design team embarked in 1993 on a successor to the x86 architecture, codenamed "P7". The first attempt was dropped a year later, but quickly revived in a cooperative program with Hewlett-Packard engineers, though Intel soon took over primary design responsibility. The resulting implementation of the IA-64 64-bit architecture was the Itanium, finally introduced in June 2001. The Itanium's performance running legacy x86 code did not achieve expectations, and it failed to compete effectively with 64-bit extensions to the original x86 architecture, introduced by AMD, named x86-64 (although Intel uses the name Intel 64, previously EM64T). As of November 2007, Intel continues to develop and deploy the Itanium. The Hillsboro team designed the Willamette processor (code-named P67 and P68) which was marketed as the Pentium 4. Pentium flaw In June 1994, Intel engineers discovered a flaw in the floating-point math subsection of the Pentium microprocessor. Under certain data dependent conditions, low order bits of the result of floating-point division operations would be incorrect, an error that can quickly compound in floating-point operations to much larger errors in subsequent calculations. Intel corrected the error in a future chip revision, but nonetheless declined to disclose it. In October 1994, Dr. Thomas Nicely, Professor of Mathematics at Lynchburg College independently discovered the bug, and upon receiving no response from his inquiry to Intel, on October 30 posted a message on the Internet. Word of the bug spread quickly on the Internet and then to the industry press. Because the bug was easy to replicate by an average user (there was a sequence of numbers one could enter into the OS calculator to show the error), Intel's statements that it was minor and "not even an erratum" were not accepted by many computer users. During Thanksgiving 1994, The New York Times ran a piece by journalist John Markoff spotlighting the error. Intel changed its position and offered to replace every chip, quickly putting in place a large end-user support organization. This resulted in a $500 million charge against Intel's 1994 revenue. Ironically, the "Pentium flaw" incident, Intel's response to it, and the surrounding media coverage propelled Intel from being a technology supplier generally unknown to most computer users to a household name. Dovetailing with an uptick in the "Intel Inside" campaign, the episode is considered by some to have been a positive event for Intel, changing some of its business practices to be more end-user focused and generating substantial public awareness, while avoiding (for most users) a lasting negative impression. Grove, Andrew and Burgleman, Robert; Strategy Is Destiny: How Strategy-Making Shapes a Company's Future, 2001, Free Press Intel Inside, Intel Systems Division, and Intel Architecture Labs During this period, Intel undertook two major supporting programs that helped guarantee their processor's success. The first is widely known: the 1990 "Intel Inside" marketing and branding campaign. The idea of ingredient branding was new at the time with only Nutrasweet and a few others making attempts at that. This campaign established Intel, which had been a component supplier little-known outside the PC industry, as a household name. The second program is little-known: Intel's Systems Group began, in the early 1990s, manufacturing PC "motherboards", the main board component of a personal computer, and the one into which the processor (CPU) and memory (RAM) chips are plugged. Shortly after, Intel began manufacturing fully configured "white box" systems for the dozens of PC clone companies that rapidly sprang up. At its peak in the mid-1990s, Intel manufactured over 15% of all PCs, making it the third-largest supplier at the time. During the 1990s, Intel's Architecture Lab (IAL) was responsible for many of the hardware innovations of the personal computer, including the PCI Bus, the PCI Express (PCIe) bus, the Universal Serial Bus (USB), Bluetooth wireless interconnect, and the now-dominant architecture for multiprocessor servers. IAL's software efforts met with a more mixed fate; its video and graphics software was important in the development of software digital video, but later its efforts were largely overshadowed by competition from Microsoft. The competition between Intel and Microsoft was revealed in testimony by IAL Vice-President Steven McGeady at the Microsoft antitrust trial. Competition, antitrust and espionage Two factors combined to end this dominance: the slowing of PC demand growth beginning in 2000 and the rise of the low cost PC. By the end of the 1990s, microprocessor performance had outstripped software demand for that CPU power. Aside from high-end server systems and software, demand for which dropped with the end of the "dot-com bubble", consumer systems ran effectively on increasingly low-cost systems after 2000. Intel's strategy of producing ever-more-powerful processors and obsoleting their predecessors stumbled, leaving an opportunity for rapid gains by competitors, notably AMD. This in turn lowered the profitability of the processor line and ended an era of unprecedented dominance of the PC hardware by Intel. Intel's dominance in the x86 microprocessor market led to numerous charges of antitrust violations over the years, including FTC investigations in both the late 1980s and in 1999, and civil actions such as the 1997 suit by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and a patent suit by Intergraph. Intel's market dominance (at one time it controlled over 85% of the market for 32-bit x86 microprocessors) combined with Intel's own hardball legal tactics (such as its infamous 338 patent suit versus PC manufacturers) made it an attractive target for litigation, but few of the lawsuits ever amounted to anything. A case of industrial espionage arose in 1995 that involved both Intel and AMD. Guillermo Gaede, an Argentine formerly employed both at AMD and at Intel's Arizona plant, was arrested for attempting in 1993 to sell the i486 and Pentium designs to AMD and to certain foreign powers. Gaede videotaped data from his computer screen at Intel and mailed it to AMD, which immediately alerted Intel and authorities, resulting in Gaede's arrest. Gaede was convicted and sentenced to 33 months in prison in June 1996. Partnership with Apple On June 6, 2005, Apple CEO Steve Jobs announced that Apple would be transitioning from its long favored PowerPC architecture to the Intel x86 architecture, because the future PowerPC road map was unable to satisfy Apple's needs. The first Macintosh computers containing Intel CPUs were announced on January 10, 2006, and Apple had its entire line of consumer Macs running on Intel processors by early August 2006. The Apple Xserve server was updated to Intel Xeon processors from November 2006, and is offered in a configuration similar to Apple's Mac Pro. Jobs: New Intel Macs are 'screamers' news.com Core 2 Duo advertisement controversy In 2007, the company released a print advertisement for its Core 2 Duo processor featuring six African American runners appearing to bow down to a Caucasian male inside of an office setting (due to the posture taken by runners on starting blocks). According to Nancy Bhagat, Vice President of Intel Corporate Marketing, the general public found the ad to be "insensitive and insulting". The campaign was quickly pulled and several Intel executives made public apologies on the corporate website. Classmate PC Intel's Classmate PC is the company's first low-cost Netbook computer. Sale of XScale processor business On June 27, 2006, the sale of Intel's XScale assets was announced. Intel agreed to sell the XScale processor business to Marvell Technology Group for an estimated $600 million in cash and the assumption of unspecified liabilities. The move is intended to permit Intel to focus its resources on its core x86 and server businesses. The acquisition was completed on November 9, 2006. Corporate affairs In September 2006, Intel had nearly 100,000 employees and 200 facilities world wide. Its 2005 revenues were $38.8 billion and its Fortune 500 ranking was 49th. Its stock symbol is INTC, listed on the NASDAQ. As of February 2009 the biggest customers of Intel are Hewlett-Packard and Dell. Leadership and corporate structure Robert Noyce was Intel's CEO at its founding in 1968, followed by co-founder Gordon Moore in 1975. Andy Grove became the company's President in 1979 and added the CEO title in 1987 when Moore became Chairman. In 1998 Grove succeeded Moore as Chairman, and Craig Barrett, already company president, took over. On May 18, 2005, Barrett handed the reins of the company over to Paul Otellini, who previously was the company president and was responsible for Intel's design win in the original IBM PC. The board of directors elected Otellini CEO, and Barrett replaced Grove as Chairman of the Board. Grove stepped down as Chairman, but is retained as a special adviser. Current members of the board of directors of Intel are Craig Barrett, Charlene Barshefsky, Susan Decker, James Guzy, Reed Hundt, Paul Otellini, James Plummer, David Pottruck, Jane Shaw, John Thornton, and David Yoffie. Employment Intel microprocessor facility in Costa Rica was responsible in 2006 for 20% of Costa Rican exports and 4.9% of the country's GDP. The firm promotes very heavily from within, most notably in its executive suite. The company has resisted the trend toward outsider CEOs. Paul Otellini was a 30-year veteran of the company when he assumed the role of CEO. All of his top lieutenants have risen through the ranks after many years with the firm. In many cases, Intel's top executives have spent their entire working careers with Intel, a very rare occurrence in volatile Silicon Valley. Intel has a mandatory retirement policy for its CEOs when they reach age 65, but only one CEO, Barrett, has actually retired at 65. Previous CEOs all retired before reaching that age; Grove retired at 62, while both Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore retired at 58. At 57, Otellini has a long career at the helm ahead of him, assuming he goes until age 65 and performs satisfactorily. No one has an office; everyone, even Otellini, sits in a cubicle. This is designed to promote egalitarianism among employees, but some new hires have difficulty adjusting to this change. Intel is not alone in this policy. Hewlett-Packard and NVIDIA have similar no-office policy. The company is headquartered in California's Silicon Valley and has operations around the world. Outside of California, the company has facilities in Argentina (Córdoba and Buenos Aires), China, Costa Rica, Malaysia, Mexico, Israel, Ireland, India, Philippines, Poland, Russia, and Vietnam internationally. In the U.S. Intel employs significant numbers of people in California, Colorado, Massachusetts, Arizona, New Mexico, Oregon, Texas, Washington, and Utah. In Oregon, Intel is the state's largest private employer with over 16,000 employees, primarily in Hillsboro. Suh, Elizabeth. Home of Oregon's largest employer and much more. The Oregonian, October 28, 2007. The company is the largest industrial employer in New Mexico while in Arizona the company has over 10,000 employees. Diversity Initiative Intel has a Diversity Initiative, including employee diversity groups as well as supplier diversity programs. Like many companies with employee diversity groups, they include groups based on race and nationality as well as sexual identity and religion. In 1994, Intel sanctioned one of the earliest corporate Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender employee groups, Intel Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual or Transgender Employees Home Page and supports a Muslim employees group, a Jewish employees group, and a Bible-based Christian group. Intel Bible-Based Christian Network (IBCN) website Intel received a 100% rating on the first Corporate Equality Index released by the Human Rights Campaign in 2002. It has maintained this rating in 2003 and 2004. In addition, the company was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers in 2005 by Working Mother magazine. However, Intel's working practices still face criticism, most notably from Ken Hamidi, a former employee who has been subject to multiple unsuccessful lawsuits from Intel. Funding of a school In Rio Rancho, New Mexico, Intel is the leading employer. In 1997, a community partnership between Sandoval County and Intel Corporation funded and built Rio Rancho High School. Finances Intel stock price, Nov 1986 - Nov 2006 Intel's market capitalization is $85.67 billion (May 11, 2009). It publicly trades on NASDAQ with the symbol INTC. A widely held stock, the following indices include Intel shares: Dow Jones Industrial Average, S&P 500, NASDAQ-100, SOX (PHLX Semiconductor Sector), and GSTI Software Index. On July 15, 2008, Intel announced that it had achieved the highest earnings in the history of the company during Q2 2008. Intel posts record-breaking Q2 earnings Advertising and brand management Intel has become one of the world's most recognizable computer brands following its long-running Intel Inside campaign. The campaign, which started in 1991, was created by Intel marketing manager Dennis Carter. The five-note jingle was introduced the following year and by its tenth anniversary was being heard in 130 countries around the world. The initial branding agency for the 'Intel Inside' campaign was DahlinSmithWhite Advertising of Salt Lake City. The Intel swirl logo was the work of DahlinSmithWhite art director Steve Grigg under the direction of Intel president and CEO Andy Grove. The Intel Inside advertising campaign sought public brand loyalty and awareness of Intel processors in consumer computers.Intel paid some of the advertiser's costs for an ad that used the Intel Inside logo and jingle. Intel brand logoMain LogoDateSubset logoDateRemarksJul 1968Dec 2005Jul 1968Dec 1989The intel inside logo was added to resemble the original Intel logo with lowering of the Intel e and changing the typeface.Jan 1990Dec 2005Still as intel inside logo, but with uppering of the Intel e.Jan 2006PresentJan 2006Mar 2009Intel phased out the intel inside logo in favor of a new logo intel and the slogan, Leap ahead. The new logo is clearly inspired by the intel inside logo by splitting out the inside.Apr 2009Present The current intel logo with inside trademark. In 2006, Intel expanded its promotion of open specification platforms beyond Centrino, to include the Viiv media centre PC and the business desktop Intel vPro. In mid January 2006, Intel announced that they were dropping the long running Pentium name from their processors. The Pentium name was first used to refer to the P5 core Intel processors (Pent refers to the 5 in P5,) and was done to circumvent court rulings that prevent the trademarking of a string of numbers, so competitors could not just call their processor the same name, as had been done with the prior 386 and 486 processors. (Both of which had copies manufactured by both IBM and AMD). They phased out the Pentium names from mobile processors first, when the new Yonah chips, branded Core Solo and Core Duo, were released. The desktop processors changed when the Core 2 line of processors were released. In March 2007, the Intel logo was shown briefly in one of the scenes of the movie The Last Mimzy. As from 2008, Intel plans to shift the emphasis of its Intel Inside campaign from traditional media such as television and print to newer media such as the Internet. Intel will require that a minimum of 35% of the money it provides to the companies in its co-op program be used for online marketing. Some artists have incorporated Intel brand culture into their works. For example, evil inside stickers, Evil Inside Stickers : Vinyl Sticker and a tombstone with R.I.P Intel Inside Sonic logo The famous D♭ D♭ G♭ D♭ A♭ jingle, sonic logo, tag, audio mnemonic (MP3 file of sonic logo) was produced by Musikvergnuegen and written by Walter Werzowa from the Austrian 1980s sampling band Edelweiss. The Sonic logo was changed during the introduction of the Core brand. IT Manager 3: Unseen Forces IT Manager III: Unseen Forces is a web-based IT simulation game from Intel. In it you manage a company's IT department. The goal is to apply technology and skill to enable the company to grow from a small business into a global enterprise. Open source support Intel has a significant participation in the open source communities. For example, in 2006 Intel released MIT-licensed X.org drivers for their integrated graphic cards of the i965 family of chipsets. Intel released FreeBSD drivers for some networking cards, available under a BSD-compatible licence, which were also ported to OpenBSD. Intel ran the Moblin project until April 23, 2009, when they handed the project over to the Linux Foundation. Intel also runs the LessWatts.org campaigns. About LessWatts.org However, after the release of the wireless products called Intel Pro/Wireless 2100, 2200BG/2225BG/2915ABG and 3945ABG in 2005, Intel was criticized for not granting free redistribution rights for the firmwares that are necessary to be included in the operating systems for the wireless devices to operate. As a result of this, Intel became a target of campaigns to allow free operating systems to include binary firmwares on terms acceptable to the open source community. Linspire-Linux creator Michael Robertson outlined the difficult position that Intel was in releasing to Open Source, as Intel did not want to upset their large customer Microsoft. Theo de Raadt of OpenBSD also claimed that Intel is being "an Open Source fraud" after an Intel employee presented a distorted view of the situation on an open-source conference. In spite of the significant negative attention Intel received as a result of the wireless dealings, the binary firmware still has not gained a license compatible with free software principles. Environmental record In 2003, there were 1.4 tons of carbon tetrachloride measured from one of Intel's many acid scrubbers. However, Intel reported no release of carbon tetrachloride for all of 2003. SWOPblogger: 4/8/07 Corrales Comment - Intel Air Pollution Permit Revision Expected Intel's facility in Rio Rancho, New Mexico overlooks a nearby village, and the hilly contours of its location create a setting for chemical gases heavier than air to move along arroyos and irrigation ditches in that village. Release of chemicals in such an environment reportedly caused adverse effects in both animals and humans. Deceased dogs in the area were found to have high levels of toluene, hexane, ethylbenzene, and xylene isomers in lungs. Corrales Comment - Local Village News, Issues, Events & Ads - Intel Pollution Unresolved More than 1580 pounds of VOC were released in June and July 2006, the company stated. SWOPblogger: Intel Pollution Control Shut Down Probed Competition In the 1980s, Intel was among the top ten sellers of semiconductors (10th in 1987) in the world. In 1991, Intel became the biggest chip maker by revenue and has held the position ever since. Other top semiconductor companies include AMD, Samsung, Texas Instruments, Toshiba and STMicroelectronics. Competitors in PC chip sets include VIA Technologies, SiS, and Nvidia. Intel's competitors in networking include Freescale, Infineon, Broadcom, Marvell Technology Group and AMCC, and competitors in flash memory include Spansion, Samsung, Qimonda, Toshiba, STMicroelectronics, and Hynix. The only major competitor in the x86 processor market is Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), with which Intel has had full cross-licensing agreements since 1976: each partner can use the other's patented technological innovations without charge after a certain time. However, the cross-licensing agreement is canceled in the event of an AMD bankruptcy or takeover. Some smaller competitors such as VIA and Transmeta produce low-power x86 processors for small factor computers and portable equipment. Lawsuits Intel has often been accused by competitors of using legal claims to thwart competition. Intel claims that it is defending its intellectual property. Intel has been plaintiff and defendant in numerous legal actions. In the book Bill Gates Speaks, Gates states that "One industry newsletter claimed Intel sued companies that tried to bring to market a chip that competed" with the 386 CPU, and that "even if Intel often lost the suits, it slowed the competition and crippled competitors with legal bills." "Bill Gates Speaks", page 29. ISBN 0471401692, ISBN 9780471401698 In September 2005, Intel filed a response to an AMD lawsuit, disputing AMD's claims, and claiming that Intel's business practices are fair and lawful. In a rebuttal, Intel deconstructed AMD's offensive strategy and argued that AMD struggled largely as a result of its own bad business decisions, including underinvestment in essential manufacturing capacity and excessive reliance on contracting out chip foundries. Legal analysts predict the lawsuit will most drag for a number of years, since Intel's response indicates that Intel is not likely to settle the dispute with AMD. A court date has been granted in 2010. In October 2006, a Transmeta lawsuit was filed against Intel for patent infringement on computer architecture and power efficiency technologies. The lawsuit was settled in October 2007, with Intel agreeing to pay USD 150 million initially and USD 20 million per year for the next five years. Both companies agreed to drop lawsuits against each other, while Intel was granted a perpetual non-exclusive license to use current and future patented Transmeta technologies in its chips for 10 years. Anti-competitive allegations by regulatory bodies Japan In 2005, the local Fair Trade Commission found that Intel violated the Japanese Antimonopoly Act. The commission ordered Intel to eliminate discounts that had discriminated against AMD. To avoid a trial, Intel agreed to comply with the order. Europe files more antitrust complaints against Intel - MarketWatch Predatory pricing or old-fashioned competition? - International Herald Tribune Intel to abide by Japan FTC recommendations - CNET News.com European Union In July 2007, the European Commission accused Intel of anti-competitive practices, mostly against AMD. The allegations, going back to 2003, include giving preferential prices to computer makers buying most or all of their chips from Intel, paying computer makers to delay or cancel the launch of products using AMD chips, and providing chips at below standard cost to governments and educational institutions. Intel responded that the allegations were unfounded and instead qualified its market behavior as consumer-friendly. General counsel Bruce Sewell responded that the Commission had misunderstood some factual assumptions as to pricing and manufacturing costs. In February 2008, Intel stated that its office in Munich had been raided by European Union regulators. Intel reported that it was cooperating with investigators. Intel faced a fine of up to 10% of its annual revenue, if found guilty of stifling competition. AMD subsequently launched a website promoting these allegations. In June 2008, the EU filed new charges against Intel. In May 2009, the EU found that Intel had engaged in anti-competitive practices and subsequently fined Intel €1.06 billion ($1.44 billion), a record amount. Intel was found to have paid companies, including Acer, Dell, HP, Lenovo and NEC, to exclusively use Intel chips in their products, and therefore harmed other companies including AMD. The European Commission said that Intel had deliberately acted to keep competitors out of the computer chip market and in doing so had made a "serious and sustained violation of the EU's antitrust rules". In addition to the fine, Intel was ordered by the Commission to immediately cease all illegal practices. Intel has stated that they will appeal against the Commission's verdict. South Korea In September 2007, South Korean regulators accused Intel of breaking antitrust law. The investigation began in February 2006, when officials raided Intel's South Korean offices. The company risked a penalty of up to 3% of its annual sales, if found guilty. In June 2008, the Fair Trade Commission ordered Intel to pay a fine of $25.5 million for taking advantage of its dominant position to offer incentives to major Korean PC manufacturers on the condition of not buying products from AMD. United States New York started an investigation of Intel in January 2008 on whether the company violated antitrust laws in pricing and sales of its microprocessors. NY Times Advertisement In June 2008, the Federal Trade Commission also began an antitrust investigation of the case. See also Cyrix Intel graphics media accelerator Comparison of Nvidia graphics processing units Comparison of ATI Graphics Processing Units Intel Museum Intel Science Talent Search ASCI Red Justin Rattner Wintel Engineering sample (CPU) References External links Intel official website Video clips Intel YouTube channel | Intel |@lemmatized intel:209 world:8 large:9 semiconductor:10 company:48 inventor:2 series:2 microprocessor:29 processor:34 find:8 personal:7 computer:19 found:3 july:5 integrated:3 electronics:4 corporation:3 base:7 santa:5 clara:5 california:6 usa:1 also:7 make:10 motherboard:1 chipsets:2 network:3 card:3 ic:1 flash:2 memory:10 graphic:6 chip:26 embed:1 device:4 relate:1 communication:1 compute:1 pioneer:1 robert:6 noyce:6 gordon:5 moore:8 widely:3 associate:2 executive:4 leadership:3 vision:1 andrew:4 grove:19 combine:3 advance:1 design:15 capability:3 lead:4 edge:1 manufacturing:7 originally:2 know:6 primarily:2 engineer:5 technologist:1 successful:5 inside:19 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4,569 | Telecommunications_in_Moldova | Telecommunications After the break of USSR Moldova's telecommunications facilities were very poor and remained like that till 1995 when they were being updated. In 1990 Moldova had an average of 11 telephones per 100 inhabitants, and there were more than 200,000 unfilled orders for telephone installation. In 1994 Moldova installed 23,800 telephone lines, which included public phones with direct international dialing capabilities. When in 1998 Moldtelecom became a JSC the company began a procces of upgrading all telephone and communication lines in the country. In 2000 approx. 435,930 new lines were installed. Overall power of telephone stations increased up to 645,000 numbers. The average number of telephones increased up to 16 telephones per 100 inhabitants. Number of digital telephone stations increased up to 34.6% (4% in 1993). In 2005 number of telephone lines reached 929,400. Overall power of telephone stations increased up to 950,700 numbers. The average number of telephones increased up to 23 telephones per 100 inhabitants. Mobile network In 2005 overall number of mobile telephone services users reached 1,089,767. In 2008 that number increased up to 1,900,000 users. At the moment there are 5 mobile operators in the country: Unite, IDC - (CDMA2000) / Orange, Moldcell, Eventis - (GSM). The overall mobile network penetration in the country is 55% (2008) Internet At the end of 2008 there were 1,151,000 Internet users in Moldova with overall Internet penetration of 30,1%. In 2004 there were 183 Internet Cafes registered in Chişinău, that number decreased in later years. On 2008 there are 6 main Internet Service Providers in the country - Moldtelecom, StarNet, Arax, SunCommunications, Telemedia Group and InterDnestrCom (Transnistria) The most spread Internet connection type is ADSL, also fiber-optic access is growing rapidly in the capital of Chisinau. With average download speed of 2Mbit/s throughout the country. As for capital, Chisinau - the numbers are much higher - with average download speed of 4Mbit/s external and 100Mbit/s within Moldova throughout the country. Television In 2007 there are dozens of broadcast companies in Chisinau providing analogue tv - major ones include SunTV (about 70,000 subscribers) and Satellit (about 20,000 subscribers). Smaller ones include Delta and Alfa TV. Starting the mid-2007 - Zebra TV (provided by Arax) introduced first digital cable network in Chisinau. SunTV also launched digital TV. Press The main daily newspaper in the republic, Moldova Suverana, is published by the government. Sfatul Ţarii is published by Parliament, which also publishes the daily Nezavisimaya Moldova in Russian. Other principal newspapers include Rabochiy Tiraspol' (in Russian, the main newspaper of the Slavs in Transnistria), Ţara, Tineretul Moldovei/Molodëzh Moldovy (in Romanian and Russian), and Viaţa satului (published by the government). The main cultural publication in Moldova is the weekly journal Literatura şi arts, published by the Union of Writers of Moldova. Other principal periodicals include Basarabia (also published by the Writers' Union), Chiparus, Alunelul, Femeie Moldovei, Lanterna Magica, Moldova, Noi, and SudEst . Kishinëvskiye novosti, Kodry, and Russkoye Slovo are Russian-language periodicals. Other minority-language periodicals include Prosvita and Homin in Ukrainian, Ana sözu and Cîrlangaci in Gagauz, Rodno slovo in Bulgarian, and Undzer kol/Nash golos in Yiddish and Russian. In all, 240 newspapers (ninety-seven in Romanian) and sixty-eight magazines (thirty-five in Romanian) were being published in the republic in 1990. Basa Press, an independent news service, was established in November 1992. Related Information Telephone lines in use: 929,400 (2005) Mobile telephones users: 2.4million (2008) Level of penetration of fixed telephony in households: 52,6% (2004) Level of penetration of fixed telephony: 31,2% (2008) Level of penetration of mobile telephony:67.8% (2008) Radio broadcast stations: AM - 7, FM - 50, shortwave - 3 (1998) Radios: 3.22million (1997) Television broadcast stations: 40 (1998) Televisions: 1,26million (1997) Internet Service Providers (ISP's): 38 (2007) Internet hosts: 58,886 (2006) Internet users: 1,151,000 (2008) Internet penetration: 30,1% (2008) Country code (Top level domain): MD See also Mobile Telephony Market of Moldova Internet in Moldova Moldova External links The Ministry of Information Development of Moldova National Bureau of Statistic of Moldova Media of Republic of Moldova | Telecommunications_in_Moldova |@lemmatized telecommunication:2 break:1 ussr:1 moldova:16 facility:1 poor:1 remain:1 like:1 till:1 update:1 average:5 telephone:15 per:3 inhabitant:3 unfilled:1 order:1 installation:1 instal:2 line:5 include:6 public:1 phone:1 direct:1 international:1 dialing:1 capability:1 moldtelecom:2 become:1 jsc:1 company:2 begin:1 procces:1 upgrade:1 communication:1 country:7 approx:1 new:1 overall:5 power:2 station:5 increase:6 number:10 digital:3 reach:2 mobile:7 network:3 service:4 user:5 moment:1 operator:1 unite:1 idc:1 orange:1 moldcell:1 eventis:1 gsm:1 penetration:6 internet:11 end:1 cafe:1 register:1 chişinău:1 decrease:1 late:1 year:1 main:4 provider:2 starnet:1 arax:2 suncommunications:1 telemedia:1 group:1 interdnestrcom:1 transnistria:2 spread:1 connection:1 type:1 adsl:1 also:5 fiber:1 optic:1 access:1 grow:1 rapidly:1 capital:2 chisinau:4 download:2 speed:2 throughout:2 much:1 high:1 external:2 within:1 television:3 dozen:1 broadcast:3 provide:2 analogue:1 tv:4 major:1 one:2 suntv:2 subscriber:2 satellit:1 small:1 delta:1 alfa:1 start:1 mid:1 zebra:1 introduce:1 first:1 cable:1 launch:1 press:2 daily:2 newspaper:4 republic:3 suverana:1 publish:7 government:2 sfatul:1 ţarii:1 parliament:1 nezavisimaya:1 russian:5 principal:2 rabochiy:1 tiraspol:1 slav:1 ţara:1 tineretul:1 moldovei:2 molodëzh:1 moldovy:1 romanian:3 viaţa:1 satului:1 cultural:1 publication:1 weekly:1 journal:1 literatura:1 şi:1 art:1 union:2 writer:2 periodical:3 basarabia:1 chiparus:1 alunelul:1 femeie:1 lanterna:1 magica:1 noi:1 sudest:1 kishinëvskiye:1 novosti:1 kodry:1 russkoye:1 slovo:2 language:2 minority:1 prosvita:1 homin:1 ukrainian:1 ana:1 sözu:1 cîrlangaci:1 gagauz:1 rodno:1 bulgarian:1 undzer:1 kol:1 nash:1 golos:1 yiddish:1 ninety:1 seven:1 sixty:1 eight:1 magazine:1 thirty:1 five:1 basa:1 independent:1 news:1 establish:1 november:1 relate:1 information:2 use:1 level:4 fixed:2 telephony:4 household:1 radio:2 fm:1 shortwave:1 isp:1 host:1 code:1 top:1 domain:1 md:1 see:1 market:1 link:1 ministry:1 development:1 national:1 bureau:1 statistic:1 medium:1 |@bigram fiber_optic:1 mobile_telephony:2 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 provider_isp:1 external_link:1 |
4,570 | Ice_hockey | Ice hockey (frequently simply called hockey in countries where it is played) is a team sport played on ice, that originated in Canada around 1800. It is a fast-paced and physical sport. Ice hockey is most popular in areas that are sufficiently cold for natural reliable seasonal ice cover such as Canada, the northern United States, Scandinavia and Russia. With the advent of indoor artificial ice rinks, however, it has become a year-round pastime at the amateur level in major metropolitan areas such as cities that host a National Hockey League (NHL) or other professional-league team. It is one of the four major North American professional sports, where the NHL is at the highest level for men, and the Canadian Women's Hockey League (CWHL) and the Western Women's Hockey League (WWHL) are at the highest level of women's ice hockey in the world. It is the official national winter sport of Canada, where the game enjoys immense popularity. Only six of the thirty NHL franchises are based in Canada, but Canadians make up a slight majority of the league's players. While there are 66 total members of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF), Canada, the Czech Republic, Finland, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden and the United States have finished in most of the coveted 1st, 2nd and 3rd places at IIHF World Championships. Of the 63 medals awarded in men's competition at the Olympic level from 1920 on, only six did not go to the one of those countries, or a former entity thereof, such as Czechoslovakia or the Soviet Union. Only one of those six medals was above bronze (Great Britain took gold in the 1936 Olympic Games). Men Those seven nations have also captured 162 of 177 medals awarded at 59 non-Olympic IIHF World Championships, and all medals since 1954. Men Likewise, all nine Olympic and 27 IIHF World Women Championships medals have gone to one of those seven countries. Women Women History See also History of Bandy From oral histories, there is evidence of a tradition of an ancient hockey-like game played among the Mi'kmaq First Nation in Eastern Canada. In Legends of the Micmacs, (1894) Silas T. Rand, describes a Mi'kmaq ball game, which the people called tooadijik. Rand also describes a game that was played (likely after European contact) with hurleys, called wolchamaadijik. Dalhousie University (2000). Thomas Raddall Selected Correspondence: An Electronic Edition. Print source: Thomas Raddall Fonds, Correspondence. From Thomas Raddall to Douglas M. Fisher, 25 January 1954. MS-2-202 41.14. Retrieved on 2009-05-10. European immigrants brought various versions of hockey-like games to Canada, such as the Irish sport of hurling, the closely related Scottish sport of shinty, and versions of field hockey played in England. Where necessary, these seem to have been adapted for icy conditions; for example, a colonial Williamsburg newspaper records hockey being played in a snow storm in Virginia. Early paintings show "shinney", an early form of hockey with no standard rules, being played in Nova Scotia, Canada. Thomas Chandler Haliburton, in The Attache: Second Series, published in 1844, reminisced about boys from King's College School in Windsor, Nova Scotia, playing "hurly on the long pond on the ice" when he was a student there, no later than 1810. Vaughan, G. (1999). "Quotes Prove Ice Hockey's Origin." Birthplace of Hockey. Retrieved on: 2009-05-10. To this day, shinny (or shinney) (derived from Shinty) is a popular Canadian term for an informal type of hockey, either on ice or as street hockey. These early games may have also absorbed the physically aggressive aspects of what the Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia, called dehuntshigwa'es (lacrosse). Ye Gude Olde Days, from Hockey: Canada's Royal Winter Game, 1899. In 1825 Sir John Franklin wrote that "The game of hockey played on the ice was the morning sport" while on Great Bear Lake during one of his Arctic expeditions. In 1843 a British Army officer in Kingston, Ontario in Canada, wrote "Began to skate this year, improved quickly and had great fun at hockey on the ice." An article in the Boston Evening Gazette, in 1859, makes reference to an early game of hockey on ice occurring in Halifax in that year. The first recorded hockey games were played by British soldiers stationed in Kingston and Halifax during the mid-1850s. In the 1870s, the first known set of ice hockey rules were drawn up by students at Montreal's McGill University. These rules established the number of players per side to 9 and replaced the ball with a square puck. Based on Haliburton's writings, there have been claims that modern ice hockey originated in Windsor, Nova Scotia in Canada, and was named after an individual, as in 'Colonel Hockey's game'. Garth Vaughan, The Puck Stops Here: The origin of Canada's great winter game, Fredericton: Goose Lane Editions, 1996, p. 23. Proponents of this theory claim that the surname Hockey exists in the district surrounding Windsor. In 1943, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association declared Kingston the birthplace of hockey, based on a recorded 1886 game played between students of Queen's University and the Royal Military College of Canada. The Society for International Hockey Research has had an "origins of hockey" committee studying this debate since 2001 and they defined hockey as: "a game played on an ice rink in which two opposing teams of skaters, using curved sticks, try to drive a small disc, ball or block into or through the opposite goals." The committee found evidence of stick and ball games played on ice on skates in Europe in the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries, and viewed these activities as being more indicative of a hockey-like game than Haliburton’s reference. They found no evidence in the Windsor position of a connection from whatever form of hockey might have been played at Long Pond to the game played elsewhere and to modern hockey. The committee viewed as conjecture the assertion that King’s schoolboys introduced the game to Halifax. They noted that the assertion that hockey was not played outside Nova Scotia until 1865 overlooks diary evidence of shinny and hockey being played at Kingston in the 1840s. The committee concluded that Dr. Vaughan and the Windsor Hockey Heritage Society had not offered credible evidence that Windsor, Nova Scotia, is the birthplace of hockey. The committee offered no opinion on the birth date or birthplace of hockey, but took note of a game at Montreal’s Victoria Skating Rink on March 3, 1875. This is the earliest eyewitness account known to the committee of a specific game of hockey in a specific place at a specific time, and with a recorded score, between two identified teams. According to the Society for International Hockey Research, the word puck is derived from the Scottish and Gaelic word "puc" or the Irish word "poc", meaning to poke, punch or deliver a blow. This definition is explained in a book published in 1910 entitled "English as we Speak it in Ireland" by P.W. Joyce. It defines the word puck as "… The blow given by a hurler to the ball with his caman or hurley is always called a puck". Foundation of modern hockey Ice hockey at McGill University, Montreal, 1901. The original Stanley Cup, in the Hockey Hall of Fame vault. Ottawa Hockey Club "Silver Seven" (the original Ottawa Senators), the Champion of the Stanley Cup in 1905 Ice hockey in Europe; Oxford University vs. Switzerland, 1922. Future Canadian Prime Minister Lester Pearson is at right front. The foundation of the modern game centres on Nova Scotia in Atlantic Canada. On March 3, 1875 the first organized indoor game was played at Montreal's Victoria Skating Rink by James George Aylwin Creighton and several McGill University students. In 1877, several McGill students, including Creighton, Henry Joseph, Richard F. Smith, W.F. Robertson, and W.L. Murray codified seven ice hockey rules. The first ice hockey club, McGill University Hockey Club, was founded in 1877 followed by the Montreal Victorias, organized in 1881. The game became so popular that the first "world championship" of ice hockey was featured in Montreal's annual Winter Carnival in 1883 and the McGill team captured the "Carnival Cup". The trophy for this tournament is on display at the Musee McCord Museum in Montreal. A picture of this trophy can be seen here. In 1886, the teams which competed at the Winter Carnival would organize the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada(AHAC) league. In Europe, it is believed that in 1885 the Oxford University Ice Hockey Club was formed to play the first Ice Hockey Varsity Match against traditional rival Cambridge in St. Moritz, Switzerland, although this is undocumented. This match was won by the Oxford Dark Blues, 6-0. Cambridge Evening News, "Sporting Heritage is Found", July 26, 2003. The first photographs and team lists date from 1895. This continues to be the oldest hockey rivalry in history. In 1888, the new Governor General of Canada, Lord Stanley of Preston, whose sons and daughter became hockey enthusiasts, attended the Montreal Winter Carnival tournament and was impressed with the hockey spectacle. In 1892, recognizing that there was no recognition for the best team in all of Canada, (various leagues had championship trophies) he purchased a decorative bowl for use as a trophy. The Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup, which later became more famously known as the Stanley Cup, was first awarded in 1893 to the Montreal HC, champions of the AHAC. It continues to be awarded today to the National Hockey League's championship team. By 1893, there were almost a hundred teams in Montreal alone, and leagues throughout Canada. Winnipeg hockey players had incorporated cricket pads to better protect the goaltender's legs. They also introduced the "scoop" shot, later known as the wrist shot. 1893 also saw the first ice hockey matches in the U.S., at Yale University and Johns Hopkins University. The U.S. Amateur Hockey League was founded in New York City in 1896, and the first professional team, the Portage Lake hockey club was formed in 1903 in Houghton, Michigan (although there had been individual professionals in Canada before this). The five sons of Lord Stanley were instrumental in bringing ice hockey to Europe, beating a court team (which included both the future Edward VII and George V) at Buckingham Palace in 1895. By 1903 a five-team league had been founded. The Ligue Internationale de Hockey sur Glace was founded in 1908 to govern international competitions, and the first European championships were won by Great Britain in 1910. In the mid-20th century, the Ligue became the International Ice Hockey Federation. Professional era Professional ice hockey has existed long before World War I. From the first professional ice hockey league based in Houghton, Michigan in the United States, it quickly grew into Canada and many other countries, including Switzerland, Great Britain and Austria. Equipment Since ice hockey is a full contact sport and bodychecks are allowed, injuries can be a common occurrence. Protective equipment is highly recommended and is enforced in all competitive situations. This usually includes a helmet, shoulder pads, elbow pads, mouth guard, protective gloves, heavily padded shorts (also known as hockey pants), athletic cup/jock strap, shin pads,and a neck protector. In addition, goaltenders will usually add a neck guard, chest protector, blocker, catch glove, and leg pads. Injury Ice hockey is a full contact sport and carries a high risk of injuries. Not only are the players moving around 20 miles an hour, quite a bit of the game revolves around the physical contact between the players. Skate blades, hockey sticks, and hockey pucks all contribute. The number of injuries is quite high and include lacerations, concussions, contusions, ligament tears, broken bones, and muscle strains. Head injuries According to the Hughston Heath Alert, “Lacerations to the head, scalp, and face are the most frequent types of injury [in hockey].” (Schmidt 6) [Schmidt, Todd A. "Ice Hockey Injuries." The Hughston Clinic, P.C. - Home - Orthopedics and Sports Medicine in Georgia and Alabama. 26 Mar. 2009 <http://www.hughston.com/hha/a.hockey.htm>.-->] Even a shallow cut to the head results in a large amount of blood. Most concussions occur during player to player contact rather than when a player is checked into a wall. Not only are lacerations common, “it is estimated that direct trauma accounts for 80% of all [hockey] injuries. Most of these injuries are caused by player contact, falls and contact with a puck, high stick and occasionally, a skate blade.” (Schmidt 3) [Schmidt, Todd A. "Ice Hockey Injuries." The Hughston Clinic, P.C. - Home - Orthopedics and Sports Medicine in Georgia and Alabama. 26 Mar. 2009 <http://www.hughston.com/hha/a.hockey.htm>.-->] Griffith, H. Winter. Complete guide to sports injuries how to treat--fractures, bruises, sprains, strains, dislocations, head injuries. 3rd ed. New York, N.Y: Body P/Perigee, 2004.</ref> Fractures A humerus fracture increases with the risk of contact sports like football and hockey. The healing time for a humerus fracture is 6-8 weeks to when the bone is in complete union. (Griffith 70) Griffith, H. Winter. Complete guide to sports injuries how to treat--fractures, bruises, sprains, strains, dislocations, head injuries. 3rd ed. New York, N.Y: Body P/Perigee, 2004. The athlete then needs to undergo physical therapy to strengthen the arm again. Game While the general characteristics of the game are the same wherever it is played, the exact rules depend on the particular code of play being used. The two most important codes are those of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) and of the Canadian founded and North American expanded National Hockey League (NHL). Typical layout of an ice hockey rink surface Ice hockey is played on a hockey rink. During normal play, there are six players, including one goaltender, per side on the ice at any time, each of whom is on ice skates. The objective of the game is to score goals by shooting a hard vulcanized rubber disc, the puck, into the opponent's goal net, which is placed at the opposite end of the rink. The players may control the puck using a long stick with a blade that is commonly curved at one end. Players may also redirect the puck with any part of their bodies, subject to certain restrictions. Players may not hold the puck in their hand and are prohibited from using their hands to pass the puck to their teammates, unless they are in the defensive zone. Players are also prohibited from kicking the puck into the opponent's goal, though unintentional redirections off the skate are permitted. Players may not intentionally bat the puck into the net with their hands. Hockey is an "offside" game, meaning that forward passes are allowed, unlike in rugby. Before the 1930s hockey was an onside game, meaning that only backward passes were allowed. The period of the onside game was the golden age of stick-handling, which was of prime importance in moving the game forward. With the arrival of offside rules, the forward pass transformed hockey into a truly team sport, where individual heroics diminished in importance relative to team play, which could now be coordinated over the entire surface of the ice as opposed to merely rearward players. The five players other than the goaltender are typically divided into three forwards and two defencemen. The forward positions consist of a centre and two wingers: a left wing and a right wing. Forwards often play together as units or lines, with the same three forwards always playing together. The defencemen usually stay together as a pair generally divided between left and right. Left and right side wingers or defencemen are generally positioned as such based on the side on which they carry their stick. A substitution of an entire unit at once is called a line change. Teams typically employ alternate sets of forward lines and defensive pairings when shorthanded or on a power play. Substitutions are permitted at any time during the course of the game, although during a stoppage of play the home team is permitted the final change. When players are substituted during play, it is called changing on the fly. A new NHL rule added in the 2005-2006 season prevents a team from changing their line after they ice the puck. The boards surrounding the ice help keep the puck in play and they can also be used as tools to play the puck. Players are permitted to "bodycheck" opponents into the boards as a means of stopping progress. The referees, linesmen and the outsides of the goal are "in play" and do not cause a stoppage of the game when the puck or players are influenced (by either bouncing or colliding) into them. Play can be stopped if the goal is knocked out of position. Play often proceeds for minutes without interruption. When play is stopped, it is restarted with a faceoff. Two players "face" each other and an official drops the puck to the ice, where the two players attempt to gain control of the puck. Markings on the ice indicate the locations for the "faceoff" and guide the positioning of players. There are three major rules of play in ice hockey that limit the movement of the puck: offside, icing, and the puck going out of play. The puck goes "out of play" whenever it goes past the perimeter of the ice rink (onto the player benches, over the "glass", or onto the protective netting above the glass) and a stoppage of play is called by the officials using whistles. It also does not matter if the puck comes back onto to the ice surface from those areas as the puck is considered dead once it leaves the perimeter of the rink. Under IIHF rules, each team may carry a maximum of 20 players and two goaltenders on their roster. NHL rules restrict the total number of players per game to 18 (twelve forwards and six defensemen) plus two goaltenders. Penalties Altercations often occur near the goal after a stoppage of play, since defensive players are extremely concerned with protecting their goaltender. All rulebooks call for penalties if an offensive player interferes with a goaltender's ability to defend the goal. For most penalties, the offending player is sent to the penalty box and his team has to play without him and with one less skater for a short amount of time. Most minor penalties last for two minutes, unless a major penalty of five minutes duration, or a double minor penalty of two consecutive penalties of two minutes duration, has been assessed. The team that has taken the penalty is said to be playing shorthanded while the other team is on the powerplay. A two-minute minor penalty is often called for lesser infractions such as tripping, elbowing, roughing, high-sticking, delay of the game, too many players on the ice, illegal equipment, charging (leaping into an opponent or body-checking him after taking more than two strides), holding, interference, hooking, or cross-checking. As of the 2005-06 season, a minor is also assessed for diving, where a player embellishes a hook or trip. More egregious fouls of this type may be penalized by a four-minute double-minor penalty, particularly those which cause injury to the victimized player. These penalties end either when the time runs out or the other team scores on the power play. In the case of a goal scored during the first two minutes of a double-minor, the penalty clock is set down to two minutes upon a score effectively expiring the first minor penalty. Five-minute major penalties are called for especially violent instances of most minor infractions that result in intentional injury to an opponent, or when a "minor" penalty results in visible injury (such as bleeding), as well as for fighting. Major penalties are always served in full; they do not terminate on a goal scored by the other team. The foul of 'boarding', defined as "check[ing] an opponent in such a manner that causes the opponent to be thrown violently in the boards" by the NHL Rulebook is penalized either by a minor or major penalty at the discretion of the referee, based on the violence of the hit. A minor or major penalty for "Boarding" is also often assessed when a player checks an opponent from behind and into the boards. Some varieties of penalties do not always require the offending team to play a man short. Concurrent five-minute major penalties in the NHL usually result from fighting. In the case of two players being assessed five-minute fighting majors, they both serve five minutes without their team incurring a loss of player (both teams still have a full complement of players on the ice). This differs with two players from opposing sides getting minor penalties, at the same time or at any intersecting moment, resulting from more common infractions. In that case, both teams will have only four skating players (not counting the goaltender) until one or both penalties expire (if one expires before the other, the opposing team gets a power play for the remainder); this applies regardless of current pending penalties, though in the NHL, a team always has at least three skaters on the ice. Ten-minute misconduct penalties are served in full by the penalized player, but his team may immediately substitute another player on the ice unless a minor or major penalty is assessed in conjunction with the misconduct (a two-and-ten or five-and-ten). In that case, the team designates another player to serve the minor or major; both players go to the penalty box, but only the designee may not be replaced, and he is released upon the expiration of the two or five minutes, at which point the ten-minute misconduct begins. In addition, game misconducts are assessed for deliberate intent to inflict severe injury on an opponent (at the officials' discretion), or for a major penalty for a stick infraction or repeated major penalties. The offending player is ejected from the game and must immediately leave the playing surface (he does not sit in the penalty box); meanwhile, if a minor or major is assessed in addition, a designated player must serve out that segment of the penalty in the box (similar to the above-mentioned "two-and-ten"). A player who is tripped, or illegally obstructed in some way, by an opponent on a breakaway – when there are no defenders except the goaltender between him and the opponent's goal – is awarded a penalty shot, an attempt to score without opposition from any defenders except the goaltender. A penalty shot is also awarded for a defender other than the goaltender covering the puck in the goal crease, a goaltender intentionally displacing his own goal posts during a breakaway in order to avoid a goal, a defender intentionally displacing his own goal posts when there is less than two minutes to play in regulation time or at any point during overtime, or a player or coach intentionally throwing a stick or other object at the puck or the puck carrier and the throwing action disrupts a shot or pass play. An ice hockey referee is responsible for assessing most penalties during a game. Officials also stop play for puck movement violations, such as using one's hands to pass the puck in the offensive end, but no players are penalized for these offences. The sole exceptions are deliberately falling on or gathering the puck to the body, carrying the puck in the hand, and shooting the puck out of play in one's defensive zone (all penalized two minutes for delay of game). A new penalty in the NHL applies to the goalies. The goalies now are unable to play the puck in the "corners" of the rink near their own net. This will result in a two-minute penalty against the goalie's team. The area immediately behind the net is the only area behind the net in which the goalie can play the puck. An additional rule that is not a penalty in the new NHL is the two line offside passes. There are no more two-line offside pass whistles blown. Now players are able to pass to teammates who are more than the blue and centre ice red line away. The NHL has taken steps to speed the game of hockey up and create a game of finesse, by retreating from the past where illegal hits, fights, and "clutching and grabbing" among players was commonplace. Rules are now much more strictly enforced resulting in more infractions being penalized which in turn provides more protection to the players and allows for more goals to be scored. There are many infractions for which a player may be assessed a penalty. The governing body for United States amateur hockey has implemented many new rules to reduce the number stick-on-body occurrences, as well as other detrimental and illegal facets of the game ("Zero Tolerance"). In men's hockey, but not in women's, a player may use his hip or shoulder to hit another player if the player has the puck or is the last to have touched it. This use of the hip and shoulder is called body checking. Not all physical contact is legal — in particular, hits from behind and most types of forceful stick-on-body contact are illegal. Officials A typical game of ice hockey has two to four officials on the ice, charged with enforcing the rules of the game. There are typically two linesmen who are responsible only for calling offside and icing violations, and one or two referees, who call goals and all other penalties. Linesmen can, however, report to the referee(s) that a penalty more severe than a two-minute minor penalty should be assessed against an offending player, or when a too many men on the ice infraction occurs. On-ice officials are assisted by off-ice officials who act as goal judges, time keepers, and official scorers. The most widespread system in use today is the 3-man system, that features one referee and two linesmen. With the first being the National Hockey League, a number of leagues have started to implement the 4-official system, where an additional referee is added to aid in the calling of penalties normally difficult to assess by one single referee. The system has proven quite successful in the NHL and the IIHF have adopted it for the World Championships, slightly discussed during the 2008 World Championships in Quebec City and Halifax, Canada. Many other leagues are adopting the system for the next season, which only downside at the moment is the increased cost for the leagues. Officials are selected by the league for which they work. Amateur hockey leagues use guidelines established by national organizing bodies as a basis for choosing their officiating staffs. In North America, the national organizing bodies Hockey Canada and USA Hockey approve officials according to their experience level as well as their ability to pass rules knowledge and skating ability tests. Hockey Canada has officiating levels I through VI. USA Hockey has officiating levels 1 through 4. Officials can also be called a referee. Tactics Winning the faceoff can be the key to some strategies. A game between Saginaw and Plymouth's Ontario Hockey League teams. An important defensive tactic is checking – attempting to take the puck from an opponent or to remove the opponent from play. Stick checking, sweep checking, and poke checking are legal uses of the stick to obtain possession of the puck. The neutral zone trap is designed to isolate the puck carrier in the neutral zone preventing him from entering the offensive zone. Body checking is using one's shoulder or hip to strike an opponent who has the puck or who is the last to have touched it (the last person to have touched the puck is still legally "in possession" of it, although a penalty is generally called if he is checked more than two seconds after his last touch). Often the term checking is used to refer to body checking, with its true definition generally only propagated among fans of the game. Offensive tactics include improving a team's position on the ice by advancing the puck out of one's zone towards the opponent's zone, progressively by gaining lines, first your own blue line, then the red line and finally the opponent's blue line. NHL rules instated for the 2006 season redefined icing to make the two-line pass legal; a player may pass the puck from behind his own blue line, past both that blue line and the centre red line, to a player in front of the opponents' blue line. Offensive tactics are designed ultimately to score a goal by taking a shot. When a player purposely directs the puck towards the opponent's goal, he or she is said to shoot the puck. Peter Bondra of the Atlanta Thrashers shoots the puck and scores behind Roberto Luongo of the Florida Panthers A deflection is a shot which redirects a shot or a pass towards the goal from another player, by allowing the puck to strike the stick and carom towards the goal. A one-timer is a shot which is struck directly off a pass, without receiving the pass and shooting in two separate actions. A deke (short for decoy) is a feint with the body and/or stick to fool a defender or the goalie. Headmanning the puck, also known as cherry-picking or breaking out, is the tactic of rapidly passing to the player farthest down the ice. A team that is losing by one or two goals in the last few minutes of play will often elect to pull the goalie; that is, remove the goaltender and replace him or her with an extra attacker on the ice in the hope of gaining enough advantage to score a goal. However, it is an act of desperation, as it sometimes leads to the opposing team extending their lead by scoring a goal in the empty net. A delayed penalty call occurs when a penalty offense is committed by the team that does not have possession of the puck. In this circumstance the team with possession of the puck is allowed to complete the play; that is, play continues until a goal is scored, a player on the opposing team gains control of the puck, or the team in possession commits an infraction or penalty of their own. Because the team on which the penalty was called cannot control the puck without stopping play, it is impossible for them to score a goal, however, it is possible for the controlling team to mishandle the puck into their own net. In these cases the team in possession of the puck can pull the goalie for an extra attacker without fear of being scored on. If a delayed penalty is signaled and the team in possession scores, the penalty is still assessed to the offending player, but not served. Fights Although fighting is officially prohibited in the rules, at the professional level in North America fights are unofficially condoned. Enforcers and other players fight to demoralize the opposing players while exciting their own, as well as settling personal scores. The amateur game penalizes fisticuffs more harshly, as a player who receives a fighting major is also assessed at least a 10 minute misconduct penalty (NCAA and some Junior league) or a game misconduct penalty and suspension (high school and younger, as well as some casual adult leagues) http://www.usahockey.com/kahc/default.aspx?NAV=AF_06&ID=190764 . Periods and overtime A professional game consists of three periods of twenty minutes each, the clock running only when the puck is in play. The teams change ends for the second period, again for the third period, and again at the start of each overtime played. Recreational leagues and children's leagues often play shorter games, generally with three shorter periods of play. Various procedures are used if a game is tied. In tournament play, as well as in the NHL playoffs, North Americans favour sudden death overtime, in which the teams continue to play twenty minute periods until a goal is scored. Up until the 1999-2000 season regular season NHL games were settled with a single five minute sudden death period with five players (plus a goalie) per side, with the winner awarded two points in the standings and the loser no points. In the event of a tie (if the overtime was scoreless), each team was awarded one point. From 1999-2000 until 2003-04 the National Hockey League decided ties by playing a single five minute sudden death overtime period with each team having four players (plus a goalie) per side to "open-up" the game. In the event of a tie, each team would still receive one point in the standings but in the event of a victory the winning team would be awarded two points in the standings and the losing team one point. The only exception to this rule is if a team opts to pull their goalie in exchange for an extra skater during overtime and is subsequently scored upon (an 'Empty Net' goal), in which case the losing team receives no points for the overtime loss. International play and several North American professional leagues, including the NHL (in the regular season), now use an overtime period followed by a penalty shootout. If the score remains tied after an extra overtime period, the subsequent shootout consists of three players from each team taking penalty shots. After these six total shots, the team with the most goals is awarded the victory. If the score is still tied, the shootout then proceeds to a sudden death format. Regardless of the number of goals scored during the shootout by either team, the final score recorded will award the winning team one more goal than the score at the end of regulation time. In the NHL if a game is decided by a shootout the winning team is awarded two points in the standings and the losing team is awarded one point. Ties no longer occur in the NHL. Women's ice hockey Women playing hockey at Rideau Hall circa 1890 (earliest known image of women's hockey) History of women's ice hockey Lord Stanley of Preston's daughter, Lady Isobel Stanley, was a pioneer in the women's game and is one of the first females to be photographed using puck and stick (around 1890) on the natural ice rink at Rideau Hall in Ottawa, Canada. By the early 1900s, women's teams were common throughout most of the Canadian provinces, the long skirts they were still required to wear giving them a goal-tending advantage. On March 8, 1899, the first account appeared in the Ottawa Evening Journal newspaper of a game played between two women's teams of four per side at the Rideau Skating Rink in Ottawa. On February 11, 1891, one of the earliest newspaper accounts of a seven-a-side game between women appeared in the Ottawa Citizen. McGill University's women's hockey team debuted in 1894. Backcheck: A Hockey Retrospective at Library and Archives Canada . In 1920, Lady Isobel Brenda (Allan) Meredith of Montreal donated the 'Lady Meredith Cup', the first ice hockey trophy in Canada to be competed for between women in ankle-length skirts. Lady Meredith (the wife of Sir Vincent Meredith) was the first cousin of Sir H. Montagu Allan who had donated the Allan Cup for men's amateur ice hockey in 1908. Women's ice hockey today Ice hockey is one of the fastest growing women's sports in the world, with the number of participants increasing 350 percent in the last 10 years. While there are not as many organized leagues for women as there are for men, there exist leagues of all levels, including the National Women's Hockey League, Western Women's Hockey League, and various European leagues; as well as university teams, national and Olympic teams, and recreational teams. There have been nine IIHF World Women Championships. A girls ice hockey team in 1921 Women's ice hockey was added as a medal sport at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan. The United States won gold, Canada won silver and Finland won bronze. The chief difference between women's and men's ice hockey is that body checking is not allowed in women's ice hockey. After the 1990 Women's World Championship, body checking was eliminated because female players in many countries do not have the size and mass seen in North American players. In current IIHF women's competition, body checking is either a minor or major penalty, decided at the referee's discretion. In addition, players in women's competition are required to wear protective full-face masks. One woman, Manon Rhéaume, appeared as a goaltender for the NHL's Tampa Bay Lightning in preseason games against the St. Louis Blues and the Boston Bruins, and in 2003 Hayley Wickenheiser played with the Kirkkonummi Salamat in the Finnish men's Suomi-sarja league. Several women have competed in North American minor leagues, including goaltenders Charline Labonté, Kelly Dyer, Erin Whitten, Manon Rhéaume, and defenceman Angela Ruggiero. Sledge hockey Sledge hockey is a form of ice hockey designed for players with physical disabilities affecting their lower bodies. Players sit on double-bladed sledges and use two sticks; each stick has a blade at one end and small picks at the other. Players use the sticks to pass, stickhandle and shoot the puck, and to propel their sledges. The rules are very similar to IIHF ice hockey rules. Canada is a recognized international leader in the development of the sport, and of equipment for players. Much of the equipment for the sport was first developed in Canada, such as sledge hockey sticks laminated with fiberglass, as well as aluminum shafts with hand carved insert blades and special aluminum sledges with regulation skate blades. Pond hockey Pond hockey is a form of ice hockey played generally as pick-up hockey on lakes and ponds. Pond hockey rules differ from traditional hockey, placing a greater emphasis on skating abilities. Since 2002, the World Pond Hockey Championship has been played in Plaster Rock, New Brunswick, Canada. World Pond Hockey Championship - History of the World Pond Hockey Championships International competition National teams Finland vs Russia in the Winter Olympiad 2006 in Turin. The annual men's Ice Hockey World Championships are more highly regarded by Europeans than North Americans because they coincide with the Stanley Cup playoffs. Consequently, Canada, the United States, and other countries with large numbers of NHL players have not always been able to field their best possible teams because many of their top players are playing for the Stanley Cup. Furthermore, for many years professionals were barred from play. Now that many Europeans play in the NHL, the world championships no longer represent all of the world's top players. Hockey has been played at the Winter Olympics since 1924 (and at the summer games in 1920). Canada won six of the first seven gold medals, except in 1936 when Great Britain won. The United States won their first gold medal in 1960. The USSR won all but two Olympic ice hockey gold medals from 1956 to 1988 and won a final time as the Unified Team at the 1992 Albertville Olympics. U.S. amateur college players defeated the heavily favored Soviet squad on the way to winning the gold medal at the 1980 Lake Placid Olympics - an event known as the "Miracle on ice" in the United States. Since the 1998 games in Nagano all top players from the NHL have been able to take part and nowadays Winter Olympics games are the most highly regarded international tournament by ice hockey fans. Switzerland has won two men's bronze medals at the Olympics and finished third several times at the World Championships. Switzerland also maintains one of the oldest and top-rated ice hockey leagues (the Swiss National League A) outside of the NHL. The 1972 Summit Series and 1974 Summit Series, established Canada and the USSR as a major international ice hockey rivalry. It was followed by five Canada Cup tournaments, where the best players from every hockey nation could play, and two exhibition series, the 1979 Challenge Cup and Rendez-vous '87 where the best players from