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4,400 | Johannes_Brahms | Johannes Brahms Johannes Brahms (pronounced [joːˈhanəs ˈbʁaːms]) (May 7, 1833 – April 3, 1897), German composer and pianist, was one of the leading musicians of the Romantic period. Born in Hamburg, Brahms spent much of his professional life in Vienna, Austria, where he was a leader of the musical scene. In his lifetime, Brahms's popularity and influence were considerable; following a comment by the nineteenth century conductor Hans von Bülow, he is sometimes grouped with Johann Sebastian Bach and Ludwig van Beethoven as one of the Three Bs. Brahms composed for piano, for chamber ensembles, for symphony orchestra, and for voice and chorus. An accomplished pianist, he gave the first performance of many of his own works; he also worked with the leading performers of his time, including the virtuoso pianist Clara Schumann and the violinist Joseph Joachim. Many of his works have become staples of modern concert repertoire. Brahms, an uncompromising perfectionist, destroyed many works and left some unpublished. Brahms was at once a traditionalist and an innovator. His music is firmly rooted in the structures and compositional techniques of the Baroque and classical masters. He was a master of counterpoint, the complex and highly disciplined method of composition for which Bach is famous. Yet within these structures, Brahms created bold new approaches to harmony and timbre which challenged existing notions of tonal music. His contribution and craftsmanship has been admired by subsequent figures as diverse as Arnold Schoenberg and Edward Elgar. Brahms's works were a starting point and an inspiration for a generation of composers, including Schoenberg, who eventually abandoned tonality. Life Early years Brahms's father, Johann Jakob Brahms, came to Hamburg from Dithmarschen, seeking a career as a town musician. He was proficient on several instruments, but found employment mostly playing the horn and double bass. He married Johanna Henrika Christiane Nissen, a seamstress, who was seventeen years older than he was. Initially, they lived near the city docks, in the Gängeviertel quarter of Hamburg, for six months before moving to a small house on the Dammtorwall, located on the northern perimeter of Hamburg in the Inner Alster.Photograph from 1891 of the building in Hamburg where Brahms was born. Brahms's family occupied part of the first floor, behind the two double windows on the left hand side. Johann Jakob gave his son his first musical training. He studied piano from the age of seven with Otto Friedrich Willibald Cossel. It is a long-told tale that Brahms was forced in his early teens to play the piano in bars that doubled as brothels; recently Brahms scholar Kurt Hoffman has suggested that this legend is false. Since Brahms himself clearly originated the story, however, some have questioned Hoffman's theory. Kurt Hoffman, Johannes Brahms und Hamburg (Reinbek, 1986) (in German: includes detailed refutation of the traditional story of Brahms playing piano in brothels, using the writings of those who knew the young Brahms, as well as evidence of the Hamburg's close regulation of those places, preventing the employment of children) Brahms's recently published letters also put paid to this story. The places he played were working-class restaurants in a then respectable area of Hamburg that only later became a slum. Unearthing Johannes, Robert Kameczura For a time, Brahms also learned the cello. p. 9, Hoffmann (1999) Kurt. "Brahms the Hamburg musician 1833—1863" Cambridge. Musgrave (editor) Michael The Cambridge Companion to Brahms Cambridge University Press After his early piano lessons with Otto Cossel, Brahms studied piano with Eduard Marxsen, who had studied in Vienna with Ignaz von Seyfried (a pupil of Mozart) and Carl Maria von Bocklet (a close friend of Schubert). The young Brahms gave a few public concerts in Hamburg, but did not become well known as a pianist until he made a concert tour at the age of nineteen. In later life, he frequently took part in the performance of his own works, whether as soloist, accompanist, or participant in chamber music. He was the soloist at the premieres of both his Piano Concerto No. 1 in 1859 and his Piano Concerto No. 2 in 1881. He conducted choirs from his early teens, and became a proficient choral and orchestral conductor. Meeting Joachim and Liszt He began to compose quite early in life, but later destroyed most copies of his first works; for instance, Louise Japha, a fellow-pupil of Marxsen, reported a piano sonata that Brahms had played or improvised at the age of 11. His compositions did not receive public acclaim until he went on a concert tour as accompanist to the Hungarian violinist Eduard Reményi in April and May 1853. On this tour he met Joseph Joachim at Hanover, and went on to the Court of Weimar where he met Franz Liszt, Peter Cornelius, and Joachim Raff. According to several witnesses of Brahms' meeting with Liszt (at which Liszt performed Brahms' Scherzo, Op. 4 at sight), Reményi was offended by Brahms' failure to praise Liszt's Sonata in B minor wholeheartedly (Brahms supposedly fell asleep during a performance of the recently composed work), and they parted company shortly afterwards. Brahms later excused himself, saying that he could not help it, having been exhausted by his travels. Brahms in 1853 Brahms and Schumann Joachim had given Brahms a letter of introduction to Robert Schumann, and after a walking tour in the Rhineland Brahms took the train to Düsseldorf, and was welcomed into the Schumann family on arrival there. Schumann, amazed by the 20 year-old's talent, published an article entitled "Neue Bahnen" (New Paths) in the October 28, 1853 issue of the journal Neue Zeitschrift für Musik alerting the public to the young man who he claimed was "destined to give ideal expression to the times." This pronouncement was received with some skepticism outside Schumann's immediate circle, and may have increased Brahms' naturally self-critical need to perfect his works and technique. While he was in Düsseldorf, Brahms participated with Schumann and Albert Dietrich in writing a sonata for Joachim; this is known as the F-A-E Sonata. He became very attached to Schumann's wife, the composer and pianist Clara, fourteen years his senior, with whom he would carry on a lifelong, emotionally passionate, but probably platonic, relationship. Brahms never married, despite strong feelings for several women and despite entering into an engagement, soon broken off, with Agathe von Siebold in Göttingen in 1859. After Schumann's attempted suicide and subsequent confinement in a mental sanatorium near Bonn in February 1854, Brahms was the main intercessor between Clara and her husband, and found himself virtually head of the household. Detmold and Hamburg After Schumann's death at the sanatorium in 1856, Brahms divided his time between Hamburg, where he formed and conducted a ladies' choir, and the principality of Detmold, where he was court music-teacher and conductor. He first visited Vienna in 1862, staying there over the winter, and in 1863 was appointed conductor of the Vienna Singakademie. Though he resigned the position the following year and entertained the idea of taking up conducting posts elsewhere, he based himself increasingly in Vienna and soon made his home there. From 1872 to 1875 he was director of the concerts of the Vienna Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde; afterwards he accepted no formal position. He declined an honorary doctorate of music from University of Cambridge in 1877, but accepted one from the University of Breslau in 1879, and composed the Academic Festival Overture as a gesture of appreciation. He had been composing steadily throughout the 1850s and 60s, but his music had evoked divided critical responses and the Piano Concerto No. 1 had been badly received in some of its early performances. His works were labelled old-fashioned by the 'New German School' whose principal figures included Liszt and Richard Wagner. Brahms admired some of Wagner's music and admired Liszt as a great pianist, but the conflict between the two schools, known as the War of the Romantics, soon embroiled all of musical Europe. In the Brahms camp were his close friends: Clara Schumann, the influential music critic Eduard Hanslick and the leading Viennese surgeon Theodor Billroth. In 1860 Brahms attempted to organize a public protest against some of the wilder excesses of their music. This took the form of a manifesto, written by Brahms and Joachim jointly. The manifesto, which was published prematurely with only three supporting signatures, was a failure and he never engaged in public polemics again Swafford, Johannes Brahms, pp 206-211 . Years of popularity It was the premiere of A German Requiem, his largest choral work, in Bremen in 1868 that confirmed Brahms's European reputation and led many to accept that he had fulfilled Schumann's prophecy. This may have given him the confidence finally to complete a number of works that he had wrestled with over many years, such as the cantata Rinaldo, his first string quartet, third piano quartet, and most notably his first symphony. This appeared in 1876, though it had been begun (and a version of the first movement seen by some of his friends) in the early 1860s. The other three symphonies then followed in 1877, 1883, and 1885. From 1881 he was able to try out his new orchestral works with the court orchestra of the Duke of Meiningen, whose conductor was Hans von Bülow. Brahms frequently traveled, for both business (concert tours) and pleasure. From 1878 onwards he often visited Italy in the springtime, and usually sought out a pleasant rural location in which to compose during the summer. He was a great walker and especially enjoyed spending time in the open air, where he felt that he could think more clearly. In 1889, one Theo Wangemann, a representative of American inventor Thomas Edison visited the composer in Vienna and invited him to make an experimental recording. He played an abbreviated version of his first Hungarian dance on the piano. The recording was later issued on an LP of early piano performances (compiled by Gregor Benko); while the spoken introduction to the short piece of music is quite clear, the piano playing is largely inaudible due to heavy surface noise. Nevertheless, this remains the earliest recording made by a major composer. Analysts and scholars remain divided, however, as to whether the voice that introduces the piece is that of Wangemann or of Brahms. In 1889 Brahms was named an honorary citizen of Hamburg, until 1948 the only one born in Hamburg. Stadt Hamburg Ehrenbürger Retrieved on June 17, 2008 Brahms' grave in the Zentralfriedhof (Central Cemetery), Vienna. Later years In 1890, the 57 year-old Brahms resolved to give up composing. However, as it turned out, he was unable to abide by his decision, and in the years before his death he produced a number of acknowledged masterpieces. His admiration for Richard Mühlfeld, clarinetist with the Meiningen orchestra, moved him to compose the Clarinet Trio Op. 114, Clarinet Quintet Op. 115 (1891), and the two Clarinet Sonatas Op. 120 (1894). He also wrote several cycles of piano pieces, Opp. 116-119, the Four Serious Songs (Vier ernste Gesänge), Op. 121 (1896), and the Eleven Chorale Preludes for organ, Op. 122 (1896). While completing the Op. 121 songs, Brahms developed cancer (sources differ on whether this was of the liver or pancreas). His condition gradually worsened and he died on April 3, 1897. Brahms is buried in the Zentralfriedhof in Vienna. Music of Brahms Works Brahms wrote a number of major works for orchestra, including two serenades, four symphonies, two piano concertos (No. 1 in D minor; No. 2 in B flat major), a Violin Concerto, a Double Concerto for violin and cello, and two orchestral overtures, the Academic Festival Overture and the Tragic Overture. His large choral work A German Requiem is not a setting of the liturgical Missa pro defunctis, but a setting of texts which Brahms selected from the Lutheran Bible. The work was composed in three major periods of his life. An early version of the second movement was first composed in 1854, not long after Robert Schumann's attempted suicide, and this was later used in his first piano concerto. The majority of the Requiem was composed after his mother's death in 1865. The fifth movement was added after the official premiere in 1868, and the work was published in 1869. Brahms's works in variation form include the Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel and the Paganini Variations, both for solo piano, and the Variations on a Theme by Haydn in versions for two pianos and for orchestra. The final movement of the Fourth Symphony (Op. 98) is formally a passacaglia. His chamber works include three string quartets, two string quintets and two string sextets, a clarinet quintet, a clarinet trio, a horn trio, a piano quintet, three piano quartets and four piano trios (the fourth being "opus posthumous"). He composed several instrumental sonatas with piano, including three for violin, two for cello and two for clarinet (which were subsequently arranged for viola by the composer). His solo piano works range from his early piano sonatas and ballades to his late sets of character pieces. Brahms was a significant Lieder composer, who wrote over 200 songs. His chorale preludes for organ op. 122, which he wrote shortly before his death, have become an important part of the organist's repertoire. Brahms strongly preferred writing absolute music that does not refer to an explicit scene or narrative, and he never wrote an opera or a symphonic poem. Despite his reputation as a serious composer of large, complex musical structures, some of Brahms's most widely known and most commercially successful compositions during his life were small-scale works of popular intent aimed at the thriving contemporary market for domestic music-making; indeed, during the 20th century the influential American critic B. H. Haggin, rejecting more mainstream views, argued in his various guides to recorded music that Brahms was at his best in such works and much less successful in larger forms. Among the most cherished of these lighter works by Brahms are his sets of popular dances—the Hungarian Dances, the Waltzes Op. 39 for piano duet, and the Liebeslieder Waltzes for vocal quartet and piano—and some of his many songs, notably the Wiegenlied, Op. 49 No. 4 (published in 1868). This last was written (to a folk text) to celebrate the birth of a son to Brahms' friend Bertha Faber and is universally known as Brahms' Lullaby. Style and influences Brahms maintained a Classical sense of form and order in his works – in contrast to the opulence of the music of many of his contemporaries. Thus many admirers (though not necessarily Brahms himself) saw him as the champion of traditional forms and "pure music," as opposed to the New German embrace of program music. Brahms venerated Beethoven: in the composer's home, a marble bust of Beethoven looked down on the spot where he composed, and some passages in his works are reminiscent of Beethoven's style. The main theme of the finale of Brahms's First Symphony is reminiscent of the main theme of the finale of Beethoven's Ninth, and when this resemblance was pointed out to Brahms he replied that any ass – jeder Esel – could see that. A German Requiem was partially inspired by his mother's death in 1865, but also incorporates material from a Symphony he started in 1854, but abandoned following Schumann's suicide attempt. He once wrote that the Requiem "belonged to Schumann". The first movement of this abandoned Symphony was re-worked as the first movement of the First Piano Concerto. Brahms also loved the Classical composers Mozart and Haydn. He collected first editions and autographs of their works, and edited performing editions. He also studied the music of pre-classical composers, including Giovanni Gabrieli, Johann Adolph Hasse, Heinrich Schütz and especially Johann Sebastian Bach. His friends included leading musicologists, and with Friedrich Chrysander he edited an edition of the works of François Couperin. He looked to older music for inspiration in the arts of strict counterpoint; the themes of some of his works are modelled on Baroque sources, such as Bach's The Art of Fugue in the fugal finale of Cello Sonata No. 1, or the same composer's Cantata No. 150 in the passacaglia theme of the Fourth Symphony's finale. The early Romantic composers also had a major influence on Brahms, particularly Schumann who encouraged Brahms as a young composer. Brahms often met Robert and Clara Schumann. During his stay in Vienna in 1862-3, Brahms became particularly interested in the music of Franz Schubert. James Webster, "Schubert's sonata form and Brahms' first maturity (II)", 19th-century Music 3(1) (1979), pp. 52-71. The latter's influence may be identified in works by Brahms dating from the period, such as the two piano quartets Op. 25 and Op. 26, and the Piano Quintet which alludes to Schubert's String Quintet and Grand Duo for piano four hands. Donald Francis Tovey, "Franz Schubert" (1927), rpt. in Essays and Lectures on Music (London, 1949), p. 123. Cf. his similar remarks in "Tonality in Schubert" (1928), rpt. ibid., p. 151. There is less evidence for influence of Chopin and Mendelssohn on Brahms, although occasionally one can find in his works what seems to be an allusion to one of their works (for example, Brahms's Scherzo, Op. 4 alludes to Chopin's Scherzo in B-flat minor; Charles Rosen, "Influence: plagiarism and inspiration", 19th-century Music 4(2) (1980), pp. 87-100. the scherzo movement in Brahms's Piano Sonata in F minor, Op. 5 alludes to the finale of Mendelssohn's Piano Trio in C minor H. V. Spanner, "What is originality?", The Musical Times 93(1313) (1952), pp. 310-311. ). Brahms considered giving up composition when it seemed that other composers' innovations in extended tonality would result in the rule of tonality being broken altogether. Although Wagner became fiercely critical of Brahms as the latter grew in stature and popularity, he was enthusiastically receptive of the early Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel; Brahms himself, according to many sources (Swafford, 1999), deeply admired Wagner's music, confining his ambivalence only to the dramaturgical precepts of Wagner's theory. Brahms wrote settings for piano and voice of 144 German folk songs, and many of his lieder reflect folk themes or depict scenes of rural life. His Hungarian dances were among his most profitable compositions. Although Brahms's religious views are not clear, one of his greatest influences was the Bible. He read especially Luther's translation. His "Requiem" employs biblical texts to convey a humanist message, and focus on the living rather than the dead. Author Walter Niemann declared, "The fact that Brahms began his creative activity with the German folk song and closed with the Bible reveals...the true religious creed of this great man of the people." Others see Brahms as more of a cultural Lutheran who embraced the cultural aspects of his upbringing but may or may not have adopted the religious beliefs. Beller-McKenna, Daniel. Brahms and the German Spirit. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 2004, ISBN 0-674-01318-2 Writing in The New Oxford Companion to Music, Denis Arnold concludes, '...his appeal to musicians lies in the quality of his craftsmanship. His wider appeal surely lies in the essential conflict between the depth of emotion so often evident yet hidden behind his natural reserve. ...' Influence Brahms's point of view looked both backward and forward; his output was often bold in its exploration of harmony and rhythm. As a result he was an influence on composers of both conservative and modernist tendencies. Within his lifetime his idiom left an imprint on several composers within his personal circle who were strong admirers of his music, such as Heinrich von Herzogenberg, Robert Fuchs, and Julius Röntgen, as well as on Gustav Jenner, who was Brahms's only formal composition pupil. Antonín Dvořák, who received substantial assistance from Brahms, deeply admired his music and was influenced by it in several works such as the D minor Symphony, Op. 70 and the F minor Piano Trio, Op. 65. Features of the 'Brahms style' were absorbed in a more complex synthesis with other contemporary (chiefly Wagnerian) trends by Hans Rott, Wilhelm Berger and Max Reger, while the British composers Parry and Elgar, and the Swede Wilhelm Stenhammar all testified to learning much from Brahms's example. It was Elgar who said, "I look at the Third Symphony of Brahms and I feel like a pygmy." MacDonald, Brahms (1990), p. 406. Ferruccio Busoni's early music shows much Brahmsian influence, and Brahms took an interest in him, though Busoni later tended to disparage Brahms. Towards the end of his life Brahms offered substantial encouragement to Ernö Dohnányi, and also to Alexander Zemlinsky. Their early chamber works (and those of Béla Bartók, who was friendly with Dohnányi) show a thoroughgoing absorption of the Brahmsian idiom. Zemlinsky, moreover, was in turn the teacher of Arnold Schoenberg, and Brahms was apparently impressed by two movements of Schoenberg's early Quartet in D major which Zemlinsky showed him. In 1933 Schoenberg wrote an essay "Brahms the Progressive" (re-written 1947) which drew attention to Brahms's fondness for motivic saturation and irregularities of rhythm and phrase; in his last book (Structural Functions of Harmony, 1948) he analysed Brahms's 'enriched harmony' and exploration of remote tonal regions. These efforts paved the way for a re-evaluation of Brahms's reputation in the 20th century. Schoenberg went so far as to orchestrate one of Brahms's piano quartets. Schoenberg's pupil Anton Webern, in his 1933 lectures posthumously published under the title The Path to the New Music, claimed Brahms as one who had anticipated the developments of the Second Viennese School, and Webern's own Op. 1, an orchestral passacaglia, is clearly in part a homage to and development of the variation techniques of the passacaglia-finale of Brahms's Fourth Symphony. Brahms was honoured by the German Hall of Fame, the Walhalla temple. On 14 September 2000 he was introduced there as 126th "rühmlich ausgezeichneter Teutscher" and 13th composer among them, with a bust by sculptor Milan Knobloch. Personality Like Beethoven, Brahms was fond of nature and often went walking in the woods around Vienna. He often brought penny candy with him to hand out to children. To adults Brahms was often brusque and sarcastic, and he sometimes alienated other people. His pupil Gustav Jenner wrote, "Brahms has acquired, not without reason, the reputation for being a grump, even though few could also be as lovable as he. Brahms as Man, Teacher, and Artist " He also had predictable habits which were noted by the Viennese press such as his daily visit to his favourite "Red Hedgehog" tavern in Vienna and the press also particularly took into account his style of walking with his hands firmly behind his back complete with a caricature of him in this pose walking alongside a red hedgehog. Those who remained his friends were very loyal to him, however, and he reciprocated with equal loyalty and generosity. Johann Strauss II (left) and Johannes Brahms (right) photographed in Vienna Brahms was a lifelong friend of Johann Strauss II though they were very different as composers. Brahms even struggled to get to the Theater an der Wien in Vienna for the premiere of Strauss's operetta Die Göttin der Vernunft in 1897 before his death. Perhaps the greatest tribute that Brahms could pay to Strauss was his remark that he would have given anything to have written The Blue Danube waltz. An anecdote dating around the time Brahms became acquainted with Strauss is that when Strauss's wife Adele asked Brahms to autograph her fan, he wrote a few notes from the "Blue Danube" waltz, and then cheekily inscribed the words "Alas, not by Brahms!" Starting in the 1860s, when his works sold widely, Brahms was financially quite successful. He preferred a modest life style, however, living in a simple three-room apartment with a housekeeper. He gave away much of his money to relatives, and anonymously helped support a number of young musicians. Brahms was an extreme perfectionist. He destroyed many early works — including a Violin Sonata he performed with Reményi and violinist Ferdinand David — and once claimed to have destroyed 20 string quartets before he issued his official First in 1873. Over the course of several years, he changed an original project for a Symphony in D minor into a piano concerto, his first. In another instance of devotion to detail, he labored over the official First Symphony for almost fifteen years, from about 1861 to 1876. Even after its first few performances, Brahms destroyed the original slow movement and substituted another before the score was published. (A conjectural restoration of the original slow movement has been published by Robert Pascall.) Another factor that contributed to Brahms's perfectionism was that Schumann had announced early on that Brahms was to become the next great composer like Beethoven, a prediction that Brahms was determined to live up to. This prediction hardly added to the composer's self-confidence, and may have contributed to the delay in producing the First Symphony. However, Clara Schumann noted before that Brahms's First Symphony was a product that was not reflective of Brahms's real nature. She felt that the final exuberant movement was "too brilliant," as she was encouraged by the dark and tempestuous opening movement she had seen in an early draft. However, she recanted in accepting the Second Symphony, which has often been seen in modern times as one of his sunniest works. Other contemporaries, however, found the first movement especially dark, and Reinhold Brinkmann, in a study of Symphony No. 2 in relation to 19th century ideas of melancholy, has published a revealing letter from Brahms to the composer and conductor Vinzenz Lachner in which Brahms confesses to the melancholic side of his nature and comments on specific features of the movement that reflect this. Media Audio files of the German Requiem, Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel, Variations on a Theme by Haydn, and Waltzes Op. 39, can be found at their respective articles. </ul> Problems playing the files? See media help.</div> Further reading Johannes Brahms: Life and Letters, ISBN 0-19-816234-0 by Brahms himself, edited by Styra Avins, translated by Josef Eisinger (1998). A biography by way of comprehensive footnotes to a comprehensive collection of Brahms' letters (some translated into English for the first time). Elucidates some previously contentious matters, such as Brahms' reasons for declining the Cambridge invitation. Brahms, His Life and Work, by Karl Geiringer, photographs by Irene Geiringer (1987, ISBN 0-306-80223-6). A biog and discussion of his musical output, supplemented by and cross-referenced with the body of correspondence sent to Brahms. Charles Rosen discusses a number of Brahms's imitations of Beethoven in Chapter 9 of his Critical Entertainments: Music Old and New (2000; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-17730-4). Brahms by Malcolm MacDonald is a biography and also discussion of virtually everything Brahms composed, along with chapters examining his position in Romantic music, his devotion to Early Music, and his influence on later composers. (Dent 'Master Musicians' series, 1990; 2nd edition Oxford, 2001, ISBN 0-19-816484-X Johannes Brahms: A Biography, by Jan Swafford. A comprehensive (752 pages) look at the life and works of Brahms. (1999; Vintage, ISBN 0-679-74582-3) Late Idyll: The Second Symphony of Johannes Brahms, by Reinhold Brinkmann, translated by Peter Palmer. An analysis of Symphony No.2 and meditation of its position in Brahms' career and in relation to 19th century ideas of melancholy. (1995, Harvard, ISBN 0-674-51175-1) References External links The Lied and Art Song Texts Page created and mantained from Emily Ezust Texts of the Lieder of Brahms with translations in various languages. "What's late about late Brahms?": an article in the TLS by Peter Williams, November 7 2007 The Voice of Brahms and Brahms at the Piano. Information about the recording made by Thomas Edison in 1889 of Brahms playing part of his Hungarian Dance No. 1 in G minor. Johannes Brahms: list of works from w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/ Program notes on Brahms's First Symphony by Michael Steinberg Orchestral arrangement of Intermezzo from Six Piano Pieces Op 118 No 2.(also link to Opus 118 no 4) Photo of Brahms as a young man in 1853 Sheet music Brahms’ scores – selection of printable works. Brahms's Complete Piano Works Free Public Domain Scores in PDF www.kreusch-sheet-music.net Brahms' piano works Free scores of Brahms' Lieder and orchestral works in GIF format from the Variations Project at Indiana University. Last accessed 2008-08-14. Recordings Free audio MP3 of some Brahms' works OnClassical - Creative Commons BY-NC-SA, 1.0 - licensed Johannes Brahms - Violin Sonatas MP3 Creative Commons Recording Kunst der Fuge: Johannes Brahms - MIDI files Daily limit of 5 files. Brahms cylinder recordings, from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library. 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4,401 | Dystopia | A dystopia (from the Greek δυσ- and τόπος, alternatively, cacotopia, Cacotopia (κακό, caco = bad) is a synonym used by English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer Jeremy Bentham (15 February 1748 – 6 June 1832) in his 19th-century works. kakotopia, cackotopia, or anti-utopia) is the vision of a society in which conditions of life are miserable and characterized by poverty, oppression, , violence, disease, pollution, and/or the abridgement of human rights, resulting in widespread unhappiness, suffering, and other kinds of pain. Etymological origin of dystopia Dystopia is formed by adding the prefix dys to the elided form of the word utopia, which was coined by Sir Thomas More, in his book of that title completed in 1516. The first known use of dystopian, as recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), is a speech given before the British House of Commons by John Stuart Mill in 1868, in which, Mill stated: "It is, perhaps, too complimentary to call them Utopians, they ought rather to be called dys-topians, or caco-topians. What is commonly called Utopian is something too good to be practicable; but what they appear to favour is too bad to be practicable." According to the OED, a "dystopia" is: "An imaginary place or condition in which everything is as bad as possible; opp. UTOPIA (cf. CACOTOPIA). So dystopian n., one who advocates or describes a dystopia; dystopian a., of or pertaining to a dystopia; dystopianism, dystopian quality or characteristics." The example of first usage given in the OED (1989 ed.), cites "1868" writing by John Stuart Mill: "1868 J. S. MILL in Hansard Commons 12 Mar. 1517/1 It is, perhaps, too complimentary to call them Utopians, they ought rather to be called dys-topians, or caco-topians. What is commonly called Utopian is something too good to be practicable; but what they appear to favour is too bad to be practicable." Other examples given in the OED include: 1952 NEGLEY & PATRICK Quest for Utopia xvii. 298 The Mundus Alter et Idem [of Joseph Hall] is..the opposite of eutopia, the ideal society: it is a dystopia, if it is permissible to coin a word. 1962 C. WALSH From Utopia to Nightmare 11 The 'dystopia' or 'inverted utopia'. Ibid. 12 Stories...that seemed in their dystopian way to be saying something important. Ibid. ii. 27 A strand of utopianism or dystopianism. 1967 Listener 5 Jan. 22 The modern classicsAldous Huxley's Brave New World and George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty Four are dystopias. They describe not a world we should like to live in, but one we must be sure to avoid. 1968 New Scientist 11 July 96/3 It is a pleasant change to read some hope for our future... I fear that our real future is more likely to be dystopian. Cf. "Dystopia Timeline", in Exploring Dystopia, "edited and designed by Niclas Hermansson; Contributors: Acolyte of Death ('Gattaca'), John Steinbach ('Nuclear Nightmare'), [and] David Clements ('From Dystopia to Myopia')" (hem.passagen.se), Niclas Hermansson, n.d., Web, 22 May 2009. See also Michael S. Roth, "A Dystopia of the Spirit" 230ff., Chap. 15 in Jörn Rüsen, Michael Fehr, and Thomas Rieger, eds., Thinking Utopia, Google Books Preview, n.d., Web, 22 May 2009. Distinctions between utopia, dystopia, and anti-utopia According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, "People have been dreaming of a perfect city—and a perfect society—for thousands of years: In 1516 Thomas More of England completed his book Utopia, in which the narrator-hero has the luck to find an island on which a city operates in perfect harmony, with tolerance toward a wide variety of people." Subsequent authors "have written about utopias as a way to criticize society and present possibilities for improvement," and while "Some modern science fiction writers continue this tradition," "Others … have chosen instead to write about dystopias, which are visions of dangerous and alienating future societies, often based on life in large cities." "City Life - Future Cities: Utopia or Dystopia", Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, Student edition, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2009, Web, 22 May 2009: This article concludes that "It is debatable whether the rapid growth of cities will lead toward utopia or dystopia. More certain is that future cities will continue to house a mixture of privileged groups and impoverished, powerless groups on the margins of society, with all of the promise and potential conflicts this involves. Regardless of the urban realities to come, cities will no doubt continue to affect nearly every facet of human life." Unlike the fictional society depicted in George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four, a dystopia does not pretend to be utopian, whereas an anti-utopia appears to strive intentionally to be utopian—to be intended by its creators to be utopian—but a fatal flaw or another unanticipated factor has destroyed or twisted the intended utopian world or conception, resulting in its antithesis. Mary Ellen Snodgrass, Encyclopedia of Utopian Literature, ABC-Clio Literary Companion Ser. (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio Inc, 1995) xii. ISBN 0874367573 (10). ISBN 9780874367577 (13). Common characteristics of dystopian societies Dystopias share the negative characteristic of being undesirable societies Described as "dangerous and alienating future societies," a fictional dystopia serves to critique then-current actual cultural trends observed by its author. It is a culture where the condition of life suffers from deprivation, oppression, or terror. "dystopia", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed., Dictionary.com, Web, 22 May 2009. Counter-utopia Many dystopias found in fictional and artistic works can be described as a utopian society with at least one fatal flaw, whereas a utopian society is founded on the good life, a dystopian society’s dreams of improvement are overshadowed by stimulating fears of the "ugly consequences of present-day behavior." "Science fiction", Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica Online, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2009, Web, 22 May 2009. Society Fictional dystopias may impose severe social restrictions on the characters' lives, involving social stratification, whereby social class is strictly defined and enforced, and social mobility is non-existent. In the novel Brave New World''', by Aldous Huxley, the class system is prenatally designated in terms of Alphas, Betas, Gammas, Deltas, and Epsilons. In We, by Yevgeny Zamyatin, people are permitted to live out of public view for only an hour a day. They are not only referred to by numbers instead of names, but are neither "citizens" nor "people", but "ciphers." In the lower castes, in Brave New World, single embryos are "bokanovskified", so that they produce between eight and ninety-six identical siblings, making the citizens as uniform as possible. William Matter, "On Brave New World" 95, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0809311135. Some dystopian works emphasize the pressure to conform in terms of the requirement to not excel. In these works, the society is ruthlessly egalitarian, in which ability and accomplishment, or even competence, are suppressed or stigmatized as forms of inequality, as in Kurt Vonnegut's Harrison Bergeron. Similarly, in Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451, the dystopia represses the intellectuals with particular force, because most people are willing to accept it, and the resistance to it consists mostly of intellectuals. Jack Zipes, "Mass Degradation of Humanity" 189, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0809311135. Moreover, in Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged, the protagonist Dagny Taggart struggles to keep Taggart Transcontinental thriving in a world that spurns innovation and excellence. Social Groups In a fictional dystopia, there is most often a total absence of any social group besides the state, as in the novel We; or such social groups are subdivisions of the state, under government control, such as the Junior Anti-Sex League in Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. Notably, religious groups independent of the government are absent in many fictional dystopian societies. In Brave New World, the establishment of the state included lopping off the tops of all crosses (as symbols of Christianity) to make them "T"s, (as symbols of Henry Ford's Model T). William Matter, "On Brave New World" 94, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0809311135. The state may stage, instead, a personality cult, with quasi-religious rituals about a central figure, usually a head of state or an oligarchy of some sort, such as Big Brother in Nineteen Eighty-Four, or The Benefactor of We. In explicitly theocratic dystopias, such as Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale, the State's fundamentalist religion governments, enforcing its laws and regulations with the same vigor as those of any secular dystopia; there are no social bonds outside the State. Even more than freedom of religion, the concept of the family is under attack in fictional dystopian societies. In some of them, the family has been eradicated and continuing efforts are deployed to keep it from reestablishing itself as a social institution. In Brave New World, where children are reproduced artificially, the concepts "mother" and "father" are considered obscene. In other fictional dystopias, the institution of the family exists, but the State deploys great efforts are deployed to keep the family in its service.. In some novels, the State is hostile to motherhood: for example, in Nineteen Eighty-Four, children are organized to spy on their parents; and in We, the escape of a pregnant woman from the United States is a revolt. Gorman Beauchamp, "Zamiatin's We" 70, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0809311135. Nature Fictional dystopias are commonly urban and frequently isolate their characters from all contact with the natural world. Eric S. Rabkin, "Avatism and Utopia" 4, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0809311135. They generally require their characters to avoid nature, as when walks are regarded as dangerously anti-social in Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451. In Brave New World, the lower classes of society are conditioned to be afraid of nature, but also to visit the countryside and consume transportation and games to stabilize society. A few "green" fictional dystopias do exist, such as in Michael Carson's short story "The Punishment of Luxury". Political Fictional dystopian politics are defined as types of governments and political systems such as: bureaucracy; socialism; communism; capitalism; fascism; totalitarianism; dictatorships; and other forms of political, social, and economical control or lack of control; in the absence of such a clearly-defined political system controlling the world, chaos may occur. Tom Moylan, " 'Look into the Dark': On Dystopia and the Novum," Learning from New Worlds, ed. Patrick Parrinder (Durham: Duke UP, 2001). Carter Kaplan, "The Advent of Literary Dystopia," Extrapolation 40.3 (1999): 200–212. These governments often assert great power over the citizens, dramatically depicted in Nineteen Eighty-Four as the authority to decree that Two + two = five. William Steinhoff, "Utopia Reconsidered: Comments on 1984" 147, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0809311135. In When the Sleeper Wakes, H. G. Wells depicted the governing class as hedonistic and shallow. William Steinhoff, "Utopia Reconsidered: Comments on 1984" 153, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0809311135. George Orwell contrasted Wells's world to that depicted in Jack London's The Iron Heel, where the dystopian rulers are brutal and dedicated to the point of fanaticism, which Orwell considered more plausible. Whereas the political principles on which fictional utopias (or "perfect worlds") are based are idealistic in principle, intending positive consequences for their inhabitants, "Utopia", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed., 2004, Dictionary.com, Web, 11 Feb. 2007. the political principles on which of fictional dystopias are based are flawed and result in negative consequences for the inhabitants of the dystopian world, which is portrayed as oppressive. Dystopias are often filled with pessimistic views of the ruling class or government that is brutal or uncaring ruling with an "iron hand" or "iron fist". These dystopian government establishments often have protagonists or groups that lead a "resistance" to enact change within their government. Jane Donawerth, "Genre Blending and the Critical Dystopia," in Dark Horizons: Science Fiction and the Dystopian Imagination, ed. Raffaella Baccolini and Tom Moylan (New York: Routledge, 2003). Dystopian political situations are depicted in novels such as [[Parable of the Sower (novel)|Parable of the Sower]], Nineteen Eighty-Four, and V for Vendetta and in films such as Fahrenheit 451, Brazil, and THX 1138. In some dystopian societies, such as the fictional world of Anthony Burgess' novel A Clockwork Orange, there is little government control and the people themselves cause chaos.. In the video game Bioshock, based on Objectivist principles, the antagonist Andrew Ryan has built an underwater city where "the artist would not fear the censor … [and] where the great would not be constrained by the small"; that is, he has built a capitalist utopia. In this game, science, technology, and business were all essentially powered by competition. When Frank Fontaine, a mobster turned businessman, begins to overturn Ryan Industries' domination of the "free" market, however, Ryan panics and begins to use more heavy-handed methods of control, leading to civil war. Economic The economic structures of dystopian societies in literature and other media have many variations, as the economy often relates directly to the elements that the writer is depicting as the source of the oppression. However, there are several archetypes that such societies tend to follow. A commonly occurring theme is that the state is in control of the economy, as shown in such works as Ayn Rand's Anthem, Lois Lowry's The Giver, and Henry Kuttner's short story The Iron Standard. Some dystopias, such as Nineteen Eighty-Four, feature black markets with goods that are dangerous and difficult to obtain, or the characters may be totally at the mercy of the state-controlled economy. Such systems usually have a lack of efficiency, as seen in stories like Philip Jose Farmer's Riders of the Purple Wage, featuring a bloated welfare system in which total freedom from responsibility has encouraged an underclass prone to any form of antisocial behavior. Kurt Vonnegut's Player Piano depicts a dystopia in which the centrally controlled economic system has indeed made material abundance plentiful, but deprived the mass of humanity of meaningful labor; virtually all work is menial and unsatisfying, and even very few of the small group that achieves education is admitted to the elite and its work. Howard P. Segal, "Vonnegut's Player Piano: An Ambiguous Technological Dystopia," 163 in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0809311135. Even in dystopias where the economic system is not the source of the society's flaws, as in Brave New World, the state often controls the economy. In Brave New World, a character, reacting with horror to the suggestion of not being part of the social body, cites as a reason that everyone works for everyone else. William Matter, "On Brave New World" 98, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0809311135. Other works feature extensive privatization. In this context, big businesses often have far more control over the populace than any kind of government and thus act as governments themselves instead of businesses, as can be seen in the novel Jennifer Government. This is common in the genre of cyberpunk, such as in Blade Runner and Snow Crash, which often features corrupt and all-powerful corporations, often a megacorporation. Characteristics of dystopian fiction As fictional dystopias are often set in a future projected virtual time and/or space involving technological innovations not accessible in actual present reality, dystopian fiction is often classified generically as science fiction, a subgenre of speculative fiction. Back stories Because a fictional universe has to be constructed, a selectively-told back story of a war, revolution, uprising, critical overpopulation, or other disaster is often introduced early in the narrative. This results in a shift in emphasis of control, from previous systems of government to a government run by corporations, totalitarian dictatorships or bureaucracies. Because dystopian literature typically depicts events that take place in the future, it often features technology more advanced than that of contemporary society. Caste systems In dystopian literature the advanced technology is controlled exclusively by the group in power, while the oppressed population is limited to technology comparable to or more primitive than what we have today. In order to emphasize the degeneration of society, the standard of living among the lower and middle classes is generally poorer than in contemporary society (at least in United States or Europe). In Nineteen Eighty-Four, for example, the Outer Party, the upper class of society, also has a standard of living lower than the upper classes of today. In contrast to Nineteen Eighty-Four, in Brave New World and Equilibrium, people enjoy much higher material living standards in exchange for the loss of other qualities in their lives, such as independent thought and emotional depth. Hero Unlike utopian fiction, which often features an outsider to have the world shown to him, dystopias seldom feature an outsider as the protagonist. While such a character would more clearly understand the nature of the society, based on comparison to his society, the knowledge of the outside culture subverts the power of the dystopia. When such outsiders are major characters—such as John the Savage in Brave New World—their societies cannot assist them against the dystopia. The story usually centers on a protagonist who questions the society, often feeling intuitively that something is terribly wrong, such as Guy Montag in Ray Bradbury's novella Fahrenheit 451, Winston Smith in Nineteen Eighty-Four, or V in Alan Moore's V for Vendetta. The hero comes to believe that escape or even overturning the social order is possible and decides to act at the risk of life and limb; in some utopias, this may appear as irrational even to him, but he still acts. Gorman Beauchamp, "Zamiatin's We" 62-63, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0809311135. Another popular archetype of hero in the more modern dystopian literature is the Vonnegut hero, a hero who is in high-standing within the social system, but sees how wrong everything is, and attempts to either change the system or bring it down, such as Paul Proteus of Kurt Vonnegut's novel Player Piano. Conflict In many cases, the hero's conflict brings him to a representative of the dystopia who articulates its principles, from Mustapha Mond in Brave New World to O'Brien in 1984. Gorman Beauchamp, "Zamiatin's We" 57, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0809311135. There is usually a group of people somewhere in the society who are not under the complete control of the state, and in whom the hero of the novel usually puts his or her hope, although often he or she still fails to change anything. In Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four they are the "proles" (Latin for "offspring", from which "proletariat" is derived), in Huxley's Brave New World they are the people on the reservation, and in We by Zamyatin they are the people outside the walls of the One State. In Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury, they are the "book people" past the river and outside the city. Or in Anthem by Ayn Rand, it can be found as everybody being the same, and a government who has no intentions of moving forward. Climax and dénouement The hero's goal is either escape or destruction of the social order. However, the story is often (but not always) unresolved. That is, the narrative may deal with individuals in a dystopian society who are unsatisfied, and may rebel, but ultimately fail to change anything. Sometimes they themselves end up changed to conform to the society's norms. This narrative arc to a sense of hopelessness can be found in such classic dystopian works as Nineteen Eighty-Four. It contrasts with much fiction of the future, in which a hero succeeds in resolving conflicts or otherwise changes things for the better. Destruction of dystopia The destruction of dystopia is frequently a very different sort of work than one in which it is preserved. Indeed, the subversion of a dystopian society, with its potential for conflict and adventure, is a staple of science fiction stories. John Clute and Peter Nicholls, "Dystopia", The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 1995) 361. ISBN 031213486X. Poul Anderson's short story "Sam Hall" depicts the subversion of a dystopia heavily dependent on surveillance. Robert A. Heinlein's "If This Goes On—" liberates the United States from a fundamentalist theocracy, where the underground rebellion is organized by the Freemasons. Cordwainer Smith's The Rediscovery of Man series depicts a society recovering from its dystopian period, beginning in "The Dead Lady of Clown Town" with the discovery that its utopia was impossible to maintain. Although these and other societies are typical of dystopias in many ways, they all have not only flaws but exploitable flaws. The ability of the protagonists to subvert the society also subverts the monolithic power typical of a dystopia. In some cases the hero manages to overthrow the dystopia by motivating the (previously apathetic) populace. In the dystopian video game Half-Life 2 the downtrodden citizens of City 17 rally around the figure of Gordon Freeman and overthrow their Combine oppressors. Destruction of the fictional dystopia may not be possible, but—if it does not completely control its world—escaping from it may be an alternative. In Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451, the main character succeeds in fleeing and finding tramps who have dedicated themselves to memorizing books to preserve them. In the book Logan's Run, the main characters make their way to an escape from the otherwise inevitable euthanasia on their 21st birthday (30th in the later film version). Because such dystopias must necessarily control less of the world than the protagonist can reach, and the protagonist can elude capture, this motif also subverts the dystopia's power. In Lois Lowry's The Giver the main character Jonas is able to run away from 'The Community' and escapes to 'Elsewhere' where people have memories. Sometimes, this escape leads to the inevitable: The protagonist making a mistake that usually brings about the end of a rebel society, usually living where people think is a legend. This concept is brought to life in Scott Westerfeld's novel Uglies. The main character accidentally brings the government into the secret settlement of the Smoke. She then infiltrates the government to escape, but chooses to join the society for the greater good. Works with dystopian themes in various media List of dystopian comics List of dystopian literature List of dystopian films List of dystopian music, TV programs, and games See also Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction Cyberpunk Social science fiction Soft science fiction Utopian and dystopian fiction References External links "Dystopia" at Charles' George Orwell Links (netcharles.com). ["Copyright © 1995 - 2009 by Charles' George Orwell Links. All Rights Reserved."] | Dystopia |@lemmatized dystopia:54 greek:1 δυσ:1 τόπος:1 alternatively:1 cacotopia:3 κακό:1 caco:3 bad:4 synonym:1 use:3 english:4 jurist:1 philosopher:1 legal:1 social:17 reformer:1 jeremy:1 bentham:1 february:1 june:1 century:1 work:11 kakotopia:1 cackotopia:1 anti:5 utopia:21 vision:2 society:40 condition:4 life:11 miserable:1 characterize:1 poverty:1 oppression:3 violence:1 disease:1 pollution:1 abridgement:1 human:2 right:2 result:4 widespread:1 unhappiness:1 suffering:1 kind:2 pain:1 etymological:1 origin:1 form:5 add:1 prefix:1 dy:1 elided:1 word:2 coin:2 sir:1 thomas:3 book:6 title:1 complete:3 first:2 know:1 dystopian:46 record:1 oxford:1 dictionary:5 oed:4 speech:1 give:3 british:1 house:2 common:4 john:5 stuart:2 mill:4 state:18 perhaps:2 complimentary:2 call:6 utopian:24 ought:2 rather:2 dys:2 topians:4 commonly:4 something:4 good:6 practicable:4 appear:4 favour:2 accord:2 imaginary:1 place:13 everything:2 possible:4 opp:1 cf:2 n:3 one:5 advocate:1 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4,402 | Ed_(text_editor) | ed is the standard text editor on the Unix operating system (according to the original Unix man page for ed). ed was originally written by Ken Thompson and contains one of the first implementations of regular expressions. Prior to that implementation, the concept of regular expressions was only formalized in a mathematical paper, which Ken Thompson had read. ed was influenced by an earlier editor known as QED from University of California at Berkeley, Ken Thompson's alma mater. ed went on to influence ex, which in turn spawned . The non-interactive Unix commands grep and sed were inspired by common special uses of ed; their influence is visible in the design of the programming language AWK, which in turn inspired aspects of Perl. Famous for its terseness, ed gives almost no visual feedback. For example, the message that ed will produce in case of error, or when it wants to make sure the user wishes to quit without saving, is "?". It does not report the current filename or line number, or even display the results of a change to the text, unless requested. This terseness was appropriate in the early versions of Unix, when consoles were teletypes, modems were slow, and memory was precious. As computer technology improved and these constraints were loosened, editors with more visual feedback became the standard. In current practice, ed is rarely used interactively, but does find use in some shell scripts. For interactive use, ed was subsumed by the sam, and Emacs editors in the 1980s. ed can be found on virtually every version of Unix and Linux available, and as such is useful for people who have to work with multiple versions of Unix. If something goes wrong, ed is sometimes the only editor available. This is often the only time when it is used interactively. The ed commands are often imitated in other line-based editors. For example, EDLIN in early MS-DOS versions and 32-bit versions of Windows NT has a somewhat similar syntax, and text editors in many MUDs (LPMud and descendants, for example) use ed-like syntax. These editors, however, are typically more limited in function. Example Here is an example transcript of an ed session. For clarity, commands and text typed by the user are in normal face, and output from ed is emphasized. a ed is the standard Unix text editor. This is line number two. . 2i . %l ed is the standard Unix text editor.$ $ This is line number two.$ 3s/two/three/ ,l ed is the standard Unix text editor.$ $ This is line number three.$ w text 65 q The end result is a simple text file containing the following text: ed is the standard Unix text editor. This is line number three. Started with an empty file, the a command appends text (all ed commands are single letters). The command put ed in insert mode, inserting the characters that follow and is terminated by a single dot on a line. The two lines that are entered before the dot end up in the file buffer. The 2i command also goes into insert mode, and will insert the entered text (a single empty line in our case) before line two. All commands may be prefixed by a line number to operate on that line. In %l the l stands for the list command. The command is prefixed by a range, in this case % which is a shortcut for 1,$. A range is two line numbers separated by a comma ($ means the last line). In return, ed lists all lines, from first to last. These lines are ended with dollar signs, so that white space at the end of lines is clearly visible. The error in line 3 is corrected with 3s/two/three/, a substitution command. The 3 will apply it to the correct line, following the command is the text to be replaced, and then the replacement. Listing all lines with ,l (a lone comma is also a synonym for %) the line is shown now to be correct. w text writes the buffer to the file "text" making ed respond with 65, the number of characters written to the file. q will end an ed session. Bill Joy, vi, and ed In the editor wars, Emacs proponents used to say, "even Bill Joy doesn't use vi anymore." In a 1984 interview Bill Joy explained that, at Sun, he used an early desktop publishing program, called Interleaf; when visiting labs outside Sun, he used plain old ed. Although vi was almost ubiquitous, he could not count on the local version working the way he expected. However, ed was never modified, so he could count on making it work without stumbling. See also Edlin, the standard MS-DOS line editor. List of Unix programs Editor wars Footnotes External links GNU ed homepage ed(1) from the Plan 9 from Bell Labs manual, a direct descendant of the original ed. GNU ed for Win32 Unix Editors I Examples for ed in scripts ed Humor ("Ed is the standard text editor") | Ed_(text_editor) |@lemmatized ed:35 standard:8 text:17 editor:17 unix:12 operating:1 system:1 accord:1 original:2 man:1 page:1 originally:1 write:3 ken:3 thompson:3 contain:2 one:1 first:2 implementation:2 regular:2 expression:2 prior:1 concept:1 formalize:1 mathematical:1 paper:1 read:1 influence:3 early:4 know:1 qed:1 university:1 california:1 berkeley:1 alma:1 mater:1 go:3 ex:1 turn:2 spawn:1 non:1 interactive:2 command:12 grep:1 sed:1 inspire:1 common:1 special:1 us:1 visible:2 design:1 programming:1 language:1 awk:1 inspired:1 aspect:1 perl:1 famous:1 terseness:2 give:1 almost:2 visual:2 feedback:2 example:6 message:1 produce:1 case:3 error:2 want:1 make:3 sure:1 user:2 wish:1 quit:1 without:2 save:1 report:1 current:2 filename:1 line:22 number:8 even:2 display:1 result:2 change:1 unless:1 request:1 appropriate:1 version:6 console:1 teletypes:1 modem:1 slow:1 memory:1 precious:1 computer:1 technology:1 improve:1 constraint:1 loosen:1 become:1 practice:1 rarely:1 use:9 interactively:2 find:2 shell:1 script:2 subsume:1 sam:1 emacs:2 virtually:1 every:1 linux:1 available:2 useful:1 people:1 work:3 multiple:1 something:1 wrong:1 sometimes:1 often:2 time:1 imitate:1 base:1 edlin:2 bit:1 window:1 nt:1 somewhat:1 similar:1 syntax:2 many:1 mud:1 lpmud:1 descendant:2 like:1 however:2 typically:1 limited:1 function:1 transcript:1 session:2 clarity:1 type:1 normal:1 face:1 output:1 emphasize:1 two:7 l:5 three:4 w:2 q:2 end:5 simple:1 file:5 following:1 start:1 empty:2 append:1 single:3 letter:1 put:1 insert:4 mode:2 character:2 follow:2 terminate:1 dot:2 enter:1 buffer:2 also:3 entered:1 may:1 prefix:2 operate:1 stand:1 list:4 range:2 shortcut:1 separate:1 comma:2 mean:1 last:2 return:1 dollar:1 sign:1 white:1 space:1 clearly:1 correct:3 substitution:1 apply:1 replace:1 replacement:1 lone:1 synonym:1 show:1 respond:1 bill:3 joy:3 vi:3 war:2 proponent:1 say:1 anymore:1 interview:1 explain:1 sun:2 desktop:1 publishing:1 program:2 call:1 interleaf:1 visit:1 lab:2 outside:1 plain:1 old:1 although:1 ubiquitous:1 could:2 count:2 local:1 way:1 expect:1 never:1 modify:1 stumble:1 see:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 gnu:2 homepage:1 plan:1 bell:1 manual:1 direct:1 humor:1 |@bigram ken_thompson:3 alma_mater:1 window_nt:1 external_link:1 bell_lab:1 |
4,403 | Gerard_Manley_Hopkins | "The Best ideal is the true/ And other truth is none./All glory be ascribèd to/The holy Three in One." Gerard Manley Hopkins, S.J. (28 July 1844 – 8 June, 1889), was an English poet, Roman Catholic convert, and Jesuit priest, whose 20th-century fame established him posthumously among the leading Victorian poets. His experimental explorations in prosody (especially sprung rhythm) and his use of imagery established him as a daring innovator in a period of largely traditional verse. Life He was educated at Highgate School from 1854 to 1863 and then Balliol College, Oxford, where he studied classics. Hopkins was an unusually sensitive student and poet, as witnessed by his class-notes and early poetic pieces. It was at Oxford that he forged a friendship with Robert Bridges (eventual Poet Laureate of England) which would be of importance in his development as a poet, and his posthumous acclaim. Hopkins began his time in Oxford as a keen socialite and prolific poet, but he seemed to have alarmed himself with the changes in his behaviour that resulted, and he became more studious and began recording his sins in his diary. In particular, he found it hard to accept his sexuality; hence, he began to exercise strict self-control in regard to it, especially after he became a follower of Henry Parry Liddon and of Edward Pusey, the last, lingering member of the original Oxford Movement. It was during this time of intense scrupulosity that Hopkins seems to have begun confronting his strong homoerotic impulses. (See section below on Erotic influences) In 1866, following the example of John Henry Newman, he converted from Anglicanism to Roman Catholicism. After his graduation in 1867 Hopkins was provided a teaching post at The Oratory School by Newman, but the following year he decided to enter the priesthood, pausing only to visit Switzerland, which officially forbade Jesuits to enter. Hopkins's attempts at poetry began at an early age, influenced by his father's own attempts at the art. His decision to become a Jesuit led him to burn much of his early poetry as he felt it incompatible with his vocation. Writing would remain something of a concern for him as he felt that his interest in poetry prevented him from wholly devoting himself to his religion. He continued to write a detailed journal until 1874. Unable to suppress his desire to describe the natural world, he also wrote music, sketched, and for church occasions he wrote some "verses," as he called them. He would later write sermons and other religious pieces. While he was studying in the Jesuit house of theological studies, St Beuno's, near St Asaph in North Wales, he was asked by his religious superior to write a poem to commemorate the foundering of a German ship in a storm. So in 1875 he was moved to take up poetry once more and write a lengthy poem, The Wreck of the Deutschland. This work was inspired by the Deutschland incident, a naval disaster in which 157 people died including five Franciscan nuns who had been leaving Germany due to harsh anti-Catholic laws (see Kulturkampf). The work displays both the religious concerns and some of the unusual meter and rhythms of his subsequent poetry not present in his few remaining early works. It not only depicts the dramatic events and heroic deeds but also tells of the poet's reconciling the terrible events with God's higher purpose. The poem was accepted but not printed by a Jesuit publication, and this rejection fuelled his ambivalence about his poetry. Most of his poetry remained unpublished until after his death. Hopkins chose the austere and restrictive life of a Jesuit and was at times gloomy. The brilliant student who had left Oxford with a first class honours degree failed his final theology exam. This failure almost certainly meant that, though ordained in 1877, Hopkins would not progress in the order. Though rigorous and sometimes unpleasant, his life during Jesuit training had at least some stability; the uncertain and varied work after ordination was even harder on his sensibilities. In 1874 he returned to Manresa House to teach classics. He then went to St Beuno's College in North Wales for three years of theological studies. He served in various parishes in London, Chesterfield, Oxford, Liverpool and Glasgow. He taught Greek and Latin at Mount St Mary's College, Sheffield, and Stonyhurst College, Lancashire. In 1884 he became professor of Greek literature at University College Dublin. His English roots and his disagreement with the Irish politics of the time, as well as his own small stature (5'2"), unprepossessing nature and personal oddities meant that he was not a particularly effective teacher. This as well as his isolation in Ireland deepened his gloom and his poems of the time, such as I Wake and Feel the Fell of Dark, reflected this. They came to be known as the "terrible sonnets," not because of their quality but because according to Hopkins's friend Canon Dixon, they reached the "terrible crystal," meaning that they crystallized the melancholy dejection which plagued the later part of his life. Final years Blue plaque commemorating Hopkins in Roehampton, London After suffering ill health for several years and bouts of diarrhea, Hopkins died of typhoid fever in 1889 and was buried in Glasnevin Cemetery, Dublin. Although he probably suffered from what today might be diagnosed as either bipolar disorder or chronic unipolar depression, and battled a deep sense of anguish throughout his life, upon his death bed he evidently overcame some of that despondency, at times stygian in its intensity: his last words were "I am so happy, I am so happy." Poetry Sprung rhythm Much of Hopkins's historical importance has to do with the changes he brought to the form of poetry; which ran contrary to conventional ideas of metre. Prior to Hopkins, most Middle English and Modern English poetry was based on a rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of English literary heritage. This structure is based on repeating groups of two or three syllables, with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each repetition. Hopkins called this structure "running rhythm", and though he wrote some of his early verse in running rhythm he became fascinated with the older rhythmic structure of the Anglo-Saxon tradition, of which Beowulf is the most famous example. Hopkins called his own rhythmic structure sprung rhythm. Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot, with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot. In reality, it more closely resembles the "rolling stresses" of Robinson Jeffers, another poet who rejected conventional meter. Hopkins saw sprung rhythm as a way to escape the constraints of running rhythm, which he said inevitably pushed poetry written in it to become "same and tame." In this way, Hopkins can be seen as anticipating much of free verse. His work has no great affinity with either of the contemporary Pre-Raphaelite and neo-romanticism schools, although he does share their descriptive love of nature and he is often seen as a precursor to modernist poetry or as a bridge between the two poetic eras. Last Poems Several problems conspired to depress Hopkins's spirits and restrict his poetic inspiration during the last five years of his life. His work load was extremely heavy. He disliked living in Dublin, away from England and friends. His general health deteriorated as his eyesight began to fail. He felt confined and dejected. As a devout Jesuit, he found himself in an artistic dilemma. To subdue any egotism which would violate the humility required by his religious position, he decided never to publish his poems. But Hopkins realized that any true poet requires an audience for criticism and encouragement. This conflict between his religious obligations and his poetic talent caused him to feel that he had failed them both. Use of language The language of Hopkins’s poems is often striking. His imagery can be simple, as in Heaven-Haven, where the comparison is between a nun entering a convent and a ship entering a harbour out of a storm. It can be splendidly metaphysical and intricate, as it is in As Kingfishers Catch Fire, where he leaps from one image to another to show how each thing expresses its own uniqueness, and how divinity reflects itself through all of them. He uses many archaic and dialect words, but also coins new words. One example of this is twindles, which seems from its context in Inversnaid to mean a combination of twines and dwindles. He often creates compound adjectives, sometimes with a hyphen (such as dapple-dawn-drawn falcon) but often without, as in rolling level underneath him steady air. This concentrates his images, communicating the instress of the poet’s perceptions of an inscape to his reader. Added richness comes from Hopkins’s extensive use of alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia and rhyme, both at the end of lines and internally as in: As kingfishers catch fire, dragonflies draw flame; As tumbled over rim in roundy wells Stones ring; like each tucked string tells, each hung bell’s Bow swung finds tongue to fling out broad its name; Hopkins was influenced by the Welsh language that he acquired while studying theology at St Beuno's College near St Asaph. The poetic forms of Welsh literature and particularly cynghanedd with its emphasis on repeating sounds accorded with his own style and became a prominent feature of his work. This reliance on similar sounding words with close or differing senses mean that his poems are best understood if read aloud. An important element in his work is Hopkins's own concept of "inscape" which was derived, in part, from the medieval theologian Duns Scotus. The exact detail of "inscape" is uncertain and probably known to Hopkins alone but it has to do with the individual essence and uniqueness of every physical thing. This is communicated from an object by its "instress" and ensures the transmission of the item's importance in the wider creation. His poems would then try to present this "inscape" so that a poem like "The Windhover" aims to depict not the bird in general but instead one instance and its relation to the breeze. This is just one interpretation of probably Hopkins's most studied poem and one which he called his best. During his lifetime, Hopkins published few poems. It was only through the efforts of Robert Bridges that his works were seen. Despite Hopkins burning all his poems on entering the Jesuit novitiate, he had already sent some to Bridges who, with a few other friends, was one of the few people to see many of them for some years. After Hopkins's death they were distributed to a wider audience, mostly fellow poets, and in 1918 Bridges, by then poet laureate, published a collected edition; an expanded edition, prepared by Charles Williams, appeared in 1930, and a greatly expanded edition by W. H. Gardiner appeared in 1948 (eventually reaching a fourth edition, 1967, with N. H. Mackenzie). Notable collections of Hopkins's manuscripts and publications are in Campion Hall, Oxford; the Bodleian Library, Oxford; and the Foley Library at Gonzaga University in Spokane, Washington. Erotic influences Some contemporary critics believe that Hopkins's suppressed erotic impulses played an important role in the tone, quality and even content of his works. These impulses seem to have taken on a degree of specificity after he met Robert Bridges's distant cousin, friend, and fellow Etonian Digby Mackworth Dolben, "a Christian Uranian" Timothy d'Arch Smith. Love in Earnest, p. 188) . Hopkins's biographer Robert Bernard Martin asserts that Hopkins’s meeting with Dolben – on the occasion of the boy's 17th birthday – at Oxford in February 1865, "was, quite simply, the most momentous emotional event of [his] undergraduate years, probably of his entire life" Gerard Manley Hopkins: A Very Private Life, p. 80; see also Norman White, Hopkins: A Literary Biography, p. 110) .Hopkins was completely taken with Dolben, who was nearly four years his junior, and his private journal for confessions the following year proves how absorbed he was in imperfectly suppressed erotic thoughts of him Robert Bernard Martin, "Digby Augustus Stewart Dolben," DNB) Hopkins kept up a correspondence with Dolben, wrote about him in his diary and composed two poems about the youth, "Where art thou friend" and "The Beginning of the End." Robert Bridges, who edited the first edition of Dolben's poems as well as Hopkins's, cautioned that the second poem "must never be printed," though Bridges finally decided to include it in the first edition (1918). Joseph Cady English Literature: Nineteenth Century Another indication of the nature of his feelings for Dolben is that Hopkins's High Anglican confessor seems to have forbidden him to have any contact with Dolben except by letter. Their relationship was abruptly ended by Dolben's drowning in June 1867, an event which greatly affected Hopkins, although his feeling for Dolben seems to have cooled a good deal by that time. "Ironically, fate may have bestowed more through Dolben’s death than it could ever have bestowed through longer life ... [for] many of Hopkins’s best poems — impregnated with an elegiac longing for Dolben, his lost belovèd and his muse — were the result." Kaylor, Michael M. Secreted Desires: The Major Uranians: Hopkins, Pater and Wilde. Brno, CZ: Masaryk University Press, 2006. Pg. 401 Some of his poems, such as "The Bugler's First Communion" and "Epithalamion", arguably embody homoerotic themes, and he has been associated recently with the Uranian poets, whose writings derived, in many ways, from the prose works of Walter Pater, Hopkins's academic coach for his Greats exams, and later his lifelong friend. For "The Bugler's First Communion," see Kaylor, Secreted Desires. Pgs. 182-93; for "Epithalamion," see ibid., pgs. 161-205, or Kaylor, Michael M. "'Beautiful Dripping Fragments': A Whitmanesque Reading of Hopkins's "Epithalamion.'" Victorian Poetry, 40.2 (2002), pgs. 157-87; for the influence of Pater, see the entire Secreted Desires book. Some critics have argued that homoerotic readings are either highly tendentious, or, that they can be classified under the broader category of "homosociality," over the gender, sexual-specific "homosexual" term. Hopkins’s journal writings, they argue, offer a clear admiration for feminized beauty, an observation often neglected when considering where Hopkins’s sexual allegiances may lie. That is not to say that such theorizing does not have its merits, it turns troublesome when it completely replaces the religious emphasis of the poems. Consider Justice George Lawler’s point in his book Hopkins Reconstructed (2000): "The ineluctable, and for me distressing, conclusion is that Martin [referring to Robert Martin’s controversial biography Gerard Manley Hopkins: A Very Private Life (published in 1991)] cannot see the heterosexual beam... for the homosexual biographical mote in his own eye... it amounts to a slanted eisegesis" (61-2). The poems that elicit homoerotic readings are not merely exercises in sublimation, in other words; they are powerful renditions of religious conviction, a conviction that caused strain in his family and even led him to burn some of his poems (he felt they were unnecessarily self-centered). Julia Saville’s book A Queer Chivalry views the religious imagery in the poems as Hopkins’s way of expressing the tension with homosexual identity and desire. The male figure of Christ allows him to safely express such feelings, which mitigates the political implications. Notes Bibliography of poems The Wreck of the Deutschland The May Magnificat Moonrise Spring God's Grandeur The Caged Skylark Hurrahing in Harvest As Kingfishers Catch Fire In the Valley of the Elwy Pied Beauty (a curtal sonnet) Carrion Comfort The Windhover: To Christ our Lord Spring and Fall, To a Young Child The Habit of Perfection The Sea and the Skylark Inversnaid That Nature is a Heraclitean Fire and of the comfort of the Resurrection Felix Randal Audio Catholic singer-songwriter Sean O'Leary has produced a collection of contemporary settings of Hopkins' poems titled The Alchemist: Gerard Manley Hopkins Poems In Musical Adaptations. 48-page booklet with accompanying double album, 2 CDs, 120 minutes, ISBN 0-9550649-0-2, 2005. The 22 Gerard Manley Hopkins' poems set as songs by Sean O'Leary include The Wreck Of The Deutschland, God's Grandeur, Spring, The Windhover, Felix Randal, and the 'Terrible Sonnets'. Richard Austin reads Hopkins' poetry in Back to Beauty's Giver. Audio book, CD, ISBN 0-9548188-0-6, 2003. 27 poems, including The Wreck Of The Deutschland, God's Grandeur, The Windhover, Pied Beauty and Binsley Poplars, and the 'Terrible Sonnets'. Bibliography Martin, Robert Bernard, 1992. Gerard Manley Hopkins - A Very Private Life (London: Flamingo/HarperCollins Publishers) White, Norman, 1992. Hopkins - A literary Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press) Abbot, Claude Coller (Ed.), 1955. The Correspondence of Gerard Manley Hopkins and Richard Watson Dixon (London: Oxford University Press.) Abbot, Claude Coller (Ed.), 1955. The Letters of Gerard Manley Hopkins to Robert Bridges (London: Oxford University Press.) Norman H. MacKenzie. (Ed.), 1989. The Early Poetic Manuscripts and Note-books of Gerard Manley Hopkins in Facsimile. (New York and London: Garland Publishing.) Norman H. MacKenzie. (Ed.), 1991 The Later Poetic Manuscripts of Gerard Manley Hopkins in Facsimile (New York: Garland Publishing.) Sagar, Keith, 2005. "Hopkins and the Religion of the Diamond Body", in Literature and the Crime Against Nature, (London: Chaucer Press.) See also Caudate sonnet Curtal sonnet (invented by G. M. Hopkins) Sprung rhythm Inscape Inscape (visual art) References External links Gerard Manley Hopkins at Project Gutenberg Poems by Gerard Manley Hopkins at PoetryFoundation.org Gerard Manley Hopkins Society Gerard Manley Hopkins's Grave Gerard Manley Hopkins Poems In Musical Adaptations The Hopkins Quarterly Online texts of Hopkins Poems: First Edition (1918) Gerard Manley Hopkins Biography, Poems, Context, Analysis - Crossref-it.info Web Concordance of Hopkins Poems Readings of Hopkins's Poetry The Victorian Web - Gerard Manley Hopkins - An Overview 2004 essay by Jim Boushay about Gerard Manley Hopkins and the ‘pain’ of deep gratitude titled To give prayerful thanks with a grateful heart That Nature Is A Heraclitean Fire - Excerpt - Musical adaptation by Sean O'Leary (MP3) The Wreck Of The Deutschland - Verse 1 - Musical adaptation by Sean O'Leary (MP3) 8 Song Samples from Musical Adaptations of Hopkins's Poetry LibriVox - Free Audio Recording of As Kingfishers Catch Fire Michael Matthew Kaylor, Secreted Desires: The Major Uranians: Hopkins, Pater and Wilde (2006), a 500-page scholarly volume that situates Hopkins among the Victorian writers of Uranian Poetry - Free, open-access, PDF version. Religious Crisis in Hopkins's Terrible Sonnets Dark Night of the Soul Gerard Manley Hopkins at St Beuno's The Poet and the Wreck Mark Ford essay on Hopkins from The New York Review of Books | Gerard_Manley_Hopkins |@lemmatized best:4 ideal:1 true:2 truth:1 none:1 glory:1 ascribèd:1 holy:1 three:3 one:8 gerard:19 manley:19 hopkins:78 j:1 july:1 june:2 english:6 poet:14 roman:2 catholic:3 convert:2 jesuit:9 priest:1 whose:2 century:2 fame:1 establish:2 posthumously:1 among:2 lead:3 victorian:4 experimental:1 exploration:1 prosody:1 especially:2 spring:6 rhythm:10 use:4 imagery:3 dare:1 innovator:1 period:1 largely:1 traditional:1 verse:5 life:11 educate:1 highgate:1 school:3 balliol:1 college:6 oxford:13 study:5 classic:2 unusually:1 sensitive:1 student:2 witness:1 class:2 note:3 early:6 poetic:7 piece:2 forge:1 friendship:1 robert:9 bridge:9 eventual:1 laureate:2 england:2 would:6 importance:3 development:1 posthumous:1 acclaim:1 begin:6 time:7 keen:1 socialite:1 prolific:1 seem:6 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4,404 | Outcome-based_education | Outcome-based education (OBE) is a recurring education reform model. It is a student-centered learning philosophy that focuses on empirically measuring student performance, which are called outcomes. OBE contrasts with traditional education, which primarily focuses on the resources that are available to the student, which are called inputs. While OBE implementations often incorporate a host of many progressive pedagogical models and ideas, such as reform mathematics, block scheduling, project-based learning and whole language reading, OBE in itself does not specify or require any particular style of teaching or learning. Instead, it requires that students demonstrate that they have learned the required skills and content. However in practice, OBE generally promotes curricula and assessment based on constructivist methods and discourages traditional education approaches based on direct instruction of facts and standard methods. Though it is claimed the focus is not on "inputs", OBE generally is used to justify increased funding requirements, increased graduation and testing requirements, and additional preparation, homework, and continuing education time spent by students, parents and teachers in supporting learning. Each independent education agency specifies its own outcomes and its own methods of measuring student achievement according to those outcomes. The results of these measurements can be used for different purposes. For example, one agency may use the information to determine how well the overall education system is performing, and another may use its assessments to determine whether an individual student has learned required material. Outcome-based methods have been adopted in significant ways in the United States, Australia, South Africa, Hong Kong, and other countries. On a smaller scale, some OBE practices, such as not passing a student who does not know the required material, have been used by individual teachers around the world for centuries. OBE was a popular term in the United States during the 1980s and early 1990s. It is also called standards-based education reform, mastery education, performance-based education, and other names. What is OBE? Outcome-based education is a model of education that rejects the traditional focus on what the school provides to students, in favor of making students demonstrate that they "know and are able to do" whatever the required outcomes are. OBE reforms emphasize setting clear standards for observable, measurable outcomes. Nothing about OBE demands the adoption of any specific outcome. For example, many countries write their OBE standards so that they focus strictly on mathematics, language, science, and history, without ever referring to attitudes, social skills, or moral values. The key features which may be used to judge if a system has implemented an outcomes-based education systems are: Creation of a curriculum framework that outlines specific, measurable outcomes. The standards included in the frameworks are usually chosen through the area's normal political process. A commitment not only to provide an opportunity of education, but to require learning outcomes for advancement. Promotion to the next grade, a diploma, or other reward is granted upon achievement of the standards, while extra classes, repeating the year, or other consequences entail upon those who do not meet the standards. Standards-based assessments that determines whether students have achieved the stated standard. Assessments may take any form, so long as the assessments actually measure whether the student knows the required information or can perform the required task. A commitment that all students of all groups will ultimately reach the same minimum standards. Schools may not "give up" on unsuccessful students. Outcomes The emphasis in an OBE education system is on measured outcomes rather than "inputs," such as how many hours students spend in class, or what textbooks are provided. Outcomes may include a range of skills and knowledge. Generally, outcomes are expected to be concretely measurable, that is, "Student can run 50 meters in less than one minute" instead of "Student enjoys physical education class." A complete system of outcomes for a subject area normally includes everything from mere recitation of fact ("Students will name three tragedies written by Shakespeare") to complex analysis and interpretation ("Student will analyze the social context of a Shakespearean tragedy in an essay"). Writing appropriate and measurable outcomes can be very difficult, and the choice of specific outcomes is often a source of local controversies. Each educational agency is responsible for setting its own outcomes. Under the OBE model, education agencies may specify any outcome (skills and knowledge), but not inputs (field trips, arrangement of the school day, teaching styles). Some popular models of outcomes include the NCTM's standards-based mathematics framework and the National Science Education Standards. Approaches to grading, reporting, and promoting An important by-product of this approach is that students are assessed against external, absolute objectives, instead of reporting the students' relative achievements. The traditional model of grading on a curve (top student gets the best grade, worst student always fails (even if they know all the material), everyone else is evenly distributed in the middle) is never accepted in OBE or standards-based education. Instead, a student's performance is related in absolute terms: "Jane knows how to write the letters of the alphabet" or "Jane answered 80% of questions correctly" instead of "Jane answered more questions correctly than Mary." Under OBE, teachers can use any objective grading system they choose, including letter grades. In fact, many schools adopt OBE methods and use the same grading systems that they have always used. However, for the purposes of graduation, advancement, and retention, a fully developed OBE system generally tracks and reports not just a single overall grade for a subject, but also give information about several specific outcomes within that subject. For example, rather than just getting a passing grade for mathematics, a student might be assessed as level 4 for number sense, level 5 for algebraic concepts, level 3 for measurement skills, etc. This approach is valuable to schools and parents by specifically identifying a student's strengths and weaknesses. In one alternate grading approach, a student is awarded "levels" instead of letter grades. From Kindergarten to year 12, the student will receive either a Foundational level (which is pre-institutional) or be evidenced at levels 1 through to 8. In the simplest implementation, earning a "level" indicates that the teacher believes that a student has learned enough of the current material to be able to succeed in the next level of work. A student technically cannot flunk in this system: a student who needs to review the current material will simply not achieve the next level at the same time as most of his same-age peers. This acknowledges differential growth at different stages, and focuses the teacher on the individual needs of the students. In this approach, students and their parents are better able to track progress from year to year, since the levels are based on criteria that remain constant for a student's whole time at school. However, this experience is perceived by some as a flaw in the system: While it is entirely normal for some students to work on the same level of outcomes for more than one year parents and students have been socialized into the expectation of a constant, steady progress through schoolwork. Parents and students therefore interpret the normal experience as failure. This emphasis on recognizing positive achievements, and comparing the student to his own prior performance, has been accused by some of "dumbing down" education (and by others as making school much too hard), since it recognises achievement at different levels. Even those who would not achieve a passing grade in a traditional age-based approach can be recognized for their concrete, positive, individual improvements. OBE-oriented teachers think about the individual needs of each student and give opportunities for each student to achieve at a variety of levels. Thus, in theory, weaker students are given work within their grasp and exceptionally strong students are extended. In practice, managing independent study programs for thirty or more individuals is difficult. Adjusting to students' abilities is something that good teachers have always done: OBE simply makes the approach explicit and reflects the approach in marking and reporting. Differences with traditional education methods In a traditional education system and economy, students are given grades and rankings compared to each other. Content and performance expectations are based primarily on what was taught in the past to students of a given age. The basic goal of traditional education was to present the knowledge and skills of the old generation to the new generation of students, and to provide students with an environment in which to learn, with little attention (beyond the classroom teacher) to whether or not any student ever learns any of the material. "The Harmful Effects of Algorithms in Grades 1--4", by Constance Kamii & Ann Dominick in The Teaching and Learning of Algorithms in School Mathematics (NCTM Yearbook, 1998):"The teaching of algorithms is based on the erroneous assumption that mathematics is a cultural heritage that must be transmitted to the next generation." (p.132) . It was enough that the school presented an opportunity to learn. Actual achievement was neither measured nor required by the school system. In fact, under the traditional model, student performance is expected to show a wide range of abilities. The failure of some students is accepted as a natural and unavoidable circumstance. The highest-performing students are given the highest grades and test scores, and the lowest performing students are given low grades. (Local laws and traditions determine whether the lowest performing students were socially promoted or made to repeat the year.) Schools used norm-referenced tests, such as inexpensive, multiple-choice computer-scored questions with single correct answers, to quickly rank students on ability. These tests do not give criterion-based judgments as to whether students have met a single standard of what every student is expected to know and do: they merely rank the students in comparison with each other. In this system, grade-level expectations are defined as the performance of the median student, a level at which half the students score better and half the students score worse. By this definition, in a normal population, half of students are expected to perform above grade level and half the students below grade level, no matter how much or how little the students have learned. Claims in favor of OBE Proponents view OBE as a valuable replacement of the traditional model of relative ranking by ability and getting credit for merely sitting through class. Liberal politicians often support OBE because of its vision of high standards for all groups. Conservatives like the idea of measuring outputs rather than inputs (such as money spent or number of hours of lecture given) and insisting that student demonstrate learning rather than just showing up. OBE proponents believe that all students can learn, regardless of ability, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and gender. Furthermore, OBE recognizes that a complex organization is more likely to produce what it measures, and to downplay anything it considers unimportant. The adoption of measurable standards is seen as a means of ensuring that the content and skills covered by the standards will be a high priority in the education of students. The standards-based education movement rejects social promotion and the inevitability of inferior performance by disadvantaged groups. While recognizing that some students will learn certain material faster than others, the standards movement rejects the idea that only a few can succeed. All students are capable of continuous improvement. The opportunities that were previously afforded to those at the top of a bell curve are opened up to the diversity of all students, in a democratic vision, sometimes connected to social justice. "What does it mean to teach mathematics for social justice? Why should all students learn mathematics, anyway? http://www.msu.edu/~oslund/ (cached) The movement presents the following positions and viewpoints on OBE: All students will complete rigorous academic coursework so that they leave high school prepared for college or technical training, without remedial courses. Toward Success at Scale. By Tom Vander Ark "The new proposition of the standards movement -- that all students should leave high school prepared for college, work, and citizenship -- is widely accepted" FAQ All students, including those who live in poverty, will meet district, state, and national standards. Federal Way Public Schools (Washington State) "Closing the Gap" Equity and Achievement Goals 2002 Staff will maintain high expectations and standards, believing all students will succeed if kept to high expectations Search Results for "gnacs.org" Atlanta Public Schools ..that translates into the belief that ALL students have potential and that ALL students will succeed. Berryessa School District, California Students should be measured against a fixed yardstick, or "against the mountain" rather than against other students. We need higher world class standards for the 21st century (though no state has yet found a precise definition of the term "world-class standards"). Students should demonstrate that they have met standards, not just put in seat time to advance to the next level. Bud the Teacher: Good Question -- Standards or Seat Time In essence, OBE seeks to reject a rank-ordered definition of success by essentially promising that all students will perform at least as well as the stated standards. In practice OBE often results in large increases in spending as more resources are poured into students who were previously allowed to graduate while being functionally illiterate and innumerate. OBE's objective standards also put a brake on grade inflation, to the distress of students who prefer high, but meaningless, grades. Criticism Criticism of OBE falls into a few major groups: Opposition to standardized testing Criticism of inappropriate outcomes Some critics have objected to additional resources being spent on struggling students. Some teachers find their marking workload significantly increase. Opposition to testing Critics claim that existing tests do not adequately measure student mastery of the stated objectives. Some parents also object to the use of standardized tests (all students take the same test under the same conditions) because they think it unfair for schools to require the same level of work or to use the achievement tests for impoverished or disadvantaged students as they do for more advantaged students. The OBE philosophy insists that assessment models be carefully matched to the stated objectives. High-stakes tests are not required in an OBE system; norm-referenced tests are prohibited. Portfolios, daily assessments, teacher opinions, and other methods of assessment are perfectly compatible with OBE models. Furthermore, the OBE approach does not permit special, lower standards for students who have been badly served by public education in the past. Inappropriate outcomes Many people oppose OBE reforms solely because they dislike the proposed outcomes. They may think that the standards are too easy, too hard, or wrongly conceived. Finally, some so-called OBE critics actually oppose reforms that were presented as a part of a wide-ranging reform "package" instead of opposing OBE. Standards can be set too low: Most fear that the focus on achievement by all students will result in "dumbing down" the definition of academic competence to a level which is achievable by even the weakest students. Critics are unhappy with having all students meet a minimum standard, instead of most students meeting a somewhat higher standard. Some critics also question whether even such low goals are realistic or attainable, and whether success can only be framed in terms of high test scores and high incomes. The emphasis on higher reading standards and algebra for all appears to devalue vocational training and the achievement of those who do not get high test scores. Standards can be set too high: Others object that the standards are too high. OBE models do not approve of social promotion, so non-disabled students who perform significantly below the stated standard may be held back or required to take additional instruction. Especially when the standards are relatively new, and the schools are just beginning to adjust to the new standards, a majority of students struggle with at least some of the requirements. Parents are understandably unhappy to learn that their children have not acquired the necessary skills, and occasionally respond by demanding that the standards be lowered until their children are declared to be passing. Sometimes this demand that the standards be lowered is justified, because some standards have been found to be developmentally inappropriate for all but the brightest students. The State of Washington found that some fourth grade WASL math problems were much more difficult than what is typically expected of nine-year-old students. A 2008 draft mathematics standard proposed that Kindergartners multiply to 30 by skip counting (also known as counting by twos: 2, 4, 6, 8...), and that second graders solve simple algebra story problems. Washington State Mathematics Standard Revision 2nd grade: A and B have 20 stamps, B has 7 more than A, how many stamps do they have? Committees often set standards without considering how many students are currently achieving at that level. For example, in the 1998 North Carolina Writing Assessment, less than 1 percent of fourth graders received the highest possible score for writing content. While a majority of students passed easily, parents were upset that so few were rated as being best. Dislike of specific outcomes: Finally, many complaints are directed against the nature of certain standards. For example, a politician might propose that standards be included for education about sex or creationism. Opponents say that many educational agencies have adopted outcomes which focus too much on attitudes (e.g., "Students will enjoy physical education class") rather than academic content. "Consultant gets tough advice from Grayslake school parents" Daily Herald, April 25 2001 By C.L. Waller Similarly, the "Who Controls Our Children" campaign in Pennsylvania claimed that an OBE reform effort was part of a federal program that was "stressing values over academic content, and holding students accountable for goals that are so vague and fuzzy they can't be assessed at all." (Olson, 1993, p. 25) (MW Kirst, RL Bird, SA Raizen, 1997 - which can be found at ). The Western Australian outcomes were criticised for being too vague OBE FAQ, Western Australia -- see the question "What's wrong with setting outcomes". . Controversial standards are opposed because of their content, not simply because they are standards. OBE models always leave the choice of the exact standards to the educational authority, so that families can influence the choice of standards according to their community's preferences. Identification of struggling students Many OBE-based systems invest resources in identifying and helping struggling students. If students with mild learning disabilities were previously ignored by a school, schools may find that their costs (and student achievement) substantially increase. Extra paperwork for teachers Teachers sometimes oppose OBE because of the amount of paperwork that often accompanies it. Rather than issuing a single letter or number to summarize an entire term's achievements, an OBE system may require that the teacher track and report dozens of separate outcomes. It takes longer to report that a student can add, subtract, multiply, divide, solve story problems, and draw graphs than to report "passed mathematics class." Dislike of something that is not OBE Many criticisms of OBE are actually criticisms of other things that are introduced with an OBE system. Many people oppose OBE reforms because the OBE reforms are packaged with other reforms. OBE reform is often packaged as part of a comprehensive school reform model which promotes constructivism, inquiry-based science, tax reform, teacher training, and more. Other educational reforms, including changes to the school calendar, the age of students that attend school in a certain building, or the way tax revenues are divided, may all be inappropriately labeled "OBE" reforms simply because they were proposed on the same day as an OBE program. School to work may also be a component of these multi-faceted reform programs. School-to-work programs require students to spend time in an internship or other form of career training or experience. OBE around the world Australia One of the problems of OBE for students wishing to attend university is that it does not lend itself well to forming a competitive Tertiary Entrance Rank (TER). The suggested model for mapping levels to a TER has been attacked because it results in a score with more significant digits than the measures from which it is derived and so is charged with being mathematically unsound. William Spady promoted the OBE method as a way of getting beyond 'meaningless' percentages and marks, aiming for education for life beyond school, giving children and young adults a broader and more transformative education. Arguably inelegant implementation makes the future of OBE unclear, and at odds with the Australian Government in Canberra. Criticism of OBE in Western Australia The current OBE controversy in Western Australia relates specifically to the introduction of OBE in upper school (year 11 and 12) classes. Many Western Australian schools have been using some form of OBE for K-10 students for several years. (OBE is only one part of the current changes to upper school education currently being implemented. Other aspects of the new courses of study that form the upper school review have received little public attention.) As part of the debate over further introduction of OBE into the teaching practice of Western Australia, various groups of concerned citizens and those in the teaching profession formed various single-issue lobby and action groups to progress their viewpoints. One such group was People Lobbying Against Teaching Outcomes formed by Greg Williams. The core view of this group was their disagreement with the former Western Australian Minister for Education (Ljiljanna Ravlich) in respect to her commitment to implement OBE. Another such group was Parents Against Outcomes Based Education Parents Against Outcomes Based Education: http://www.outcomeseducation.com/ , who took the position that the implementation of OBE would pose significant problems and potentially lead to the decreased knowledge and performance of school students. Their objection was not to OBE itself, but to the bundle of reforms, of which OBE was the most mentioned. The "Fuzzy Outcomes" criticism above applies. In January 2007, the Western Australian Government abandoned most of its Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) system in response to massive opposition from teachers and parents in the previous. Though the government had refused to back down in 2006, the Education Minister would be allow year 11 and 12 students to be graded traditionally than using outcomes-based levels and bands, even as the United States continues to change over to a somewhat similar standards-based system. WA scraps most of controversial education system United States In the early 1990s, several standards-based reform measures were passed in various states, creating the Texas Assessment of Academic Skills (1991), Washington Assessment of Student Learning (1993), the CLAS in California (1993), and the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (1993). At the national level, Congress passed the Goals 2000 act in 1994. The best-known and most far-reaching standards-based education law in the U.S. is the No Child Left Behind Act, which mandated certain measurements as a condition of receiving federal education funds. States are free to set their own standards, but the federal law mandates public reporting of math and reading test scores for disadvantaged demographic subgroups, including racial minorities, low-income students, and special education students. Various consequences for schools that do not make "adequate yearly progress" are included in the law. At the state level, exit examinations have proliferated, and now more than half of US high school students will be required to pass a high-stakes test to get a normal high school diploma. In some states, fewer than half of students and one-quarter of ethnic minorities have met these standards. Washington State OSPI WASL 2006 results In some communities, such as Littleton, Colorado, organized opposition groups have forced educational agencies to rescind reforms. "Assessment of Student Performance: Studies of Education Reform" by the U.S. Department of Education In Littleton, community members felt that vague, nonacademic outcomes were replacing content, and that technically unsound assessments would be used to determine something as important as high school graduation. They also objected to students being refused a high school diploma if they could not perform 36 separate mathematics skills, despite being given good grades in class. OBE diplomas A certificate of initial mastery was a program to provide students with an interim certification around the age of 16. The certificate was earned by taking and passing a written test, which had been designed to determine whether a student was performing at about the tenth grade level. A student who passed the 10th grade test would receive a Certificate of Initial Mastery. The CIM concept was patterned after nations like Germany's hauptschule system, in which the students who are not going to elite universities end their school-based education around age 16 and start career-oriented training in fields like construction technology, allied health professions, and business. In a typical US proposal, a student who received a CIM would then take two more years of career-based training. A national standards board was proposed to create similar tests for eight career fields, with the hope that employers would prefer certificated employees. The CIM has been essentially abandoned; however, in its place, states frequently require passing the same exam as a condition of receiving a high school diploma. Oregon had proposed a CAM for "advanced mastery" at the 12th grade. OBE's relationship to college One ironic effect of high school exit examinations is that it may become more difficult to graduate from high school than enter college. There is no set passing level for college entry tests like the SAT, and such tests are often not required by the lowest-rated colleges. In the United States, enrollment at a community colleges is typically open to any adult, with or without a high school diploma or its equivalent. Thus a student who never finishes high school may still be able to attend a college. In the future, some states may require criterion-based standards either for admission to or graduation from public universities. States are attempting to align high school curricula with the minimum standards for beginning college in an effort to reduce college dropouts and the number of remedial classes being taught at universities. Performance-based economy Outcome-based methods are used in some businesses. For whole companies, outcome-based evaluations are the basis of stock exchange prices: Companies which produce higher profit growth are more valuable than companies which perform poorly. Employees who are paid for piecework or by commission are examples of traditional employment use of outcome-based pay. Alternatives include seniority systems (oldest worker gets highest pay). Many private employers give standards-based tests to determine whether job applicants have necessary job skills (such as typing speed), and nearly all government employees have to take and pass a civil service examination. Furthermore, nearly all licensed professionals, from nurses to truck drivers to beauticians, already take such tests as a condition of entering their professions. Often these tests have disproportionate failure rates for disadvantaged subgroups, such as school dropouts and impoverished people. References Further reading Castleberry, Thomas. 2006. "Student Learning Outcomes Assessment within the Texas State University MPA Program." Applied Research Project. Texas State University. http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/182/ See also Traditional mathematics Apprenticeship External links Background Probe Ministries Outcome Based Education by Don Closson. 1993. Pro OBE Links Partnership For Learning National Center on Education and the Economy Anti OBE Links Cure Washington, citizens critical of OBE People in Western Australia lobbying against Outcomes Education Back to Basics Reform: or...OBE *Skinnerian International Curriculum? | Outcome-based_education |@lemmatized outcome:43 base:36 education:46 obe:73 recur:1 reform:22 model:14 student:125 center:2 learning:6 philosophy:2 focus:8 empirically:1 measure:11 performance:11 call:4 contrast:1 traditional:12 primarily:2 resource:4 available:1 input:4 implementation:4 often:9 incorporate:1 host:1 many:14 progressive:1 pedagogical:1 idea:3 mathematics:13 block:1 scheduling:1 project:2 whole:3 language:2 reading:3 specify:3 require:14 particular:1 style:2 teach:6 learn:16 instead:8 demonstrate:4 required:5 skill:11 content:8 however:4 practice:5 generally:4 promote:5 curriculum:4 assessment:15 constructivist:1 method:9 discourage:1 approach:10 direct:2 instruction:2 fact:4 standard:60 though:3 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4,405 | Gigantopithecus | Gigantopithecus (in Greek, gigantas meaning "giant" and pithecus meaning "ape") is an extinct genus of ape that existed from roughly one million years to as recently as three-hundred thousand years ago, in what is now China, India, and Vietnam, placing Gigantopithecus in the same time frame and geographical location as several hominin species. The fossil record suggests that the Gigantopithecus blacki species were the largest apes that ever lived, standing up to and weighing up to . Cryptozoologists claim sightings and beliefs in Bigfoot and related creatures are the result of still-living Gigantopithecus, though this is considered pseudoscientific by most biologists. Fossil remains The first Gigantopithecus remains described by an anthropologist were found in 1935 by Ralph von Koenigswald in an apothecary shop. Fossilized teeth and bones are often ground into powder and used in some branches of Traditional Chinese medicine. Von Koenigswald named the theorized species Gigantopithecus. Since then relatively few fossils of Gigantopithecus have been recovered. Aside from the molars recovered in Chinese traditional medicine shops, Liucheng Cave in Liuzhou, China has produced numerous Gigantopithecus blacki teeth as well as several jawbones. Other sites yielding significant finds were in Vietnam and India. These finds suggest the range of Gigantopithecus was southeast Asia. In 1955 forty-seven Gigantopithecus blacki teeth were found among a shipment of 'dragon bones' in China. Tracing these teeth to their source resulted in recovery of more teeth and a rather complete large mandible. By 1958, three mandibles and more than 1,300 teeth had been recovered. Gigantopithecus remains have come from sites in the Hubei Province, Guangxi Province and Sichuan Province--from warehouses for Chinese medicinal products as well as from cave deposits. Not all Chinese remains have been dated to the same time period, and the fossils in Hubei appear to be of a later date than elsewhere in China. The Hubei teeth are also larger. Poirier, Frank E. and Jeffrey K. McKee. Understanding Human Evolution. Fourth Edition. p. 118. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1999. Morphology Based on the fossil evidence, it is believed that adult male Gigantopithecus blacki stood about tall and weighed as much as , making the species two to three times heavier than modern gorillas and nearly five times heavier than the orangutan, its closest living relative. The species was highly sexually dimorphic, with adult females roughly half the weight of males. Due to wide interspecies differences in the relationship between tooth and body size, some argue that it is more likely that Gigantopithecus was much smaller, at roughly . Evidence of a separate species, Gigantopithecus giganteus, has been found in northern India and China. In the Guangxi region of China, teeth of this species were discovered in limestone formations in Daxin and Wuming, north of Nanning. Despite the name, it is believed that giganteus was approximately half the size of blacki. The jaws of Gigantopithecus are deep and very thick. The molars are low crowned and flat and exhibit heavy enamel suitable for tough grinding. The premolars are broad and flat and configured similarly to the molars. The canine teeth are neither pointed nor sharp, while the incisors are small, peglike and closely aligned. The features of teeth and jaws suggested that the animal was adapted to chewing tough, fibrous food by cutting, crushing and grinding it. Gigantopithecus teeth also have a large number of cavities, similar to those found in giant pandas, whose diet, which includes a large amount of bamboo, may be similar to that of Gigantopithecus. COICHON, R. 1991. The ape that was. Natural History November: 54-62. In addition to bamboo, Gigantopithecus consumed other vegetable foods, a fact proven by the analysis of the phytoliths adhering to its teeth. An examination of the microscopic scratches and gritty plant remains embedded in Gigantopithecus teeth suggests that they ingested seeds and fruit as well as bamboo. Poirier, Frank E. and Jeffrey K. McKee. Understanding Human Evolution. Fourth Edition. p. 119. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1999. Although it is not known why Gigantopithecus died out, researchers believe that climate change and resource competition with better adapted species were the main culprits. In cryptozoology Proponents of cryptozoology believe gigantopithecines are the legendary primates known in various geographic locations as Sasquatch, Yowie, Yeren, Skunk ape, or Yeti. These claims are rejected as pseudoscientific by mainstream biology. Gallery References External links Artist's rendering of Gigantopithecus blackii | Gigantopithecus |@lemmatized gigantopithecus:21 greek:1 gigantas:1 mean:1 giant:2 pithecus:1 meaning:1 ape:5 extinct:1 genus:1 exist:1 roughly:3 one:1 million:1 year:2 recently:1 three:3 hundred:1 thousand:1 ago:1 china:6 india:3 vietnam:2 place:1 time:4 frame:1 geographical:1 location:2 several:2 hominin:1 specie:8 fossil:5 record:1 suggest:4 blacki:5 large:5 ever:1 live:1 stand:2 weigh:2 cryptozoologists:1 claim:2 sighting:1 belief:1 bigfoot:1 related:1 creature:1 result:2 still:1 living:2 though:1 consider:1 pseudoscientific:2 biologist:1 remain:4 first:1 describe:1 anthropologist:1 find:6 ralph:1 von:2 koenigswald:2 apothecary:1 shop:2 fossilize:1 teeth:13 bone:2 often:1 grind:2 powder:1 use:1 branch:1 traditional:2 chinese:4 medicine:2 name:2 theorized:1 since:1 relatively:1 recover:3 aside:1 molar:3 liucheng:1 cave:2 liuzhou:1 produce:1 numerous:1 well:4 jawbone:1 site:2 yield:1 significant:1 range:1 southeast:1 asia:1 forty:1 seven:1 among:1 shipment:1 dragon:1 trace:1 source:1 recovery:1 rather:1 complete:1 mandible:2 come:1 hubei:3 province:3 guangxi:2 sichuan:1 warehouse:1 medicinal:1 product:1 deposit:1 remains:1 date:2 period:1 appear:1 later:1 elsewhere:1 also:2 poirier:2 frank:2 e:2 jeffrey:2 k:2 mckee:2 understanding:2 human:2 evolution:2 fourth:2 edition:2 p:2 prentice:2 hall:2 upper:2 saddle:2 river:2 new:2 jersey:2 morphology:1 base:1 evidence:2 believe:4 adult:2 male:2 tall:1 much:2 make:1 two:1 heavy:3 modern:1 gorilla:1 nearly:1 five:1 orangutan:1 close:1 relative:1 highly:1 sexually:1 dimorphic:1 female:1 half:2 weight:1 due:1 wide:1 interspecies:1 difference:1 relationship:1 tooth:1 body:1 size:2 argue:1 likely:1 small:2 separate:1 giganteus:2 northern:1 region:1 discover:1 limestone:1 formation:1 daxin:1 wuming:1 north:1 nanning:1 despite:1 approximately:1 jaw:2 deep:1 thick:1 low:1 crown:1 flat:2 exhibit:1 enamel:1 suitable:1 tough:2 grinding:1 premolar:1 broad:1 configure:1 similarly:1 canine:1 neither:1 point:1 sharp:1 incisor:1 peglike:1 closely:1 align:1 feature:1 animal:1 adapt:2 chew:1 fibrous:1 food:2 cut:1 crush:1 number:1 cavity:1 similar:2 panda:1 whose:1 diet:1 include:1 amount:1 bamboo:3 may:1 coichon:1 r:1 natural:1 history:1 november:1 addition:1 consume:1 vegetable:1 fact:1 prove:1 analysis:1 phytoliths:1 adhere:1 examination:1 microscopic:1 scratch:1 gritty:1 plant:1 embed:1 ingest:1 seed:1 fruit:1 although:1 know:2 die:1 researcher:1 climate:1 change:1 resource:1 competition:1 main:1 culprit:1 cryptozoology:2 proponent:1 gigantopithecines:1 legendary:1 primate:1 various:1 geographic:1 sasquatch:1 yowie:1 yeren:1 skunk:1 yeti:1 reject:1 mainstream:1 biology:1 gallery:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 artist:1 rendering:1 blackii:1 |@bigram hundred_thousand:1 southeast_asia:1 guangxi_province:1 sichuan_province:1 prentice_hall:2 upper_saddle:2 sexually_dimorphic:1 canine_teeth:1 giant_panda:1 external_link:1 |
4,406 | European_route_E4 | E 4 near Örnsköldsvik. A common standard between Tornio and Gävle. Some roads of this standard have been converted to 2+1-road with a barrier. E 4 near Linköping, Sweden E 4 180 m above Lake Vättern European route E 4 passes from north to south through Sweden from the frontier with Finland, total length . The Finnish part lies entirely within Tornio in northern Finland, and is actually only long. The Swedish part, however, goes through most of Sweden except the extreme north, and it is commonly considered the highway backbone of Sweden, since it passes in the immediate vicinity of all the major cities and large towns except four (these being Gothenburg, Malmö, Västerås and Örebro), but including Stockholm, the capital city of Sweden. From Haparanda on the Finnish border, it stretches south along the Gulf of Bothnia to Gävle, then on a more inland route southwards. It ends in Helsingborg in Sweden, at the port for the ferry to Elsinore in Denmark. In the new system of European routes, it was planned to have been a part of E 55, but it remains in the pre-1992 designation (E 4) within Sweden, because the expenses connected with re-signing this long road portion would be too large. Besides the signs along the road, there are thousands of signs, especially in cities, showing how to reach the E 4 road. The road is now fully authorized as E 4 by the relevant authority, not as E 55. North of Gävle the road is of mixed standard. Depending on the fashion at the time of construction it is either a single standard carriageway road, usually wide, or a 2+1 road, a wide road with two lanes in one direction and one in the other with a steel wire barrier in between, or sometimes a motorway with two lanes in each direction. South of Gävle, the road is almost a continuous motorway. On October 17, 2007, the final stretch of the motorway, between Uppsala and Mehedeby was opened. South of Gävle is the speed limit on 60% and on 30%. North of Gävle there are varying speed limits, with , and as the most common. The speed limits on the main roads in Sweden were changed on many stretches in October 2008, and 120 km/h was introduced then http://www.vv.se/templates/page3wide____24153.aspx . The E 4 is the fastest road to go from Germany/Denmark to areas north of the arctic circle, including places in Norway like Tromsø. To go from Helsingborg to the North Cape, the fastest road is E 4 to Luleå, then E 10/road 392/road 403 to Kolari at the Swedish/Finnish border, then E 8 and road 93 to Alta and on. While in Sweden, this route passes through or nearby the cities Haparanda, Luleå, Piteå, Skellefteå, Umeå, Örnsköldsvik, Härnösand, Sundsvall, Hudiksvall, Söderhamn, Gävle, Uppsala, Märsta, Stockholm, Nyköping, Norrköping, Linköping, Jönköping, Ljungby, Helsingborg. Between (and including) Haparanda and Sundsvall the road passes through most larger cities as city streets. | European_route_E4 |@lemmatized e:13 near:2 örnsköldsvik:2 common:2 standard:4 tornio:2 gävle:7 road:18 convert:1 barrier:2 linköping:2 sweden:9 lake:1 vättern:1 european:2 route:4 pass:4 north:6 south:4 frontier:1 finland:2 total:1 length:1 finnish:3 part:3 lie:1 entirely:1 within:2 northern:1 actually:1 long:2 swedish:2 however:1 go:3 except:2 extreme:1 commonly:1 consider:1 highway:1 backbone:1 since:1 immediate:1 vicinity:1 major:1 city:6 large:3 town:1 four:1 gothenburg:1 malmö:1 västerås:1 örebro:1 include:3 stockholm:2 capital:1 haparanda:3 border:2 stretch:3 along:2 gulf:1 bothnia:1 inland:1 southward:1 end:1 helsingborg:3 port:1 ferry:1 elsinore:1 denmark:2 new:1 system:1 plan:1 remain:1 pre:1 designation:1 expense:1 connect:1 signing:1 portion:1 would:1 besides:1 sign:2 thousand:1 especially:1 show:1 reach:1 fully:1 authorize:1 relevant:1 authority:1 mixed:1 depend:1 fashion:1 time:1 construction:1 either:1 single:1 carriageway:1 usually:1 wide:2 two:2 lane:2 one:2 direction:2 steel:1 wire:1 sometimes:1 motorway:3 almost:1 continuous:1 october:2 final:1 uppsala:2 mehedeby:1 open:1 speed:3 limit:3 vary:1 main:1 change:1 many:1 km:1 h:1 introduce:1 http:1 www:1 vv:1 se:1 template:1 aspx:1 fast:2 germany:1 area:1 arctic:1 circle:1 place:1 norway:1 like:1 tromsø:1 cape:1 luleå:2 kolari:1 alta:1 nearby:1 piteå:1 skellefteå:1 umeå:1 härnösand:1 sundsvall:2 hudiksvall:1 söderhamn:1 märsta:1 nyköping:1 norrköping:1 jönköping:1 ljungby:1 street:1 |@bigram immediate_vicinity:1 gulf_bothnia:1 http_www:1 |