the NHL played the USSR. The Canada Cup tournament later became the World Cup of Hockey, played in 1996 and 2004. The United States won in 1996 and Canada won in 2004. There have been eleven women's world championships as of 2008, beginning in 1990. Women's hockey has been played at the Olympics since 1998. The 2006 Winter Olympic final between Canada and Sweden marked the first women's world championship or Olympic final that did not involve both Canada and the United States The annual Euro Hockey Tour, an unofficial European championships between the national men's teams of the Czech Republic, Finland, Russia and Sweden have been played since 1996-97. Other ice hockey tournaments featuring national teams include the World U20 Championship, the World U18 Championships, the World U-17 Hockey Challenge, the World Junior A Challenge, the Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament, the World Women's U18 Championships and the 4 Nations Cup. Clubs The National Hockey League, and specifically the Stanley Cup trophy, is the oldest still operating international competition, featuring clubs from the United States and Canada. The Kontinental Hockey League, an international ice hockey league in Eurasia and the successor to the Russian Super League, features clubs from the post-Soviet states in its inaugural season and seeks to expand beyond the former USSR for the league's future seasons. The Elite Ice Hockey League is the highest level of ice hockey in Great Britain. The league is served by teams from all of the home nations: England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. The Asia League Ice Hockey, an international ice hockey league featuring clubs from China, Japan and South Korea, is the successor to the Japan Ice Hockey League. International club competitions organized by the IIHF include the Champions Hockey League, the Continental Cup, the Victoria Cup and the European Women's Champions Cup. One of the oldest international ice hockey competition for clubs after the Stanley Cup playoffs is the Spengler Cup, held every year in Davos, Switzerland between Christmas and New Year's Day. It was first awarded in 1923 to Oxford University Ice Hockey Club. Pre-season tournaments include the Tampere Cup and the Pajulahti Cup. Ice hockey in popular culture Ice hockey, partially because of its popularity as a major professional sport, has been a source of inspiration for numerous films, television episodes and songs in North American popular culture. Attendance records The Cold War The largest hockey attendance in history was on October 6, 2001, for a game commonly known as the Cold War. Two college hockey rivals, University of Michigan and Michigan State University, opened their season with a game in Michigan State's outdoor football arena, Spartan Stadium. A $500,000 sheet of ice was used, and the temperature was . The game drew a record-breaking 74,554 spectators, smashing the previous number of 55,000 attendance during the Sweden vs. Soviet Union game during the world championship in Moscow. Michigan Hockey Newspaper The Heritage Classic The Heritage Classic was an outdoor ice hockey game played on November 22, 2003 in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada between the Edmonton Oilers and the Montreal Canadiens. It set the record for most viewers of a single NHL game with 2.747 million nationwide. An old-timers game, referred to as the MegaStars game, was played prior to the regular-season match, and featured alumni of Oilers playing against a squad of former Canadiens. This is the only NHL alumni game in which Wayne Gretzky has played since retiring, and he maintains it will be the last. The 2008 Winter Classic The largest crowd to ever watch an NHL game was during the AMP Energy NHL Winter Classic when 71,000 people watched the Pittsburgh Penguins battle the Buffalo Sabres. The game was held at Ralph Wilson Stadium, which is the Buffalo Bills home stadium in Orchard Park, New York, a suburb of Buffalo, on January 1, 2008. This was the first NHL game held outdoors in the United States. The Penguins scored the first goal within the first 20 seconds of the game. The Sabres then scored in the 2nd period to tie the game. The game went into overtime and the Penguins ended up winning during a shoot out on a goal by Sidney Crosby. Both teams wore throwback jerseys - the Penguins donning the powder blue jerseys from the 70s and the Sabres old-logo jerseys from the same era. Both goalies, Ryan Miller and Ty Conklin played in their second outdoor game. The game was easily a success from a PR and hockey standpoint for the NHL despite the cold temperatures and snow. Future Potential Record-Breaking Games On February 5, 2010, Michigan and Wisconsin Bips are scheduled to play in the Camp Randall Hockey Classic, an outdoor game at Wisconsin's Camp Randall Stadium. If the game sells to capacity, 80,351, it would break the current record held by the Cold War. Shortly after Wisconsin and Michigan agreed to play at Camp Randall Stadium, Michigan and Michigan State agreed to play an outdoor game the following season at Michigan Stadium, shortly after the completion of the stadium's renovation project. Tentatively called The Cold War II, if the game sells to capacity it would likely break the attendance record for a college hockey game. Michigan Stadium is slated to hold over 108,000 following renovations, which will again make it the largest football stadium in the world, and largest sports stadium in the United States. The Detroit Red Wings have expressed interest in negotiating with the University of Michigan on an outdoor game of their own, leaving the possibility of breaking the overall attendance record should such a game ever occur. Number of registered players by country Number of registered hockey players, provided by the respective countries' federations. Note that data is not available for every country. CountryPlayers% of Population Canada 545,363 1.75% United States 435,737 0.15% Russia 77,202 0.05% Czech Republic 74,589 0.63% Sweden 67,747 0.71% Finland 42,886 0.82% Germany 22,344 0.04% Switzerland 19,106 0.29% Japan 20,540 0.02% France 11,621 0.02% Slovakia 9,402 0.1% Austria 9,007 0.1% United Kingdom 8,000 0.01% Italy 6,258 0.01% Norway 4,356 0.11% Latvia 4,836 0.21% Denmark 4,250 0.08% Australia 3,259 0.02% Kazakhstan 2,931 0.02% Belarus 2,930 0.03% Ukraine 2,122 0.005% The Netherlands 2,050 0.01% Hungary 2,000 0.02% South Korea 1,189 0.0026% Slovenia 980 0.05% See also Hockey rink Ice hockey at the Olympic Games Ice hockey equipment Ice Hockey World Championships List of ice hockey leagues Special Hockey Sledge (Sled) Hockey Notes References | Ice_hockey |@lemmatized ice:98 hockey:171 frequently:1 simply:1 call:20 country:9 play:86 team:74 sport:22 originate:2 canada:41 around:4 fast:2 pace:1 physical:5 popular:5 area:5 sufficiently:1 cold:6 natural:2 reliable:1 seasonal:1 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4,571 | Election | A ballot box An election is a decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold formal office. This is the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy fills offices in the legislature, sometimes in the executive and judiciary, and for regional and local government. This process is also used in many other private and business organizations, from clubs to voluntary associations and corporations. The universal use of elections as a tool for selecting representatives in modern democracies is in contrast with the practice in the democratic archetype, ancient Athens. Elections were considered an oligarchic institution and most political offices were filled using sortition, also known as allotment, by which officeholders were chosen by lot. Electoral reform describes the process of introducing fair electoral systems where they are not in place, or improving the fairness or effectiveness of existing systems. Psephology is the study of results and other statistics relating to elections (especially with a view to predicting future results). Ideology In Book II, Chapter 2 of his book 'The Spirit of Laws', Montesquieu states that in the case of elections in either a republic or a democracy, voters alternate between being the rulers of the country and being the subjects of the government. By the act of voting, the people operate in a sovereign (or ruling) capacity, acting as "masters" to select their government's "servants." Characteristics of elections The question of who may vote is a central issue in elections. The electorate does not generally include the entire population; for example, many countries prohibit those judged mentally incompetent from voting, and all jurisdictions require a minimum age for voting. Historically, other groups of people have also been excluded from voting. For instance, the democracy of ancient Athens did not allow women, foreigners, or slaves to vote, and the original United States Constitution left the topic of suffrage to the states; usually only white male property owners were able to vote. Much of the history of elections involves the effort to promote suffrage for excluded groups. The women's suffrage movement gave women in many countries the right to vote, and securing the right to vote freely was a major goal of the American civil rights movement. Extending the right to vote to other groups which remain excluded in some places (such as convicted felons, members of certain minorities, and the economically disadvantaged) continues to be a significant goal of voting rights advocates. Suffrage is typically only for citizens of the country. Further limits may be imposed: for example, in Kuwait, only people who have been citizens since 1920 or their descendants are allowed to vote, a condition that the majority of residents do not fulfill. However, in the European Union, one can vote in municipal elections if one lives in the municipality and is an EU citizen; the nationality of the country of residence is not required. Campaigners working on posters in Milan, Italy, 2004 In some countries, voting is required by law; if an eligible voter does not cast a vote, he or she may be subject to punitive measures such as a small fine. Nomination A representative democracy requires a procedure to govern nomination for political office. In many cases, nomination for office is mediated through preselection processes in organised political parties. Reuven Hazan, 'Candidate Selection', in Lawrence LeDuc, Richard Niemi and Pippa Norris (eds), Comparing Democracies 2, Sage Publications, London, 2002 Non-partisan systems tend to differ from partisan systems as concerns nominations. In a direct democracy, one type of non-partisan democracy, any eligible person can be nominated. In some non-partisan representative systems no nominations (or campaigning, electioneering, etc.) take place at all, with voters free to choose any person at the time of voting—with some possible exceptions such as through a minimum age requirement—in the jurisdiction. In such cases, it is not required (or even possible) that the members of the electorate be familiar with all of the eligible persons, though such systems may involve indirect elections at larger geographic levels to ensure that some first-hand familiarity among potential electees can exist at these levels (i.e., among the elected delegates). As far as partisan systems, in some countries, only members of a particular political party can be nominated. Or, an eligible person can be nominated through a petition; thus allowing him or her to be listed on a ballot. Who is elected A pre-election hustings in the constituency of Oxford West and Abingdon in England. The government positions for which elections are held vary depending on the locale. In a representative democracy, such as the United States, some positions are not filled through elections, especially those which are seen as requiring a certain competency or excellence. For example, judges are usually appointed rather than elected to help protect their impartiality. There are exceptions to this practice, however; some judges in the United States are elected, and in ancient Athens military generals were elected. In some cases, as for example, in soviet democracy—there may exist an intermediate tier of electors between constituents and the elected figure. However, in most representative democracies, this level of indirection usually is nothing more than a formality. For example, the President of the United States is elected by the Electoral College, and in the Westminster System, the Prime Minister is formally chosen by the head of state (and in reality by the legislature or by their party). Types of elections In most democratic political systems, there are a range of different types of election, corresponding to different layers of public governance or geographical jurisdiction. Some common types of election are: Presidential election General election Primary election By-election Local election Co-option A referendum (plural referendums or referenda) is a democratic tool related to elections in which the electorate votes for or against a specific proposal, law or policy, rather than for a general policy or a particular candidate or party. Referendums may be added to an election ballot or held separately and may be either binding or consultative, usually depending on the constitution. Referendums are usually called by governments via the legislature, however many democracies allow citizens to petition for referendums directly, called initiatives. Referendums are particularly prevalent and important in direct democracies, such as Switzerland. The basic Swiss system, however, still works with representatives. In the most direct form of democracy, anyone can vote about anything. This is closely related to referendums and may take the form of consensus decision-making. Reminiscent of the ancient Greek system, anyone may discuss a particular subject until a consensus is reached. The consensus requirement means that discussions can go on for a very long time. The result will be that only those who are genuinely interested will participate in the discussion and therefore the vote. In this system there need not be an age limit because children will usually become bored. This system is however only feasible when implemented on a very small scale. Electoral systems Electoral systems refer to the detailed constitutional arrangements and voting systems which convert the vote into a determination of which individuals and political parties are elected to positions of power. The first step is to tally the votes, for which various different vote counting systems and ballot types are used. Voting systems then determine the result on the basis of the tally. Most systems can be categorized as either proportional or majoritarian. Among the former are party-list proportional representation and additional member system. Among the latter are First Past the Post (FPP) (relative majority) and [absolute majority]. Many countries have growing electoral reform movements, which advocate systems such as approval voting, single transferable vote, instant runoff voting or a Condorcet method; these methods are also gaining popularity for lesser elections in some countries where more important elections still use more traditional counting methods. While openness and accountability are usually considered cornerstones of a democratic system, the act of casting a vote and the content of a voter's ballot are usually an important exception. The secret ballot is a relatively modern development, but it is now considered crucial in most free and fair elections, as it limits the effectiveness of intimidation. Scheduling The nature of democracy is that elected officials are accountable to the people, and they must return to the voters at prescribed intervals to seek their mandate to continue in office. For that reason most democratic constitutions provide that elections are held at fixed regular intervals. In the United States, elections are held between every three and six years in most states, with exceptions such as the U.S. House of Representatives, which stands for election every two years. There is a variety of schedules, for example presidents: the President of Ireland is elected every seven years, the President of Finland every six years, the President of France every five years, the President of Russia and President of United States every four years. Pre-determined or fixed election dates have the advantage of fairness and predictability. However, they tend to greatly lengthen campaigns, and make dissolving the legislature (parliamentary system) more problematic if the date should happen to fall at time when dissolution is inconvenient (e.g. when war breaks out). Other states (e.g., the United Kingdom) only set maximum time in office, and the executive decides exactly when within that limit it will actually go to the polls. In practice, this means the government will remain in power for close to its full term, and choose an election date which it calculates to be in its best interests (unless something special happens, such as a motion of no-confidence). This calculation depends on a number of variables, such as its performance in opinion polls and the size of its majority. Elections are usually held on one day. There are also advance polls and absentee voting, which have a more flexible schedule. In Europe, a substantial proportion of votes are cast in advance voting. Election campaigns When elections are called, politicians and their supporters attempt to influence policy by competing directly for the votes of constituents in what are called campaigns. Supporters for a campaign can be either formally organized or loosely affiliated, and frequently utilize campaign advertising. It is common for political scientists to attempt to predict elections via Political Forecasting methods. Difficulties with elections In many countries with weak rule of law, the most common reason why elections do not meet international standards of being "free and fair" is interference from the incumbent government. Dictators may use the powers of the executive (police, martial law, censorship, physical implementation of the election mechanism, etc.) to remain in power despite popular opinion in favor of removal. Members of a particular faction in a legislature may use the power of the majority or supermajority (passing criminal laws, defining the electoral mechanisms including eligibility and district boundaries) to prevent the balance of power in the body from shifting to a rival faction due to an election. Non-governmental entities can also interfere with elections, through physical force, verbal intimidation, or fraud which results in improper casting or counting of votes. Monitoring for and minimizing electoral fraud is also an ongoing task in countries with strong traditions of free and fair elections. Problems which prevent an election from being "free and fair" can occur at several different stages: Lack of open political debate or an informed electorate. The electorate may be poorly informed about issues or candidates due to lack of freedom of the press, lack of objectivity in the press due to state or corporate control, or lack of access to news and political media. Freedom of speech may be curtailed by the state, favoring certain viewpoints or state propaganda. Unfair rules. Gerrymandering, exclusion of opposition candidates from eligibility for office, and manipulating thresholds for electoral success are among some of the ways that the structure of an election can be changed to favor a specific faction or candidate. Interference with campaigns. Arresting or assassinating candidates for office, suppressing campaign actions (speeches, posters, broadcast advertisements), closing campaign headquarters, criminalizing campaigning, harassing or beating campaign workers. Intimidating voters with threats of or actual violence. Tampering with the election mechanism. Confusing or misleading voters about how to vote, violation of the secret ballot, ballot stuffing, tampering with voting machines, destruction of legitimately cast ballots, voter suppression, fraudulent tabulation of results, and use of physical force or verbal intimation at polling places. Elections around the world See also Appointment Ballot access Demarchy — "Democracy without Elections" Electoral calendar Election law Election litter Full slate Fenno's Paradox Garrat Elections Gerontocracy Meritocracy Pluralism (political philosophy) Political science Polling station Slate Sortition Two-party system Voter turnout References Bibliography Arrow, Kenneth J. 1963. Social Choice and Individual Values. 2nd ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Benoit, Jean-Pierre and Lewis A. Kornhauser. 1994. "Social Choice in a Representative Democracy." American Political Science Review 88.1: 185-192. Corrado Maria, Daclon. 2004. US elections and war on terrorism – Interview with professor Massimo Teodori Analisi Difesa, n. 50 Farquharson, Robin. 1969. A Theory of Voting. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Mueller, Dennis C. 1996. Constitutional Democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Owen, Bernard, 2002. "Le système électoral et son effet sur la représentation parlementaire des partis: le cas européen.", LGDJ; Riker, William. 1980. Liberalism Against Populism: A Confrontation Between the Theory of Democracy and the Theory of Social Choice. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. Ware, Alan. 1987. Citizens, Parties and the State. Princeton: Princeton University Press. External links PARLINE database on national parliaments. Results for all parliamentary elections since 1966 ElectionGuide.org — Worldwide Coverage of National-level Elections parties-and-elections.de: Database for all European elections since 1945 ACE Electoral Knowledge Network — electoral encyclopedia and related resources from a consortium of electoral agencies and organizations. 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4,572 | Incest | For other uses, see Incest (disambiguation). For the biological aspect, see Inbreeding. Incest refers to any sexual activity between closely related persons (often within the immediate family) that is illegal or a social taboo. The type of sexual activity and the nature of the relationship between persons that constitutes a breach of law or social taboo vary with culture and jurisdiction. Some societies consider it to include only those who live in the same household, or who belong to the same clan or lineage; other societies consider it to include "blood relatives"; other societies further include those related by adoption or marriage. Elementary Structures Of Kinship, by Claude Lévi-Strauss. (tr.1971). The most frequently reported type of incest is father-daughter incest. Incest between adults and prepubescent or adolescent children is considered a form of child sexual abuse that has been shown to be one of the most extreme forms of childhood trauma, a trauma that often does serious and long-term psychological damage, especially in the case of parental incest. Prevalence is difficult to generalize, but research has estimated 10-15% of the general population as having at least one incest experience, with less than 2% involving intercourse or attempted intercourse. Among women, research by Russell (1986) and Wyatt (1985) has yielded estimates as high as twenty percent. Consensual adult incest is rarely reported. Consensual incest between adults is criminalized in most countries, although it is seen by some as a victimless crime. Most societies have some form of incest avoidance. Brown, Donald E., Human Universals. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991, p. 118-29 The incest taboo is and has been one of the most common of all cultural taboos, both in current nations and many past societies, Incest: The Nature and Origin of the Taboo, by Emile Durkheim (tr.1963) with legal penalties imposed in some jurisdictions. Most modern societies have legal or social restrictions on closely consanguineous marriages. Kinship, Incest, and the Dictates of Law, by Henry A. Kelly, 14 Am. J. Juris. 69 However, in some societies, such as that of Ancient Egypt, brother–sister, father–daughter, and mother–son relations were practiced among royalty. Maurice Godelier, Métamorphoses de la parenté, 2004 In addition, the Balinese and some Inuit tribes have altogether different beliefs about what constitutes illegal and immoral incest. Types Abuse of children Incest perpetrated by an adult of either gender against a child is called "intrafamilial child sexual abuse." The most-often reported form of incest is of this inherently abusive form. Father-daughter and stepfather-daughter incest is most commonly reported, with most of the remaining reports consisting of mother/stepmother-daughter/son incest. Father-son incest is reported less often, however it is not known if the prevalence is less, because it is under-reported by a greater margin. Prevalence of parental child sexual abuse is difficult to assess due to secrecy and privacy; some estimates show 20 million Americans have been victimized by parental incest as children. According to the National Center for Victims of Crime a large proportion of rape committed in the United States is perpetrated by a family member: Research indicates that 46% of children who are raped are victims of family members. (Langan and Harlow, 1994.) The majority of American rape victims (61%) are raped before the age of 18; furthermore, 29 percent (29%) of all forcible rapes occurred when the victim was less than 11 years old. Eleven percent (11%) of rape victims are raped by their fathers or step-fathers, and another 16 percent (16%) are raped by other relatives. Emotional incest occurs when a parent relates to a child as a substitute for an adult partner. That child may become emotionally bonded to, and codependent with, the parent. Emotional incest usually occurs before physical parent-child incest. Even without physical sexual contact, the consequences to such "bonded" children include a lifetime of partnership difficulties, according to Martyn Carruthers who wrote that this is a socially accepted form of child abuse in many countries. EMOTIONAL INCEST A study of victims of father-daughter incest in the 1970s showed that there were "common features" within families prior to the occurrence of incest: estrangement between the mother and the daughter, extreme paternal dominance, the mother's inability to fulfill her traditional parental role and reassignment of some of the mother's major family responsibility to the daughter. Oldest and only daughters were more likely to be the victims of incest. Furthermore, it was stated that the incest experience was psychologically harmful to the woman in later life, frequently leading to feelings of low self-esteem, unhealthy sexual activity, contempt for other women and other emotional problems Emotional Inheritance: A Dubious Legacy. (May 21, 1977). Science News, 111 (21), 326. . The ISNA reported that a counselling hotline stated that a large percentage of the calls they handle deal with the issue of parental child abuse. Adults who were incestuously victimized by adults in their childhood often suffer from low self-esteem, difficulties in interpersonal relationships, and sexual dysfunction, and are at an extremely high risk of many mental disorders, including depression, anxiety, phobic avoidance reactions, somatoform disorder, substance abuse, borderline personality disorder, and complex post-traumatic stress disorder. The Goler clan is a specific instance in which child sexual abuse in the form of forced adult/child and sibling/sibling incest took place over at least three generations. Cruise, David, and Griffiths, Alison. On South Mountain: The Dark Secrets of the Goler Clan (Penguin Books, 1998) ISBN 0670873888 A number of Goler children were victims of sexual abuse at the hands of fathers, mothers, uncles, aunts, sisters, brothers, cousins, and each other. During interrogation by police, several of the adults openly admitted to engaging in many forms of sexual activity, up to and including full intercourse, multiple times with the children. Sixteen adults (both men and women) were charged with hundreds of allegations of incest and sexual abuse of children as young as five. Between childhood siblings Many types of sexual contact between children (e.g., "playing doctor") are not considered harmful or abnormal, but become child-on-child sexual abuse when there is overt and deliberate actions directed at sexual stimulation. Childhood sibling–sibling incest is also considered to be widespread but rarely reported. The most commonly reported form of abusive sibling incest is abuse between an older brother and a younger brother or sister. According to a study by Floyd Martinson, 10–15% of college students reported childhood sexual experiences with a brother or sister, mostly fondling of genitals rather than actual sexual intercourse. Of those, 30% reported negative reactions and 30% reported positive reactions; 25% of the reported experiences involved coercion and there was a correlation of coercion with the negative responses. CHILD AND ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY A 2006 study showed a large portion of adults who experienced sibling incest have distorted or disturbed beliefs both about their own experience and the subject of sexual abuse in general. Bonnie E. Carlson, PhD (December, 2006). "Sibling Incest: Reports from Forty-One Survivors", Journal of Child Sexual Abuse: Volume 15, Issue 4, December 2006, Pages 19–34. An observational study in 1993 found that 16% of the 930 adult women interviewed reported that they had been sexually abused by a sibling before they were 18 years old. Sibling incest is most prevalent in families where one or both parents are often absent or emotionally unavailable, with the abusive siblings using incest as a way to assert their power over a weaker sibling and thereby express their feelings of hurt and rage. Absence of the father in particular has been found to be a significant element of most cases of sexual abuse of female children by a brother. The damaging effects on both childhood development and adult symptoms resulting from brother–sister sexual abuse are similar to the effects of father–daughter, including substance abuse, depression, suicidality, and eating disorders. Between consenting adults Incest between consenting adults is sexual behavior between adult, blood relatives (which can include parents and adult offspring, siblings, cousins, etc.) that is not coerced or forced in any way. ( Genetic Sexual Attraction ) While incest between consenting adults has not been widely reported in the past, the internet has shown that this behavior does take place, possibly more often than many people realize. Internet chatrooms and topical websites exist that provide support for incestuous couples. Proponents of incest between consenting adults draw clear boundaries between the behavior of consenting adults and rape, child molestation, and abuse. According to one incest participant who was interviewed for an article in The Guardian"You can't help who you fall in love with, it just happens. I fell in love with my sister and I'm not ashamed ... I only feel sorry for my mom and dad, I wish they could be happy for us. We love each other. It's nothing like some old man who tries to fuck his three-year-old, that's evil and disgusting ... Of course we're consenting, that's the most important thing. We're not fucking perverts. What we have is the most beautiful thing in the world."The Guardian article also states: Voices in Action, a US support group for victims of incest, vehemently rejects these arguments: "These teens have been brainwashed into believing this behaviour is natural; it is not ... Sexual abuse is learned behaviour." But some political thinkers are prepared to support the distinction between abuse and consenting relationships. " In Slate Magazine, William Saletan drew a legal connection between gay sex and incest between consenting adults. As he described in his article, in 2003, U.S. Senator Rick Santorum publicly derided the theory of the Supreme Court ruling to allow private consensual sex in the home (primarily as a gay rights move). He stated: "If the Supreme Court says that you have the right to consensual sex within your home, then you have the right to bigamy, you have the right to polygamy, you have the right to incest, you have the right to adultery." However, David Smith of the Human Rights Campaign professed outrage that Santorum placed being gay on the same moral and legal level as someone engaging in incest. Saletan argued that, legally and morally, there is essentially no difference between the two, and went on to support incest between consenting adults being covered by a legal right to privacy. Between adult siblings The most public case of consensual adult sibling incest in recent years is the case of a brother-sister couple from Germany. Due to violent behavior on the part of the father, the brother was taken in by foster parents at the age of 3 who adopted him later. At the age of 23 he learned about his real parents, contacted his mother and met her and his then 16 year old sister the first time. The now-adult brother moved in with his birth family shortly thereafter. After the sudden death of their mother a mere six months later, the couple became intimately close, and had their first child together in 2001. The public nature of their relationship, and the repeated prosecutions and even jail time they have served as a result, has caused some in Germany to question whether incest between consenting adults should be punished at all. A Der Spiegel article about them claims the couple are happy together. Between adult cousins Marriages and sexual relationships between cousins are viewed differently in many cultures, in both law and religion. In most countries, marriage between cousins is legal, though some religious and cultural restrictions exist in these same nations. Many jurisdictions in the United States and the Netherlands follow a more restrictive doctrine and legally prohibit such marriages as incestuous. Joanna Grossman, Should the law be kinder to kissin' cousins? Whereas in some countries in the east, eastern Europe and some other places, the marriage between first cousins is allowed. In India, in Hindu community marriages between cousins is common. Incest defined through marriage Some cultures include relatives by marriage in incest prohibitions; these relationships are called affinity rather than consanguinity. For example, the question of the legality and morality of a widower who wished to marry his deceased wife's sister was the subject of long and fierce debate in the United Kingdom in the 19th century, involving, among others, Matthew Boulton. In medieval Europe, standing as a godparent to a child also created a bond of affinity. But in other societies, a deceased spouse's brother or sister was considered the ideal person to marry. The Hebrew Bible forbids a man from marrying his brother's widow with the exception that, if his brother died childless, the man is instead required to marry his brother's widow so as to "raise up seed to him" (taken from Deuteronomy 25:5-6). Biological consequences of inbreeding In many, but not all (see Incest taboo) cases, incest is also inbreeding. Although jurist Henry Maine first argued that incest necessarily leads to an increase in congenital birth defects, this is not necessarily the case. Inbreeding does not directly lead to congenital birth defects per se, it leads to an increase in the frequency of homozygotes. Livingstone, Frank B. 1969 "Genetics, Ecology, and the Origins of Incest and Exogamy" in Current Anthropology 10:45-62 An increase in homozygotes has diverging effects. A homozygote encoding a congenital birth defect will produce children with birth defects, but homozygotes that do not encode for congenital birth defects will decrease the number of carriers in a population. The overall consequences of these diverging effects depends in part on the size of the population. In small populations, as long as children born with heritable birth defects die before they reproduce, the ultimate effect of inbreeding will be to decrease the frequency of defective genes in the population; over time the gene pool will be healthier. In larger populations, however, it is more likely that large numbers of carriers will survive and mate, leading to more constant rates of birth defects.<ref>Thornhill, Nancy, ed. 1993 The Natural History of Inbreeding and Outbreeding. Chicago: University of Chicago Press</ref> History Etymology The word 'incest' was introduced into Middle English around 1225 as a legal term to describe the crime of familial incest as it is known today. It was also used to describe sexual relations between married persons, one of whom had taken a vow of celibacy (often called spiritual incest). Online Etymology entry for 'incest' It derives from the Latin incestus or incestum, the substantive use of the adjective incestus meaning 'unchaste, impure', which itself is derived from the Latin castus meaning 'chaste'. The derived adjective incestuous does not appear until the 16th century. Oxford Concise Dictionary of Etymology, T.F. Hoad (ed.) (1996), p232 Prior to the introduction of the Latin term, incest was known in Old English as sibbleger (from sibb 'kinship' + leger 'to lie') or mǣġhǣmed (from mǣġ 'kin, parent' + hǣmed 'sexual intercourse') but in time, both words fell out of use. Ancient civilizations Table of prohibited marriages from The Trial of Bastardie by William Clerke. London, 1594. It is generally accepted that incestuous marriages were widespread at least during the Graeco-Roman period of Egyptian history. Numerous papyri and the Roman census declarations attest to many husbands and wives being brother and sister (Lewis, 1983; Bagnall and Frier, 1994; Shaw, 1993). In Hopkins (1980) this is conclusively demonstrated, and more recent scholars in the field have not questioned it. Some of these incestuous relationships were in the royal family, especially the Ptolemies (see the biography of Cleopatra VII, who married more than one of her brothers). The fable of Oedipus, with a theme of inadvertent incest between a mother and son, ends in disaster and shows ancient taboos against incest as Oedipus is punished for incestuous actions by blinding himself. In the "sequel" to Oedipus, Antigone, his four children are also punished for their parents having been incestuous. Incestuous unions were frowned upon and considered as nefas (against the laws of gods and man) in Roman times, and were explicitly forbidden by an imperial edict in AD 295, which divided the concept of incestus into two categories of unequal gravity: the incestus iuris gentium, which was applied to both Romans and non-Romans in the Empire, and the incestus iuris civilis, which concerned only Roman citizens. Therefore, for example, an Egyptian could marry an aunt, but a Roman could not. Despite the act of incest being unacceptable within the Roman Empire, Roman Emperor Caligula is rumored to have had open sexual relationships with all three of his sisters (Julia Livilla, Drusilla, and Agrippina the Younger). The taboo against incest in Ancient Rome is demonstrated by the fact that politicians would use charges of incest (often false charges) as insults and means of political disenfranchisement. Additionally, many European monarchs were related due to political marriages, sometimes resulting in distant cousins (and even first cousins) being married. This was especially true in the Habsburg, Hohenzollern and Bourbon dynasties. In ancient China, first cousins with the same surnames (i.e., those born to the father's brothers) were not permitted to marry, while those with different surnames (i.e., maternal cousins and paternal cousins born to the father's sisters) were. Laws regarding incest Incest is illegal in many jurisdictions. The exact legal definition of "incest," including the nature of the relationship between persons, and the types sexual activity, varies by country, and by even individual states or provinces within a country. These laws can also extend to marriage between said individuals. In some places, incest is illegal, regardless of the ages of the two partners. In other places, incestuous relationships between two consenting adults (with the age varying by location) are permitted. Religious views on incest Judeo-Christian The Book of Leviticus lists prohibitions against sexual relations between various pairs of family members. Men are prohibited, on pain of death, from having sexual relations with their daughters, sisters, mothers, aunts, and various other relations. (Father–daughter incest is covered by a prohibition on sexual relationships between a man and any daughter born to any woman he has had sexual relationships with, thereby prohibiting his incest not only with his own daughters but also with women who could be his stepdaughters by marriage.)() Several bishops in the Roman Catholic Church consider incest to be a less grave crime than abortion, and have recommended that girls who are raped by their parents to continue their pregnancy. This was notably the case in 2009 with archbishop José Cardoso Sobrinho in Brazil. Islam The Quran gives specific rules regarding incest, which prohibit a man from marrying or having sexual relationships with his mother, daughter, sister, paternal or maternal aunt, niece, a woman from whom he has nursed, a woman who has nursed from the same woman as he, his mother-in-law, the daughter of his wives with whom he has consummated the marriage, the wife of his biological son Sûrah an Nisa 4:23 , or his father's wife Surah an-Nisa 4:22 . It is also forbidden to be married to two sisters at the same time. According to a Hadith by prophet Muhammad, it is also prohibited to be married to a woman and her paternal or maternal aunt at the same time . The same applies for a woman with the male counterparts to the aforementioned. However, Islam allows for marriage with first cousins and beyond. Hinduism Hinduism speaks of incest in highly abhorrent terms. Hindus were greatly fearful of the bad effects of incest and thus practise to date strict rules of both endogamy and exogamy, that is, marriage in the same caste (Varna in Hinduism) but not in the same family tree (gotra) or bloodline (Parivara). Marriages within the gotra ("swagotra" marriages) are banned under the rule of exogamy in the traditional matrimonial system. People within the gotra are regarded as kin and marrying such a person would be thought of as incest. In some South Indian communities, where gotra membership passed from father to children, marriages were allowed between uncle and niece, while such marriages were forbidden in matrilineal communities, like Malayalis and Tuluvas, where gotra membership was passed down from the mother. A much more common characteristic of south Indian Hindu society is permission of marriage between cross-cousins (children of brother and sister). Thus, a man is allowed to marry his maternal uncle's daughter or his paternal aunt's daughter but is not allowed to marry his paternal uncle's daughter, a parallel cousin, who is treated as a sister. Buddhism Asian societies shaped by Buddhist traditions take a strong ethical stand in human affairs and sexual behavior in particular. In most of those societies, incest is regarded as highly abhorrent. However, unlike most other world religions, most variations of Buddhism do not go into details regarding what is right and what is wrong in mundane activities of life. Incest (or any other detail of human sexual conduct for that matter) is not specifically mentioned in any of the religious scriptures. The most common formulation of Buddhist ethics are the Five Precepts and the Eightfold Path, one should neither be attached to nor crave sensual pleasure. These precepts take the form of voluntary, personal undertakings, not divine mandate or instruction. The third of the Five Precepts is "To refrain from committing sexual misconduct". It is understandable that incest itself could constitute "sexual misconduct". 'Sexual misconduct' is a loose term, and is subjected to interpretation relative to the social norms of the followers. In fact, Buddhism in its fundamental form, does not define what is right and what is wrong in absolute terms for lay followers. Therefore the interpretation of whether incest for a layperson is right or wrong, is not a religious matter as far as Buddhism is concerned. See also Incest in folklore Notes References Adams, Kenneth, M., Silently Seduced: When Parents Make Their Children Their Partners, Understanding Covert Incest, HCI, 1992. Adams, Kenneth, M., When He's Married to His Mom: How to Help Mother-Enmeshed Men Open Their Hearts To True Love, Fireside, 2007. Anderson, Peter B., and Cindy Struckman-Johnson, Sexually Aggressive Women: Current Perspectives and Controversies, Guilford, 1998. Bagnall, Roger S. and Bruce W. Frier, The demography of Roman Egypt, Cambridge, 1994 Bixler, Ray H. (1982) "Comment on the Incidence and Purpose of Royal Sibling Incest," American Ethnologist, 9(3), August, pp. 580–582. Blume, E. Sue, Secret Survivors: Uncovering Incest and its Aftereffects in Women, Ballantine, 1991. DeMilly, Walter, In My Father's Arms: A True Story of Incest, University of Wisconsin Press, 1999. Murador, Gordan, "Just Curious and Incestuous - Two Best Friends Finding Out Their True Past", TTMFTW, 2008. Elliot, Michelle, Female Sexual Abuse of Children, Guilford, 1994. Goody, John (Jack Goody) (1956) A Comparative Approach to Incest and Adultery, The British Journal of Sociology, 7 (4), December, pp. 286–305 doi:10.2307/586694 Gil, Eliana, Treating Abused Adolescents, Guilford, 1996. Herman, Judith, Father-Daughter Incest, Harvard University Press, 1982. Hislop, Julia, "Female Sexual Offenders: What Therapists, Law Enforcement, and Child Protective Services Need to Know", Issues, 2001. Hopkins, Keith (1980) "Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 22: 303-354. Leavitt, G. C. (1990) "Sociobiological explanations of incest avoidance: A critical claim of evidential claims", American Anthropologist, 92: 971-993. Lew, Mike, Victims No Longer: Men Recovering from Incest and Other Sexual Child Abuse, Nevraumont, 1988. Lewis, Naphtali, Life in Egypt under Roman Rule, Oxford, 1983. Lobdell, William, "Missionary's Dark Legacy", Los Angeles Times, November 19, 2005, p. A1. Love, Pat, Emotional Incest Syndrome: What to Do When a Parent's Love Rules Your Life, Bantam, 1991. Méndez-Negrete, Josie, Las hijas de Juan: Daughters Betrayed, Duke University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-8223-3896-3. Miletski, Hani, Mother-Son Incest: The Unthinkable Broken Taboo, Safer Society, 1999. Miller, Alice, That Shalt Not Be Aware: Society's Betrayal of the Child, Farrar Strauss Giroux, 1983. Pryor, Douglass, Unspeakable Acts: Why Men Sexually Abuse Children, New York University Press, 1996. Rosencrans, Bobbie, and Eaun Bear, The Last Secret: Daughters Sexually Abused by Mothers, Safer Society, 1997. Scruton, Roger, Sexual Desire: A Moral Philosophy of the Erotic, Free Press, 1986. Shaw, Brent D., Explaining Incest: Brother-Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt, Man, New Series, 27(2), June 1992, pp. 267–299. JSTOR article Shaw, Risa, Not Child's Play: An Anthology on Brother-Sister Incest, Lunchbox, 2000. Tyldesley, Joyce, Ramesses: Egypt's Great Pharaoh, London, 2000. The New England Association for Women in Psychology. 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4,573 | Applied_ethics | Applied ethics is, in the words of Brenda Almond, co-founder of the Society for Applied Philosophy, "the philosophical examination, from a moral standpoint, of particular issues in private and public life that are matters of moral judgment". It is thus a term used to describe attempts to use philosophical methods to identify the morally correct course of action in various fields of human life. Bioethics, for example, is concerned with identifying the correct approach to matters such as euthanasia, or the allocation of scarce health resources, or the use of human embryos in research. Environmental ethics is concerned with questions such as the duties of humans towards landscapes or species. Business ethics concerns questions such as the limits on managers in the pursuit of profit, or the duty of 'whistleblowers' to the general public as opposed to their employers. As such, it is a study which is supposed to involve practitioners as much as professional philosophers. Brenda Almond, 'Applied Ethics', in Mautner, Thomas, Dictionary of Philosophy, Penguin 1996 Applied ethics is distinguished from normative ethics, which concerns what people should believe to be right and wrong, and from meta-ethics, which concerns the nature of moral statements. Modern approach Much of applied ethics is concerned with just three theories: 1) utilitarianism, where the practical consequences of various policies are evaluated on the assumption that the right policy will be the one which results in the greatest happiness, 2) notions based on 'rules,' and 3) an assumption that there is an obligation to perform the 'right' action, regardless of actual consequences, epitomized by Kant's notion of the Categorical Imperative, and virtue ethics, derived from Aristotle's and Confucius's notions, which asserts that the right action will be that chosen by a suitably 'virtuous' agent. One modern approach which attempts to overcome the seemingly impossible divide between deontology and utilitarianism is case-based reasoning, also known as casuistry. Casuistry does not begin with theory, rather it starts with the immediate facts of a real and concrete case. While casuistry makes use of ethical theory, it does not view ethical theory as the most important feature of moral reasoning. Casuists, like Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin (The Abuse of Casuistry 1988), challenge the traditional paradigm of applied ethics. Instead of starting from theory and applying theory to a particular case, casuists start with the particular case itself and then ask what morally significant features (including both theory and practical considerations) ought to be considered for that particular case. In their observations of medical ethics committees, Jonsen and Toulmin note that a consensus on particularly problematic moral cases often emerges when participants focus on the facts of the case, rather than on ideology or theory. Thus, a Rabbi, a Catholic priest, and an agnostic might agree that, in this particular case, the best approach is to withhold extraordinary medical care, while disagreeing on the reasons that support their individual positions. By focusing on cases and not on theory, those engaged in moral debate increase the possibility of agreement. List of subfields of applied ethics Bioethics Medical ethics Neuroethics Business ethics Hospitality ethics Environmental ethics (e.g. global warming) Human rights issues (e.g. gender ethics / sexism, classism, racism, Capital punishment) Animal rights issues Legal ethics Computer ethics Media ethics / journalism ethics Research ethics Marketing ethics Education ethics Sports ethics Military ethics (e.g. just war theory) International ethics (e.g. world hunger) Public administration ethics See also Ethics Ethical codes List of ethics topics Bibliography (monograph) Anthologies Journals Ethics (since 1890) The Journal of Ethics Journal of Applied Philosophy International Journal of Applied Philosophy International Journal of Philosophical Practice External links Rock Ethics Institute at Pennsylvania State University Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics at Australian National University, Charles Sturt University and University of Melbourne Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University W. Maurice Young Centre for Applied Ethics at the University of British Columbia Association for Practical and Professional Ethics at the University of Indiana Chris Young, How to teach an introduction to applied ethics HospitalityEthics.com References | Applied_ethics |@lemmatized apply:3 ethic:38 word:1 brenda:2 almond:2 co:1 founder:1 society:1 applied:11 philosophy:5 philosophical:3 examination:1 moral:6 standpoint:1 particular:5 issue:3 private:1 public:4 life:2 matter:2 judgment:1 thus:2 term:1 use:4 describe:1 attempt:2 method:1 identify:2 morally:2 correct:2 course:1 action:3 various:2 field:1 human:4 bioethics:2 example:1 concern:6 approach:4 euthanasia:1 allocation:1 scarce:1 health:1 resource:1 embryo:1 research:2 environmental:2 question:2 duty:2 towards:1 landscape:1 specie:1 business:2 limit:1 manager:1 pursuit:1 profit:1 whistleblower:1 general:1 oppose:1 employer:1 study:1 suppose:1 involve:1 practitioner:1 much:2 professional:2 philosopher:1 mautner:1 thomas:1 dictionary:1 penguin:1 distinguish:1 normative:1 people:1 believe:1 right:6 wrong:1 meta:1 nature:1 statement:1 modern:2 three:1 theory:10 utilitarianism:2 practical:3 consequence:2 policy:2 evaluate:1 assumption:2 one:2 result:1 great:1 happiness:1 notion:3 base:2 rule:1 obligation:1 perform:1 regardless:1 actual:1 epitomize:1 kant:1 categorical:1 imperative:1 virtue:1 derive:1 aristotle:1 confucius:1 assert:1 choose:1 suitably:1 virtuous:1 agent:1 overcome:1 seemingly:1 impossible:1 divide:1 deontology:1 case:9 reasoning:2 also:2 know:1 casuistry:4 begin:1 rather:2 start:3 immediate:1 fact:2 real:1 concrete:1 make:1 ethical:3 view:1 important:1 feature:2 casuist:2 like:1 albert:1 jonsen:2 stephen:1 toulmin:2 abuse:1 challenge:1 traditional:1 paradigm:1 instead:1 ask:1 significant:1 include:1 consideration:1 ought:1 consider:1 observation:1 medical:3 committee:1 note:1 consensus:1 particularly:1 problematic:1 often:1 emerge:1 participant:1 focus:2 ideology:1 rabbi:1 catholic:1 priest:1 agnostic:1 might:1 agree:1 best:1 withhold:1 extraordinary:1 care:1 disagree:1 reason:1 support:1 individual:1 position:1 engage:1 debate:1 increase:1 possibility:1 agreement:1 list:2 subfields:1 neuroethics:1 hospitality:1 e:4 g:4 global:1 warming:1 gender:1 sexism:1 classism:1 racism:1 capital:1 punishment:1 animal:1 legal:1 computer:1 medium:1 journalism:1 market:1 education:1 sport:1 military:1 war:1 international:3 world:1 hunger:1 administration:1 see:1 code:1 topic:1 bibliography:1 monograph:1 anthologies:1 journal:5 since:1 practice:1 external:1 link:1 rock:1 institute:1 pennsylvania:1 state:1 university:7 centre:2 australian:1 national:1 charles:1 sturt:1 melbourne:1 markkula:1 center:1 santa:1 clara:1 w:1 maurice:1 young:2 british:1 columbia:1 association:1 indiana:1 chris:1 teach:1 introduction:1 hospitalityethics:1 com:1 reference:1 |@bigram applied_ethic:7 normative_ethic:1 meta_ethic:1 categorical_imperative:1 albert_jonsen:1 stephen_toulmin:1 abuse_casuistry:1 global_warming:1 external_link:1 charles_sturt:1 santa_clara:1 |
4,574 | Paleontology | Preparation of the fossilized bones of Europasaurus holgeri Paleontology (British: palaeontology) from Greek: παλαιός (palaeos) "old, ancient", ὄν, ὀντ- (on, ont-) "being, creature", and λόγος (logos) "speech, thought" is the study of prehistoric life, including organisms' evolution and interactions with each other and their environments (their paleoecology). As a "historical science" it tries to explain causes rather than conduct experiments to observe effects. Paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th century BC. The science became established in the 18th century as a result of Georges Cuvier's work on comparative anatomy, and developed rapidly in the 19th century. Fossils found in China since the 1990s have provided new information about the earliest evolution of animals, early fish, dinosaurs and the evolution of birds and mammals. Paleontology lies on the border between biology and geology, and shares with archeology a border that is difficult to define. It now uses techniques drawn from a wide range of sciences, including biochemistry, mathematics and engineering. As knowledge has increased, paleontology has developed specialized subdivisions, some of which focus on different types of fossil organisms while others study ecological and environmental history, such as ancient climates. Body fossils and trace fossils are the principal types of evidence about ancient life, and geochemical evidence has helped to decipher the evolution of life before there were organisms large enough to leave fossils. Estimating the dates of these remains is essential but difficult: sometimes adjacent rock layers allow radiometric dating, which provide absolute dates that are accurate to within 0.5%, but more often paleontologists have to rely on relative dating by solving the "jigsaw puzzles" of biostratigraphy. Classifying ancient organisms is also difficult, as many do not fit well into the Linnean taxonomy that is commonly used for classifying living organisms, and paleontologists more often use cladistics to draw up evolutionary "family trees". The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of molecular phylogenetics, which investigates how closely organisms are related by measuring how similar the DNA is in their genomes. Molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged, but there is controversy about the reliability of the molecular clock on which such estimates depend. Use of all these techniques has enabled paleontologists to discover much of the evolutionary history of life, almost all the way back to when Earth became capable of supporting life, about . For about half of that time the only life was single-celled micro-organisms, mostly in microbial mats that formed ecosystems only a few millimeters thick. Earth's atmosphere originally contained virtually no oxygen, and its oxygenation began about . This may have caused an accelerating increase in the diversity and complexity of life, and early multicellular plants and fungi have been found in rocks dated from . The earliest multicellular animal fossils are much later, from about , but animals diversified very rapidly and there is a lively debate about whether most of this happened in a relatively short Cambrian explosion or started earlier but has been hidden by lack of fossils. All of these organisms lived in water, but plants and invertebrates started colonizing land from about and vertebrates followed them about . The first dinosaurs appeared about and birds evolved from one dinosaur group about . During the time of the dinosaurs, mammals' ancestors survived only as small, mainly nocturnal insectivores, but after the non-avian dinosaurs became extinct in the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event mammals diversified rapidly. Flowering plants appeared and rapidly diversified between 130 million years ago and 90 million years ago, possibly helped by coevolution with pollinating insects. Social insects appeared around the same time and, although they have relatively few species, now form over 50% of the total mass of all insects. Humans evolved from a lineage of upright-walking apes that appeared , and anatomically modern humans appeared under 200,000 years ago. The course of evolution has been changed several times by mass extinctions that wiped out previously dominant groups and allowed other to rise from obscurity to become major components of ecosystems. Definition A paleontologist carefully chips rock from a column of dinosaur vertebrae. The simplest definition is "the study of ancient life" Paleontology seeks information about several aspects of past organisms: "their identity and origin, their environment and evolution, and what they can tell us about the Earth's organic and inorganic past". A historical science Paleontology is one of the "historical sciences", along with archaeology, geology, biology, astronomy, cosmogony, philology and history itself. This means that it aims to describe phenomena of the past and reconstruct their causes. Hence it has three main elements: description of the phenomena; developing a general theory about the causes of various types of change; and applying those theories to specific facts. When trying to explain past phenomena, paleontologists and other historical scientists often construct a set of hypotheses about the causes and then look for a "smoking gun", a piece of evidence which indicates that one of the hypotheses is a better explanation than the others. Sometimes the "smoking gun" is discovered by a fortunate accident during other research, for example the discovery by Luis Alvarez and Walter Alvarez of an iridium-rich layer at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary made asteroid impact and volcanism the most favored explanations for the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event. The other main type of science is experimental science, which is often said to work by conducting experiments to disprove hypotheses about the workings and causes of natural phenomena – note that this approach cannot prove a hypothesis is correct, since some later experiment may disprove it. However, when confronted with totally unexpected phenomena, such as the first evidence for invisible radiation, experimental scientists often use the same approach as historical scientists: construct a set of hypotheses about the causes and then look for a "smoking gun". Related sciences Paleontology lies on the boundary between biology and geology since paleontology focuses on the record of past life in fossils, its main source of evidence, which are found in rocks. For historical reasons paleontology is part of the geology departments of many universities, because in the 19th and early 20th centuries geology departments found paleontological evidence important for estimating the ages of rocks while biology departments showed little interest. Paleontology also has some overlap with archaeology, which primarily works with objects made by humans and with human remains, while paleontologists are interested in the characteristics and evolution of humans as organisms. When dealing with evidence about humans, archaeologists and paleontologists may work together – for example paleontologists might identify animal or plant fossils around an archaeological site, to discover what the people who lived there ate; or they might analyze the climate at the time when the site was inhabited by humans. thumb | right | 175px | Analyses using engineering techniques show that Tyrannosaurus had a devastating bite, but raise doubts about how fast it could move. In addition paleontology often uses techniques derived from other sciences, including biology, ecology, chemistry, physics and mathematics. For example geochemical signatures from rocks may help to discover when life first arose on Earth, and analyses of carbon isotope ratios may help to identify climate changes and even to explain major transitions such as the Permian–Triassic extinction event. A relatively recent discipline, molecular phylogenetics, often helps by using comparisons of different modern organisms' DNA and RNA to re-construct evolutionary "family trees"; it has also been used to estimate the dates of important evolutionary developments, although this approach is controversial because of doubts about the reliability of the "molecular clock". Techniques developed in engineering have been used to analyse how ancient organisms might have worked, for example how fast Tyrannosaurus could move and how powerful its bite was. Summary in press release No Olympian: Analysis hints T. rex ran slowly, if at all Paleontology even contributes to astrobiology, the investigation of possible life on other planets, by developing models of how life may have arisen and by providing techniques for detecting evidence of life. Subdivisions As knowledge has increased, paleontology has developed specialised subdivisons. Vertebrate paleontology concentrates on fossils of vertebrates, from the earliest fish to the immediate ancestors of modern mammals. Invertebrate paleontology deals with fossils of invertebrates such as molluscs, arthropods, annelid worms and echinoderms. Paleobotany focuses on the study of fossil plants, but traditionally includes the study of fossil algae and fungi. Palynology, the study of pollen and spores produced by land plants and protists, straddles the border between paleontology and botany, as it deals with both living and fossil organisms. Micropaleontology deals with all microscopic fossil organisms, regardless of the group to which they belong. right | 250px | In the Carboniferous period, the continents were not in the same places as they are today, and there was extensive glaciation. Instead of focusing on individual organisms, paleoecology examines the interactions between different organisms, such as their places in food chains, and the two-way interaction between organisms and their environment – for example the development of oxygenic photosynthesis by bacteria hugely increased the productivity and diversity of ecosystems, and also caused the oxygenation of the atmosphere, which in turn was a prerequisite for the evolution of the most complex eucaryotic cells, from which all multicellular organisms are built. Paleoclimatology, although sometimes treated as part of paleoecology, focuses more on the history of Earth's climate and the mechanisms which have changed it – which have sometimes included evolutionary developments, for example the rapid expansion of land plants in the Devonian period removed more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, reducing the greenhouse effect and thus helping to cause an ice age in the Carboniferous period. Biostratigraphy, the use of fossils to work out the chronological order in which rocks were formed, is useful to both paleontologists and geologists. Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms, and is also linked to geology, which explains how Earth's geography has changed over time. Sources of evidence Body fossils This Marrella specimen illustrates how clear and detailed the fossils from the Burgess Shale lagerstätte are. Fossils of organisms' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence. The most common types are wood, bones, and shells. Fossilisation is a rare event, and most fossils are destroyed by erosion or metamorphism before they can be observed. Hence the fossil record is very incomplete, increasingly so further back in time. Despite this, it is often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life's history. Non-technical summary There are also biases in the fossil record: different environments are more favourable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms. Further, only the parts of organisms that were already mineralised are usually preserved, such as the shells of molluscs. Since most animal species are soft-bodied, they decay before they can become fossilised. As a result, although there are 30-plus phyla of living animals, two-thirds have never been found as fossils. Occasionally, unusual environments may preserve soft tissues. These lagerstätten allow paleontologists to examine the internal anatomy of animals that in other sediments are only represented by shells, spines, claws, etc – if they are preserved at all. However, even lagerstätten present an incomplete picture of life at the time. The majority of organisms living at the time are probably not represented because lagerstätten are restricted to a narrow range of environments, e.g. where soft-bodied organisms can be preserved very quickly by events such as mudslides; and the exceptional events that cause quick burial make it difficult to study the normal environments of the animals. The sparseness of the fossil record means that organisms are expected to exist long before and after they are found in the fossil record - this is known as the Signor-Lipps effect. Trace fossils Trace fossil of the type called Cruziana, possibly made by a trilobite. Trace fossils consist mainly of tracks and burrows, but also include coprolites (fossil feces) and marks left by feeding. Trace fossils are particularly significant because they represent a data source that is not limited to animals with easily-fossilized hard parts, and which reflects organisms' behaviour. Also many traces date from significantly earlier than the body fossils of animals that are thought to have been capable of making them. e.g. Whilst exact assignment of trace fossils to their makers is generally impossible, traces may for example provide the earliest physical evidence of the appearance of moderately complex animals (comparable to earthworms). Geochemical observations Geochemical observations may help to deduce the global level of biological activity, or the affinity of a certain fossil. For example geochemical features of rocks may reveal when life first arose on Earth, and may provide evidence of the presence of eucaryotic cells, the type from which all multicellular organisms are built. Analyses of carbon isotope ratios may help to explain major transitions such as the Permian–Triassic extinction event. Classifying ancient organisms Simple example cladogram. Warm-bloodedness evolved somewhere in thesynapsid-mammal transition. ? Warm-bloodedness must also have evolved at one of these points - an example of convergent evolution. thumb | left | 100px | Levels in the Linnean taxonomy. Naming groups of organisms in a way that is clear and widely agreed is important, as some disputes in palaeontology have just been based on misunderstandings over names. Linnean taxonomy is commonly used for classifying living organisms, but runs into difficulties when dealing with newly-discovered organisms that are significantly different from known ones. For example: it is hard to decide at what level to place a new higher-level grouping, e.g. genus or family or order; this is important since the Linnean rules for naming groups are tied to their levels, and hence if a group is moved to a different level it has to be renamed. Paleontologists generally use approaches based on cladistics, a technique for working out the evolutionary "family tree" of a set of organisms. It works by the logic that, if groups B and C have more similarities to each other than either has to group A, then B and C are more closely related to each other than either is to A. Characters that are compared may be anatomical, such as the presence of a notochord, or molecular, by comparing sequences of DNA or proteins. The result of a successful analysis is a hierarchy of clades – groups that share a common ancestor. Ideally the "family tree" has only two branches leading from each node ("junction"), but sometimes there is too little information to achieve this and paleontologists have to make do with junctions that have several branches. The cladistic technique is sometimes fallible, as some features, such as wings or camera eyes, evolved more than once, convergently – this must be taken into account in analyses. Evolutionary developmental biology, commonly abbreviated to "Evo Devo", also helps paleontologists to produce "family trees". For example the embryological development of some modern brachiopods suggests that brachiopods may be descendants of the halkieriids, which became extinct in the Cambrian period. Estimating the dates of organisms Paleontology seeks to map out how living things have changed through time. A substantial hurdle to this aim is the difficulty of working out how old fossils are. Beds which preserve fossils typically lack the radioactive elements needed for radiometric dating. This technique is our only means of giving rocks greater than about 50 million years old an absolute age, and can be accurate to within 0.5% or better. Although radiometric dating requires very careful laboratory work, its basic principle is simple: the rates at which various radioactive elements decay are known, so the ratio of the radioactive element to the element into which it decays shows how long ago the radioactive element was incorporated into the rock. Radioactive elements are only common in rocks with a volcanic origin, so the only fossil-bearing rocks that can be dated radiometrically are a few volcanic ash layers. Consequently, palaeontologists must usually rely on stratigraphy to date fossils. Stratigraphy is the science of deciphering the "layer-cake" that is the sedimentary record, and has been compared to a jigsaw puzzle. Rocks normally form relatively horizontal layers, with each layer younger than the one underneath it. If a fossil is found between two layers whose ages are known, the fossil's age must lie between the two known ages. Because rock sequences are not continuous, but may be broken up by faults or periods of erosion, it is very difficult to match up rock beds that are not directly next to one another. However, fossils of species that survived for a relatively short time can be used to link up isolated rocks: this technique is called biostratigraphy. For instance, the conodont Eoplacognathus pseudoplanus has a short range in the Middle Ordovician period. If rocks of unknown age are found to have traces of E. pseudoplanus, they must have a mid-Ordovician age. Such index fossils must be distinctive, globally distributed and have a short time range to be useful. However, misleading results are produced if the index fossils turn out to have longer fossil ranges than first thought. Stratigraphy and biostratigraphy can in general provide only relative dating (A was before B), which is often sufficient for studying evolution. However, this is difficult for some time periods, because of the problems involved in matching up rocks of the same age across different continents. e.g. Family tree relationships may also help to narrow down the date on which lineages first appeared. For instance, if fossils of B or C date to X million years ago and the calculated "family tree" says A was an ancestor of B and C, then A must have evolved more than X million years ago. It is also possible to estimate how long ago two living clades diverged – i.e. approximately how long ago their last common ancestor must have lived – by assuming that DNA mutations accumulate at a constant rate. These "molecular clocks", however, are fallible, and provide only a very approximate timing: for example they are not sufficiently precise and reliable for estimating when the groups that feature in the Cambrian explosion first evolved, and estimates produced by different techniques may vary by a factor of two. Overview of the history of life The evolutionary history of life stretches back to over , possibly as far as . Earth formed about and, after a collision that formed the Moon about 40 million years later, may have cooled quickly enough to have oceans and an atmosphere about . * * However there is evidence on the Moon of a Late Heavy Bombardment from . If, as seem likely, such a bombardment struck Earth at the same time, the first atmosphere and oceans may have been stripped away. The oldest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates to , although there have been reports, often disputed, of fossil bacteria from and of geochemical evidence for the presence of life . Even the simplest modern organisms are too complex to have emerged directly from non-living materials. Some scientists have proposed that life on Earth was "seeded" from elsewhere, * Reprinted in * * but most research concentrates on various explanations of how life could have arisen independently on Earth. This wrinkled "elephant skin" texture is a trace fossil of a non-stromatolite microbial mat.The image shows the location, in the Burgsvik beds of Sweden, where the texture was first identified as evidence of a microbial mat. For about 2,000 million years microbial mats, multi-layered colonies of different types of bacteria, were the dominant life on Earth. The evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis enabled them to play the major role in the oxygenation of the atmosphere. from about . This change in the atmosphere increased their effectiveness as nurseries of evolution. While eukaryotes, cells with complex internal structures, may have been present earlier, their evolution speeded up when they acquired the ability to transform oxygen from a poison to a powerful source of energy in their metabolism. This innovation may have come from primitive eukaryotes capturing oxygen-powered bacteria as endosymbionts and transforming them into organelles called mitochondria. The earliest evidence of complex eukaryotes with organelles such as mitochondria, dates from . Multicellular life is composed only of eukaryotic cells, and the earliest evidence for it is from , although specialization of cells for different functions first appears between (a possible fungus) and (a probable red alga). Sexual reproduction may be a prerequisite for specialization of cells, as an asexual multicellular organism might be at risk of being taken over by rogue cells that retain the ability to reproduce. thumb | left| 150px | Opabinia made the largest single contribution to modern interest in the Cambrian explosion The earliest known animals are cnidarians from about , but these are so modern-looking that the earliest animals must have appeared before then. Early fossils of animals are rare because they did not develop mineralized hard parts that fossilize easily until about . The earliest modern-looking bilaterian animals appear in the Early Cambrian, along with several "weird wonders" that bear little obvious resemblance to any modern animals. There is a long-running debate about whether this Cambrian explosion was truly a very rapid period of evolutionary experimentation; alternative views are that modern-looking animals began evolving earlier but fossils of their precursors have not yet been found, or that the "weird wonders" are evolutionary "aunts" and "cousins" of modern groups. Vertebrates remained an obscure group until the first fish with jaws appeared in the Late Ordovician. The spread of life from water to land required organisms to solve several problems, including protection against drying out and supporting themselves against gravity. The earliest evidence of land plants and land invertebrates date back to about and respectively. The lineage that produced land vertebrates evolved later but very rapidly between and ; recent discoveries have overturned earlier ideas about the history and driving forces behind their evolution. Land plants were so successful that they caused an ecological crisis in the Late Devonian, until the evolution and spread of fungi that could digest dead wood. thumb| 150px | The Early Cretaceous Yanoconodon was only about long, but was longer than the average mammal of its time. Birds are the last surviving dinosaurs.During the Permian period synapsids, including the ancestors of mammals, may have dominated land environments, but the Permian–Triassic extinction event came very close to wiping out complex life. During the slow recovery from this catastrophe a previously obscure group, archosaurs, became the most abundant and diverse terrestrial vertebrates. One archosaur group, the dinosaurs, were the dominant land vertebrates for the rest of the Mesozoic, and birds evolved from one group of dinosaurs. During this time mammals' ancestors survived only as small, mainly nocturnal insectivores, but this apparent set-back may have accelerated the development of mammalian traits such as endothermy and hair. After the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event killed off the non-avian dinosaurs – birds are the only surviving dinosaurs – mammals increased rapidly in size and diversity, and some took to the air and the sea. A modern social insect collects pollen from a modern flowering plant. Fossil evidence indicates that flowering plants appeared and rapidly diversified in the Early Cretaceous, between and . Their rapid rise to dominance of terrestrial ecosystems is thought to have been propelled by coevolution with pollinating insects. Social insects appeared around the same time and, although they account for only small parts of the insect "family tree", now form over 50% of the total mass of all insects. Humans evolved from a lineage of upright-walking apes whose earliest fossils date from over . Although early members of this lineage had chimp-sized brains, about 25% as big as modern humans', there are signs of a steady increase in brain size after about . There is a long-running debate about whether modern humans are descendants of a single small population in Africa, which then migrated all over the world less than 200,000 years ago and replaced previous hominine species, or arose worldwide at the same time as a result of interbreeding. Mass extinctions Life on earth has suffered occasional mass extinctions at least since . Although they are disasters at the time, mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated the evolution of life on earth. When dominance of particular ecological niches passes from one group of organisms to another, it is rarely because the new dominant group is "superior" to the old and usually because an extinction event eliminates the old dominant group and makes way for the new one. The fossil record appears to show that the rate of extinction is slowing down, with both the gaps between mass extinctions becoming longer and the average and background rates of extinction decreasing. However, it is not certain if the actual rate of extinction has altered, since both of these observations could be explained in several ways: The oceans may have become more hospitable to life over the last 500 million years and less vulnerable to mass extinctions: dissolved oxygen became more widespread and penetrated to greater depths; the development of life on land reduced the run-off of nutrients and hence the risk of eutrophication and anoxic events; and marine ecosystems became more diversified so that food chains were less likely to be disrupted. Reasonably complete fossils are very rare, most extinct organisms are represented only by partial fossils, and complete fossils are rarest in the oldest rocks. So paleontologists have mistakenly assigned parts of the same organism to different genera which were often defined solely to accommodate these finds – the story of Anomalocaris is an example of this. The risk of this mistake is higher for older fossils because these are often unlike parts of any living organism. Many of the "superfluous" genera are represented by fragments which are not found again and the "superfluous" genera appear to become extinct very quickly. Biodiversity in the fossil record, which is "the number of distinct genera alive at any given time; that is, those whose first occurrence predates and whose last occurrence postdates that time" shows a different trend: a fairly swift rise from ; a slight decline from , in which the devastating Permian–Triassic extinction event is an important factor; and a swift rise from to the present. This illustration of an Indian elephant jaw and a mammoth jaw is from Cuvier's 1796 paper on living and fossil elephants. History of paleontology Although palaeontology become established around 1800, earlier thinkers had noticed aspects of the fossil record. The ancient Greek philosopher Xenophanes (570-480 BC) concluded from fossil sea shells that some areas of land were once under water. During the Middle Ages the Persian naturalist Ibn Sina, known as Avicenna in Europe, discussed fossils and proposed a theory of petrifying fluids that Albert of Saxony elaborated on in the 14th century. The Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo (1031-1095) proposed a theory of climate change based on the presence of petrified bamboo in regions that in his time were too dry for bamboo. In early modern Europe, the systematic study of fossils emerged as an integral part of the changes in natural philosophy that occurred during the Age of Reason. At the end of the 18th century Georges Cuvier's work established comparative anatomy as a scientific discipline and, by proving that some fossil animals resembled no living ones, demonstrated that animals could become extinct and led to the emergence of paleontology. The expanding knowledge of the fossil record also played an increasing role in the development of geology, particularly stratigraphy. The first half of the 19th century saw geological and paleontological activity become increasingly well organized with the growth of geologic societies and museums, and an increasing number of professional geologists and fossil specialists. Interest increased for reasons that were not purely scientific, as geology and paleontology helped industrialists to find and exploit natural resources such as coal. This contributed to a rapid increase in knowledge about the history of life on Earth and to progress in the definition of the geologic time scale, largely based on fossil evidence. In 1822 Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blanville, editor of Journal de Phisique, coined the word "paleontology" to refer to the study of ancient living organisms through fossils. As knowledge of life's history continued to improve, it became increasingly obvious that there had been some kind of successive order to the development of life. This would encourage early evolutionary theories on the transmutation of species. After Charles Darwin published Origin of Species in 1859, much of the focus of paleontology shifted to understanding evolutionary paths, including human evolution, and evolutionary theory. thumb | right | 200px | Haikouichthys, from about in China, may be the earliest known fish. The last half of the 19th century saw a tremendous expansion in paleontological activity, especially in North America. The trend continued in the 20th century with additional regions of the Earth being opened to systematic fossil collection. Fossils found in China near the end of the 20th century have been particularly important as they have provided new information about the earliest evolution of animals, early fish, dinosaurs and the evolution of birds. The last few decades of the 20th century saw a renewed interest in mass extinctions and their role in the evolution of life on Earth. There was also a renewed interest in the Cambrian explosion that apparently saw the development of the body plans of most animal phyla. The discovery of fossils of the Ediacaran biota and developments in paleobiology extended knowledge about the history of life back far before the Cambrian. Increasing awareness of Gregor Mendel's pioneering work in genetics led first to the development of population genetics and then in the mid-20th century to the modern evolutionary synthesis, which explains evolution as the outcome of events such as mutations and horizontal gene transfer providing genetic variation, with genetic drift and natural selection driving changes in this variation over time. Within the next few years the role and operation of DNA in genetic inheritance were discovered, leading to what is now known as the "Central Dogma" of molecular biology. In the 1960s molecular phylogenetics, the investigation of evolutionary "family trees" by techniques derived from biochemistry, began to make an impact, particularly when it was proposed that the human lineage had diverged from apes much more recently than was generally thought at the time. Although this early study compared proteins from apes and humans, most molecular phylogenetics research is now based on comparisons of RNA and DNA. See also Timeline of paleontology Important publications in paleontology Fossils History of paleontology Evolutionary history of life Geology Dinosaurs Radiometric dating Fossil collecting List of transitional fossils List of notable fossils List of fossil sites (with link directory) Notes References External links Smithsonian's Paleobiology website: a good introduction University of California Museum of Paleontology FAQ About Paleontology The Paleontological Society The Palaeontological Association The Paleontology Portal International Palaeoentomological Society | Paleontology |@lemmatized preparation:1 fossilized:1 bone:2 europasaurus:1 holgeri:1 paleontology:27 british:1 palaeontology:3 greek:2 παλαιός:1 palaeos:1 old:8 ancient:9 ὄν:1 ὀντ:1 ont:1 creature:1 λόγος:1 logo:1 speech:1 think:4 study:12 prehistoric:1 life:36 include:9 organism:41 evolution:21 interaction:3 environment:8 paleoecology:3 historical:6 science:10 try:2 explain:7 cause:11 rather:1 conduct:2 experiment:3 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4,575 | Finnish_Defence_Forces | The Finnish Defence Forces are responsible for defence of Finland. It is a cadre army of 16,500, of which 8,700 are professional soldiers (officers), extended with conscripts and reservists such that the standard readiness strength is 34,700 people in uniform (27,300 Army, 3,000 Navy, and 4,400 Air Force). A universal male conscription is in place, under which all men above 18 years of age serve for 6, 9 or 12 months. Alternative non-military service and volunteer service by women (about 500 chosen annually <Women's voluntary service (in Finnish) ) are possible. Finland is the only non-NATO EU country bordering Russia. Finland's official policy states that the 350,000 reservists with mostly ground weaponry are a sufficient deterrent. The army consists of a highly mobile field army backed up by local defence units. The army defends the national territory and its military strategy employs the use of the heavily forested terrain and numerous lakes to wear down an aggressor, instead of attempting to hold the attacking army on the frontier. Jane's World Armies: Finland Military experts call for common defense, but are careful to avoid politics. Finland's defence budget equals about 2 billion euro or 1.4-1.6 percent of the GDP. The voluntary overseas service is highly popular and troops serve around the world in UN, NATO and EU missions. Homeland defence willingness stands at around 80%, one of the highest rates in Europe. Organization The Finnish Defence Forces are under the command of the Chief of Defence (currently Admiral Juhani Kaskeala), who is directly subordinate to the President of the Republic in matters related to the military command. Apart from the General Staff, the military branches are the Finnish Army (Maavoimat), the Finnish Navy (Merivoimat) and the Finnish Air Force (Ilmavoimat). The Border Guard (Rajavartiolaitos) (including the coast guard) is under the Ministry of the Interior but can be incorporated fully or in part into the defence forces when required by defence readiness. The Army is divided into four military provinces () (Southern, Western, Eastern and Northern) which bear the command responsibility for all brigade-level units and military districts. Subordinated to the military provinces, there are 19 military districts (), which are responsible for carrying out conscription, training and activating of reservists and planning and executing territorial defence of their areas. Three of the military districts are called territorial military provinces (), but it is unclear what is the difference between them and usual military districts. All logistical duties of the Army are carried out by the Army Materiel Command (), which has one Logistics Regiment for each military province. The Navy consists of headquarters, supporting elements and two maritime commands (): Archipelago Sea and Gulf of Finland maritime commands. These commands are brigade-level units responsible for conscript training and the integrity of Finland's territorial waters. They include both ship and coastal units. The Air Force consists of headquarters, supporting elements and three air commands (): Satakunta, Lapland and Karelian Air Commands. They are responsible for securing the integrity of the Finnish airspace during peace and for conducting aerial warfare independently during a crisis. In the beginning of January 2008, the Finnish Army organization was overhauled. The three Army commands and the 12 military provinces were replaced by four new operative military provinces, 3 territorial military provinces and 18 military districts. In the new system, the operative military provinces form the operative reqional headquarters, each consisting of several brigades, while the territorial military provinces and military districts conduct conscription, train and manage the reserve, found the bulk of crisis-time units, and take care of the local defence. Each military district has its civilian counterpart among the regions of Finland, which facilitates the civilian-military cooperation in total defence. The military training of the reservists is primarily the duty of the Defence Forces, but it is assisted by the National Defence Training Association of Finland (). The association provides reservists with personal, squad and platoon level military training. In the training, most of the instructors are volunteers, but when Defence Forces materiel is used, the training always takes place under the direct supervision of career military personnel. In addition, the Defence Forces support the voluntary training by providing instructors and giving logistical support. On the other hand, the Defence Forces may request the association to run specialized courses for personnel placed in reserve units. From the beginning of year 2008, the legislation concerning the association will require that the chairman and the majority of the members of its board are chosen by the Finnish Council of State. The other board members are chosen by NGOs active in the national defence. Military Service Finnish conscripts swearing their military oath at the end of their basic training period. The Finnish defence forces is based on a universal male conscription. All men above 18 years of age are liable to serve either 6, 9 or 12 months. Yearly about 27,000 conscripts are trained. 80% of the males complete the service. The conscripts first receive basic training, after which they are assigned to various units for special training. Privates who are trained for tasks not requiring special skills serve for 6 months. In technically demanding tasks the time of service is 9, or in some cases 12 months. Those selected for NCO (non-commisioned officer) or officer training serve 12 months. At the completion of the service, the conscripts receive a reserve military rank of private, lance corporal, corporal, sergeant or second lieutenant, depending on their training and accomplishments. The Finnish legislation concerning conscription has been completely overhauled in 2007. The new legislation which has already been approved by the Parliament of Finland will, most likely, come into force 1-1-2008. No changes are made to the service periods, which are given in Conscription Act (452/1950), 5§ and in the new Conscription Act, 37§. (Both laws in Finnish) After their military service, the conscripts are placed in reserve until the end of their 50th or 60th living year, depending on their military rank. During their time in reserve, the reservists are liable to participate in military refresher exercises for a total of 40, 75 or 100 days, depending on their military rank. In addition, all reservists are liable for activation in a situation where the military threat against Finland has seriously increased, in full or partial mobilization or in a large-scale disaster or a virulent epidemic. The males who do not belong to the reserve may only be activated in case of full mobilization, and those rank-and-file personnel who have fulfilled 50 years of age only with a specific parliamentary decision. The reserve obligation is listed in the §§6–7 of the Conscription Act (452/1950) () and in §§49–50 of the new Conscription Act (. The old Conscription Act mandates the activation of the reserve only in case of full or partial mobilization (§10). The new Conscription Act allows for selective activation of reservists even in situations which do not require even partial mobilization (§§78–89). Military service can be started after turning 18. The service can be delayed due to studies, work or other personal reasons until the 28th birthday, but these reasons do not result in exemptions. In addition to lodging, food, clothes and health care the conscripts receive between 3.8 and 9 euros per day, depending on the time they have served. The state also pays for their rent and electricity bills. If the conscripts have families, they are entitled to benefits as well. It is illegal to fire an employee due to military service or due to a refresher exercise or activation. Voluntary females in military service receive a small additional benefit, because they are expected to provide their own underwear and other personal items. Finnish conscripts in a training exercise, marching with a heavy recoilless rifle. Image from 1997. The military service consists of lessons, practical training, various cleaning and maintenance duties and field exercises. The wake-up call is usually at 6 o'clock and the day's service lasts for 12 hours, including meals and some breaks. In the evening there are a few hours of free time. Roll call is at 9 o'clock in the evening, and at 10 o'clock silence is announced, after which no noise can be made. Most weekends conscripts can leave the barracks on Friday and are expected to return by midnight on Sunday. A small force of conscripts are kept in readiness on weekends to aid civil agencies in various types of emergency situations, to guard the premises and to maintain defence in case of a sudden military emergency. Field exercises can go on regardless of the time of day or week. Figure illustrating the organization of Finnish conscript training The training of conscripts is based on joukkotuotanto-principle (lit. English troop production). In this system, 80% of the conscripts train to fulfill a specific role in a specific war-time military unit. Each brigade-level unit has a responsibility of producing specified reserve units from the conscripts it has been allocated. As the reservists are discharged, they receive a specific war-time placement in the unit with which they have trained during their conscription. As the conscripts age, their unit is given new, different tasks and materiel. Typically, reservists are placed for the first five years in first-line units, then moved to military formations with less demanding tasks, while the reservists unable to serve in the unit are substituted with reservists from the reserve without specific placement. In refresher exercises, the unit is then given a new training for these duties, if the defence funding permits this. Asevelvollisen pitkä marssi Ruotuväki 9/2004. Retrieved 11-19-2007. The cited source includes a very good overview of the system, paraphrased here. The inhabitants of the demilitarized Åland islands are exempt from military service. By the Conscription act of 1950, they are however required to serve a time at a local institution, like the coast guard instead. However, until such service has been arranged, they are freed from service obligation. The non-military service of Åland islands has not been arranged since the introduction of the act, and there are no plans to institute it. The inhabitants of Åland islands can also volunteer for military service on the mainland. Also exempt from military service are the Jehovah's Witnesses. It is also possible to serve either weapon-free military service of 270 or 362 days or undergo a 12-month-long non-military service. Finnish law requires that men, who do not want to serve the defense of the country in any capacity (so-called total objectors) be sentenced to a prison term of 197 days. As of 1995, women were permitted to serve on a voluntary basis and pursue careers as officers. Military ranks Finnish Navy Chief Warrant Officer (machine branch). The Finnish military ranks follow the Western usage in the officer ranks. As a Finnish peculiarity, the rank of lieutenant has three grades: 2nd lieutenant, lieutenant and senior lieutenant. Finnish Defence Forces: Insignia of rank Retrieved 2/14/2007 The 2nd lieutenant is a reserve officer rank, active personnel beginning their service as 1st lieutenants. The basic structure of the NCO ranks is a variant of the German rank structure, but the rank system has some peculiarities due to different personnel groups. The duties carried out by NCOs in most Western armed forces are carried out by warrant officers serving in the ranks from lieutenant to captain career NCOs serving in the ranks from enlistee (sotilasammattihenkilö), sergeant, staff sergeant, warrant officer, senior warrant officer and chief warrant officer (sotilasmestari) contractual military personnel (sopimussotilas) serving in the ranks of lance corporal, corporal, sergeant and 2nd lieutenant (reserve officers) conscripts in the ranks of corporal, officer student, sergeant and officer cadet. In a case of war, most of the NCO duties would be carried out by reserve NCOs who have received their training during conscription. The rank and file of the Finnish Defence Forces is composed of conscripts serving in the ranks of private, lance corporal and NCO student. History The Finnish Defence Forces traces back its roots to the time of the Swedish Empire, when Finnish troops were part of the Swedish Army and fought many wars in Northern Europe. Finland was established as an autonomous Grand Duchy of Russia after 1809, where after the Swedish allotment system conscription was ended and only a few all-volunteer units were maintained by the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. Only during the Crimean War was the allotment system reintroduced. The allotment system was finally abolished in 1867. In 1878, Russia allowed Finland to establish a conscription system of its own. The Military of the Grand Duchy of Finland consisted of eight conscripted sharp-shooter battalions and existed from 1881 until 1903. The Finnish military was commanded in Russian by Finnish officers. The language of official business was Swedish. The Russian General-Governor of Finland acted as the commander-in-chief of the Finnish military. In 1903, the separate Finnish military was disbanded as a part of Russification efforts and the Finnish citizens were ordered to serve in Russian units. This proved hugely unpopular and in 1905, the conscription of Finnish citizens was abolished after wide-scale draft dodging. During the 19th century, the most important Finnish unit was the battalion-sized Guard of Finland which fought as a part of the imperial army in several of Russia's wars. The unit was founded in 1827, received the junior guard status in 1830, senior guard status in 1878 and was disbanded in 1905. During their visits in Finland in the late 19th century, the Russian emperors usually donned the uniform of the Guard of Finland. In addition to the Guard, the Finnish Cadet School was an important training establishment which educated Finnish, Swedish-speaking officers for service in both Finnish and Russian units. Numerous Finnish officers reached general rank during the Russian era. During World War I, Finnish volunteers secretly joined the Imperial German Army to receive military training. These Finnish Jäger troops, numbering about 2,000, arrived in February 1918 in the white capital city of Vaasa and formed the core of the White Army in the Finnish Civil War. The Russian revolutions had caused the creation of Red and White Guards in Finland. On January 25, 1918 the White Guard were declared to be the official troops of the white government. This marks the formation of the armed forces of the independent Finland. After the Finnish Civil War the armed forces were organised according to the German system. In February 1919 the White Guard separated from the armed forces and became an independent organisation. Conscription was instituted already during the Civil War, but continued also after this in the regular army. In the 1930's the materiel situation of the forces deteriorated, and when the Soviet Union attacked Finland in 1939, the forces were poorly equipped. Finland fought the Soviet Union in two separate wars (Winter War and Continuation War) and Germany (Lapland War) during World War II. Ultimately Finland avoided occupation but lost 10% of territory. Peace terms in the Continuation War included disbanding the White Guard. The terms of the Paris Peace Treaty, imposed after the Continuation War limited the strength of the Finnish Army to 34,400 men, the Navy to 4,500 men and the maximum displacement of naval ships to 10,000 tonnes. The Air Force was limited to 3,000 men and 60 combat aircraft. Also certain weapons such as guided missiles, submarines, proximity mines, torpedo boats, bombers with internal bomb racks and any weapons of German origin were forbidden. In the 1960s, Finland was allowed by United Kingdom and Soviet Union to buy "defensive" missiles. This enabled the requisition of antitank, antiaircraft and coastal defence missiles. The force strength restrictions were interpreted to mean the peace-time strength of the Defence Forces and a large reserve was trained. In the late 1980s, the mobilization strength of Finnish Defence Forces was around 700,000. After the unification of Germany in 1990, all of the restrictions, except for the ban on nuclear weapons, were unilaterally renounced by the Finnish government, led by president Mauno Koivisto. After the second world war, the Finnish Defence Forces relied largely on war-time material. The defence spending was minimal until the early 1960s. During the peak of the Cold War, the Finnish government made a conscious effort to increase defence capability. This resulted in the commissioning of several new weapons systems and strengthening the defence of Finnish Lapland by establishing new garrisons there. From 1968 onwards, the Finnish government adopted the doctrine of territorial defence, which require the use of large land areas to slow down and wear out a potential aggressor. The doctrine was complemented by the concept of total defence which calls for the use of society's all resources for national defence in case of a crisis. One of the aims of the new doctrines was to prevent a strategic strike which Soviet Union employed successfully to topple the government of Czechoslovakia in 1968. During 1970s and 1980s, the Defence Forces capabilities were developed from this basis. In an all-out confrontation between the two major blocs, Finnish objective would have been to prevent any military incursions inside the borders and, in this way, to keep Finland outside the war. The collapse of Soviet Union in 1991 did not annihilate the military threat perceived by the government, but the nature of the threat has changed. While the concept of total, territorial defence was not dropped, the military planning has moved towards the capability to prevent and frustrate a strategic attack toward the vital regions of the country. Equipment ! style="text-align: left; background: #808000;"|Equipment ! style="text-align: left; background: #808000;"|Numbers Equipment of the Finnish Army |----- |main battle tanks||91 |----- |armoured personnel carriersarmoured fighting vehiclesarmoured recovery vehiclesarmoured cars|||<center>694212</small>20?</center> |----- |self-propelled artilleryartillery||90871 |----- |mobile anti-aircraft missile launchersanti-aircraft artillery||551,178 |----- | anti-tank missile launchersanti-tank artillery||118? |----- | short-range ballistic missiles||— |----- | multiple rocket launchers||58 |----- | recoilless riflesmachine guns||71,000? |----- | mortars||2,058 |----- | fighter aircrafthelicopters and UAVstransport aircraft||12830 / 117 |} Peacekeeping operations Finnish soldiers at a polling place during operation EUFOR RD Congo in 2006. Finland has taken part in peacekeeping operations since 1956 (the number of Finnish peacekeepers who have served since 1956 amounts to 43,000). In 2003 over a thousand Finnish peacekeepers were involved in peacekeeping operations, including UN and NATO led missions. According to the Finnish law the maximum simultaneous strength of the peacekeeping forces is limited to 2,000 soldiers. Since 1996 the Pori Brigade has trained parts of the Finnish Rapid Deployment Force (FRDF), which can take part in international crisis management/peacekeeping operations at short notice. The Nyland/Uusimaa Brigade has started training the Amphibious Task Unit (ATU) in recent years, a joint Swedish-Finnish international task unit. Since 2006, Finland has participated in the formation of European Union Battlegroups. Parts of the Nordic Battle Group are being trained at the Pori Brigade. Finnish participation and number of personnel in peacekeeping operations as of 2008: ISAF in Afghanistan (105) EUFOR in Bosnia and Herzegovina (54) EUFOR in Chad (61) UNMEE in Ethiopia and Eritrea (7) Nordic Battlegroup (221) UNMOGIP in India and Pakistan (45 + 70 civilians) KFOR in Kosovo (400) UNMIK in Kosovo (2) + civilians (policemen) UNIFIL in Lebanon (221 engineers) UNMIL in Liberia (2) UNTSO in Egypt, Israel, Lebanon and Syria (16) UNFICYP in Cyprus (3) UNMIS in Sudan (2) and EU Support to Amis II (Darfur) (1) Source: www.mil.fi Total defence Finnish reservists in a training exercise. The Finnish military doctrine is based on the concept of total defence. The term total means that all sectors of the government and economy are involved in the defence planning. In principle, each ministry has the responsibility for planning its operations during a crisis. There are no special emergency authorities, such as the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) or Russian Ministry of Emergency Situations. Instead, each authority regularly trains for crises and has been allocated a combination of normal and emergency powers it needs to keep functioning in any conceivable situation. In a war, all resources of the society may be diverted to serve the national survival. The legal basis for such measures is found in the Readiness Act and in the State of Defence Act, which would come into force through a parliamentary decision in a case of a crisis. The main objective of the doctrine is to establish and maintain a military force capable of deterring any potential aggressor from using Finnish territory or applying military pressure against Finland. To accomplish this, the defence is organised on the doctrine of territorial defence. The stated main principles of the territorial defence are military non-alliance, general conscription, territorial defence, training of conscripts for wartime units, dispersed mobilisation, and flexible readiness responding to military threats of various degree. The defence planning is organised to counteract three threat situations: A regional crisis that may have effects on Finland. Political, economic and military pressure, which may include a threat of using military force and its restricted use. Use of military force in the form of a strategic strike or an attack beginning with a strategic strike aimed at seizing territory. A figure illustrating the principle of territorial defence. The wearing out of the invader is started at the border and the invasion force is stopped before it captures vital areas. On sea border, the invasion is stopped on the coast. All services are used jointly to repel the aggressor. In all cases, the national objective is to keep the vital areas, especially the capital area in Finnish possession. In other areas, the size of the country is used to delay and wear down the invader, until the enemy may be defeated in an area of Finnish choosing. The Army carries most of the responsibility for this task. The war-time army is combined of two mechanized battle groups three readiness brigades two jaeger brigades two motorized battle groups six infantry brigades (territorial troops) special jaeger battalion helicopter battalion specialized units under general staff local defence units The army units are mostly composed of reservists, the career soldiers manning the command and specialty positions. The role of the Navy is to repel all attacks carried out against Finnish coasts and to safeguard the territorial integrity during peace time and the "gray" phase of the conflict. The maritime defence relies on combined use of coastal artillery, missile systems and naval mines to wear down the attacker. The Air Force is used to deny the invader the air superiority and to protect most important troops and objects of national importance in conjunction with the ground-based air defence. As the readiness of the Air Force and the Navy is high even during the peace-time, the career personnel have a much more visible role in the war-time duties of these defence branches. The Border Guard has the responsibility for border security in all situations. During a war, it will contribute to the national defence partially integrated into the army, its total mobilized strength being some 11,600 troops. One of the projected uses for the Border Guard is guerrilla warfare in areas temporarily occupied by enemy. The whole of the section is based on leaflet: Finnish Defence Forces. Annual exchange of information on defence planning 2005 according to the Vienna Document 1999. Cited 14-12-2006. Also the leaflet: Finnish Defence Forces. Finnish military defence, Finland's security policy, Organization of national defence. has been used. Mobilization strength has been corrected as from the information of Ministry of Defense planning document http://www.defmin.fi/files/1180/LIITE_2_PVn_tulostavoitteet_2009-2012.pdf Cited 2 March 2008. Defence White Paper 2009 The material goals for decade starting from 2010 are to equip following forces: Army Corps Headquarters Three Readiness Brigades Two mechanized battle groups Helicopter battalion Special Jaegers battalion Five (Regional) battle groups Three fighter squadrons Six main air force bases Two missile fast attack craft squadrons Two minelayers Two MCM squadrons Four ASM missile batteries Two coastal infantry battalions See also Finnish Jaeger troops Nordic Battlegroup Finnish Rapid Deployment Force List of senior officers of the Finnish Defence Forces References External links Finnish Defence Forces website Finnish Peacekeeping Operations (in Finnish) Finnish Contribution to Peacekeeping Hölkkäri On WebFinnish Peacekeepers community. 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4,576 | Politics_of_New_Caledonia | The politics of New Caledonia takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic French overseas country, whereby the President of the Government is the head of government, and of a multi-party system, with Executive power being exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Congress. The largest party is the conservative Rally for Caledonia in the Republic and the independence National Union for Independence-Kanak and Socialist National Liberation Front FLNKS , though in the last series of elections the liberal Future Together became the second largest political party. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Political developments The unique status of New Caledonia is in between that of an independent country and a regular overseas collectivité of France. On the one hand, a Congress and a government have been established, and a devolution of powers is organized by the 1998 Nouméa Accord. Key areas such as taxation, labor law, health and hygiene and foreign trade are already in the hands of the Congress. Further competence will supposedly be given to the Congress in the near future. Eventually, the French Republic should only remain competent for foreign affairs, justice, defence, public order, and treasury. A New Caledonian "citizenship" has also been introduced: only New Caledonian "citizens" have the right to vote in the local elections. This measure has been criticized, because it creates a second-class status for French citizens living in New Caledonia who do not possess New Caledonian "citizenship" (because they settled in the territory recently). New Caledonia is also allowed to engage in international cooperation with independent countries of the Pacific Ocean. Finally, the territorial Congress is allowed to pass statutes that are derogatory to French law in a certain number of areas. On the other hand, New Caledonia remains an integral part of the French Republic. Inhabitants of New Caledonia are French citizens and carry French passports. They take part in the legislative and presidential French elections. New Caledonia sends two representatives to the French National Assembly and one senator to the French Senate. The representative of the French central state in New Caledonia is the High Commissioner of the Republic (Haut-Commissaire de la République, locally known as "haussaire"), who is the head of civil services, and who seats in the government of the territory. It was decided in the Nouméa Accord that the Congress will have the right to call for a referendum on independence after 2014, at a time of its choosing. The current president of the government elected by the Congress is Harold Martin, from the loyalist (i.e. anti-independence) "Future Together" party (l'Avenir Ensemble), which toppled the long-time ruling Rally for Caledonia in the Republic (RPCR) in May 2004. "Future Together" is a party of mostly Caucasian and Polynesian New Caledonians opposed to independence but tired of the hegemonic and allegedly corrupt anti-independence RPCR. Their toppling of the RPCR (that was until then seen as the only voice of New Caledonian whites) was a surprise to many, and a sign that the society of New Caledonia is undergoing changes. "Future together", as the name implies, is opposed to a racial vision of New Caledonian society, opposing Melanesians native inhabitants and European settlers, and is in favor of a multicultural New Caledonia, better reflecting the existence of large populations of Polynesians, Indonesians, Chinese, and other immigrants. Some members of "Future Together" are even in favor of independence, though not necessarily on the same basis as the Melanesian independence parties. Executive branch |High Commissioner |Yves Dassonville | |25 October 2007 |- |President of the Government |Harold Martin |FT |7 August 2007 |} The high commissioner is appointed by the French president on the advice of the French Ministry of Interior, the president of the government is elected by the members of the Territorial Congress. Legislative branch The Congress (Congrès) has 54 members, being the members of the three regional councils, all elected for a five year term by proportional representation. Furthermore there is a 16 member Kanak Customary Senate (two members from each of the eight customary aires). Political parties and elections Parliamentarians French National Assembly: Gaël Yanno (first constituency, Union for a Popular Movement, UMP) elected 2007 Pierre Frogier (second constituency, UMP) re-elected 2007 French Senate Simon Loueckhote (Rassemblement-UMP) elected 2001 Judicial branch Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel; County Courts; Joint Commerce Tribunal Court; Children's Court Administrative divisions New Caledonia is divided into three provinces: Province des Îles, Province Nord, and Province Sud - which are further subdivided into 33 communes. International organization participation ESCAP (associate), CFP franc, Pacific Islands Forum (associate), ICFTU, SPC, WFTU, WMO, External links French ministry of overseas territories | Politics_of_New_Caledonia |@lemmatized politics:1 new:17 caledonia:13 take:2 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:1 representative:3 democratic:1 french:16 overseas:3 country:3 whereby:1 president:5 government:9 head:2 multi:1 party:7 system:1 executive:3 power:3 exercise:1 legislative:3 vest:1 congress:9 large:3 conservative:1 rally:2 republic:5 independence:8 national:4 union:2 kanak:2 socialist:1 liberation:1 front:1 flnks:1 though:2 last:1 series:1 election:4 liberal:1 future:6 together:5 become:1 second:3 political:3 judiciary:1 independent:3 legislature:1 development:1 unique:1 status:2 regular:1 collectivité:1 france:1 one:2 hand:3 establish:1 devolution:1 organize:1 nouméa:2 accord:2 key:1 area:2 taxation:1 labor:1 law:2 health:1 hygiene:1 foreign:2 trade:1 already:1 competence:1 supposedly:1 give:1 near:1 eventually:1 remain:2 competent:1 affair:1 justice:1 defence:1 public:1 order:1 treasury:1 caledonian:5 citizenship:2 also:2 introduce:1 citizen:3 right:2 vote:1 local:1 measure:1 criticize:1 create:1 class:1 live:1 possess:1 settle:1 territory:3 recently:1 allow:2 engage:1 international:2 cooperation:1 pacific:2 ocean:1 finally:1 territorial:2 pass:1 statute:1 derogatory:1 certain:1 number:1 integral:1 part:2 inhabitant:2 carry:1 passport:1 presidential:1 sends:1 two:2 assembly:2 senator:1 senate:3 central:1 state:1 high:3 commissioner:3 haut:1 commissaire:1 de:2 la:1 république:1 locally:1 know:1 haussaire:1 civil:1 service:1 seat:1 decide:1 call:1 referendum:1 time:2 choosing:1 current:1 elect:5 harold:2 martin:2 loyalist:1 e:1 anti:2 l:1 avenir:1 ensemble:1 topple:1 long:1 rule:1 rpcr:3 may:1 mostly:1 caucasian:1 polynesian:2 caledonians:1 oppose:3 tired:1 hegemonic:1 allegedly:1 corrupt:1 toppling:1 see:1 voice:1 white:1 surprise:1 many:1 sign:1 society:2 undergoing:1 change:1 name:1 implies:1 racial:1 vision:1 melanesians:1 native:1 european:1 settler:1 favor:2 multicultural:1 good:1 reflect:1 existence:1 population:1 indonesian:1 chinese:1 immigrant:1 member:6 even:1 necessarily:1 basis:1 melanesian:1 branch:3 yves:1 dassonville:1 october:1 ft:1 august:1 appoint:1 advice:1 ministry:2 interior:1 congrès:1 three:2 regional:1 council:1 five:1 year:1 term:1 proportional:1 representation:1 furthermore:1 customary:2 eight:1 aire:1 parliamentarian:1 gaël:1 yanno:1 first:1 constituency:2 popular:1 movement:1 ump:3 pierre:1 frogier:1 elected:1 simon:1 loueckhote:1 rassemblement:1 judicial:1 court:4 appeal:1 cour:1 appel:1 county:1 joint:1 commerce:1 tribunal:1 child:1 administrative:1 division:1 divide:1 province:4 îles:1 nord:1 sud:1 far:1 subdivide:1 commune:1 organization:1 participation:1 escap:1 associate:2 cfp:1 franc:1 island:1 forum:1 icftu:1 spc:1 wftu:1 wmo:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram judiciary_independent:1 foreign_affair:1 pacific_ocean:1 la_république:1 l_avenir:1 legislative_branch:1 proportional_representation:1 judicial_branch:1 escap_associate:1 cfp_franc:1 external_link:1 |
4,577 | Jalalabad | Jalalabad ( or 'جلالکوټ') is a city in eastern Afghanistan. Located at the junction of the Kabul and Kunar rivers near the Laghman valley, Jalalabad is the capital of Nangarhar province. It is linked by approximately of highway with Kabul to the west and about the same distance to Peshawar in Pakistan to the east. Jalalabad is one of the leading trading centers with India and Pakistan. http://www.bartleby.com/65/ja/Jalalaba.html http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/299643/Jalalabad Jalalabad is the largest city of east Afghanistan as well as its social and business center of activity. Major industries include papermaking, as well agricultural products including oranges, rice, and sugarcane. The city was a major center of Greco-Buddhist culture in the past until it was conquered by Muslim Turks by the 10th century. The modern city gained prominence during the reign of the Mughal emperor Babur. Invaded on numerous occasions, the city fell to the British in 1842 during the First Anglo-Afghan War. Today the city is being rebuilt under NATO and UN direction after decades of war and has been receiving an influx of returning refugees largely from Pakistan. History Present-day Jalalabad was the major city of the ancient Gandhara's Greco-Bhuddist center. The founder of the Mughal empire of India, Babur, had chosen the site for this city and the city was built by his grandson Jalal-uddin Mohammad Akbar in 1570. The original name of Jalalabad was Adinapur as also mentioned here: In 630 Xuan Zang, the famous Chinese Buddhist monk, arrived in Jalalabad and considered himself to have reached Hindustan. The city is considered one of the most important cities of the Pashtun culture and bears much resemblance to Peshawar, though, Peshawar is far larger than Jalalabad. Historical Buildings and Monuments Seraj-ul-Emarat, the residence of Amir Habibullah and King Amanullah was destroyed in 1929; the other sanctuaries however, retain vestiges of the past and offer a peaceful afternoon's crunch. The mausoleum of both rulers is enclosed by a garden facing Seraj-ul-Emart. Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Bacha Khan), the great Pashtun leader, is buried in the city of Jalalabad. Demographic The majority of the city population are the Pashtuns . http://www.bartleby.com/65/ja/Jalalaba.html The minorities in the city include Tajiks, Kizilbash, the Pashai and a large number of Afghan war refugees, returning from Pakistan Sunni branch of Islam is the religion of a majority of the population. On the other hand, the Turi Pashtuns and Dari-speaking Kizilbash inhabitants practice the Shia form of Islam (L. Dupree, Afghanistan, 1972) These, however, suffered immensely under the Taliban government, and were dispersed. Jalalabad, Columbia University'' (retrieved 28 March 2008). Wahhabism--an introduction by the Saudi fundamentalists and their Taliban cohorts, thrived in the city in the late 1980s and 1990s. Modern Development There has been proposals for the establishment of Afghanistan's first rail network linking Jalalabad with Pakistan's vast and extensive rail service allowing for increased trade of goods, people and commerce between the two countries. An improvement in the road networks between the Jalalabad leading into Peshawar has also been proposed, with the intention of widening the existing road and improving security to attract more tourism and allow for safer passage of goods between to the two countries. The international community has re-surfaced the road link between Jalalabad and the capital Kabul reducing the transit time between these two important cities. References See also Gul Agha Sherzai Jalalabad Airport Provincial Reconstruction Team International Security Assistance Force External links Images of Jalalabad | Jalalabad |@lemmatized jalalabad:16 جلالکوټ:1 city:16 eastern:1 afghanistan:4 locate:1 junction:1 kabul:3 kunar:1 river:1 near:1 laghman:1 valley:1 capital:2 nangarhar:1 province:1 link:4 approximately:1 highway:1 west:1 distance:1 peshawar:4 pakistan:5 east:2 one:2 lead:2 trading:1 center:4 india:2 http:3 www:3 bartleby:2 com:3 ja:2 jalalaba:2 html:2 britannica:1 ebchecked:1 topic:1 large:3 well:2 social:1 business:1 activity:1 major:3 industry:1 include:3 papermaking:1 agricultural:1 product:1 orange:1 rice:1 sugarcane:1 greco:2 buddhist:2 culture:2 past:2 conquer:1 muslim:1 turk:1 century:1 modern:2 gain:1 prominence:1 reign:1 mughal:2 emperor:1 babur:2 invade:1 numerous:1 occasion:1 fell:1 british:1 first:2 anglo:1 afghan:2 war:3 today:1 rebuild:1 nato:1 un:1 direction:1 decade:1 receive:1 influx:1 return:2 refugee:2 largely:1 history:1 present:1 day:1 ancient:1 gandhara:1 bhuddist:1 founder:1 empire:1 choose:1 site:1 build:1 grandson:1 jalal:1 uddin:1 mohammad:1 akbar:1 original:1 name:1 adinapur:1 also:3 mention:1 xuan:1 zang:1 famous:1 chinese:1 monk:1 arrive:1 consider:2 reach:1 hindustan:1 important:2 pashtun:4 bear:1 much:1 resemblance:1 though:1 far:1 historical:1 building:1 monument:1 seraj:2 ul:2 emarat:1 residence:1 amir:1 habibullah:1 king:1 amanullah:1 destroy:1 sanctuary:1 however:2 retain:1 vestige:1 offer:1 peaceful:1 afternoon:1 crunch:1 mausoleum:1 ruler:1 enclose:1 garden:1 facing:1 emart:1 khan:3 abdul:1 ghaffar:1 bacha:1 great:1 leader:1 bury:1 demographic:1 majority:2 population:2 minority:1 tajik:1 kizilbash:2 pashai:1 number:1 sunni:1 branch:1 islam:2 religion:1 hand:1 turi:1 dari:1 speaking:1 inhabitant:1 practice:1 shia:1 form:1 l:1 dupree:1 suffer:1 immensely:1 taliban:2 government:1 disperse:1 columbia:1 university:1 retrieve:1 march:1 wahhabism:1 introduction:1 saudi:1 fundamentalist:1 cohort:1 thrive:1 late:1 development:1 proposal:1 establishment:1 rail:2 network:2 vast:1 extensive:1 service:1 allow:2 increased:1 trade:1 good:2 people:1 commerce:1 two:3 country:2 improvement:1 road:3 propose:1 intention:1 widen:1 exist:1 improve:1 security:2 attract:1 tourism:1 safe:1 passage:1 international:2 community:1 surface:1 reduce:1 transit:1 time:1 reference:1 see:1 gul:1 agha:1 sherzai:1 airport:1 provincial:1 reconstruction:1 team:1 assistance:1 force:1 external:1 image:1 |@bigram peshawar_pakistan:1 http_www:3 www_bartleby:2 bartleby_com:2 com_ebchecked:1 ebchecked_topic:1 greco_buddhist:1 anglo_afghan:1 mohammad_akbar:1 buddhist_monk:1 external_link:1 |
4,578 | Muslim_Brotherhood | {{Infobox Political party | party_name = Muslim Brotherhood | name_native = الإخوان المسلمون Al-ikhwān al-muslimūn |party_logo= Conservative Party logo | colorcode = #009900 | leader = Mahdi Akef | chairman = | spokesperson = | foundation = 1928 Ismailia, Egypt | ideology = Islamism,Islamist democracy,Pan-Islamism | headquarters = | international = |website = www.ikhwanweb.com }} The Muslim Brothers (Arabic: الإخوان المسلمون al-ikhwān al-muslimūn, full title The Society of the Muslim Brothers, often simply الإخوان al-ikhwān, the Brotherhood or MB) is a transnational Sunni movement and the largest political opposition organization in many Arab states, particularly Egypt. The Moderate Muslim Brotherhood, Robert S. Leiken & Steven Brooke, Foreign Affairs Magazine The world's oldest and largest Islamic political group was founded by the Egyptian schoolteacher Hassan al-Banna in 1928. The Brotherhood's stated goal is to instill the Qur'an and Sunnah as the "sole reference point for ... ordering the life of the Muslim family, individual, community ... and state". Since its inception in 1928 the movement has officially opposed violent means to achieve its goals, with some exceptions such as in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict or to overthrow secular Ba'athist rule in Syria (see Hama massacre). This position has been questioned, particularly by the Egyptian government, which accused the group of a campaign of killings in Egypt after World War II. Chamieh, Jebran, Traditionalists, Militants and Liberal in Present Islam, Research and Publishing House, 1994?, p.140 The Brotherhood has been described as both unjustly oppressed and dangerously violent. Members have been arbitrarily arrested; Egyptian Brotherhood mass arrests in Egypt the government has obstructed the party's attempts to field candidates in elections, with arrests or harassment of activists BBC: Scores arrested in Egypt election and obstruction of voting in Muslim Brotherhood strongholds. Egypt poll clashes leave six dead However, supporters of the Brotherhood have demonstrated violence on their part in many occasions and have often clashed with supporters of other parties, specifically the National Democratic Party (NDP) in Egypt. Outside of Egypt, the group's political activity has been described as evolving away from modernism and reformism towards a more traditional, "rightist conservative" stance. For example, the Muslim Brotherhood party in Kuwait opposes suffrage for women. Roy, Olivier, Globalized Islam, Columbia University Press, 2004, p.67 The Brotherhood's official opposition to terror against civilians and condemnation the 9/11 attacks is a matter of international controversy. Its position on violence has also caused disputes within the movement, with advocates of violence at times breaking away to form groups such as the Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya (The Islamic Group) and Al Takfir Wal Hijra (Excommunication and Migration).<ref name=Pbs> The Salafist Movement, Frontline (PBS)</ref> Among the Brotherhood's more influential members was Sayyid Qutb. Qutb was the author of one of Islamism's most important books, Milestones, which called for the restoration of Islam by re-establishing the Sharia and by using "physical power and Jihad for abolishing the organizations and authorities of the Jahili system," Qutb, Sayyid, Milestones, (1981) p.55, 62 which he believed to include the entire Muslim world. Qutb, Sayyid, Milestones, (1981) p.11, 19 While studying at university, Osama bin Laden claimed to have been influenced by the religious and political ideas of several professors with strong ties to the Muslim Brotherhood including both Sayyid Qutb and his brother Muhammad Qutb. While some have claimed that the Brotherhood's theology and methods are opposed to those of bin Laden, and that they are "reformist," "democratic," "non-violent" and "chiefly political", some journalists have reported the opposite. The Brotherhood is financed by contributions from its members who are required to allocate portion of their income to the movement. Most of these contributions come from members living in oil-rich countries, such as Saudi Arabia. In Search Of Friends Among The Foes U.S. Hopes to Work With Diverse Group Beliefs In the group's belief, the Quran and Sunna constitute a perfect way of life and social and political organization that God has set out for man. Islamic governments must be based on this system and eventually unified in a Caliphate. The MB goal, as stated by Brotherhood founder Hassan al-Banna was to reclaim Islam’s manifest destiny, an empire, stretched from Spain to Indonesia. Davidson, Lawrence (1998) Islamic Fundamentalism Greenwood Press, Westport, Conn., ISBN 0313299781 pp. 97-98; It preaches that Islam enjoins man to strive for social justice, the eradication of poverty and corruption, and political freedom to the extent allowed by the laws of Islam. The Brotherhood strongly opposes Western colonialism, and helped overthrow the pro-western monarchies in Egypt and other Muslim nations during the early 20th century. On the issue of women and gender the Muslim Brotherhood interprets Islam quite strictly. Its founder called for "a campaign against ostentation in dress and loose behavior," "segregation of male and female students," a separate curriculum for girls, and "the prohibition of dancing and other such pastimes..." In his tract, "Toward the Light" in Five Tracts of Hasan al-Banna, trans. by Charles Wendell (Berkeley, 1978), ISBN 0520095847 pp.126f., al-Banna writes: "Following are the principal goals of reform grounded on the spirit of genuine Islam... Treatment of the problem of women in a way which combines the progressive and the protective, in accordance with Islamic teaching, so that this problem - one of the most important social problems - will not be abandoned to the biased pens and deviant notions of those who err in the directions of deficiency and excess... a campaign against ostentation in dress and loose behaviour; the instruction of women in what is proper, with particular strictness as regards female instructors, pupils, physicians, and students, and all those in similar categories... a review of the curricula offered to girls and the necessity of making them distinct from the boys' curricula in many stages of education... segregation of male and female students; private meetings between men and women, unless within the permitted degrees of relationship, to be counted as a crime for which both will be censured... the encouragement of marriage and procreation, by all possible means; promulgation of legislation to protect and give moral support to the family, and to solve the problems of marriage... the closure of morally undesirable ballrooms and dance-halls, and the prohibition of dancing and other such pastimes..." The Brotherhood is one of the most influential movements in the Muslim world, The Moderate Muslim Brotherhood, Robert S. Leiken & Steven Brooke, Foreign Affairs Magazine and especially so in the Arab world. It was founded in Egypt and Egypt is considered the center of the movement; it is generally weaker in the Maghreb, or North Africa, than in the Arab Levant. Brotherhood branches form the main opposition to the governments in several countries in the Arab world, such as Egypt, Syria and Jordan, and are politically active to some extent in nearly every Muslim country , possibly excluding Turkey. There are also diaspora branches in several Western nations and in south and east Asia, composed by immigrants previously active in the Brotherhood in their home countries. The movement is immensely influential in many Muslim countries, and where legally possible, it often operates important networks of Islamic charities, creating a support base among Muslim poor. However, most of the countries where the Brotherhood is active are ruled by non-pluralist regimes. As a consequence, the movement is banned in several Arab nations, and restrictions on political activity prevent it from gaining power through elections. The MB is a movement, not a political party, but members have created separate political parties in several countries, such as the Islamic Action Front in Jordan and Hamas in Gaza and the West Bank. These parties are staffed by Brotherhood members but kept independent from the MB to some degree. The Future of Political Islam, Graham E. Fuller, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p.138 Organization From transcripts Zeid al-Noman, "Ikhwan in America", p. 15-16 the following hierarchical Organisation structure can be derived: The General Organisational Conference is the highest body of the Ikhwans stemming from the Ikhwans bases, every Usra elects one or two deputies according to its number. The Shura Council has the duties of planning, charting general policies and programs that achieve the goal of the Group. Its resolutions are binding to the Group and only the General Organisational Conference can modify or annul them and the Shura Office has also the right to modify or annul resolutions of the Executive Office. It follows the implementation of the Group policies and programs. It directs the Executive Office and it forms dedicated branch committees to assist in that. "The West and Islam", By Mishal Fahm Sulami Executive Office (Guidance Office) with its leader the General Masul (General Guide) and its members, both appointed by the Shura Office, has to follow up and guide the activities of the General Organisation. It submits a periodical report to the Shura Council about its work and of the activity of the domestic bodies and the general organisations. It distributes its duties to its members according to the internal bylaws. It has the following divisions (not complete): - Executive leadership - Organisational office - Secretariat general - Education office - Political office - Sisters office In each country there is a Branch committee with a Masul (leader) appointed by the General Executive leadership with essentially the same Branch-divisions as the Executive office has. To the duties of every branch belong fundraising, infiltrating in and overtaking other Muslim organisations for the sake of uniting the Muslims to dedicate them to the general goals of the MB. The general goals and strategic plans of the MB are only found in Arabic documents. One for Europe called "The Project" was found in 2001 in Switzerland, another for North America was found in 2005 called the "General Strategic Goal for the Group in North America." "General Strategic goal for North America", original with translated memorandum An evaluation of this Memorandum was made for the US-Congress and for the Pentagon. "Analyses of Muslim Brotherhood's General Strategic Goals for North America Memorandum", by Stephen Coughlin September 7, 2007 Their influence is fast growing, especially in Europe, but not easy to trace while the active members have to keep their membership secret. One citation from the document "General Strategic Goal for the Group in North America" "General Strategic goal for North America", original with translated memorandum, page 21(7/18) par."4- Understanding the role of the Muslim Brother in North America:" makes the objectives of the MB clear: "The process of settlement is a 'Civilization-Jihadist Process' with all the word means. The Ikhwan must understand that their work in America is a kind of grand Jihad in eliminating and destroying the Western civilization from within and "sabotaging" its miserable house by their hands and the hands of the believers so that it is eliminated and God's religion is made victorious over all other religions." Main Activity-plan The main goals on mid-term as approved by the Executive office and the Shura Council are formulated in a 5-year action plan derived from transcripts: Zeid al-Noman, "Ikhwan in America", page 8 Primary goals reinstatement of the caliphate and reunite the "dar el Islam." Strengthening the internal structure Administrative discipline Recruitment and settlement of the Dawa'a Energizing the organisations work Energizing political work fronts (e.g. in civil political organisations) Secondary goals Finance and Investment Foreign relations Reviving Woman's activity Political awareness to the members of the Group Securing the group (To find out if they are being monitored, and if, how they can get rid of them) Special activity (this means Military work Zeid al-Noman, "Ikhwan in America", page 13 ) Media (influencing of and infiltration in the media) Taking advantage of human potentials (e.g. infiltration in education, civil organisations) Criticisms of the Muslim Brotherhood Sincerity Numerous officials and reporters question the sincerity of the MB's pronouncements. These critics include, but are not limited to: U.S. White House counterterrorism chief Juan Zarate, who says "The Muslim Brotherhood is a group that worries us not because it deals with philosophical or ideological ideas but because it defends the use of violence against civilians." Poole, Patrick, (26 March 2007) "Mainstreaming the Muslim Brotherhood" Front Page Magazine, citing Sylvain Besson, La Conquête De L’Occident: Le Projet Secret Des Islamistes, p. 39) accessed 4-25-2007 </BLOCKQUOTE> Columnist and former Kuwaiti official Dr. Ahmad Al-Rabi, who has written that the "beginnings of all of the religious terrorism that we are witnessing today were in the Muslim Brotherhood's ideology." Raymond Ibrahim, editor of The Al Qaeda Reader, who notes that Muhammad himself described war as "deceit" and that Muslim Brotherhood disciples, past and present, merely duplicate the "everlasting words of Allah," as iterated in the Qur'an. Douglas Farah, a veteran international reporter who describes current Muslim Brotherhood propaganda as a "charm offensive." Former U.S. Middle East peace envoy Dennis Ross, who told Asharq Alawsat newspaper that the Muslim Brotherhood is a global, not a local organization, governed by a Shura (Consultative) Council, which rejects cessation of violence in Israel, and supports violence to achieve its political objectives elsewhere too. Magdy Khalil, executive editor of Egypt's Watani International, who reports consistent MB deceit concerning Egypt's 12.5% Coptic Christian population, so as to oppress and dhimmify them. Links to violence The Brotherhood is widely believed to have had a `secret apparatus` responsible for terrorist attacks in Egypt including the assassination of Egypt's prime minister in 1948. Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience by Caryle Murphy, p.54 According to Rachel Aspden's article, 'The Rise of the Brotherhood,' The Muslim Brotherhood currently advocates suicide bombing attacks on civilians to fight Zionism, and its Palestinian wing Hamas Aspden, Rachel (20 February 2006) "The Rise of the Brotherhood" New Statesman 135(4780) p.15 targets both civilians and the military in Israel. Newsweek journalists Mark Hosenball and Michael Isikoff report connections between al-Qaeda and Brotherhood figures Mamoun Darkazanli and Youssef Nada. "Spreading fundamentalist Islam - but does the Muslim Brotherhood also support terrorism?" A similar article in the Financial Times reported financial links between 74-year-old Swiss Muslim convert, businessman and neo-Nazi Ahmed Huber, and MB members, notably Youssef Nada, Ali Ghaleb Himmat and who founded the Al Taqwa Bank. According to the U.S. government, Al Taqwa "has long acted as financial advisers to al-Qaeda." Huber himself is noted in Europe for his links with alleged neo-Nazi and other far right elements. www.cnn.com Links Between American, European Terrorist Groups. Transcript of interview with Ahmed Huber aired March 5, 2002 He is reported to have "confirmed" having "had contact with associates of Osama bin Laden at an Islamic conference in Beirut," whom he called `very discreet, well-educated, very intelligent people.