4,407 | Hypnosis | For the states induced by hypnotic drugs, see Sleep or Unconsciousness. Hypnotized redirects here. For the Shanadoo song, see Hypnotized (song). For the Plies song, see Hypnotized (Plies song). Hypnosis is a mental state (state theory) or set of attitudes (nonstate theory) usually induced by a procedure known as a hypnotic induction, which is commonly composed of a series of preliminary instructions and suggestions. Hypnotic suggestions may be delivered by a hypnotist in the presence of the subject ("hetero-suggestion"), or may be self-administered ("self-suggestion" or "autosuggestion"). The use of hypnotism for therapeutic purposes is referred to as "hypnotherapy". The words 'hypnosis' and 'hypnotism' both derive from the term "neuro-hypnotism" (nervous sleep) coined by the Scottish physician and surgeon James Braid around 1841 to distinguish his theory and practice from those developed by Franz Anton Mesmer and his followers ("Mesmerism" or "animal magnetism"). Although a popular misconception is that hypnosis is a form of unconsciousness resembling sleep, contemporary research suggests that it is actually a wakeful state of focused attention "Information for the Public. American Society of Clinical Hypnosis." and heightened suggestibility, Lyda, Alex. "Hypnosis Gaining Ground in Medicine." Columbia News. with diminished peripheral awareness. p. 22, Spiegel, Herbert and Spiegel, David. Trance and Treatment. Basic Books Inc., New York. 1978. ISBN 0-465-08687-X </blockquote> In the first book on the subject, Neurypnology (1843), Braid described "hypnotism" as a state of physical relaxation ("nervous sleep") accompanied and induced by mental concentration ("abstraction"). Braid, J. (1843) Neurypnology. Characteristics Skeptics point out the difficulty distinguishing between hypnosis and the placebo effect, proposing that the state called hypnosis is so heavily reliant upon the effects of suggestion and belief that it would be hard to imagine how a credible placebo control could ever be devised for a hypnotism study. Bausell, R Barker, quoted in The Skeptic's Dictionary However, hypnotism itself originated out of very early placebo controlled experiments, conducted by Braid and others. Many researchers and clinicians would therefore object that hypnotic suggestion is explicitly intended to make use of the placebo effect, e.g., Irving Kirsch has proposed a definition of hypnosis as a "non-deceptive mega-placebo", i.e., a method which openly makes use of suggestion and employs methods to amplify its effects. It is therefore surprisingly difficult to distinguish between the views of skeptics and proponents regarding hypnotism. Definitions The earliest definition of hypnosis was given by Braid, who coined the term "hypnotism" as an abbreviation for "neuro-hypnotism", or nervous sleep, which he opposed to normal sleep, and defined as: a peculiar condition of the nervous system, induced by a fixed and abstracted attention of the mental and visual eye, on one object, not of an exciting nature. Braid, Neurypnology, 1843: 'Introduction' Braid elaborated upon this brief definition in a later work: [...] the real origin and essence of the hypnotic condition, is the induction of a habit of abstraction or mental concentration, in which, as in reverie or spontaneous abstraction, the powers of the mind are so much engrossed with a single idea or train of thought, as, for the nonce, to render the individual unconscious of, or indifferently conscious to, all other ideas, impressions, or trains of thought. The hypnotic sleep, therefore, is the very antithesis or opposite mental and physical condition to that which precedes and accompanies common sleep [...] Braid, Hypnotic Therapeutics, 1853 Braid therefore defined hypnotism as a state of mental concentration which often led to a form of progressive relaxation termed "nervous sleep". Later, in his The Physiology of Fascination (1855), Braid conceded that his original terminology was misleading, and argued that the term "hypnotism" or "nervous sleep" should be reserved for the minority (10%) of subjects who exhibited amnesia, substituting the term "monoideism", meaning concentration upon a single idea, as a description for the more alert state experienced by the others. A contemporary account of hypnosis, derived from academic psychology, was provided in 2005, when the Society for Psychological Hypnosis, Division 30 of the American Psychological Association (APA), published the following formal definition: Induction Hypnosis is normally preceded by a "hypnotic induction" technique. Traditionally this was interpreted as a method of putting the subject into a "hypnotic trance"; however subsequent "nonstate" theorists have viewed it differently, as a means of heightening client expectation, defining their role, focusing attention, etc. There are an enormous variety of different induction techniques used in hypnotism. However, by far the most influential method was the original "eye-fixation" technique of Braid, also known as "Braidism". Many variations of the eye-fixation approach exist, including the induction used in the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (SHSS), the most widely-used research tool in the field of hypnotism. Braid's original description of his induction is as follows: Braid himself later acknowledged that the hypnotic induction technique was not necessary in every case and subsequent researchers have generally found that on average it contributes less than previously expected to the effect of hypnotic suggestions (q.v., Barber, Spanos & Chaves, 1974). Many variations and alternatives to the original hypnotic induction techniques were subsequently developed. However, exactly 100 years after Braid introduced the method, another expert could still state: "It can be safely stated that nine out of ten hypnotic techniques call for reclining posture, muscular relaxation, and optical fixation followed by eye closure." White, Robert W. 'A preface to the theory of hypnotism', Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology, 1941, 1, 498. Suggestion When Braid first introduced hypnotism, he did not use the term "suggestion" but referred instead to the act of focusing the conscious mind of the subject upon a single dominant idea. Braid's main therapeutic strategy involved stimulating or reducing physiological functioning in different regions of the body. In his later works, however, Braid placed increasing emphasis upon the use of a variety of different verbal and non-verbal forms of suggestion, including the use of "waking suggestion" and self-hypnosis. Subsequently, Hippolyte Bernheim shifted the emphasis from the physical state of hypnosis on to the psychological process of verbal suggestion. I define hypnotism as the induction of a peculiar psychical [i.e., mental] condition which increases the susceptibility to suggestion. Often, it is true, the [hypnotic] sleep that may be induced facilitates suggestion, but it is not the necessary preliminary. It is suggestion that rules hypnotism. (Hypnosis & Suggestion, 1884: 15) Bernheim's conception of the primacy of verbal suggestion in hypnotism dominated the subject throughout the twentieth century, leading some authorities to declare him the father of modern hypnotism (Weitzenhoffer, 2000). Contemporary hypnotism makes use of a wide variety of different forms of suggestion including: direct verbal suggestions, "indirect" verbal suggestions such as requests or insinuations, metaphors and other rhetorical figures of speech, and non-verbal suggestion in the form of mental imagery, voice tonality, and physical manipulation. A distinction is commonly made between suggestions delivered "permissively" or in a more "authoritarian" manner. Some hypnotic suggestions are intended to bring about immediate responses, whereas others (post-hypnotic suggestions) are intended to trigger responses after a delay ranging from a few minutes to many years in some reported cases. Consciousness vs. unconscious mind Some hypnotists conceive of suggestions as being a form of communication directed primarily to the subject's conscious mind, whereas others view suggestion as a means of communicating with the "unconscious" or "subconscious" mind. These concepts were introduced into hypnotism at the end of 19th century by Sigmund Freud and Pierre Janet. The original Victorian pioneers of hypnotism, including Braid and Bernheim, did not employ these concepts but considered hypnotic Milton Erickson, made more use of indirect suggestions, such as metaphors or stories, whose intended meaning may be concealed from the subject's conscious mind. The concept of subliminal suggestion also depends upon this view of the mind. By contrast, hypnotists who believed that responses to suggestion are primarily mediated by the conscious mind, such as Theodore Barber and Nicholas Spanos tended to make more use of direct verbal suggestions and instructions. Ideo-dynamic reflex The first neuro-psychological theory of hypnotic suggestion was introduced early on by James Braid who adopted his friend and colleague William Carpenter's theory of the ideo-motor reflex response to account for the phenomena of hypnotism. Carpenter had observed from close examination of everyday experience that under certain circumstances the mere idea of a muscular movement could be sufficient to produce a reflexive, or automatic, contraction or movement of the muscles involved, albeit in a very small degree. Braid extended Carpenter's theory to encompass the observation that a wide variety of bodily responses, other than muscular movement, can be thus affected, e.g., the idea of sucking a lemon can automatically stimulate salivation, a secretory response. Braid therefore adopted the term "ideo-dynamic", meaning "by the power of an idea" to explain a broad range of "psycho-physiological" (mind-body) phenomena. Braid coined the term "mono-ideodynamic" to refer to the theory that hypnotism operates by concentrating attention on a single idea in order to amplify the ideo-dynamic reflex response. Variations of the basic ideo-motor or ideo-dynamic theory of suggestion have continued to hold considerable influence over subsequent theories of hypnosis, including those of Clark L. Hull, Hans Eysenck, and Ernest Rossi. It should be noted that in Victorian psychology, the word "idea" encompasses any mental representation, e.g., including mental imagery, or memories, etc. Post-hypnotic suggestion Post-hypnotic suggestion can be used to change people's behaviour after emerging from hypnosis. One author wrote that "a person can act, some time later, on a suggestion seeded during the hypnotic session... A hypnotherapist told one of his patients, who was also a friend: 'When I touch you on the finger you will immediately be hypnotised.' Fourteen years later, at a dinner party, he touched him deliberately on the finger and his head fell back against the chair." Waterfield, R. (2003). Hidden Depths: The Story of Hypnosis. pp. 36-37 An Altay shaman beating a gong. Music was one way that Siberian shamans entered trance. Gulliford, Tristan. "Music and Trance in Siberian Shamanism." Susceptibility Braid made a rough distinction between different stages of hypnosis which he termed the first and second conscious stage of hypnotism, he later replaced this with a distinction between "sub-hypnotic", "full hypnotic", and "hypnotic coma" stages. Jean-Martin Charcot made a similar distinction between stages named somnambulism, lethargy, and catalepsy. However, Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault and Bernheim introduced more complex hypnotic "depth" scales, based on a combination of behavioural, physiological and subjective responses, some of which were due to direct suggestion and some of which were not. In the first few decades of the 20th century, these early clinical "depth" scales were superseded by more sophisticated "hypnotic susceptibility" scales based on experimental research. The most influential were the Davis-Husband and Friedlander-Sarbin scales developed in the 1930s. Andre Weitzenhoffer and Ernest R. Hilgard developed the Stanford Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility in 1959, consisting of 12 suggestion test items following a standardised hypnotic eye-fixation induction script, and this has become one of the most widely-referenced research tools in the field of hypnosis. Soon after, in 1962, Ronald Shor and Emily Carota Orne developed a similar group scale called the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (HGSHS). Whereas the older "depth scales" tried to infer the level of "hypnotic trance" based upon supposed observable signs, such as spontaneous amnesia, most subsequent scales measure the degree of observed or self-evaluated responsiveness to specific suggestion tests, such as direct suggestions of arm rigidity (catalepsy). History Precursors According to his writings, Braid began to hear reports concerning the practices of various Oriental meditation techniques immediately after the publication of his major book on hypnotism, Neurypnology (1843). Braid first discusses hypnotism's historical precursors in a series of articles entitled Magic, Mesmerism, Hypnotism, etc., Historically & Physiologically Considered. He draws analogies between his own practice of hypnotism and various forms of Hindu yoga meditation and other ancient spiritual practices. Braid’s interest in meditation really developed when he was introduced to the Dabistān-i Mazāhib, the “School of Religions”, an ancient Persian text describing a wide variety of Oriental religious practices. Last May [1843], a gentleman residing in Edinburgh, personally unknown to me, who had long resided in India, favored me with a letter expressing his approbation of the views which I had published on the nature and causes of hypnotic and mesmeric phenomena. In corroboration of my views, he referred to what he had previously witnessed in oriental regions, and recommended me to look into the “Dabistan,” a book lately published, for additional proof to the same effect. On much recommendation I immediately sent for a copy of the “Dabistan”, in which I found many statements corroborative of the fact, that the eastern saints are all self-hypnotisers, adopting means essentially the same as those which I had recommended for similar purposes. Braid, J. “Magic, Mesmerism, Hypnotism, etc., Historically and Physiologically considered”, 1844-1845, vol. XI., pp. 203-204, 224-227, 270-273, 296-299, 399-400, 439-41. Although he disputed the religious interpretation given to these phenomena throughout this article and elsewhere in his writings, Braid seized upon these accounts of Oriental meditation as proof that the effects of hypnotism could be produced in solitude, without the presence of a magnetiser, and therefore saw this as evidence that the real precursor of hypnotism was to be sought in the ancient practices of meditation rather than in the more recent theory and practice of Mesmerism. As he later wrote: In as much as patients can throw themselves into the nervous sleep, and manifest all the usual phenomena of Mesmerism, through their own unaided efforts, as I have so repeatedly proved by causing them to maintain a steady fixed gaze at any point, concentrating their whole mental energies on the idea of the object looked at; or that the same may arise by the patient looking at the point of his own finger, or as the Magi of Persia and Yogi of India have practised for the last 2,400 years, for religious purposes, throwing themselves into their ecstatic trances by each maintaining a steady fixed gaze at the tip of his own nose; it is obvious that there is no need for an exoteric influence to produce the phenomena of Mesmerism. […] The great object in all these processes is to induce a habit of abstraction or concentration of attention, in which the subject is entirely absorbed with one idea, or train of ideas, whilst he is unconscious of, or indifferently conscious to, every other object, purpose, or action. Braid, J. (1846). The Power of the Mind over the Body Franz Mesmer Franz Mesmer (1734-1815) believed that there was a magnetic force or "fluid" within the universe which influenced the health of the human body. He experimented with magnets to influence this field and so cause healing. By around 1774 he had concluded that the same effects could be created by passing the hands, at a distance, in front of the subject's body, referred to as making "Mesmeric passes." The word mesmerise originates from the name of Franz Mesmer; and was intentionally used to separate its users from the various "fluid" and "magnetic" theories embedded within the label "magnetist". In 1784, at the request of King Louis XVI, Mesmer's theories were scrutinised by a series of French scientific committees, one of which included the American ambassador to France, Benjamin Franklin. They also investigated the practices of a disaffected student of Mesmer, one Charles d'Eslon (1750-1786), and on the basis of their examination of d'Eslon's manner of working (not Mesmer's), and despite the fact that they accepted that the results that were claimed by Mesmer were in fact veridical, their placebo controlled experiments of d'Eslon's practices clearly demonstrate that the effects of Mesmerism were most likely due to belief and imagination rather than to any sort of invisible energy ("animal magnetism") being transmitted from the body of the Mesmerist. In other words, despite accepting that Mesmer's practice seemed to have a certain efficacy, both committees totally rejected all of Mesmer's theories. James Braid James Braid. Following the French committee's findings, in his Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind (1827), Dugald Stewart, an influential academic philosopher of the "Scottish School of Common Sense", encouraged physicians to salvage elements of Mesmerism by replacing the supernatural theory of "animal magnetism" with a new interpretation based upon "common sense" laws of physiology and psychology. Braid explicitly quotes the following passage from Stewart: Braid, J. Magic, Witchcraft, etc., 1852: 41-42. It appears to me, that the general conclusions established by Mesmer’s practice, with respect to the physical effects of the principle of imagination [...] are incomparably more curious than if he had actually demonstrated the existence of his boasted science [of "animal magnetism"]: nor can I see any good reason why a physician, who admits the efficacy of the moral [i.e., psychological] agents employed by Mesmer, should, in the exercise of his profession, scruple to copy whatever processes are necessary for subjecting them to his command, any more than that he should hesitate about employing a new physical agent, such as electricity or galvanism. Stewart, D. Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, 1827: 147 In Braid's day, the Scottish School of Common Sense provided the dominant theories of academic psychology and Braid frequently refers to other philosophers within this tradition throughout his writings. Braid therefore revised the theory and practice of Mesmerism and developed his own method of "hypnotism" as a more rational and "common sense" alternative. It may here be requisite for me to explain, that by the term Hypnotism, or Nervous Sleep, which frequently occurs in the following pages, I mean a peculiar condition of the nervous system, into which it may be thrown by artificial contrivance, and which differs, in several respects, from common sleep or the waking condition. I do not allege that this condition is induced through the transmission of a magnetic or occult influence from my body into that of my patients; nor do I profess, by my processes, to produce the higher [i.e., supernatural] phenomena of the Mesmerists. My pretensions are of a much more humble character, and are all consistent with generally admitted principles in physiological and psychological science. Hypnotism might therefore not inaptly be designated, Rational Mesmerism, in contra-distinction to the Transcendental Mesmerism of the Mesmerists. Braid, Observations on Trance or Human Hibernation, 1850, 'Preface.' Despite briefly toying with the name "rational Mesmerism", Braid ultimately distanced his approach from Mesmer's and emphasised its uniqueness, carrying out many informal experiments throughout his career to refute the theories of Mesmerists and other supernatural practices, and demonstrate instead the role of ordinary physiological and psychological processes such as suggestion and focused attention in producing the effects observed. Braid worked very closely with his friend and ally the eminent physiologist Professor William Benjamin Carpenter an early neuro-psychologist, who introduced the "ideo-motor reflex" theory of suggestion. Carpenter had observed many everyday examples of expectation and imagination apparently influencing the movement of muscles involuntarily. A classic example of the ideomotor principle in action is the so-called "Chevreul pendulum" (named after Michel Eugène Chevreul). A pendulum can be made to swing, apparently of its own accord, as a result of concentration upon the idea of its doing so. Braid soon assimilated Carpenter's observations into his own theory of hypnotism, realising that the effect of focusing attention was to enhance the ideo-motor reflex response. Braid extended Carpenter's theory to encompass the influence of the mind upon the body more generally, beyond the muscular system, and therefore referred to the "ideo-dynamic" response and coined the term "psycho-physiology" to refer to the study of interaction between the mind and body in general. In his later works, Braid reserved the term "hypnotism" for the small minority of cases in which subjects entered a state of amnesia resembling sleep. For the rest, he spoke of "mono-ideodynamic" principle of action to emphasise that the eye-fixation induction technique worked by narrowing the focus of their attention to a single idea or train of thought ("monoideism") which thereby amplified the effect of the consequent "dominant idea" upon the subject's body by means of the ideo-dynamic principle. Hysteria vs. suggestion For several decades, Braid's work became more influential abroad than in his own country, except for a handful of followers, most notably Dr. John Milne Bramwell. The eminent neurologist Dr. George Miller Beard took Braid's theories to America. Meanwhile his works were translated into German by Wilhelm T. Preyer, Professor of Physiology at Jena University. The psychiatrist Albert Moll subsequently continued German research, publishing his Hypnotism in 1889. However, the study of hypnotism mainly became focused in France, after Braid's research was presented before the French Academy of Sciences by the eminent neurologist Dr. Étienne Eugène Azam who also translated Braid's last manuscript (On Hypnotism, 1860) into French. The French Academy of Science, who had previously examined Mesmerism in 1784, therefore subsequently examined the writings of Braid, shortly after his demise, at the request of Azam, Paul Broca, and others. Azam's enthusiasm for hypnotism influenced Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault, a country doctor whose enormously popular group hypnotherapy clinic was discovered by Hippolyte Bernheim who subsequently became himself an influential hypnotist. The study of hypnotism subsequently became centred upon a fierce rivalry and debate between Jean-Martin Charcot and Hippolyte Bernheim, the two most influential figures in late 19th century hypnotism. An important argument developed between Charcot's "Hysteria School", centered on Charcot's clinic at the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital (thus, also known as the "Paris School" or the "Salpêtrière School") and Bernheim's "Suggestion School", centred on Bernheim's Nancy clinic (thus, also known as the "Nancy School" over the true nature of hypnosis. Charcot, influenced more by the Mesmerists, argued that hypnotism was an abnormal state of nervous functioning found only in certain hysterical women. He claimed that it was manifested in the form of a series of physical reactions which could be divided into distinct stages. Bernheim argued against Charcot that anyone could be hypnotised, that it was an extension of normal psychological functioning, and that its effects were variable being primarily due to suggestion. After several decades of debate, Bernheim's view eventually came to dominate and Charcot's theory of hypnosis is now seen as little more than a historical curiosity. Pierre Janet Pierre Janet (1859-1947) reported some initial studies on a hypnotic subject in 1882 which came to the attention of Charcot who subsequently appointed him director of the psychological laboratory at the Salpêtrière in 1889, after Janet completed his PhD in philosophy which dealt with the subject of psychological automatism. In 1898 Janet was appointed lecturer in psychology at the Sorbonne, and in 1902 he became chair of experimental and comparative psychology at the Collège de France. Janet reconciled elements of his views with those of Bernheim and his followers, developing his own sophisticated hypnotic psychotherapy based upon the concept of psychological dissociation which, at the turn of the century, rivalled Freud's attempt to provide a more comprehensive psychological theory of psychotherapy. Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, subsequently studied hypnotism at Charcot's Paris school and briefly visited Bernheim's Nancy school. Initially, Freud was an enthusiastic proponent of hypnotherapy, and soon began to emphasise and popularise the use of hypnotic regression and ab reaction (catharsis) as therapeutic methods. He wrote a favorable encyclopedia article on hypnotism, translated one of Bernheim's works into German, and published an influential series of case studies with his colleague Joseph Breuer entitled Studies on Hysteria (1895). This became the founding text of the subsequent tradition known as "hypno-analysis" or "regression hypnotherapy." However, Freud gradually abandoned the use of hypnotism in favour of his developing methods of psychoanalysis, through free association and interpretation of the unconscious. Struggling with the great expense of time required for psychoanalysis to be successful, Freud later suggested that it might be combined with hypnotic suggestion once more in an attempt to hasten the outcome of treatment, It is very probable, too, that the application of our therapy to numbers will compel us to alloy the pure gold of analysis plentifully with the copper of direct [hypnotic] suggestion. S. Freud, Lines of Advance in Psychoanalytic Therapy, 1919 However, only a handful of Freud's followers were sufficiently qualified in hypnosis to attempt the synthesis. Their work had a limited influence on the gradual emergence of the hypno-therapeutic approaches now known variously as "hypnotic regression", "hypnotic progression", and "hypnoanalysis". Émile Coué Émile Coué (1857-1926) served for around two years as an assistant to Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault in his group hypnotic at Nancy. However, after practicing for several years as a hypnotherapist employing the methods of Liébeault and Bernheim's Nancy School, Coué gradually began to develop a new orientation called "conscious autosuggestion." Several years after Liébeault's death in 1904, Coué founded what became known as the New Nancy School, a loose collaboration of practitioners who taught and promoted his views. Coué's method did not emphasise "sleep" or deep relaxation and instead focused upon teaching groups of clients how to use autosuggestion by trial and error learning involving a specific series of suggestion tests. Although Coué argued that he was no longer using hypnosis, some of his followers, such as Charles Baudouin, viewed his approach as a form of light self-hypnosis. Coué's method became an internationally renowned self-help and psychotherapy technique, which contrasted with the methods of Freud's method of psychoanalysis and prefigured subsequent self-hypnosis techniques and, in some regards, the development of cognitive therapy. Clark L. Hull The next major event in the history of hypnotism came as a result of the progress of behavioural psychology in American university research. Clark L. Hull, an eminent American psychologist, published the first major compilation of laboratory studies on hypnosis, Hypnosis & Suggestibility (1933), in which he conclusively proved that the state of hypnosis and the state of sleep had nothing in common. Hull published many quantitative empirical findings derived from experiments using hypnosis and suggestion and thereby encouraged subsequent research into hypnosis by mainstream academic psychologists. Hull's behavioural psychology interpretation of hypnosis, in terms of conditioned reflexes, rivaled the Freudian psycho dynamic interpretation in terms of unconscious transference. Milton Erickson Milton H. Erickson, M.D. was one of the most influential post-war hypnotherapists. He wrote several books and journal articles on the subject. During the 1960s, Erickson was responsible for popularizing a new branch of hypnotherapy, which became known as Ericksonian hypnotherapy, eventually characterised by, amongst other things, the absence of a formal hypnotic inductions, and the use of indirect suggestion, "metaphor" (actually they were analogies, rather than "metaphors"), confusion techniques, and double binds. However, the lack of resemblance between Erickson's methods and those of traditional hypnotism led some of his contemporaries, such as André Weitzenhoffer, to seriously question whether he was actually practicing "hypnosis" at all, and the status of his approach in relation to traditional hypnotism has remained in question. Erickson had no hesitation in presenting any suggested effect as being "hypnosis", whether or not the subject was in a hypnotic state. In fact, he was not hesitant in passing off behaviour that was dubiously hypnotic as being hypnotic. Weitzenhoffer, The Practice of Hypnotism, 2000: 419 Cognitive-behavioural In the latter half of the twentieth century, two factors contributed to the development of what subsequently became known as the cognitive-behavioural approach to hypnosis. 1) Cognitive and behavioural theories of the nature of hypnosis (influenced by the seminal theories of Sarbin Sarbin, T.R. & Coe, W.C. (1972). Hypnosis: A Social Psychological Analysis of Influence Communication. and Barber Barber, Spanos & Chaves (1974). Hypnotism: Imagination & Human Potentialities. ) became increasingly influential. 2) The therapeutic practices of hypnotherapy and various forms of cognitive-behavioural therapy overlapped and influenced each other. Alladin, A. (2008). Cognitive Hypnotherapy. Although cognitive-behavioural theories of hypnosis must be distinguished from cognitive-behavioural approaches to hypnotherapy, they share similar concepts, terminology, and assumptions and have been integrated by influential researchers and clinicians such as Irving Kirsch, Steven Jay Lynn, and others Chapman, R.A. (ed.) (2005). The Clinical Use of Hypnosis in Cognitive Behaviour Therapy: A Practitioners Casebook . Hypnosis was used during the 1950s, at the outset of cognitive-behavioural therapy, by early behaviour therapists such as Joseph Wolpe Wolpe, J. (1958) Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. and also by early cognitive therapists such as Albert Ellis Ellis, A. (1962). Reason & Emotion in Psychotherapy. . The term "cognitive-behavioural" was subsequently introduced to describe their "nonstate" theory of hypnosis by Barber, Spanos & Chaves in Hypnotism: Imagination & Human Potentialities (1974) Barber, Spanos & Chaves (1974). Hypnotism: Imagination & Human Potentialities. . However, Clark L. Hull had introduced an influential behavioural psychology approach to the study of hypnosis as far back as 1933, which was preceded by Ivan Pavlov's own writings on the subject Hull, C.L. (1933). Hypnosis & Suggestibility. . Indeed, the very earliest theories and practices of hypnotism, even those of Braid, resemble the cognitive-behavioural orientation in some respects Braid, J. (1843). Neurypnology. . Uses Hypnotherapy Modern hypnotherapy can be divided into several major sub-modalities, most notably regression hypnotherapy (or "hypnoanalysis"), Ericksonian hypnotherapy, and cognitive-behavioural hypnotherapy. Hypnosis has been studied in many clinical situations with varying degrees of success. "Clinical Research." hypnotic-tracks.us It has been used as a painkiller, "Hypnosis for Pain." webmd.com an adjunct to weight loss, Kirsch, Irving. "Hypnotic Enhancement of Cognitive-Behavioural Weight Loss Treatments--Another Meta-reanalysis." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, v64 n3 p517-19 Jun 1996 a treatment of skin disease, Shenefelt, Philip D. "Applying Hypnosis in Dermatology." medscape.com. 6 January 2004 and a way to soothe anxious surgical patients. It has also been used as part of psychological therapy, Barrett, Dierdre. "The Power of Hypnosis." Psychology Today. Jan/Feb 2001. a method of habit control, "Hypnosis. Another Way to Manage Pain, Kick Bad Habits." mayoclinic.com a way to relax, Vickers, Andrew and Zollman, Catherine. "Clinical review. ABC of complementary medicine. Hypnosis and relaxation therapies." (BMJ) British Medical Journal 1999;319:1346-1349 ( 20 November ) and a tool to enhance sports performance. "Hypnosis and Sport Performance." awss.com Self-hypnosis is popularly used by people who want to quit smoking and reduce stress, while stage hypnosis can be used to persuade people to perform unusual public feats. "History of the Stage Hypnotist and Stage Hypnosis Shows." Medical applications "Hypnobirthing" is one popular application of hypnosis. "Discovery Health: All About Hypnobirthing," health.discovery.com Hypnotherapy has been successfully used as a treatment for irritable bowel syndrome, a pair of researchers who recently reviewed the best studies in this area, conclude: The evidence for hypnosis as an efficacious treatment of IBS was encouraging. Two of three studies that investigated the use of hypnosis for IBS were well designed and showed a clear effect for the hypnotic treatment of IBS. Moore, M. & Tasso, A.F. 'Clinical hypnosis: the empirical evidence' in The Oxford Handbook of Hypnosis, 2008: 719-718. Hypnosis for IBS has also received moderate support as an evidence-based treatment in the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence guidance published for the UK health services. http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/IBSFullGuideline.pdf NICE Guidance for IBS It has been used as an alternative to chemical anaesthesia, "Physician Studies Hypnosis As Sedation Alternative," University of Iowa News Service, 6 February 2003 "Pain Decreases Under Hypnosis," medicalnewstoday.com "Hypnosis in Surgery," institute-shot.com and it has been studied as a way to soothe skin ailments. "Hypnosis: Another way to manage pain, kick bad habits." Mayo Clinic. A large number of clinical studies show that hypnosis can reduce the pain experienced by people undergoing burn-wound debridement, bone marrow aspirations, and childbirth. The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis found that hypnosis relieved the pain of 75% of 933 subjects participating in 27 different experiments. Nash, Michael R. "The Truth and the Hype of Hypnosis". Scientific American: July 2001 In 1996, the National Institutes of Health declared hypnosis effective in reducing pain from cancer and other chronic conditions. Nausea and other symptoms related to incurable diseases may also be controlled with hypnosis. Spiegel, D. and Moore, R. (1997) "Imagery and hypnosis in the treatment of cancer patients" Oncology 11(8): pp. 1179-1195 Garrow, D. and Egede, L. E. (November 2006) "National patterns and correlates of complementary and alternative medicine use in adults with diabetes" Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 12(9): pp. 895-902 Mascot, C. (2004) "Hypnotherapy: A complementary therapy with broad applications" Diabetes Self Management 21(5): pp.15-18 Kwekkeboom, K.L. and Gretarsdottir, E. (2006) "Systematic review of relaxation interventions for pain" Journal of Nursing Scholarship 38(3): pp.269-277 For example, research done at the Mt. Sinai School of Medicine studied two groups of patients facing surgery for breast cancer. The group that received hypnosis reported less pain, nausea, and anxiety post-surgery. There was a cost benefit as well: the average hypnosis patient reduced the cost of treatment by an average of $772.00. Montgomery GH, et al. "A Randomized Clinical Trial of a Brief Hypnosis Intervention to Control Side Effects in Breast Surgery Patients." J Natl Cancer Inst. 2007 Sep 5;99(17):1280-1. Hypnodermatology is the practice of treating skin diseases with hypnosis; according to studies, this therapy has performed well in treating warts, psoriasis, and atopic dermatitis. Shenefelt, Philip D. "Hypnosis: Applications in Dermatology and Dermatological Surgery." emedicine.com. Hypnosis may be useful as an adjunct therapy for weight loss. A 1996 meta-analysis studying the effectiveness of hypnosis combined with cognitive-behavioural therapy found that people using both treatments lost more weight than people using CBT alone. Kirsch, Irving. "Hypnotic enhancement of cognitive-behavioural weight loss treatments : Another meta-reanalysis." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Psychotherapy Professor Charcot (left) of Paris' Salpêtrière demonstrates hypnosis on a "hysterical" patient, "Blanche" (Marie) Wittman, who is supported by Dr. Joseph Babiński. Hypnotherapy is the use of hypnosis in psychotherapy. "Hypnosis." Wordnet search. It is used by licensed physicians, psychologists, and in stand-alone environments. Physicians and psychiatrists may use hypnosis to help treat depression, anxiety, eating disorders, sleep disorders, compulsive gaming, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Dubin, William. "Compulsive Gaming" (2006) "Cognitive Hypnotherapy: An Integrated Approach to the Treatment of Emotional Disorders." Certified hypnotherapists who are not physicians or psychologists often do treatments for smoking cessation and weight loss. (Success rates vary: a meta-study researching hypnosis as a quit-smoking tool found it had a 20 to 30 percent success rate, similar to many other quit-smoking methods, O'Connor, Anahad. "The Claim: Hypnosis Can Help You Quit Smoking." while a 2007 study of patients hospitalised for cardiac and pulmonary ailments found that smokers who used hypnosis to quit smoking doubled their chances of success. "Hypnotherapy for Smoking Cessation Sees Strong Results." ScienceDaily. ) In a July 2001 article for Scientific American titled "The Truth and the Hype of Hypnosis", Michael Nash wrote that "...using hypnosis, scientists have temporarily created hallucinations, compulsions, certain types of memory loss, false memories, and delusions in the laboratory so that these phenomena can be studied in a controlled environment." Controversy surrounds the use of hypnotherapy to retrieve memories, especially those from early childhood or (alleged) past-lives. The American Medical Association and the American Psychological Association have cautioned against the use of repressed memory therapy in cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating that "it is impossible, without other corroborative evidence, to distinguish a true memory from a false one." Past life regression, meanwhile, is often viewed with skepticism. Astin, J.A. et al. (2003) "Mind-body medicine: state of the science, implications for practice" Journal of the American Board of Family Practitioners 16(2): pp.131-147 Self-hypnosis Self-hypnosis happens when a person hypnotises himself or herself, commonly involving the use of autosuggestion. The technique is often used to increase motivation for a diet, quit smoking, or reduce stress. People who practice self-hypnosis sometimes require assistance; some people use devices known as mind machines to assist in the process, while others use hypnotic recordings. Self-hypnosis is said to be a skill one can improve as time goes by, and can help reduce stage fright, promote relaxation, and enhance physical well-being. "Self-hypnosis as a skill for busy research workers." London's Global University Human Resources. . Stage hypnosis Stage hypnosis is a form of entertainment, traditionally employed in a club or theatre before an audience. Due to stage hypnotists' showmanship, many people believe that hypnosis is a form of mind control. However, the effects of stage hypnosis are probably due to a combination of relatively ordinary social psychological factors such as peer pressure, social compliance, participant selection, ordinary suggestibility, and some amount of physical manipulation, stagecraft, and trickery. The desire to be the centre of attention, having an excuse to violate their own inner fear suppressors and the pressure to please are thought to convince subjects to 'play along'. Wagstaff, Graham F. (1981) Hypnosis, Compliance and Belief St. Martin's Press, New York, ISBN 0312401574 Books written by stage hypnotists sometimes explicitly describe the use of deception in their acts, for example, Ormond McGill's New Encyclopedia of Stage Hypnosis describes an entire "fake hypnosis" act which depends upon the use of private whispers throughout. [The hypnotist whispers off-microphone:] “We are going to have some good laughs on the audience and fool them… so when I tell you to do some funny things, do exactly as I secretly tell you. Okay? Swell.” (Then deliberately wink at the spectator in a friendly fashion.) McGill, Ormond (1996) The New Encyclopedia of Stage Hypnosis, p. 506 Stage hypnosis traditionally employs three fundamental strategies: Participant compliance. Participants on stage tend to be compliant because of the social pressure felt in the situation constructed on stage, before an expectant audience. Participant selection. Preliminary suggestion tests, such as asking the audience to clasp their hands and suggesting they cannot be separated, are usually used to select out the most suggestible and compliant subjects from the audience. By asking for volunteers to mount the stage, the performer also tends to select the most extroverted members of the audience. Deception of the audience. Stage hypnotists are performers who traditionally, but not always, employ a variety of "sleight of hand" strategies to mislead their audience for dramatic effect. The strategies of deception employed in traditional stage hypnosis can be categorised as follows: Off-microphone whispers. The hypnotist lowers his microphone and whispers secret instructions to the participant on stage, outside of the audience's hearing. These may involve requests to "play along" or fake hypnotic responses. Failure to challenge. The stage hypnotist pretends to challenge subjects to defy a suggestion, e.g., "You cannot stand up out of your chair because your backside is stuck down with glue." However, no specific cue is given to the participants to begin their effort ("Start trying now!"). This creates the illusion that a specific challenge has been issued and effort made to defy it. Fake hypnosis tricks'. Stage hypnosis literature contains a large repertoire of sleight of hand tricks, of the kind used by professional illusionists. None of these tricks require any hypnosis or suggestion, but depend purely on physical manipulation and audience deception. The most famous example of this type is the "human plank" trick, which involves making a subject's body become rigid (cataleptic) and suspending them horizontally between two chairs, at which point the hypnotist will often stand upon their chest for dramatic effect. This has nothing to do with hypnosis, but simply depends on the fact that when subjects are positioned in the correct way they can support more weight than the audience tends to assume. Other uses Hypnotism has also been used in forensics, sports, education, physical therapy and rehabilitation. André M. Weitzenbhoffer. The Practice of Hypnotism 2nd ed, Toronto, John Wiley & Son Inc, Chapter 16, p. 583-587, 2000 ISBN 0-471-29790-9 Hypnotism has also been employed by artists for creative purposes most notably the surrealist circle of André Breton who employed hypnosis and automatic writing and sketches for creative purposes. Some people have drawn analogies between certain aspects of hypnotism and areas such as crowd psychology, religious hysteria, and ritual trances in preliterate tribal cultures. Theories The State versus Nonstate Debate The central theoretical disagreement in the history of hypnotism is known as the "state versus nonstate" debate. When Braid introduced the concept of hypnotism he equivocated over the nature of the "state", sometimes describing it as a specific sleep-like neurological state comparable to animal hibernation or yogic meditation, while at other times he emphasised that hypnotism encompassed a number of different stages or states which were essentially an extension of ordinary psychological and physiological processes. Overall, Braid appears to have moved from a more "special state" understanding of hypnotism, at the start of his career, toward a more complex "nonstate" orientation in his later works. State theorists traditionally interpreted the effects of hypnotism as primarily due to a specific, abnormal and uniform psychological or physiological state of some description, often referred to as "hypnotic trance" or an "altered state of consciousness." Nonstate theorists rejected the idea of hypnotic trance and interpret the effects of hypnotism as due to a combination of multiple task-specific factors derived from normal cognitive, behavioural and social psychology, such as social role-perception and favorable motivation (Sarbin ), active imagination and positive cognitive set (Barber), response expectancy (Kirsch), and the active use of task-specific subjective strategies (Spanos). The personality psychologist Robert White is often cited as providing one of the first nonstate definitions of hypnosis in a 1941 article: Hypnotic behaviour is meaningful, goal-directed striving, its most general goal being to behave like a hypnotised person as this is continuously defined by the operator and understood by the client. White, R.W. 'A preface to the theory of hypnotism', Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 36, 477-505, October, 1941 Put simply, it is often stated that whereas the older "special state" interpretation emphasises the difference between hypnosis and ordinary psychological processes, the "nonstate" interpretation emphasises the similarity, continuity, or overlap. In practical terms, nonstate theorists tend to see more of an overlap between hypnotherapy and other forms of psychological therapy, insofar as they employ mental imagery, verbal suggestion, etc., whereas state theorists tend to see hypnotherapy as operating by means of an altered state of consciousness not emphasised in most other psychological therapies. Comparisons between hypnotised and non-hypnotised subjects suggest that if "hypnotic trance" does exist it probably only accounts for a very small proportion of the effects normally attributed to hypnotic suggestion, most of which can be replicated without the use of a hypnotic induction technique. Hyper-suggestibility Braid can be taken to imply, in some of his later writings, that hypnosis is largely a state of heightened suggestibility induced by habit, expectation, and focused attention. In particular, Hippolyte Bernheim became known as the leading proponent of the "suggestion theory" of hypnosis, at one point going so far as to declare that there is no hypnosis (as a specific state) only heightened suggestibility. There is a general consensus among most researchers and clinicians that heightened suggestibility is an essential characteristic of hypnosis, although disagreement exists as to whether this depends upon the induction of an altered state of consciousness ("hypnotic trance") or ordinary psychological and physiological factors which mediate the effect of suggestion (nonstate theory). If a subject after submitting to the hypnotic procedure shows no genuine increase in susceptibility to any suggestions whatever, there seems no point in calling him hypnotised, regardless of how fully and readily he may respond to suggestions of lid-closure and other superficial sleeping behaviour. Hull, Hypnosis & Suggestibility, 1933: 392 Conditioned Inhibition Ivan Pavlov stated that hypnotic suggestion provided the best example of a conditioned reflex response in human beings, i.e., that responses to suggestions were learned associations triggered by the words used. Pavlov himself wrote: Speech, on account of the whole preceding life of the adult, is connected up with all the internal and external stimuli which can reach the cortex, signaling all of them and replacing all of them, and therefore it can call forth all those reactions of the organism which are normally determined by the actual stimuli themselves. We can, therefore, regard ‘suggestion’ as the most simple form of a typical reflex in man. Pavlov, quoted in Salter, What is Hypnosis?, 1944: 23 He also believed that hypnosis was a "partial sleep" by which he meant that by suggestions of sleep a generalised inhibition of cortical functioning could be encouraged to spread throughout certain regions of the brain. He observed that the various degrees of hypnosis did not significantly differ physiologically from the waking state and hypnosis depended on insignificant changes of environmental stimuli. Pavlov also suggested that lower-brain-stem mechanisms were involved in hypnotic conditioning. Pavlov, I. P.: Experimental Psychology. New York, Philosophical Library, 1957. Psychosomatic Medicine. http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/content/abstract/10/6/317 Pavlov's ideas were combined with those of his rival Bekhterev and became the basis of hypnotic psychotherapy in the Soviet Union, as documented in the writings of his follower K.I. Platonov. Soviet theories of hypnotism subsequently influenced the writings of Western behaviourally-oriented hypnotherapists such as Andrew Salter. However, this theory of hypnosis as a specific state of conditioned cortical inhibition has received little subsequent support from researchers in the field of hypnosis. Neuropsychology Neurological imaging techniques have essentially failed to provide any evidence of a neurological pattern that can be directly equated with "hypnotic trance", however changes in brain activity have been found in some studies of highly responsive hypnotic subjects. These changes vary depending upon the type of suggestions being given and indicate that suggestions genuinely produce changes in perception or experience , and are not simply a result of imagination . For example, a classic study demonstrated that a color hallucination suggestion given to hypnotised subjects activated color-processing regions of the occipital cortex. A 2004 review of research examining the EEG laboratory work in this area concludes: Hypnosis is not a unitary state and therefore should show different patterns of EEG activity depending upon the task being experienced. In our evaluation of the literature, enhanced theta is observed during hypnosis when there is task performance or concentrative hypnosis, but not when the highly hypnotizable individuals are passively relaxed, somewhat sleepy and/or more diffuse in their attention. Horton & Crawford, in Heap et al., The Highly Hypnotisable Subject, 2004: 140. The induction of a hypnotic 'trance' may also affect the activity in regions of the brain which control intention and process conflict. Anna Gosline says in a NewScientist.com article: "Gruzelier and his colleagues studied brain activity using an fMRI while subjects completed a standard cognitive exercise, called the Stroop task. The team screened subjects before the study and chose 12 that were highly susceptible to hypnosis and 12 with low susceptibility. They all completed the task in the fMRI under normal conditions and then again under hypnosis. Throughout the study, both groups were consistent in their task results, achieving similar scores regardless of their mental state. During their first task session, before hypnosis, there were no significant differences in brain activity between the groups. But under hypnosis, Gruzelier found that the highly susceptible subjects showed significantly more brain activity in the anterior cingulate gyrus than the weakly susceptible subjects. This area of the brain has been shown to respond to errors and evaluate emotional outcomes. The highly susceptible group also showed much greater brain activity on the left side of the prefrontal cortex than the weakly susceptible group. This is an area involved with higher level cognitive processing and behaviour." Egner, Jamieson, Gruzelier, 2005, Hypnosis decouples cognitive control from conflict monitoring processes of the frontal lobe. NeuroImage, 27, 969-978. Dissociation Pierre Janet originally developed the idea of dissociation of consciousness as a result of his work with hysterical patients. He believed that hypnosis was an example of dissociation, whereby areas of an individual's behavioural control are split off from ordinary awareness. Hypnosis would remove some control from the conscious mind, and the individual would respond with autonomic, reflexive behaviour. Weitzenhoffer describes hypnosis via this theory as "dissociation of awareness from the majority of sensory and even strictly neural events taking place." Weitzenhoffer, A.M.: Hypnotism - An Objective Study in Suggestibility. New York, Wiley, 1953. Neodissociation Ernest Hilgard, who developed the "neodissociation" theory of hypnotism, hypothesised that hypnosis causes the subjects to divide our consciousness voluntarily. One part responds to the hypnotist while the other retains awareness of reality. When performing experiments, Hilgard made the subjects go into an ice water bath. They did not say anything about the water being cold or feeling pain. Hilgard then asked the subjects to lift their index finger if they felt pain and 70% of the subjects lifted their index finger. This showed that even though the subjects were listening to the suggestive hypnotist they still had some sense of consciousness. Baron's AP Psychology 2008 Mind-Dissociation This surprisingly simple theory was proposed by Y.D. Tsai in 1995 as part of his theory of dreams. Inside each brain, there is a program " I " (conscious self, or whatever name) which is distributed over the entire conscious brain and coordinates various kinds of mental functions (cortices), such as thinking, imagining, sensing, moving, reasoning … etc. "I" also supervises memory storage. Many bizarre states of consciousness are actually the results of dissociation of certain mental functions from "I". When a person is hypnotized, it might be that his/her imagination is dissociated and sends the imagined content back to the sensory cortex, resulting in dream or hallucination; or that some of his/her senses are dissociated, resulting in hypnotic anesthesia; or that his/her motor function is dissociated, resulting in immobility; or that his/her reason is dissociated and he/she obeys any order of the hypnotist; or that his/her thought is dissociated and not controlled by reason, hence strives to straighten out his/her body between two chairs. A command can also be planted into the hypnotized mind and acted out accordingly long after the session of hypnosis, which works as follows: People obeys the decision of reason in normal state, but when hypnotized, his/her reason is replaced by the hypnotist's command, and a person will be very uneasy if he/she can not do as having been decided or his/her belief is contradicted. Hypnotherapy is also based on this principle. Social Role-Taking Theory The main theorist who pioneered the influential role-taking theory of hypnotism was Theodore Sarbin. Sarbin argued that hypnotic responses were motivated attempts to fulfill the socially-constructed role of hypnotic subject. This has led to the misconception that hypnotic subjects are simply "faking". However, Sarbin was careful to emphasise that was not what he meant by distinguishing between role-playing, in which there is little subjective identification with the role in question, and role-taking, in which the subject not only acts externally in accord with the role but also subjectively identifies with it to some degree, acting, thinking, and feeling "as if" they are hypnotised. Sarbin drew analogies between role-taking in hypnosis and role-taking in other areas such as method acting, mental illness, and shamanic possession, etc. This interpretation of hypnosis is particularly relevant to understanding stage hypnosis in which there is clearly strong peer pressure to comply with a socially-constructed role by performing accordingly on a theatrical stage. Hence, social constructionism and role-taking theory of hypnosis suggests that individuals are enacting (as opposed to merely playing'') a role and that really there is no such thing as a hypnotic trance. A socially-constructed relationship is built depending on how much rapport has been established between the "hypnotist" and the subject (see Hawthorne effect, Pygmalion effect, and placebo effect). Some psychologists, such as Robert Baker and Graham Wagstaff, claim that what we call hypnosis is actually a form of learned social behaviour, a complex hybrid of social compliance, relaxation, and suggestibility that can account for many esoteric behavioural manifestations. Baker, Robert A. (1990) They Call It Hypnosis Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, ISBN 0879755768 Cognitive-behavioural theory Barber, Spanos, & Chaves (1974) proposed a nonstate "cognitive-behavioural" theory of hypnosis, similar in some respects to Sarbin's social role-taking theory and building upon the earlier research of Barber. On this model, hypnosis is explained as an extension of ordinary psychological processes like imagination, relaxation, expectation, social compliance, etc. In particular, Barber argued that responses to hypnotic suggestions were mediated to a large extent by a "positive cognitive set" consisting of positive expectations, attitudes, and motivation. Daniel Araoz subsequently coined the acronym "TEAM" to symbolise the subject's orientation to hypnosis in terms of "trust", "expectation", "attitude", and "motivation". Barber et al., noted that similar factors appeared to mediate the response both to hypnotism and to cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT), in particular systematic desensitization. Hence, research and clinical practice inspired by their interpretation has led to growing interest in the relationship between hypnotherapy and CBT. Information theory An approach loosely based on Information theory uses a brain-as-computer model. In adaptive systems, a system may use feedback to increase the signal-to-noise ratio, which may converge towards a steady state. Increasing the signal-to-noise ratio enables messages to be more clearly received from a source. The hypnotist's object is to use techniques to reduce the interference and increase the receptability of specific messages (suggestions). Kroger, William S. (1977) Clinical and experimental hypnosis in medicine, dentistry, and psychology. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 31. ISBN 0-397-50377-6 Systems theory Systems theory, in this context, may be regarded as an extension of Braid's original conceptualization of hypnosis as involving a process of enhancing or depressing the activity of the nervous system. Systems theory considers the nervous system's organization into interacting subsystems. Hypnotic phenomena thus involve not only increased or decreased activity of particular subsystems, but also their interaction. A central phenomenon in this regard is that of feedback loops, familiar to systems theory, which suggest a mechanism for creating the more extreme hypnotic phenomena. See also Historical figures Étienne Eugène Azam Charles Baudouin Vladimir Bekhterev Hippolyte Bernheim Alfred Binet James Braid (physician) John Milne Bramwell Jean-Martin Charcot Émile Coué John Elliotson James Esdaile Abbé Faria William B. Fahnestock Sigmund Freud Pierre Janet Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault Franz Mesmer Albert Moll Julian Ochorowicz Ivan Pavlov Morton Prince Marquis de Puységur John D. Quackenbos Louis Satow Ferenc A.Völgyesi Otto Georg Wetterstrand Charles F. Winbigler Modern researchers Theodore X. Barber David B. Cheek William C. Coe Harold B. Crasilneck George Estabrooks Milton Erickson Hans Eysenck Erika Fromm Etzel Cardeña Jack Stanley Gibson Melvin A. Gravitz John Hartland Ernest R. Hilgard Josephine R. Hilgard Clark L. Hull Irving Kirsch Milton V. Kline William S. Kroger Ainslie Meares Martin Orne Theodore Sarbin Nicholas Spanos Lewis R.Wolberg Related subjects Chicken hypnosis Covert hypnosis Highway hypnosis History of hypnosis Hypnagogia Hypnofetishism Hypnosis in popular culture Hypnosurgery Hypnotherapy Hypnotherapy in childbirth Sedative (also known as sedative-hypnotic drug) Scientology and hypnosis Organizations International Society of Hypnosis British Society of Clinical and Academic Hypnosis British Society of Clinical Hypnosis American Society of Clinical Hypnosis International Medical and Dental Hypnotherapy Association International Association of Counselors and Therapists National Guild of Hypnotists References External links | Hypnosis |@lemmatized state:42 induce:8 hypnotic:73 drug:2 see:10 sleep:22 unconsciousness:2 hypnotize:6 redirects:1 shanadoo:1 song:4 ply:2 hypnosis:153 mental:16 theory:51 set:3 attitude:3 nonstate:12 usually:2 procedure:2 know:13 induction:16 commonly:3 compose:1 series:6 preliminary:3 instruction:3 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4,408 | Non-player_character | A non-player character, often shortened to NPC, is a character that is controlled by the gamemaster in role-playing games. When this definition extends to video games, an NPC in a video game is usually part of the program, and not controlled by a human. Role-playing games In a traditional role-playing game such as Dungeons & Dragons, an NPC is controlled by the gamemaster. Non-player characters populate the fictional world of the game, and can fill any role not occupied by a player character (PC). Non-player characters might be allies, bystanders or competitors to the PCs. NPCs vary greatly in importance, from the NPC innkeeper seen once by the player characters, to the NPC arch-nemesis who comes back time-after-time again for an entire campaign. While every inhabitant of the game's world except the PC's are NPC's, very few are given any detail by the gamemaster (GM). In fact, most of the minor ones are invented on the spot as needed—doing this well is in fact one of the hallmarks of a good GM. There is some debate about how much work a gamemaster should put into an important NPC's statistics; some players prefer to have every NPC completely defined with stats, skills, and gear, while others define only what is immediately necessary and fill in the rest as the game proceeds. There is also some discussion as to just how important fully fleshed-out NPCs are in any given RPG, but it is general consensus that the more "real" the NPCs feel, the more fun players will have interacting with them in character. Playability In some games and in some circumstances, a player who is without a player character of his or her own can temporarily take control of an NPC. Reasons for this vary, but often arise from the player not maintaining a PC within the group and playing the NPC for a session or from the player's PC being unable to act for some time (for example, because they are injured or in another location). Although these characters are still designed and normally controlled by the gamemaster, when players are given the opportunity to temporarily control these non-player characters it gives them another perspective on the plot of the game. Some systems, such as Nobilis, encourage this in their rules. Dependents Many game systems have rules for characters sustaining positive allies in the form of NPC followers; hired hands, or other dependent stature to the PC. Characters may sometimes help in the design, recruitment, or development of NPCs. In the Champions game (and related games using the Hero System), a character may have a DNPC, or "dependent non-player character". This is a character controlled by the GM, but for which the player character is responsible in some way, and who may be put in harm's way by the PC's choices. Computer and video games The term non-player character is also used in console and computer role-playing games to describe entities not under the direct control of players. Nearly always the connotation is that an NPC is allied with, or at least neutral toward, the player, while hostile characters are referred to as mobs or creeps. In video games, NPC is sometimes expanded as "non-playable character" or "non-player class". NPC behavior in computer games is usually scripted and automatic (see artificial intelligence), triggered by certain actions or dialogue with the player character(s). In certain multi-player games, (Neverwinter Nights and Vampire: the Masquerade series, for example), a player that acts as the GM can "possess" both player and non-player characters, controlling their actions in order to further the storyline. More complex games, such as the aforementioned Neverwinter Nights, allow the player to customize the NPCs' behavior by modifying their default scripts or creating entirely new ones. In some online games, such as MMORPGs, NPCs may be entirely unscripted, and are essentially regular character avatars controlled by employees of the game company. These "non-players" are often distinguished from player characters by avatar appearance or other visual designation, and often serve as in-game support for new players. In other cases, these "live" NPCs are virtual actors, playing regular characters which drive a continuing storyline (as in Myst Online: Uru Live). In early and less advanced RPGs, NPCs have only monologue. Code directs the appearance of a dialogue box, floating text, cutscene, or other means of displaying the NPCs' speech or reaction to the player. NPC speeches of this kind are often designed to give an instant impression of the character of the speaker, providing character vignettes, but they may also advance the story or illuminate the world around the PC. Similar to this is the most common form of storytelling, non-branching dialogue, in which the means of displaying NPC speech are the same as above, but the player character or avatar responds to or initiates speech with NPCs. In addition to the purposes listed above, this enables development of the player character. More advanced RPGs feature interactive dialogue, or branching dialogue (dialogue trees). A good example are the games produced by Black Isle Studios and White Wolf, Inc.; every one of their games is multiple-choice roleplaying. When talking to an NPC, the player is presented with a list of dialogue options, and may choose between them. Each choice may result in a different response from the NPC. These choices may affect the course of the game, as well as the conversation. At the least, they provide a reference point to the player of his or her relationship with the game world. True dialogues with NPCs are usually very complex, however after you talk with an NPC and turn right back around to talk with them again, no matter how many times you do this, usually they will give you the same exact conversation. Ultima is an example of a game series that has advanced from non-branching (Ultima III and earlier) to branching dialogue (games thereafter). 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4,409 | Jokichi_Takamine | was a Japanese chemist. Early Life and Education He was born in Takaoka, Toyama Prefecture, Japan the son of a physician, moved to Kanazawa in next year and educated in Osaka, Kyoto, and Tokyo, graduating from the University of Tokyo in 1879. He did postgraduate work at University of Glasgow and Anderson College in Scotland. He returned to Japan in 1883 and joined the division of chemistry at the department of agriculture and commerce. He learned English as a child from a Dutch family in Nagasaki and so always spoke English with a Dutch accent. Career Japan In 1884 he married Caroline Field Hitch, with whom he had two children. Takamine continued to work for the department of agriculture and commerce until 1887. Leaving, he founded the Tokyo Artificial Fertilizer Company, where he later isolated the enzyme Takadiastase, an enzyme of rice malt, from his research in rice fermentation for the production of sake. United States In 1894 Takamine emigrated to the United States. He established his own research laboratory in New York City, but licensed the commercial production of Takadiastase. In 1901 he isolated and purified the hormone adrenaline (the first effective bronchodilator for asthma) from animal glands, becoming the first to accomplish this for a glandular hormone. Many of the beautiful cherry blossom trees in the West Potomac Park surrounding the Tidal Basin in Washington, D.C. were donated by the mayor of Tokyo, Yukio Ozaki and Dr. Takamine in 1912. The Emperor of Japan honored Takamine with an unusual gift. In the context of the 1904 World's Fair, the Japanese government replicated of an historical Japanese structure, the "Pine and Maple Palace" (Shofu-den), modelled after the Kyoto Imperial Coronation Palace of 1,300 years ago. This structure was given to Dr. Takamine. Estrow, Milton. "Japanese Palace; Replica Near Monticello Now Open to Public," New York Times. September 28, 1947. He had the structure transported in sections from Missouri to his summer home in upstate New York, seventy-five miles north of New York City. In 1909, the structure served as a guest house for Prince and Princess Kuni of Japan, who were visiting the area. "Kuni in Japanese House; Host of Prince, Dr. Takamine, Has Japanese Structures of St. Louis Fair," New York Times. September 20, 1909. Although the property was sold in 1922, the reconstructed structure remained in its serene setting. In 2008, it still continues to be one of the undervalued tourist attractions of New York's Sullivan County. Shofu-den history See also National Cherry Blossom Festival References References Biographical snapshots: Jokichi Takamine, Journal of Chemical Education web site. Hajime Hoshi. (1904). Handbook of Japan and Japanese Exhibits at World's Fair, St. Louis, 1904. St. Louis: Woodward and Tiernan Printing Co.. OCLC 12287183 Further reading ''Final Report of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Commission: Japan's participation External links — Dr. Jokichi Takamine: Japanese father of American Biotechnology. — Production of Microbial Enzymes and Their Applications. History of Industrial Property Right, Jokichi Takamine Taka-Disatase, Adrenaline, Japan patent Office. | Jokichi_Takamine |@lemmatized japanese:8 chemist:1 early:1 life:1 education:2 bear:1 takaoka:1 toyama:1 prefecture:1 japan:8 son:1 physician:1 move:1 kanazawa:1 next:1 year:2 educate:1 osaka:1 kyoto:2 tokyo:4 graduate:1 university:2 postgraduate:1 work:2 glasgow:1 anderson:1 college:1 scotland:1 return:1 join:1 division:1 chemistry:1 department:2 agriculture:2 commerce:2 learn:1 english:2 child:2 dutch:2 family:1 nagasaki:1 always:1 speak:1 accent:1 career:1 marry:1 caroline:1 field:1 hitch:1 two:1 takamine:9 continue:2 leave:1 found:1 artificial:1 fertilizer:1 company:1 later:1 isolate:2 enzyme:3 takadiastase:2 rice:2 malt:1 research:2 fermentation:1 production:3 sake:1 united:2 state:2 emigrate:1 establish:1 laboratory:1 new:6 york:6 city:2 license:1 commercial:1 purify:1 hormone:2 adrenaline:2 first:2 effective:1 bronchodilator:1 asthma:1 animal:1 gland:1 become:1 accomplish:1 glandular:1 many:1 beautiful:1 cherry:2 blossom:2 tree:1 west:1 potomac:1 park:1 surround:1 tidal:1 basin:1 washington:1 c:1 donate:1 mayor:1 yukio:1 ozaki:1 dr:4 emperor:1 honor:1 unusual:1 gift:1 context:1 world:2 fair:3 government:1 replicate:1 historical:1 structure:6 pine:1 maple:1 palace:3 shofu:2 den:2 model:1 imperial:1 coronation:1 ago:1 give:1 estrow:1 milton:1 replica:1 near:1 monticello:1 open:1 public:1 time:2 september:2 transport:1 section:1 missouri:1 summer:1 home:1 upstate:1 seventy:1 five:1 mile:1 north:1 serve:1 guest:1 house:2 prince:2 princess:1 kuni:2 visit:1 area:1 host:1 st:3 louis:3 although:1 property:2 sell:1 reconstructed:1 remain:1 serene:1 setting:1 still:1 one:1 undervalued:1 tourist:1 attraction:1 sullivan:1 county:1 history:2 see:1 also:1 national:1 festival:1 reference:2 biographical:1 snapshot:1 jokichi:3 journal:1 chemical:1 web:1 site:1 hajime:1 hoshi:1 handbook:1 exhibit:1 woodward:1 tiernan:1 printing:1 co:1 oclc:1 reading:1 final:1 report:1 louisiana:1 purchase:1 exposition:1 commission:1 participation:1 external:1 link:1 father:1 american:1 biotechnology:1 microbial:1 application:1 industrial:1 right:1 taka:1 disatase:1 patent:1 office:1 |@bigram osaka_kyoto:1 cherry_blossom:2 tourist_attraction:1 external_link:1 |
4,410 | Einsteinium | Einsteinium () is a metallic synthetic element. On the periodic table, it is represented by the symbol Es and atomic number 99. It is the seventh transuranic element, and seventh in the series of actinoids. It was named in honor of Albert Einstein. Properties Its position on the periodic table indicates that its chemical and physical properties are similar to other metals. Though only small amounts have been made, it has been determined to be silver-colored. According to tracer studies conducted at Los Alamos National Laboratory using the isotope 253Es, this element has chemical properties typical of a heavy trivalent, actinide element. Like all synthetic elements, isotopes of einsteinium are extremely radioactive, and are considered highly toxic. Production Einsteinium does not occur naturally in any measurable quantities. The modern process of creating the element starts with the irradiation of plutonium-239 in a nuclear reactor for several years. The resulting plutonium-242 isotope (in the form of the compound plutonium(IV) oxide) is mixed with aluminium and formed into pellets. The pellets are then further irradiated for approximately one year in a nuclear reactor. Another four months of irradiation is required in a different reactor. The result is a mixture of californium and einsteinium, which can then be separated. Einsteinium - Los Alamos National Laboratory. Retrieved 2 December 2007. Uses Aside from being the byproduct of creating other elements, or a step in the production of other elements, einsteinium has no known uses, other than radioactivity. It's Elemental - The Element Einsteinium. Retrieved 2 December 2007. History Einsteinium was first identified in December 1952 by Albert Ghiorso along with co-workers at the University of California, Berkeley. He was examining debris from the first hydrogen bomb test of November 1952 (see Operation Ivy). Einsteinium - National Research Council Canada. Retrieved 2 December 2007. He discovered the isotope 253Es (half-life 20.5 days) that was made by the neutron capture of 15 neutrons with 238U (which then went through seven beta decays). These findings were kept secret until 1955 due to Cold War tensions. P. R. Fields, M. H. Studier, H. Diamond, J. F. Mech, M. G. Inghram, G. L. Pyle, C. M. Stevens, S. Fried, W. M. Manning (Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois); A. Ghiorso, S. G. Thompson, G. H. Higgins, G. T. Seaborg (University of California, Berkeley, California): "Transplutonium Elements in Thermonuclear Test Debris", in: Physical Review 1956, 102 (1), 180–182; . Isotopes of einsteinium were produced shortly afterward at the University of California Radiation Laboratory in a nuclear fusion reaction between 14N and 238U and later by intense neutron irradiation of plutonium in the Materials Testing Reactor. In 1961, enough einsteinium was synthesized to prepare a microscopic amount of 253Es. This sample weighed about 0.01 mg and was measured using a special balance. The material produced was used to produce mendelevium. Further einsteinium has been produced at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory's High Flux Isotope Reactor in Tennessee by bombarding 239Pu with neutrons. Around 3 milligrams were created over a four year program of irradiation and then chemical separation from a starting 1 kg of plutonium isotope. Isotopes Nineteen radioisotopes of einsteinium have been characterized, Table of Isotopes decay data - LBNL Isotopes Project - LUNDS Universitet. Retrieved 25 November 2007. with the most stable being 252Es with a half-life of 471.7 days. 254Es has a a half-life of 275.7 days, 255Es 39.8 days and 253Es 20.47 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 40 hours, the majority of these having half-lives that are less than 30 minutes. This element also has three meta states, with the most stable being 254mEs (t½ 39.3 hours). The isotopes of einsteinium range in atomic mass from 240.069 u (240Es) to 258.100 u (258Es). The longest-lived isotope is 252Es. Known compounds The following is a list of all known compounds of einsteinium: Chemistry : Periodic Table : einsteinium : compounds information - WebElements. Retrieved 29 December 2008. EsBr3 einsteinium(III) bromide EsCl2 einsteinium(II) chloride EsCl3 einsteinium(III) chloride EsF3 einsteinium(III) fluoride EsI2 einsteinium(II) iodide EsI3 einsteinium(III) iodide EsI2 einsteinium(II) ketamide Es2O3 einsteinium(III) oxide References Literature External links Los Alamos National Laboratory - Einsteinium It's Elemental - The Element Einsteinium WebElements.com - Einsteinium Albert Ghiorso about the discovery | Einsteinium |@lemmatized einsteinium:27 metallic:1 synthetic:2 element:12 periodic:3 table:4 represent:1 symbol:1 e:1 atomic:2 number:1 seventh:2 transuranic:1 series:1 actinoid:1 name:1 honor:1 albert:3 einstein:1 property:3 position:1 indicate:1 chemical:3 physical:2 similar:1 metal:1 though:1 small:1 amount:2 make:2 determine:1 silver:1 colored:1 accord:1 tracer:1 study:1 conduct:1 los:3 alamos:3 national:6 laboratory:6 use:3 isotope:13 typical:1 heavy:1 trivalent:1 actinide:1 like:1 extremely:1 radioactive:2 consider:1 highly:1 toxic:1 production:2 occur:1 naturally:1 measurable:1 quantity:1 modern:1 process:1 create:3 start:2 irradiation:4 plutonium:5 nuclear:3 reactor:5 several:1 year:3 result:2 form:2 compound:4 iv:1 oxide:2 mixed:1 aluminium:1 pellet:2 far:1 irradiate:1 approximately:1 one:1 another:1 four:2 month:1 require:1 different:1 mixture:1 californium:1 separate:1 retrieve:5 december:5 us:2 aside:1 byproduct:1 step:1 know:3 radioactivity:1 elemental:2 history:1 first:2 identify:1 ghiorso:3 along:1 co:1 worker:1 university:3 california:4 berkeley:2 examine:1 debris:2 hydrogen:1 bomb:1 test:3 november:2 see:1 operation:1 ivy:1 research:1 council:1 canada:1 discover:1 half:5 life:4 day:5 neutron:4 capture:1 go:1 seven:1 beta:1 decay:2 finding:1 kept:1 secret:1 due:1 cold:1 war:1 tension:1 p:1 r:1 field:1 h:3 studier:1 diamond:1 j:1 f:1 mech:1 g:5 inghram:1 l:1 pyle:1 c:1 stevens:1 fry:1 w:1 manning:1 argonne:1 lemont:1 illinois:1 thompson:1 higgins:1 seaborg:1 transplutonium:1 thermonuclear:1 review:1 produce:4 shortly:1 afterward:1 radiation:1 fusion:1 reaction:1 later:1 intense:1 material:2 enough:1 synthesize:1 prepare:1 microscopic:1 sample:1 weigh:1 mg:1 measure:1 special:1 balance:1 mendelevium:1 oak:1 ridge:1 high:1 flux:1 tennessee:1 bombard:1 around:1 milligram:1 program:1 separation:1 kg:1 nineteen:1 radioisotope:1 characterize:1 data:1 lbnl:1 project:1 lund:1 universitet:1 stable:2 remain:1 less:2 hour:2 majority:1 live:2 minute:1 also:1 three:1 meta:1 state:1 range:1 mass:1 u:2 long:1 following:1 list:1 chemistry:1 information:1 webelements:2 iii:5 bromide:1 ii:3 chloride:2 fluoride:1 iodide:2 ketamide:1 reference:1 literature:1 external:1 link:1 com:1 discovery:1 |@bigram periodic_table:3 transuranic_element:1 albert_einstein:1 los_alamos:3 alamos_national:3 nuclear_reactor:2 californium_einsteinium:1 albert_ghiorso:2 beta_decay:1 kept_secret:1 argonne_national:1 shortly_afterward:1 neutron_irradiation:1 oak_ridge:1 radioactive_isotope:1 einsteinium_iii:5 external_link:1 webelements_com:1 |
4,411 | Conscription | Conscription (also known as "The Draft", the "Call-up" or "National service") is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by an established authority. It is most often used in the specific sense of government policies that require citizens to serve in the armed forces. It is known by various names — for example, the most recent conscription program in the United States was known colloquially as "the draft". Many nations do not maintain conscription forces, instead relying on a volunteer or professional military most of the time, although many of these countries still reserve the possibility of conscription for wartime and during times of crises. Referring to compulsory service in the armed forces, the term "conscription" has two main meanings: compulsory service, usually of young men of a given age, e.g., 17 – 18, for a set period of time, commonly one-to-two years. In the United Kingdom and Singapore this was commonly known as "national service"; in New Zealand, at first compulsory military training and later national service; in Norway, Safeguard Duty/1st time service. compulsory service, for an indefinite period of time, in the context of a widespread mobilisation of forces for fighting war, including on the home territory, usually imposed on men in a much wider age group (e.g., 18 – 55). (In the United Kingdom this was commonly known as "call-up"). The term "conscription" refers only to the mandatory service; thus, those undergoing conscription are known as "conscripts" or "selectee" in the United States (from the Selective Service System or the Selective Service Initiative announced in 2004). In the U.S. the term "enlisted" is often used to refer only to those who have volunteered for service in roles other than as commissioned officers. History Feudal levies Under the system of feudalism in the medieval period, most peasants and freemen were expected to provide one man of suitable age per family for military duty when requested by either the king or the local lord. The men sequestered in this way were called levies and fought as infantry. This was essentially an early form of conscription, and those that refused became outlaws. Although the exact laws varied greatly depending on the country and the period, generally these levies were only obliged to fight for one to three months. Military slavery The system of military slaves was widely used by Turks in the Middle East from the 9th until the 19th century. In the middle of the 14th century, Ottoman Sultan Murad I built his own personal slave army called the Kapıkulu. The new force was built by kidnapping large numbers of children, especially from Europeans during large raids or as a form of tribute known as the devşirme (translated "blood tax" or "child collection"). The captive children, far from their families and cultures, were persuaded to convert to Islam. Believing in the superior native talent of European — especially northern European — nationalities, the Sultans put the young boys, into various levels of stress, endurance, and fighting levels over several years. Those that showed special promise in fighting skills were trained in advanced and arcane warrior skills, put into the sultan's personal service, and turned into the ultimate fighting weapons known as the Janissaries, the most famous branch of the Kapıkulu. This soldier class became a decisive factor in the Ottoman invasions of Europe. Janissary on Everything2.com Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman forces, imperial administrators and de facto rulers of the Ottoman Empire, such as Pargalı İbrahim Pasha and Sokollu Mehmet Paşa, were recruited in this way. Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East The Turks: History and Culture By 1609 the Sultan's Kapıkulu forces increased to about 100,000. In the Service of the State and Military Class As European Christian states increased in military power, they were able to stem and eventually repel most of the Islamic riazzas into the European heartland. Additionally, the raise in awareness by the common European to their national and religious identity through greater literacy and education also made it increasingly problematic for Turkish indoctrination to work effectively on the kidnapped children. The Sultan increasingly began turning to the Barbary Pirates whose depredations continued upon white travelers, thereby providing a continued supply of captured children for the Sultan's human slave system. Eventually the Sultan had to turn to foreign volunteers from the adept warrior clans of Circassians in southern Russia to fill his Janissary armies. As a whole the system began to break down, and the loyalty of the Jannissaries became increasingly suspect. Mahmud II forcibly disbanded Janissary corps in 1826. Janissary corps, or Janizary, or Yeniçeri (Turkish military), Encyclopædia Britannica Janissaries Similar to the Janissaries in origin and means of development and probably the basis of the Janissaries, were the Mamluks. The Mamluks were also usually captured European or non-Muslim Iranian and Turkish children who had been kidnapped or bought as slaves from the Barbary coasts. Similar to the Turks, the Egyptians indoctrinated the children into becoming fanatical Islamic slave soldiers who served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. The first mamluks served the Abbasid caliphs in 9th century Baghdad. Over time they became a powerful military caste, and on more than one occasion they seized power for themselves, for example, ruling Egypt from 1250-1517. From 1250 Egypt had been ruled by the Bahri dynasty of Kipchak origin. Slaves from the Caucasus served in the army and formed an elite corp of troops eventually revolting in Egypt to form the Burgi dynasty. Mamluks excellent fighting abilities, massed Islamic Jihadi armies, and overwhelming numbers succeeded in overcoming and genociding the grossly outnumbered Christian European Crusader fortresses in the Holy Land. They were mainly responsible for preventing the Mongol Ilkhanate of Persia and Iraq from entering Egypt. The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline) On the western coast of Africa, Berber Muslims also attempted to put into practice the process of capturing non-Muslims and brainwashing them into fanatical Muslims. In Morocco, the Berber looked south rather than north. The Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail "the Bloodthirsty" (1672-1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard, who coerced the country into submission. Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East. Oxford Univ Press 1994. Invention of modern conscription The Swedish allotment system of the 17th century predates most conscription policies. the official layout of the system differs from the French and modern but the effect was the same but on a lesser scale Modern conscription, the massed military enlistment of national citizens (today recognized as "the draft"), was devised during the French Revolution, allowing the Republic to defend itself from the attacks of European monarchies. Deputy Jean-Baptiste Jourdan gave its name to the September 5, 1798 Act, whose first article stated: "Any Frenchman is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the nation." It enabled the creation of the Grande Armée, what Napoleon Bonaparte called "the nation in arms," which successfully battled European professional armies. More than 2.6 million men were inducted into the French military in this way between the years 1800 and 1813. Conscription The defeat of the disorganized Prussian Army shocked the Prussian establishment, which had largely felt invincible after the Frederician victories. Scharnhorst advocated adopting the levée en masse, the military conscription used by France. Krümpersystem was the beginning of short-term compulsory service in Prussia, as opposed to the long-term conscription previously used. Dierk Walter. Preussische Heeresreformen 1807-1870: Militärische Innovation und der Mythos der "Roonschen Reform". 2003, in Citino, p. 130 In Russian Empire, the service time was 25 years at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1834 it was decreased to 20 years. The recruits should have been not younger than 17 and not older than 35. Military service in Russia Empire In 1874 universal conscription on the modern pattern was introduced, an innovation only made possible by the abolition of serfdom in 1861. New military law decreed that all male Russian subjects, when they reached the age of 20, were eligible to serve in the military for six years. Conscription and Resistance: The Historical Context Conscription was introduced in the Union Army during the American Civil War. The 1863 Enrollment Act permitted draftees to hire paid substitutes to fight in their place. This, and the bounty system, led to widespread dislike of conscription by the public at large; the New York Draft Riots were one symptom. In addition, draftees were viewed with disdain by volunteer soldiers and their officers. In the end, the draft provided only 6% of the Union Army's manpower. Conscription was not employed again in the U.S. until 1917. Louis Althusser has also underlined how Machiavelli was one of the first modern theorists to think the relationship between conscription and the creation of a nation, or successfully bolstering patriotism. Machiavelli despised the use of mercenaries and professional armies, which at that time were ravaging the divided Italian states. Sending conscripts to foreign wars that do not directly affect the home nation's security has historically been very politically contentious in democracies. For instance, during World War I, bitter disputes broke out in Canada (see Conscription Crisis of 1917), Australia and New Zealand (see Compulsory Military Training) over conscription. Canada also had a political dispute over conscription during World War II (see Conscription Crisis of 1944). Similarly, mass protests against conscription to fight the Vietnam War occurred in several countries in the late 1960s. (See also: Conscription Crisis) Currently, countries that draft women into military service are China, Cuba, Eritrea, Israel, Libya, Malaysia, North Korea, Peru, and Taiwan CBC News Indepth: International military The Economic Costs and the Political Allure of Conscription . In 2002, Sweden's government asked its army to consider mandatory military service for women. During World War II, women were drafted into the armed forces of the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union. The United States came close to drafting women into the Nurse Corps in preparation for a planned invasion of Japan. In 1981 in the United States, several men filed lawsuit in the case Rostker v. Goldberg, alleging that the Military Selective Service Act violates the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment by requiring that men only and not also women register with the SSS. The Supreme Court eventually upheld the Act, stating that "the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than 'equity.'" Rostker v. Goldberg, Cornell Law School, retrieved 26 December 2006. On October 1, 1999 in the Taiwan Area, the Judicial Yuan of the Republic of China in its Interpretation 490 considered that the physical differences between males and females and the derived role differentiation in their respective social functions and lives would not make drafting males only violating the Constitution of the Republic of China. Judicial Yuan Interpretation 490 translated by Jiunn-rong Yeh However, transsexual persons are exempt from the Taiwanese conscription. Attachment of the standard of the class of physical condition of a draftee, Conscription Agency, Ministry of the Interior Conscientious objection A conscientious objector is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with military service, or sometimes with any role in the armed forces. In some countries, conscientious objectors have special legal status, which augments their conscription duties. For example, Sweden allows conscientious objectors to choose a service in the "weapons-free" branch, such as an airport fireman, nurse or telecommunications technician. Some may also refuse such service as they feel that they still are a part of the military complex. The reasons for refusing to serve are varied. Some conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons — notably, the members of the historic peace churches are pacifist by doctrine, and Jehovah's Witnesses, while not strictly speaking pacifists, refuse to participate in the armed services on the grounds that they believe Christians should be neutral in worldly conflicts. Draft evaders Main article : Draft dodger Not everyone who is conscripted is willing to go to war. In the United States, especially during the Vietnam Era, some used political connections to ensure that they were placed well away from any potential harm, serving in what was termed a Champagne unit. Many would avoid military service altogether through college deferments, by becoming fathers, or serving in various exempt jobs (teaching was one possibility). Others used educational exemptions, became conscientious objectors or pretended to be conscientious objectors, although they might then be drafted for non-combat work, such as serving as a combat medic. It was also possible they could be asked to do similar civilian work, such as being a hospital orderly. It was, in fact, quite easy for those with some knowledge of the system to avoid being drafted. A simple route, widely publicized, was to get a medical rejection. While a person could claim to have symptoms (or feign homosexuality), if enough physicians sent letters that a person had a problem, he might well be rejected. It often wasn't worth the Army's time to dispute this claim. Such an approach worked best in a larger city where there was no stigma to not serving, and the potential draftee was not known to those reviewing him. For others, the most common method of avoiding the draft was to cross the border into another country. People who have been "called up" for military service and who attempted to avoid it in some way were known as "draft-dodgers". Particularly during the Vietnam War, U.S. draft-dodgers usually made their way to Canada, Mexico or Sweden. Many people looked upon draft-dodgers with scorn as being "cowards", but some supported them in their efforts. In the late years of the Vietnam War, objections against it and support for draft-dodgers was much more outspoken, because of the casualties suffered by American troops, and the actual cause and purpose of the war being heavily questioned. Toward the end of the U.S. draft, an attempt was made to make the system somewhat fairer by turning it into a lottery, with each of the year's calendar dates randomly assigned a number. Men born on lower numbered dates were called up for review. For the reasons given above, this did not make the system any fairer, and the entire system ended in 1973. Today, American men 18-25 are required to register with the government, but there has not been a callup since the Vietnam Era. Draft resisters Historically, there has been resistance to conscription in almost every country and situation where it has been imposed. The New York Draft Riots (July 11 to July 16, 1863; known at the time as Draft Week), were violent disturbances in New York City that were the culmination of discontent with new laws passed by Congress to draft men to fight in the ongoing American Civil War. The Central Asian Revolt started in the summer of 1916, when the Russian Empire government ended its exemption of Muslims from military service. In the USA and some other countries, the Vietnam War saw new levels of opposition to conscription and the Selective Service System. Many people opposed to and facing conscription chose to either apply for classification and assignment to civilian alternative service or noncombatant service within the military as conscientious objectors, or to evade the draft by fleeing to a neutral country. A small proportion, like Muhammad Ali, chose to resist the draft by publicly and politically fighting conscription. Some people resist at the point of registration for the draft. In the USA since 1980, for example, the draft resistance movement has focused on mandatory draft registration. Others resist at the point of induction, when they are ordered to put on a uniform, when they are ordered to carry or use a weapon, or when they are ordered into combat. There are those who are immune to the draft in certain countries; These people include anyone who works for the government (Teachers, police officers, lawmakers, etc), People who work for government contractors, and those who work in jobs essential to the operation of the country (waste management, power plants, etc). In the United Kingdom this is known as a Reserved occupation as it is deemed necessary to the survival of the nation. In Israel, the Muslim and Christian Arab minority, as well as many ultra-Orthodox Jews are also exempt from mandatory service. This exemption, however, does not cover Druze Israeli citizens and several Bedouin Muslim villages. Permanent residents such as the Druzes of the Golan Heights are also excused. Exemption does not prevent members of the exempted groups from volunteering although such behavior is marginal. Though some conscripts feel that they benefited from their experience in the military, others feel that their time could have been spent more productively pursuing their chosen studies or career paths. "France salutes end of military service", BBC News, November 29, 2001. Retrieved September 29, 2006. Individual resentment may also be compounded by the typically low or no wages paid to conscripts, especially in countries such as Greece, South Korea, Finland, and Iran. In Singapore, allowance, and not wages, is given to full-time national service personnel, since policies see National Service as a duty rendered to the country and its citizens. The Finnish army does not pay any wages to conscripts, but instead grants them a daily allowance of 3.60 to 8.25 euros, depending of length of tour of duty. The Greek Army pays a monthly allowance which at the moment stands at 8.62 euros (per month)for privates. Reserve Officers earn more but have to pay for their living expenses off-base themselves. Countries with and without mandatory military service See: Military service +Conscription by country — ExamplesCountryLand area Nationmaster: Land area. SOURCE: All CIA World Factbooks 18 December 2003 to 18 December 2008. GDP nominal (US$M) Nationmaster: GDP. SOURCE: All CIA World Factbooks 18 December 2003 to 18 December 2008 Per capitaGDP (US$) Nationmaster: Per capita GDP. SOURCE: All CIA World Factbooks 18 December 2003 to 18 December 2008. Population Nationmaster: Population. SOURCE: World Development Indicators database and CIA World Factbooks. Government Nationmaster: Government type. SOURCE: All CIA World Factbooks 18 December 2003 to 18 December 2008. Conscription Nationmaster: Conscription. SOURCE: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Geneva, Switzerland, 1997. Data collected from the nations concerned, unless otherwise indicated. Acronyms: Amnesty International (AI); European Council of Conscripts Organizations (ECCO); Friends World Committee for Consultation (FWCC); International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights (IHFHR); National Interreligious Service Board for Conscientious Objectors (NISBCO); Service, Peace and Justice in Latin America (SERPAJ); War Resisters International (WRI); World Council of Churches (WCC). Albania 27,398 $10,620 $2,949.57 3,619,778 emerging democracy Yes Algeria 2,381,740 $90,000 $2,700.01 33,333,216 republic Yes Angola 1,246,700 $28,610 $2,332.92 12,263,596 republic; multiparty presidential regime Yes Argentina 2,736,690 $210,000 $5,210.67 40,301,927 republic Legal, not practiced Australia 7,617,930 $644,700 $31,550.09 20,434,176 federal parliamentary democracy No (banned as enshrined by parliament in 1972 Conscription was abolished by law in 1973.) But the Defence Act 1903 as amended retained a provision that it could be reintroduced by proclamation of the Governor-General. Potentially all Australian residents between the ages of 18 and 60 could be called up in this way. However, the Defence Legislation Amendment Act 1992 further provided that any such proclamation is of no effect until it is approved by both Houses of Parliament. Though actual legislation is not required, the effect of this provision is to make the introduction of conscription impossible without the approval of both the Senate and the House of Representatives, Austria 82,444 $310,100 $37,818.07 8,233,300 federal republic Yes Bahamas 10,070 $6,586, $21,547.17 307,451 constitutional parliamentary democracy No Bangladesh 133,910 $72,420 $481.36 153,546,896 parliamentary democracy No Belgium 30,528 $316,200 $31,400 10,584,534 democracy No (conscription suspended since 1994) Belize 22,806 $1,274 $4,327.67 301,270 parliamentary democracy Military service is voluntary Bhutan 47,000 $1,308 $561.89 682,321 (possibly outdated) absolute monarchy; special treaty relationship with India; note - transition to a constitutional monarchy is expected in 2008constitutional monarchy; special treaty relationship with India Yes (selective) Bolivia 1,084,390 $13,190 $1,446.41 9,247,816 republic Yes (only when there are few volunteers) Bosnia and Herzegovina 51,197 $14,780 $3,246.78 4,590,310 emerging federal democratic republic Yes Brazil 1,314,000 $967,000 $6,915.40 196,342,592 federal republic Yes Bulgaria 110,550 $39,610 $5,409.09 7,262,675 parliamentary democracy No (abolished by law in January 1, 2008 ) Burma 657,740 $13,530 $285.60 47,758,180 military junta No Officially prohibited, de facto still practiced China 9,326,410 $3,251,000 $2,459.43 1,330,044,544 Communist state Yes (selective) Croatia 56,414 $51,360 $11,430.32 4,491,543 presidential/parliamentary democracy No (abolished by law in 2008) Cuba 110,860 $45,580 $4,000.34 11,423,952 Communist state Yes (both sexes) Denmark 42,394 $311,900 $57,039.71 5,484,723 constitutional monarchy Yes Djibouti 22,980 $841 $1,694.29 506,221 republic No El Salvador 20,720 $20,370 $2,931.75 7,066,403 republic Legal, not practicedFinland 304,473 $245,000 $46,769.475,244,749 republic YesFrance 640,053 Includes the overseas regions of French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Reunion. $2,560,000 $35,240.62 61,037,510 republicNo (conscription suspended since 2001) Gambia, The 10,000 $653 $386.77 1,735,464 republic No Germany 349,223 $3,322,000 $40,315.05 82,369,552 federal republic Yes (Alternative serviceavailable) Greece 130,800 $314,600 $29,384.60 10,722,816 parliamentary republic Yes Grenada 344 $590 $6,557.67 90,343 parliamentary democracy No (no military service) Hungary 92,340 $138,400 $13,901.01 9,930,915 parliamentary democracy No (abolished in 2004) Iran 1,636,000 $193,500 $2,958.83 68,251,090 theocratic republic Yes India 2,973,190 $1,099,000 $972.68 1,147,995,904 federal republic No Israel 20,330 $161,900 $25,191.86 7,112,359 parliamentary democracy Yes (both sexes) Jamaica 10,831 $11,210 $4,032.18 2,804,332 constitutional parliamentary democracy No Japan 374,744 $4,384,000 $34,402.26 127,288,416 constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government No Jordan 91,971 $16,010 $2,644.89 6,198,677 constitutional monarchy Uncertain Data from the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Geneva, Switzerland, 1997 indicates that Conscript Service was suspended indefinitely in 1992 and all members of the armed forces are regular volunteers. The CIA World Factbook entry for Jordan indicates based on 2004 data that conscription at age 18 was suspended in 1999, although all males under age 37 are required to register. The Child Soldiers Global Report 2008 indicates, citing "Mustafa al-Riyalat, Representatives agree flag and reserve la, ad-Dustour, April 2007", that compulsory Military Service Act No. 23 of 1986 put the minimum age limit at 18 and that this would be retained in the 2007 amendments. Korea, North 120,410 $40,000 (2008 est.) $1,800 23,479,088 Communist state one-man dictatorship Yes . Korea, South 98,190 $957,100 $19,514.81 48,379,392 republic Yes Kuwait 17,820 $60,720 $24,234.11 2,505,559 constitutional emirate Yes Lebanon 10,230 $24,640 $6,276.90 3,971,941 republic No (abolished in 2007) Libya 1,759,540 $57,060 $9,451.85 6,173,579 jamahiriya (a state of the masses) in theory, governed by the populace through local councils; in practice, an authoritarian state Yes Luxembourg 2,586 $50,160 $104,451.69 486,006 constitutional monarchy No Macedonia, Republic of 24,856 $7,497 $3,646.55 2,061,315 parliamentary democracy No (abolished in 2006) Malaysia 328,550 $186,500, $7,513.71 25,274,132 constitutional monarchy Yes Maldives 300 $1,049 $2,842.58 385,925 republic No Malta 316 $7,419 $18,460.73 403,532 republic No Moldova 33,371 $4,227 $978.36 4,324,450 republic Yes Netherlands 33,883 $768,700, $46,389.35 16,645,313 constitutional monarchy Legal, not practiced New Zealand 268,021 $128,100 $31,124.18 4,173,460 parliamentary democracy No Philippines 298,170 $144,100 $1,582.17 96,061,680 Republic Yes Poland 304,459 $420,300 $10,911.71 38,500,696 republic No "Poland's defence minister, Bogdan Klich, said the country will move towards a professional army and that from January, only volunteers will join the armed forces.", Qatar 11,437 $67,760 $74,688.97 824,789 emirate No Romania 230,340 $166,000 $7,451.95 22,246,862 republic No (ended in 2007) Russia 16,995,800 $1,290,000 $9,124.49 140,702,096 federation Yes Rwanda 24,948 $3,320 $335.10 10,186,063 republic; presidential, multiparty system No Saudi Arabia 376,000 $276,900 $13,622.68 28,146,656 monarchy No Seychelles 455 $710 $8,669.64 82,247 republic Yes Singapore 682.7 $161,300 $35,427.12 4,608,167 parliamentary republic Yes Slovenia 20,151 $46,080 $22,933.99 2,007,711 parliamentary republic yes South Africa 1,219,912 $282,600 $6,423.04 48,782,756 republic No Spain 499,542 $1,439,000 $35,576.37 40,491,052 parliamentary monarchy No Syria 184,050 $37,760 $1,954.98 19,747,586 republic under an authoritarian military-dominated regime Yes Swaziland 17,203 $2,936 $2,591.20 1,128,814 monarchy No Switzerland 39,770 $423,900 $56,111.06 7,581,520 formally a confederation but similar in structure to a federal republic Yes Taiwan (estimates based on 2006 data) (Republic of China) 32,260 $383,300 $16,768.11 22,920,946 multiparty democracy Yes (alternative service available ) An all-volunteer force is planned by the end of 2014. . Thailand 511,770 $245,700 $3,776.0 65,493,296 constitutional monarchy Yes Tonga 718 $219 $1,873.06 119,009 constitutional monarchy No Trinidad and Tobago 5,128 $20,700 $19,590.99 1,047,366 parliamentary democracy No Turkey 770,760 $663,400 $9,322.83 71,892,808 republican parliamentary democracy Yes United Kingdom 241,590 $2,773,000, $45,626.38 60,943,912 constitutional monarchy No (except Bermuda Regiment ) United States 9,161,923 $13,840,000 $45,958.70 303,824,640 Constitution-based federal republic; strong democratic tradition No The United States abandoned the draft in 1973 under President Richard Nixon, ended the Selective Service registration requirement in 1975 under President Gerald Ford, and then re-instated the Selective Service registration requirement in 1980 under President Jimmy Carter. Today the U.S. Selective Service System remains as a contingency, should a military draft be re-introduced. For more information see the U.S. Selective Service System website. Vanuatu 12,200 $455 $2,146.52 215,446 parliamentary republic No Arguments against conscription Universal Declaration of Human Rights Many arguments opposed to conscription, or opposed to gender-discriminated conscription, arise from its alleged violation of the principles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of the United Nations. In particular: Art.2: Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as (…) sex (…) Art.3: Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. Art.4: No one shall be held in (…) servitude (…) Art.18: Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance. Art.20: (…) No one may be compelled to belong to an association. Art.23: Everyone has the right (…) to free choice of employment (…) In addition, many constitutions do provide similar rights in countries where there is or has been some form of conscription after World War II or that maintain a possibility of conscription in time of war. Slavery Conscription subjects individual personalities to militarism. It is a form of servitude. That nations routinely tolerate it, is just one more proof of its debilitating influence. — Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, H.G. Wells, Bertrand Russell and Thomas Mann in Against Conscription and the Military Training of Youth — 1930 Against Conscription and the Military Training of Youth — 1930 Some groups, such as libertarians, say that the draft constitutes slavery, since it is mandatory work Conscription, is it Slavery?, butnowyouknow.com (archived from the original on 2007-09-07). . Under the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, slavery or other involuntary servitude is not allowed unless it is part of punishment for a crime. They therefore see the draft as unconstitutional (at least in the U.S.) and immoral. In 1918, the Supreme Court ruled that the World War I draft did not violate the United States Constitution. Arver v. United States, . The Court detailed its conclusion that the limited powers of the federal government included conscription. Its only statement on the Thirteenth Amendment issue reads thus: Finally, as we are unable to conceive upon what theory the exaction by government from the citizen of the performance of his supreme and noble duty of contributing to the defense of the rights and honor of the nation as the result of a war declared by the great representative body of the people can be said to be the imposition of involuntary servitude in violation of the prohibitions of the Thirteenth Amendment, we are constrained to the conclusion that the contention to that effect is refuted by its mere statement. In the USSR, most of the conscripts received only very basic training and were used for forced labor unrelated to actual military service, such as building Dachas (second homes) for officers or digging up potatoes in the field with zero wage cost Viktor Suvorov, The Liberators ISBN 0-241-10675-3; Hamish Hamilton, 1981. . This contributed to the lack of incentives for the Soviet-planned economy system to produce better combined harvesting machines and Soviet agriculture remained low-tech. In Soviet-bloc Hungary, more than half of pre-1989 conscripts received a mere few weeks of rifle training and were swiftly assigned to "working squadrons," which usually hand-built rail tracks "for free", and in very poor quality. At the same time, railway tracks in Western Europe were being built to high-quality standards by semi-automatic, rail-rolling factories operated by a professional workforce. Ageism Conscription is usually limited to young people, and the burden of conscription is almost never spread equally across all age groups. The youngest people considered qualified are usually conscripted first. Opponents of ageism, and advocates of youth liberation, argue that age-based military conscription is the most severe disparity on the basis of age of any government mandate on individuals. This argument is epitomized by the Phil Ochs song, "I Ain't Marching Anymore": "It's always the old who lead us to the war; it's always the young who fall." Even in countries with elected governments, conscripts are often too young to be allowed to vote or participate in decisions on whether to go to war or to impose or set policies for conscription. The Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which lowered the voting age to 18, was proposed and approved largely in response to criticism of conscription based on the unfairness of drafting men too young to be allowed to vote. But draft-age voters in the USA are still overwhelmingly outnumbered by voters considered to be too old to be conscripted. Sexism Traditionally conscription has been limited to the male population. Women and non-able-bodied males have been exempted from conscription. Many societies have traditionally considered conscription as a test of manhood and a rite of passage from boyhood into manhood. Discipline problems No military can operate effectively without discipline. Discipline can either be taught from esprit de corps, already-acquired motivation of the personnel or be fundamentally embedded into the troops through guidance from leadership. One can speculate that volunteers manifest less undisciplined behavior, however citizens conscripted might have little motivation to serve. As motivation is based on coercion, the corrective action imposed upon undisciplined conscriptees is often harsh. Capital punishment, usually by firing squad, was used almost universally to maintain discipline in conscript militaries during wartime. Antony Beevor has estimated the executions covered some 1% to 5% of all conscript losses in World War II. This can be best summarized by a statement from Leon Trotsky: "An army cannot be built without reprisals. Masses of men cannot be led to death unless the command has the death penalty in its arsenal. So long as those malicious tailless apes that are so proud of their technical achievements — the animals that we call men — will build armies and wage wars, the command will always be obliged to place the soldiers between the possible death in the front and the inevitable one in the rear." Consequently, conscript armies are more likely to commit mutiny than all-volunteer forces, and can in extreme cases turn against their own (see fragging). The Vlasov Army is an extreme example of a conscript army turning against their own. Discipline problems become much worse when the ablest of the youth are forced to serve against their will under the authority of people they consider less intelligent, untalented, or simply because of unquestioned authority. This was seldom a problem in the period of Industrialism when only the upper classes had access to higher education, but proved problematic in the Vietnam War, when college students were conscripted to fight under non-commissioned officers, many of whom had not finished high school and few of whom had any higher education. Nationalism and promoting militarism The military draft is predicated on the assumption that nations have rights that supersede those of the individual. In the words of Einstein and Gandhi's Anti-Conscription Manifesto, "The State which thinks itself entitled to force its citizens to go to war will never pay proper regard to the value and happiness of their lives in peace." The building of large conscript armies coincided with the rise of virulent nationalism in the 19th and 20th centuries, culminating in World War II. In peacetime, conscription can create an atmosphere of militarism and bigotry in society. Many young men in countries with compulsory conscription develop a cynical stance about militarism because the mandatory nature of conscription creates low morale among soldiers. This is especially true in countries where nationalist feelings are weak to begin with, such as Austria, Germany and Sweden, or where conditions are brutal. Men who have had military training can also be more ready to use violence to solve conflicts than those who have not. Conscription also may create an atmosphere of chauvinism, sexism and discrimination against those men who haven't served in the armed forces. Justification for attacks on civilians Conscription is a component of total war, and can also be used as an example of established policy to justify a government's demand that other sacrifices be required of civilians. Once a draft is allowed, Justice Louis Brandeis argued, "all bets are off". , citing Arguably this results in a blurring of the moral distinction between civilians and the military as legitimate military targets, leading to attacks on civilians, although this view runs counter to the laws and customs of war: young people who could be conscripted, but are not in the armed forces (or otherwise bearing arms in a conflict) are still legally considered civilians. Examples would include the indiscriminate bombing of cities conducted by both sides during World War II, the My Lai Massacre. Hamas guerrillas also claim their deliberate targeting of Israeli civilians is justified by the existence of conscription in Israel. It has been popular recently to call civilian deaths "collateral damage" although their deaths are highly predictable. In fact, during the last century, civilian deaths have grown compared to military deaths in conflict. Quality One of the objections raised is that a conscript force would be of lower quality than a volunteer army. First, short periods of service do not allow for much skill building. Second, there is a possibility of a morale drop in units with conscripts, leading to a reduction in quality as officers and NCOs work to alleviate those problems. The biggest problem is that the pace of training has to be adjusted to the level of the lowest quality candidate. Combined with the apparent lack of motivation and short tour of duty, this renders the skills of the conscripts very low compared to volunteer professionals. Therefore the elite units of all armies which have conscription, are composed entirely of selected volunteers, such as Parachute Rangers in the Finnish army. Likewise, the military training of the conscripts is almost universally very rudimentary. It seldom goes beyond drill, shooting practice, rudimentary specialization on one's service branch and weapons and basic battlefield training. The Argentinians referred conscription as la colimba from words correr (run), limpiar (cleanse) and barrer (march), with allusion of conscription being merely irrelevant tasks at barracks instead of real combat skills training. Likewise, many nations have used conscripts simply as indentured, low-cost work force, organized as "work battalions" for agriculture and building infrastructure instead of decent military service. Economics It can be argued that in a cost-to-benefit ratio, conscription during peace time is not worthwhile. Henderson, David R. "The Role of Economists in Ending the Draft" (August 2005). Months or years of service amongst the most fit subtracts from the productivity of the economy; add to this the cost of training them, and in some countries paying them. Compared to these extensive costs, some would argue there is very little benefit, if there ever were war conscription and basic training could be completed quickly, and in most countries where conscription is compulsory there is little threat of war in any case. The cost to particularly in times of military duress, such as the current U.S. conflict in Iraq, conscription serves as an instrument through which fresh soldiers may be readied when reserves and voluntary troops have been over utilized. These new troops ultimately provide more efficient use of U.S. economic resources since individuals plan for military involvement as a normal activity. Draft assignments, in contrast, disrupt everyday activity and lead to possibly greater economic shock. The cost of conscription can be related to the parable of the broken window. Military service can be related to any other work, such as that of policeman. The costs of work do not disappear anywhere even if no salary is paid. The work effort of the conscripts is effectively wasted; unwilling work force is extremely inefficient and the conscripts also lose their the costs of all-volunteer paid force. The impact is especially severe in wartime, when civilian professionals are forced to fight as amateur soldiers. Not only is the work effort of the conscripts wasted and productivity is lost, but professionally-skilled conscripts are also difficult to replace in the civilian work force. Every soldier conscripted in the army is taken away from his civilian work, and away from contributing to the economy which funds the military. This is not a problem in an agrarian or pre-industrialized state where the level of education is universally low, and where a worker is easily replaced by another. However, this proves extremely problematic in a post-industrial society where educational levels are high and where the work force is highly sophisticated and a replacement for a conscripted specialist is difficult to find. Even direr economic consequences result if the professional conscripted as an amateur soldier is killed or maimed for life; his work effort and productivity is irrevocably lost. Draft as a tool to subjugate society Another argument sees conscription as a tool for dictatorships to control and re-educate a population instead of being a means for an oppressed people to infiltrate the military as the power base for every dictatorship. Especially since the military is inherently based on giving and obeying orders, instead of democracy, it is argued that a draft is a far more effective tool to instill obedience and unconditional following into society than giving a democratic populace the opportunity to control the military. Supporting that argument is the fact, that Nazi Germany changed the Reichswehr from an all-volunteer army in 1934 into the conscription-based Wehrmacht. Also almost all contemporary dictatorships have a military draft (Syria, North Korea, as well as Iraq under Saddam Hussein). Virtually all former military dictatorships relied heavily on conscribing their entire adolescent male populations (with the military dictatorship of Burma being a notable exception). The former military dictatorships of Turkey, Greece, Spain, Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Indonesia and Libya maintained draft systems throughout their reigns as well as all formerly communist dictatorships and the Soviet Union itself. Arguments for conscription Valuable training Some communitarians argue that peacetime conscription is an ideal tool for teaching a population basic, important skills such as first aid, swimming, and wilderness survival. They also argue that conscription makes for a more disciplined and skilled workforce, as men and women leave the military and take the skills which they honed there back to their civilian jobs. Rite of passage In many countries, conscription serves as a rite of passage. The prospective man is tested, to see whether or not he can endure the hardships of military training and earn the right to be called a man. Military service, in countries that have it, may then be seen as the test of manhood. Conscription may inspire camaraderie, unifying a people: all able-bodied males together as a union have had the same experience and are soldiers, and that may create unity and a national spirit. Draft as protection against democracy-destroying military coups Some argue that conscription should be connected to democracy. A professional army can possibly become a dangerous state-within-a-state. Military virtues such as obedience to orders and respect for the chain of command can possibly be abused by aspiring dictators. Armed forces can attract — consciously or unconsciously — people who prefer authoritarian systems. The army can even become the only chance for a job and decent life in times of unemployment (this was crucial in the rise of Japanese militarism,) or for despised minorities. Such people may come to regard the army as their home and elevate it above the state. On the other hand, once in power dictators such as Napoléon Bonaparte, Adolf Hitler, and Saddam Hussein have used conscription. The most significant attempt on Hitler's life was from the professional component of his military. One should also note the 1980 Turkish coup d'état and many other coup d'états because the military was dissatisfied with the democratic election, despite the fact that Turkey had a military based on conscripts. Manpower Small countries have several options to raise a sizeable army. One is to put every able-bodied man under arms. This is how Switzerland managed to stay independent despite repeated attacks throughout history. "Conscription is alive and well in Switzerland. When a male Swiss reaches the age of 20, he must undergo 15 weeks of military training. Over the next 22 to 32 years, he'll attend a succession of two- to three-week training camps during until he's accrued 300 to 1,300 days of active service. (Service requirements depend on rank: the higher the rank, the more years and accrued days are required.)", The Swiss militias were so successful that their fighting style and weapons (especially the halberd) were quickly adopted by their enemies. "The Swiss were emulated and pikemen or other shock infantry were developed elsewhere. Other shock infantry used halberds, bills, poleaxes and two handed swords, such as the German landsknechts.", This in turn made the Swiss very popular as mercenaries; many rulers even raised Swiss Guards. The rich Flemish trade cities of the early 14th century raised huge militias that could even defeat armies of knights. The famous Battle of the Golden Spurs (1302) is a good example. Other options for national defense include membership in a military alliance like NATO, as is the case for countries like Belgium and Luxembourg. Switzerland started out as a military alliance between independent cantons. However, the membership in such alliance decreases the independence of a country, making it dependent on its stronger allies. Several NATO members maintain conscription, so an alliance is not mutually exclusive with conscription. Also, a wealthy small country could hire a professional mercenary army. This approach does, however, require wealth and men who are willing to hire on. Moreover, it requires some means to control the mercenaries if they became unruly. Due to the attrition inherent in warfare, it is difficult to maintain the numbers needed for a wholly professional military, especially in a lengthy war. Complicating matters is the fact that military service in such times becomes more and more unattractive, even if the war has broad support. It is for this reason that the previously all-volunteer Union Army and the World War I British Army switched to conscription after a few years of combat and its associated losses. However, conscription creates numbers but not quality. Niccolò Machiavelli's attempts to raise a conscript army in Florence ended in catastrophe; the conscripts did not have adequate training or experience, and were awkward to perform drill and maneuver. If the conscript army is trained only during the crisis, the limits on time and resources on training enable only rudimentary training; anything else is to be learnt on the battlefield. However, this can be avoided by peace-time conscription to train a large reserve usable in a crisis. The quality of the reserve must be maintained by steady refresher exercises. In several countries where conscription is in use, the length (and quality) of the training is virtually similar to that of professional armies. The losses to conscript armies on the battlefield are often large, but waste of manpower is limited by the fact that the supply of able-bodied males in a nation is not inexhaustible. In addition, any government waging a prolonged war with conscripts will risk losing popular support and following loss of power. For a democratic government, this limits the use of conscript forces for wars that are fights for existence. Pursuing national interests or expeditionary wars may still necessitate a large professional army. Conscripts can also be used away from combat roles, in such duties as garrisoning important areas, internal security, protection of supply routes, thus relieving the professionals for the front. Conscript quality The manpower quality of a conscript force is considered poor in many countries and conversely, governments are reluctant to invest in professional-quality training of conscripts, giving poor-quality forces. However, in some countries with conscription, the personnel diversity of the conscript force is considered its greatest strength. Kaskeala, J. Suomalaisten turvallisuutta kohennetaan koetuin konstein 24-1-2005. Retrieved 12-5-2007. Admittedly, there are persons who would not be employed by a professional force, but these are a minority and can be discharged for medical reasons in extreme cases. However, the conscript force may also receive the best of the youth, who would never join a professional army. Many conscripts are from such social strata that they would have much more lucrative employment or would be studying, were they not obliged to serve. These persons provide talented manpower that can easily be trained for technical and leadership duties. As junior NCO and commissioned officer positions are filled with leadership-trained conscripts, the size and cost of the professional cadre is much smaller. As these ex-conscripts, as reservists, mature and lose their fighting fitness, they can be subsequently retrained and given emergency positions corresponding their civilian expertise. For example, a transport manager who is a reserve officer might serve as a battalion logistics chief during wartime. Puolustusvoimat: Varusmieheksi 2006. Retrieved 2/8/2007. In Finnish Kaskeala, J. (2006) Vaikka puolustusvoimat supistuu, tarvitsemme yleisen asevelvollisuuden. Retrieved 2/9/2007. In Finnish The leadership-trained conscripts can also be recruited to the regular forces. The vast improvement of the Egyptian Army in between the Six Day War and the Yom Kippur War has been attributed to the decision to conscript college graduates who were previously exempt. In lengthy wars such as World War II, the differences between conscripts and professionals may disappear over time. During war commanders look to the combat experience of soldiers and units as an indication of quality, and conscripts who have seen action will be far more valuable to their superiors than green professionals. The heterogeneity of the manpower is also the Achilles heel of conscription armies. The worst problem is that the training must be designed by the physical fitness and the learning ability of the least able of the youth. However, this can be at least partly avoided by differentiating the conscript training. Even the least able can usually fulfill important roles in relatively easy logistics duties, while the most able can be trained quite well as specialists. Tykistöprikaati: Erikoispalvelutehtävät Retrieved 2/8/2007. In Finnish The more heterogeneous the manpower is, the more likely it is also to experience internal conflicts eroding the cohesion of the troops. In many cases, the conscript servicemates may have social or societal problems, they may be criminals, bullies or drug abusers, or they may even be sociopaths. Allowing such persons to serve is problematic. They may corrode the capability of the unit, even endangering the safety of the others. Some countries have recognized this problem, and attempt to exclude the potential troublemakers even before they get to serve, using medical discharges, for example.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.turunsanomat.fi/kotimaa/?ts=1,3:1002:0:0,4:2:0:1:2006-08-26,104:2:400747,1:0:0:0:0:0: |title=Varusmieskoulutuksen kevennetty alku säästää paukkuja loppusotaan|publisher=Turun Sanomat |date=2006-08-26 |language=Finnish}}</ref> On the other hand, in some countries (like in Russia) the problems with this issue are extremely dire (see dedovschina). There is also the argument that if the problem can be classified as juvenile delinquency, then the military functions as a "men's school". By giving responsibility, youth development is induced, and adolescent-typical criminal behavior ceases. The problem is that the coercion type environment of conscription armies encourage avoidance of responsibility, rather than accepting it, being more likely to promote such antisocial behaviour than to discourage it. Political and moral motives Jean Jacques Rousseau argued vehemently against professional armies, feeling it was the right and privilege of every citizen to participate to the defense of the whole society and a mark of moral decline to leave this business to professionals. He based this view on the development of the Roman republic, which came to an end at the same time as the Roman army changed from a conscript to professional force. Rousseau, J-J. Social Contract. Chapter "The Roman Comitia] Similarly, Aristotle linked the division of armed service among the populace intimately with the political order of the state. Aristotle, Politics, Book 6 Chapter VII and Book 4 Chapter XIII. Niccolò Machiavelli argued strongly for conscription, seeing the professional armies as the cause of the failure of societal unity in Italy. Some ideologies and cultures, and those based on collectivism or statism, such as Fascism, value the society and common good above the life of an individual. Those ideologies and world-views justify the state to force its members to protect itself and risk their lives for the common good. In states based on society-centered ideologies, world-views and religions, such as in all Communist countries, conscription is seen as the natural way of raising the army. Other proponents such as the late William James consider both mandatory military and national service as ways of instilling maturity in young adults as well a way to entail a sense of "sacrifice" and "self-denial". The State and War - Chapter 9, Libertarianism The Moral Equivalent of War - William James, 1906 In the era of total war, the conscription is the only alternative for a small nation to build an army of credible strength without depending on alliances. This is particularly the case when the opposing state is significantly larger. In such a case, a voluntary force often can not, regardless of its quality, stand against the sheer numbers of the opposing force. The right of the state to conscript its citizens can be founded on utilitarianist principles. If a greater good would achieved, every thing considered, by sacrificing some soldiers a state should be willing to make this sacrifice. This assumes that state have right to use its citizens for achieving greater good for the humankind. Conscription in the United Kingdom is often eulogised for its potential as a beneficial harsh or life-changing treatment, Crime is real enemy within - Published: 05 Jul 2008 (The Sun (UK) 'Bring back National Service to cure yobs' - Telegraph (By Anil Dawar) Last Updated: 1:03AM BST 10 Jul 2006 with views expressed including that the military is better placed than the justice system to deal with miscreants Yes, National service does work - Daily Express | Express Yourself (Tuesday July 15,2008) By Jane Warren , that it would improve youth in general to be brought into line by military training and service, or simply that the suggestion that criminals should be “sent to Iraq” Five held over teenager's death - BBC NEWS England,London (Page last updated at 14:11 GMT, Sunday, 6 July 2008 15:11 UK) . This view, which was the subject of the song “Call up the Groups” by The Barron Knights soon after the end of National Service, underpinned the Bad Lads’ Army TV series, which aimed to “recreate” National Service with first ordinary and later “bad” young men, who necessarily were volunteers who had chosen to attempt to change their lives through the programme. The idea is not seriously considered politically on the basis that standards of troops recruited voluntarily will be higher. Number10.gov.uk » stopyobs - epetition response - 13 March 2008 Economics In a very large war, (such as World War II) raising a large enough volunteer military would require dramatic increases in taxes or budget deficits. In such cases conscription can have lower negative impact than the impact of these higher taxes and possibly be more equitable (higher taxes would penalize those out of service much more than those in service). Research into fiscal impacts of conscription in World War II suggest a volunteer army raised to the same size would have had worse economic impact in terms of economic growth. It is estimated by the British military that in a professional military, one company deployed for active duty in peacekeeping corresponds to three inactive companies at home. Salaries for each are paid from the military budget. In contrast, volunteers from a trained reserve are in their civilian jobs when they are not deployed. See also Antimilitarism Arrière-ban Bermudians Against the Draft (BAD) - a pending court case challenging the legality of continued conscription by the Bermuda Regiment as a military agency of a British Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom. Bevin Boys Civil conscription Civilian Public Service Conscientious objection Conscription in the United States Corvée Flogging as military punishment Michel Foucault's theory of "disciplinary institutions" Impressment and the Quota System Indentured servant Involuntary servitude Levée en masse Machiavelli's thought on the superiority of conscription over mercenaries and professional armies. Men's Rights Military history Military service Military of Switzerland National Service Slavery Rousseau, Jean-Jacques Timeline of women's participation in warfare Military recruitment Economic conscription Volunteer military Zivildienst References Further reading Levi, Margaret. 1997. Consent, Dissent and Patriotism''. New York: Cambridge University Press. External links War Resisters' International Refusing to bear arms: a survey around the world, conducted by "War Resisters' International" about conscription and conscientious objection to military service. Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System, with an updated list of all signatories from 1993 to 2007. Albert Einstein and Mahatma Gandhi. Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System. War Resisters League (USA) Resisters.info — the draft, draft registration, and draft resistance in the USA MedicalDraft.info — the medical draft ("Health Care Personnel Delivery System") in the USA Is Conscription Slavery? Campaign to Abolish Mandatory Military Service in Slovakia Rangel calls for mandatory military service The Association for Injured Officers And Soldiers of Mandatory Military Service, Republic of China The European Bureau for Conscientious Objection Campaign Against Conscription in Greece Canadian Newspaper Archives - Conscription Anti-Conscription Web Ring The History Guy:Issues: Military Draft/Conscription: Information and links on the military draft issue. Mothers Against the Draft - list of countries with conscription Shall We Have Universal Military Training? - World War II-era study | Conscription |@lemmatized conscription:114 also:30 know:12 draft:53 call:14 national:17 service:72 general:3 term:8 involuntary:4 labor:2 demand:2 establish:2 authority:3 often:8 use:21 specific:1 sense:2 government:17 policy:5 require:10 citizen:10 serve:17 armed:11 force:36 various:3 name:2 example:10 recent:1 program:1 united:20 state:34 colloquially:1 many:18 nation:16 maintain:7 instead:6 rely:2 volunteer:22 professional:27 military:99 time:22 although:7 country:36 still:6 reserve:8 possibility:4 wartime:4 crisis:6 refer:3 compulsory:9 two:4 main:2 meaning:1 usually:9 young:12 men:20 give:9 age:15 e:2 g:3 set:3 period:6 commonly:3 one:18 year:12 kingdom:7 singapore:3 new:12 zealand:3 first:8 training:22 later:2 norway:1 safeguard:1 duty:11 indefinite:1 context:2 widespread:2 mobilisation:1 fight:10 war:51 include:8 home:5 territory:2 impose:4 much:7 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4,412 | Bollywood | Bollywood () is the informal term popularly used for the Hindi-language film industry based in Mumbai, India. The term is often incorrectly used to refer to the whole of Indian cinema; it is only a part of the Indian film industry. Bollywood is the largest film producer in India and one of the largest in the world. The name is a portmanteau of Bombay (the former name for Mumbai) and Hollywood, the center of the American film industry. Bollywood is often referred to as Hindi cinema, though frequent use of poetic Urdu words is fairly common, thus the name Hindustani cinema is also used. There has been a growing presence of Indian English in dialogue and songs as well. It is not uncommon to see films that feature dialogue with English words and phrases, or even whole sentences. There is a growing number of films made entirely in English. Etymology The name "Bollywood" is a portmanteau of Bombay (the former name for Mumbai) and Hollywood, the center of the American film industry. However, unlike Hollywood, Bollywood does not exist as a physical place. Though some deplore the name, arguing that it makes the industry look like a poor cousin to Hollywood, it has its own entry in the Oxford English Dictionary. The term "Bollywood" has origins in the 1970s, when India overtook America as the world's largest film producer. Credit for the term has been claimed by several different people, including the lyricist, filmmaker and scholar Amit Khanna, and the journalist Bevinda Collaco. History Film poster for first Indian sound film, Ardeshir Irani's Alam Ara (1931) Nargis and Raj Kapoor in Awaara (1951), also directed and produced by Kapoor. It was nominated for the Grand Prize of the 1951 Cannes Film Festival. Guru Dutt in Pyaasa (1957), for which he was the director, producer and leading actor. It is one of Time magazine's "All-TIME" 100 best movies. Raja Harishchandra (1913), by Dadasaheb Phalke, was the first silent feature film made in India. By the 1930s, the industry was producing over 200 films per annum. The first Indian sound film, Ardeshir Irani's Alam Ara (1931), was a major commercial success. There was clearly a huge market for talkies and musicals; Bollywood and all the regional film industries quickly switched to sound filming. The 1930s and 1940s were tumultuous times: India was buffeted by the Great Depression, World War II, the Indian independence movement, and the violence of the Partition. Most Bollywood films were unabashedly escapist, but there were also a number of filmmakers who tackled tough social issues, or used the struggle for Indian independence as a backdrop for their plots. In 1937, Ardeshir Irani, of Alam Ara fame, made the first colour film in Hindi, Kisan Kanya. The next year, he made another colour film, Mother India. However, colour did not become a popular feature until the late 1950s. At this time, lavish romantic musicals and melodramas were the staple fare at the cinema. Golden Age Following India's independence, the period from the late 1940s to the 1960s are regarded by film historians as the "Golden Age" of Hindi cinema. Some of the most critically-acclaimed Hindi films of all time were produced during this period. Examples include the Guru Dutt films Pyaasa (1957) and Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959) and the Raj Kapoor films Awaara (1951) and Shree 420 (1955). These films expressed social themes mainly dealing with working-class urban life in India; Awaara presented the city as both a nightmare and a dream, while Pyaasa critiqued the unreality of city life. Some of the most famous epic films of Hindi cinema were also produced at the time, including Mehboob Khan's Mother India (1957), which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, and K. Asif's Mughal-e-Azam (1960). V. Shantaram's Do Aankhen Barah Haath (1957) is believed to have inspired the Hollywood film The Dirty Dozen (1967). Madhumati (1958), directed by Bimal Roy and written by Ritwik Ghatak, popularized the theme of reincarnation in Western popular culture. Other acclaimed mainstream Hindi filmmakers at the time included Kamal Amrohi and Vijay Bhatt. Successful actors at the time included Dev Anand, Dilip Kumar, Raj Kapoor and Guru Dutt, while successful actresses included Nargis, Meena Kumari, Nutan, Madhubala, Waheeda Rehman and Mala Sinha. While commercial Hindi cinema was thriving, the 1950s also saw the emergence of a new Parallel Cinema movement. Though the movement was mainly led by Bengali cinema, it also began gaining prominence in Hindi cinema. Early examples of Hindi films in this movement include Chetan Anand's Neecha Nagar (1946) Maker of innovative, meaningful movies. The Hindu, June 15, 2007 and Bimal Roy's Two Acres of Land (1953). Their critical acclaim, as well as the latter's commercial success, paved the way for Indian neorealism Do Bigha Zamin at filmreference and the Indian New Wave. Some of the internationally-acclaimed Hindi filmmakers involved in the movement included Mani Kaul, Kumar Shahani, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani, Shyam Benegal and Vijaya Mehta. Ever since the social realist film Neecha Nagar won the Grand Prize at the first Cannes Film Festival, Hindi films were frequently in competition for the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, with some of them winning major prizes at the festival. Guru Dutt, while overlooked in his own lifetime, had belatedly generated international recognition much later in the 1980s. Dutt is now regarded as one of the greatest Asian filmmakers of all time, alongside the more famous Indian Bengali filmmaker Satyajit Ray. The 2002 Sight & Sound critics' and directors' poll of greatest filmmakers ranked Dutt at #73 on the list. Some of his films are now included among the greatest films of all time, with Pyaasa (1957) being featured in Time magazine's "All-TIME" 100 best movies list, and with both Pyaasa and Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959) tied at #160 in the 2002 Sight & Sound critics' and directors' poll of all-time greatest films. Several other Hindi films from this era were also ranked in the Sight & Sound poll, including Raj Kapoor's Awaara (1951), Vijay Bhatt's Baiju Bawra (1952), Mehboob Khan's Mother India (1957) and K. Asif's Mughal-e-Azam (1960) all tied at #346 on the list. Modern cinema In the late 1960s and early 1970s, romance movies and action films starred actors like Rajesh Khanna and Dharmendra, and actresses like Sharmila Tagore, Mumtaz, Leena Chandavarkar and Helen. In the mid-1970s, romantic confections made way for gritty, violent films about gangsters (see Indian mafia) and bandits. Amitabh Bachchan, the star known for his "angry young man" roles, rode the crest of this trend with actors like Mithun Chakraborty and Anil Kapoor, which lasted into the early 1990s. Actresses from this era included Hema Malini, Jaya Bachchan and Rekha. Some Hindi filmmakers such as Shyam Benegal continued to produce realistic Parallel Cinema throughout the 1970s, Rajadhyaksa, 685 alongside Mani Kaul, Kumar Shahani, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani and Vijaya Mehta. However, the 'art film' bent of the Film Finance Corporation came under criticism during a Committee on Public Undertakings investigation in 1976, which accused the body of not doing enough to encourage commercial cinema. The 1970s thus saw the rise of commercial cinema in the form of enduring films such as Sholay (1975), which solidified Amitabh Bachchan's position as a lead actor. The devotional classic Jai Santoshi Ma was also released in 1975. Rajadhyaksa, 688 Another important film from 1975 was Deewar, directed by Yash Chopra and written by Salim-Javed. A crime film pitting "a policeman against his brother, a gang leader based on real-life smuggler Haji Mastan", portrayed by Amitabh Bachchan, it was described as being “absolutely key to Indian cinema” by Danny Boyle. The most internationally-acclaimed Hindi film of the 1980s was Mira Nair's Salaam Bombay! (1988), which won the Camera d'Or at the 1988 Cannes Film Festival and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the pendulum swung back toward family-centric romantic musicals with the success of such films as Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak (1988), Maine Pyar Kiya (1989), Hum Aapke Hain Kaun (1994) and Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge (1995), making stars out of a new generation of actors (such as Aamir Khan, Salman Khan and Shahrukh Khan) and actresses (such as Sridevi, Madhuri Dixit, Juhi Chawla and Kajol). In that point of time, action and comedy films were also successful, with actors like Govinda and Akshay Kumar and actresses such as Raveena Tandon and Karisma Kapoor appearing in films of this genre. Furthermore, this decade marked the entry of new performers in art and independent films, some of which succeeded commercially, the most influential example being Satya (1998), directed by Ram Gopal Varma and written by Anurag Kashyap. The critical and commerical success of Satya led to the emergence of a distinct genre known as Mumbai noir, urban films reflecting social problems in the city of Mumbai. This led to a resurgence of Parallel Cinema by the end of the decade. These films often featured actors like Nana Patekar, Manoj Bajpai, Manisha Koirala, Tabu and Urmila Matondkar, whose performances were usually acclaimed by critics. The 2000s saw a growth in Bollywood's popularity in the world. This led the nation's filmmaking to new heights in terms of quality, cinematography and innovative story lines as well as technical advances in areas such as special effects, animation, etc. Anita N. Wadhwani. "Bollywood Mania" Rising in United States. USinfo. (August 9, 2006. retrieved on November 12, 2007. Some of the largest production houses, among them Yash Raj Films and Dharma Productions were the producers of new modern films. The opening up of the overseas market, more Bollywood releases abroad and the explosion of multiplexes in big cities, led to wider box office successes in India and abroad, including Lagaan (2001), Devdas (2002), Koi... Mil Gaya (2003), Kal Ho Naa Ho (2003), Veer-Zaara (2004), Rang De Basanti (2006), Lage Raho Munnabhai (2006), Krrish (2006), Dhoom 2 (2006), Om Shanti Om (2007), Taare Zameen Par (2007), and Ghajini (2008), delivering a new generation of popular actors (Hrithik Roshan, Abhishek Bachchan) and actresses (Aishwarya Rai, Preity Zinta and Rani Mukerji ), and keeping the popularity of actors of the previous decade. Among the mainstream films, Lagaan won the Audience Award at the Locarno International Film Festival and was nominated for Best Foreign Language Film at the 74th Academy Awards, while Devdas and Rang De Basanti were both nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Language Film. The Hindi film industry has preferred films that appeal to all segments of the audience (see the discussion in Ganti, 2004, cited in references), and has resisted making films that target narrow audiences. It was believed that aiming for a broad spectrum would maximise box office receipts. However, filmmakers may be moving towards accepting some box-office segmentation, between films that appeal to rural Indians, and films that appeal to urban and overseas audiences. Influences There have generally been six major influences that have shaped the conventions of Indian popular cinema: The ancient Indian epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana which have exerted a profound influence on the thought and imagination of Indian popular cinema, particularly in its narratives. Examples of this influence include the techniques of a side story, back-story and story within a story. Indian popular films often have plots which branch off into sub-plots; such narrative dispersals can clearly be seen in the 1993 films Khalnayak and Gardish. Ancient Sanskrit drama, with its highly stylized nature and emphasis on spectacle, where music, dance and gesture combined "to create a vibrant artistic unit with dance and mime being central to the dramatic experience." Sanskrit dramas were known as natya, derived from the root word nrit (dance), characterizing them as specacular dance-dramas which has continued Indian cinema. The traditional folk theatre of India, which became popular from around the 10th century with the decline of Sanskrit theatre. These regional traditions include the Yatra of Bengal, the Ramlila of Uttar Pradesh, and the Terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu. The Parsi theatre, which "blended realism and fantasy, music and dance, narrative and spectacle, earthy dialogue and ingenuity of stage presentation, integrating them into a dramatic discourse of melodrama. The Parsi plays contained crude humour, melodious songs and music, sensationalism and dazzling stagecraft." Hollywood, where musicals were popular from the 1920s to the 1950s, though Indian filmmakers departed from their Hollywood counterparts in several ways. "For example, the Hollywood musicals had as their plot the world of entertainment itself. Indian filmmakers, while enhancing the elements of fantasy so pervasive in Indian popular films, used song and music as a natural mode of articulation in a given situation in their films. There is a strong Indian tradition of narrating mythology, history, fairy stories and so on through song and dance." In addition, "whereas Hollywood filmmakers strove to conceal the constructed nature of their work so that the realistic narrative was wholly dominant, Indian filmmakers made no attempt to conceal the fact that what was shown on the screen was a creation, an illusion, a fiction. However, they demonstrated how this creation intersected with people's day to day lives in complex and interesting ways." Western musical television, particularly MTV, which has had an increasing influence since the 1990s, as can be seen in the pace, camera angles, dance sequences and music of 2000s Indian films. An early example of this approach was in Mani Ratnam's Bombay (1995). Influence In the 2000s, Bollywood began influencing musical films in the Western world, and played a particularly instrumental role in the revival of the American musical film genre. Baz Luhrmann stated that his successful musical film Moulin Rouge! (2001) was directly inspired by Bollywood musicals. The film thus pays homage to India, incorporating an Indian-themed play based on the ancient Sanskrit drama The Little Clay Cart and a Bollywood-style dance sequence with a song from the film China Gate. The critical and financial success of Moulin Rouge! renewed interest in the then-moribund Western musical genre, and subsequently films such as Chicago, The Producers, Rent, Dreamgirls, Hairspray, Sweeney Todd, Across the Universe, The Phantom of the Opera, Enchanted and Mamma Mia! were produced, fueling a renaissance of the genre. A. R. Rahman, an Indian film composer, wrote the music for Andrew Lloyd Webber's Bombay Dreams, and a musical version of Hum Aapke Hain Koun has played in London's West End. The Bollywood musical Lagaan (2001) was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, and two other Bollywood films Devdas (2002) and Rang De Basanti (2006) were nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Danny Boyle's Slumdog Millionaire (2008), which has won four Golden Globes and eight Academy Awards, was also directly inspired by Bollywood films, and is considered to be a "homage to Hindi commercial cinema". Several other Hollywood films are also believed to have been inspired by Bollywood films. For example, V. Shantaram's Do Aankhen Barah Haath (1957) is believed to have inspired the Hollywood film The Dirty Dozen (1967). The theme of reincarnation was also popularized in Western popular culture through Bollywood films, with Madhumati (1958) inspiring the Hollywood film The Reincarnation of Peter Proud (1975), which in turn inspired the Bollywood film Karz (1980), which in turn influenced another Hollywood film Chances Are (1989). The influence of Bollywood filmi music can also be seen in popular music elsewhere in the world. For example, Devo's 1988 hit song "Disco Dancer" was inspired by the song "I am a Disco Dancer" from the Bollywood film Disco Dancer (1982). The 2002 song "Addictive", sung by Truth Hurts and produced by DJ Quik and Dr. Dre, was lifted from Lata Mangeshkar's "Thoda Resham Lagta Hai" from Jyoti (1981). The Black Eyed Peas' Grammy Award winning 2005 song "Don't Phunk with My Heart" was inspired by two 1970s Bollywood songs: "Ye Mera Dil Yaar Ka Diwana" from Don (1978) and "Ae Nujawan Hai Sub" from Apradh (1972). Both songs were originally composed by Kalyanji Anandji, sung by Asha Bhosle, and featured the dancer Helen. Also in 2005, the Kronos Quartet re-recorded several R. D. Burman compositions, with Asha Bhosle as the singer, into an album You've stolen my heart - Songs From R D Burman's Bollywood, which was nominated for "Best Contemporary World Music Album" at the 2006 Grammy Awards. Filmi music composed by A. R. Rahman (who would later win two Academy Awards for the Slumdog Millionaire soundtrack) has frequently been sampled by musicians elsewhere in the world, including the Singaporean artist Kelly Poon, the Uzbek artist Iroda Dilroz, the French rap group La Caution, the American artist Ciara, and the German band Löwenherz, among others. Many artists among the overseas Indian diaspora have also been inspired by Bollywood music. Genre conventions Bollywood films are mostly musicals, and are expected to contain catchy music in the form of song-and-dance numbers woven into the script. A film's success often depends on the quality of such musical numbers. Kalita, S. Mitra (2005). Suburban Sahibs: Three Immigrant Families And Their Passage from India to America. Rutgers University Press, p. 134. ISBN 081353318X Indeed, a film's music is often released before the movie itself and helps increase the audience. Indian audiences expect full value for their money, with a good entertainer generally referred to as paisa vasool, (literally, "money's worth"). Songs and dances, love triangles, comedy and dare-devil thrills are all mixed up in a three-hour-long extravaganza with an intermission. Such movies are called masala films, after the Hindi word for a spice mixture. Like masalas, these movies are a mixture of many things such as action, comedy, romance etc. Most films have heroes who are able to fight off villains all by themselves. Melodrama and romance are common ingredients to Bollywood films. Pictured Achhut Kanya (1936) Bollywood plots have tended to be melodramatic. They frequently employ formulaic ingredients such as star-crossed lovers and angry parents, love triangles, family ties, sacrifice, corrupt politicians, kidnappers, conniving villains, courtesans with hearts of gold, long-lost relatives and siblings separated by fate, dramatic reversals of fortune, and convenient coincidences. There have always been Indian films with more artistic aims and more sophisticated stories, both inside and outside the Bollywood tradition (see Parallel Cinema). They often lost out at the box office to movies with more mass appeal. Bollywood conventions are changing, however. A large Indian diaspora in English speaking countries, and increased Western influence at home, have nudged Bollywood films closer to Hollywood models. Film critic Lata Khubchandani writes,"..our earliest films...had liberal doses of sex and kissing scenes in them. Strangely, it was after Independence the censor board came into being and so did all the strictures." Free Reeling, PLAY, Sunday Mid-day, March 11, 2007, Mumbai. MH/MR/WEST/66/2006-08 Plots now tend to feature Westernised urbanites dating and dancing in clubs rather than centering on pre-arranged marriages. Though these changes can widely be seen in contemporary Bollywood, traditional conservative ways of Indian culture continue to exist in India outside the industry and an element of resistance by some to western-based influences. Despite this, Bollywood continues to play a major role in fashion in India. Indeed some studies into fashion in India have revealed that some people are unaware that the changing nature of fashion in Bollywood films which are presented to them are often influenced by globalisation and many consider the clothes worn by Bollywood actors as authentically Indian. Cast and crew for further details see Indian movie actors, Indian movie actresses, Indian film directors, Indian film music directors and Indian playback singers Bollywood employs people from all parts of India. It attracts thousands of aspiring actors and actresses, all hoping for a break in the industry. Models and beauty contestants, television actors, theatre actors and even common people come to Mumbai with the hope and dream of becoming a star. Just as in Hollywood, very few succeed. Since many Bollywood films are shot abroad, many foreign extras are employed too. Stardom in the entertainment industry is very fickle, and Bollywood is no exception. The popularity of the stars can rise and fall rapidly. Directors compete to hire the most popular stars of the day, who are believed to guarantee the success of a movie (though this belief is not always supported by box-office results). Hence many stars make the most of their fame, once they become popular, by making several movies simultaneously. Only a very few non-Indian actors are able to make a mark in Bollywood, though many have tried from time to time. There have been some exceptions, one recent example is the hit film Rang De Basanti, where the lead actress is Alice Patten, an Englishwoman. Kisna, Lagaan, and The Rising: Ballad of Mangal Pandey also featured foreign actors. Bollywood can be very clannish, and the relatives of film-industry insiders have an edge in getting coveted roles in films and/or being part of a film's crew. However, industry connections are no guarantee of a long career: competition is fierce and if film industry scions do not succeed at the box office, their careers will falter. Some of the biggest stars, such as Dharmendra, Amitabh Bachchan, and Shahrukh Khan have succeeded despite total lack of show business connections. For film clans, see List of Bollywood film clans. Sound Sound in Bollywood films is rarely recorded on location (otherwise known as sync sound). Therefore, the sound is usually created (or recreated) entirely in the studio, with the actors reciting their lines as their images appear on-screen in the studio in the process known as "looping in the sound" or ADR—with the foley and sound effects added later. This creates several problems, since the sound in these films usually occurs a frame or two earlier or later than the mouth movements or gestures. The actors have to act twice: once on-location, once in the studio—and the emotional level on set is often very difficult to recreate. Commercial Indian films, not just the Hindi-language variety, are known for their lack of ambient sound, so there is a silence underlying everything instead of the background sound and noises usually employed in films to create aurally perceivable depth and environment. The ubiquity of ADR in Bollywood cinema became prevalent in the early 1960s with the arrival of the Arriflex 3 camera, which required a blimp (cover) in order to shield the sound of the camera, for which it was notorious, from on-location filming. Commercial Indian filmmakers, known for their speed, never bothered to blimp the camera, and its excessive noise required that everything had to be recreated in the studio. Eventually, this became the standard for Indian films. The trend was bucked in 2001, after a 30-year hiatus of synchronized sound, with the film Lagaan, in which producer-star Aamir Khan insisted that the sound be done on location. This opened up a heated debate on the use and economic feasibility of on-location sound, and several Bollywood films have employed on-location sound since then. Bollywood song and dance Songs in Bollywood are sung by professional playback singers, rather than actors, who lip-sync the lyrics. Pictured here is Mukesh, a famed playback singer. Bollywood dances usually follow filmi songs Bollywood film music is called filmi music (from Hindi, meaning "of films"). Songs from Bollywood movies are generally pre-recorded by professional playback singers, with the actors then lip synching the words to the song on-screen, often while dancing. While most actors, especially today, are excellent dancers, few are also singers. One notable exception was Kishore Kumar, who starred in several major films in the 1950s while also having a stellar career as a playback singer. K. L. Saigal, Suraiyya, and Noor Jehan were also known as both singers and actors. Some actors in the last thirty years have sung one or more songs themselves; for a list, see Singing actors and actresses in Indian cinema. Playback singers are prominently featured in the opening credits and have their own fans who will go to an otherwise lackluster movie just to hear their favourites. Going by the quality as well as the quantity of the songs they rendered, most notable singers of Bollywood are Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, Geeta Dutt, Shamshad Begum and Alka Yagnik among female playback singers; and K. L. Saigal, Talat Mahmood, Mukesh, Mohammed Rafi, Manna Dey, Hemant Kumar, Kishore Kumar, Kumar Sanu,S.P.Balasubramanyam,Udit Narayan and Sonu Nigam among male playback singers. Mohammed Rafi is often considered arguably the finest of the singers that have lent their voice to Bollywood songs, followed by Lata Mangeshkar, who, through the course of a career spanning over six decades, has recorded thousands of songs for Indian movies. The composers of film music, known as music directors, are also well-known. Their songs can make or break a film and usually do. Remixing of film songs with modern beats and rhythms is a common occurrence today, and producers may even release remixed versions of some of their films' songs along with the films' regular soundtrack albums. The dancing in Bollywood films, especially older ones, is primarily modelled on Indian dance: classical dance styles, dances of historic northern Indian courtesans (tawaif), or folk dances. In modern films, Indian dance elements often blend with Western dance styles (as seen on MTV or in Broadway musicals), though it is not unusual to see Western pop and pure classical dance numbers side by side in the same film. The hero or heroine will often perform with a troupe of supporting dancers. Many song-and-dance routines in Indian films feature unrealistically instantaneous shifts of location and/or changes of costume between verses of a song. If the hero and heroine dance and sing a pas de deux, it is often staged in beautiful natural surroundings or architecturally grand settings. This staging is referred to as a "picturisation". Songs typically comment on the action taking place in the movie, in several ways. Sometimes, a song is worked into the plot, so that a character has a reason to sing; other times, a song is an externalisation of a character's thoughts, or presages an event that has not occurred yet in the plot of the movie. In this case, the event is almost always two characters falling in love. Bollywood films have always used what are now called "item numbers". A physically attractive female character (the "item girl"), often completely unrelated to the main cast and plot of the film, performs a catchy song and dance number in the film. In older films, the "item number" may be performed by a courtesan (tawaif) dancing for a rich client or as part of a cabaret show. The dancer Helen was famous for her cabaret numbers. In modern films, item numbers may be inserted as discotheque sequences, dancing at celebrations, or as stage shows. For the last few decades Bollywood producers have been releasing the film's soundtrack, as tapes or CDs, before the main movie release, hoping that the music will pull audiences into the cinema later. Often the soundtrack is more popular than the movie. In the last few years some producers have also been releasing music videos, usually featuring a song from the film. However, some promotional videos feature a song which is not included in the movie. Dialogues and lyrics The film script or lines of dialogue (called "dialogues" in Indian English) and the song lyrics are often written by different people. Dialogues are usually written in an unadorned Hindi or Hindustani that would be understood by the largest possible audience. Some movies, however, have used regional dialects to evoke a village setting, or old-fashioned courtly Urdu in Mughal era historical films. Contemporary mainstream movies also make great use of English. In fact, many movie scripts are first written in English, and then translated into Hindi. Characters may shift from one language to the other to express a certain atmosphere (for example, English in a business setting and Hindi in an informal one). Cinematic language, whether in dialogues or lyrics, is often melodramatic and invokes God, family, mother, duty, and self-sacrifice liberally. Music directors often prefer working with certain lyricists, to the point that the lyricist and composer are seen as a team. This phenomenon is not unlike the pairings of American composers and songwriters that created old-time Broadway musicals (e.g., Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II, or Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe). Song lyrics are usually about love. Bollywood song lyrics, especially in the old movies, frequently use Arabo-Persic Urdu vocabulary. Another source for love lyrics is the long Hindu tradition of poetry about the mythological amours of Krishna, Radha, and the gopis. Many lyrics compare the singer to a devotee and the object of his or her passion to Krishna or Radha. Finances Bollywood films are multi-million dollar productions, with the most expensive productions costing up to 100 crores Rupees (roughly USD 20 million). Sets, costumes, special effects, and cinematography were less than world-class up until the mid-to-late 1990s, although with some notable exceptions. As Western films and television gain wider distribution in India itself, there is increasing pressure for Bollywood films to attain the same production levels. In particular, in areas such as action and special effects. Recent Bollywood films have employed international technicians to improve in these areas, such as Krrish (2006) which has action choreographed by Hong Kong based Tony Ching. The increasing accessibility to professional action and special effects, coupled with rising film budgets, has seen an explosion in the action and sci-fi genres. Sequences shot overseas have proved a real box office draw, so Mumbai film crews are increasingly filming in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States, continental Europe and elsewhere. Nowadays, Indian producers are winning more and more funding for big-budget films shot within India as well, such as Lagaan, Devdas and other recent films. Funding for Bollywood films often comes from private distributors and a few large studios. Indian banks and financial institutions were forbidden from lending money to movie studios. However, this ban has now been lifted. As finances are not regulated, some funding also comes from illegitimate sources, such as the Mumbai underworld. The Mumbai underworld has been known to be involved in the production of several films, and are notorious for their patronisation of several prominent film personalities; On occasion, they have been known to use money and muscle power to get their way in cinematic deals. In January, 2000, Mumbai mafia hitmen shot Rakesh Roshan, a film director and father of star Hrithik Roshan. In 2001, the Central Bureau of Investigation seized all prints of the movie Chori Chori Chupke Chupke after the movie was found to be funded by members of the Mumbai underworld. Another problem facing Bollywood is widespread copyright infringement of its films. Often, bootleg DVD copies of movies are available before the prints are officially released in cinemas. Manufacturing of bootleg DVD, VCD, and VHS copies of the latest movie titles is a well established 'small scale industry' in parts of South Asia and South East Asia. The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) estimates that the Bollywood industry loses $100 million annually in loss of revenue from pirated home videos and DVDs. Besides catering to the homegrown market, demand for these copies is large amongst some sections of the Indian diaspora, too. (In fact, bootleg copies are the only way people in Pakistan can watch Bollywood movies, since the Government of Pakistan has banned their sale, distribution and telecast). Films are frequently broadcast without compensation by countless small cable TV companies in India and other parts of South Asia. Small convenience stores run by members of the Indian diaspora in the U.S. and the UK regularly stock tapes and DVDs of dubious provenance, while consumer copying adds to the problem. The availability of illegal copies of movies on the Internet also contributes to the piracy problem. Satellite TV, television and imported foreign films are making huge inroads into the domestic Indian entertainment market. In the past, most Bollywood films could make money; now fewer tend to do so. However, most Bollywood producers make money, recouping their investments from many sources of revenue, including selling ancillary rights. There are also increasing returns from theatres in Western countries like the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States, where Bollywood is slowly getting noticed. As more Indians migrate to these countries, they form a growing market for upscale Indian films. For an interesting comparison of Hollywood and Bollywood financial figures, see chart. It shows tickets sold in 2002 and total revenue estimates. Bollywood sold 3.6 billion tickets and had total revenues (theatre tickets, DVDs, television etc.) of US$1.3 billion, whereas Hollywood films sold 2.6 billion tickets and generated total revenues (again from all formats) of US$51 billion. Advertising Many Indian artists used to make a living by hand-painting movie billboards and posters (The well-known artist M.F. Hussain used to paint film posters early in his career) This was because human labour was found to be cheaper than printing and distributing publicity material. Now, a majority of the huge and ubiquitous billboards in India's major cities are created with computer-printed vinyl. The old hand-painted posters, once regarded as ephemera, are becoming increasingly collectible as folk art. Releasing the film music, or music videos, before the actual release of the film can also be considered a form of advertising. A popular tune is believed to help pull audiences into the theaters. Bollywood publicists have begun to use the Internet as a venue for advertising. Most of the better-funded film releases now have their own websites, where browsers can view trailers, stills, and information about the story, cast, and crew. Bollywood is also used to advertise other products. Product placement, as used in Hollywood, is widely practiced in Bollywood. Bollywood movie stars appear in print and television advertisements for other products, such as watches or soap (see Celebrity endorsement). Advertisers say that a star endorsement boosts sales. Awards The Filmfare Awards ceremony is one of the most prominent film events given for Hindi films in India. The Indian screen magazine Filmfare started the first Filmfare Awards in 1954, and awards were given to the best films of 1953. The ceremony was referred to as the Clare Awards after the magazine's editor. Modelled after the poll-based merit format of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, individuals may submit their votes in separate categories. A dual voting system was developed in 1956. Like the Oscars, the Filmfare awards are frequently accused of bias towards commercial success rather than artistic merit. As the Filmfare, the National Film Awards were introduced in 1954. Since 1973, the Indian government has sponsored the National Film Awards, awarded by the government run Directorate of Film Festivals (DFF). The DFF screens not only Bollywood films, but films from all the other regional movie industries and independent/art films. These awards are handed out at an annual ceremony presided over by the President of India. Under this system, in contrast to the National Film Awards, which are decided by a panel appointed by Indian Government, the Filmfare Awards are voted for by both the public and a committee of experts. Additional ceremonies held within India are: Stardust Awards Star Screen Awards Ceremonies held overseas are: Bollywood Movie Awards - Long Island, New York, United States Global Indian Film Awards - (different country each year) IIFA Awards - (different country each year) Zee Cine Awards- (different country each year) Most of these award ceremonies are lavishly staged spectacles, featuring singing, dancing, and numerous celebrities. Film education Film and Television Institute of India Satyajit Ray Film and Television Institute Asian Academy of Film & Television Popularity and appeal Besides being popular among the India diaspora, such far off locations as Nigeria to Egypt to Senegal and to Russia generations of non-Indian fans have grown up with Bollywood during the years, bearing witness to the cross-cultural appeal of Indian movies. Over the last years of the twentieth century and beyond, Bollywood progressed in its popularity as it entered the consciousness of Western audiences and producers. Can new money create a world-class film industry in India?. Business Week. Asia Bollywood films are widely watched in South Asian countries, such as Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Most Pakistanis watch Bollywood films, as they understand Hindi (due to its linguistic similarity to Urdu). Despite a government ban on Indian films since 1965, a few Bollywood films were legally released in the country in 2006, including Taj Mahal and Mughal-e-Azam, decades after its release, though more movies followed. For the most part, Bollywood movies are watched on cable television in Pakistan; there is also a huge market for Bollywood movies in local video stores. Historically, video piracy was another accessible venue to watch Indian movies. Bollywood movies are also popular in Afghanistan due to the country's proximity with the Indian subcontinent and certain other cultural perspectives present in the movies. India, more so than Pakistan seems to share a similar style of music and musical instruments with Afghanistan. The Hindu Business Line: It's Bollywood all the way in Afghanistan A number of Bollywood movies were filmed inside Afghanistan while some dealt with the country, including Dharmatma, Kabul Express, Khuda Gawah and Escape From Taliban. Hindi films have also been popular in numerous Arab countries, including Palestine, Jordan, Egypt and the Gulf countries. Imported Indian films are usually subtitled in Arabic upon the film's release. Since the early 2000s, Bollywood has progressed in Israel. Special channels dedicated to Indian films have been displayed on cable television. Bollywood films are also popular across Southeast Asia (particularly the Malay Archipelago) and Central Asia (particularly in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan). Some Hindi movies also became big successes in the People's Republic of China during the 1940s and 1950s. The most popular Hindi films in China were Dr. Kotnis Ki Amar Kahani (1946), Awaara (1951) and Two Acres of Land (1953). Raj Kapoor was a famous movie star in China, and the song "Awara Hoon" ("I am a Tramp") was popular in the country. Since then, Hindi films significantly declined in popularity in China, until the Academy Award nominated Lagaan (2001) became the first Indian film to have a nation-wide release there in decades. The Chinese filmmaker He Ping was impressed by Lagaan, especially its soundtrack, and thus hired the film's music composer A. R. Rahman to score the soundtrack for his film Warriors of Heaven and Earth (2003). Several older Hindi films also have a cult following in Japan, particularly the films directed by the late Guru Dutt. Africa Historically, Hindi films have been distributed to some parts of Africa, largely by Lebanese businessmen. Mother India (1957), for example, continued to be played in Nigeria decades after its release. Indian movies have also gained ground so as to alter the style of Hausa fashions, songs have also been copied by Hausa singers and stories have influenced the writings of Nigerian novelists. Stickers of Indian films and stars decorate taxis and buses in Northern Nigeria, while posters of Indian films adorn the walls of tailor shops and mechanics' garages in the country. Unlike in Europe and North America where Indian films largely cater to the expatriate Indian market yearning to keep in touch with their homeland, in West Africa, as in many other parts of the world, such movies rose in popularity despite the lack of a significant Indian audience, where movies are about an alien culture, based on a religion wholly different, and, for the most part, a language that is unintelligble to the viewers. One such explanation for this lied in the similarities between the two cultures. Clothing is largely similar, where men often wear long kurtas similar to the Hausa Babba riga and kaftan. Other similarities include wearing turbans; the presence of animals in markets; porters carrying large bundles, chewing sugar cane; youths riding Bajaj motor scooters; wedding celebrations, and so forth. With the strict Muslim culture, Indian movies were said to show "respect" toward women, where Hollywood movies were seen to have "no shame". In Indian movies women were modestly dressed, men and women rarely kiss, and there is no nudity, thus Indian movies are said to "have culture" that Hollywood films lack. The latter choice was a failure because "they don't base themselves on the problems of the people," where the former is based socialist values and on the reality of developing countries emerging from years of colonialism. Indian movies also allowed for a new youth culture to follow without such ideological baggage as "becoming western." Bollywood is also popular among Somalis and the Somali diaspora, where the emerging Islamic Courts Union found a bete noire. Chad and Ethiopia have also shown an interest in the movies. Several Bollywood personalities have avenued to the continent for both shooting movies and off-camera projects. The film Padmashree Laloo Prasad Yadav (2005) was one of many movies shot in South Africa. Dil Jo Bhi Kahey (2005) was shot almost entirely in Mauritius, which has a large ethnically Indian population. Ominously, however, the popularity of old Bollywood versus a new, changing Bollywood seems to be diminishing the popularity on the continent. The changing style of Bollywood has begun to question such an acceptance. The new era features more sexually explicit and violent films. Nigerian viewers, for example, commented that older films of the 1950s and 1960s had culture to the newer, more westernized picturizations. The old days of India avidly "advocating decolonization ... and India's policy was wholly influenced by his missionary zeal to end racial domination and discrimination in the African territories" were replaced by newer realities. The emergence of Nollywood, Africa's local movie industry has also contributed to the declining popularity of Bollywood films. A greater globalised world worked in tandem with the sexualisation of Indian films so as to become more like American films, thus negating the preferred values of an old Bollywood and diminishing Indian soft power. Russia and Eastern Europe Bollywood films are particularly popular in the former Soviet Union. Bollywood films have been dubbed into Russian, and shown in prominent theatres such as Mosfilm and Lenfilm. Ashok Sharma, Indian Ambassador to Suriname, who has served three times in the Commonwealth of Independent States region during his diplomatic career said: The film Mera Naam Joker (1970), sought to cater to such an appeal and the popularity of Raj Kapoor in Russia, when it recruited Russian actress Kseniya Ryabinkina for the movie. In the contemporary era, Lucky: No Time for Love was shot entirely in Russia. After the collapse of the Soviet film distribution system, Hollywood occupied the void created in the Russian film market. This made things difficult for Bollywood as it was losing market share to Hollywood. However, Russian newspapers report that there is a renewed interest in Bollywood among young Russians. Western Europe and the Americas Bollywood has experienced a marked growth in revenue in North American markets, and is particularly popular amongst the South Asian communities of such large cities as Chicago, Toronto and New York City. Yash Raj Films, one of India's largest production houses and distributors, reported in September 2005 that Bollywood films in the United States earn around $100 million a year through theater screenings, video sales and the sale of movie soundtracks. In other words, films from India do more business in the United States than films from any other non-English speaking country. Numerous films in the mid-1990s and onwards have been largely, or entirely, shot in New York, Los Angeles, Vancouver and Toronto. Bollywood's immersion in the traditional Hollywood domain was further tied with such films as The Guru (2002) and Marigold: An Adventure in India (2007) trying to popularise the Bollywood-theme for Hollywood. The awareness of Hindi cinema is however more spread in the United Kingdom, where they frequently enter the UK top ten. Many films, such as Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham (2001) have been set in London. Bollywood is also appreciated in Germany, France, and the Scandinavian countries. Various Bollywood movies are dubbed in German and shown on the German television channel RTL II on a regular basis. A considerable number of Hindi movies has been shot in Western Europe as well, particularly in Switzerland, starting with Dilwale Dulhania le Jayenge. Bollywood's popularity, however, is not greatly matched in the non-English speaking countries of South America, though Bollywood culture and dance is recognised. In 2006, Dhoom 2 became the first Bollywood film to be shot in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The feeling was reciprocated as Latin America's largest theater chain, Mexico's Cinepolis, was considering expanding its domains outside the Spanish-speaking areas of the continent as it appeared to be bound for Bollywood. Oceania Bollywood is not as successful in the Oceanic countries and Pacific Islands such as New Guinea. However, it ranks second to Hollywood in countries such as Fiji, with its large Indian minority, Australia and New Zealand. Australia is one of the countries where there is a large South Asian Diaspora. Bollywood is popular amongst non-Asians in the country as well. Since 1997 the country has provided a backdrop for an increasing number of Bollywood films. Indian filmmakers have been attracted to Australia's diverse locations and landscapes, and initially used it as the setting for song-and-dance sequences, which demonstrated the contrast between the values. However, nowadays, Australian locations are becoming more important to the plot of Bollywood films. Hindi films shot in Australia usually incorporate aspects of Australian lifestyle. The Yash Raj Film Salaam Namaste (2005) became the first Indian film to be shot entirely in Australia and was the most successful Bollywood film of 2005 in the country. This was followed by Heyy Babyy (2007) Chak De! India (2007) and Singh Is Kinng (2008) which turned out to be box office successes. Following the release of Salaam Namaste, on a visit to India the then Prime Minister John Howard also sought, having seen the film, to have more Indian movies shooting in the country to boost tourism, where the Bollywood and cricket nexus, was further tightened with Steve Waugh's appointment as tourism ambassador to India. Australian actress Tania Zaetta, who co-starred in Salaam Namaste, among other Bollywood films, expressed her keenness to expand her career in Bollywood. Plagiarism Constrained by rushed production schedules and small budgets, certain Bollywood writers and musicians have been known to resort to plagiarism. They copy ideas, plot lines, tunes or riffs from sources close at hand from other Indian films or far away (including Hollywood and other Asian films). This has lead to criticism towards the film industry. In past times, this could be done with impunity. Copyright enforcement was lax in India and few actors or directors ever saw an official contract. The Hindi film industry was not widely known to non-Indian audiences (excluding the Soviet states), who would not even be aware that their material was being copied. Audiences may also not have been aware of the plagiarism since many audiences in India were unfamiliar with foreign films and music. While copyright enforcement in India is still somewhat lenient, Bollywood and other film industries are much more aware of each other now and Indian audiences are more familiar with foreign movies and music. Organizations like the India EU Film Initiative seek to foster a community between film makers and industry professionel between India and the EU. One of the main problems in curbing plagiarism in Bollywood is due to the fact that producers in a competitive market, where gross income is important, often play a safer option by remaking popular Hollywood films in an Indian context. Screenwriters generally produce original scripts, but due to financial uncertainty and insecurity over the success of a film many were rejected. Screenwriters themselves have been criticised for lack of creativity which happened due to tight schedules and restricted funds in the industry to employ better screenwriters. Certain filmmakers see plagiarism in Bollywood as an intergral part of globalisation where American and western cultures are firmly embedding themselves into Indian culture, which is manifested, amongst other mediums, in Bollywood films. Vikram Bhatt, director of films such as Raaz, a remake of What Lies Beneath, and Kasoor, a remake of Jagged Edge, has spoken about the strong influence of American culture and desire to produce box office hits based along the same lines in Bollywood, "Financially, I would be more secure knowing that a particular piece of work has already done well at the box office. Copying is endemic everywhere in India. Our TV shows are adaptations of American programmes. We want their films, their cars, their planes, their diet cokes and also their attitude. The American way of life is creeping into our culture." Mahesh Bhatt has said ,"If you hide the source, you're a genius. There's no such thing as originality in the creative sphere". There have been very few cases of film copyright violations taken to court because of serious delays in the legal process, and due to the long time they take to decide a case. There have been some notable cases of conflict though. The makers of Partner (2007) and Zinda (2005) have been targeted by the owners and distributors of the original films, Hitch and Oldboy. Some on the other hand do comply with copyright law, with Orion Pictures recently securing the rights to remake the Hollywood film Wedding Crashers. Orion Pictures produce official remake to Wedding Crashers, Bollywood Hungama There have also occasionally been accusations against Hollywood plagiarizing from Bollywood films. Examples include Madhumati (1958) inspiring the Hollywood film The Reincarnation of Peter Proud (1975), which in turn inspired the Bollywood film Karz (1980), which in turn influenced another Hollywood film Chances Are (1989). V. Shantaram's Do Aankhen Barah Haath (1957) is believed to have inspired the Hollywood film The Dirty Dozen (1967). The Hindi film The Burning Train (1980) also has similarities to the later Hollywood film Runaway Train (1985). Chhoti Si Baat (1975) is believed to have inspired Hitch (2005), which in turn inspired the Bollywood film Partner (2007). Similar accusations have been made against international artists plagiarizing from Bollywood filmi music. The 2002 song "Addictive", sung by Truth Hurts and produced by DJ Quik and Dr. Dre, was lifted from Lata Mangeshkar's "Thoda Resham Lagta Hai" from Jyoti (1981). This led to the copyright holders of the original song filing a lawsuit against Dr. Dre and DJ Quik. Filmi music composed by A. R. Rahman (who would later win two Academy Awards for the Slumdog Millionaire soundtrack) has frequently been sampled by musicians elsewhere in the world, including the Singaporean artist Kelly Poon, the Uzbek artist Iroda Dilroz, the French rap group La Caution, the American artist Ciara, and the German band Löwenherz, among others. See also Bollywood songs Hindi dance songs Cinema of India List of Bollywood films List of highest-grossing Bollywood films List of Bollywood film clans References Further reading Alter, Stephen. Fantasies of a Bollywood Love-Thief: Inside the World of Indian Moviemaking. (ISBN 0-15-603084-5) Begum-Hossain, Momtaz. Bollywood Crafts: 20 Projects Inspired by Popular Indian Cinema, 2006. The Guild of Mastercraftsman Publications. (ISBN 1-86108-418-8) Bernard 'Bollywood' Gibson. Passing the Envelope, 1994. Ganti, Tejaswini. Bollywood, Routledge, New York and London, 2004. Jolly, Gurbir, Zenia Wadhwani, and Deborah Barretto, eds. Once Upon a Time in Bollywood: The Global Swing in Hindi Cinema, TSAR Publications. 2007. (ISBN 978-1-89-4770-40-8) Joshi, Lalit Mohan. Bollywood: Popular Indian Cinema. (ISBN 0-9537032-2-3) Kabir, Nasreen Munni. Bollywood, Channel 4 Books, 2001. Mehta, Suketu. Maximum City, Knopf, 2004. Mishra, Vijay. Bollywood Cinema: Temples of Desire. (ISBN 0-415-93015-4) Pendakur, Manjunath. Indian Popular Cinema: Industry, Ideology, and Consciousness. (ISBN 1-57273-500-5) Prasad, Madhava. Ideology of the Hindi Film: A Historical Construction, Oxford University Press, 2000. (ISBN 0-19-565295-9) Raheja, Dinesh and Kothari, Jitendra. Indian Cinema: The Bollywood Saga. (ISBN 81-7436-285-1) Raj, Aditya (2007) "Bollywood Cinema and Indian Diaspora" in Media Literacy: A Reader edited by Donaldo Macedo and Shirley Steinberg New York: Peter Lang Rajadhyaksa, Ashish (1996), "India: Filming the Nation", The Oxford History of World Cinema, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198112572. Rajadhyaksha, Ashish and Willemen, Paul. Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema, Oxford University Press, revised and expanded, 1999. External links General guides IMDB - A database of Hindi movies Bollypedia German Lexicon of Bollywood An article on Bollywood in National Geographic archives | Bollywood |@lemmatized bollywood:141 informal:2 term:5 popularly:1 use:18 hindi:40 language:11 film:252 industry:26 base:10 mumbai:12 india:46 often:23 incorrectly:1 refer:5 whole:2 indian:99 cinema:36 part:11 large:15 producer:13 one:15 world:16 name:6 portmanteau:2 bombay:5 former:4 hollywood:33 center:3 american:12 though:11 frequent:1 poetic:1 urdu:4 word:6 fairly:1 common:4 thus:6 hindustani:2 also:46 grow:4 presence:2 english:11 dialogue:8 song:44 well:11 uncommon:1 see:21 feature:14 phrase:1 even:4 sentence:1 number:13 make:20 entirely:6 etymology:1 however:17 unlike:3 exist:2 physical:1 place:2 deplore:1 argue:1 look:1 like:11 poor:1 cousin:1 entry:2 oxford:5 dictionary:1 origins:1 overtook:1 america:6 credit:2 claim:1 several:14 different:6 people:9 include:24 lyricist:3 filmmaker:17 scholar:1 amit:1 khanna:2 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4,413 | Critical_philosophy | Attributed to Immanuel Kant, the critical philosophy movement sees the primary task of philosophy as criticism rather than justification of knowledge; criticism, for Kant, meant judging as to the possibilities of knowledge before advancing to knowledge itself (from the Greek kritike (techne), or "art of judgment"). The initial, and perhaps even sole task of philosophers, according to this view, is not to establish and demonstrate theories about reality, but rather to subject all theories--including those about philosophy itself--to critical review, and measure their validity by how well they withstand criticism. "Critical philosophy" is also used as just another name for Kant's philosophy itself. Kant said that philosophy's proper enquiry is not about what is out there in reality, but rather about the character and foundations of experience itself. We must first judge how human reason works, and within what limits, so that we can afterwards correctly apply it to sense experience and determine whether it can be applied at all to metaphysical objects. See also Critical theory | Critical_philosophy |@lemmatized attribute:1 immanuel:1 kant:4 critical:4 philosophy:6 movement:1 see:2 primary:1 task:2 criticism:3 rather:3 justification:1 knowledge:3 meant:1 judging:1 possibility:1 advance:1 greek:1 kritike:1 techne:1 art:1 judgment:1 initial:1 perhaps:1 even:1 sole:1 philosopher:1 accord:1 view:1 establish:1 demonstrate:1 theory:3 reality:2 subject:1 include:1 review:1 measure:1 validity:1 well:1 withstand:1 also:2 use:1 another:1 name:1 say:1 proper:1 enquiry:1 character:1 foundation:1 experience:2 must:1 first:1 judge:1 human:1 reason:1 work:1 within:1 limit:1 afterwards:1 correctly:1 apply:2 sense:1 determine:1 whether:1 metaphysical:1 object:1 |@bigram immanuel_kant:1 |
4,414 | Heather_Fargo | Heather Fargo (born December 12, 1952, in Oakland, California) is a former Mayor and former City Council Member of Sacramento, California. She was sworn in as Mayor in November 2000, replacing Jimmie Yee, and served until December 2008, when she was replaced by Kevin Johnson. Early Life and Education Heather Fargo was raised in the Central Valley, primarily in Stockton. Heather Fargo received a Bachelor of Science degree in Environmental Planning and Management from the University of California, Davis in 1975. In 1981, Fargo earned a Certificate of Completion from the Revenue Sources Management School in Boulder, Colorado. Mayor Fargo also completed the State and Local Government Executive Program at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University in 1991. City Council Years Heather Fargo was first elected to the Sacramento City Council in 1989 to a five year term as Sacramento was transitioning to even year city-wide elections. Fargo represented District One which includes Downtown and Natomas. In the September primary, she came in second place to businesswoman Kate Karpilow but beat future City Councilman Ray Tretheway who came in third place and incumbent David Shore who came in fourth place. However, Fargo came back to beat Karpilow in November. Upon Grantland Johnson's resignation from the County Board of Supervisors in 1994, Fargo decided to run for the Board. In that election, she faced attorney and community activist Roger Dickinson. In a closely fought election, Dickinson narrowly beat Fargo. After that loss she was re-elected in 1994 and 1998. Prior to becoming Mayor full-time, she was employed as a manager of the California State Parks Volunteer Program. 2000 Mayoral Campaign Upon the November 1999 death of Mayor Joe Serna, Jr., Land Park city councilman Jimmie Yee became the acting mayor. Upon his decision to return full time to city council duties, several candidates announced their intentions to run. Othern than Fargo, three other councilmembers were also seeking the mayorship. North Sacramento city councilman Rob Kerth who represented an area immediately adjacent to Fargo's also decided to run. In addition, Steve Cohn, the city councilman for East Sacramento ran along with Robbie Waters who represents the Pocket and Greenhaven areas decided to run along with several lesser known candidates that included businessman and attorney Joe Genshlea, and community activist Julie Padilla. Fargo who won 22% of the vote in the primary and Kerth who won 20% of the vote made it into the November runoff, where Fargo was elected with 53% of the vote. 2004 Mayoral Campaign Fargo did not face as stiff competition in her 2004 reelection. Her main opponent was Ross W. Relles, Jr., a businessman. Other candidates were Deputy Attorney General Mark Soble and Lorenzo Patino Law School President Leonard Padilla. Fargo won overwhelmingly in the primary election; thus no runoff was necessary. 2008 Mayoral Campaign The primary election for Mayor took place on 3 June 2008. Fargo received 39% of the vote, while former NBA star and Sacramento native Kevin Johnson received 46% of the vote. Since neither received a majority of the votes, a run off election was scheduled for November 2008, where she was defeated by a margin of 58% to 42%. During the primary election campaign, Fargo initially claimed that she had the support of all the city councilmembers. Yet, Councilman Robbie Waters, Steve Cohn, and Sandra Sheedy all ended up endorsing Johnson during the primary. On September 4, 2008 Councilman Kevin McCarty endorsed Heather Fargo SacBee - McCarty endorsing Fargo for Sacramento mayor . Causes Environment Heather Fargo was a founding member and the first secretary of the Sacramento Tree Foundation, which is considered an important voice in Sacramento’s environmental community. Gun Control During her tenure Mayor Fargo became a member of the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition, an organization formed in 2006 and co-chaired by New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg and Boston mayor Thomas Menino. Mayoral tenure In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Mayor Fargo made several attempts to provide taxpayer financing of a new stadium for the Kings NBA basketball franchise. However, these attempts were unsuccessful. In 2006, 2007, and 2008, Mayor Fargo was named "Best Local Elected Official" by the readers of Sacramento Magazine in their annual poll. Best of Sacramento - Sacramento, California Electoral history 2000 Primary Election for Mayor of Sacramento Name Percentage of the Vote Heather Fargo 21.76% Rob Kerth 20.19% Robbie Waters 18.23% Joe Genshlea 14.68% Julie Padilla 11.68% Steve Cohn 9.08% 2000 General Election for Mayor of Sacramento Name Percentage of the Vote Heather Fargo 54.07% Rob Kerth 45.93% 2004 Primary Election for Mayor of Sacramento Name Percentage of the Vote Heather Fargo 59.77% Ross W. Relles, Jr. 20.91% Mark Soble 11.54% Leonard Padilla 7.78% Because Fargo received a majority of the votes in the primary election, no general election was necessary. 2008 Primary Election for Mayor of Sacramento Name Percentage of the Vote Kevin Johnson 46.58% Heather Fargo 39.65% Leonard Padilla 5.83% Shawn D. Eldredge 3.44% Muriel Strand 2.79% Johnson and Fargo proceeded to a runoff election on November 5. 2008 General Election for Mayor of Sacramento Name Percentage of the Vote Kevin Johnson 54% Heather Fargo 46% Precincts Reporting - 215 out of 391 References | Heather_Fargo |@lemmatized heather:11 fargo:31 born:1 december:2 oakland:1 california:5 former:3 mayor:19 city:11 council:4 member:3 sacramento:17 swear:1 november:6 replace:2 jimmie:2 yee:2 serve:1 kevin:5 johnson:7 early:2 life:1 education:1 raise:1 central:1 valley:1 primarily:1 stockton:1 receive:5 bachelor:1 science:1 degree:1 environmental:2 planning:1 management:2 university:2 davis:1 earn:1 certificate:1 completion:1 revenue:1 source:1 school:3 boulder:1 colorado:1 also:3 complete:1 state:2 local:2 government:2 executive:1 program:2 john:1 f:1 kennedy:1 harvard:1 year:3 first:2 elect:4 five:1 term:1 transition:1 even:1 wide:1 election:15 represent:3 district:1 one:1 include:2 downtown:1 natomas:1 september:2 primary:10 come:4 second:1 place:4 businesswoman:1 kate:1 karpilow:2 beat:3 future:1 councilman:6 ray:1 tretheway:1 third:1 incumbent:1 david:1 shore:1 fourth:1 however:2 back:1 upon:3 grantland:1 resignation:1 county:1 board:2 supervisor:1 decide:3 run:6 face:2 attorney:3 community:3 activist:2 roger:1 dickinson:2 closely:1 fought:1 narrowly:1 loss:1 prior:1 become:3 full:2 time:2 employ:1 manager:1 park:2 volunteer:1 mayoral:4 campaign:4 death:1 joe:3 serna:1 jr:3 land:1 act:1 decision:1 return:1 duty:1 several:3 candidate:3 announce:1 intention:1 othern:1 three:1 councilmembers:2 seek:1 mayorship:1 north:1 rob:3 kerth:4 area:2 immediately:1 adjacent:1 addition:1 steve:3 cohn:3 east:1 along:2 robbie:3 water:3 pocket:1 greenhaven:1 less:1 know:1 businessman:2 genshlea:2 julie:2 padilla:5 win:3 vote:12 make:2 runoff:3 stiff:1 competition:1 reelection:1 main:1 opponent:1 ross:2 w:2 relles:2 deputy:1 general:4 mark:2 soble:2 lorenzo:1 patino:1 law:1 president:1 leonard:3 overwhelmingly:1 thus:1 necessary:2 take:1 june:1 nba:2 star:1 native:1 since:1 neither:1 majority:2 schedule:1 defeat:1 margin:1 initially:1 claim:1 support:1 yet:1 sandra:1 sheedy:1 end:1 endorse:3 mccarty:2 sacbee:1 cause:1 environment:1 founding:1 secretary:1 tree:1 foundation:1 consider:1 important:1 voice:1 gun:2 control:1 tenure:2 illegal:1 coalition:1 organization:1 form:1 co:1 chair:1 new:2 york:1 michael:1 bloomberg:1 boston:1 thomas:1 menino:1 late:1 attempt:2 provide:1 taxpayer:1 financing:1 stadium:1 king:1 basketball:1 franchise:1 unsuccessful:1 name:6 best:2 official:1 reader:1 magazine:1 annual:1 poll:1 electoral:1 history:1 percentage:5 shawn:1 eldredge:1 muriel:1 strand:1 proceed:1 precinct:1 report:1 reference:1 |@bigram heather_fargo:11 sacramento_california:2 boulder_colorado:1 michael_bloomberg:1 mayor_sacramento:5 |
4,415 | Calf | A calf ( or , plural calves, or ) is the young of various species of mammal. The term is most commonly used to refer to the young of cattle. The young of bison, camels, dolphins, elephants, giraffes, hippopotamuses, moose, rhinoceroses, whales, seals, and yaks are also called calves. Calves typically do not have horns. The birth of a calf is referred to as calving. A calf is the term used for the offspring of a cow and a bull or other bovine species until it is weaned when it then becomes known as a weaner. A calf that has lost its mother is referred to as a dogie, poddy or poddy-calf. Bobby calves are young calves which are to be slaughtered for human consumption. Female calves are called heifers until they have their first calf, when they are then known as cows. Castrated male calves are called steers. They are called steers, bullocks or oxen when full grown. A male calf that has not been castrated is called a bull or bull calf. A vealer is a fat calf weighing less than about 330 kilograms which is at about eight to nine months of age. The Land, Rural Press, North Richmond, NSW, 7 August 2008 Early development Cattle calves may be produced by natural means or artificial breeding using artificial insemination or embryo transfer. Friend, John B., Cattle of the World, Blandford Press, Dorset, 1978, ISBN 0 7137 0856 5 Calves suffer from few congenital abnormalities but the Akabane virus is widely distributed in temperate to tropical regions of the world. The virus is well known as a teratogenic pathogen which causes abortions, stillbirths, premature births and congenital abnormalities. Fortunately it only occurs during some years. Some calves are ear tagged soon after birth, especially those that are stud cattle in order to correctly identify their dams. A calf must have the very best of everything until it is at least eight months old if it is to reach its maximum potential. Typically when the calves are about two months old they are branded, ear marked, castrated and vaccinated. A steer or bull calf should put on about 32 to 36 kilograms (70-80 pounds) per month. A nine month old steer or bull should weigh about 250 to 272 kilograms (550-600 pounds). Heifers should weigh at least 204 kilograms (450 lb.) at eight months of age. Calves are usually weaned at about eight to nine months of age, depending on the season and condition of the dam, they might be weaned earlier. They may be paddock weaned, often next to their mothers, or weaned in stockyards. The latter is the preferred system as it accustoms the weaners to the presence of humans and they are trained to take feed other than grass. Small numbers may also be weaned with their dams with the use of weaning nose rings or nosebands which results in the mothers rejecting the calves attempts to suckle. Many calves are also weaned when they are taken to the large weaner auction sales that are conducted in the south eastern states of Australia. Victoria and New South Wales have yardings of up to 8,000 weaners (calves) for auction sale in one day. The Land, 16 April 2009, "CTLX Carcoar Blue Ribbon Weaner Sale", p. 13, Rural Press, North Richmond The best of these weaners may go to the butchers. Others will be purchased by re-stockers to grow out and fatten on grass or as potential breeders. In the United States these weaners may be known as feeders and would be placed directly into feedlots. At about 12 months old a beef heifer reaches puberty if she is well grown. Human uses Calf meat offered for human consumption is called veal. Fine calf skin used for pages in early codices is called vellum. The fourth compartment of the stomach of slaughtered milk-fed calves is the source of rennet. Calves feed from their mother's udder for a few weeks before eating grass. Calf leather is particularly valuable because of its softness, and fine grain. It is commonly used for the construction of high-end/high-quality shoes. References See also Akabane virus Bovine genome Bos taurus Bull Cattle Cow Dairy cow Steer Heifer Farming Milking Lactation Dairy Nilgai External links Weaning-beef-calves Calving on Ropin' the Web, Agriculture and Food, Government of Alberta, Canada Winter Feeding Sites and Calf Scours, Kansas State University | Calf |@lemmatized calf:33 plural:1 young:4 various:1 specie:2 mammal:1 term:2 commonly:2 use:7 refer:3 cattle:5 bison:1 camel:1 dolphin:1 elephant:1 giraffe:1 hippopotamus:1 moose:1 rhinoceros:1 whale:1 seal:1 yak:1 also:4 call:7 typically:2 horn:1 birth:3 calving:1 offspring:1 cow:4 bull:6 bovine:2 wean:9 become:1 know:4 weaner:3 lose:1 mother:4 dogie:1 poddy:2 bobby:1 slaughter:1 human:4 consumption:2 female:1 heifer:4 first:1 castrate:3 male:2 steer:5 bullock:1 ox:1 full:1 grown:2 vealer:1 fat:1 weigh:3 less:1 kilogram:4 eight:4 nine:3 month:8 age:3 land:2 rural:2 press:3 north:2 richmond:2 nsw:1 august:1 early:2 development:1 may:5 produce:1 natural:1 mean:1 artificial:2 breeding:1 insemination:1 embryo:1 transfer:1 friend:1 john:1 b:1 world:2 blandford:1 dorset:1 isbn:1 suffer:1 congenital:2 abnormality:2 akabane:2 virus:3 widely:1 distribute:1 temperate:1 tropical:1 region:1 well:2 teratogenic:1 pathogen:1 cause:1 abortion:1 stillbirth:1 premature:1 fortunately:1 occur:1 year:1 ear:2 tag:1 soon:1 especially:1 stud:1 order:1 correctly:1 identify:1 dam:3 must:1 best:2 everything:1 least:2 old:4 reach:2 maximum:1 potential:2 two:1 brand:1 mark:1 vaccinate:1 put:1 pound:2 per:1 lb:1 usually:1 depend:1 season:1 condition:1 might:1 earlier:1 paddock:1 often:1 next:1 stockyard:1 latter:1 preferred:1 system:1 accustom:1 weaners:4 presence:1 train:1 take:2 feed:1 grass:3 small:1 number:1 nose:1 ring:1 noseband:1 result:1 reject:1 attempt:1 suckle:1 many:1 large:1 auction:2 sale:3 conduct:1 south:2 eastern:1 state:3 australia:1 victoria:1 new:1 wale:1 yardings:1 one:1 day:1 april:1 ctlx:1 carcoar:1 blue:1 ribbon:1 p:1 go:1 butcher:1 others:1 purchase:1 stocker:1 grow:1 fatten:1 breeder:1 united:1 feeder:1 would:1 place:1 directly:1 feedlot:1 beef:2 puberty:1 meat:1 offer:1 veal:1 fine:2 skin:1 page:1 codex:1 vellum:1 fourth:1 compartment:1 stomach:1 slaughtered:1 milk:2 fed:1 source:1 rennet:1 fee:1 udder:1 week:1 eat:1 leather:1 particularly:1 valuable:1 softness:1 grain:1 construction:1 high:2 end:1 quality:1 shoe:1 reference:1 see:1 genome:1 bos:1 taurus:1 dairy:2 farm:1 lactation:1 nilgai:1 external:1 link:1 calve:1 ropin:1 web:1 agriculture:1 food:1 government:1 alberta:1 canada:1 winter:1 feeding:1 site:1 scour:1 kansas:1 university:1 |@bigram castrate_male:1 artificial_insemination:1 blandford_press:1 kilogram_pound:2 weigh_kilogram:1 kilogram_lb:1 bos_taurus:1 dairy_cow:1 external_link:1 |
4,416 | Niobium | Niobium () (Greek mythology: Niobe, daughter of Tantalus), or columbium (), is the chemical element with the symbol Nb and the atomic number 41. A rare, soft, grey, ductile transition metal, niobium is found in the minerals pyrochlore, the main commercial source for niobium, and columbite. Niobium has physical and chemical properties similar to those of the element tantalum, and the two are therefore difficult to distinguish. The English chemist Charles Hatchett reported a new element similar to tantalum in 1801, and named it columbium. In 1809, the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston wrongly concluded that tantalum and columbium were identical. The German chemist Heinrich Rose determined in 1846 that tantalum ores contain a second element, which he named niobium. In 1864 and 1865, a series of scientific findings clarified that niobium and columbium were the same element (as distinguished from tantalum), and for a century both names were used interchangeably. The name of the element was officially adopted as niobium in 1949. It was not until the early 20th century that niobium was first used commercially. Brazil is the leading producer of niobium and ferroniobium, an alloy of niobium and iron. Niobium is used mostly in alloys, the largest part in special steel such as that used in gas pipelines. Although alloys contain only a maximum of 0.1%, that small percentage of Niobium improves the strength of the steel. The temperature stability of niobium-containing superalloys is important for its use in jet engines and rocket engines. Niobium is used in various superconducting materials. These superconducting alloys, also containing titanium and tin, are widely used in the superconducting magnets of MRI scanners. Other applications of niobium include its use in welding, nuclear industries, electronics, optics, numismatics and jewellery. In the last two applications, niobium's low toxicity and ability to be coloured by anodisation are particular advantages. History Charles Hatchett discoverer of columbium. Niobium was discovered by the English chemist Charles Hatchett in 1801. He found a new element in a mineral sample that had been sent to England from Massachusetts in 1734 by a John Winthrop, and named the mineral columbite and the new element columbium after Columbia, the poetical name for America. The columbium discovered by Hatchett was probably a mixture of the new element with tantalum. Subsequently, there was considerable confusion over the difference between columbium (niobium) and the closely related tantalum. In 1809, the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston compared the oxides derived from both columbium—columbite, with a density 5.918 g/cm3, and tantalum—tantalite, with a density 7.935 g/cm3, and concluded that the two oxides, despite the significant difference in density, were identical; thus he kept the name tantalum. This conclusion was disputed in 1846 by the German chemist Heinrich Rose, who argued that there were two different elements in the tantalite sample, and named them after children of Tantalus: niobium (from Niobe), and pelopium (from Pelops). This confusion arose from the minimal observed differences between tantalum and niobium. Both tantalum and niobium react with chlorine and traces of oxygen, including atmospheric concentrations, with niobium forming two compounds: the white volatile niobium pentachloride (NbCl5) and the non-volatile niobium oxychloride (NbOCl3). The claimed new elements pelopium, ilmenium and dianium were in fact identical to niobium or mixtures of niobium and tantalum. The differences between tantalum and niobium were unequivocally demonstrated in 1864 by Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand, and Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville, as well as Louis J. Troost, who determined the formulas of some of the compounds in 1865 and finally by the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac in 1866, who all proved that there were only two elements. These discoveries did not stop scientists from publishing articles about ilmenium until 1871. De Marignac was the first to prepare the metal in 1864, when he reduced niobium chloride by heating it in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Although de Marignac was able to produce tantalum-free niobium on a larger scale by 1866, it was not until the early 20th century that niobium was first used commercially, in incandescent lamp filaments. This use quickly became obsolete through the replacement of niobium with tungsten, which has a higher melting point and thus is preferable for use in incandescent lamps. The discovery that niobium improves the strength of steel was made in the 1920s, and this remains its predominant use. In 1961 the American physicist Eugene Kunzler and coworkers at Bell Labs discovered that niobium-tin continues to exhibit superconductivity in the presence of strong electric currents and magnetic fields, Geballe et al. (1993) gives a critical point at currents of 150 kiloamperes and magnetic fields of 8.8 tesla. making it the first material known to support the high currents and fields necessary for making useful high-power magnets and electrically powered machinery. This discovery would allow—two decades later—the production of long multi-strand cables that could be wound into coils to create large, powerful electromagnets for rotating machinery, particle accelerators, or particle detectors. Columbium (symbol Cb ) was the name originally given to this element by Hatchett, and this name remained in use in American journals—the last paper published by American Chemical Society with columbium in its title dates from 1953 —while niobium was used in Europe. To end this confusion, the name niobium was chosen for element 41 at the 15th Conference of the Union of Chemistry in Amsterdam in 1949. A year later this name was officially adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) after 100 years of controversy, despite the chronological precedence of the name Columbium. The latter name is still sometimes used in US industry. This was a compromise of sorts; the IUPAC accepted tungsten instead of wolfram, in deference to North American usage; and niobium instead of columbium, in deference to European usage. Not everyone agreed, and while many leading chemical societies and government organizations refer to it by the official IUPAC name, many leading metallurgists, metal societies, and the United States Geological Survey still refer to the metal by the original "columbium". Characteristics Niobium is a lustrous, grey, ductile, paramagnetic metal in group 5 of the periodic table (see table to right), Z Element No. of electrons/shell 23 vanadium 2, 8, 11, 2 41 niobium 2, 8, 18, 12, 1 73 tantalum 2, 8, 18, 32, 11, 2 105 dubnium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 11, 2 although it has an atypical configuration in its outermost electron shells compared to the rest of the members. (This can be observed in the neighborhood of niobium (41), ruthenium (44), rhodium (45), and palladium (46).) The metal takes on a bluish tinge when exposed to air at room temperature for extended periods. Despite presenting a high melting point in elemental form (2,468 °C), it has a low density in comparison to other refractory metals. Furthermore, it is corrosion resistant, exhibits superconductivity properties, and forms dielectric oxide layers. These properties— especially the superconductivity —are strongly dependent on the purity of the niobium metal. When very pure, it is comparatively soft and ductile, but impurities make it harder. Niobium is slightly less electropositive and smaller than its predecessor in the periodic table, zirconium, while it is virtually identical in size to the heavier tantalum as a consequence of the lanthanide contraction. As a result, niobium's chemical properties are very similar to the chemical properties of tantalum, which appears directly below niobium in the periodic table. Although its corrosion resistance is not as outstanding as that of tantalum, its lower price and greater availability make niobium attractive for less exact uses such as linings in chemical plants. Isotopes Naturally occurring niobium is composed of one stable isotope, 93Nb. As of 2003, at least 32 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 81 to 113. The most stable of these is 92Nb with a half-life of 34.7 million years. One of the least stable is 113Nb, with an estimated half-life of 30 milliseconds. Isotopes that are lighter than the stable 93Nb tend to decay by β+ decay, and those that are heavier tend to decay by β- decay, with some exceptions. 81Nb, 82Nb, and 84Nb have minor β+ delayed proton emission decay paths, 91Nb decays by electron capture and positron emission, and 92Nb decays by both β+ and β- decay. At least 25 nuclear isomers have been described, ranging in atomic mass from 84 to 104. Within this range, only 96Nb, 101Nb, and 103Nb do not have isomers. The most stable of niobium's isomers is 93mNb with a half-life of 16.13 years. The least stable isomer is 84mNb with a half-life of 103 ns. All of niobium's isomers decay by isomeric transition or beta decay except 92m1Nb, which has a minor electron capture decay chain. Chemistry Niobium is in many ways similar to its predecessors in group 5. It reacts with most nonmetals at high temperatures: niobium reacts with fluorine at room temperature, with chlorine and hydrogen at 200 °C, and with nitrogen at 400 °C, giving products that are frequently interstitial and nonstoichiometric. The metal begins to oxidize in air at 200 °C, and is resistant to corrosion by fused alkalis and by acids, including aqua regia, hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric and phosphoric acids. Niobium is attacked by hot, concentrated mineral acids, such as fluorhydric acid and fluorhydric/nitric acid mixtures. Although niobium exhibits all the formal oxidation states from +5 down to -1, its most stable state is +5. Niobium is able to form oxides with the oxidation states +5 (Nb2O5), +4 (NbO2) and +3 (Nb2O3), as well as with the rarer oxidation state +2 (NbO). The most stable oxidation state is +5, the pentoxide which, along with the dark green non-stoichiometric dioxide, is the most common of the oxides. Niobium pentoxide is used mainly in the production of capacitors, optical glass, and as starting material for several niobium compounds. The compounds are created by dissolving the pentoxide in basic hydroxide solutions or by melting it in another metal oxide. Examples are lithium niobate (LiNbO3) and lanthanum niobate (LnNbO4). In the lithium niobate, the niobate ion NbO3− is not alone but part of a perovskite-like structure, while the lanthanum niobate contains lone NbO43− ions. Lithium niobate, which is a ferroelectric, is used extensively in mobile telephones and optical modulators, and for the manufacture of surface acoustic wave devices. It belongs to the ABO3 structure ferroelectrics like lithium tantalate and barium titanate. Niobium pentachloride (NbCl5) Niobium forms halogen compounds in the oxidation states of +5, +4, and +3 of the type , , and , although multi-core complexes and substoichiometric compounds are also formed. Niobium pentafluoride (NbF<sub>5</sup>) is a white solid with a melting point of 79.0 °C and niobium pentachloride (NbCl<sub>5</sup>) is a yellowish-white solid (see image at left) with a melting point of 203.4 °C. Both are hydrolyzed by water and react with additional niobium at elevated temperatures by forming the black and highly hygroscopic niobium tetrafluoride (NbF<sub>4</sup>) and niobium tetrachloride (NbCl<sub>4</sup>). While the trihalogen compounds can be obtained by reduction of the pentahalogens with hydrogen, the dihalogen compounds do not exist. Spectroscopically, the monochloride (NbCl) has been observed at high temperatures. The fluorides of niobium can be used after its separation from tantalum. The niobium pentachloride is used in organic chemistry as a Lewis acid in activating alkenes for the carbonyl-ene reaction and the Diels-Alder reaction. The pentachloride is also used to generate the organometallic compound niobocene dichloride (), which in turn is used as a starting material for other organoniobium compounds. Other binary compounds of niobium include niobium nitride (NbN), which becomes a superconductor at low temperatures and is used in detectors for infrared light, and niobium carbide, an extremely hard, refractory, ceramic material, commercially used in tool bits for cutting tools. The compounds niobium-germanium () and niobium-tin (), as well as the niobium-titanium alloy, are used as a type II superconductor wire for superconducting magnets. Niobium sulfide as well as a few interstitial compounds of niobium with silicon are also known. Occurrence According to estimates, niobium is 33rd on the list of the most common elements in the Earth’s crust with 20 ppm. The abundance on Earth should be much greater, but the “missing” niobium may be located in the Earth’s core due to the metal's high density. The free element is not found in nature, but it does occur in minerals. Minerals that contain niobium often also contain tantalum, for example, columbite ((Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)2O6), columbite-tantalite (or coltan, (Fe,Mn)(Ta,Nb)2O6) and pyrochlore ((Na,Ca)2Nb2O6(OH,F)). Columbite-tantalite minerals are most usually found as accessory minerals in pegmatite intrusions, and in alkaline intrusive rocks. Less common are the niobates of calcium, uranium, thorium and the rare earth elements such as pyrochlore and euxenite ((Y,Ca,Ce,U,Th)(Nb,Ta,Ti)2O6). These large deposits of niobium have been found associated with carbonatites (carbonate-silicate igneous rocks) and as a constituent of pyrochlore. The two largest deposits of pyrochlore were found in the 1950s in Brazil and Canada, and both countries are still the major producers of niobium mineral concentrates. The largest deposit is hosted within a carbonatite intrusion at Araxá, Minas Gerais Brazil, owned by CBMM (); the other deposit is located at Catalão, Goiás owned by Anglo American plc (through its subsidiary Mineração Catalão), also hosted within a carbonatite intrusion. Altogether these two Brazilian mines produce around 75% of world supply. The third largest producer of niobium is the carbonatite-hosted Niobec Mine, Saint-Honoré near Chicoutimi, Quebec owned by Iamgold Corporation Ltd, which produces around 7% of world supply. Extensive though unexploited resources are located in Nigeria, Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, Australia and Russia. Production Niobium producers in 2007 After the separation from the other minerals, the mixed oxides of tantalum Ta2O5 and niobium Nb2O5 are obtained. The first step in the processing is the reaction of the oxides with hydrofluoric acid: Ta2O5 + 14HF → 2H2[TaF7] + 5H2O, and Nb2O5 + 10HF → 2H2[NbOF5] + 3H2O The first industrial scale separation, developed by de Marignac, used the difference in solubility between the complex niobium and tantalum fluorides, dipotassium oxypentafluoroniobate monohydrate (K2[NbOF5]·H2O) and dipotassium heptafluorotantalate (K2[TaF7]) in water. Newer processes use the liquid extraction of the fluorides from aqueous solution by organic solvents like cyclohexanone. The complex niobium and tantalum fluorides are extracted separately from the organic solvent with water and either precipitated by the addition of potassium fluoride to produce a potassium fluoride complex, or precipitated with ammonia as the pentoxide: H2[NbOF5] + 2KF → K2[NbOF5]↓ + 2HF, then 2H2[NbOF5] + 10NH4OH → Nb2O5↓ + 10NH4F + 7H2O Several methods are used for the reduction to metallic niobium. The electrolysis of a molten mixture of K2[NbOF5] and sodium chloride is one; the other is the reduction of the fluoride with sodium. With this method niobium with a relatively high purity can be obtained. In large scale production the reduction of Nb2O5 with hydrogen or carbon is used. In the process involving the aluminothermic reaction a mixture of iron oxide and niobium oxide is reacted with aluminium: 3Nb2O5 + Fe2O3 + 12Al → 6Nb + 2Fe + 6Al2O3 To enhance the reaction, small amounts of oxidizers like sodium nitrate are added. The result is aluminium oxide and ferroniobium, an alloy of iron and niobium used in the steel production. The ferroniobium contains between 60 and 70% of niobium. Without addition of iron oxide, aluminothermic process is used for the production of niobium. Further purification is necessary to reach the grade for superconductive alloys. Electron beam melting under vacuum is the method used by the two major distributors of niobium. The United States Geological Survey estimates that the production increased from 38,700 metric tonnes in 2005 to 44,500 tonnes in 2006. The world wide resources are estimated to be 4,400,000 tonnes. During the ten year period between 1995 and 2005, the production more than doubled starting from 17,800 tonnes in 1995. Applications A niobium foil It is estimated that out of 44,500 metric tons of niobium mined in 2006, 90% ended up in the production of high-grade structural steel, followed by its use in superalloys. The use of niobium alloys for superconductors and in electronic components account only for a small share of the production. Steel production Niobium is an effective microalloying element for steel. Adding niobium to the steel causes the formation of niobium carbide and niobium nitride within the structure of the steel. These compounds improve the grain refining, retardation of recrystallization, and precipitation hardening of the steel. These effects in turn increase the toughness, strength, formability, and weldability of the microalloyed steel. Microalloyed stainless steels have a niobium content of less than 0.1%. It is an important alloy addition to high strength low alloy steels which are widely used as structural components in modern automobiles. These niobium containing alloys are strong and are often used in pipeline construction. Superalloys Apollo CSM with the dark rocket nozzle made from niobium-titanium alloy Appreciable amounts of the element, either in its pure form or in the form of high-purity ferroniobium and nickel niobium, are used in nickel-, cobalt-, and iron-base superalloys for such applications as jet engine components, gas turbines, rocket subassemblies, and heat resisting and combustion equipment. Niobium precipitates a hardening γ''-phase within the grain structure of the superalloy. The alloys contain up to 6.5% niobium. One example of a nickel-based niobium-containing superalloy is Inconel 718, which consists of roughly 50% nickel, 18.6% chromium, 18.5% iron, 5% niobium, 3.1% molybdenum, 0.9% titanium, and 0.4% aluminium. These superalloys are used, for example, in advanced air frame systems such as those used in the Gemini program. An alloy used for liquid rocket thruster nozzles, such as in the main engine of the Apollo Lunar Modules, is C103, which consists of 89% niobium, 10% hafnium and 1% titanium. Another niobium alloy was used for the nozzle of the Apollo Service Module. As niobium is oxidized at temperatures above 400 °C, a protective coating is necessary for these applications to prevent the alloy from becoming brittle. Superconducting magnets A 3 tesla clinical magnetic resonance imaging scanner using niobium-superconducting alloy Niobium becomes a superconductor when lowered to cryogenic temperatures. At atmospheric pressure, it has the highest critical temperature of the elemental superconductors: 9.2 K. Niobium has the largest magnetic penetration depth of any element. In addition, it is one of the three elemental Type II superconductors, along with vanadium and technetium. Niobium-tin and niobium-titanium alloys are used as wires for superconducting magnets capable of producing exceedingly strong magnetic fields. These superconducting magnets are used in magnetic resonance imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance instruments as well as in particle accelerators. For example, the Large Hadron Collider uses 600 metric tons of superconducting strands, while the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor is estimated to use 600 metric tonnes of Nb3Sn strands and 250 metric tonnes of NbTi strands. In 1992 alone, niobium-titanium wires were used to construct more than 1 billion US dollars worth of clinical magnetic resonance imaging systems. Numismatics A 150 Years Semmering Alpine Railway Coin made of niobium and silver Niobium is used as a precious metal in commemorative coins, often with silver or gold. For example, Austria produced a series of silver niobium euro coins starting in 2003; the colour in these coins is created by diffraction of light by a thin oxide layer produced by anodising. In 2008, six coins are available showing a broad variety of colours in the centre of the coin: blue, green, brown, purple, violet, or yellow. Two more examples are the 2004 Austrian 25 euro 150 Years Semmering Alpine Railway commemorative coin, and the 2006 Austrian 25 euro European Satellite Navigation commemorative coin. Latvia produced a similar series of coins starting in 2004, with one following in 2007. Other uses Niobium and some niobium alloys are used in medical devices such as pacemakers, because they are physiologically inert (and thus hypoallergenic). Niobium treated with sodium hydroxide forms a porous layer that aids osseointegration. Along with titanium, tantalum, and aluminium, niobium can also be electrically heated and anodized, resulting in a wide array of colours using a process known as reactive metal anodizing which is useful in making jewelry. The fact that niobium is hypoallergenic also benefits its use in jewelry. The arc-tube seals of high pressure sodium vapor lamps are made from niobium, or niobium with 1% of zirconium, because niobium has a very similar coefficient of thermal expansion to the sintered alumina arc tube ceramic, a translucent material which resists chemical attack or reduction by the hot liquid sodium and sodium vapour contained inside the operating lamp. The metal is also used in arc welding rods for some stabilized grades of stainless steel. Niobium was evaluated as a cheaper alternative to tantalum in capacitors, but tantalum capacitors are still predominant. Niobium is added to glass in order to attain a higher refractive index, a property of use to the optical industry in making thinner corrective glasses. The metal has a low capture cross-section for thermal neutrons; thus it is used in the nuclear industries. The Superconducting Radio Frequency (RF) cavities used in the free electron lasers TESLA and XFEL are made from pure niobium. The high sensitivity of superconducting niobium nitride bolometers make them an ideal detector for electromagnetic radiation in the THz frequency band. These detectors were tested at the Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope, the South Pole Telescope, the Receiver Lab Telescope, and at APEX and are now used in the HIFI instrument on board the Herschel Space Observatory. Precautions Niobium has no known biological role. While niobium dust is an eye and skin irritant and a potential fire hazard, elemental niobium on a larger scale is physiologically inert (and thus hypoallergenic) and harmless. It is frequently used in jewelry and has been tested for use in some medical implants. Niobium-containing compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but some are toxic and should be treated with care. The short and long term exposure to niobates and niobium chloride, two chemicals that are water soluble, have been tested in rats. Rats treated with a single injection of niobium pentachloride or niobates show a median lethal dose (LD50) between 10 and 100 mg/kg. For oral administration the toxicity is lower; a study with rats yielded a LD50 after seven days of 940 mg/kg. References External links Los Alamos National Laboratory – Niobium WebElements.com – Niobium Tantalum-Niobium International Study Center Niobium for particle accelerators eg ILC. 2005 | Niobium |@lemmatized niobium:137 greek:1 mythology:1 niobe:2 daughter:1 tantalus:2 columbium:14 chemical:9 element:21 symbol:2 nb:4 atomic:3 number:1 rare:2 soft:2 grey:2 ductile:3 transition:2 metal:15 find:6 mineral:10 pyrochlore:5 main:2 commercial:1 source:1 columbite:6 physical:1 property:6 similar:6 tantalum:27 two:12 therefore:1 difficult:1 distinguish:2 english:4 chemist:7 charles:4 hatchett:5 report:1 new:6 name:15 william:2 hyde:2 wollaston:2 wrongly:1 conclude:2 identical:4 german:2 heinrich:3 rise:2 determine:2 ore:1 contain:11 second:1 series:3 scientific:1 finding:1 clarify:1 century:3 use:57 interchangeably:1 officially:2 adopt:2 early:2 first:6 commercially:3 brazil:3 lead:3 producer:4 ferroniobium:4 alloy:19 iron:6 mostly:1 large:11 part:2 special:1 steel:14 gas:2 pipeline:2 although:6 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fact:2 unequivocally:1 demonstrate:1 christian:1 wilhelm:1 blomstrand:1 henri:1 etienne:1 sainte:1 claire:1 deville:1 well:5 louis:1 j:1 troost:1 formula:1 finally:1 swiss:1 jean:1 galissard:1 de:4 marignac:4 prove:1 discovery:3 stop:1 scientist:1 publish:2 article:1 prepare:1 reduce:1 chloride:3 heat:3 atmosphere:1 hydrogen:4 able:2 produce:8 free:3 scale:4 incandescent:2 lamp:4 filament:1 quickly:1 become:4 obsolete:1 replacement:1 tungsten:2 high:15 melting:2 point:5 preferable:1 make:12 remain:2 predominant:2 american:5 physicist:1 eugene:1 kunzler:1 coworkers:1 bell:1 lab:2 continue:1 exhibit:3 superconductivity:3 presence:1 strong:3 electric:1 current:3 magnetic:8 field:4 geballe:1 et:1 al:1 give:3 critical:2 kiloamperes:1 tesla:3 know:4 support:1 necessary:3 useful:2 power:1 electrically:2 powered:1 machinery:2 would:1 allow:1 decade:1 later:2 production:11 long:2 multi:2 strand:4 cable:1 could:1 wind:1 coil:1 create:3 powerful:1 electromagnet:1 rotate:1 particle:4 accelerator:3 detector:4 cb:1 originally:1 journal:1 paper:1 society:3 title:1 date:1 europe:1 end:2 choose:1 conference:1 union:2 chemistry:4 amsterdam:1 year:7 international:3 pure:4 applied:1 iupac:3 controversy:1 chronological:1 precedence:1 latter:1 still:4 sometimes:1 u:3 compromise:1 sort:1 accept:1 instead:2 wolfram:1 deference:2 north:1 usage:2 european:2 everyone:1 agree:1 many:3 government:1 organization:1 refer:2 official:1 metallurgist:1 united:2 state:8 geological:2 survey:2 original:1 characteristic:1 lustrous:1 paramagnetic:1 group:2 periodic:3 table:4 see:2 right:1 z:1 electron:6 shell:2 vanadium:2 dubnium:1 atypical:1 configuration:1 outermost:1 rest:1 member:1 observe:2 neighborhood:1 ruthenium:1 rhodium:1 palladium:1 take:1 bluish:1 tinge:1 expose:1 air:3 room:2 extend:1 period:2 present:1 elemental:4 c:7 comparison:1 refractory:2 furthermore:1 corrosion:3 resistant:2 dielectric:1 layer:3 especially:1 strongly:1 dependent:1 purity:3 comparatively:1 impurity:1 hard:2 slightly:1 less:4 electropositive:1 predecessor:2 zirconium:2 virtually:1 size:1 heavy:2 consequence:1 lanthanide:1 contraction:1 result:3 appear:1 directly:1 resistance:1 outstanding:1 price:1 great:2 availability:1 attractive:1 exact:1 us:1 lining:1 plant:1 isotope:3 naturally:1 occur:2 compose:1 one:6 stable:8 least:4 radioisotope:1 synthesize:1 range:3 mass:2 half:4 life:4 million:1 estimate:6 millisecond:1 light:3 tend:2 decay:11 β:5 exception:1 minor:2 delay:1 proton:1 emission:2 path:1 capture:3 positron:1 isomer:5 describe:1 within:5 n:1 isomeric:1 beta:1 except:1 chain:1 way:1 nonmetal:1 fluorine:1 nitrogen:1 product:1 frequently:2 interstitial:2 nonstoichiometric:1 begin:1 oxidize:2 fused:1 alkali:1 acid:7 aqua:1 regia:1 hydrochloric:1 sulfuric:1 nitric:2 phosphoric:1 attack:2 hot:2 concentrated:1 fluorhydric:2 formal:1 oxidation:5 rarer:1 nbo:1 pentoxide:4 along:3 dark:2 green:2 stoichiometric:1 dioxide:1 common:3 mainly:1 capacitor:3 optical:3 glass:3 start:5 several:2 dissolve:1 basic:1 hydroxide:2 solution:2 melt:4 another:2 example:7 lithium:4 niobate:6 lanthanum:2 ion:2 alone:2 perovskite:1 like:4 structure:4 lone:1 ferroelectric:1 extensively:1 mobile:1 telephone:1 modulators:1 manufacture:1 surface:1 acoustic:1 wave:1 device:2 belong:1 ferroelectrics:1 tantalate:1 barium:1 titanate:1 halogen:1 type:3 core:2 complex:4 substoichiometric:1 pentafluoride:1 nbf:2 sub:4 sup:4 solid:2 nbcl:3 yellowish:1 image:2 leave:1 hydrolyze:1 water:4 additional:1 elevated:1 black:1 highly:1 hygroscopic:1 tetrafluoride:1 tetrachloride:1 trihalogen:1 obtain:3 reduction:5 pentahalogens:1 dihalogen:1 exist:1 spectroscopically:1 monochloride:1 fluoride:7 separation:3 organic:3 lewis:1 activate:1 alkene:1 carbonyl:1 ene:1 reaction:5 diels:1 alder:1 generate:1 organometallic:1 niobocene:1 dichloride:1 turn:2 organoniobium:1 binary:1 nitride:3 nbn:1 superconductor:3 infrared:1 carbide:2 extremely:1 ceramic:2 tool:2 bit:1 cut:1 germanium:1 ii:2 wire:3 sulfide:1 silicon:1 occurrence:1 accord:1 list:1 earth:4 crust:1 ppm:1 abundance:1 much:1 miss:1 may:1 locate:3 due:1 nature:1 often:3 fe:2 mn:2 ta:3 coltan:1 na:1 ca:2 oh:1 f:1 usually:1 accessory:1 pegmatite:1 intrusion:3 alkaline:1 intrusive:1 rock:2 niobates:3 calcium:1 uranium:1 thorium:1 euxenite:1 ce:1 th:1 ti:1 deposit:4 associate:1 carbonatites:1 carbonate:1 silicate:1 igneous:1 constituent:1 canada:1 country:1 major:2 concentrate:1 host:3 carbonatite:3 araxá:1 mina:1 gerais:1 cbmm:1 catalão:2 goiás:1 anglo:1 plc:1 subsidiary:1 mineração:1 altogether:1 brazilian:1 mine:3 around:2 world:3 supply:2 third:1 niobec:1 saint:1 honoré:1 near:1 chicoutimi:1 quebec:1 iamgold:1 corporation:1 ltd:1 extensive:1 though:1 unexploited:1 resource:2 nigeria:1 democratic:1 republic:1 congo:1 malawi:1 australia:1 russia:1 mixed:1 step:1 processing:1 hydrofluoric:1 industrial:1 develop:1 solubility:1 dipotassium:2 oxypentafluoroniobate:1 monohydrate:1 heptafluorotantalate:1 process:4 liquid:3 extraction:1 aqueous:1 solvent:2 cyclohexanone:1 extract:1 separately:1 either:2 precipitate:3 addition:4 potassium:2 ammonia:1 method:3 metallic:1 electrolysis:1 molten:1 sodium:7 relatively:1 carbon:1 involve:1 aluminothermic:2 aluminium:4 enhance:1 amount:2 oxidizer:1 nitrate:1 add:3 without:1 purification:1 reach:1 grade:3 superconductive:1 beam:1 vacuum:1 distributor:1 increase:2 metric:5 tonne:6 wide:2 ten:1 double:1 foil:1 ton:2 structural:2 follow:2 superconductors:3 electronic:1 component:3 account:1 share:1 effective:1 microalloying:1 cause:1 formation:1 grain:2 refining:1 retardation:1 recrystallization:1 precipitation:1 hardening:1 effect:1 toughness:1 formability:1 weldability:1 microalloyed:2 stainless:2 content:1 modern:1 automobile:1 containing:2 construction:1 apollo:3 csm:1 nozzle:3 appreciable:1 nickel:4 cobalt:1 base:2 turbine:1 subassemblies:1 resisting:1 combustion:1 equipment:1 harden:1 γ:1 phase:1 superalloy:2 inconel:1 consist:2 roughly:1 chromium:1 molybdenum:1 advanced:1 frame:1 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attain:1 refractive:1 index:1 corrective:1 cross:1 section:1 neutron:1 radio:1 frequency:2 rf:1 cavity:1 laser:1 xfel:1 sensitivity:1 bolometer:1 ideal:1 electromagnetic:1 radiation:1 thz:1 band:1 test:3 hertz:1 submillimeter:1 telescope:3 south:1 pole:1 receiver:1 apex:1 hifi:1 board:1 herschel:1 space:1 observatory:1 precaution:1 biological:1 role:1 dust:1 eye:1 skin:1 irritant:1 potential:1 fire:1 hazard:1 harmless:1 implant:1 rarely:1 encounter:1 people:1 toxic:1 care:1 short:1 term:1 exposure:1 soluble:1 rat:3 single:1 injection:1 median:1 lethal:1 dose:1 mg:2 kg:2 oral:1 administration:1 study:2 yield:1 seven:1 day:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 los:1 alamos:1 national:1 laboratory:1 webelements:1 com:1 center:1 eg:1 ilc:1 |@bigram hyde_wollaston:2 superconducting_magnet:5 mri_scanner:1 closely_related:1 tantalum_niobium:6 niobium_tantalum:6 niobium_pentachloride:5 sainte_claire:1 claire_deville:1 incandescent_lamp:2 bell_lab:1 magnetic_field:3 et_al:1 particle_accelerator:3 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4,417 | Judeo-Christian | Jacob wrestling an angel, by Gustave Doré (1832-1883), a shared Judeo–Christian story. Judeo–Christian (sometimes written as Judaeo–Christian) is a term used broadly to describe a body of concepts and values thought to be held in common by Judaism and Christianity. This tradition is considered, along with classical Greco-Roman civilization, a fundamental basis for Western legal codes and morality. In particular, the term refers to a moral tradition based on shared religious scriptures, referred to as the Tanakh in Judaism and the Old Testament by Christians, including particularly the Ten Commandments. It implies a continuation of values represented by this religious heritage in the modern Western World. Michael Novak has identified the distinctive value of the Judeo–Christian tradition as the joint concept of liberty and equality based on Genesis, where all humans are said to be created equal, and Exodus, where the Israelites flee tyranny to freedom. Novak, Michael. On Two Wings. Humble Faith and Common Sense at the American Founding. Encounter Books, Thomas Cahill has discussed Jewish belief in progress and moral responsibility as a characteristic of American culture that can be traced to a Judeo–Christian reading of the Bible. Cahill, Thomas, The Gift of the Jews: How a Tribe of Desert Nomads Changed the Way Everyone Thinks and Feels The term "Judeo-Christian" has been criticized by some theologians for suggesting more commonality than may actually exist. See Ebionites and Judaizers. The evolution of Judeo–Christian influence on America is most commonly the subject of historians looking at the development of republicanism in America. The deep roots of Judeo–Christian values they explore go back to the Protestant Reformation, not the theological battles but the bloody struggle to win the right to translate the Bible into vernacular languages Mcgrath, Alister. In the Beginning: The Story of the King James Bible and How It Changed a Nation, a Language, and a Culture. Anchor Books, 2002. ISBN 0385722168 Bobrick, Benson. Wide as the Waters : The Story of the English Bible and the Revolution It Inspired. Simon and Shuster 2001. ISBN 0684847477 . (see Wycliff, Tyndale,King James Bible) This led to a religious mandate for public education so that ordinary people could read the Bible. According to some authors, this development was crucial to the birth of the Enlightenment and rebellion against divine right of kings Hermon, Arthur,How the Scots Invented the Modern World, Crown, 2001 . See also the English Civil War. In the American context, historians use the term Judeo–Christian to refer to the influence of the Hebrew Bible and New Testament on Protestant thought and values, most especially the Puritan, Presbyterian and Evangelical heritage. These founding generations of Americans saw themselves as heirs to the Hebrew Bible, and its teachings on liberty, responsibility, hard work, ethics, justice, equality, a sense of choseness and an ethical mission to the world, which have become key components of the American character, what is called the “American Creed.” Bonomi, Patricia U. Under the Cope of Heaven. Religion, Society and Politics in Colonial America. 'Part One: Religion and Society'. Oxford University Press, 1986 These ideas from the Hebrew Bible, brought into American history by Protestants, are seen as underpinning the American Revolution, Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution. Other authors are interested in tracing the religious beliefs of America's founding fathers, emphasizing both Jewish and Christian influence in their personal beliefs and how this was translated into the creation of American institutions and character. Lillback, Peter A.George Washington's Sacred Fire, Providence Forum Press,2006.ISBN 0978605268;Morrison, Jeffry H.John Witherspoon and the Founding of the American Republic) To these historians, the interest of the concept Judeo–Christian is not theology but on actual culture and history as it evolved in America. These authors discern a melding of Jewish thought into Protestant teachings—which added onto the heritage of English history and common law, as well as Enlightenment thinking—resulted in the birth of American democracy. Bonomi, Patricia U. Under the Cope of Heaven. Religion, Society and Politics in Colonial America, chapter 7,'Religion and the American Revolution'. Oxford University Press, 1986; Gelernter, David. Americanism, the Fourth Great Western Religion. Doubleday. 2007 Novak, Michael. On Two Wings: Humble Faith and Common Sense at the American Founding. Encounter Books, 2002. Multiple meanings The earliest uses of the terms "Judeo–Christian" and "Judeo–Christianity" in different meaning than is common today cited by the Oxford English Dictionary are 1899 and 1910 respectively, both discussing theories of the emergence of Christianity, thus "Judeo–Christian" meant early Christian which was still a part of Judaism. Judæo-, Judeo- in the Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition. Accessed online 2008-07-21 The present meaning was for the first time used on 27 July 1939 with the phrase "The Judaeo-Christian scheme of morals" in the New English Weekly. See Peter Novick: Holocaust in American Life The term gained much greater currency particularly in the political sphere from the 1920s and 1930s, promoted by liberal groups which evolved into the National Conference of Christians and Jews, to fight antisemitism by expressing a more inclusive idea of the United States of America than the previously dominant rhetoric of the nation as a specifically Christian Protestant country.; Mark Silk (1984), Notes on the Judeo–Christian Tradition in America, American Quarterly 36(1), 65-85 Sarna, 2004, p.266 By 1952 President-Elect Dwight Eisenhower was speaking of the "Judeo–Christian concept" being the "deeply religious faith" on which "our sense of government... is founded". Dwight D. Eisenhower, speech to the Freedoms Foundation in New York. "Our sense of government has no sense unless it is founded in a deeply religious faith, and I don't care what it is. With us of course it is the Judeo–Christian concept, but it must be a religion that all men are created equal." Quoted by Silk (1984). The term became particularly associated with the conservative right in American politics, promoting a "Judeo–Christian values" agenda in the so-called culture wars, a usage which surged in the 1990s. Douglas Hartmann, Xuefeng Zhang, William Wischstadt (2005). One (Multicultural) Nation Under God? Changing Uses and Meanings of the Term "Judeo–Christian" in the American Media. Journal of Media and Religion 4(4), 207-234 Hot topic issues in the battles over the Judeo–Christian tradition include, in a typical example, the right to display the following documents in Kentucky schools, after they were banned by a federal judge in May 2000 as "conveying a very specific governmental endorsement of religion": an excerpt from the Declaration of Independence, which reads, "All men ... are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of happiness." the preamble to the Constitution of Kentucky, which states, "We, the people of the Commonwealth of Kentucky, grateful to Almighty God for the civil, political and religious liberties we enjoy, and invoking the continuance of these blessings, do ordain and establish this Constitution." the national motto, "In God we trust" a page from the congressional record of Wednesday, Feb. 2, 1983, Vol. 129, No. 8, which declares 1983 as the "Year of the Bible" and lists the Ten Commandments a proclamation by President Ronald Reagan marking 1983 the "Year of the Bible" a proclamation by President Abraham Lincoln designating April 30, 1863, a "National Day of Prayer and Humiliation" an excerpt from President Lincoln’s "Reply to Loyal Colored People of Baltimore upon Presentation of a Bible," which reads, "The Bible is the best gift God has ever given to man." The Mayflower Compact, in which the colony’s founders invoke "the name of God" and explain that their journey was taken, among other reasons, "for the glory of God and advancement of the Christian faith." Dobson Phd.,James C..One Nation Under God .http://www2.focusonthefamily.com/docstudy/newsletters/A000000365.cfm September 2000 Prominent champions of the term also identify it with the historic Pilgrim/Puritan Protestant tradition. The Jewish conservative columnist Dennis Prager, for example, writes: The concept of Judeo–Christian values does not rest on a claim that the two religions are identical. It promotes the concept there is a shared intersection of values based on the Hebrew Bible (“Old Testament”), brought into our culture by the founding generations of Biblically-oriented Protestants, that is fundamental to American history, cultural identity, and institutions. Prager, Dennis. "The Case for Judeo–Christian Values, part 5". Worldnetdaily.com, Febrary 15, 2005. Accessed: 2008-07-12. Liberal secularists reject the use of "Judeo–Christian" as a code-word for a particular kind of Christian America, Martin E. Marty (1986), A Judeo–Christian Looks at the Judeo–Christian Tradition, in The Christian Century, October 5, 1986 with scant regard to modern Jewish, Catholic or more liberal Christian traditions. Usage has shifted again, according to Hartmann et al., since 2001 and the September 11 attacks, with the mainstream media using the term less, in order to characterize America as multicultural. The study finds the term now most likely to be used by liberals in connection with discussions of Muslim and Islamic inclusion in America, and renewed debate about the separation of church and state. It is used more than ever by conservative thinkers and journalists, who use it to discuss the Islamic threat to America, the dangers of multiculturalism, and moral decay in a materialist, secular age. Dennis Prager, author of popular books on Judaism and antisemitism, Nine Questions People ask about Judaism (with Joseph Telushkin) Nine Questions People ask about Judaism,with Joseph Telushkin, 1986,ISBN 0-6716-2261-7 and Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism, Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism (with Joseph Telushkin) (2003) ISBN 0-7432-4620-9 and radio commentator, has published an on-going 19-part series explaining and promoting the concept of Judeo–Christian culture, running for three years from 2005-2008, reflecting the interest of this concept to his listeners. He believes the Judeo-Chrisitan perspective is under assault by an amoral and materialistic culture that desperately needs its teachings. Dobson, James. 2000 … only America has called itself Judeo–Christian. America is also unique in that it has always combined secular government with a society based on religious values. Along with the belief in liberty—as opposed to, for example, the European belief in equality, the Muslim belief in theocracy, and the Eastern belief in social conformity—Judeo–Christian values are what distinguish America from all other countries. … Yet, for all its importance and its repeated mention, the term is not widely understood. It urgently needs to be because it is under ferocious assault, and if we do not understand it, we will be unable to defend it. Basis of a common concept of the two religions Adam and Eve Driven out of Eden, by Gustave Doré (1832-1883), the Judeo–Christian story of the first man and first woman. Supporters of the Judeo–Christian concept point to the Christian claim that Christianity is the heir to Biblical Judaism, and that the whole logic of Christianity as a religion is that it exists (only) as a religion built upon Judaism. Two major views of the relationship exist, namely Supersessionism and Dual-covenant theology. In addition, although the order of the books in the Protestant Old Testament (excluding the Biblical apocrypha) and the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) differ, the books are the same. The majority of the Bible is, in fact, Jewish scripture, and it is used as moral and spiritual teaching material throughout the Christian world. The prophets, patriarchs, and heroes of the Jewish scripture are also known in Christianity, which uses the Jewish text as the basis for its understanding of historic Judeo–Christian figures such as Abraham, Elijah, and Moses. As a result, a vast chunk of Jewish and Christian teachings are based on a common sacred text. Judeo–Christian concept in interfaith relations Promoting the concept of America as a Judeo–Christian nation became a political program in the 1920s, in response to the growth of antisemitism in America. The rise of Hitler in the 1930s led concerned Protestants, Catholics and Jews to take active steps to increase understanding and tolerance. Sarna, Jonathan. American Judaism, A History. Yale University Press, 2004. p266 In this effort, precurors of the National Conference of Christians and Jews created teams consisting of a priest, a rabbi and a minister, to run programs across the country, and fashion a more pluralistic America, no longer defined as a Christian land, but ‘one nurtured by three ennobling traditions: Protestantism, Catholicism and Judaism.” Sarna, p 267 “The phrase ‘Judeo–Christian’ entered the contemporary lexicon as the standard liberal term for the idea that Western values rest on a religious consensus that included Jews.” Sarna, p. 267 Through soul-searching in the aftermath of the Holocaust, “there was a revolution in Christian theology in America. …(producing) the greatest shift in Christian attitudes toward the Jewish people since Constantine converted the Roman Empire.” Brog, David. Standing With Israel. 2006.p.13 The rise of Christian Zionism that is, religiously motivated Christian interest and support for the state of Israel, along with a growth of philo-semitism, love of the Jewish people, has increased interest among American Evangelicals in Judaism, especially areas of commonality with their own beliefs, see also Jerusalem in Christianity. Interest in and a positive attitude towards America’s Judeo–Christian tradition has become mainstream among Evangelicals. Brog, David. Standing with Israel. Frontline, 2006. ISBN 1591859069; Merkley, Paul Charles. Christian Attitudes Towards the State of Israel (Mcgill-Queen's Studies in the History of Religion: Series Two. McGill-Queen's University Press (March 1, 2007) ISBN 0773532552 The scriptural basis for this new positive attitude towards Jews among Evangelicals is Genesis 12:3, in which God promises that He will bless those who bless Abraham and his descendants, and curse those who curse them; see also Abrahamic Covenant. Other factors in the new philo-semitism include gratitude to the Jews for contributing to the theological foundations of Christianity, and for being the source of the prophets and Jesus; remorse for the Church's history of anti-Semitism; and fear that God will judge the nations at the end of time on the basis of how they treated the Jewish people. Moreover, for evangelicals Israel is God's prophetic clock, "irrefutable" proof that prophecy is true and is coming to pass in their lifetime. Evangelicals and Israel: The Story of Christian Zionism by Stephen Spector, 2008 Great numbers of Christian pilgrims visit Israel, especially in times of trouble for the Jewish state, to offer moral support, and return with an even greater sense of a shared Judeo–Christian heritage. Public awareness of a shared Judeo-Chrisitan belief system has increased since the 1990s due to a great deal of interest in the life of the historical Jesus, stressing his Jewishness, see also Jewish Christians. The literature explores differences and commonalities between Jesus’ teachings, Christianity and Judaism. Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels by Geza Vermes Jesus and Judaism by E. P. Sanders From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Christ by Paula Fredriksen The Life of Jesus by Ernest Renan, Book Tree, 2007. ISBN 1585092851 The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant by John Dominic Crossan Jesus As a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee, by Mark Allan Powell A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus: The Roots of the Problem and the Person by John P. Meier On the other hand, the response of Jews towards the "Judeo–Christian" concept has been mixed. In the 1930s, "In the face of worldwide antisemitic efforts to stigmatize and destroy Judaism, influential Christians and Jews in America labored to uphold it, pushing Judaism from the margins of American religious life towards its very center." (Sarna,p.267) During World War II, Jewish chaplains worked with Catholic priests and Protestant ministrs to promote goodwill, addressing servicemen who, "in many cases 'had never seen, much less heard a Rabbi speak before." At funerals for the unknown soldier, rabbis stood alongside the other chaplains and recited prayers in Hebrew. In a much publicized wartime tragedy, the sinking of the USS Dorchester, the ships multi-faith chaplains gave up their lifebelts to evacuating seamen and stood together 'arm in arm in prayer' as the ship went down. A 1948 postage stamp commemorated their heroism with the words: 'interfaith in action." In the 1950s, “a spiritual and cultural revival washed over American Jewry” in response to the trauma of the Holocaust. American Jews became more confident to be identified as different. Two notable books addressed the relations between contemporary Judaism and Christianity, Abba Hillel Silver’s Where Judaism Differs and Leo Baeck’s Judaism and Christianity, both motivated by an impulse to clarify Judaism’s distinctiveness “in a world where the term Judeo–Christian had obscured critical differences between the two faiths.” Sarna, p281 Reacting against the blurring of theological distinctions, Rabbi Eliezer Berkovits wrote that "Judaism is Judaism because it rejects Christianity, and Christianity is Christianity because it rejects Judaism". Disputation and Dialogue: Readings in the Jewish Christian Encounter, Ed. F.E. Talmage, Ktav, 1975, p. 291. Novelist and theologian Arthur A. Cohen, in The Myth of the Judeo–Christian Tradition, questioned the theological validity of the Judeo–Christian concept and suggested that it was essentially an invention of American politics, while Jacob Neusner, in Jews and Christians: The Myth of a Common Tradition writes "The two faiths stand for different people talking about different things to different people". Jacob Neusner (1990), Jews and Christians: The Myth of a Common Tradition. New York and London: Trinity Press International and SCM Press. p. 28 By the 1990s Jews had joined the culture wars, and liberal Jews were likely to vigorously reject all talk of Judeo–Christian culture as attacks on separation of church and state, or even on Jewish religion. For example, as one rabbi, Gershon Winckler, puts it: "Judeo–Christian is purely a Christian myth... The term "Judeo–Christian tradition" and "Judeo–Christian morality" are wrong and misleading. They are a slap in the face for all the great teachers throughout history, whose responses to today's moral questions would in no way resemble those of the Vatican or the Christian Right, and whose attitute towards sin, physical pleasure, human dignity, and the earth differ vastly from those of Christianity." Gershon Winckler (2005), The Way of the Boundary Crosser: An Introduction to Jewish Flexidoxy, p.221 Law professor Stephen M. Feldman identifies talk of Judeo–Christian tradition as supersessionism "Once one recognizes that Christianity has historically engendered antisemitism, then this so-called tradition appears as dangerous Christian dogma (at least from a Jewish perspective). For Christians, the concept of a Judeo–Christian tradition comfortably suggests that Judaism progresses into Christianity -- that Judaism is somehow completed in Christianity. The concept of a Judeo–Christian tradition flows from the Christian theology of supersession, whereby the Christian covenant (or Testament) with God supersedes the Jewish one. Christianity, according to this myth, reforms and replaces Judaism. The myth therefore implies, first, that Judaism needs reformation and replacement, and second, that modern Judaism remains merely as a "relic". Most importantly the myth of the Judeo–Christian tradition insidiously obscures the real and significant differences between Judaism and Christianity." Stephen M. Feldman (1998), Please Don't Wish Me a Merry Christmas: A Critical History of the Separation of Church and State In contrast,conservative Jews continued to embrace the term and meaning of Judeo–Christian, and to cherish their alliance with conservative Christians. Conservative Jewish writer and talk show host, Dennis Prager writesHow can there be such a thing as Judeo–Christian values when Judaism and Christianity have different, sometimes mutually exclusive, beliefs? The most important answer is that beliefs and values are not the same things. Of course, Judaism and Christianity have some differing beliefs. If they had the same beliefs, they would be the same religion. The very term "Judeo–Christian" implies that the two are not the same. The two religions have some differing beliefs and occasionally even some different values. ...Despite whatever differences they have, ...Judeo–Christian values system has become a uniquely powerful moral force. Among its many achievements is that it is the primary contributor to America's greatness. The case for Judeo–Christian values, part 5,February 15, 2005, worldnetdaily.com. http://worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=42864 ...European Christianity... de-emphasized its Jewish roots, and it usually persecuted Jews ...No Christian state referred to itself as "Judeo–Christian." That identity arose with the Christians of America, who from the outset were at least as deeply immersed in the Old Testament as in the New. Rather than see themselves as superseding Jews, American Christians identified with them. These American Christians chose a Torah verse—"Proclaim liberty throughout the land"—for their Liberty Bell; learned and taught Hebrew; adopted the Jewish notion of being chosen to be a light unto the nations; saw their leaving Europe as a second exodus; had every one of its presidents take the oath of office on an Old and New Testament Bible—and while every president mentioned God in his inaugural address, not one mentioned Jesus. Of course, most Protestant Christians who hold Judeo–Christian values continue to believe that there is no salvation outside of faith in Christ. But precisely because they do hold Judeo–Christian values, they work hand in hand with others whose faith they deem insufficient or incorrect (e.g., Jews and Mormons). So while they theologically reject other faiths, evangelical Christians are the single strongest advocates of Judeo–Christian values. ... such Christians have recognized the critical significance of the Jewish text—the Old Testament—which forms the foundation of Judeo–Christian values. It provided the God of Christianity, their supra-natural Creator, the notions of divine moral judgment and divine love, the God-based universal morality they advocate and try to live by, the Ten Commandments, the holy, the sanctity of human life, the belief in a God of history and that history has meaning, and moral progress. All these and more came from the Jews and their texts. ... the Christians brought the text and its values into the world at large and applied them to a society composed of Jews, Christians, atheists, and members of other religions. Those Judeo–Christian values have made America the greatest experiment in human progress and liberty and the greatest force for good in history. And they are exportable. In fact, they are humanity's only hope. Prager, Dennis. Different theology,same morality. Posted: March 16, 2005 http://worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=43314 Breakdown of liberal Judeo–Christian alliance At the same time that the positive attitude of Evangelicals towards Jews and Judaism has grown, the Judeo–Christian alliance between liberal churches and synagogues that was begun in the 1920’s, has seriously decayed in recent years. John Leo, "When Churches Head Left,"http://www.usnews.com/usnews/opinion/articles/041018/18john.htm "Evangelical Lutheran Church in America considers Israel boycott", Dhimmi Watch, August 16, 2007.http://www.jihadwatch.org/dhimmiwatch/archives/017798.php "The liberal Protestant churches, unlike their conservative counterparts, have become anti-Israel bastions in recent years." Seth Gitell, "Liberal Church More ‘Balanced' On Middle East",June 25, 2007.http://www.nysun.com/national/liberal-church-more-balanced-on-middle-east/57212/ Some liberal churches have absorbed anti-Israel political stances that at times have developed into modern forms of anti-semitism, writes Dexter Van Zile in "Hate at the Altar". Dexter Van Zile,"Hate at the altar," Boston Globe,October 25, 2007.http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2007/10/25/hate_at_the_altar/ Presbyterian elder James Woolsey, former head of the Central Intelligence Agency under President Bill Clinton criticized the Presbyterian USA General Assembly's 2004 decision to characterize Israel as an apartheid state and adopt a divestment policy, with these words: "We have, I'm afraid, moved into a posture…that, unless what we did two years ago is rejected, we are clearly on the side of theocratic, totalitarian, anti-Semitic, genocidal beliefs, and nothing less." (See New Anti-Semitism, also Sabeel). Chesler, Phyllis The New Anti-Semitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It, Jossey-Bass, 2003. ISBN 0-7879-7803-5 "Jewish groups were caught off guard. They were outraged that divestment, a tactic utilized against apartheid South Africa, was now being advocated by a major American Protestant denomination as a means of pressuring the Jewish state. "Prior to its pronouncement, had you asked me if this is on the agenda, I'd say I can't imagine it," said Rabbi Gary Bretton-Granatoor, director of interfaith affairs for the Anti-Defamation League. Daniel Treiman,"Mainline Churches vs. Israel? Will new church moves toward stopping investment in companies that do business in Israel endanger Christian-Jewish relations?"http://www.beliefnet.com/story/155/story_15507.html "One of the questions that we asked, maybe the question that we asked, is: Where's the outrage? Where's the passion in the mainline churches about Palestinian terrorism?" said Mark Pelavin, director of the Commission on Interreligious Affairs of Reform Judaism. "We clearly hear that outrage, and we hear that passion about the living conditions--which I would agree are deeply, deeply problematic--of the Palestinians. But we don't hear that passion about Palestinian terror; we don't hear criticism of the Palestinian leadership."