` www.ft.com Far-right has ties with Islamic extreme. By Hugh Williamson and Philipp Jaklin. 8 November 2001 Abdul Rahman al-Amoudi, an "expert in the art of deception" was an influential lobbyist and founder and head of the Brotherhood-linked American Muslim Council before being convicted and sentenced to 23 years in prison for conspiracy to murder Saudi Prince Abdullah at the behest of Libyan leader Muammar al-Gaddafi. "Abdulrahman Alamoudi - Head of American Muslim Council goes to jail for 23 years" Status of non-Muslims In 1997 Muslim Brotherhood Supreme Guide Mustafa Mashhur told journalist Khalid Daoud article printed in Al Ahram Weekly July 5-9, 1997, quoted in Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience by Caryle Murphy, p.241, 330 that he thought Egypt's Coptic Christians should pay the long-abandoned jizya poll tax, levied on non-Muslims (In exchange for protection from the state, due to the fact that non-Muslims are exempt from military service, while it is compulsory for Muslims.). He went on to say that while `we do not mind having Christians members in the People's Assembly... the top officials, especially in the army, should be Muslims since we are a Muslim country... This is necessary, Mashhur explained because `when a Christian country attacks the Muslim country and the army has Christian elements, they can facilitate our defeat by the enemy.`" Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience, by Caryle Murphy, Simon and Schuster, 2002, p.241, 330 Muslim Brotherhood's brief response to criticism The Brotherhood itself denounces the "catchy and effective terms and phrases" like "fundamentalist" and "political Islam" which it claims are used by "Western Media" to pigeonhole the group, and points to its "15 Principles" for an Egyptian National Charter, including "freedom of personal conviction... ... opinion... forming political parties... public gatherings... free and fair elections..." Similarly, some analysts maintain that whatever the source of modern Jihadi terrorism and the actions and words of some rogue members, the Brotherhood now has little in common with radical Islamists and modern jihadists who often condemn the Brotherhood as too moderate. They also deny the existence of any centralized and secretive global MB leadership. Other experts argue that the origins of modern Muslim terrorism are found in Wahhabi ideology, not that of the Muslim Brotherhood. Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt Hassan al-Banna founded the Muslim Brotherhood in the city of Ismailia in March 1928 along with six workers of the Suez Canal Company. It began as a religious, political, and social movement with the credo, “Allah is our objective; the Quran is our constitution, the Prophet is our leader; Jihad is our way; and death for the sake of Allah is the highest of our aspirations.” Al-Banna called for the return to an original Islam and followed Islamic reformers like Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida. According to him, contemporary Islam had lost its social dominance, because most Muslims had been corrupted by Western influences. Sharia law based on the Qur'an and the Sunnah were seen as laws passed down by Allah that should be applied to all parts of life, including the organization of the government and the handling of everyday problems. Küntzel, 2002. Pg. 17-19 The Brotherhood also saw itself as a political and social movement . Al-Banna strived to be a populist. The Muslim Brotherhood claimed to want to protect the workers against the tyranny of foreign and monopolist companies. It founded social institutions such as hospitals, pharmacies, schools, etc. However, in addition to holding conservative views on issues such as women's rights, it was from the start extremely hostile to independent working-class and popular organisations such as trade unions. This is disputed however by William Cleveland, who points out that the Muslim Brotherhood became involved with the labour movement early on, and supported efforts to create trades unions and unemployment benefits. A History of the Modern Middle East, William Cleveland, p.200 By 1936, it had 800 members, then this number increased greatly to up to 200,000 by 1938. By 1948, the Brotherhood had about half a million members. Robin Hallett says: "By the late 1940s the Brotherhood was reckoned to have as many as 2 million members, while its strong Pan-Islamic ideas had gained its supporters in other Arab lands". Hallett, Robin. Africa Since 1875. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press (1974), pg. 138. The Muslim Brotherhood also tried to build up something like an Islamist International, thus founding groups in Lebanon (in 1936), Syria (1937), and Transjordan (1946). It also recruited among the foreign students in Cairo. Its headquarters in Cairo became a center and meeting place for representatives from the whole Muslim world. In November 1948 police seized an automobile containing the documents and plans of what was thought to be the Brotherhood's "secret apparatus" with names of its members. The seizure was preceded by an assortment of bombings and assassination attempts by the apparatus. Subsequently 32 of its leaders are arrested and its offices raided. The next month the Egyptian Prime Minister of Egypt, Mahmud Fahmi Nokrashi, ordered the dissolution of the Brotherhood. In what is thought to be retaliation for these acts, a member of the Brotherhood, veterinary student Abdel Meguid Ahmed Hassan, assassinated the Prime Minister on December 28, 1948. A month and half later Al-Banna himself was killed in Cairo by men believed to be government agents and/or supporters of the murdered premier. The Brotherhood has been an illegal organization, tolerated to varying degrees, since 1954 when it was convicted of the attempt to assassinate Gamal Abdel Nasser, head of the Egyptian government. The group had denied involvement in the incident and accused the government of staging the incident to use it as a pretext to persecute the group and its members. On this basis from 1954 until Nasser's death in 1970, thousands of Muslim Brotherhood members were systemically tortured under Nasser's secular regime, highlighted in Zainab al Ghazali's Return of the Pharaoh. Nasser's successor, Anwar Sadat, promised the Brotherhood that shari'a would be implemented as the Egyptian law and released all of the Brotherhood prisoners. However, as a result of Sadat signing the peace agreement with Israel in 1979, an Islamic group other than the Brotherhood assassinated Sadat in September, 1981. The Brotherhood is still periodically subjected to mass arrests. It remains an extreme opposition group in Egypt, advocating Islamic reform, democratic system and maintaining a vast network of support through Islamic charities working among poor Egyptians. http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=51850 The political direction it has been taking lately has tended towards more moderate Islamism and Islamic Democracy, somewhat more anti-Western than and a degree to right of Turkey's ruling Justice and Development Party. In the 2005 parliamentary elections, the Brotherhood's candidates, who had to run as independents due to their illegality as a political party, won 88 seats (20% of the total) to form the largest opposition bloc. The electoral process was marred by many irregularities, including the arrest of hundreds of Brotherhood members. On the other hand observers such as Jameel Theyabi, writing in an op-ed for Dar Al-Hayat, noted that a December 2006 Muslim Brotherhood military parade and the "wearing of uniforms, displaying the phrase, 'We Will be Steadfast', and the drills involving martial arts, betray the group's intent to plan for the creation of militia structures, and a return by the group to the era of 'secret cells'...." The Brotherhood's Power display (18 December 2006) Meanwhile, approved opposition parties won only 14 seats. This revived the debate within the Egyptian political elite about whether the Brotherhood should remain banned. General leaders (G.L) or Mentors of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt المرشد العام لجماعة الإخوان المسلمون Founder & First G. leader: (1928 - 1949) Hassan al Banna حسن البنا 2nd G.L. : (1949 - 1972) Hassan al-Hudaybi حسن الهضيبى 3rd G.L. : (1972 - 1986)Umar al-Tilmisani عمر التلمسانى 4th G.L. : (1986 - 1996) Muhammad Hamid Abu al-Nasr محمد حامد أبو النصر 5th G.L. : (1996 - 2002) Mustafa Mashhur مصطفى مشهور 6th G.L. : (2002 - 2004) Ma'mun al-Hudaybi مأمون الهضيبى 7th G.L. & Current G.L. :(2004 - Current) Mohammed Mahdi Akef محمد المهدى عاكف Muslim Brotherhood in the Middle East Bahrain In Bahrain, the Muslim Brotherhood is represented by the Al Eslah Society and its political wing, the Al-Menbar Islamic Society. Following parliamentary elections in 2002, Al Menbar became the joint largest party with eight seats in the forty seat Chamber of Deputies. Prominent members of Al Menbar include Dr Salah Abdulrahman, Dr Salah Al Jowder, and outspoken MP Mohammed Khalid. The party has generally backed government sponsored legislation on economic issues, but has sought a clamp down on pop concerts, sorcery and soothsayers. It has strongly opposed the government's accession to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights on the grounds that this would give Muslim citizens the right to change religion, when in the party's view they should be "beheaded". http://www.gulf-daily-news.com/1yr_arc_Articles.asp?Article=136119&Sn=BNEW&IssueID=28339&date=2-22-2006 Municipal councillor, Dr Salah Al Jowder, has campaigned against people being able to look into other people's houses, changing the local by-laws in Muharraq to ensure that all new buildings are fitted with one way glass to prevent residents being able to see out. http://www.gulf-daily-news.com/1yr_arc_Articles.asp?Article=133438&Sn=BNEW&IssueID=28310&date=1/24/2006 Although a competitor with the salafist Asalah party, it seems likely that Al Menbar will opt for a political alliance in 2006s election to avoid splitting the Sunni Islamist vote. Syria Founded in the 1930s by Syrian students who had participated in the Egyptian Brotherhood, the Brotherhood in Syria played a major role in the mainly Sunni-based resistance movement that opposed the secularist, pan-Arabist Baath Party, which seized power in 1963 (since 1970, it has been dominated by the Alawite Assad family, adding a religious element to its conflict with the Brotherhood). This conflict developed into an armed struggle that continued until culminating in the Hama uprising of 1982, when the rebellion was bloodily crushed by the military. http://lexicorient.com/e.o/mus_br_syria.htm Since then, the Brotherhood has ceased to be an active political force inside Syria, but it retains a network of support in the country, of unknown strength, and has external headquarters in London and Cyprus. In recent years it has renounced violence and adopted a reformist platform, calling for the establishment of a pluralistic, democratic political system. However, membership of the Brotherhood remains a capital offence in Syria, as specified under Emergency Law 49 of 1980. The leader of the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood is Ali Sadr al-Din al-Bayanuni, who lives as a political refugee in London. Palestinian territories 'Abd al-Rahman al-Banna, brother of Muslim Brotherhood founder Hasan al-Banna, went to Palestine and established the Muslim Brotherhood there in 1935. In 1945, the group established a branch in Jerusalem, and by 1947 twenty-five more branches had sprung up, in towns such as Jaffa, Lod, Haifa, Nablus, and Tulkarm, which total membership between 12,000 to 20,000. A local nationalist, Al-Hajj Amin al-Husseini (also known as Musa al-Huseini), was the leader of the group in Palestine. Another important leader associated with the Muslim Brotherhood in Palestine was 'Izz al-Din al-Qassam, an inspiration to Islamists because he had been the first to lead an armed resistance in the name of Palestine against the British in 1935. Cohen, 1982. Pg. 144 Brotherhood members fought alongside the Arab armies during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, and, after Israel's creation, the ensuing Palestinian refugee crisis encouraged more Palestinian Muslims to join the group. After the war, in the West Bank, the group's activity was mainly social and religious, not political, so it had relatively good relations with Jordan, which was in control of the West Bank after 1950. In contrast, the group frequently clashed with the Egyptian regime that controlled the Gaza Strip until 1967. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Brotherhood's goal was "the upbringing of an Islamic generation" through the restructuring of society and religious education, rather than Palestine's liberation from Israel, and so it lost popularity to national resistance movements. 0253208661 Eventually, however, the Brotherhood was strengthened by several factors: 1. The creation of al-Mujamma' al-Islami, the Islamic Center in 1973 by Shaykh Ahmad Yasin had a centralizing effect that encapsulated all religious organizations, 2. The Muslim Brotherhood Society in Jordan and Palestine was created from a merger of the branches in the West Bank and Gaza and Jordan, 3. Palestinian disillusion with the liberation front caused them to become more open to alternatives, and 4. The Islamic Revolution in Iran offered inspiration to Palestinians. The Brotherhood was able to increase its efforts in Palestine and avoid being dismantled like national resistance groups because it did not focus on the occupation. While national resistance groups were being dismantled, the Brotherhood filled the void. After the 1967 Six Day War, as Israel's occupation started, Israel may have looked to cultivate political Islam as a counterweight to Fatah, the main secular Palestinian nationalist political organization. How Israel Helped to Spawn Hamas, by Andrew Higgins Wall Street Journal January 24, 2009 How Israel brought Gaza to the brink of humanitarian catastrophe, by Avi Shlaim Guardian UK January 7, 2009 Between 1967 and 1987, the year Hamas was founded, the number of mosques in Gaza tripled from 200 to 600, and the Muslim Brotherhood named the period between 1975 and 1987 a phase of 'social institution building.' The Brotherhood was able to spread its ideology in six important ways. It established associations, used zakat (alms giving) for aid to poor Palestinians, promoted schools, provided students with loans, used waqf (religious endowments) to lease property and employ people, and established mosques. The establishment of mosques was the most effective, because it built hundreds of mosques in the West Bank and Gaza Strip between 1967 and 1987 and could use them for political and recruitment purposes.[http://www.jstor.org/stable/2538077?&Search=yes&term=political&term=background&term=historical&term=hamas&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dhamas%253A%2Ba%2Bhistorical%2Band%2Bpolitical%2Bbackground%26x%3D9%26y%3D11%26wc%3Don&item=3&ttl=215&returnArticleService=showArticle] /13/was_hamas_the_work_of_the_israeli_mossad/1613/ Was Hamas the Work of the Israeli Mossad? by Ramzy Baroud Middle East Times March 13, 2009 Likewise, antagonistic and sometimes violent opposition to Fatah, the Palestine Liberation Organization and other secular nationalist groups increased dramatically in the streets and on university campuses. How Israel Helped to Spawn Hamas, by Andrew Higgins Wall Street Journal January 24, 2009 < The Brotherhood's downfall was its failure to fight the Israeli occupation, but the Intifada changed the Brotherhood's position and Hamas was established. The Islamic Resistance Movement, or Hamas, founded in 1987 in Gaza, is a wing of the Brotherhood, http://www.mideastweb.org/hamas.htm formed out of Brotherhood-affiliated charities and social institutions that had gained a strong foothold among the local population. During the First Intifada (1987-93), Hamas militarized and transformed into one of the most violent Palestinian militant groups. Israel The Muslim Brotherhood in Israel -the Islamic Movement- is divided between the southern and northern branches. The southern branch is represented in the Knesset, Israel's parliament while the northern radical branch boycotts Israeli elections. Jordan The Jordanian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood was formed in 1942, and is a strong factor in Jordanian politics. While most political parties and movements were banned for a long time in Jordan, the Brotherhood was exempted and allowed to operate by the Jordanian monarchy. The Jordanian Brotherhood has formed its own political party, the Islamic Action Front, which has the largest number of seats of any party in the Jordanian parliament. http://lexicorient.com/e.o/mus_br_jordan.htm Iran Although Iran is a predominately Shia country and the Muslim Brotherhood is Sunni in doctrine and does not have any presence there, Olga Davidson and Mohammad Mahallati claim the Brotherhood has had influence among Shia in Iran. Navab Safavi, who founded Fadaian Islam, (also Fedayeen of Islam, or Fadayan-e Islam), an Iranian Islamic organization active in Iran in the 1940s and 1950s, "was highly impressed by the Muslim Brotherhood." From 1945 to 1951 the Fadain assassinated several high level Iranian personalities and officials who they believed to be un-Islamic. They including anti-clerical writer Ahmad Kasravi, Premier Haj-Ali Razm-Ara, former Premier Abdul-Hussein Hazhir, and Education and Culture Minister Ahmad Zangeneh. The Spirit of Allah: Khomeini and the Islamic Revolution by Amir Taheri, Adler and Adler c1985, p.107-109 At that time Navab Safavi was an associate and ally of Ayatollah Khomeini who went on to become a figure in the Iranian Revolution of 1979. Safavi is thought to have influenced Khomeini with the ideas of the Brotherhood Khomeini and other religious figures in Iran worked to establish Islamic unity and downplay Shia-Sunni differences. Iraq The Iraqi Islamic Party was formed in 1960 as the Iraqi branch of the Brotherhood, http://www.uga.edu/islam/muslim_brotherhood_iraq.html but was banned from 1961 during the nationalist rule of Abd al-Karim Qasim. As government repression hardened under the Baath Party from February 1963, the group was forced to continue underground. After the fall of the Saddam Hussein regime in 2003, the Islamic Party has reemerged as one of the main advocates of the country's Sunni community. It has been sharply critical of the U.S.-led occupation of Iraq, but participates in the political process. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iraq/iip.htm Its leader is Tariq Al-Hashimi. Also, in the north of Iraq there are several Islamic movements inspired by or part of the Muslim Brotherhood network. The Kurdistan Islamic Union (KIU) holds seats in the Kurdish parliament, as is the main political force outside the dominance of the two main secularist parties, the PUK and KDP. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/not_in_website/syndication/monitoring/media_reports/2588623.stm Saudi Arabia The Muslim Brotherhood's brand of Islam and Islamic politics differs from the strict Salafi creed, Wahhabiyya, officially held by the state of Saudi Arabia. Despite this, the Brotherhood has been tolerated by the Saudi government, and maintains a presence in the country. Aside from tolerating the Brotherhood organization, and according to Washington Post report, Saudi Interior Minister Prince Nayef has denounced the Brotherhood, saying it is guilty of "betrayal of pledges and ingratitude" and is "the source of all problems in the Islamic world." Kuwait The Muslim Brotherhood in Kuwait is very conservative and has opposed women's right to vote. The Future of Political Islam, by Graham E. Fuller, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003) p.39 Muslim Brotherhood in Africa Algeria The Muslim Brotherhood reached Algeria during the later years of the French colonial presence in the country (1830-1962). Sheikh Ahmad Sahnoun led the organization in Algeria between 1953 and 1954 during the French colonialism. Brotherhood members and sympathizers took part in the uprising against France in 1954-1962, but the movement was marginalized during the largely secular FLN one-party rule which was installed at independence in 1962. It remained unofficially active, sometimes protesting the government and calling for increased Islamization and Arabization of the country's politics. When a multi-party system was introduced in Algeria in the early 1990s, the Muslim Brotherhood formed the Movement for the Society of Peace (MSP, previously known as Hamas), led by Mahfoud Nahnah until his death in 2003 (he was succeeded by present party leader Boudjerra Soltani). The Muslim Brotherhood in Algeria did not join the Front islamique du salut (FIS), which emerged as the leading Islamist group in the 1991 elections, and which was banned in 1992 following a military coup d'état, although some Brotherhood sympathizers did. The Brotherhood subsequently also refused to join the violent post-coup uprising by FIS sympathizers and the Armed Islamic Groups (GIA) against the Algerian state and military which followed, and urged a peaceful resolution to the conflict and a return to democracy. It has thus remained a legal political organization and enjoyed parliamentary and government representation. In 1995, Sheikh Nahnah ran for President of Algeria finishing second with 25.38% of the popular vote. During the 2000s, the party—led by Nahnah's successor Boudjerra Soltani -- has been a member of a three-party coalition backing President Abdelaziz Bouteflika. Sudan Until the election of Hamas in Gaza, Sudan was the one country were the Brotherhood was most successful in gaining power, its members making up a large part of the government officialdom following the 1989 coup d'état by General Omar Hassan al-Bashir. Always close to Egyptian politics, Sudan has had a Muslim Brotherhood presence since 1949. In 1945, a delegation from the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt visited Sudan and held various meetings inside the country advocating and explaining their ideology. Sudan has a long and deep history with the Muslim Brotherhood compared to many other countries. By April 1949, the first branch of the Sudanese Muslim Brotherhood organization emerged. However, simultaneously, many Sudanese students studying in Egypt were introduced to the ideology of the Brotherhood. The Muslim student groups also began organizing in the universities during the 1940s, and the Brotherhood’s main support base has remained to be college educated. In order to unite them, in 1954, a conference was held, attended by various representatives from different groups that appeared to have the same ideology. The conference voted to establish a Unified Sudanese Muslim Brotherhood Organization based on the teachings of Imam Hassan Al-banna. An offshoot of the Sudanese branch of the Muslim Brotherhood, the Islamic Charter Front grew during the 1960, with Islamic scholar Hasan al-Turabi becoming its Secretary general in 1964. The Islamic Charter Front (ICM) was renamed several times most recently being called the National Islamic Front (NIF). Turabi has been the prime architect of the NIF as a modern Islamist party. He worked within the Institutions of the government, which led to a prominent position of his organization in the country. NIF supported women's right to vote and ran women candidates. The Muslim Brotherhood/NIF's main objective in Sudan was to Islamize the society "from above" and to institutionalize the Islamic law throughout the country where they succeeded. The Brotherhood penetrated into the ruling political organizations, the state army and security personal, the national and regional assemblies, the youth and women organizations of Sudan. They also launched their own mass organizations among the youth and women such as the shabab al-binna, and raidat al-nahda, and launched educational campaigned to Islamize the communities throughout the country. At the same time, they gained control of several newly founded Islamic missionary and relief organizations to spread their ideology. The Brotherhood members took control of the newly established Islamic Banks as directors, administrators, employees and legal advisors, which became a source of power for the Brotherhood. The Sudanese government has come under considerable criticism for its human rights policies, links to terrorist groups, and war in southern Sudan and Darfur. The conservatism of at least some elements of the Sudanese Muslim Brotherhood was highlighted in an August 3, 2007 Al-Jazeera television interview of Sudanese Muslim Brotherhood leader Sheikh Sadeq Abdallah bin Al-Majed. As translated by the Israeli-based MEMRI, Bin Al-Majed told his interviewer that "the West, and the Americans in particular ... are behind all the tragedies that are taking place in Darfur," as they "realized that it Darfur is full of treasures"; that "Islam does not permit a non-Muslim to rule over Muslims;" and that he had issued a fatwa prohibiting the vaccination of children, on the grounds that the vaccinations were "a conspiracy of the Jews and Freemasons." Somalia Somalia's wing of the Muslim Brotherhood is known by the name Harakat Al-Islah or "Reform Movement". Nonetheless, the Brotherhood, as mentioned earlier, has inspired many Islamist organizations in Somalia. Muslim Brotherhood ideology reached Somalia in the 1960s, but Al-Islah movement was formed in 1978 and slowly grew in the 1980s. Al-Islah has been described as "a generally nonviolent and modernizing Islamic movement that emphasizes the reformation and revival of Islam to meet the challenges of the modern world," whose "goal is the establishment of an Islamic state" and which "operates primarily in Mogadishu." International Religious Freedom Report 2004. Somalia The founders of the Islah Movement are: Sh. Mohamed Ahmed Nur, Dr. Ali Sheikh Ahmed, Dr. Mohamed Yusuf Abdi, Sh. Ahmed Rashid Hanafi, and Sh. Abdullah Ahmed Abdullah. The organization structured itself loosely and was not openly visible on the political scene of Somali society. They chose to remain a secret movement fearing the repressive regime of Siad Barre. However, they emerged from secrecy when the regime collapsed in 1991 and started working openly thereafter. Most Somalis were surprised to see the new group they had never heard of, which was in the country since 1970s in secrecy. According to the Islah by-law, every five years the organization has to elect its Consultative (Shura) Council which elects the Chairman and the two Vice-chairman. During the last 30 years, four chairmen were elected. These are Sheikh Mohamed Geryare (1978-1990), Dr. Mohamed Ali Ibrahim (1990-1999), Dr. Ali Sheikh Ahmed (1999-2008) and Dr. Ali Bashi Omar Roraye (2008-2013). Dr. Ali bashi is a medical doctor, a former university professor and a member of the transitional parliament (2000-2008). During the 1990s, Al-Islah devoted much effort to humanitarian efforts and providing free basic social services. The leaders of Al-Islah played a key role in the educational network and establishing Mogadishu University. Through their network, they educate more than 120,000 students in the city of Mogadishu. Many other secondary schools such as the University of East Africa in Bosasso, Puntland, are externally funded and administered through organizations affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood-affiliated Islamic organization Al-Islah. In Somalia, they are known to be a peaceful organization that does not participate in any factional fighting and rejects the use of violence. Today the group's membership includes urban professionals and students. According to a Crisis Group Report, Somalia’s Islamists, “Al-Islah organization is dominated by a highly educated urban elite whose professional, middle class status and extensive expatriate experiences are alien to most Somalis.” Although Al-Islah have been criticized by some hardcore Islamists who considered them to be influenced by imperialist western values, Al-Islah speaks of democratic peaceful Somalia. They promote women's rights, human rights, and other Western ideas, which they argue that these concepts originate from Islamic concepts. Al-Islah is gaining momentum in the Somali societies for their humanitarian work and moderate view of Islam. Tunisia Like their counterparts elsewhere in the Islamic world in general, the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood has influenced the Tunisia’s Islamists. One of the notable organization that was influenced and inspired by the Brotherhood is Al-Nahda (The Revival or Renaissance Party), which is Tunisia's major Islamist grouping. An Islamist named Rashid Ghannouchi founded the organization in 1981. While studying in Damascus and Paris, Rashid Ghannouchi embraced the ideology of the Muslim Brotherhood, which he disseminated on his return to Tunisia. Al Nahda members were allowed to stand in the 1989 election, where they captured around 14% of the votes, and were close to winning a majority in several urban areas. Others say that the real percentage attained by the Islamist candidates was 30-32%. However, the government quickly cracked down harshly, and banned the Nahda organization and imprisoned thousands of members of the organization. Their mouthpiece newspaper is Al-Fajr, and in Tunisia The Arabic language television station El Zeitouna is believed to be connected with Al Nahda movement. The Nahda usually distances itself as a branch from the Muslim Brotherhood. Libya Libya was one of the first countries outside Egypt to have a Brotherhood cell . In the late 1940s when the Egyptian members were being prosecuted, King Idris I of Libya offered the Brotherhood refuge and the freedom to spread their ideology. In 1955, the University of Libya was established in Benghazi, near the Egyptian border, and it drew many Egyptian teachers and lecturers including MB members. The Muslim Brotherhood was able to influence a large number of Libyan students during this period. Dr. Ezzudine Ibrahim was one of the most influential founders of the Brotherhood in Libya. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Brotherhood was a religious and intellectual tendency in Libya and had many followers amongst the intellectuals and students in the university campuses, and by the mid 1970s it developed a structured Brotherhood organization. The Brotherhood in Libya limited itself to peaceful social, political, economic, and cultural activities. Soon after coming to power, Muammar al-Gaddafi regarded the Brotherhood a potential source of opposition. He arrested many Egyptian Brothers and expelled them back to Egypt. In 1973, the security services arrested and tortured members of the Libyan Brotherhood banning the organization and forcing it underground. The secrecy phase helped the Brotherhood to become more popular. The Brotherhood operated secretly in groups of interlinked cells, which was spread in the country. The brotherhood remained underground until the end of 1970s. At the beginning of 1980s, the Brotherhood renamed itself the “Libyan Islamic Group” (Al-Jama’a al-Islamiya al-Libyia) and tried to re-introduce themselves into the Libyan society. On March 2, 2006, the Libyan government released 132 members of the Muslim Brotherhood that were held as political prisoners. Their core ideology, strategy, operations and membership are the same as Brotherhood groups in other countries: it seeks to replace the existing regime with one following Sharia law through what it claims are peaceful means. It has an active charitable and welfare wing and has attracted many members of the middle classes, mainly academics, students, engineers and business people. The group has been strengthened by the large number of Libyan students who became member or supporters of the Brotherhood while studying abroad in the United Kingdom and the United States, and have returned home to spread its ideology. . Muslim Brotherhood in the West United States The Muslim Brotherhood has been active in the US since the 1960s. Its stated goals have included propagating Islam and creating havens for Muslims in the US, and integrating Muslims. A main strategy has been dawah or Islamic renewal and outreach. In the 1960s, groups such as U.S. military personnel, prison inmates and African-Americans were specifically targeted for dawah. Organizations in the US started by activists involved with the Muslim Brotherhood include the Muslim Students Association in 1963, North American Islamic Trust in 1971, the Islamic Society of North America in 1981, the American Muslim Council in 1990, the Muslim American Society in 1992, and the International Institute of Islamic Thought in the 1980s. According to the Washington Post, Muslim activists say MSA's members represent "all schools of Islam and political leanings – many are moderates, while others express anti-U.S. views or support resistance against Israelis." The Holy Land Foundation trial has led to the release as evidence of several documents on the Muslim Brotherhood. In one of these documents, "Ikhwan in America", it is revealed that the activities of the Muslim Brotherhood in the US include going to camps to do weapons training (referred to as Special work by the Muslim Brotherhood), Zeid al-Noman, "Ikhwan in America", pp. 13 and 16 as well as engaging in counter-espionage against US government agencies such as the FBI and CIA (referred to as Securing the Group). Zeid al-Noman, "Ikhwan in America", p. 13 However, these claims did not hold up in court of law and many of these cases were dismissed or those accused acquitted of all charges. Elsewhere In the United Kingdom, the Muslim Association of Britain is the local chapter of the Muslim Brotherhood. However, in line with Al Ikhwan policy of setting up organisations that make use of the political and social structures of the host nation, other Brotherhood organisations in the UK include the UK Islamic Mission, run by Mohammed Sawalha, the Centre For the Study of Terrorism, run by Kemal Helbawy and the Scottish Islamic Foundation, run by Osama Saeed. See also Footnotes References Grundmann, Johannes: Islamische Internationalisten - Strukturen und Aktivitäten der Muslimbruderschaft und der Islamischen Weltliga. Reichert Verlag, Wiesbaden, 2005, ISBN 3-89500-447-2 (Review by I. Küpeli) Küntzel, Matthias. "Djihad und Judenhaß" Ça-Ira-Verlag, Freiburg, 2002. Vidino,Lorenzo. "The Muslim Brotherhood's Conquest of Europe". Middle East Quarterly, Winter 2005. Nick cohen:The Foreign Office ought to be serving Britain, not radical Islam July 9, 2006; The Observer - London Abdullahi, Abdurahman (baadiyow).The Islah Movement: Islamic moderation in war-torn Somalia. http://www.hiiraan.com/oct2008/ISLAH.pdf External links The Egyptian Brotherhood's official page. In English. The Egyptian Brotherhood's official page. In Arabic. Founder of the Muslim Brotherhood. In Arabic. The Syrian Brotherhood's page. In Arabic. The Jordanian Brotherhood's official page. In Arabic. The Islamic Action Front. In Arabic. The Iraqi Islamic Party. In Arabic. Palestine Info. Unofficial Hamas page. In English. Hasan al-Turabi homepage. In English and Arabic. Kurdish Islamic Union. In Kurdish, English and Arabic. Muslim American Society Jihad A book chapter in Sayyid Qutb's Milestones. 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4,579 | Politics_of_India | Politics of India takes place in a framework of a federal parliamentary multi-party representative democratic republic modeled after the British Westminster System. The Prime Minister of India is the head of government, while the President of India is the formal head of state and holds substantial reserve powers, placing him or her in approximately the same position as the British monarch. Executive power is exercised by the government. Federal legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the Parliament of India. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. According to its constitution, India is a "sovereign socialist secular democratic republic." India is the largest state by population with a democratically-elected government. Like the United States, India has a federal form of government, however, the central government in India has greater power in relation to its states, and its central government is patterned after the British parliamentary system. Regarding the former, "the Centre", the national government, can and has dismissed state governments if no majority party or coalition is able to form a government or under specific Constitutional clauses, and can impose direct federal rule known as President's rule. Locally, the Panchayati Raj system has several administrative functions. For most of the years since independence, the federal government has been led by the Indian National Congress (INC), Politics in the states have been dominated by several national parties including the INC, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)) and various regional parties. From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the Janata Party won the election owing to public discontent with the corruption of the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In 1989, a Janata Dal-led National Front coalition in alliance with the Left Front coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years. As the 1991 elections gave no political party a majority, the INC formed a minority government under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and was able to complete its five-year term. The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the United Front coalition that excluded both the BJP and the INC. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) with several other parties and became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term. In the 2004 Indian elections, the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), supported by various parties. In the 2009 Lok Sabha Elections, it won agiain with a surprising majority, the INC itself winning more than 200 seats. At the federal level, India is the most populous democracy in the world. While many neighboring countries witness frequent coups, Indian democracy has been suspended only once. A special report on India: The democracy tax is rising: Indian politics is becoming ever more labyrinthine December 11th 2008 The Economist Nevertheless, Indian politics is often described as chaotic. More than a fifth of parliament members face criminal charges and is not unheard of that most state assembly seats are held by convicted criminals. Corruption in India is common. Central and State Governments The central government exercises its broad administrative powers in the name of the President, whose duties are largely ceremonial. The president and vice president are elected indirectly for 5-year terms by a special electoral college. The vice president assumes the office of president in case of the death or resignation of the incumbent president. The constitution designates the governance of India under two branches namely the executive branch and Real national executive power is centered in the Council of Ministers, led by the Prime Minister of India. The President appoints the Prime Minister, who is designated by legislators of the political party or coalition commanding a parliamentary majority. The President then appoints subordinate ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister. In reality, the President has no discretion on the question of whom to appoint as Prime Minister except when no political party or coalition of parties gains a majority in the Lok Sabha. Once the Prime Minister has been appointed, the President has no discretion on any other matter whatsoever, including the appointment of ministers. But all Central Government decisions are nominally taken in his name. Legislative branch The constitution designates the Parliament of India as the legislative branch to oversee the operation of the government. India's bicameral parliament consists of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People). The Council of Ministers is held responsible to the Lok Sabha. The government can enact laws and ordinances as required for the governance of the country. However, laws and ordinances have to be passed by the legislative branch in order to be effected. Parliament sessions are conducted to discuss, analyze and pass the laws tabled as Acts. Any law is first proposed as a bill in the lower house. If the lower house approves the bill in current form, the bill is then proposed to be enacted in the upper house. If not, the bill is sent for amendment and then tabled again so as to be passed as an Act. Even if the bill is passed in the lower house, the upper house has the right to reject the proposed bill and send it back to the government for amending the bill. Therefore, it can be said that the governance of India takes place under two processes; the executive process and the legislative process. Ideally, the governance cannot be done through the individual processes alone. After the Bill is passed by both the houses, the President signs the Bill as an Act. Thus the legislative branch also acts under the name of the President, like the executive branch. Ordinances are laws that are passed in lieu of Acts, when the parliament is not in session. When the parliament is in recess, the President assumes the legislative powers of both the houses temporarily, under Part V: Chapter III - Article 335 of the Constitution of India. The government has to propose a law to the President during such periods. If the President is fully satisfied with the bill, and signs the bill, it becomes an ordinance. The powers of ordinances are temporary, and each ordinance has to be tabled in the parliament when the houses reassemble. The President also has the right to withdraw an ordinance. State Government States in India have their own elected governments, whereas Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the central government. Some of the state legislatures are bicameral, patterned after the two houses of the national parliament. The states' chief ministers are responsible to the legislatures in the same way the prime minister is responsible to parliament. Each state also has a presidentially appointed governor who may assume certain broad powers when directed by the central government. The central government exerts greater control over the union territories than over the States, although some territories have gained more power to administer their own affairs. Local state governments in India have less autonomy compared to their counterparts in the United States and Australia. Judicial branch India's independent judicial system began under the British, and its concepts and procedures resemble those of Anglo-Saxon countries. The constitution designates the Supreme Court, the High Courts and the lower courts as the authority to resolve disputes among the people as well as the disputes related to the people and the government. The constitution through its articles relating to the judicial system provides a way to question the laws of the government, if the common man finds the laws as unsuitable for any community in India.. Local governance On April 24, 1993, the Constitutional (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 came into force to provide constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj institutions. This Act was extended to Panchayats in the tribal areas of eight States, namely Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan from 24 December 1996. The Act aims to provide 3-tier system of Panchayati Raj for all States having population of over 2 million, to hold Panchayat elections regularly every 5 years, to provide reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Women, to appoint State Finance Commission to make recommendations as regards the financial powers of the Panchayats and to constitute District Planning Committee to prepare draft development plan for the district. Role of political parties As like any other democracy, political parties represent different sections among the Indian society and regions, and their core values play a major role in the politics of India. Both the executive branch and the legislative branch of the government are run by the representatives of the political parties who have been elected through the elections. Through the electoral process, the people of India choose which majority in the lower house, a government can be formed by that party or the coalition. India has a multi-party system, where there are a number of national as well as regional parties. A regional party may gain a majority and rule a particular state. If a party represents more than 4 states then such parties are considered as national parties. In the 61 years since India's independence, India has been ruled by the Indian National Congress (INC) for 48 of those years. The party enjoyed a parliamentary majority barring two brief periods during the 1970s and late 1980s. This rule was interrupted between 1977 to 1980, when the Janata Party coalition won the election owing to public discontent with the controversial state of emergency declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. The Janata Dal won elections in 1989, but its government managed to hold on to power for only two years. Between 1996 and 1998, there was a period of political flux with the government being formed first by the right-wing nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) followed by a left-leaning United Front coalition. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance with smaller regional parties, and became the first non-INC and coalition government to complete a full five-year term. The 2004 Indian elections saw the INC winning the largest number of seats to form a government leading the United Progressive Alliance, and supported by left-parties and those opposed to the BJP. On 22 May 2004, Manmohan Singh was appointed the Prime Minister of India following the victory of the INC & the left front in the 2004 Lok Sabha election. The UPA now rules India without the support of the left front. Previously, Atal Bihari Vajpayee had taken office in October 1999 after a general election in which a BJP-led coalition of 13 parties called the National Democratic Alliance emerged with a majority. Formation of coalition governments reflects the transition in Indian politics away from the national parties toward smaller, more narrowly-based regional parties. Some regional parties, especially in South India, are deeply aligned to the ideologies of the region unlike the national parties and thus the relationship between the central government and the state government in various states has not always been free of rancor. Disparity between the ideologies of the political parties ruling the centre and the state leads to severely skewed allocation of resources between the states. Controversies In November 2008, senior Congress leader, Margaret Alva, made a charge that congress seats for the elections were up for bidding as opposed to a meritocratic appointment to run for office. The party responded to the charge by denying such a claim, as well as dropping her as general secretary of the party, the Congress Working Committee and the party's Central Election Committee. She was also stripped of her charge of the congress party in Maharashtra, Punjab, Haryana and Mizoram. Congress spokesperson, Shakeel Ahmad, added that "Congress president Mrs Sonia Gandhi has taken the decision on the report submitted by Mr AK Antony, chairperson of the Disciplinary Action Committee." http://www.thestatesman.net/page.news.php?clid=2&theme=&usrsess=1&id=230673 This followed an outburst by the son of the congress chairperson, Rahul Gandhi, that "Democracy in political parties is non-existent in India. You cannot enter unless you are well connected." In response to the recent allegations he said, "I had made some recommendations to include some younger boys. I am not unhappy with the distribution of tickets." http://www.thestatesman.net/page.news.php?clid=2&theme=&usrsess=1&id=230659 This was followed by an allegation that the BJP had done the same thing for the contemperaneously upcoming Rajasthan legislative assembly tickets. Political issues Social issues The lack of homogeneity in the Indian population causes division between different sections of the people based on religion, region, language, caste and race. This has led to the rise of political parties with agendas catering to one or a mix of these groups. Some parties openly profess their focus on a particular group, for example, the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam's focus on the dravid population, and the Shiv Sena's pro-Marathi agenda. Some other parties claim to be universal in nature, but tend to draw support from particular sections of the population, for example, the Rashtriya Janata Dal (translated as National People's Party) has a vote bank among the Yadav and Muslim population of Bihar and the All India Trinamool Congress does not have any significant support outside West Bengal. The Bharatiya Janata Party, the party with the second largest number of MPs in the 15th Lok Sabha, has an image of being pro-Hindu, and anti-Muslim and anti-Christian. Such support from particular sections of the population affects the agenda and policies of such parties, and refute their claims of being universal representatives. The narrow focus and vote bank politics of most parties, even in the central government and central legislature, sidelines national issues such as economic welfare and national security. Moreover, internal security is also threatened as incidences of political parties instigating and leading violence between two opposing groups of people is a frequent occurrence. Economic issues Economics issues like poverty, unemployment, development are main issues that influence politics. Garibi hatao (eradicate poverty) has been a slogan of the Indian National Congress for long. The Bharatiya Janata Party is seen as a party favourable to businesses and economic development. The Communist Party of India has a left-wing view of economics and is opposed to privatization, globalization and foreign investments. The economic policies of most other parties do not go much further than providing populist subsidies and reservations. As a noteworthy case, the manifesto of the Samajwadi Party, the third largest party in the 15th Lok Sabha, for the 2009 general elections promised to reduce the use of computers upon being elected. Law and order Religious violence, terrorism, Naxalism, and caste-related violence are major issues that affect the political scene of India. Stringent anti-terror legislations like TADA, POTA and MCOCA have received much political attention, but in favour as well as criticism. Law and order issues such as action against organized crime are not issues that affect the outcomes of elections. On the other hand, there is a criminal-politician nexus. Many elected legislators have criminal cases against them. In July 2008 Washington Times reported that nearly a fourth of the 540 Indian Parliament members faced criminal charges, "including human trafficking, immigration rackets, embezzlement, rape and even murder". See also Indian political scandals Official Election Website of Mysore References Further reading W. Phillips Shively. 2008. Power and Choice: An Introduction to Political Science—Chapter 14 Example: Parliamentary Government in India" McGraw Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0-07-340391-5 Leftism in India, 1917-1947; Satyabrata Rai Chowdhuri, Palgrave, U.K.,2007. Subrata K. Mitra and V.B. Singh. 1999. Democracy and Social Change in India: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the National Electorate''. New Delhi: Sage Publications. 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4,580 | John_Hanson | John Hanson ( November 22, 1783) was a merchant and public official from Maryland during the era of the American Revolution. After serving in a variety of roles for the Patriot cause in Maryland, in 1779 Hanson was elected as a delegate to the Continental Congress. He signed the Articles of Confederation in 1781 after Maryland finally joined the other states in ratifying them. In November 1781, he became the first President of Congress to be elected under the terms of the Articles of Confederation. Gregory A. Stiverson, "Hanson, John, Jr.", American National Biography Online, February 2000. Because of this, he was later promoted as having been the first President of the United States, one of several myths about him. Early life John Hanson, Jr. was born in Port Tobacco Parish in Charles County, Maryland, to Samuel and Elizabeth (Story) Hanson. Samuel Hanson was a planter who owned more than 1,000 acres, and held a variety of political offices, including two terms in the Maryland General Assembly. The American National Biography lists John Hanson's birth date as April 3, 1721, which in the modern calendar system is equivalent to April 14, although the older Dictionary of American Biography gives his birth date as April 13, 1721. Newton D. Mereness, "John Hanson", Dictionary of American Biography vol. 4, pt. 2 (New York: Scribner 1932–64), 231–32. Hanson was of English ancestry; his grandfather, also named John, apparently came to the Province of Maryland as an indentured servant. Hanson was long thought to have been a descendant of one of four Swedish brothers who emigrated to New Sweden in 1642, but subsequent research revealed this to be an unfounded tradition. George Ely Russel, "John Hanson of Maryland, A Swedish Heritage Disproved", The American Genealogist 63:4 (October 1988), cited in Edward C. Papenfuse, Alan F. Day, David W. Jordan, and Gregory A. Stiverson, A Biographical Dictionary of The Maryland Legislature, 1635-1789, Volume I: A-H (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), pp. 405-406, provides a documented and authoritative assessment of Hanson's private and political career. Hanson had no extended formal education while growing up in Maryland, but he read broadly in both English and Latin. He followed the family tradition as a planter, extending and improving his holdings. About 1744 he married Jane Contee, with whom he would have eight children. Their son Alexander Contee Hanson, Sr. (1749–1806) was a notable essayist. Kevin R. Chaney, "Hanson, Alexander Contee"; American National Biography Online, February 2000. Alexander Hanson is sometimes confused with his son, Alexander Contee Hanson, Jr., who became a newspaper editor and US Senator. Political career Hanson's career in public service began in 1750, when he was appointed sheriff of Charles County. In 1757 he was elected to represent Charles County in the lower house of the Maryland General Assembly, where he served over the next twelve years, sitting on many important committees. Maryland was a proprietary colony, and Hanson aligned himself with the "popular" or "country" party, which opposed any expansion of the power of the proprietary governors at the expense of the popularly elected lower house. He was a leading opponent of the 1765 Stamp Act, chairing the committee that drafted the instructions for Maryland's delegates to the Stamp Act Congress. In protest of the Townshend Acts, in 1769 Hanson was one of the signers of a nonimportation resolution that boycotted British imports until the acts were repealed. Hanson changed course in 1769, apparently to better pursue his business interests. He resigned from the General Assembly, sold his land in Charles County, and moved to Frederick County in western Maryland. There he held a variety of offices, including deputy surveyor, sheriff, and county treasurer. When relations between Great Britain and the colonies became a crisis in 1774, Hanson became one of Frederick County's leading Patriots. He chaired a town meeting that passed a resolution opposing the Boston Port Act. In 1775, he was a delegate to the Maryland Convention, an extralegal body convened after the colonial assembly had been prorogued. With the other delegates, he signed the Association of Freemen on July 26, 1775, which expressed hope for reconciliation with Great Britain, but also called for military resistance to enforcement of the Coercive Acts. With hostilities underway, Hanson chaired the Frederick County committee of observation, part of the Patriot organization that assumed control of local governance. Responsible for recruiting and arming soldiers, Hanson proved to be an excellent organizer, and Frederick County sent the first southern troops to join George Washington's army. Hanson was elected to the newly reformed Maryland House of Delegates in 1777, the first of five annual terms. In December 1779, the House of Delegates named Hanson as one of its delegates to the Second Continental Congress. He began those duties when he took his seat in Philadelphia on June 14, 1780, serving until 1782. While Hanson was in Congress, the Articles of Confederation were at last ratified by all the states. When the Congress received notice of this on March 1, 1781, he joined Daniel Carroll in endorsing them for Maryland. President of Congress The bronze statue that stands in the United States Capitol. In November 1781, Hanson became the first President of Congress to be elected for an annual term as specified in the Articles of Confederation, although Samuel Huntington and Thomas McKean had served in that office after the ratification of the Articles. Under the Articles of Confederation, the United States had no executive branch; the President of Congress was a mostly ceremonial position within the Confederation Congress, but the office did require Hanson to handle a good deal of correspondence and sign official documents. Rick K. Wilson, Congressional Dynamics: Structure, Coordination, and Choice in the First American Congress, 1774–1789 (Stanford University Press, 1994), 76–80. Hanson found the work tedious and wished to resign, but his departure would have left Congress without a quorum to select a successor, and so, out of a sense of duty, he remained in office. Because Hanson was the first president under the Articles of Confederation, one of his grandsons later promoted him as the "first President of the United States", ultimately resulting in Hanson's statue being one of two representing Maryland in Statuary Hall in the U.S. Capitol, even though Hanson was not really one of Maryland's foremost leaders of the Revolutionary era. The claim that Hanson was the forgotten first President of the United States was further promoted in an 1932 biography of Hanson by journalist Seymour Wemyss Smith. Smith's book, which contained no footnotes or references, made expansive claims about Hanson's role, asserting that the American Revolution had two primary leaders: George Washington in the military sphere, and John Hanson in politics. Smith, John Hanson, Our First President, 57. Death and legacy Hanson retired from public office after his one-year term as President of Congress. In poor health, he died a year later at his nephew's plantation Oxon Hill Manor in Prince George's County, Maryland, on November 22, 1783. The grave site is lost. Maryland law specifies that "the Governor annually shall proclaim April 13 as John Hanson's birthday and dedicate that day to the statesman." Also, the John Hanson Highway is named in his honor. There are also middle schools located in Oxon Hill, Maryland, and Waldorf, Maryland, named after him. In 1903 the state of Maryland donated a bronze statue by Richard E. Brooks to the United States Capitol's National Statuary Hall Collection. It is currently located on the 2nd floor of the Senate connecting corridor. A maquette of the Hanson statue by Brooks resides on the President's dais in the Senate Chamber of the Maryland State House. Notes External links Hanson at Snopes.com | John_Hanson |@lemmatized john:12 hanson:43 november:4 merchant:1 public:3 official:2 maryland:24 era:2 american:9 revolution:2 serve:4 variety:3 role:2 patriot:3 cause:1 elect:6 delegate:7 continental:2 congress:13 sign:3 article:7 confederation:7 finally:1 join:3 state:10 ratify:2 become:5 first:10 president:11 term:5 gregory:2 stiverson:2 jr:3 national:4 biography:6 online:2 february:2 later:3 promote:3 united:6 one:9 several:1 myth:1 early:1 life:1 bear:1 port:2 tobacco:1 parish:1 charles:4 county:10 samuel:3 elizabeth:1 story:1 planter:2 acre:1 hold:2 political:3 office:6 include:2 two:3 general:3 assembly:4 list:1 birth:2 date:2 april:4 modern:1 calendar:1 system:1 equivalent:1 although:2 old:1 dictionary:3 give:1 newton:1 mereness:1 vol:1 pt:1 new:2 york:1 scribner:1 english:2 ancestry:1 grandfather:1 also:4 name:4 apparently:2 come:1 province:1 indentured:1 servant:1 long:1 think:1 descendant:1 four:1 swedish:2 brother:1 emigrate:1 sweden:1 subsequent:1 research:1 reveal:1 unfounded:1 tradition:2 george:4 ely:1 russel:1 heritage:1 disprove:1 genealogist:1 october:1 cite:1 edward:1 c:1 papenfuse:1 alan:1 f:1 day:2 david:1 w:1 jordan:1 biographical:1 legislature:1 volume:1 h:1 baltimore:1 hopkins:1 university:2 press:2 pp:1 provide:1 documented:1 authoritative:1 assessment:1 private:1 career:3 extend:2 formal:1 education:1 grow:1 read:1 broadly:1 latin:1 follow:1 family:1 improve:1 holding:1 marry:1 jane:1 contee:4 would:2 eight:1 child:1 son:2 alexander:4 sr:1 notable:1 essayist:1 kevin:1 r:1 chaney:1 sometimes:1 confuse:1 newspaper:1 editor:1 u:2 senator:1 service:1 begin:2 appoint:1 sheriff:2 represent:2 low:2 house:5 next:1 twelve:1 year:3 sit:1 many:1 important:1 committee:3 proprietary:2 colony:2 align:1 popular:1 country:1 party:1 oppose:2 expansion:1 power:1 governor:2 expense:1 popularly:1 leading:1 opponent:1 stamp:2 act:6 chair:3 draft:1 instruction:1 protest:1 townshend:1 signer:1 nonimportation:1 resolution:2 boycott:1 british:1 import:1 repeal:1 change:1 course:1 good:2 pursue:1 business:1 interest:1 resign:2 sell:1 land:1 move:1 frederick:4 western:1 deputy:1 surveyor:1 treasurer:1 relation:1 great:2 britain:2 crisis:1 lead:1 town:1 meeting:1 pass:1 boston:1 convention:1 extralegal:1 body:1 convene:1 colonial:1 prorogue:1 association:1 freeman:1 july:1 express:1 hope:1 reconciliation:1 call:1 military:2 resistance:1 enforcement:1 coercive:1 hostility:1 underway:1 observation:1 part:1 organization:1 assume:1 control:1 local:1 governance:1 responsible:1 recruit:1 arm:1 soldier:1 prove:1 excellent:1 organizer:1 send:1 southern:1 troop:1 washington:2 army:1 newly:1 reform:1 five:1 annual:2 december:1 second:1 duty:2 take:1 seat:1 philadelphia:1 june:1 last:1 receive:1 notice:1 march:1 daniel:1 carroll:1 endorse:1 bronze:2 statue:4 stand:1 capitol:3 specify:1 huntington:1 thomas:1 mckean:1 ratification:1 executive:1 branch:1 mostly:1 ceremonial:1 position:1 within:1 require:1 handle:1 deal:1 correspondence:1 document:1 rick:1 k:1 wilson:1 congressional:1 dynamic:1 structure:1 coordination:1 choice:1 stanford:1 find:1 work:1 tedious:1 wish:1 departure:1 leave:1 without:1 quorum:1 select:1 successor:1 sense:1 remain:1 grandson:1 ultimately:1 result:1 statuary:2 hall:2 even:1 though:1 really:1 foremost:1 leader:2 revolutionary:1 claim:2 forgotten:1 far:1 journalist:1 seymour:1 wemyss:1 smith:3 book:1 contain:1 footnote:1 reference:1 make:1 expansive:1 assert:1 primary:1 sphere:1 politics:1 death:1 legacy:1 retire:1 poor:1 health:1 die:1 nephew:1 plantation:1 oxon:2 hill:2 manor:1 prince:1 grave:1 site:1 lose:1 law:1 specifies:1 annually:1 shall:1 proclaim:1 birthday:1 dedicate:1 statesman:1 highway:1 honor:1 middle:1 school:1 locate:2 waldorf:1 donate:1 richard:1 e:1 brook:2 collection:1 currently:1 floor:1 senate:2 connecting:1 corridor:1 maquette:1 resides:1 dais:1 chamber:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 snopes:1 com:1 |@bigram indentured_servant:1 biographical_dictionary:1 bronze_statue:2 statuary_hall:2 external_link:1 snopes_com:1 |
4,581 | Augustin-Louis_Cauchy | Augustin Louis Cauchy (21 August 1789 – 23 May 1857; pronounced ) was a French mathematician. He started the project of formulating and proving the theorems of infinitesimal calculus in a rigorous manner and was thus an early pioneer of analysis. He also gave several important theorems in complex analysis and initiated the study of permutation groups. A profound mathematician, through his perspicuous and rigorous methods Cauchy exercised a great influence over his contemporaries and successors. His writings cover the entire range of mathematics and mathematical physics. Biography Cauchy received his early education from his father Louis François Cauchy (1760–1848), who held several minor public appointments and counted Lagrange and Laplace among his friends. Cauchy entered l'École Centrale du Panthéon in 1802, proceeded to the École Polytechnique in 1805, and to l'École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées in 1807, afterwards adopting the profession of an engineer. He left Paris for Cherbourg in 1810, but returned in 1813 on account of his health, whereupon Lagrange and Laplace persuaded him to renounce engineering and to devote himself to mathematics. He obtained an appointment at the École Polytechnique, which, however, he relinquished in 1830 on the accession of Louis-Philippe after Charles X of France of the House of Bourbon was ousted. He did this because he found it impossible to take the necessary oaths to the new government because he remained loyal to the House of Bourbon. A short sojourn at Fribourg in Switzerland was followed by his appointment in 1831 to the newly-created chair of mathematical physics at the University of Turin (at that time, Turin was the capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which unified Italy later in 1871.) Cauchy married Aloise de Bure in 1818. She was a close relative of the publisher who published most of Cauchy's works. Cauchy had two brothers: Alexandre Laurent Cauchy (1792–1857), who became a president of a division of the court of appeal in 1847, and a judge of the court of cassation in 1849; and Eugène François Cauchy (1802–1877), a publicist who also wrote several mathematical works. Cauchy had two daughters: Marie Françoise Alicia (1819) and Marie Mathilde (1823). Work The genius of Cauchy was illustrated in his simple solution of the problem of Apollonius—describing a circle touching three given circles—which he discovered in 1805, his generalization of Euler's formula on polyhedra in 1811, and in several other elegant problems. More important is his memoir on wave propagation, which obtained the Grand Prix of the Institut in 1816. His greatest contributions to mathematical science are enveloped in the rigorous methods which he introduced. These are mainly embodied in his three great treatises, Cours d'analyse de l'École Polytechnique (1821); Le Calcul infinitésimal (1823); Leçons sur les applications de calcul infinitésimal; La géométrie (1826–1828); and also in his Courses of mechanics (for the École Polytechnique), Higher algebra (for the Faculté des Sciences), and of Mathematical physics (for the Collège de France). Other significant contributions include being the first to prove the Fermat polygonal number theorem. Cauchy created the residue theorem, used it to derive a whole host of interesting series and integral formulas, and was the first to define complex numbers as pairs of real numbers. He also discovered many of the basic formulas in the theory of q-series. His collected works, Œuvres complètes d'Augustin Cauchy, are published in 27 volumes. In a paper published in 1855, two years before Cauchy's death, he discussed some theorems, one of which is similar to the "Argument Principle" in many modern textbooks on complex analysis. In modern control theory textbooks, the Cauchy argument principle is quite frequently used to derive the Nyquist stability criterion, which can be used to predict the stability of negative feedback amplifier and negative feedback control systems. Thus Cauchy's work has a strong impact on both pure mathematics and practical engineering. Politics and religious beliefs Augustin Louis Cauchy grew up in the house of a staunch royalist. This made his father flee with the family to Arcueil during the French Revolution. Their life there was apparently hard and Lois-François Cauchy spoke of living on rice, bread, and crackers during the period. A paragraph from an undated letter from Louis-François to his mother in Rouen, cited by C A Valson in Vie et les Travaux du baron Cauchy (Volume 1, Pg 13) says: In any event he inherited his father's staunch royalism and hence refused to take oaths to any government after the overthrow of Charles X. He was an equally staunch Catholic and a member of the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul. He also had links to the Society of Jesus and defended them at the Academy when it was politically unwise to do so. His zeal for his faith may have led to his caring for Charles Hermite during his illness and leading Hermite to become a faithful Catholic. It also inspired Cauchy to plead on behalf of the Irish during the Potato Famine. His royalism and religious zeal also made him contentious, which caused difficulties with his colleagues. He felt that he was mistreated for his beliefs, but his opponents felt he intentionally provoked people by berating them over religious matters or by defending the Jesuits after they had been suppressed. Niels Henrik Abel called him a "bigoted Catholic" and added he was "mad and there is nothing that can be done about him," but at the same time praised him as a mathematician. Cauchy's views were widely unpopular among mathematicians and when Guglielmo Libri Carucci dalla Sommaja was made chair in mathematics before him he, and many others, felt his views were the cause. When Libri was accused of stealing books he was replaced by Joseph Liouville which caused a rift between him and Cauchy. Another dispute concerned Jean Marie Constant Duhamel and a claim on inelastic shocks. Cauchy was later shown, by Jean-Victor Poncelet, that he was in the wrong. Despite that Cauchy refused to concede this and nursed a bitterness on the whole issue. His daughter indicated his last moments brought him a certain calm and that his final words were "Jesus, Mary, and Joseph." Works by A. Cauchy Oeuvres complètes d'Augustin Cauchy publiées sous la direction scientifique de l'Académie des sciences et sous les auspices de M. le ministre de l'Instruction publique (27 volumes) (Paris : Gauthier-Villars et fils, 1882-1974) Analyse algèbrique (Imprimerie Royale, 1821) Nouveaux exercices de mathématiques (Paris : Gauthier-Villars, 1895) Exercices d'analyse et de physique mathematique (Volume 1) Exercices d'analyse et de physique mathematique (Volume 2) Exercices d'analyse et de physique mathematique (Volume 3) Exercices d'analyse et de physique mathematique (Volume 4) (Paris: Bachelier, 1840-1847) Cours d'analyse de l'École royale polytechnique See also Cauchy argument principle Cauchy-Binet formula Cauchy boundary condition Cauchy's convergence test Cauchy (crater) Cauchy determinant Cauchy distribution Cauchy's equation Cauchy-Euler equation Cauchy functional equation Cauchy horizon Cauchy integral theorem Cauchy's integral formula Cauchy formula for repeated integration Cauchy-Frobenius lemma Cauchy-Hadamard theorem Cauchy-Kovalevskaya theorem Cauchy momentum equation Cauchy-Peano theorem Cauchy principal value Cauchy problem Cauchy product Cauchy's radical test Cauchy-Riemann equations Cauchy–Schwarz inequality Cauchy sequence Cauchy surface Cauchy's theorem (geometry) Cauchy's theorem (group theory) Maclaurin-Cauchy test Mean value theorem Nyquist stability criterion Notes References External links Cauchy criterion for convergence Œuvres complètes d'Augustin Cauchy Académie des sciences (France). Ministère de l'éducation nationale. | Augustin-Louis_Cauchy |@lemmatized augustin:5 louis:5 cauchy:59 august:1 may:2 pronounce:1 french:2 mathematician:4 start:1 project:1 formulate:1 prove:2 theorem:12 infinitesimal:1 calculus:1 rigorous:3 manner:1 thus:2 early:2 pioneer:1 analysis:3 also:8 give:2 several:4 important:2 complex:3 initiate:1 study:1 permutation:1 group:2 profound:1 perspicuous:1 method:2 exercise:1 great:3 influence:1 contemporary:1 successor:1 writing:1 cover:1 entire:1 range:1 mathematics:4 mathematical:5 physic:3 biography:1 receive:1 education:1 father:3 françois:4 hold:1 minor:1 public:1 appointment:3 count:1 lagrange:2 laplace:2 among:2 friend:1 enter:1 l:7 école:7 centrale:1 du:2 panthéon:1 proceed:1 polytechnique:5 nationale:2 de:18 ponts:1 et:8 chaussées:1 afterwards:1 adopt:1 profession:1 engineer:1 leave:1 paris:4 cherbourg:1 return:1 account:1 health:1 whereupon:1 persuade:1 renounce:1 engineering:2 devote:1 obtain:2 however:1 relinquish:1 accession:1 philippe:1 charles:3 x:2 france:3 house:3 bourbon:2 oust:1 find:1 impossible:1 take:2 necessary:1 oath:2 new:1 government:2 remain:1 loyal:1 short:1 sojourn:1 fribourg:1 switzerland:1 follow:1 newly:1 create:2 chair:2 university:1 turin:2 time:2 capital:1 kingdom:1 sardinia:1 unify:1 italy:1 later:2 marry:1 aloise:1 bure:1 close:1 relative:1 publisher:1 publish:3 work:6 two:3 brother:1 alexandre:1 laurent:1 become:2 president:1 division:1 court:2 appeal:1 judge:1 cassation:1 eugène:1 publicist:1 write:1 daughter:2 marie:3 françoise:1 alicia:1 mathilde:1 genius:1 illustrate:1 simple:1 solution:1 problem:3 apollonius:1 describe:1 circle:2 touch:1 three:2 discover:2 generalization:1 euler:2 formula:6 polyhedron:1 elegant:1 memoir:1 wave:1 propagation:1 grand:1 prix:1 institut:1 contribution:2 science:4 envelop:1 introduce:1 mainly:1 embody:1 treatise:1 cours:2 analyse:7 le:4 calcul:2 infinitésimal:2 leçons:1 sur:1 application:1 la:2 géométrie:1 course:1 mechanic:1 high:1 algebra:1 faculté:1 des:1 collège:1 significant:1 include:1 first:2 fermat:1 polygonal:1 number:3 residue:1 use:3 derive:2 whole:2 host:1 interesting:1 series:2 integral:3 define:1 pair:1 real:1 many:3 basic:1 theory:3 q:1 collected:1 œuvres:2 complètes:3 volume:7 paper:1 year:1 death:1 discuss:1 one:1 similar:1 argument:3 principle:3 modern:2 textbook:2 control:2 quite:1 frequently:1 nyquist:2 stability:3 criterion:3 predict:1 negative:2 feedback:2 amplifier:1 system:1 strong:1 impact:1 pure:1 practical:1 politics:1 religious:3 belief:2 grow:1 staunch:3 royalist:1 make:3 flee:1 family:1 arcueil:1 revolution:1 life:1 apparently:1 hard:1 lois:1 spoke:1 living:1 rice:1 bread:1 cracker:1 period:1 paragraph:1 undated:1 letter:1 mother:1 rouen:1 cite:1 c:1 valson:1 vie:1 les:1 travaux:1 baron:1 pg:1 say:1 event:1 inherit:1 royalism:2 hence:1 refuse:2 overthrow:1 equally:1 catholic:3 member:1 society:2 saint:1 vincent:1 paul:1 link:2 jesus:2 defend:2 academy:1 politically:1 unwise:1 zeal:2 faith:1 lead:2 care:1 hermite:2 illness:1 faithful:1 inspire:1 plead:1 behalf:1 irish:1 potato:1 famine:1 contentious:1 cause:3 difficulty:1 colleague:1 felt:3 mistreat:1 opponent:1 intentionally:1 provoke:1 people:1 berate:1 matter:1 jesuit:1 suppress:1 niels:1 henrik:1 abel:1 call:1 bigoted:1 add:1 mad:1 nothing:1 praise:1 view:2 widely:1 unpopular:1 guglielmo:1 libri:2 carucci:1 dalla:1 sommaja:1 others:1 accuse:1 steal:1 book:1 replace:1 joseph:2 liouville:1 rift:1 another:1 dispute:1 concern:1 jean:2 constant:1 duhamel:1 claim:1 inelastic:1 shock:1 show:1 victor:1 poncelet:1 wrong:1 despite:1 concede:1 nurse:1 bitterness:1 issue:1 indicate:1 last:1 moment:1 bring:1 certain:1 calm:1 final:1 word:1 mary:1 oeuvres:1 publiées:1 sous:2 direction:1 scientifique:1 académie:2 auspex:1 ministre:1 instruction:1 publique:1 gauthier:2 villars:2 fils:1 algèbrique:1 imprimerie:1 royale:2 nouveaux:1 exercices:5 mathématiques:1 physique:4 mathematique:4 bachelier:1 see:1 binet:1 boundary:1 condition:1 convergence:2 test:3 crater:1 determinant:1 distribution:1 equation:5 functional:1 horizon:1 repeat:1 integration:1 frobenius:1 lemma:1 hadamard:1 kovalevskaya:1 momentum:1 peano:1 principal:1 value:2 product:1 radical:1 riemann:1 schwarz:1 inequality:1 sequence:1 surface:1 geometry:1 maclaurin:1 mean:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 ministère:1 éducation:1 |@bigram augustin_louis:2 infinitesimal_calculus:1 école_centrale:1 école_polytechnique:4 court_cassation:1 grand_prix:1 sur_le:1 augustin_cauchy:3 negative_feedback:2 feedback_amplifier:1 potato_famine:1 niels_henrik:1 henrik_abel:1 sous_le:1 gauthier_villars:2 binet_formula:1 cauchy_convergence:1 cauchy_riemann:1 riemann_equation:1 cauchy_schwarz:1 schwarz_inequality:1 cauchy_sequence:1 external_link:1 ministère_de:1 l_éducation:1 |