...The ADL's Bretton-Granatoor said that Jewish groups and mainline churches had previously ignored their differences on the Middle East..."They've been saying similar things for awhile, and we've been pretending that they really haven't said it because we've been so proud of our work together," he said. "I think that the Jewish community is at fault for not taking them on earlier and not seeing this as a dangerous development, but I think both sides have really tried to lead each other out of discussions on the Middle East, and we can no longer do that." Among some liberal churches, the influence of Palestinian Christians hostile to Jews has led to a rebirth of antisemitic imagery, belief in supercessionism, and even political action, resulting in conflicts in relations between the Jewish community and local or national churches. For example, Sabeel is a formal partner of Presbyterian U.S.A., and has been invited to put on multi-day conferences at Boston's historic Old South Church, a congregation of the United Church of Christ. Sabeel's Apartheid Paradigm in Palestine-Israel conference was widely condemned by Jewish and Christian organizations because it "included imagery explicitly linking the modern Jewish state to the terrible charge that for centuries fueled so much anti-Jewish hatred and bloodshed" that "Israel is guilty of trying to murder Jesus as an infant, of killing Jesus on the cross, and of seeking to prevent his resurrection.". Sister Ruth Lautt, National Director of Christians for Fair Witness on the Middle East condemned Presbyterian U.S.A. and the South Boston United Church of Christ for legitimizing Sabeel's anti-Semitic preaching. Palestinain Pastor Ateek preaches that “in this season of Lent, it seems to many of us that Jesus is on the cross again with thousands of crucified Palestinians around Him …The Israeli government crucifixion system is operating daily." Such programs have led to an unprecedented breakdown of cordial relations in the Judeo–Christian alliance between the liberal Protestant churches and the American Jewish community that was launched in the 1920s to combat American anti-Semitism. "Fair Witness Calls on PC(USA) to Cease Meeting With Terrorists,"http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=109&STORY=/www/story/12-05-2005/0004227864&EDATE= Father Gardiner H. Shattuck Jr.,"ANTI-SEMITISM: THE ELEPHANT IN THE LIVING ROOM,"http://epjafi.tripod.com/information/elephant_living_room.html This breakdown in the Judeo–Christian alliance has not gone unnoticed by concerned Christian churches and laypeople, who have formed numerous organizations to combat growing anti-Semitism in liberal Christine churches.The Episcopal Diocese of New York ...Episcopal-Jewish Relations Committee has adopted a statement that says “church-sponsored programs to disinvest from Israel impede efforts towards a peaceful settlement by undermining the perceived legitimacy” of Israel. “Worse, they give the appearance of supporting Christian antipathy towards the Jewish people.” "Protestant Church Fights Back On Boycott,"JewishWeek.com. February 8, 2005 Judeo–Christian concept in American history Nineteenth century historians wrote extensively on the United States of America having a distinctively Protestant character in its outlook and founding political philosophy. It is only since the 1950s that the term "Judeo–Christian" has been applied to it, reflecting the growing use of that term in American political life. By some the term is used casually, simply as a commonplace term, or as an inclusive synonym for the religious. Others, including for example Prager, argue the term is appropriate in its own right, capturing a distinctively Old Testament dimension (though not necessarily that of Judaism) in the Puritan character of early American Protestantism. The notion of a distinctive religious basis for American democracy and culture was first described and popularized by Alexis de Tocqueville in the 1840’s, in his influential book, Democracy in America. In Chapter Two, De Tocqueville describes America’s unique religious heritage from the Puritans. His analysis showed the Puritans as providing the foundational values of America, based on their strong Hebrew Bible view of the world, which included fighting for earthly political justice, an emphasis on laws and education, and a belief in the chosenness of the Jews which the Puritans identified with, giving them a sense of moral mission in founding America. As de Tocqueville observed, the Puritan’s Biblical outlook gave America a moral dimension which the Old World lacked. De Tocqueville believed these Biblical values led to America's unique institutions of religious tolerance, public education, egalitarianism, and democracy. The principles of New England … now extend their influence beyond its limits, over the whole American world. The civilization of New England has been like a beacon lit upon a hill…. … Puritanism was not merely a religious doctrine, but corresponded in many points with the most absolute democratic and republican theories. …Nathaniel Morton, the historian of the first years of the settlement, thus opens his subject: “we may not hide from our children, showing to the generations to come the praises of the Lord; that especially the seed of Abraham his servant, and the children of Jacob his chosen ( Psalm cv. 5, 6 ), may remember his marvellous works in the beginning … “ … The general principles which are the groundwork of modern constitutions, principles … were all recognized and established by the laws of New England: the intervention of the people in public affairs, the free voting of taxes, the responsibility of the agents of power, personal liberty, and trial by jury were all positively established without discussion. … In the bosom of this obscure democracy…the following fine definition of liberty: " There is a twofold liberty, natural … and civil or federal. The first is common to man with beasts and other creatures. By this, man, as he stands in relation to man simply, hath liberty to do what he lists; it is a liberty to evil as well as to good. … The exercise and maintaining of this liberty makes men grow more evil, and in time to be worse than brute beasts: … The other kind of liberty I call civil or federal; it may also be termed moral, in reference to the covenant between God and man, in the moral law, and the politic covenants and constitutions, among men themselves. … This liberty you are to stand for, with the hazard not only of your goods, but of your lives, if need be." I have said enough to put the character of Anglo-American civilization in its true light. It is the result ( and this should be constantly kept in mind) of two distinct elements, which in other places have been in frequent disagreement, but which the Americans have succeeded in incorporating to some extent one with the other and combining admirably. I allude to the spirit of religion and the spirit of liberty. de Tocqueville, Alexis. Democracy in America, Chapter II ORIGIN OF THE ANGLO-AMERICANS, AND IMPORTANCE OF THIS ORIGIN IN RELATION TO THEIR FUTURE CONDITION This concept of America’s unique Bible-driven historical and cultural identity was developed by historians as they studied the first centuries of America’s history, from the Pilgrims through Abraham Lincoln. The statements and institutions of the founding generation that have been preserved are numerous, and they explicitly describe many of their Biblical motivations and goals, their interest in Hebrew and the Hebrew Bible, their use of Jewish and Christian images and ideas. These Judeo–Christian values were especially important at the key foundational moments of the settling of America, the War for Independence and the Civil War. Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Harvard University Press, 1992. Chapter 2 “Sources and Traditions.”;Novak, Michael. On Two Wings. Humble Faith and Common Sense at the American Founding. Encounter Books, 2002 Perry Miller of Harvard University, wrote in 1956, “Puritanism may be described empirically as that point of view, that code of values, carried to New England by the first settlers. …the New Englanders established Puritanism- for better or worse-as one of the continuous factors in American life and thought. It has played so dominant a role…all across the continent…these qualities have persisted even though the original creed is lost. Without an understanding of Puritanism …there is no understanding of America.” ( Miller, Perry. The American Puritans. Their Prose and Poetry. Doubleday, 1956, Forward This view about American history and culture has been questioned in recent decades by multiculturalists. In 2007, one prominent multiculturist professor, Jon Butler, Dean of the Graduate School of Arts & Sciences and Howard R. Lamar Professor of American History, Yale University, published a book on religion in colonial America which, according to the reviews, explodes the myth that “the piety of the Pilgrims typified early American religion,” corrects the image of “colonial America as a type of grey, monolithic, uniformity”, is critical of the Puritans, and adulatory towards third-world contributions: “Butler explores the failure of John Winthrop's goal to achieve Puritan perfection, the controversy over Anne Hutchinson's tenacious faith, the evangelizing stamina of ex-slave and Methodist preacher Absalom Jones, and the spiritual resilience of the Catawba Indians.” ( In Becoming America: The Revolution before 1776, Butler argues against a “Europeanized” or predominantly British identity of colonial America, and underlines contributions by Ibo, Ashanti, Yoruba, Catawba and Leni-Lenape. Butler, Jon. Becoming America: The Revolution before 1776 Michael Novak, a specialist in the religious beliefs of the founding fathers, argues that the promotion of multiculturalism, moral relativism, and secularism among academics results in academic censorship that affects information and analysis supporting the Judeo–Christian heritage. Novak, Michael. On Two Wings. Humble Faith and Common Sense at the American Founding. Encounter Books, 2002, preface. Use of term in United States law In the legal case of Marsh v. Chambers, 463 U.S. 783 (1983), the Supreme Court of the United States held that a state legislature could constitutionally have a paid chaplain to conduct legislative prayers "in the Judeo–Christian tradition." In Simpson v. Chesterfield County Board of Supervisors , the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals held that the Supreme Court's holding in the Marsh case permitting legislative bodies to conduct prayer in the "Chesterfield County could constitutionally exclude Cynthia Simpson, a Wiccan priestess, from leading its legislative prayers, because her faith was not "in the Judeo–Christian tradition." Chesterfield County's Board included Jewish, Christian, and Muslim clergy in its invited list. Judeo–Christian–Muslim The Slovenian postmodern philosopher Slavoj Žižek has argued that the term Judeo–Muslim to describe the middle-east culture against the western Christian culture would be more appropriate in these days Slavoj Zizek—A Glance into the Archives of Islam , claiming as well a reduced influence from the Jewish culture on the western world due to the historical persecution and exclusion of the Jewish minority. (Though there is also a different perspective on Jewish contributions and influence. ) A Judaeo-Christian-Muslim concept thus refers to the three main monotheistic religions, commonly known as the Abrahamic Religions. Formal exchanges between the three religions, modeled on the decades-old Jewish-Christian interfaith dialogue groups, became common in American cities following the 1993 Israeli-Palestinian Oslo accords. Following 9/11, there was a break-down in interfaith dialogue that included mosques, due to the increased attention to Islamic sermons in American mosques, that revealed “anti-Jewish and anti-Israel outbursts by previously respected Muslim clerics and community leaders.” One of the country’s most prominent mosques is the New York Islamic Cultural Center, built with funding from Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Malaysia. Its imam, Mohammad Al-Gamei'a, disappeared without warning two days after 9/11. Back in Egypt, he was interviewed on an Arabic-language Web site, charging that the "Zionist media" had covered up Jewish responsibility for the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center. He agreed with Osama bin Laden's accusations in bin Laden's Letter to America, claiming that Jews were guilty of "disseminating corruption, heresy, homosexuality, alcoholism, and drugs." And he said that Muslims in America were afraid to go to the hospital for fear that some Jewish doctors had "poisoned" Muslim children."These people murdered the prophets; do you think they will stop spilling our blood? No," he said. The interview was published October 4 on a Web site affiliated with Cairo's Al-Azhar University, Islam's most respected theological academy. Immediately after 9/11, Imam Al-Gamei'a had presided over an interfaith service at his mosque. At the service the imam was quoted as saying, "We emphasize the condemnation of all persons, whoever they be, who have carried out this inhuman act." The Reverend James Parks Morton, president of the Interfaith Center of New York, who attended the service, called Imam Al-Gamei'a's subsequent comments "astonishing." "It makes interfaith dialogue all the more important," Reverend Morton said. Doandio, Rachel and Julia Goldman Post 9/11 remarks made by Muslim leaders in Cleveland and Los Angeles also led to the suspension of longstanding Muslim-Jewish dialogues. Some Jewish community leaders cite the statements as the latest evidence that Muslim-Jewish dialogue is futile in today's charged atmosphere. John Rosove, senior rabbi of Temple Israel of Hollywood, and other Jewish participants withdrew from the three-year-old Muslim-Jewish dialogue group after one of the Muslim participants, Salim al-Marayati, suggested in a radio interview that Israel should be put on the list of suspects behind the September 11 attacks. In Cleveland, Jewish community leaders put Muslim-Jewish relations on hold this month after the spiritual leader of a prominent mosque appeared in (a 1991) videotape …aired after 9/11 by a local TV station. Imam Fawaz Damra calls for "directing all the rifles at the first and last enemy of the Islamic nation and that is the sons of monkeys and pigs, the Jews." The revelation was all the more shocking since Imam Damra had been an active participant in local interfaith activities. Good Jewish-Muslim relations continue in Detroit, which has the nation's largest Arab-American community. Jewish organizations there have established good relations with a religious group called the Islamic Supreme Council of North America. See also Law and Gospel — traditional Protestant views against reviving Jewish laws among Christian Gentiles Supersessionism — the belief that Christianity has superseded Judaism Antinomianism — term used to describe those who believe that Christians are not subject to laws Cultural and historical background of Jesus — perspective on the period in which the two religions began to diverge Judaizers — term used to describe people that taught that Christians must keep the law of Moses Noahides — gentile monotheists who keep the Bible's universal commandments, the Noahide laws Ebionites — an early sect that combined Judaism with Christianity Messianic Judaism American exceptionalism Related terms Abrahamic religions — an umbrella term used to refer to the religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as well as sometimes indicating smaller, related religions such as Bahá'í Faith and Samaritans . Christo-Islamic — term used to refer to common elements in Christianity and Islam Judeo-Christo-Islamic — a term used to describe common elements in Judaism, Christianity and Islam; this is normally called Abrahamic. Judeo-Islamic — term used to refer to the common cultural elements and backgrounds of Islam and Judaism. References Further reading Bulliet, Richard. The Case for Islamo-Christian Civilization. Columbia University Press, 2004; ISBN 978-0231127974 Cohen, Arthur A. The Myth of the Judeo–Christian Tradition. Harper & Row, New York, 1970. Hexter, J. H. The Judaeo-Christian Tradition (Second Edition). Yale University Press, 1995; ISBN 978-0300045727 Neusner, Jacob. Jews and Christians: The Myth of a Common Tradition. Trinity Press International, Philadelphia, 1991. ISBN 9781592441563 (2003 edition) Gelernter, David. Americanism: The Fourth Great Western Religion. Doubleday. 2007; ISBN 978-0385513128 Bonomi, Patricia U. Under the Cope of Heaven. Religion, Society and Politics in Colonial America. Oxford University Press, 1986; ISBN 978-0195041187 Novak, Michael. On Two Wings: Humble Faith and Common Sense at the American Founding. Encounter Books, 2002. ISBN 978-1893554344 Mcgrath, Alister. In the Beginning: The Story of the King James Bible and How It Changed a Nation, a Language, and a Culture. Anchor Books, 2002. ISBN 0385722168. Bobrick, Benson. Wide as the Waters : The Story of the English Bible and the Revolution It Inspired. Simon and Schuster 2001. ISBN 0684847477 Waldman,Steven. Founding Faith: Providence, Politics, and the Birth of Religious Freedom in America. Random House, 2008, ISBN 1400064376 Lillback, Peter A..George Washington's Sacred Fire.Providence Forum Press,2006. ISBN 0978605268 Merkley, Paul Charles. Christian Attitudes Towards the State of Israel (Mcgill-Queen's Studies in the History of Religion: Series Two. McGill-Queen's University Press (March 1, 2007) ISBN 0773532552 Nonie Darwish Now They Call Me Infidel: Why I Renounced Jihad for America, Israel, and the War on Terror Géza Vermes. Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels, Augsburg Fortress, 1981, ISBN 978-0800614430 E. P. Sanders. Jesus and Judaism, Augsburg Fortress, 1985; ISBN 978-0800620615 Paula Fredriksen. From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Christ, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0300084573 Ernest Renan. The Life of Jesus, Book Tree, 2007. ISBN 1585092851 John Dominic Crossan. The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant ISBN 978-0060616298 Mark Allan Powell. Jesus As a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee, Westminster John Knox Press, 1998; ISBN 978-0664257033 John P. Meier. A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus: The Roots of the Problem and the Person ISBN 978-0385264259 External links Dennis Prager Publishes 19 part Series On Judeo–Christian Values (Traditional Values Coalition) A Judeo–Christian Looks at the Judeo–Christian Tradition by Martin E. 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4,418 | Alcmene | Birth of Heracles by Jean Jacques Francois Le Barbier In Greek mythology, Alcmene or Alcmena (Greek: ) was the mother of Heracles. Background Alcmene was born to Electryon, king of Mycenae and a son of Perseus. Apollodorus, Library 2.4.5 (text) Her mother was either Anaxo, daughter of Alcaeus and Astydamia, or Lysidice, daughter of Pelops and Hippodameia. Plutarch, Lives Theseus 7.1 (text) Hesiod describes Alcmene as the tallest, most beautiful woman with wisdom surpassed by no person born of mortal parents. It is said that her face and dark eyes were as charming as Aphrodite's, and that she honoured her husband like no woman before her. Hesiod, The Shield of Heracles 1ff. (text) Exile to Thebes According to Apollodorus, Alcmene went with Amphitryon to Thebes, where he was purified by Creon for accidentally killing Electryon. Alcmene refused to marry Amphitryon until he had avenged the death of her brothers. Apollodorus, Library 2.4.6 (text) However, during Amphitryon's expedition against the Taphians and Teleboans, Apollodorus, Library 2.4.7 (text) Zeus visited Alcmene disguised as Amphitryon. Extending one night into three, Zeus slept with Alcmene (thereby conceiving Heracles) and recounted Amphitryon's victories against the Teleboans. When Amphitryon finally returned to Thebes, Alcmene told him that he had come the night before and slept with her; he learned from Tiresias what Zeus had done. Apollodorus, Library 2.4.8 (text) Birth of Heracles In Homer's Iliad, when Alcmene was about to give birth to Heracles, Zeus announced to all the gods that on that day a child, descended from Zeus himself, would be born who would rule all those around him. Hera, after requesting Zeus to swear an oath to that effect, descended from Olympus to Argos and made the wife of Sthenelus (a son of Perseus) give birth to Eurystheus after only seven months, while at the same time preventing Alcmene from delivering Heracles. This resulted in the fulfillment of Zeus's oath by Eurystheus rather than Heracles. Homer, Iliad 19.95ff. (text) According to Ovid's Metamorphoses, while in labour, Alcmene was having difficulty giving birth to such a large child. After seven days and nights in agony, Alcmene stretched out her arms and called upon Lucina, the goddess of childbirth (the Roman equivalent of Eileithyia). However, while Lucina did go to Alcmene, she was instructed by Juno (Hera) to stop the delivery. With her hands clasped and legs crossed, Lucina muttered charms, thereby preventing Alcmene from giving birth. Alcmene struggled in pain, cursed the heavens, and became close to death. Galanthis, a maid of Alcmene who was nearby, observed Lucina's actions and quickly deduced Juno's plans. She announced that Alcmene had safely delivered her child, and this surprised Lucina so much that she immediately jumped up and unclenched her hands. As soon as Lucina leapt up, Alcmene was released from her spell and gave birth to Heracles. As punishment for deceiving Lucina, Galanthis was transformed into a weasel; she continued to live with Alcmene. Ovid, Metamorphoses 9.273ff. (text) In Pausanias' recounting, Hera sent witches (as they were called by the Thebans) to hinder Alcmene's delivery of Heracles. The witches were successful in preventing the birth until Historis, daughter of Tiresias, thought of a trick to deceive the witches. Like Galanthis, Historis announced that Alcmene had delivered her child; having been deceived, the witches went away, allowing Alcmene to give birth. Pausanias, Description of Greece 9.11.3 (text) In contrast to the depictions of difficult labor above, an alternative version is presented in Amphitryon, a comedic play by Plautus. Here Alcmene calls upon Jupiter, who performs a miracle allowing her to give birth quickly and without pain. After a crash of thunder and light, the baby arrives without anyone's assistance. Plautus, Amphitryon 1094 (text) Death After the death of Amphitryon, Alcmene married Rhadamanthys, son of Zeus, and lived with him in exile at Ocaleae in Boeotia. Apollodorus, Library 2.4.11 (text) It is said that after Heracles was apotheosised, Hyllus, having pursued and killed Eurystheus, cut off Eurystheus' head and gave it to Alcmene, who gouged out the eyes with weaving pins. Apollodorus, Library 2.8.1 (text) In Metamorphoses, an aging Alcmene recounted the story of the birth of Heracles to Iole. There are two accounts of Alcmene's death. According to the Megarians, Alcmene was walking from Argos to Thebes when she died at Megara. The Heracleidae fell into disagreement about where to take Alcmene's body, with some wishing to take her corpse back to Argos, and others wishing to take it to Thebes to be buried with Amphitryon and Heracles' children by Megara. However, the god in Delphi gave the Heracleidae an oracle that it was better to bury Alcmene in Megara. Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.41.1 (text) In the second account given by the Thebans, when Alcmene died, she was turned from human form to a stone. Pausanias, Description of Greece 9.16.7 (text) Pausanias indicated that an altar to Alcmene had been build in the Cynosarges in Athens, alongside altars to Heracles, Hebe, and Iolaus. Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.19.3 (text) Pausanias also said that Alcmene's tomb is located near the Olympieum at Megara. References See also Iphicles | Alcmene |@lemmatized birth:11 heracles:14 jean:1 jacques:1 francois:1 le:1 barbier:1 greek:2 mythology:1 alcmene:33 alcmena:1 mother:2 background:1 bear:3 electryon:2 king:1 mycenae:1 son:3 perseus:2 apollodorus:7 library:6 text:15 either:1 anaxo:1 daughter:3 alcaeus:1 astydamia:1 lysidice:1 pelops:1 hippodameia:1 plutarch:1 live:3 theseus:1 hesiod:2 describe:1 tall:1 beautiful:1 woman:2 wisdom:1 surpass:1 person:1 mortal:1 parent:1 say:3 face:1 dark:1 eye:2 charm:2 aphrodite:1 honour:1 husband:1 like:2 shield:1 exile:2 thebes:5 accord:3 go:3 amphitryon:10 purify:1 creon:1 accidentally:1 kill:2 refuse:1 marry:2 avenge:1 death:5 brother:1 however:3 expedition:1 taphians:1 teleboans:2 zeus:8 visit:1 disguise:1 extend:1 one:1 night:3 three:1 slept:1 thereby:2 conceive:1 recount:2 victory:1 finally:1 return:1 tell:1 come:1 sleep:1 learn:1 tiresias:2 homer:2 iliad:2 give:10 announce:3 god:2 day:2 child:5 descend:2 would:2 rule:1 around:1 hera:3 request:1 swear:1 oath:2 effect:1 olympus:1 argos:2 make:1 wife:1 sthenelus:1 eurystheus:4 seven:2 month:1 time:1 prevent:3 deliver:3 result:1 fulfillment:1 rather:1 ovid:2 metamorphosis:2 labour:1 difficulty:1 large:1 agony:1 stretch:1 arm:1 call:3 upon:2 lucina:7 goddess:1 childbirth:1 roman:1 equivalent:1 eileithyia:1 instruct:1 juno:2 stop:1 delivery:2 hand:2 clasp:1 leg:1 cross:1 mutter:1 struggle:1 pain:2 curse:1 heaven:1 become:1 close:1 galanthis:3 maid:1 nearby:1 observe:1 action:1 quickly:2 deduce:1 plan:1 safely:1 surprised:1 much:1 immediately:1 jump:1 unclenched:1 soon:1 leapt:1 release:1 spell:1 punishment:1 deceive:3 transform:1 weasel:1 continue:1 metamorphose:1 pausanias:7 recounting:1 sent:1 witch:4 theban:2 hinder:1 successful:1 historis:2 thought:1 trick:1 away:1 allow:2 description:4 greece:4 contrast:1 depiction:1 difficult:1 labor:1 alternative:1 version:1 present:1 comedic:1 play:1 plautus:2 jupiter:1 perform:1 miracle:1 without:2 crash:1 thunder:1 light:1 baby:1 arrive:1 anyone:1 assistance:1 rhadamanthys:1 ocaleae:1 boeotia:1 apotheosise:1 hyllus:1 pursue:1 cut:1 head:1 gouge:1 weave:1 pin:1 age:1 story:1 iole:1 two:1 account:2 megarians:1 walk:1 argo:1 die:2 megara:4 heracleidae:2 fell:1 disagreement:1 take:3 body:1 wish:2 corpse:1 back:1 others:1 bury:2 delphi:1 oracle:1 well:1 second:1 turn:1 human:1 form:1 stone:1 indicate:1 altar:1 build:1 cynosarges:1 athens:1 alongside:1 altars:1 hebe:1 iolaus:1 also:2 tomb:1 locate:1 near:1 olympieum:1 reference:1 see:1 iphicles:1 |@bigram jean_jacques:1 homer_iliad:2 swear_oath:1 ovid_metamorphosis:1 goddess_childbirth:1 ovid_metamorphose:1 pausanias_description:4 |
4,419 | Conservation_(cultural_heritage) | Removal of adherent surface deposits by physical chemical means (by cotton swab). Church of Suceviţa Monastery, burial chamber. Romania, Suceava. Conservation-restoration, also referred to as Conservation, is a profession devoted to the preservation of cultural heritage for the future. Conservation activities include examination, documentation, treatment, and preventive care. All of this work is supported by research and education. Defining Conservation-restoration The traditional definition of the role of the conservator involves the examination, conservation, and preservation of cultural heritage using "any methods that prove effective in keeping that property in as close to its original condition as possible for as long as possible.” Walston, S. 1978. p.9 The Preservation and Conservation of Aboriginal and Pacfic Cultural Material in Australian Museums. ICCM Bulletin Vol 4 no. 1. December 1978. Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Materials (Inc). However, today the definition of the role of conservation has widened and would more accurately be described as that of ethical stewardship. The conservator applies some simple ethical guidelines, such as: Minimal intervention. Appropriate materials and methods that aim to be reversible to reduce possible problems with future treatment, investigation, and use. Full documentation of all work undertaken. The conservator aims to take into account the views of the stakeholder and to apply their professional expertise accordingly . Conservation Ethics The conservator's work is guided by ethical standards. These take the form of applied ethics. Ethical standards have been established across the world, and national and international ethical guidelines have been written. One such example is: American Institute for Conservation Code of Ethics and Guidelines for Practice Conservation OnLine's Ethical issues in conservation provides a number of articles on ethical issues in conservation; example of codes of ethics and guidelines for professional conduct in conservation and allied fields; and charters and treaties pertaining to ethical issues involving the preservation of cultural property. Specialization within the profession The profession of art conservation is broad and encomposses many areas of speciality. Some specialities within art conservation would include: Book and paper conservation Conservation science Electronic media conservation Digital preservation Media preservation Phonograph record preservation Historic preservation Architectural conservation Object conservation (archaeological, ethnographic, and sculptural) Furniture conservation Frame conservation Paintings conservation Photograph conservation Film preservation Textile Conservation Variable art conservation Caring for Cultural Heritage Preventive Conservation Many cultural works are sensitive to environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity and exposure to light and ultraviolet light. They must be protected in a controlled environment where such variables are maintained within a range of damage-limiting levels. Shielding from sunlight of artifacts such as watercolour paintings for example is usually necessary to prevent fading of pigments. Preventive conservation is an important element of museum policy and collections care. It is an essential responsibility of members of the museum profession to create and maintain a protective environment for the collections in their care, whether in store, on display, or in transit. A museum should carefully monitor the condition of collections to determine when an artifact requires conservation work and the services of a qualified conservator. Work of preventive conservation in a rock wall with prehistoric paintings at the Serra da Capivara National Park. The work consists of filling the cracks to prevent the fragmentation of the wall. Interventive Conservation Interventive Conservation refers to any act by a conservator that involves a direct interaction between the conservator and the cultural material. These interventive treatments could involve the cleaning, stabilizing, repair, or replacement of parts of the cultural material. It is essential that the conservator fully justify any such work, as well as fully documenting the work both before, during, and after the treatment. The principal goal should be the stabilization of the object or specimen. All conservation procedures should be documented and as reversible as possible, and all alterations should be clearly distinguishable from the original object or specimen. ICOM-CC International Council of Museums Committee for Conservation] The History of Conservation Key Dates This page contains a list of some of the key dates in the history of conservation in Europe and the United States, compiled by Joyce Hill Stoner. Beginning in 1565 with the restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes. A Brief History of Conservation The care for cultural patrimony has a long history within traditions of fixing and mending objects, Pye, E, 2001. Caring for the Past: Issues in Conservation for Archaeology and Museums. London: James and James and in individual restorations of artworks. During the nineteenth century, the fields of science and art became increasingly intertwined as scientists such as Michael Faraday began to study the damaging effects of the environment to works of art. Louis Pasteur carried out scientific analysis on paint during this time period as well. Stoner, Joyce Hill. 2005. p. 41. “Changing Approaches in Art Conservation: 1925 to the present” in (Sackler NAS Colloquium) Scientific Examination of Art: Modern Techniques in Conservation and Analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11413&page=41 However, perhaps the first organised attempt to conserve cultural patrimony was the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings in the , influenced by the writings of John Ruskin the society was founded by William Morris and Philip Webb in 1877. During the same period a movement with similar aims had also developed in France under the direction of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc a French architect and theorist, famous for his "restorations" of medieval buildings. Conservation developed as a distinct field of thought initially in Germany, when in 1888 Friedrich Rathgen became the first Chemist to be employed by a Museum, the Koniglichen Museen, Berlin (Royal Museums of Berlin). He not only developed a scientific approach to the care of objects in the collections, but disseminated this approach publishing a "Handbook of Conservation" in 1898. Gilberg, Mark. (1987) Friedrich Rathgen: The Father of Modern Archaeological Conservation. Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, Vol. 26, No. 2 (Autumn, 1987), pp. 105-120 http://aic.stanford.edu/jaic/articles/jaic26-02-004_2.html The early development of conservation in any area of the world is usually linked to the creation of positions for chemists within museums. In 1924 in the the chemist Harold Plenderleith began to work at the British Museum with Dr. Alexander Scott in the newly created Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, thus giving birth to the conservation profession in the UK. http://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/departments/conservation_and_science/history.aspx This department had been created by the museum to address objects in the collection that had begun to rapidly deteriorate as a result of being stored in the London Underground tunnels during the First World War. The development of this department at the British Museum moved the focus for the development of conservation from Germany to Britain, and in 1956 Plenderleith wrote a significant handbook called The Conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art, it was this book rather than Rathgen's that is commonly seen as the major source for the development of conservation as we know it today. In the United States the development of conservation can be traced to the Fogg Art Museum, and Edward Waldo Forbes, the Director of the Fogg from 1909 to 1944. He encouraged technical investigation, and was Chairman of the Advisory Committee for the first technical journal, Technical Studies, in the Field of the Fine Arts, published by the Fogg from 1932 to 1942. Importantly he also brought onto the museum staff chemists. Rutherford John Gettens was the first chemist in the U. S. to be permanently employed by an art museum. He worked with George L. Stout, the founder and first editor of Technical Studies. Gettens and Stout co-authored Painting Materials: A Short Encyclopaedia, first published in 1942 and reprinted in 1966. This compendium is still cited regularly. Only a few dates and descriptions in Gettens’ and Stout’s book are now outdated. Stoner, Joyce Hill. "Changing Approaches in Art Conservation: 1925 to the present". The publication exists in two editions. The earlier one is " Scientific Examination of Art: Modern Techniques on Conservation and Analysis" and was published by the National Academy of Sciences in 2003. The later edition of the publication is "Arthur M. Sackler Colloquia: Scientific Examination of Art: Modern Techniques in Conservation and Analysis". It was published by the National Academies Press in 2005. The focus of conservation development then accelerated in Britain and America, and it was in Britain that the first International Conservation Organisations developed. The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC) was incorporated under British law in 1950 as “a permanent organization to co-ordinate and improve the knowledge, methods, and working standards needed to protect and preserve precious materials of all kinds.” Stoner, Joyce Hill. "Changing Approaches in Art Conservation: 1925 to the present". The publication exists in two editions. The earlier one is " Scientific Examination of Art: Modern Techniques on Conservation and Analysis" and was published by the National Academy of Sciences in 2003. The later edition of the publication is "Arthur M. Sackler Colloquia: Scientific Examination of Art: Modern Techniques in Conservation and Analysis". It was published by the National Academies Press in 2005. The rapid growth of conservation professional organizations, publications, journals, newsletters, both internationally and in localities, has spearheaded the development of the conservation profession, both practically and theoretically. Art historians and theorists such as Cesare Brandi have also played a significant role in developing conservation-restoration theory. In recent years ethical concerns have been at the forefront of developments in conservation. Most significantly has been the idea of Preventive conservation. This concept is based in part on the pioneering work by Garry Thomson CBE, and his book the Museum Environment, first published in 1978. Museum Environment (2nd Edition), 1986, by Garry Thomson CBE ISBN 978-0-7506-2041-3 Thomson was associated with the National Gallery (London), it was here that he established a set of guidelines or environmental controls for the best conditions in which objects could be stored and displayed within the Museum Environment. Although his exact guidelines are no longer rigidly followed they did inspire this field of conservation. The Lunder Conservation Center. Conservation staff for both the Smithsonian American Art Museum and the National Portrait Gallery are visible to the public through floor-to-ceiling glass walls that allow visitors to see firsthand all the techniques that Conservators use to examine, treat and preserve artworks within a functioning conservation Laboratory. The Conservation Laboratory Conservators routinely use chemistry and scientific analysis for the examination and treatment of cultural works. The modern conservation lab uses equipment such as microscopes, spectrometers, and x-ray machines to better understand and assess objects and their components. A Country by Country Look The United States of America Heritage Preservation, in partnership with the Institute of Museum and Library Services, a U.S. federal agency, produced The Heritage Health Index. The results of this work was the report A Public Trust at Risk: The Heritage Health Index Report on the State of America’s Collections, which was published in December 2005 and concluded that immediate action is needed to prevent the loss of 190 million artifacts that are in need of conservation treatment. The report made four recommendations: Institutions must give priority to providing safe conditions for the collections they hold in trust. Every collecting institution must develop an emergency plan to protect its collections and train staff to carry it out. Every institution must assign responsibility for caring for collections to members of its staff. Individuals at all levels of government and in the private sector must assume responsibility for providing the support that will allow these collections to survive Heritage Health Index England In October 2006, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, a governmental department, authored a document: "Understanding the Future: Priorities for England's Museums" http://www.culture.gov.uk/images/consultations/cons_uf_prioritiesforenglandsmuseums.pdf This document based on several years of consultation aimed to lay out the governments priorities for museums in the 21st Century. The document listed the following as priorities for the next decade: Museums will fulfilf their potential as learning resources (pp 7–10). Museums will be embedded into the delivery of education in every school in the country. Understanding of the effectiveness of museum education will be improved further and best practice built into education programmes. The value of museums’ collections as a research resource will be well understood and better links built between the academic community and museums. Museums will embrace their role in fostering, exploring, celebrating and questioning the identities of diverse communities (pp 11–14). The sector needs to work with partners in academia and beyond to create an intellectual framework supporting museums’ capacity to tackle issues of identity. The museum sector must continue to develop improved practical techniques for engaging communities of all sorts. Museums' collections will be more dynamic and better used (pp 15–18). Government and the sector will find new ways to encourage museums to collect actively and strategically, especially the record of contemporary society. The sector will develop new collaborative approaches to sharing and developing collections and related expertise. Museums' workforces will be dynamic, highly skilled and representative (pp 17–22). Museums' governing bodies and workforces will be representative of the communities they serve. Find more varied ways for a broader range of skills to come into museums. Improve continuing professional development. Museums will work more closely with each other and partners outside the sector (pp 23–26). A consistent evidence base of the contribution of all kinds of museums to the full range of public service agendas will be developed. There will be deeper and longer lasting partnerships between the national museums and a broader range of regional partners. Museums’ international roles will be strengthened to improve museum programmes in this country and Britain’s image, reputation and relationships abroad. The conservation profession response to this report was on the whole less than favourable, the Institute of Conservation (ICON) published their response under the title "A Failure of Vision" http://www.icon.org.uk/images/stories/icon_understanding_the_future.pdf . It had the following to say: Concluding: Further to this the ICON website summary report http://www.icon.org.uk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=400&Itemid=15 lists the following specific recommendations: A national survey to find out what the public want from museums, what motivates them to visit them and what makes for a rewarding visit. A review of survey results and prioritisation of the various intrinsic, instrumental and institutional values to provide a clear basis for a 10-year strategy HR consultants to be brought in from the commercial sector to review recruitment, career development and working practices in the national and regional museums. A commitment to examine the potential for using Museum Accreditation as a more effective driver for improving recruitment, diversity, and career development across the sector. DCMS to take full account of the eventual findings of the current Commons Select Committee enquiry into Care of Collections in the final version of this document The adoption of those recommendations of the recent House of Lords enquiry into Science and Heritage which have a potential impact on the future of museums. Training Training conservation for many years took the form of an apprenticeship, whereby an apprentice slowly developed the necessary skills to undertake their job. For some specializations within conservation this is still the case. However, it is more common in the field of conservation today that the training required to become a practicing conservator comes from a recognized university course in conservation. http://aic.stanford.edu/education/becoming/contrain.pdf The University can rarely provide all the necessary training in first hand experience that an apprenticeship can, and therefore in addition to graduate level training the profession also tends towards encouraging conservation students to spend time as an intern. Conservation is an Interdisciplinary field as conservators have backgrounds in the fine arts, sciences (including chemistry, biology, and materials science), and closely related disciplines, such as art history, archaeology, studio art, and anthropology. They also have design, fabrication,artistic, and other special skills necessary for the practical application of that knowledge. Within the various schools that teach conservation, the approach differs according the educational and vocational system within the country, and the focus of the school itself. This is acknowledged by the American Institute for Conservation who advise "Specific admission requirements differ and potential candidates are encouraged to contact the programs directly for details on prerequisites, application procedures, and program curriculum". AIC - Becoming a Conservator Conservation Associations and Professional Organizations Societies devoted to the care of cultural heritage have been in existence around the world for many years. One early example is the founding in 1877 of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings in Britain to protect the built heritage, this society continues to be active today. SPAB: History of the SPAB The built heritage was also at the forefront of the growth of member based organizations in the United States for example, founded in 1889, the Richmond, Virginia-based Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities was the United States' first statewide historic preservation group. In 2003 it changed its name to reflect its wider focus in statewide preservation issues. APVA Preservation Virginia Today, professional conservators join and take part in the activities of numerous conservation associations and professional organizations with the wider conservation field, and within their area of specialization. These organizations exist to "support the conservation professionals who preserve our cultural heritage". About AIC - Overview This involves upholding professional standards, promoting research and publications, providing educational opportunities, and fostering the exchange of knowledge among conservators, allied professionals, and the public. References External links General Conservation Resources BCIN, the Bibliographic Database of the Conservation Information Network CAMEO: Conservation and Art Materials Encyclopedia OnLine Conservation OnLine (CoOL) Resources for Conservation Professionals, "a project of the Preservation Department of Stanford University Libraries and Academic Information Resources." Centre for Cultural Materials Conservation, a Department of Melbourne University. DOCAM — Documentation and Conservation of the Media Arts Heritage "to address the issues of preserving and documenting digital, technological and electronic works of art." Integrated Pest Management Working Group Website International Council of Museums (ICOM) Code of Ethics for Museums, 2006 museumkids/What is Art Conservation? - The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001. Research Resources at the Getty Conservation Institute, including the AATA (formerly "Art and Archaeology Technical Abstracts") search engine, bibliographies for various topics, cultural heritage policy documents, and links to other conservation-related Web sites. Caring for Heritage Collections Online Course. An online course in preventive conservation issues for museum professionals, University of Melbourne, School of Historical Studies: Centre for Cultural Materials Conservation. Scholarly Journals Journal of the American Institute for Conservation ICOM-CC Ethnographic Newsletter Victoria and Albert Museum Conservation Journal Journal of Conservation and Museum Studies Tate Papers Getty Conservation Institute Newsletter The Book and Paper Group - American Institute for Conservation The Abbey Newsletter e-conservation magazine Recent Setbacks in Conservation Online CeROArt. on-line magazine devoted to a multidisciplinary approach to questions of Conservation, exposition, Restoration of Objets d’Art Conservation and the Public UPenn's Architectural Conservation Lab You be the Conservator Lunder Conservation Center Conservation Advice Notes - Portable Antiquities Scheme Objects Conservation — Provided by the Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History. Conservation Report on Mukul Dey Archives by C. B. Gupta Freeview Video 'Science and Fine Art' by David Bomford of the National Gallery. A Royal Institution Lecture showing how scientific techniques aid conservation by the Vega Science Trust. New York Academy of Science Podcast about Ad Reinhardt's Black Painting and its restoration Preserv'Art - Interactive database of products used in conservation by the CCQ Agents of Deterioration - a Game from Liverpool Museum Specific Conservation Resources Animation Art Conservation discusses the preservation of animation art and has many interviews with animation artists that detail their original intent and frequently how they made their art. 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4,420 | Community_card_poker | Texas hold 'em deals community cards Community card poker refers to any game of poker that uses community cards (also called "shared cards" or "window cards"), which are cards dealt face up in the center of the table and shared by all players. In these games, each player is dealt privately an incomplete hand ("hole cards"), which are then combined with the community cards to make a complete hand. The set of community cards is called the "board", and may be dealt in a simple line or arranged in a special pattern. Rules of each game determine how they may be combined with each player's private hand. The most popular community card game today is Texas hold 'em, originating sometime in the 1920s. In home games, it is typical to use antes, while casinos typically use only blinds for these games. Fixed limit games are most common in casinos, while spread limit games are more common in home games. No limit and pot limit games are less common. Later betting rounds often have a higher limit than earlier betting rounds. Each betting round begins with the player to the dealer's left (when blinds are used, the first round begins with the player after the big blind), so community card games are generally positional games. Most community card games do not play well with lowball hand values, though some do play very well at high-low split, especially with ace-to-five low values, making it possible to win both halves of a pot. When played high-low split, there is generally a minimum qualifying hand for low (often 8-high), and it is played cards speak. Community cards Integral to community card poker games is the community card. Often, several community cards are dealt to the table, shared by all players, and subject to variant-specific rules about how many, and which of the cards may be used in each player's hand. Such a set of community cards is often called a "board" or "widow" (though this latter term is inconsistent with its use in other card games). The board is usually dealt in a simple line, but some games may have elaborate layouts of community cards with special rules about what combinations can be used. For example, Texas hold'em ends with each player holding two cards in his individual hand, and a board of five community cards in a simple line shared by everyone; each player then plays the best five-card hand in any combination. In Omaha hold'em, game rules restrict players to using exactly three (no more and no fewer) of the five community cards, combined with exactly two of the four cards dealt to each player, to make a hand. In Tic-tac-toe, the board is a 3x3 array of nine cards, and players must use exactly three cards from a row, column, or diagonal of the board. Texas hold 'em This is the most popular community card game today. Each player is dealt two private "hole" cards, after which there is a betting round. Then three community cards are dealt face up (in no particular order or pattern) to form the "flop", followed by a second betting round. A fourth community card (the "turn") is followed by a third betting round, a fifth community card (the "river") and the fourth and final betting round. At showdown, each player plays the best five-card hand he can make using any five cards among the two in his hand and the five on the board. This is the key difference from Omaha hold 'em; the player may use, both, one, or none of his hole cards in the final hand (though generally a player only wins by holding at least one hole card that completes or improves a hand on the board). Royal hold 'em Royal hold 'em is a hold 'em deviation in which the deck only contains tens, jacks, queens, kings and aces. The poker strategy for Royal hold 'em varies from other forms of poker since the odds of certain hands are greatly increased. Double-board hold 'em For double-board hold 'em, two separate five-card boards are dealt, and the high hand using each board takes half of the pot. For example, after the first betting round, three community cards are dealt to each of two separate boards; after the second round, another community card is dealt to each board; and before the final round, a fifth community card is dealt to each board (so there will be in total ten community cards, comprising two separate five-card hold'em boards). It is possible for one player to have the best hand on both boards and thus "scoop" the entire pot. This variant of Texas hold 'em is sometimes called "double-flop hold'em", which is a bit of a misnomer, since there are not just two flops, but also two turns and two rivers. Omaha hold 'em Another hold 'em variant is Omaha hold'em. Each player is dealt four cards to his private hand instead of two. The betting rounds and layout of community cards is identical to Texas hold 'em. At showdown, each player's hand is the best five-card hand he can make from exactly three of the five cards on the board, plus exactly two of his own cards. The high-low split version of Omaha is called many different names, such as "Omaha Eight or better", "Omaha HiLo" or "Omaha8". Each player, using the above rules, makes a separate five-card high hand and five-card low hand, and the pot is split between the high and low (which may be the same player). To qualify for low, a player must be able to play an 8-7-6-5-4 or lower. A few casinos play with a 9-low qualifier instead, but this is rare. In high-low split games, aces count as both high and low. The low hand is unavailable if the board cards do not include cards of at least three different ranks of 8 or lower (with aces counting as low). Paired cards lower than eight don't qualify. When high hands only are used, the game is generally called "Omaha high" to avoid ambiguity. Omaha can be played fixed limit, pot limit (where it is often called "PLO") or no limit. It is sometimes played where each player gets five cards instead of four. The same rules apply for showdown: each player must use two of his cards with three of the community cards. In the game of "Courcheval", popular in Europe, instead of betting on the initial four cards and then flopping three community cards for the second round, the first community card is dealt before the first betting round, so that each player has four private cards and the single community card on his first bet. Then two more community cards are dealt, and play proceeds exactly as in Omaha. Pineapple - Crazy Pineapple - Tahoe hold 'em - Super hold'em Pineapple hold 'em exists halfway between Texas hold 'em and Omaha hold 'em. Players are initially dealt three cards. Each player then discards one of the three cards, and the game proceeds exactly as in Texas hold 'em. In Crazy Pineapple, the players discard their third card after the flop betting round, before the fourth community card is dealt. In Tahoe, players keep all three cards through showdown, but may not use all three of them to make a hand. Each player may use none, one, or two cards from his hand, combined with those on the board, to make his final five-card hand. This version is also called "Lazy Pineapple". Crazy Pineapple and Tahoe are usually played high-low split. In the variant known as Super hold'em, players keep all 3 private cards throughout the play and may use all three cards to determine high hand. Manila One of the most popular games in Australian casinos is a Texas hold 'em variant called "Manila" (also called "Seven-up" in some places). It is played with a Stripped deck in which all cards below the rank of 7 are removed (leaving 32 cards). Each player is dealt two private cards, and a single community card is dealt face up, followed by the first betting round. Then a second community card is followed by a second round, a third community card and a third round, and fourth community card and a fourth round, and finally a fifth community card, fifth betting round, and showdown. On showdown, unlike Texas hold 'em (and more like Omaha), each player makes the best hand he can from both of his hole cards with exactly three of the five community cards. Because of the stripped deck, a flush beats a full house. Also, an ace may not be played low for a straight (that is, the hand A-7-8-9-10 is not a straight in Manila). Manila and its variants are rarely played high-low split (in fact, very few stripped deck games are ever played low). Common variations involve dealing three cards to each player, one of which can either be discarded at some point (like Pineapple, above), or else held to the end, but maintaining the requirement that each player play exactly two of his own cards with exactly three of the board. The three-card variant is sometimes played with 6s being restored to the deck, making it 36 cards. Pinatubo Because Manila has five betting rounds, it does not play well at no limit or pot limit. This can be easily modified by eliminating the betting round between the second and third community cards. So, each player is dealt two private cards and a single community card is dealt to the board, followed by the first betting round. Then two community cards are dealt, followed by a second betting round. Then a fourth community card and third betting round, a fifth and final community card and fourth betting round, followed by a showdown as above. The three-card variant can be played this way as well (as with Manila, the player must use exactly two of his three hole cards with three of the board cards to make a hand). "Home" games Although some of these games (notably Chowaha and Tic tac toe) have been played in formal casino settings, they are generally better suited to less serious low-stakes home games. They also lend themselves to ad-hoc variation, since the games themselves have not been time-tested for balanced play as have many casino games, so making variations is likely to make the game much worse. Cincinnati Each player is dealt four hole cards, and then one community card is dealt face up to the table. After a first betting round, a second community card is dealt, followed by a second betting round. This continues until a fourth community card is dealt, followed by a fourth betting round and showdown. Each player plays the best five-card hand he can make from his four hole cards plus the four community cards in any combination. Some variants restrict each player to using exactly two of his hole cards (as in Omaha) or no more than two (as in Pineapple). Iron cross Each player is dealt five hole cards, and then five community cards are dealt one at a time followed by a betting round, exactly as in Cincinnati. (One variant permits a discard and draw after the five hole cards are dealt, followed by the betting round) But they are dealt in a cross pattern with a center card (dealt last) and four other cards to its left, right, top, and bottom. Each player plays the best five-card poker hand he can make from his five hole cards plus the three cards from either the vertical arm or the horizontal arm of the cross. A common variant is to make the center card wild, or the center card and all of the same rank wild. The game is often played also where the highest and lowest hands split the pot. Also, in some variants, the first card of the cross (always one of the outer cards) is flipped prior to the first round of betting. Still another variant called Matrix Cross has only 2 hole cards which must be played with the cross cards in order to make 5. Another variant is played by reducing to four betting rounds: one after the hole cards are dealt but before any community cards are, then another after the left and right cards of the cross are dealt at the same time, a third after the top and bottom cards of the cross are dealt, and a final round after the center card is dealt. Chowaha Each player is dealt two hole cards and there is a round of betting as in Texas hold'em. After betting is complete the dealer deals three sets of three communities cards (F1, F2 and F3 in the diagram below). There is another round of betting and the dealer deals two turn cards (T1 and T2 in the diagram) followed by another round of betting. A single card is dealt (R1 in the diagram) and there is a final round of betting. Each player makes their best hand using both their hole cards plus three from one of the valid boards. There are four valid boards F1-F1-F1-T1-R1, F2-F2-F2-T1-R1, F2-F2-F2-T2-R1 and F3-F3-F3-T2-R1. F1-F1-F1 \ T1 F2-F2-F2 < > R1 T2 F3-F3-F3 / Chowaha is often played as a high-low split game in which case you can use one board for the high hand and another for the low hand. Chowaha is occasionally played at low limits in casinos (usually in conjunction with B.A.R.G.E). Tic tac toe In this game, each player will end up with two private cards, and there will be a board of nine cards arranged in a 3x3 square. Each player will make a five-card hand from a combination of his two cards plus any consecutive row of three on the board, either a horizontally, vertically, or diagonally (as in Tic-tac-toe). Variations exist in the number of betting rounds based on which community cards are revealed in what order. The simplest is probably to deal each player both hole cards then deal the three cards across the top of the 3x3 array before the first betting round; then deal the three cards across the bottom of the array followed by a second betting round; then deal the two cards on the left and right edge of the middle row, followed by a third round; and finally deal the center community card followed by a fourth betting round and showdown. Another variation is to deal three or four hole cards to each player, though each player may still only play exactly two of them with any consecutive row of three from the grid. A poker-like beginner's home game is also called "Tic tac toe"; it involves dealing each player two hole cards and then dealing the 3x3 grid face up, followed by a single betting round after which players announce the best hand they can make from their two cards plus any consecutive row, column, or diagonal of the board as above. Hole cards can be redealt several times to the same board of community cards. This is primarily for practice at recognizing and evaluating poker hands. East Village East Village East Village Rules Of Play is a modification of Omaha high-low split. Each player is dealt seven hole cards. The player then discards two of these cards, not to be used until the next hand. Then, with 5 hole cards left in his hand, each player "donates" one of his cards. All the players "donation" cards are kept face down, and the dealer "shuffles" these cards with a scramble. The dealer then adds cards from the stub until there are a total of 7 donation cards. The dealer then "shuffles" these seven cards with a scramble. 5 of these cards will then make up the three card flop, the one card turn, and the one card river. 2 of these cards will remain face down, and thus unused. All betting takes place as in Omaha, and the game is played high-low split with the 8-or-better qualifier. Each player plays the best five-card hand he can make from exactly two of his hole cards plus three of the five community cards. This game is best played with seven players. If it is played with less than seven players, extra cards must be pulled from the stub to be added to the community cards, so that there are always seven community cards. Note that there are no "burn cards" used in this game. Lame-brain Pete Three hole cards are dealt to each player, followed by a first betting round. Then a single community card is dealt, followed by a second betting round. Play continues with a single community card being added to the board followed by a betting round, until there are four community cards, for a total of five betting rounds. Upon showdown, the lowest-ranking card on the board, and all cards of that same rank either on the board or in players' hole cards, play as wild cards (thus, it is not possible to know exactly which cards will be wild until the end, unless a deuce appears on the board earlier than that). Each player makes his best five-card poker hand from his three hole cards plus the four community cards in any combination, with the low board card wild. Otis Elevator Named after the elevator manufacturing company. In this game, all players are dealt four hole cards, and then the community cards are dealt facedown in an "H" formation: two vertical lines of cards, and one card in the center between the two lines. There is a betting round; then, two of the corner cards (it doesn't matter which) are turned up and there is another betting round; then the other two corners, then betting; the two cards on the sides, then betting; and finally, the center card, and betting. The center card is the "elevator card", and can be positioned on any of the three "floors" created by the two vertical lines. Each player can take the elevator to the floor of their choice and use the three cards on that floor (including the elevator card) with their hole cards to make the best hand. Six-pack At showdown, each player will have two hole cards, and there will be six community cards on the board arranged in a circle (something like the even-hour marks on a clock). The rounds go like this: each player is dealt two hole cards, followed by the first betting round. Then two of the board cards at opposite sides of the circle (call them 12 o'clock and 6 o'clock) are dealt, followed by a second betting round. Two more opposite community cards are dealt (2 o'clock and 8 o'clock), followed by a third betting round. Finally, the 4 o'clock and 10 o'clock cards are dealt followed by a fourth and final betting round, and showdown. At showdown, each player makes a hand by combining his two cards with any three consecutive cards of the board. That is, he can use 12, 2, and 4; or 2, 4, and 6; or 6, 8, and 10; etc. So cards dealt to opposite sides of the circle will never appear in the same final hand. With exactly two hole cards, there are only six possible choices for which hand to play. The game can be modified a bit by dealing three hole cards, where each player is required to use exactly two of them plus three consecutive board cards. Spit in the ocean While cards are dealt as in stud poker, at any time during the deal one player can call "spit", whereupon the next card is turned face up as a community card. (This variant is mentioned in the Ray Stevens song Shriner's Convention.) London Bridge For this game, Aces, 2's, and 3's are wild. Each person is dealt 4 cards, can see the flop, and after the flop must get rid of one card. After the flop, they see the next 2 cards and make the best hand out of their 3 cards and the 5 on the field. Betting is similar to Texas Hold'em, and the best five card hand wins. References See also List of poker variants | Community_card_poker |@lemmatized texas:12 hold:33 em:30 deal:29 community:63 card:206 poker:11 refers:1 game:40 use:27 also:10 call:14 share:4 window:1 dealt:34 face:8 center:9 table:3 player:68 privately:1 incomplete:1 hand:49 hole:32 combine:5 make:26 complete:3 set:3 board:39 may:11 simple:3 line:6 arrange:3 special:2 pattern:3 rule:7 determine:2 private:8 popular:4 today:2 originate:1 sometime:1 home:5 typical:1 ante:1 casino:7 typically:1 blind:3 fix:1 limit:11 common:5 spread:1 pot:8 less:3 later:1 bet:21 round:55 often:7 high:20 early:1 begin:2 dealer:6 leave:3 first:13 big:1 generally:5 positional:1 play:39 well:5 lowball:1 value:2 though:4 low:29 split:11 especially:1 ace:6 five:29 possible:4 win:3 half:2 minimum:1 qualifying:1 speak:1 integral:1 several:2 subject:1 variant:16 specific:1 many:3 widow:1 latter:1 term:1 inconsistent:1 usually:3 elaborate:1 layout:2 combination:5 example:2 end:4 two:45 individual:1 everyone:1 best:15 omaha:15 restrict:2 exactly:18 three:38 four:15 tic:5 tac:5 toe:5 array:3 nine:2 must:7 row:5 column:2 diagonal:2 particular:1 order:3 form:2 flop:9 follow:23 second:12 betting:32 fourth:11 turn:6 third:9 fifth:5 river:3 final:9 showdown:13 among:1 key:1 difference:1 one:20 none:2 least:2 improve:1 royal:3 deviation:1 deck:5 contain:1 ten:2 jack:1 queen:1 king:1 strategy:1 varies:1 since:3 odds:1 certain:1 greatly:1 increase:1 double:3 separate:4 take:3 another:10 total:3 comprise:1 thus:3 scoop:1 entire:1 sometimes:3 bit:2 misnomer:1 instead:4 identical:1 plus:9 version:2 different:2 name:2 eight:2 good:2 hilo:1 qualify:2 able:1 qualifier:2 rare:1 count:2 unavailable:1 include:2 rank:5 pair:1 avoid:1 ambiguity:1 fixed:1 plo:1 get:2 apply:1 courcheval:1 europe:1 initial:1 single:7 proceeds:1 pineapple:8 crazy:3 tahoe:3 super:2 exist:2 halfway:1 initially:1 discard:5 proceed:1 keep:2 lazy:1 know:2 throughout:1 manila:6 australian:1 seven:6 place:2 stripped:2 remove:1 finally:4 unlike:1 like:5 flush:1 beat:1 full:1 house:1 straight:2 rarely:1 fact:1 strip:1 ever:1 variation:5 involve:2 either:4 point:1 else:1 maintain:1 requirement:1 restore:1 pinatubo:1 easily:1 modify:2 eliminate:1 way:1 although:1 notably:1 chowaha:4 formal:1 setting:1 suit:1 serious:1 stake:1 lend:1 ad:1 hoc:1 time:5 test:1 balanced:1 likely:1 much:1 bad:1 cincinnati:2 continue:2 iron:1 cross:8 permit:1 draw:1 last:1 left:3 right:3 top:3 bottom:3 vertical:3 arm:2 horizontal:1 wild:6 always:2 outer:1 flip:1 prior:1 still:2 matrix:1 reduce:1 diagram:3 valid:2 case:1 occasionally:1 conjunction:1 b:1 r:1 g:1 e:1 square:1 consecutive:5 horizontally:1 vertically:1 diagonally:1 number:1 base:1 reveal:1 simplest:1 probably:1 across:2 edge:1 middle:1 grid:2 beginner:1 announce:1 redealt:1 primarily:1 practice:1 recognize:1 evaluate:1 east:3 village:3 modification:1 next:3 donate:1 donation:2 kept:1 shuffle:2 scramble:2 add:3 stub:2 remain:1 unused:1 extra:1 pull:1 note:1 burn:1 lame:1 brain:1 pete:1 upon:1 unless:1 deuce:1 appear:2 earlier:1 otis:1 elevator:5 manufacturing:1 company:1 facedown:1 h:1 formation:1 corner:2 matter:1 side:3 position:1 floor:3 create:1 choice:2 six:3 pack:1 circle:3 something:1 even:1 hour:1 mark:1 clock:7 go:1 opposite:3 etc:1 cards:1 never:1 require:1 spit:2 ocean:1 stud:1 whereupon:1 mention:1 ray:1 stevens:1 song:1 shriner:1 convention:1 london:1 bridge:1 person:1 see:3 rid:1 field:1 similar:1 reference:1 list:1 |@bigram card_dealt:19 tic_tac:5 tac_toe:5 betting_round:29 round_showdown:5 em_omaha:1 ad_hoc:1 horizontally_vertically:1 stud_poker:1 |
4,421 | James_Hutton | James Hutton MD (Edinburgh, 3 June 1726 OS (14 June 1726 NS) 26 March 1797) was a Scottish geologist, physician, naturalist, chemist and experimental farmer. He is considered the father of modern geology. His theories of geology and geologic time, also called deep time, came to be included in theories which were called plutonism and uniformitarianism. Early life and career James Hutton was born in Edinburgh on 3 June 1726 as one of five children of a merchant who was Edinburgh City Treasurer, but died when James was still young. Hutton's mother had him educated at the High School of Edinburgh where he was particularly interested in mathematics and chemistry, then when he was 14 he attended the University of Edinburgh as a "student of humanity". He was apprenticed to a lawyer when he was 17, but took more interest in chemical experiments than legal work and at the age of 18 became a physician's assistant as well as attending lectures in medicine at the University of Edinburgh. After three years he studied the subject in Paris, then in 1749 took the degree of Doctor of Medicine at Leyden with a thesis on blood circulation. Around 1747 he had a son by a Miss Edington, and though he gave his child James Smeaton Hutton financial assistance, he had little to do with the boy who went on to become a post-office clerk in London. After his degree Hutton returned to London, then in mid-1750 went back to Edinburgh and resumed chemical experiments with close friend, James Davie. Their work on production of sal ammoniac from soot led to their partnership in a profitable chemical works, manufacturing the crystalline salt which was used for dyeing, metalworking and as smelling salts and previously was available only from natural sources and had to be imported from Egypt. Hutton owned and rented out properties in Edinburgh, employing a factor to manage this business. Farming and geology Hutton inherited from his father the Berwickshire farms of Slighhouses, a lowland farm which had been in the family since 1713, and the hill farm of Nether Monynut. In the early 1750s he moved to Slighhouses and set about making improvements, introducing farming practices from other parts of Britain and experimenting with plant and animal husbandry. He recorded his ideas and innovations in an unpublished treatise on The Elements of Agriculture. This developed his interest in meteorology and geology, and by 1753 he had "become very fond of studying the surface of the earth, and was looking with anxious curiosity into every pit or ditch or bed of a river that fell in his way”. Clearing and draining his farm provided ample opportunities, and Hutton noticed that “a vast proportion of the present rocks are composed of materials afforded by the destruction of bodies, animal, vegetable and mineral, of more ancient formation”. His theoretical ideas began to come together in 1760. While his farming activities continued, in 1764 he went on a geological tour of the north of Scotland with George Clerk Maxwell. Edinburgh and canal building In 1768 Hutton returned to Edinburgh, letting his farms to tenants but continuing to take an interest in farm improvements and research which included experiments carried out at Slighhouses. He developed a red dye made from the roots of the madder plant. He had a house built in 1770 at St John’s Hill, Edinburgh, overlooking Salisbury Crags. He was one of the most influential participants in the Scottish Enlightenment, and fell in with numerous first-class minds in the sciences including John Playfair, philosopher David Hume and economist Adam Smith. He was a particularly close friend of Joseph Black, and the two of them together with Adam Smith founded the Oyster Club for weekly meetings, with Hutton and Black finding a venue which turned out to have rather disreputable associations. Between 1767 and 1774 Hutton had considerable close involvement with the construction of the Forth and Clyde canal, making full use of his geological knowledge, both as a shareholder and as a member of the committee of management, and attended meetings including extended site inspections of all the works. In 1777 he published a pamphlet on Considerations on the Nature, Quality and Distinctions of Coal and Culm which successfully helped to obtain relief from excise duty on carrying small coal. Theory of rock formations Hutton hit on a variety of ideas to explain the rock formations he saw around him, but according to Playfair he "was in no haste to publish his theory; for he was one of those who are much more delighted with the contemplation of truth, than with the praise of having discovered it”. After some 25 years of work, his Theory of the Earth; or an Investigation of the Laws observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land upon the Globe was read to meetings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in two parts, the first by his friend Joseph Black on 7 March 1785, and the second by himself on 4 April 1785. Hutton subsequently read an abstract of his dissertation Concerning the System of the Earth, its Duration and Stability to Society meeting on 4 July 1785, which he had printed and circulated privately. In it, he outlined his theory as follows; Search for evidence At Glen Tilt in the Cairngorm mountains in the Scottish Highlands, Hutton found granite penetrating metamorphic schists, in a way which indicated that the granite had been molten at the time. This showed to him that granite formed from cooling of molten rock, not precipitation out of water as others at the time believed, and that the granite must be younger than the schists. Scottish Geology - Glen Tilt He went on to find a similar penetration of volcanic rock through sedimentary rock near the centre of Edinburgh, at Salisbury Crags, adjoining Arthur's Seat: this is now known as Hutton's Section. Scottish Geology - Hutton's Section Hutton's Section at Hoyrood Park He found other examples in Galloway in 1786, and on the Isle of Arran in 1787. Hutton Unconformity at Jedburgh. Photograph (2003) below Clerk of Eldin illustration (1787). The existence of angular unconformities had been noted by Nicolas Steno and by French geologists including Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, who interpreted them in terms of Neptunism as "primary formations". Hutton wanted to examine such formations himself to see “particular marks” of the relationship between the rock layers. On the 1787 trip to Arran he found his first example of Hutton's Unconformity to the north of Newton Point near Lochranza, but the limited view meant that the condition of the underlying strata was not clear enough for him, and he incorrectly thought that the strata were conformable at a depth below the exposed outcrop. Later in 1787 Hutton noted what is now known as the Hutton Unconformity at Inchbonny, Jedburgh, in layers of sedimentary rock. As shown in the illustrations to the right, layers of greywacke in the lower layers of the cliff face are tilted almost vertically, and above an intervening layer of conglomerate lie horizontal layers of Old Red Sandstone. He later wrote of how he "rejoiced at my good fortune in stumbling upon an object so interesting in the natural history of the earth, and which I had been long looking for in vain." That year, he found the same sequence in Teviotdale. An eroded outcrop at Siccar Point showing sloping red sandstone above vertical greywacke was sketched by Sir James Hall in 1788. In the Spring of 1788 he set off with John Playfair to the Berwickshire coast and found more examples of this sequence in the valleys of the Tour and Pease Burns near Cockburnspath. They then took a boat trip from Dunglass Burn east along the coast with the geologist Sir James Hall of Dunglass. They found the sequence in the cliff below St. Helens, then just to the east at Siccar Point found what Hutton called "a beautiful picture of this junction washed bare by the sea". Hutton’s Journeys to Prove his Theory Hutton's Unconformity Playfair later commented about the experience, "the mind seemed to grow giddy by looking so far into the abyss of time". Continuing along the coast, they made more discoveries including sections of the vertical beds showing strong ripple marks which gave Hutton "great satisfaction" as a confirmation of his supposition that these beds had been laid horizontally in water. He also found conglomerate at altitudes that demonstrated the extent of erosion of the strata, and said of this that "we never should have dreamed of meeting with what we now perceived”. Hutton reasoned that there must have been several cycles, each involving deposition on the seabed, uplift with tilting and erosion then undersea again for further layers to be deposited, and there could have been many cycles before over an extremely long history. In a 1788 paper he presented at the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Hutton remarked, "we find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end." (This memorable line was quoted in the 1989 song “No Control” by songwriter and professor Greg Graffin. ) Publication Though Hutton circulated privately a printed version of the abstract of his Theory (Concerning the System of the Earth, its Duration, and Stability) which he read at a meeting of the Royal Society of Edinburgh on 4 July 1785; Concerning the System of the Earth abstract the theory as read at the 7 March 1785 and 4 April 1785 meetings did not appear in print until 1788. It was titled Theory of the Earth; or an Investigation of the Laws observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land upon the Globe and appeared in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. I, Part II, pp.209-304, plates I and II, published 1788. Theory of the Earth full text (1788 version) Following criticism, especially Richard Kirwan's, who thought him atheist and not logical, among other things, Hutton published a two volume version of his theory in 1795, consisting of the 1788 version of his theory (with slight additions) along with a lot of material drawn from shorter papers Hutton already had to hand on various subjects such as the origin of granite. It included a review of alternative theories, such as those of Thomas Burnet and Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon. The whole was entitled An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge and of the Progress of Reason, from Sense to Science and Philosophy when the third volume was completed in 1794. Its 2,138 pages prompted Playfair to remark that “The great size of the book, and the obscurity which may justly be objected to many parts of it, have probably prevented it from being received as it deserves.” Opposing theories His new theories placed him into opposition with the then-popular Neptunist theories of Abraham Gottlob Werner, that all rocks had precipitated out of a single enormous flood. Hutton proposed that the interior of the Earth was hot, and that this heat was the engine which drove the creation of new rock: land was eroded by air and water and deposited as layers in the sea; heat then consolidated the sediment into stone, and uplifted it into new lands. This theory was dubbed "Plutonist" in contrast to the flood-oriented theory. As well as combating the Neptunists, he also opened up the concept of deep time for scientific purposes, in opposition to Catastrophism. Rather than accepting that the earth was no more than a few thousand years old, he maintained that the Earth must be much older, with a history extending indefinitely into the distant past. His main line of argument was that the tremendous displacements and changes he was seeing did not happen in a short period of time by means of catastrophe, but that processes still happening on the Earth in the present day had caused them. As these processes were very gradual, the Earth needed to be ancient, in order to allow time for the changes. Before long, scientific inquiries provoked by his claims had pushed back the age of the earth into the millions of years still too short when compared with what is known in the 21st century, but a distinct improvement. Acceptance of geological theories The prose of Principles of Knowledge was so obscure, in fact, that it also impeded the acceptance of Hutton's geological theories. Restatements of his geological ideas (though not his thoughts on evolution) by John Playfair in 1802 and then Charles Lyell in the 1830s removed this hindrance. If anything, Hutton's ideas were eventually accepted too well. At least some of the initial resistance to modern scientific ideas like plate tectonics and asteroid strikes causing mass extinctions can be attributed to too-strict adherence to uniformitarianism. Other contributions Meteorology It was not merely the earth to which Hutton directed his attention. He had long studied the changes of the atmosphere. The same volume in which his Theory of the Earth appeared contained also a Theory of Rain. He contended that the amount of moisture which the air can retain in solution increases with temperature, and, therefore, that on the mixture of two masses of air of different temperatures a portion of the moisture must be condensed and appear in visible form. He investigated the available data regarding rainfall and climate in different regions of the globe, and came to the conclusion that the rainfall is regulated by the humidity of the air on the one hand, and mixing of different air currents in the higher atmosphere on the other. Evolution Hutton also advocated uniformitarianism for living creatures too evolution, in a sense and even suggested natural selection as a possible mechanism affecting them: "...if an organised body is not in the situation and circumstances best adapted to its sustenance and propagation, then, in conceiving an indefinite variety among the individuals of that species, we must be assured, that, on the one hand, those which depart most from the best adapted constitution, will be the most liable to perish, while, on the other hand, those organised bodies, which most approach to the best constitution for the present circumstances, will be best adapted to continue, in preserving themselves and multiplying the individuals of their race." Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge, volume 2. Hutton gave the example that where dogs survived through "swiftness of foot and quickness of sight... the most defective in respect of those necessary qualities, would be the most subject to perish, and that those who employed them in greatest perfection... would be those who would remain, to preserve themselves, and to continue the race". Equally, if an acute sense of smell were "more necessary to the sustenance of the animal... the same principle [would] change the qualities of the animal, and.. produce a race of well scented hounds, instead of those who catch their prey by swiftness". The same "principle of variation" would influence "every species of plant, whether growing in a forest or a meadow". He came to his ideas as the result of experiments in plant and animal breeding, some of which he outlined in an unpublished manuscript, the Elements of Agriculture. He distinguished between heritable variation as the result of breeding, and non-heritable variations caused by environmental differences such as soil and climate. Hutton saw his "principle of variation" as explaining the development of varieties, but rejected the idea of evolution originating species as a "romantic fantasy". As a deist, to him this mechanism allowed species to form varieties better adapted to particular conditions and was evidence of benevolent design in nature. Hutton's ideas on geology were clarified in Charles Lyell's books, which Charles Darwin read with enthusiasm during his voyage on the Beagle, and it remained to Darwin independently to develop the idea of natural selection to explain The Origin of Species and bring it to the forefront of public consciousness at the same time as providing the voluminous evidence necessary to win over the scientific community to the theory. Works 1785. Abstract of a dissertation read in the Royal Society of Edinburgh, upon the seventh of March, and fourth of April, MDCCLXXXV, Concerning the System of the Earth, Its Duration, and Stability. Edinburgh. 30pp. 1788. The theory of rain. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 1, Part 2, pp. 41-86. 1788. Theory of the Earth; or an investigation of the laws observable in the composition, dissolution, and restoration of land upon the Globe. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 1, Part 2, pp. 209-304. 1792. Dissertations on different subjects in natural philosophy. Edinburgh & London: Strahan & Cadell. 1794. Observations on granite. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 3, pp. 77-81. 1794. A dissertation upon the philosophy of light, heat, and fire. Edinburgh: Cadell, Junior, Davies. 1794. An investigation of the principles of knowledge and of the progress of reason, from sense to science and philosophy. Edinburgh: Strahan & Cadell. 1795. Theory of the Earth; with proofs and illustrations. Edinburgh: Creech. 2 vols. 1797. Elements of Agriculture. Unpublished manuscript. 1899. Theory of the Earth; with proofs and illustrations, vol III, Edited by Sir Archibald Geikie. Geological Society, Burlington House, London. See also Geology of Scotland Climate of Scotland Nicholas Steno Shen Kuo References Further reading Jack Repcheck: The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity. London and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Simon & Schuster (2003). ISBN 0743231899 (UK), ISBN 073820692X (US). Stephen Baxter: Ages in Chaos: James Hutton and the Discovery of Deep Time. New York: Tor Books (Forge imprint), 2004. ISBN 0-76531-238-7. Published in the UK as Revolutions in the Earth: James Hutton and the True Age of the World. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003. ISBN 0-29782-975-0. External links James Hutton.org.uk, links to James Hutton The Man and The James Hutton Trail. Biography of James Hutton (From: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Ed., 1910-1911) James Hutton and Uniformitarianism (scroll down) James Hutton's memorial in Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh First Publication of Theory of the Earth Glossary Definition and examples of unconformity Accessible Historical Perspective on James Hutton | James_Hutton |@lemmatized james:14 hutton:49 md:1 edinburgh:26 june:3 n:1 march:4 scottish:5 geologist:3 physician:2 naturalist:1 chemist:1 experimental:1 farmer:1 consider:1 father:2 modern:2 geology:8 theory:29 geologic:1 time:11 also:7 call:3 deep:3 come:4 include:7 plutonism:1 uniformitarianism:4 early:2 life:1 career:1 bear:1 one:5 five:1 child:2 merchant:1 city:1 treasurer:1 die:1 still:3 young:2 mother:1 educate:1 high:2 school:1 particularly:2 interested:1 mathematics:1 chemistry:1 attend:3 university:2 student:1 humanity:1 apprentice:1 lawyer:1 take:4 interest:3 chemical:3 experiment:5 legal:1 work:6 age:4 become:3 assistant:1 well:5 lecture:1 medicine:2 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4,422 | George_Bernard_Shaw | George Bernard Shaw (26 July 1856 – 2 November 1950) was an Irish playwright. Although his first profitable writing was music and literary criticism, his talent was for drama, and he wrote more than 60 plays. Nearly all his writings deal sternly with prevailing social problems, but have a vein of comedy to make their stark themes more palatable. Shaw examined education, marriage, religion, government, health care and class privilege, and found them all defective. He was most angered by the exploitation of the working class, and most of his writings censure that abuse. An ardent socialist, Shaw wrote many brochures and speeches for the Fabian Society. He became an accomplished orator in the furtherance of its causes, which included gaining equal political rights for men and women, alleviating abuses of the working class, rescinding private ownership of productive land, and promoting healthy lifestyles. Shaw married Charlotte Payne-Townshend, a fellow Fabian, whom he survived. They settled in Ayot St. Lawrence in a house now called Shaw's Corner. Shaw died there, aged 94, from chronic problems exacerbated by injuries he incurred by falling. He is the only person to have been awarded both the Nobel Prize for Literature (1925) and an Oscar (1938). These were for his contributions to literature and for his work on the film Pygmalion, respectively. Shaw wanted to refuse his Nobel Prize outright because he had no desire for public honors, but accepted it at his wife's behest: she considered it a tribute to Ireland. He did reject the monetary award, requesting it be used to finance translation of Swedish books to English. Biography George Bernard Shaw's Birthplace, Dublin. George Bernard Shaw was born in Synge Street, Dublin in 1856 to George Carr Shaw (1814–1885), whose father was Bernard Shaw, an unsuccessful grain merchant and sometime civil servant, and Lucinda Elizabeth Shaw, born Gurly (1830–1913), a professional singer. He had two sisters, Lucinda Frances (1853–1920), a singer of musical comedy and light opera, and Elinor Agnes (1854–1876). George briefly attended the Wesleyan Connexional School, a grammar school operated by the Methodist New Connexion, before moving to a private school near Dalkey and then transferring to Dublin's Central Model School. He ended his formal education at the Dublin English Scientific and Commercial Day School. He harbored a lifelong animosity toward schools and teachers, saying: "Schools and schoolmasters, as we have them today, are not popular as places of education and teachers, but rather prisons and turnkeys in which children are kept to prevent them disturbing and chaperoning their parents". George Bernard Shaw (1856–1950), Anglo-Irish playwright, critic. Letter, August 7, 1919, to Thomas Demetrius O'Bolger. Sixteen Self Sketches: Biographers' Blunders Corrected, pp. 89–90. Constable and Co., London (1949) Shaw expressed this attitude in the astringent prologue to Cashel Byron's Profession where young Byron's educational experience is a fictionalized description of Shaw's own schooldays. Later, he painstakingly detailed the reasons for his aversion to formal education in his Treatise on Parents and Children. In brief, he considered the standardized curricula useless, deadening to the spirit and stifling to the intellect. He particularly deplored the use of corporal punishment, which was prevalent in his time. When his mother left home and followed her voice teacher, George Vandeleur Lee, to London, Shaw was almost sixteen years old. His sisters accompanied their mother but Shaw remained in Dublin with his father, first as a reluctant pupil, then as a clerk in an estate office. He worked efficiently, albeit discontentedly, for several years. In 1876, Shaw joined his mother's London household. She, Vandeleur Lee, and his sister Lucy, provided him with a pound a week while he frequented public libraries and the British Museum reading room where he studied earnestly and began writing novels. He earned his allowance by ghostwriting Vandeleur Lee's music column, which appeared in the London Hornet. His novels were rejected, however, so his literary earnings remained negligible until 1885, when he became self-supporting as a critic of the arts. The front of Shaw's Corner as it stands today Influenced by his reading, he became a dedicated Socialist and a charter member of the Fabian Society, a middle class organization established in 1884 to promote the gradual spread of socialism by peaceful means. In the course of his political activities he met Charlotte Payne-Townshend, an Irish heiress and fellow Fabian; they married in 1898. In 1906 the Shaws moved into a house, now called Shaw's Corner, in Ayot St. Lawrence, a small village in Hertfordshire; it was to be their home for the remainder of their lives, although they also maintained a residence at 29 Fitzroy Square in London. Shaw's plays were first performed in the 1890s. By the end of the decade he was an established playwright. He wrote sixty-three plays and his output as novelist, critic, pamphleteer, essayist and private correspondent was prodigious. He is known to have written more than 250,000 letters. Along with Fabian Society members Sidney Webb and Beatrice Webb and Graham Wallas, Shaw founded the London School of Economics and Political Science in 1895 with funding provided by private philanthropy, including a bequest of £20,000 from Henry Hunt Hutchinson to the Fabian Society. One of the libraries at the LSE is named in Shaw's honor; it contains collections of his papers and photographs. During his final years, Shaw enjoyed attending to the grounds at Shaw's Corner. His death, at 94, from renal failure, was precipitated by injuries incurred by falling while pruning a tree. His ashes, mixed with those of his wife, were scattered along footpaths and around the statue of Saint Joan in their garden. Holyroyd, p. 515. Literary works The International Shaw Society provides a detailed chronological listing of Shaw's writings. See also George Bernard Shaw, Unity Theatre. View Shaw's Works for listings of his novels and plays, with links to their electronic texts, if those exist. Work as a critic Shaw became a critic of the arts when, sponsored by William Archer, he joined the reviewing staff of the Pall Mall Gazette in 1885. There he wrote under the pseudonym "Corno di Bassetto" ("basset horn")—chosen because it sounded European and nobody knew what a corno di basseto was. In a miscellany of other periodicals, including Dramatic Review (1885–86), Our Corner (1885–86), and the Pall Mall Gazette (1885–88) his byline was "GBS". From 1895 to 1898, Shaw was the drama critic for Frank Harris' Saturday Review, in which position he campaigned brilliantly to displace the artificialities and hypocrisies of the Victorian stage with a theater of actuality and thought. His earnings as a critic made him self-supporting as an author and his articles for the Saturday Review made his name well-known. Much of Shaw's music criticism, ranging from short comments to the book-length essay The Perfect Wagnerite, extols the work of the German composer Richard Wagner. Wagner worked 25 years composing Der Ring des Nibelungen, a massive four-part musical dramatization drawn from the Teutonic mythology of gods, giants, dwarves and Rhine maidens; Shaw considered it a work of genius and reviewed it in detail. Beyond the music, he saw it as an allegory of social evolution where workers, driven by "the invisible whip of hunger", seek freedom from their wealthy masters. Wagner did have socialistic sympathies, as Shaw carefully points out, but made no such claim about his opus. Conversely, Shaw disparaged Brahms, deriding A German Requiem by saying "it could only have come from the establishment of a first-class undertaker". Although he found Brahms lacking in intellect, he praised his musicality, saying "...nobody can listen to Brahms' natural utterance of the richest absolute music, especially in his chamber compositions, without rejoicing in his natural gift". Shaw's writings about music gained great popularity because they were understandable and fair, as well as pleasantly light-hearted and free of affectation, thus contrasting starkly with the dourly pretentious pedantry of most critiques in that era. All of his music critiques have been collected in Shaw's Music. As the drama critic for the Saturday Review, a post he held from 1895 to 1898, Shaw championed Henrik Ibsen whose realistic plays scandalized the Victorian public. His influential Quintessence of Ibsenism was written in 1891. Novels Shaw wrote five unsuccessful novels at the start of his career between 1879 and 1883. Eventually all were published. Shaw in 1925, when he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature The first to be printed was Cashel Byron's Profession (1886), which was written in 1882. Its eponymous character, Cashel, a rebellious schoolboy with an unsympathetic mother, runs away to Australia where he becomes a famed prizefighter. He returns to England for a boxing match, and falls in love with erudite and wealthy Lydia Carew. Lydia, drawn by sheer animal magnetism, eventually consents to marry despite the disparity of their social positions. This breach of propriety is nullified by the unpresaged discovery that Cashel is of noble lineage and heir to a fortune comparable to Lydia's. With those barriers to happiness removed, the couple settles down to prosaic family life with Lydia dominant; Cashel attains a seat in Parliament. In this novel Shaw first expresses his conviction that productive land and all other natural resources should belong to everyone in common, rather than being owned and exploited privately. The book was written in the year when Shaw first heard the lectures of Henry George who advocated such reforms. Written in 1883, An Unsocial Socialist was published in 1887. The tale begins with a hilarious description of student antics at a girl's school then changes focus to a seemingly uncouth laborer who, it soon develops, is really a wealthy gentleman in hiding from his overly affectionate wife. He needs the freedom gained by matrimonial truancy to promote the socialistic cause, to which he is an active convert. Once the subject of socialism emerges, it dominates the story, allowing only space enough in the final chapters to excoriate the idle upper class and allow the erstwhile schoolgirls, in their earliest maturity, to marry suitably. Love Among the Artists was published in the United States in 1900 and in England in 1914, but it was written in 1881. In the ambiance of chit-chat and frivolity among members of Victorian polite society a youthful Shaw describes his views on the arts, romantic love and the practicalities of matrimony. Dilettantes, he thinks, can love and settle down to marriage, but artists with real genius are too consumed by their work to fit that pattern. The dominant figure in the novel is Owen Jack, a musical genius, somewhat mad and quite bereft of social graces. From an abysmal beginning he rises to great fame and is lionized by socialites despite his unremitting crudity. The Irrational Knot was written in 1880 and published in 1905. Within a framework of leisure class preoccupations and frivolities Shaw disdains hereditary status and proclaims the nobility of workers. Marriage, as the knot in question, is exemplified by the union of Marian Lind, a lady of the upper class, to Edward Conolly, always a workman but now a magnate, thanks to his invention of an electric motor that makes steam engines obsolete. The marriage soon deteriorates, primarily because Marian fails to rise above the preconceptions and limitations of her social class and is, therefore, unable to share her husband's interests. Eventually she runs away with a man who is her social peer, but he proves himself a scoundrel and abandons her in desperate circumstances. Her husband rescues her and offers to take her back, but she pridefully refuses, convinced she is unworthy and certain that she faces life as a pariah to her family and friends. The preface, written when Shaw was 49, expresses gratitude to his parents for their support during the lean years while he learned to write and includes details of his early life in London. Shaw's first novel, Immaturity, was written in 1879 but was the last one to be printed in 1931. It relates tepid romances, minor misfortunes and subdued successes in the developing career of Robert Smith, an energetic young Londoner and outspoken agnostic. Condemnation of alcoholic behavior is the prime message in the book, and derives from Shaw's familial memories. This is made clear in the books's preface, which was written by the mature Shaw at the time of its belated publication. The preface is a valuable resource because it provides autobiographical details not otherwise available. Short stories Shaw writing in a notebook at the time of first production of his play Pygmalion. A collection of Shaw's short stories, The Black Girl in Search of God and Some Lesser Tales, was published in 1934. The Black Girl, an enthusiastic but misguided convert to Christianity, goes searching for God, whom she believes to be an actual person. Written as an allegory, somewhat reminiscent of Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress, Shaw uses her adventures to expose flaws and fallacies in the religions of the world. At the story's happy ending, the Black Girl quits her searchings in favor of rearing a family with the aid of a red-haired Irishman who has no metaphysical inclination. One of the Lesser Tales is The Miraculous Revenge (1885), which relates the misadventures of an alcoholic investigator while he probes the mystery of a graveyard—full of saintly corpses—that migrates across a stream to escape association with the body of a newly buried sinner. The story is so different from Shaw's ordinary style that it is hard to believe he wrote it. Plays The texts of plays by Shaw mentioned in this section, with the dates when they were written and first performed can be found in Complete Plays and Prefaces. Shaw began working on his first play destined for production, Widowers' Houses, in 1885 in collaboration with critic William Archer, who supplied the structure. Archer decided that Shaw could not write a play, so the project was abandoned. Years later, Shaw tried again and, in 1892, completed the play without collaboration. Widowers' Houses, a scathing attack on slumlords, was first performed at London's Royalty Theatre on 9 December 1892. Shaw would later call it one of his worst works, but he had found his medium. His first significant financial success as a playwright came from Richard Mansfield's American production of The Devil's Disciple (1897). He went on to write 63 plays, most of them full-length. Often his plays succeeded in the United States and Germany before they did in London. Although major London productions of many of his earlier pieces were delayed for years, they are still being performed there. Examples include Mrs. Warren's Profession (1893), Arms and the Man (1894), Candida (1894) and You Never Can Tell (1897). Shaw's plays, like those of Oscar Wilde, were fraught with incisive humor, which was exceptional among playwrights of the Victorian era; both authors are remembered for their comedy. However, Shaw's wittiness should not obscure his important role in revolutionizing British drama. In the Victorian Era, the London stage had been regarded as a place for frothy, sentimental entertainment. Shaw made it a forum for considering moral, political and economic issues, possibly his most lasting and important contribution to dramatic art. In this, he considered himself indebted to Henrik Ibsen, who pioneered modern realistic drama, meaning drama designed to heighten awareness of some important social issue. Significantly, Widowers' Houses — an example of the realistic genre — was completed after William Archer, Shaw's friend, had translated some of Ibsen's plays to English and Shaw had written The Quintessence of Ibsensism. As Shaw's experience and popularity increased, his plays and prefaces became more voluble about reforms he advocated, without diminishing their success as entertainments. Such works, including Caesar and Cleopatra (1898), Man and Superman (1903), Major Barbara (1905) and The Doctor's Dilemma (1906), display Shaw's matured views, for he was approaching 50 when he wrote them. From 1904 to 1907, several of his plays had their London premieres in notable productions at the Court Theatre, managed by Harley Granville-Barker and J. E. Vedrenne. The first of his new plays to be performed at the Court Theatre, John Bull's Other Island (1904), while not especially popular today, made his reputation in London when King Edward VII laughed so hard during a command performance that he broke his chair. By the 1910s, Shaw was a well-established playwright. New works such as Fanny's First Play (1911) and Pygmalion (1912)—on which the award-winning My Fair Lady (1956) is based—had long runs in front of large London audiences. A musical adaptation of Arms and the Man (1894)—The Chocolate Soldier by Oscar Straus (1908)—was also very popular, but Shaw detested it and, for the rest of his life, forbade musicalization of his work, including a proposed Franz Lehár operetta based on Pygmalion; the Broadway musical My Fair Lady could be produced only after Shaw's death. Shaw's outlook was changed by World War I, which he uncompromisingly opposed despite incurring outrage from the public as well as from many friends. His first full-length piece, presented after the War, written mostly during it, was Heartbreak House (1919). A new Shaw had emerged—the wit remained, but his faith in humanity had dwindled. In the preface to Heartbreak House he said: "It is said that every people has the Government it deserves. It is more to the point that every Government has the electorate it deserves; for the orators of the front bench can edify or debauch an ignorant electorate at will. Thus our democracy moves in a vicious circle of reciprocal worthiness and unworthiness." The movable hut in the garden of Shaw's Corner, where Shaw wrote most of his works after 1906, including Pygmalion. Shaw had previously supported gradual democratic change toward socialism, but now he saw more hope in government by benign strong men. This sometimes made him oblivious to the dangers of dictatorships. Near his life's end that hope failed him too. In the first act of Buoyant Billions (1946–48), his last full-length play, his protagonist asks: "Why appeal to the mob when ninetyfive per cent of them do not understand politics, and can do nothing but mischief without leaders? And what sort of leaders do they vote for? For Titus Oates and Lord George Gordon with their Popish plots, for Hitlers who call on them to exterminate Jews, for Mussolinis who rally them to nationalist dreams of glory and empire in which all foreigners are enemies to be subjugated." In 1921, Shaw completed Back to Methuselah, his "Metabiological Pentateuch". The massive, five-play work starts in the Garden of Eden and ends thousands of years in the future; it showcases Shaw's postulate that a "Life Force" directs evolution toward ultimate perfection by trial and error. Shaw proclaimed the play a masterpiece, but many critics disagreed. The theme of a benign force directing evolution reappears in Geneva (1938), wherein Shaw maintains humans must develop longer lifespans in order to acquire the wisdom needed for self-government. Methuselah was followed by Saint Joan (1923), which is generally considered to be one of his better works. Shaw had long considered writing about Joan of Arc, and her canonization supplied a strong incentive. The play was an international success, and is believed to have led to his Nobel Prize in Literature. He wrote plays for the rest of his life, but very few of them are as notable—or as often revived—as his earlier work. The Apple Cart (1929) was probably his most popular work of this era. Later full-length plays like Too True to Be Good (1931), On the Rocks (1933), The Millionairess (1935), and Geneva (1938) have been seen as marking a decline. His last significant play, In Good King Charles Golden Days has, according to St. John Ervine, passages that are equal to Shaw's major works. Shaw's published plays come with lengthy prefaces. These tend to be more about Shaw's opinions on the issues addressed by the plays than about the plays themselves. Often his prefaces are longer than the plays they introduce. For example, the Penguin Books edition of his one-act The Shewing-up Of Blanco Posnet (1909) has a 67-page preface for the 29-page playscript. Polemical writing In a letter to Henry James dated 17 January 1909, Shaw said: "I, as a Socialist, have had to preach, as much as anyone, the enormous power of the environment. We can change it; we must change it; there is absolutely no other sense in life than the task of changing it. What is the use of writing plays, what is the use of writing anything, if there is not a will which finally moulds chaos itself into a race of gods." Thus he viewed writing as a way to further his humanitarian and political agendas. His works were very popular because of their comedic content, but the public tended to disregard his messages and enjoy his work as pure entertainment. He was acutely aware of that. His preface to Heartbreak House (1919) attributes the rejection to the need of post-World War I audiences for frivolities, after four long years of grim privation, more than to their inborn distaste of instruction. His crusading nature led him to adopt and tenaciously hold a variety of causes, which he furthered with fierce intensity, heedless of opposition and ridicule. For example, Common Sense about the War (1914) lays out Shaw's strong objections at the onset of World War I. His stance ran counter to public sentiment and cost him dearly at the box-office, but he never compromised. Shaw joined in the public opposition to vaccination against smallpox, calling it "a particularly filthy piece of witchcraft", despite having nearly died from the disease when he contracted it in 1881. In the preface to Doctor’s Dilemma he made it plain he regarded traditional medical treatment as dangerous quackery that should be replaced with sound public sanitation, good personal hygiene and diets devoid of meat. Shaw became a vegetarian while he was twenty-five, after hearing a lecture by H. F. Lester. In 1901, remembering the experience, he said "I was a cannibal for twenty-five years. For the rest I have been a vegetarian." As a staunch vegetarian, he was a firm anti-vivisectionist and antagonistic to cruel sports for the remainder of his life. The belief in the immorality of eating animals was one of the Fabian causes near his heart and is frequently a topic in his plays and prefaces. His position, succinctly stated, was "A man of my spiritual intensity does not eat corpses." As well as plays and prefaces, Shaw wrote long political treatises, such as Fabian Essays in Socialism (1889), and The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Socialism and Capitalism (1912), a 495-page book detailing all aspects of socialistic theory as Shaw interpreted it. Excerpts of the latter were republished in 1928 as Socialism and Liberty, Late in his life he wrote another guide to political issues, Everybody's Political What's What (1944). Friends and correspondents Shaw corresponded with an array of people, many of them well-known. His letters to and from Mrs. Patrick Campbell were adapted for the stage by Jerome Kilty as Dear Liar: A Comedy of Letters, as was his correspondence with the poet Lord Alfred 'Bosie' Douglas (the intimate friend of Oscar Wilde), into the drama Bernard and Bosie: A Most Unlikely Friendship by Anthony Wynn. His letters to the prominent actress, Ellen Terry, to the boxer Gene Tunney, and to H.G. Wells, have also been published. Eventually the volume of his correspondence became insupportable, as can be inferred from apologetic letters written by assistants. Shaw campaigned against the executions of the rebel leaders of the Easter Rising, and he became a personal friend of the Cork-born IRA leader Michael Collins, whom he invited to his home for dinner while Collins was negotiating the Anglo-Irish Treaty with Lloyd George in London. After Collins's assassination in 1922, Shaw sent a personal message of condolence to one of Collins's sisters. He had an enduring friendship with G. K. Chesterton, the Roman Catholic-convert British writer. The e-text of their famed debate, Shaw V. Chesterton is available, as is a book, Shaw V. Chesterton, a debate between George Bernard Shaw and G. K. Chesterton. Another friend was the composer Edward Elgar. The latter dedicated one of his late works, Severn Suite, to Shaw; and Shaw exerted himself (eventually with success) to persuade the BBC to commission from Elgar a third symphony, though this piece remained incomplete at Elgar's death. Shaw's correspondence with the motion picture producer Gabriel Pascal, who was the first to successfully bring Shaw's plays to the screen and who later tried to put into motion a musical adaptation of Pygmalion, but died before he could realize it, is published in a book titled Bernard Shaw and Gabriel Pascal. A stage play based on a book by Hugh Whitmore, The Best of Friends, provides a window on the friendships of Dame Laurentia McLachlan, OSB (late Abbess of Stanbrook) with Sir Sydney Cockerell and Shaw through adaptations from their letters and writings. Socialism and political beliefs Shaw asserted that each social class strove to serve its own ends, and that the upper and middle classes won in the struggle while the working class lost. He condemned the democratic system of his time, saying that workers, ruthlessly exploited by greedy employers, lived in abject poverty and were too ignorant and apathetic to vote intelligently. He believed this deficiency would ultimately be corrected by the emergence of long-lived supermen with experience and intelligence enough to govern properly. He called the developmental process elective breeding but it is sometimes referred to as shavian eugenics, largely because he thought it was driven by a "Life Force" that led women—subconsciously—to select the mates most likely to give them superior children. The outcome Shaw envisioned is dramatised in Back to Methuselah, a monumental play depicting human development from its beginning in the Garden of Eden until the distant future. In 1882, influenced by Henry George's views on land nationalization, Shaw concluded that private ownership of land and its exploitation for personal profit was a form of theft, and advocated equitable distribution of land and natural resources and their control by governments intent on promoting the commonwealth. Shaw believed that income for individuals should come solely from the sale of their own labour and that poverty could be eliminated by giving equal pay to everyone. These concepts led Shaw to apply for membership of the Social Democratic Federation (SDF), led by H. M. Hyndman who introduced him to the works of Karl Marx. Shaw never joined the SDF, which favoured forcible reforms. Instead, in 1884, he joined the newly formed Fabian Society, which accorded with his belief that reform should be gradual and induced by peaceful means rather than by outright revolution. Shaw was an active Fabian. He wrote many of their pamphlets, lectured tirelessly on behalf of their causes and provided money to set up the The New Age, an independent socialist journal. As a Fabian, he participated in the formation of the Labour Party. The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Socialism and Capitalism provides a clear statement of his socialistic views. As evinced in plays like Major Barbara and Pygmalion, class struggle is a motif in much of Shaw's writing. Shaw opposed the execution of Sir Roger Casement in 1916. He wrote a letter "as an Irishman" to The Times, which they rejected, but it was subsequently printed by both the Manchester Guardian on 22 July 1916, and by the New York American on 13 August 1916. After visiting the USSR in the 1930s where he met Stalin, Shaw became an ardent supporter of the Stalinist USSR. The preface to his play On the Rocks (1933) is primarily an effort to justify the pogroms conducted by the State Political Directorate (OGPU). In an open letter to the Manchester Guardian, he dismisses stories of a Soviet famine as slanderous and calls reports of its exploited workers falsehoods. He wrote a defense of Stalin's espousal of Lysenkoism in a letter to Labour Monthly. Legacy A statue of Shaw in Niagara-on-the-Lake In his old age, Shaw was a household name both in Britain and Ireland, and was famed throughout the world. His ironic wit endowed English with the adjective "Shavian", used to characterize observations such as: "My way of joking is to tell the truth. It's the funniest joke in the world." Concerned about the vagaries of English spelling, Shaw willed a portion of his wealth (probated at £367,233 13s) to fund the creation of a new phonemic alphabet for the English language. However, the money available was insufficient to support the project, so it was neglected for a time. This changed when his estate began earning significant royalties from the rights to Pygmalion, once My Fair Lady—a musical adapted from the play by Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe—became a hit. However, the Public Trustee found the intended trust to be invalid because its intent was to serve a private interest instead of a charitable purpose, and as a non-charitable purpose trust, it could not be enforced because it failed to satisfy the beneficiary principle. In the end an out-of-court settlement granted only £8600 for promoting the new alphabet, which is now called the Shavian alphabet. The National Gallery of Ireland, RADA and the British Museum all received substantial bequests. Shaw's home, now called Shaw's Corner, in the small village of Ayot St Lawrence, Hertfordshire is a National Trust property, open to the public. . The Shaw Theatre, Euston Road, London, opened in 1971, was named in his honour. . Near its entrance, opposite the new British Library, a contemporary statue of Saint Joan commemorates Shaw as author of that play. The Shaw Festival, an annual theater festival in Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, began as an eight week run of Don Juan in Hell (as the long third act dream sequence of Man And Superman is called when staged alone) and Candida in 1962, and has grown into an annual festival with over 800 performances a year, dedicated to producing the works of Shaw and his contemporaries. He is also remembered as one of the pivotal founders of the London School of Economics, whose library is now called the British Library of Political and Economic Science and could be considered as one of William Shakespeare's rivals. The Fabian Window designed by Shaw, hangs in the Shaw Library in the main building of the LSE. Works Novels Immaturity Cashel Byron's Profession An Unsocial Socialist The Irrational Knot Love Among the Artists Short stories The Black Girl in Search of God (1932) The Miraculous Revenge Drama Plays Unpleasant (published 1898) Widowers' Houses (1892) The Philanderer (1898) Mrs Warren's Profession (1893) Plays Pleasant (published 1898): Arms and the Man (1894) Candida (1894) The Man of Destiny (1895) You Never Can Tell (1897) Three Plays for Puritans (published 1901) The Devil's Disciple (1897) Caesar and Cleopatra (1898) Captain Brassbound's Conversion (1899) The Admirable Bashville (1901) Man and Superman (1902–03) John Bull's Other Island (1904) How He Lied to Her Husband (1904) Major Barbara (1905) The Doctor's Dilemma (1906) Getting Married (1908) The Glimpse of Reality (1909) The Fascinating Foundling (1909) Press Cuttings (1909) Misalliance (1910) Annajanska, the Bolshevik Empress (1917) The Dark Lady of the Sonnets (1910) Fanny's First Play (1911) Overruled (1912) Androcles and the Lion (1912) Pygmalion (1912–13) The Great Catherine (1913) The Inca of Perusalem (1915) O'Flaherty VC (1915) Augustus Does His Bit (1916) Heartbreak House (1919) Back to Methuselah (1921) In the Beginning The Gospel of the Brothers Barnabas The Thing Happens Tragedy of an Elderly Gentleman As Far as Thought Can Reach Saint Joan (1923) The Apple Cart (1929) Too True To Be Good (1931) On the Rocks (1933) The Six of Calais (1934) The Simpleton of the Unexpected Isles (1934) The Shewing Up of Blanco Posnet (1909) The Millionairess (1936) Geneva (1938) In Good King Charles's Golden Days (1939) Buoyant Billions (1947) Shakes versus Shav (1949) Essays Quintessence of Ibsenism (1891) The Perfect Wagnerite, Commentary on the Ring (1898) Maxims for Revolutionists (1903) Preface to Major Barbara (1905) How to Write a Popular Play (1909) Treatise on Parents and Children (1910) Common Sense about the War (1914) The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Socialism and Capitalism (1928) Dictators - Let Us Have More of Them (1938) Debate Shaw v. Chesterton, a debate between George Bernard Shaw and G. K. Chesterton (2000) Third Way Publications Ltd. ISBN 0-9535077-7-7 Do We Agree'', a debate between G. B. Shaw and G. K. Chesterton with Hilaire Belloc as chairman (1928) References and footnotes Bibliography Barzun, Jacques. “A Jacques Barzun Reader: Selections from his works”. Harper Collins, 2002 Brown, G.E. “George Bernard Shaw”. Evans Brothers Ltd, 1970 Chappelow, Alan. "Shaw the Villager and Human Being — a Biographical symposium", with a preface by Dame Sybil Thorndike, (1962). "Shaw — the 'Chucker-Out", 1969. ISBN 0-4040-8359-5 Evans, T.F. “Shaw: The Critical heritage”. The Critical Heritage series. Routlege & Kegan Paul, 1976 Gibbs, A.M (Ed.). “Shaw: Interviews and Recollections”. Gibbs, A.M. "Bernard Shaw, A Life". University of Florida Press, 2005. ISBN 0-8130-2859-0 Henderson, Archibald. “Bernard Shaw: Playboy and Prophet”. D. Appleton & Co., 1932 Holroyd, Michael (Etd). “The Genius of Shaw: A symposium”, Hodder & Stoughton, 1979 Holroyd, Michael. "Bernard Shaw: The One-Volume Definitive Edition", Random House, 1998. ISBN 978-0393327182 Hubenka, Lloyd J. (Editor). “Bernard Shaw: Practical Politics: Twentieth-century views on politics and economics”. University of Nebraska Press, 1976 Minney, R.J. “The Bogus Image of Bernard Shaw”. London, Frewin, 1969. ISBN 0-0909-6280-X Ohmann, Richard M. "Shaw: The Style and the Man". Wesleyan University Press, 1962. ASIN: B000OKX9H2 Owen, Harold. “Common sense about the Shaw”. George Allen and Unwin, 1915 Peters, Sally. “Bernard Shaw: The Ascent of the Superman”. Yale University Press, 1996 ISBN 978-0300060973 Rider, Dan. “Adventures with Bernard Shaw”. Morley and Mitchell Kennerley Junior. Smith, J. Percy. “Unrepentant Pilgrim: A study of the development of Bernard Shaw”. Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1965 Strauss, E. “Bernard Shaw: Art and Socialism”. Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1942 Weintraub, Stanley. “Bernard Shaw 1914–1918: Journey to Heartbreak”. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1973 Weintraub, Stanley. “The Unexpected Shaw: Biographical approaches to G.B.S and his work”. Frederick Ungar Publishing Co, 1982 ISBN 080442974X West, Alick. “A good man fallen among Fabians: A study of George Bernard Shaw” Lawrence and Wishart, 1974 ISBN 9780853152880 Watson, Barbara Bellow: “A Shavian Guide to the intelligent women”. Chatto and Windus, 1964 Wilson, Colin. "Bernard Shaw: A Reassessment". Athenum, 1969. Winsten, Stephen. “Jesting Apostle: The Life of Bernard Shaw”. Hutchinson and Co Ltd, 1956 Winsten, Stephen. “Salt and his circle: With a preface by Bernard Shaw”. Hutchinson and Co Ltd, 1951 External links Works by or about George Bernard Shaw at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated) Works by George Bernard Shaw at Project Gutenberg Works by George Bernard Shaw at Project Gutenberg Australia International Shaw Society, includes a chronology of Shaw's works The Shaw Society, UK, established in 1941 The Bernard Shaw Society, New York Shaw Chicago Theater A theater dedicated to the works of Shaw & his contemporaries. Shaw Festival Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada theatre that specializes in plays by Bernard Shaw and his contemporaries and plays about his era (1856-1950) The Nobel Prize Biography on Shaw, From Nobel Lectures, Literature 1901–1967, Editor Horst Frenz, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, (1969). Dan H. Laurence/Shaw Collection in the University of Guelph Library, Archival and Special Collections, holds more than 3,000 items related to his writings and career George Bernard Shaw Timeline Bernard Shaw papers at LSE Archives George Bernard Shaw's collection at the Harry Ransom Center at The University of Texas at Austin | George_Bernard_Shaw |@lemmatized george:22 bernard:33 shaw:162 july:2 november:1 irish:4 playwright:6 although:4 first:19 profitable:1 writing:10 music:8 literary:3 criticism:2 talent:1 drama:8 write:38 play:48 nearly:2 deal:1 sternly:1 prevail:1 social:9 problem:2 vein:1 comedy:4 make:10 stark:1 theme:2 palatable:1 examine:1 education:4 marriage:4 religion:2 government:6 health:1 care:1 class:13 privilege:1 find:5 defective:1 anger:1 exploitation:2 work:36 censure:1 abuse:2 ardent:2 socialist:6 many:6 brochure:1 speech:1 fabian:13 society:10 become:11 accomplished:1 orator:2 furtherance:1 cause:5 include:9 gain:3 equal:3 political:11 right:2 men:2 woman:6 alleviate:1 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4,423 | Arachnophobia | Though many arachnids are harmless, a person with arachnophobia may still panic or feel uneasy around one. Sometimes, even an object resembling a spider can trigger a panic attack in an arachnophobic individual. The above cartoon is a depiction of the nursery rhyme "Little Miss Muffet," in which the title character is "frightened away" by a spider puppet. Arachnophobia (from the , aráchnē, "spider" and , phóbos, "fear") is a specific phobia, an abnormal fear of spiders and other arachnids. It is among the most common of all phobias.. The reactions of arachnophobics often seem irrational to others (and sometimes to the sufferers themselves). People with arachnophobia tend to feel uneasy in any area they believe could harbor spiders or that has visible signs of their presence, such as webs. If arachnophobics see a spider they may not enter the general vicinity until they have overcome the panic attack that is often associated with their phobia. In some cases, even a picture or a realistic drawing of a spider can also evoke fear. They may feel humiliated if such episodes happen in the presence of peers or family members. The fear of spiders can be treated by any of the general techniques suggested for specific phobias. An evolutionary reason for the phobias, such as arachnophobia, claustrophobia, fear of snakes or mice, etc. remains unresolved. One view, especially held in evolutionary psychology, is that the presence of venomous spiders led to the evolution of a fear of spiders or made acquisition of a fear of spiders especially easy. Like all traits, there is variability in the intensity of fears of spiders, and those with more intense fears are classified as phobic. Spiders, for instance, being relatively small, don’t fit the usual criterion for a threat in the animal kingdom where size is a factor, but nearly all species are venomous, and although rarely dangerous to humans, some species are lethal. Arachnophobes will spare no effort to make sure that their whereabouts are spider-free, hence they would have had a reduced risk of being bitten in ancestral environments. Therefore, arachnophobes may possess a slight advantage over non-arachnophobes in terms of survival. However, this theory is undermined by the disproportional fear of spiders in comparison to other, far more deadly creatures that were present during Homo sapiens''' environment of evolutionary adaptiveness. The alternative view is that the dangers, such as from spiders, are overrated and not sufficient to influence evolution. Instead, inheriting phobias would have restrictive and debilitating effects upon survival, rather than being an aid. For example, there are no deadly spiders native to central and northern Europe that could exert an evolutionary pressure, yet that is where the strongest fear for spiders began, suggesting cultural learning. In contrast, many non-European cultures generally do not fear spiders, and for some communities such as in Papua New Guinea and South America (except Chile and Brazil), spiders are included in traditional foods. Around 50% of women and 10% of men have mild arachnophobia or worse. Most people with this phobia are scared that spiders may be on them. They also dislike the faces and creeping legs of spiders. References Stiemerling D. Analysis of a spider and monster phobia'', Z. Psychosom Med Psychoanal. October-December;1973(4):327-45. (in German) National Geographic: Fear of Spiders rooted in Evolution Scientists test arachnophobirticle | Arachnophobia |@lemmatized though:1 many:2 arachnid:2 harmless:1 person:1 arachnophobia:5 may:5 still:1 panic:3 feel:3 uneasy:2 around:2 one:2 sometimes:2 even:2 object:1 resemble:1 spider:24 trigger:1 attack:2 arachnophobic:1 individual:1 cartoon:1 depiction:1 nursery:1 rhyme:1 little:1 miss:1 muffet:1 title:1 character:1 frighten:1 away:1 puppet:1 aráchnē:1 phóbos:1 fear:13 specific:2 phobia:8 abnormal:1 among:1 common:1 reaction:1 arachnophobics:2 often:2 seem:1 irrational:1 others:1 sufferer:1 people:2 tend:1 area:1 believe:1 could:2 harbor:1 visible:1 sign:1 presence:3 web:1 see:1 enter:1 general:2 vicinity:1 overcome:1 associate:1 case:1 picture:1 realistic:1 drawing:1 also:2 evoke:1 humiliated:1 episode:1 happen:1 peer:1 family:1 member:1 treat:1 technique:1 suggest:2 evolutionary:4 reason:1 claustrophobia:1 snake:1 mouse:1 etc:1 remain:1 unresolved:1 view:2 especially:2 hold:1 psychology:1 venomous:2 lead:1 evolution:3 make:2 acquisition:1 easy:1 like:1 trait:1 variability:1 intensity:1 intense:1 classify:1 phobic:1 instance:1 relatively:1 small:1 fit:1 usual:1 criterion:1 threat:1 animal:1 kingdom:1 size:1 factor:1 nearly:1 specie:2 although:1 rarely:1 dangerous:1 human:1 lethal:1 arachnophobes:3 spare:1 effort:1 sure:1 whereabouts:1 free:1 hence:1 would:2 reduce:1 risk:1 bite:1 ancestral:1 environment:2 therefore:1 possess:1 slight:1 advantage:1 non:2 term:1 survival:2 however:1 theory:1 undermine:1 disproportional:1 comparison:1 far:1 deadly:2 creature:1 present:1 homo:1 sapiens:1 adaptiveness:1 alternative:1 danger:1 overrate:1 sufficient:1 influence:1 instead:1 inherit:1 restrictive:1 debilitating:1 effect:1 upon:1 rather:1 aid:1 example:1 native:1 central:1 northern:1 europe:1 exert:1 pressure:1 yet:1 strong:1 begin:1 cultural:1 learning:1 contrast:1 european:1 culture:1 generally:1 community:1 papua:1 new:1 guinea:1 south:1 america:1 except:1 chile:1 brazil:1 include:1 traditional:1 food:1 woman:1 men:1 mild:1 bad:1 scar:1 dislike:1 face:1 creep:1 leg:1 reference:1 stiemerling:1 analysis:1 monster:1 z:1 psychosom:1 med:1 psychoanal:1 october:1 december:1 german:1 national:1 geographic:1 root:1 scientist:1 test:1 arachnophobirticle:1 |@bigram nursery_rhyme:1 evolutionary_psychology:1 homo_sapiens:1 |
4,424 | Great_Man_theory | The Great man theory is a philosophical theory that aims to explain history by the impact of "Great men", or heroes: highly influential individuals who, due to either their personal charisma, intelligence and wisdom or Machiavellianism, used power in a way that had a decisive historical impact. For example, a scholarly follower of the Great Man theory would be likely to study the Second World War by focusing on the big personalities of the conflict — Sir Winston Churchill, Chiang Kai-shek and Soong May-ling, Mao Ze Dong, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Joseph Stalin, Charles de Gaulle (Allies); Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Hideki Tojo (Axis); et al. — and view all of the historical events as being tied directly to their own individual decisions and orders. Proponents The Great Man theory is associated most often with 19th-century commentator and historian Thomas Carlyle, who commented that "The history of the world is but the biography of great men," reflecting his belief that heroes shape history through both their personal attributes and divine inspiration. Hirsch, E.D. The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (Third Edition), Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 2002. In his book On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History, Carlyle set out how he saw history as having turned on the decisions of "heroes", giving detailed analysis of the influence of several such men (including Muhammad, Shakespeare, Luther, Rousseau, and Napoleon). Carlyle also felt that the study of great men was "profitable" to one's own heroic side; that by examining the lives led by such heroes, one could not help but uncover something about one's true nature. Carlyle, Thomas. On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History, Fredrick A. Stokes & Brother, New York, 1888. p. 2. This theory is usually contrasted with a theory that talks about events occurring in the fullness of time, or when an overwhelming wave of smaller events cause certain developments to occur. The Great Man approach to history was most fashionable with professional historians in the 19th century; a popular work of this school is the Encyclopedia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911) which contains lengthy and detailed biographies about the great men of history, but very few general or social histories. For example, all information on the post-Roman "Migrations Period" of European History is compiled under the biography of Attila the Hun. This heroic view of history was also strongly endorsed by some philosophical figures such as Hegel, Nietzsche, and Spengler, but it fell out of favor after World War II. Criticisms One of the most vitriolic critics of Carlyle's formulation of the Great Man theory was Herbert Spencer, who believed that attributing historical events to the decisions of individuals was a hopelessly primitive, childish, and unscientific position. Segal, Robert A. Hero Myths, Wiley-Blackwell, 2000, p. 3. He believed that the men Carlyle called "great men" were merely products of their social environment. To quote Spencer, from "The Study of Sociology": The editors of the influential 18th century French encyclopedia Encyclopedie were ideologically opposed to biographies because they believed too much ink had already been spilled on hagiographies of church fathers and deeds of kings, and not enough about the average person or life in general. To this end Encyclopedie had almost no biography articles. However, this policy was contentious among the encyclopedists and so some biographies were "hidden" inside articles; for example, the article on Wolstrope, England is almost entirely about the life of Newton. An opponent of the great man theory in its own time was Leo Tolstoy, who devoted the entire non-fictional beginning of the third volume of War and Peace to critiquing it, using the Napoleonic wars as an example. Today the great man theory is out of favor as a singular explanation for why things happen. Historians look at other factors such as economic, societal, environmental, and technological which are just as or more significant to historical change. Many historians believe that a history which only follows around single persons, especially when their significance is determined primarily by political status, is a shallow view of the past, and that sometimes such a view excludes entire groups of people from being parts of the study of history. A broader view is provided by a people's history approach. This critique has spread to other fields such as literary criticism, in which Stephen Greenblatt's New Historicism argues that societies play roles in creating works of art, not just authors. Master Harold...and the Boys and Crime and Punishment offer critiques of the great man theory. References See also Übermensch Philosophy of history Max Weber's charismatic authority Annales School and New History Whig history People's history External links "Twilight of the Idols", by Peter Dizikes, from The New York Times, November 5, 2006. 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4,425 | Shang-Chi | Shang-Chi () is a Marvel Comics character, often called the "Master of Kung Fu". He was created by writer Steve Englehart and artist Jim Starlin. He has no special superpowers, but he exhibits extraordinary skills in the martial arts and is a master of Wushu (a general name for the various Chinese styles) both empty handed and with weapons, including the staff, nunchaku and double-edged sword. Publication history The character was conceived in late 1972 when Marvel Comics acquired the comic book rights to Sax Rohmer's pulp novel villain Dr. Fu Manchu while they also held the rights to the Kung Fu television program. Instead of producing a straight adaptation of either source, Marvel combined the two. The result was Shang-Chi, a master of Kung Fu, who was introduced as the (previously unheard of) son of Fu Manchu. Though an original character himself, many of Shang-Chi's supporting characters (most notably Fu Manchu and Sir Denis Nayland Smith) were Rohmer creations. No characters from the Kung Fu television series carried over into the comic series, though the character Lu Sung, in an early issue, bears a strong resemblance to Kwai Chang Caine with the addition of a moustache. Shang-Chi first appeared in Special Marvel Edition #15 (December 1973) by Englehart and Starlin (SME #1–14 were reprints of older Marvel superhero stories). Shang-Chi appeared again in issue #16, and with issue #17 (April 1974) the title was changed to The Hands of Shang-Chi: Master of Kung Fu. Amidst the martial arts craze in the United States in the 1970s, the book became very popular, surviving until issue #125 (June 1983), a run including five giant-size issues. He also co-starred with Spider-Man in Marvel Team-Up #84 and The Thing in Marvel Two-in-One #29. Shang-Chi also appeared in Marvel's Special Collector's Edition #1 entitled "Savage Fists of Kung Fu". At the height of the martial arts craze, he did several crossovers with other Marvel martial artists, including White Tiger, Iron Fist, and Daughters of the Dragon (Colleen Wing and Misty Knight). He also appeared quite prominently in Marvel's sister imprint magazine entitled Deadly Hands of Kung Fu. The series began by introducing Shang-Chi as a man raised by his father Fu Manchu to be the ultimate lackey for the would-be world conqueror. However, his first mission, in which he killed one of his father's old enemies, Dr. Petrie, ended with Shang-Chi learning of Fu Manchu's true, evil nature. Disillusioned, Shang-Chi swore eternal opposition to his father's ambitions and fought him as an agent of British intelligence, under the orders of Nayland Smith. The series was an instant sales success. Though Englehart and Starlin soon left as the creative talent for the title, its success grew once writer Doug Moench and artist Paul Gulacy, began collaborating in issues #22. Their critically acclaimed run continued (with short gaps) until #51 when Gulacy was replaced by artist Jim Craig. Craig was later succeeded by Mike Zeck who became the regular penciller in issue #64 (1978). Gulacy was a film buff, and modeled many characters after film stars: Juliette on Marlene Dietrich, James Larner on Marlon Brando, Clive Reston (often broadly hinted at as being the son of James Bond as well as the grand nephew of Sherlock Holmes) occasionally looking like Basil Rathbone and Sean Connery, and a minor character Ward Sarsfield (after the real-life name of Sax Rohmer) who looked like David Niven. Moench introduced other film-based characters, including ones modeled after Groucho Marx and W. C. Fields. Moench continued for a long tenure, though the title did not again receive the same level of acclaim as the Gulacy period until Gene Day, who had previously been inking the book, took over penciling in #100 (1981). Despite critical success, sales lagged, and the publication schedule change from monthly to bimonthly. Day died of a heart attack after finishing issue #120, and Moench left the book after #122. The book was cancelled three issues later, where Shang-Chi retired to a passive life as a fisherman in a village. Shang-Chi had two more short series: the Master of Kung Fu: Bleeding Black graphic novel (1990) and the MAX miniseries Master of Kung Fu: Hellfire Apocalypse (2002) (with artist Paul Gulacy on art again). The character also had two stories in the anthology series Marvel Comics Presents (including one by Moench that ran in the series' first eight issues in 1988), and co-starred in the Moon Knight Special (1992). Although spun out of licensed properties, Shang-Chi is a Marvel-owned character and has been firmly established as a part of the Marvel Universe with guest appearances in numerous other titles, such as Marvel Team-Up, Marvel Knights and X-Men. Most of the original, licensed, characters in the supporting cast have been phased out in the more recent series and stories. In some of his modern appearances, mention is made of his villainous father who has apparently returned from the dead (Marvel's version of Fu Manchu was meant to have died in Master Of Kung Fu #118). However Fu Manchu is never named, only referred to as Shang's 'father' and is never shown out of shadow, as Marvel have opted not to renew the license to the character. Shang-Chi returned as a main character in the 2007 Heroes for Hire comic book, and both he and several characters of his supporting cast appear in that year's Wisdom miniseries. Shang-Chi appeared in Wolverine First Class #9, where Wolverine approached him for advice in order to defeat his nemesis, Sabretooth. Fictional character biography Master of Kung Fu Shang-Chi was born in the Hunan province of the People's Republic of China, and is the son of Fu Manchu, the Chinese mastermind who has repeatedly attempted world conquest. Shangi-Chi was raised and trained in the martial arts by his father and his instructors. He was sent on a mission to murder Dr. Petrie, but he met Fu Manchu's archenemy, Sir Denis Nayland Smith and learned that Fu Manchu was evil and rebelled against his father. Special Marvel Edition #15 Shang-Chi battled Midnight, Special Marvel Edition #16 and then first met his close ally Black Jack Tarr. Master of Kung Fu #17 Shangi-Chi became an ally of Sir Denis Nayland Smith, and opposed Fu Manchu, and battled the Si-Fan assassins. Master of Kung Fu #18 As an secret agent, he encountered the Man-Thing, Master of Kung Fu #19 and first met the superhero Spider-Man. Giant-Size Spider-Man #2 Shang-Chi then first met his friend Clive Reston. Shang-Chi battled the Shadow-Stalker and Fu Manchu's Phansigar followers, and rescued Dr. Petrie from Fu Manchu. Giant-Size Master of Kung Fu #3 He then first opposed his half-sister, Fah Lo Suee. Master of Kung Fu #26 He opposed Carlton Velcro, and first battled Razor-Fist and Pavane. Master of Kung Fu #29-31 Shang-Chi then first met love Leiko Wu. Master of Kung Fu #33 He opposed Mordillo and Brynocki. Master of Kung Fu #34-35 He first encountered the Cat, Master of Kung Fu #38-39 then first met Iron Fist, Master of Kung Fu Annual #1 and then first battled Shockwave. Master of Kung Fu #42-43 With his allies Smith, Tarr, Reston, and Wu, Shang-Chi opposed Fu Manchu; Master of Kung Fu #45-50 With Tarr, Reston, and Wu, he then quit MI-6. Master of Kung Fu #51 As an adventurer, he teamed with Iron Fist, White Tiger, and Jack of Hearts against the Corporation. Deadly Hands of Kung Fu #31 He then first met the Thing, and battled HYDRA. Marvel Two-in-One #29 He became involved in a game between Doctor Doom and the Prime Mover. Master of Kung Fu #59-60 He first battled Skullcrusher, Master of Kung Fu #61 and then first battled Zaran. Master of Kung Fu #77-7917 Shang-Chi then teamed with Spider-Man, the Black Widow, and Nick Fury against Viper, Boomerang, and Silver Samurai. Marvel Team-Up #84-85 Shang-Chi opposed Fu Manchu and Fah Lo Suee once again. Master of Kung Fu #83-89 With Smith, Tarr, Reston, and Wu, he formed Freelance Restorations, Ltd, which was based in Stormhaven Castle, Scotland. Master of Kung Fu #94 Shang-Chi finally witnessed the death of Fu Manchu. Master of Kung Fu #118 He then teamed with Rom against the Dire Wraiths. Rom #38-39 Not long after his father's death, Shang-Chi quit Freelance Restorations, forsook his life as an adventurer, and retired to remote Yang-Tin, China, to live as a fisherman. Master of Kung Fu #125 Return Some time later, Shang-Chi returned from China, and rejoined Tarr, Reston, and Wu. He rescued Wu from terrorists, but was dosed with a slow acting poison. Marvel Comics Presents #1-8 Before the poison could kill him, he was cured of the poison's effects by Fu Manchu's elixir vitae. Master of Kung Fu: Bleeding Black Initiative Shang-Chi has been identified as a possible Initiative recruit. Avengers: The Initiative #1 Character Map Heroes for Hire As a member of the restored Heroes for Hire, Shang Chi had put his strength of character at the service of their teammates, his desire for inner peace often mistaken for coldness. However, Shang Chi warms with time, or at least shows more his genuine emotions, as when he avenges the death of fellow teammate Orka, forges a measure of friendship with Humbug and forges a somewhat romantic relationship with the more feisty and emotive Tarantula, peaking in a passionate kiss in the Savage Land. He later tries to put more distance between him and Maria, fearing that a strong relation could lead his inner peace to downfall, something that happens a few time later, during the World War Hulk. Humbug, turning cards against the heroes, tries to double cross both his friends and the "Earth Hive" of insects, joining the Hive and offering Colleen Wing and Tarantula to a lifetime of tortures. Even so, when a dying Humbug begs his friend to mercy kill him, Shang Chi refuses, until he finds that Humbug actually had no qualms to torture Tarantula, if it meant less suffering for Colleen. Shang Chi then snaps his neck, and leaves with the catatonic Tarantula, ashamed of what he had to become, a soulless murderer. Still working for MI6, he goes on to collaborate with Pete Wisdom of MI-13 in facing the Welsh dragon, which had turned amnesiac and become a human crime lord; Shang Chi had been told by Wisdom that the dragon (being inherently noble) would go free once it remembered its true origins, and was embittered to find this had been a lie. He also became the ward and tutor of a young Earth-616 Killraven. Supporting characters The series, especially as written by Doug Moench was notable for its strong supporting characters. As they evolved these characters became nearly as integral to the series as Shang-Chi himself: Fu Manchu is portrayed in a manner mostly consistent with the Sax Rohmer novels. He is a brilliant and calculating master-villain who aspires to rule the world. As the series progresses the character deteriorates, gradually losing his nobler qualities. By the end of the series he is a pathetic figure, reduced to stealing his son's blood to preserve his immortality. Sir Denis Nayland Smith is Fu Manchu's nemesis from the novels. In the comics he retains this role, his obsession with the villain often bringing out the dark side of his own character. In his better moments he becomes a sort of surrogate father to Shang-Chi. Ultimately, he is too caught up in what Shang-Chi calls 'games of deceit and death' and fails in this role. The relationship the two finally form is that of two flawed characters who feel strong friendship in spite of deep differences. Fah Lo Suee is the daughter of Fu Manchu and is the final character from the novels to appear in the comic. She is a villainess in her own right, though she is not interested in the misguided idealism of Fu Manchu. She is a pragmatist, seeking the best way to power. As such, she shifts alliances often. Usually she is an enemy of Shang-Chi and his friends but sometimes she is an ally. When last seen she had become a highly ranked official in MI-6. Black Jack Tarr is Smith's aide-de-camp and a powerful giant of a man with a gruff manner. Though he is initially an enemy of Shang-Chi, the two become close friends over time. He exhibits the most bigoted traits of any character and invariably addresses Shang-Chi as 'Chinaman' rather than using his name. It is one of the successes of the series that readers are drawn to feel for Tarr while the writing never turns a blind eye to his politically-incorrect attitudes. Clive Reston is a British spy who resembles a younger and more vulnerable version of James Bond. Where Bond is a successful womanizer and seems unaffected by heavy drinking, Reston struggles with alcoholism and a romantic rivalry with Shang-Chi. The resemblance to Bond is intentional. Reston's dialogue makes it clear that he is Bond's son, and the grand-nephew of Sherlock Holmes. By the time of Wisdom, he's a high-ranking officer of MI6 (appearing at times to be in charge) and has been knighted; he believes MI-13 to be a doomed organisation and that MI6 should handle the "weird happenings", to the extent of keeping things from the rival agency. Leiko Wu is introduced as a femme fatale like those in the Bond films. She is a beautiful Chinese-British woman who is torn between her history with Reston and her growing attraction to Shang-Chi. Though initially sarcastic and self-possessed to the point of arrogance (Leiko is actually a Japanese name meaning "arrogant") her relationship with her new lover causes her to become more contemplative. Midnight an African child named M'Nai adopted by Fu Manchu, and raised alongside his son Shang-Chi. Fu Manchu impressed with his stoic nature trained him as one of the Si-Fan his elite assassins. Due to his badly disfigured face he always wore a mask. Fu Manchu sent him to kill Shang-Chi after his son turned his back on him, even though Shang-Chi and M'Nai considered themselves brothers. Midnight died as a result of their second battle, but was later resurrected as "Midnight Sun" by the alien Kree in cloned body and gifted with cosmic powers strong enough to challenge the Silver Surfer. After a couple of battles with the Surfer he settled down to a peaceful life in the Blue Area of the Moon where he was accepted by the Inhumans. Midnight Sun at the Appendix to the Handbook of the Marvel Universe Rufus T. Hackstabber is a memorable character who appeared only twice in the series. The character strongly resembles Groucho Marx and his fast-paced nonsensical patter plays well off Shang-Chi's laconic seriousness. Hackstabber's name is a play on Rufus T. Firefly, Groucho's character in Duck Soup. Shen Kuei or "Cat" is a master thief whose skill in martial arts equals Shang-Chi's. The meaning of the character's name is both similar and opposite to Shang-Chi's name. He is a sort of mirror image, a 'good bad guy' in opposition to Shang-Chi's 'bad good guy'. While they share mutual respect, the two always find themselves in opposition. He has recently appeared in Cable & Deadpool working as a mercenary for Cable. He has also defeated Deadpool, who looks at him as a Rock God among mercenaries and has also referred to him as "The Keith Moon of spy trade" and "The Justin Timberlake of the Cherry Pop Club". Rufus "Super Midnight" Carter is an African-American kickboxing champion and antiques dealer who secretly works for the CIA. He is a light-hearted character who helps to draw out Shang-Chi's sense of whimsy in his several appearances. Carter's unusual nickname is accounted for by his origin. A colleague challenged Doug Moench to write a story using "Carter's Super Midnight" (the name of a brand of carbon paper) as a title. Powers and abilities Although it has never been determined exactly how extensive Shang-Chi's fighting skills are, he has beaten numerous superhuman opponents. Even without having any superhuman powers, he has on several occasions matched other Marvel superhumans such as Spider-Man and the Thing. In one instance, he indefinitely held off a crowd of at least 30 super criminals for Captain America with help from Falcon. After the death of fellow Hero for Hire, Orka, Shang managed to single-handedly take out the Headmen including a reprogrammed Doombot, although his hands were injured badly after the battle. All of these incidents were empty handed. Shang-Chi is classed as an athlete but he is one of the best non-superhumans in martial arts and has dedicated much of his life to the art, being referred to by some as the greatest empty handed fighter and practitioner of Kung Fu alive. Much of his physical abilities seem to stem from his mastery of chi, which often allows him to surpass physical limitations of normal athletes. In one instance, Shang was able to stand shirtless in minus 20 degree weather without feeling any physical discomfort. He has also demonstrated the ability to dodge bullets and to deflect single shots with his bracers. He is highly trained in the arts of concentration and meditation, and is also an expert in various hand-weapons including the bo, nunchakus, and shuriken. Other versions House of M Shang-Chi never realizes his father's evil doings before his death at Magneto's hands. House of M: Avengers #2 This causes him to become consumed with a desire for vengeance. In this reality, Shang-Chi is the head of the Dragons criminal organization, alongside Colleen Wing, Swordsman, Mantis, Zaran and Machete. The Dragons later resolved their rivalry against Luke Cage's gang, House of M: Avengers #3 but were eventually captured in a trap created by both the Kingpin's assassins and Thunderbird's agents. House of M: Avengers #4 He is charged with attempted murder. The Pulse: House of M Special #1 The Dragons {and the Wolfpack} were freed by Luke Cage, in which Shang-Chi's gang join the Avengers in their battle against the Brotherhood. House of M: Avengers #5 Marvel Zombies In the Marvel Zombies continuity, Shang-Chi has been turned into a zombie. In a mid-Manhattan battle, detailed in Ultimate Fantastic Four #23, he and dozens of other zombie-heroes attempt to consume the last batch of humans. These humans are defended by that universe's Magneto and the Ultimate Fantastic Four. During a successful rescue attempt, Thing sends Shang-Chi flying through the air with one punch. Later, Shang-Chi is seen attacking Magneto once again, but he is cut in half by the Master of Magnetism. Ultimate Shang-Chi In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Shang-Chi first appeared in Ultimate Marvel Team-Up #15. He is the son of an international crime lord. Trained from birth to become a living weapon, he became the world's greatest martial artist. A noble spirit, he eventually came to renounce his father's empire. Seeking to get away from his father's reach, he emigrated to New York where he worked as a floor sweeper at Wu's Fish Market in Chinatown. At some point, he met and befriended fellow martial artist Danny Rand. While Shang-Chi was in Chinatown, three separate gangs were threatening the locals. He was the only one who was willing to stand up to them. One day, he stopped a couple of the thugs from mugging a newcomer to the area, Leiko, unaware that she was an agent sent by his father to look for him. Shortly after, he was attacked by more gang members, attracting the attention of Spider-Man, who was in the area at the moment. Before Spider-Man could lend his help, Shang-Chi had already beaten the gang members. Seeing that Shang-Chi didn't need his help, Spider-Man left. Leiko met with the local gangs promising them exclusive rights to the local drug trade if they could break, but not kill, Shang-Chi. Wu Kwan, the man who ran the fish market overheard the conversation and told Shang-Chi to leave the city for his own safety. Before he could do so, he was confronted by the heavily armed gangs. Shang-Chi, who was outnumbered 40 to 1, began to cut a swath through his foes but was overwhelmed by their sheer numbers. This was when Spider-Man came to lend him a hand, and together they triumphed. Impressed by Shang-Chi's skills, Spider-Man asked him to teach him some moves. In gratitude, Shang-Chi only had time to teach him the White Ape maneuver before departing the city. Shang-Chi secretly returned though, feeling that the denizens of New York's Chinatown needed someone to protect them. He and his friend Danny Rand were recently drawn into the gang war between the Kingpin and Hammerhead after the latter targeted him to win over the Chinatown gangs to his cause. The conflict climaxed when Shang-Chi, Danny Rand, Spider-Man, Black Cat, Moon Knight and Elektra ambushed Hammerhead's penthouse, where a battle royale ensued. It ended with an unconscious Elektra, Hammerhead and Moon Knight. The gang members were then arrested by the police. The martial arts warrior recently disguised himself as a costumed criminal in order to take down the Kingpin. The Kingpin discovered his plan and threatened to kill the hero, but he was rescued by the Man Without Fear, Daredevil, who then recruited him as a part of his team. Key Comicbook Covers Shang-Chi Comic Covers Cover of Marvel Special Edition #15 (First appearance of Shang-Chi Master of Kung-Fu. Cover for the first issue of MOKF #17 (Numerical sequence to MSE) Notice the "Now In His Own Mag" logo. Cover for the last issue of MOKF #125. Last issue of the 1st Run. Cover of the NEW series Master of Kung Fu #1. First issue of the second Run. Other media Film A feature film, The Hands of Shang-Chi, is in the planning stages, with Yuen Wo Ping directing and Ang Lee producing. Marvel's Shang-Chi gets a MASTER for a director and a big green meanie for a producer?, Ain't It Cool News Notes References Kraft, David Anthony. Fu Manchu, Sax Rohmer, and Shang-Chi in The Deadly Hands of Kung Fu Special Album Edition #1, Summer 1974, pp. 29–33. 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4,426 | New_International_Version | The New International Version is an English translation of the Christian Bible. Published by Zondervan, it became one of the most popular modern translations made in the twentieth century. New International Version #1 in dollar and unit sales History When Evangelical Protestants received the Revised Standard Version, certain texts regarding the virginity of Mary and other Old Testament passages whose Christian interpretation referred to Jesus did not follow traditional Evangelical translation. "There are two fatal weaknesses in the Revised Standard Version of the Old Testament which inevitably make it unacceptable to evangelical Christians. The first is its attitude toward the reliability of the Hebrew or Massoretic Text of the Old Testament; the second is its method of translating that Text.", Merrill F. Unger, Th.D., Ph.D. "The battleground concerning the RSV centered on the translation of Isaiah 7:14, where the RSV dared to render the Hebrew word “young woman” instead of “virgin.”", Peter J. Thuesen, Oxford University Press, 1999, p238. The New International Version project was started after a meeting in 1965 in Palos Heights, Illinois between the Christian Reformed Church, National Association of Evangelicals, and a group of international scholars. The New York Bible Society (now the Colorado Springs-based International Bible Society) was selected to do the translation. The New Testament was released in 1973 and the full Bible in 1978. It underwent minor revision in 1984. Features The NIV is an explicitly Protestant translation. The deuterocanonical books are not included in the translation. It preserved traditional Evangelical theology on many contested points for which the Revised Standard Version has been criticized. Apart from these theological issues, the manuscript base of the NIV is similar to the RSV, using older Greek New Testament texts rather than the later Textus Receptus. Translation philosophy The core translation group consisted of fifteen Biblical scholars. The translation took ten years and involved a team of up to 100 people from the USA, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The range of those participating included over twenty different denominations such as Baptists, Evangelicals, Methodists, Lutherans, Anglicans, and more. The intent of the translators was to produce an accurate and readable translation that would fall between formal and functional equivalence pg. 4,5 . An emphasis was placed on thought-for-thought, but it was meant to be no freer than necessary to carry the sense of the original. The text used for the Old Testament was the Biblia Hebraica Masoretic Hebrew Text. Other ancient texts consulted were the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion, the Latin Vulgate, the Syriac Peshitta, the Aramaic Targums, and for the Psalms the Juxta Hebraica of Jerome. The text used in translating the New Testament was the Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament. Recent archaeological and linguistic discoveries helped in understanding traditionally difficult passages to translate. Familiar spellings of traditional translations were generally retained. "Although archaeological and linguistic discoveries in this century aid in understanding difficult passages", "As for other proper nouns, the familiar spellings of the King James Version are generally retained" Paragraphs 14 & 17 Circulation According to Zondervan, publisher of the NIV, the translation has become the most popular modern English translation of the Bible, having sold more than 215 million copies worldwide. It is especially popular among American Evangelicals. It continues to be one of the top ten selling Bibles. Feb 2006, New International Version #1 best-seller There are numerous study Bibles available with extensive notes on the text and background information to make the Biblical stories more comprehensible. Among these are the NIV Spirit of the Reformation Study Bible, the Zondervan published NIV Study Bible, the Wesleyan revision, Reflecting God Study Bible, as well as the Life Application Study Bible. Criticism It is sometimes claimed that the NIV works in apologetics to smooth out apparent biblical contradictions in more precise translations, such as between Acts 9:7 and 22:9. Examples given of precise translations in the aforementioned criticism are the King James Version and the NRSV. Defenders of the NIV argue that the New American Standard Bible and the English Standard Version use almost the exact same wording as the NIV in regards to Acts 9:7 and 22:9. Bruce M. Metzger criticizes Metzger, Bruce: The Bible in Translation (Baker Academic, 2001) several NIV decisions, such as the addition of just into Jeremiah 7:22, which appears to change the meaning. Jeremiah 7:22 (NIV) at BibleGateway.com Christians who prefer formal equivalency in translation criticize the NIV because it is somewhat looser than they prefer. For example, in Romans 8, the NIV translates the Greek word σάρξ, literally "flesh", figuratively (using a phrase such as "sinful nature") when the meaning is clearly figurative. Though advocates of the NIV would claim that such a translation makes the passage easier to understand, critics would answer that it is an unnecessary interpretation of the text. References External links Official Website Zondervan Zondervan Bible Search BibleGateway.com Version Information The NIV The Making of a Contemporary Translation, Barker, Kenneth L. (ed.), International Bible Society Is Your Modern Translation Corrupt? Answering the Allegations of KJV Only Advocates by James R. 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4,427 | Aircraft_carrier | From bottom to top: Principe de Asturias, amphibious assault ship , and light V/STOL carrier , showing size differences of late 20th century carriers From foreground to background: , , and An aircraft carrier is a warship designed with a primary mission of deploying and recovering aircraft, acting as a seagoing airbase. Aircraft carriers thus allow a naval force to project air power great distances without having to depend on local bases for staging aircraft operations. They have evolved from wooden vessels, used to deploy balloons, into nuclear powered warships that carry dozens of fixed and rotary wing aircraft. Brief history The Japanese seaplane carrier Wakamiya conducted the world's first naval-launched air raids in September 1914. Balloon carriers were the first ships to deploy manned aircraft, used during the 19th and early 20th century, mainly for observation purposes. The 1903 advent of fixed wing airplanes was followed in 1910 by the first flight of such an aircraft from the deck of a US Navy cruiser. Seaplanes and seaplane tender support ships, such as , followed. The development of flat top vessels produced the first large fleet ships. This evolution was well underway by the mid 1920s, resulting in ships such as , Hōshō, and the s. World War II saw the first large-scale use and further refinement of the aircraft carrier, spawning several types. Escort aircraft carriers, such as , were built only during World War II. Although some were purpose-built, most were converted from merchant ships as a stop-gap measure to provide air support for convoys and amphibious invasions. Light aircraft carriers, such as , represented a larger, more "militarized" version of the escort carrier concept. Although the light carriers usually carried the same size air groups as escort carriers, they had the advantage of higher speed as they had been converted from cruisers under construction. Wartime emergencies also saw the creation or conversion of unconventional aircraft carriers. CAM ships, like , were cargo-carrying merchant ships which could launch but not retrieve fighter aircraft from a catapult. These vessels were an emergency measure during World War II as were Merchant aircraft carriers (MACs), such as , another emergency measure which saw cargo-carrying merchant ships equipped with flight decks. Battlecarriers were created by the Imperial Japanese Navy to partially compensate for the loss of carrier strength at Midway. Two of them were made from s during late 1943. The aft turrets were removed and replaced with a hangar, deck and catapult. The heavy cruiser Mogami concurrently received a similar conversion. This "half and half" design was an unsuccessful compromise, being neither one thing nor the other. Submarine aircraft carriers, such as the French Surcouf and the Japanese I-400 class submarine, which was capable of carrying 3 Aichi M6A Seiran aircraft, were first built in the 1920s, but were generally unsuccessful at war. The Tripoli, a US Navy Iwo Jima class helicopter carrier Modern navies that operate such ships treat aircraft carriers as the capital ship of the fleet, a role previously played by the battleship. The change, part of the growth of air power as a significant factor in warfare, took place during World War II. This change was driven by the superior range, flexibility and effectiveness of carrier-launched aircraft. Following the war, carrier operations continued to increase in size and importance. Supercarriers, typically displacing 75,000 tonnes or greater, have become the pinnacle of carrier development. Most are powered by nuclear reactors and form the core of a fleet designed to operate far from home. Amphibious assault ships, such as and , serve the purpose of carrying and landing Marines, and operate a large contingent of helicopters for that purpose. Also known as "commando carriers" or "helicopter carriers", many have a secondary capability to operate VSTOL aircraft. Lacking the firepower of other warships, carriers by themselves are considered vulnerable to attack by other ships, aircraft, submarines, or missiles. Therefore, aircraft carriers are generally accompanied by a number of other ships, to provide protection for the relatively unwieldy carrier, to carry supplies, and to provide additional offensive capabilities. This is often termed a battle group or carrier group, sometimes a carrier battle group. Unlike other types of capital ships in the 20th century, aircraft carrier designs since World War II have been effectively unlimited by any consideration save budgetary, and the ships have increased in size to handle the larger aircraft. The large, modern of United States Navy carriers has a displacement nearly four times that of the World War II-era , yet its complement of aircraft is roughly the same — a consequence of the steadily increasing size and weight of military aircraft over the years. Types of aircraft carriers Brazilian Aircraft Carrier NAe São Paulo. By role Anti-submarine warfare carrier Escort carrier Helicopter carrier Light aircraft carrier Amphibious assault ship By configuration There are three main configurations of aircraft carrier in service in the worlds navies: Catapult Assisted Take-Off But Arrested Recovery (CATOBAR) Short Take-Off But Arrested Recovery (STOBAR) Short Take-Off Vertical Landing (STOVL) Flight deck Ripples appear along the fuselage of a U.S. Navy E-2C Hawkeye due to loads from landing on the . F/A-18 Hornets on the flight deck of the Nimitz-class supercarrier The first carrier landing and take-off of a jet aircraft: Eric "Winkle" Brown landing on in 1945 The ski-jump on Royal Navy carrier As "runways at sea," modern aircraft carriers have a flat-top deck design that serves as a flight deck for take-off and landing of aircraft. Aircraft take off to the front, into the wind, and land from the rear. Carriers steam at speed, for example up to (), into the wind during take-off in order to increase the apparent wind speed over the deck, thereby reducing the speed of the aircraft relative to the ship. On some ships, a steam-powered catapult is used to propel the aircraft forward, assisting the power of its engines and allowing it to take off in a shorter distance than would otherwise be required. On other carriers, aircraft do not require assistance for take off—the requirement for assistance relates to aircraft design and performance. Conversely, when landing on a carrier, conventional aircraft rely upon a tailhook that catches on arrestor wires stretched across the deck to bring them to a stop in a shorter distance than normal. Other aircraft—helicopters and V/STOL (Vertical/Short Take-Off and Landing) designs—utilize their hover capability to land vertically and so require no assistance in speed reduction upon landing. Conventional ("tailhook") aircraft rely upon a landing signal officer (LSO, sometimes called "paddles") to control the plane's landing approach, visually gauge altitude, attitude, and speed, and transmit that data to the pilot. Before the angled deck emerged in the 1950s, LSOs used colored paddles to signal corrections to the pilot (hence the nickname). From the late 1950s onward, visual landing aids such as mirrors provided information on proper glide slope, but LSOs still transmit voice calls to landing pilots by radio. To facilitate working on the flight deck of a U.S. aircraft carrier, the sailors wear colored shirts that designate their responsibilities. White shirts are responsible for safety, red shirts handle munitions, purple shirts (grapes) handle jet fuel, and green shirts handle the catapult and arresting gear. Yellow shirts are responsible for directing aircraft. Key personnel involved in the flight deck include the Shooters, the Handler, and the Air Boss. Shooters are naval aviators or Naval Flight Officers and are responsible for launching aircraft. The Handler works just inside the island from the flight deck and is responsible for the movement of aircraft before launching and after landing. The Air Boss (usually a commander) occupies the top bridge (Primary Flight Control, also called "primary" or "the tower") and has the overall responsibility for controlling takeoffs, landings, "those aircraft in the air near the ship, and the movement of planes on the flight deck, which itself resembles a well-choreographed ballet". The captain of the ship spends most of his time one level below Primary on the Navigation Bridge. Below this is the Flag Bridge, designated for the embarked admiral and his staff. Since the early 1950s it has been common to direct the landing recovery area off to port at an angle to the line of the ship. The primary function of the angled deck landing area is to allow aircraft that miss the arresting wires, referred to as a "bolter", to become airborne again without the risk of hitting aircraft parked on the forward parts of the deck. The angled deck also allows launching of aircraft at the same time as others land. The above deck areas of the warship (such as the bridge, flight control tower) are concentrated to the starboard side of the deck in a relatively small area called an "island". Very few carriers have been designed or built without an island and such a configuration has not been seen in a fleet-sized carrier. The "flush deck" configuration proved to have very significant drawbacks, complicating navigation, air traffic control and numerous other factors. A more recent configuration, originally developed by the Royal Navy but since adopted by many navies for smaller carriers, has a ski-jump ramp at the forward end of the flight deck. This was first developed to help launch VTOL (or STOVL) aircraft (aircraft that are able to take off and land with little or no forward movement), such as the Sea Harrier. Although these aircraft are capable of taking off vertically from the deck, using the ramp is more fuel efficient and permits a heavier launch weight. As catapults and arrestor cables are unnecessary, carriers with this arrangement reduce weight, complexity, and space needed for equipment. Russian and future Indian carriers include a ski-jump ramp for launching conventional aircraft. The disadvantage of the ski-jump—and the reason this configuration has not appeared on American supercarriers—is the penalty it exacts on aircraft size, payload, and fuel load (and thus range): large, slow planes such as the E-2 Hawkeye and heavily-laden strike fighters like the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and Sukhoi Su-33 cannot successfully launch using a ski-jump because their high loaded weight requires either a longer takeoff roll than is possible on a carrier deck, or catapult assistance, although the Su-33 does launch with a light fuel and weapons load from a ski jump. Aircraft carriers in service Four modern aircraft carriers of various types—, FS Charles de Gaulle, and —and escort vessels on operations in 2002. The ships are sailing much closer together than they would during combat operations. HTMS Chakri Naruebet, Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov Aircraft carriers are generally the largest ships operated by navies; a Nimitz-class carrier powered by two nuclear reactors and four steam turbines is () long and costs about $4.5 billion. The United States Navy has the world's largest carrier fleet, with twelve in service, and one on order (all of them supercarriers). It is also the only navy to possess operational supercarriers. The U.S. Navy's aircraft carriers are a cornerstone of American power projection capability. A total of 22 aircraft carriers in active service are maintained by nine navies. In addition, the People's Republic of China's People's Liberation Army Navy possesses the former Soviet aircraft carrier Varyag. The United States, Brazil, South Korea, United Kingdom, the People's Republic of China, India, Japan, Australia, and France also operate vessels capable of carrying and operating multiple helicopters. Classes currently in service: Brazil (1) NAe São Paulo: 32,800 tons ex-French FS Foch (launched 1960), purchased 15 November 2000 France (1) Charles de Gaulle (R 91) : 42,000 tons nuclear powered aircraft carrier, commissioned 18 May 2001 India (1) INS Viraat: 28,700 tons ex-British HMS Hermes (launched 1953), purchased 19 April 1986 and commissioned May 1987, scheduled to be decommissioned in 2012. Italy (2) Giuseppe Garibaldi (551): 14,000 tons Italian STOVL, commissioned in september 1985. Cavour: 27,000 tons Italian STOVL, commissioned in 2008. Russia (1) Admiral Flota Sovetskovo Soyuza Kuznetsov: 67,500 tons Kuznetsov class STOBAR aircraft carrier. Launched in 1985 as Tbilisi, renamed and operational from 1995. Spain (2) Principe de Asturias: 17,200 tons STOVL carrier, commissioned 30 May 1988. Juan Carlos I: 27,000 tons Buque de Proyección Estratégica class amphibious ship/VSTOL carrier, to be commissioned in 2009. Thailand (1) HTMS Chakri Naruebet: 11,400 tons carrier based on Spanish Principe De Asturias design. Commissioned 10 August 1997, though remains predominantly inactive due to lack of funds. United Kingdom (2) Invincible STOVL class aircraft carrier United States (11) USS Enterprise (CVN-65): 93,500 ton nuclear-powered supercarrier, commissioned 25 November 1961. First nuclear-powered aircraft carrier. Due for decommissioning in 2015. Nimitz-class: 101,000 ton nuclear-powered supercarrier in active service, commissioned 3 May 1975. The United States Navy has deployed ten carriers of this class. Future aircraft carriers Several nations which currently possess aircraft carriers are in the process of planning new classes to replace current ones. The world's navies still generally see the aircraft carrier as the main future capital ship, with developments such as the arsenal ship, which have been promoted as an alternative, seen as too limited in terms of flexibility. Military experts such as John Keegan Submarine aircraft carriers (uneven-quality private website, but has third-party citations in support) have noted that in any future naval conflict between reasonably evenly matched powers, all surface ships—including aircraft carriers—would be at extreme and disproportionate risk, mainly due to the advanced capabilities of satellite reconnaissance and anti-ship missiles. Contrary to the thrust of most current naval spending, Keegan therefore postulates that eventually most navies will move to submarines as their main fighting ships, including in roles where submarines play only a minor or no role at the moment. China China bought the unfinished Soviet aircraft carrier Varyag in 2001 from Ukraine, supposedly to turn it into a floating casino. Pictures taken while in port suggest this plan has been abandoned and show that work is being carried out to maintain its military function. There is no conclusive evidence as to what role it would play in the Chinese Navy. In late December 2008 and early January 2009, there were multiple reports of China building two conventionally powered aircraft carriers displacing 50,000–60,000 tonnes, possibly to be launched in 2015. In 2009, for the first time, official Chinese state media quoted Defense Minister Liang Guanglie stating China's intention to build aircraft carriers. France The French Navy has set in motion possible plans for a second CTOL aircraft carrier, to supplement Charles de Gaulle. The design would be much larger, in the range of 65–74,000 tonnes, and would not be nuclear-powered like Charles de Gaulle. There are plans to base the carrier on the current Royal Navy design for CATOBAR operations. (The Thales/BAE Systems design for the Royal Navy is for a STOVL carrier which is reconfigurable to CATOBAR operations.) On 21 June 2008, French President Nicolas Sarkozy decided to place France's participation in the project on hold. He stated that a final decision on the future of the French carrier would be taken in 2011 or 2012. British plans for two aircraft carriers will go ahead as planned and were in no way conditional on French participation. India India started the construction of a 40,000 tonne, 260 m-long Vikrant-class aircraft carrier in April 2005. The new carrier will cost US$762 million and will operate MiG-29K, Naval HAL Tejas and Sea Harrier aircraft along with the Indian-made helicopter HAL Dhruv. The ship will be powered by four turbine engines and will have a range of 8,000 nautical miles (14,000 km), carrying 160 officers, 1,400 sailors, and 30 aircraft. The carrier is being constructed by a state-run shipyard in Cochin. In 2004, India agreed to buy the Admiral Gorshkov from Russia for US$1.5 billion. It is most likely to be named INS Vikramaditya, and was expected to join the Indian Navy in 2008 after a refit. However, delays in the refit were announced in July 2007. In July 2008, Russia increased the total price to US$3.4 billion because of unexpected cost overuns due to the deteriorated condition of the ship. Russian aircraft carrier ready in 2012 if India pays $2 bln more In December 2008, India finally decided in favour of purchasing Admiral Gorshkov as the best option available. In February 2009, Russia asked for an additional $700 million payment for the completion of the reconstruction of the Admiral Gorshkov, bringing the total price requested by the Russians to $2.9 billion, more than three times the originally-contracted price. Italy The Italian aircraft carrier Cavour The construction of the conventionally powered Marina Militare STOVL aircraft carrier Cavour began in 2001. The ship of nearly 30,000 tons is being built by Fincantieri of Italy and has been officially commissioned to the Italian Navy since the summer 2008. The ship can operate with AV-8B, F-35B, AW101, NH-90, and SH-3 Sea King. After some delay due to additional enlargements, Cavour is expected to be in full operational capability (FOC) in 2009 to complement the Marina Militare aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi. The ship is designed to combine fixed wing V/STOL and helicopter air operations with the transport of military or civil personnel and heavy vehicles. . Russia Russian Navy Commander-in-Chief Admiral Vladimir Masorin officially stated on June 23, 2007 that the Navy was considering the specifications of a new nuclear aircraft carrier design Lenta.Ru newssiteGoogle translation - English 06/23/2007 for the class that was first announced about a month earlier. Production of the carriers is expected to start around 2010 at the Zvezdochka plant in Severodvinsk, where a large drydock, capable of launching vessels with more than 100,000 ton displacement, is now being built. Lenta.Ru newssite Google translation - English 07/04/2006 In his statement, Admiral Masorin said that the general dimensions of the project have already been determined. The projected carrier is to have nuclear propulsion, to displace about 50,000 tons and to carry an air wing of 30–50 air superiority aircraft and helicopters, which makes her roughly comparable with the French Charles de Gaulle. "The giants that the US Navy builds, those that carry 100-130 aircraft, we won't build anything like that", said Admiral Masorin. The planned specifications reflect the role, traditional in the Russian Navy, of the aircraft carrier as an air support platform for guided missile cruisers and submarines. The Russian naval establishment had long agreed, since the decommissioning of the Kiev-class carriers, that the only operational carrier, Admiral Kuznetsov, was insufficient, and that three or four carriers were necessary to meet the Navy's air support requirements. However, financial and organisational turmoil in the 1990s made even the maintenance of Admiral Kuznetsov a difficult undertaking. The improvement in Russia's economic situation after the year 2000 has allowed a major increase in defence spending. Admiral Vladimir Vysotsky announced on Navy Day 2008 that Russia plans to build 5 or 6 carriers of the new design for deployment in the Northern and Pacific fleets, starting around 2012-2013. RIA Novosti. 2008, 27 July. "Russia to have 5-6 aircraft carriers in Northern, Pacific Fleets". The new carrier groups are planned to be at full strength around 2050–2060. RIA Novosti. 2008, 4 April. "Russia to have 5-6 aircraft carriers by 2060 - Navy commander". Acourding to sources from the United Shipbuilding Corporation the new carriers will carry new fifth-generation fighters as well as unmanned aerial vehicles and have a displacement of up to 60,000 metric tons. http://en.rian.ru/russia/20090227/120342249.html Spain The 231 meter-long, 27,000 tonne Juan Carlos I for the Spanish Navy was approved in 2003, and its construction started in August 2005, with the shipbuilding firm Navantia in charge of the project. The ship was launched on 10 March 2008, and is due to be commissioned in 2011. Juan Carlos I is designed to operate both as an amphibious assault ship and as STOVL aircraft carrier, depending on the mission assigned. The design was made keeping in mind the low-intensity conflicts in which the Spanish Navy is likely to be involved in the future. When configured for air operations the ship will displace 24,660 tonnes and will be able to carry a mixed force of up to 30 aircraft comprising AV-8B+ Matadors, F-35s and helicopters. The ship is provided with a ski-jump and a three-dimensional radar-based combat system. United Kingdom Impression of the Queen Elizabeth class, two of which are under construction for the Royal Navy. The Royal Navy has signed a deal to build two new larger STOVL aircraft carriers, the Queen Elizabeth class, to replace the three Invincible-class carriers. The ships are to be named and . "Queen Elizabeth class Future Aircraft Carrier CVF (002)." Pike, J. GlobalSecurity.org. They will be able to operate up to 40 aircraft, and will have a displacement of around 65,000 tonnes. The two ships are due to enter service in 2014 and 2016 respectively. Their primary aircraft complement will be made up of F-35B Lightning IIs, and their ship's company will number around 600. The two ships will be the largest warships ever built for the Royal Navy. Initially to be configured for STOVL operations, the carriers are to be adaptable to STOBAR or CATOBAR configurations to allow any type of future generation of aircraft to operate from them. United States Virtual depiction of the new US Navy Gerald R. Ford-class carrier The current US fleet of Nimitz-class carriers are to be followed into service (and in some cases replaced) by the Gerald R. Ford class. It is expected that the ships will be larger than the , and will also be designed to be less detectable by radar. The United States Navy is also looking to make these new carriers more automated in an effort to reduce the amount of funding required to maintain and operate its supercarriers. The main new features are implementation of EMALS (which replace the old steamcatapults) and autonomous dive bombers. Each squadron of 3 dive bombers would be controlled by 1 pilot. With the decommissioning of the in March 2007, the U.S. fleet has been reduced to 11 supercarriers; thus creating major discussions between the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Congress. The House Armed Services Seapower subcommittee on July 24, 2007 recommended seven or maybe eight new carriers (one every four years). However, the debate has deepened over budgeting for the $12–14.5 billion (plus $12 billion for development and research) for the 100,000-ton Gerald Ford-class carrier (estimated service 2015) compared to the smaller $2 billion 45,000-ton class big-deck amphibious assault ships able to deploy squadrons of F-35B. See also History of the aircraft carrier Modern US Navy carrier air operations Project Habakkuk Seadrome Mobile offshore base Hull classification symbol Other aircraft carriers Anti-submarine warfare carrier Escort carrier Helicopter carrier Light aircraft carrier Supercarrier Amphibious assault ship Seaplane tender Balloon carrier Airborne aircraft carrier Submarine aircraft carrier Land mobile aircraft carrier Related lists List of aircraft carriers List of aircraft carriers by country List of aircraft carriers by type List of aircraft carrier classes of the United States Navy List of aircraft carriers in service Timeline for aircraft carrier service List of amphibious warfare ships References Notes Bibliography Francillon, René J, Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club US Carrier Operations off Vietnam, (1988) ISBN 0-87021-696-1 Nordeen, Lon, Air Warfare in the Missile Age, (1985) ISBN 1-58834-083-X Ader, Clement, "Military Aviation", 1909, Edited and translated by Lee Kennett, Air University Press, Maxwell Air Force Base Alabama, 2003, ISBN 1-58566-118-X Friedman, Norman, U. S. Aircraft Carriers: an Illustrated Design History, Naval Institute Press, 1983 - ISBN 0870217399. Contains many detailed ship plans. External links World Wide Aircraft Carriers: Their specifications, history, and pictorial review Future Aircraft Carrier: UK - Armed Forces International Aircraft carriers of the USN Info about flight deck crew, arresting cables, catapults How Stuff Works - Aircraft Carriers Haze Gray & Underway, World Aircraft Carrier Lists comprehensive and detailed listings of all the world's aircraft carriers and seaplane tenders from 1913-2001, with photo gallery. Ships That Mother Seaplanes: craft of the "hush-hush" fleet may play a part in first trans-Atlantic flight. 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4,428 | Natural_law | Natural law or the law of nature () is a theory that posits the existence of a law whose content is set by nature and that therefore has validity everywhere. "Natural Law," International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. The phrase natural law is sometimes opposed to the positive law of a given political community, society, or nation-state, and thus can function as a standard by which to criticize that law. In natural law jurisprudence, on the other hand, the content of positive law cannot be known without some reference to the natural law (or something like it). Used in this way, natural law can be invoked to criticize decisions about the statutes, but less so to criticize the law itself. Some use natural law synonymously with natural justice or natural right (Latin ius naturale), although most contemporary political and legal theorists separate the two. Natural law theories have exercised a profound influence on the development of English common law, Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England and have featured greatly in the philosophies of Thomas Aquinas, Francisco Suárez, Richard Hooker, Thomas Hobbes, Hugo Grotius, Samuel von Pufendorf, and John Locke. Because of the intersection between natural law and natural rights, it has been cited as a component in United States Declaration of Independence. History The use of natural law, in its various incarnations, has varied widely through its history. There are a number of different theories of natural law, differing from each other with respect to the role that morality plays in determining the authority of legal norms. This article will deal with its usages separately rather than attempt to unify them into a single theory. Aristotle Greek philosophy emphasized the distinction between "nature" (physis, φúσις) on the one hand and "law", "custom", or "convention" (nomos, νóμος) on the other. What the law commanded varied from place to place, but what was "by nature" should be the same everywhere. A "law of nature" would therefore have had the flavor more of a paradox than something which obviously existed. "Natural Law," International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences Against the conventionalism that the distinction between nature and custom could engender, Socrates and his philosophic heirs, Plato and Aristotle, posited the existence of natural justice or natural right (dikaion physikon, δικαιον φυσικον, Latin ius naturale). Of these, Aristotle is often said to be the father of natural law. Shellens, "Aristotle on Natural Law." Aristotle's association with natural law is due largely to the interpretation given to his works by Thomas Aquinas. Jaffa, Thomism and Aristotelianism. This was based on Aquinas's conflation of natural law and natural right, the latter of which Aristotle posits in Book V of the Nicomachean Ethics (Book IV of the Eudemian Ethics). Aquinas's influence was such as to affect a number of early translations of these passages, H. Rackham, trans., Nicomachean Ethics, Loeb Classical Library; J. A. K. Thomson, trans. (revised by Hugh Tedennick), Nicomachean Ethics, Penguin Classics. though more recent translations render them more literally. Joe Sachs, trans., Nicomachean Ethics, Focus Publishing Aristotle notes that natural justice is a species of political justice, viz. the scheme of distributive and corrective justice that would be established under the best political community; Nicomachean Ethics, Bk. V, ch. 6–7. were this to take the form of law, this could be called a natural law, though Aristotle does not discuss this and suggests in the Politics that the best regime may not rule by law at all. Politics, Bk. III, ch. 16. The best evidence of Aristotle's having thought there was a natural law comes from the Rhetoric, where Aristotle notes that, aside from the "particular" laws that each people has set up for itself, there is a "common" law that is according to nature. Rhetoric 1373b2–8. The context of this remark, however, suggests only that Aristotle advised that it could be rhetorically advantageous to appeal to such a law, especially when the "particular" law of one's own city was averse to the case being made, not that there actually was such a law; Shellens, "Aristotle on Natural Law," 75–81 Aristotle, moreover, considered two of the three candidates for a universally valid, natural law provided in this passage to be wrong. "Natural Law," International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Aristotle's theoretical paternity of the natural law tradition is consequently disputed. Stoic natural law The development of this tradition of natural justice into one of natural law is usually attributed to the Stoics. The rise of natural law as a universal system coincided with the rise of large empires and kingdoms in the Greek world. Lloyd's Introduction to Jurisprudence Seventh Edition. Whereas the "higher" law to which Aristotle suggested one could appeal was emphatically natural, in contradistinction to being the result of divine positive legislation, the Stoic natural law was indifferent to the divine or natural source of the law: the Stoics asserted the existence of a rational and purposeful order to the universe (a divine or eternal law), and the means by which a rational being lived in accordance with this order was the natural law, which spelled out action that accorded with virtue. "Natural Law," International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Stoics emphasized the universal ideas of individual worth, moral duty, and universal brotherhood. These theories became highly influential among Roman jurists, and consequently played a great role in subsequent legal theory. Christian natural law A number (though not all) of the early Church Fathers sought to incorporate it into Christianity. This was true in the West more so than in the East. The most notable among these was Augustine of Hippo, who equated natural law with man's prelapsarian state; as such, a life according to nature was no longer possible and men needed instead to seek salvation through the divine law and grace of Jesus Christ. In the Twelfth Century, Gratian reversed this, equating the natural and divine laws. Thomas Aquinas restored Natural Law to its independent state, asserting that, as the perfection of human reason, it could approach but not fully comprehend the Eternal law and needed to be supplemented by Divine law. See also Biblical law in Christianity. All human laws were to be judged by their conformity to the natural law. An unjust law was in a sense no law at all. At this point, the natural law was not only used to pass judgment on the moral worth of various laws, but also to determine what the law said in the first place. This could result in some tension. Burns, "Aquinas's Two Doctrines of Natural Law." The natural law was inherently deontological in that although it is aimed at goodness, it is entirely focused on the ethicalness of actions, rather than the consequence. The specific content of the natural law was therefore determined by a conception of what things constituted happiness, be they temporal satisfaction or salvation. The state, in being bound by the natural law, was conceived as an institution directed at bringing its subjects to true happiness. In the 16th century, the School of Salamanca (Francisco Suárez, Francisco de Vitoria, etc.) further developed a philosophy of natural law. After the Church of England broke from Rome, the English theologian Richard Hooker adapted Thomistic notions of natural law to Anglicanism. Islamic natural law The Maturidi school, the second largest school of Sunni theology, posits the existence of a form of natural law. Abu Mansur al-Maturidi stated that the human mind could know of the existence of God and the major forms of 'good' and 'evil' without the help of revelation. Al-Maturidi gives the example of stealing which is known to be evil by reason alone due to man's working hard for his property. Killing, fornication, and drinking alcohol were all 'evils' which the human mind could know of according to al-Maturidi. The concept of Istislah in Islamic law bears some similarities to the natural law tradition in the West, as exemplified by Thomas Aquinas. However, whereas natural law deems good that which is known self-evidently to be good, according as it tends towards the fulfilment of the person, istislah calls good whatever is connected to one of five "basic goods". Al-Ghazali abstracted these "basic goods" from the legal precepts in the Qur'an and Sunnah: they are religion, life, reason, lineage and property. Some add also "honour". Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzi also posited that human reason could discern between 'great sins' and good deeds. Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, an Islamic scholar and polymath scientist, understood natural law as the law of the jungle. He argued that the antagonism between human beings can only be overcome through a divine law, which he believed to have been sent through prophets. This is also the position of the Ashari school the largest school of Sunni theology. Averroes (Ibn Rushd), in his treatise on Justice and Jihad and his commentary on Plato's Republic, writes that the human mind can know of the unlawfulness of killing and stealing and thus of the five maqasid or higher intents of the Islamic sharia or to protect religion, life, property, offspring, and reason. The concept of natural law entered the mainstream of Western culture through his Aristotelian commentaries, influencing the subsequent Averroist movement and the writings of Thomas Aquinas. Hobbes' natural law By the Seventeenth Century, the Medieval teleological view came under intense criticism from some quarters. Thomas Hobbes instead founded a contractualist theory of legal positivism on what all men could agree upon: what they sought (happiness) was subject to contention, but a broad consensus could form around what they feared (violent death at the hands of another). The natural law was how a rational human being, seeking to survive and prosper, would act. It was discovered by considering humankind's natural rights, whereas previously it could be said that natural rights were discovered by considering the natural law. In Hobbes' opinion, the only way natural law could prevail was for men to submit to the commands of the sovereign. Because the ultimate source of law now comes from the sovereign, and the sovereign's decisions need not be grounded in morality, legal positivism is born. Jeremy Bentham's modifications on legal positivism further developed the theory. As used by Thomas Hobbes in his treatises Leviathan and De Cive, natural law is "a precept, or general rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to do that which is destructive of his life, or takes away the means of preserving the same; and to omit that by which he thinks it may best be preserved." According to Hobbes, there are nineteen Laws. The first two are expounded in chapter XIV of Leviathan("of the first and second natural laws; and of contracts"); the others in chapter XV ("of other laws of nature"). The first Law of nature is that every man ought to endeavour peace, as far as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek and use all helps and advantages of war. The second Law of nature is that a man be willing, when others are so too, as far forth, as for peace, and defence of himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men, as he would allow other men against himself. The third Law is that men perform their covenants made. In this law of nature consisteth the fountain and original of justice... when a covenant is made, then to break it is unjust and the definition of injustice is no other than the not performance of covenant. And whatsoever is not unjust is just. The fourth Law is that a man which receiveth benefit from another of mere grace, endeavour that he which giveth it, have no reasonable cause to repent him of his good will. Breach of this law is called ingratitude. The fifth Law is complaisance: that every man strive to accommodate himself to the rest. The observers of this law may be called sociable; the contrary, stubborn, insociable, froward, intractable. The sixth Law is that upon caution of the future time, a man ought to pardon the offences past of them that repenting, desire it. The seventh Law is that in revenges, men look not at the greatness of the evil past, but the greatness of the good to follow. The eighth Law is that no man by deed, word, countenance, or gesture, declare hatred or contempt of another. The breach of which law is commonly called contumely. The ninth Law is that every man acknowledge another for his equal by nature. The breach of this precept is pride. The tenth law is that at the entrance into the conditions of peace, no man require to reserve to himself any right, which he is not content should be reserved to every one of the rest. The breach of this precept is arrogance, and observers of the precept are called modest. The eleventh law is that if a man be trusted to judge between man and man, that he deal equally between them. The twelfth law is that such things as cannot be divided, be enjoyed in common, if it can be; and if the quantity of the thing permit, without stint; otherwise proportionably to the number of them that have right. The thirteenth law is that those things which cannot be enjoyed in common, nor divided, ought to be adjudged to the first possessor; and in some cases to the first born, as acquired by lot. The fourteenth law is that all men that mediate peace be allowed safe conduct. The fifteenth law is that they that are at controversy submit their right to the judgment of an arbitrator. The sixteenth law is that no man is a fit arbitrator in his own cause. Liberal natural law Liberal natural law grew out of the medieval Christian natural law theories and out of Hobbes' revision of natural law, sometimes in an uneasy balance of the two. Hugo Grotius based his philosophy of international law on natural law. In particular, his writings on freedom of the seas and just war theory directly appealed to natural law. About natural law itself, he wrote that "even the will of an omnipotent being cannot change or abrogate" natural law, which "would maintain its objective validity even if we should assume the impossible, that there is no God or that he does not care for human affairs." (De iure belli ac pacis, Prolegomeni XI). This is the famous argument etiamsi daremus (non esse Deum), that made natural law no longer dependent on theology. John Locke incorporated natural law into many of his theories and philosophy, especially in Two Treatises of Government. There is considerable debate about whether his conception of natural law was more akin to that of Aquinas (filtered through Richard Hooker) or Hobbes' radical reinterpretation, though the effect of Locke's understanding is usually phrased in terms of a revision of Hobbes upon Hobbesean contractualist grounds. Locke turned Hobbes' prescription around, saying that if the ruler went against natural law and failed to protect "life, liberty, and property," people could justifiably overthrow the existing state and create a new one. While Locke spoke in the language of natural law, the content of this law was by and large protective of natural rights, and it was this language that later liberal thinkers preferred. Thomas Jefferson, echoing Locke, appealed to unalienable rights in the Declaration of Independence, "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." The Belgian philosopher of law Frank van Dun is one among those who are elaborating a secular conception of natural law in the liberal tradition. However, a secular critique of the natural law doctrine was stated by Pierre Charron in his De la sagesse (1601): "The sign of a natural law must be the universal respect in which it is held, for if there was anything that nature had truly commanded us to do, we would undoubtedly obey it universally: not only would every nation respect it, but every individual. Instead there is nothing in the world that is not subject to contradiction and dispute, nothing that is not rejected, not just by one nation, but by many; equally, there is nothing that is strange and (in the opinion of many) unnatural that is not approved in many countries, and authorized by their customs." Contemporary Catholic understanding The Roman Catholic Church holds the view of natural law set forth by Thomas Aquinas, particularly in his Summa Theologica, and often as filtered through the School of Salamanca. This view is also shared by some Protestant churches. A Biblical Case for Natural Law, by David VanDrunen. Studies in Christian Social Ethics and Economics, no. 1. Grand Rapids: Acton Institute, 2006. The Catholic Church understands human beings to consist of body and mind, the physical and the non-physical (or soul perhaps), and that the two are inextricably linked. Humans are capable of discerning the difference between good and evil because they have a conscience. There are many manifestations of the good that we can pursue. Some, like procreation, are common to other animals, while others, like the pursuit of truth, are inclinations peculiar to the capacities of human beings. To know what is right, one must use one's reason and apply it to Aquinas' precepts. This reason is believed to be embodied, in its most abstract form, in the concept of a primary precept: "Good is to be sought, evil avoided." Summa Theologica I-II, Q. 94, A. 2. St. Thomas explains that: there belongs to the natural law, first, certain most general precepts, that are known to all; and secondly, certain secondary and more detailed precepts, which are, as it were, conclusions following closely from first principles. As to those general principles, the natural law, in the abstract, can nowise be blotted out from men's hearts. But it is blotted out in the case of a particular action, insofar as reason is hindered from applying the general principle to a particular point of practice, on account of concupiscence or some other passion, as stated above (77, 2). But as to the other, i.e., the secondary precepts, the natural law can be blotted out from the human heart, either by evil persuasions, just as in speculative matters errors occur in respect of necessary conclusions; or by vicious customs and corrupt habits, as among some men, theft, and even unnatural vices, as the Apostle states (Rm. i), were not esteemed sinful. Summa Theologica I-II, Q. 94, A. 6. However, while the primary and immediate precepts cannot be "blotted out", the secondary precepts can be. Therefore, for a deontological ethical theory they are open to a surprisingly large amount of interpretation and flexibility. Any rule that helps man to live up to the primary or subsidiary precepts can be a secondary precept, for example: Drunkenness is wrong because it injures one's health, and worse, destroys one's ability to reason, which is fundamental to man as a rational animal (i.e. does not support self preservation). Theft is wrong because it destroys social relations, and man is by nature a social animal (i.e. does not support the subsidiary precept of living in society). Natural moral law is concerned with both exterior and interior acts, also known as action and motive. Simply doing the right thing is not enough; to be truly moral one's motive must be right as well. For example, helping an old lady across the road (good exterior act) to impress someone (bad interior act) is wrong. However, good intentions don’t always lead to good actions. The motive must coincide with Aquinas's cardinal or theological virtues. Cardinal virtues are acquired through reason applied to nature; they are: Prudence Justice Temperance Fortitude His theological virtues are: Faith Hope Charity According to Aquinas, to lack any of these virtues is to lack the ability to make a moral choice. For example, consider a man who possesses the virtues of justice, prudence, and fortitude, yet lacks temperance. Due to his lack of self control and desire for pleasure, despite his good intentions, he will find himself swaying from the moral path. In contemporary jurisprudence In jurisprudence, natural law can refer to the several doctrines: That just laws are immanent in nature; that is, they can be "discovered" or "found" but not "created" by such things as a bill of rights; That they can emerge by the natural process of resolving conflicts, as embodied by the evolutionary process of the common law; or That the meaning of law is such that its content cannot be determined except by reference to moral principles. These meanings can either oppose or complement each other, although they share the common trait that they rely on inherence as opposed to design in finding just laws. Whereas legal positivism would say that a law can be unjust without it being any less a law, a natural law jurisprudence would say that there is something legally deficient about an unjust law. Legal interpretivism, famously defended in the English speaking world by Ronald Dworkin, claims to have a position different from both natural law and positivism. Besides utilitarianism and Kantianism, natural law jurisprudence has in common with virtue ethics that it is a live option for a first principles ethics theory in analytic philosophy. The concept of natural law was very important in the development of the English common law. In the struggles between Parliament and the monarch, Parliament often made reference to the Fundamental Laws of England which were at times said to embody natural law principles since time immemorial and set limits on the power of the monarchy. According to William Blackstone, however, natural law might be useful in determining the content of the common law and in deciding cases of equity, but was not itself identical with the laws of England. Nonetheless, the implication of natural law in the common law tradition has meant that the great opponents of natural law and advocates of legal positivism, like Jeremy Bentham have also been staunch critics of the common law. Natural law jurisprudence is currently undergoing a period of reformulation (as is legal positivism). The most prominent contemporary natural law jurist, Australian John Finnis, is based in Oxford, but there are also Americans Germain Grisez, Robert P. George, and Canadian Joseph Boyle. All have tried to construct a new version of natural law. The 19th-century anarchist and legal theorist, Lysander Spooner, was also a figure in the expression of modern natural law. "New Natural Law" as it is sometimes called, originated with Grisez. It focuses on "basic human goods," such as human life, knowledge, and aesthetic experience, which are self-evidently and intrinsically worthwhile, and states that these goods reveal themselves as being incommensurable with one another. See also Aristotle Thomas Aquinas Jean Barbeyrac Richard Cumberland John Finnis Hugo Grotius Thomas Hobbes John Locke Samuel von Pufendorf Legal positivism Natural justice Natural rights Naturalistic fallacy School of Salamanca Stoicism Substantive due process Unenumerated rights References Further reading Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by H. Rackham. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by J. A. K. Thomson (revised by Hugh Trennedick). New York: Penguin. Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by Joe Sachs. Newburyport, MA: Focus Publishing. Aristotle. Rhetoric. Aristotle. Politics. Barzilai, Gad. 2007. Law and Religion. International Library of Essays on Law and Society. Ashgate. Blackstone, William. 1765–9. Commentaries on the Laws of England. Burns, Tony. 2000. "Aquinas's Two Doctrines of Natural Law." Political Studies 48. Pp. 929–946. Finnis, John. 1980. Natural Law and Natural Rights. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Haakonssen, Knud. 1992. “Natural Law Theory.” In Lawrence C. Becker and Charlotte B. Becker, eds. Encyclopedia of Ethics. New York: Garland. Haakonssen, Knud. 1996. Natural Law and Moral Philosophy: From Grotius to the Scottish Enlightenment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Jaffa, Harry V. 1952. Thomism and Aristotelianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kainz, Howard P. 2004. Natural Law: an Introduction and Re-examination. Open Court. ISBN 0-8126-9454-6. "Natural Law." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. New York, 1968. Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy. 2003. Introducing Political Philosophy. Icon Books. ISBN 1-84046-450-X. Raoul Muhm: Germania: La rinascita del diritto naturale e i crimini contro l´umanità. Deutschland: Die Renaissance des Naturrechts und die Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit. Germany: The renaissance of natural law and crimes against humanity. Vecchiarelli Editore Manziana (Roma) 2004 ISBN 88-8247-153-5 Shellens, Max Salomon. 1959. "Aristotle on Natural Law." Natural Law Forum 4, no. 1. Pp. 72–100. </div> External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: The Natural Law Tradition in Ethics, by Mark Murphy, 2002. Aquinas' Moral, Political, and Legal Philosophy, by John Finnis, 2005. Natural Law Theories, by John Finnis, 2007. Aquinas on natural law Natural Law explained, evaluated and applied A clear introduction to Natural Law Catholic Encyclopedia "Natural Law" Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry 'Natural Law' by Kenneth Einar Himma Daniel Z. Epstein "Law's 'I'" 2007. 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4,429 | Lockheed_C-130_Hercules | The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is a four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft built by Lockheed. It is the main tactical airlifter for many military forces worldwide. Over 40 models and variants of the Hercules serve with more than 50 nations. In December 2006 the C-130 became the fifth aircraft—after the English Electric Canberra, B-52 Stratofortress, Tupolev Tu-95, and KC-135 Stratotanker—to mark 50 years of continuous use with its original primary customer, in this case, the United States Air Force. The C-130 is also the only military aircraft to remain in continuous production for 50 years with its original customer, as the updated C-130J Super Hercules. Capable of takeoffs and landings from unprepared runways, the C-130 was originally designed as a troop, medical evacuation, and cargo transport aircraft. The versatile airframe has found uses in a variety of other roles, including as a gunship, for airborne assault, search and rescue, scientific research support, weather reconnaissance, aerial refueling, maritime patrol and aerial firefighting. The Hercules family has the longest continuous production run of any military aircraft in history. During more than 50 years of service the family has participated in countless military, civilian and humanitarian aid operations. Development Background and requirements The Korean War, which began in June 1950, showed that World War II-era transports—C-119 Flying Boxcars, C-47 Skytrains and C-46 Commandos—were inadequate for modern warfare. Thus on 2 February 1951, the United States Air Force issued a General Operating Requirement (GOR) for a new transport to Boeing, Douglas, Fairchild, Lockheed, Martin, Chase Aircraft, North American, Northrop, and Airlifts Inc. The new transport would have a capacity for 92 passengers, 72 combat troops or 64 paratroopers, a range of , takeoff capability from short and unprepared strips, and the ability to fly with one engine shut down. Fairchild, North American, Martin and Northrop declined to participate. The remaining five companies tendered a total of ten designs: Lockheed two, Boeing one, Chase three, Douglas three, Airlifts Inc. one. The contest was a close affair between the lighter of the two Lockheed (preliminary project designation L-206) proposals and a four-turboprop Douglas design. The two YC-130 prototypes; the blunt nose was replaced with radar on later production models. The Lockheed design team was led by Willis Hawkins, starting with a 130 page proposal for the Lockheed L-206, and another two-turboprop and heavier one. Hall Hibbard, Lockheed vice president and chief engineer, saw the proposal and directed it to Kelly Johnson, who remarked when he saw the proposal, "If you sign that letter, you will destroy the Lockheed Company." Both Hibbard and Johnson signed the proposal and the company won the contract for the now-designated Model 82 on 2 July 1951. The first flight of the YC-130 prototype was made on 23 August 1954 from the Lockheed plant in Burbank, California. The aircraft, serial number 53-3397, was the second prototype but the first of the two to fly. The YC-130 was piloted by Stanley Beltz and Roy Wimmer on its 61-minute flight to Edwards Air Force Base; Jack Real and Dick Stanton served as flight engineers. Kelly Johnson flew chase in a P2V Neptune. Production C-130 Hercules flight deck After the two prototypes were completed, production began in Marietta, Georgia, where more than 2,300 C-130s have been built. Olausson, Lars. Lockheed Hercules Production List 1954-2011 - 27th Edition, Såtenäs, Sweden, March 2009. Self-published. No ISBN, p. 129. The initial production model, the C-130A, was powered by Allison T56-A-9 turboprops with three-blade propellers. Deliveries began in December 1956, continuing until the introduction of the C-130B model in 1959. Some A models were re-designated C-130D after being equipped with skis. The newer C-130B had ailerons with increased boost — 3,000 psi (21 MPa) versus 2,050 psi (14 MPa) — as well as uprated engines and four-bladed propellers that were standard until the J-model's introduction. C-130A model The first production C-130s were designated as A-models, with deliveries to the 463d Troop Carrier Wing at Ardmore AFB, Oklahoma and the 314th Troop Carrier Wing at Sewart AFB, Tennessee. Six additional squadrons were assigned to the 322d Air Division in Europe and the 315th Air Division in the Far East. Additional airplanes were modified for electronics intelligence work and assigned to Rhein-Main Air Base, Germany while modified RC-130As were assigned to the Military Air Transport Service (MATS) photo-mapping division. Airplanes equipped with giant skis were designated as C-130Ds, but were essentially A-models except for the conversion. As the C-130A became operational with Tactical Air Command (TAC), the airplane's lack of range became apparent and additional fuel capacity was added in the form of external pylon-mounted tanks at the end of the wings. The A-model continued in service through the Vietnam War, where the airplanes assigned to the four squadrons at Naha AB, Okinawa and one at Tachikawa Air Base, Japan performed yeoman's service, including operating highly classified special operations missions such as the BLIND BAT FAC/Flare mission and FACT SHEET leaflet mission over Laos and North Vietnam. The A-model was also provided to the South Vietnamese Air Force as part of the Vietnamization program at the end of the war, and equipped three squadrons based at Tan Son Nhut AFB. Last operator in the world is the Honduran Air Force which is still flying one of five A model Hercs. C-130B model The C-130B model was developed to complement the A-models that had previously been delivered,and incorporated new features, particularly increased fuel capacity in the form of auxiliary tanks built into the center wing section and an AC electrical system. Four-bladed Hartzell propellers replaced the Aero Product three-bladed propellers that distinguished the earlier A-models. B-models replaced A-models in the 314th and 463rd Troop Carrier Wings. During the Vietnam War four squadrons assigned to the 463rd Troop Carrier/Tactical Airlift Wing based at Clark and Mactan Air Fields in the Philippines were used primarily for tactical airlift operations in South Vietnam. In the spring of 1969 463rd crews commenced COMMANDO VAULT bombing missions dropping M-121 10,000 lb (4,534 kg) bombs to clear "instant LZs" for helicopters. As the Vietnam War wound down, the 463rd B-models and A-models of the 374th Tactical Airlift Wing were transferred back to the United States where most were assigned to Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard units. Another prominent role for the B-model was with the United States Marine Corps, where Hercules initially designated as GV-1s replaced C-119s. After Air Force C-130Ds proved the type's usefulness in Antarctica, the US Navy purchased a number of B-models equipped with skis that were designated as LC-130s. An electronic reconnaissance variant of the C-130B was designated C-130B-II. 13 aircraft were converted and operated under the SUN VALLEY program name. They were operated primarily from Yokota Air Base, Japan. All reverted to standard C-130B cargo aircraft after their replacement in the reconnaissance role by other aircraft. The C-130B-II was distinguished by its false external wing fuel tanks, which were disguised signals intelligence (SIGINT) receiver antennas. These pods were slightly larger than the standard wing tanks found on other C-130Bs. Most aircraft featured a swept blade antenna on the upper fuselage, as well as extra wire antennas between the vertical fin and upper fuselage not found on other C-130s. Radio call numbers on the tail of these aircraft were regularly changed so as to confuse observers and disguise their true mission. C-130E model The extended range C-130E model entered service in 1962 after it was developed as an interim long-range transport for the Military Air Transport Service. Essentially a B-model, the new designation was the result of the installation of 1,360 US gal (5,150 l) Sargent Fletcher external fuel tanks under each wings (mid-section) and more powerful Allison T-56-A-7A turboprops. The E model also featured structural improvements, avionics upgrades and a higher gross weight. The KC-130 tankers, originally C-130Fs procured for the US Marine Corps (USMC) in 1958 (under the designation GV-1) are equipped with a removable 3,600 US gal (13,626 l) stainless steel fuel tank carried inside the cargo compartment. The two wing-mounted hose and drogue aerial refueling pods each transfer up to 300 US gal per minute (19 l per second) to two aircraft simultaneously, allowing for rapid cycle times of multiple-receiver aircraft formations, (a typical tanker formation of four aircraft in less than 30 minutes). The US Navy's C-130G has increased structural strength allowing higher gross weight operation. C-130H model Japan Air Self-Defense Force C-130H The C-130H model has updated Allison T56-A-15 turboprops, a redesigned outer wing, updated avionics and other minor improvements. Later H models had a new, fatigue-life-improved, center wing that was retro-fitted to many earlier H-models. The H model remains in widespread use with the US Air Force (USAF) and many foreign air forces. Initial deliveries began in 1964 (to the RNZAF), remaining in production until 1996. An improved C-130H was introduced in 1974. The United States Coast Guard employs the HC-130H for long range search and rescue, drug interdiction, illegal migrant patrols, homeland security, and logistics. From 1992 to 1996 the C-130H was described as a C-130H3 by the USAF. The 3 denoting the third variation in design for the H series. Improvements included a partial glass cockpit (ADI and HSI instruments), a more capable APN-241 color radar, night vision device compatible instrument lighting and an improved electrical system using Bus Switching Units to provide 'clean' power to the more sensitive upgraded components. C-130K model Royal Air Force C-130K (C.3) The equivalent model for export to the UK is the C-130K, known by the Royal Air Force (RAF) as the Hercules C.1. The C-130H-30 (Hercules C.3 in RAF service) is a stretched version of the original Hercules, achieved by inserting a 100 in (2.54 m) plug aft of the cockpit and an 80 in (2.03 m) plug at the rear of the fuselage. A single C-130K was purchased by the Met Office for use by its Meteorological Research Flight. This aircraft was heavily modified (with its most prominent feature being the long red and white striped atmospheric probe on the nose and the move of the weather radar into a pod above the forward fuselage) to the extent that it was given the designation W.2, to differentiate it from the ordinary C.1. This aircraft, named Snoopy, was withdrawn in 2001 and was then modified by Marshall of Cambridge Aerospace as flight-test bed for A400M turbine, the TP400. The C-130K is used by the RAF Falcons for parachute drops. Three C-130K (Hercules C Mk.1P) were upgraded and sold to the Austrian Air Force in 2002. C-130K in the Austrian Air Force Later C-130 models & variants USAF HC-130P refuels an HH-60G Pavehawk helicopter The HC-130N & P are long range search and rescue variants used by the USAF, to include the Air Force Reserve Command and the Air National Guard. Equipped for deep deployment of Pararescuemen (PJs), survival equipment, and aerial refueling of combat rescue helicopters, HC-130s are usually the on-scene command aircraft for combat SAR missions. Early versions were equipped with the Fulton surface-to-air recovery system, designed to pull a person off the ground using a wire strung from a helium balloon. The John Wayne movie The Green Berets features its use. The Fulton system was later removed when aerial refueling of helicopters proved safer and more versatile. The movie The Perfect Storm depicts a real life SAR mission involving aerial refueling of a New York Air National Guard HH-60G by an Air National Guard HC-130P. The C-130R and C-130T are US Navy and USMC models, both equipped with underwing external fuel tanks. The C-130T is similar, but has numerous avionics improvements over the R model and is fully night vision system compatible. In both models, USMC aircraft are equipped with Allison T-56-A-16 engines. The USMC versions are designated KC-130R or KC-130T when equipped with underwing refueling pods and pylons. The RC-130 is a reconnaissance version. A single example is used by the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, the aircraft having originally been sold to the former Imperial Iranian Air Force. L-382 of Tepper Aviation at Mojave Spaceport The Lockheed L-100 (L-382) is a civilian variant, equivalent to a C-130E model without pylon tanks or military equipment. The L-100 also has 2 stretched versions: the L-100-20 has an 8.3 ft (2.5 m) fuselage stretch and the L-100-30 is stretched by 15 ft (4.6 m). The L-100 has not seen widespread use in the civilian market. Next generation In the 1970s, Lockheed proposed a C-130 variant with turbofan engines rather than turboprops, but the US Air Force preferred the takeoff performance of the existing aircraft. In the 1980s, the C-130 was intended to be replaced by the Advanced Medium STOL Transport project. The project was canceled and the C-130 has remained in production. In the 1990s, the improved C-130J Super Hercules was developed by Lockheed (later Lockheed Martin). This model is the newest version and the only model in production. Externally similar to the classic Hercules in general appearance, the J model has new turboprop engines, six-bladed propellers, digital avionics, and other new systems. Operational history A Hercules deploying flares, sometimes referred as to Angel Flares due to the characteristic shape C-130 Hercules performing takeoffs and landings aboard the aircraft carrier in 1963. This aircraft is currently on display at the National Museum of Naval Aviation. The Hercules holds the record for the largest and heaviest aircraft to land on an aircraft carrier . In October and November 1963, a USMC KC-130F (BuNo 149798), bailed to the US Naval Air Test Center, made 29 touch-and-go landings, 21 unarrested full-stop landings and 21 unassisted take-offs on the USS Forrestal at a number of different weights. The pilot, LT (later RADM) James Flatley III, USN, was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his participation. The tests were highly successful, but the idea was considered too risky for routine "Carrier Onboard Delivery" (COD) operations. Instead, the C-2 Greyhound was developed as a dedicated COD aircraft. (The Hercules used in the test, most recently in service with Marine Aerial Refueler Squadron 352 (VMGR-352) until 2005, is now part of the collection of the National Museum of Naval Aviation at NAS Pensacola, Florida.) While the C-130 is involved in cargo and resupply operations daily, it has been a part of some notable offensive operations: The AC-130 also holds the record for the longest sustained flight by a C-130. From 22 October to 24 October 1997, two AC-130U gunships flew 36.0 hours nonstop from Hurlburt Field Florida to Taegu (Daegu) South Korea while being refueled 7 times by KC-135 tanker aircraft. This record flight shattered the previous record longest flight by over 10 hours while the 2 gunships took on of fuel. With the exception of 'Eldorado Canyon', the U.S. raid on Libya, the gunship has been used in every U.S. combat operation since Vietnam. The MC-130 Combat Talon variant carries and deploys the among the largest conventional bombs in the world, the BLU-82 "Daisy Cutter" and GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast bomb, also known as the MOAB. Daisy Cutters were used during the Vietnam War to clear landing zones for helicopters and to eliminate minefields and have recently even been proposed for anti-personnel use. The weight and size of the weapons make it impossible or impractical to load them on conventional bombers. The GBU-43/B MOAB is a successor to the BLU-82 and can perform the same function, as well as perform strike functions against hardened targets in a low air threat environment. In the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, the Pakistan Air Force modified/improvised several aircraft for use as heavy bombers, and attacks were made on enemy bridges and troop concentrations with some notable successes. No aircraft were lost in the operations, though one was slightly damaged. It was also used in the 1976 Entebbe raid in which Israeli commando forces carried a surprise assault to rescue 103 passengers of an airliner hijacked by Palestinian and German terrorists at Entebbe Airport, Uganda. The rescue force — 200 soldiers, jeeps, and a black Mercedes-Benz (intended to resemble Ugandan Dictator Idi Amin's vehicle of state) — was flown from Israel to Entebbe by five Israeli Air Force (IAF) Hercules aircraft without mid-air refueling (on the way back, the planes refueled in Nairobi, Kenya). During the Falklands War of 1982, Argentine Air Force C-130s undertook highly dangerous, daily re-supply flights to the Argentine garrison on the Falkland Islands. Only one was lost during the war. Argentina also operated two KC-130s refuellers during the war, and these refueled the Skyhawk attack planes which sank the British frigate . The British also used their C-130s to support their logistical operations. During the Gulf War of 1991, the C-130 Hercules was used operationally by the US Air Force, US Navy and US Marine Corps, and the air forces of Australia, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, South Korea and the UK. During the invasion of Afghanistan and in support of the International Security Assistance Force, the C-130 Hercules was used operationally by Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, South Korea, Spain, the UK and the United States. During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the C-130 Hercules was used operationally by Australia, the UK and the United States. After the initial invasion, C-130 operators as part of the Multinational force in Iraq used their C-130s to support their forces in Iraq. One RAF C-130 was shot down on 30 January 2005, when an Iraqi insurgent brought it down firing with a ZU-23 anti-aircraft artillery gun while the plane was flying at 164 ft (50 m) after it had dropped SAS special forces paratroopers. USMC C-130T Fat Albert A prominent C-130T aircraft is Fat Albert, the support aircraft for the US Navy Blue Angels flight demonstration team. Although Fat Albert supports a Navy squadron, it is operated by the US Marine Corps (USMC) and its crew consists solely of USMC personnel. At some air shows featuring the team, Fat Albert takes part, performing flyovers and sometimes demonstrating its jet-assisted takeoff (JATO) capabilities. Civilian uses In the late 1980s, 22 retired USAF C-130As were removed from storage at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base and transferred to the U.S. Forest Service who then sold them to six private companies to be converted into airtankers for use in fighting wildfires (see U.S. Forest Service airtanker scandal). After one of these aircraft crashed due to wing separation in flight as a result of fatigue stress cracking, the entire fleet of C-130A airtankers was permanently grounded in 2004. (See 2002 airtanker crashes.) On one occasion, an RAF C-130 was used to transport a Sumatran Woolly Rhino from Indonesia to Port Lymne Zoo in East Sussex, UK to take part in a breeding program. Variants Military variants Significant military variants of the C-130 include: C-130A/B/E/F/G/H/T tactical airlifter C-130J Super Hercules tactical airlifter, with new engines, avionics, and updated systems AC-130A/E/H/U gunship C-130D/D-6 ski-equipped version for snow and ice operations United States Air Force / Air National Guard DC-130 and GC-130 unmanned aerial vehicle control EC-130E/J Commando Solo USAF / Air National Guard Psychological operations version EC-130E Airborne Battlefield Command and Control Center (ABCCC) EC-130H Compass Call, electronic warfare and electronic attack. EC-130V AEW variant used by USCG for counter-narcotics missions HC-130H/J/N/P special operations air-to-air refueling tanker, long-range surveillance, search and rescue JC-130 and NC-130 temporary and permanent conversion for flight test operations KC-130F/J/R/T United States Marine Corps aerial refueling tanker and tactical airlifter LC-130F/H/R USAF / Air National Guard ski-equipped version for Arctic and Antarctic support operations. Formerly operated by the United States Navy's Antarctic Development Squadron SIX (VXE-6) in support of the National Science Foundation MC-130E/H Combat Talon I/II (special operations) MC-130W Combat Spear (special operations) MC-130P Combat Shadow (special operations) YMC-130H three modified under Operation Credible Sport for second Iran hostage crisis rescue attempt PC-130 maritime patrol RC-130 reconnaissance SC-130 search and rescue TC-130 aircrew training VC-130 VIP transport WC-130A/B/E/H/J weather reconnaissance ("Hurricane Hunter") version for USAF / Air Force Reserve Command in support of the NOAA/National Weather Service's National Hurricane Center CC-130E/H Hercules - designation for Canadian Forces Hercules aircraft C-130K Hercules designation for Royal Air Force Hercules C1/C2/C3 aircraft Civilian variants Civilian variants are equivalent to a C-130E model without pylon tanks or military equipment. L-100: Civilian version, equivalent to the C-130E L-100-20: Civilian version, stretched L-100-30: Civilian version, stretched Operators Countries operating the C-130 at December 2006 Operational losses The C-130 is a reliable aircraft. The Royal Air Force recorded an accident rate of about one aircraft loss per 250,000 flying hours over the last forty years, placing it behind Vickers VC10s and Lockheed Tristars with no flying losses. However, more than 15 percent of the 2,350-plus production has been lost, including 70 by the United States Air Force and the United States Marine Corps while serving in the war in Southeast Asia. By the nature of the Hercules' worldwide service, the pattern of losses provides an interesting barometer of the global hot spots over the past fifty years. Aircraft on display Nose art on AC-130A AF Serial No. 53-3129 at the USAF Armament Museum, Eglin AFB, FL AC-130A USAF 53-3129, c/n 3001 First production Hercules, modified to gunship configuration in November 1967, survived 37 mm (1.46 in) AAA hit over South Vietnam in March 1973, repaired, and finally retired from the 711th Special Operations Squadron in 1995 for display at the Air Force Armament Museum, Eglin AFB, Florida. Named "The First Lady" since November 1970. AC-130A USAF 54-1623, c/n 3010 Modified to AC-130A by Ling-Temco-Vought in March 1968, operations in SEA, named "Ghost Rider", then with the 711th SOS, 1975-1997. Retired to Dobbins AFB, Georgia, April 1997, with three-blade props reinstalled, as gate guard. To eventual Lockheed museum at Marietta, Georgia. AC-130A USAF 54-1626, c/n 3013 Prototype AC-130A upgrade, operations in Southeast Asia with the 16th Special Operations Squadron, 1967-1972, then to JC-130A test configuration. To the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Dayton, Ohio as JC-130A in 1976. Back to AC-130A configuration in late 1990s. AC-130A USAF 54-1630, c/n 3017 Airlifter with 314 TCW, then to Air Force Missile Test Center, Hanscom Air Force Base, February 1960, then modified to JC-130A with various units. Back to C-130A, November 1967. Conversion by Ling-Temco-Vought to AC-130A, January 1968, ops by 16 SOS, named "Mors de Coelis", then "Azrael - Angel of Death". To 415 SOTS, Hurlburt Field, Florida, August 1971, then to 711 SOS, Duke Field, Florida, November 1975, still as "Azrael" until retirement to the National Museum of the United States Air Force 29 September 1995. C-130A USAF 55-0037, c/n 3064 Airlifter with 773 TCS, 483 TCW, 315 AD, 374 TCW, 815 TAS, 35 TAS, 109 TAS, belly-landed at Duluth, MN., April 1973, repaired; 167 TAS, 180 TAS, to Chanute Technical Training Center as GC-130A, May 1984, same, June 1990; now displayed at Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum, Rantoul Aviation Complex, Rantoul, IL. as of November 1995, same, July 2006. AC-130A USAF 56-0509, c/n 3117 Airlifter with 314 TCW, 315 AD, 374 TCW; to Ling-Temco-Vought, August 1970, and modified to AC-130A. Operations with 16th Special Operations Squadron; damaged at An Loc, South Vietnam, 23 December 1972; named "Raids Kill 'Em Dead", October, 1974, to 711th Special Operations Squadron, July 1975, named "Ultimate End", April, 1994; assigned to Hurlburt Field, Florida, October, 1994, and retired to Hurlburt Field's Air Commando Memorial Park, May 1995. C-130A USAF 56-0518, c/n 3126 Airlifter with 314 TCW, 315 AD, 41 ATS, 328 TAS; to South Vietnamese Air Force 435 Transport Squadron, November 1972; holds the C-130 record for taking off with the most personnel on board, during evacuation of SVN, 29 April 1975, with 452. Back to USAF, 185 TAS, 105 TAS; gate guard at Little Rock AFB Visitor Center by March 1993, same June 2003. C-130A USAF 57-0453, c/n 3160 Various airlifter assignments from 1958 to 1991, last duty with 155th TAS, 164th TAG, Tennessee Air National Guard, Memphis International Airport, Tennessee, 1976-1991, named "Nite Train to Memphis"; to AMARC in December, 1991, then sent to Texas for modification into replica of C-130A-II 56-0528, shot down by Russian fighters over Soviet Yerevan, Armenia on 2 September 1958, while on ELINT mission with loss of all crew. Now displayed in National Vigilance Park, National Security Agency grounds, Fort George Meade, Maryland. Three-blade prop replaced later four-blade version. C-130D USAF 57-0490, c/n 3197 Ops with 61st TCS, 17th TCS, lost no. 1 prop in flight, belly-landed, repaired, July 1975, 139th TAS with skis, July 1975-April 1983; to MASDC, 1984-1985, GC-130D ground trainer, Chanute AFB, Illinois, 1986-1990; Chanute TTC closed, September 1993, airframe to Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum, Rantoul, Illinois, July 1994; moved to Empire State Air Museum, Schenectady County Airport, New York, placed at Stratton ANGB gate, October 1994, same, August 2008. NC-130B USAF 57-0526, c/n 3502 Second B model manufactured, initially delivered as JC-130B; assigned to 6515th Organizational Maintenance Squadron for flight testing at Edwards AFB, California on 29 Nov 1960; turned over to 6593rd Test Squadron's Operating Location No. 1 at Edwards AFB and spent next seven years supporting Corona Program; "J" status and prefix removed from aircraft Oct 1967; transferred to 6593rd Test Squadron at Hickam AFB, Hawaii and modified for mid-air retrieval of satellites; acquired by 6514th Test Squadron at Hill AFB in Jan 1987 and used as electronic testbed and cargo transport; aircraft retired Jan 1994 with 11,000+ flight hours and moved to Hill Aerospace Museum by January 1994, same September 2008. KC-130F USMC BuNo 149798, c/n 3680 Used in tests in October-November 1963 by the U.S. Navy for unarrested landings and unassisted take-offs from the carrier USS Forrestal, it remains the record holder for largest aircraft to operate from a carrier flight deck, and carried the name "Look Ma, No Hook" during the tests. Retired to the National Museum of Naval Aviation, NAS Pensacola, Florida in May, 2003. C-130G USMC BuNo 151891, c/n 3878 Modified to EC-130G, 1966, then testbed for EC-130Q in 1981. To TC-130G in May 1990 and assigned as Blue Angels support craft, serving as "Fat Albert Airlines" from 1991 to 2002. Retired to the National Museum of Naval Aviation at NAS Pensacola, Florida, November 2002. C-130E RCAF 10315, later 130315, c/n 4070 Service with many squadrons including 436, 435, 436 (again), 413, 8 Wing, and 426 Transport Training Squadron, by June 2005. Ground trainer, July 2006; to be installed in building, December 2007. C-130E RAAF A97-160, c/n 4160 Airlifter with 37 Squadron from August 1966, withdrawn from use November 2000; to RAAF Museum, 14 November 2000, cocooned as of September 2005, same March 2007. C-130E USAF 69-6579, c/n 4354 Ops with 61st TAS, 314th TAW, 50th AS, 61st AS; at Dyess AFB as maintenance trainer as GC-130E, March 1998, same, May 2005; to Dyess AFB museum, January 2004. C-130E USAF 69-6580, c/n 4356 Ops with 61st TAS, 314th TAW, 317th TAW, 314th TAW, 317th TAW, 40th AS, 41st AS, 43rd AW, center wing cracks, April 2002, to Air Mobility Command Museum, Dover AFB, 2 February 2004. C-130E USAF 70-1269, c/n 4423 43rd AW, to Pope Air Park, Pope AFB, 2006. C-130H Royal Norwegian Air Force 953, (USAF 68-10953) c.n. 4335 Retired 10 June 2007 and moved the the Air Force museum at Oslo Gardermoen in May 2008. C-130H RSAF 460, c/n 4566 Operated by 4 Squadron Royal Saudi Air Force, December 1974, same January 1987. Burned on ground, air conditioner fire - in airfield corner at Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, December 1989. Restored for ground training by August 1993, same March 2002. At Riyadh Air Base Museum, November 2002, restored for ground display. Tail swap with RSAF 473, c/n 5235. EC-130Q USN BuNo 159348, c/n 4601 TACAMO IV, ops with VQ-4, July 1975-July 1988; modified to TC-130Q, ops with VR-22, VXE-6; to Tinker AFB with VQ-3, VQ-4, "hack" aircraft as of December 1995. On static display by March 1997, same, March 2005. C-130H USAF 74-1686, c/n 4669 Airlifter with the 463rd TAW; one of three C-130H airframes modified to YMC-130H for aborted rescue attempt of Iranian hostages, Operation Credible Sport, with rocket packages blistered onto fuselage in 1980, but these were removed after mission was cancelled. Subsequent duty with the 4950th Test Wing, then donated to the Robins AFB museum, Georgia, in March 1988. Specifications (C-130H) See also References External links C-130 Hercules USAF fact sheets C-130 US Navy fact file and C-130 history page on Navy.mil C-130 page on GlobalSecurity.org C-130 Hercules page on AviaMil.net HerkyBirds.com 10,000+ C-130 images and forum C-130 page on amcmuseum.org C-130 takes off and lands on a Carrier USS Forrestal (Video) on Youtube.com | Lockheed_C-130_Hercules |@lemmatized lockheed:17 c:134 hercules:30 four:8 engine:7 turboprop:8 military:11 transport:14 aircraft:43 build:3 main:2 tactical:8 airlifter:11 many:4 force:46 worldwide:2 model:44 variant:13 serve:4 nation:1 december:9 become:3 fifth:1 english:1 electric:1 canberra:1 b:11 stratofortress:1 tupolev:1 tu:1 kc:9 stratotanker:1 mark:1 year:6 continuous:3 use:28 original:3 primary:1 customer:2 case:1 united:14 state:16 air:70 also:10 remain:6 production:13 updated:3 super:3 capable:2 takeoff:5 landing:6 unprepared:2 runway:1 originally:3 design:6 troop:7 medical:1 evacuation:2 cargo:5 versatile:2 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4,430 | Barnard_College | Barnard College is a women's liberal arts college and a member of the Seven Sisters. Founded in 1889, Barnard is affiliated with Columbia University. While the college maintains a separate administration, trustees, operating budget and endowment, Barnard students earn Columbia University degrees, and all Barnard faculty are granted tenure through the university. The four acre (16,000 m²) campus stretches along Broadway between 116th and 120th Streets in the Morningside Heights neighborhood in the borough of Manhattan, in New York City. It is adjacent to Columbia's campus and near many other academic institutions, and has been used by Barnard since 1898. General information A view of Milbank Hall, Barnard College Barnard's original 1889 home was a rented brownstone at 343 Madison Avenue, where a faculty of six offered instruction to 14 students in the School of Arts, as well as to 22 "specials", who lacked the entrance requirements in Greek and so enrolled in science. In 1900, Barnard formalized an affiliation with Columbia University, but it continued to be independently governed, while making available to its students the instruction and the facilities. Barnard currently pays an annual fee to Columbia to maintain the affiliation. The college gets its name from Frederick A. P. Barnard (1809–89), an American educator and mathematician, who served as then-Columbia College's president from 1864 to 1889. Frederick Barnard advocated equal educational privileges for men and women (preferably in a coeducational setting). The school's founding, however, is largely due to the efforts of Annie Nathan Meyer, a student and writer who was not satisfied with what she saw as Columbia's effort to educate women. Meyer later wrote: "I confess to a pride in having defended the affiliated college at a time when it was neither popular or understood. To me nothing in the education of women mattered so much as the creation of right standards, and this was effected by the establishment of the affiliated college." Barnard College is one of the Seven Sisters founded to provide an education for women comparable to that of the Ivy League schools, which (with the exception of Cornell University and the University of Pennsylvania) only admitted men for undergraduate study into the 1960s. Columbia College began admitting women in 1983 after a decade of failed negotiations with Barnard for a merger along the lines of the one between Harvard College and Radcliffe College. In 2008, Barnard had the lowest acceptance rate of the five Seven Sisters that remain single-sex in admissions http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/college/items/2708 http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/college/items/3237 http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/college/items/2209 . Barnard has an independent faculty and board of trustees. Most of the school's classes and activities, however, are also open to students at Columbia University, in a reciprocal arrangement to benefit the academic and social life of the College and the University. The Barnard/Columbia Partnership, accessed July 26, 2006 Admissions Admissions to Barnard College is considered most selective by U.S. News and World Report. For the class of 2011, Barnard College admitted 28.7% of those who applied. The median ACT score was 30, while the median combined score was 2100. Barnard's application includes several required essays. For the class of 2012, the admit rate was 28.5% of the 4,273 applications received. The early decision admit rate was 47.7% out of 392 applications. The median SAT Combined was 2060, with median subscores of 660 in Math, 690 in Critical Reading, and 700 in Writing. The Median ACT score was 30. Of the women in the class of 2012, 89.4% ranked in first or second decile at their high school (of the 41.3% ranked by their schools). The average GPA of the class of 2012 was 94.3 on a 100-pt. scale and 3.88 on a 4.0 scale. Barnard Admissions Barnard Library About the Library The Barnard Library is located in Lehman Hall. Its collection includes over 200,000 volumes which support the undergraduate curriculum. It also houses an archival collection of official and student publications, photographs, letters and other material that documents Barnard’s history from its founding in 1889 to the present day. Additionally, Barnard's rare books collections include the Overbury Collection, the personal library of Nobel prize-winning poet Gabriela Mistral, and a small collection of other rare books. The Overbury Collection consists of 3,300 items, including special and first edition books as well as manuscript materials by and about American women authors. Alumnae Books is a collection of books donated by Barnard alumnae authors. Barnard Library Zine Collection Barnard collects in an effort to document the third wave feminism and riot grrrl culture. The Zine Collection complements Barnard’s women’s studies research holdings because it gives room to voices of girls and women otherwise under or not at all represented in the book stacks. According to its collection development policy, Barnard’s zines are "written by New York City and other urban women with an emphasis on zines by women of color. (In this case the word "woman" includes anyone who identifies as female and some who don't believe in binary gender.) The zines are personal and political publications on activism, anarchism, body image, third wave feminism, gender, parenting, queer community, riotgrrrl, sexual assault, and other topics." Barnard Library Zine Collection, accessed June 23, 2008. Barnard’s collection documents movements and trends in feminist thought through the personal work of artists, writers, and activists. Currently, the Barnard Zine Collection has over 2,000 items, including zines about race, gender, sexuality, childbirth, motherhood, politics, and relationships. Barnard attempts to collect two copies of each zine, one of which circulates with the second copy archived for preservation. To facilitate circulation, Barnard zines are cataloged in CLIO (the Columbia / Barnard OPAC) and OCLC’s Worldcat. The collection is curated by its founder, Jenna Freedman, who proposed the collection in 2003. Women's Studies Zines at Barnard College - Pilot Project Proposal Freedman is the library's Coordinator of Reference Services, as well as its Zine Librarian. The stacks zines started circulating in November 2007. Barnard Library Zine FAQs Barnard's is believed to be the first circulating collection of zines an academic library. The Zine Librarian, interns, and student workers blog on the collection's LiveJournal. Culture and student life Student organizations Every Barnard student is part of the Student Government Association (SGA), which elects a representative student government. Students serve with faculty and administrators on college committees and help to shape policy in a wide variety of areas. Student groups include theatre and vocal music groups, language clubs, literary magazines, a weekly news magazine called the Barnard Bulletin, community service groups, and others. Barnard students can also join extracurricular activities or organizations at Columbia; Columbia students are allowed in most, but not all, Barnard organizations. Barnard's McIntosh Activities Council (commonly known as McAC), named after the first President of Barnard, Millicent Mcintosh, organizes various community focused events on campus, such as Big Sub and Midnight Breakfast. McAC is made up of 5 sub-committees which are the Multi-Cultural committee, Time-Out committee, Network committee, Community committee, and the Action committee. Each committee has a different focus, such as hosting and publicizing multi-cultural events (Multi-Cultural), having regular study breaks and relaxation events (Time-Out), giving students opportunities to be involved with Alumnae and various professionals (Network), planning events that bring the entire student body together (Community), and planning community service events that give back to the surrounding community (Action). Two National Panhellenic Conference organizations were founded at Barnard College. The first, Alpha Omicron Pi Fraternity, was founded by Stella George Stern Perry, Elizabeth Heywood Wyman, Helen St. Clair Mullan and Jessie Wallace Hughan on January 2, 1897. The second, Alpha Epsilon Phi, was founded by seven Jewish women, Helen Phillips, Ida Beck, Rose Gerstein, Augustina "Tina" Hess, Lee Reiss, Rose Salmowitz and Stella Strauss on October 24, 1909. Though no longer on campus, these two organizations continued to grow and expand nationally over the next century. Currently, Barnard students participate in four NPC sororities that are active and recruit on the Barnard and Columbia campuses. They are Alpha Chi Omega, Delta Gamma, Kappa Alpha Theta, and Sigma Delta Tau. Traditions Midnight Breakfast marks the beginning of finals week. As a highly popular event and long-standing college tradition, Midnight Breakfast is hosted by the student-run activities council, McAC (McIntosh Activities Council). In addition to providing standard breakfast foods for hungry students, each year's theme is also incorporated into the menu. Past themes have included "I YUMM the 90s," "Grease," and "Take me out to the ballgame." The event is a school-wide affair as college deans, trustees and event the President herself, Debora Spar, serve food to about a thousand students. It takes place the night before finals begin every semester. On Spirit Day, there is a large barbecue, the deans serve ice cream to students, different activities are hosted, and the whole student body celebrates. The school sells the popular "I Love BC" T-shirts, and gives out free Barnard goodies. The event is co-organized by the student-run activities council, McAC (McIntosh Activities Council) and the Student Government Association (SGA). At the Fall Festival, cider and caramel apples are served. During the fall semester, students help to construct--and then quickly devour--a mile-long sandwich known as THE BIG SUB. Every year another foot is added onto the sub as it stretches across campus. The event is organized by the student-run activities council, McAC (McIntosh Activities Council). In the spring of each year, Barnard holds the Greek Games, which brings together each class for friendly competition. The event is organized by the student-run activities council, McAC (McIntosh Activities Council). Athletics Barnard athletes compete in the NCAA Division I and the Ivy League through the Columbia/Barnard Athletic Consortium. There are 15 intercollegiate teams, and students also compete at the intramural and club levels. Scandals and controversies In the spring of 1960 Columbia University President Grayson Kirk complained to the President of Barnard that Barnard students were wearing inappropriate clothing. The garments in question were pants and Bermuda shorts. The administration forced the Student Council to institute a dress code. Students would be allowed to wear shorts and pants only at Barnard and only if the shorts were no more than two inches above the knee and the pants were not tight. Barnard women crossing the street to enter the Columbia campus wearing shorts or pants were required to cover themselves with a long coat similar to a jilbab. In March 1968, The New York Times ran an article on students who cohabited, identifying one of the persons they interviewed as a student at Barnard College from New Hampshire named "Susan". Barnard officials searched their records for women from New Hampshire and were able to determine that "Susan" was really 20-year-old Linda LeClair, who was living with 20-year-old Peter Behr, a student at Columbia University. She was called before Barnard's student-faculty administration judicial committee, where she faced the possibility of expulsion. The student protest took the form of 300 other Barnard women signing a petition admitting that they too had broken the regulations. In the end, the judicial committee compromised: LeClair would be allowed to remain in school, but would be denied use of the college cafeteria and barred from all social activities. LeClair briefly became a focus of intense national attention. Newsweek, April 8, 1968, p. 85 and Newsweek, April 29, 1968, p. 79-80. A minor national controversy grew around the issue of granting tenure to Nadia Abu El Haj, an anthropology professor. Critics allege that her book, Facts on the Ground: Archaeological Practice and Territorial Self-Fashioning in Israeli Society, denies the existence of the ancient Israelite kingdoms. Fund-raising was hurt as donors withdrew support when El Haj was granted tenure. Notable Barnard alumnae and faculty Actresses Martha Stewart Jane Wyatt Joan Rivers Cynthia Nixon from Sex and the City Lauren Graham from The Gilmore Girls Writers Anna Quindlen Erica Jong Zora Neale Hurston Rebecca Goldstein Ntozake Shange Jhumpa Lahiri Musicians Suzanne Vega Choreographers Twyla Tharp Politics Virginia Gildersleeve (class of 1899); delegate to the charter conference of the United Nations in 1945 Nine Ways of Knowing There is a program of required courses for graduation termed the Nine Ways of Knowing, a program of distribution requirements. Requirements include one course in each of the following disciplines: social analysis, cultures in comparison, historical studies, reason and value, quantitative and deductive reasoning, visual and performing arts, and literature. The program is very flexible, as students choose from a long list of courses in each area. Each student is also required to take two courses in one laboratory science, and study a foreign language through the fourth semester. See also List of Barnard College people List of Columbia University people Hidden Ivies Women's colleges in the United States References Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz. Alma Mater: Design and Experience in the Women's Colleges from Their Nineteenth-Century Beginnings to the 1930s, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993 (2nd edition). Footnotes External links Barnard College About Barnard Barnard College Fact Book Barnard's Books Etc. 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4,431 | Ethnic_nationalism | Ethnic nationalism is a form of nationalism wherein the "nation" is defined in terms of ethnicity. Whatever specific ethnicity is involved, ethnic nationalism always includes some element of descent from previous generations. Furthermore, the central theme of ethnic nationalists is that "...nations are defined by a shared heritage, which usually includes a common language, a common faith, and a common ethnic ancestry." Muller, Jerry Z. "Us and Them." Current Issue 501 Mar/Apr 2008 9-14 It also includes ideas of a culture shared between members of the group, and with their ancestors, and usually a shared language; however it is different from purely cultural definitions of "the nation" (which allow people to become members of a nation by cultural assimilation) and a purely linguistic definitions (which see "the nation" as all speakers of a specific language). The central political tenet of ethnic nationalism is that each ethnic group on earth is entitled to self-determination. The outcome of this right to self-determination may vary, from calls for self-regulated administrative bodies within an already-established society, to an autonomous entity separate from that society, to a sovereign state removed from that society. In international relations, it also leads to policies and movements for irredentism — to claim a common nation based upon ethnicity. In scholarly literature, ethnic nationalism is usually contrasted with civic nationalism. Ethnic nationalism bases membership of the nation on descent or heredity—often articulated in terms of common blood or kinship—rather than on political membership. Hence, nation-states with strong traditions of ethnic nationalism tend to define nationality or citizenship by jus sanguinis (the law of blood, descent from a person of that nationality) while countries with strong traditions of civic nationalism tend to define nationality or citizenship by jus soli (the law of soil, birth within the nation-state). Ethnic nationalism is therefore seen as exclusive, while civic nationalism tends to be inclusive. Rather than allegiance to common civic ideals, then, ethnic nationalism tends to emphasise shared narratives and common culture. For example, Germany is often cited as an example of ethnic nationalism; German citizenship is open to "ethnic Germans" (e.g. descendents of Germans living in the former Soviet Union). The theorist Anthony D. Smith uses the term 'ethnic nationalism' for non-Western concepts of nationalism as opposed to Western views of a nation defined by its geographical territory. Diaspora studies scholars extend this non-geographically bound concept of "nation" among diasporic communities, at times using the term ethnonation or ethnonationalism to describe a conceptual collective of dispersed ethnics. Safran, William (January 2008). "Language, ethnicity and religion: a complex and persistent linkage." Nations and Nationalism 14(1) 171–190. DOI:10.1111/j.1469-8129.2008.00323.x There are also subtle forms of ethnic nationalism present in immigration policies. States such as Armenia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Serbia, and Turkey provide automatic or rapid citizenship to members of diasporas of their own dominant ethnic group, if desired. Muller, Jerry Z. "Us and Them." Current Issue 501 Mar/Apr 2008 9-14 For example, Israel's Law of Return, grants every Jew the right to settle in Israel and automatically acquire citizenship. Hadary, Amnon. "Reclaiming Zionism." Judaism Vol. 48. Issue 1Winter 1999 1-14. A nation-state for the ethnic group derives political legitimacy from its status as homeland of that ethnic group, from its protective function against colonization, persecution or racism, and from its claim to facilitate the shared cultural and social life, which may not have been possible under the ethnic group's previous status as an ethnic minority. Ethnic nationalism has sustained criticism because of its use by extremists to advocate racist agendas and genocide, such as the case of Nazi Germany and its extermination of millions of Jews and other ethnic and cultural groups during the Holocaust. More recent acts of violence that used ethnic nationalism as a justification include ethnic cleansing such as the Rwandan Genocide in 1994, and the Genocide in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1995. See also Ethnocracy Arab nationalism Armenian nationalism Albanian nationalism Basque nationalism Black nationalism Chicano nationalism Croatian nationalism German nationalism Greek nationalism Irish nationalism English nationalism Indian nationalism Kurdish nationalism Serb nationalism Tamil nationalism Turkish nationalism White nationalism Afrikaner nationalism American Indian Movement Aryan Invasion Theory (history and controversies) Assyrianism Diaspora politics Ethnocentrism Hindutva Historiography and nationalism Identity politics List of irredentist claims or disputes Polytheistic reconstructionism Ulster Loyalism Zionism References External links The Nationalism Project | Ethnic_nationalism |@lemmatized ethnic:25 nationalism:39 form:2 wherein:1 nation:13 define:5 term:4 ethnicity:4 whatever:1 specific:2 involve:1 always:1 include:4 element:1 descent:3 previous:2 generation:1 furthermore:1 central:2 theme:1 nationalist:1 share:3 heritage:1 usually:3 common:7 language:4 faith:1 ancestry:1 muller:2 jerry:2 z:2 u:2 current:2 issue:3 mar:2 apr:2 also:4 idea:1 culture:2 member:3 group:7 ancestor:1 shared:2 however:1 different:1 purely:2 cultural:4 definition:2 allow:1 people:1 become:1 assimilation:1 linguistic:1 see:3 speaker:1 political:3 tenet:1 earth:1 entitle:1 self:3 determination:2 outcome:1 right:2 may:2 vary:1 call:1 regulate:1 administrative:1 body:1 within:2 already:1 establish:1 society:3 autonomous:1 entity:1 separate:1 sovereign:1 state:5 remove:1 international:1 relation:1 lead:1 policy:2 movement:2 irredentism:1 claim:3 base:2 upon:1 scholarly:1 literature:1 contrast:1 civic:4 membership:2 heredity:1 often:2 articulate:1 blood:2 kinship:1 rather:2 hence:1 strong:2 tradition:2 tend:4 nationality:3 citizenship:5 jus:2 sanguinis:1 law:3 person:1 country:1 solo:1 soil:1 birth:1 therefore:1 exclusive:1 inclusive:1 allegiance:1 ideal:1 emphasise:1 narrative:1 example:3 germany:3 cite:1 german:4 open:1 e:1 g:1 descendent:1 live:1 former:1 soviet:1 union:1 theorist:1 anthony:1 smith:1 use:4 non:2 western:2 concept:2 oppose:1 view:1 geographical:1 territory:1 diaspora:3 study:1 scholars:1 extend:1 geographically:1 bound:1 among:1 diasporic:1 community:1 time:1 ethnonation:1 ethnonationalism:1 describe:1 conceptual:1 collective:1 dispersed:1 safran:1 william:1 january:1 religion:1 complex:1 persistent:1 linkage:1 doi:1 j:1 x:1 subtle:1 present:1 immigration:1 armenia:1 bulgaria:1 croatia:1 finland:1 hungary:1 ireland:1 israel:3 serbia:1 turkey:1 provide:1 automatic:1 rapid:1 dominant:1 desire:1 return:1 grant:1 every:1 jew:2 settle:1 automatically:1 acquire:1 hadary:1 amnon:1 reclaim:1 zionism:2 judaism:1 vol:1 derive:1 legitimacy:1 status:2 homeland:1 protective:1 function:1 colonization:1 persecution:1 racism:1 facilitate:1 social:1 life:1 possible:1 minority:1 sustain:1 criticism:1 extremist:1 advocate:1 racist:1 agenda:1 genocide:3 case:1 nazi:1 extermination:1 million:1 holocaust:1 recent:1 act:1 violence:1 justification:1 cleansing:1 rwandan:1 bosnia:1 herzegovina:1 ethnocracy:1 arab:1 armenian:1 albanian:1 basque:1 black:1 chicano:1 croatian:1 greek:1 irish:1 english:1 indian:2 kurdish:1 serb:1 tamil:1 turkish:1 white:1 afrikaner:1 american:1 aryan:1 invasion:1 theory:1 history:1 controversy:1 assyrianism:1 politics:2 ethnocentrism:1 hindutva:1 historiography:1 identity:1 list:1 irredentist:1 dispute:1 polytheistic:1 reconstructionism:1 ulster:1 loyalism:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 project:1 |@bigram mar_apr:2 self_determination:2 soviet_union:1 ethnic_cleansing:1 rwandan_genocide:1 bosnia_herzegovina:1 irredentist_claim:1 external_link:1 |