4,582 | Economy_of_Denmark | With very few natural resources, the mixed economy of Denmark relies almost entirely on human resources. The service sector makes up the vast amount of the employment and economy. Its industrialized market economy depends on imported raw materials and foreign trade. Within the European Union, Denmark advocates a liberal trade policy. Its standard of living is average among the Western European countries Human Development Report 2007/2008 List of countries by Human Development Index - and for many years the most equally distributed Finance Ministry:Income development and distribution in Denmark 1983-2005 (with PDF-file) as shown by the Gini coefficient - in the world, and the Danes devote 0.8% of Gross National Income (GNI) to foreign aid. It is a society based on consensus (dialogue and compromise) with the Danish Confederation of Trade Unions and the Confederation of Danish Employers in 1899 in Septemberforliget (The September Settlement) recognizing each others' right to organize and thus negotiate. Flexicurity The employers' right to hire and fire their employees whenever they find it necessary is recognized. Denmark is self-sufficient in energy - producing oil, natural gas, wind- and bio-energy. Its principal exports are machinery, instruments and food products. The U.S. is Denmark's largest non-European trading partner, accounting for around 5% of total Danish merchandise trade. Aircraft, computers, machinery, and instruments are among the major U.S. exports to Denmark. There are several hundred U.S.-owned companies in Denmark, some of them just registered for tax purposes, which is beneficial for holding companies. Among major Danish exports to the U.S. are industrial machinery, chemical products, furniture, pharmaceuticals, and canned ham and pork. From 1982, a center-right government corrected accumulated economic imbalances, mainly inflation and balance-of-payments deficits, but lost power in 1993 to a Social Democratic coalition government led by Poul Nyrup Rasmussen, which remained in office following the March 1998 election. Cabinet of Poul Nyrup Rasmussen During the governments of Poul Nyrup Rasmussen, there was a drastic fall in official unemployment, which peaked at 12.4% (1993)- and at 13.8% in January 1994 (386,186 persons) - was 5.2% in 2001 and is (December 2008) 2.1%, a rapid increase from 1,6% (July, August and September 2008). That level (1,6%) was the lowest level since the end of the 1960s, making up around 44,000 persons . statistikbanken.dk Tables aua01+auf01+02+aus01+02+aup03+01 There are now more unemployed men than women.Inflation fell from 1.9% in 2006 to 1.7% in 2007 and was 3.6% in 2008. Average annual growth rates were less than 2% in 2007. In November 2001, a center-right government led by Anders Fogh Rasmussen won the election by introducing a moratorium on tax rates (skattestop) and thus avoiding an increase in the tax level (the world's highest Denmark wins highest tax competition ), improving efficiency in the public administration and decreasing the number of immigrants and asylumseekers. Welfare state Denmark has a highly developed welfare safety net, which ensures that all Danes receive free health care and need not fear real poverty. More than one-quarter of the labor force is employed in the public sector. Thus around 60% of the adult population in Denmark is either dependent on transfer payments, such as entitlement benefits, or is employed by government at central, regional or local level (2005). In 2007, according to TV2 (Denmark), January 2008, around 700,000 in the working age group were dependent on entitlement benefits, often lacking in working experience and/or skills. Denmark ranked the first in the European pensions barometer survey for the past two years. 2007European Pensions Barometer. Remarkable is that the lowest-income group before retirement from the age of 65 receive 120% of their pre-retirement income in pension and miscellaneous subsidies. The large public sector (30% of the entire workforce on a full-time basis Beskæftigelsesindikator på grundlag af ATP-indbetalinger. ) is financed by the world's highest taxes. A value added tax of 25% is levied on the sale of most goods and services (including groceries). The income tax in Denmark ranges from 42.9% Sammensat marginalskat i DK to 63% progressively, levied on 4 out of 10 full-time employees OECD Economic survey of Denmark 2008 . Such high rates mean that 1,010,000 Danes before the end of 2008 (44% of all full-time employees) will be paying a marginal income tax of 63% and a combined marginal tax of 70.9% resulting in lower-than-average growth rates for the country and, among other, warnings from organisations such as the OECD OECD Economic Outlook 82 Én million betaler topskat . TV2 (Denmark) reported in April 2008 that abolishing the middle- and top-level income tax brackets would amount to two (2) and one (1) percent of public sector revenue, respectively, which equals one and a half percent of GDP. The public sector as a whole had a budget surplus of 4.4% of GDP in 2007, but the tax cuts would increase private consumption and the labor shortage and thus result in a deficit on the trade balance and pressure to increase wages even further. Proceeds from selling one's home (if there is any home equity (da: friværdi)) is not taxed, as the marginal tax rate on capital income from housing savings is around 0 percent. Danish Economic Council Spring Report 2008 English Summary, p. 11 A survey by Standard & Poor's found that the total debt secured by mortgages in Danish homes amounts to 89.8% of GDP, which is above the debt level in other countries (and the U.S.A. at 74.6% of GDP). Danmark er det mest udsatte land ved boligkrise (30. juli 2008) Discussions on increasing the labor supply include abolishing a labor market arrangement called efterløn (eng.:early retirement pay) Employment ministry;early retirement pay , at the present (end of 3rd quarter 2008) with more than 130,000 participants (60 years until 64 years of age) Statistikbanken.dk/ab703 (2008Q3) . Participation in this scheme is also open for self-employed people (farmers, fishermen, lawyers, etc.). Shortening the time unemployment benefit can be received (four years at the present), as an example, is also discussed. The Danish Economic Council in its 2008 spring report (27 May) Economic Council, spring 2008 report. English Summary, p. 4 proposes limiting the dagpengeperiode to 2.5 years, which is still half a year more than at present in Norway and one and a half year more than in Sweden, said in an interview by the chairman (da: overvismand) (professor of economics, University of Copenhagen) Peter Birch Sørensen 27 May 2008 on the TV program Deadline (10.30 pm), channel DR2, the Danish Broadcasting Corporation. Tax Burden and Employment Tax burden With a GDP of 1,642,215 million DKK and revenue from taxes and ownership at 803,693 million DKK (2006) http://www.statistikbanken.dk tables NAT01 + OFF12 , 49.07% of GDP, it is of extreme importance what happens in the tax-financed part of the economy. According to newly revised statistics, Denmark has had the world's highest tax level in 2005 and 2006, at 50.7% and 49.1% respectively. Denmark also held this position 1970-74 and 1993-95 . These figures do not include income from ownership. OECD:Tax burden in first place Budgets The overall surpluses after operating and capital expenditure in the whole public sector for the years 2004-2008: (million DKK) 27,327;77,362;79,937;75,560('07:preliminary);69,140('08:estimate). Fortsat store offentlige overskud (25 March 2008) The public sector debt-liabilities still outstanding 1 January 2008 in accordance with the Eurostat EMU-debt numbers (gross debt) are 440.9 billion DKK (26.0% of GDP). In spite of falling surpluses this debt is expected to fall until 2015. As of 2008 there is no net debt in the public sector as a whole but instead net assets of 43 billion DKK. The central government is determined to pay off the debt as fast as possible, avoiding the temptation to increase spending which would only overheat the economy (increase wages and eventually prices drastically) because of a short supply of skilled labor and in the end require financial austerity measures to cool off the economy. Reporting on the record low unemployment numbers of under 50,000 persons in April 2008 published 9.30 am 29 May by Statistics Denmark, TV2 (Denmark), at 10 pm, with comments from Nordea Bank´s (Denmark) chief economist Helge Pedersen, and DR2 (Danish Broadcasting Corporation), at 10.30 pm stressed the danger of overheating the economy and keeping public sector spending in check or otherwise risk economical-political measures (austerity measures). Being surprised at how low unemployment was, the economist said (TV2) that compared with previous periods with such a low unemployment rate, a trade deficit was avoided mainly because of the oil export. The EMU-debt was 730 billion DKK at the end of 1993, 80.1% of GDP. Statistikbanken.dk Tables edp3 and edp4 During the four year period 2004-2007 the public sector EMU-debt fell from 43.8% (641.9 billion DKK) to 26.0% (440.9 billion DKK) of GDP. The budget surpluses were (in billion DKK) 1.9% (27.2), 5.0% (77.4), 4.8% (79.3), and 4.4% (74.6) of GDP, respectively EMU-debt and budgets 2004-07 (3 April 2008) Employment Public sector employment (full-time and part-time) has been relatively steady at more than 800,000 a year this first decade, making up around 38% of total full-time (28% of full-time and part-time) employment Statistikbanken.dk Table BESK 11 , whereas private sector employment has risen by over 300,000 since the 1990s to slightly over 2 million in 2007 (full-time and part-time). Danske Bank:Nordisk/Skandinavisk økonomi, different editions. With the information based partly on payments to the Arbejdsmarkedets Tillægspension pension fund of all employees and insured but unemployed members of an unemployment fund in Denmark, full-time employment is calculated at over 2.3 million persons in the third quarter of 2007. The increase in the fourth quarter of 2007 from a year ago in the number of employed persons was 1.0% and the amount of hours worked was 2.9% higher. Stadig flere præsterede arbejdstimerStatistikbanken.dk Tables BESK 11+12+13 The share of employees leaving jobs every year (for a new job, retirement or unemployment (unempl.:15% of job leavers)) in the private sector is around 30% (of 1.25 million), at more than 300,000 - a level also observed in the U.K. and U.S.- but much higher than in continental Europe, where the corresponding figure is around 10%, and in Sweden. This attrition can be very costly, with new and old employees requiring half a year to return to old productivity levels, but with attrition bringing the number of people that have to be fired down. Hyppige jobskift koster milliarder Productivity increased at an average of 2.3% a year in 2004, 2005 and 2006, recently being revised upward from an average of just 0.9% and previously with a too high employment level estimated. Markant opjustering af dansk produktivitetsvækst (17. januar 2008) The upward revision is good, because a high wage economy like Denmark's with very few valuable natural resources needs to be highly productive, or efficient, and innovative to compete with other countries for a market share in the global economy. However, according to OECD, the distortions imposed by a combined marginal tax wedge of 70% (60% income tax plus 25% VAT, not counting elevated excise duties on certain goods) are hurting productivity and in turn the country's competitiveness OECD Economic Survey of Denmark 2008 . Denmark also engages in programs where they are able to hide unemployment. For example, in 2006 there were 117,600 people who were put away in so-called "arbejdsmarkedspolitiske foranstaltninger" or "labor market political activities." http://stefanmikarlsson.blogspot.com/2006/05/denmarks-overrated-flexicurity.html Public Sector reform To gain synergies through economies of scale (critical mass) (greater professional and financial sustainability) and big item discounts and to offer a wider array of services closer to the public (be a one-stop place of access to the public sector not unlike the unitary councils), it was deemed necessary to merge the municipalities and other administrative entities in the public sector. This would also help alleviate the financial problems of depopulation due to limited job opportunities, high unemployment and aging and make introduction of new information technology more affordable A TV series on the municipal reform. With the tax burden at around half of GDP, a survey July 2008 found that 81% of Danes are of the opinion that the public sector can deliver more service for the same money, harnessing the advantages of the recent reform. ..mere service for pengene.. Mainly from 1 January 2007, the new center-right government streamlined the public sector extensively by decreasing the number of administrative units drastically in the different tiers of government, i.e. in the number of city court circuits (from 82 to 24), police districts (from 54 to 12) New police districts and local court circuits with links to maps , tax districts (before 2007 the responsibility of the municipalities;after that part of the central government Ministry of Taxation), reshuffling tasks among the three government levels and abolished the counties in Kommunalreformen ("The Municipal Reform" of 2007), thereby reducing the number of local and regional politicians by almost half to 2,522 (municipal councillors) (council elections November 2005) (1978: 4,735;1998: 4,685; reduced somewhat in council elections November 2001 (Bornholm)) and 205 (regional councillors) (1998: 374) Den Store Danske Encyklopædi + Supplement 2, "kommunalvalg". Gyldendal. 1994 + 2006. ISBN 87-7789-045-0 and ISBN 87-0204-192-8 Councillors respectively. Before 1970 (a previous reform in effect from 1 April that year) the number of councillors (both categories) was around 11,000 Ove Hansen: Sådan styres kommunen. AOF/Fremad. 1978. ISBN 87-7403-131-7 Number of councillors in around 1,000 parish municipalities (sognekommuner), being supervised by their county, and market city municipalities (købstadskommuner), the latter numbering 86 Beskrivelse af kommuner og amter (including Bornholm whose county as an exception supervised the county's 6 market city municipalities (of 22 in total)) and not being part of a county but being supervised by the Interior Ministry. This distinction (having independent municipalities) ending (except for Copenhagen, Frederiksberg and Bornholm (2003-06)) with the reform of 1970, the term municipality (kommune) replaced the previous two terms, which are now never used except for historical purposes. The number of municipalities had been reduced when during the period from April 1962 to 1966 398 municipalities merged to form 118 voluntarily. The number of municipalities peaked in the 1930s and was 1386 in 1962. The local administration 1660-2007; Historiske kort (History maps); Vælg et årstal (Select a year). Many of the 275 municipalities after 1 April 1974 built large city halls to consolidate the administration and thus changed the cityscape of Denmark and also consolidated other municipal enterprises and the purchase of goods and services from the private sector, as will some of the present 98 municipalities over time.TV2(Denmark) reported 24 September 2007, that SKI, a mutual purchasing service company for central government, regions, and municipalities, made purchases of 140 billion DKK (almost 9% of GDP) of goods and services in bulk every year, prompting private sector companies to complain over razorthin profit margins and that for instance innovative (but expensive) products and energy efficiency sometimes were better than a very low price. Greenland and the Faroe Islands Main articles: Economy of the Faroe Islands and Economy of Greenland Greenland suffered negative economic growth in the early 1990s, but since 1993 the economy has improved. A tight fiscal policy by the Greenland Home Rule Government since the late 1980s helped create a low inflation rate and surpluses in the public budget, but at the cost of rising foreign debt in the Home Rule Government's commercial entities. Since 1990, Greenland has registered a foreign trade deficit. Following the closure of Greenland's last lead and zinc mine in 1989, Greenland's economy is solely dependent on the fishing industry and financial transfers from the Danish central government. Despite resumption of several interesting hydrocarbon and mineral exploration activities, it will take several years before production will begin. Greenland's shrimp fishery is by far the largest source of income, since cod catches have dropped to historically low levels. Tourism is the only sector offering any near-term potential, and even this is limited due to the short season and high costs. The public sector plays a dominant role in Greenland's economy. Grants from mainland Denmark and EU fisheries payments make up about one-half of the home-rule government's revenues. The Faroe Islands also depend almost entirely on fisheries and related exports. Without Danish Government bailouts in 1992 and 1993, the Faroese economy would have gone bankrupt. Since 1995, the Faroese economy has seen a noticeable upturn, but remains extremely vulnerable. Recent off-shore oil finds close to the Faroese area give hope for Faroese deposits, too, which may form the basis for an economic rebound over the longer term. Neither Greenland, nor the Faroe Islands are members of the European Union. Greenland left the European Economic Community in 1986 and the Faroe Islands declined membership in 1973, when Denmark joined. Economy - overview This thoroughly modern market economy features high-tech agriculture, up-to-date small-scale and corporate industry, extensive government welfare measures, comfortable living standards, and high dependence on foreign trade. Denmark is a net exporter of food. The center-left coalition government (1993-2001) concentrated on reducing the unemployment rate and turning the budget deficit into a surplus, as well as following the previous government's policies of maintaining low inflation and a current account surplus. The coalition also committed itself to maintaining a stable currency. The coalition lowered marginal income tax rates while maintaining overall tax revenues; boosted industrial competitiveness through labor market and tax reforms, increased research and development funds. The availability and duration of arbejdsløshedsdagpenge'' (unemployment benefit) has been restricted to four years and because of rapidly rising prices on housing this has led to an increase in poverty from below 4% in 1995 to 5% in 2006 according to the Danish Economic Council . Despite these cuts, the part of the public sector in Denmark which buys goods and services from the private sector and provides the public sector administration and direct service to the public - nursing institutions for the young or old, hospitals, schools, police, etc. - has risen from 25.5% of GDP during the former government to 26% today and is projected to be at 26.5% in 2015 if current policies continue . Denmark chose not to join the 11 other European Union members who launched the euro on 1 January 1999. Especially from 2006, economists and political pundits have expressed concern that the lack of skilled labor will result in higher pay increases and an overheating of the economy, which would repeat the boom-and-bust cycle in 1986, when government introduced a tax reform and restricted the private loan market because of a record balance-of-payments deficit. As a consequence, the trade balance showed a surplus in 1987, and the balance-of-payments in 1990 (first surplus since 1963). They have remained in surplus since, except for the balance of payments in 1998. GDP Table showing selected PPP GDPs and growth - 2002 to 2007 est.: Year GDP in billions of USD PPP % GDP Growth2002 166.876 0.52003 170.798 0.7 2004 178.477 2.4 2005 187.721 3.12006 195.581 3.2 2007 212.404 1.8 Major companies Denmark is home to many multi-national companies, among them: A. P. Moller-Maersk Group, (Maersk — international shipping), Danfoss (Heating & Cooling), Lego (children's toys), Bang & Olufsen (hi-fi equipment), Carlsberg (beer), Vestas (wind turbines), Novozymes (enzymes and biotech) and the pharmaceutical companies Lundbeck and Novo Nordisk. International companies such as CSC, Dell, Microsoft and Nokia have placed large global business centres in Copenhagen. See also Danish mortgage market List of Danish companies Big Mac Index Lists of countries Footnotes References Press release Statistics Denmark August 2007:(Almost all)Electronic publications become free of charge Statistics Denmark Statistics free of charge Statistical Yearbook 2007 PDF-files free of charge Short cut to press releases/verbal explanations on released statistics Central Bank Dansk Arbejdsgiverforening Confederation of Danish Employers Landsorganisationen i Danmark The Danish Confederation of Trade Unions Anvendt Kommunal Forskning Danish Institute of Governmental Research The Danish National Centre for Social Research De økonomiske Råds sekretariat Danish Economic Councils Economic Council of the Labour Movement CEPOS Think Tank for a liberal economy and limited Government etc. Center for Alternativ Samfundsanalyse Centre for Alternative Social Analysis Economic History Services Encyclopedia: Denmark External links Economy of Denmark OECD's Denmark country Web site and OECD Economic Survey of Denmark IMF Country Report Bureau of Public Affairs, U.S. Department of State, country overview for Denmark Google news Denmark | Economy_of_Denmark |@lemmatized natural:3 resource:3 mixed:1 economy:22 denmark:41 relies:1 almost:5 entirely:2 human:3 service:11 sector:25 make:6 vast:1 amount:4 employment:9 industrialized:1 market:10 depend:2 imported:1 raw:1 material:1 foreign:5 trade:10 within:1 european:7 union:5 advocate:1 liberal:2 policy:4 standard:3 living:2 average:5 among:6 western:1 country:10 development:4 report:8 list:3 index:2 many:3 year:21 equally:1 distribute:1 finance:2 ministry:4 income:12 distribution:1 pdf:2 file:2 show:2 gini:1 coefficient:1 world:4 dane:4 devote:1 gross:2 national:3 gni:1 aid:1 society:1 base:2 consensus:1 dialogue:1 compromise:1 danish:19 confederation:4 employer:3 septemberforliget:1 september:3 settlement:1 recognize:2 others:1 right:5 organize:1 thus:5 negotiate:1 flexicurity:2 hire:1 fire:2 employee:6 whenever:1 find:4 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4,583 | Ataxia | Ataxia (from Greek α- [used as a negative prefix] + -τάξις [order], meaning "lack of order") is a neurological sign and symptom consisting of gross lack of coordination of muscle movements. Ataxia is a non-specific clinical manifestation implying dysfunction of parts of the nervous system that coordinate movement, such as the cerebellum. Several possible causes exist for these patterns of neurological dysfunction. The term "dystaxia" is rarely used as a synonym. The International Ataxia Awareness Day is observed on September 25 each year. Types of ataxia Cerebellar ataxia The term cerebellar ataxia is employed to indicate ataxia due to dysfunction of the cerebellum. This causes a variety of elementary neurological deficits, such as antagonist hypotonia, asynergy, dysmetria, dyschronometria, and dysdiadochokinesia. How and where these abnormalities manifest depend on which cerebellar structures are lesioned, and whether the lesion is bilateral or unilateral. Vestibulo-cerebellar dysfunction is related to the flocculonodular lobe (flocculus and nodulus) and involves problems regulating balance and controlling eye movements. This presents with postural instability, in which the person tends to separate the feet on standing to gain a wider base, and avoid oscillations (especially posterior-anterior ones); instability is therefore worsened when standing with the feet together (irrespective of whether the eyes are open or closed: this is a negative Romberg's test). Spino-cerebellar dysfunction the most serious of all forms, corresponds to the vermis and paravermis and presents with a wide-based "drunken sailor" gait, characterised by uncertain start and stop, lateral deviations, and unequal steps. This part of the cerebellum regulates body and limb movements. Cerebro-cerebellar dysfunction indicates a lesion of the deep pontine nuclei connections with the cerebellum which coordinates planning and monitoring of movements and presents with disturbances in carrying out voluntary, planned movements, including intention tremor (coarse trembling, accentuated over the execution of voluntary movements, possibly involving the head and eyes as well as the limbs and torso), peculiar writing abnormalities (large, unequal letters, irregular underlining), and a peculiar pattern of dysarthria (slurred speech, sometimes characterised by explosive variations in voice intensity despite a regular rhythm) Sensory ataxia The term sensory ataxia is employed to indicate ataxia due to loss of proprioception (sensitivity to joint and body part position), which generally depends on dysfunction of the dorsal columns of the spinal cord, since they carry proprioceptive information up to the brain; in some cases, the cause may instead be dysfunction of the various brain parts that receive that information, including the cerebellum, thalamus, and parietal lobes. Sensory ataxia presents with an unsteady "stomping" gait with heavy heel strikes, as well as postural instability that is characteristically worsened when the lack of proprioceptive input cannot be compensated by visual input, such as in poorly lit environments. Doctors can evidence this during physical examination by having the patient stand with his / her feet together and eyes shut, which will cause the patient's instability to markedly worsen, producing wide oscillations and possibly a fall (this is called a positive Romberg's test). Worsening of the finger-pointing test with the eyes closed is another feature of sensory ataxia. Also, when the patient is standing with arms and hands extended toward the examiner, if the eyes are closed, the patient's finger will tend to "fall down" and be restored to the horizontal extended position by sudden extensor contractions ("ataxic hand"). Vestibular ataxia The term vestibular ataxia is employed to indicate ataxia due to dysfunction of the vestibular system, which in acute and unilateral cases is associated with prominent vertigo, nausea and vomiting. In slow-onset, chronic bilateral cases of vestibular dysfunction, these characteristic manifestations may be absent, and dysequilibrium may be the sole presentation. Optic ataxia The term optic ataxia is used to indicate dyskinesia with eye to hand movements or an inability to reach and grab objects. It is part of Balint's syndrome but can be seen in isolation with injuries to the superior parietal lobule. It represents a disconnection between visual-association cortex and the frontal premotor and motor cortex. Giuseppe Vallar, MD, Spatial Neglect, Balint-Holmes’ and Gerstmann’s Syndromes, and Other Spatial Disorders CNS Spectr. 2007;12(7):527-536 Causes of ataxia The three types of ataxia have overlapping causes, and can therefore either coexist or occur in isolation. Focal lesions Any type of focal lesion of the central nervous system (such as stroke, brain tumour, multiple sclerosis) will cause the type of ataxia corresponding to the site of the lesion: cerebellar if in the cerebellum, sensory if in the dorsal spinal cord (and rarely in the thalamus or parietal lobe), vestibular if in the vestibular system (including the vestibular areas of the cerebral cortex). Exogenous substances Exogenous substances that cause ataxia mainly do so because they have a depressant effect on central nervous system function. Examples include both prescription drugs (e.g. most antiepileptic drugs have cerebellar ataxia as a possible adverse effect) and recreational drugs (e.g. ketamine, PCP or dextromethorphan, all of which are NMDA receptor antagonists that produce a dissociative state at high doses). Vitamin B12 deficiency Vitamin B12 deficiency may cause, among several neurological abnormalities, overlapping cerebellar and sensory ataxia. Causes of isolated sensory ataxia Peripheral neuropathies may cause generalized or localized sensory ataxia (e.g. a limb only) depending on the extent of the neuropathic involvement. Spinal disorders of various types may cause sensory ataxia from the lesioned level below, when they involve the dorsal columns. Non-hereditary cerebellar degeneration Non-hereditary causes of cerebellar degeneration include chronic ethanol abuse, paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration, high altitude cerebral oedema, coeliac disease, normal pressure hydrocephalus and cerebellitis. Hereditary ataxias Ataxia may depend on hereditary disorders consisting of degeneration of the cerebellum and/or of the spine; most cases feature both to some extent, and therefore present with overlapping cerebellar and sensory ataxia, even though one is often more evident than the other. Hereditary disorders causing ataxia include autosomal dominant ones such as spinocerebellar ataxia, episodic ataxia, and dentatorubropallidoluysian atrophy, as well as autosomal recessive disorders such as Friedreich's ataxia (sensory and cerebellar, with the former predominating) and Niemann Pick disease, ataxia-telangiectasia (sensory and cerebellar, with the latter predominating), and abetalipoproteinaemia. An example of X-linked ataxic condition is the rare fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome. Arnold-Chiari Malformation Arnold-Chiari malformation is a malformation of the brain. It consists of a downward displacement of the cerebellar tonsils and the medulla through the foramen magnum, sometimes causing hydrocephalus as a result of obstruction of CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) outflow. Treatment There is no specific treatment for ataxia, however medicinal marijuana has been known to ease the symptoms associated with ataxia. The disability of ataxia may also be reduced by physical therapy, including exercises, along with leg braces or shoe splints, if foot alignment has been affected; a cane or walker is often used in the effort to prevent falls. References External links Brasil, Rio Grande do Sul - Associação dos Amigos, Parentes e Portadores de Ataxias Dominantes Overview at National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) Ataxia detailed causes, symptoms and information National Ataxia Foundation Ataxia UK International Ataxia Awareness Day Ataxia Forums Canadian Association of Familial Ataxias – The Claude St-Jean Foundation The latest news and research on Ataxia Video from the US Department of Agriculture of a sheep with scrapie | Ataxia |@lemmatized ataxia:46 greek:1 α:1 use:4 negative:2 prefix:1 τάξις:1 order:2 meaning:1 lack:3 neurological:5 sign:1 symptom:3 consisting:1 gross:1 coordination:1 muscle:1 movement:8 non:3 specific:2 clinical:1 manifestation:2 imply:1 dysfunction:10 part:5 nervous:3 system:5 coordinate:2 cerebellum:7 several:2 possible:2 cause:16 exist:1 pattern:2 term:5 dystaxia:1 rarely:2 synonym:1 international:2 awareness:2 day:2 observe:1 september:1 year:1 type:5 cerebellar:16 employ:3 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4,584 | Alpha_helix | Side view of an α-helix of alanine residues in atomic detail. Two hydrogen bonds to the same peptide group are highlighted in magenta; the oxygen-hydrogen distance is 2.08 Å (208 pm). The protein chain runs upwards, i.e., its N-terminus is at the bottom and its C-terminus at the top of the figure. Note that the sidechains point slightly downwards, i.e., towards the N-terminus. A common motif in the secondary structure of proteins, the alpha helix (α-helix) is a right- or left-handed coiled conformation, resembling a spring, in which every backbone N-H group donates a hydrogen bond to the backbone C=O group of the amino acid four residues earlier ( hydrogen bonding). This secondary structure is also sometimes called a classic Pauling-Corey-Branson alpha helix (see below). (See also helix.) Historical development In the early 1930s, William Astbury showed that there were drastic changes in the X-ray fiber diffraction of moist wool or hair fibers upon significant stretching. The data suggested that the unstretched fibers had a coiled molecular structure with a characteristic repeat of ~5.1 Å (= 0.51 nm). Astbury initially proposed a kinked-chain structure for the fibers. He later joined other researchers (notably the American chemist Maurice Huggins) in proposing that: the unstretched protein molecules formed a helix (which he called the α-form); and the stretching caused the helix to uncoil, forming an extended state (which he called the β-form). Although incorrect in their details, Astbury's models of these forms were correct in essence and correspond to modern elements of secondary structure, the α-helix and the β-strand (Astbury's nomenclature was kept), which were developed by Linus Pauling, Robert Corey and Herman Branson in 1951 (see below). Hans Neurath was the first to show that Astbury's models could not be correct in detail, because they involved clashes of atoms. Interestingly, Neurath's paper and Astbury's data inspired H. S. Taylor, Maurice Huggins and Bragg and collaborators to propose models of keratin that resemble the modern α-helix. Two key developments in the modeling of the modern α-helix were (1) the correct bond geometry, thanks to the crystal structure determinations of amino acids and peptides and Pauling's prediction of planar peptide bonds; and (2) the relinquishing of the assumption of an integral number of residues per turn of the helix. The pivotal moment came in the early spring of 1948, when Pauling caught a cold and went to bed. Being bored, he drew a polypeptide chain of roughly correct dimensions on a strip of paper and folded it into a helix, being careful to maintain the planar peptide bonds. After a few attempts, he produced a model with physically plausible hydrogen bonds. Pauling then worked with Corey and Branson to confirm his model before publication. Structure Geometry and hydrogen bonding Top view of the same helix shown above. Four carbonyl groups are pointing upwards towards the viewer, spaced roughly 100° apart on the circle, corresponding to 3.6 amino-acid residues per turn of the helix. The amino acids in an α helix are arranged in a right-handed helical structure where each amino acid corresponds to a 100° turn in the helix (i.e., the helix has 3.6 residues per turn), and a translation of 1.5 Å (= 0.15 nm) along the helical axis. The pitch of the helix (the vertical distance between two points on the helix) is 5.4 Å (= 0.54 nm)which is the product of 1.5 and 3,6. Most importantly, the N-H group of an amino acid forms a hydrogen bond with the C=O group of the amino acid four residues earlier; this repeated hydrogen bonding defines an α-helix. Similar structures include the 310 helix ( hydrogen bonding) and the π-helix ( hydrogen bonding). These alternative helices are relatively rare, although the 310 helix is often found at the ends of α-helices, "closing" them off. Transient helices (sometimes called δ-helices) have also been reported as intermediates in molecular dynamics simulations of α-helical folding. Residues in α-helices typically adopt backbone (φ, ψ) dihedral angles around (-60°, -45°). More generally, they adopt dihedral angles such that the ψ dihedral angle of one residue and the φ dihedral angle of the next residue sum to roughly -105°. Consequently, α-helical dihedral angles generally fall on a diagonal stripe on the Ramachandran plot (of slope -1), ranging from (-90°, -15°) to (-35°, -70°). For comparison, the sum of the dihedral angles for a 310 helix is roughly -75°, whereas that for the π-helix is roughly -130°. The general formula for the rotation angle Ω per residue of any polypeptide helix with trans isomers is given by the equation The α-helix is tightly packed; there is almost no free space within the helix. The amino-acid side chains are on the outside of the helix, and point roughly "downwards" (i.e., towards the N-terminus), like the branches of an evergreen tree (Christmas tree effect). This directionality is sometimes used in preliminary, low-resolution electron-density maps to determine the direction of the protein backbone. Stability Helices observed in proteins can range from four to over forty residues long, but a typical helix contains about ten amino acids (about three turns). Short polypeptides generally do not exhibit much alpha helical structure in solution, since the entropic cost associated with the folding of the polypeptide chain is not compensated for by a sufficient amount of stabilizing interactions. The backbone hydrogen bonds of α-helices are generally considered slightly weaker than those found in β-sheets, and are readily attacked by the ambient water molecules. However, in more hydrophobic environments such as the plasma membrane, or in the presence of co-solvents such as trifluoroethanol (TFE), or isolated from solvent in the gas phase, oligopeptides readily adopt stable α-helical structure. Experimental determination Since the α-helix is defined by its hydrogen bonds, the most reliable experimental methods for determining an α-helix involve an atomic-resolution structure provided by X-ray crystallography or NMR spectroscopy. In some cases, the individual hydrogen bonds can be observed directly as a small scalar coupling in NMR. There are several lower-resolution methods for assigning general helical structure. The NMR chemical shifts (particularly of the , and atoms) and residual dipolar couplings are often characteristic of helices. The far-UV (170-250 nm) circular dichroism spectrum of helices is also idiosyncratic, exhibiting a pronounced double minimum at ~208 nm and ~222 nm. Infrared spectroscopy is rarely used, since the α-helical spectrum resembles that of a random coil (although these might be discerned by, e.g., hydrogen-deuterium exchange). Finally, cryo electron microscopy is now capable of discerning individual α-helices within a protein, although their assignment to residues is still an active area of research. Long homopolymers of amino acids often form helices if soluble. Such long, isolated helices can also be detected by other methods, such as dielectric relaxation, flow birefringence and measurements of the diffusion constant. Strictly speaking, these methods only detect the characteristic prolate (long cigar-like) hydrodynamic shape of a helix, or its large dipole moment. Amino-acid propensities Different amino-acid sequences have different propensities for forming α-helical structure. Methionine, alanine, leucine, uncharged glutamate, and lysine ("MALEK" in the amino-acid 1-letter codes) all have especially high helix-forming propensities, whereas proline, glycine and negatively charged aspartate have poor helix-forming propensities. Proline tends to break or kink helices because it cannot donate an amide hydrogen bond (having no amide hydrogen), and because its sidechain interferes sterically; its ring structure also restricts its backbone φ dihedral angle to the vicinity of -70°, which is less common in α-helices. However, proline is often seen as the first residue of a helix, presumably due to its structural rigidity. At the other extreme, glycine also tends to disrupt helices because its high conformational flexibility makes it entropically expensive to adopt the relatively constrained α-helical structure. Dipole moment A helix has an overall dipole moment caused by the aggregate effect of all the individual dipoles from the carbonyl groups of the peptide bond pointing along the helix axis. This can lead to destabilization of the helix through entropic effects. As a result, α helices are often capped at the N-terminal end by a negatively charged amino acid, such as glutamic acid, in order to neutralize this helix dipole. Less common (and less effective) is C-terminal capping with a positively charged amino acid, such as lysine. The N-terminal positive charge is commonly used to bind negatively charged ligands such as phosphate groups, which is especially effective because the backbone amides can serve as hydrogen bond donors. Larger-scale assemblies Haemoglobin like myoglobin has a structure largely made of alpha helices. Myoglobin, the first protein whose structure was solved by X-ray crystallography, is made up of about 70% α helix, with the rest being loops or disordered regions. In classifying proteins by their dominant fold, the Structural Classification of Proteins database maintains a category specifically for all-α proteins. Coiled-coil α helices are highly stable forms in which two or more helices wrap around each other in a "supercoil" structure. Coiled coils contain a highly characteristic sequence motif known as a heptad repeat, in which the motif repeats itself every seven residues along the sequence. The first and especially the fourth residues (known as the a and d positions) are almost always hydrophobic (the fourth residue is typically leucine) and pack together in the interior of the helix bundle. The fifth and seventh residues (the e and g positions) generally have opposing charges and form a salt bridge stabilized by electrostatic interactions. Fibrous proteins such as keratin and myosin often adopt coiled-coil structures, as do several dimerizing proteins. A pair of coiled-coils - a four-helix bundle - is a very common structural motif in proteins. For example, it occurs in human growth hormone and several varieties of cytochrome. The Rop protein, which promotes plasmid replication in bacteria, is an interesting case in which a single polypeptide forms a coiled-coil and two monomers assemble to form a four-helix bundle. The amino acids that make up a particular helix can be plotted on a helical wheel, a representation that illustrates the orientations of the constituent amino acids. Often in globular proteins, as well as in specialized structures such as coiled-coils and leucine zippers, an alpha helix will exhibit two "faces" - one containing predominantly hydrophobic amino acids oriented toward the interior of the protein, in the hydrophobic core, and one containing predominantly polar amino acids oriented toward the solvent-exposed surface of the protein. Functional roles α helices have particular significance in DNA binding motifs, including helix-turn-helix motifs, leucine zipper motifs and zinc finger motifs. This is because of the convenient structural fact that the diameter of the α helix is 1.2 nanometres, the same as the width of the major groove in B-form DNA. Helix-coil transition Homopolymers of amino-acids (such as poly-lysine) can adopt α-helical structure at low temperature that is "melted out" at high temperatures. This helix-coil transition was once thought to be analogous to protein denaturation. The statistical mechanics of this transition can be modeled using an elegant transfer matrix method, characterized by two parameters: the propensity to initiate a helix and the propensity to extend a helix. The α-helix in art At least two artists have made explicit reference to the α-helix in their work, Julie Newdoll in painting and Julian Voss-Andreae in sculpture. Bay-Area artist Julie Newdoll, who holds a degree in Microbiology, and a minor in art, has specialized in paintings inspired by microscopic images and molecules since 1990. Her painting "Rise of the Alpha Helix" (2003) features human figures arranged in an α helical arrangement. According to the artist, "the flowers reflect the various types of sidechains that each amino acid holds out to the world". Julian Voss-Andreae's Alpha Helix for Linus Pauling (2004), powder coated steel, height 10' (3 m). The sculpture stands in front of Pauling's childhood home on 3945 SE Hawthorne Boulevard in Portland (Ore., USA). Julian Voss-Andreae is a German-born sculptor with degrees in experimental physics and sculpture. Since 2001 Voss-Andreae creates "protein sculptures" based on protein structure with the α-helix being one of his preferred objects. Voss-Andreae has made α-helix sculptures from diverse materials including bamboo and whole trees. A monument Voss-Andreae created in 2004 to celebrate the memory of Linus Pauling, the discoverer of the α-helix, is fashioned from a large steel beam rearranged in the structure of the α-helix. The 10' (3 m) tall, bright-red sculpture stands in front of Pauling's childhood home in Portland, Oregon. See also Folding (chemistry) β sheet collagen helix poly-Pro helix 310_helix secondary structure tertiary structure Davydov soliton References and footnotes Additional references Carl Branden and John Tooze. 1999. Introduction to Protein Structure 2nd ed. Garland Publishing: New York, NY. David Eisenberg, "The discovery of the α-helix and β-sheet, the principal structural features of proteins". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. (2003). 100:11207-11210. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/100/20/11207 John Kendrew et al. 1960. The structure of myoglobin: a three-dimensional Fourier synthesis and 2Â resolution. Nature 185: 422-7. Astbury WT and Woods HJ. (1931) "The Molecular Weights of Proteins", Nature, 127, 663-665. Astbury WT and Street A. (1931) "X-ray studies of the structures of hair, wool and related fibres. I. General", Trans. R. Soc. Lond., A230, 75-101. Astbury WT. (1933) "Some Problems in the X-ray Analysis of the Structure of Animal Hairs and Other Protein Fibers", Trans. Faraday Soc., 29, 193-211. Astbury WT and Woods HJ. (1934) "X-ray studies of the structures of hair, wool and related fibres. II. The molecular structure and elastic properties of hair keratin", Trans. R. Soc. Lond., A232, 333-394. Astbury WT and Sisson WA. (1935) "X-ray studies of the structures of hair, wool and related fibres. III. The configuration of the keratin molecule and its orientation in the biological cell", Proc. R. Soc. Lond., A150, 533-551. Neurath H. (1940) "Intramolecular folding of polypeptide chains in relation to protein structure", J. Phys. Chem., 44, 296-305. Taylor HS. (1942) "Large molecules through atomic spectacles", Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., 85, 1-12. Huggins M. (1943) "The structure of fibrous proteins", Chem. Rev., 32, 195-218. Bragg L, Kendrew JC and Perutz MF. (1950) "Polypeptide chain configurations in crystalline proteins", Proc. Roy. Soc., A203, 321. Pauling L, Corey RB and Branson HR. (1951) "The Structure of Proteins: Two Hydrogen-Bonded Helical Configurations of the Polypeptide Chain", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. Wash., 37, 205. Sugeta H and Miyazawa T. (1967) "General Method for Calculating Helical Parameters of Polymer Chains from Bond Lengths, Bond Angles, and Internal-Rotation Angles", Biopolymers, 5, 673-679. Wada A. (1976) "The α-helix as an electric macro-dipole", Adv. Biophys., 9, 1-63. Chothia C, Levitt M and Richardson D. (1977) "Structure of proteins:Packing of α-helices and pleated sheets", Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 74, 4130-4134. Chothia C, Levitt M and Richardson D. (1981) "Helix to Helix Packing in Proteins", Journal of Molecular Biology, 145, 215-250. Hol WGJ. (1985) "The role of the α-helix dipole in protein function and structure", Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol., 45, 149-195. Barlow DJ and Thornton JM. (1988) "Helix Geometry in Proteins", J. Mol. Biol., 201, 601-619. Murzin AG and Finkelstein AV. (1988) "General architecture of the α-helical globule", Journal of Molecular Biology, 204, 749-769. External links Interactive model of an α-helix Animated details of α-helix Artist Julie Newdoll's website Artist Julian Voss-Andreae's website | Alpha_helix |@lemmatized side:2 view:2 α:43 helix:92 alanine:2 residue:17 atomic:3 detail:4 two:9 hydrogen:18 bond:19 peptide:5 group:8 highlight:1 magenta:1 oxygen:1 distance:2 å:4 pm:1 protein:32 chain:9 run:1 upwards:2 e:6 n:7 terminus:4 bottom:1 c:6 top:2 figure:2 note:1 sidechains:2 point:5 slightly:2 downwards:2 towards:3 common:4 motif:8 secondary:4 structure:38 alpha:7 right:2 leave:1 hand:1 coiled:5 conformation:1 resemble:2 spring:2 every:2 backbone:7 h:6 donate:2 amino:21 acid:21 four:6 earlier:2 also:8 sometimes:3 call:4 classic:1 pauling:10 corey:4 branson:4 see:5 historical:1 development:2 early:2 william:1 astbury:11 show:3 drastic:1 change:1 x:7 ray:7 fiber:5 diffraction:1 moist:1 wool:4 hair:6 upon:1 significant:1 stretching:2 data:2 suggest:1 unstretched:2 molecular:6 characteristic:4 repeat:4 nm:6 initially:1 propose:3 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4,585 | Cryptozoology | Cryptozoology (from Greek κρυπτός, kriptos, "hidden" + zoology; literally, "study of hidden animals") refers to the search for animals which are considered to be legendary or otherwise nonexistent by mainstream biology. This includes looking for living examples of animals which are considered to be extinct, such as dinosaurs; animals whose existence lacks physical support but which appear in myths, legends, or are reported, such as Bigfoot and el Chupacabra; Simpson, George G. (1984-03-30) "Mammals and Cryptozoology", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, p1, V128#1 and wild animals dramatically outside of their normal geographic ranges, such as phantom cats. According to authors Ben Roesch and John Moore, "Cryptozoology ranges from pseudoscientific to useful and interesting, depending on how it is practiced." They further note that it is "not strictly a science", that "many scientists and skeptics classify cryptozoology as a pseudoscience" and that "papers on the topic are rarely published in scientific journals, no formal education on the subject is available, and no scientists are employed to study cryptozoology." The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience by Michael Shermer & Pat Linse, 2002, ISBN 1576076539 Those involved in cryptozoological study are known as cryptozoologists. The animals they study are often referred to as cryptids, a term coined by John Wall in 1983. Coleman, Loren and Clark, Jerome.Cryptozoology A to Z: The Encyclopedia of Loch Monsters, Sasquatch, Chupacabras, and Other Authentic Mysteries of Nature. New York: Fireside/Simon and Schuster, 1999 Overview Invention of the term "cryptozoology" is often attributed to zoologist Bernard Heuvelmans, though Heuvelmans attributes coinage of the term to the late Scottish explorer and adventurer Ivan T. Sanderson. Heuvelmans, Bernard. In the Wake of the Sea-Serpents. New York: Hill and Wang, 1968. Heuvelmans' 1955 book On the Track of Unknown Animals traces the scholarly origins of the discipline to Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans and his 1892 study, The Great Sea Serpent. *Heuvelmans, Bernard. On The Track Of Unknown Animals. :-(New York: Hill and Wang, 1959. Heuvelmans argued that cryptozoology should be undertaken with scientific rigor, but with an open-minded, interdisciplinary approach. He also stressed that attention should be given to local, urban and folkloric sources regarding such creatures, arguing that while often layered in unlikely and fantastic elements, folktales can have small grains of truth and important information regarding undiscovered organisms. Loren Coleman, a modern popularizer of cryptozoology, has chronicled the history and personalities of cryptozoology in his books. Coleman, Loren. Tom Slick: True Life Encounters in Cryptozoology. Fresno, California: Craven Street Books/Linden Press, 2002. Another notable book on the subject is Willy Ley's Exotic Zoology (1959). Ley was best known for his writings on rocketry and related topics, but he was trained in paleontology, and wrote a number of books about animals. Ley's collection Exotic Zoology is of some interest to cryptozoology, as he discusses the Yeti and sea serpents, as well as relict dinosaurs. The book entertains the possibility that some legendary creatures (like the sirrush, the unicorn or the cyclops) might be based on actual animals, through misinterpretation of the animals and/or their remains. Also notable is the work of British zoologist and cryptozoologist Karl Shuker, who has published 12 books and countless articles on numerous cryptozoological subjects since the mid-1980s. Criticism Cryptozoology has been criticised because of its reliance on anecdotal information Shermer, M, (2003) Show Me the Body Scientific American, 288(5) 27 and because some cryptozoologists do not typically follow the scientific method and devote a substantial portion of their efforts to investigations of animals that most scientists believe are unlikely to exist, Dash, Mike, Borderlands: The Ultimate Exploration of the Unknown, Overlook Press, 2000 . As historian Mike Dash notes, few scientists doubt there are thousands of unknown animals, particularly invertebrates, awaiting discovery; however, cryptozoologists are largely uninterested in researching and cataloging newly-discovered species of ants or beetles, instead focusing their efforts towards "more elusive" creatures that have often defied decades of work aimed at confirming their existence. The majority of mainstream criticism of cryptozoology is thus directed towards the search for megafauna cryptids such as Bigfoot, the Yeti, and the Loch Ness Monster which appear often in popular culture, but for which there is little or no scientific support. Some scientists argue that mega-fauna cryptids are unlikely to exist undetected in great enough numbers to maintain a breeding population, Bigfoot hunting and are unlikely to be able to survive in their reported habitats due to issues of climate and food supply. Sjögren, Bengt, Berömda vidunder, Settern, 1980, ISBN 91-7586-023-6 For example, most experts on the matter consider the Bigfoot legend to be a combination of folklore and hoaxes. Bigfoot and Other Ape-Human Creatures . Defenders Cryptozoologists argue that the inventory of even large animals is incomplete. For example large marine animals continue to be discovered and there is reason to believe more will be discovered in the future. Paxton, C. G. M. 1998. A cumulative species description curve for large open water marine animals. Journal of the Marine Biologists Association, U.K. 78, 1389-1391. Therefore cryptozoologists claim their hunt for disputed animals is not unreasonable. Some cryptozoology proponents contend that mainstream scientists evaluate cryptozoological 'evidence' based on prevailing paradigms or world views rather than on its merits or failings. Cryptozoology supporters cite the case of the Minnesota Iceman associated with Ivan T. Sanderson and Bernard Heuvelmans, which they perceive to have been well-attested despite a lack of any support by the scientific community. see Coleman and Clark, 1999 Supporters claim that as in legitimate scientific fields, cryptozoologists are often responsible for disproving their own objects of study. For example, some cryptozoologists have collected evidence that disputes the validity of some facets of the Bigfoot phenomenon. Markotic, Vladimir and Krantz, Grover (eds) The Sasquatch and other unknown hominoids Calgary: Western Publishers, 1984 Roderick and Krantz, Grover (eds)The Scientist looks at the Sasquatch II Sprague Napier, John Russel Bigfoot : the yeti and sasquatch in myth and reality New York: Dutton, 1973, c1972 Cryptozoology proponents further cite as support instances in which they claim that species accepted by the scientific community were initially considered superstition, hoaxes, delusions or misidentifications. For example, the Mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) was previously dismissed as folklore/myth, due to lack of evidence and fossils, before being confirmed in 1902. Similarly, the Hoan Kiem Turtle was thought to be a local legend before conclusive evidence for its existence was accepted around 1998–2002. Cryptozoology proponents cite several additional instances in their contentions. Cryptozoologists have cited the 1976 discovery of the previously unknown megamouth shark off Oahu, Hawaii to argue that cryptozoological claims about oceanic cryptids should be given more credence. While zoologist and cryptozoologist Ben S. Roesch agrees the discovery of megamouth proves "the oceans have a lot of secrets left to reveal," he simultaneously cautions against applying the "megamouth analogy" too broadly to hypothetical creatures, as the megamouth avoided discovery due to specific behavioral adaptations that would not fit most other cryptids. Roesch, Ben S. 1998. "A Critical Evaluation of the Supposed Contemporary Existence of Carcharodon megalodon." The Cryptozoology Review 3 (2): 14-24 In essence, he argues that the Megamouth is not a useful analogy to support the existence of marine "cryptids" in general. http://www.ncf.carleton.ca/~bz050/megalodon.html The 2003 discovery of the fossil remains of Homo floresiensis, thought to be a descendant of earlier Homo erectus, was cited by paleontologist Henry Gee of the journal Nature, as possible evidence that humanoid cryptids like the orang pendek and Yeti were "founded on grains of truth." Additionally, Gee declared, "cryptozoology, the study of such fabulous creatures, can come in from the cold." Gee, Henry. 2004. Nature. "Flores, God and Cryptozoology: The discovery poses thorny questions about the uniqueness of Homo sapiens." See also Cryptobotany Legendary creature List of cryptids List of figures in cryptozoology List of legendary creatures List of megafauna discovered in modern times Further reading Arment, Chad. Cryptozoology: Science & Speculation. Landisville, Penn.: Coachwhip, 2004. Arment, Chad, ed. Cryptozoology and the Investigation of Lesser-Known Mystery Animals. Landisville, Penn.: Coachwhip, 2006. Arnold, Neil. MONSTER! The A-Z Of Zooform Phenomena. Bideford: CFZ Press, 2007. Bille, Matthew. Rumors of Existence. Surrey, B.C.: Hancock, 1995. Clark, Jerome. Unexplained! 347 Strange Sightings, Incredible Occurrences, and Puzzling Physical Phenomena. Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1993. Coghlan, Ronan. "Dictionary of Cryptozoology". Bangor, Ireland: Xiphos, 2004. Coleman, Loren. "Bigfoot! The True Story of Apes in America". New York: Simon and Schuster, 2003. Coleman, Loren. "Tom Slick: True Life Encounters in Cryptozoology". Fresno: Linden Press, 2002. Coleman, Loren and Jerome Clark. "Cryptozoology: A to Z". New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999. Eberhart, George M. Mysterious Creatures: A Guide to Cryptozoology. 2 vols. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2002. Newton, Michael. Encyclopedia of Cryptozoology: A Global Guide to Hidden Animals and Their Pursuers. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 2005. Radford, Benjamin and Joe Nickell. "Lake Monster Mysteries: Investigating the World's Most Elusive Creatures." Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2006. Shuker, Karl. In Search of Prehistoric Survivors. London: Blandford, 1995. Shuker, Karl. From Flying Toads To Snakes With Wings. St. Paul, Minnesota: Llewellyn, 1997. Shuker, Karl. The Beasts That Hide From Man: Seeking the World's Last Undiscovered Animals. New York: Paraview Press, 2003. Weidensaul, Scott. The Ghost with Trembling Wings: Science, Wishful Thinking, and the Search for Lost Species. New York: North Point Press, 2002. Notes and references External links Bates College: Cryptozoology Out Of Time Place Scale | Cryptozoology |@lemmatized cryptozoology:30 greek:1 κρυπτός:1 kriptos:1 hide:3 zoology:3 literally:1 study:7 hidden:1 animal:20 refers:1 search:4 consider:4 legendary:4 otherwise:1 nonexistent:1 mainstream:3 biology:1 include:1 look:2 live:1 example:5 extinct:1 dinosaur:2 whose:1 existence:6 lack:3 physical:2 support:5 appear:2 myth:3 legend:3 report:1 bigfoot:8 el:1 chupacabra:1 simpson:1 george:2 g:2 mammal:1 proceeding:1 american:2 philosophical:1 society:1 wild:1 dramatically:1 outside:1 normal:1 geographic:1 range:2 phantom:1 cat:1 accord:1 author:1 ben:3 roesch:3 john:3 moore:1 pseudoscientific:1 useful:2 interesting:1 depend:1 practice:1 note:3 strictly:1 science:3 many:1 scientist:7 skeptic:2 classify:1 pseudoscience:2 paper:1 topic:2 rarely:1 publish:2 scientific:8 journal:3 formal:1 education:1 subject:3 available:1 employ:1 encyclopedia:3 michael:2 shermer:2 pat:1 linse:1 isbn:2 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4,586 | Arnulf_of_Carinthia | Arnulf of Carinthia (; ; 850 – December 8 899) was the Carolingian King of East Francia East Francia had been split from the rest of Frankish Realm by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. It evolved into Germany after the Carolingian eclipse. from 887 and Holy Roman Emperor from 896 until his death. He was the illegitimate son of Carloman, King of Bavaria, and his concubine Liutswind, Also Litwinde or Litwindie perhaps of Carantanian origin, sister (?) of one Bavarian Count Ernst, count of the Bavarian Nordgau Margraviate in the area of the Upper Palatinate, or perhaps the burgrave of Passau, as some sources say. After Arnulf's birth, Carloman married, before 861, a daughter of that same Count Ernst, who died after August 8, 879. As it is mainly West-Franconian historiography Konecny Silvia: Die Frauen des karolingischen Königshauses. Die politische Bedeutung der Ehe und die Stellung der Frau in der fränkischen Herrscherfamilie vom 7. bis zum 10. Jahrhundert. PhD thesis Vienna 1976, p. 139 that speaks of Arnulf's illegitimacy, it is quite feasible that the two females are one and the same person and that Carloman lateron actually married Liutswind thus legitimizing his son, Mediaeval Genealogy: Liutswind: Various theories about her descent and her relation to Carloman (in German ) who was given the Duchy of Carinthia, a Frankish vassal state and successor of the ancient Principality of Carantania, by his father when he divided his realm, giving Bavaria to Louis the Younger and the Kingdom of Italy to Charles the Fat, in 880 on his death. Arnulf spent his childhood on the Mosaburch, which is widely believed to be Moosburg in Carinthia, only a few miles away from one of the imperial residences, the Carlovingian Kaiserpfalz at Karnburg, which before as Krnski grad had been the residence of the Carantanian princes. From later events it may be inferred that the Carantanians, from an early time, treated him as their own Duke. When, in 882, Engelschalk II rebelled against the Margrave of Pannonia, Aribo, and ignited the so-called Wilhelminer War, Arnulf supported him and even accepted his and his brother's homage. This ruined Arnulf's relationship with his uncle the emperor and put him at war with Svatopluk of Moravia. Pannonia was invaded, but Arnulf refused to give up the young Wilhelminers. Arnulf did not make peace with Svatopluk until late 885, by which time the Moravian was a man of the emperor. Some scholars see this war as destroying Arnulf's hopes at succeeded Charles. He took the leading role in the deposition of his uncle, the Emperor Charles the Fat. With the support of the nobles, Arnulf held a Diet and deposed Charles in November 887, under threat of military action. Charles peacefully went into his involuntary retirement, but not without first chastising his nephew for his treachery and asking only for a few royal villas in Swabia, which Arnulf mercifully granted him, on which to live out his final months. Arnulf was elected by the nobles of the realm (only the eastern realm, though Charles had ruled the whole of the Frankish lands) and assumed his title of King. Arnulf was not a negotiator, but a fighter. At the decisive Battle of Leuven in September 891, he defeated an invading force of the Northmen, or Vikings, essentially ending their invasions on that front. The Annales Fuldenses report that the bodies of dead Northmen blocked the run of the river. After his victory, Arnulf built a new castle on an island in the Dijle river (Dutch: Dijle, English and French: Dyle). Latin Luvanium, local Lovon. In 893 or 894, Great Moravia probably lost a part of its territory — present-day Western Hungary — to him. Arnulf, however, failed to conquer the whole of Great Moravia when he attempted it in 892, 893, and 899. In 895, Bohemia broke away from Great Moravia and became his vassal. An accord was made between him and the Bohemian Duke Borivoj I (reigned 870-95); Bohemia was thus freed from the dangers of invasion. In 893, Pope Formosus, not trusting the newly crowned co-emperors Guy and Lambert, sent an embassy to Ratisbon () to request Arnulf come and liberate Italy, where he would be crowned in Rome. Arnulf sent his son Zwentibold with a Bavarian army to join Berengar of Friuli. They defeated Guy, but were bought off and left in autumn. Arnulf then personally led an army across the Alps early in 894. He conquered all of the territory north of the Po, but went no further before Guy died suddenly in late autumn. Lambert and his mother Ageltrude travelled to Rome to receive papal confirmation of his imperial succession, but Formosus, still desiring to crown Arnulf, was imprisoned in Castel Sant'Angelo. In September 895, a new embassy arrived in Ratisbon beseeching Arnulf's aid. In October, Arnulf undertook his second campaign into Italy. He crossed the Alps quickly and took Pavia, but then he continued slowly, garnering support among the nobility of Tuscany. First Maginulf, Count of Milan, and then Walfred, Count of Pavia, joined him. Eventually even the Margrave Adalbert II abandoned Lambert. Finding Rome locked against him and held by Ageltrude, he had to take the city by force on 21 February 896, freeing the pope. Arnulf was there crowned King and Emperor by Formosus on 22 February. He only retained power in Italy as long as he was personally there. Arnulf marched on Spoleto, where Ageltrude had fled to join Lambert, but he suffered a stroke and had to call off the campaign. That same year, Formosus died, leaving Lambert once again in power. Rumours of the time made Arnulf's condition to be a result of poisoning at the hand of Ageltrude. He returned to Germany and had no more control in Italy for the rest of his life. On Arnulf's death in 899, he was succeeded as a king of the East Franks by his son by his wife Ota (died 903), Louis the Child. Arnulf's illegitimate son Zwentibold, whom he had made King of Lotharingia in 895, continued to rule there until the next year (900). He is entombed in St. Emmeram's Basilica at Ratisbon, which is now known as Schloss Thurn und Taxis, the palace of the Princes of Thurn and Taxis. See also Kings of Germany family tree Notes |- |- | Arnulf_of_Carinthia |@lemmatized arnulf:26 carinthia:3 december:1 carolingian:2 king:7 east:3 francia:2 split:1 rest:2 frankish:3 realm:4 treaty:1 verdun:1 evolve:1 germany:3 eclipse:1 holy:1 roman:1 emperor:6 death:3 illegitimate:2 son:5 carloman:4 bavaria:2 concubine:1 liutswind:3 also:2 litwinde:1 litwindie:1 perhaps:2 carantanian:2 origin:1 sister:1 one:3 bavarian:3 count:5 ernst:2 nordgau:1 margraviate:1 area:1 upper:1 palatinate:1 burgrave:1 passau:1 source:1 say:1 birth:1 marry:2 daughter:1 die:7 august:1 mainly:1 west:1 franconian:1 historiography:1 konecny:1 silvia:1 frau:2 de:1 karolingischen:1 königshauses:1 politische:1 bedeutung:1 der:3 ehe:1 und:2 stellung:1 fränkischen:1 herrscherfamilie:1 vom:1 bi:1 zum:1 jahrhundert:1 phd:1 thesis:1 vienna:1 p:1 speaks:1 illegitimacy:1 quite:1 feasible:1 two:1 female:1 person:1 lateron:1 actually:1 thus:2 legitimize:1 mediaeval:1 genealogy:1 various:1 theory:1 descent:1 relation:1 german:1 give:3 duchy:1 vassal:2 state:1 successor:1 ancient:1 principality:1 carantania:1 father:1 divide:1 louis:2 young:2 kingdom:1 italy:5 charles:6 fat:2 spend:1 childhood:1 mosaburch:1 widely:1 believe:1 moosburg:1 mile:1 away:2 imperial:2 residence:2 carlovingian:1 kaiserpfalz:1 karnburg:1 krnski:1 grad:1 prince:2 late:3 event:1 may:1 infer:1 carantanians:1 early:2 time:3 treat:1 duke:2 engelschalk:1 ii:2 rebel:1 margrave:2 pannonia:2 aribo:1 ignite:1 call:2 wilhelminer:1 war:3 support:3 even:2 accept:1 brother:1 homage:1 ruin:1 relationship:1 uncle:2 put:1 svatopluk:2 moravia:4 invade:1 refuse:1 wilhelminers:1 make:4 peace:1 moravian:1 man:1 scholar:1 see:2 destroy:1 hope:1 succeeded:1 take:3 leading:1 role:1 deposition:1 noble:2 hold:2 diet:1 deposed:1 november:1 threat:1 military:1 action:1 peacefully:1 go:2 involuntary:1 retirement:1 without:1 first:2 chastise:1 nephew:1 treachery:1 ask:1 royal:1 villa:1 swabia:1 mercifully:1 grant:1 live:1 final:1 month:1 elect:1 eastern:1 though:1 rule:2 whole:2 land:1 assume:1 title:1 negotiator:1 fighter:1 decisive:1 battle:1 leuven:1 september:2 defeat:2 invading:1 force:2 northman:2 viking:1 essentially:1 end:1 invasion:2 front:1 annales:1 fuldenses:1 report:1 body:1 dead:1 block:1 run:1 river:2 victory:1 build:1 new:2 castle:1 island:1 dijle:2 dutch:1 english:1 french:1 dyle:1 latin:1 luvanium:1 local:1 lovon:1 great:3 probably:1 lose:1 part:1 territory:2 present:1 day:1 western:1 hungary:1 however:1 fail:1 conquer:2 attempt:1 bohemia:2 break:1 become:1 accord:1 bohemian:1 borivoj:1 reign:1 free:2 danger:1 pope:2 formosus:4 trust:1 newly:1 crown:4 co:1 guy:3 lambert:5 send:2 embassy:2 ratisbon:3 request:1 come:1 liberate:1 would:1 rome:3 zwentibold:2 army:2 join:3 berengar:1 friuli:1 buy:1 leave:2 autumn:2 personally:2 lead:1 across:1 alp:1 north:1 po:1 suddenly:1 mother:1 ageltrude:4 travel:1 receive:1 papal:1 confirmation:1 succession:1 still:1 desire:1 imprison:1 castel:1 sant:1 angelo:1 arrive:1 beseech:1 aid:1 october:1 undertake:1 second:1 campaign:2 cross:1 alps:1 quickly:1 pavia:2 continue:2 slowly:1 garner:1 among:1 nobility:1 tuscany:1 maginulf:1 milan:1 walfred:1 eventually:1 adalbert:1 abandon:1 find:1 lock:1 city:1 february:2 retain:1 power:2 long:1 march:1 spoleto:1 flee:1 suffer:1 stroke:1 year:2 rumour:1 condition:1 result:1 poisoning:1 hand:1 return:1 control:1 life:1 succeed:1 frank:1 wife:1 ota:1 child:1 lotharingia:1 next:1 entomb:1 st:1 emmeram:1 basilica:1 know:1 schloss:1 thurn:2 taxi:2 palace:1 family:1 tree:1 note:1 |@bigram treaty_verdun:1 upper_palatinate:1 bi_zum:1 phd_thesis:1 castel_sant:1 sant_angelo:1 |