4,432 | Endocrinology | Endocrinology (from Greek , endon, "within"; , krīnō, "to separate"; and , -logia) is a branch of medicine dealing with disorder of the endocrine system and its specific secretions called hormones. Function of endocrine organs, hormones and receptors Hormones are molecules that act as signals from one type of cells to another. Most hormones reach their targets via the blood. All multicellular organisms need coordinating systems to regulate and integrate the function of cells. Two mechanisms perform this function in higher animals: the nervous system and the endocrine system. The endocrine system acts through the release (generally into the blood) of chemical agents and is vital to the proper development and function of organisms. As Hadley notes, the integration of developmental events such as proliferation, growth, and differentiation (including histogenesis and organogenesis) and the coordination of metabolism, respiration, excretion, movement, reproduction, and sensory perception depend on chemical cues, substances synthesised and secreted by specialized cells. Endocrinology is concerned with the study of the biosynthesis, storage, chemistry, and physiological function of hormones and with the cells of the endocrine glands and tissues that secrete them. The endocrine system consists of several glands, in different parts of the body, that secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into a duct system. Hormones have many different functions and modes of action; one hormone may have several effects on different target organs, and, conversely, one target organ may be affected by more than one hormone. In the original 1902 definition by Bayliss and Starling (see below), they specified that, to be classified as a hormone, a chemical must be produced by an organ, be released (in small amounts) into the blood, and be transported by the blood to a distant organ to exert its specific function. This definition holds for most "classical" hormones, but there are also paracrine mechanisms (chemical communication between cells within a tissue or organ), autocrine signals (a chemical that acts on the same cell), and intracrine signals (a chemical that acts within the same cell). A neuroendocrine signal is a "classical" hormone that is released into the blood by a neurosecretory neuron (see article on Neuroendocrinology). Hormones act by binding to specific receptors in the target organ. As Baulieu notes, a receptor has at least two basic constituents: a recognition site, to which the hormone binds an effector site, which precipitates the modification of cellular function. Between these is a "transduction mechanism" in which hormone binding induces allosteric modification that, in turn, produces the appropriate response. Chemical classes of hormones Amine hormones: norepinephrine and triiodothryonine Steroid hormones: cortisol and vitamin D3 Griffin and Ojeda identify three different classes of hormone based on their chemical composition: Amines Amines, such as norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine, are derived from single amino acids, in this case tyrosine. Thyroid hormones such as 3,5,3’-triiodothyronine (T3) and 3,5,3’,5’-tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine, T4) make up a subset of this class because they derive from the combination of two iodinated tyrosine amino acid residues. Peptide and protein Peptide hormones and protein hormones consist of three (in the case of thyrotropin-releasing hormone) to more than 200 (in the case of follicle-stimulating hormone) amino acid residues and can have molecular weights as large as 30,000. All hormones secreted by the pituitary gland are peptide hormones, as are leptin from adipocytes, ghrelin from the stomach, and insulin from the pancreas. Steroid Steroid hormones are converted from their parent compound, cholesterol. Mammalian steroid hormones can be grouped into five groups by the receptors to which they bind: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestagens. History and key discoveries of endocrinology The study of endocrinology began in China. The Chinese were isolating sex and pituitary hormones from human urine and using them for medicinal purposes by 200 BC Temple, Robert. The Genius of China.pp. 141, 142. ISBN 9781594772177. . They used many complex methods, such as sublimation. Temple, Robert. The Genius of China.p. 142. ISBN 9781594772177 Eventually, when Berthold noted that castrated cockerels did not develop combs and wattles or exhibit overtly male behaviour, European endocrinology began (however, it should be noted that the Chinese anticipated the science by over 1500 years.) Berthold AA. Transplantation der Hoden Arch. Anat. Phsiol. Wiss. Med. 1849;16:42-6.</ref> He found that replacement of testes back into the abdominal cavity of the same bird or another castrated bird resulted in normal behavioural and morphological development, and he concluded (erroneously) that the testes secreted a substance that "conditioned" the blood that, in turn, acted on the body of the cockerel. In fact, one of two other things could have been true: that the testes modified or activated a constituent of the blood or that the testes removed an inhibitory factor from the blood. It was not proven that the testes released a substance that engenders male characteristics until it was shown that the extract of testes could replace their function in castrated animals. Pure, crystalline testosterone was isolated in 1935.<ref>David K, Dingemanse E, Freud J et al. Uber krystallinisches mannliches Hormon aus Hoden (Testosteron) wirksamer als aus harn oder aus Cholesterin bereitetes Androsteron. Hoppe Seylers Z Physiol Chem 1935;233:281. Although most of the relevant tissues and endocrine glands had been identified by early anatomists, a more humoral approach to understanding biological function and disease was favoured by classical thinkers such as Aristotle, Hippocrates, Lucretius, Celsus, and Galen, according to Freeman et al., and these theories held sway until the advent of germ theory, physiology, and organ basis of pathology in the 19th century. In medieval Persia, Avicenna (980-1037) provided a detailed account on diabetes mellitus in The Canon of Medicine (c. 1025), "describing the abnormal appetite and the collapse of sexual functions and he documented the sweet taste of diabetic urine." Like Aretaeus of Cappadocia before him, Avicenna recognized a primary and secondary diabetes. He also described diabetic gangrene, and treated diabetes using a mixture of lupine, trigonella (fenugreek), and zedoary seed, which produces a considerable reduction in the excretion of sugar, a treatment which is still prescribed in modern times. Avicenna also "described diabetes insipidus very precisely for the first time", though it was later Johann Peter Frank (1745-1821) who first differentiated between diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus. In the 12th century, Zayn al-Din al-Jurjani, another Muslim physician, provided the first description of Graves' disease after noting the association of goitre and exophthalmos in his Thesaurus of the Shah of Khwarazm, the major medical dictionary of its time. - the history and naming of the disease Al-Jurjani also established an association between goitre and palpitation. The disease was later named after Irish doctor Robert James Graves, who described a case of goiter with exophthalmos in 1835. The German Karl Adolph von Basedow also independently reported the same constellation of symptoms in 1840, while earlier reports of the disease were also published by the Italians Giuseppe Flajani and Antonio Giuseppe Testa, in 1802 and 1810 respectively, and by the English physician Caleb Hillier Parry (a friend of Edward Jenner) in the late 18th century. In 1902 Bayliss and Starling performed an experiment in which they observed that acid instilled into the duodenum caused the pancreas to begin secretion, even after they had removed all nervous connections between the two. Bayliss WM, Starling EH. The mechanism of pancreatic secretion. J Physiol 1902;28:325–352. The same response could be produced by injecting extract of jejunum mucosa into the jugular vein, showing that some factor in the mucosa was responsible. They named this substance "secretin" and coined the term hormone for chemicals that act in this way. Von Mering and Minkowski made the observation in 1889 that removing the pancreas surgically led to an increase in blood sugar, followed by a coma and eventual death—symptoms of diabetes mellitus. In 1922, Banting and Best realized that homogenizing the pancreas and injecting the derived extract reversed this condition. The hormone responsible, insulin, was not discovered until Frederick Sanger sequenced it in 1953. Neurohormones were first identified by Otto Loewi in 1921. Loewi, O. Uebertragbarkeit der Herznervenwirkung. Pfluger's Arch. ges Physiol. 1921;189:239-42. He incubated a frog's heart (innervated with its vagus nerve attached) in a saline bath, and left in the solution for some time. The solution was then used to bathe a non-innervated second heart. If the vagus nerve on the first heart was stimulated, negative inotropic (beat amplitude) and chronotropic (beat rate) activity were seen in both hearts. This did not occur in either heart if the vagus nerve was stimulated. The vagus nerve was adding something to the saline solution. The effect could be blocked using atropine, a known inhibitor to heart vagal nerve stimulation. Clearly, something was being secreted by the vagus nerve and affecting the heart. The "vagusstuff" (as Loewi called it) causing the myotropic effects was later identified to be acetylcholine and norepinephrine. Loewi won the Nobel Prize for his discovery. Recent work in endocrinology focuses on the molecular mechanisms responsible for triggering the effects of hormones. The first example of such work being done was in 1962 by Earl Sutherland. Sutherland investigated whether hormones enter cells to evoke action, or stayed outside of cells. He studied norepinephrine, which acts on the liver to convert glycogen into glucose via the activation of the phosphorylase enzyme. He homogenized the liver into a membrane fraction and soluble fraction (phosphorylase is soluble), added norepinephrine to the membrane fraction, extracted its soluble products, and added them to the first soluble fraction. Phosphorylase activated, indicating that norepinephrine's target receptor was on the cell membrane, not located intracellularly. He later identified the compound as cyclic AMP (cAMP) and with his discovery created the concept of second-messenger-mediated pathways. He, like Loewi, won the Nobel Prize for his groundbreaking work in endocrinology. Endocrinology as a profession Although every organ system secretes and responds to hormones (including the brain, lungs, heart, intestine, skin, and the kidney), the clinical specialty of endocrinology focuses primarily on the endocrine organs, meaning the organs whose primary function is hormone secretion. These organs include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, ovaries, testes, and pancreas. An endocrinologist is a doctor who specializes in treating disorders of the endocrine system, such as diabetes, hyperthyroidism, and many others (see list of diseases below). Work The medical specialty of endocrinology involves the diagnostic evaluation of a wide variety of symptoms and variations and the long-term management of disorders of deficiency or excess of one or more hormones. The diagnosis and treatment of endocrine diseases are guided by laboratory tests to a greater extent than for most specialties. Many diseases are investigated through excitation/stimulation or inhibition/suppression testing. This might involve injection with a stimulating agent to test the function of an endocrine organ. Blood is then sampled to assess the changes of the relevant hormones or metabolites. An endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge of clinical chemistry and biochemistry to understand the uses and limitations of the investigations. A second important aspect of the practice of endocrinology is distinguishing human variation from disease. Atypical patterns of physical development and abnormal test results must be assessed as indicative of disease or not. Diagnostic imaging of endocrine organs may reveal incidental findings called incidentalomas, which may or may not represent disease. Endocrinology involves caring for the person as well as the disease. Most endocrine disorders are chronic diseases that need life-long care. Some of the most common endocrine diseases include diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism and the metabolic syndrome. Care of diabetes, obesity and other chronic diseases necessitates understanding the patient at the personal and social level as well as the molecular, and the physician–patient relationship can be an important therapeutic process. Apart from treating patients, many endocrinologists are involved in clinical science and medical research, teaching, and hospital management. Training There are roughly 4,000 endocrinologists in the United States. Endocrinologists are specialists of internal medicine or pediatrics. Reproductive endocrinologists deal primarily with problems of fertility and menstrual function—often training first in obstetrics. Most qualify as an internist, pediatrician, or gynecologist for a few years before specializing, depending on the local training system. In the U.S. and Canada, training for board certification in internal medicine, pediatrics, or gynecology after medical school is called residency. Further formal training to subspecialize in adult, pediatric, or reproductive endocrinology is called a fellowship. Typical training for a North American endocrinologist involves 4 years of college, 4 years of medical school, 3 years of residency, and 3 years of fellowship. Adult endocrinologists are board certified by the American Board of Internal Medicine (ABIM) in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism. Professional organizations In North America the principal professional organizations of endocrinologists include The Endocrine Society, Endo-society.org the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, AACE.com the American Diabetes Association, Diabetes.org the Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society, lwpes.org and the American Thyroid Association. Thyroid.org In the United Kingdom, the Society for Endocrinology endocrinology.org and the British Society for Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes bsped.org.uk are the main professional organisations. The European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology Eurospe.org is the largest international professional association dedicated solely to paediatric endocrinology. There are numerous similar associations around the world. Patient education Because endocrinology encompasses so many conditions and diseases, there are many organizations that provide education to patients and the public. The Hormone Foundation is the public education affiliate of The Endocrine Society and provides information on all endocrine-related conditions. Other educational organizations that focus on one or more endocrine-related conditions include the American Diabetes Association, National Osteoporosis Foundation, Human Growth Foundation, American Menopause Foundation, Inc., and Thyroid Foundation of America. Diseases See main article at Endocrine diseases A disease due to a disorder of the endocrine system is often called a "hormone imbalance", but is technically known as an endocrinopathy or endocrinosis. Endocrinologist in popular culture Dr. Lisa Cuddy , a character on the television show House M.D.. Elliot Reid becomes an expert in the field in the Scrubs episode My Way Home. Naomi Bennett, a character on the television show Private Practice, also a fertility specialist. Dr.Ayad Falah, had an important view about Diabetes Mellitus on a television morning program. See also Pediatric endocrinology Neuroendocrinology Reproductive endocrinology hormone Endocrine disease References External links Endocrinology (British online textbook) Endotext (American online textbook) Useful Endocrinology Resources for Residents Endocrinology journals from Elsevier Endocrinology news updates from Elsevier The Hormone Foundation Endocrinology Center medical in Thailand Societies and associations Endocrine Society American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists American Diabetes Association Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society Society for Endocrinology Society for Behavioral Neuroendocrinology British Society for Paediatric Endocrinology & Diabetes | Endocrinology |@lemmatized endocrinology:29 greek:1 endon:1 within:3 krīnō:1 separate:1 logion:1 branch:1 medicine:5 deal:2 disorder:5 endocrine:24 system:11 specific:3 secretion:4 call:6 hormone:41 function:14 organ:14 receptor:5 molecule:1 act:8 signal:4 one:7 type:1 cell:10 another:3 reach:1 target:5 via:2 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4,433 | Lake_Abitibi | Lake Abitibi () is a lake in northeastern Ontario and western Quebec, Canada. The lake is separated in two distinct portions by a short narrows, making it actually 2 lakes. Its total area is 931 km², and net area 903 km² Atlas of Canada . The lake is shallow and studded with islands. Its shores and vicinity are covered with small timber. Its outlet is the Abitibi River which empties into James Bay through the Moose River. "Abitibi" means "middle waters" in Algonquian, a reference to its geographic location halfway between James Bay and the Ottawa River. Rivers to the north flow north towards Hudson Bay and rivers to the south flow south towards the Saint Lawrence River. One of the first Europeans in this area was Pierre de Troyes, who built a post on Lake Abitibi when he was on his way to capture English HBC posts on James Bay in 1686 The Canadian Encyclopedia . It was formerly used by the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) as part of a canoe route to the fur lands of the north. A HBC trading post was located on the east shore of the lake in Ontario Lake Abitibi Post Canadian Heritage Gallery . The construction of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway (now Canadian National Railway) through this district made it of some importance at the start of the 20th century. Portions of Lake Abitibi's western shores and a section of the Abitibi River are part of the Abitibi-de-Troyes Provincial Park. References Canadian Model Forests Network | Lake_Abitibi |@lemmatized lake:9 abitibi:8 northeastern:1 ontario:2 western:2 quebec:1 canada:2 separate:1 two:1 distinct:1 portion:2 short:1 narrow:1 make:2 actually:1 total:1 area:3 net:1 atlas:1 shallow:1 stud:1 island:1 shore:3 vicinity:1 cover:1 small:1 timber:1 outlet:1 river:7 empty:1 james:3 bay:5 moose:1 mean:1 middle:1 water:1 algonquian:1 reference:2 geographic:1 location:1 halfway:1 ottawa:1 north:3 flow:2 towards:2 hudson:2 south:2 saint:1 lawrence:1 one:1 first:1 european:1 pierre:1 de:2 troyes:2 build:1 post:4 way:1 capture:1 english:1 hbc:3 canadian:4 encyclopedia:1 formerly:1 use:1 company:1 part:2 canoe:1 route:1 fur:1 land:1 trading:1 locate:1 east:1 heritage:1 gallery:1 construction:1 grand:1 trunk:1 pacific:1 railway:2 national:1 district:1 importance:1 start:1 century:1 section:1 provincial:1 park:1 model:1 forest:1 network:1 |@bigram hudson_bay:2 |
4,434 | Declaration_of_independence | This article is about declarations of independence in general. Specific declarations of independence are listed below in alphabetical order. For the painting of this name, see Trumbull's Declaration of Independence. For the Declaration of Independence signed in 1776, see United States Declaration of Independence. For the Declaration of Independence signed in 1912, see Albanian Declaration of Independence. For the 1938 short film see Declaration of Independence (film). A declaration of independence is an assertion of the independence of an aspiring state or states. Such places are usually declared from part or all of the territory of another nation or failed nation, or are breakaway territories from within the larger state. Not all declarations of independence were successful and resulted in independence for these regions. Declarations of independence are typically made without the consent of the parent state, and hence are sometimes called unilateral declarations of independence (UDI), particularly by those who question the declarations' validity. RegionDeclarationDateYearParentSignatoriesFirst recognising stateAlbaniaAlbanian Declaration of IndependenceNovember 281912 Ottoman Empire United Provinces of South America(Argentina)Argentine Declaration of IndependenceJuly 91816SpainCongress of TucumánArmeniaDemocratic Republic of ArmeniaMay 281918Armenian Congress of Eastern Armenians Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF Dashnak) RussiaBangladeshBangladeshi Declaration of IndependenceDecember 16th1971PakistanBhutanBelarusBelavezha AccordsDecember 81991Soviet UnionPresidents of Russia, Ukraine and BelarusTurkeyBelgiumBelgian Declaration of IndependenceOctober 41830NetherlandsProvisional Government of BelgiumBrazilBrazilian Declaration of IndependenceSeptember 71822PortugalPedro I of BrazilBulgariaBulgarian Declaration of IndependenceSeptember 221908Ottoman EmpireFerdinand of Bulgaria and the Government of BulgariaCentral AmericaCentral American Declaration of IndependenceSeptember 151821SpainChileChilean Declaration of IndependenceFebruary 121818SpainNational CongressPortugalColombiaColombian Declaration of IndependenceJuly 201810SpainCroatiaCroatian Declaration of IndependenceJune 251991YugoslaviaIcelandDominican RepublicDominican Declaration of IndependenceFebruary 271844HaitiEast TimorEast Timorese Declaration of IndependenceNovember 281975PortugalMoroccoEstoniaEstonian Declaration of IndependenceFebruary 241918RussiaSalvation CommitteeRussian SFSREstoniaEstonian Reconfirmation of IndependenceAugust 201991Republic of EstoniaCongress of EstoniaIceland (reconfirmed earlier recognition)FinlandFinland's Declaration of IndependenceDecember 191917RussiaParliament of FinlandGeorgia (country)Georgia's Declaration of IndependenceApril 91991Soviet UnionGermanyGeorgia (U.S. state)Georgia's secession declarationJanuary 291861United StatesGuinea-BissauGuinea-Bissau Declaration of IndependenceSeptember 241973PortugalHaitiHaitian Declaration of IndependenceJanuary 11804FranceJean-Jacques DessalinesHungaryHungarian Declaration of IndependenceApril 171848Austrian EmpireIcelandIcelandic Declaration of IndependenceJune 171944DenmarkIndiaIndian Declaration of IndependenceAugust 151947United KingdomUnited KingdomIndonesiaIndonesian Declaration of IndependenceAugust 171945NetherlandsSukarno & Mohammad HattaEgyptIrelandProclamation of the Irish RepublicApril 241916United KingdomIrish VolunteersIrish Citizen ArmyIrish RepublicIrish Declaration of IndependenceJanuary 211919United KingdomDáil ÉireannRussian SFSRIsraelIsraeli Declaration of IndependenceMay 141948United KingdomJewish People's CouncilUnited StatesKatangaKatangan Declaration of Independence1960Congo (Léopoldville)KoreaKorean Declaration of IndependenceMarch 11919JapanKosovo1990 Kosovo declaration of independence?1990SerbiaAlbaniaKosovoKosovo declaration of IndependenceFebruary 172008SerbiaAssembly of KosovoAfghanistanLatviaOn the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of LatviaMay 41990Soviet UnionSupreme Soviet of the Latvian SSRIcelandLithuaniaAct of Independence of LithuaniaFebruary 161918Germany, RussiaCouncil of LithuaniaGermanyLithuaniaAct of the Re-Establishment of the State of LithuaniaMarch 111990Soviet UnionSupreme Council of LithuaniaIcelandLow Countries (the Netherlands)Act of AbjurationJuly 261581SpainRepublic of MacedoniaIndependence of the Republic of Macedonia1991YugoslaviaBulgariaMississippiA Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal UnionJanuary 91861United StatesMoldovaDeclaration of Independence of the Republic of MoldovaAugust 271991Soviet UnionParliament of the Republic of MoldovaRomaniaMontenegroMontenegro declaration of independenceJune 32006Serbia and MontenegroAssembly of the Republic of MontenegroIcelandNetherlandsAct of AbjurationJuli 261581Habsburg EmpireUnion of UtrechtNew ZealandDeclaration of the Independence of New Zealand1835United KingdomMāori chiefsNorthern America (Mexico)Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern AmericaNovember 61813SpainCongress of AnáhuacTurkish Republic of Northern CyprusDeclaration of Independence of the Turkish Republic of Northern CyprusNovember 151983CyprusTurkeyNorwayConstitution of NorwayMay 171814Union according to Treaty of KielConstitutional assemblyPapua New GuineaIndependence DaySept 161975AustraliaFirst Prime Minister: Michael SomarePeruAct of the Declaration of Independence of PeruJuly 281821SpainJosé de San MartínPhilippinesPhilippine Declaration of IndependenceJune 121898SpainEmilio Aguinaldo, KatipunanUnited StatesRhodesiaRhodesian Unilateral Declaration of IndependenceNovember 111965United KingdomIan Smith and the rest of the CabinetnoneRomaniaRomanian Declaration of IndependenceMay 221877Ottoman EmpireKing Carol IRussiaBelavezha AccordsDecember 81991Soviet UnionPresidents of Russia, Ukraine and BelarusScotlandDeclaration of ArbroathApril 61320EnglandScottish leadersSingaporeProclamation of Singapore Singapore was forced out of Malaysia by the Malaysian parliament, and the proclamations were then agreed by the two governments. See the Independence of Singapore Agreement 1965 (1985 Rev. Ed.). August 91965MalaysiaLee Kuan Yew, Prime Minister of SingaporeSloveniaSlovenian Declaration of IndependenceJune 251991YugoslaviaCroatiaSomalilandSomaliland Declaration of Independence1991SomalianoneSouth CarolinaDeclaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal UnionDecember 241860United StatesSouth Carolinians in CharlestonSouthern CameroonsSouthern Cameroons Declaration of IndependenceDecember 311999CameroonnoneTexasTexas Declaration of IndependenceMarch 21836MexicoFranceTexasA Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal UnionFebruary 11861United StatesTexas LegislatureUkraineDeclaration of Independence of UkraineAugust 241991Soviet UnionVerkhovna RadaPolandUnited StatesUnited States Declaration of IndependenceJuly 41776Great BritainSecond Continental CongressFranceUzbekistanDeclaration of IndependenceAugust 311991Soviet UnionSupreme Council of UzbekistanTurkeyVenezuelaVenezuelan Declaration of IndependenceJuly 51811Kingdom of SpainRepresentatives of the States of VenezuelaVietnamProclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of VietnamSeptember 21945JapanHồ Chí MinhSoviet Union Independence without a Declaration U.S. Declaration of Independence, 1776 In many cases, independence is achieved without a declaration of independence but instead occurs by bilateral agreement. An example of this is the independence of many components of the British Empire, most parts of which achieved independence through negotiation with the United Kingdom government and legislation by the parliament of the United Kingdom. Australia and Canada, for example, achieved full independence through a series of acts of their respective national governments and parliaments and the British government and parliament. On the other hand, regions often achieve de facto independence, but do not declare independence. Notable examples include Taiwan, which China has threatened to invade should it officially declare independence. Iraqi Kurdistan was de facto independent from the central Iraqi government between the Persian Gulf War and the Iraq War, but could not declare statehood out of fear of losing international support. Such regions often refer to themselves as autonomous regions, with or without the assent of the central government. See also Independence Day Separatism The Thirteen Colonies Notes | Declaration_of_independence |@lemmatized article:1 declaration:57 independence:36 general:1 specific:1 list:1 alphabetical:1 order:1 painting:1 name:1 see:6 trumbull:1 sign:2 united:4 state:11 albanian:1 short:1 film:2 assertion:1 aspire:1 place:1 usually:1 declare:4 part:2 territory:2 another:1 nation:2 fail:1 breakaway:1 within:1 large:1 successful:1 result:1 region:4 typically:1 make:1 without:4 consent:1 parent:1 hence:1 sometimes:1 call:1 unilateral:2 udi:1 particularly:1 question:1 validity:1 regiondeclarationdateyearparentsignatoriesfirst:1 recognise:1 statealbaniaalbanian:1 independencenovember:3 ottoman:1 empire:2 province:1 south:2 america:2 argentina:1 argentine:1 independencejuly:4 tucumánarmeniademocratic:1 republic:9 armeniamay:1 congress:1 eastern:1 armenian:2 revolutionary:1 federation:1 arf:1 dashnak:1 russiabangladeshbangladeshi:1 independencedecember:3 accordsdecember:2 unionpresidents:2 russia:2 ukraine:2 belarusturkeybelgiumbelgian:1 independenceoctober:1 government:8 belgiumbrazilbrazilian:1 independenceseptember:4 brazilbulgariabulgarian:1 empireferdinand:1 bulgaria:1 bulgariacentral:1 americacentral:1 american:1 independencefebruary:4 congressportugalcolombiacolombian:1 independencejune:5 republicdominican:1 timoreast:1 timorese:1 committeerussian:1 sfsrestoniaestonian:1 reconfirmation:1 independenceaugust:4 estoniacongress:1 estoniaiceland:1 reconfirm:1 early:1 recognition:1 finlandfinland:1 finlandgeorgia:1 country:2 georgia:2 independenceapril:2 uniongermanygeorgia:1 u:2 secession:3 declarationjanuary:1 statesguinea:1 bissauguinea:1 bissau:1 independencejanuary:2 jacques:1 dessalineshungaryhungarian:1 empireicelandicelandic:1 kingdomunited:1 kingdomindonesiaindonesian:1 mohammad:1 hattaegyptirelandproclamation:1 irish:1 republicapril:1 kingdomirish:1 volunteersirish:1 citizen:1 armyirish:1 republicirish:1 kingdomdáil:1 éireannrussian:1 sfsrisraelisraeli:1 independencemay:2 kingdomjewish:1 people:1 councilunited:1 stateskatangakatangan:1 léopoldville:1 koreakorean:1 independencemarch:2 kosovo:1 kosovoafghanistanlatviaon:1 restoration:1 latviamay:1 unionsupreme:3 soviet:1 latvian:1 ssricelandlithuaniaact:1 lithuaniafebruary:1 russiacouncil:1 lithuaniagermanylithuaniaact:1 establishment:1 lithuaniamarch:1 council:2 lithuaniaicelandlow:1 netherlands:1 act:3 abjurationjuly:1 macedoniaindependence:1 immediate:2 cause:3 induce:2 justify:2 mississippi:1 federal:3 unionjanuary:1 statesmoldovadeclaration:1 moldovaaugust:1 unionparliament:1 moldovaromaniamontenegromontenegro:1 montenegroassembly:1 montenegroicelandnetherlandsact:1 abjurationjuli:1 empireunion:1 utrechtnew:1 zealanddeclaration:1 new:2 kingdommāori:1 chiefsnorthern:1 mexico:1 solemn:1 northern:3 americanovember:1 anáhuacturkish:1 cyprusdeclaration:1 turkish:1 cyprusnovember:1 norwaymay:1 accord:1 treaty:1 kielconstitutional:1 assemblypapua:1 guineaindependence:1 daysept:1 prime:2 minister:2 michael:1 somareperuact:1 perujuly:1 de:3 san:1 martínphilippinesphilippine:1 aguinaldo:1 katipunanunited:1 statesrhodesiarhodesian:1 kingdomian:1 smith:1 rest:1 cabinetnoneromaniaromanian:1 empireking:1 carol:1 irussiabelavezha:1 belarusscotlanddeclaration:1 arbroathapril:1 leaderssingaporeproclamation:1 singapore:3 force:1 malaysia:1 malaysian:1 parliament:4 proclamation:1 agree:1 two:1 agreement:2 rev:1 ed:1 august:1 kuan:1 yew:1 singaporesloveniaslovenian:1 carolinadeclaration:1 carolina:1 uniondecember:1 statessouth:1 carolinian:1 charlestonsouthern:1 cameroonssouthern:1 cameroon:1 impel:1 texas:1 secede:1 unionfebruary:1 statestexas:1 legislatureukrainedeclaration:1 ukraineaugust:1 unionverkhovna:1 radapolandunited:1 statesunited:1 britainsecond:1 continental:1 congressfranceuzbekistandeclaration:1 uzbekistanturkeyvenezuelavenezuelan:1 spainrepresentatives:1 venezuelavietnamproclamation:1 democratic:1 vietnamseptember:1 chí:1 minhsoviet:1 union:1 many:2 case:1 achieve:4 instead:1 occurs:1 bilateral:1 example:3 component:1 british:2 negotiation:1 kingdom:2 legislation:1 australia:1 canada:1 full:1 series:1 respective:1 national:1 hand:1 often:2 facto:2 notable:1 include:1 taiwan:1 china:1 threaten:1 invade:1 officially:1 iraqi:2 kurdistan:1 independent:1 central:2 persian:1 gulf:1 war:2 iraq:1 could:1 statehood:1 fear:1 lose:1 international:1 support:1 refer:1 autonomous:1 assent:1 also:1 day:1 separatism:1 thirteen:1 colony:1 note:1 |@bigram declaration_independence:17 alphabetical_order:1 unilateral_declaration:2 ottoman_empire:1 declaration_independencejune:5 prime_minister:2 singapore_singapore:1 malaysia_malaysian:1 kuan_yew:1 de_facto:2 iraqi_kurdistan:1 persian_gulf:1 |
4,435 | A_Wizard_of_Earthsea | A Wizard of Earthsea, first published in 1968, is the first of a series of books written by Ursula K. Le Guin and set in the fantasy world archipelago of Earthsea depicting the adventures of a budding young wizard named Ged. The tale of Ged's growth and development as he travels across Earthsea continues in The Tombs of Atuan and The Farthest Shore and is supplemented in Tehanu and The Other Wind. The series has won numerous literary awards, including the 1990 Nebula for Tehanu, the 1972 Newbery Silver Medal Award The Tombs of Atuan, 1972 National Book Award for Children's Books The Farthest Shore, and 1979 Lewis Carroll Shelf Award for A Wizard of Earthsea. Plot summary Duny is a young boy on Gont, one of the larger islands which dot Earthsea. His mother is dead, his much older siblings have all left home, and his father is a dour, taciturn bronze-smith with nothing in common with his son, so the boy grows up wild and headstrong. Duny discovers by accident that he has an extraordinary talent for magic. His aunt, the village witch, teaches him the little she herself knows, but his power far exceeds hers. One day, he uses his talent and a fog-gathering spell he learned from a passing weatherworker to save his village from Karg raiders. The tale of his remarkable feat spreads far and wide, finally reaching the ear of a wise Gontish mage, Ogion the Silent. He recognizes that the boy is so powerful he must be trained so as not to become a danger to himself and others. In the rite of passage into adulthood, he gives the boy his "true name", Ged, and takes him as an apprentice. In this world, a magician who knows someone's true name has control over that person, so one's true name is revealed only to those whom one trusts implicitly. Normally, a person is referred to by his or her "use name". Ged's is Sparrowhawk. 1971 Puffin edition. 201 pages The undisciplined young man grows restless under the gentle, patient tutelage of his master. Ogion finally gives him a choice: stay with him or go to the renowned school for wizards, on the island of Roke. Though he has grown to love the old man, the youngster is drawn irresistibly to a life of doing, rather than being. At the school, Sparrowhawk masters his craft with ease, but his pride and arrogance grow even faster than his skill and, in his hubris, he attempts to summon a dead spirit - a perilous spell which goes awry. An unknown creature appears and attacks him, scarring his face. It is driven off by the head of the school, the Archmage Nemmerle, who expends all of his power in the process and dies shortly thereafter. Sparrowhawk is wracked with guilt at causing the old man's death, but after a painful and slow recovery, he graduates from the school. Normally, Roke's wizards are much sought after by princes and rich merchants, but the new Archmage sends a willing Sparrowhawk to a poor island group instead, to protect the inhabitants from a powerful dragon and its maturing sons, who have been seen scouting the region. Sparrowhawk eventually comes to realize that he cannot both defend the islanders against the dragon and himself against the nameless thing he brought into the world. He takes a desperate gamble; in the old histories, he has found the true name of a dragon which might be the one he faces. His guess is right and by using the dragon's name, he is able to force the dragon to vow that neither it nor its offspring will ever trouble the islanders. Then, with no idea how to deal with his other foe, Sparrowhawk tries to return to the safety of Roke, but the magical, protective Roke-wind drives away the ship on which he is a passenger. He finds what appears to be a safe haven, the domain of one of the Old Powers, but is nearly enslaved by the ancient guardian. He realizes his peril just in time and, taking the form of a falcon, flees yet again. He instinctively returns to Ogion, who advises him to turn about and seek his shadow. In following his master's wise guidance, the roles of Sparrowhawk and his enemy become reversed, and he becomes the hunter. Sparrowhawk is nearly drowned when the shadow lures him into steering his boat onto rocks. The vessel sinks, but he manages to reach a small island inhabited by only two old people, a man and his sister, who have lived there alone so long they have forgotten there is an outside world and other people. After Sparrowhawk regains his strength, he constructs another boat, held together by magic. When he is ready to leave, he offers to take the pair wherever they want to go, but the man fearfully turns him down and the woman does not seem to understand that there are other people and other lands. However, she gives him a parting gift of one of her few possessions, a broken half of an armlet. (The siblings' story and the gift's significance are revealed in the sequel). Back at sea, the shadow nearly takes Sparrowhawk unawares, but he senses it just in time and comes to grips with it. His enemy flees, but he senses that he has forged a bond that cannot be broken and that the shadow cannot now avoid a final confrontation. During his pursuit, Sparrowhawk encounters Vetch, the only friend he made at school. Together, the two wizards set off into the open sea. Sparrowhawk perceives the ocean gradually turning into land, an immensely powerful magic. Though Vetch cannot see the transformation, the boat runs aground. Sparrowhawk steps out of the boat and walks off to confront his waiting shadow. Though some of his teachers had thought it to be nameless, Sparrowhawk and his adversary speak at the same moment, each naming the other "Ged". Sparrowhawk embraces his foe and the two become one. Inspiration Le Guin has said that the book was in part a response to the image of wizards as ancient and wise, and to her wondering where they come from. Her short stories, "The Rule of Names" (1964) and "The Word of Unbinding" (1964), established some of the groundwork for the original Earthsea trilogy. Further inspiration came from the work of her parents: see Ishi. Translations Polish: "", 1983, ISBN 83-7469-227-8 Russian: "", also "", first 1990, ISBN 978-5-699-29645-3 Ukrainian: "", 2006, ISBN 966-692-809-4 Spanish: "", 2000, ISBN 978-8-445-07333-9 French: "" Adaptations An original mini-series based very loosely on A Wizard of Earthsea and The Tombs of Atuan was broadcast on the Sci Fi Channel. Le Guin has stated that she was not pleased with the result. References See also LeGuin's comments regarding the similarities to Harry Potter External links Ursula K. Le Guin's official website An excerpt of Tales from Earthsea Review of A Wizard of Earthsea by J.K. Pelletier Preceded by:Series:Followed by:The Rule of NamesEarthseaThe Tombs of Atuan | A_Wizard_of_Earthsea |@lemmatized wizard:9 earthsea:9 first:3 publish:1 series:4 book:4 write:1 ursula:2 k:3 le:4 guin:4 set:2 fantasy:1 world:4 archipelago:1 depict:1 adventure:1 budding:1 young:3 name:9 ged:5 tale:3 growth:1 development:1 travel:1 across:1 continue:1 tomb:4 atuan:4 farthest:2 shore:2 supplement:1 tehanu:2 wind:2 win:1 numerous:1 literary:1 award:4 include:1 nebula:1 newbery:1 silver:1 medal:1 national:1 child:1 lewis:1 carroll:1 shelf:1 plot:1 summary:1 duny:2 boy:4 gont:1 one:8 large:1 island:4 dot:1 mother:1 dead:2 much:2 old:6 sibling:2 leave:2 home:1 father:1 dour:1 taciturn:1 bronze:1 smith:1 nothing:1 common:1 son:2 grow:4 wild:1 headstrong:1 discovers:1 accident:1 extraordinary:1 talent:2 magic:3 aunt:1 village:2 witch:1 teach:1 little:1 know:2 power:3 far:2 exceed:1 day:1 use:3 fog:1 gathering:1 spell:2 learn:1 passing:1 weatherworker:1 save:1 karg:1 raider:1 remarkable:1 feat:1 spread:1 wide:1 finally:2 reach:2 ear:1 wise:3 gontish:1 mage:1 ogion:3 silent:1 recognize:1 powerful:3 must:1 train:1 become:4 danger:1 others:1 rite:1 passage:1 adulthood:1 give:3 true:4 take:5 apprentice:1 magician:1 someone:1 control:1 person:2 reveal:2 trust:1 implicitly:1 normally:2 refer:1 sparrowhawk:15 puffin:1 edition:1 page:1 undisciplined:1 man:5 restless:1 gentle:1 patient:1 tutelage:1 master:3 choice:1 stay:1 go:3 renowned:1 school:5 roke:4 though:3 love:1 youngster:1 draw:1 irresistibly:1 life:1 rather:1 craft:1 ease:1 pride:1 arrogance:1 even:1 faster:1 skill:1 hubris:1 attempt:1 summon:1 spirit:1 perilous:1 awry:1 unknown:1 creature:1 appear:2 attack:1 scar:1 face:2 drive:2 head:1 archmage:2 nemmerle:1 expend:1 process:1 die:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 wrack:1 guilt:1 cause:1 death:1 painful:1 slow:1 recovery:1 graduate:1 seek:2 prince:1 rich:1 merchant:1 new:1 send:1 willing:1 poor:1 group:1 instead:1 protect:1 inhabitant:1 dragon:5 maturing:1 see:4 scout:1 region:1 eventually:1 come:4 realize:2 cannot:4 defend:1 islander:2 nameless:2 thing:1 bring:1 desperate:1 gamble:1 history:1 find:2 might:1 guess:1 right:1 able:1 force:1 vow:1 neither:1 offspring:1 ever:1 trouble:1 idea:1 deal:1 foe:2 try:1 return:2 safety:1 magical:1 protective:1 away:1 ship:1 passenger:1 safe:1 domain:1 nearly:3 enslave:1 ancient:2 guardian:1 peril:1 time:2 form:1 falcon:1 flee:1 yet:1 instinctively:1 advise:1 turn:3 shadow:5 follow:2 guidance:1 role:1 enemy:2 reverse:1 hunter:1 drown:1 lure:1 steer:1 boat:4 onto:1 rock:1 vessel:1 sink:1 manage:1 small:1 inhabit:1 two:3 people:3 sister:1 live:1 alone:1 long:1 forget:1 outside:1 regain:1 strength:1 construct:1 another:1 hold:1 together:2 ready:1 offer:1 pair:1 wherever:1 want:1 fearfully:1 woman:1 seem:1 understand:1 land:2 however:1 part:2 gift:2 possession:1 broken:1 half:1 armlet:1 story:2 significance:1 sequel:1 back:1 sea:2 unawares:1 sense:2 grip:1 flees:1 forge:1 bond:1 break:1 avoid:1 final:1 confrontation:1 pursuit:1 encounter:1 vetch:2 friend:1 make:1 open:1 perceive:1 ocean:1 gradually:1 immensely:1 transformation:1 run:1 aground:1 step:1 walk:1 confront:1 wait:1 teacher:1 think:1 adversary:1 speak:1 moment:1 embrace:1 inspiration:2 say:1 response:1 image:1 wonder:1 short:1 rule:2 word:1 unbind:1 establish:1 groundwork:1 original:2 trilogy:1 work:1 parent:1 ishi:1 translation:1 polish:1 isbn:4 russian:1 also:2 ukrainian:1 spanish:1 french:1 adaptation:1 mini:1 base:1 loosely:1 broadcast:1 sci:1 fi:1 channel:1 state:1 pleased:1 result:1 reference:1 leguin:1 comment:1 regard:1 similarity:1 harry:1 potter:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 excerpt:1 review:1 j:1 pelletier:1 precede:1 namesearthseathe:1 |@bigram ursula_k:2 le_guin:4 lewis_carroll:1 go_awry:1 shortly_thereafter:1 run_aground:1 sci_fi:1 harry_potter:1 external_link:1 |
4,436 | Mohamed_Al-Fayed | Mohamed Abdel Moneim Fayed () (born January 27, 1933) is an Egyptian businessman estimated to be worth £900 Million. Amongst his business interests is ownership of Harrods department store in Knightsbridge and the English Premiership football team Fulham Football Club. He relaunched the humour publication Punch in 1996 but it folded again in 2002. He has two brothers; Ali Fayed and Salah Fayed. Since 1985 he has been married to Finnish socialite and former model Heini Wathén. Together they have four children (Jasmine, Karim, Camilla and Omar) and two grandchildren (Delilah, from Jasmine, and Antonia, from Karim). A fifth child, Dodi, from Fayed's first marriage, died in a car crash in Paris in 1997, along with Diana, Princess of Wales and Henri Paul, the driver of the car and employee of the Fayed-owned Hôtel Ritz Paris. Biography Born in Bakos (باكوس), a neighbourhood in eastern Alexandria, Egypt, as the eldest son of a primary school teacher, Fayed tried a number of jobs, from selling soft drinks on the streets of his home city as a child to working as a sewing machine salesman and teacher. He was married for two years to Samira Kashoggi (1954 - 1956), the sister of the international businessman and arms dealer Adnan Khashoggi, who employed him in his import business in Saudi Arabia. Fayed founded his own shipping company in Egypt before becoming a financial adviser to one of the world's richest men, the then Sultan of Brunei Omar Ali Saifuddien III, in 1966. He arrived in Britain in 1974 and added the Al- to his name, earning the Private Eye nickname "the Phoney Pharaoh". He briefly joined the board of the mining conglomerate Lonrho in 1975 but left after a disagreement. In 1985, he married Wathén, his second wife. In 1985, he and his brother Ali bought House of Fraser, a group that included the famous London store Harrods, for £615m. The Harrods deal was made under the nose of Roland 'Tiny' Rowland, the head of Lonrho. Rowland had been seeking to buy Harrods and took the Fayed brothers to a Department of Trade inquiry. The inquiry, involving one of the most bitter feuds in British business history, issued a 1990 report stating that the Fayed brothers had lied about their background and wealth. The bickering with Rowland continued when he accused them of stealing millions in jewels from his Harrods safe deposit box. Rowland died in 1998, and, without accepting responsibility, Fayed settled the dispute with a payment to his widow. (Al Fayed had been arrested during the dispute and sued the Metropolitan Police for false arrest in 2002. He lost the case.) In 1994, House of Fraser went public, but Fayed retained private ownership of Harrods. For years, Fayed unsuccessfully sought British citizenship. Both Labour and Conservative Home Secretaries repeatedly rejected his applications on the grounds that he was not of good character. He took the matter to court, but failed. It has been suggested that the feud with Rowland contributed to Fayed's being refused British citizenship the first time. BBC News accessed 18/02/08 Mohamed Fayed was involved in the cash for questions scandal, having offered money for questions in the commons to the Conservative MPs Neil Hamilton and Tim Smith. Both left the government in disgrace. Fayed also revealed that the cabinet minister Jonathan Aitken had stayed for free at the Ritz Hotel in Paris at the same time as a group of Saudi arms dealers leading to Aitken's subsequent unsuccessful libel case and imprisonment for perjury. Cash for Questions . http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/336797.stm Retrieved 20/10/07 During this period Fayed was represented publicly by public relations expert Michael Cole. In 2003, Fayed moved from Surrey, UK to Switzerland, alleging a breach in an agreement with the Her Majesty's Inland Revenue Commissioners. In 2005, he moved back to Britain, saying that he "regards Britain as home". Dodi Al-Fayed's death Fayed's oldest son, Dodi had a close relationship with Diana, Princess of Wales. Both of them died in a Paris car crash on August 31, 1997. Fayed came up with a theory that the driver, Henri Paul, had plotted with the Royal Family to kill Diana and Dodi and an inquiry was called to discover if there really was a plot to kill Diana. On February 18, 2008, Fayed accused Prince Charles and Prince Phillip of killing Diana, because Charles was furious that she was dating with Dodi. CNN News accessed 18/02/08 His testimony was roundly condemned in the press as being farcical and led to members of the British Government's Intelligence and Security Committee including George Foulkes, Baron Foulkes of Cumnock and Dari Taylor to accuse him of turning the Inquest into a 'circus' and calls for it to be ended prematurely. BBC NEWS | UK | Coroner warning in Diana inquest Fulham FC Fayed bought Second Division (equivalent to modern Football League One) Fulham F.C. from chairman Jimmy Hill in the summer of 1997. His initial, ambitious long-term aim was that Fulham would become a FA Premier League side within five years. To this end he installed the managerial "dream team" of Ray Wilkins and Kevin Keegan, which resulted in the sacking of Micky Adams, who had guided Fulham to promotion from the then named Third Division. Fulham stormed to the Second Division title with a record 101 points in 1999. Kevin Keegan was appointed manager of England at this time. In 2001, Fulham took the First Division (now Football League Championship) under manager Jean Tigana, winning 100 points and scoring over 100 goals in the season. This meant that Fayed had achieved his objective of Fulham being a Premiership club a year ahead of schedule. Also, by 2002, Fulham were competing in European football, winning the Intertoto Cup and challenging in the UEFA Cup. Fayed stated that he wanted Fulham to become the "Manchester United of the South", referring to United's rise in the 1990s to being one of the biggest clubs in the world. On 5 May 2007, Fayed celebrated his 10th year with Fulham. This was marked by a 1-0 win over Liverpool, which ensured that the club retained their Premiership status for another season. In 2009, Fulham had finished 7th in the Premier League, making them eligible to play in the newly-formed Europa League, the European competition that succeded the UEFA Cup. Notes External links Extracts from 1990 DTI Report on Fayed's purchase of Harrods Fayed on CBC Interview with Al Jazeera (English) Riz Khan Mohamed Fayed's personal website Fayed Charitable Foundation Interview about Hotel Ritz Paris Download: Lord Stevens' 832-page Operation Paget Report Into The Deaths of Diana, Princess of Wales, Dodi Fayed & Henri Paul 14th December, 2006 Notes from the Howard Stern Show - March 6, 2007 2007-2008 Coroner's Inquests into the deaths of Diana, Princess of Wales and Dodi Fayed | Mohamed_Al-Fayed |@lemmatized mohamed:3 abdel:1 moneim:1 fayed:32 bear:2 january:1 egyptian:1 businessman:2 estimate:1 worth:1 million:2 amongst:1 business:3 interest:1 ownership:2 harrod:7 department:2 store:2 knightsbridge:1 english:2 premiership:3 football:5 team:2 fulham:12 club:4 relaunched:1 humour:1 publication:1 punch:1 fold:1 two:3 brother:4 ali:3 salah:1 since:1 marry:3 finnish:1 socialite:1 former:1 model:1 heini:1 wathén:2 together:1 four:1 child:3 jasmine:2 karim:2 camilla:1 omar:2 grandchild:1 delilah:1 antonia:1 fifth:1 dodi:7 first:3 marriage:1 die:3 car:3 crash:2 paris:5 along:1 diana:8 princess:4 wale:4 henri:3 paul:3 driver:2 employee:1 hôtel:1 ritz:3 biography:1 bakos:1 باكوس:1 neighbourhood:1 eastern:1 alexandria:1 egypt:2 eldest:1 son:2 primary:1 school:1 teacher:2 try:1 number:1 job:1 sell:1 soft:1 drink:1 street:1 home:3 city:1 work:1 sewing:1 machine:1 salesman:1 year:5 samira:1 kashoggi:1 sister:1 international:1 arm:2 dealer:2 adnan:1 khashoggi:1 employ:1 import:1 saudi:2 arabia:1 found:1 shipping:1 company:1 become:3 financial:1 adviser:1 one:4 world:2 rich:1 men:1 sultan:1 brunei:1 saifuddien:1 iii:1 arrive:1 britain:3 add:1 al:4 name:2 earn:1 private:2 eye:1 nickname:1 phoney:1 pharaoh:1 briefly:1 join:1 board:1 mining:1 conglomerate:1 lonrho:2 leave:2 disagreement:1 second:3 wife:1 buy:3 house:2 fraser:2 group:2 include:2 famous:1 london:1 deal:1 make:2 nose:1 roland:1 tiny:1 rowland:5 head:1 seek:1 take:3 trade:1 inquiry:3 involve:2 bitter:1 feud:2 british:4 history:1 issue:1 report:3 state:2 lie:1 background:1 wealth:1 bickering:1 continue:1 accuse:3 steal:1 jewel:1 safe:1 deposit:1 box:1 without:1 accept:1 responsibility:1 settle:1 dispute:2 payment:1 widow:1 arrest:2 sue:1 metropolitan:1 police:1 false:1 lose:1 case:2 go:1 public:2 retained:1 unsuccessfully:1 sought:1 citizenship:2 labour:1 conservative:2 secretary:1 repeatedly:1 reject:1 application:1 ground:1 good:1 character:1 matter:1 court:1 fail:1 suggest:1 contribute:1 refused:1 time:3 bbc:3 news:4 access:2 cash:2 question:3 scandal:1 offer:1 money:1 common:1 mp:1 neil:1 hamilton:1 tim:1 smith:1 government:2 disgrace:1 also:2 reveal:1 cabinet:1 minister:1 jonathan:1 aitken:2 stay:1 free:1 hotel:2 lead:2 subsequent:1 unsuccessful:1 libel:1 imprisonment:1 perjury:1 http:1 co:1 uk:4 hi:1 stm:1 retrieve:1 period:1 represent:1 publicly:1 relation:1 expert:1 michael:1 cole:1 move:2 surrey:1 switzerland:1 allege:1 breach:1 agreement:1 majesty:1 inland:1 revenue:1 commissioner:1 back:1 say:1 regard:1 death:3 old:1 close:1 relationship:1 august:1 come:1 theory:1 plot:2 royal:1 family:1 kill:3 call:2 discover:1 really:1 february:1 prince:2 charles:2 phillip:1 furious:1 date:1 cnn:1 testimony:1 roundly:1 condemn:1 press:1 farcical:1 member:1 intelligence:1 security:1 committee:1 george:1 foulkes:2 baron:1 cumnock:1 dari:1 taylor:1 turn:1 inquest:3 circus:1 end:2 prematurely:1 coroner:2 warn:1 fc:1 division:4 equivalent:1 modern:1 league:5 f:1 c:1 chairman:1 jimmy:1 hill:1 summer:1 initial:1 ambitious:1 long:1 term:1 aim:1 would:1 fa:1 premier:2 side:1 within:1 five:1 instal:1 managerial:1 dream:1 ray:1 wilkins:1 kevin:2 keegan:2 result:1 sacking:1 micky:1 adam:1 guide:1 promotion:1 third:1 storm:1 title:1 record:1 point:2 appoint:1 manager:2 england:1 championship:1 jean:1 tigana:1 win:3 score:1 goal:1 season:2 meant:1 achieve:1 objective:1 ahead:1 schedule:1 compete:1 european:2 intertoto:1 cup:3 challenging:1 uefa:2 want:1 manchester:1 unite:2 south:1 refer:1 rise:1 big:1 may:1 celebrate:1 mark:1 liverpool:1 ensure:1 retain:1 status:1 another:1 finish:1 eligible:1 play:1 newly:1 form:1 europa:1 competition:1 succeded:1 note:2 external:1 link:1 extract:1 dti:1 purchase:1 cbc:1 interview:2 jazeera:1 riz:1 khan:1 personal:1 website:1 charitable:1 foundation:1 download:1 lord:1 stevens:1 page:1 operation:1 paget:1 december:1 howard:1 stern:1 show:1 march:1 |@bigram diana_princess:4 eldest_son:1 soft_drink:1 saudi_arabia:1 sultan_brunei:1 bitter_feud:1 bbc_news:2 uk_hi:1 kevin_keegan:2 intertoto_cup:1 uefa_cup:2 manchester_unite:1 external_link:1 al_jazeera:1 howard_stern:1 |
4,437 | John_Milton | John Milton (9 December 1608 – 8 November 1674) was an English poet, author, polemicist and civil servant for the Commonwealth of England. He is best known for his epic poem Paradise Lost and for his treatise condemning censorship, Areopagitica. He was both an accomplished, scholarly man of letters and polemical writer, and an official serving under Oliver Cromwell. His views may be described as broadly Protestant, if not always easy to locate in a more precise religious category. Milton was writing at a time of religious and political flux in England, and his poetry and prose reflect deep convictions, often reacting to contemporary circumstances. He wrote also in Latin and Italian, and had an international reputation during his lifetime. After his death, Milton's personal reputation oscillated, a state of affairs that has continued down the centuries. He early became the subject of partisan biographies, such as that of John Toland from the nonconformist perspective, and a hostile account by Anthony à Wood. Samuel Johnson described him as "an acrimonious and surly republican"; but William Hayley's 1796 biography called him the "greatest English author", at a time when his reputation was particularly in play. McCalman 2001 p. 605. Biography One can situate both Milton's poetry and his politics historically. The phases of his life closely parallel major historical divisions of Stuart Britain. Under the increasingly personal rule of Charles I and its breakdown in constitutional confusion and war, Milton studied hard, travelled, wrote poetry mostly for private circulation, and launched a career as pamphleteer and publicist; a more detailed treatment can be found at John Milton's early life. Under the Commonwealth of England, from being thought dangerously radical and even heretical, the shift in accepted attitudes in government placed him in responsible public office, and he was acting as an official spokesman in certain of his publications. The Restoration of 1660 deprived Milton, now completely blind, of his public platform, but this period saw him complete most of his major works of poetry. Milton's views developed from his very extensive reading, as well as travel and experience, from his student days of the 1620s to the English Revolution. Masson 1859 pp. v-vi. By the time of his death in 1674, Milton was impoverished and on the margins of English intellectual life, yet unrepentant for his political choices, and of Europe-wide fame. Early life John Milton was born 9 December 1608 to a prosperous and cultured middle class Puritan family. His family consisted of his grandmother who lived with them until 1611, his older sister Anne (birth date unknown), and his younger brother Christopher (1615). He had two sisters, Sara and Tabitha. Both died at infancy. John Milton’s father, also named John Milton, was born in 1562 and died in 1647. He was cast out of his family when his father, Richard Milton, discovered him reading through an English bible. Richard Milton was a strong believer in the Roman Catholic faith. John moved to London in 1583. He joined the Company of Scriveners. His profession combined the functions of a notary, financial adviser, money lender and contract lawyer. He drew bonds between lawyers and borrowers, invested money for others, bought and sold property, loaned money at high interest rates, and gave depositions for legal cases. He also composed madrigals and psalms. Milton’s mother, Sara Jeffrey (1572-1637), was the eldest daughter of a merchant tailor. She was described as a “woman of purest reputation, celebrated throughout the neighborhood through her acts of charity.” In Milton’s childhood and much into this teen years, he attended church where Richard Stock was the minister. Richard Stock had a profound influence on John Milton, and died shortly before Milton started university. They shared the same beliefs of “antipapist diatribes and the readiness to censure the sins of the powerful .” John developed many attitudes and character traits that lasted with him throughout his lifetime. He held in such regard human institutions of marriage,school, church, government, and had a ‘disposition to challenge and resist institutional authorities who fell short of such standards.” At a young age, Milton became conscious of political, religious and cultural strains on the nation. His father's prosperity provided his eldest son with a private tutor, Thomas Young, a Scottish Presbyterian who may have influenced his gifted student in religion and politics while they maintained contact across subsequent decades "John Milton." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383113/John-Milton>. , and then a place at St Paul's School in London. There he met Charles Diodati, a fellow student who would become his confident through young adulthood. He also began the study of Latin and Greek, and the classical languages left an imprint on his poetry in English (he wrote also in Italian and Latin). He may have heard some poetry from John Donne, dean of St. Paul's Cathedral. His first datable compositions are two psalms done at age 15 at Long Bennington. One contemporary source is the Brief Lives of John Aubrey, an uneven compilation including first-hand reports. In the work, Aubrey quotes Christopher, Milton's younger brother: "When he was young, he studied very hard and sat up very late, commonly till twelve or one o'clock at night". Dick 1962 pp. 270-5. ‘My father,’ Milton wrote in 1654, ‘destined me in early childhood for the study of literature, for which I had so keen an appetite that from my twelfth year scarcely did I leave my studies for my bed before the hour of midnight.’ John Milton enrolled at Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1625 to be educated for the ministry. He was temporarily expelled because of a conflict with one of his tutors, William Chappell and later reinstated with another tutor, Nathanial Tovey. "John Milton." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383113/John-Milton>. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1629, ranking fourth of 24 honours graduates that year in the University of Cambridge, Hunter 1980 p. 99. and a Master of Arts degree in 1632. He was at home in the Lent Term 1626; there he wrote his Elegia Prima, a first Latin elegy, to Charles Diodati. Based on remarks of John Aubrey, Chappell "whipt" Milton. This story is now disputed. Certainly Milton disliked Chappell. Wedgwood 1961 p. 178. Christopher Hill cautiously notes that Milton was "apparently" rusticated, and that the differences between Chappell and Milton may have been either religious or personal, as far as we can know. Hill 1977 p. 34. Another factor, possibly, was the plague, by which Cambridge was badly affected in 1625. At Cambridge Milton was on good terms with Edward King, for whom he later wrote Lycidas. He also befriended Anglo-American dissident and theologian, Roger Williams. Milton tutored Williams in Hebrew in exchange for lessons in Dutch. Pfeiffer 1955 pp. 363-373 Otherwise at Cambridge he developed a reputation for poetic skill and general erudition, but experienced alienation from his peers and university life as a whole. Watching his fellow students attempting comedy upon the college stage, he later observed that 'they thought themselves gallant men, and I thought them fools'. Milton 1959 pp. 887-8. Milton, due to his hair, which he wore long, and his general delicacy of manner, was known as the "Lady of Christ's College". While studying at Cambridge, he recognized that poetry and life are closely related: "And long it was not after, when I confirm'd in this opinion, that he who would not be frustrated of his hope to write well hereafter in laudable things, ought him selfe to bee a true Poem, that is, a composition, and patterne of the best and honorablest things; not presuming to sing high praises of heroick men, or famous Cities, unless he have in himselfe the experience and the practice of all that which is praise-worthy." Lewalski, Barbara Kiefer. The life of John Milton: a critical biography. Wiley-Blackwell, 2002. He also found alternatives between life and poetry. These alternatives included "sensuous delight and asceticism, eroticism and chastity, retired leisure and arduous labor, academic oratory and poetry, classical and Catholic myth, Latin and English language, elegy, and the higher poetic forms, mirth and melancholy." His poems contained the dating formula of 'anno aetatis' which means "written at the age of.". Lewalski, Barbara Kiefer. The life of John Milton: a critical biography. Wiley-Blackwell, 2002. The university curriculum was dour, and worked towards formal debates on topics, conducted in Latin. Yet his corpus is not devoid of humour, notably his sixth prolusion and his epitaphs on the death of Thomas Hobson. While at Cambridge he wrote a number of his well-known shorter English poems, among them On the Morning of Christ's Nativity, his Epitaph on the admirable Dramatick Poet, W. Shakespeare, his first poem to appear in print, L'Allegro and Il Penseroso. Despite his intention to enter the ministry, he did not. It is possible that he did not due to the lack of respect for his fellow students who were also planning on becoming ministers, or his Puritan inclinations caused him to dislike the hierarchy of the established church, and it's insistance on uniformity of worship. Either way, his obvious dissatisfaction impelled the Church of England rejected him from the ministry. "John Milton." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383113/John-Milton>. Study, poetry and travel Milton, c. 1629. Unknown 17th century artist. In 1632 Milton returned to live with his parents in Hammersmith, on the outskirts of London. Three years later, perhaps because of the plague outbreak. The family moved to Horton, Berkshire, and Milton undertook six years of self-directed private study. Christopher Hill points out that this was not retreat into a rural or pastoral idyll at all: Hammersmith was then a "suburban village" falling into the orbit of London, and even Horton was becoming deforested, and suffered from the plague. Hill 1977 p. 38. He read both ancient and modern works of theology, philosophy, history, politics, literature and science, in preparation for a prospective poetical career. Milton's intellectual development can be charted via entries in his commonplace book, now in the British Library. As a result of such intensive study, Milton is considered to be among the most learned of all English poets; in addition to his years of private study, Milton had command of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, and Italian from his school and undergraduate days; he also added Old English to his linguistic repertoire in the 1650s while researching his History of Britain, and probably acquired proficiency in Dutch soon after. Lewalski 2003 p. 103. In 1628 Milton composed an occasional poem, On the Death of a Fair Infant Dying of a Cough, which mourns the loss of his niece Anne, the daughter of his older sister. Milton tenderly commemorates the child, who was two years old. The poem’s conceits, Classical allusions, and theological overtones emphasize that the child entered the supernal realm because the human condition, having been enlightened by her brief presence, was ill-suited to bear her any longer. "John Milton." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383113/John-Milton>. Milton continued to write poetry during this period of study: his Arcades and Comus were both commissioned for masques composed for noble patrons, connections of the Egerton family, and performed in 1634 on Michaelmas at Ludlow Castle in Shropshire. It was first published as A Maske Presented at Ludlow Castle in 1638. Comus celebrates the installation of John Egerton, earl of Bridgewater and Viscount Brackley and a member of Charles I’s Privy Council, as lord president of Wales. In addition to various English and Welsh dignitaries, the installation was attended by Egerton’s wife and children; the latter—Alice (15 years old), John (11), and Thomas (9)—all had parts in the dramatic entertainment. Other characters include Thyrsis, an attendant spirit to the children; Sabrina, a nymph of the River Severn; and Comus, a necromancer and seducer. Henry Lawes, who played the part of Thyrsis, was a musician and composer, the music teacher of the Egerton children, and the composer of the music for the songs of Comus. The masque develops the theme of a journey through the woods by the three Egerton children, in the course of which the daughter, called “the Lady,” is separated from her brothers. While alone, she encounters Comus, who is disguised as a villager and who claims that he will lead her to her brothers. Deceived by his amiable countenance, the Lady follows him, only to be victimized by his necromancy. Seated on an enchanted chair, she is immobilized, and Comus accosts her while with one hand he holds a necromancer’s wand and with the other he offers a vessel with a drink that would overpower her. Within view at his palace is an array of cuisine intended to arouse the Lady’s appetites and desires. Despite being restrained against her will, she continues to exercise right reason (recta ratio) in her disputation with Comus, thereby manifesting her freedom of mind. Whereas the would-be seducer argues that appetites and desires issuing from one’s nature are “natural” and therefore licit, the Lady contends that only rational self-control is enlightened and virtuous. To be self-indulgent and intemperate, she adds, is to forfeit one’s higher nature and to yield to baser impulses. In this debate the Lady and Comus signify, respectively, soul and body, ratio and libido, sublimation and sensualism, virtue and vice, moral rectitude and immoral depravity. In line with the theme of the journey that distinguishes Comus, the Lady has been deceived by the guile of a treacherous character, temporarily waylaid, and besieged by sophistry that is disguised as wisdom. As she continues to assert her freedom of mind and to exercise her free will by resistance, even defiance, she is rescued by the attendant spirit and her brothers. Ultimately, she and her brothers are reunited with their parents in a triumphal celebration, which signifies the heavenly bliss awaiting the wayfaring soul that prevails over trials and travails, whether these are the threats posed by overt evil or the blandishments of temptation. "John Milton." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383113/John-Milton>. He contributed his pastoral elegy Lycidas to a memorial collection, “Obsequies in Memory of Edward King”, for one of his Cambridge classmates, who died while crossing the Irish Sea in 1638. Drafts of these poems are preserved in Milton’s poetry notebook, known as the Trinity Manuscript because it is now kept at Trinity College, Cambridge. Lycidas is an Enlish poem, where most of the others were in Latin or Greek. Comparing bishops to vermin infesting sheep and consuming their innards, Milton depicts the prelates in stark contrast to the ideal of the Good Shepherd that is recounted in the Gospel According to John. The prelates and ministers, though prospering on earth, will encounter St. Peter in the afterlife, who will smite them in an act of retributive justice. In May 1638, Milton, accompanied by a manservant, embarked upon a tour of France and Italy that lasted for fifteen months. His travels supplemented his study with new and direct experience of artistic and religious traditions, especially Roman Catholicism. He also met many of the famous theorists and intellectuals of the time, and was able to display his poetic skills. For specific details to what happened within Milton's "grand tour", there is just one major source: Milton's own Defensio Secunda. Although there are other records, some letters, some mentions in his other prose tracts and the rest, the bulk of the information we have about it comes therefore from a work that, according to Barbara Lewalski, "was not intended as autobiography but as rhetoric, designed to emphasize his sterling reputation with the learned of Europe." Lewalski 2003 pp. 87–88 “In [Florence], which I have always admired above all others because of the elegance, not just of its tongue, but also of its wit, I lingered for about two months. There I at once became the friend of many gentlemen eminent in rank and learning, whose private academies I frequented — a Florentine institution which deserves great praise not only for promoting humane studies but also for encouraging friendly intercourse. Milton 1959 Vol. IV part I. pp. 615–617 ”– Milton's account of Florence in Defensio Secunda He travelled a route common to other Englishmen touring Europe at the time. He first went to Calais, and then on to Paris, riding horseback. While in Paris, he brought a letter from Henry Wotton which allowed him to be introduced at the British embassy. From John Scudamore, Milton received other letters of introduction and met Hugo Grotius. Milton quickly left France after this meeting and after visiting a few landmarks. He traveled south, from Nice to Genoa and then onto Livorno and Pisa. Eventually, he reached Florence in July 1638. The similar humanistic interests appealed to Milton, and he found their admiration for him invigorating. While there, Milton enjoyed many of the sites and structures of the city. He also met many intellectuals, including Galileo, who was under virtual house arrest at the time, and spent time at the Florentine academies. "John Milton." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383113/John-Milton>. In particular, Milton probably visited the Florentine Academy and the Academia della Crusca along with smaller academies in the area including the Apatisti (those free from the pathos, hence free from emotions and passions) and the Svogliati. His candor of manner and erudite neo-Latin poetry made him many friends in Florentine intellectual circles, and he met a number of famous and influential people through these connections including the astronomer Galileo at Arcetri, Benedetto Buonmattei, Antonio Malatesti and others. Lewalski 2003 pp. 88–94 He left Florence in September to continue onward to Rome. With the many connects from Florence, Milton was able to have easy access into Rome's intellectual society. His poetic abilities impressed those like Giovanni Salzilli, who praised Milton within an epigram. In late October, Milton despite his dislike for the Society of Jesus attended a dinner given by the English College, Rome, meeting there English Catholics who were other guests, Henry Holden and the poet Patrick Cary. Lewalski, p. 96. There is little else known about this time beyond that he met David Codner, an English Benedictine with court connections, who also praised Milton's poetry, and that he attended various musical events, including oratorios, operas, and melodramas. Milton left for Naples near the end of November, where he stayed only for a month because of the Spanish control. During that time, he was introduced to Giovanni Battista Manso, patron to both Torquato Tasso and to Giovanni Battista Marino. Manso became Milton's guide through Naples. He gave Milton books, and a teasing distich based on Gregory the Great's pun on "Angle" and "angel" when describing the English. Milton responded in his Mansus that he was grateful for the gesture of good will and claims Manso as his patron. Lewalski 2003 pp. 94–98 Originally, Milton wanted leave Naples in order to travel to Sicily, and then on to Greece, but he returned to England during the summer of 1639 because of what he claimed, in Defensio Secunda, Lewalski 2003 p. 98 were "sad tidings of civil war in England." Milton 1959 Vol IV part I. pp. 618–619 To further complicate matters, in 1638, Milton received word that his childhood friend, Diodati, had died, possibly from the plague. Milton in fact stayed another seven months on the continent, and spent time at Geneva with Diodati's uncle after he returned to Rome. In Defensio Secunda, Milton proclaimed that he was warned against returning to Rome because of his frankness about religion, but he stayed in the city for two months and was able to experience Carnival and meet Lukas Holste, a Vatican librarian who guided Milton through the collection. He was also introduced to Cardinal Francesco Barberini, who invited Milton to an opera hosted by the Cardinal. Around March, Milton traveled once again to Florence and stayed there for two months, attendind further meetings of the academies and spending time with friends. After leaving Florence, he traveled through Lucca, Bologna, and Ferrara before eventually coming to Venice. In Venice, Milton was exposed to a model of Republicanism, but he soon found another model when he traveled to Geneva. From Switzerland, Milton traveled to Paris and then to Calais before finally arriving back in England, which was in either July or August 1639. Lewalski 2003 pp. 99–109 He returned to London, not to far from Bread street, and lived with his nephews, John and Edward Phillips, whom he had tutored. Upon his return he composed an elegy in Latin, Epitaphium Damonis (“Damon’s Epitaph”), which commemorated Diodati. "John Milton." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383113/John-Milton>. Civil war, prose tracts and marriage Milton Reading for his daughters the "Paradise Lost", c. 1826. Artist: Eugène Delacroix. On returning to England, where the Bishops' Wars presaged further armed conflict, Milton began to write prose tracts against episcopacy, in the service of the Puritan and Parliamentary cause. Milton's first foray into polemics was Of Reformation touching Church Discipline in England (1641), which examines the historical changes in the Church of England since King Henry VIII, followed by Of Prelatical Episcopacy, the two defences of Smectymnuus (a group of presbyterian divines named from their initials: the "TY" belonged to Milton's old tutor Thomas Young), and The Reason of Church-Government Urged against Prelaty. In "The Reason of Church and Government" Milton appears to endorse Scottish Presbyterianism as a replacement for the episcopal hierarchy of the Church of England. A few years thereafter, he came to realize that Presbyterianism could be as inflexible as the Church of England in matters of theology, and he became more independent from established religion of all kinds, arguing for the primacy of Scripture and for the conscience of each believer as the guide to interpretation. "John Milton." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383113/John-Milton>. With frequent passages of real eloquence lighting up the rough controversial style of the period, and deploying a wide knowledge of church history, he vigorously attacked the High-church party of the Church of England and their leader, William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury. He was also showing remarkable versatility with poetry, talent as a linguist and translator. in 1641-42, Milton composed 5 tracts on the reformation of the church government. Though supported by his father’s investments, at this time Milton also became a private schoolmaster, educating his nephews and other children of the well-to-do. This experience, and discussions with educational reformer Samuel Hartlib, led him to write in 1644 his short tract, Of Education, urging a reform of the national universities. Milton outlined a curriculum of Greek and Latin languages, much like his own education at St. Paul's. This tract is aimed at the nobility, and does not mention public education, possibly due to his own dissatisfaction with Cambridge. In June 1642, Milton took a mysterious trip into the countryside and returned with a 16-year-old bride, Mary Powell. A month later, finding life difficult with the severe 33-year-old schoolmaster and pamphleteer, Mary returned to her family. Because of the outbreak of the Civil War, she did not return until 1645; in the meantime her desertion prompted Milton, over the next three years, to publish a series of pamphlets arguing for the legality and morality of divorce. In 1643 Milton had a brush with the authorities over these writings, in parallel with Hezekiah Woodward who had more trouble. Lewalski 2003 pp. 181-2, 600. It was the hostile response accorded the divorce tracts that spurred Milton to write Areopagitica, his celebrated attack on censorship. Secretary of Foreign Tongues With the parliamentary victory in the Civil War, Milton used his pen in defence of the republican principles represented by the Commonwealth. The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates (1649) defended popular government and implicitly sanctioned the regicide; Milton’s political reputation got him appointed Secretary for Foreign Tongues by the Council of State in March 1649. Though Milton's main job description was to compose the English Republic's foreign correspondence in Latin, he also was called upon to produce propaganda for the regime and to serve as a censor. In October 1649 he published Eikonoklastes, an explicit defence of the regicide, in response to the Eikon Basilike, a phenomenal best-seller popularly attributed to Charles I that portrayed the King as an innocent Christian martyr. A month after Milton had tried to break this powerful image of Charles I (the literal translation of Eikonoklastes is 'the image breaker'), the exiled Charles II and his party published a defence of monarchy, Defensio Regia Pro Carolo Primo, written by the leading humanist Claudius Salmasius. By January of the following year, Milton was ordered to write a defence of the English people by the Council of State. Given the European audience and the English Republic's desire to establish diplomatic and cultural legitimacy, Milton worked much slower than usual, as he drew upon the vast array of learning marshalled by his years of study to compose a suitably withering riposte. On 24 February 1652 Milton published his Latin defence of the English People, Defensio Pro Populo Anglicano, also known as the First Defence. Milton's pure Latin prose and evident learning, exemplified in the First Defence, quickly made him a European reputation, and the work ran to numerous editions. von Maltzahn 1999 p. 239 In 1654, in response to a Royalist tract, Regii sanguinis clamor, a work that made many personal attacks on Milton, he completed a second defence of the English nation, Defensio secunda, which praised Oliver Cromwell, now Lord Protector, while exhorting him to remain true to the principles of the Revolution. Alexander More, to whom Milton wrongly attributed the Clamor, published an attack on Milton, in response to which Milton published the autobiographical Defensio pro se in 1655. In addition to these literary defences of the Commonwealth and his character, Milton continued to translate official correspondence into Latin. The probable onset of glaucoma finally resulted in total blindness by 1654, forcing him to dictate his verse and prose to amanuenses, one of whom was the poet Andrew Marvell. One of his best-known sonnets On His Blindness is presumed to date from this period. After bearing him four children—Anne, Mary, John, and Deborah—Milton’s wife, Mary, died on 5 May 1652 from complications following Deborah's birth on 2 May. In June, John died at age 15 months; Milton's daughters survived to adulthood, but he always had a strained relationship with them. On 12 November 1656, Milton remarried, this time to Katherine Woodcock. She died on 3 February 1658, less than four months after giving birth to their daughter, Katherine, who also died. Two nephews John Phillips and Edward Phillips, were known as writers. They were sons of Milton's sister Anne; John acted as a secretary, and Edward was Milton's first biographer. Milton and the Restoration Milton later in life Though Cromwell’s death in 1658 caused the English Republic to collapse into feuding military and political factions, Milton stubbornly clung to the beliefs that had originally inspired him to write for the Commonwealth. In 1659 he published A Treatise of Civil Power, attacking the concept of a state-dominated church (the position known as Erastianism), as well as Considerations touching the likeliest means to remove hirelings, denouncing corrupt practises in church governance. As the Republic disintegrated Milton wrote several proposals to retain a non-monarchical government against the wishes of parliament, soldiers and the people: A Letter to a Friend, Concerning the Ruptures of the Commonwealth, written in October 1659, responsed to General Lambert's recent dissolution of the Rump Parliament Proposals of certain expedients for the preventing of a civil war now feared, written in November 1659 The Ready and Easy Way to Establishing a Free Commonwealth, in two editions, responded to General Monck's march towards London to restore the Long Parliament (which eventually led to the restoration of the monarchy). The work is an impassioned, bitter, and futile jeremiad damning the English people for backsliding from the cause of liberty and advocating the establishment of an authoritarian rule by an oligarchy set up by unelected parliament. Upon the Restoration in May 1660, Milton went into hiding for his life, while a warrant was issued for his arrest and his writings burnt. Re-emerging after a general pardon was issued, he was nevertheless arrested and briefly imprisoned before influential friends, such as Marvell, now an MP, intervened. On 24 February 1663 Milton remarried, for a third and final time, a Wistaston, Cheshire-born woman Elizabeth (Betty) Minshull, then aged 24, and spent the remaining decade of his life living quietly in London, only retiring to a cottage in Chalfont St. Giles (his only extant home) during the Great Plague. During this period Milton published several minor prose works, such as a grammar textbook, his Art of Logic, and his History of Britain. His only explicitly political tracts were the 1672 Of True Religion, arguing for toleration (except for Catholics), and a translation of a Polish tract advocating an elective monarchy. Both these works participated in the Exclusion debate that would preoccupy politics in the 1670s and '80s and precipitate the formation of the Whig party and the Glorious Revolution. Milton died of kidney failure on 8 November 1674 and was buried in the church of St Giles Cripplegate; according to an early biographer, his funeral was attended by “his learned and great Friends in London, not without a friendly concourse of the Vulgar.” Toland 1932 p. 193. Published poetry Milton's poetry was slow to see the light of day, at least under his name. His first published poem was On Shakespear (1630), anonymously included in the Second Folio edition of Shakespeare. In the midst of the excitement attending the possibility of establishing a new English government, Milton collected his work in 1645 Poems. The anonymous edition of Comus was published in 1637, and the publication of Lycidas in 1638 in Justa Edouardo King Naufrago was signed J. M. Otherwise the 1645 collection was the only poetry of his to see print, until Paradise Lost appeared in 1667. Paradise Lost Milton’s magnum opus, the blank-verse epic poem Paradise Lost, which appeared in a quarto edition in 1667, was composed by the blind Milton from 1658-1664 through dictation given to a series of aides in his employ. It reflects his personal despair at the failure of the Revolution, yet affirms an ultimate optimism in human potential. Milton encoded many references to his unyielding support for the "Good Old Cause." Hill, 1977 Milton had abandoned his initial plan to compose an epic on Arthur, and instead turned to a Christian idea of heroism. Paradise Lost was first published in ten books in 1667, and then 12 books in 1674. Consisting of almost 11,000 lines, Milton adapts a number of classical epic conventions. Among these conventions is a focus on the elevated subjects of war, love, and heroism. In Book 6, Milton describes the battle between the banished angels, and the ones still in heaven. In the battle, the Son is invincible against Satan and his cohorts. But Milton’s emphasis is less on the Son as a warrior and more on his love for humankind. The Father, in his celestial dialogue with the Son, foresees the sinfulness of Adam and Eve, and the Son chooses to become incarnate and to suffer humbly to redeem them. Though his role as saviour of fallen humankind is not enacted in the epic, Adam and Eve before their expulsion from Eden learn of the future redemptive ministry of Jesus, the exemplary gesture of self-sacrificing love. The Son’s selfless love contrasts strikingly with the selfish love of the heroes of Classical epics, who are distinguished by their valour on the battlefield, which is usually incited by pride and vainglory. Their strength and skills on the battlefield and their acquisition of the spoils of war also issue from hate, anger, revenge, greed, and covetousness. If Classical epics deem their protagonists heroic for their extreme passions, even vices, the Son in Paradise Lost exemplifies Christian heroism both through his meekness and magnanimity and through his patience and fortitude. "John Milton." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383113/John-Milton>. It also begins in medias res. Book 1 starts in the aftermath of the war in heaven. Paradise Lost is not only about the downfall of Adam and Eve, but also of Satan and the Son. Satans traits reflect those of other epic heroes, like Achilles, Odysseus, and Aeneas. The Son, though, is more heroic, because of his love for humankind. Milton sold the copyright of this monumental work to his publisher for a seemingly trifling £10; this was not a particularly outlandish deal at the time. Wilson 1983 pp. 241-42. Milton followed up Paradise Lost with its sequel, Paradise Regained, published alongside the tragedy Samson Agonistes, in 1671. Both these works also resonate with Milton’s post-Restoration political situation. Just before his death in 1674, Milton supervised a second edition of Paradise Lost, accompanied by an explanation of "why the poem rhymes not" and prefatory verses by Marvell. Milton republished his 1645 Poems in 1673, as well a collection of his letters and the Latin prolusions from his Cambridge days. A 1668 edition of Paradise Lost, reported to have been Milton's personal copy, is now housed in the archives of the University of Western Ontario. Paradise Regained Paradise Regained hearkens back to the Book of Job, whose principal character is tempted by Satan to forgo his faith in God and to cease exercising patience and fortitude in the midst of ongoing and ever-increasing adversity. By adapting the trials of Job and the role of Satan as tempter and by integrating them with the accounts of Matthew and Luke of Jesus’ temptations in the wilderness, Milton dramatizes how Jesus embodies Christian heroism. Less sensational than that of Classical protagonists and not requiring military action for its manifestation, Christian heroism is a continuous reaffirmation of faith in God and is manifested in renewed prayer for patience and fortitude to endure and surmount adversities. By resisting temptations that pander to one’s impulses toward ease, pleasure, worldliness, and power, a Christian hero maintains a heavenly orientation that informs his actions. Satan as the tempter in Paradise Regained fails in his unceasing endeavours to subvert Jesus by various means in the wilderness. As powerful as the temptations may be, the sophistry that accompanies them is even more insidious. "John Milton." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383113/John-Milton>. Samson Agonistes Like Paradise Regained, Samson Agonistes focuses on the inner workings of the mind of the protagonist. This emphasis flies in the face of the biblical characterization of Samson in the Book of Judges, which celebrates his physical strength. Milton’s dramatic poem, however, begins the story of Samson after his downfall—after he has yielded his God-entrusted secret to Dalila (Delilah), suffered blindness, and become a captive of the Philistines. Tormented by anguish over his captivity, Samson is depressed by the realization that he, the prospective liberator of the Israelites, is now a prisoner, blind and powerless in the hands of his enemies. Samson vacillates from one extreme to another emotionally and psychologically. He becomes depressed, wallows in self-pity, and contemplates suicide; he becomes outraged at himself for having disclosed the secret of his strength; he questions his own nature, whether it was flawed with excessive strength and too little wisdom so that he was destined at birth to suffer eventual downfall. When Dalila visits him during his captivity and offers to minister to him, however, Samson becomes irascible, rejecting her with a harsh diatribe. In doing so, he dramatizes, unwittingly, the measure of his progress toward regeneration. Having succumbed to her previously, he has learned from past experience that Dalila is treacherous. "John Milton." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 May. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383113/John-Milton>. Milton's views An unfinished religious manifesto, De doctrina christiana, probably written by Milton, lays out many of his heterodox theological views, and was not discovered and published until 1823. Milton's key beliefs were idiosyncratic, not those of an identifiable group or faction, and often they go well beyond the orthodoxy of the time. Their tone, however, stemmed from the Puritan emphasis on the centrality and inviolability of conscience. See, for instance, Barker, Arthur. Milton and the Puritan Dilemma, 1641-1660. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1942: 338 and passim; Wolfe, Don M. Milton in the Puritan Revolution. New York: T. Nelson and Sons, 1941: 19. He was his own man, but it is Areopagitica, where he was anticipated by Henry Robinson and others, that has lasted best of his prose works. Philosophy By the late 1650s, Milton was a proponent of monism or animist materialism, the notion that a single material substance which is "animate, self-active, and free" composes everything in the universe: from stones and trees and bodies to minds, souls, angels, and God. Stephen Fallon, Milton Among the Philosophers (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), p. 81. Milton devised this position to avoid the mind-body dualism of Plato and Descartes as well as the mechanistic determinism of Hobbes. Milton's monism is most notably reflected in Paradise Lost when he has angels eat (5.433-39) and engage in sexual intercourse (8.622-29) and the De Doctrina, where he denies the dual natures of man and argues for a theory of Creation ex Deo. Political thought In his political writing, Milton addressed particular themes at different periods. The years 1641-42 were dedicated to church politics and the struggle against episcopacy. After his divorce writings, Areopagitica, and a gap, he wrote in 1649-54 in the aftermath of the execution of Charles I, and in polemic justification of the regicide and the existing Parliamentarian regime. Then in 1659-60 he foresaw the Restoration, and wrote to head it off. Blair Worden, Literature and Politics in Cromwellian England: John Milton, Andrew Marvell amd Marchamont Nedham (2007), p. 154. Milton's own beliefs were in some cases both unpopular and dangerous, and this was true particularly to his commitment to republicanism. In coming centuries, Milton would be claimed as an early apostle of liberalism. Milton and Republicanism, ed. David Armitage, Armand Himy, and Quentin Skinner (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) According to James Tully: A friend and ally in the pamphlet wars was Marchamont Nedham. Austin Woolrych considers that although they were quite close, there is "little real affinity, beyond a broad republicanism", between their approaches. Austin Woolrych, Commonwealth to Protectorate (1982), p. 34. Blair Worden remarks that both Milton and Nedham, with others such as Andrew Marvell and James Harrington, would have taken the problem with the Rump Parliament to be not the republic, but the fact that it was not a proper republic. Worden, p. 149. Woolrych speaks of "the gulf between Milton's vision of the Commonwealth's future and the reality". Austin Woolrych, Commonwealth to Protectorate (1982), p. 101. In the early version of his History of Britain, begun in 1649, Milton was already writing off the members of the Long Parliament as incorrigible. G. E. Aylmer (editor), The Interregnum: The Quest for Settlement 1646-1660 (1972), p. 17. He praised Oliver Cromwell as the Protectorate was set up; though subsequently he had major reservations. When Cromwell seemed to be backsliding as a revolutionary, after a couple of years in power, Milton moved closer to the position of Sir Henry Vane, to whom he wrote a sonnet in 1652. Christopher Hill, God's Englishman (1972 edition), p. 200. The group of disaffected republicans included, besides Vane, John Bradshaw, John Hutchinson, Edmund Ludlow, Henry Marten, Robert Overton, Edward Sexby and John Streater; but not Marvell, who remained with Cromwell's party. Milton had already commended Overton, along with Edmund Whalley and Bulstrode Whitelocke, in Defensio Secunda. William Riley Parker and Gordon Campbell, Milton (1996), p. 444. Nigel Smith writes that As Richard Cromwell fell from power, he envisaged a step towards a freer republic or “free commonwealth”, writing in the hope of this outcome in early 1660. Milton had argued for an awkward position, in the Ready and Easy Way, because he wanted to invoke the Good Old Cause and gain the support of the republicans, but without offering a democratic solution of any kind. Blair Worden, Literature and Politics in Cromwellian England: John Milton, Andrew Marvell amd Marchamont Nedham (2007), Ch. 14, Milton and the Good Old Cause. His proposal, backed by reference (amongst other reasons) to the oligarchical Dutch and Venetian constitutions, was for a council with perpetual membership. This attitude cut right across the grain of popular opinion of the time, which swung decisively behind the restoration of the Stuart monarchy that took place later in the year. Austin Woolrych, Last Quest for Settlement 1657-1660, p. 202, in G. E. Aylmer (editor), The Interregnum: The Quest for Settlement 1646-1660 (1972), p. 17. Milton, an associate of and advocate on behalf of the regicides, was silenced on political matters as Charles II returned. Theology Like many Renaissance artists before him, Milton attempted to integrate Christian theology with classical modes. In his early poems, the poet narrator expresses a tension between vice and virtue, the latter invariably related to Protestantism. In Comus Milton may make ironic use of the Caroline court masque by elevating notions of purity and virtue over the conventions of court revelry and superstition. In his later poems, Milton's theological concerns become more explicit. In 1648 he wrote a hymn How lovely are thy dwelling fair Nr 106 in The Church Hymn book 1872 (ed. Hatfield, Edwin F., New York and Chicago, USA) , a paraphrase of Psalm 84, that explains his view on God. Milton embraced many heterodox Christian theological views. He rejected the Trinity, in the belief that the Son was subordinate to the Father, a position known as Arianism; and his sympathy or curiosity was probably engaged by Socinianism: in August 1650 he licensed for publication by William Dugard the Racovian Catechism, based on a non-trinitarian creed. Lewalski, Life of Milton, p. 253. William Bridges Hunter, A Milton Encyclopedia (1980), Volume VIII p. 13. In his 1641 treatise, Of Reformation, Milton expressed his dislike for Catholicism and episcopacy, presenting Rome as a modern Babylon, and bishops as Egyptian taskmasters. These analogies conform to Milton's puritanical preference for Old Testament imagery. He knew at least four commentaries on Genesis: those of John Calvin, Paulus Fagius, David Pareus and Andreus Rivetus. Arnold Williams, Renaissance Commentaries on "Genesis" and Some Elements of the Theology of Paradise Lost, PMLA, Vol. 56, No. 1 (Mar., 1941), pp. 151-164. Through the Interregnum, Milton often presents England, rescued from the trappings of a worldly monarchy, as an elect nation akin to the Old Testament Israel, and shows its leader, Oliver Cromwell, as a latter-day Moses. These views were bound up in Protestant views of the Millennium, which some sects, such as the Fifth Monarchists predicted would arrive in England. Milton, however, would later criticise the "worldly" millenarian views of these and others, and expressed orthodox ideas on the prophecy of the Four Empires. Walter S. H. Lim, John Milton, Radical Politics, and Biblical Republicanism (2006), p. 141. The Restoration of the Stuart monarchy in 1660 began a new phase in Milton's work. In Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes Milton mourns the end of the godly Commonwealth. The Garden of Eden may allegorically reflect Milton's view of England's recent Fall from Grace, while Samson's blindness and captivity – mirroring Milton's own lost sight – may be a metaphor for England's blind acceptance of Charles II as king. Illustrated by Paradise Lost is mortalism, the belief that the soul lies dormant after the body dies. John Rogers, The Matter of Revolution (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998), p. xi. Despite the Restoration of the monarchy Milton did not lose his personal faith; Samson shows how the loss of national salvation did not necessarily preclude the salvation of the individual, while Paradise Regained expresses Milton's continuing belief in the promise of Christian salvation through Jesus Christ. Though he may have maintained his personal faith in spite of the defeats suffered by his cause, the Dictionary of National Biography recounts how he had been alienated from the Church of England by Archbishop William Laud, and then moved similarly from the Dissenters by their denunciation of religious tolerance in England. "Milton had come to stand apart from all sects, though apparently finding the Quakers most congenial. He never went to any religious services in his later years. When a servant brought back accounts of sermons from nonconformist meetings, Milton became so sarcastic that the man at last gave up his place". Divorce A few months after his marriage, his wife deserted him and returned to her family in Oxfordshire. The reason is unknown, but there are many possibilities. During this, Milton probably began the arguments for his four Divorce Tracts. His thinking on divorce caused him the most trouble with the authorities. An orthodox presbyterian view of the time was that Milton's views on divorce constituted a one-man heresy: Even here, though, his originality is qualified: Thomas Gataker had already identified "mutual solace" as a principal goal in marriage.<ref>Christopher Hill, Milton and the English Revolution" (1977), p. 127.</ref> Milton abandoned his campaign to legitimize divorce after 1645, but he expressed support for polygamy in the De doctrina christiana, the theological treatise that provides the clearest evidence for his views. John Milton, The Christian Doctrine in Complete Poems and Major Prose, ed. Merritt Hughes (Hackett: Indianapolis, 2003), pp. 994-1000; Leo Miller, John Milton among the Polygamophiles (New York: Loewenthal Press, 1974) Milton believed that marriage depended on compatability between partners, and without that, people are violating their own personal liberty. History History was particularly important for the political class of the period, and Lewalski considers that Milton "more than most illustrates" a remark of Thomas Hobbes on the weight placed at the time on the classical Latin historical writers Tacitus, Livy, Sallust and Cicero, and their republican attitudes. Lewalski, Life of Milton, p. 199. Milton himself wrote that "Worthy deeds are not often destitute of worthy relaters", in Book II of his History of Britain. A sense of history mattered greatly to him: Legacy and influence After the restoration, Milton continued to advocate freedom of worship and republicanism of England while he supervised the publication of his poems. Soon after the succession of Charles II, Milton was arrested and threatened with execution for regicide. People such as his brother, Chirstopher, Andrew Marvell and William Davenant interceded and on his behalf. The exact date and location of his death is unknown, but it is thought to be in London on 8 November 1674 from complications from gout, possibly renal failure. He was buried inside St. Giles Cripplegate Church in London. Once Paradise Lost was published, Milton's stature as epic poet was immediately recognised. He cast a formidable shadow over English poetry in the 18th and 19th centuries; he was often judged equal or superior to all other English poets, including Shakespeare. Very early on, though, he was championed by Whigs, and decried by Tories: with the regicide Edmund Ludlow he was claimed as an early Whig, Kevin Sharpe, Remapping Early Modern England: The Culture of Seventeenth-century Politics (2000), p. 7. while the High Tory Anglican minister Luke Milbourne (1649-1720) lumped Milton in with other "Agents of Darkness" such as John Knox, George Buchanan, Richard Baxter, Algernon Sidney and John Locke. J. P. Kenyon, Revolution Principles (1977), p. 77. Milton coined many words that are now familiar; in Paradise Lost readers were confronted by neologisms like dreary, pandæmonium, acclaim, rebuff, self-esteem, unaided, impassive, enslaved, jubilant, serried, solaced, and satanic. Early reception of the poetry John Dryden, an early enthusiast, in 1677 began the trend of describing Milton as the poet of the sublime. Dryden's The State of Innocence and the Fall of Man: an Opera (1677) is evidence of an immediate cultural influence. In 1695, Patrick Hume became the first editor of Paradise Lost, providing an extensive apparatus of annotation and commentary, particularly chasing down allusions. Joseph M. Levine, The Battle of the Books: History and Literature in the Augustan Age (1994), p. 247. In 1732 the classical scholar Richard Bentley offered a corrected version of Paradise Lost. Online text of one book Bentley was considered presumptuous, and was attacked in the following year by Zachary Pearce. Christopher Ricks judges that, as critic, Bentley was both acute and wrong-headed, and "incorrigibly eccentric"; William Empson also finds Pearce to be more sympathetic to Bentley's underlying line of thought than is warranted. Christopher Ricks, Milton's Grand Style (1963), p. 9, p. 14, p. 57. William Empson, Some Versions of Pastoral (1974 edition), p. 147. There was an early, partial translation of Paradise Lost into German by Theodore Haak, and based on that a standard verse translation by Ernest Gottlieb von Berge. A subsequent prose translation by Johann Jakob Bodmer was very popular; it influenced Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. The German-language Milton tradition returned to England in the person of the artist Henry Fuseli. Milton and Blake Frontispiece to Milton: a Poem. William Blake considered Milton the major English poet. Blake placed Edmund Spenser as Milton's precursor, and saw himself as Milton's poetical son. S. Foster Damon, A Blake Dictionary (1973), p. 274. In his Milton: a Poem, Blake uses Milton as a character. Romantic theory Edmund Burke was a theorist of the sublime, and he regarded Milton's description of Hell as exemplary of sublimity as aesthetic concept. For Burke it was to set alongside mountain-tops, a storm at sea, and infinity. Bill Beckley, Sticky Sublime (2001), p. 63. In The Beautiful and the Sublime he wrote "No person seems better to have understood the secret of heightening, or of setting terrible things, if I may use the expression, in their strongest light, by the force of a judicious obscurity than Milton." Part II, Section I: http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burke/edmund/sublime/part2.html The Romantic poets valued his exploration of blank verse, but for the most part rejected his religiosity. William Wordsworth began his sonnet "London, 1802" with "Milton! thou should'st be living at this hour" Francis T. Palgrave, ed. (1824–1897). The Golden Treasury. 1875 and modeled The Prelude, his own blank verse epic, on Paradise Lost. John Keats found the yoke of Milton's style uncongenial; Thomas N. Corns, A Companion to Milton (2003), p. 474. he exclaimed that "Miltonic verse cannot be written but in an artful or rather artist's humour." Leader, Zachary. "Revision and Romantic Authorship". Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. 298. ISBN 0-1981-8634-7 Keats felt that Paradise Lost was a "beautiful and grand curiosity"; but his own unfinished attempt at epic poetry, Hyperion, was unsatisfactory to the author because, amongst other things, it had too many "Miltonic inversions". In The Madwoman in the Attic, Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar note that Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein is, in the view of many critics, "one of the key 'Romantic' readings of Paradise Lost." Cited from the original in J. Paul Hunter (editor), Frankenstein by Mary Shelley (1996), p. 225. Later legacy Statue of Milton in Temple of British Worthies, Stowe. The Victorian age witnessed a continuation of Milton's influence, George Eliot Nardo, Anna, K. George Eliot’s Dialogue with Milton and Thomas Hardy being particularly inspired by Milton's poetry and biography. By contrast, the early 20th century, with the efforts of T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound, witnessed a reduction in Milton's critical stature. Harold Bloom, in The Anxiety of Influence, could still write that "Milton is the central problem in any theory and history of poetic influence in English [...]". Harold Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence: A theory of poetry (1997), p. 33. Milton's Areopagitica is still cited as relevant to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Milton's Areopagitica and the Modern First Amendment by Vincent Blasi A quotation from Areopagitica – "A good book is the precious lifeblood of a master spirit, embalmed and treasured up on purpose to a life beyond life" – is displayed in many public libraries, including the New York Public Library. The title of Phillip Pullman's His Dark Materials trilogy is derived from a quotation, "His dark materials to create more worlds", line 915 of Book II in Paradise Lost. Pullman was concerned to produce a version of Milton's poem accessible to teenagers, http://www.christs.cam.ac.uk/darknessvisible/imitation.html and has spoken of Milton as "our greatest public poet". http://www.ox.ac.uk/media/news_stories/2007/071217a.html http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20080116/ai_n21199105/pg_3 T. S. Eliot believed that "of no other poet is it so difficult to consider the poetry simply as poetry, without our theological and political dispositions... making unlawful entry". Eliot 1947 p. 63. Poetic and dramatic worksL'Allegro (1631)Il Penseroso (1631)Comus (a masque)(1634)Lycidas (1638)Poems of Mr John Milton, Both English and Latin (1645)Paradise Lost (1667)Paradise Regained (1671)Samson Agonistes (1671)Poems, &c, Upon Several Occasions (1673) Political, philosophical and religious proseOf Reformation (1641)Of Prelatical Episcopacy (1641)Animadversions (1641)The Reason of Church-Government Urged against Prelaty (1642)Apology for Smectymnuus (1642)Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce (1643)Judgement of Martin Bucer Concerning Divorce (1644)Of Education (1644)Areopagitica (1644)Tetrachordon (1645)Colasterion (1645)The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates (1649)Eikonoklastes (1649)Defensio pro Populo Anglicano [First Defense] (1651)Defensio Secunda [Second Defense] (1654)A treatise of Civil Power (1659)The Likeliest Means to Remove Hirelings from the Church (1659)The Ready and Easy Way to Establish a Free Commonwealth (1660)Brief Notes Upon a Late Sermon (1660)Accedence Commenced Grammar (1669)History of Britain (1670)Artis logicae plenior institutio [Art of Logic] (1672)Of True Religion (1673)Epistolae Familiaries (1674)Prolusiones (1674)A brief History of Moscovia, and other less known Countries lying Eastward of Russia as far as Cathay, gathered from the writings of several Eye-witnesses (1682) De Doctrina Christiana (1823) Notes References Beer, Anna. Milton: Poet, Pamphleteer, and Patriot. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2008. Campbell, Gordon and Corns, Thomas. John Milton: Life, Work, and Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Dick, Oliver Lawson. Aubrey's Brief Lives. Harmondsworth, Middl.: Penguin Books, 1962. Eliot, T. S. "Annual Lecture on a Master Mind: Milton", Proceedings of the British Academy 33 (1947). Hill, Christopher. Milton and the English Revolution". New York: Viking Press, 1977. Hunter, William Bridges. A Milton Encyclopedia. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1980. Lewalski, Barbara K. The Life of John Milton. Oxford: Blackwells Publishers, 2003. Masson, David. The Life of John Milton and History of His Time, vol. 1. Cambridge: 1859. McCalman, Iain. et al., An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age: British Culture, 1776-1832. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Milton, John. Complete Prose Works 8 Vols. gen. Ed. Don M. Wolfe. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959. Pfeiffer, Robert H. "The Teaching of Hebrew in Colonial America", The Jewish Quarterly Review, (April 1955). Toland, John. Life of Milton in The Early Lives of Milton. Ed. Helen Darbishere. London: Constable, 1932. von Maltzahn, Nicholas. "Milton's Readers" in The Cambridge Companion to Milton. ed. Dennis Richard Danielson, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Wedgwood, C. V. Thomas Wentworth, First Earl of Strafford 1593-1641. New York: Macmillan, 1961. Wilson, A. N. The Life of John Milton. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983. To find and add: Edward Chaney, The Grand Tour and the Great Rebellion (Geneva, 1985) and "Milton's Visit to Vallombrosa: A literary tradition", The Evolution of the Grand Tour, 2nd ed (London, 2000). External links Open Milton - an open set of Milton's works, together with ancillary information and tools, in a form designed for reuse, launched on Milton's 400th Birthday by the Open Knowledge Foundation Yale English Video Lecture on John Milton Milton Reading Room – online, almost fully annotated, collection of all of Milton's poetry and selections of his prose Milton-L Homepage - A scholarly website devoted to the life, literature and times of Milton. It hosts the webpage for the Milton Society of America, as well as the Milton listserv, an Internet discussion group for Milton. Milton index entry at Poets' Corner Milton 400th Anniversary – lots of Milton material and details of the Milton 400th Anniversary Celebrations, from Christ's College, Cambridge, where Milton studied "The masque in Milton's Arcades and Comus" by Gilbert McInnis History of the John Milton Society for the Blind in Canada How Milton Works by Stanley Fish Milton's cottage A common-place book of John Milton, and a Latin essay and Latin verses presumed to be by Milton Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection. {Reprinted by} Cornell University Library Digital Collections "John Milton-poet or politician?" on BBC Radio 4’s In Our Time, featuring John Carey, Lisa Jardine, Blair Worden Famous Quotes by John Milton Milton's Paradise: exhibit review: marking the poet's 400th 2008 ArtsEditor.com article Site dedicated to Milton Books on Milton's life and works Heroic Milton: Happy Birthday Frank Kermode on Milton, from The New York Review of Books Audio: Robert Pinsky reads 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4,438 | Attila | Attila (406–453), also known as Attila the Hun, was the Emperor of the Huns from 434 until his death in 453. He was leader of the Hunnic Empire which stretched from Germany to the Ural River and from the River Danube to the Baltic Sea (see map below). During his rule, he was one of the most fearsome of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires' enemies: he invaded the Balkans twice and marched through Gaul (modern France) as far as Orleans before being defeated at the Battle of Chalons. He refrained from attacking either Constantinople or Rome. His story, that the Sword of Attila had come to his hand by miraculous means, was reported by the Roman Priscus. In much of Western Europe, he is remembered as the epitome of cruelty and rapacity. In contrast, some histories and chronicles describe him as a great and noble king, and he plays major roles in three Norse sagas. Background The Huns were a group of nomadic pastoral people who, appearing from beyond the Volga, migrated into Europe c.AD 370 and built up an enormous empire in Europe. Their main military technique was mounted archery. They were possibly the descendants of the Xiongnu who had been northern neighbours of China three hundred years before and may be the first expansion of Turkic people across Eurasia Transylvania through the age of migrations Calise, J.M.P. (2002). 'Pictish Sourcebook: Documents of Medieval Legend and Dark Age History'. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p279, ISBN 0313322953 Peckham, D. Paulston, C. B. (1998). Linguistic Minorities in Central and Eastern Europe. Clevedon, UK : Multilingual Matters. p100, ISBN 1853594164 Canfield, R.L. (1991). Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p49, ISBN 0521522919 Frazee, C.A. (2002). Two Thousand Years Ago: The World at the Time of Jesus. Wm. B. Eerdmans . The origin and language of the Huns has been the subject of debate for centuries. The leading current theory is that their leaders at least may have spoken a Turkic language. Shared kingship The Hunnic Empire stretched from the steppes of Central Asia into modern Germany, and from the River Danube to the Baltic Sea. The death of Rugila (also known as Rua or Ruga) in 434 left his nephews Attila and Bleda (also known as Buda), the sons of his brother Mundzuk (), in control over all the united Hun tribes. At the time of their accession, the Huns were bargaining with Byzantine emperor Theodosius II's envoys over the return of several renegades (possibly Hunnic nobles not in agreement with the brothers' leadership) who had taken refuge within the Byzantine Empire. The following year Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at Margus (present-day Požarevac) and, all seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner, negotiated a successful treaty: the Romans agreed not only to return the fugitives, but also to double their previous tribute of 350 Roman pounds (ca. 115 kg) of gold, open their markets to Hunnish traders, and pay a ransom of eight solidi for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns. The Huns, satisfied with the treaty, decamped from the empire and returned to their home in the Hungarian Great Plain, perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire. Theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the walls of Constantinople, building the city's first sea wall, and to build up his border defenses along the Danube. The Huns remained out of Roman sight for the next few years as a Hunnic force invaded the Sassanid Empire. A defeat in Armenia by the Sassanids caused them to abandon this attempt and return their attentions to Europe. In 440 they reappeared in force on the borders of the Roman Empire, attacking the merchants at the market on the north bank of the Danube that had been established by the treaty. Crossing the Danube, they laid waste to Illyrian cities and forts on the river, among them, according to Priscus, Viminacium, which was a city of the Moesians in Illyria. Their advance began at Margus, for when the Romans discussed handing over the offending bishop, he slipped away secretly to the Huns and betrayed the city to them. The Huns in battle with the Alans, Johann Nepomuk Geiger, 1873. As Theodosius had conquered the river's defences, the Vandals, under the leadership of Geiseric, captured the Western Roman province of Africa with its capital of Carthage in 440 and the Sassanid Shah Yazdegerd II invaded Armenia in 441. Stripping the Balkan defenses of forces requested by the West Romans, in order to launch an attack on the Vandals in Africa (which was the richest province of the Western empire and a main source of the food supply of Rome) left Attila and Bleda a clear path through Illyria into the Balkans, which they invaded in 441. The Hunnish army, having sacked Margus and Viminacium, took Singidunum (modern Belgrade) and Sirmium before halting. A lull followed in 442 and during this time Theodosius recalled his troops from Sicily and ordered a large new issue of coins to finance operations against the Huns. Having made these preparations, he thought it safe to refuse the Hunnish kings' demands. Attila responded with a campaign in 443. Striking along the Danube, the Huns overran the military centres of Ratiara and successfully besieged Naissus (modern Niš) with battering rams and rolling siege towers—military sophistication that was new to the Hun repertoire—then pushing along the Nisava River they took Serdica (Sofia), Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and Arcadiopolis. They encountered and destroyed the Roman army outside Constantinople and were stopped by the double walls of the Eastern capital. A second army was defeated near Callipolis (modern Gallipoli) and Theodosius, now without any armed forces to respond, admitting defeat, sent the court official Anatolius to negotiate peace terms, which were harsher than the previous treaty: the Emperor agreed to hand over 6,000 Roman pounds (ca. 2000 kg) of gold as punishment for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the invasion; the yearly tribute was tripled, rising to 2,100 Roman pounds (ca. 700 kg) in gold; and the ransom for each Roman prisoner rose to 12 solidi. Their demands met for a time, the Hun kings withdrew into the interior of their empire. According to Jordanes (following Priscus), sometime during the peace following the Huns' withdrawal from Byzantium (probably around 445), Bleda died (killed in a hunting accident arranged by his brother, according to the classical sources), and Attila took the throne for himself, and became the sole ruler of the Huns. Priscus of Panium: fragments from the Embassy to Attila Sole ruler Mór Than's painting The Feast of Attila, based on a fragment of Priscus In 447 Attila again rode south into the Eastern Roman Empire through Moesia. The Roman army under the Gothic magister militum Arnegisclus met him in the Battle of the Utus and was defeated, though not without inflicting heavy losses. The Huns were left unopposed and rampaged through the Balkans as far as Thermopylae. Constantinople itself was saved by the intervention of the prefect Flavius Constantinus who organized the reconstruction of the walls that had been previously damaged by earthquakes, and, in some places, to construct a new line of fortification in front of the old. An account of this invasion survives: The barbarian nation of the Huns, which was in Thrace, became so great that more than a hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it. … And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the churches and monasteries and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers. |Callinicus, in his Life of Saint Hypatius In the west In 450 Attila had proclaimed his intent to attack the powerful Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse, making an alliance with Emperor Valentinian III in order to do so. He had previously been on good terms with the Western Roman Empire and its de facto ruler Flavius Aëtius. Aëtius had spent a brief exile among the Huns in 433, and the troops Attila provided against the Goths and Bagaudae had helped earn him the largely honorary title of magister militum in the west. The gifts and diplomatic efforts of Geiseric, who opposed and feared the Visigoths, may also have influenced Attila's plans. However Valentinian's sister was Honoria, who, in order to escape her forced betrothal to a Roman senator, had sent the Hunnish king a plea for help – and her engagement ring – in the spring of 450. Though Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, Attila chose to interpret her message as such. He accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as dowry. When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of his mother Galla Placidia convinced him to exile, rather than kill, Honoria. He also wrote to Attila strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila, not convinced, sent an emissary to Ravenna to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his. The general path of the Hun forces in the invasion of Gaul. Attila interfered in a succession struggle after the death of a Frankish ruler. Attila supported the elder son, while Aëtius supported the younger. The location and identity of these kings is not known and subject to conjecture. Attila gathered his vassals—Gepids, Ostrogoths, Rugians, Scirians, Heruls, Thuringians, Alans, Burgundians, among others and began his march west. In 451 he arrived in Belgica with an army exaggerated by Jordanes to half a million strong. J.B. Bury believes that Attila's intent, by the time he marched west, was to extend his kingdom – already the strongest on the continent – across Gaul to the Atlantic Ocean. J.B. Bury, The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians, lecture IX (e-text) On April 7, he captured Metz. Other cities attacked can be determined by the hagiographic vitae written to commemorate their bishops: Nicasius was slaughtered before the altar of his church in Rheims; Servatus is alleged to have saved Tongeren with his prayers, as Saint Genevieve is to have saved Paris. The vitae are summarized in Thomas Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders (New York: Russell & Russell, 1967 reprint of the original 1880–89 edition), volume II pp. 128ff. Lupus, bishop of Troyes, is also credited with saving his city by meeting Attila in person. St. Lupus - Saints & Angels - Catholic Online Aëtius moved to oppose Attila, gathering troops from among the Franks, the Burgundians, and the Celts. A mission by Avitus, and Attila's continued westward advance, convinced the Visigoth king Theodoric I (Theodorid) to ally with the Romans. The combined armies reached Orleans ahead of Attila, Later accounts of the battle site the Huns either already within the city or in the midst of storming it when the Roman-Visigoth army arrived; Jordanes mentions no such thing. See Bury, ibid. thus checking and turning back the Hunnish advance. Aëtius gave chase and caught the Huns at a place usually assumed to be near Catalaunum (modern Châlons-en-Champagne). The two armies clashed in the Battle of Chalons, whose outcome is commonly considered to be a Pyrrhic victory for the Visigothic-Roman alliance. Theodoric was killed in the fighting and Aëtius failed to press his advantage, according to Edward Gibbon and Edward Creasy because he feared the consequences of an overwhelming Visigothic triumph as much as he did a defeat. From Aëtius' point of view, the best outcome was what occurred: Theodoric died, Attila was in retreat and disarray, and the Romans had the benefit of appearing victorious. Invasion of Italy and death Raphael's The Meeting between Leo the Great and Attila Attila returned in 452 to claim his marriage to Honoria anew, invading and ravaging Italy along the way. The city of Venice was founded as a result of these attacks when the residents fled to small islands in the Venetian Lagoon. His army sacked numerous cities and razed Aquileia completely, leaving no trace of it behind. Legend has it he built a castle on top of a hill north of Aquileia to watch the city burn, thus founding the town of Udine, where the castle can still be found. Aëtius, who lacked the strength to offer battle, managed to harass and slow Attila's advance with only a shadow force. Attila finally halted at the River Po. By this point disease may have broken out in Attila's camp, thus helping to stop his invasion. At the wish of Emperor Valentinian III, Pope Leo I, accompanied by the Consul Avienus and the Prefect Trigetius, met Attila at Mincio in the vicinity of Mantua, and obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from Italy and negotiate peace with the emperor. Prosper of Aquitaine gives a short, reliable description of the historic meeting. The later anonymous account, Medieval Sourcebook, Leo I and Attila, a pious "fable which has been represented by the pencil of Raphael and the chisel of Algardi" (as Gibbon called it) says that the Pope, aided by Saint Peter and Saint Paul, convinced him to turn away from the city, promising Attila that if he left in peace, one of his successors would receive a holy crown. Chronicon Pictum, this is the first occasion when an artist presented an angel graphically Priscus reports that superstitious fear of the fate of Alaric—who died shortly after sacking Rome in 410—gave him pause. Illustration of the meeting from the Chronicon Pictum, ca. 1360 After Attila left Italy and returned to his palace across the Danube, he planned to strike at Constantinople again and reclaim the tribute which Marcian had cut off. (Marcian was the successor of Theodosius and had ceased paying tribute in late 450 while Attila was occupied in the west; multiple invasions by the Huns and others had left the Balkans with little to plunder.) However Attila died in the early months of 453. The conventional account, from Priscus, says that at a feast celebrating his latest marriage to the beautiful and young Ildico (if uncorrupted, the name suggests a Gothic origin) Thompson, The Huns, p. 164. he suffered a severe nosebleed and choked to death in a stupor. An alternative theory is that he succumbed to internal bleeding after heavy drinking or a condition called esophageal varices, where a hemorrhoid in the lower part of the esophagus ruptures leaving the person to choke on his/her own blood. Another account of his death, first recorded 80 years after the events by the Roman chronicler Count Marcellinus, reports that "Attila, King of the Huns and ravager of the provinces of Europe, was pierced by the hand and blade of his wife." Marcellinus Comes, Chronicon (e-text), quoted in Hector Munro Chadwick: The Heroic Age (London, Cambridge University Press, 1926), p. 39 n. 1. The Volsunga saga and the Poetic Edda also claim that King Atli (Attila) died at the hands of his wife, Gudrun. Volsunga Saga, Chapter 39; Poetic Edda, Atlamol En Grönlenzku, The Greenland Ballad of Atli Most scholars reject these accounts as no more than hearsay, preferring instead the account given by Attila's contemporary Priscus. Priscus' version, however, has recently come under renewed scrutiny by Michael A. Babcock. Babcock, Michael A. The Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun, Berkley Books, 2005 ISBN 0-425-20272-0 Based on detailed philological analysis, Babcock concludes that the account of natural death, given by Priscus, was an ecclesiastical "cover story" and that Emperor Marcian (who ruled the Eastern Roman Empire from 450-457) was the political force behind Attila's death. Jordanes says: "The greatest of all warriors should be mourned with no feminine lamentations and with no tears, but with the blood of men." His horsemen galloped in circles around the silken tent where Attila lay in state, singing in his dirge, according to Cassiodorus and Jordanes, "Who can rate this as death, when none believes it calls for vengeance?" Then they celebrated a strava (lamentation) over his burial place with great feasting. Legend says that he was laid to rest in a triple coffin made of gold, silver, and iron, along with some of the spoils of his conquests. His men diverted a section of the river Tisza, buried the coffin under the riverbed, and then were killed to keep the exact location a secret. His sons Ellac (his appointed successor), Dengizich, and Ernakh fought over the division of his legacy, specifically which vassal kings would belong to which brother. As a consequence they were divided, defeated and scattered the following year in the Battle of Nedao by the Ostrogoths and the Gepids under Ardaric. According to Jordanes, Ardaric, who was once Attila's most prized chieftain, turned against the feuding brothers when he felt that they were treating the nations they ruled as slaves. Attila's many children and relatives are known by name and some even by deeds, but soon valid genealogical sources all but dry up and there seems to be no verifiable way to trace Attila's descendants. This hasn't stopped many genealogists from attempting to reconstruct a valid line of descent for various medieval rulers. One of the most credible claims has been that of the khans of Bulgaria (see Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans). A popular, but ultimately unconfirmed attempt tries to relate Attila to Charlemagne. Appearance, character, and name There is no surviving first-person account of Attila's appearance. There is, however, a possible second-hand source, provided by Jordanes, who claimed Priscus described Attila as: Attila from an illustration to the Poetic Edda Attila is known in Western history and tradition as the grim flagellum dei (Latin: "Scourge of God"), and his name has become a byword for cruelty and barbarism. Some of this may have arisen from confusion between him and later steppe warlords such as Genghis Khan and Timur (Tamerlane). All are considered to be cruel, clever, and blood-thirsty lovers of battle and pillage. The reality of his character is probably more complex. The Huns of Attila's era had been mingling with Roman civilization for some time, largely through the Germanic foederati of the border, so that by the time of Theodosius's embassy in 448 Priscus could identify two primary languages among the Huns, Gothic and Hunnic, with some people knowing Latin and Greek. Priscus also recounts his meeting with an eastern Roman captive who had so fully assimilated into the Huns' way of life that he had no desire to return to his former country, and the Byzantine historian's description of Attila's humility and simplicity is unambiguous in its admiration. The origin of Attila's name is not known with confidence, because very little is known about Hunnic names. In the Hunnic language Danube-Bulgarian, the etymology "oceanic (universal) [ruler]" has been proposed. Also the word possibly originates from Turkic Atyl/Atal/Atil/Itil meaning water, river (also, ancient name of Volga river) with adjective suffix -ly. (Compare also Turkic medieval notable title atalyk - "senior as father"). "Europe: The Origins of the Huns", by Kessler Associate, based on conversations with Kemal Cemal, Turkey, 2002 The World of the Huns. Chapter IX. Language - O. Maenchen-Helfen Gene Expression This is correlating to the fact that the Polish Chronicle is using Attila's name as Aquila bearing the Latin aqua inside. Others believe that the name may have connection to Hungarian ítélet meaning judgement or Old-Turkic via the loandword in Gothic (or Gepid) atta ("father") and the diminutive suffix -ila. Attila was not a rare name in Central Europe prior to Attila making his mark on history; the historical record shows numerous persons with the name preceding him. 'Attila' has many variants: Atli and Atle in Norse, Ætla, Attle and Atlee in English, Attila/Atilla/Etele in Hungarian (all the three name variants are used in Hungary; Attila is the most popular variant), Etzel in the German Nibelungenlied, or Attila, Atila or Atilla in modern Turkish. Literary and cultural representations Attila has been portrayed in various ways, sometimes as a noble ruler, sometimes as a cruel barbarian. In Hungary, "Attila" is commonly used as a male first name. Historiography Babcock, Michael A. (2005) The Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun (Berkley Publishing Group, ISBN 0-425-20272-0) Blockley, R.C. (1983) The Fragmentary Classicising Historians of the Later Roman Empire, vol. II (ISBN 0-905205-15-4). This is a collection of fragments from Priscus, Olympiodorus, and others, with original text and translation. Gordon, C. D. (1960) The Age of Attila: Fifth-century Byzantium and the Barbarians (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 0472061119). This is a translated collection, with commentary and annotation, of ancient writings on the subject, including Priscus. Heather, Peter (2005) The Fall of the Roman Empire—A New History of Rome and the Barbarians (Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195159543) Howarth, Patrick (1994) Attila, King of the Huns: The Man and the Myth (ISBN 0786709308). Maenchen-Helfen, J. Otto (1973) The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture (Berkeley, University of California Press, ISBN 0520015967) Man, John (2005) Attila: The Barbarian King Who Challenged Rome (Bantam Press, ISBN 0-593-05291-9) Thompson, E. A. (1948) A History of Attila and the Huns (London, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0837176409). This is the authoritative English work on the subject. It was reprinted in 1999 as The Huns in the Peoples of Europe series (ISBN 0-631-21443-7). Thompson did not enter controversies over Hunnic origins and considers his victories to have been achieved only when there was no concerted opposition. Epic poetry The German epic poem Nibelungenlied portrays Etzel as a noble and generous ally, while Atli in the Volsunga Saga and the Poetic Edda (as well as Ætla in Widsith) is a cruel miser. Historical fiction Hungarian poet János Arany wrote an epic poem about Attila and his brother Bleda called Buda halála (The Death of King Buda) which is part of a larger work titled A Csaba-trilógia (The Csaba Trilogy). Burgess, Anthony. This British writer wrote a biographical novella about Attila entitled Hun which was published in the story collection The Devil's Mode (1989). Costain, Thomas. (1959) The Darkness and Dawn is written from the point of view of Nicolan, carried into slavery from his home on the Danube and after many adventures becoming Attila's aide - but also becoming romantically involved with the beautiful Ildico, which is quite dangerous. Dahn, Felix. Attila (1834-1912), historical novel, 1939, Full-Text online Dietrich, William. (2005) The Scourge of God: A Novel of the Roman Empire (HarperTorch, ISBN 978-0060735081) Set in the final days of the Roman Empire, Dietrich's fifth novel follows the attempt of Attila the Hun to conquer the West. Ford, Michael Curtis (2005) The Sword of Attila: A Novel of the Last Years of Rome St. Martin's ISBN 978-0312939151. Hungarian Géza Gárdonyi's novel A láthatatlan ember (1901) (published in English as Slave of the Huns and largely based on Priscus) offered a sympathetic portrait of Attila as a wise and beloved leader. This reflects the positive way in which Attila, his last wife Ildikó and his brother Bleda are viewed in Hungary and Turkey. The Death of Attila by Cecelia Holland (1973) takes place in 453, with the tensions and uncertainty of Attila's last year being the background for an unlikely friendship between Tacs, a young, ne'er-do-well Hunnish warrior, and Dietric, son of a Germanic subject king. Napier, William. Attila is a powerful and charismatic figure in William Napier's ongoing trilogy, Attila Attila (Orion Books Ltd, 2005) ISBN 0-7528-7787-9). The Gathering of the Storm (Orion Books Ltd, 2007) ISBN 978-0-75287-433-3) Attila: Judgement (2008). Paty, Little. (2003) Secret of Attila is a fictional account of the fall of the Huns based on the lives of Attila's offspring. Seredy, Kate wrote the novel The White Stag, the Newbery Medal winning book of 1938, which is a retelling of the legend of the rise of Attila the Hun written in lyric prose. Other fiction R.K. Narayan's Malgudi Days has a chapter on a mongrel dog named after Attila, King of the Huns. Film and television Anthony Quinn played the title role in Attila, a 1954 Franco-Italian film, co-starring Sophia Loren as Honoria. Attila was portrayed by Jack Palance in Douglas Sirk's Sign of the Pagan (1954). A TV miniseries, Attila, which was produced in 2000 and was broadcast in 2001, stars Gerard Butler as Attila and Powers Boothe as Flavius Aëtius. Patrick Gallagher played Attila in the 2006 movie Night at the Museum, as a misunderstood and abused man looking for someone to reach out to. In the film he appears to be of Asian ancestry, having more in common with the Mongols. Gallagher reprised the role in the 2009 sequel, Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian. Monty Python in one episode, presented a parody of a sitcom entitled, The Attila the Hun Show! and later an animated Attila the Bun Show. Attila the Hun appeared in an episode of Johnny Test, who was brought by Johnny and Dukey to help the weakest hockey team, The Porkbelly Ice Pigs, along with a caveman, vikings, a Mongolian warrior, and a knight. In the movie "Lionheart", Jean-Claude Van Damme's final opponent is a huge fighter named Attila, who is played by Abdel Qissi. Attila is not only a large fighter, he is known for first toying with his opponents, then tearing them apart ruthlessly. Music In 1846 Giuseppe Verdi composed an opera, Attila, based on the play Attila, König der Hunnen ("Attila, King of the Huns") by Zacharias Werner. In 2004, American heavy-metal group Iced Earth released the album The Glorious Burden which chronicled American military history. Despite the American focus, the album featured a track entitled "Attila", which glorified the Hunnic leader's encounters with the Roman Empire. Toys McFarlane Toys has released action figure of Attila in June 2004, series of "McFarlane's Monsters III: 6 Faces of Madness" and recommended for mature collectors. Honors In Hungary, several public places are named after Attila; for instance, in Budapest there are 10 Attila Streets and an Attila Lane, one of which is an important street behind the Buda Castle. References Primary sources Priscus: Byzantine History, available in the original Greek in Ludwig Dindorf : Historici Graeci Minores (Leipzig, Teubner, 1870) and available online as a translation by J.B. Bury: Priscus at the court of AttilaJordanes: The Origin and Deeds of the Goths'' Notes External links Atilla and his military campaigns with biographical videos and translated primary sources from various national archives | Attila |@lemmatized attila:106 also:13 know:10 hun:46 emperor:7 death:11 leader:4 hunnic:10 empire:19 stretch:2 germany:2 ural:1 river:10 danube:9 baltic:2 sea:3 see:3 map:1 rule:3 one:5 fearsome:1 western:7 eastern:6 roman:31 empires:1 enemy:1 invade:5 balkan:5 twice:1 march:3 gaul:3 modern:7 france:1 far:2 orleans:2 defeat:7 battle:9 chalons:2 refrain:1 attack:6 either:2 constantinople:6 rome:6 story:3 sword:2 come:5 hand:6 miraculous:1 mean:2 report:3 priscus:18 much:2 europe:10 remember:1 epitome:1 cruelty:2 rapacity:1 contrast:1 history:9 chronicle:3 describe:2 great:7 noble:4 king:15 play:4 major:1 role:3 three:3 norse:2 saga:4 background:2 group:3 nomadic:1 pastoral:1 people:4 appear:4 beyond:1 volga:2 migrate:1 c:5 ad:1 build:4 enormous:1 main:2 military:5 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4,439 | Foreign_relations_of_Chile | Since its return to democracy in 1990, Chile has been an active participant in the international political arena. Chile assumed a two-year non-permanent position on the UN Security Council in January 2003 and is an active member of the UN family of agencies, serving as a member of the Commission on Human Rights and participating in UN peacekeeping activities. Chile hosted the second Summit of the Americas in 1998, was the chair of the Rio Group in 2001, hosted the Defense Ministerial of the Americas in 2002, and the APEC summit and related meetings in 2004. In 2005 hosted the Community of Democracies ministerial conference. An associate member of Mercosur and a full member of APEC. The OECD agreed to invite Chile to be among four countries to open discussions in becoming an official member. Economic Department - Embassy of Chile in the United States of America . Chile and has been an important actor on international economic issues and hemispheric free trade. The Chilean Government has diplomatic relations with most countries. Relations with Argentina Chile and Argentina were close allies during the wars of independence against Spain. Argentine General José de San Martín crossed the Andes with Chilean independence hero Bernardo O'Higgins and together they defeated the Spaniards. However, after independence relations soured. This was primarily due to a border dispute: both nations claimed the totality of the Patagonia region. Attempts to clear up the dispute were unsuccessful until 1881, when Chile was at war with both Bolivia and Peru. In order to avoid fighting Argentina as well, Chilean President Aníbal Pinto authorized his envoy, Diego Barros Arana to hand over as much territory as was needed to avoid Argentina siding with Bolivia and Peru. Barros succeeded in his mission: Argentina received the east Patagonia and Chile the Strait of Magellan. However, border disputes continued. In 1902, war was again avoided when British King Edward VII agreed to mediate between the two nations. He established the current border in the Patagonia region. The Beagle conflict began to brew in the 1960s, when Argentina began to claim that the Picton, Lennox and Nueva islands in the Beagle Channel were rightfully hers. 1971 Chile and Argentina sign an agreement formally submitting the Beagle Channel issue to binding Beagle Channel Arbitration. On May 2, 1977 the court ruled that the islands and all adjacent formations belonged to Chile. See the Report and decision of the Court of Arbitration. On 25 January 1978 the Argentina military junta led by General Jorge Videla declared the award fundamentally null and intensified their claim over the islands. On 22. December 1978, Argentina started See Argentine newspaper Clarín of Buenos Aires, 20 December 1998 the Operation Soberania over the disputed islands, but the invasion was halted due to: See Alejandro Luis Corbacho "Predicting the probability of war during brinkmanship crisis: The Beagle and the Malvinas conflicts" http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1016843 (p.45) : (The newspaper Clarín explained some years later that such caution was based,) in part, on military concerns. In order to achieve a victory, certain objectives had to be reached before the seventh day after the attack. Some military leaders considered this not enough time due to the difficulty involved in transportation through the passes over the Andean Mountains. and in cite 46: According to Clarín, two consequences were feared. First, those who were dubious feared a possible regionalization of the conflict. Second, as a consequence, the conflict could acquire great power proportions. In the first case decisionmakers speculated that Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Brazil might intervene. Then the great powers could take sides. In this case, the resolution of the conflict would depend not on the combatants, but on the countries that supplied the weapons. In December that year, moments before Videla signed a declaration of war against Chile, Pope John Paul II agreed to mediate between the two nations. The Pope's envoy, Antonio Samoré, successfully averted war and proposed a new definitive boundary in which the three disputed islands would remain Chilean. Argentina and Chile both agreed to Samoré's proposal and signed the Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1984 between Chile and Argentina, ending that dispute. In the 1990s, under presidents Frei and Menem both countries solved almost all of the remaining border disputes during bilateral talks. They also agreed to submit Laguna del Desierto to international arbitration in 1994. The entire disputed area was awarded to Argentina. The last border dispute are 50 km. in the Southern Patagonian Ice Field from Mount Fitzroy to Mount Daudet that is still officially undefined. In August of 2006, however, a tourist map was published in Argentina placing the disputed region within the borders of that country. Chile filed an official complaint, sparking renewed efforts to settle the dispute which the Argentine government supports and urged Chile to finish quick as possible the demarcation of the international border. Tras la fricción por los Hielos Continentales, la Argentina llama a Chile a demarcar los límites "lo antes posible" . Since democratization in the 1980s both countries began a close economic and political integration, (with Chile being an associated member of Mercosur) and defense cooperation and friendship policy Relations with Bolivia Relations with Bolivia have been strained ever since the independence wars because of the Atacama border dispute (Bolivia claims a corridor to the Pacific Ocean). The Spaniards never bothered to definitely establish a border between Chile and Bolivia. Chile claimed its limit with Peru ran through the Loa River and that Bolivia was therefore landlocked, while Bolivia claimed it did have a coast and that the limit with Chile ran along the Salado River. The border remained vague throughout the 19th century. Finally, Bolivia and Chile agreed, in 1866, to allow Bolivia access to the Pacific and that the limit of the two countries would run along the 24th parallel. The area between the 25th and 23rd parallel would remain demilitarized and both nations would be allowed to mine there. It was also agreed that taxes on the exportation of saltpeter would not increase. However, in 1879, Bolivian dictator General Hilarión Daza increased the taxes on the exportation of saltpeter, violating the 1866 treaty. When Chilean-owned saltpeter companies protested, Daza expropriated their companies and sold them in a public auction. Daza then put an end to all commerce with Chile and exiled all Chilean residents in Bolivia (the Bolivian port of Antofagasta had more Chileans than Bolivians). In response, Chile declared war on Bolivia and occupied Bolivia's coast. Peru had, in 1873, signed a secret pact with Bolivia in which the two countries agreed to fight together against any nation that threatened either of them. When Peru refused to be neutral in the conflict between Chile and Bolivia, Chile declared war on Peru. Chile defeated both countries and annexed the coast claimed by Bolivia. This was ratified in a 1904 treaty. Diplomatic relations with Bolivia continued to be strained because of Bolivia's continuing aspiration to the sea. In 1964, Bolivian President Víctor Paz Estenssoro severed diplomatic relations with Chile. Generals Augusto Pinochet and Hugo Banzer resumed diplomatic relations and attempted to settle territorial disputes. The secret negotiations started in 1973 and in 1975 diplomatic relations between Chile and Bolivia were established. That year, Pinochet and Banzer met in the Bolivian border town of Chañara. Pinochet agreed to give Bolivia a small strip of land running between the Chilean city of Arica and the Peruvian border. However the Treaty of Lima between Peru and Chile specified that Chile must consult Peru before granting any land to a third party in the area of Tarapacá. Peruvian President General Francisco Morales Bermúdez did not agree with the Chañara proposal and instead drafted his own proposal, in which the three nations would share administration of the port of Arica and the sea immediately in front of it. Pinochet refused this agreement, and Banzer broke ties with Chile again in 1978. The failure of the Chañara accords was one of the reasons of Banzer's downfall that very year. Chile and Bolivia maintain consular relations, and appear to have become friendlier. Former Chilean President Ricardo Lagos attanded the inauguration of current Bolivian President Evo Morales. Morales has repeatedly announced his intention to establish diplomatic relations with Chile once more, but has still not given up Bolivia's claim to the sea. Relations with Peru Chile and Peru had excellent relations at the time of independence, and Chilean independence hero Bernardo O'Higgins actively participated in the liberation of Peru. Chile was a staunch ally of Peru against Spain the 1864-1866 war over the Chincha Islands, and the Chilean port of Valparaíso was even bombed by Spain during the conflict. Nevertheless, in 1873 Peru signed a secret defensive pact with Bolivia in which it agreed to help that nation in case of foreign attack. The moment came in 1879, when the War of the Pacific began. Peru refused to be neutral and Chile declared war on both Peru and Bolivia. Chile won a decisive victory, and even reached Lima and proceeded to occupy Peru for a few years. In 1883, Chile and Peru signed the Treaty of Ancón in which Peru handed over the Province of Tarapacá. Peru also had to hand over the departments of Arica and Tacna. These would remain under Chilean control until a later date, when there would be a plebiscite to decide which nation would maintain control over Arica and Tacna. Chile and Peru, however, were unable to agree on how or when to hold the plebiscite, and in 1929, both countries signed the Treaty of Lima, in which Peru gained Tacna and Chile maintained control of Arica. Relations have remained sour because of the war. In 1975, both countries were in the brink of war, only a few years before the centennial of the War of the Pacific. The conflict was fueled by ideological disputes: Peruvian General Juan Velasco was a left-winger while Chilean General Augusto Pinochet was a right-winger. Velasco, backed by Cuba, set the date for invasion on August 6, the 150th independence anniversary of Bolivia, and the proposed date when Chile intended to grant this country with a sovereign corridor north of Arica, in former Peruvian territory, transfer not approved by Peru. However, he was successfully dissuaded from starting the invasion on that date by his advisor, General Francisco Morales Bermúdez, whose original family was from the former Peruvian (currently Chilean) region of Tarapaca. Velasco later fell ill and was deposed by a group of generals who proclaimed Morales Bermúdez president on August 28th. Morales Bermúdez assured the Chilean government that Peru had no plans for an invasion despite its tremendous military superiority. Tensions mounted again when a Chilean spy mission in Peru was discovered. Morales Bermúdez was again able to avert war, despite pressure from Velasco's ultranationalist followers. Relations between the two nations have since mostly recovered. In 2005, the Peruvian Congress unilaterally approved a new law which stated the sea limit with Chile. Peru's position was that the border has never been fully demarcated, but Chile disagreed reminding on treaties in 1952 and 1954 between the countries, which supposedly defined seaborder. The border problem has still not been solved. However, Chile's Michelle Bachelet and Peru's Alan García have established a positive diplomatic relationship, and it is very unlikely any hostilities will break out because of the dispute. Nevertheless, in early April 2007, Peruvian nationalistic sectors, mainly represented by left wing ex-presidential candidate Ollanta Humala decided to congregate at 'hito uno' right at the border with Chile, in a symbolic attempt to claim sovereignty over a maritime area known in Peru as Mar de Grau (Grau's Sea) just west of the Chilean city of Arica. Peruvian police stopped a group of nearly 2,000 people just 10 klms from the border, preventing them from reaching their intended destination. Despite these incidents, the presidents of both Chile and Peru have confirmed their intentions to improve the relationships between the two countries, mainly fueled by the huge amount of commercial exchange between both countries private sectors. Diplomatic relations Chile does not currently maintain diplomatic relations with Benin, Bolivia, Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Macedonia, Niger, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Togo, Taiwan, or Yemen. Regarding Western Sahara, Chile has sent contradictory comments. Chile's Senate speaker Sergio Romero has said that Chile does not recognize Western Sahara's independence http://www.moroccotimes.com/news/article.asp?idr=2&id=7019 , but Chile's Ministry of Foreign Relations website includes Western Sahara as an independent country with which Chile has no diplomatic relations. Relations by country Country Formal Relations BeganNotesSee Argentina–Chile relations Research Project on the History of the Relations between Argentina and Chile, 1978-2000 1992 Armenia is represented in Chile through its embassy in Buenos Aires (Argentina). Chile is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia). Diplomatic relations date back from the time when Australia was a British colony, during the Australian gold rush, population grew fast and Chile became one of Australias major wheat supplier and there was a regular traffic of ships between Sydney and Valparaíso. Both countries are members of the APEC the Cairns Group. Australia and Chile signed the Australia-Chile Free Trade Agreement on July 30, 2008. The agreement will come into effect in the first quarter of 2009. See Austria–Chile relationsSee Barbados–Chile relationsSee Bolivia–Chile relationsSee Brazil–Chile relationsSee Canada–Chile relations 1992-04-15See Chile–Croatia relations Chile has an embassy in Zagreb and honorary consulates in Rijeka and Split. Chilean embassy in Zagreb Croatia has an embassy in Santiago and honorary consulates in Antofagasta and Punta Arenas. The Senate of Chile has awarded Croatian President Stjepan Mesić an order of merit, to honor the improvement of bilateral relations between Croatia and Chile. While representing Chile, senate vice president Baldo Prokurica stated that he found areas for stronger collaboration in future in oil and gas research and shipyards and he expressed an interest in Chilean students' having scholarships in Croatia. There are between 380,000 and 500,000 people of Croatian descent living in Chile. Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with ChileSee Chile–Estonia relationsSee Chile–Finland relationsSee Chilean–Greek relationsSee Chile-Haiti relationsSee Chile–Ireland relationsSee Chile–Israel relationsSee Chile–Italy relationsSee Chile–Mexico relationsSee Chile-Paraguay relationsSee Chile–Peru relations 1925-02-05See Chile–Romania relations In 1965 diplomatic relations were renewed. Even though most of the Eastern European countries broke their relations with Chile after 1973. Romania and the former Yugoslavia kept their representations in Santiago and the Chilean government didn't close their offices in Belgrade and Bucharest. Approximately 3,000 Chileans looked for asylum in Romania during Augusto Pinochet's dictatorship. Chile has an embassy in Bucharest and honorary consulates in Braşov and Cluj-Napoca. Romania has an embassy in Santiago.See Chile–Russia relationsSee Chilean–Turkish relationsSee Chile–Ukraine relationsSee Chile – United States relationsSee Chile–Uruguay relations References Further reading Rodríguez Elizondo, José: Chile-Perú. El siglo que vivimos en peligro. 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4,440 | Ambrosians | Ambrosians is a term that might be applied either to members of one of the religious brotherhoods which at various times since the 14th century have sprung up in and around Milan or, exceptionally to a 16th century sect of Anabaptists. Ambrosian orders Only the oldest of the Catholic Ambrosians, the Fratres S. Ambrosii ad Nemus, had anything more than a very local significance. This order is known from a bull of Pope Gregory XI addressed to the monks of the church of St Ambrose outside Milan. Saint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, certainly did not found religious orders, though he took an interest in the monastic life and watched over its beginnings in his diocese, providing for the needs of a monastery outside the walls of Milam, as Saint Augustine recounts in his Confessions. Ambrose also made successful efforts to improve the moral life of women in the Milan of his time by promoting the permanent institution of Virgins, as also of widows. His exhortations and other interventions have survived in various writings: De virginibus, De viduis, De virginitate, De institutione virginis, De exhortatione virginitatis, and De lapsu virginis consecratae. Ambrose was the only Father of the Church to leave behind so many writings on the subject and his attentions naturally enough led to the formation of communities which later became formal monasteries of women. It is against this background that two religious orders or congregations, one of men and one of women, when founded in the Milan area during the 13th and 15th centuries, took Saint Ambrose as their patron and hence adopted his name. The Order of St Ambrose The first of these groups was formed in a wood outside Milan by three noble Milanese, Alexander Grivelli, Antonio Petrasancta, and Albert Besuzzi, who were joined by others, including some priests. In 1375 Pope Gregory XI gave them the Rule of St Augustine, with set of constitutions. As a canonically recognized order they took the name "Fratres Sancti Ambrosii ad Nemus" and adopted a habit consisting of a brown tunic, scapular, and hood. The brethren elected a superior with the title of prior who was then instituted by the Archbishop of Milan. The priests of the congregation undertook preaching and other tasks of the ministry but were not allowed to accept charge parishes. In the liturgy they followed the Ambrosian Rite. Various monasteries were founded on these lines, but without any formal bond between them. In 1441 Pope Eugene IV merged them into one congregation called "Congregatio Sancti Ambrosii ad Nemus", made the original house the main seat, and laid down a system of government whereby a general chapter met every three years, elected the priors who stayed in office till the next chapter. There was a rector, or superior general, who was assisted by two "visitors". Saint Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, successfully reformed their discipline, grown lax, in 1579. In 1589 Pope Sixtus V united to the Congregation of St Ambrose the monasteries of a group known as the "Brothers of the Apostles of the Poor Life" (or "Apostolini" or "Brothers of St. Barnabas"), whose houses were in the province of Genoa and in the March of Ancona. This was an order that had been founded by Giovanni Scarpa at the end of the 15th century. The union was confirmed by Pope Paul V in 1606, at which time the congregation added the name of St. Barnabas to its title, adopted new constitutions, divided its houses into four provinces, two of them, St Clement's and St Pancras's, being in Rome. Published works have survived from the pen of Ascanio Tasca and Michele Mulozzani, each of whom was superior-general, and of Zaccaria Visconti, Francesco-Maria Guazzi and Paolo Fabulotti. Although various Ambrosians were given the title of Blessed in recognition of their holiness: Antonio Gonzaga of Mantua, Filippo of Fermo, and Gerardo of Monza, the order was eventually dissolved by Pope Innocent X in 1650. Ambrosian Nuns The Nuns of St Ambrose (Ambrosian Sisters) wore a habit of the same colour as the Brothers of St Ambrose, conformed to their constitutions, and followed the Ambrosian Rite, but were independent in government. Pope Sixtus IV gave the nuns canonical status in 1474. Their one monastery was on the top of Monte Varese, near Lago Maggiore, on the spot where their foundress, the Blessed Catarina Morigia (or Catherine of Palanza), had first led a solitary life. Other early nuns were the Blessed Juliana of Puriselli, Benedetta Bimia, and Lucia Alciata. The nuns were esteemed by St Charles Borromeo. Another group of cloistered "Nuns of St Ambrose", also called the Annunciatae (Italian: Annunziate) of Lombardy or "Sisters of St Marcellina", were founded in 1408 by three young women of Pavia, Dorothea Morosini, Eleonora Contarini, and Veronica Duodi. Their houses, scattered throughout Lombardy and Venetia, were united into a congregation by St Pius V, under the Rule of St Augustine with a mother-house, residence of the prioress general, at Pavia. One of the nuns in this group was Saint Catharine Fieschi Adorno, who died on September 14, 1510. The Oblates of St. Ambrose and of St. Charles In some sense also "Ambrosians" are the members of a diocesan religious society founded by St Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan. All priests or destined to become priests, they took a simple vow of obedience to their bishop. The model for this was a society that already existed at Brescia, under the name of "Priests of Peace". In August 1578 the new society was inaugurated, being entrusted with the church of the Holy Sepulchre and given the name of "Oblates of St. Ambrose." They later received the approbation of Gregory XIII. St Charles died in 1584. These Oblates were dispersed by Napoleon I in 1810, while another group called the Oblates of Our Lady of Rho escaped this fate. In 1848 they were reorganized and given the name of "Oblates of St. Charles" and reassigned the house of the Holy Sepulchre. In the course of the 19th century similar groups were founded in a number of countries, including the "Oblates of St Charles", established in London by Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman. See also Ambrosian Rite St. Ambrose St. Ambrose University See Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie, i. 439. References | Ambrosians |@lemmatized ambrosians:4 term:1 might:1 apply:1 either:1 member:2 one:6 religious:4 brotherhood:1 various:4 time:3 since:1 century:5 spring:1 around:1 milan:9 exceptionally:1 sect:1 anabaptist:1 ambrosian:6 order:8 old:1 catholic:1 fratres:2 ambrosii:3 ad:3 nemus:3 anything:1 local:1 significance:1 know:2 bull:1 pope:7 gregory:3 xi:2 address:1 monk:1 church:3 st:24 ambrose:14 outside:3 saint:5 bishop:2 certainly:1 find:1 though:1 take:4 interest:1 monastic:1 life:4 watch:1 beginning:1 diocese:1 provide:1 need:1 monastery:5 wall:1 milam:1 augustine:3 recount:1 confession:1 also:5 make:2 successful:1 effort:1 improve:1 moral:1 woman:4 promote:1 permanent:1 institution:1 virgin:1 widow:1 exhortation:1 intervention:1 survive:2 writing:2 de:6 virginibus:1 viduis:1 virginitate:1 institutione:1 virginis:2 exhortatione:1 virginitatis:1 lapsu:1 consecratae:1 father:1 leave:1 behind:1 many:1 subject:1 attention:1 naturally:1 enough:1 lead:2 formation:1 community:1 later:2 become:2 formal:2 background:1 two:3 congregation:6 men:1 found:6 area:1 patron:1 hence:1 adopt:3 name:6 first:2 group:6 form:1 wood:1 three:3 noble:1 milanese:1 alexander:1 grivelli:1 antonio:2 petrasancta:1 albert:1 besuzzi:1 join:1 others:1 include:2 priest:5 give:5 rule:2 set:1 constitution:3 canonically:1 recognize:1 sancti:2 habit:2 consisting:1 brown:1 tunic:1 scapular:1 hood:1 brother:4 elect:2 superior:3 title:3 prior:2 institute:1 archbishop:3 undertook:1 preaching:1 task:1 ministry:1 allow:1 accept:1 charge:1 parish:1 liturgy:1 follow:2 rite:3 line:1 without:1 bond:1 eugene:1 iv:2 merge:1 call:3 congregatio:1 original:1 house:6 main:1 seat:1 lay:1 system:1 government:2 whereby:1 general:4 chapter:2 meet:1 every:1 year:1 stay:1 office:1 till:1 next:1 rector:1 assist:1 visitor:1 charles:7 borromeo:3 successfully:1 reform:1 discipline:1 grown:1 lax:1 sixtus:2 v:3 unite:2 apostle:1 poor:1 apostolini:1 barnabas:2 whose:1 province:2 genoa:1 march:1 ancona:1 giovanni:1 scarpa:1 end:1 union:1 confirm:1 paul:1 add:1 new:2 divide:1 four:1 clement:1 pancras:1 rome:1 publish:1 work:1 pen:1 ascanio:1 tasca:1 michele:1 mulozzani:1 zaccaria:1 visconti:1 francesco:1 maria:1 guazzi:1 paolo:1 fabulotti:1 although:1 bless:3 recognition:1 holiness:1 gonzaga:1 mantua:1 filippo:1 fermo:1 gerardo:1 monza:1 eventually:1 dissolve:1 innocent:1 x:1 nun:6 sister:2 wear:1 colour:1 conform:1 independent:1 nuns:1 canonical:1 status:1 top:1 monte:1 varese:1 near:1 lago:1 maggiore:1 spot:1 foundress:1 catarina:1 morigia:1 catherine:1 palanza:1 solitary:1 early:1 juliana:1 puriselli:1 benedetta:1 bimia:1 lucia:1 alciata:1 esteem:1 another:2 cloistered:1 annunciatae:1 italian:1 annunziate:1 lombardy:2 marcellina:1 young:1 pavia:2 dorothea:1 morosini:1 eleonora:1 contarini:1 veronica:1 duodi:1 scatter:1 throughout:1 venetia:1 pius:1 mother:1 residence:1 prioress:1 catharine:1 fieschi:1 adorno:1 die:2 september:1 oblate:6 sense:1 diocesan:1 society:3 destine:1 simple:1 vow:1 obedience:1 model:1 already:1 exist:1 brescia:1 peace:1 august:1 inaugurate:1 entrust:1 holy:2 sepulchre:2 receive:1 approbation:1 xiii:1 disperse:1 napoleon:1 lady:1 rho:1 escape:1 fate:1 reorganize:1 reassign:1 course:1 similar:1 number:1 country:1 establish:1 london:1 cardinal:1 nicholas:1 wiseman:1 see:2 university:1 herzog:1 hauck:1 realencyklopadie:1 reference:1 |@bigram pope_gregory:2 de_institutione:1 ambrosian_rite:3 charles_borromeo:3 pope_sixtus:2 sixtus_v:1 st_pancras:1 francesco_maria:1 pope_innocent:1 sixtus_iv:1 holy_sepulchre:2 gregory_xiii:1 herzog_hauck:1 |
4,441 | Alkene | A 3D model of ethylene, the simplest alkene. In organic chemistry, an alkene, olefin, or olefine is an unsaturated chemical compound containing at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond. The simplest acyclic alkenes, with only one double bond and no other functional groups, form a homologous series of hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n. The simplest alkene is ethylene (C2H4), which has the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) name ethene. Alkenes are also called olefins (an archaic synonym, widely used in the petrochemical industry). Aromatic compounds are often drawn as cyclic alkenes, but their structure and properties are different and they are not considered to be alkenes. Structure Bonding Ethylene (ethene), showing the pi bond in green. Like single covalent bonds, double bonds can be described in terms of overlapping atomic orbitals, except that, unlike a single bond (which consists of a single sigma bond), a carbon-carbon double bond consists of one sigma bond and one pi bond. This double bond is stronger than a single covalent bond (611 kJ/mol for C=C vs. 347 kJ/mol for C—C) and also shorter with an average bond length of 1.33 Angstroms (133 pm). Each carbon of the double bond uses its three sp² hybrid orbitals to form sigma bonds to three atoms. The unhybridized 2p atomic orbitals, which lie perpendicular to the plane created by the axes of the three sp² hybrid orbitals, combine to form the pi bond. This bond lies outside the main C—C axis, with half of the bond on one side and half on the other. Rotation about the carbon-carbon double bond is restricted because it involves breaking the pi bond, which requires a large amount of energy (264 kJ/mol in ethylene). As a consequence substituted alkenes may exist as one of two isomers called a cis isomer and a trans isomer, or alternatively (for more complex alkenes) a Z and a E isomer. For example, in cis-but-2-ene the two methyl substituents face the same side of the double bond and in trans-but-2-ene they face the opposite side; these two isomers are slightly different in their chemical and physical properties. It is certainly not impossible to twist a double bond. In fact, a 90° twist requires an energy approximately equal to half the strength of a pi bond. The misalignment of the p orbitals is less than expected because pyramidalization takes place (See: pyramidal alkene). trans-Cyclooctene is a stable strained alkene and the orbital misalignment is only 19° with a dihedral angle of 137° (normal 120°) and a degree of pyramidalization of 18°. This explains the dipole moment of 0.8 D for this compound (cis-isomer 0.4 D) where a value of zero is expected. The trans isomer of cycloheptene is only stable at low temperatures. Shape As predicted by the VSEPR model of electron pair repulsion, the molecular geometry of alkenes includes bond angles about each carbon in a double bond of about 120°. The angle may vary because of steric strain introduced by nonbonded interactions created by functional groups attached to the carbons of the double bond. For example, the C-C-C bond angle in propylene is 123.9°. Physical properties The physical properties of alkenes are comparable with those of alkanes. The physical state depends on molecular mass (gases from ethene to butene - liquids from pentene onwards). The simplest alkenes, ethene, propene and butene are gases. Linear alkenes of approximately five to sixteen carbons are liquids, and higher alkenes are waxy solids. Chemical properties Alkenes are relatively stable compounds, but are more reactive than alkanes due to the presence of a carbon-carbon pi-bond. The majority of the reactions of alkenes involve the rupture of this pi bond, forming new single bonds. Alkenes serve as a feedstock for the petrochemical industry because they can participate in a wide variety of reactions. Addition reactions Alkenes react in many addition reactions, which occur by opening up the double-bond. Catalytic addition of hydrogen: Catalytic hydrogenation of alkenes produces the corresponding alkanes. The reaction is carried out under pressure in the presence of a metallic catalyst. Common industrial catalysts are based on platinum, nickel or palladium. For laboratory syntheses, Raney nickel is often employed. This is an alloy of nickel and aluminium. An example of this reaction is the catalytic hydrogenation of ethylene to yield ethane: CH2=CH2 + H2 → CH3-CH3 Electrophilic addition: Most addition reactions to alkenes follow the mechanism of electrophilic addition. An example is the Prins reaction where the electrophile is a carbonyl group. Halogenation: Addition of elementary bromine or chlorine to alkenes yields vicinal dibromo- and dichloroalkanes, respectively. The decoloration of a solution of bromine in water is an analytical test for the presence of alkenes: CH2=CH2 + Br2 → BrCH2-CH2Br It is also used as a quantitive test of unsaturation, expressed as the bromine number of a single compound or mixture. The reaction works because the high electron density at the double bond causes a temporary shift of electrons in the Br-Br bond causing a temporary induced dipole. This makes the Br closest to the double bond slightly positive and therefore an electrophile. Hydrohalogenation: Addition of hydrohalic acids such as HCl or HBr to alkenes yields the corresponding haloalkanes. CH3-CH=CH2 + HBr → CH3-CHBr-CH2-H If the two carbon atoms at the double bond are linked to a different number of hydrogen atoms, the halogen is found preferentially at the carbon with fewer hydrogen substituents (Markovnikov's rule). This is the reaction mechanism for hydrohalogenation: Addition of a carbene or carbenoid yields the corresponding cyclopropane. Oxidation Alkenes are oxidized with a large number of oxidizing agents. In the presence of oxygen, alkenes burn with a bright flame to produce carbon dioxide and water. Catalytic oxidation with oxygen or the reaction with percarboxylic acids yields epoxides Reaction with ozone in ozonolysis leads to the breaking of the double bond, yielding two aldehydes or ketones R1-CH=CH-R2 + O3 → R1-CHO + R2-CHO + H2O This reaction can be used to determine the position of a double bond in an unknown alkene. Sharpless bishydroxylation and the Woodward cis-hydroxylation give diols Polymerization Polymerization of alkenes is a reaction that yields polymers of high industrial value at great economy, such as the plastics polyethylene and polypropylene. Polymers from alkene monomers are referred to in a general way as polyolefins or sometimes as polyalkenes. To be more specific, a polymer from alpha-olefins is called a polyalphaolefin (PAO). Polymerization can proceed via either a free-radical or an ionic mechanism, converting the double to a single bond and forming single bonds to join the other monomers. Polymerization of conjugated dienes such as buta-1,3-diene or isoprene (2-methylbuta-1,3-diene) results in largely 1,4-addition with possibly some 1,2-addition of the diene monomer to a growing polymer chain. For details, see "Polybutadiene." Synthesis Industrial methods The most common industrial synthesis of alkenes is based on cracking of petroleum. Large alkanes are broken apart at high temperatures, often in the presence of a zeolite catalyst, to give alkenes and smaller alkanes, and the mixture of products is then separated by fractional distillation. This is mainly used for the manufacture of small alkenes (up to six carbons). Cracking of n-octane to give pentane + propene Related to this is catalytic dehydrogenation, where an alkane loses hydrogen at high temperatures to produce a corresponding alkene. This is the reverse of the catalytic hydrogenation of alkenes. Dehydrogenation of butane to give butadiene and isomers of butene Both of these processes are endothermic, but they are driven towards the alkene at high temperatures by entropy (the TΔS portion of the equation ΔG = ΔH – TΔS dominates for high T). Catalytic synthesis of higher α-alkenes (of the type RCH=CH2) can also be achieved by a reaction of ethylene with the organometallic compound triethylaluminium in the presence of nickel, cobalt, or platinum. Elimination reactions One of the principal methods for alkene synthesis in the laboratory is the elimination of alkyl halides, alcohols, and similar compounds. Most common is the β-elimination via the E2 or E1 mechanism, but α-eliminations are also known. The E2 mechanism provides a more reliable β-elimination method than E1 for most alkene syntheses. Most E2 eliminations start with an alkyl halide or alkyl sulfonate ester (such as a tosylate or triflate). When an alkyl halide is used, the reaction is called a dehydrohalogenation. For unsymmetrical products, the more substituted alkenes (those with fewer hydrogens attached to the C=C) tend to predominate (see Saytzeff's rule). Two common methods of elimination reactions are dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides and dehydration of alcohols. A typical example is shown below; note that the H that leaves must be anti to the leaving group, even though this leads to the less stable Z-isomer. An example of an E2 Elimination Alkenes can be synthesized from alcohols via dehydration, in which case water is lost via the E1 mechanism. For example, the dehydration of ethanol produces ethene: CH3CH2OH + H2SO4 → H2C=CH2 + H3O+ + HSO4− An alcohol may also be converted to a better leaving group (e.g., xanthate), so as to allow a milder syn-elimination such as the Chugaev elimination and the Grieco elimination. Related reactions include eliminations by β-haloethers (the Boord olefin synthesis) and esters (ester pyrolysis). Alkenes can be prepared indirectly from alkyl amines. The amine or ammonia is not a suitable leaving group, so the amine is first either alkylated (as in the Hofmann elimination) or oxidized to an amine oxide (the Cope reaction) to render a smooth elimination possible. Hofmann elimination is unusual in that the less substituted (non-Saytseff) alkene is usually the major product. The Cope reaction is a syn-elimination that occurs at or below 150 °C, for example: Synthesis of cyclooctene via Cope elimination Alkenes are generated from α-halo sulfones in the Ramberg-Bäcklund reaction, via a three-membered ring sulfone intermediate. Synthesis from carbonyl compounds Another important method for alkene synthesis involves construction of a new carbon-carbon double bond by coupling of a carbonyl compound (such as an aldehyde or ketone) to a carbanion equivalent. Such reactions are sometimes called olefinations. The most well-known of these methods is the Wittig reaction, but other related methods are known. The Wittig reaction involves reaction of an aldehyde or ketone with a Wittig reagent (or phosphorane) of the type Ph3P=CHR to produce an alkene and Ph3P=O. The Wittig reagent is itself prepared easily from triphenylphosphine and an alkyl halide. The reaction is quite general and many functional groups are tolerated, even esters, as in this example: A typical example of the Wittig reaction Related to the Wittig reaction is the Peterson olefination. This uses a less accessible silicon-based reagent in place of the phosphorane, but it allows for the selection of E or Z products. If an E-product is desired, another alternative is the Julia olefination, which uses the carbanion generated from a phenyl sulfone. The Takai olefination based on an organochromium intermediate also delivers E-products. A titanium compound, Tebbe's reagent, is useful for the synthesis of methylene compounds; in this case, even esters and amides react. A pair of carbonyl compounds can also be reductively coupled together (with reduction) to generate an alkene. Symmetrical alkenes can be prepared from a single aldehyde or ketone coupling with itself, using Ti metal reduction (the McMurry reaction). If two different ketones are to be coupled, a more complex, indirect method such as the Barton-Kellogg reaction may be used. A single ketone can also be converted to the corresponding alkene via its tosylhydrazone, using sodium methoxide (the Bamford-Stevens reaction) or an alkyllithium (the Shapiro reaction). Olefin metathesis Alkenes can be prepared by exchange with other alkenes, in a reaction known as olefin metathesis. Frequently, loss of ethene gas is used to drive the reaction towards a desired product. In many cases, a mixture of geometric isomers is obtained, but the reaction tolerates many functional groups. The method is particularly effective for the preparation of cyclic alkenes, as in this synthesis of muscone: Ring-closing metathesis used in synthesis of muscone Use of palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions Coupling reactions, most notably those catalyzed by palladium compounds, have become popular for the synthesis of alkenes. The Heck reaction provides a method for coupling an aryl halide to an alkene, for example in the synthesis of the pharmaceutical naproxen: Synthesis of naproxen via the Heck reaction Other couplings, such as the Stille, Suzuki and Negishi involve the reaction of an alkenyl, allyl or aryl halide (or triflate) with an alkenyl, alkyl (not for Stille) or aryl derivative of a metal or metalloid. For example, Suzuki coupling has been used on a citronellal derivative for the synthesis of caparratriene, a natural product that is highly active against leukemia: Synthesis of caparratriene using the Suzuki coupling From alkynes Reduction of alkynes is a useful method for the stereoselective synthesis of disubstituted alkenes. If the cis-alkene is desired, hydrogenation in the presence of Lindlar's catalyst is commonly used, though hydroboration followed by hydrolysis provides an alternative approach. Reduction of the alkyne by sodium metal in liquid ammonia gives the trans-alkene. Synthesis of cis- and trans-alkenes from alkynes For the preparation multisubstituted alkenes, carbometalation of alkynes can give rise to a large variety of alkene derivatives. Rearrangements and related reactions Alkenes can be synthesized from other alkenes via rearrangement reactions. Besides olefin metathesis (described above), a large number of pericyclic reactions can be used such as the ene reaction and the Cope rearrangement. Cope rearrangement of divinylcyclobutane to cyclooctadiene In the Diels-Alder reaction, a cyclohexene derivative is prepared from a diene and a reactive or electron-deficient alkene. Nomenclature IUPAC Names To form the root of the IUPAC names for alkenes, simply change the -an- infix of the parent to -en-. For example, CH3-CH3 is the alkane ethANe. The name of CH2=CH2 is therefore ethENe. In higher alkenes, where isomers exist that differ in location of the double bond, the following numbering system is used: Number the longest carbon chain that contains the double bond in the direction that gives the carbon atoms of the double bond the lowest possible numbers. Indicate the location of the double bond by the location of its first carbon. Name branched or substituted alkenes in a manner similar to alkanes. Number the carbon atoms, locate and name substituent groups, locate the double bond, and name the main chain. Naming substituted hex-1-enes Cis-Trans notation In the specific case of disubstituted alkenes where the two carbons have one substituent each, Cis-trans notation may be used. If both substituents are on the same side of the bond, it is defined as (cis-). If the substituents are on either side of the bond, it is defined as (trans-). The difference between cis- and trans- isomers E,Z notation When an alkene has more than one substituent (especially necessary with 3 or 4 substituents), the double bond geometry is described using the labels E and Z. These labels come from the German words "entgegen," meaning "opposite," and "zusammen," meaning "together." Alkenes with the higher priority groups (as determined by CIP rules) on the same side of the double bond have these groups together and are designated Z. Alkenes with the higher priority groups on opposite sides are designated E. A mnemonic to remember this: Z notation has the higher priority groups on "ze zame zide." The difference between E and Z isomers Groups containing C=C double bonds IUPAC recognizes two names for hydrocarbon groups containing carbon-carbon double bonds, the vinyl group and the allyl group. . See also Alpha-olefin Arenes are also alkenes but have very different properties due to aromaticity References | Alkene |@lemmatized model:2 ethylene:6 simple:3 alkene:69 organic:1 chemistry:2 olefin:8 olefine:1 unsaturated:1 chemical:3 compound:13 contain:4 least:1 one:9 carbon:25 double:28 bond:52 acyclic:1 functional:4 group:17 form:6 homologous:1 series:1 hydrocarbon:2 general:3 formula:1 international:1 union:1 pure:1 applied:1 iupac:4 name:9 ethene:7 also:11 call:5 archaic:1 synonym:1 widely:1 use:21 petrochemical:2 industry:2 aromatic:1 often:3 draw:1 cyclic:2 structure:2 property:6 different:5 consider:1 show:2 pi:7 green:1 like:1 single:10 covalent:2 describe:3 term:1 overlap:1 atomic:2 orbitals:5 except:1 unlike:1 consist:2 sigma:3 strong:1 kj:3 mol:3 c:14 v:1 shorter:1 average:1 length:1 angstrom:1 pm:1 three:4 hybrid:2 atom:5 unhybridized:1 lie:2 perpendicular:1 plane:1 create:2 ax:1 combine:1 outside:1 main:2 axis:1 half:3 side:7 rotation:1 restrict:1 involve:5 break:1 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4,442 | Artemis | Artemis was one of the most widely venerated of the Ancient Greek deities and one of the oldest. Burkert 1985, p. 149 In the classical period of Greek mythology, Artemis (Greek: (nominative) , (genitive) ) was often described as the daughter of Zeus and Leto, and the twin sister of Apollo. She was the Hellenic goddess of forests and hills, child birth, virginity, fertility, the hunt, and often was depicted as a huntress carrying a bow and arrows. “Her proper sphere is the earth, and specifically the uncultivated parts, forests and hills, where wild beasts are plentiful. . . .” Hammond and Scullard (editors), The Oxford Classical Dictionary. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970) 126. The deer and the cypress were sacred to her. In later Hellenistic times, she even assumed the ancient role of Eileithyia in aiding childbirth. Artemis later became identified with Selene, Hammond, Oxford Classical Dictionary, 970-971. a Titaness who was a Greek moon goddess, sometimes depicted with a crescent moon above her head. She was also identified with the Roman goddess Diana, Hammond, Oxford Classical Dictionary, 337-338. with the Etruscan goddess Artume, and with the Greek or Carian goddess Hecate. “Artemis is very often identified with foreign goddesses of a more or less similar kind.” Hammond, Oxford Classical Dictionary, 127. Etymology There may be some connection with the Greek αρτεμης = "safe and sound" from the root αρ = "to fit". Other theories involve a possibly older connection to the Proto-Indo-European root h₂ŕ̥tḱos meaning "bear" due to her cultic practices in Brauronia and the Neolithic remains at the Arkouditessa. Birth 1upright| Artemis and Apollo. Terracotta, Myrina, c. 25 BC-CE Various conflicting accounts are given in Classical Greek mythology of the birth of Artemis and her twin brother, Apollo. All accounts agree, however, that she was the daughter of Zeus and Leto and that she was the twin sister of Apollo. An account by Callimachus has it that Hera forbade Leto to give birth on either terra firma (the mainland) or on an island. Hera was angry with Zeus, her husband, because he had impregnated Leto. But the island of Delos (or Ortygia in the Homeric Hymn to Artemis) disobeyed Hera, and Leto gave birth there. Hammond. Oxford Classical Dictionary. 597-598. A scholium of Servius on Aeneid iii. 72 accounts for the island's archaic name Ortygia Or as a separate island birthplace of Artemis— "Rejoice, blessed Leto, for you bare glorious children, the lord Apollon and Artemis who delights in arrows; her in Ortygia, and him in rocky Delos," says the Homeric Hymn; the etymology Ortygia, "Isle of Quail", is not supported by modern scholars. by asserting that Zeus transformed Leto into a quail (ortux) in order to prevent Hera from finding out his infidelity, and Kenneth McLeish suggested further that in quail form Leto would have given birth with as few birth-pains as a mother quail suffers when it lays an egg. Kenneth McLeish, Children of the Gods pp 33f; Leto's birth-pangs, however, are graphically depicted by ancient sources. The myths also differ as to whether Artemis was born first, or Apollo. Childhood Roman marble Bust of Artemis after Kephisodotos (Musei Capitolini), Rome The childhood of Artemis is not embodied in any surviving myth: the Iliad reduced the figure of the dread goddess, making her a girl, who, having been thrashed by Hera, climbs weeping into the lap of Zeus. Iliad xxi.505-13; A poem of Callimachus – the goddess "who amuses herself on mountains with archery" – imagines some charming vignettes: at three years old, Artemis asked her father, Zeus, while sitting on his knee, to grant her six wishes. Her first wish was to remain chaste for eternity, and never to be confined by marriage. She then asked for lop-eared hounds, stags to lead her chariot, and nymphs to be her hunting companions, 60 from the river and 20 from the ocean. Also, she asked for a silver bow like her brother Apollo. He granted her the six wishes. On-line English translation. All of her companions remained virgins and Artemis guarded her own chastity closely. Her symbol was the silver bow and arrow. Other myths about Artemis Artemis and Actaeon She was once bathing in a vale on Mount Cithaeron, when the Theban prince and hunter Actaeon stumbled across her. One version of this story says that Actaeon hid in the bushes and spied on her as she continued to bathe; she was enraged to discover the spy and turned him into a stag which was pursued and killed by his own hounds. Alternatively, another version states that Actaeon boasted that he was a better hunter than she and Artemis turned him into a stag and he was eaten by his hounds. Artemis and Adonis The Death of Adonis, by Giuseppe Mazzuoli, 1709 - Hermitage Museum In some versions of the story of Adonis, who was a late addition to Greek mythology during the Hellenistic period, Artemis sent a wild boar to kill Adonis as punishment for his hubristic boast that he was a better hunter than she. In other versions, Artemis killed Adonis for revenge. In later myths, Adonis had been related as a favorite of Aphrodite, and Aphrodite was responsible for the death of Hippolytus, who had been a favorite of Artemis. Therefore, Artemis killed Adonis to avenge Hippolytus’s death. Orion Orion was a hunting companion of the goddess Artemis. In some versions of his story he was killed by Artemis, while in others he was killed by a scorpion sent by Gaia. In some versions, Orion tried to seduce Opis, "Another name for Artemis herself", Karl Kerenyi observes, The Gods of the Greeks (1951:204). one of her followers, and she killed him. In a version by Aratus, Aratus, 638 Orion took hold of Artemis' robe and she killed him in self-defense. In yet another version, Apollo sent the scorpion. According to Hyginus Hyginus, Poeticon astronomicon, ii.34, quoting the Greek poet Istrus. Artemis once loved Orion (in spite of the late source, this version appears to be a rare remnant of her as the pre-Olympian goddess, who took consorts, as Eos did), but was tricked into killing him by her brother Apollo, who was "protective" of his sister's maidenhood. Other stories Callisto Diana and Callisto by Titian She was the daughter of Lycaon, King of Arcadia. She was one of Artemis's hunting attendants. As a companion of Artemis, Callisto took a vow of chastity. Zeus appeared to her disguised as Artemis, or in some stories Apollo, gained her confidence, then took advantage of her (or raped her, according to Ovid). As a result of this encounter she conceived a son, Arcas. Enraged, Hera or Artemis (some accounts say both) changed her into a bear. Arcas almost killed the bear, but Zeus stopped him just in time. Out of pity, Zeus placed Callisto the bear into the heavens, thus the origin of Callisto the Bear as a constellation. Some stories say that he placed both Arcas and Callisto into the heavens as bears, forming the Ursa Minor and Ursa Major constellations. Iphigenia and the Taurian Artemis Artemis punished Agamemnon after he killed a sacred stag in a sacred grove and boasted that he was a better hunter. When the Greek fleet was preparing at Aulis to depart for Troy to begin the Trojan War, Artemis becalmed the winds. The seer Calchis advised Agamemnon that the only way to appease Artemis was to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia. Artemis then snatches Iphigenia from the altar and substitutes a deer. Niobe A Queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, Niobe boasted of her superiority to Leto because while she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven boys and seven girls, Leto had only one of each. When Artemis and Apollo heard this impiety, Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, and Artemis shot her daughters, who died instantly without a sound. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions two of the Niobids were spared, one boy and one girl. Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, killed himself. A devastated Niobe and her remaining children were turned to stone by Artemis as they wept. Some myths say that their tears, which still flowed from their stone eyes, formed the river Achelous. The gods themselves entombed them. Otus and Ephialtes The Gigantes Otus and Ephialtes were sons of Poseidon. They were so strong that nothing could harm them. One night, as they slept, Gaia whispered to them, that since they were so strong, they should be the rulers of Olympus. They built a mountain as tall as Mt. Olympus, and then demanded that the gods surrender, and that Artemis and Hera become their wives. The gods fought back, but couldn't harm them. The sons even managed to kidnap Ares and hold him in a jar for thirteen months. Artemis later changed herself into a deer and ran between them. The Aloadae, not wanting her to get away because they were eager huntsmen, each threw their javelin and simultaneously killed each other. Diana the huntress, bronze by Jean-Antoine Houdon (1741-1828). The Meleagrids After the death of Meleager, Artemis turned her grieving sisters, the Meleagrids into guineafowl that Artemis loved very much. Chione Artemis killed Chione for becoming too proud and vain after having an affair with Apollo at his request. Atalanta and Oeneus Artemis saved the infant Atalanta from dying of exposure after her father abandoned her. She sent a female bear to suckle the baby, who was then raised by hunters. But she later sent a bear to hurt Atalanta because people said Atalanta was a better hunter. This is in some stories. Among other adventures, Atalanta participated in the hunt for the Calydonian Boar, which Artemis had sent to destroy Calydon because King Oeneus had forgotten her at the harvest sacrifices. In the hunt, Atalanta drew the first blood, and was awarded the prize of the skin. She hung it in a sacred grove at Tegea as a dedication to Artemis. Trojan War Artemis may have been represented as a supporter of Troy because her brother Apollo was the patron god of the city and she herself was widely worshipped in western Anatolia in historical time. In the Iliad Homer, Iliad 21.470 ff) she came to blows with Hera, when the divine allies of the Greeks and Trojans engaged each other in conflict. Hera struck Artemis on the ears with her own quiver, causing the arrows to fall out. As Artemis fled crying to Zeus, Leto gathered up the bow and arrows which had fallen out of the quiver. Worship of Artemis |Roman Temple of Artemis in Jerash, Jordan, built during the reign of Antoninus Pius. Artemis, the goddess of forests and hills, was worshipped throughout ancient Greece. “. . . a goddess universally worshipped in historical Greece, but in all likelihood pre-Hellenic.” Hammond, Oxford Classical Dictionary, 126. . Her best known cults were on the island of Delos (her birthplace); in Attica at Brauron and Mounikhia (near Piraeus); in Sparta. She was often depicted in paintings and statues in a forest setting, carrying a bow and arrows, and accompanied by a deer. As Aeginaea, she was worshiped in Sparta; the name means either huntress of chamois, or the wielder of the javelin (). Pausanias, iii. 14. § 3 She was worshipped at Naupactus as Aetole; in her temple in that town there was a statue of white marble representing her throwing a javelin. Pausanias, x. 38. § 6. This "Aetolian Artemis" would not have been introduced at Naupactus, anciently a place of Ozolian Locris, until it was awarded to the Aetolians by Philip II of Macedon. Strabo records another precinct of "Aetolian Artemos" at the head of the Adriatic. "Among the Heneti certain honours have been decreed to Diomedes; and, indeed, a white horse is still sacrificed to him, and two precincts are still to be seen — one of them sacred to the Argive Hera and the other to the Aetolian Artemis. (Strabo, v.1.9 on-line text). As Agoraea she was the protector of the agora. As Agrotera, she was especially associated as the patron goddess of hunters. In Elis she was worshiped as Alphaea. In Athens Artemis was often associated with the local Aeginian goddess, Aphaea. As Potnia Theron, she was the patron of wild animals; Homer used this title. As Kourotrophos, she was the nurse of youths. As Locheia, she was the goddess of childbirth and midwives. She was sometimes known as Cynthia, from her birthplace on Mount Cynthus on Delos, or Amarynthia from a festival in her honor originally held at Amarynthus in Euboea. She was sometimes identified by the name Phoebe, the feminine form of her brother Apollo's solar epithet Phoebus. The ancient Spartans used to sacrifice to her as one of their patron goddesses before starting a new military campaign. Athenian festivals in honor of Artemis included Elaphebolia, Mounikhia, Kharisteria, and Brauronia. The festival of Artemis Orthia was observed in Sparta. Sanctuary of Artemis at Brauron Pre-pubescent Athenian girls and young Athenian girls approaching marriageable age were sent to the sanctuary of Artemis at Brauron to serve the Goddess for one year. During this time the girls were known as arktoi, or little she-bears. A myth explaining this servitude relates that a bear had formed the habit of regularly visiting the town of Brauron, and the people there fed it, so that over time the bear became tame. A young girl teased the bear, and, in some versions of the myth it killed her, while in other versions it clawed her eyes out. Either way, the girl's brothers killed the bear, and Artemis was enraged. She demanded that young girls "act the bear" at her sanctuary in atonement for the bear's death. Virginal Artemis was worshipped as a fertility/childbirth goddess in some places, assimilating Ilithyia, since, according to some myths, she assisted her mother in the delivery of her twin. During the Classical period in Athens, she was identified with Hecate. Artemis also assimilated Caryatis (Carya). Artemis in art Fourth century Praxitelean bronze head of a goddess wearing a lunate crown, found at Issa (Vis, Croatia) The oldest representations of Artemis in Greek Archaic art portray her as Potnia Theron ("Queen of the Beasts"): a winged goddess holding a stag and leopard in her hands, or sometimes a leopard and a lion. This winged Artemis lingered in ex-votos as Artemis Orthia, with a sanctuary close by Sparta. In Greek classical art she is usually portrayed as a maiden huntress clothed in a girl's short skirt, Homer portrayed Artemis as girlish in the Iliad. with hunting boots, a quiver, a bow Greek poets could not decide whether her bow was silver or gold: "Over the shadowy hills and windy peaks she draws her golden bow." (Homeric Hymn to Artemis), and it is a golden bow as well in Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.693, where her nymph's is of horn. "And how often goddess, didst thou make trial of thy silver bow?", asks Callimachus for whom it is a Cydonian bow that the Cyclopes make for her (Callimachus, Hymn 3 to Artemis). and arrows. Often she is shown in the shooting pose, and is accompanied by a hunting dog or stag. Her darker side is revealed in some vase paintings, where she is shown as the death-bringing goddess whose arrows fell young maidens and women, such as the daughters of Niobe. The attributes of the goddess were often varied: bow and arrows were sometimes replaced by hunting spears; as a goddess of maiden dances she held a lyre; as a goddess of light a pair of flaming torches. Only in post-Classical art do we find representations of Artemis-Diana with the crown of the crescent moon, as Luna. In the ancient world, although she was occasionally associated with the moon, she was never portrayed as the moon itself. Ancient statues of Artemis have been found with crescent moons, but these moons are always Renaissance-era additions. On June 7, 2007, a Roman era bronze sculpture of “Artemis and the Stag” was sold at Sotheby’s auction house in New York state by the Albright-Knox Art Gallery for $25.5 million. Remains of the temple today. Artemis as the Lady of Ephesus At Ephesus in Ionia (Turkey), her temple became one of the Seven Wonders of the World. It was probably the best known center of her worship except for Delos. There the Lady whom the Ionians associated with Artemis through interpretatio Graeca was worshiped primarily as a mother goddess, akin to the Phrygian goddess Cybele, in an ancient sanctuary where her cult image depicted the "Lady of Ephesus" adorned with multiple rounded breast like protuberances on her chest. They had been traditionally interpreted as multiple accessory breasts, or as sacrificed bull testes, as some newer scholars claimed, "In Search of Diana of Ephesus", New York Times, August 21 1994. until excavation at the site of the Artemision in 1987-88 identified the multitude of tear-shaped amber beads that had adorned her ancient wooden xoanon. In Acts of the Apostles, Ephesian metalsmiths who felt threatened by Saint Paul's preaching of Christianity, jealously rioted in her defense, shouting “Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!” Acts 19:28. Only one of 121 columns still stand in Ephesus. The rest were used for making churches, roads, and forts. Artemis in astronomy A minor planet, (105) Artemis; a lunar crater; the Artemis Chasma and the Artemis Corona (both on Venus) have all been named for her. As Selene she is associated with the Moon, and as Phoebe her name was borrowed for a moon of Saturn. References Sources Burkert, Walter, 1985. Greek Religion (Cambridge:Harvard University Press) Graves, Robert (1955) 1960. The Greek Myths (Penguin) Kerenyi, Karl, 1951. The Gods of the Greeks Telenius, Seppo (2005) 2006. Athena-Artemis (Helsinki: Kirja kerrallaan) External links Theoi Project, Artemis, information on Artemis from original Greek and Roman sources, images from classical art. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890) (eds. G. E. 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4,443 | Alien_and_Sedition_Acts | Text of the "Alien Friends Act". The Alien and Sedition Acts were four bills passed in 1798 by the Federalists in the United States Congress, who were waging an undeclared naval war with France, later known as the Quasi-War. They were signed into law by President John Adams. Proponents claimed the acts were designed to protect the United States from alien citizens of enemy powers and to stop seditious attacks from weakening the government. The Democratic-Republicans, like later historians, attacked them as being both unconstitutional and designed to stifle criticism of the administration, and as infringing on the right of the states to act in these areas. They became a major political issue in the elections of 1798 and 1800. One act—the Alien Enemies Act—is still in force in 2009, and has frequently been enforced in wartime. The others expired or were repealed by 1802. Thomas Jefferson held them all to be unconstitutional and void, and pardoned and ordered the release of all who had been convicted of violating them. Acts There were actually four separate laws making up what is commonly referred to as the "Alien and Sedition Acts" The Naturalization Act (officially An Act to Establish a Uniform Rule of Naturalization; ch. 54, 1 Stat. 566) extended the duration of residence required for aliens to become citizens to 14 years. Enacted June 18, 1798, with no expiration date, it was repealed in 1802. The Alien Friends Act (officially An Act Concerning Aliens; ch. 58, 1 Stat. 570) authorized the president to deport any resident alien considered "dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States." It was enacted June 25, 1798, with a two year expiration date. The Alien Enemies Act (officially An Act Respecting Alien Enemies; ch. 66, 1 Stat. 577) authorized the president to apprehend and deport resident aliens if their home countries were at war with the United States of America. Enacted July 6, 1798, and providing no sunset provision, the act remains intact today as . At the time, war was considered likely between the U.S. and France. The Sedition Act (officially An Act for the Punishment of Certain Crimes against the United States; ch. 74, 1 Stat. 596) made it a crime to publish "false, scandalous, and malicious writing" against the government or its officials. It was enacted July 14, 1798, with an expiration date of March 3, 1801. Constitutionality While Jefferson did denounce the Sedition Act as invalid and a violation of the First Amendment of the United States Bill of Rights, which protected the right of free speech, his main argument on the unconstitutionality of the act was that it violated the Tenth Amendment: "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." Jefferson more strongly argued the Federal Government had overstepped its limits in the Alien and Sedition Acts by attempting to exercise unjust powers. Virginia and Kentucky passed resolutions openly denouncing the acts; Federalist-dominated state legislatures rejected Jefferson's position through resolutions either supporting the acts or denying the ability of Virginia and Kentucky to circumvent them. Copies of the responding resolutions. The judicial redress for unconstitutional legislation under the doctrine of judicial review was not established until Marbury v. Madison in 1803. The Supreme Court in 1798 was composed entirely of Federalists, all appointed by Washington. Many of them, particularly Associate Justice Samuel Chase, were openly hostile to the Federalists' opponents. The Alien and Sedition Acts were not appealed to the Supreme Court for review, although individual Supreme Court Justices, sitting in circuit, heard many of the cases prosecuting opponents of the Federalists. To address the constitutionality of the measures, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison sought to unseat the Federalists, appealing to the people to remedy the constitutional violation, and drafted the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, which called on the states to nullify the federal legislation. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions reflect the Compact Theory, which states that the United States is made up of a voluntary union of States that agree to cede some of their authority in order to join the union, but that the states do not, ultimately, surrender their sovereign rights. Therefore, under the Compact Theory, states can determine if the federal government has violated its agreements, including the Constitution, and nullify such violations or even withdraw from the Union. Variations of this theory were also argued at the Hartford Convention at the time of the War of 1812, and by the Southern states just before the American Civil War. The Sedition Act was set to expire in 1801, coinciding with the end of the Adams administration. While this prevented its constitutionality from being directly decided by the Supreme Court, subsequent mentions of the Sedition Act in Supreme Court opinions have assumed that it would be ruled unconstitutional if ever tested in court. For example, in the seminal free speech case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, the Court declared, "Although the Sedition Act was never tested in this Court, the attack upon its validity has carried the day in the court of history." 376 U.S. 254, 276 (1964). Elections of 1800 Although the Federalists hoped the Act would muffle the opposition, many Democratic-Republicans still "wrote, printed, uttered and published" their criticisms of the Federalists. Indeed, they strongly criticized the act itself, and used it as one of the largest election issues. It also had enormous implications on the Federalist party after that point, and ended up being a major contributing factor of its demise. The act expired when the term of President Adams ended in 1801. Ultimately the Acts backfired against the Federalists; while they prepared lists of aliens for deportation, many aliens fled the country during the debate over the Alien and Sedition Acts, and Adams never signed a deportation order. Twenty-five people, primarily prominent newspaper editors such as Benjamin Franklin's grandson Benjamin Franklin Bache but also Congressman Matthew Lyon, were arrested. Of them, eleven were tried, Bache died awaiting trial, and ten were convicted of sedition, often in trials before openly partisan Federalist judges. Federalists at all levels, however, were turned out of power, and, over the following years, Congress repeatedly apologized for, or voted recompense to victims of, the enforcement of the Alien and Sedition Acts. Thomas Jefferson, who won the 1800 election, pardoned all of those that were convicted for crimes under the Alien Enemies Act and the Sedition Act. See also Alien Act of 1705 in England Alien Registration Act of 1940 Sedition Act of 1918 Logan Act HR 1955 Bibliography Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism (1995), the standard scholarly history of the 1790s. Miller, John Chester. Crisis in Freedom: The Alien and Sedition Acts (1951) Rehnquist, William H. Grand Inquests: The historic Impeachments of Justice Samuel Chase and President Andrew Johnson (1994); Chase was impeached and acquitted for his conduct of a trial under the Sedition act. Rosenfeld, Richard N. American Aurora: A Democratic-Republican Returns: The Suppressed History of Our Nation's Beginnings and the Heroic Newspaper That Tried to Report It (1997), clippings from a Republican newspaper Smith, James Morton. Freedom's Fetters: The Alien and Sedition Laws and American Civil Liberties (1967). Stone, Geoffrey R.Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime from The Sedition Act of 1798 to The War on Terrorism (2004). Alan Taylor, "The Alien and Sedition Acts" in Julian E. Zelizer, ed. The American Congress (2004) pp. 63–76 Wright, Barry. "Migration, Radicalism, and State Security: Legislative Initiatives in the Canada's and the United States c. 1794–1804" in Studies in American Political Development, Volume 16, Issue 1, April 2002, pp. 48–60 Bill Ong Hing, Anthony D. Romero, "Defining America Through Immigration Policy" Chapter 1, Pgs 17-19., Published by Temple University Press, 2004 Primary sources Randolph, J.W. The Virginia Report of 1799–1800, Touching the Alien and Sedition Laws; together with the Virginia Resolutions of December 21, 1798, the Debate and Proceedings thereon in the House of Delegates of Virginia, and several other documents illustrative of the report and resolutions,. Notes External links Full Text of Alien and Sedition Acts Alien and Sedition Acts and Related Resources from the Library of Congress | Alien_and_Sedition_Acts |@lemmatized text:2 alien:27 friend:2 act:44 sedition:22 four:2 bill:3 pass:2 federalist:12 united:9 state:20 congress:4 wag:1 undeclared:1 naval:1 war:7 france:2 later:2 know:1 quasi:1 sign:2 law:4 president:5 john:2 adam:2 proponent:1 claim:1 design:2 protect:2 citizen:2 enemy:5 power:4 stop:1 seditious:1 attack:3 weaken:1 government:4 democratic:3 republican:4 like:1 historian:1 unconstitutional:4 stifle:1 criticism:2 administration:2 infringe:1 right:4 area:1 become:2 major:2 political:2 issue:3 election:4 one:2 still:2 force:1 frequently:1 enforce:1 wartime:2 others:1 expire:3 repeal:2 thomas:3 jefferson:6 hold:1 void:1 pardon:2 order:3 release:1 convict:3 violate:3 actually:1 separate:1 make:3 commonly:1 refer:1 naturalization:2 officially:4 establish:2 uniform:1 rule:2 ch:4 stat:4 extend:1 duration:1 residence:1 require:1 year:3 enact:4 june:2 expiration:3 date:3 concern:1 authorize:2 deport:2 resident:2 consider:2 dangerous:1 peace:1 safety:1 two:1 respect:1 apprehend:1 home:1 country:2 america:2 july:2 provide:1 sunset:1 provision:1 remain:1 intact:1 today:1 time:4 likely:1 u:2 punishment:1 certain:1 crime:3 publish:3 false:1 scandalous:1 malicious:1 write:2 official:1 march:1 constitutionality:3 denounce:2 invalid:1 violation:3 first:1 amendment:2 free:3 speech:3 main:1 argument:1 unconstitutionality:1 tenth:1 delegate:2 constitution:2 prohibit:1 reserve:1 respectively:1 people:3 strongly:2 argue:2 federal:3 overstep:1 limit:1 attempt:1 exercise:1 unjust:1 virginia:7 kentucky:4 resolution:7 openly:3 dominate:1 legislature:1 reject:1 position:1 either:1 support:1 deny:1 ability:1 circumvent:1 copy:1 respond:1 judicial:2 redress:1 legislation:2 doctrine:1 review:2 marbury:1 v:2 madison:2 supreme:5 court:9 compose:1 entirely:1 appoint:1 washington:1 many:4 particularly:1 associate:1 justice:3 samuel:2 chase:3 hostile:1 opponent:2 appeal:2 although:3 individual:1 sit:1 circuit:1 hear:1 case:2 prosecute:1 address:1 measure:1 james:1 seek:1 unseat:1 remedy:1 constitutional:1 draft:1 call:1 nullify:2 reflect:1 compact:2 theory:3 voluntary:1 union:3 agree:1 cede:1 authority:1 join:1 ultimately:2 surrender:1 sovereign:1 therefore:1 determine:1 agreement:1 include:1 even:1 withdraw:1 variation:1 also:4 hartford:1 convention:1 southern:1 american:5 civil:2 set:1 coincide:1 end:3 adams:2 prevent:1 directly:1 decide:1 subsequent:1 mention:1 opinion:1 assume:1 would:2 ever:1 test:2 example:1 seminal:1 new:1 york:1 co:1 sullivan:1 declare:1 never:2 upon:1 validity:1 carry:1 day:1 history:3 hop:1 muffle:1 opposition:1 print:1 uttered:1 indeed:1 criticize:1 use:1 large:1 enormous:1 implication:1 party:1 point:1 contribute:1 factor:1 demise:1 term:1 backfire:1 prepare:1 list:1 deportation:2 flee:1 debate:2 twenty:1 five:1 primarily:1 prominent:1 newspaper:3 editor:1 benjamin:2 franklin:2 grandson:1 bache:2 congressman:1 matthew:1 lyon:1 arrest:1 eleven:1 try:2 die:1 await:1 trial:3 ten:1 often:1 partisan:1 judge:1 level:1 however:1 turn:1 following:1 repeatedly:1 apologize:1 vote:1 recompense:1 victim:1 enforcement:1 win:1 see:1 england:1 registration:1 logan:1 hr:1 bibliography:1 elkins:1 stanley:1 eric:1 mckitrick:1 age:1 federalism:1 standard:1 scholarly:1 miller:1 chester:1 crisis:1 freedom:2 rehnquist:1 william:1 h:1 grand:1 inquest:1 historic:1 impeachment:1 andrew:1 johnson:1 impeach:1 acquit:1 conduct:1 rosenfeld:1 richard:1 n:1 aurora:1 return:1 suppressed:1 nation:1 beginning:1 heroic:1 report:3 clipping:1 smith:1 jam:1 morton:1 fetter:1 liberty:1 stone:1 geoffrey:1 r:1 perilous:1 terrorism:1 alan:1 taylor:1 julian:1 e:1 zelizer:1 ed:1 pp:2 wright:1 barry:1 migration:1 radicalism:1 security:1 legislative:1 initiative:1 canada:1 c:1 study:1 development:1 volume:1 april:1 ong:1 hing:1 anthony:1 romero:1 define:1 immigration:1 policy:1 chapter:1 pgs:1 temple:1 university:1 press:1 primary:1 source:1 randolph:1 j:1 w:1 touch:1 together:1 december:1 proceeding:1 thereon:1 house:1 several:1 document:1 illustrative:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 full:1 related:1 resource:1 library:1 |@bigram alien_sedition:12 sedition_act:19 thomas_jefferson:3 ch_stat:4 expiration_date:3 marbury_v:1 supreme_court:5 benjamin_franklin:2 external_link:1 |
4,444 | Bohdan_Khmelnytsky | Bohdan Zynoviy Mykhailovych Khmelnytsky (, commonly transliterated as Khmelnytsky; known in Polish as Bohdan Zenobi Chmielnicki; in Russian as Богда́н Хмельни́цкий, translit. Bogdan Khmelnitsky) (born c. 1595 — died 6 August 1657) was a hetman of the Zaporozhian Cossack Hetmanate of Ukraine. He led the uprising against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth magnates (1648–1654) with the goal of creating an independent Ukrainian state. In 1654 he concluded the Treaty of Pereyaslav with the Tsardom of Russia, which led to the eventual loss of Ukrainian independence to the Russian Empire. Biography Early life a variant of Clan Syrokomla arms, self used by Khmelnytsky as a noble. Although there is no definite proof of the date of his birth, it has been suggested by Ukrainian historian Mykhaylo Maksymovych that his date of birth was likely 27 December 1595 (St. Theodore's "Житие и страдание святого преподобномученика и исповедника Феодора и брата его преподобного Феофана1 начертанных" http://www.pravoslavie.uz/Jitiya/12/27FeodorNachertanniy.htm and http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=736 day). As it was the custom in the Orthodox Church, he was baptized with one of his middle names - Theodor, transformed into Ukrainian as Bohdan. The latest biography of Khmelnytsky by Smoliy and Stepankov, however, challenges the 27 December date and suggests that it is more likely that he was born on 9 November (feast day of St Zenoby Страдание святого священномученика Зиновия епископа Эгейского, и сестры его Зиновии † Православные имена - Pravoslavie.name , 30 October in Julian Calendar) and was baptised on 11 November (feast day of St. Theodore in the Catholic Church) Смолій В.А., Степанков В.С. "Богдан Хмельницький", Альтернативи, ISBN 966-7217-76-0, 2003 Khmelnytsky was probably While Subotiv or Chyhyryn are the most common places cited is the most common given as a reference to his place of birth, some other historians, like Stanisław Barącz, support the view that he was born in Zhovkva (Żółkiew) born in the village of Subotiv, near Chyhyryn in Ukraine at the estate of his father Mykhailo Khmelnytsky. Even though his father, Mykhailo Khmelnytsky, a courtier of Great Crown Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski, was of noble birth himself, and belonged to the Clan Massalski, Abdank or Syrokomla, there was and is still controversy as to whether Bohdan belonged to the szlachta himself. Whether Khmelnytsky was or wasn't a noble is uncertain to this day. Certainly he himself claimed nobility when it suited him, and it wasn't often disputed by his contemporaries. Chmielnicki himself once wrote in the letter to king Jan Kazimierz that he was 'born Chmielnicki' - however that surname was never associated with the Abdank Coat of Arms he used. His father, a noble himself, was married to a Cossack woman and according to the Polish Statute of 1505 that might have put Bohdan's szlachta status under scrutiny. There are other theories; that his father or grandfather were stripped of their noble status, or perhaps most controversial, the theory of 19th century Polish historian Tomasz Padurra, who based on unknown sources claimed that Chmielnicki's father was a Jewish convert to Catholicism. This however didn't prevent Khmelnytsky from considering himself a noble and his father's status as a deputy Starosta (elder) of Chyhyryn helped him to be considered as such by others. Later on, however, during the Uprising he would stress his mother's Cossack roots and his father's exploits with the Cossacks of the Sich. There is also no concrete evidence in regard to Khmelnytsky's early education. Several historians believe he received his elementary schooling from a church clerk until he was sent to one of Kyiv's Orthodox fraternity schools. He continued his education in Polish at a Jesuit college, possibly in Jarosław, but more likely in Lviv, in the school founded by hetman Żółkiewski. He completed his schooling by 1617 and acquired a broad knowledge of world history and learned Polish and Latin. Later in addition to these languages he learned Turkish, Tatar, and French. Unlike many of the other Jesuit students, he did not embrace Roman Catholicism but remained Greek Orthodox. Service with the Cossacks Upon completion of his studies in 1617, Bohdan entered into service with the Cossacks. As early as 1619 he was sent along with his father to Moldavia, as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth entered into war with the Ottoman Empire. His first military engagement was a tragic one. During the battle of Cecora (Ţuţora) on 17 September 1620, his father was killed, and young Khmelnytsky among many others, including future hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski, was captured by the Turks. He spent the next two years in captivity in Constantinople, as a prisoner of a Turkish Pasha. V. A. Smoliy, V. S. Stepankov. Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Sotsialno-politychnyi portret. page 51. Lebid. Kyiv. 1995. While there is no concrete evidence as to how he returned to Ukraine, most historians believe he either escaped or his ransom was paid. Sources vary as to by whom — his mother, friends, the Polish king — but perhaps by Krzysztof Zbaraski, ambassador of the Rzeczpospolita to the Ottomans, who in 1622 paid 30,000 thalers in ransom for all prisoners of war captured at the Battle of Cecora. Upon return to Subotiv, Khmelnytsky took over the running of his father's estate and became a registered Cossack in the Chyhyryn Regiment. In the meantime, his widowed mother married again, to Belarusian noble Vasyl Stavetsky, and moved to his estate, leaving Bohdan in charge of Subotiv. In a year she had another son, Hryhoriy, who curiously enough later preferred to take his mother's name and was known as Hryhoriy Khmelnytsky. For a short time he also served as a koniuszy to hetman Mikołaj Potocki, but relatively quickly they parted their ways after a personal conflict. Bohdan Khmelnytsky later married Hanna Somkivna, a daughter of a rich Pereyaslavl Cossack and they settled in Subotiv. By the second half of the 1620s they already had three daughters: Stepanida, Olena, and Kateryna. His first son Tymish (Tymofiy) was born in 1632, and another son Yuriy was born in 1640. During this time Bohdan Khmelnytsky was running his estate and advanced in his service in the Regiment. He first became a sotnyk and later advanced to the rank of a regiment scribe. He certainly had significant negotiation skills and commanded respect of his fellow Cossacks as on 30 August 1637 he was included in a delegation to Warsaw to plead the Cossacks' case before the Polish King Władysław IV. Serving in the army of a Polish magnate and great commander, hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski, he participated in a rather successful campaign as the Commonwealth army, part of which was Bohdan's regiment, scored a decisive victory over the Tatars in 1644. During this time, as some archival documents show, he also had a meeting in Warsaw with the French ambassador Count De Bregie, during which he discussed the possibility of Cossack participation in war in France. Sources vary as to whether in April 1645 he traveled to France (to Fontainebleau) to discuss further details of Cossack service in France; this claim is supported by Ukrainian historiography but disputed by Polish scholarship. V. A. Smoliy, V. S. Stepankov. Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Sotsialno-politychnyi portret. page 70, Lebid, Kyiv. 1995. In October 1644 around two thousand Polish infantry soldiers (some scholars think they were Cossacks, but the French sources do not actually name them as such) went to France by sea via Gdańsk and Calais, where they participated in the siege and capture of Dunkerque. The Czapliński Affair In the meantime another trouble was brewing at home. Upon the death of magnate Stanisław Koniecpolski, an advocate of fair treatment of Cossacks, his successor Aleksander redrew the maps of his possessions and laid claim to Khmelnytsky's estate, which he claimed was his. In his attempt to find protection from the powerful magnate, Khmelnytsky wrote numerous appeals and letters to different representatives of the Polish crown — but to no avail. At the end of 1645 the Chyhyryn starost (elder) Daniel Czapliński officially received authority from Koniecpolski to seize the Subotiv estate. In summer of 1646 Khmelnytsky, using his favorable standing at the Polish court, arranged an audience with King Władysław IV to plead his case. Władysław, who wanted Cossacks on his side in the wars he planned, gave him a royal charter, which protected his rights to the estate. However, such was the structure of the Commonwealth at that time, and the lawlessness of its eastern realms, that even the King was not able to avert the confrontation with the local magnates. In the beginning of 1647 Daniel Czapliński openly started to harass Khmelnytsky in an attempt to force him off the land. On two occasions Subotiv was raided: considerable property damage was done and Khmelnytsky's son Yuriy was badly beaten. Finally, in April 1647, Czapliński succeeded in evicting Khmelnytsky from the land, causing Khmelnytsky to move with his large family to a relative's house in Chyhyryn. In May 1647 Khmelnytsky arranged a second audience with the King to plead his case, but found the King unwilling to go into an open confrontation with a powerful magnate. In addition to the loss of the estate, his first wife Hanna died, leaving him alone with the children. While he promptly remarried to Motrona, his second wife, he was still unsuccessful in all of his attempts to find justice in regard to his estate. During this time, he met several higher Polish officials to discuss the Cossacks' issue of the war with the Tatars and used this occasion again to plead his case with Czapliński, still unsuccessfully. While Khmelnytsky found no support from the Polish officials, he found it in his Cossack friends and subordinates. The case of a Cossack being unfairly treated by the Poles found a lot of support not only in his Chyhyryn regiment, but also with others including the Sich. All through the autumn of 1647 Khmelnytsky traveled from one regiment to another, and had numerous consultations with Cossack leaders throughout Ukraine. His activity raised suspicion among the Polish authorities already used to Cossack revolts; he was promptly arrested. Koniecpolski issued an order for his execution, but the Chyhyryn Cossack polkovnyk who held Khmelnytsky was persuaded to release him. Not willing to tempt fate any further, Khmelnytsky headed for the Zaporozhian Sich with a group of his supporters. The Uprising Bohdan Khmelnytsky (left) with Tugay Bey (right) at Lviv", oil on canvas by Jan Matejko, 1885, National Museum in Warsaw. While it might appear that the Czapliński Affair was the immediate cause of the Uprising, it was only an impetus that brought a successful and talented Cossack to the forefront of popular discontent among the people of what is now Ukraine. Religion, ethnicity, and economics factored into this discontent. While the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth remained a union of two nations: of Poland and Lithuania, a sizable population of Orthodox Ruthenians remained ignored. That left them oppressed by the Polish magnates and their wrath was directed at the Poles' Jewish traders, who often ran their estates for them. The advent of the Counter-Reformation further worsened relations between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. Many Orthodox Ukrainians saw the Union of Brest as a threat to their Orthodox faith, and coupled with the frequent abuse of the Orthodox clergy this added a religious dimension to the conflict. This could have been one of the many other frequent Cossack revolts that had been put down by the authorities, but the stature and skill of, and respect for, the seasoned 50-year-old negotiator and warrior Khmelnytsky perhaps made all the difference. Initial successes Flag of Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Bohdan (Б) Khmelnytsky (Х), hetman (Г) of Army (В) of Zaporozhia (З) and of his (Е) king's (К) majesty (МЛС) of Rzech Pospolita. At the end of the year Khmelnytsky finally made his way to the south, to the estuary of the Dnieper river. On 25 January 1648 his small (300–500-man) detachment, with the help of registered Cossacks who went to his side, disarmed the small Polish detachment guarding the area and took over the Zaporozhian Sich — much to the jubilation of many of the Cossacks. An attempt to retake the Sich by the Poles was decisively fought off as more registered Cossacks joined his forces. At the end of January 1648 a Cossack Rada was called and Khmelnytsky was unanimously elected a hetman. A feverish activity followed. Cossacks were sent with hetman's letters to many regions of Ukraine calling on Cossacks and Orthodox peasants to join the rebellion, the defence of Khortytsia was improved, arrangements were made to acquire and make weapons and anmunition, and emissaries were sent to the Khan of Crimea, İslâm III Giray. Initially, Polish authorities took the news of Khmelnytsky's arrival at the Sich and reports about the rebellion quite lightly. The two sides exchanged lists of demands: the Poles asked for Cossacks to surrender the mutinous leader and disband, while Khmelnytsky and the Rada demanded that the Commonwealth restore the Cossacks' ancient rights, stop the advance of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, yield the right to appoint Orthodox leaders of the Sich and of the Registered Cossack regiments, and remove the Commonwealth troops from Ukraine. V. A. Smoliy, V. S. Stepankov. Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Sotsialno-politychnyi portret. page 91, Lebid, Kyiv. 1995 These demands of Khmelnytsky were taken as an affront by the Polish magnates and an army headed by Stefan Potocki moved in the direction of the Sich. Had the Cossacks stayed at Khortytsia they might have been defeated as in many other rebellions. But this time, instead of waiting for the Poles, Khmelnytsky marched against them. The two armies met on 16 May 1648 at Zhovti Vody, where, aided by the Tatars of Tugay Bey, the Cossacks inflicted their first crushing defeat on the Commonwealth. This was repeated soon after, with the same success, at the Battle of Korsuń on 26 May 1648. What made these Cossack successess different was the diplomatic and military skill of Khmelnytsky: under his leadership, the Cossack army moved to battle positions following his plans, Cossacks were proactive and decisive in their maneuver and attacks, and most importantly, he not only managed to persuade large contingents of registered Cossacks to switch to his side, but also got the support of the Crimean Khan — his crucial ally for the many battles to come. Establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate Coat of arms of the Cossack Hetmanate. At Christmas 1648, Khmelnytsky made a triumphant entry into Kyiv, where he was hailed as "the Moses, savior, redeemer, and liberator of the people from Polish captivity ... the illustrious ruler of Rus." In February 1649, during negotiations in Pereiaslav with a Polish delegation headed by senator Adam Kysil, Khmelnytsky declared that he was "the sole autocrat of Rus" and that he had "enough power in Ukraine, Podilia, and Volhynia ... in his land and principality stretching as far as Lviv, Chełm, and Halych." V. A. Smoliy, V. S. Stepankov. Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Sotsialno-politychnyi portret. page 203, Lebid, Kyiv. 1995 It became clear to the Polish envoys that Khmelnytsky had positioned himself not just as a leader of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, but of Ukraine, and stated his claims to the heritage of the Rus. A Vilnius panegyric in Khmelnytsky's honor (1650–1651) explained it this way: "While in Poland it is King Jan II Casimir Vasa, in Rus it is Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky." Display Page After the period of initial military successes the state-building process began. His leadership was demonstrated in all areas of state-building: in the military, administration, finance, economics, and culture. With political acumen he made the Zaporozhian Host under the leadership of its hetman the supreme power in the new Ukrainian state, and unified all the spheres of Ukrainian society under his authority. Khmelnytsky built a new government system and developed military and civilian administration. During this time a new generation of statesmen and military leaders came to the forefront: Ivan Vyhovsky, Pavlo Teteria, Danylo Nechai and Ivan Nechai, Ivan Bohun, Hryhoriy Hulyanytsky. From Cossack polkovnyks, officers, and military commanders, a new elite within the Cossack Hetman state was born. Throughout the years, this elite preserved and maintained the autonomy of the Cossack Hetmanate in the face of Russia's attempt to curb it. But it was also instrumental in the onset of the period of Ruin that followed and eventually destroyed most of the achievements of the Khmelnytsky era. Bohdan Khmelnytsky's banner that was taken at the battle of Berestechko. It was later taken by the Swedes in Warsaw 1655 and is now to be seen at Armémuseum, Stockholm, Sweden. Complications Khmelnytsky's initial successes were followed by a series of setbacks as neither Khmelnytsky nor the Commonwealth had had enough strength to stabilize the situation or to inflict a defeat on the enemy. What followed was the period of intermittent warfare and several peace treaties, which neither side put much faith in or cared to abide by. From the spring of 1649 on, the situation turned for the worse for the Cossacks, as the frequency of Polish attacks increased and they were becoming more and more successful. The resulting Treaty of Zboriv on 18 August 1649 was unfavourable for the Cossacks. This was followed by another defeat at the battle of Berestechko on 18 June 1651, where the Tatars betrayed him again and even held the hetman captive. The result was a crushing defeat for the Cossacks and a high number of casualties (estimated to be around 30,000 Cossacks), along with the Treaty of Bila Tserkva, which favoured the Polish-Lithuanians. That treaty was soon violated, and in the years that followed the two sides were almost in the perpetual state of warfare. In this situation the Crimean Tatars played a decisive role — not allowing either side to prevail. It was in their interests to keep both Ukraine and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from getting too strong and becoming an effective power in the region. Orest Subtelny. Ukraine. A history. University of Toronto press. p. 133. 1994. ISBN 0-8020-0591-0. Under the circumstances, Khmelnytsky started looking for another foreign ally. Even though the Cossacks established their de facto independence from Poland, the new state needed legitimacy that was essential in 17th century Europe, and this legitimacy could be provided by a foreign monarch. In search of a protectorate, Khmelnytsky approached the Ottoman sultan in 1651 and formal embassies were exchanged. The Turks offered vassalship similar to their other arrangements with contemporary Crimea, Moldavia and Walachia. However, the idea of a union with the Muslim monarch didn't rest well with the general populace and the Cossacks from whom Khmelnytsky drew his support. The other possible ally was Orthodox Russia. They, however, remained quite cautious and stayed away from the hostilities in Ukraine. In spite of numerous envoys and calls for help from Khmelnytsky in the name of the shared Orthodox faith, the Tsar preferred to wait until the threat of a Cossack-Ottoman union in 1653 finally forced him to action. The idea that the Tsar might be favourable to taking Ukraine under his hand was communicated to the hetman and the diplomatic activity intensified. Union with Moscovy After a series of negotiations, it was agreed that the Cossacks would accept the tsar's overlordship. To finalize the treaty, a Muscovite embassy led by boyar Vasili Buturlin came to Pereyaslav, where on 18 January 1653 the Cossack Rada was called and the treaty concluded. There is still no unanimity among historians as to the true intentions of both Muscovy and Khmelnytsky in signing this agreement. For Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich the treaty legitimized Moscow's claims to the territory of Kievan Rus and strengthened his influence in the region. For Khmelnytsky the Treaty of Pereyaslav offered first and foremost a legitimate monarch's protection and support from a friendly Orthodox power. There have been a number of conflicting opinions as to what kind of union Khmelnytsky had in mind, whether it was to be a military union, a suzerainty or a complete incorporation of Ukraine into the Tsardom of Russia. Display Page The two sides had somewhat different ideas of the treaty and the union, as exemplified by an incident during the oath of allegiance to the Tsar: the treaty was almost broken when the Moscovite envoy refused to reciprocate with an oath from the ruler to his subjects, as was the custom with the Polish king. At one point, for this reason, Khmelnytsky stormed out of the church and threatened to cancel the entire treaty. It was only after some consideration that this demand on the part of the Cossacks was rescinded and the treaty stayed. Due to both sides having different goals in Ukraine, the liberties that were allowed to Khmelnytsky due to his stature were denied to his successors. That, in the end, eventually led to the complete incorporation of Ukraine into the Tsardom of Moscovy and later into the Russian Empire (and Soviet Union). Final years Church of Subotiv (Ukraine) where Khmelnytsky was buried. As a result of the Treaty of Pereyaslav the geopolitical map of the region had changed — a new player, Russia, entered the scene, and the Cossacks' former allies, the Tatars, went to the Polish side. That intensified the conflict, as the Tatars were now unrestrained in their warfare against Khmelnytsky. Tatar raids depopulated whole areas of Ukraine. Cossacks, aided by the Tsar's army, took revenge on Polish possessions in Belarus, and in the spring of 1654, the Cossacks drove the Polish from much of the country. To complicate the situation even further, another power joined the melee — Sweden. They were the old adversaries of both Poland and Russia, and at the initial stages they concentrated most of their attacks against the Commonwealth. That put Khmelnytsky into a delicate situation in regard to the Tsar, as he had been negotiating with the Swedes for some time, coordinating their attacks on the Commonwealth. In 1656 with the Commonwealth on the brink of collapse, the ruler of Transylvania, George II Rákóczi, also joined in. Under blows from all sides the Commonwealth only survived by a miracle. Not satisfied with their spoils in Poland and Lithuania, the Swedes turned against their old enemy Russia. This complicated matters even further for Khmelnytsky, as his ally was now fighting his overlord. In addition to diplomatic tensions between the Tsar and Khmelnytsky, a number of other disagreements between the two surfaced, notably in regard to Russian officials' interference in the finances of the Hetmanate and in the newly liberated Belarus. One thing that infuriated the hetman the most was the separate treaty the Tsar concluded with the Poles in Vilnius in 1656. The Hetman's emissaries were not even allowed to attend the negotiations. That prompted Khmelnytsky to write an irate letter to the Tsar accusing him of breaking the Pereyaslav agreement. In his anger, Khmelnytsky compared Swedes to the Tsar, claiming that the former were more honourable and trustworthy than the latter. In addition to diplomatic tensions with Russia, the Cossack army with their Transylvanian allies in Poland suffered a number of setbacks. As a result, Khmelnytsky had to deal with a Cossack rebellion on the home front. Troubling news also came from Crimea, as Tatars, in alliance with Poland, were preparing for a new invasion of Ukraine. Though already ill, Khmelnytsky continued to conduct diplomatic activity, at one point even receiving the Tsar's envoys in his bed. V. A. Smoliy, V. S. Stepankov. Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Sotsialno-politychnyi portret. page 591. Lebid. Kyiv. 1995. On 22 July he suffered cerebral hemorrhage, became paralyzed, and died at 5 A.M. on 27 July 1657. His funeral was held on 23 August, and his body was taken from his capital Chyhyryn to his estate at Subotiv for burial in his ancestral church. In 1664 a Polish noble Stefan Czarniecki captured Subotiv and ordered the bodies of the hetman and his son Tymish to be exhumed and desecrated. Some Ukrainian historians dispute the fact of his grave being desecrated. In 1973 an expedition investigated the site of the church and discovered remains of people that had not been found before. Khmelnytsky remembered A five Ukrainian hryvnia banknote depicting Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky. The statue of Bohdan Khmelnytsky in front of the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, Ukraine. It is hard to overestimate Khmelnytsky's contribution and role in the history of Eastern Europe. He not only shaped the future of Ukraine but significantly changed the balance of power in Eastern Europe. As with any other prominent personality his role in the events and his actions were viewed differently by his various contemporaries, and even now different people sometimes have quite opposing views on his legacy. Khmelnytsky in Ukrainian history In Ukraine, Khmelnytsky is generally regarded as a national hero and a father of the nation. A city and a region of the country bear his name. His image is prominently displayed on Ukrainian banknotes and his monument in the centre of Kyiv is the focal point of the Ukrainian capital. There have also been several issues of the Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky — one of the highest decorations in Ukraine and in the former Soviet Union. With all this positive appreciation of his legacy, even in Ukraine it is far from being unanimous. He is mostly criticised for his union with Russia, which in the view of some, proved to be disastrous for the future of the country. This particular view, among others, was expressed by a prominent Ukrainian poet, Taras Shevchenko, who was one of Khmelnytsky's very vocal and harsh critics. Олексій КОНОВАЛ Furthermore his local reputation was damaged by his alliance with the Crimean Tatars, which permitted the latter to take a large number of Ukrainian peasants as slaves (this may be interpreted as an illustration of the relative indifference of the cossacks as a military caste toward the 'kholopy', the lowest stratum of the Ukrainian people). The traces of this are still found in folk songs. On the balance, the view of his legacy in present-day Ukraine is more positive than negative, with some critics admitting that the union with Russia was dictated by necessity and an attempt to survive in those difficult times. Khmelnytsky in Polish history Khmelnytsky's role in the history of the Polish State has been viewed mostly in a negative light. The rebellion of 1648 proved to be the end of the Golden Age of the Commonwealth and the beginning of its demise. Even though it would survive the rebellion and the period of Deluge that followed, within a hundred years it would be no more — its remains would be divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria in the partitions of Poland. Many blamed Khmelnytsky for the decline of the Commonwealth. Some offered a rather simplified role of Khmelnytsky in the events: for example prominent Polish writer Henryk Sienkiewicz in his novel With Fire and Sword () offered a view that Khmelnytsky was mostly motivated by his personal animosity and stirred up a rebellion to avenge his personal grudges. This book was written with a clearly stated intent of raising the national spirit in partitioned Poland, and shows the story of Khmelnytsky and the Cossacks from the point of view of the Polish nobles (szlachta). Thus it glorifies the Polish side while vilifying the rebels. This view is contrasted with a far more comprehensive appreciation of Khmelnytsky's legacy by Polish historians, like Ludwik Kubala, who in his works compared him with Oliver Cromwell. Розділ XI. Володимир Голобуцький. Запорозьке козацтво A more balanced appreciation prevails — that the fundamental ills of the Commonwealth resulted in the rebellion that Khmelnytsky led. The film version of With Fire and Sword (1999) also offered a more balanced, contemporary view on the Cossack hetman in Poland. Khmelnytsky in Russian and Soviet history Original model of Mikhail Mikeshin's Khmelnytsky Monument In their assessment of Khmelnytsky's legacy the official Russian historiography stressed the fact that Khmelnytsky entered into union with Moscow's Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with an expressed desire to "re-unify" Ukraine with Russia. This view corresponded with the official theory of Moscow being an heir of the Kievan Rus and thus a gatherer of its former territories. In this light Khmelnytsky was viewed as a national hero of Russia for bringing Ukraine into the "eternal union" of all Russias — Great, Little and White Russia. As such, he was much respected and venerated in Imperial Russia. His role was presented as a model for all Ukrainians to follow — to aspire for closer ties with Great Russia. This view was expressed in a monument commissioned by the Russian nationalist Mikhail Yuzefovich, which was installed in the center of Kiev in 1888 Ems Ukase Mikhail Yuzefovich was also known for his contribution to the Ems Ukase, which further restricted the use of Ukrainian in Ukraine. The original variant of the monument (created by Russian sculptor Mikhail Mikeshin) appeared too xenophobic even for the Russian authorities, as it was to depict a vanquished Pole, Jew, and a Catholic priest under the hoofs of the horse. A more moderate version was installed, but the inscription on the monument read "To Bogdan Khmelnitsky from one and indivisible Russia." "Вашъ Кіевъ" :: Старый Киев :: история Киева The view of Khmelnytsky as a prominent, positive figure in the Russian history is further displayed in Mikeshin's Monument to the Millennium of Russia in Novgorod, where Khmelnytsky is shown as one of Russia's prominent figures. The Monument to the Millennium of Russia / «Velikiy Novgorod» - City portal Soviet historiography followed in many ways the Imperial Russian theory of "re-unification" while adding the class struggle dimension to the story. Thus, Khmelnytsky was not only praised for "re-unifying" Ukraine with Russia, but also for organizing the class struggle of oppressed Ukrainian peasants against Polish exploiters. Khmelnytsky in Jewish history During the period 1648-1656, many Jews were murdered by the rebels, often quite brutally - however, due to the lack of reliable data, an accurate figure cannot be established. See Khmelnytsky Uprising for further information. See also Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, a military decoration in the Soviet Union and Ukraine Bogdan Khmelnitsky Bridge in Moscow List of Ukrainian rulers With Fire and Sword References Further reading Orest Subtelny. Ukraine. A history. University of Toronto press. 