4,587 | Transport_in_Guyana | The transportation sector comprises the physical facilities, terminals, fleets and ancillary equipment of all the various modes of transport operating in Guyana, the transport services, transport agencies providing these services, the organisations and people who plan, build, maintain, and operate the system, and the policies that mould its development. City transportation Private transportation in Georgetown Public transport around Guyana's capital Georgetown is provided by privately owned mini buses which operate in allocated zones for which there is a well-regulated fare structure. This arrangement extends to all mini bus routes throughout the country. Taxis have freer movement around the city and into rural areas. Their fare, while generally standard, is less regulated. The network of routes has a number of identifiable starting points which are concentrated in the Stabroek area and along the Avenue of the Republic between Croal and Robb Streets. Road conditions vary immensely, and little maintenance is done. In 2006 there was one operational set of traffic lights. Lack of traffic control leads to delays and crashes. Long distance transportation Roads The Soesdyke-Linden Highway tends to serve the mining and forestry sectors. In 2004, Guyana's road network was approximately 3,995 kilometres (2,480 miles) long, 24 percent or 940 kilometres of which comprised primary roads in the coastal and riverain areas serving the agricultural sector, while the road to Linden serves the mining and forestry sectors. 21 percent (820 kilometres) is made up of feeder roads which link the agricultural areas along the coast to the primary road network. The remaining 56 percent (2,235 kilometres) is composed of interior roads and trails. Most access roads are in poor condition. However, the Central Government has targeted several roads for complete rehabilitation, and already many have been rehabilitated. The main coastal roads are, from west to east, the Essequibo Coast Road, the Parika to Vreed en Hoop Road, the East Coast Demerara and West Coast Berbice Roads, and the Corentyne Highway from New Amsterdam to Moleson Creek (86 kilometres). All these roads are paved. South of Georgetown the primary road is the East Bank Demerara Road, a two-lane road which runs from Georgetown to Timehri, where the Cheddi Jagan International Airport - Timehri (CJIAT) is located. Between 1966 and 1968, Soesdyke, located on the East Bank Demerara Road, was connected to Mackenzie by a modern two lane highway, called the Soesdyke-Linden Highway. This road was constructed as a section of a highway connecting Georgetown with Lethem. In 1968 a bridge was built across the Demerara River at Linden, and, in 1974, it was decided that the route to Lethem would cross the Demerara River at Linden and go south, along the watershed of the Demerara and Essequibo Rivers, through Mabura, to Kurupukari. From Kurupukari it would run parallel to the old cattle trail to Annai, and from Annai it would follow an already existing road to Lethem. Mabura Road south of LindenIn the early 1970s a two-lane road with modern geometry and surfaced with laterite was built between Linden and Rockstone. This road was later connected to Mabura and Kurupukari. In 1990-91 a two-lane laterite road was constructed between Kurupukari and Annai and a vehicle ferry installed at Kurupukari. Since there was already an existing road between Mabura and Kurupukari, and between Annai and Lethem, it was now possible for vehicles to travel between Georgetown and Lethem. In the period 1974 to 1978, an attempt was made to build a road between Rockstone and Kurupung to facilitate the construction of a large hydroelectric station. From Rockstone it headed north to Suribanna, where a pontoon ferry was installed across the Essequibo River to Sherima. From Sherima the road went westward, intersecting the Bartica - Mahdia Road at Allsopp Point 19 miles from Bartica. From Allsopp Point the road followed the existing road towards Bartica and branched off 5 miles from Bartica going to Teperu in the lower reaches on the Mazaruni River. At Teperu a pontoon ferry was installed across the Mazaruni River to Itaballi. From Itaballi the road went westward to Peter's Mine on the Puruni River. From Peter's Mine the road continued as a penetration road to Kurupung. This road is referred to as the UMDA Road. There is in addition a hinterland east-west main road system which extends from Kwakwani in the east, through Ituni, Linden, Rockstone, Sherima to Bartica in the west. Linden is therefore one of the main hubs for road transportation in the hinterland. Outside the existing main roads there are several other interior roads and/or trails which comprise approximately 1,570 kilometres. Most of those roads are unpaved, and will deteriorate if maintenance remains inadequate. They are found mostly in the hinterland and riverain areas and provide linkages with a number of important mining and forestry activities thus facilitating transportation between the mining and forestry communities and the more developed coastal areas. Parts of this road/trail network can be developed into an arterial road system linking the hinterland communities with each other and to the main road network. It is estimated that roads carry 80 percent of Guyana's passenger traffic and about 33 percent of its freight. Commuters to West Demerara have a choice of road transport via the Demerara Harbour Bridge or by the Demerara River ferry from the Stabroek Stelling to Vreed en Hoop which is obliquely opposite. Mahaicony bridge The highway which begins on the West Coast of Demerara is heavily trafficked since it provides a link to Parika on the East Bank of the Essequibo River which has become and important centre of economic activity in the Essequibo region. It is now possible to travel overland to Suriname by taking the ferry on the Guyana side at Moleson Creek and crossing the Corentyne River over to Suriname at South Drain. While travel to Brazil is via the old cattle trail it has been upgraded into a fair weather track which passes through the bauxite-producing town of Linden and ending at Lethem. Currently a bridge over the Takutu River has been under construction by Brazilians for the past two years. Construction has been delayed due to allegations of fraud. This bridge will improve passage between the two countries. Bridges The Demerara Harbour Bridge crosses mouth of the Demerara River. It is a floating bridge. The coastal main road system is not continuous. There are gaps whenever it intersects the Essequibo, Demerara and Berbice Rivers. People and goods move across these gaps by ferry systems and, in the case of the Demerara River, via the Demerara Harbour Bridge (DHB). The Demerara Harbour Bridge is a two-lane floating bridge, 1.2 miles long, near the mouth of the Demerara River. It is primarily a low-level bridge which possesses an elevated span with a vertical clearance of 26 feet in the middle of the river to permit small craft to pass. In addition, across the shipping channel, there are two spans which retract to permit the passage of ocean-going vessels. The DHB is a toll bridge. From mid 1998 toll revenue has been credited to the account of the DHB and not to the Government of Guyana, as it was until then. This is a step towards the establishment of the DHB as an autonomous statutory authority. At present the toll revenue meets the operational and maintenance costs of the bridge. Construction continues on a bridge linking Guyana and Brazil at Lethem. In 2007, construction resumed on a bridge to link Guyana and Brazil in the southwest of Guyana near Lethem. Once completed, economic interests in northern Brazil will be able to link by road to the port at Georgetown. Both countries are presently completing the approaches to the bridge and improving roads which connect to the bridge. Rail transport Commercial railway services for both passengers and cargo were operated until 1974. Two lines operated - the Demerara-Essequibo Railway, from Vreed en Hoop to Parika (18.5 miles) and the Demerara-Berbice Railway, from Georgetown to Rosignol (65 miles). With the upgrading of the West Coast Demerara/East Bank Essequibo and the East Coast Demerara/West Coast Berbice roadways, the Government decided in mid 1970s to cease operating the railway services, which were being run at a loss. In the Matthew's Ridge area, there is a 32-mile railway service. A railway service was once operated in Linden for the movement of bauxite ore. However trucks are now used to transport the bautite ore. Fluvial transport Coastal caft in Port Kaituma. It is generally agreed that, for the movement of bulky low-value goods over great distances, water transport is cheapest. This is especially true in Guyana, where the road infrastructure is poorly advanced. Moreover, with the widespread decentralisation of economic activity that is being proposed by the government, and with the corresponding development of the interior regions of the country, the demand for water transport might, perhaps paradoxically, increase rather than diminish. The infrastructure that supports water transport in Guyana is located along the banks of the navigable rivers, namely, the Essequibo River, Demerara River and Berbice River. In addition to the wharves and stellings that provide coastal and inland linkages, there are facilities that handle both the country's overseas and local shipping requirements. Virtually all exports and imports are transported by sea. The main port of Georgetown, located at the mouth of the Demerara River, comprises several wharves, most of which are privately owned. In addition, three berths are available for oceangoing vessels at Linden. Draught constraints limit the size of vessels using Georgetown's harbour to . However, recent improvements in the channel in the Berbice River have made it possible for ships of up to to dock there. Guyana's foreign trade is handled by foreign shipping companies. The largest bulk exports are bauxite and sugar, and the largest volume imports are petroleum and wheat flour. Other important breakbulk exports include rice and timber. Containers are used but because they are not part of the internal transport system, they are loaded and unloaded at the ports. Internal barge transport is important for bauxite, sugar, rice and aggregates. In the case of sugar, for example, 98 percent of exports is delivered by barge to the port of Georgetown for export. Rivers are used for moving logs and account also for a significant share of those persons who travel to the interior. It is estimated that about 1,000 kilometres of waterways in Guyana are utilised for commerce in Guyana. In addition, drainage canals are important transport channels for collecting sugar on the estates and for personal travel. Ferries Pontoon ferry crossing the Essequibo River Ferry services link the primary roads in the coastal area, and Guyana with Suriname. The Government's Transport and Harbour Department provides scheduled ferry services in the Essequibo, Demerara and Berbice rivers. Small privately owned river-craft supplement these services. Only two ferry services consistently show profits: the Rosignol-New Amsterdam and the Parika-Adventure. For the remainder, in particular for the Berbice River and the North West services, the Government provides a cross-subsidy funded out of the profits that are always realised by the Harbour Branch of the Transport and Harbours Department. Nevertheless, ferry operations have the potential to be profitable, provided that capital investments are made to improve their physical assets. With the establishment of a Maritime Administration and subsequently a National Sea Ports Authority the ferry operations may be privatised or operated as a commercially viable autonomous agency. There is also a ferry linking Guyana and Suriname crossing the Corentyne River from Springlands (at Corriverton in Guyana) to Nieuw Nickerie, a town in Suriname. Ultimately, key ferry links will be replaced with bridges, starting with one from Rosignol to New Amsterdam across the Berbice River. At the end of 1999 the fleet of ferry vessels owned by the Transport and Harbours Department comprised nine motor vessels, six of which ranged in age from 15 to 55 years. Indeed, two of the vessels were over fifty years of age, and three over 30 years, with an average age of thirty-five. They are in almost continuous need of repair. Air transportation Air transportation for business and pleasure is readily available for traveling to many parts of the hinterland. Several local airlines depart from both Ogle Airport on the East Coast Demerara, 6 miles south-east of Georgetown and from Cheddi Jagan International Airport, at Timehri, 25 miles south-west of Georgetown. Air transport plays a vital role in the development of Guyana. Within the country, it provides a link between the coastal areas and communities in the hinterland, many of which are inaccessible by any other means of transportation. Thus, the economic and social well being of these areas and their integration into the fabric of the nation are critically dependent on the availability of air transport. Externally, passengers are moved to and from the country almost entirely by air. In addition, the potential of this mode of transport for the carriage of cargo, especially exports, continues to increase. The first airplane flight took place in Guyana in March 1913 when George Schmidt, a German, flew a machine over Georgetown, taking off from the Bel Air Park Race Course. In September 1929, the first airmail service to Guyana began. The famous American flier, Colonel Charles Lindbergh, arrived in the Demerara River with his flying boat (an amphibian craft) on September 22, 1929. The first regular flights to the interior started in 1939. Although air transport in Guyana had its beginnings in the 1920s when the first "bush" services were introduced, Government's earnest participation can be dated from 1947 when a Director of Civil Aviation was appointed to regulate the industry. Regular shipments of beef from the Rupununi to Georgetown by air began on 9 July 1948. Amphibian aircraft have been vital to the development of the country as they are able land both on airstrips and on water. The development of air transport in Guyana owes much to Arthur "Art" James Williams, a pilot and mechanic from the United States. He arrived in British Guiana in August 1934, and returned to the United States in October 1955. Over this period, except for the war years, during which he served with the United States Air Force, he developed British Guiana Airways Ltd. (registered 27 May, 1938) and operating regular internal services since 1939. On 15 July 1955, the Government purchased British Guiana Airways. However, external services continued to be supplied almost exclusively by foreign airlines until Guyana Airways Corporation commenced regional air services in 1979. Subsequently, restrictions on the repatriation of profits in foreign exchange and other circumstances contributed to the withdrawal of services to Guyana by foreign airlines, with the exception of BWIA. Guyana Airways Corporation was therefore obliged to fill the breach by commencing jet operations to Miami, New York and Toronto. In the 1980s Guyana Airways Corporation's domestic operations started to deteriorate for a number of reasons, not least among them the unrealistically low fares it was required to charge and the lack of access to foreign exchange for imported aircraft parts and other requirements. The private sector therefore began to fill the gap and by 1991 three major domestic charter operators had emerged. In the meantime, Guyana Airways Corporation's domestic service continued to deteriorate and, by 1993, possessed only one Twin Otter DHC-6 to service the entire country. Under new management it was revitalised and saw a partial return to its original domestic role with the reintroduction of several domestic scheduled routes, because of the addition of two Shorts Skyvan SC7 aircraft, and a second Twin Otter DHC-6 aircraft. Challenges and future development The gross inadequacy of Guyana's transportation system militates against its social and economic development in several ways. First, it increases production costs and, therefore, reduces competitiveness, particularly in the mining and forestry sectors. Second, it inhibits the capacity to fully utilise those natural resources (gold, timber, diamonds, soils suitable for agriculture) that are not located on the coastland. Third, by severely limiting communication between those who live on the coast and those who inhabit the hinterland, it effectively divides the country into two almost unbridgeable cultures. Fourth, it acts as a barrier to the unity of the country in both a physical and spiritual sense: because they are not unified physically, Guyanese seem to find it difficult to think as Guyanese, to act as if they are one nation. Fifth, it restricts the coastal population's penetration of the interior, and forces coastlanders to live in a cramped and crowded manner on the coast, struggling and competing for land-space and other amenities, while more suitable areas are available farther south. And sixth, failure to occupy the greater part of the country, might tend to bolster some of the claims of Guyana's neighbours to its territory. According to Guyana's National Development Strategy, it is anticipated that by the year 2010 an inter-connected road system would have been established in Guyana. This network would have enabled easy access by road to the neighbouring countries of Brazil, Venezuela and Surinam; reduced the costs of utilising the country's timber and natural resources, thus making them more competitive in international markets; diversified agricultural development by making more easily available suitable areas in the hinterland, particularly in the Intermediate and Rupununi savannahs; relieved the over-crowded coastland of a significant proportion of its population, thus improving the quality of life of the inhabitants of both the coastal and interior areas; and made more feasible the equitable distribution of economic activity, not only in the agricultural but also in the manufacturing and small- industries sector. In addition, there would have been constructed high-span bridges across the Demerara River at the same site as the Demerara Harbour Bridge, and the Berbice River upstream of Everton; a series of bridges and causeways linking the islands in the mouth of the Essequibo River to Morasi on the East Bank and Supenaam on the West Bank; and another high-span bridge across the Essequibo River at Monkey Jump. Another new feature in 2010 would be the existence of deep water harbours at the mouths of the Essequibo and Demerara Rivers. Moreover, the airstrip at Timehri Airport would have been extended, and the entire Airport refurbished to accommodate an increasing number of passengers. The airport at Ogle would have been privatised, and much improved and extended. Statistics Railways total: 187 km (all dedicated to ore transport) standard gauge: 139 km gauge narrow gauge: 48 km gauge Railway links with adjacent countries Venezuela - no Brazil - no Suriname - no Highways total: 7,970 km paved: 590 km unpaved: 7,380 km (1996 est.) Driving is on the left, a practice inherited from United Kingdom colonial authorities. Waterways 5,900 km total of navigable waterways; Berbice River, Demerara River, and Essequibo River are navigable by oceangoing vessels for 150 km, 100 km, and 80 km, respectively Seaports and harbors Bartica Georgetown Linden New Amsterdam Parika Merchant marine total: 1 ship ( or over) totaling / ships by type: (1999 est.) cargo ship 1 Airports 51 (1999 est.) International Airport: Cheddi Jagan International Airport Airports - with paved runways: total: 9 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 84 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 7 under 914 m: 37 (1999 est.) See also Rail transport by country References 50 Years of Flying in Guyana by H.S. Burrowes. 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4,588 | North_Dakota | North Dakota () is a state located in the Midwestern and Western regions of the United States of America. North Dakota is the 19th largest state by area in the US; it is the 3rd least populous, with just over 640,000 residents as of 2006. North Dakota was carved out of the northern half of the Dakota Territory and admitted to the Union as the 39th state on November 2, 1889. The Missouri River flows through the western part of the state and forms Lake Sakakawea behind the Garrison Dam. The western half of the state is hilly and contains lignite coal and oil. In the east, the Red River forms the Red River Valley, holding fertile farmland. Agriculture has long dominated the economy and culture of North Dakota. The state capital is Bismarck and the largest city is Fargo. The primary public universities are located in Grand Forks and Fargo. The United States Air Force operates bases at both Minot and Grand Forks. Geography Map of North Dakota North Dakota is considered to be in the U.S. regions known as the Upper Midwest and the Great Plains, and is sometimes referred to as being the "High Plains". The state shares the Red River of the North with Minnesota on the east; South Dakota is to the south, Montana is to the west, and the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba are north. It sits essentially, in the middle of North America, and in fact, a stone marker in Rugby, North Dakota, identifies it as being the "Geographic Center of the North American Continent". With , North Dakota is the 19th largest state. The western half of the state consists of the hilly Great Plains, and the northern part of the Badlands to the west of the Missouri River. The state's high point, White Butte at , and Theodore Roosevelt National Park are located in the Badlands. The region is abundant in fossil fuels including crude oil and lignite coal. The Missouri River forms Lake Sakakawea, the third largest man-made lake in the United States, behind the Garrison Dam. The central region of the state is divided into the Drift Prairie and the Missouri Plateau. This area is covered in lakes, slough, and rolling hills. The Turtle Mountains are located along the Manitoba border. The geographic center of the North American continent is located near the city of Rugby. The eastern part of the state consists of the flat Red River Valley, the bottom of glacial Lake Agassiz. Its fertile soil, drained by the meandering Red River flowing northward into Lake Winnipeg, supports a large agriculture industry. Devils Lake, the largest natural lake in the state, is also found in the east. Climate North Dakota endures temperature extremes characteristic of its continental climate, with cold winters and hot summers: the record low temperature is and the record high temperature is . Meteorological events include rain, snow, hail, blizzards, polar fronts, tornadoes, thunderstorms, and high-velocity straight-line winds. Depending on location, average annual precipitation ranges from 14 in (35.6 cm) to 22 in (55.9 cm). Springtime flooding is a relatively common event in the Red River Valley, due to the river flowing north into Canada, creating ice jams. The spring melt and the eventual runoff typically begins earlier in the southern part of the valley than in the northern part. The most destructive flooding in eastern North Dakota occurred in 1997, which caused extensive damage to Fargo and Grand Forks. History Prior to European contact, Native Americans inhabited North Dakota for thousands of years. The first white person to reach the area was the French-Canadian trader La Vérendrye, who led an exploration party to Mandan villages in 1738. The trading arrangement between tribes was such that North Dakota tribes rarely dealt directly with Europeans. However, the native tribes were in sufficient contact that by the time that Lewis and Clark entered North Dakota in 1804, they were aware of the French and then Spanish claims to their territory. Much of present-day North Dakota was included in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Much of acquired land was organized into Minnesota and Nebraska Territories. Dakota Territory, making up present-day North and South Dakota, along with parts of present-day Wyoming and Montana, was organized on March 2, 1861. Dakota Territory was settled sparsely until the late 1800s, when the railroads entered the region and aggressively marketed the land. A bill for statehood for North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington titled the Enabling Act of 1889 was passed on February 22, 1889 during the administration of Grover Cleveland. After Cleveland left office, it was left to his successor, Benjamin Harrison, to sign proclamations formally admitting North and South Dakota to the Union on November 2, 1889. The rivalry between the two new states presented a dilemma of which was to be admitted first. Harrison directed Secretary of State James G. Blaine to shuffle the papers and obscure from him which he was signing first and the actual order went unrecorded. However, since North Dakota alphabetically appears before South Dakota, its proclamation was published first in the Statutes At Large. Since that day, it has become common to list the Dakotas alphabetically and thus North Dakota is usually listed as the 39th state. It is believed that nobody recorded which paper was signed first, thus nobody can actually know which of the Dakotas was admitted first. The corruption in the early territorial and state governments led to a wave of populism led by the Non Partisan League (usually referred to as the "NPL"), which brought social reforms in the early 20th century. The NPL which was later incorporated as part of the Democratic Party, fashioned a number of laws and social reforms, in an attempt to insulate North Dakota from the power of out-of-state banks and corporations, a number of which are still in place today. In addition to the Bank of North Dakota and the North Dakota Mill and Elevator (both still in existence) there was a state-owned railroad line (later sold to the Soo Line Railroad). Additionally, anti-corporate laws were passed, which virtually prohibited a corporation or bank from owning title to land zoned as farmland. These laws, which still exist today, and which have upheld by both the State and Federal court systems, make it almost impossible to foreclose on farmland, as even after foreclosure, the property title cannot be held by a bank or mortgage company. Thus, virtually every farm in existence today in North Dakota, is still a "family-owned" farm. As a result, CBS News has reported that the state with the highest per capita percentage of millionaires is North Dakota. A round of federal construction projects began in the 1950s including the Garrison Dam, and the Minot and Grand Forks Air Force bases. There was a boom in oil exploration in western North Dakota in the 1980s, as rising petroleum prices made development profitable. The original North Dakota State Capitol burned to the ground on December 28, 1930, and was replaced by a limestone faced art deco skyscraper that still stands today. Demographic Population North Dakota population density From fewer than 3,000 people in 1870, North Dakota's population grew to near 680,000 by 1930. Growth then slowed, and the population has fluctuated slightly over the next seven decades, hitting a low of 617,761 in the 1970 census, with a total of 642,200 in the 2000 census. The United States Census Bureau, as of July 1, 2008, estimated North Dakota's population at 641,481, which represents a decrease of 714, or 0.1%, since the last census in 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 20,460 people (that is 67,788 births minus 47,328 deaths) and a decrease due to net migration of 17,787 people out of the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 3,323 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 21,110 people. The age and gender distributions approximate the national average. Besides Native Americans, North Dakota's minority groups still form a significantly smaller proportion of the population than in the nation as a whole. The center of population of North Dakota is located in Wells County, near Sykeston. Emigration Since the 1990s, North Dakota has experienced virtually constant decline in population, particularly among younger people with university degrees. One of the major causes of emigration in North Dakota looms from a lack of skilled jobs for graduates. Some propose the expansion of economic development programs to create skilled and high-tech jobs, but the effectiveness of such programs has been open to debate. As the issue is common to several High Plains states, federal politicians including Senator Byron Dorgan, have proposed The New Homestead Act of 2007 to encourage living in areas losing population through incentives such as tax breaks. Race and ancestry Most North Dakotans are of Northern European descent. The six largest ancestry groups in North Dakota are: German (43.9%), Norwegian (30.1%), Irish (7.7%), Native American (5%), Swedish (5%) and French 4%. 2.47% of the population aged 5 and older speak German at home, while 1.37% speak Spanish, according to the 2000 U.S. Census. The state's racial composition in 2005 was: 92.3% White (non-Hispanic); 5.3% Native American/Alaskan Native; 1.6% Hispanic, a category that includes people of many races; 0.1% Asian/Pacific Islander; 0.1% Black (non-Hispanic); 0.1% mixed race. Religion North Dakota has the lowest percentage of non-religious people of any state, and it also has the most churches per capita of any state. A 2001 survey indicated that 35% of North Dakota's population was Lutheran, and 30% was Roman Catholic. Other religious groups represented were Methodists (7%), Baptists (6%), the Assembly of God (3%), and Jehovah's Witness (1%). Christians with unstated or other denominational affiliations, including other Protestants, totaled 3%, bringing the total Christian population to 86%. Non-Christian religions, such as Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism, together represented 4% of the population. Three percent of respondents answered "no religion" on the survey, and 6% refused to answer. The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Roman Catholic Church with 179,349; the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America with 174,554; and the Lutheran Church--Missouri Synod with 23,720. http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/38_2000.asp Culture Fine and performing arts North Dakota's major fine art museums and venues include the Chester Fritz Auditorium, Empire Arts Center, the Fargo Theatre, North Dakota Museum of Art, and the Plains Art Museum. The Bismarck-Mandan Symphony Orchestra, Fargo-Moorhead Symphony Orchestra, Greater Grand Forks Symphony Orchestra and Minot Symphony Orchestra are full-time professional and semi-professional musical ensembles that perform concerts and offer educational programs to the community. Entertainment North Dakotan musicians of many genres include blues guitarist Jonny B. Lang, country music singer Lynn Anderson, jazz and traditional pop singer and songwriter Peggy Lee, big band leader Lawrence Welk, and pop singer Bobby Vee. The state is also home to two groups of the Indie rock genre that have become known on a national scale: GodheadSilo (originally from Fargo, but later relocated to Olympia, Washington and became signed to the Kill Rock Stars label) and June Panic (also of Fargo, signed to Secretly Canadian). Ed Schultz is known around the country as the host of progressive talk radio show The Ed Schultz Show, and Shadoe Stevens hosted American Top 40 from 1988 to 1995. Josh Duhamel is an Emmy Award-winning actor known for his roles in All My Children and Las Vegas. Nicole Linkletter and CariDee English were winning contestants of Cycles 5 and 7, respectively, of America's Next Top Model. Kellan Lutz has appeared in movies such as Stick It, Accepted, Prom Night, and Twilight. Popular culture North Dakota cuisine includes Knoephla soup: a thick, stew-like chicken soup with dumplings, lutefisk: lye-treated fish, Kuchen: a pie-like pastry, lefse: a flat bread made from mashed potatoes that is eaten with butter and sugar, Fleischkuekle, a deep fried entree of ground beef covered in dough, and served with chips and a pickle in most restaurants; strudel: a dough-and-filling item that can either be made as a pastry, or a savory dish with onions or meat; and other traditional German and Norwegian dishes. North Dakota also shares concepts such as hot dishes along with other Midwestern states. Along with having the most churches per capita of any state, North Dakota has the highest percentage of church-going population of any state. Native American traditions are practiced by the Native American population of North Dakota, especially on Indian reservations. Pow-wows and traditional Native American dancing are found across the state. Outdoor activities such as hunting and fishing are hobbies for many North Dakotans. Ice fishing and snowmobiling are also popular during the winter months. Residents of North Dakota may own or visit a cabin along a lake. Popular sport fish include walleye, perch, and northern pike. Economy North Dakota state quarter Agriculture is the largest industry in North Dakota, although petroleum and food processing are also major industries. The economy of North Dakota had a gross domestic product of $24 billion in 2005. The per capita income in 2006 was $33,034, ranked 29th in the nation. The three-year median household income from 2002-2004 was $39,594, ranking 37 in the U.S. North Dakota is also the only state with a state owned bank, the Bank of North Dakota in Bismarck, and a state owned flour mill, the North Dakota Mill and Elevator in Grand Forks. Industry and commerce Sunflowers in Traill County North Dakota's earliest industries were fur trading and agriculture. Although less than 10% of the population is employed in the agricultural sector, it remains a major part of the state's economy, ranking 24th in the nation in the value of products sold. The state is the largest producer in the U.S. of barley, sunflower seeds, spring and durum wheat for processing, and farm-raised turkeys. North Dakota Mill and Elevator postcard, 1915 Energy Coal mines generate 93% of the North Dakota electricity. Oil was discovered near Tioga, North Dakota in 1951, generating of oil a year by 1984. Western North Dakota is currently in an oil boom: the Tioga, Stanley and Minot-Burlington communities are experiencing rapid growth. The oil reserves may hold up to of oil, 25 times larger than the reserves in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. However, a report issued in April 2008 by the U.S. Geological Survey estimates that the oil recoverable by current technology in the Bakken formation is two orders of magnitude less, in the range of 3.0 to 4.3 billion barrels, with a mean of 3.65 billion. The Great Plains area, which North Dakota is apart of, is called the "Saudi Arabia" of wind energy, North Dakota has the capability of producing 1.2 billion kilowatt hours of energy. That is enough to power 25% of the entire country's energy needs. Wind energy in North Dakota is also very cost effective because the state has large rural expanses and wind speeds seldom go below . Oil drilling equipment in western North Dakota State taxes North Dakota has a slightly progressive income tax structure; the five brackets of state income tax rates are 2.1%, 3.92% 4.34%, 5.04%, and 5.54% as of 2004. North Dakota is ranked as the 21st highest in the nation for their capitals' total state taxes. The sales tax in North Dakota is 5% for most items. The state allows municipalities to institute local sales taxes and special local taxes, such as the 1.75% supplemental sales tax in Grand Forks. Excise taxes are levied on the purchase price or market value of aircraft registered in North Dakota. The state imposes a use tax on items purchased elsewhere but used within North Dakota. Owners of real property in North Dakota pay property tax to their county, municipality, school district, and special taxing districts. The Tax Foundation ranks North Dakota as the state with the 30th most "business friendly" tax climate in the nation. http://www.taxfoundation.org/research/topic/48.html Tax Freedom Day arrives on April 1, 10 days earlier than the national Tax Freedom Day. In 2006, North Dakota was the state with the lowest number of returns filed by taxpayers with an Adjusted Gross Income of over $1M - only 333. IRS - Tax Stats at a Glance Transportation Transportation in North Dakota is overseen by the North Dakota Department of Transportation. The major Interstate highways are Interstate 29 and Interstate 94, with I-29 and I-94 meeting at Fargo, with I-29 oriented north to south along the eastern edge of the state, and I-94 bisecting the state from east to west between Minnesota and Montana. The largest rail systems in the state are operated by BNSF and the Canadian Pacific Railway. Many branch lines formerly used by BNSF and Canadian Pacific Railway are now operated by the Dakota, Missouri Valley and Western Railroad and the Red River Valley and Western Railroad. North Dakota's principal airports are the Hector International Airport (FAR) in Fargo, Grand Forks International Airport (GFK), Bismarck Municipal Airport (BIS), and the Minot International Airport (MOT). Amtrak's Empire Builder runs through North Dakota, making stops at Fargo (2:13 am westbound, 3:35 am eastbound), Grand Forks (4:52 am westbound, 12:57 am eastbound), Minot (around 9 am westbound and around 9:30 pm eastbound), and four other stations. It is the descendant of the famous line of the same name run by the Great Northern Railway, which was built by the tycoon James J. Hill and ran from St. Paul to Seattle. Intercity bus service is provided by Greyhound and Jefferson Lines. Public transit in North Dakota is currently limited to bus systems in the larger cities. Law and government As with the federal government of the United States, power in North Dakota is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. Executive John Burke, 10th Governor of North Dakota The executive branch is headed by the governor. The current governor is John Hoeven, a Republican whose first term began December 15, 2000, and who was re-elected in 2004 and 2008. The current Lieutenant Governor of North Dakota is Jack Dalrymple, who is also the President of the Senate. The offices of governor and lieutenant governor have four-year terms. The governor has a cabinet consisting of the leaders of various state government agencies, called commissioners. The other elected constitutional offices are secretary of state, attorney general, and state auditor. Legislative The North Dakota Legislative Assembly is a bicameral body consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The state has 47 districts. Each district has one senator and two representatives. Both senators and representatives are elected to four year terms. The state's legal code is named the North Dakota Century Code. Judicial North Dakota's court system has four levels. Municipal courts serve the cities, and most cases start in the district courts, which are courts of general jurisdiction. There are 42 district court judges in seven judicial districts. Appeals from the trial courts and challenges to certain governmental decisions are heard by the North Dakota Court of Appeals, consisting of three-judge panels. The five-justice North Dakota Supreme Court hears all appeals from the district courts and the Court of Appeals. Regional There are three Sioux, one Three Affiliated Tribes, and one Ojibwa reservations in North Dakota. These communities are self-governing. Federal North Dakota's two United States senators are Democrats Kent Conrad and Byron Dorgan. The state has one at-large congressional district represented by Democrat House Earl Pomeroy. Federal court cases are heard in the United States District Court for the District of North Dakota, which holds court in Bismarck, Fargo, Grand Forks, and Minot. Appeals are heard by the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals based in St. Louis, Missouri. Politics The major political parties in North Dakota are the Democratic-NPL and the Republican Party. As of 2007, the Constitution Party and the Libertarian Party are also organized parties in the state. At the state level, the governorship has been held by the Republican Party since 1992, along with a majority of the state legislature and statewide officers. Dem-NPL showings were strong in the 2000 governor's race, and in the 2006 legislative elections, but the League has not had a major breakthrough since the administration of former state governor George Sinner. The Republican Party presidential candidate usually carries the state; in 2004, George W. Bush won with 62.9% of the vote. Of all the Democratic presidential candidates since 1892, only Grover Cleveland, Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Lyndon B. Johnson received Electoral College votes from North Dakota. On the other hand, Dem-NPL candidates for North Dakota's federal Senate and Congressional seats have won every election since 1982, and the state's federal delegation has been entirely Democratic since 1986. Cities and towns Downtown Fargo in 2007 Bismarck, located in south-central North Dakota along the banks of the Missouri River, has been North Dakota's capital city since 1883, first as capital of the Dakota Territory, and then as state capital since 1889. Bismarck however, was not originally the first choice to be the capital of the new state. While Bismarck had served adequately as the territorial capital, it was felt by many that the state's capital city should be moved eastward since then, as now, the majority of North Dakotans lived in the eastern half of the state. To that end, Jamestown was chosen as the new capital, and the state's official records were moved to Jamestown, and stored in the then-new Stutsman County Court House, in preparation for the first session of the North Dakota Legislature. Before the legislators had a chance to gather however, a small group of civic-minded Bismarck residents, disgruntled over the loss of prestige which the impending change meant to their community, rode on horseback the 100 miles to Jamestown in a January blizzard, broke into the court house, stole the state records, and made it back to Bismarck with them, staying just ahead of a pursuing posse. Once the records were back in Bismarck, they were essentially "held hostage", until the legislature agreed to meet in Bismarck. Faced with the "fait accompli", the legislators had no choice but to convene in Bismarck; and, as the Bismarck citizens had hoped for, once there, simply decided it was too much work to change the status quo. In an effort to extract some dignity from the situation however, the legislature refused to formally vote to establish Bismarck as the state capital city. Thus, while Bismarck remains the North Dakota state capital to this day, there is no actual statute, law or constitutional clause placing it there, although the state capitol building is, by law, mandated to be in Bismarck. North Dakota's most populous city is Fargo. The state has five cities with populations above 15,000 (based on 2005 estimates). In descending order they are Fargo, Bismarck, Grand Forks, Minot, and Dickinson. While North Dakota's population has seen a gradual rural decline, the migration has led to growth in its urban centers. Education Higher education The state has 11 public colleges and universities, five tribal community colleges, and four private schools. The largest institutions are North Dakota State University and the University of North Dakota. The higher education system consists of the following institutions: North Dakota University System (Public schools): Bismarck State College in Bismarck Dickinson State University in Dickinson Lake Region State College in Devils Lake Mayville State University in Mayville Minot State University in Minot Minot State University-Bottineau in Bottineau North Dakota State University in Fargo North Dakota State College of Science in Wahpeton University of North Dakota in Grand Forks Valley City State University in Valley City Williston State College in Williston Tribal colleges: Cankdeska Cikana Community College in Fort Totten Fort Berthold Community College in New Town Sitting Bull College in Fort Yates Turtle Mountain Community College in Belcourt United Tribes Technical College in Bismarck Private schools: Rasmussen College in Fargo and Bismarck Jamestown College in Jamestown University of Mary in Bismarck Trinity Bible College in Ellendale State symbols the Wild Prairie Rose State bird: Western Meadowlark, Sturnella neglecta State fish: Northern pike, Esox lucius State horse: Nokota horse State flower: Wild Prairie Rose, Rosa arkansana State tree: American Elm, Ulmus americana State fossil: Teredo Petrified wood State grass: Western Wheatgrass, Pascopyrum smithii (Rydb.) A. Löve State nicknames: Roughrider State, Flickertail State, Peace Garden State State mottos: (Great Seal of North Dakota) Liberty and Union, Now and Forever, One and Inseparable (Coat of Arms of North Dakota) Strength from the Soil State song: North Dakota Hymn State dance: Square Dance State fruit: Chokecherry State march: Flickertail March State beverage: Milk State art museum: North Dakota Museum of Art State license plate: see the different types over time "The Flickertail State" is one of North Dakota's nicknames and is derived from Richardson's Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus richardsonii), a very common animal in the region. The ground squirrel constantly flicks its tail in a distinctive manner. In 1953, legislation to make the ground squirrel the state emblem was voted down in the state legislature. S. D. Senate Bill No. 134. Media North Dakota's media markets are Fargo-Grand Forks, (119th largest nationally), making up the eastern half of the state, and Minot-Bismarck (158th), making up the western half of the state. Prairie Public Television (PPTV) is a statewide public television network affiliated with PBS. Broadcast television in North Dakota started on April 3, 1953, when KCJB-TV (now KXMC-TV) in Minot began broadcasting. There are currently 28 analog broadcast stations and 18 digital channels broadcast over North Dakota. The state's largest newspaper is The Forum of Fargo-Moorhead. Other weekly and monthly publications (most of which are fully supported by advertising) are also available. The most prominent of these is the alternative weekly High Plains Reader, which covers Fargo and Grand Forks. Prairie Public is a statewide radio network affiliated with National Public Radio. The state's oldest radio station, WDAY-AM, was launched on May 23, 1922. The Forum Communications owned station is still on the air, and currently broadcasts a news/talk format. Notable North Dakotans Dick Armey former U.S. Representative. James F. Buchli former NASA astronaut. Warren Christopher former U.S. Secretary of State, diplomat and lawyer. Angie Dickinson Golden Globe-winning television and film actress. Josh Duhamel Emmy Award-winning actor and former male fashion model Carl Ben Eielson was an aviator, bush pilot and explorer. Louise Erdrich a Native American author of novels, poetry, and children's books. Virgil Hill former WBA World Cruiserweight champion and Olympic boxer. Phil Jackson championship-winning NBA coach, formerly of the Chicago Bulls, now with the Los Angeles Lakers. Chuck Klosterman a writer, journalist, critic, humorist, and essayist whose work often focuses on pop culture. Louis L'Amour an author of primarily Western fiction. Jonny Lang a Grammy-winning blues guitarist and singer. Peggy Lee a jazz and traditional pop singer and songwriter. Roger Maris a right fielder in Major League Baseball and former single season home run record holder Thomas McGrath, who was a poet and political activist. Alan Ritchson American Idol-3rd season participant singer, model, actor Sakakawea a Shoshone woman of Lewis and Clark fame Eric Sevareid a CBS news journalist. Ed Schultz the host of The Ed Schultz Show. Ann Sothern an Oscar nominated film and television actress Shadoe Stevens was the host of American Top 40. Lawrence Welk a musician, accordion player, bandleader, and television impresario. Bobby Vee an American pop music singer. Richard Hieb former NASA astronaut. See also Index of North Dakota-related articles References External links State of North Dakota official website North Dakota tourism website Energy Profile for North Dakota USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of North Dakota U.S. Census Bureau facts of North Dakota North Dakota State Facts - USDA Pictures of the Dakotas: Badlands and Theodore Roosevelt National Parks GhostsOfNorthDakota.com - a pictorial documentary of North Dakota "ghost towns" | North_Dakota |@lemmatized north:125 dakota:124 state:122 locate:7 midwestern:2 western:13 region:7 united:9 america:4 large:19 area:5 u:9 least:1 populous:2 resident:3 carve:1 northern:7 half:6 territory:6 admit:4 union:3 november:2 missouri:8 river:12 flow:3 part:8 form:4 lake:11 sakakawea:3 behind:2 garrison:3 dam:3 hilly:2 contain:1 lignite:2 coal:3 oil:10 east:4 red:7 valley:8 hold:6 fertile:2 farmland:3 agriculture:4 long:1 dominate:1 economy:4 culture:4 capital:11 bismarck:24 city:12 fargo:19 primary:1 public:8 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4,589 | Blind_Willie_McTell | William Samuel McTell, better known as Blind Willie McTell (May 5, 1898 (sometimes reported as 1901 or even 1903) – August 19, 1959), was an influential American blues singer, songwriter, and guitarist. He was a twelve-string finger picking Piedmont blues guitarist, and recorded 149 songs between 1927 and 1956. Biography Born William Samuel McTier (or McTear http://facstaff.unca.edu/sinclair/piedmontblues/mctell.html University of North Carolina ) in Thomson, Georgia, blind in one eye, McTell had lost his remaining vision by late childhood, but became an adept reader of Braille. He showed proficiency in music from an early age and learned to play the six-string guitar as soon as he could. His father left the family when McTell was still young, so when his mother died in the 1920s, he left his hometown and became a wandering busker. He began his recording career in 1927 for Victor Records in Atlanta. Justin Green - Musical Legends (ISBN 0867195878) . In the years before World War II, he traveled and performed widely, recording for a number of labels under a different name for each one, including Blind Willie McTell (Victor and Decca), Blind Sammie (Columbia), Georgia Bill (Okeh), Hot Shot Willie (Victor), Blind Willie (Vocalion), Red Hot Willie Glaze (Bluebird), Barrelhouse Sammie (Atlantic) and Pig & Whistle Red (Regal). His style was singular: a form of country blues, bridging the gap between the raw blues of the early part of the 20th Century and the more refined East Coast "Piedmont" sound. He took on the less common and more unwieldy 12-string guitar because of its volume. The style is well documented on John Lomax's 1940 recordings of McTell for the Library of Congress, for which McTell earned ten dollars. ibid In 1934, he married Ruthy Kate Williams (now better known as Kate McTell). http://bluesnet.hub.org/readings/mctell.html She accompanied him on stage and on several recordings, before becoming a nurse in 1939. Most of their marriage from 1942 until his death was spent apart, with her living in Fort Gordon near Augusta, and him working around Atlanta. Post-war, he recorded for Atlantic Records and Regal Records in 1949, but these recordings met with less commercial success than his previous works. He continued to perform around Atlanta, but his career was cut short by ill health, predominantly diabetes and alcoholism. In 1956, an Atlanta record store manager, Edward Rhodes, discovered McTell playing in the street for quarters and enticed him into his store with a bottle of corn liquor, where he captured a few final performances on a tape recorder. These were released posthumously on Prestige/Bluesville Records as Blind Willie McTell's Last Session. McTell died in Milledgeville, Georgia, of a stroke in 1959. A blues festival in McTell's honor is held annually in his birthplace, Thomson, Georgia. He was inducted into the Blues Foundation's Hall of Fame in 1981 .Blues Foundation :: Inductees Influence One of McTell's most famous songs, "Statesboro Blues", has been covered by artists such as Taj Mahal, David Bromberg, The Allman Brothers Band and Ralph McTell, who changed his name on account of liking the song. Hockenhull, Chris. "Streets of London: The Official Biography of Ralph McTell", p. 40. Northdown, 1997. ISBN 1-900711-02-8. Jack White of The White Stripes considers McTell an influence (their 2000 album De Stijl was dedicated to him and featured a cover of his song "Your Southern Can Is Mine"), as did Kurt Cobain of Nirvana. Bob Dylan has paid tribute to McTell on at least four occasions: Firstly in his 1965 song "Highway 61 Revisited" in the second verse, which begins, "Georgia Sam he had a bloody nose," referring to one of Blind Willie McTell's many recording names; later in "Blind Willie McTell" (recorded in 1983 but released on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1-3 in 1991); then with covers of McTell's "Broke Down Engine" and "Delia" on his 1993 album World Gone Wrong. In his sleeve notes for World Gone Wrong, Dylan wrote: "'Broke Down Engine' is a Blind Willie McTell masterpiece... it's about Ambiguity, the fortunes of the privileged elite, flood control — watching the red dawn not bothering to dress.(sic)' In his song "Po'Boy", off the 2001 album Love & Theft, Dylan again paid homage to McTell by appropriating the line "had to go to Florida dodging them Georgia laws" directly from the latter's "Kill It Kid" Kill it Kid, Last Session, Bluesville BV 1040, Released 1962 . Complete sessionography Note: All songs written by McTell except as noted October 18, 1927 – Atlanta, Georgia "Writing Paper Blues" "Stole Rider Blues" "Mama, 'Tain't Long 'for' Day" "Mr. McTell Got the Blues" (take 1) "Mr. McTell Got the Blues" (take 2) October 17, 1928 – Atlanta, Georgia "Three Women Blues" "Dark Night Blues" "Statesboro Blues" "Loving Talking Blues" October 30, 1929 – Atlanta, Georgia (as Blind Sammie) "Atlanta Strut" "Travelin' Blues" "Cigarette Blues" "Come on Around in My Kitchen" October 31, 1929 – Atlanta, Georgia (as Blind Sammie) "Real Jazz Mama" "Kind Mama" November 26, 1929 – Atlanta, Georgia "Death Room Blues" "Drive Away Blues" "Hard Working Mama" November 29, 1929 – Atlanta, Georgia "Blue Sea Blues" "South Georgia Blues" "Mr. McTell's Sorrowful Moan" "Weary Hearted Blues" "Love Changing Blues" April 17, 1930 – Atlanta, Georgia (as Blind Sammie) "Talkin' to Myself" "Razor Ball" October 23, 1931 – Atlanta, Georgia (as Blind Sammie) "Southern Can Is Mine" "Broke Down Engine Blues" "Experience Blues" (with Ruth Day, a.k.a. Ruth Kate McTell) "Painful Blues" (with Ruth Day) October 31, 1931 – Atlanta, Georgia (as Georgia Bill) "Stomp Down Rider" "Scarey Day Blues" "Low Rider's Blues" "Georgia Rag" (with Curley Weaver, 2nd guitar & vocal) February 22, 1932 – Atlanta, Georgia (as Hot Shot Willie) "Rollin' Mama Blues" "Lonesome Day Blues" "Mama, Let Me Scoop for You" "Searching the Desert for the Blues" September 14, 1933 – New York, New York (as Blind Willie) "Lay Some Flowers on My Grave" "Warm It Up to Me" (with Curley Weaver) "It's Your Time to Worry" "It's a Good Little Thing" September 18, 1933 – New York, New York (as Blind Willie) "Lord Have Mercy, If You Please" "Don't You See How This World Made a Change" "Savannah Mama" "Broke Down Engine" "Broke Down Engine No.2" (take 1) "Broke Down Engine No.2" (take 2) "My Baby's Gone" September 19, 1933 – New York, New York (as Blind Willie) "Love-Makin' Mama" (take 1) "Love-Makin' Mama" (take 2) "Let Me Play with Your Yo-Yo" "Hard to Get" "Death Room Blues" (take 1) "Death Room Blues" (take 2) "Death Cell Blues" "Lord, Send Me An Angel" (take 1) "Lord, Send Me An Angel" (take 2) "Snatch That Thing" September 21, 1933 – New York, New York (as Blind Willie) "B & O Blues No.2" (take 1) "B & O Blues No.2" (take 2) "Weary Hearted Blues" "Bell Street Lightnin'" "Southern Can Mama" (with Curley Weaver) "Runnin' Me Crazy"" "East St. Louis Blues" April 23, 1935 – Chicago, Illinois "Ain't It Grand to Be a Christian" (with Ruth Day) "We Got to Meet Death One Day" "Don't Let Nobody Turn You Around" (with Ruth Day) "I Got Religion, I'm So Glad" (with Ruth Day) "Dying Gambler" (with Ruth Day) "God Don't Like It" (with Ruth Day) "Bell Street Blues" "Let Me Play With Your Yo-Yo" April 25, 1935 – Chicago, Illinois "Lay Some Flowers On My Grave" "Death Room Blues" "Ticket Agent Blues" (with Ruth Day) "Dyin' Doubter Blues" "Cold Winter Day" "Your Time to Worry" "Cooling Board Blues" "Hillbilly Willie's Blues" June 26, 1936 – Augusta, Georgia "Married Life's a Pain" July 1, 1936 – Augusta, Georgia "Undertaker's Blues" "Mama Keep Steppin'" "Maybe Some Day" November 5, 1940 – Atlanta, Georgia (John Lomax session) "Just As Well Get Ready, You Got to Die" "Climing High Mountains, Tryin' to Get Home" "Monologue on accidents" "Boll Weevil" "Delia" "Dying Crapshooter's Blues" "Will Fox" "I Got to Cross the River Jordan" "Monologue on old songs" "Old Time Religion, Amen" "Amazing Grace" (trad.) "Monologue on the history of the blues" "Monologue on life as a maker of records" "Monologue on himself" "King Edward Blues" "Murderer's Home Blues" "Kill-It Rag" "Chainey" "I Got to Cross de River o' Jordan" Unknown Date, 1949 – Atlanta, Georgia (as Pig & Whistle Red, with Curley Weaver) "Love Changin' Blues" "Savannah Mama" "Talkin' to You Mama" "East St. Louis" "Wee Midnight Hours" "Pal of Mine" (take 1) "Pal of Mine" (take 2) "Hide Me in the Bosom" "Honey It Must Be Love" "Sending Up My Timber" (take 1) "Sending Up My Timber" (take 2) "Lord Have Mercy, If You Please" "It's My Desire" "Trying to Get Home" "Don't Forget It" "Good Little Thing" "You Can't Get Stuff No More" Unknown Date, November 1949 – Atlanta, Georgia (as Barrelhouse Sammy, The Country Boy) "Kill It Kid" "The Razor Ball" "Little Delia" "Broke Down Engine Blues" "Dying Crapshooter Blues" "Pinetop's Boogie Woogie" (Clarence Smith) "Blues Around Midnight" "On the Cooling Board" "Motherless Children Have a Hard Time" (trad.) "I Got to Cross the River Jordan" "You Got to Die" "Ain't It Grand to Live a Christian" "Pearly Gates" "Soon This Morning" "Last Dime Blues" Unknown Date, Fall, 1956 – Atlanta, Georgia ("Last Session") "Baby, It Must Be Love" "The Dyin' Crapshooter's Blues" "Don't Forget It" "Kill It Kid" "That Will Never Happen No More" "Goodbye Blues" "Salty Dog" "Early Life" "Beedle Um Bum" "A Married Man's a Fool" "A to Z Blues" "Wabash Cannonball" (J.A. Roff) "Pal of Mine" Partial discography Blind Willie McTell: 1927-1933 The Early Years - Yazoo L-1005 (1968) Blind Willie McTell: 1927-1935 - Yazoo L-1037 (1974) Death Cell Blues - Biograph BLP-C-14 (1973) Trying To Get Home - Biograph BLP-12008 Love Changin' Blues - Biograph BLP-12035 1940: The Legendary Library of Congress Session - Melodeon MLP-7323 (1966) Blues In The Dark - MCA 1368 (1983) Atlanta Twelve String - Atlantic SD-7224 (1972) - 'Barrelhouse Sammy' 1949 recordings. Last Session - Prestige PR-7809 The Definitive Blind Willie McTell 1927–1935 on Catfish Records (KATCD229) - Presents the complete recordings (including pseudonymous works) from the period 1927–1935. The Classic Years 1927–1940 on JSP Records (JSP7711) omits some recordings found on the previous set but adds his 1940 session for the Library of Congress. The Definitive Blind Willie McTell on SonyLegacy Recordings (C2K-53234) includes songs recorded for Columbia and its subsidiaries OKeh and Vocalion. It has several previously unissued takes and has extensive liner notes by David Evans. It does, however, omit "Statesboro Blues," probably McTell's noted song, because it was recorded for Victor. Complete Recorded Works in Chronological Order, Vol. 1 - Document Records (Austria) DOCD-5006. Complete Recorded Works in Chronological Order, Vol. 2 - Document Records (Austria) DOCD-5007. Complete Recorded Works in Chronological Order, Vol. 3 - Document Records (Austria) DOCD-5008. These three discs, covering 1927-1935, were also issued in a box set as Statesboro Blues (DOCD-5677) The Best of Blind Willie McTell on Yazoo - selections of 1920s and 1930s recordings - Yazoo-2071 1940: Complete Library of Congress Recordings - RST Records (Austria) BDCD-6001. Blind Willie McTell & Curley Weaver: The Post-War Years 1949-1950 - RST Records (Austria) BDCD-6014. Blind Willie McTell: Last Session - Released on CD in 1992 for Fantasy's Original Blues Classics label. References Charters, Samuel Sweet as the Showers of Rain (Oak Publications) pp 120–131 Gray, Michael (2007) Hand Me My Travelin' Shoes: in search of Blind Willie McTell (Bloomsbury) ISBN 978-074756560-4 External links New Georgia Encyclopedia - Blind Willie McTell article Illustrated Blind Willie McTell discography Blind Willie's gravesite "Statesboro Blues" MP3 file on the Internet Archive David Fulmer, author "Blind Willie's Blues - Atlanta Strut" broadcast on Public Broadcasting Atlanta in May 2007 "The Dying Crapshooter's Blues" Novel by David Fulmer featuring McTell as a character | Blind_Willie_McTell |@lemmatized william:2 samuel:3 mctell:41 good:3 know:2 blind:29 willie:27 may:2 sometimes:1 report:1 even:1 august:1 influential:1 american:1 blue:68 singer:1 songwriter:1 guitarist:2 twelve:2 string:4 finger:1 pick:1 piedmont:2 record:24 song:10 biography:2 born:1 mctier:1 mctear:1 http:2 facstaff:1 unca:1 edu:1 sinclair:1 piedmontblues:1 html:2 university:1 north:1 carolina:1 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4,590 | National_Party_of_Australia | The National Party of Australia is an Australian political party. Traditionally representing rural voters, it was originally called the Country Party, but adopted the name National Country Party in 1975 and changed to its present name in 1982. Federally, in New South Wales, and to an extent Victoria, it has generally been the minor party in the traditional coalition with the Liberal Party of Australia in government and in opposition since the 1940s, and the UAP/NPA since the 1920s, against the Australian Labor Party. However, it was the major coalition party in Queensland between 1957 and 2008, when it merged with the junior partner, the Queensland Division of the Liberal Party of Australia to form the Liberal National Party - an organisation dominated by ex-Nationals. Since 2008 under the Senate leadership of Barnaby Joyce, the party has moved to the crossbenches and has indicated it will be voting independently of their Liberal counterparts. Nationals won't toe Libs' line: Joyce - SMH 18/9/2008 Leader Barnaby Joyce still a maverick: The Australian 18/9/2008 Barnaby elected Nationals Senate leader: ABC AM 18/9/2008 In 2003 the party adopted the name The Nationals for campaigning purposes, reflecting common usage, but its legal name has not changed. The party's federal parliamentary leader since 3 December 2007, following the coalition's defeat at the 2007 federal election, is Warren Truss. Truss wins Nationals leadership History The Country Party was formally founded in 1913 in Western Australia, and nationally in 1920 from a number of state-based parties such as the Victorian Farmers Union (VFU) and the Farmers and Settlers Party of New South Wales. It was formed by small farmers, particularly wheat-growers, dissatisfied with the economic policies of the Nationalist Party government of Billy Hughes. Many returned servicemen from World War I had been allocated land grants after the war, and some of these were former trade unionists who adapted union tactics to the cause of small farmers. The VFU won a seat in the House of Representatives in 1918, and at the 1919 federal election the state-based country parties won seats in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia. They also began to win seats in the state parliaments. In 1920 the Country Party was established as a national party led by William McWilliams from Tasmania. In his first speech as leader, McWilliams laid out the principles of the new party, stating "we crave no alliance, we spurn no support but we intend drastic action to secure closer attention to the needs of primary producers" Neilson, W. (1986) 'McWilliams, William James (1856 - 1929)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 10, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. McWilliams was deposed as party leader in favour of Dr Earle Page in April 1921 following instances where McWilliams voted against the party line. McWilliams would later leave the Country Party to sit as an Independent. Neilson, W. (1986) 'McWilliams, William James (1856 - 1929)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 10, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. At the 1922 election, it won enough seats to deny the Nationalists an overall majority, and became the only realistic coalition partner for the Nationalists. However, Page let it be known that his party would not serve under Hughes, and forced his resignation. Page then entered negotiations with the Nationalists' new leader, Stanley Bruce, for a coalition government. However, Page's terms were stiff—five seats in a Cabinet of 11, including the Treasurer portfolio and the second rank in the ministry for himself. Nonetheless, Bruce readily agreed, and the "Bruce-Page Ministry" was formed—thus beginning the tradition of the party's leader ranking second in Coalition cabinets. Bruce and Page worked effectively together until they were soundly defeated in October 1929. However, when the conservative forces were re-organised in 1931 Page refused to merge the Country Party into the new United Australia Party (UAP). As a consequence the Country Party was excluded from government when the UAP was returned to office with a parliamentary majority in its own right in early 1932. Page's relationship with the UAP was much less harmonious than it had been with the Nationalists in the 1920s. Nonetheless when the UAP lost its parliamentary majority in 1934 a coalition was patched up. In 1932, the South Australian state branch, which had fallen victim to internal divisions, merged with the Liberal Federation, forming the Liberal and Country League, a coalition that lasted until a new division of the Country Party was established in that state in 1964. William McWilliams, Country Party founder and leader 1920-1921 Page remained dominant in the party until 1939 and briefly served as an interim Prime Minister between the death of Joseph Lyons and the election of Robert Menzies as his successor, but Page's refusal to serve under Menzies led to his resignation as leader. The coalition was re-formed under Archie Cameron in 1940, and continued until October 1941 despite the election of Arthur Fadden as leader after the 1940 Election. Fadden was well regarded within conservative circles and proved to be a loyal deputy to Menzies in the difficult circumstances of 1941. When Menzies was forced to resign as Prime Minister, Fadden briefly replaced him as Prime Minister (despite the Country Party being the junior partner in the governing coalition). However, the two independents who had been propping up the government rejected Fadden's budget and brought the government down. Fadden stood down in favour of Labor leader John Curtin and continued as leader of the Opposition until the formation of the Liberal Party of Australia in 1945. After the 1946 election, Fadden resumed his political partnership with Robert Menzies, though still keen to assert the independence of his party. Indeed, in the lead up to the 1949 federal election, Fadden played a key role in the defeat of the Chifley Labor government, frequently making inflammatory claims about the "socialist" nature of the Labor Party which Menzies could then "clarify" or repudiate as he saw fit, thus appearing more "moderate". In 1949 Arthur Fadden became Treasurer in the second Menzies government, and remained so until his retirement in 1958. His successful partnership with Menzies was one of the elements that sustained the coalition, which remained in office until 1972 (Menzies himself retired in 1966). John McEwen House, The National Party's headquarters in Canberra Fadden's successor, Trade Minister John McEwen, took the then unusual step of declining to serve as Treasurer, believing he could better ensure that the interests of Australian primary producers were safeguarded. Accordingly McEwen personally supervised the signing of the first post-war trade treaty with Japan, new trade agreements with New Zealand and Britain, and Australia's first trade agreement with the USSR (1965). In addition to this he insisted on developing an all encompassing system of tariff protection that would encourage the development of those secondary industries that would "value add" Australia's primary produce. His success in this endeavour is sometimes dubbed "McEwenism". This was the period of the Country Party's greatest power, as was demonstrated in 1962 when McEwen was able to insist that Menzies sack a Liberal Minister who claimed that Britain's entry into the European Economic Community was unlikely to severely impact on the Australian economy as a whole. Menzies retired in 1966 and was succeeded by Harold Holt. After Holt disappeared in December 1967, McEwen blocked the succession of William McMahon by saying that he and his party would not serve under him. As a result, John Gorton became the new Liberal Prime Minister in January 1968. McEwen was sworn in as an interim Prime Minister pending the election of the new Liberal leader. It would be only after McEwen announced his retirement that MacMahon would be able to successfully challenge Gorton for the Liberal leadership. McEwen's reputation for political toughness led to him being nicknamed "Black Jack" by his allies and enemies alike. At the state level from 1957 to 1989 the Country Party under Frank Nicklin and Joh Bjelke-Petersen dominated governments in Queensland. It also took part in governments in New South Wales, Victoria, and Western Australia. However, successive electoral redistributions after 1964 indicated that the Country Party was losing ground electorally to the Liberals as the rural population declined, and the nature of some parliamentary seats on the urban/rural fringe changed. A proposed merger with the Democratic Labor Party (DLP) under the banner of "National Alliance" was rejected when it failed to find favour with voters at the 1974 state election. Also in 1974, the Northern Territory members of the party joined with its Liberal party members to form the independent Country Liberal Party. This party continues to represent both parent parties in that territory. A separate party, the Joh-inspired NT Nationals, competed in the 1987 election with former Chief Minister Ian Tuxworth winning his seat of Barkly by a small margin. However, this splinter group were not endorsed by the national executive, and soon disappeared from the political scene. In 1975 the Country Party changed its name to the National Country Party as part of a strategy to expand into urban areas. This had some success in Queensland under Bjelke-Petersen, but nowhere else. In Western Australia, the party publicly walked out of the coalition agreement in Western Australia in May 1975, to return in 1976. However, the party split in two over the decision in late 1978, with a new National Party forming and becoming independent, holding three seats in the Western Australian lower house, while the National Country Party remained in coalition and also held three seats. They reconciled after the Burke Labor government came to power in 1983. The 1980s were dominated by the feud between Bjelke-Petersen and the federal party leadership, which led to defeat at the 1987 federal election and the fall of the Nationals in Queensland in 1989. The Nationals experienced difficulties in the late 1990s from two fronts - firstly from the Liberal Party, who were winning seats on the basis that the Nationals were not seen to be a sufficiently separate party, and from the One Nation Party riding a swell of rural discontent with many of the policies such as multiculturalism and gun control embraced by all of the major parties. The rise of Labor in formerly safe National-held areas in rural Queensland, particularly on the coast, has been the biggest threat to the Queensland Nationals. State parties The continued success of the Australian Labor Party at a state level has put pressure on the Nationals' links with the Liberal Party, their traditional coalition partner. In most states, the Coalition agreement is not in force when the parties are in opposition, allowing the two parties greater freedom of action. Prior to the 2006 Queensland election, Coalition leaders Lawrence Springborg and Bob Quinn flirted with the idea of merging the two parties. Quinn was dumped as Liberal Leader shortly before the election in favour of embattled Bruce Flegg, who had made his opposition to any merger quite clear. Instead the parties renewed their coalition and agreed to end three-cornered contests. Other state branches took a different approach. In South Australia, for the first time in the Nationals' history, the party formed a coalition with the Labor Party in 2002. Lone state assembly MP Karlene Maywald took a ministerial position in the Labor cabinet alongside rural independent Rory McEwen. Western Australia's National Party chose to position itself in a similar way after an acrimonious co-habitation with the Liberals on the 2005 campaign trail. Unlike its New South Wales and Queensland counterparts, the WA party had decided to oppose Liberal candidates in the 2008 election. The party aimed to hold the balance of power in the state "as an independent conservative party" ready to negotiate with the Liberals or Labor to form a minority government. After the election, the Nationals negotiated an agreement to form a government with the Liberals and an independent MP, though not described as a "traditional coalition" due to the reduced cabinet collective responsibility of National cabinet members. Western Australia's one-vote-one-value reforms will cut the number of rural seats in the state assembly to reflect the rural population level: this, coupled with the Liberals' strength in country areas has put the Nationals under significant pressure. The Nationals were stung in early 2006 when their only Victorian senator, Julian McGauran, defected to the Liberals and created a serious rift between the Nationals and the Liberals. Libs 'involved' in McGauran defection, The Age, 30 January 2006 Several commentators believed that changing demographics and unfavourable preference deals would demolish the Nationals at the state election that year, however they went on to enjoy considerable success by winning two extra lower house seats. Political role The Nationals see their main role as giving a voice to Australians who live outside the country's metropolitan areas. Traditionally, the leader of the National Party serves as Deputy Prime Minister when the Coalition is in government. This tradition dates back to the original formation of the centre-right Coalition. When the Liberal Prime Minister Harold Holt died in office, his Country Party deputy John McEwen became Prime Minister for a period of weeks while the Liberal Party elected a new leader. In the Queensland state parliament, the National Party has historically been the stronger coalition partner numerically, and under the terms of the coalition agreement, the converse arrangement currently applies. The National Party's support base and membership are closely associated with the agricultural community. Historically anti-union, the party has vacillated between state support for primary industries ("agrarian socialism") and free agricultural trade and has opposed tariff protection for Australia's manufacturing and service industries. This vacillation prompted those opposed to the policies of the Nationals to joke that its real aim was to "capitalise its gains and socialise its losses!". It is usually pro-mining, pro-development, and anti-environmentalist. The Nationals hold a larger membership base than either the Liberal or Labor Parties, although in the larger eastern states its vote is in decline and its traditional supporters are turning instead to prominent independents such as Bob Katter, Tony Windsor and Peter Andren in Federal Parliament and similar independents in the Parliaments of New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria, many of whom are former members of the National Party. In fact at the 2004 Federal election, National Party candidates received fewer first preference votes than the Australian Greens. However, the situation in Western Australia and South Australia, where the party is more clearly differentiable from the Liberals, is quite different, with the Nationals narrowly missing out on winning a second seat in South Australia in 2006 and winning a safe Liberal seat in Western Australia in 2005. Demographic changes are not helping, with fewer people living and employed on the land or in small towns, the continued growth of the larger provincial centres, and, in some cases, the arrival of left-leaning "city refugees" in rural areas. The Liberals have also gained support as the differences between the coalition partners on a federal level have become invisible. This was highlighted in January 2006, when Nationals Senator Julian McGauran defected to the Liberals, saying that there was "no longer any real distinguishing policy or philosophical difference". http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/senator-mcgauran-quits-nationals/2006/01/23/1137864841636.html In Queensland, Nationals leader Lawrence Springborg advocated merger of the National and Liberal parties at a state level in order to present a more effective opposition to the Labor Party. Previously this plan had been dismissed by the Queensland branch of the Liberal party, but the idea received in-principle support from the Liberals. Federal leader Mark Vaile stated the Nationals will not merge with the Liberal Party at a federal level. The plan was opposed by key Queensland Senators Ron Boswell and Barnaby Joyce, and was scuttled in 2006. After suffering defeat in the 2006 Queensland poll, Lawrence Springborg was replaced by Jeff Seeney, who indicated he was not interested in merging with the Liberal Party until the issue is seriously raised at a Federal level. Support for the Nationals in the 2006 Victorian state election was considerable with the party picking up two extra seats in the Lower House to maintain its total representation of 11 sitting members (two Upper House seats were lost, mostly due to a change from preferential to proportional representation). This success can be attributed to a more assertive National Party image (a differentation to that of the Liberals) and the growing popularity of state and federal Nationals identities such as Barnaby Joyce. In September 2008, Barnaby Joyce replaced CLP Senator and Nationals deputy leader Nigel Scullion as leader of the Nationals in the Senate, and stated that his party in the upper house would no longer necessarily vote with their Liberal counterparts in the upper house, which opens up another possible avenue for the Rudd Labor Government to get legislation through. Liberal/National merger Merger plans came to a head in May 2008, when the Queensland state Liberal Party gave an announcement not to wait for a federal blueprint but instead to merge immediately. The new party, the Liberal National Party, was founded in July 2008. Historical electoral results Federal results in the Lower House since 1919 Australian elections, Australian election results, governments and parties in the Australian Government and Politics Database Year1919192219251928192919311934193719401943%9.2612.5610.7410.4710.2712.2512.6115.5513.716.96House Seats11 of 7514 of 7514 of 7513 of 7510 of 7516 of 7514 of 7416 of 7414 of 747 of 74Year1946194919511954195519581961196319661969%10.7010.879.728.527.909.328.518.949.848.56House Seats11 of 7419 of 12117 of 12117 of 12118 of 12219 of 12217 of 12220 of 12221 of 12420 of 125Year1972197419751977198019831984198719901993%9.449.9611.2510.018.979.2110.6311.508.427.17House Seats20 of 12521 of 12723 of 12719 of 12420 of 12517 of 12521 of 14819 of 14714 of 14816 of 148Year19961998200120042007%8.215.295.615.895.49House Seats19 of 14816 of 14813 of 15012 of 15010 of 150 Leaders William James McWilliams 1920–1921 Sir Earle Page 1921–1939 (caretaker Prime Minister April 1939) Archie Cameron 1939–1940 Sir Arthur Fadden 1940–1958 (Prime Minister August - October 1941) Sir John McEwen 1958–1971 (caretaker Prime Minister December 1967 - January 1968) Doug Anthony 1971–1984 Ian Sinclair 1984–1989 Charles Blunt 1989–1990 Tim Fischer 1990–1999 John Anderson 1999–2005 Mark Vaile 2005–2007 Warren Truss 2007–present Current State Parliamentary Leaders Karlene Maywald (Nationals SA) 1997- Peter Ryan (Victoria) 1999- Andrew Stoner (New South Wales) 2003- Brendon Grylls (Nationals WA) 2005- John-Paul Langbroek (Queensland) 2009- The coalition at a state level exists in New South Wales, and to a lesser extent Victoria. In Queensland, Langbroek is the leader of the Liberal National Party which is affiliated with the federal Nationals. South Australia and Western Australia do not have any form of coalition. The National Party does not stand candidates in Tasmania or the Australian Capital Territory, and supports Country Liberal Party candidates in the Northern Territory. Past Premiers Queensland Frank Nicklin - 12 August 1957—17 January 1968 Jack Pizzey - 17 January 1968—31 July 1968 Sir Joh Bjelke-Petersen - 8 August 1968—1 December 1987 Mike Ahern - 1 December 1987—25 September 1989 Russell Cooper - 25 September 1989—7 December 1989 Rob Borbidge - 19 February 1996—20 June 1998 Victoria John Allan - 18 November 1924—20 May 1927 Albert Dunstan - 2 April 1935—14 September 1943; again 18 September 1943—2 October 1945 John McDonald - 27 June 1950—28 October 1952; again 31 October 1952—17 December 1952 See also Young Nationals (Australia) References External links Official website | National_Party_of_Australia |@lemmatized national:58 party:97 australia:23 australian:16 political:5 traditionally:2 represent:2 rural:9 voter:2 originally:1 call:1 country:23 adopt:2 name:5 change:7 present:3 federally:1 new:19 south:13 wale:8 extent:2 victoria:7 generally:1 minor:1 traditional:4 coalition:26 liberal:43 government:17 opposition:5 since:5 uap:5 npa:1 labor:14 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4,591 | Abersychan | Abersychan is a settlement and community north of Pontypool in Torfaen, Wales, within the historic boundaries of Monmouthshire. It has a population of 6,826. Census 2001 It lies in the narrow northern section of the Afon Llwyd valley. The town includes three schools, Abersychan Comprehensive School, Victoria Primary School and St. Francis' R.C. Primary School (although the latter is due to close, along with St. Alban's R.C. Primary School, to be replaced by the new Padre Pio R.C. Primary School in Pontypool) and various shops and other amenities. Abersychan was the birthplace of the Rt. Hon. Paul Murphy, MP for Torfaen, Roy Jenkins, Baron Hillhead, and Bryn Meredith. History Abersychan was a thriving industrial centre in the 19th century and early 20th century, particularly for iron production. Local government Abersychan now constitutes a community and electoral division of the county borough of Torfaen. The area was anciently part of the parish of Trevethin, in Monmouthshire. On June 3, 1864 Abersychan was constituted a local government district, governed by a local board. Kelly's Directory of Monmouthshire, 1901 In 1894 Abersychan became an urban district and civil parish. The urban district was abolished in 1935, with most of its area passing to Pontypool urban district, and a small area going to Abercarn UD. In 1974 the area became part of the borough of Torfaen, in the new local government county of Gwent. A community of Abersychan was formed in 1985, but to date no community council has been formed. The Torfaen (Communities) Order 1985 (1985 No. 129) In 1996 Torfaen became a unitary authority. The Abersychan community includes Abersychan, Cwmavon, Garndiffaith, Pentwyn, Talywain, Varteg, and Victoria Village. Places nearby Pentwyn Pentwyn, Torfaen is a small village located in the district of Abersychan. It contains a post office, a chapel, several houses and a small play park. The village has a cricket team (Pentwyn CC) and is located right next to the old railway line. The cricket club celebrated its 100-year anniversary in 2006 with a successful tour to Cork, Ireland. The village has superb views over the River Severn and Newport to the south. Victoria Village Victoria Village is a small hamlet (place) located in the district of Abersychan. It comprises a small village school and a number of houses. A small group of houses on Incline Road mark the beginning of the village and the village boundary is near Cwmavon. Victoria Primary School is also in this area on a large grounds. Many homes are built around the school's boundaries. References | Abersychan |@lemmatized abersychan:12 settlement:1 community:6 north:1 pontypool:3 torfaen:7 wale:1 within:1 historic:1 boundary:3 monmouthshire:3 population:1 census:1 lie:1 narrow:1 northern:1 section:1 afon:1 llwyd:1 valley:1 town:1 include:2 three:1 school:9 comprehensive:1 victoria:5 primary:5 st:2 francis:1 r:3 c:3 although:1 latter:1 due:1 close:1 along:1 alban:1 replace:1 new:2 padre:1 pio:1 various:1 shop:1 amenity:1 birthplace:1 rt:1 hon:1 paul:1 murphy:1 mp:1 roy:1 jenkins:1 baron:1 hillhead:1 bryn:1 meredith:1 history:1 thriving:1 industrial:1 centre:1 century:2 early:1 particularly:1 iron:1 production:1 local:4 government:3 constitute:2 electoral:1 division:1 county:2 borough:2 area:5 anciently:1 part:2 parish:2 trevethin:1 june:1 district:6 govern:1 board:1 kelly:1 directory:1 become:3 urban:3 civil:1 abolish:1 passing:1 small:6 go:1 abercarn:1 ud:1 gwent:1 form:2 date:1 council:1 order:1 unitary:1 authority:1 cwmavon:2 garndiffaith:1 pentwyn:4 talywain:1 varteg:1 village:9 place:2 nearby:1 locate:3 contain:1 post:1 office:1 chapel:1 several:1 house:3 play:1 park:1 cricket:2 team:1 cc:1 right:1 next:1 old:1 railway:1 line:1 club:1 celebrate:1 year:1 anniversary:1 successful:1 tour:1 cork:1 ireland:1 superb:1 view:1 river:1 severn:1 newport:1 south:1 hamlet:1 comprise:1 number:1 group:1 incline:1 road:1 mark:1 beginning:1 near:1 also:1 large:1 ground:1 many:1 home:1 build:1 around:1 reference:1 |@bigram rt_hon:1 roy_jenkins:1 unitary_authority:1 |
4,592 | Microcode | Microcode is a layer of lowest-level instructions involved in the implementation of machine code instructions in many computers and other processors; it resides in a special high-speed memory and translates machine instructions into sequences of detailed circuit-level operations. It helps separate the machine instructions from the underlying electronics so that instructions can be designed and altered more freely. It also makes it feasible to build complex multi-step instructions while still reducing the complexity of the electronic circuitry compared to other methods. Writing microcode is called microprogramming and the microcode for a given processor is often called a microprogram. The microcode is normally written by the CPU engineer during the design phase. It is generally not meant to be visible or changeable by a normal programmer, even an assembly programmer. Unlike machine code which often retains backwards compatibility, microcode only runs on the exact CPU model for which it's designed. Microcode can be used to let one microarchitecture emulate another, usually more powerful, architecture. Some hardware vendors, especially IBM, also use the term microcode as a synonym for firmware, whether or not it actually implements the microprogramming of a processor. http://www14.software.ibm.com/webapp/set2/firmware/gjsn IBM "Microcode downloads" (showing use of the term "microcode") Even simple firmware, such as the one used in a hard drive, is sometimes described as microcode. http://download.boulder.ibm.com/ibmdl/pub/software/server/firmware/73lzx.html "Microcode Update for SCSI Hard Disk" Such use is not discussed here. Overview The elements composing a microprogram exist on a lower conceptual level than a normal application program. Each element is differentiated by the "micro" prefix to avoid confusion: microinstruction, microassembler, microprogrammer, microarchitecture, etc. The microcode usually does not reside in the main memory, but in a special high speed memory, called the control store. It might be either read-only or read-write memory. In the latter case the microcode would be loaded into the control store from some other storage medium as part of the initialization of the CPU, and it could be altered to correct bugs in the instruction set, or to implement new machine instructions. Microprograms consist of series of microinstructions. These microinstructions control the CPU at a very fundamental level of hardware circuitry. For example, a single typical microinstruction might specify the following operations: Connect Register 1 to the "A" side of the ALU Connect Register 7 to the "B" side of the ALU Set the ALU to perform two's-complement addition Set the ALU's carry input to zero Store the result value in Register 8 Update the "condition codes" with the ALU status flags ("Negative", "Zero", "Overflow", and "Carry") Microjump to MicroPC nnn for the next microinstruction To simultaneously control all processor's features in one cycle, the microinstruction is often as wide as 50 or more bits. Microprograms are carefully designed and optimized for the fastest possible execution, since a slow microprogram would yield a slow machine instruction which would in turn cause all programs using that instruction to be slow. The reason for microprogramming Microcode was originally developed as a simpler method of developing the control logic for a computer. Initially CPU instruction sets were "hard wired". Each step needed to fetch, decode and execute the machine instructions (including any operand address calculations, reads and writes) was controlled directly by combinatorial logic and rather minimal sequential state machine circuitry. While very efficient, the need for powerful instruction sets with multi-step addressing and complex operations (see below) made such "hard-wired" processors difficult to design and debug; highly encoded and varied-length instructions can contribute to this as well, especially when very irregular encodings are used. Microcode simplified the job by allowing much of the processor's behaviour and programming model be defined via microprogram routines rather than by dedicated circuitry. Even late in the design process, microcode could easily be changed, whereas hard wired CPU designs were very cumbersome to change, so this greatly facilitated CPU design. In the 1940s through the late 1970s, much programming was done in assembly language; higher level instructions meant greater programmer productivity, so an important advantage of microcode was the relative ease by which powerful machine instructions could be defined. The ultimate extension of this were "Directly Executable High Level Language" designs. In these each statement of a high level language such as PL/I would be entirely and directly executed by microcode, without compilation. The IBM Future Systems project and Data General Fountainhead Processor were examples of this. During the 1970s, CPU speeds grew more quickly than memory speeds and numerous techniques such as memory block transfer, memory pre-fetch and multi-level caches were used to alleviate this. High level machine instructions, made possible by microcode, helped further, as fewer more complex machine instructions require less memory bandwidth. For example, an operation on a character string could be done as a single machine instruction, thus avoiding multiple instruction fetches. Architectures with instruction sets implemented by complex microprograms included the IBM System/360 and Digital Equipment Corporation VAX. The approach of increasingly complex microcode-implemented instruction sets was later called CISC. A middle way, used in many microprocessors, is to use PLAs and/or ROMs (instead of combinatorial logic) mainly for instruction decoding, and let a simple state machine (without much, or any, microcode) do most of the sequencing. The various practical uses of microcode and related techniques (such as PLAs) have been numerous over the years, as well as approaches to where, and to which extent, it should be used. It is still used in modern CPU designs. Other benefits A processor's microprograms operate on a more primitive, totally different and much more hardware-oriented architecture than the assembly instructions visible to normal programmers. In coordination with the hardware, the microcode implements the programmer-visible architecture. The underlying hardware need not have a fixed relationship to the visible architecture. This makes it possible to implement a given instruction set architecture on a wide variety of underlying hardware micro-architectures. Doing so is important if binary program compatibility is a priority. That way previously existing programs can run on totally new hardware without requiring revision and recompilation. However there may be a performance penalty for this approach. The tradeoffs between application backward compatibility vs CPU performance are hotly debated by CPU design engineers. The IBM System/360 has a 32-bit architecture with 16 general-purpose registers, but most of the System/360 implementations actually use hardware that implemented a much simpler underlying microarchitecture; for example, the System/360 Model 30 had 8-bit data paths to the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and main memory and implemented the general-purpose registers in a special unit of higher-speed core memory, and the System/360 Model 40 had 8-bit data paths to the ALU and 16-bit data paths to main memory and also implemented the general-purpose registers in a special unit of higher-speed core memory. The Model 50 and Model 65 had full 32-bit data paths and implemented the general-purpose registers in faster transistor circuits. In this way, microprogramming enabled IBM to design many System/360 models with substantially different hardware and spanning a wide range of cost and performance, while making them all architecturally compatible. This dramatically reduced the amount of unique system software that had to be written for each model. A similar approach was used by Digital Equipment Corporation in their VAX family of computers. Initially a 32-bit TTL processor in conjunction with supporting microcode implemented the programmer-visible architecture. Later VAX versions used different microarchitectures, yet the programmer-visible architecture didn't change. Microprogramming also reduced the cost of field changes to correct defects (bugs) in the processor; a bug could often be fixed by replacing a portion of the microprogram rather than by changes being made to hardware logic and wiring. History In 1947, the design of the MIT Whirlwind introduced the concept of a control store as a way to simplify computer design and move beyond ad hoc methods. The control store was a two-dimensional lattice: one dimension accepted "control time pulses" from the CPU's internal clock, and the other connected to control signals on gates and other circuits. A "pulse distributor" would take the pulses generated by the CPU clock and break them up into eight separate time pulses, each of which would activate a different row of the lattice. When the row was activated, it would activate the control signals connected to it. Described another way, the signals transmitted by the control store are being played much like a player piano roll. That is, they are controlled by a sequence of very wide words constructed of bits, and they are "played" sequentially. In a control store, however, the "song" is short and repeated continuously. In 1951 Maurice Wilkes enhanced this concept by adding conditional execution, a concept akin to a conditional in computer software. His initial implementation consisted of a pair of matrices, the first one generated signals in the manner of the Whirlwind control store, while the second matrix selected which row of signals (the microprogram instruction word, as it were) to invoke on the next cycle. Conditionals were implemented by providing a way that a single line in the control store could choose from alternatives in the second matrix. This made the control signals conditional on the detected internal signal. Wilkes coined the term microprogramming to describe this feature and distinguish it from a simple control store. Examples of microprogrammed systems In common with many other complex mechanical devices, Charles Babbage's analytical engine used banks of cams to control each operation, i.e. it had a read-only control store. As such it deserves to be recognised as the first microprogrammed computer to be designed, even if it has not yet been realised in hardware. The Emidec 1100 [] reputedly used a hard-wired control store consisting of wires threaded through ferrite cores, known as 'the laces'. Most models of the IBM System/360 series were microprogrammed: The Model 25 was unique among System/360 models in using the top 16k bytes of core storage to hold the control storage for the microprogram. The 2025 used a 16-bit microarchitecture with seven control words (or microinstructions). At power up, or full system reset, the microcode was loaded from the card reader. The IBM 1410 emulation for this model was loaded this way. The Model 30, the slowest model in the line, used an 8-bit microarchitecture with only a few hardware registers; everything that the programmer saw was emulated by the microprogram. The microcode for this model was also held on special punched cards, which were stored inside the machine in a dedicated reader per card, called "CROS" units (Capacitor Read-Only Storage). A second CROS reader was installed for machines ordered with 1620 emulation. The Model 40 used 56-bit control words. The 2040 box implements both the System/360 main processor and the multiplex channel (the I/O processor). This model used "TROS" dedicated readers similar to "CROS" units, but with an inductive pickup (Transformer Read-only Store). The Model 50 had two internal datapaths which operated in parallel: a 32-bit datapath used for arithmetic operations, and an 8-bit data path used in some logical operations. The control store used 90-bit microinstructions. The Model 85 had separate instruction fetch (I-unit) and execution (E-unit) to provide high performance. The I-unit is hardware controlled. The E-unit is microprogrammed with 108-bit control words. The NCR 315 was microprogrammed with hand wired ferrite cores (a ROM) pulsed by a sequencer with conditional execution. Wires routed through the cores were enables for various data and logic elements in the processor. The Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-11 processors, with the exception of the PDP-11/20, were microprogrammed . Many systems from the Burroughs were microprogrammed: The B700 "microprocessor" executed application-level opcodes using sequences of 16-bit microinstructions stored in main memory, each of these was either a register-load operation or mapped to a single 56-bit "nanocode" instruction stored in read-only memory. This allowed comparatively simple hardware to act either as a mainframe peripheral controller or to be packaged as a standalone computer. The B1700 was implemented with radically different hardware including bit-addressable main memory but had a similar multi-layer organisation. The operating system would preload the interpreter for whatever language was required. These interpreters presented different virtual machines for COBOL, Fortran, etc. Microdata produced computers in which the microcode was accessible to the user; this allowed the creation of custom assembler level instructions. Microdata's Reality operating system design made extensive use of this capability. The Nintendo 64's Reality Co-Processor, which serves as the console's graphics processing unit and audio processor, utilized microcode; it is possible to implement new effects or tweak the processor to achieve the desired output. Two of the best-known examples of custom microcode include Factor 5's N64 port of the Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine, Star Wars: Rogue Squadron and Star Wars: Battle for Naboo. The VU0 and VU1 vector units in the Sony Playstation 2 are microprogrammable; in fact, VU1 was only accessible via microcode for the first several generations of the SDK. Implementation Each microinstruction in a microprogram provides the bits which control the functional elements that internally compose a CPU. The advantage over a hard-wired CPU is that internal CPU control becomes a specialized form of a computer program. Microcode thus transforms a complex electronic design challenge (the control of a CPU) into a less-complex programming challenge. To take advantage of this, computers were divided into several parts: A microsequencer picked the next word of the control store. A sequencer is mostly a counter, but usually also has some way to jump to a different part of the control store depending on some data, usually data from the instruction register and always some part of the control store. The simplest sequencer is just a register loaded from a few bits of the control store. A register set is a fast memory containing the data of the central processing unit. It may include the program counter, stack pointer, and other numbers that are not easily accessible to the application programmer. Often the register set is a triple-ported register file, that is, two registers can be read, and a third written at the same time. An arithmetic and logic unit performs calculations, usually addition, logical negation, a right shift, and logical AND. It often performs other functions, as well. There may also be a memory address register and a memory data register, used to access the main computer storage. Together, these elements form an "execution unit." Most modern CPUs have several execution units. Even simple computers usually have one unit to read and write memory, and another to execute user code. These elements could often be bought together as a single chip. This chip came in a fixed width which would form a 'slice' through the execution unit. These were known as 'bit slice' chips. The AMD Am2900 family is one of the best known examples of bit slice elements. The parts of the execution units, and the execution units themselves are interconnected by a bundle of wires called a bus. Programmers develop microprograms. The basic tools are software: A microassembler allows a programmer to define the table of bits symbolically. A simulator program executes the bits in the same way as the electronics (hopefully), and allows much more freedom to debug the microprogram. After the microprogram is finalized, and extensively tested, it is sometimes used as the input to a computer program that constructs logic to produce the same data. This program is similar to those used to optimize a programmable logic array. No known computer program can produce optimal logic, but even pretty good logic can vastly reduce the number of transistors from the number required for a ROM control store. This reduces the cost and power used by a CPU. Microcode can be characterized as horizontal or vertical. This refers primarily to whether each microinstruction directly controls CPU elements (horizontal microcode), or requires subsequent decoding by combinational logic before doing so (vertical microcode). Consequently each horizontal microinstruction is wider (contains more bits) and occupies more storage space than a vertical microinstruction. Horizontal microcode Horizontal microcode is typically contained in a fairly wide control store, it is not uncommon for each word to be 56 bits or more. On each tick of a sequencer clock a microcode word is read, decoded, and used to control the functional elements which make up the CPU. In a typical implementation a horizontal microprogram word comprises fairly tightly defined groups of bits. For example, one simple arrangement might be: register source A register source B destination register arithmetic and logic unit operation type of jump jump address For this type of micromachine to implement a JUMP instruction with the address following the opcode, the microcode might require two clock ticks; the engineer designing it would write microassembler source code looking something like this: # Any line starting with a number-sign is a comment # This is just a label, the ordinary way assemblers symbolically represent a # memory address. InstructionJUMP: # To prepare for the next instruction, the instruction-decode microcode has already # moved the program counter to the memory address register. This instruction fetches # the target address of the jump instruction from the memory word following the # jump opcode, by copying from the memory data register to the memory address register. # This gives the memory system two clock ticks to fetch the next # instruction to the memory data register for use by the instruction decode. # The sequencer instruction "next" means just add 1 to the control word address. MDR, NONE, MAR, COPY, NEXT, NONE # This places the address of the next instruction into the PC. # This gives the memory system a clock tick to finish the fetch started on the # previous microinstruction. # The sequencer instruction is to jump to the start of the instruction decode. MAR, 1, PC, ADD, JMP, InstructionDecode # The instruction decode is not shown, because it's usually a mess, very particular # to the exact processor being emulated. Even this example is simplified. # Many CPUs have several ways to calculate the address, rather than just fetching # it from the word following the op-code. Therefore, rather than just one # jump instruction, those CPUs have a family of related jump instructions. For each tick it is common to find that only some portions of the CPU are used, with the remaining groups of bits in the microinstruction being no-ops. With careful design of hardware and microcode this property can be exploited to parallelise operations which use different areas of the CPU, for example in the case above the ALU is not required during the first tick so it could potentially be used to complete an earlier arithmetic instruction. Vertical microcode In vertical microcode, each microinstruction is encoded -- that is, the bit fields may pass through intermediate combinatory logic which in turn generates the actual control signals for internal CPU elements (ALU, registers, etc.). In contrast, with horizontal microcode the bit fields themselves directly produce the control signals. Consequently vertical microcode requires smaller instruction lengths and less storage, but requires more time to decode, resulting in a slower CPU clock. Some vertical microcodes are just the assembly language of a simple conventional computer that is emulating a more complex computer. This technique was popular in the time of the PDP-8. Another form of vertical microcode has two fields: field select field value The "field select" selects which part of the CPU will be controlled by this word of the control store. The "field value" actually controls that part of the CPU. With this type of microcode, a designer explicitly chooses to make a slower CPU to save money by reducing the unused bits in the control store; however, the reduced complexity may increase the CPU's clock frequency, which lessens the effect of an increased number of cycles per instruction. As transistors became cheaper, horizontal microcode came to dominate the design of CPUs using microcode, with vertical microcode no longer being used. Writable control stores A few computers were built using "writable microcode" -- rather than storing the microcode in ROM or hard-wired logic, the microcode was stored in a RAM called a Writable Control Store or WCS. Such a computer is sometimes called a Writable Instruction Set Computer or WISC. "Writable instruction set, stack oriented computers: The WISC Concept" article by Philip Koopman Jr. 1987 Many of these machines were experimental laboratory prototypes, such as the WISC CPU/16 "Architecture of the WISC CPU/16" by Phil Koopman 1989 and the RTX 32P "Architecture of the RTX 32P" by Philip Koopman 1989 . There were also commercial machines that used writable microcode, such as early Xerox workstations, the DEC VAX 8800 ("Nautilus") family, the Symbolics L- and G-machines, and a number of IBM System/370 implementations. Some DEC PDP-10 machines stored their microcode in SRAM chips (about 80 bits wide x 2 Kwords), which was typically loaded on power-on through some other front-end CPU. Many more machines offered user-programmable writeable control stores as an option (including the HP 2100,DEC PDP-11/60 and Varian Data Machines V-70 series minicomputers). WCS offered several advantages including the ease of patching the microprogram and, for certain hardware generations, faster access than ROMs could provide. User-programmable WCS allowed the user to optimize the machine for specific purposes. Some CPU designs compile the instruction set to a writable RAM or FLASH inside the CPU (such as the Rekursiv processor and the Imsys Cjip), or an FPGA (reconfigurable computing). The Western Digital MCP-1600 is an older example, using a dedicated, separate ROM for microcode. A CPU that uses microcode generally takes several clock cycles to execute a single instruction, one clock cycle for each step in the microprogram for that instruction. Some CISC processors include instructions that can take a very long time to execute. Such variations interfere with both interrupt latency and, what is far more important in modern systems, pipelining. Several Intel CPUs in the IA32 architecture family have writable microcode "Intel(R) 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer’s Manual", chapter 26.4: "Microcode update facility" . This has allowed bugs in the Intel Core 2 microcode and Intel Xeon microcode to be fixed in software, rather than requiring the entire chip to be replaced. Such fixes can be installed by Linux "Intel Microcode Update Utility for Linux" , Microsoft Windows "A microcode reliability update is available that improves the reliability of systems that use Intel processors" , or the motherboard BIOS "BIOS Update required when Missing Microcode message is seen during POST" . Risks Linux (on x86 PCs) has a patch program that fixes botched CPU microcode. Of all UNIX (and UNIX-like) operating systems on Intel (and Intel x86-compatible) PCs there has been an ongoing requirement to patch erroneous microcode since the FPU multiplier problem that was endemic to some Pentiums. Microsoft Windows also has similar patches, but does generally not label them as such since Windows XP. So far only x86 CPUs have microcode patches. This is unknown with RISC CPUs as well as general purpose DSPs. Microcode versus VLIW and RISC The design trend toward heavily microcoded processors with complex instructions began in the early 1960s and continued until roughly the mid-1980s. At that point the RISC design philosophy started becoming more prominent. This included the points: Analysis shows complex instructions are rarely used, hence the machine resources devoted to them are largely wasted. Programming has largely moved away from assembly level, so it's no longer worthwhile to provide complex instructions for productivity reasons. The machine resources devoted to rarely-used complex instructions are better used for expediting performance of simpler, commonly-used instructions. Complex microcoded instructions requiring many, varying clock cycles are difficult to pipeline for increased performance. Simpler instruction sets allow direct execution by hardware, avoiding the performance penalty of microcoded execution. It should be mentioned that there are counter-points as well: The complex instructions in heavily microcoded implementations may not take much extra machine resources (except microcode space); for instance, the same ALU is often used to calculate an effective address as well as computing the result from the actual operands. Non-RISC instructions, i.e. involving direct memory operands are frequently used by modern compilers, even immediate to stack (i.e. memory result) arithmetic operations are commonly employed. Although such memory operations, often with varying length encodings (i.e. the "CISC" characteristics), are more difficult to pipeline, it is still fully feasible, clearly exemplified by the Intel 486, Cyrix 6x86, etc. Non-RISC instructions inherently perform more work per instruction (on average), and are also normally highly encoded, so they enable smaller overall size of the same program, and thus better use of limited cache memories. Modern CISC implementations, most notably the x86, implement most instructions and all addressing modes "in hardware"; microcode is still used however, for some really complex, or very special, instructions (such as CPUID), as well as for internal "housekeeping". Many RISC and VLIW processors are designed to execute every instruction (as long as it is in the cache) in a single cycle. This is very similar to the way CPUs with microcode execute one microinstruction per cycle. VLIW processors have instructions that behave similarly to very wide horizontal microcode, although typically without such fine-grained control over the hardware as provided by microcode. RISC instructions are sometimes similar to the narrow vertical microcode. See also Firmware Control unit Finite state machine Microsequencer Microassembler Control store Execution unit Arithmetic logic unit Floating point unit Instruction pipeline Superscalar Microarchitecture CPU design References Further reading Tucker, S. G., "Microprogram control for SYSTEM/360" IBM Systems Journal, Volume 6, Number 4, pp.222-241 (1967) External links Writable Instruction Set Computer Capacitor Read-only Store Transformer Read-only Store | Microcode |@lemmatized microcode:74 layer:2 low:2 level:12 instruction:71 involve:2 implementation:8 machine:28 code:6 many:10 computer:21 processor:24 reside:2 special:6 high:9 speed:6 memory:31 translates:1 sequence:3 detailed:1 circuit:3 operation:12 help:2 separate:4 underlie:3 electronics:2 design:25 alter:2 freely:1 also:11 make:10 feasible:2 build:2 complex:16 multi:4 step:4 still:4 reduce:6 complexity:2 electronic:2 circuitry:4 compare:1 method:3 write:7 call:8 microprogramming:6 give:4 often:9 microprogram:15 normally:2 cpu:44 engineer:3 phase:1 generally:3 mean:3 visible:6 changeable:1 normal:3 programmer:11 even:8 assembly:5 unlike:1 retain:1 backwards:1 compatibility:3 run:2 exact:2 model:19 use:51 let:2 one:11 microarchitecture:6 emulate:4 another:4 usually:7 powerful:3 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4,593 | Furigana | is a Japanese reading aid, consisting of smaller kana printed next to a kanji or other character to indicate its pronunciation. In horizontal text, yokogaki, they are placed above the line of text, while in vertical text, tategaki, they are placed to the right of the line of text, as illustrated below. It is one type of ruby text. Furigana are also known as or in Japanese. or Appearance Furigana may be added by character, in which case the part of a word that corresponds to a kanji is centered over that kanji; or by word or phrase, in which case the entire furigana word is centered over several characters, even if the kanji do not represent equal shares of the kana needed to write them. The latter method is more common, especially since some words in Japanese have unique pronunciations that are not related to any of the characters the word is written with. When it is necessary to distinguish between native Japanese kun'yomi and Chinese-derived on'yomi pronunciations, for example in Kanji dictionaries, the Japanese pronunciations are written in hiragana, and the Chinese ones are written in katakana. However, this distinction is really only important in dictionaries and other reference works. In ordinary prose, the script chosen will usually be hiragana. The one general exception to this is modern Chinese place names, personal names, and (occasionally) food names — these will often be written with kanji, and katakana used for the furigana. The distinction between regular kana and the smaller character forms, which are used in regular orthography to mark such things as gemination and palatalization, is often not made in furigana: for example, the usual hiragana spelling of the word (kyakka) is , but in furigana it might be written . This was especially common in old-fashioned movable type printing when smaller fonts were not available. Nowadays, with computer-based printing systems, this occurs less frequently. Usage On this sign, furigana indicate the pronunciation of the Latin letters "JR" and the kanji for "Namba Station." Furigana are most commonly used in works for children, who may not have sufficiently advanced reading skills to recognize the kanji, but can understand the word when written phonetically in hiragana. Because children learn hiragana before katakana, in books for very young children, there are hiragana furigana next to the katakana characters. It is common to use furigana on all kanji characters in works for young children. This is called in Japanese. There are also a lot of manga for adolescents that use furigana. There are also books with a phonetic guide (mainly in Hiragana but sometimes in Romaji) for Japanese learners, which may be bilingual or Japanese only, they are popular with foreigners, wishing to master Japanese faster and enjoy reading Japanese short-stories, novels or articles. Some web sites and tools exist, which provide a phonetic guide in Japanese web pages (in Hiragana, Romaji or Kiriji), they are popular both with Japanese children and foreign Japanese learners. In works aimed at adult Japanese speakers, furigana may be used on a word written in uncommon kanji; in the mass media, they are generally used on words containing non-Jōyō kanji. Furigana commonly appear alongside kanji names and their romanizations on signs for railway stations, even if the pronunciation of the kanji is commonly known. Furigana also appear often on maps to show the pronunciation of unusual place names. Names Japanese names are usually written in kanji. Because there are many possible readings for kanji names, including special name-only readings called nanori, furigana are often used to give the readings of names. On Japanese official forms, where the name is to be written, there is always an adjacent column for the name to be written in furigana. Usually katakana is preferred. Furigana may also be used for foreign names written in kanji. Chinese and Korean names are the most common examples: Chinese names are usually pronounced with Japanese readings and the pronunciation written in hiragana, while Korean names are usually pronounced with Korean readings and the pronunciation written in katakana. Furigana may also be necessary in the rare case where names are transliterated into kanji from other languages (e.g., soccer star Ruy Ramos and activist Arudou Debito). Language learning Kanji and kanji compounds are often presented with furigana in Japanese language textbooks for non-native speakers. Furigana are also often used in foreign language textbooks for Japanese learners to indicate pronunciation. The words are written in the original foreign script, such as hangul for Korean, and furigana is used to indicate the pronunciation. Punning and double meaning Some writers use furigana to represent slang pronunciations, particularly those that would become hard to understand without the kanji to provide their meaning. Another use is to write the kanji for something which had been previously referenced, but write furigana for "" () or "" (), meaning "that", indicating that the characters simply refer to it with a pronoun, but clarifying for the reader what thing was meant. In karaoke it is extremely common for furigana to be placed on the song lyrics. The song lyrics are often written in kanji pronounced quite differently from the furigana. The furigana version is used for pronunciation. Also, because the kanji represent meaning while the furigana represent sound, one can combine the two to create puns or indicate meanings of foreign words. One might write the kanji for "blue", but use katakana to write the pronunciation of the English word "blue"; this may be done, for example, in Japanese subtitles on foreign films, where it can help associate the written Japanese with the sounds actually being spoken by the actors, or it may be used in a translation of a work of fiction to enable the translator to preserve the original sound of a proper name (such as "Firebolt" in the Harry Potter series) in furigana, while simultaneously indicating its meaning with kanji. A similar practice is used in native fiction to produce double meanings: for example, the word for "Earth" might be written with furigana for "homeland" () as the reading in a work of science fiction. Other Japanese reading aids Kunten In the written style known as kanbun, which is the Japanese approximation of Classical Chinese, small marks called kunten are sometimes added as reading aids. Unlike furigana, which indicate pronunciation, kunten indicate Japanese grammatical structures absent from the kanbun, as well as showing how words should be reordered to fit Japanese sentence structure. Furikanji Furigana are sometimes also used to indicate meaning, rather than pronunciation. Over the foreign text smaller sized Japanese words, in kana or kanji, corresponding to the meaning of the foreign words, effectively translate it in place. While rare now, some late 19th–early 20th century authors used kanji as furigana for loanwords written in katakana. This usage is called in Japanese, since furigana implies the use of kana. References Mangajin's Basic Japanese Through Comics [Part I] New York: Weatherhill, 1998: 48–49 J Paul Warnick, Review of Nihon o Hanasoo in The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese, Vol. 32, No. 2 (Oct., 1998), pp. 80-83 External links Furigana.jp, Converts Japanese web pages or text into one of three formats for easier reading: furigana, kana or romaji Add Ruby automatically for Japanese Web site — Multi-language phonetic reading site that can add phonetic reading to any site or texts in five different alphabets, hiragana, katakana, Roman, hangul, Devanagari, and Cyrillic letters for Japanese. www.furiganizer.com is a convenient online reading aid for Japanese text. The Furiganizer automatically adds Furigana, offers easy access to the EDICT dictionary, and learns interactively which Kanji the user already knows. Results can be printed easily. | Furigana |@lemmatized japanese:33 reading:13 aid:4 consist:1 small:5 kana:6 print:2 next:2 kanji:28 character:8 indicate:10 pronunciation:16 horizontal:1 text:9 yokogaki:1 place:6 line:2 vertical:1 tategaki:1 right:1 illustrate:1 one:6 type:2 ruby:2 furigana:36 also:9 know:4 appearance:1 may:8 add:5 case:3 part:2 word:16 correspond:2 center:2 phrase:1 entire:1 several:1 even:2 represent:4 equal:1 share:1 need:1 write:24 latter:1 method:1 common:5 especially:2 since:2 unique:1 relate:1 necessary:2 distinguish:1 native:3 kun:1 yomi:2 chinese:6 derive:1 example:5 dictionary:3 hiragana:10 katakana:9 however:1 distinction:2 really:1 important:1 reference:3 work:6 ordinary:1 prose:1 script:2 choose:1 usually:5 general:1 exception:1 modern:1 name:18 personal:1 occasionally:1 food:1 often:7 use:20 regular:2 form:2 orthography:1 mark:2 thing:2 gemination:1 palatalization:1 make:1 usual:1 spelling:1 kyakka:1 might:3 old:1 fashion:1 movable:1 printing:2 font:1 available:1 nowadays:1 computer:1 base:1 system:1 occur:1 less:1 frequently:1 usage:2 sign:2 latin:1 letter:2 jr:1 namba:1 station:2 commonly:3 child:5 sufficiently:1 advance:1 skill:1 recognize:1 understand:2 phonetically:1 learn:3 book:2 young:2 call:4 lot:1 manga:1 adolescent:1 phonetic:4 guide:2 mainly:1 sometimes:3 romaji:3 learner:3 bilingual:1 popular:2 foreigner:1 wish:1 master:1 faster:1 enjoy:1 read:2 short:1 story:1 novel:1 article:1 web:4 site:4 tool:1 exist:1 provide:2 page:2 kiriji:1 foreign:8 aim:1 adult:1 speaker:2 uncommon:1 mass:1 medium:1 generally:1 contain:1 non:2 jōyō:1 appear:2 alongside:1 romanizations:1 railway:1 map:1 show:2 unusual:1 many:1 possible:1 include:1 special:1 nanori:1 give:1 official:1 always:1 adjacent:1 column:1 prefer:1 korean:4 pronounce:2 rare:2 transliterate:1 language:5 e:1 g:1 soccer:1 star:1 ruy:1 ramos:1 activist:1 arudou:1 debito:1 compound:1 present:1 textbook:2 original:2 hangul:2 punning:1 double:2 mean:3 writer:1 slang:1 particularly:1 would:1 become:1 hard:1 without:1 meaning:7 another:1 something:1 previously:1 simply:1 refer:1 pronoun:1 clarify:1 reader:1 karaoke:1 extremely:1 song:2 lyric:2 pronounced:1 quite:1 differently:1 version:1 sound:3 combine:1 two:1 create:1 pun:1 blue:2 english:1 subtitle:1 film:1 help:1 associate:1 actually:1 speak:1 actor:1 translation:1 fiction:3 enable:1 translator:1 preserve:1 proper:1 firebolt:1 harry:1 potter:1 series:1 simultaneously:1 similar:1 practice:1 produce:1 earth:1 homeland:1 science:1 kunten:3 style:1 kanbun:2 approximation:1 classical:1 unlike:1 grammatical:1 structure:2 absent:1 well:1 reorder:1 fit:1 sentence:1 furikanji:1 rather:1 size:1 effectively:1 translate:1 late:1 early:1 century:1 author:1 loanword:1 imply:1 mangajin:1 basic:1 comic:1 new:1 york:1 weatherhill:1 j:1 paul:1 warnick:1 review:1 nihon:1 hanasoo:1 journal:1 association:1 teacher:1 vol:1 oct:1 pp:1 external:1 link:1 jp:1 convert:1 three:1 format:1 easy:2 automatically:2 multi:1 five:1 different:1 alphabet:1 roman:1 devanagari:1 cyrillic:1 www:1 furiganizer:2 com:1 convenient:1 online:1 offer:1 access:1 edict:1 interactively:1 user:1 already:1 result:1 easily:1 |@bigram kanji_katakana:1 hiragana_katakana:2 harry_potter:1 science_fiction:1 external_link:1 |
4,594 | Kay_Redfield_Jamison | Kay Redfield Jamison An Unquiet Mind cover Kay Redfield Jamison (born June 22, 1946) is an American clinical psychologist and writer who is one of the foremost experts on bipolar disorder, having suffered from the disorder since her early-mid twenties. She is Professor of Psychiatry at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and is an Honorary Professor of English at the University of St Andrews. Education and Life Jamison began her study of clinical psychology at University of California, Los Angeles in the late 1960s, receiving both B.A. and M.A. degrees in 1971. She continued on at UCLA, receiving a Ph.D. in 1975, and became a faculty member at the university. She went on to found and direct the school's Affective Disorders Clinic, a large teaching and research facility for outpatient treatment. She also took sabbatical leave to study zoology and neurophysiology at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland. It was during her time at UCLA that Jamison's manic depression took serious hold of her life and helped determine her career path. Jamison would go on to discover a family history of manic depression on her father's side, who himself was a likely sufferer of the illness. While a member of the psychiatry department at UCLA and under treatment for her illness, Jamison attempted suicide. Jamison has given visiting lectures at a number of different institutions while maintaining a tenured professorship at Johns Hopkins University. She was distinguished lecturer at Harvard University in 2002 and the Litchfield lecturer at the University of Oxford in 2003. Throughout Jamison's career she has won numerous awards and published over one hundred academic articles. She has been named one of the "Best Doctors in the United States" and was chosen by Time magazine as a "Hero of Medicine." She was also chosen as one of the five individuals for the public television series "Great Minds of Medicine." Jamison is the recipient of the National Mental Health Association's William Styron Award (1995), the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention Research Award (1996), the Community Mental Health Leadership Award (1999), and was a 2001 MacArthur Fellowship recipient. Jamison, in an interview, said she was an 'exuberant' person herself, yet she longed for peace and tranquility; but in the end, she preferred "tumultuousness coupled to iron discipline" over leading a "stunningly boring life." In her autobiography, "An Unquiet Mind", she concluded: "I long ago abandoned the notion of a life without storms, or a world without dry and killing seasons. Life is too complicated, too constantly changing, to be anything but what it is. And I am, by nature, too mercurial to be anything but deeply wary of the grave unnaturalness involved in any attempt to exert too much control over essentially uncontrollable forces. There will always be propelling, disturbing elements, and they will be there until, as Lowell put it, the watch is taken from the wrist. It is, at the end of the day, the individual moments of restlessness, of bleakness, of strong persuasions and maddened enthusiasms, that inform one's life, change the nature and direction of one's work, and give final meaning and color to one's loves and friendships." Academic contributions Her book Manic-Depressive Illness (which she co-authored with Frederick K. Goodwin) is the classic textbook on bipolar disorder. Her seminal works amongst laypeople are her memoir An Unquiet Mind, which details the agony of severe mania and depression, and Night Falls Fast: Understanding Suicide, providing historical, religious, and cultural responses to suicide, as well as the relationship between mental illness and suicide. In Night Falls Fast, Jamison dedicates a chapter to American public policy and public opinion as it relates to suicide. A catalyst for the book, besides her own suicide attempt, was the suicide of a close friend, a brilliant man with bipolar illness. The two had made a pact to spend a contemplative week together in a cottage if either of them felt suicidal, but the pact did not hold true in the end as her friend committed suicide. In another book Exuberance: The Passion for Life, she cites research which suggests that 15 percent of people who could be diagnosed as manic depressive may never actually become depressed; in effect, they are permanently 'high' on life. She mentions President Theodore Roosevelt as an example. In Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament, she shows how bipolar disorder can run in artistic or high-achieving families. As an example, she cites Lord Byron and his ancestors. Bibliography An Unquiet Mind (1995) (autobiography), ISBN 0-679-76330-9 Manic-Depressive Illness (1990) (with Frederick K. Goodwin), ISBN 0-19-503934-3 Manic-Depressive Illness (2007) (with Frederick K. Goodwin), second Edition Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament (1993) (includes a study of Lord Byron's illness), ISBN 0-684-83183-X Night Falls Fast: Understanding Suicide (1999), ISBN 0-375-70147-8 Exuberance: The Passion for Life (2004), ISBN 0-375-40144-X External links An Interview with Kay Jamison on Charlie Rose Show - 17 mins video Faculty Profile at JHU | Kay_Redfield_Jamison |@lemmatized kay:3 redfield:2 jamison:12 unquiet:4 mind:5 cover:1 bear:1 june:1 american:3 clinical:2 psychologist:1 writer:1 one:7 foremost:1 expert:1 bipolar:4 disorder:5 suffer:1 since:1 early:1 mid:1 twenty:1 professor:2 psychiatry:2 john:2 hopkins:2 university:8 school:2 medicine:3 honorary:1 english:1 st:2 andrew:2 education:1 life:9 begin:1 study:3 psychology:1 california:1 los:1 angeles:1 late:1 receive:2 b:1 degree:1 continue:1 ucla:3 ph:1 become:2 faculty:2 member:2 go:2 find:1 direct:1 affective:1 clinic:1 large:1 teaching:1 research:3 facility:1 outpatient:1 treatment:2 also:2 take:3 sabbatical:1 leave:1 zoology:1 neurophysiology:1 scotland:1 time:2 manic:8 depression:3 serious:1 hold:2 help:1 determine:1 career:2 path:1 would:1 discover:1 family:2 history:1 father:1 side:1 likely:1 sufferer:1 illness:10 department:1 attempt:3 suicide:10 give:2 visit:1 lecture:1 number:1 different:1 institution:1 maintain:1 tenured:1 professorship:1 distinguish:1 lecturer:2 harvard:1 litchfield:1 oxford:1 throughout:1 win:1 numerous:1 award:4 publish:1 hundred:1 academic:2 article:1 name:1 best:1 doctor:1 united:1 state:1 choose:2 magazine:1 hero:1 five:1 individual:2 public:3 television:1 series:1 great:1 recipient:2 national:1 mental:3 health:2 association:1 william:1 styron:1 foundation:1 prevention:1 community:1 leadership:1 macarthur:1 fellowship:1 interview:2 say:1 exuberant:1 person:1 yet:1 long:2 peace:1 tranquility:1 end:3 prefer:1 tumultuousness:1 couple:1 iron:1 discipline:1 lead:1 stunningly:1 boring:1 autobiography:2 conclude:1 ago:1 abandon:1 notion:1 without:2 storm:1 world:1 dry:1 kill:1 season:1 complicate:1 constantly:1 change:2 anything:2 nature:2 mercurial:1 deeply:1 wary:1 grave:1 unnaturalness:1 involve:1 exert:1 much:1 control:1 essentially:1 uncontrollable:1 force:1 always:1 propel:1 disturb:1 element:1 lowell:1 put:1 watch:1 wrist:1 day:1 moment:1 restlessness:1 bleakness:1 strong:1 persuasion:1 madden:1 enthusiasm:1 inform:1 direction:1 work:2 final:1 meaning:1 color:1 love:1 friendship:1 contribution:1 book:3 depressive:6 co:1 author:1 frederick:3 k:3 goodwin:3 classic:1 textbook:1 seminal:1 amongst:1 laypeople:1 memoir:1 detail:1 agony:1 severe:1 mania:1 night:3 fall:3 fast:3 understanding:2 provide:1 historical:1 religious:1 cultural:1 response:1 well:1 relationship:1 dedicate:1 chapter:1 policy:1 opinion:1 relate:1 catalyst:1 besides:1 close:1 friend:2 brilliant:1 man:1 two:1 make:1 pact:2 spend:1 contemplative:1 week:1 together:1 cottage:1 either:1 felt:1 suicidal:1 true:1 commit:1 another:1 exuberance:2 passion:2 cite:2 suggest:1 percent:1 people:1 could:1 diagnose:1 may:1 never:1 actually:1 depressed:1 effect:1 permanently:1 high:2 mention:1 president:1 theodore:1 roosevelt:1 example:2 touched:1 fire:2 artistic:3 temperament:2 show:2 run:1 achieve:1 lord:2 byron:2 ancestor:1 bibliography:1 isbn:5 second:1 edition:1 touch:1 include:1 x:2 external:1 link:1 charlie:1 rise:1 min:1 video:1 profile:1 jhu:1 |@bigram unquiet_mind:4 bipolar_disorder:3 los_angeles:1 affective_disorder:1 manic_depression:2 mental_health:2 macarthur_fellowship:1 manic_depressive:6 depressive_illness:5 mania_depression:1 mental_illness:1 commit_suicide:1 theodore_roosevelt:1 lord_byron:2 external_link:1 |
4,595 | Hexen:_Beyond_Heretic | Hexen: Beyond Heretic is a first-person shooter video game developed by Raven Software, published by id Software, and distributed by GT Interactive beginning on March 16, 1996. It is the sequel to 1994's Heretic, and the second game in the Serpent Riders series. The word Hexen is German for "witches". The game received mostly very positive reviews in computer gaming magazines. There were complaints of the graphics being crude in comparison to the preceding game in the series, Heretic, but vast and well designed levels plus numerous enemies and weapons were seen as advantages. Plot Following the tale of D'Sparil's defeat in Heretic, Hexen takes place in another realm, Chronos, which is besieged by the second of the Serpent Riders, Korax. Three heroes set out to destroy Korax. The player assumes the role of one such hero. Gameplay A new series feature introduced in Hexen is the choice of character class. Players may choose to play as a fighter, cleric, or mage. Each character has unique weapons and physical characteristics, lending an additional degree of variety and replayability to the gameplay. The fighter relies mainly on melee attacks and is tougher and faster than the other characters. The cleric uses specialized weapons, some of which have limited range or healing effects. The mage uses long-range weapons, whose reach is counterbalanced by dealing relatively little damage and the fact that the mage is the most fragile of the classes. Hexen introduces the concept of "hub" levels to the series, wherein the player travels back and forth between central hub levels and connected side levels. This is done in order to solve larger-scale puzzles that require a series of items or switches to be thrown. The player must traverse through a hub in order to reach a boss and advance to the next hub. Development Hexen uses a modified version of the Doom engine, which allows jumping, network play with up to 8 players and the choice of three character classes. It also popularized the "hub system" of level progression in the genre of first-person shooter games. Unlike previous games, which had relied purely on MIDI for music, Hexen is also able to play tracks from CDs. The game's own CD contained soundtrack in audio format that was exactly the same as the game's MIDI soundtrack but played through a high quality sound module. However, the most significant improvement was the addition of wall translation, rotation and level scripting. Engine modifications "Polyobjects" are the walls which move within the game. Because the Doom engine uses the binary space partitioning system for rendering, it does not enable moving walls. Hexen's moving walls are actually one-sided lines built somewhere else on the map and rendered at the desired start spot when the level is loaded. This enables a pseudo-moving wall but does not allow moving sectors (such as seeing the tops of moving doors). This often creates problems in sectors which contain more than one node, explaining the relatively limited use of polyobjects. Whereas Doom, Doom II, and Heretic rely on lines within the maps to perform simple actions, Hexen also allows these actions to be activated via Action Code Script (ACS). These scripts use a syntactic variant of C, thus allowing special sequencing of game actions. Programming features such as randomization, variables, and intermap script activation enable smooth hub gameplay and are responsible for most of the special effects within the game: On-screen messages; random sound effect and monster spawning; sidedef texture changes; versatile control of polyobjects; level initialization for deathmatch; and even complex environment changes such as earthquakes manipulating floor levels and textures. Source code In 1999 the source code of Hexen was released by Raven Software under a license that granted rights to non-commercial use, and was re-released under the GNU General Public License on September 4, 2008. This allowed the game to be ported to different platforms such as Linux and OS/2 (EComStation). Hexen is compatible with many Doom source ports; Hexen's features are also compatible with Doom WADs made for source ports regardless of what game they are being played on. Music The score was composed by Kevin Schilder. Expansion pack Deathkings of the Dark Citadel is the official expansion pack that was released for Hexen. It features three more hubs, for a total of 20 new single player levels and a couple of deathmatch levels. Unlike the expansion pack for Heretic, it had to be purchased in retail stores or by mail order. This was unusual at the time, as most non-free expansion packs also included other new or revised gameplay elements. Also, this expansion pack did not initially include nor enable any music. Music could be fully enabled by applying a patch, specially released to address this issue (usually found online under the name "dkpatch"). The names of the expansion hubs are as follows: The Blight The Constable's Gate The Nave Each of the hubs features new levels, one secret level per hub, and new puzzles based on the quest items from the original game (no new quest artifacts were added). The difficulty of the puzzles is mostly on the same level as in the original game. The overall game difficulty is slightly higher, as is typical for game expansions. The final level of the expansion, the Dark Citadel itself, is an arena-like level, which features teleporting waves of monsters and three bosses (Fighter, Cleric, and Mage clones). External links Official Hexen webpage at Raven Software Official Hexen webpage at id Software Official community website | Hexen:_Beyond_Heretic |@lemmatized hexen:15 beyond:1 heretic:6 first:2 person:2 shooter:2 video:1 game:17 develop:1 raven:3 software:5 publish:1 id:2 distribute:1 gt:1 interactive:1 beginning:1 march:1 sequel:1 second:2 serpent:2 rider:2 series:5 word:1 german:1 witch:1 receive:1 mostly:2 positive:1 review:1 computer:1 gaming:1 magazine:1 complaint:1 graphic:1 crude:1 comparison:1 precede:1 vast:1 well:1 design:1 level:16 plus:1 numerous:1 enemy:1 weapon:4 see:2 advantage:1 plot:1 follow:2 tale:1 sparil:1 defeat:1 take:1 place:1 another:1 realm:1 chronos:1 besiege:1 korax:2 three:4 hero:2 set:1 destroy:1 player:6 assume:1 role:1 one:4 gameplay:4 new:6 feature:6 introduce:2 choice:2 character:4 class:3 may:1 choose:1 play:5 fighter:3 cleric:3 mage:4 unique:1 physical:1 characteristic:1 lend:1 additional:1 degree:1 variety:1 replayability:1 rely:3 mainly:1 melee:1 attack:1 tough:1 faster:1 us:1 specialize:1 limit:1 range:2 healing:1 effect:3 use:6 long:1 whose:1 reach:2 counterbalance:1 deal:1 relatively:2 little:1 damage:1 fact:1 fragile:1 concept:1 hub:10 wherein:1 travel:1 back:1 forth:1 central:1 connect:1 side:2 order:3 solve:1 large:1 scale:1 puzzle:3 require:1 item:2 switch:1 throw:1 must:1 traverse:1 bos:1 advance:1 next:1 development:1 modified:1 version:1 doom:6 engine:3 allow:5 jumping:1 network:1 also:6 popularize:1 system:2 progression:1 genre:1 unlike:2 previous:1 purely:1 midi:2 music:4 able:1 track:1 cd:2 contain:2 soundtrack:2 audio:1 format:1 exactly:1 high:2 quality:1 sound:2 module:1 however:1 significant:1 improvement:1 addition:1 wall:5 translation:1 rotation:1 scripting:1 modification:1 polyobjects:3 move:6 within:3 binary:1 space:1 partitioning:1 render:2 enable:5 actually:1 line:2 build:1 somewhere:1 else:1 map:2 desired:1 start:1 spot:1 load:1 pseudo:1 sector:2 top:1 door:1 often:1 create:1 problem:1 node:1 explain:1 limited:1 whereas:1 ii:1 perform:1 simple:1 action:4 activate:1 via:1 code:3 script:3 acs:1 syntactic:1 variant:1 c:1 thus:1 special:2 sequencing:1 program:1 randomization:1 variable:1 intermap:1 activation:1 smooth:1 responsible:1 screen:1 message:1 random:1 monster:2 spawning:1 sidedef:1 texture:2 change:2 versatile:1 control:1 initialization:1 deathmatch:2 even:1 complex:1 environment:1 earthquake:1 manipulate:1 floor:1 source:4 release:4 license:2 grant:1 right:1 non:2 commercial:1 gnu:1 general:1 public:1 september:1 port:3 different:1 platform:1 linux:1 os:1 ecomstation:1 compatible:2 many:1 wad:1 make:1 regardless:1 score:1 compose:1 kevin:1 schilder:1 expansion:8 pack:5 deathkings:1 dark:2 citadel:2 official:4 total:1 single:1 couple:1 purchase:1 retail:1 store:1 mail:1 unusual:1 time:1 free:1 include:2 revise:1 element:1 initially:1 could:1 fully:1 apply:1 patch:1 specially:1 address:1 issue:1 usually:1 find:1 online:1 name:2 dkpatch:1 blight:1 constable:1 gate:1 nave:1 secret:1 per:1 base:1 quest:2 original:2 artifact:1 add:1 difficulty:2 overall:1 slightly:1 typical:1 final:1 arena:1 like:1 teleport:1 wave:1 boss:1 clone:1 external:1 link:1 webpage:2 community:1 website:1 |@bigram person_shooter:2 serpent_rider:2 somewhere_else:1 doom_doom:1 retail_store:1 external_link:1 |
4,596 | Counterpoint | Extract from “Fugue No.17 in A” (BWV862), from Das wohltemperierte Clavier by Bach, who is widely regarded as the greatest luminary of counterpoint. In music, counterpoint is the relationship between two or more voices that are independent in contour and rhythm and are harmonically interdependent. It has been most commonly identified in Western music, developing strongly during the Renaissance and in much of the common practice period, especially in Baroque music. The term originates from the Latin punctus contra punctum ("point against point"). General principles In its most general aspect, counterpoint involves the writing of musical lines that sound very different from each other but sound harmonious when played simultaneously. In each era, contrapuntally-organized music writing has been subject to rules, sometimes strict. By definition, chords occur when multiple notes sound simultaneously; however, harmonic, "vertical" features are considered secondary and almost incidental when counterpoint is the predominant textural element. Counterpoint focuses on melodic interaction—only secondarily on the harmonies produced by that interaction. In the words of John Rahn: The separation of harmony and counterpoint is not absolute. It is impossible to write simultaneous lines without producing harmony, and impossible to write harmony without linear activity. The composer who chooses to ignore one aspect in favour of the other still must face the fact that the listener cannot simply turn off harmonic or linear hearing at will; thus the composer risks creating annoying distractions unintendedly. Bach's counterpoint—often considered the most profound synthesis of the two dimensions ever achieved—is extremely rich harmonically and always clearly directed tonally, while the individual lines remain fascinating. Development Counterpoint was elaborated extensively in the Renaissance period, but composers of the Baroque period brought counterpoint to a culmination of sorts, and it may be said that, broadly speaking, harmony then took over as the predominant organizing principle in musical composition. The Baroque composer Johann Sebastian Bach wrote most of his music incorporating counterpoint, and explicitly and systematically explored the full range of contrapuntal possibilities in such works as The Art of Fugue. Given the way terminology in music history has evolved, such music created from the Baroque period on is described as contrapuntal, while music from before Baroque times is called polyphonic. Hence, the earlier composer Josquin des Prez is said to have written polyphonic music. Homophony, by contrast with polyphony, features music in which chords or vertical intervals work with a single melody without much consideration of the melodic character of the added accompanying elements, or of their melodic interactions with the melody they accompany. As suggested above, most popular music written today is predominantly homophonic, its composition governed mainly by considerations of chord and harmony; but, while general tendencies can often be fairly strong one way or another, rather than describing a musical work in absolute terms as either polyphonic or homophonic, it is a question of degree. The form or compositional genre known as fugue is perhaps the most complex contrapuntal convention. Other examples include the round (familiar in folk traditions) and the canon. In musical composition, contrapuntal techniques are important for enabling composers to generate musical ironies that serve not only to intrigue listeners into listening more intently to the spinning out of complexities found within the texture of a polyphonic composition, but also to draw them all the more into hearing the working out of these figures and interactions of musical dialogue. A melodic fragment, heard alone, makes a particular impression; but when the fragment is heard simultaneously with other melodic ideas, or combined in unexpected ways with itself (as in a canon or fugue), greater depths of affective meaning are revealed. Through development of a musical idea, the fragments undergo a working out into something musically greater than sum of the parts, something conceptually more profound than a single pleasing melody. Species counterpoint Species counterpoint is a type of so-called strict counterpoint, developed as a pedagogical (teaching) tool, in which a student progresses through several "species" of increasing complexity, always working a very plain given part in the cantus firmus (Latin for "fixed melody"). The student gradually attains the ability to write free counterpoint (that is, less rigorously constrained counterpoint, usually without a cantus firmus) according to the rules at the given time. The idea is at least as old as 1532, when Giovanni Maria Lanfranco described a similar concept in his Scintille di musica (Brescia, 1533). The late 16th century Venetian theorist Zarlino elaborated on the idea in his influential Le institutioni harmoniche, and it was first presented in a codified form in 1619 by Lodovico Zacconi in his Prattica di musica. Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques as species, for example invertible counterpoint. By far the most famous pedagogue to use the term, and the one who made it famous, was Johann Fux. In 1725 he published Gradus ad Parnassum (Steps to Parnassus), a work intended to help teach students how to compose, using counterpoint—specifically, the contrapuntal style as practised by Palestrina in the late 16th century—as the principal technique. As the basis for his simplified and often over-restrictive codification of Palestrina's practice (see General notes, below), Fux described five species: Note against note; Two notes against one; Four (extended by others to include three, or six, etc.) notes against one; Notes offset against each other (as suspensions); All the first four species together, as "florid" counterpoint. A succession of later theorists imitated Fux's seminal work quite closely, but often with some small and idiosyncratic modifications in the rules. A good example is Luigi Cherubini. Considerations for all species Students of species counterpoint usually practice writing counterpoint in all the modes except Locrian (that is, Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian and Aeolian). The following rules apply to melodic writing in each species, for each part: The final must be approached by step. If the final is approached from below, the leading tone must be raised, except in the case of the Phrygian mode. Thus, in the Dorian mode on D, a C# is necessary at the cadence. Permitted melodic intervals are the perfect fourth, fifth, and octave, as well as the major and minor second, major and minor third, and ascending minor sixth. When the ascending minor sixth is used it must be immediately followed by motion downwards. If writing two skips in the same direction—something which must be done only rarely—the second must be smaller than the first, and the interval between the first and the third note may not be dissonant. If writing a skip in one direction, it is best to proceed after the skip with motion in the other direction. The interval of a tritone in three notes is to be avoided (for example, an ascending melodic motion F - A - B natural), as is the interval of a seventh in three notes. And, in all species, the following rules apply concerning the combination of the parts: The counterpoint must begin and end on a perfect consonance. Contrary motion should predominate. Perfect consonances must be approached by oblique or contrary motion Imperfect consonances may be approached by any type of motion The interval of a tenth should not be exceeded between two adjacent parts, unless by necessity. Build from the bass, upward. Finally, in species counterpoint it is important to remember that the interval of the perfect fourth is usually considered a dissonance. First species In first species counterpoint, each note in every added part (parts being also referred to as lines or voices) sounds against one note in the cantus firmus. Notes in all parts are sounded simultaneously, and move against each other simultaneously. The species is said to be expanded if any of the added notes are broken up (simply repeated). In the present context, a "step" is a melodic interval of a half or whole step. A "skip" is an interval of a third or fourth. (See Steps and skips.) An interval of a fifth or larger is referred to as a "leap". A few further rules given by Fux, by study of the Palestrina style, and usually given in the works of later counterpoint pedagogues, are as follows. Some are vague, and since good judgement and taste have been regarded by contrapuntists as more important than strict observance of mechanical rules, there are many more cautions than prohibitions. But some are closer to being mandatory, and are accepted by most authorities. Begin and end on either the unison, octave, or fifth, unless the added part is underneath, in which case begin and end only on unison or octave. Use no unisons except at the beginning or end. Avoid parallel fifths or octaves between any two parts; and avoid "hidden" parallel fifths or octaves: that is, movement by similar motion to a perfect fifth or octave, unless one part (sometimes restricted to the higher of the parts) moves by step. Avoid moving in parallel fourths. (In practice Palestrina and others frequently allowed themselves such progressions, especially if they do not involve the lowest of the parts.) Avoid moving in parallel thirds or sixths for very long. Attempt to keep any two adjacent parts within a tenth of each other, unless an exceptionally pleasing line can be written by moving outside of that range. Avoid having any two parts move in the same direction by skip. Attempt to have as much contrary motion as possible. Avoid dissonant intervals between any two parts: major or minor 2nd, major or minor 7th, any augmented or diminished interval, and perfect fourth (in many contexts). In the following example in two parts, the cantus firmus is the lower part. (The same cantus firmus is used for later examples also. Each is in the Dorian mode.) Short example of "First Species" counterpoint Second species In second species counterpoint, two notes in each of the added parts work against each longer note in the given part. The species is said to be expanded if one of these two shorter notes differs in length from the other. Additional considerations in second species counterpoint are as follows, and are in addition to the considerations for first species: It is permissible to begin on an upbeat, leaving a half-rest in the added voice. The accented beat must have only consonance (perfect or imperfect). The unaccented beat may have dissonance, but only as a passing tone, i.e. it must be approached and left by step in the same direction. Avoid the interval of the unison except at the beginning or end of the example, except that it may occur on the unaccented portion of the bar. Use caution with successive accented perfect fifths or octaves. They must not be used as part of a sequential pattern. Short example of "Second Species" counterpoint Third species In third species counterpoint, four (or three, etc.) notes move against each longer note in the given part. As with second species, it is called expanded if the shorter notes vary in length among themselves. Short example of "Third Species" counterpoint Fourth species In fourth species counterpoint, some notes are sustained or suspended in an added part while notes move against them in the given part, often creating a dissonance on the beat, followed by the suspended note then changing (and "catching up") to create a subsequent consonance with the note in the given part as it continues to sound. As before, fourth species counterpoint is said to be expanded when the added-part notes vary in length among themselves. The technique requires chains of notes sustained across the boundaries determined by beat, and so creates syncopation. Short example of "Fourth Species" counterpoint Fifth species (florid counterpoint) In fifth species counterpoint, sometimes called florid counterpoint, the other four species of counterpoint are combined within the added parts. In the example, the first and second bars are second species, the third bar is third species, and the fourth and fifth bars are third and embellished fourth species. Short example of "Florid" counterpoint General notes It is a common and pedantic misconception that counterpoint is defined by these five species, and therefore anything that does not follow the strict rules of the five species is not "proper" counterpoint. This is not true; although much contrapuntal music of the common practice period adheres to the spirit of the rules, and often to the letter of them, the exceptions are many. Fux's book and its concept of "species" was purely a method of teaching counterpoint, not a definitive or rigidly prescriptive set of rules for it. He arrived at his method of teaching by examining the works of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, an important late 16th-century composer who in Fux's time was held in the highest esteem as a contrapuntist. Works in the contrapuntal style of the 16th century—the "prima pratica" or "stile antico," as it was called by later composers—were often said by Fux's contemporaries to be in "Palestrina style." Indeed, Fux's treatise is a compendium of Palestrina's actual techniques, simplified and regularised for pedagogical use (and so permitting fewer liberties than occurred in actual practice). Contrapuntal derivations Since the Renaissance period in European music, much music which is considered contrapuntal has been written in imitative counterpoint. In imitative counterpoint, two or more voices enter at different times, and (especially when entering) each voice repeats some version of the same melodic element. The fantasia, the ricercar, and later, the canon and fugue (the contrapuntal form par excellence) all feature imitative counterpoint, which also frequently appears in choral works such as motets and madrigals. Imitative counterpoint has spawned a number of devices that composers have turned to in order to give their works both mathematical rigor and expressive range. Some of these devices include: Melodic inversion The inverse of a given fragment of melody is the fragment turned upside down—so if the original fragment has a rising major third (see interval), the inverted fragment has a falling major (or perhaps minor) third, etc. (Compare, in twelve tone technique, the inversion of the tone row, which is the so-called prime series turned upside down.) (Note: in invertible counterpoint, including double and triple counterpoint, the term inversion is used in a different sense altogether. At least one pair of parts is switched, so that the one that was higher becomes lower. See Inversion in counterpoint; it is not a kind of imitation, but a rearrangement of the parts.) Retrograde refers to the contrapuntal device whereby notes in an imitative voice sound backwards in relation to their order in the original. Retrograde inversion is where the imitative voice sounds notes both backwards and upside down. Augmentation is when in one of the parts in imitative counterpoint the notes are extended in duration compared to the rate at which they were sounded when introduced. Diminution is when in one of the parts in imitative counterpoint the notes are reduced in duration compared to the rate at which they were sounded when introduced. Dissonant counterpoint Dissonant counterpoint was first theorized by Charles Seeger as "at first purely a school-room discipline," consisting of species counterpoint but with all the traditional rules reversed. First species counterpoint is required to be all dissonances, establishing "dissonance, rather than consonance, as the rule," and consonances are "resolved" through a skip, not step. He wrote that "the effect of this discipline" was "one of purification." Other aspects of composition, such as rhythm, could be "dissonated" by applying the same principle (Charles Seeger, "On Dissonant Counterpoint," Modern Music 7, no. 4 (June-July 1930): 25-26). Seeger was not the first to employ dissonant counterpoint, but was the first to theorize and promote it. Other composers who have used dissonant counterpoint, if not in the exact manner prescribed by Charles Seeger, include Ruth Crawford-Seeger, Carl Ruggles, Henry Cowell, Henry Brant, Dane Rudhyar, Lou Harrison, Fartein Valen, and Arnold Schoenberg. In other media Glenn Gould made innovative use of counterpoint in his three radio documentaries: The Idea of North, The Latecomers, and The Quiet in the Land (see The Solitude Trilogy). Gould called this method "contrapuntal" radio. It involves the voices of two or more people simultaneously speaking (or playing against each other), entering and leaving the work as in a fugue. In Popular Music The following popular songs all feature contrapuntal themes with different lyrics to the different melodies. The most famous of these were the songs written for Broadway shows by Irving Berlin. "One Day More" from Les Miserables "Play a Simple Melody" by Irving Berlin "You're Just in Love" by Irving Berlin "An Old-Fashioned Wedding" by Irving Berlin "Mine" by George & Ira Gershwin "Scarborough Fair" by Simon & Garfunkel "I Hope You Dance" by Lee Ann Womack & Sons of the Desert "Little Good-Byes" by SHeDAISY "Eleanor Rigby" by The Beatles "Paperback Writer" by The Beatles "My Maria" by B. W. Stevenson (later covered by Brooks & Dunn) "On Reflection" by Gentle Giant "Sister" by Indigo Girls "Silly Love Songs" by Paul McCartney & Wings "Sweet Talkin' Guy" by The Chiffons "Patience" by Guns N' Roses "The Predatory Wasp of the Palisades is Out to Get Us!" by Sufjan Stevens See also Polyphony Voice leading Counter-melody References External links An Introduction to Species Counterpoint ntoll.org: Species Counterpoint by Nicholas H. Tollervey Principles of Counterpoint by Alan Belkin Orima: The History of Experimental Music in Northern California: On Dissonant Counterpoint by David Nicholls from his American Experimental Music: 1890-1940 Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary: Dissonant counterpoint examples and definition De-Mystifying Tonal Counterpoint or How to Overcome Your Fear of Composing Counterpoint Exercises by Christopher Dylan Bailey, composer at Columbia University Counterpointer:Software tutorial for the study of counterpointby Jeffrey Evans Teach Yourself Counterpoint by Dr Lindsay Davidson "Bach as Contrapuntist" by Dan Brown from his web book Why Bach?. | Counterpoint |@lemmatized extract:1 fugue:6 das:1 wohltemperierte:1 clavier:1 bach:5 widely:1 regard:2 great:3 luminary:1 counterpoint:66 music:19 relationship:1 two:14 voice:9 independent:1 contour:1 rhythm:2 harmonically:2 interdependent:1 commonly:1 identify:1 western:1 develop:2 strongly:1 renaissance:3 much:5 common:3 practice:6 period:6 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4,597 | Coal | Example chemical structure of coal Coal is a readily combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. It is composed primarily of carbon along with variable quantities of other elements, chiefly sulfur, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Coal was formed from plant remains that were protected by water and mud against oxidization and biodegradation, thus trapping atmospheric carbon in the ground. Over time, the chemical and physical properties of the remains were changed by geological action to create a solid material. Coal, a fossil fuel, is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, as well as one of the largest worldwide source of carbon dioxide emissions. Gross carbon dioxide emissions from coal usage are slightly more than those from petroleum and about double the amount from natural gas. The EIA reports the following emissions in million metric tons of carbon dioxide: Nat gas: 5,840.07 Petroleum: 10,995.47 Coal: 11,357.19 For 2005 as the official energy statistics of the US Government. Coal is extracted from the ground by mining, either underground or in open pits. Types of coal As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic matter over time, under suitable conditions it is transformed successively into Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial importance as a fuel in some regions, for example, Ireland and Finland. Lignite, also referred to as brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively as fuel for electric power generation. Jet is a compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Iron Age. Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range from those of lignite to those of bituminous coal are used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation. Additionally, it is an important source of light aromatic hydrocarbons for the chemical synthesis industry. Bituminous coal, dense mineral, black but sometimes dark brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material, used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation, with substantial quantities also used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to make coke. Anthracite, the highest rank; a harder, glossy, black coal used primarily for residential and commercial space heating. It may be divided further into metamorphically altered bituminous coal and petrified oil, as from the deposits in Pennsylvania. Graphite, technically the highest rank, but difficult to ignite and is not so commonly used as fuel: it is mostly used in pencils and, when powdered, as a lubricant. The classification of coal is generally based on the content of volatiles. However, the exact classification varies between countries. According to the German classification, coal is classified as follows: Eberhard Lindner; Chemie für Ingenieure; Lindner Verlag Karlsruhe, S. 258 Name Volatiles % C Carbon % H Hydrogen % O Oxygen % S Sulfur % Heat content kJ/kgBraunkohle (Lignite)45-6560-756.0-5.834-170.5-3<28470Flammkohle (Flame coal)40-4575-826.0-5.8>9.8~1<32870Gasflammkohle (Gas flame coal)35-4082-855.8-5.69.8-7.3~1<33910Gaskohle (Gas coal)28-3585-87.55.6-5.07.3-4.5~1<34960Fettkohle (Fat coal)19-2887.5-89.55.0-4.54.5-3.2~1<35380Esskohle (Forge coal)14-1989.5-90.54.5-4.03.2-2.8~1<35380Magerkohle (Non baking coal)10-1490.5-91.54.0-3.752.8-3.5~135380Anthrazit (Anthracite)7-12>91.5<3.75<2.5~1<35300 Percent by weight The middle six grades in the table represent a progressive transition from the English-language sub-bituminous to bituminous coal, while the last class is an approximate equivalent to anthracite, but more inclusive (the U.S. anthracite has < 6% volatiles). Cannel coal (sometimes called "candle coal"), is a variety of fine-grained, high-rank coal with a large amount of hydrogen. It consists primarily of "exinite" macerals, now termed "liptinite". Early use Outcrop coal was used in Britain during the Bronze Age (2000-3000 years BC), where it has been detected as forming part of the composition of funeral pyres. Britannica 2004: Coal mining: ancient use of outcropping coal. The earliest recognized use is from the Shenyang area 4000 BC where Neolithic inhabitants had begun carving ornaments from black lignite, but it was not until the Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) that coal was also used for fuel. ["Science and Civilisation in China" by Peter J Golas and Joseph Needham. p. 186-191. Cambridge University Press 1999. ISBN 052158005, 9780521580007. Google Books] In Roman Britain, with the exception of two modern fields, "the Romans were exploiting coals in all the major coalfields in England and Wales by the end of the second century AD". A. H. V. Smith, “Provenance of Coals from Roman Sites in England and Wales”, Britannia, Vol. 28 (1997), pp. 297-324 Evidence of trade in coal (dated to about AD 200) has been found at the inland port of Heronbridge, near Chester, and in the Fenlands of East Anglia, where coal from the Midlands was transported via the Car Dyke for use in drying grain. Salway, Peter (2001): A History of Roman Britain. Oxford University Press. Coal cinders have been found in the hearths of villas and military forts, particularly in Northumberland, dated to around AD 400. In the west of England contemporary writers described the wonder of a permanent brazier of coal on the altar of Minerva at Aquae Sulis (modern day Bath) although in fact easily-accessible surface coal from what became the Somerset coalfield was in common use in quite lowly dwellings locally. Forbes, R J (1966): Studies in Ancient Technology. Brill Academic Publishers, Boston. Evidence of coal's use for iron-working in the city during the Roman period has been found. There is no evidence that the product was of great importance in Britain before the High Middle Ages, after about AD 1000. Mineral coal came to be referred to as "seacoal," probably because it came to many places in eastern England, including London, by sea. This is accepted as the more likely explanation for the name than that it was found on beaches, having fallen from the exposed coal seams above or washed out of underwater coal seam outcrops. These easily accessible sources had largely become exhausted (or could not meet the growing demand) by the 13th century, when underground mining from shafts or adits was developed. In London there is still a Seacoal Lane and a Newcastle Lane (from the coal-shipping city of Newcastle) where in the seventeenth century coal was unloaded at wharves along the River Fleet. An alternative name was "pitcoal," because it came from mines. It was, however, the development of the Industrial Revolution that led to the large-scale use of coal, as the steam engine took over from the water wheel. Uses today Coal rail cars in Ashtabula, Ohio. Coal as fuel Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce electricity and heat through combustion. World coal consumption is about 6.2 billion tons annually. China produced 2.38 billion tons in 2006 and India produced about 447.3 million tons in 2006. 68.7% of China's electricity comes from coal. The USA consumes about 1.053 billion tons of coal each year, using 90% of it for generation of electricity. http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/coal/page/special/feature.html The world in total produced 6.19 billion tons of coal in 2006. When coal is used for electricity generation, it is usually pulverized and then burned in a furnace with a boiler. The furnace heat converts boiler water to steam, which is then used to spin turbines which turn generators and create electricity. The thermodynamic efficiency of this process has been improved over time. "Standard" steam turbines have topped out with some of the most advanced reaching about 35% thermodynamic efficiency for the entire process, although newer combined cycle plants can reach efficiencies as high as 58%. Increasing the combustion temperature can boost this efficiency even further. Old coal power plants, especially "grandfathered" plants, are significantly less efficient and produce higher levels of waste heat. About 40% of the world's electricity comes from coal, http://www.worldcoal.org/pages/content/index.asp?PageID=188 and approximately 49% of the United States electricity comes from coal. http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/figes1.html The emergence of the supercritical turbine concept envisions running a boiler at extremely high temperatures and pressures with projected efficiencies of 46%, with further theorized increases in temperature and pressure perhaps resulting in even higher efficiencies. Other efficient ways to use coal are combined cycle power plants, combined heat and power cogeneration, and an MHD topping cycle. Approximately 40% of the world electricity production uses coal. The total known deposits recoverable by current technologies, including highly polluting, low energy content types of coal (i.e., lignite, bituminous), is sufficient for many years. However, consumption is increasing and maximal production could be reached within decades (see World Coal Reserves, below). A more energy-efficient way of using coal for electricity production would be via solid-oxide fuel cells or molten-carbonate fuel cells (or any oxygen ion transport based fuel cells that do not discriminate between fuels, as long as they consume oxygen), which would be able to get 60%–85% combined efficiency (direct electricity + waste heat steam turbine). Currently these fuel cell technologies can only process gaseous fuels, and they are also sensitive to sulfur poisoning, issues which would first have to be worked out before large scale commercial success is possible with coal. As far as gaseous fuels go, one idea is pulverized coal in a gas carrier, such as nitrogen. Another option is coal gasification with water, which may lower fuel cell voltage by introducing oxygen to the fuel side of the electrolyte, but may also greatly simplify carbon sequestration. However, this technology has been criticised as being inefficient, slow, risky and costly, while doing nothing about total emissions from mining, processing and combustion. Clean coal facts and figures page by Rising Tide Newcastle Another efficient and clean way of coal combustion in a form of coal-water slurry fuel (CWS) was well developed in Russia (since the Soviet Union time). CWS significantly reduces emissions saving the heating value of coal. Coking and use of coke Coke burning Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal from which the volatile constituents are driven off by baking in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 °C (1,832 °F) so that the fixed carbon and residual ash are fused together. Metallurgical coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. The product is too rich in dissolved carbon, and must be treated further to make steel. The coke must be strong enough to resist the weight of overburden in the blast furnace, which is why coking coal is so important in making steel by the conventional route. However, the alternative route to is direct reduced iron, where any carbonaceous fuel can be used to make sponge or pelletised iron. Coke from coal is grey, hard, and porous and has a heating value of 24.8 million Btu/ton (29.6 MJ/kg). Some cokemaking processes produce valuable by-products that include coal tar, ammonia, light oils, and "coal gas". Petroleum coke is the solid residue obtained in oil refining, which resembles coke but contains too many impurities to be useful in metallurgical applications. Gasification Coal gasification can be used to produce syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) gas. This syngas can then be converted into transportation fuels like gasoline and diesel through the Fischer-Tropsch process. Currently, this technology is being used by the Sasol chemical company of South Africa to make gasoline from coal and natural gas. Alternatively, the hydrogen obtained from gasification can be used for various purposes such as powering a hydrogen economy, making ammonia, or upgrading fossil fuels. During gasification, the coal is mixed with oxygen and steam (water vapor) while also being heated and pressurized. During the reaction, oxygen and water molecules oxidize the coal into carbon monoxide (CO) while also releasing hydrogen (H2) gas. This process has been conducted in both underground coal mines and in coal refineries. (Coal) + O2 + H2O → H2 + CO If the refiner wants to produce gasoline, the syngas is collected at this state and routed into a Fischer-Tropsch reaction. If hydrogen is the desired end-product, however, the syngas is fed into the water gas shift reaction where more hydrogen is liberated. CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 High prices of oil and natural gas are leading to increased interest in "BTU Conversion" technologies such as gasification, methanation and liquefaction. The Synthetic Fuels Corporation was a U.S. government-funded corporation established in 1980 to create a market for alternatives to imported fossil fuels (such as coal gasification). The corporation was discontinued in 1985. In the past, coal was converted to make coal gas, which was piped to customers to burn for illumination, heating, and cooking. At present, the safer natural gas is used instead. Liquefaction - Synthetic fuel Production - Coal-To-Liquids (CTL) Coals can also be converted into liquid fuels like gasoline or diesel by several different processes. In the direct liquefaction processes, the coal is either hydrogenated or carbonized. Alternatively, coal can be converted into a gas first, and then into a liquid, by using the Fischer-Tropsch process. In the Bergius process, Robert Haul: Friedrich Bergius (1884-1949), p. 62 in 'Chemie in unserer Zeit', VCH-Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, 19. Jahrgang, April 1985, Weinheim Germany coal is liquefied by mixing it with hydrogen gas and heating the system (hydrogenation). This process was used by Germany during World War I and World War II and has been explored by SASOL in South Africa. Several other direct liquefaction processes have been developed, among these being the SRC-I and SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes developed by Gulf Oil and implemented as pilot plants in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s. The NUS Corporation developed another hydrogenation process which was patented by Wilburn C. Schroeder in 1976. The process involved dried, pulverized coal mixed with roughly 1wt% molybdenum catalysts. Hydrogenation occurred by use of high temperature and pressure synthesis gas produced in a separate gasifier. The process ultimately yielded a synthetic crude product, Naphtha, a limited amount of C3/C4 gas, light-medium weight liquids (C5-C10) suitable for use as fuels, small amounts of NH3 and significant amounts of CO2. The process of low temperature carbonization (LTC) can also convert coal into a liquid fuel. Coal is coked at temperatures between 450 and 700°C compared to 800 to 1000°C for metallurgical coke. These temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. The coal tar is then further processed into fuels. The Karrick process was developed by Lewis C. Karrick, an oil shale technologist at the U.S. Bureau of Mines in the 1920s. In the Fischer-Tropsch process, an indirect route, coal is first gasified to make syngas (a balanced purified mixture of CO and H2 gas). Next, Fischer-Tropsch catalysts are used to convert the syngas into light hydrocarbons (like ethane) which are further processed into gasoline and diesel. This method was used on a large technical scale in Germany between 1934 and 1945 and is currently being used by Sasol in South Africa. In addition to creating gasoline, syngas can also be converted into methanol, which can be used as a fuel, or into a fuel additive. All of these liquid fuel production methods involve significant amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the conversion process. Different liquefaction processes have dramatically different lifecycle carbon footprints depending on which processes and environmental controls are employed. If coal liquefaction using either a direct or indirect process is done without employing either carbon capture and storage technologies or biomass blending, the result is lifecycle greenhouse gas footprints that are generally significantly greater than those released in the extraction and refinement of liquid fuel production from petroleum. However, if CCS technologies are employed, reductions of 5-12% can be achieved in CTL plants and up to a 75% reduction is achievable when co-gasifying coal with commercially demonstrated levels of biomass (30% biomass by weight) in CBTL plants. For most future synthetic fuel projects, Carbon dioxide sequestration is proposed to avoid releasing it into the atmosphere. As CO2 is one of the process streams, sequestration is easier than from flue gases produced in combustion of coal with air, where CO2 is diluted by nitrogen and other gases. Sequestration will, however, add to the cost of production. Currently all US and at least 1 Chinese synthetic fuel projects are including sequestration in their process designs. The reaction of coal and water using high temperature heat from a nuclear reactor offers promise of liquid transport fuels that could prove carbon-neutral compared to petroleum use. The development of a reliable nuclear reactor that could provide 900 to 1000 deg C process heat, such as the pebble bed reactor, would be necessary. Refined Coal Refined coal is the product of a coal upgrading technology that removes moisture and certain pollutants from lower-rank coals such as sub-bituminous and lignite (brown) coals.[1] It is one form of several pre-combustion treatments and processes for coal that alter coal's characteristics before it is burned. The goals of pre-combustion coal technologies are to increase efficiency and reduce emissions when the coal is burned. Depending on the situation, pre-combustion technology can be used in place of or as a supplement to post-combustion technologies to control emissions from coal-fueled boilers. Coal as a traded commodity The price of coal has gone up from around $30 per short ton in 2000 to around $150.00 per short ton as of September 26, 2008. As of October 31, 2008, the price per short ton has declined to $111.50. Coal News and Markets (Archive) Department of Energy 2008-06-20 accessed 2008-06-25 -- see Bloomberg for realtime prices. In North America, a Central Appalachian coal futures contracts are currently traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (trading symbol QL). The trading unit is per contract, and is quoted in U.S. dollars and cents per ton. Since coal is the principal fuel for generating electricity in the United States, coal futures contracts provide coal producers and the electric power industry an important tool for hedging and risk management. In addition to the NYMEX contract, the IntercontinentalExchange (ICE) has European (Rotterdam) and South African (Richards Bay) coal futures available for trading. The trading unit for these contracts is , and are also quoted in U.S. dollars and cents per ton. Cultural usage Coal is the official state mineral of Kentucky and the official state rock of Utah. Both U.S. states have an historic link to coal mining. Some cultures uphold that children who misbehave will receive only a lump of coal from Santa Claus for Christmas in their stockings instead of presents. It is also customary and lucky in Scotland to give coal as a gift on New Year's Day. It happens as part of First-Footing and represents warmth for the year to come. Environmental effects There are a number of adverse environmental effects of coal mining and burning, specially in power stations. These effects include: Release of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, which causes climate change and global warming according to the IPCC. Coal is the largest contributor to the human-made increase of CO2 in the air. http://www.columbia.edu/~jeh1/2007/IowaCoal_20071105.pdf Generation of hundred of millions of tons of waste products, including fly ash, bottom ash, flue gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals Acid rain from high sulfur coal Interference with groundwater and water table levels Contamination of land and waterways and destruction of homes from fly ash spills such as Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill Impact of water use on flows of rivers and consequential impact on other land-uses Dust nuisance Subsidence above tunnels, sometimes damaging infrastructure Coal-fired power plants without effective fly ash capture are one of the largest sources of human-caused background radiation exposure Coal-fired power plants shorten nearly 24,000 lives a year in the United States, including 2,800 from lung cancer. MSNBC Staff and Service. (2004)"Deadly power plants? Study Fuels Debate: Thousands of Early Deaths Tied To Emissions." Retrieved on November 5th, 2008. Coal-fired power plant releases emissions including mercury, selenium, and arsenic which are harmful to human health and the environment. World Coal Institute "Environmental impact of Coal Use". Economic aspects Coal liquefaction is one of the backstop technologies that could potentially limit escalation of oil prices and mitigate the effects of transportation energy shortage that some authors have suggested could occur under peak oil. This is contingent on liquefaction production capacity becoming large enough to satiate the very large and growing demand for petroleum. Estimates of the cost of producing liquid fuels from coal suggest that domestic U.S. production of fuel from coal becomes cost-competitive with oil priced at around 35 USD per barrel, (break-even cost). With oil prices back at around USD 40 per barrel as of December 15, 2008, liquid coal has once again lost much of its economic allure. Among commercially mature technologies, advantage for indirect coal liquefaction over direct coal liquefaction are reported by Williams and Larson (2003). Intensive research and project developments have been implemented from 2001. The World CTL Award is granted to personalities having brought eminent contribution to the understanding and development of Coal liquefaction. The 2009 presentation ceremony will take place in Washington DC (USA) at the World CTL 2009 Conference (25-27 March, 2009). Energy density The energy density of coal, i.e. its heating value, is roughly 24 megajoules per kilogram. The energy density of coal can also be expressed in kilowatt-hours for some unit of mass, the units that electricity is most commonly sold in, to estimate how much coal is required to power electrical appliances. One kilowatt-hour is 3.6 MJ, so the energy density of coal is 6.67 kW·h/kg. The typical thermodynamic efficiency of coal power plants is about 30%, so of the 6.67 kW·h of energy per kilogram of coal, 30% of that—2.0 kW·h/kg—can successfully be turned into electricity; the rest is waste heat. So coal power plants obtain approximately 2.0 kW·h per kilogram of burned coal. As an example, running one 100 watt computer for one year requires 876 kW·h (100 W × 24 h/day × 365 {days in a year} = 876000 W·h = 876 kW·h). Converting this power usage into physical coal consumption: It takes 438 kg (966 lb) of coal to power a computer for one full year. A similar result, using a light bulb instead, see One should also take into account transmission and distribution losses caused by resistance and heating in the power lines, which is in the order of 5–10%, depending on distance from the power station and other factors. Carbon intensity Commercial coal has a carbon content of at least 70%. Coal with a heating value of 6.67 kWh per kilogram as quoted above has a carbon content of roughly 80%, which is , where 1 mol equals to NA (Avogadro Number) atoms. Carbon combines with oxygen in the atmosphere during combustion, producing carbon dioxide, with an atomic weight of (12 + 16 × 2 = 44 kg/kmol). The CO2 released to air for each kilogram of incinerated coal is therefore . This can be used to calculate an emission factor for CO2 from the use of coal power. Since the useful energy output of coal is about 30% of the 6.67 kWh/kg(coal), the burning of 1 kg of coal produces about 2 kWh of electrical energy. Since 1 kg coal emits 2.93 kg CO2, the direct CO2 emissions from coal power are 1.46 kg/kWh, or about 0.407 kg/MJ. The U.S. Energy Information Agency's 1999 report on CO2 emissions for energy generation, CO2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Generation of Electric Power in the United States, DOE, EPA, 1999 quotes a lower emission factor of 0.963 kg CO2/kWh for coal power. The same source gives factor for oil power in the U.S. of 0.881 kg CO2/kWh, while natural gas has 0.569 kg CO2/kWh. Estimates for specific emission from nuclear power, hydro, and wind energy vary, but are about 100 times lower, see environmental effects of nuclear power. Underground fires There are hundreds of coal fires burning around the world. Those burning underground can be difficult to locate and many cannot be extinguished. Fires can cause the ground above to subside, their combustion gases are dangerous to life, and breaking out to the surface can initiate surface wildfires. Coal seams can be set on fire by spontaneous combustion or contact with a mine fire or surface fire. A grass fire in a coal area can set dozens of coal seams on fire. Coal fires in China burn 109 million tons of coal a year, emitting 360 million metric tons of CO2. This contradicts the ratio of 1:1.83 given earlier, but it amounts to 2-3% of the annual worldwide production of CO2 from fossil fuels, or as much as emitted from all of the cars and light trucks in the United States. In Centralia, Pennsylvania (a borough located in the Coal Region of the United States) an exposed vein of coal ignited in 1962 due to a trash fire in the borough landfill, located in an abandoned anthracite strip mine pit. Attempts to extinguish the fire were unsuccessful, and it continues to burn underground to this day. The Australian Burning Mountain was originally believed to be a volcano, but the smoke and ash comes from a coal fire which may have been burning for over 5,500 years. At Kuh i Malik in Yagnob Valley, Tajikistan, coal deposits have been burning for thousands of years, creating vast underground labyrinths full of unique minerals, some of them very beautiful. Local people once used this method to mine ammoniac. This place has been well-known since the time of Herodotus, but European geographers misinterpreted the Ancient Greek descriptions as the evidence of active volcanism in Turkestan (up to the 19th century, when the Russian army invaded the area). The reddish siltstone rock that caps many ridges and buttes in the Powder River Basin (Wyoming), and in western North Dakota is called porcelanite, which also may resemble the coal burning waste "clinker" or volcanic "scoria". Clinker is rock that has been fused by the natural burning of coal. In the Powder River Basin approximately 27 to 54 billion tons of coal burned within the past three million years. Wild coal fires in the area were reported by the Lewis and Clark Expedition as well as explorers and settlers in the area. Production trends Coal output in 2005 A coal mine in Wyoming, United States. The United States has the world's largest coal reserves. In 2006, China was the top producer of coal with 38% share followed by the USA and India, reports the British Geological Survey. World coal reserves At the end of 2006 the recoverable coal reserves amounted around 800 or 900 gigatons. The United States Energy Information Administration gives world reserves as 998 billion short tons (equal to 905 gigatons), approximately half of it being hard coal. At the current production rate, this would last 164 years. - however, the rate of coal consumption is annually increasing at 2-3% per year and, setting the growth rate to 2.5% yields an exponential depletion time of 65 years. International Energy Outlook 2007 Chapter 5 Coal At the current global total energy consumption of 15 terawatt, BP2006 energy report, and US EIA 2006 overview there is enough coal to provide the entire planet with all of its energy for 57 years. The 998 billion tons of recoverable coal reserves estimated by the Energy Information Administration are equal to about 4,417 BBOE (billion barrels of oil equivalent). The amount of coal burned during 2001 was calculated as 2.337 GTOE (gigatonnes of oil equivalent), which is about 46 million barrels of oil equivalent per day. Were consumption to continue at that rate those reserves would last about 263 years. As a comparison, natural gas provided 51 million barrels (oil equivalent), and oil 76 million barrels, per day during 2001. British Petroleum, in its annual report 2007, estimated at 2006 end, there were 909,064 million tons of proven coal reserves worldwide, or 147 years reserves-to-production ratio. This figure only includes reserves classified as "proven"; exploration drilling programs by mining companies, particularly in under-explored areas, are continually providing new reserves. In many cases, companies are aware of coal deposits that have not been sufficiently drilled to qualify as "proven". However, some nations haven't updated their information and assume reserves remain at the same levels even with withdrawals. US coal regions Of the three fossil fuels coal has the most widely distributed reserves; coal is mined in over 100 countries, and on all continents except Antarctica. The largest reserves are found in the USA, Russia, Australia, China, India and South Africa. Note the table below. + Proved recoverable coal reserves at end-2006 (million tonnes (teragrams)) CountryBituminous & anthraciteSubBituminous & ligniteTOTAL Share 111,338135,305246,64327.1 49,088107,922157,01017.3 62,20052,300114,50012.6 90,0852,36092,44510.2 38,60039,90078,5008.6 48,750048,7505.4 16,27417,87934,1533.8 28,1513,12831,2793.4 14,000014,0001.5 010,11310,1131.1 1836,5566,7390.7 6,2303816,6110.7 3,4713,1076,5780.7 2,0943,4585,5520.6 7404,2284,9680.5 2783,9084,1860.503,9003,9000.4 1983,1593,3570.4 03,3003,3000.3 42,1832,1870.2 01,3541,3540.1 3003006000.1 335385710.1 2003305300.1 50205020.1 224724940.1 47904790.1TOTAL 478,771430,293909,064100.0 Recent discoveries in the Thar region of Pakistan have given rise to a discovery of nearly 185 billion tonnes. Major coal producers The reserve life is an estimate based only on current production levels for the countries shown, and makes no assumptions of future production or even current production trends. + Production of Coal by Country and year (million tonnes)Country2003200420052006 ShareReserve Life (years) 1722.0 1992.3 2204.7 2380.0 38.4 % 48 972.3 1008.9 1026.5 1053.6 17.0 % 234 375.4 407.7 428.4 447.3 7.2 % 207 351.5 366.1 378.8 373.8 6.0 % 210 276.7 281.7 298.5 309.2 5.0 % 508 237.9 243.4 244.4 256.9 4.1 % 190 204.9 207.8 202.8 197.2 3.2 % 34 114.3 132.4 146.9 195.0 3.1 % 25 163.8 162.4 159.5 156.1 90 Total World 5187.6 5585.3 5886.7 6195.1 100 % 142 Major coal exporters + Exports of Coal by Country and year (million short tons) World Steam Coal Flows World Coal Flows by Importing and Exporting Regions Country200320042005 Share 238.1 247.6 257.6 .320 107.8 131.4 147.6 .134 103.4 95.5 79.0 .098 78.7 74.9 77.5 .096 41.0 55.7 62.3 .077 43.0 48.0 49.9 .062 27.7 28.8 31.0 .039 16.4 16.3 16.4 .020 N/A 10.3 14.1 .018 Total 713.9 764.0 804.2 1 See also Abiogenic petroleum origin Asphaltene Australian Coal Alliance Biochar Carbochemistry Carbon sequestration Charcoal Clean coal Coal assay Coal dust Coal in China Coal Measure (stratigraphic unit) Coal Mine Safety and Health Act of 1969 (in the US) Coal mining Coal phase out Coal-tar Energy value of coal Fluidized bed combustion Gasification History of coal mining Major coal producing regions Mountaintop removal mining The Coal Question Underground Coal Gasification World Coal Institute References Further reading External links European Association for Coal and Lignite SourceWatch: Coal Issues portal International Energy Agency World Coal Institute Advanced methods of using coal (Japanese Coal Energy Center) USDOE Hydrogen from Coal Research Coal Preparation Wyoming Coal from the University of Wyoming Coal - origin, purification and consumption Energy Options: Coal, Nightly Business Report be-x-old:Вугаль | Coal 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4,598 | Carnot_heat_engine | A Carnot heat engine In French, Carnot uses machine à feu, which Thurston translates as heat-engine or steam-engine. In a footnote, Carnot distinguishes the steam-engine (machine à vapeur) from the heat-engine in general. (Carnot, 1824, p. 5 and Carnot, 1890, p. 43) is a hypothetical engine that operates on the reversible Carnot cycle. The basic model for this engine was developed by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824. The Carnot engine model was graphically expanded upon by Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron in 1834 and mathematically elaborated upon by Rudolf Clausius in the 1850s and 60s from which the concept of entropy emerged. Every thermodynamic system exists in a particular state. A thermodynamic cycle occurs when a system is taken through a series of different states, and finally returned to its initial state. In the process of going through this cycle, the system may perform work on its surroundings, thereby acting as a heat engine. A heat engine acts by transferring energy from a warm region to a cool region of space and, in the process, converting some of that energy to mechanical work. The cycle may also be reversed. The system may be worked upon by an external force, and in the process, it can transfer thermal energy from a cooler system to a warmer one, thereby acting as a refrigerator or heat pump rather than a heat engine. In the adjacent diagram, from Carnot's 1824 work, Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire, Sometimes translated as Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire. there are "two bodies A and B, kept each at a constant temperature, that of A being higher than that of B. These two bodies, to which we can give or from which we can remove the heat without causing their temperatures to vary, exercise the functions of two unlimited reservoirs of caloric. We will call the first the furnace and the second the refrigerator.” English translation by Thurston (Carnot, 1890, p. 51-52). Carnot then explains how we can obtain motive power, i.e. “work”, by carrying a certain quantity of heat from body A to body B. Modern diagram The previous image shows the original piston-and-cylinder diagram used by Carnot in discussing his ideal engine. The figure at right shows a block diagram of a generic heat engine, such as the Carnot engine. In the diagram, the “working body” (system), a term introduced by Clausius in 1850, can be any fluid or vapor body through which heat Q can be introduced or transmitted through to produce work. Carnot had postulated that the fluid body could be any substance capable of expansion, such as vapor of water, vapor of alcohol, vapor of mercury, a permanent gas, or air, etc. Although, in these early years, engines came in a number of configurations, typically QH was supplied by a boiler, wherein water was boiled over a furnace; QC was typically a stream of cold flowing water in the form of a condenser located on a separate part of the engine. The output work W here is the movement of the piston as it is used to turn a crank-arm, which was then typically used to turn a pulley so to lift water out of flooded salt mines. Carnot defined work as “weight lifted through a height”. Carnot's theorem Carnot's theorem is a formal statement of this fact: No engine operating between two heat reservoirs can be more efficient than a Carnot engine operating between the same reservoirs. This maximum efficiency is defined to be: where is the work done by the system (energy exiting the system as work), is the heat put into the system (heat energy entering the system), is the absolute temperature of the cold reservoir, and is the absolute temperature of the hot reservoir. A corollary to Carnot's theorem states that: All reversible engines operating between the same heat reservoirs are equally efficient. In other words, maximum efficiency is achieved if and only if no new entropy is created in the cycle. Otherwise, since entropy is a state function, the required dumping of heat into the environment to dispose of excess entropy leads to a reduction in efficiency. So Equation (1) gives the efficiency of any reversible heat engine. Efficiency of real heat engines Carnot realised that in reality it is not possible to build a thermodynamically reversible engine, so real heat engines are less efficient than indicated by Equation (1). Nevertheless, Equation (1) is extremely useful for determining the maximum efficiency that could ever be expected for a given set of thermal reservoirs. Although Carnot's cycle is an idealisation, the expression of Carnot efficiency is still useful. Consider the average temperatures, at which heat is input and output, respectively. Replace TH and TC in Equation (1) by <TH> and <TC> respectively. For the Carnot cycle, or an equivalent, <TH> is the highest temperature available and <TC> the lowest. For other less efficient cycles, <TH> will be lower than TH , and <TC> will be higher than TC. This can help illustrate, for example, why a reheater or a regenerator can improve thermal efficiency. See also: Heat Engine (efficiency and other performance criteria) See also Carnot cycle Thermal efficiency History of the internal combustion engine Notes No engine is more efficient than the Carnot heat engine. References (full text of 1897 ed.)) 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4,599 | Likelihood_principle | In statistics, the likelihood principle is a controversial principle of statistical inference which asserts that all of the information in a sample is contained in the likelihood function. A likelihood function arises from a conditional probability distribution considered as a function of its distributional parameterization argument, conditioned on the data argument. For example, consider a model which gives the probability density function of observable random variable X as a function of a parameter θ. Then for a specific value x of X, the function L(θ | x) = P(X=x | θ) is a likelihood function of θ: it gives a measure of how "likely" any particular value of θ is, if we know that X has the value x. Two likelihood functions are equivalent if one is a scalar multiple of the other. The likelihood principle states that all information from the data relevant to inferences about the value of θ is found in the equivalence class. The strong likelihood principle applies this same criterion to cases such as sequential experiments where the sample of data that is available results from applying a stopping rule to the observations earlier in the experiment. Dodge, Y. (2003) The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms. OUP. ISBN 0-19-920613-9 Example Suppose X is the number of successes in twelve independent Bernoulli trials with probability θ of success on each trial, and Y is the number of independent Bernoulli trials needed to get three successes, again with probability θ of success on each trial. Then the observation that X = 3 induces the likelihood function and the observation that Y = 12 induces the likelihood function These are equivalent because each is a scalar multiple of the other. The likelihood principle therefore says the inferences drawn about the value of θ should be the same in both cases. The difference between observing X = 3 and observing Y = 12 is only in the design of the experiment: in one case, one has decided in advance to try twelve times; in the other, to keep trying until three successes are observed. The outcome is the same in both cases. The law of likelihood A related concept is the law of likelihood, the notion that the extent to which the evidence supports one parameter value or hypothesis against another is equal to the ratio of their likelihoods. That is, is the degree to which the observation x supports parameter value or hypothesis a against b. If this ratio is 1, the evidence is indifferent, and if greater or less than 1, the evidence supports a against b or vice versa. The use of Bayes factors can extend this by taking account of the complexity of different hypotheses. Combining the likelihood principle with the law of likelihood yields the consequence that the parameter value which maximizes the likelihood function is the value which is most strongly supported by the evidence. This is the basis for the widely-used method of maximum likelihood. Historical remarks The likelihood principle was first identified by that name in print in 1962 (Barnard et al., Birnbaum, and Savage et al.), but arguments for the same principle, unnamed, and the use of the principle in applications goes back to the works of R.A. Fisher in the 1920s. The law of likelihood was identified by that name by I. Hacking (1965). More recently the likelihood principle as a general principle of inference has been championed by A. W. F. Edwards. The likelihood principle has been applied to the philosophy of science by R. Royall. Birnbaum proved that the likelihood principle follows from two more primitive and seemingly reasonable principles, the conditionality principle and the sufficiency principle. The conditionality principle says that if an experiment is chosen by a random process independent of the states of nature , then only the experiment actually performed is relevant to inferences about . The sufficiency principle says that if is a sufficient statistic for , and if in two experiments with data and we have , then the evidence about given by the two experiments is the same. Arguments for and against the likelihood principle The likelihood principle is not universally accepted. Some widely-used methods of conventional statistics, for example many significance tests, are not consistent with the likelihood principle. Let us briefly consider some of the arguments for and against the likelihood principle. Experimental design arguments on the likelihood principle Unrealized events do play a role in some common statistical methods. For example, the result of a significance test depends on the probability of a result as extreme or more extreme than the observation, and that probability may depend on the design of the experiment. Thus, to the extent that such methods are accepted, the likelihood principle is denied. Some classical significance tests are not based on the likelihood. A commonly cited example is the optional stopping problem. Suppose I tell you that I tossed a coin 12 times and in the process observed 3 heads. You might make some inference about the probability of heads and whether the coin was fair. Suppose now I tell that I tossed the coin until I observed 3 heads, and I tossed it 12 times. Will you now make some different inference? The likelihood function is the same in both cases: it is proportional to . According to the likelihood principle, the inference should be the same in either case. Suppose a number of scientists are assessing the probability of a certain outcome (which we shall call 'success') in experimental trials. Conventional wisdom suggests that if there is no bias towards success or failure then the success probability would be one half. Adam, a scientist, conducted 12 trials and obtains 3 successes and 9 failures. Then he dropped dead. Bill, a colleague in the same lab, continued Adam's work and published Adam's results, along with a significance test. He tested the null hypothesis that p, the success probability, is equal to a half, versus p < 0.5. The probability of the observed result that out of 12 trials 3 or something fewer (i.e. more extreme) were successes, if H0 is true, is which is 299/4096 = 7.3%. Thus the null hypothesis is not rejected at the 5% significance level. Charlotte, another scientist, reads Bill's paper and writes a letter, saying that it is possible that Adam kept trying until he obtained 3 successes, in which case the probability of needing to conduct 12 or more experiments is given by which is 134/4096 = 3.27%. Now the result is statistically significant at the 5% level. To these scientists, whether a result is significant or not seems to depend on the original design of the experiment, not just the likelihood of the outcome. Apparently paradoxical results of this kind are considered by some as arguments against the likelihood principle. For others it exemplifies the value of the likelihood principle and is an argument against significance tests which, for them, resolves the paradox. It is worth noting that there is no real paradox in this example. Bill's result is the probability of obtaining 3 or fewer successes in 12 trials. Charlotte's result is the probability that the 3rd success will occur on the 12th or later trial. These are fundamentally different things. The probability of obtaining 3 or fewer successes in 12 trials properly maps to the probability that the 4th success occurs after the 12th trial. By taking only the cases in which the 3rd success occurs on the 12th trial or later, those cases are ignored in which the 3rd success happens earlier and is followed by a string of failures up to the 12th trial; this accounts for the difference in the calculations. Another way of looking at this is that Charlotte's calculation implicitly assumes that the 3rd success occurs on the 12th trial, something that is not clear in the problem statement and that is not assumed in Bill's calculation. From Bill's perspective, Charlotte's calculation is the same as the probability of obtaining 2 or fewer successes in 11 trials, given a success on the 12th trial. Similar themes appear when comparing Fisher's exact test with Pearson's chi-squared test. The voltmeter story An argument in favor of the likelihood principle is given by Edwards in his book Likelihood. He cites the following story from J.W. Pratt, slightly condensed here. Note that the likelihood function depends only on what actually happened, and not on what could have happened. An engineer draws a random sample of electron tubes and measures their voltage. The measurements range from 75 to 99 volts. A statistician computes the sample mean and a confidence interval for the true mean. Later the statistician discovers that the voltmeter reads only as far as 100, so the population appears to be 'censored'. This necessitates a new analysis, if the statistician is orthodox. However, the engineer says he has another meter reading to 1000 volts, which he would have used if any voltage had been over 100. This is a relief to the statistician, because it means the population was effectively uncensored after all. But, the next day the engineer informs the statistician that this second meter was not working at the time of the measuring. The statistician ascertains that the engineer would not have held up the measurements until the meter was fixed, and informs him that new measurements are required. The engineer is astounded. "Next you'll be asking about my oscilloscope". One might proceed with this story, and consider the fact that in general the actual situation could have been different. For instance, high range voltmeters don't get broken at predictable moments in time, but rather at unpredictable moments. So it could have been broken, with some probability. The distribution of the measurements depends on this probability. This story can be translated to Adam's stopping rule above, as follows. Adam stopped immediately after 3 successes, because his boss Bill had instructed him to do so. Adam did not die. After the publication of the statistical analysis by Bill, Adam discovers that he has missed a second instruction from Bill to conduct 12 trials instead, and that Bill's paper is based on this second instruction. Adam is very glad that he got his 3 successes after exactly 12 trials, and explains to his friend Charlotte that by coincidence he executed the second instruction. Later, he is astonished to hear about Charlotte's letter explaining that now the result is significant. Optional stopping in clinical trials The fact that Bayesian and frequentist arguments differ on the subject of optional stopping has a major impact on the way that clinical trial data can be analysed. In frequentist setting there is a major difference between a design which is fixed and one which is sequential, i.e. consisting of a sequence of analyses. Bayesian statistics is inherently sequential and so there is no such distinction. In a clinical trial it is strictly not valid to conduct an unplanned interim analysis of the data by frequentist methods, whereas this is permissible by Bayesian methods. Similarly, if funding is withdrawn part way through an experiment, and the analyst must work with incomplete data, this is a possible source of bias for classical methods but not for Bayesian methods, which do not depend on the intended design of the experiment. Furthermore, as mentioned above, frequentist analysis is open to unscrupulous manipulation if the experimenter is allowed to choose the stopping point, whereas Bayesian methods are immune to such manipulation. References (With discussion.) External links Anthony W.F. Edwards. "Likelihood". http://www.cimat.mx/reportes/enlinea/D-99-10.html Jeff Miller. Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (L) John Aldrich. Likelihood and Probability in R. A. 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