1994. ISBN 0-8020-0591-0. V. A. Smoliy, V. S. Stepankov. Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Sotsialno-politychnyi portret. Second Edition. Lebid, Kyiv. 1995. ISBN 5-325-00721-1. 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4,445 | Foreign_relations_of_Croatia | The following page shows the foreign relations of Croatia from past history, current events, international disputes and foreign support. History Croatian foreign policy has focused on greater Euro-Atlantic integration, mainly entering the European Union and NATO. In order to gain access to European and trans-Atlantic institutions, it has had to undo many negative effects of the breakup of Yugoslavia and the war that ensued, and improve and maintain good relations with its neighbors. Key issues over the last decade have been the implementation of the Dayton Accords and the Erdut Agreement, nondiscriminatory facilitation of the return of refugees and displaced persons from the 1991-95 war including property restitution for ethnic Serbs, resolution of border disputes with Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, and general democratization. Croatia has had an uneven record in these areas between 1996 and 1999 during the right-wing HDZ government, inhibiting its relations with the European Union and the U.S. Improvement in these areas severely hindered the advance of Croatia's prospects for further Euro-Atlantic integration. Progress in the areas of Dayton, Erdut, and refugee returns were evident in 1998, but progress was slow and required intensive international engagement. Croatia's unsatisfactory performance implementing broader democratic reforms in 1998 raised questions about the ruling party's commitment to basic democratic principles and norms. Areas of concern included restrictions on freedom of speech, one-party control of public TV and radio, repression of independent media, unfair electoral regulations, a judiciary that is not fully independent, and lack of human and civil rights protection. A centre-left coalition government was elected in early 2000. The SDP-led government slowly relinquished control over public media companies and did not interfere with freedom of speech and independent media, though it didn't complete the process of making Croatian Radiotelevision independent. Judiciary reforms remained a pending issue as well. Major Croatian advances in foreign relations during this period have included: admittance into NATO's Partnership for Peace Programme in May 2000 admittance into World Trade Organization in July 2000; signing a Stabilization and Association Agreement with the EU in October 2001 becoming part of NATO's Membership Action Plan in May 2002 becoming a member of the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) in December 2002 application for membership in the EU in February 2003 full cooperation with the Hague Tribunal and the beginning of accession negotiations with the EU in October 2005 The EU application was the last major international undertaking of the Račan government, which submitted a 7,000-page report in reply to the questionnaire by the European Commission. Foreign relations were severely affected by the government's hesitance and stalling of the extradition of Croatian general Janko Bobetko to the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), and inability to take general Ante Gotovina into custody for questioning by the Court. Refugee returns accelerated since 1999, reached a peak in 2000, but then slightly decreased in 2001 and 2002. The OSCE mission in Croatia has continued to monitor the return of refugees and is still recording civil rights violations. Croatian Serbs continue to have problems with restitution of property and acceptance to the reconstruction assistance programmes. Combined with lacking economic opportunities in the rural areas of former Krajina, the return process is highly troubled. At the time of Croatia's application to the European Union, three EU countries were yet to ratify the Stabilization and Association Agreement: the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Italy. The new Sanader government repeated the assurances that Croatia will fulfill the missing political obligations, and expedited the extradition of several ICTY indictees. The European Commission replied to the answers of the questionnaire sent to Croatia on April 20 2004 with a positive opinion. The country was finally accepted as EU candidate in July 2004. Italy and Britain ratified the Stabilization and Association Agreement shortly thereafter, while the ten EU countries that were admitted to membership that year ratified it en masse at a European Summit. In December 2004, the EU leaders announced that accession negotiations with Croatia would start on March 17 2005 provided that Croatian government cooperates fully with the ICTY. The main issue, the flight of general Gotovina, however, remained unsolved and despite the agreement on an accession negotiation framework, the negotiations did not begin in March 2005. On October 4 2005 Croatia finally received green light for accession negotiations after the Chief Prosecutor of the ICTY, Carla Del Ponte officially stated that Croatia is fully cooperating with the Tribunal. This has been the main condition demanded by EU foreign ministers for accession negotiations. The ICTY called upon other southern European states to follow Croatia's good example. Thanks to the consistent position of Austria during the meeting of EU foreign ministers, a long period of instability and the questioning of the determination of the Croatian government to surrender war criminals has ended successfully. The Croatian Prime minister declared that full cooperation with the Hague Tribunal will continue. Current events The main objective of the Croatian foreign policy is admittance to the European Union. It applied in 2003, and began with accession negotiations in 2005 (see also: Accession of Croatia to the European Union). Government officials in charge of foreign policy include the Minister of Foreign Affairs and European Integration, currently Gordan Jandroković, and the President of the Republic, currently Stjepan Mesić. The chief EU negotiator is Vladimir Drobnjak. As of 2004, Croatia has diplomatic missions in 124 locations around the world, including two permanent missions to the United Nations. A complete listing of Croatian embassies in foreign countries is available at "Diplomatic Missions and Consular Offices" at the web site of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. International organizations Republic of Croatia participates in the following international organizations: CE, CEI, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, FAO, G11, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, ITUC, NAM (observer), NATO, OAS (observer), OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, SECI, UN, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMEE, UNMOGIP, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO Foreign support Croatia receives support from donor programs of: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) European Union International Bank for Reconstruction and Development International Monetary Fund USAID Between 1991 and 2003, the EBRD had directly invested a total of 1,212,039,000 EUR into projects in Croatia. In 1998, U.S. support to Croatia came through the Southeastern European Economic Development Program (SEED), whose funding in Croatia totaled $23.25 million. More than half of that money was used to fund programs encouraging sustainable returns of refugees and displaced persons. About one-third of the assistance was used for democratization efforts, and another 5% funded financial sector restructuring. In 2003 USAID considered Croatia to be on a "glide path for graduation" along with Bulgaria. Its 2002/2003/2004 funding includes around $10 million for economic development, up to $5 million for the development of democratic institutions, about $5 million for the return of population affected by war and between 2 and 3 million dollars for the "mitigation of adverse social conditions and trends". A rising amount of funding is given to cross-cutting programs in anti-corruption, slightly under one million dollars. The European Commission has proposed to assist Croatia's efforts to join the European Union with 245 million euros from PHARE, ISPA and SAPARD aid programs over the course of 2005 and 2006. International disputes Relations with neighbouring states have normalized somewhat since the breakup of Yugoslavia. Work has begun — bilaterally and within the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe since 1999 — on political and economic cooperation in the region. Bosnia and Herzegovina Discussions continue between Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina on various sections of the border, the longest border with another country for each of these countries. Sections of the Una river and villages at the base of Mount Plješevica are in Croatia, while some are in Bosnia, which causes an excessive number of border crossings on a single route and impedes any serious development in the region. The Zagreb-Bihać-Split railway line is still closed for major traffic due to this issue. The border on the Una river between Hrvatska Kostajnica on the northern, Croatian side of the river, and Bosanska Kostajnica on the southern, Bosnian side, is also being discussed. A river island between the two towns is under Croatian control, but is also claimed by Bosnia. A shared border crossing point has been built and has been functioning since 2003, and is used without hindrance by either party. The Herzegovinian municipality of Neum in the south makes the southernmost part of Croatia an exclave and the two countries are negotiating special transit rules through Neum to compensate for that. Recently Croatia has opted to build a bridge to the Pelješac peninsula to connect the Croatian mainland with the exclave but Bosnia and Herzegovina has protested that it will close their way to international waters (although Croatian territory and territorial waters surround Bosnian-Herzegovinan ones completely) and has suggested that the bridge must be higher than 55 meters for free passage of all types of ships. Negotiations are still being held. Slovenia Croatia and Slovenia have several land and maritime boundary disputes which started after Slovenia had denounced the original border between the Yugoslav republics on the Dragonja River in 1993 and sought the entire Bay of Piran . Croatia seeks international arbitration, which at first Slovenia opposed. Recently Slovenia proposed international arbitration if this would include the entire border between Croatia and Slovenia. Slovenia claims that the maritime border in Piran Bay - known as Savudrija Bay by Croatians - does not go through the middle of the bay, while Croatia claims it does. This is causing problems for fishermen due to there being an undefined area where the naval police of each country may patrol. Related to the border in Piran Bay is Slovenian access to international waters in the form of a corridor which would require Croatia to cede its exclusive rights over at least some of its territorial waters to the west of Umag. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea states that a coastal state is able to assert its exclusive right to manage all natural resources in a band up to from its shore (an 'exclusive economic zone'), and thus Slovenia's claim to access to the open sea may have a weak legal basis . However, when Slovenia notified the UN Secretariat in 1995 of its succession to Yugoslavia's ratification of the Convention, it included a note saying that this system of exclusive economic zones has become part of international law and asserted its rights as a geographically disadvantaged state . Although the convention does make it clear that any decision to declare an exclusive economic zone should be made in co-operation with all interested parties, Croatian sources claim that Slovenia's self-description as a geographically disadvantaged state amounts to an admission that it is a country without access to international waters . The situation has become more complex that it almost derailed Croatia's application to Nato if it had not been for Slovenia backing down but it has potentially delayed if not derailed Croatia's application to European Union as talks have been called off until "subject to positive development". A small number of pockets of land on the right-hand side of the river Dragonja in Istria have remained under Croatian jurisdiction after the river was re-routed after the Second World War. This area is located near the Sečovlje-Plovanija official border crossing point (set up by an interim agreement of the two countries in the 1990s). The area around the peak of the Žumberak mountain is assigned partly to Slovenia and partly to Croatia (the Sveta Gera area). However, an old Yugoslav People's Army barracks building on the Croatian part of the border is still occupied by a small number of Slovenian army personnel. Slovenia is disputing Croatia's claim to establish an economic section of the Adriatic, requiring direct access to the international waters. Croatia decided to pursue a policy of stricter control over fishing and other economic use of the sea. This policy has been in place since late 2004 but excludes the EU countries (namely, Slovenia and Italy). Other issues that have yet to be fully resolved include: Joint management of the Krško Nuclear Power Plant property rights Croatian depositors' savings in Ljubljanska banka from SFRY times. This is related to the loss of savings deposited in the Zagreb branch of the former Ljubljanska Banka. Montenegro In late 2002, Croatia and Serbia and Montenegro adopted an interim agreement to settle the disputed Prevlaka peninsula at the entrance of the Bay of Kotor in Croatia's favour, allowing the withdrawal of the UN monitoring mission. This agreement applies to Montenegro since its independence. Full demilitarization of the area is pending. Serbia Due to the meandering of the Danube, the eastern border of Baranja with Serbia according to cadastral delineation is not followed, as each country controls territory on their side of the main river flow. Further south, near Vukovar and near Šarengrad, there are two river islands (Vukovarska ada and Šarengradska ada) which have been part of SR Croatia (during Yugoslavia) but during the war they came under Serbian control. Croatia is asking that the islands be returned because of the Badinter Arbitration Committee decision from 1991 that all internal borders between Yugoslav republics have become international. Serbia is refusing to return the islands (and disregards the committee decision) with the explanation that they are nearer to the Serbian side of the river so they are Serbian . Military occupation of the islands ended recently after an incident in which Serbian military opened fire and arrested the mayor of Vukovar Vladimir Štengel with 19 other Croatian civilians and 8 children who were going to visit Zvezdan Kisić the mayor of the Serbian town Bačka Palanka . These islands are now under Serbian police control. Italy Croatia and Italy continue to debate bilateral property and ethnic minority rights issues stemming from border changes after World War II. There are a number of people who are Italian citizens but who had previously been citizens of Yugoslavia before they were exiled shortly after World War II - known as the esuli (exiles) or optanti (volunteers). A later contract between SFR Yugoslavia and Italy prevented the restitution of their property since a deal was made that treated this seized property as war reparations. Nevertheless, there are now at least two groups of people dissatisfied with the situation: people who were exiled during a period not covered by the aforementioned agreement (post 1956?) who demand that their property be returned the people who were exiled and/or their children who wish to buy real-estate in the same areas (if not the same buildings or land) Neither of these are allowed to pursue these actions legally in Croatia. Another problem that arose a couple of years ago deals with the fishing zones in the Adriatic sea. Italy denies the right of Croatia to proclaim its own fishing zone before January 1 2008, because that would break an earlier agreement with Italy and Slovenia Croatia's Mesic suggests modification of proposed fishing zone likely (SETimes.com) . At the same time Italy, without breaking the agreement, has proclaimed its own zone. Diplomatic Relations States with which Croatia has established diplomatic relations Country Formal Relations Began Notes1996-01-031992-08-25 See Albanian–Croatian relations Albania has an embassy in Zagreb. Croatia has an embassy in Tirana. Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean and NATO. Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Albania)1992-10-151995-04-281994-11-161999-09-201992-04-13 See Argentine–Croatian relations Argentina is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna, Austria and Argentina has an honorary consulate in Zagreb. Croatia has an embassy in Buenos Aires. Croatian embassy in Buenos Aires More than 400,000 Argentines are of Croatian descent. List of Treaties ruling relations Argentina and Croatia (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish)1994-07-08See Armenia–Croatia relations Armenia is represented in Croatia through its non-resident ambassador based in the Armenian embassy in Athens (Greece). Croatia is represented in Armenia through its non-resident ambassador based in the Croatian embassy in Athens (Greece). Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Armenia1992-02-13 Australia has an embassy in Zagreb. Australian embassy in Zagreb Croatia has an embassy in Canberra and 3 Consulates-General (in Melbourne, Perth and Sydney). Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with Croatia Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Australia1992-01-15See Austria–Croatia relations1995-01-261993-01-181992-09-25See Belarus–Croatia relations1992-03-10 Belgium has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 honorary consulates (in Dubrovnik and Zadar). Belgian embassy in Zagreb Croatia has an embassy in Brussels and an honorary consulate in Bruges. Croatian embassy in Brussels [http://www.mvpei.hr/CustomPages/Static/HRV//templates/_frt_bilateralni_odnosi_po_drzavama_en.asp?id=57 Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Belgium1996-01-232001-03-261992-11-261992-07-21See Bosnia and Herzegovina – Croatia relations1992-12-231992-08-13See Bulgaria–Croatia relations1995-05-181996-09-101993-04-14See Canada–Croatia relations1994-08-131999-09-171992-04-15See Chile–Croatia relations1995-04-251999-06-291995-10-191995-10-171992-09-231993-02-04 The Croatian embassy in Rome (Italy) is also accredited as a non-resident embassy to Cyprus. Croatia has an honorary consulate in Nicosia. The Cypriot embassy in Vienna (Austria) is also accredited as a non resident embassy to Croatia. Cyprus has an honorary consulate in Zagreb. Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Cyprus1993-01-01 Croatia has an embassy in Prague. Croatian embassy in Prague (in Croatian and Polish only) The Czech Republic has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 honorary consulates (in Rijeka and Split). Czech embassy in Zagreb Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe. Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with the Czech Republic1992-02-01 Croatia has an embassy in Copenhagen and an honorary consulate in Aarhus. Denmark has an embassy in Zagreb and three honorary consulates in Dubrovnik, Rijeka, and Split. Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Denmark1996-02-221992-10-01 Croatia has an embassy in Cairo and an honorary consulate in Alexandria. Egypt has an embassy in Zagreb. Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean. Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Egypt1997-07-241999-06-041992-03-02See Croatia–Estonia relations Estonia has an embassy in Budapest, Hungary which serves to represent the country in Croatia. Croatia has an embassy in Helsinki, Finland which serves to represent the country in Estonia.1995-10-171992-02-19 Finland recognised Croatia on July 2, 1941. Finland broke off diplomatic relations on September 20, 1944, and re-recognised Croatia on January 17, 1992. Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on February 19, 1992. Croatia has an embassy in Helsinki. Finland has an embassy in Zagreb and 3 honorary consulates (in Rijeka, Split and Zagreb). Finnish embassy in Zagreb Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Finland Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Croatia1992-04-24See Croatia–France relations2001-10-221993-02-011992-01-151993-02-171992-07-20See Croatia–Greece relations2000-05-191992-12-221995-10-191992-02-081999-09-201992-01-18See Croatia–Hungary relations1992-06-301992-07-09See Croatia–India relations1992-09-031992-04-18See Croatia–Iran relations2005-01-051995-01-271997-09-04See Croatia–Israel relations1992-01-17See Croatia–Italy relations1996-10-091993-03-05See Croatia–Japan relations1994-06-291992-10-20See Croatia–Kazakhstan relations2008-06-30 Croatia has upgraded its liaison office in Pristina to an embassy. http://www.mvpei.hr/custompages/static/hrv/templates/_frt_Priopcenja_en.asp?id=4160 Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Kosovo1994-08-101996-12-231996-03-041992-02-14See Croatia–Latvia relations1994-12-05See Croatia–Lebanon relations1998-11-06 See Croatia–Libya relations1992-02-041992-03-18See Croatia–Lithuania relations1992-04-291992-03-301992-05-041997-04-081995-09-201992-06-30See Croatia–Malta relations2004-11-111997-09-031992-12-061992-07-20See Croatia–Moldova relations1993-03-10See Croatia–Mongolia relations2006-07-07See Croatia–Montenegro relations1992-06-26See Croatia–Morocco relations1996-08-23 (Burma)1999-09-032000-12-141998-02-06 1992-04-23]] Croatia has an embassy in The Hague. Croatian embassy in The Hague The Netherlands has an embassy in Zagreb Dutch embassy in Zagreb and 3 honorary consulates (in Dubrovnik, Opatija and Split). Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with the Netherlands Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Croatia (in Dutch only) 1992-02-25 Croatia is represented in New Zealand through its embassy in Canberra (Australia) and through an honorary consulate in Auckland. New Zealand is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Rome (Italy) New Zealand embassy in Rome (also accredited to Croatia) and through an honorary consulate in Zagreb. Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with New Zealand1996-03-291993-01-071992-11-301992-02-20 Croatia has an embassy in Oslo. Norway has an embassy in Zagreb Norwegian embassy in Zagreb and an honorary consulate in Rijeka. Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe. Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Norway1994-07-20 Croatia is represented in Pakistan through its embassy in Tehran (Iran), which also covers Afghanistan. Pakistan is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina) and a consulate in Zagreb. Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Pakistan Diplomatic relations and consulates of Republic of Croatia1996-06-121992-03-131992-05-13 Croatia has an embassy in Beijing and a general consulate in Hong Kong. Croatian embassy in Beijing China has an embassy in Zagreb. Chinese embassy in Zagreb On May 21, 2007, Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović Croatian Foreign Minister visited Beijing. Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Croatia Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with China1993-01-12See Croatia–Peru relations1993-02-251992-04-11See Croatia–Poland relations1992-02-03See Croatia–Portugal relations1992-12-051992-08-29See Croatia–Romania relations1992-05-25See Croatia–Russia relations1997-12-101994-10-071994-03-081993-02-111993-05-231995-06-081997-10-011996-09-09See Croatia–Serbia relations1997-09-301992-11-231993-01-01See Croatia–Slovakia relations1992-02-06See Croatia–Slovenia relations1992-11-19See Croatia – South Africa relations1992-11-18See Croatia – South Korea relations1992-12-221992-03-09See Croatia–Spain relations1997-02-141992-07-171997-12-171992-01-29See Croatia–Sweden relations1992-01-30See Croatia–Switzerland relations1997-08-29See Croatia–Syria relations1993-07-021992-09-09 Croatia is represented in Thailand through its embassy in Jakarta (Indonesia) and through an honorary consulate in Bangkok. Croatian embassy in Jakarta (also accredited to Thailand) Thailand is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Budapest (Hungary) and through an honorary consulate in Zagreb. Thai embassy in Budapest (also accredited to Croatia) Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Thailand1998-10-161992-02-111993-12-201993-12-201993-01-30See Croatia–Tunisia relations Croatia is represented in Tunisia through its embassy in Rabat (Morocco) and an honorary consulate in Tunis. Tunisia is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria) and an honorary consulate in Zagreb. Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean. Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Tunisia Tunisian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Croatia (in French only)1992-08-26 Croatia has an embassy in Ankara and two consulates-general in Istanbul and İzmir. Turkey has an embassy in Zagreb. Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, Union for the Mediterranean and NATO. Both have been candidates since 2005. List of international treaties and acts signed between Croatia and Turkey Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Croatia1996-07-021999-03-101992-02-18 Croatia has an embassy in Kiev. Croatian embassy in Kiev (in Croatian and Ukrainian only) Ukraine has an embassy in Zagreb. Ukrainian embassy in Zagreb (in Croatian and Ukrainian only) Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Ukraine1992-06-231992-06-24 The United Kingdom has an embassy in Zagreb British embassy in Zagreb and 2 honorary consulates in Dubrovnik and Split. Croatia has an embassy in London and an honorary consulate in Edinburgh. Croatian embassy in London In March 2007, both countries signed an UK-Croatia Strategic Partnership, by which the United Kingdom fully supports Croatia’s and NATO entry bids. British Commonwealth and Foreign Office about the relation with Croatia Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties signed with the United Kingdom1992-08-11See Croatian–American relations The United States opened its Embassy in Zagreb in 19921993 -05-041995-02-061992-10-091994-07-01 Croatia is represented in Vietnam through its embassy in Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia). Vietnam is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Budapest (Hungary). Between March 10 and March 13, 2008, Stjepan Mesić the Croatian President made a state visit to Vietnam. Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Vietnam Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Croatia1993-01-171995-09-20 Sources: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration of the Republic of Croatia Collection of International Treaties (entry on Syria) Collection of International Treaties (entry on Lebanon See also Croatian diplomatic missions Croatian passport List of diplomatic missions in Croatia References External links Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration Government of the Republic of Croatia EBRD and Croatia Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe | Foreign_relations_of_Croatia |@lemmatized following:2 page:2 show:1 foreign:45 relation:28 croatia:134 past:1 history:2 current:2 event:2 international:20 dispute:5 support:5 croatian:61 policy:5 focus:1 great:1 euro:3 atlantic:3 integration:19 mainly:1 enter:1 european:34 union:12 nato:8 order:1 gain:1 access:5 trans:1 institution:2 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4,446 | Saint_Titus | Saint Titus was a companion of Saint Paul, mentioned in several of the Pauline epistles. Titus was with Paul and Barnabas at Antioch and accompanied them to the Council of Jerusalem, ; although his name nowhere occurs in the Acts of the Apostles. He appears to have been a Gentile – for Paul sternly refused to have him circumcised, because Paul believed Christ's gospel freed believers from the requirements of the Mosaic Law – and to have been chiefly engaged in ministering to Gentiles. At a later period, Paul's epistles place him with Paul and Timothy at Ephesus, whence he was sent by Paul to Corinth for the purpose of getting the contributions of the church there on behalf of the poor Christians at Jerusalem sent forward. ; He rejoined Paul when he was in Macedonia, and cheered him with the tidings he brought from Corinth. After this his name is not mentioned until after Paul's first imprisonment, when he was engaged in the organization of the church in Crete, where Paul had left him for this purpose. The last notice of him is in , where he appeared with Paul at Rome during his second imprisonment. From Rome he was sent into Dalmatia. The New Testament does not record his death. According to tradition, Paul ordained Titus bishop of Gortyn in Crete. He died in the year 107, aged about 95. It has been argued that the name "Titus" in 2 Corinthians and Galatians is nothing more than an informal name used by Timothy. Fellows, Richard G. "Was Titus Timothy?" Journal for the Study of the New Testament 81 (2001):33-58. The theory proposes that a number of passages -- 1 Cor. 4:17, 16.10; 2 Cor. 2:13, 7:6, 13-14, 12:18; and Acts 19.22 -- all refer to the same journey of a single individual, Titus-Timothy. However, other biblical passages seem to dispute this theory, namely 2 Timothy, which states that Titus has gone to Dalmatia. cf 2 Timothy 4:10 The feast day of Titus was not included in the Tridentine Calendar. When added in 1854, it was assigned to 6 February. Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1969), p. 86 In 1969, the Roman Catholic Church assigned the feast to 26 January so as to celebrate the two disciples of Paul, Titus and Timothy, on the day after the feast of the Conversion of St. Paul. Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1969), p. 116 The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America celebrates these two, together with Silas, on the same date. References | Saint_Titus |@lemmatized saint:2 titus:9 companion:1 paul:14 mention:2 several:1 pauline:1 epistle:2 barnabas:1 antioch:1 accompany:1 council:1 jerusalem:2 although:1 name:4 nowhere:1 occur:1 act:2 apostle:1 appear:2 gentile:2 sternly:1 refuse:1 circumcise:1 believe:1 christ:1 gospel:1 free:1 believer:1 requirement:1 mosaic:1 law:1 chiefly:1 engage:2 minister:1 late:1 period:1 place:1 timothy:7 ephesus:1 whence:1 send:3 corinth:2 purpose:2 get:1 contribution:1 church:4 behalf:1 poor:1 christian:1 forward:1 rejoin:1 macedonia:1 cheer:1 tidings:1 bring:1 first:1 imprisonment:2 organization:1 crete:2 leave:1 last:1 notice:1 rome:2 second:1 dalmatia:2 new:2 testament:2 record:1 death:1 accord:1 tradition:1 ordain:1 bishop:1 gortyn:1 die:1 year:1 age:1 argue:1 corinthian:1 galatian:1 nothing:1 informal:1 use:1 fellow:1 richard:1 g:1 journal:1 study:1 theory:2 propose:1 number:1 passage:2 cor:2 refer:1 journey:1 single:1 individual:1 however:1 biblical:1 seem:1 dispute:1 namely:1 state:1 go:1 cf:1 feast:3 day:2 include:1 tridentine:1 calendar:1 add:1 assign:2 february:1 calendarium:2 romanum:2 libreria:2 editrice:2 vaticana:2 p:2 roman:1 catholic:1 january:1 celebrate:1 two:2 disciple:1 conversion:1 st:1 evangelical:1 lutheran:1 america:1 celebrates:1 together:1 silas:1 date:1 reference:1 |@bigram pauline_epistle:1 epistle_titus:1 calendarium_romanum:2 romanum_libreria:2 libreria_editrice:2 editrice_vaticana:2 evangelical_lutheran:1 |
4,447 | Belgian_hip_hop | Belgian hip hop music has a few rappers stemming from Africa, Italy and even Russia. Belgium, like France, controlled African countries like the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire), Rwanda, and Burundi until the early 1960s. Like in France, immigrants from these countries started to study and live in Belgium. The Belgian hip hop scene started in the late 1980s with a U.S.-based techno/hip hop group called Technotronic. In the group was an emcee named Ya Kid K from the Democratic Republic of the Congo who later led the group into international fame with hits like "Pump up the Jam" and "Shake That Body". In 1990, she also joined the group Hi-Tek 3 who were heard on the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles movie soundtrack. However, the first major pop rapper from Belgium was Benny B, who had a very mainstream and commercial sound. According to the European Music Office's report on Music in Europe, this was the first of many pop acts that helped inspire a backlash and the creation of an underground hip hop scene . Also in the late 1990s in the Walloon south of the country, French speaking/rapping Starflam was the biggest name in hip hop. In the Flemish north Dutch speaking/rapping groups like 't Hof van Commerce, Krapoel In Axe, St Andries MC's, and ABN were popular, rapping in their regional dialects. Another recent group is 't Hof Van Commerce. | Belgian_hip_hop |@lemmatized belgian:2 hip:5 hop:5 music:3 rapper:2 stem:1 africa:1 italy:1 even:1 russia:1 belgium:3 like:5 france:2 controlled:1 african:1 country:3 democratic:2 republic:2 congo:2 formerly:1 zaire:1 rwanda:1 burundi:1 early:1 immigrant:1 start:2 study:1 live:1 scene:2 late:2 u:1 base:1 techno:1 group:6 call:1 technotronic:1 emcee:1 name:2 ya:1 kid:1 k:1 later:1 lead:1 international:1 fame:1 hit:1 pump:1 jam:1 shake:1 body:1 also:2 join:1 hi:1 tek:1 hear:1 teenage:1 mutant:1 ninja:1 turtle:1 movie:1 soundtrack:1 however:1 first:2 major:1 pop:2 benny:1 b:1 mainstream:1 commercial:1 sound:1 accord:1 european:1 office:1 report:1 europe:1 many:1 act:1 help:1 inspire:1 backlash:1 creation:1 underground:1 walloon:1 south:1 french:1 speak:1 rap:3 starflam:1 big:1 flemish:1 north:1 dutch:1 speaking:1 hof:2 van:2 commerce:2 krapoel:1 axe:1 st:1 andries:1 mc:1 abn:1 popular:1 regional:1 dialect:1 another:1 recent:1 |@bigram hip_hop:5 republic_congo:2 rwanda_burundi:1 teenage_mutant:1 mutant_ninja:1 ninja_turtle:1 |
4,448 | Alexander_technique | The Alexander Technique is an alternative medicine educational discipline with therapeutic effects that studies bodily coordination, including psychological principles of awareness. It is applied for purposes of recovering freedom of movement, in the mastery of performing arts, and for general self-improvement affecting poise, impulse control and attention. The Technique takes its name from F. Matthias Alexander, who first formulated its principles between 1890 and 1900. Alexander developed the Technique as a personal tool to alleviate breathing problems and hoarseness that solved his inability to pursue a career as a Shakespearean actor. Alexander taught his technique to pupils for thirty years before creating a school to train other teachers to pass on his work. The UK Society of Teachers of The Alexander Technique and its worldwide affiliates certify Alexander Technique teachers after successfully completing a 1600-hour 3-year curriculum from teaching lineage line traced to Alexander. It is most commonly taught in a series of twenty to forty private lessons which may last from thirty minutes to an hour. Teachers use demonstration, explanation, and repeated examination of what spontaneously occurs in minute detail. Trained observation and light hand contact are used to detect the student's unnecessary physical and mental stresses. Hands-on suggestion and guiding improvements are offered in the context of everyday actions such as sitting, standing, walking, using the hands and speaking. As further topics of personal interest, activities such as the complex & demanding training of performing artists, sports or hobbies may be requested by students. Alexander Technique principles have also been adapted to be taught in groups, often using short individual lessons demonstrated in turn which act as examples to the class. History Alexander was a Shakespearean orator who developed problems which resulted in losing his voice. After doctors informed him they could find no physical cause, he carefully observed himself in multiple mirrors. His use of the empirical scientific method of reasoning revealed that he was needless stiffening his whole body in preparation to recite or speak. Further, Alexander observed that many individuals experiencing breathing and voice problems commonly tightened the musculature of the upper torso, especially the neck, prior to phonation in anticipation of the act of voicing. He suggested that this habitual pattern of dropping the head backwards and downwards in relationship to the spine, needlessly disrupted efficient overall body alignment. This was later termed the reaction of a "startle pattern." After innovating new substitution strategies that included sharpening his ability to choose that new response, he found that his old pattern of voice loss ceased entirely. His new process also allowed the discovery of additional improvements towards his original intention to become a better orator. Alexander came to believe that his work could be applied to improve longevity and human evolution in general. He developed the quality of his "work" (termed Alexander Technique after his death,) so as to make his process of experimentation and self-training repeatable. He recorded his experiences in four books. He also trained educators of his Technique while living in London from 1931 until his death in 1955. Teacher training classes were interrupted during the wartime period between 1941 to 1943, which Alexander spent teaching pupils with his brother Albert Redden Alexander (1874–1947) in Massachusetts, USA. The Technique Basic premises The National Institutes of Health (NIH) National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) defines the Alexander technique as an education/guidance practice to, "improve posture and movement, and to use muscles efficiently." The Alexander Technique is considered to be primarily an educational process to be practiced by the student, rather than a curative treatment or therapy. Generally, it does not consist of routine exercises, but is meant to be applied in any moment when quality improvements are desired during action. For this reason, F.M. Alexander preferred not to recommend exercises for his students to perform, and most Alexander teachers follow this intent. Alexander's approach was to emphasize the use of freedom to choose beyond conditioning in every action. The exceptions are two prescriptive forms or exercises intended to be done in separate but brief practice times. A procedure recommended to all students is lying semi-supine as a means for effective rest, releasing muscular tension and as an opportunity to use the conscious mental "Directions" Alexander devised. The other procedure is termed a "Whispered Ah," used to subtract unnecessary effort from the use of the voice. Freedom, efficiency and patience are the prescribed values. Proscribed are unnecessary effort, self-limiting habits as well as mistaken assumptions. Students are led to change their previous habitual and largely automatic routines that are interpreted by the teacher to currently or eventually be physically limiting and structurally inefficient. The Alexander teacher provides verbal coaching while monitoring, guiding & preventing unnecessary habits at their source with specialized hands-on assistance to show what is meant. This specialized assistance requires Alexander teachers to demonstrate on themselves the improved physical coordination they are communicating to the student. Improvement in Automatic Postural Coordination Following Alexander Technique Lessons in a Person With Low Back Pain - W Cacciatore et al. 85 (6): 565 - Physical Therapy Alexander developed his own terminology to talk about his methods, outlined in his four books. These terms were created to describe the sometimes paradoxical experience of learning and substituting new improvements. "Sensory Appreciation" F. M. Alexander insisted on the need for strategic reasoning and "Creative, Conscious Control" because kinesthetic sensory awareness is a relative sense, not a truthful indicator of fact. The current postural attitude is sensed internally as a normal state of affairs, however inefficient. Alexander's term, "debauched sensory appreciation" describes how the repetition of a circumstance encourages habit design as a person adapts to circumstances or builds skills. Once trained and forgotten, completed habits may be activated without feedback sensations that these habits are in effect, just by thinking about them. Short-sighted habits that have become harmful over time, such as restriction of breathing or other poor postural attitudes that limit freedom of movement & shorten stature, will stop after learning to perceive and prevent them. "End-Gaining" Another example is the term "end-gaining", which means to focus on a goal so as to lose sight of the "means-whereby" of how the goal could be more appropriately achieved. According to Alexander teachers, "end-gaining" increases the likelihood of selecting older or multiple conflicting coping strategies with the potential for needless cumulative, ongoing self-injury. End-gaining actions are usually carried out because a more imperative priority justifies it, which is usually impatience or frustration. "Inhibition" In the Alexander Technique lexicon, the principle of "inhibition" is considered by teachers to be the most prominent. (F.M. Alexander's selection of this word pre-dates the modern meaning of the word originated bySigmund Freud.) Inhibition describes a moment of conscious awareness of a choice to interrupt, stop or entirely prevent an unnecessary habitual "misuse." As unnecessary habits are prevented or interrupted, a freer capacity and range of motion resumes, experienced by the student as a state of "non-doing." "Primary Control" This innate coordination that emerges is also described more specifically as "Primary Control". This is a key head, neck & spinal relationship. The body's responses are determined by the qualities of head & eye movement at the inception of head motion. What expands the qualities of further response is a very subtle nod forward to counteract backward startle pattern, coupled with an upward movement of the head away from the body that lengthens the spine. Students learn to include their whole body toward their intention of purposeful motion. "Directions" To continue to select and reinforce the often less dominant "good use," it is recommended to repeatedly suggest, by thinking to oneself, a tailored series of "orders" (also termed Directions.) "Giving Directions" is the term for thinking & projecting an anatomically corrected map of how one's body is designed to be used effortlessly. "Directing" is suggestively thought, rather than willfully accomplished. This is because when freedom is the objective, the appropriate responses cannot be anticipated but can be observed and chosen in the moment. "Psycho-physical Unity" Global concepts such as "Psycho-physical Unity" and "Use" describe how thinking strategies and attention work together during preparation for action. They connote the general sequence of how intention joins together with execution to directly affect the perception of events and the outcome of intended results. Disadvantages In the United Kingdom, there is some coverage of the costs for Alexander lessons through the Complementary and Alternative Practitioners Directory. Otherwise, individuals must pay for their Alexander Technique education out of pocket. Those who are used to getting instant results may complain at a commitment of twenty to forty private lessons, which is the duration most Alexander teachers recommend that is required to gain proficiency. Private lessons usually cost in a similar range to private music lessons. Inexpensive classes are rarely available. Workshops do exist, but usually do not last long enough to fulfill educational requirements for most students, who must then attend additional private lessons if they want to gain proficiency. Outside of the United Kingdom there is little or no insurance coverage, and the Technique's effectiveness is also not yet recognized. Practicing the Alexander Technique cannot directly affect structural deformities once they occur (such as arthritis or other bone problems), or other diseases, (such as Parkinson's, etc.) In these cases, the Alexander Technique can only mitigate how the person copes with these difficulties. The learning process often demands giving up "favored" ways of thinking and acting. This challenge can result in unanticipated and illogical defensiveness and apparently willful resistance. If a student must halt lessons at an awkward stage, this can leave them without practical solutions for the "bad" habits they have just learned to sense. Benefits The Alexander Technique is used remedially to regain freedom of movement; it is used to undo the establishment of nuisance habits by performers, and it's used as a self awareness discipline and a self-help tool to change specific habits. These first application areas include alleviating pain and weakness as a result of poor posture or repetitive physical demands, improving pain management for chronic disabilities, and rehabilitation following surgery or injury where compensatory habits that were designed to avoid former pain need to be revised after healing. The Alexander technique has been shown to be an effective treatment for chronic or recurrent back pain in a randomized study published Aug. 19, 2008. Paul Little et al.,Randomised controlled trial of Alexander technique (AT) lessons, exercise, and massage (ATEAM) for chronic and recurrent back pain,British Medical Journal, August 19, 2008. As an example among performance art applications, the Technique is used and taught by classically trained singers and vocal coaches. Its advocates claim that it allows for the proper alignment of all aspects of the vocal cords and tract through consciously increased air flow. With this increase of breathing capacity, singers are said to be better able to exercise proper vocal technique and tone. Because the Technique has allegedly been used to improve breathing and stamina in general, advocates of the technique claim that athletes, people with asthma, tuberculosis, and panic attacks have also found benefits. Along the application of self-help, proponents of the Technique suggest that it can help performers manage stage fright, become more spontaneous, and to increase skill repertoire. It is suggested that A.T. can be an adjunct to psychotherapy for people with disabilities, Post-traumatic Stress Disorder, panic attacks, stuttering, and chronic pain because using its principles can improve stress management abilities. The Definitive Guide to The Alexander Technique provided by STAT - The Society of Teachers of The Alexander Technique Influences Since Alexander's Work The English novelist Aldous Huxley was strongly influenced by F. M. Alexander and the Technique so much so that he included him as a character in the pacifist theme novel Eyeless in Gaza published in 1936. Aldous Huxley, Eyeless in Gaza, Harper and Brothers, 1936 The American philosopher and educator John Dewey was very favorably impressed by F. M. Alexander and the Technique. In 1923, Dewey wrote the introduction to Alexander's magnum opus Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual. F. M. Alexander, Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual, E. P. Dutton & Co., 1923, ISBN 0-913111-11-2 Since Alexander's work in the field came at the turn of the century, his ideas influenced many originators in the field of mind-body improvement. Fritz Perls, who originated Gestalt Therapy, credited Alexander as an inspiration for his psychological work. The Feldenkrais Method and the Mitzvah Technique were both influenced by the Alexander Technique, in the form of study previous to the originators founding their own disciplines. The Alexander Technique is one of the three healing arts that formed the foundation of Nia Technique. John Appleton, Alexander Technique teacher, has originated a variation which uses visualization techniques called Posture release imagery. David Gorman, formerly working as an Alexander Technique teacher trainer, originated a psychological variation called Learning Methods. Scientific evidence A 2008 randomised controlled trial published in the British Medical Journal found marked improvement in addressing back pain with this technique. Those receiving 24 lessons had 3 days of back pain in a four week period, 18 days less than the control median of 21 days. The cohort receiving 6 lessons had a reduction of ten days in days-of-pain reported. Outcomes were also measured by Roland disability scores, a measure of the number of activities impaired by pain, with a control baseline of 8.1. 24 lessons reduced this by 4.14 points, while six lessons combined with exercise produced a reduction of 2.98. Paul Little et al.,Randomised controlled trial of Alexander technique (AT) lessons, exercise, and massage (ATEAM) for chronic and recurrent back pain,British Medical Journal, August 19, 2008. A subsequent review of the economic implications of the study concluded that "a series of six lessons in Alexander technique combined with an exercise prescription seems the most effective and cost effective option for the treatment of back pain in primary care." Sandra Hollinghurst et al.,Randomised controlled trial of Alexander technique lessons, exercise, and massage (ATEAM) for chronic and recurrent back pain: economic evaluation,British Medical Journal, 11 December 2008. Prior to this there was a lack of peer-reviewed studies in scientific journals regarding the effectiveness of the technique. In 1999, Dennis ran a controlled study of the effect of AT on the "Functional Reach" (associated with balance) of women older than 65 and found a significant improvement in performance after 8 sessions but this improvement was not maintained in a one-month follow up. Further, in 2004 Maher concluded that "Physical treatments, such as ... Alexander technique ... are either of unknown value or ineffective and so should not be considered" when treating lower back pain with an evidence-based approach. Finally, in 2002, Stalibrass et al. published the results of a significant controlled study into the effectiveness of the technique in treating Parkinson's disease. Four different measures were used to assess the change in severity of the disease. By all four measures, Alexander Technique was better than no treatment, to a statistically significant degree (both P-values < 0.04). However, when compared to a control group given massage sessions, Alexander technique was only significantly better by two of the measures. The other two measures gave statistically insignificant improvements (P-values of approximately 0.1 and 0.6). This appears to lend some weight to the effectiveness of the Technique, but more studies and data are required. While there is an abundance of anecdotes which suggest that AT instruction contributes to improved vocal quality and vocal health (including its apparent success in treating the vocal health issues of its creator, Alexander), only two studies of AT use with voice were found, neither of which was published in peer-reviewed journals. In both, there was an apparent attempt to measure the effects of AT on voice and to analyze some data; however, neither methodology nor statistics were provided to lend scientific credence to the interpreted results (e.g., representative sampling, control groups or blind testing) or acoustic measurements (i.e., microphone type, microphone placement, microphone directionality, recording environment, recording media – all of which could affect the spectral characteristics of the recording). Thus, while both studies may report actual effects, one cannot have confidence that they demonstrate anything more than possibly placebo improvements without the inclusion of carefully designed methodologies, legitimate metrics or statistical analysis. With regard to the claims made for reducing the need for medication in patients with asthma, Dennis concluded that "robust, well-designed randomised controlled trials are needed." See also Feldenkrais Method Mitzvah Technique References Alexander's four books are all in many editions and reprints. These are the first editions: Mouritz: F.M. 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4,449 | Magdeburg | Magdeburg (Low Saxon: Meideborg, ), the capital city of the Bundesland of Saxony-Anhalt, Germany, lies on the Elbe River and was one of the most important medieval cities of Europe. Emperor Otto I, the first Holy Roman Emperor, lived during most of his reign in the town and was buried in the cathedral after his death. Magdeburg's version of German town law, known as Magdeburg rights, spread throughout Central and Eastern Europe. The city is also well-known for the 1631 Sack of Magdeburg, which hardened Protestant resistance during the Thirty Years' War. History Kaiser Otto I and his wife Edith arrive near Magdeburg, in a 19th-century painting Founded by Charlemagne in 805 as Magadoburg (probably from Old High German magad 'maid, virgin' Pospelov, Geograficheskiye nazvaniya mira (Moscow: Russkie slovari, 1998), p. 252. ), the town was fortified in 919 by King Henry I the Fowler against the Magyars and Slavs. In 929 the city went to Edward the Elder's daughter Edith, through her marriage with Henry's son Otto I, as a Morgengabe — a Germanic customary gift received by the new bride from the groom and his family after the wedding night. Edith loved the town and often lived there; at her death she was buried in the crypt of the Benedictine abbey of Saint Maurice, later rebuilt as the cathedral. In 937, Magdeburg was the seat of a royal assembly. Otto I also continually returned to it and was also buried in the cathedral. He granted the abbey the right to income from various tithes and to corvée labor from the surrounding countryside. The Archbishopric of Magdeburg was founded in 968 at the synod of Ravenna; Adalbert of Magdeburg was consecrated as its first archbishop. The archbishopric under Tilly included the bishoprics of Havelberg, Brandenburg, Merseburg, Meissen, and Zeitz-Naumburg. The archbishops played a prominent role in the German colonization of the Slavic lands east of the Elbe river. In 1035 Magdeburg received a patent giving the city the right to hold trade exhibits and conventions, the basis of the later family of city laws known as Magdeburg rights. These laws were adopted and modified throughout Central and Eastern Europe. Visitors from many countries begin to trade in Magdeburg. In 1118 a fire almost destroyed it. Magdeburger Reiter, 1240, the first equestrian statue north of the Alps In the 13th century, Magdeburg became a member of the Hanseatic League. With more than 20,000 inhabitants Magdeburg was one of the largest cities in the Holy Roman Empire. The town had an active maritime commerce on the west (towards Flanders), with the countries of the North Sea, and maintained traffic and communication with the interior (for example Brunswick). The citizens constantly struggled against the archbishop, becoming nearly independent from him by the end of the 15th century. In 1524 Martin Luther was called to Magdeburg, where he preached and caused the city's defection from Catholicism. The Protestant Reformation had quickly found adherents in the city, where Luther had been a schoolboy. Emperor Charles V repeatedly outlawed the unruly town, which had joined the Alliance of Torgau and the Schmalkaldic League. Because it had not accepted the "Interim" (1548), the city, by the emperor's commands, was besieged (1550-1551) by Maurice, Elector of Saxony, but it retained its independence. The rule of the archbishop was replaced by that of various administrators belonging to Protestant dynasties. In the following years Magdeburg gained a reputation as a stronghold of Protestantism and became the first major city to publish the writings of Luther. In Magdeburg, Matthias Flacius and his companions wrote their anti-Catholic pamphlets and the Magdeburg Centuries, in which they argued that the Roman Catholic Church had become the kingdom of the Anti-Christ. In 1631, during the Thirty Years' War, imperial troops under Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, stormed the city and committed a massacre, killing about 20,000 inhabitants and burning the town in the sack of Magdeburg. The city had withstood a first siege in 1629 by Albrecht von Wallenstein. After the war, a population of only 400 remained. According to the Peace of Westphalia (1648), Magdeburg was assigned to Brandenburg-Prussia after the death of the current administrator, August of Saxe-Weissenfels, as the semi-autonomous Duchy of Magdeburg; this occurred in 1680. In the course of the Napoleonic Wars, the fortress surrendered to French troops in 1806. The city was annexed to the French-controlled Kingdom of Westphalia in the 1807 Treaty of Tilsit. King Jérôme appointed Count Heinrich von Blumenthal as mayor. In 1815, after the Napoleonic Wars, Magdeburg was made the capital of the new Prussian Province of Saxony. In 1912, the old fortress was dismantled, and in 1908, the municipality Rothensee became part of Magdeburg, Magdeburg's center has a number of Stalinist neo-classicist buildings. Near the end of World War II, the city of about 340,000 became capital of the Province of Magdeburg. The Magdeburg/Rothensee plant that produced synthetic oil from lignite coal was a target of the Oil Campaign of World War II. The impressive Gründerzeit suburbs north of the city, called the Nordfront, were destroyed as well as the city's main street with its Baroque buildings. Post-war the area was part of the Soviet Zone of Occupation and many of the remaining pre-World War II city buildings were destroyed, with only a few buildings near the cathedral restored to their pre-war state. Prior to the reunification of Germany, many surviving Gründerzeit buildings were left uninhabited and, after years of degradation, waiting for demolition. From 1949 on until German reunification on 3 October 1990, Magdeburg belonged to the German Democratic Republic. In 1990 Magdeburg became the capital of the new state of Saxony-Anhalt within reunified Germany. The city center was rebuilt almost exclusively in a modern style. In recent years, a community currency, the Urstromtaler, has gone into circulation alongside the euro. Germans take pride in local money Main sights and culture Interior of the Cathedral of Magdeburg, looking towards the grave of Otto I The cathedral's twin spires, seen from the courtyard Unser Lieben Frauen Monastery Cathedral Magdeburg's most impressive building, the Protestant Cathedral of Saints Catherine and Maurice, has a height of 104 m: the highest church building of eastern Germany. It is notable for its beautiful and unique sculptures, especially the "Twelve Virgins" at the Northern Gate, the depictions of Otto I the Great and his wife Editha as well as the statues of St Maurice and St Catherine. The statue of St Maurice (ca. 1250) is one of the few where Maurice is displayed as a black man with African features holding a sword and wearing chainmail. This is surprising, in light of the fact that Maurice was an Egyptian. It is in fact the oldest depiction of a black person in Europe. St Catherine is dressed like a young teenage girl from the time of the statue's creation would have been - the equivalent to a girl in jeans and T-Shirt today. (Quite a scandal then.) The predecessor of the cathedral was a church built in 937 within an abbey, called St. Maurice. Emperor Otto I the Great was buried here beside his wife in 973. St. Maurice burnt to ashes in 1207. The exact location of that church remained unknown for a long time. The foundations were rediscovered in May 2003, revealing a building 80 m long and 41 m wide. The construction of the new church lasted 300 years. The cathedral of Saints Catherine and Maurice was the first Gothic church building of Germany. The completion of the steeples took place only in 1520. While the cathedral was virtually the only building to survive the massacres of the Thirty Years' War, it nevertheless suffered damage in World War II. It was soon rebuilt and completed in 1955. The place in front of the cathedral (sometimes called the Neuer Markt, or "new marketplace") was occupied by an imperial palace (Kaiserpfalz), which was destroyed in the fire of 1207. The stones of the ruin served for building the cathedral. The presumptive remains of the palace were excavated in the 1960s. Sports Magdeburg has a proud history of sports team, with football proving the most popular. 1. FC Magdeburg currently play in the Regionalliga Nord. Defunct clubs SV Victoria 96 Magdeburg and Cricket Viktoria Magdeburg were among the first football clubs in Germany. 1. FC Magdeburg is the only East German football club to have won a European club football competition. There is also the very successful handball team, SC Magdeburg Gladiators who are the first German team to win the EHF Champions League. Other sights Unser Lieben Frauen Monastery (Our Beloved Lady), 11th century, containing the church of St. Mary. Today a museum for Modern Art. Home of the National Collection of Small Art Statues of the GDR (Nationale Sammlung Kleinkunstplastiken der DDR). The Magdeburger Reiter ("Magdeburg equestrian", 1240), the first equestrian sculpture north of the alps. It probably shows Emperor Otto I. Town hall (1698). This building stood on the marketplace since the 13th century, but was destroyed in the Thirty Years' War; the new town hall was built in a Renaissance style influenced by Dutch architecture. It has been renovated and reopened in Oct 2005. Landtag; the seat of the government of Saxony-Anhalt with its Baroque facade built in 1724. monuments depicting Otto von Guericke (1907), Eike von Repkow and Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben. Ruins of the greatest stronghold of the former Kingdom of Prussia. Rotehorn-Park. Elbauenpark containing the highest wooden structure in Germany. St. John Church (Johanniskirche) The Magdeburg Water Bridge, Europe's longest water bridge "Die Grüne Zitadelle" or The Green Citadel of Magdeburg, a large, pink building of modern architecture designed by Friedensreich Hundertwasser and completed in 2005. Jerusalem Bridge. Magdeburg is one of the major towns along the Elbe Cycle Route (Elberadweg). In fiction In the best selling alternate history 1632 series by authors David Weber, Eric Flint and many others, over the first two novels, Magdeburg becomes the capital of the Confederated Principalities of Europe and later its successor federation and republic, the United States of Europe. Its ascension begun was begun initially as a symbolic and morale building gesture by Gustavus II Adolphus, angry and outraged at the Sack of Magdeburg by the putative Catholic army lead by Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly and his cavalry leader, General Pappenheim. Thereafter, Magdeburg plays more and more of a central role being both centrally located, and in a much better locale as the impact of American thoughts and ideas begin to rip through the social fabric of the German states. Beginning centered in the small town of Grantville, WV which becomes displaced in time into May of 1631 into southern Thuringia, the series books and action drift northward over time into Magdeburg as the collaborative writings in long and short fiction explore the cultural, sociological, religious, and developmental impact that might occur if a town of no-nonsense coal miner tough Hillbillies found themselves with the limited material resources of a small town, but modern arms and an alarmed energized populus armed with modern political, social and religious developments in the heart of the war torn Germany in the middle of the Thirty Years' War. People Otto von Guericke (1602-1686), mayor and inventor of the Magdeburg hemispheres. The Otto von Guericke University of Magdeburg is named after him. Georg Philipp Telemann (1681-1767), composer (Friedrich Otto) Richard Falckenberg (1851-1920), a German philosophy historian, born here. Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben (1730–1794), an American Patriot. Johann Carl Simon Morgenstern (1770-1852), the philologist who coined the term Bildungsroman. Carl Gustav Friedrich Hasselbach (1809-1882), mayor and member of the Prussian House of Lords. Georg Kaiser (1878-1945), writer Richard Oelze (1900-1980), painter Henning von Tresckow (1901-1944), Major General in the German Wehrmacht, active in the military resistance Erich Ollenhauer (1901-1963),leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany 1952-1963. Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (born 1942), German biologist, won the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research in 1991 and the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1995 Kurt Singer, a philosopher Tokio Hotel, German Rock band, originated here Stefan Kretzschmar, retired professional handball player and Olympic medallist Ana Nova, actress Bill Kaulitz Lead singer of Tokio Hotel Tom Kaulitz Guitarist from Tokio Hotel, Bill Kaulitz twin brother. Gustav Schafer Drummer from Tokio Hotel Georg Listing Bass Player from Tokio Hotel Twin Towns - Sister Cities Magdeburg is twinned with: Braunschweig in Germany. Sarajevo in Bosnia and Herzegovina <small>(since 1972) {{cite web|url=http://www.sarajevo.ba/en/stream.php?kat=147|title=Fraternity cities on Sarajevo Official Web Site|publisher=© City of Sarajevo 2001-2008|accessdate=2008-11-09}} Nashville, Tennessee in United States. Zaporizhia in Ukraine. Harbin in China. Radom in Poland. {{cite web|url=http://www.radom.pl/_portal/118786399846cd5dbe4a35e/Miasta_partnerskie.html|title=Radom Official Website - Partner Cities|publisher= © 2007 Urząd Miasta Radom|accessdate=2008-10-23}} See also Wolf of Magdeburg Urstromtaler - community currency for the area References External links Official website Official Student Community WebUni Student Community Unihelp IKUS - the intercultural Students of Magdeburg Satellite photo from April, 2005 History society of Magdeburg and surround e.V. tramway in Magdeburg | Magdeburg |@lemmatized magdeburg:50 low:1 saxon:1 meideborg:1 capital:5 city:23 bundesland:1 saxony:5 anhalt:3 germany:10 lie:1 elbe:3 river:2 one:4 important:1 medieval:1 europe:7 emperor:6 otto:12 first:10 holy:2 roman:3 live:2 reign:1 town:14 bury:4 cathedral:13 death:3 version:1 german:13 law:3 know:3 right:4 spread:1 throughout:2 central:3 eastern:3 also:5 well:3 sack:3 harden:1 protestant:4 resistance:2 thirty:5 year:9 war:15 history:4 kaiser:2 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4,450 | Constellation | In astronomy, constellation refers to an area of the celestial sphere, defined by exact boundaries. Definitions In colloquial usage, a constellation is what astronomers call an asterism: a group of celestial bodies (usually stars) that appear to form a pattern in the sky or appear visibly related to each other. Examples are Orion (which appears like a human figure with a belt, often referred to as "The Hunter"), Leo (which contains bright stars that outline the form of a lion), Scorpius (which can seem reminiscent of a scorpion), and Crux (a cross). In astronomy, however, a constellation is an area of the sky, and contains all the stars and other celestial objects within that area. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) divides the sky into 88 official constellations with exact boundaries, so that every direction or place in the sky belongs within one constellation. Most of these constellations are centred on the traditional constellations of Western culture. Human perception versus reality Constellations are normally the product of human perception rather than astronomical realities. The stars in a constellation or asterism rarely have any astrophysical relationship to each other; they just happen to appear close together in the sky as viewed from Earth and typically lie many light years apart in space. However, there are some exceptions. The famous star pattern known as the Big Dipper in North America or the Plough in the UK is almost entirely created by stars that are genuinely close together in astronomical terms; they are known as the Ursa Major moving group. The grouping of stars into constellations is essentially arbitrary, as different cultures have seen different patterns in the sky, although a few of the more obvious ones tend to recur frequently, e.g., Orion and Scorpius. Official constellations The 88 official constellations defined by the IAU (International Astronomical Union) are mostly based upon those of the ancient Greek tradition, passed down through the Middle Ages, which includes the 'signs of the zodiac,' twelve constellations through which the sun passes and which thus have had special cultural significance. The rest consist of constellations which were defined in the early modern era by astronomers who studied the southern hemisphere's skies, which were invisible to the Greeks. Boundaries The constellation boundaries now used by the International Astronomical Union were drawn up in 1930 by Eugène Delporte. He drew them along vertical and horizontal lines of right ascension and declination. However, he did so for the epoch B1875.0, the era when Benjamin A. Gould made the proposal on which Delporte based his work. The consequence of this early date is that due to precession of the equinoxes, the borders on a modern star map (e.g., for epoch J2000) are already somewhat skewed and no longer perfectly vertical or horizontal. This skew will increase over the years and centuries to come. A star pattern may be widely known but may not be used by the International Astronomical Union. One famous example is the asterism known as the Big Dipper in North America or the Plough in the UK; this term is not used by the IAU as the stars are considered part of the larger constellation of Ursa Major. Names and star designations All modern constellation names are Latin proper names or words, and some stars are named using the genitive, or sometimes the ablative of the constellation in which they are found. These are formed by using the usual rules of Latin grammar. Some examples include: Aries → Arietis; Taurus → Tauri; Gemini → Geminorum; Virgo → Virginis; Libra → Librae; Pisces → Piscium; Lepus → Leporis. In addition, all constellation names have a standard three-letter abbreviation assigned by the International Astronomical Union; for example, Aries becomes Ari, Pisces becomes Psc, Sagittarius becomes Sgr and Ursa Major becomes UMa . Identification of stars within a given constellation includes use of Bayer designations such as Alpha Centauri, Flamsteed designations such as 61 Cygni, and variable star designations such as RR Lyrae. However, many fainter stars will just be given a catalog number designation (in each of various star catalogs) that does not incorporate the constellation name. Frequently, the abbreviated form of the constellation name is used in the star designation, e.g., Alpha Cen, 61 Cyg, RR Lyr. For more information about star names, see star designations and the list of stars by constellation. Constellation systems across the world Western In the Western world, the sky of the northern hemisphere is traditionally divided into constellations based on those described by the Ancient Greeks. The first ancient Greek works which dealt with the constellations were books of star myths. The oldest of these was a poem composed by Hesiod in or around the eighth century BC, of which only fragments survive. The most complete existing works dealing with the mythical origins of the constellations are by the Hellenistic writer termed pseudo-Eratosthenes and an early Roman writer styled pseudo-Hyginus. In the 2nd century AD, the Greek astronomer Ptolemy described the constellations in great detail in his influential work the Almagest. The 48 constellations he described are still used by modern astronomers today. Chinese Chinese constellations are different from the Western constellations due to the independent development of ancient Chinese astronomy, although there are also similarities. One difference is that the Chinese counterpart of the 12 western zodiac constellations is the 28 "Xiu" (宿) or "mansions" (a literal translation). Indian constellations In Vedic astrology, the 12 zodiac constellations are called raasi's. The twelve raasi's along the ecliptic correspond directly to the twelve western star signs. These are however divided into 27 Nakshatras, or lunar houses. Dark cloud constellations The "Emu in the sky", a 'constellation' defined by dark clouds rather than the stars. A western interpretation would recognise the Crux or Southern Cross, on the left Scorpius. The head of the emu is the Coalsack. In the southern hemisphere, it is possible to discern dark patches in the Milky Way; and some cultures have discerned shapes in these patches and have given names to these 'dark cloud constellations'. Members of the Inca civilization identified various dark areas or dark nebulae in the Milky Way as animals, and associated their appearance with the seasonal rains. The Incan View of the Night Sky . Australian Aboriginal astronomy also describes dark cloud constellations, the most famous being the "emu in the sky" whose head is formed by the Coalsack. See also Chinese constellation Dendera zodiac Former constellations List of constellations List of constellations by area List of stars by constellation History of the constellations Notes References As to constellations generally and their celestial objects: Overall Current and comprehensive guidebooks and atlas: Chartrand, Mark R. (1991) National Audubon Society Field Guide to the Night Sky, Alfred Knopf, Inc., New York, New York, U.S.A., ISBN 978-0679408529 softcover. 1st printing 1991, 16th printing 2005. Also notes Messier, NGC, and IC objects. Ridpath, Ian; and Tirion, Wil. (2007) Stars & Planets, 4th Edition, as part of the "Collins Guide" series, Collins, London, ISBN 978-0007248131 hardcover - U.K., ISBN 978-0007251209 softcover - U.K.; as part of the "Princeton Field Guides" series, Princeton University Press, Princeton, ISBN 978-0691135564 softcover - U.S.A. Subtitle: "The Most Complete Guide to the Stars, Planets, Galaxies and the Solar System". 1st Edition 1984 as Collins Pocket Guide - Stars and Planets; 2nd Edition 1993, 3rd Edition 2000. Sinnott, Roger W. (2006) Pocket Sky Atlas, Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, U.S.A., ISBN 978-1931559317 softcover. Pretitle: "Sky & Telescope's". 1st & 2nd printings 2006. Monthly Publications Magazines with phenomena in the constellations and specific constellation articles: Astronomy, ISSN 0091-6358, Kalmbach Publishing, Waukesha, Wisconsin, U.S.A. Since 1973. General astronomy; not as technical as Sky & Telescope. Began with significant increase in astronomical photographs. Sky & Telescope, ISSN 0037-6604, Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Since 1941, as the result of the collective merger of the publications The Amateur Astronomer (1929-1935 bulletin, Amateur Astronomers Association, New York, New York, U.S.A.), which then merged into The Sky (1935-1941 monthly bulletin and then magazine, Hayden Planetarium of the American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York, U.S.A.; independently published in New York 1939), and The Telescope (1931-1941 quarterly magazine, Perkins Observatory, Ohio; then bimonthly in 1934, Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.). Publishes various editions in other countries and in other languages. Became primary general and technical astronomy magazine in the United States after Popular Astronomy (c. 1891-1951). Astronomy Now, ISSN 0951-9726, Pole Star Publications, England, U.K. Since 1987. Sky News, SkyNews Inc.[sic], Ontario, Canada. Since 1995. Published bimonthly. Annual Publications For annual phenomena in the constellations: Observer's Handbook, ISSN 0080-4193, Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. Since 1907. Astronomical Phenomena, ISSN 0083-2421, U.S. Naval Observatory & Royal Greenwich Observatory: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office (U.S.A.) & Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office, England (U.K.). Advance publication of astronomical phenomena section prior to appearing in the main volume The Astronomical Almanac. The Astronomical Almanac, ISSN 0737-6421, U.S. Naval Observatory & Royal Greenwich Observatory: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office (U.S.A.) & Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office, England (U.K.), various ISBN's for each year. Since 1852. Originally published as The American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac. The Nautical Almanac, ISSN 0077-619X, Royal Greenwich Observatory, Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office, England (U.K.) [with orange boards and black tape spine]. Since 1767. Time Almanac, ISSN 0073-7860, Time Inc., New York, New York, U.S.A., and Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc., Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A., various ISBN's each year, hardcover and softcover. Skywatch, Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Annual observation and astronomical phenomena guide for the forthcoming year. Mythology, Star Lore, History, & Archaeoastronomy Allen, Richard Hinckley. (1899) Star-Names And Their Meanings, G. E. Stechert, New York, New York, U.S.A., hardcover; reprint 1963 as Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning, Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, New York, U.S.A., ISBN 978-0486210797 softcover. Olcott, William Tyler. (1911); Star Lore of All Ages, G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, New York, U.S.A., hardcover; reprint 2004 as Star Lore: Myths, Legends, and Facts, Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, New York, U.S.A., ISBN 978-0486435817 softcover. Kelley, David H. and Milone, Eugene F. (2004) Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of Archaeoastronomy, Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-95310-6 hardcover. Ripdath, Ian. (1989) Star Tales, Lutterworth Press, ISBN 0718826957 hardcover. Staal, Julius D. W. (1988) The New Patterns in the Sky: Myths and Legends of the Stars, McDonald & Woodward Publishing Co., ISBN 0939923106 hardcover, ISBN 0939923041 softcover. Atlases & Celestial Maps General & Nonspecialized - Entire Celestial Heavens: Becvar, Antonin. Atlas Coeli. Published as Atlas of the Heavens, Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.; with coordinate grid transparency overlay. Norton, Arthur Philip. (1910) Norton's Star Atlas, 20th Edition 2003 as Norton's Star Atlas and Reference Handbook, edited by Ridpath, Ian, Pi Press, ISBN 978-0-13-145164-3, hardcover. National Geographic Society. (1957, 1970, 2001, 2007) The Heavens (1970), Cartographic Division of the National Geographic Society (NGS), Washington, D.C., U.S.A., two sided large map chart depicting the constellations of the heavens; as special supplement to the August 1970 issue of National Geographic. Forerunner map as A Map of The Heavens, as special supplement to the December 1957 issue. Current version 2001 (Tirion), with 2007 reprint. Sinnott, Roger W. and Perryman, Michael A.C. (1997) Millennium Star Atlas, Epoch 2000.0, Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., and European Space Agency (ESA), ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands. Subtitle: "An All-Sky Atlas Comprising One Million Stars to Visual Magnitude Eleven from the Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogues and Ten Thousand Nonstellar Objects". 3 volumes, hardcover, in hardcover slipcase, set ISBN 0-933346-84-0. Vol. 1, 0-8 Hours (Right Ascension), ISBN 0-933346-81-6 hardcover; Vol. 2, 8-16 Hours, ISBN 0-933346-82-4 hardcover; Vol. 3, 16-24 Hours, ISBN 0-933346-83-2 hardcover. Softcover version available. Supplemental separate purchasable coordinate grid transparent overlays. Tirion, Wil; et al. (1987) Uranometria 2000.0, Willmann-Bell, Inc., Richmond, Virginia, U.S.A., 3 volumes, hardcover. Vol. 1 (1987): "The Northern Hemisphere to −6o", by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport, and George Lovi, ISBN 0-943396-14-X hardcover, printed boards (blue). Vol. 2 (1988): "The Southern Hemisphere to +6o", by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport, and George Lovi, ISBN 0-943396-15-8 hardcover, printed boards (red). Vol. 3 (1993) as a separate added work: The Deep Sky Field Guide to Uranometria 2000.0, by Murray Cragin, James Lucyk, and Barry Rappaport, ISBN 0-943396-38-7 hardcover, printed boards (gray). 2nd Edition 2001 (black or dark background) as collective set of 3 volumes - Vol. 1: Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Atlas, by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport, and Will Remaklus, ISBN 978-0-943396-71-2 hardcover, printed boards (blue edging); Vol. 2: Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Atlas, by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport, and Will Remaklus, ISBN 978-0-943396-72-9 hardcover, printed boards (green edging); Vol. 3: Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Field Guide by Murray Cragin and Emil Bonanno, ISBN 978-0-943396-73-6, hardcover, printed boards (teal green). Tirion, Wil and Sinnott, Roger W. (1998) Sky Atlas 2000.0, various editions. 2nd Deluxe Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England (U.K.). Northern Celestial Hemisphere & North Circumpolar Region: Becvar, Antonin. (1962) Atlas Borealis 1950.0, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Praha, Czeckoslovakia, 1st Edition, elephant folio hardcover, with small transparency overlay coordinate grid square and separate paper magnitude legend ruler. 2nd Edition 1972 and 1978 reprint, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Prague, Czeckoslovakia, and Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., ISBN 0-933346-01-8 oversize folio softcover spiral bound, with transparency overlay coordinate grid ruler. Equatorial, Ecliptic, & Zodiacal Celestial Sky: Becvar, Antonin. (1958) Atlas Eclipticalis 1950.0, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Praha, Czeckoslovakia, 1st Edition, elephant folio hardcover, with small transparency overlay coordinate grid square and separate paper magnitude legend ruler. 2nd Edition 1974, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Prague, Czeckoslovakia, and Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., oversize folio softcover spiral bound, with transparency overlay coordinate grid ruler. Southern Celestial Hemisphere & South Circumpolar Region: Becvar, Antonin. Atlas Australis 1950.0, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Praha, Czeckoslovakia, 1st Edition, elephant folio hardcover, with small transparency overlay coordinate grid square and separate paper magnitude legend ruler. 2nd Edition, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Prague, Czeckoslovakia, and Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., oversize folio softcover spiral bound, with transparency overlay coordinate grid ruler. Celestial Globes Several varieties from various manufacturers, Edmund Scientific, Tonawanda, New York, U.S.A. Planispheres The wheel degrees are for the observer's Earth latitude. David H. Levy's Guide to the Stars. (2000) Ken Press. Northern Hemisphere +30o-60o: ISBN 978-1928771012 large yellow. Night Sky Star Wheel. (2007) Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Northern Hemisphere - general with bright stars only; for city use: ISBN 978-1931559300 dark blue. Northern Hemisphere +50o: ISBN 978-1931559126 dark green. Northern Hemisphere +40o: ISBN 978-1931559119 dark green. Northern Hemisphere +30o: ISBN 978-1931559102 dark green. Southern Hemisphere -30o: ISBN 978-1931559133 dark green. The Night Sky. (1998) David Chandler Co. Northern Hemisphere +50o: ISBN 1891938088 large blue, ISBN 1891938096 small blue. Northern Hemisphere +40o: ISBN 0961320745 large blue, ISBN 1891938010 small blue Northern Hemipshere +30o: ISBN 0961320753 large blue, ISBN 1891938029 small blue Northern Hemisphere +20o: ISBN 0961320761 large blue, ISBN 1891938037 small blue Southern Hemipshere -30o: ISBN 0961320737 large blue, ISBN 1891938002 small blue. Philip's Planisphere. (2004) Philip's. Northern Hemisphere +35o: ISBN 978-0540063192 midnight blue. Southern Hemisphere -35o: ISBN 978-0540084791 sky blue. Catalogs Becvar, Antonin. (1959) Atlas Coeli II Katalog 1950.0, Praha, 1960 Prague. Published 1964 as Atlas of the Heavens - II Catalogue 1950.0, Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Hirshfeld, Alan and Sinnott, Roger W. (1982) Sky Catalogue 2000.0, Cambridge University Press and Sky Publishing Corporation, 1st Edition, 2 volumes. LCCN 81017975 both vols., and LCCN 83240310 vol. 1. "Volume 1: Stars to Magnitude 8.0", ISBN 0-521-24710-1 (Cambridge) and 0-933346-35-2 (Sky) hardcover, ISBN 0-933346-34-4 (Sky) softcover. Vol. 2 (1985) - "Volume 2: Double Stars, Variable Stars, and Nonstellar Objects", ISBN 0-521-25818-9 (Cambridge) hardcover, ISBN 0-521-27721-3 (Cambridge) softcover. 2nd Edition (1991) with additional third author Frangois Ochsenbein, 2 volumes, LCCN 91026764. Vol. 1: ISBN 0-521-41743-0 (Cambridge) hardcover (black binding); ISBN 0-521-42736-3 (Cambridge) softcover (red lettering with Hans Vehrenberg astrophoto). Vol. 2 (1999): ISBN 0-521-27721-3 (Cambridge) softcover and 0-933346-38-7 (Sky) softcover - reprint of 1985 edition (blue lettering with Hans Vehrenberg astrophoto). Yale University Observatory. (1908, et al.) Catalogue of Bright Stars, New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.A. Referred to commonly as "Bright Star Catalogue". Various editions with various authors historically, the longest term revising author as (Ellen) Dorrit Hoffleit. 1st Edition 1908. 2nd Edition 1940 by Frank Schlesinger and Louise F. Jenkins. 3rd Edition (1964), 4th Edition, 5th Edition (1991), and 6th Edition (pending posthumous) by Hoffleit. Hardcover or softcover. Guidebooks Limited or Selected Constellations & Beginning Chartrand, Mark R. (1995) National Audubon Society Pocket Guide - Constellations, Knopf, ISBN 978-0679779988 softcover. Chen, P. K. (2007) A Constellation Album: Stars and Mythology of the Night Sky, Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., 96 pages, ISBN 978-1931559386 hardcover. Forey, Pamela and Fitzsimons, Cecilia. (1988) An Instant Guide to Stars & Planets, Malcolm Saunders Pub., London, U.K.; 1999 Edition, Gramercy Books, New York, New York, U.S.A., ISBN 978-0-517-63549-0, hardcover (small). Heifetz, Milton D. (2004) A Walk through the Heavens: A Guide to Stars and Constellations and their Legends, Cambridge University Press, 96 pages, ISBN 978-0521544153 softcover. Pasachoff, Jay M.; Tirion, Wil; and Brickman, Robin. (1988) Astronomy, as part of "Peterson First Guides Series", Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A., ISBN 978-0-395-93542-2 softcover (small). Spine Title: "Peterson First Guide to Astronomy". Updated 1997. Subtitle: "The concise field guide to the stars, planets, and the universe". Rey, H. A. (Hans Augusto "H.A." Rey). (1952) The Stars: A New Way to See Them. 2008 printing, Houghton Mifflin, New York, New York, U.S.A., ISBN 978-0547132792 hardcover. 1976 Edition, ISBN 0-395-24830-2 softcover and ISBN 0-395-08121-1 reinforced. Editions 1952, 1962, 1967, 1970, 1975, 1976, 1977 (Chris Dolan update). Rey, H. A. (Hans Augusto "H.A." Rey). (1954) Find the Constellations. 2008 printing, Houghton Mifflin, New York, New York, U.S.A., ISBN 978-0547131405 hardcover, ISBN 978-0395244180 softcover. 1976 Edition, ISBN 0-395-24509-5 softcover. Editions 1954, 1962, 1966, 1976 (35th printing), 1977 (Chris Dolan update). Ridpath, Ian. (2007) Deck of Stars, "Based on Eyewitness Companions Astronomy", DK Publishing, Inc. (Dorling Kindersley), New York, New York, U.S.A., ISBN 978-0756635145 hard box with constellation card inserts. Pretitle: "Boy Scouts of America". Sasaki, Chris. (2001) The Constellations: Stars & Stories, Sterling, ISBN 978-0806976358 hardcover, ISBN 978-1402708008 softcover. Zim, Herbert S. and Baker, Robert H. (1951) Stars. A Golden Nature Guide, Golden Nature Guide Series, Simon & Shuster, New York, New York, U.S.A., softcover or hardcover. Subtitle: "A Guide to the Constellations, Sun, Moon, Planets, and Other Features of the Heavens". 1956, 1960, 1964, 1965, 1975, 1985 Editions, Golden Press, New York, New York, U.S.A., softcover; 1964 Edition, Golden Press, hardcover (printed boards). 1975 Edition, Goldencraft, U.S.A., softcover, ISBN 978-0307635075 hardcover. 2000 Edition, Golden Books Pub. Co., U.S.A., ISBN 0-307-24493-8 softcover. 2001 Edition, Golden Guides from St. Martin's Press, England (U.K.), ISBN 978-1582381572 softcover. Later editions can have illustrators James Gordon Irving or Mark R. Chartrand. General & Entire Celestial Heavens Almeida, Guilherme de. (2004) Navigating the Night Sky: How to Identify the Stars and Constellations, Patrick Moore's Practical Astronomy Series, Springer, ISBN 978-1852337377 softcover. Bakich, Michael E. (1995) The Cambridge Guide to the Constellations, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, U.K., ISBN 0521465206 hardcover, ISBN 0521449219 softcover. Burnham, Robert, Jr. (1978) Burnham's Celestial Handbook, Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, New York, U.S.A., 3 volumes, hardcover: Vol. 1 (Andromeda-Cetus) ISBN 0-486-24063-0, Vol. 2 (Chameleon-Orion) ISBN 0-486-24064-9, Vol. 3 (Pavo-Vulpecula) ISBN 0-486-24065-7; or softcover: Vol. 1 ISBN 0-486-23567-X, Vol. 2 ISBN 0-486-23568-8, Vol. 3 ISBN 0-486-23673-0. Original edition 1966, 1 volume looseleaf 3 ring binder, 930 pp. (comprising 4 Sections with constellations Ara-Leo), no ISBN, LCCN 66-21917, Celestial Handbook Publications, Flagstaff, Arizona. Dyer, Alan; et al. (2001) Backyard Astronomy, Nature Company Guides, ISBN 978-0737000962 softcover. Dyer, Alan; et al. (1997) Advanced Skywatching, Nature Company Guides, ISBN 978-0783549415 hardcover. Henarejos, Philippe. (2005) Guide to the Night Sky, Konemann (Tandem Verlag GmbH), Germany, ISBN 978-3-8331-1585-1 softcover; ISBN 978-0-8416-0177-2 softcover U.S.A. Original edition France. Kerrod, Robin. (1993) The Star Guide, Macmillan, New York, New York, U.S.A., ISBN 978-0-671-87467-4. With planisphere in attached envelope pocket at end of book. 1995 reprint. Kerrod, Robin. (2002) The Book of Constellations: Discover the Secrets in the Stars, Barron's Educational Series, ISBN 978-0764154409 hardcover. Luginbuhl, Christian B. and Skiff, Brian A.(1990) Observing Handbook and Catalogue of Deep-Sky Objects, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-25665-8 hardcover, ISBN 0-521-62556-4 softcover 1998. Catalogs all constellations with galaxies, open clusters, globular clusters, planetary nebulae, galactic nebulae, and double stars. Olcott, William Tyler. (1929) Field Book of the Skies, 1st Edition, G. P. Putnam, New York, New York, U.S.A., hardcover. 3rd Edition 1936 G. P. Putnam's Sons, 4th Edition 1954 G. P. Putnam's Sons. Olcott, William Tyler. (1907) A Field Book of the Stars, 1st Edition. 2nd Edition 1914 G. P. Putnam's Sons, 3rd Edition 1935 G. P. Putnam's Sons. Pasachoff, Jay M.; and Tirion, Wil. (2000) A Field Guide to the Stars and Planets, 4th Edition, as part of "The Peterson Field Guide Series", Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, New York, U.S.A., ISBN 978-0395934326 hardcover, ISBN 9780395934319 softcover. Spine Title: "Stars and Planets". 1st Edition 1992, 3rd Edition 1998. Ridpath, Ian; Sparrow, Giles; and Stott, Carole. (2006) Astronomy, as part of the "DK Eyewitness Companions" series, DK Publishing, Inc. (Dorling Kindersley), New York, New York, U.S.A., ISBN 978-0756617332 softcover. Ridpath, Ian. (2002) Stars and Planets, 2nd U.S. Edition, as part of the "DK Smithsonian Handbooks" series, DK Publishing, Inc. (Dorling Kindersley), New York, New York, U.S.A., ISBN 978-0789489880 softcover. 1st U.S. Edition 1998. Advanced & Specialized Archinal, Brent A. and Hynes, Steven J. (2003) Star Clusters, Willmann-Bell, Inc., Richmond, Virginia, U.S.A., ISBN 0-943396-80-8 hardcover. Arp, Halton C. (1966) The Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, U.S.A. Haas, Sissy. (2007) Double Stars for Small Telescopes, Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., ISBN 978-1931559324 softcover. Kanipe, Jeff and Webb, Dennis. (2006) The Arp Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies: A Chronicle and Observer's Guide, Willmann-Bell, Inc., Richmond, Virginia, U.S.A., ISBN 978-0-943396-76-7 hardcover. Kepple, George Robert; et al. The Night Sky Observer's Guide, Willmann-Bell, Inc., Richmond, Virginia, U.S.A., 3 volumes, hardcover. Vol. 1: Autumn & Winter, by George Robert Kepple and Glen W. Sanner, 1998, ISBN 978-0-943396-58-3. Vol. 2: Spring & Summer, by George Robert Kepple and Glen W. Sanner, 1998, ISBN 978-0-943396-60-6. Vol. 3: The Southern Skies, by Ian Cooper, Jenni Kay, and George Robert Kepple, 2008, ISBN 978-0-943396-89-7. Scovil, Charles E. (1980) AAVSO Variable Star Atlas (American Association of Variable Star Observers, Cambridge, Massachusetts), Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., 178 large unbound folio charts in hardcover box, ISBN 0-933346-28-X. Webb Society; and Jones, Kenneth Glyn; Hogg, Helen S.; et al. Webb Society Deep-Sky Observer's Handbook, 8 volumes, softcover. Webb Deep-Sky Society. Vol. 1: Double Stars. Vol. 2: Planetary and Gaseous Nebulae. Vol. 3: Open and Globular Clusters. Vol 4.: Galaxies. Vol. 5: Clusters of Galaxies. Vol. 6: Anonymous Galaxies. Vol. 7 (green): The Southern Sky. Vol. 8: Variable Stars. Society honors Thomas William Webb. Other Masterful articles of note: Steffey, Philip Cooper. (1992) "The Truth About Star Colors" in Sky and Telescope, September 1992 issue. Previous underlying letters in December 1986 issue as "Some Comments about Star Colors" and "Star Colors" in May 1981. Roth, Joshua. (2005). "Spectacles for Spectacular Skies -- Special Report: Night Myopia Spectacles", in Sky and Telescope, September 2005 issue. Pertaining to constellation stargazing and eyesight vision problems during aging. Some hyperlinks below External links IAU: The Constellations, including high quality maps. Star Tales origins and mythology of the constellations (Ian Ridpath) Photographic Atlas of the Constellations Celestia free 3D realtime space-simulation (OpenGL) Stellarium realtime sky rendering program (OpenGL) Strasbourg Astronomical Data Center Files on official IAU constellation boundaries (the older NASA ADC service does not function anymore) Interactive Sky Charts (Allows navigation through the entire sky with variable star detail, optional constellation lines) http://www.astronomical.org/portal/modules/wfsection/index.php?category=1 http://www.seds.org/Maps/Stars_en/Fig/const.html Online Text: Hyginus, Astronomica translated by Mary Grant Greco-Roman constellation myths Observe satellites, space shuttles, constellations, comets Diagram showing three dimensional distribution of stars in Orion | Constellation |@lemmatized astronomy:15 constellation:70 refers:1 area:5 celestial:13 sphere:1 define:4 exact:2 boundary:4 definition:1 colloquial:1 usage:1 astronomers:1 call:2 asterism:3 group:2 body:1 usually:1 star:75 appear:5 form:5 pattern:5 sky:64 visibly:1 relate:1 example:4 orion:4 like:1 human:3 figure:1 belt:1 often:1 refer:2 hunter:1 leo:2 contain:2 bright:4 outline:1 lion:1 scorpius:3 seem:1 reminiscent:1 scorpion:1 crux:2 cross:2 however:5 object:6 within:3 international:5 astronomical:16 union:5 iau:5 divide:3 official:4 every:1 direction:1 place:1 belongs:1 one:5 centre:1 traditional:1 western:7 culture:3 perception:2 versus:1 reality:2 normally:1 product:1 rather:2 rarely:1 astrophysical:1 relationship:1 happen:1 close:2 together:2 view:2 earth:2 typically:1 lie:1 many:2 light:1 year:5 apart:1 space:4 exception:1 famous:3 know:4 big:2 dipper:2 north:3 america:3 plough:2 uk:2 almost:1 entirely:1 create:1 genuinely:1 term:4 ursa:3 major:3 move:1 grouping:1 essentially:1 arbitrary:1 different:3 see:4 although:2 obvious:1 tend:1 recur:1 frequently:2 e:6 g:10 mostly:1 base:4 upon:1 ancient:5 greek:5 tradition:1 pass:2 middle:1 age:3 include:4 sign:2 zodiac:4 twelve:3 sun:2 thus:1 special:4 cultural:1 significance:1 rest:1 consist:1 early:3 modern:4 era:2 astronomer:5 study:1 southern:10 hemisphere:18 invisible:1 boundaries:1 use:9 draw:2 eugène:1 delporte:2 along:2 vertical:2 horizontal:2 line:2 right:2 ascension:2 declination:1 epoch:3 benjamin:1 gould:1 make:1 proposal:1 work:5 consequence:1 date:1 due:2 precession:1 equinox:1 border:1 map:7 already:1 somewhat:1 skewed:1 longer:1 perfectly:1 skew:1 increase:2 century:3 come:1 may:3 widely:1 consider:1 part:7 large:9 name:11 designation:7 latin:2 proper:1 word:1 genitive:1 sometimes:1 ablative:1 find:2 usual:1 rule:1 grammar:1 aries:2 arietis:1 taurus:1 tauri:1 gemini:1 geminorum:1 virgo:1 virginis:1 libra:1 librae:1 pisces:2 piscium:1 lepus:1 leporis:1 addition:1 standard:1 three:2 letter:3 abbreviation:1 assign:1 becomes:3 ari:1 become:2 psc:1 sagittarius:1 sgr:1 uma:1 identification:1 give:3 bayer:1 alpha:2 centauri:1 flamsteed:1 cygni:1 variable:6 rr:2 lyrae:1 fainter:1 catalog:4 number:1 various:9 incorporate:1 abbreviated:1 cen:1 cyg:1 lyr:1 information:1 list:4 system:2 across:1 world:2 northern:13 traditionally:1 describe:4 first:3 deal:2 book:7 myth:4 old:2 poem:1 compose:1 hesiod:1 around:1 eighth:1 bc:1 fragment:1 survive:1 complete:2 exist:1 mythical:1 origin:2 hellenistic:1 writer:2 pseudo:2 eratosthenes:1 roman:2 style:1 hyginus:2 ad:1 ptolemy:1 great:1 detail:2 influential:1 almagest:1 still:1 today:1 chinese:5 independent:1 development:1 also:4 similarity:1 difference:1 counterpart:1 xiu:1 宿:1 mansion:1 literal:1 translation:1 indian:1 vedic:1 astrology:1 raasi:2 ecliptic:2 correspond:1 directly:1 nakshatras:1 lunar:1 house:1 dark:13 cloud:4 emu:3 interpretation:1 would:1 recognise:1 left:1 head:2 coalsack:2 possible:1 discern:2 patch:2 milky:2 way:3 shape:1 member:1 inca:1 civilization:1 identify:2 nebula:4 animal:1 associate:1 appearance:1 seasonal:1 rain:1 incan:1 night:9 australian:1 aboriginal:1 whose:1 dendera:1 former:1 history:3 note:3 reference:2 generally:1 overall:1 current:2 comprehensive:1 guidebook:2 atlas:20 chartrand:3 mark:3 r:3 national:5 audubon:2 society:9 field:9 guide:28 alfred:1 knopf:2 inc:14 new:42 york:39 u:67 isbn:96 softcover:42 printing:6 messy:1 ngc:1 ic:1 ridpath:6 ian:8 tirion:10 wil:9 planet:9 edition:49 collins:3 series:9 london:2 hardcover:46 k:11 princeton:3 university:7 press:12 subtitle:4 galaxy:7 solar:1 pocket:4 sinnott:4 roger:4 w:7 publishing:17 corporation:14 cambridge:29 pretitle:2 telescope:7 monthly:2 publication:9 magazine:4 phenomenon:5 specific:1 article:2 issn:8 kalmbach:1 waukesha:1 wisconsin:1 since:7 general:5 technical:2 begin:2 significant:1 photograph:1 massachusetts:15 result:1 collective:2 merger:1 amateur:2 bulletin:2 association:2 merge:1 hayden:1 planetarium:1 american:3 museum:1 natural:1 independently:1 publish:7 quarterly:1 perkins:1 observatory:8 ohio:1 bimonthly:2 harvard:1 college:1 publishes:1 country:1 language:1 primary:1 united:1 state:1 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depict:1 supplement:2 august:1 issue:5 forerunner:1 december:2 version:2 perryman:1 michael:2 millennium:1 european:1 agency:1 esa:1 estec:1 noordwijk:1 netherlands:1 comprise:2 million:1 visual:1 magnitude:5 eleven:1 hipparcos:1 tycho:1 catalogue:6 ten:1 thousand:1 nonstellar:2 slipcase:1 set:2 vol:30 hour:3 available:1 supplemental:1 separate:5 purchasable:1 transparent:1 et:6 al:6 uranometria:5 willmann:4 bell:4 richmond:4 virginia:4 barry:5 rappaport:5 george:6 lovi:2 x:3 blue:16 red:2 added:1 deep:7 murray:2 cragin:2 james:2 lucyk:1 gray:1 background:1 remaklus:2 edge:2 green:7 emil:1 bonanno:1 teal:1 deluxe:1 circumpolar:2 region:2 borealis:1 czechoslovak:6 academy:6 science:6 ceskoslovenske:6 akademie:6 ved:6 praha:4 czeckoslovakia:6 elephant:3 folio:7 small:11 square:3 paper:3 ruler:6 prague:4 oversize:3 spiral:3 bound:3 equatorial:1 zodiacal:1 eclipticalis:1 south:1 australis:1 globes:1 several:1 variety:1 manufacturer:1 edmund:1 scientific:1 tonawanda:1 planispheres:1 wheel:2 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4,451 | Aaron | The Adoration of the Golden Calf by Nicolas Poussin In the Bible, Aaron ( Ahāron, Hārūn), or Aaron the Levite (אהרֹן הלוי), was the brother of Moses. .(Exodus 6:16-20) http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus%206:16-20;&version=31;9;15; and represented the priestly functions of his tribe, becoming the first High Priest of the Hebrews. While Moses was receiving his education at the Egyptian royal court and during his exile among the Midianites, Aaron and his sister remained with their kinsmen in the eastern border-land of Egypt (Goshen). He there gained a name for eloquent and persuasive speech; so that when the time came for the demand upon the Pharaoh to release Israel from captivity, Aaron became his brother’s "nabi", or spokesman, to his own people (Exodus 4:16) http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus%204:16;&version=31;9;15; and, after their unwillingness to hear, to the Pharaoh himself (Exodus 7:9). http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus%207:9;&version=31;9;15; He is said to have flourished about 1200 BC (traditionally 1597 BC). Etymology The meaning of the name "Aaron" is unclear. Possible meanings are: Pregnancy - In Hebrew - הריון. In Ancient Egyptian herr is to conceive and hrara is conception. Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary , Vol. 1, Budge, E. A., Dover publications, New York, P.450. From the mountain - In Hebrew הר - 'HAR', which may refer to place of his own death. Samuel Prideaux Tregelles, Gesenius' High mountain - In Arabic هارون - 'HAROUN' or 'HARUN'. One of light Scofield Reference Bible, Proper Names Genealogy Abraham/Isaac/Jacob(Israel);Great-Grandfather: Levi, third of 12 sons and tribes of Israel; Grandfather: Kohath; Father: Amram; Mother: Jochebed; Sister: Miriam; Brother: Mosheh (Moses)Uncles: Izhar, Hebron, Uzziel; Sons: Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar,Ithamar; Grandson, Phineas Function Aaron’s function included the duties of speaker and implied personal dealings with the Egyptian royal court on behalf of Moses, who was always the central moving figure. The part played by Aaron in the events that preceded the Exodus was, therefore, ministerial, and not directive. He, along with Moses, performed “signs” before his people which impressed them with a belief in the reality of the divine mission of the brothers (Exodus 4:15-16). At the command of Moses he stretched out his rod in order to bring on the first three plagues (Exodus 7:19, 8:1,12). In the infliction of the remaining plagues he appears to have acted merely as the attendant of Moses, whose outstretched rod drew the divine wrath upon the Pharaoh and his subjects (Exodus 9:23, 10:13,22). The potency of Aaron’s rod had already been demonstrated by its victory over the rods of the Egyptian magicians, which it swallowed after all the rods alike had been turned into serpents (Exodus 7:9). During the journey in the wilderness, Aaron is not always prominent or active; and he sometimes appears guilty of rebellious or treasonable conduct. At the battle with Amalek, he is chosen with Hur to support the hand of Moses that held the “rod of God” (Exodus 17:9). When the revelation was given to Moses at Mount Sinai, he headed the elders of Israel who accompanied Moses on the way to the summit. Joshua, however, was admitted with his leader to the very presence of the Lord, while Aaron and Hur remained below to look after the people Exodus 24:9-14. It was during the prolonged absence of Moses that Aaron yielded to the clamors of the people, and made a Golden Calf as a visible image of the divinity who had delivered them from Egypt (Exodus 32:1-6) (it should be noted that in the account given of the same events, in the Qur'an, Aaron is not the idol-maker and upon Moses' return begged his pardon as he had felt mortally threatened by the Israelites (Quran 7:142-152)) At the intercession of Moses, Aaron was saved from the plague which smote the people (Deuteronomy 9:20, Exodus 32:35), although it was to Aaron’s tribe of Levi that the work of punitive vengeance was committed (Exodus 32:26). Priesthood 18th-century Dutch oak statue portraying the high priest At the time when the tribe of Levi was set apart for the priestly service, Aaron was anointed and consecrated to the priesthood, arrayed in the robes of his office, and instructed in its manifold duties (Exodus 28 KJV, Exodus 29 KJV). On the very day of his consecration, his sons, Nadab and Abihu, were consumed by fire from the Lord for having offered incense in an unlawful manner (Leviticus 10 KJV). Scholarly consensus is that in Aaron's High Priesthood the sacred writer intended to describe a model, the prototype, so to say, of the Jewish High Priest. God, on Mount Sinai instituting a worship, also instituted an order of priests. According to the patriarchal customs, the firstborn son in every family used to perform the functions connected with God's worship. It might have been expected, consequently, that Reuben's family would be chosen by God for the ministry of the new altar. However, according to the biblical narrative it was Aaron who was the object of God's choice. To what jealousies this gave rise later, has been indicated above. The office of the Aaronites was at first merely to take care of the lamp that should ever burn before the veil of the tabernacle Exodus 27:21. A more formal calling soon followed (Exodus 28:1). Aaron and his sons, distinguished from the Common People by their sacred functions, were likewise to receive holy vestments suitable to their office. Aaron offered the different sacrifices and performed the many ceremonies of the consecration of the new priests, according to the divine instructions (Exodus 29), and repeated these rites for seven days, during which Aaron and his sons were entirely separated from the rest of the people. When, on the eighth day, the High Priest had inaugurated his office of sacrifice by killing the animals, he blessed the people (very likely according to the prescriptions of Numbers 6:24-26) http://www.claudemariottini.com/blog/2006/03/priestly-benediction-numbers-624-26.html , and, with Moses, entered into the tabernacle so as to take possession thereof. As they "came forth and blessed the people. And the glory of the Lord appeared to all the multitude: And behold a fire, coming forth from the Lord, devoured the holocaust, and the fat that was upon the altar: which when the multitude saw, they praised the Lord, falling on their faces" (Leviticus 9:23-24). So was the institution of the Aaronic priesthood inaugurated and solemnly ratified by the Lord. Rebellion of Korah From the time of the sojourn at Mount Sinai, where he became the anointed priest of Israel, Aaron ceased to be the minister of Moses, his place being taken by Joshua. He is mentioned in association with Miriam in a jealous complaint against the exclusive claims of Moses as the Lord’s prophet. The presumption of the murmurers was rebuked, and Miriam was smitten with tzara'as. Aaron entreated Moses to intercede for her, at the same time confessing the sin and folly that prompted the uprising. Aaron himself was not struck with the plague on account of sacerdotal immunity; and Miriam, after seven days’ quarantine, was healed and restored to favor Numbers 12, Micah (6:4) a prophet in Judaism, mentions Moses, Aaron, and Miriam as the leaders of Israel after the Exodus (a judgment wholly in accord with the tenor of the narratives). In the present instance it is made clear by the express words of the oracle (Numbers 12:6-8) that Moses was unique among men as the one with whom the Lord spoke face to face. The failure to recognize or concede this prerogative of their brother was the sin of Miriam and Aaron. The validity of the exclusive priesthood of the family of Aaron was attested after the ill-fated rebellion of Korah, who was a first cousin of Aaron. When the earth had opened and swallowed up the leaders of the insurgents (Numbers 16:25-35). Eleazar, the son of Aaron, was commissioned to take charge of the censers of the dead priests. And when the plague had broken out among the people who had sympathized with the rebels, Aaron, at the command of Moses, took his censer and stood between the living and the dead till the plague was stayed (Numbers 17:1-15, 16:36-50). Another memorable transaction followed. Each of the tribal princes of Israel took a rod and wrote his name upon it, and the twelve rods were laid up over night in the tent of meeting. On the morrow Aaron’s rod was found to have budded and blossomed and borne ripe almonds (Numbers 17:8). The miracle proved merely the prerogative of the tribe of Levi; but now a formal distinction was made in perpetuity between the family of Aaron and the other Levites. While all the Levites (and only Levites) were to be devoted to sacred services, the special charge of the sanctuary and the altar was committed to the Aaronites alone (Numbers 18:1-7). The scene of this enactment is unknown, nor is the time mentioned. Death Aaron, like Moses, was not permitted to enter Canaan with the others. Jewish Encyclopedia The reason alleged is that the two brothers showed impatience at Meribah (Kadesh) in the last year of the desert pilgrimage (Numbers 20:12-13), when they, or rather Moses, brought water out of a rock to quench the thirst of the people. The action was construed as displaying a want of deference to the Lord, since they had been commanded to speak to the rock, whereas Moses struck it with the wonder-working rod (Numbers 20:7-11). Of the death of Aaron we have two accounts. The principal one gives a detailed statement to the effect that, soon after the above incident, Aaron, with his son Eleazar and Moses, ascended Mount Hor. There Moses stripped him (Aaron) of his priestly garments, and transferred them to Eleazar. Aaron died on the summit of the mountain, and the people mourned for him thirty days (Numbers 20:22-29; compare 33:38-39). The other account is found in Deut. x. 6, where Moses is reported as saying that Aaron died at Mosera and was buried there. Mosera is not on Mount Hor, since the itinerary in Numbers 33:31-37 records seven stages between Moseroth (Mosera) and Mount Hor. Rabbinical literature The older prophets and prophetical writers beheld in their priests the representatives of a religious form inferior to the prophetic truth; men without the spirit of God and lacking the will-power requisite to resist the multitude in its idolatrous proclivities. JewishEncyclopedia.com - AARON Thus Aaron, the first priest, ranks below Moses: he is his mouthpiece, and the executor of the will of God revealed through Moses, although it is pointed out Sifra, Wa-yiḳra, 1 that it is said fifteen times in the Pentateuch that “the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron.” Under the influence of the priesthood which shaped the destinies of the nation under Persian rule, a different ideal of the priest was formed, as is learned from Malachi 2:4-7; and the prevailing tendency was to place Aaron on a footing equal with Moses. “At times Aaron, and at other times Moses, is mentioned first in Scripture—this is to show that they were of equal rank,” says Mekilta בא, 1; expressly infers this when introducing in his record of renowned men the glowing description of Aaron’s ministration. Death of Aaron In fulfilment of the promise of peaceful life, symbolized by the pouring of oil upon his head (Leviticus Rabbah x., Midrash Teh. cxxxiii. 1), Aaron's death, as described in the Haggadah, was of a wonderful tranquillity. JewishEncyclopedia.com - AARON Accompanied by Moses, his brother, and by Eleazar, his son, Aaron went to the summit of Mount Hor, where the rock suddenly opened before him and a beautiful cave lit by a lamp presented itself to his view. "Take off thy priestly raiment and place it upon thy son Eleazar!" said Moses; "and then follow me." Aaron did as commanded; and they entered the cave, where was prepared a bed around which angels stood. "Go lie down upon thy bed, my brother," Moses continued; and Aaron obeyed without a murmur. Then his soul departed as if by a kiss from God. The cave closed behind Moses as he left; and he went down the hill with Eleazar, with garments rent, and crying: "Alas, Aaron, my brother! thou, the pillar of supplication of Israel!" When the Israelites cried in bewilderment, "Where is Aaron?" angels were seen carrying Aaron's bier through the air. A voice was then heard saying: "The law of truth was in his mouth, and iniquity was not found on his lips: he walked with me in righteousness, and brought many back from sin" (Malachi 2:6). He died, according to Seder Olam Rabbah ix., R. H. 2, 3a, on the first of Ab." The pillar of cloud which proceeded in front of Israel's camp disappeared at Aaron's death (see Seder 'Olam, ix. and R. H. 2b-3a). The seeming contradiction between Numbers 20:22 et seq. and Deutronomy 10:6 is solved by the rabbis in the following manner: Aaron's death on Mount Hor was marked by the defeat of the people in a war with the king of Arad, in consequence of which the Israelites fled, marching seven stations backward to Mosera, where they performed the rites of mourning for Aaron; wherefore it is said: "There [at Mosera] died Aaron." See Mek., Beshallaḥ, Wayassa', i.; Tan., Huḳḳat, 18; Yer. Soṭah, i. 17c, and Targum Yer. Num. and Deut. on the abovementioned passages. The rabbis also dwell with special laudation on the brotherly sentiment which united Aaron and Moses. When the latter was appointed ruler and Aaron high priest, neither betrayed any jealousy; instead they rejoiced in one another's greatness. When Moses at first declined to go to Pharaoh, saying: "O my Lord, send, I pray thee, by the hand of him whom thou wilt send" (Exodus 4:13), he was unwilling to deprive Aaron, his brother, of the high position the latter had held for so many years; but the Lord reassured him, saying: "Behold, when he seeth thee, he will be glad in his heart" (). Indeed, Aaron was to find his reward, says Simon bar Yochai; for that heart which had leaped with joy over his younger brother's rise to glory greater than his was decorated with the Urim and Thummim, which were to "be upon Aaron's heart when he goeth in before the Lord" (Canticles Rabbah i. 10). Moses and Aaron met in gladness of heart, kissing each other as true brothers (Exodus 4:27; compare Song of Songs 8:1), and of them it is written: "Behold how good and how pleasant [it is] for brethren to dwell together in unity!" (Psalms 133:1). Of them it is said: "Mercy and truth are met together; righteousness and peace have kissed [each other]" (Psalms 85:10); for Moses stood for righteousness, according to Deuteronomy 33:21, and Aaron for peace, according to . Again, mercy was personified in Aaron, according to Deuteronomy xxxiii. 8, and truth in Moses, according to Numbers xii. 7 (Tan., Shemot, ed. Buber, 24-26) . When Moses poured the oil of anointment upon the head of Aaron, Aaron modestly shrank back and said: "Who knows whether I have not cast some blemish upon this sacred oil so as to forfeit this high office." Then the Shekhinah spake the words: "Behold the precious ointment upon the head, that ran down upon the beard of Aaron, that even went down to the skirts of his garment, is as pure as the dew of Hermon" () (Sifra, Shemini, Milluim; Tan., Korah, ed. Buber, 14) . Moses and Aaron According to Tanhuma, ed. Buber, 2:12 Aaron’s activity as a prophet began earlier than that of Moses. JewishEncyclopedia.com - AARON Hillel held Aaron up as an example, saying: “Be of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace; love your fellow creatures and draw them nigh unto the Law!” Abot, 1:12 This is further illustrated by the tradition preserved in Abot de-Rabbi Natan 12, Sanhedrin 6b, and elsewhere, according to which Aaron was an ideal priest of the people, far more beloved for his kindly ways than was Moses. While Moses was stern and uncompromising, brooking no wrong, Aaron went about as peacemaker, reconciling man and wife when he saw them estranged, or a man with his neighbor when they quarreled, and winning evil-doers back into the right way by his friendly intercourse. The mourning of the people at Aaron’s death was greater, therefore, than at that of Moses; for whereas, when Aaron died the whole house of Israel wept, including the women. Numbers 20:29 Moses was bewailed by “the sons of Israel” only (). Even in the making of the Golden Calf the rabbis find extenuating circumstances for Aaron. Sanhedrin 7a His fortitude and silent submission to the will of God on the loss of his two sons are referred to as an excellent example to men how to glorify God in the midst of great affliction. Zebahim 115b Especially significant are the words represented as being spoken by God after the princes of the Twelve Tribes had brought their dedication offerings into the newly reared Tabernacle: “Say to thy brother Aaron: Greater than the gifts of the princes is thy gift; for thou art called upon to kindle the light, and, while the sacrifices shall last only as long as the Temple lasts, thy light shall last forever.” Tanhuma, ed. Buber, בהעלותך, 6 Moses And Aaron==Genetics== Recently, the tradition that Kohanim are actually descended from a single patriarch, Aaron, was found to be apparently consistent with genetic testing. Skorecki et al., 1997. The majority of Kohanim, but not all, share a direct male lineage with a common Y chromosome, testing was done across sectors of the Jewish population to see if there was any commonality between the Y chromosomes of Kohanim. The results were found to cluster rather closely around a specific DNA signature, found in the Semitic Haplogroup J1, which the researchers named the Cohen modal haplotype, implying that many of the Kohanim do share a distinctive common ancestry. This information was also used to support the claim that the Lemba (a sub-Saharan tribe) are in fact descendant from a group of Jewish Priests. The Cohen Modal Haplotype or CMH is found in haplogroup J1, which geneticists estimate originated in the Southern Levant (modern day Israel, Jordan; biblical Canaan) or North Africa (Egypt) approximately 10,000 - 15,000 years ago. https://www3.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atlas.html; Semino, et al., “Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area.” Am J Hum Genet. 2004 May; 74(5). Biblical tradition holds that Abraham and his ancestors, the Semitic tribes, originated from Southern Arabia or East Africa (Genesis 10); Aaron and Moses were 7th generation descendants from Abraham (Exodus 6). An estimated 20% of the modern Jewish community fall into haplogroup J1. The traditional date for Abraham is circa 2200-2000 BCE. Behar, et al., found Cohenim in a variety of haplogroups (E3b, G2, H, I1b, J, K2, Q, R1a1, R1b), which included those which originated in the Levant (J1, J2) and those from Southern Arabia, East Africa, or another geographic region. Behar, DM; Thomas MG, Skorecki K, Hammer MF, Bulygina E, Rosengarten D, Jones AL, Held K, Moses V, Goldstein D, Bradman N, Weale ME (2003). "Multiple Origins of Ashkenazi Levites: Y Chromosome Evidence for Both Near Eastern and European Ancestries". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 73: 768–779. Descendants The sons of Aaron were Eleazar, Ithamar, Nadab and Abihu 1 Chronicles 24:1 Now these are the divisions of the sons of Aaron. The sons of Aaron; Nadab, and Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. . A descendant of Aaron is an Aaronite, or Kohen, meaning Priest . A Levite is a non-Aaronic descendant of Levi http://www.bgct.org/TexasBaptists/Document.Doc?&id=1832 assigned to assist the Levitical priests of the family of Aaron in the care of the tabernacle and later of the temple. [[According to Samaritan sources a civil War broke out between the Sons of Itamar {Eli (Bible)} and the Sons of Phineas-which resulted in the division of those who followed Eli and those who followed High Priest Uzzi ben Bukki at Mount Gerizim Bethel {A third group followed neither}. Ironically likewise according to Samaritan sources the high Priests line of the sons of Phineas died out in 1624 C.E. with the death of the 112th High Priest Shlomyah ben Pinhas when the priesthood was transferred to the sons of Itamar; see article Samaritan for list of High Priests from from 1613 to 2004-the 131st High priest of the Samaritans is Elazar ben Tsedaka ben Yitzhaq} See article Samaritan]] Aaron in Christianity Russian icon of Aaron (18th century, Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia). Aaron is considered a type of Christ, the high priest of the new dispensation. In the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Maronite Church he is venerated as a saint, with a feast day celebrated on September 4, together with Moses (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, September 4 falls on September 17 of the modern Gregorian Calendar). He is also commemorated, together with other righteous saints from the Old Testament on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the Sunday before Christmas). He is commemorated as one of the Holy Forefathers in the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 30. He is commemorated on July 1 in the modern Latin calendar and in the Syriac Calendar. Aaron in Latter-day Saints In the LDS church, the Aaronic order is the lesser order of priesthood, comprising the grades (from lowest to highest) of deacon, teacher and priest. The chief office of the Aaronic priesthood is the presiding bishopric; the head of the priesthood is the bishop. Each ward has one or more quorums of each office of the Aaronic priesthood. LDS.org - Aaronic Priesthood Table of Contents - Duties and Blessings of the Priesthood: Basic Manual for Priesthood Holders, Part A. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Aaron in Islam Aaron is believed to be a Prophet in Islam and is known as Harun, which is the Arabic name for Aaron. His role also found an analogue in the person of Ali, to whom Muhammad said: Will you not be pleased that you will be to me like Aaron was to Moses? Sahih Bukhari, Volume 5, Book 57, Number 56 A significant difference in the Quran is the fact that Aaron was not involved with the creation of the Golden Calf and made efforts to dissuade the Israelites from worshiping it. Quran Chp.20 vr.89 Aaron in art history Depictions of Aaron within art history are rare and their omission is somewhat puzzling given his importance in Judaic and Christian traditions. Other than Aaron's inclusion in the crowd of revelers around the Golden Calf ceremony—most notably in Nicolas Poussin’s “The Adoration of the Golden Calf” (ca. 1633-34, National Gallery London)—there is little else. The recent discovery in 1991 of Pier Francesco Mola’s “Aaron, Holy to the Lord” (ca. 1650, Private Collection, New York: image available for study at Fred R. Kline Gallery Archives) adds significantly to the Aaronic mythos. The painting offers a dramatic, deeply psychological portrayal of the single figure of Aaron in his priestly garments celebrating Yom Kippur in the wilderness Tabernacle. The Mola “Aaron” is considered, quite surprisingly, the unique single figure of Aaron to have been painted by a European old master artist, circa 15th-18th centuries (A.Pigler, "Barockthemen" Vol. 1; although unknown to Pigler). The carefully rendered Judaic iconographic details in the Mola painting are rare and the subject itself may have importance in relationship to mid-17th century Jewish history, characterized by a controversial messianic movement involving a serious contender for a new Messiah, Shabtai Zvi, whose influence was felt in Jewish communities worldwide (Harris Lenowitz, "The Jewish Messiahs"). It is highly probable that the Zvi messianic phenomenon was noted by the Catholic Church as a possible threat to Jesus, their sanctified Messiah. It may be significant to note, in considering the possible influence of the Roman Catholic Church in choices of lay-commissioned religious art during this period and considering as well the importance of Aaron in the Christian tradition, that "Aaron, Holy to the Lord" was originally commissioned along with a now lost pendant of Moses (both from Mola) by the nobel Colonna family, wealthy Catholic art patrons living in Rome (Getty Museum Archives). References Resources McCurdy, J. F. and Kaufmann Kohler. "Aaron". Jewish Encyclopedia. Funk and Wagnalls, 1901-1906; which cites Numbers Rabbah 9 Leviticus Rabbah 10 in Jellinek’s Bet ha-Midrash, 1:91-95 764 Baring-Gould, Legends of Old Testament Characters Chronicles of Jerahmeel, ed. M. Gaster, pp. cx1:130-133 Holweck, F. G., A Biographical Dictionary of the Saint. St. Louis, MO: B. Herder Book Co. 1924. See also Tomb of Aaron Harun Kohen Y-chromosomal Aaron Moses in rabbinic literature External links Meanings of Aaron's name MFnames.com - Origin and Meaning of Aaron Aaron's Meaning from the Bible Dictionary | Aaron |@lemmatized adoration:2 golden:6 calf:6 nicolas:2 poussin:2 bible:4 aaron:110 ahāron:1 hārūn:1 levite:6 אהר:1 ן:1 הלוי:1 brother:14 moses:54 exodus:25 http:6 www:5 biblegateway:3 com:9 passage:4 search:3 version:3 represent:2 priestly:6 function:5 tribe:8 become:3 first:8 high:16 priest:23 hebrew:3 receive:2 education:1 egyptian:5 royal:2 court:2 exile:1 among:3 midianites:1 sister:2 remain:3 kinsman:1 eastern:3 border:1 land:1 egypt:3 goshen:1 gain:1 name:7 eloquent:1 persuasive:1 speech:1 time:8 come:3 demand:1 upon:14 pharaoh:4 release:1 israel:12 captivity:1 nabi:1 spokesman:1 people:15 unwillingness:1 hear:2 say:16 flourish:1 bc:2 traditionally:1 etymology:1 meaning:5 unclear:1 possible:3 pregnancy:1 הריון:1 ancient:1 herr:1 conceive:1 hrara:1 conception:1 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4,452 | Irish_language | Irish () is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family, originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is now spoken natively by a small minority of the Irish population – mostly in Gaeltacht areas – but also plays an important symbolic role in the life of the Irish state, and is used across the country in a variety of media, personal contexts and social situations. It enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is an official language of the European Union. Irish is also an officially recognised minority language in Northern Ireland. Irish is the main community and household language of 3% of the Republic's population Government of Ireland, . Retrieved on 21 January 2008 (which was estimated at 4,422,100 in 2008). CSO Ireland - April 2008 Population Estimates Estimates of fully native speakers range from under 20,000 up to 80,000 people. Endangered languages in Europe: report The Department of Community, Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs estimated in 2007 that about 17,000 people lived in strongly Irish-speaking communities, about 10,000 people lived in areas where there was substantial use of the language, and 17,000 people lived in "weak" Gaeltacht communities; Irish was no longer the main community language in the remaining parts of the official Gaeltacht. Welcome to Ocean fm However, since Irish is an obligatory subject in schools, many more are reasonably fluent second-language speakers. Furthermore, a much larger number regard themselves as competent in the language to some degree: 1,656,790 (41.9% of the total population aged three years and over) regard themselves as competent Irish speakers. Of these, 538,283 (32.5%) speak Irish on a daily basis (taking into account both native speakers and those inside the education system), 97,089 (5.9%) weekly, 581,574 (35.1%) less often, and 412,846 (24.9%) never. 26,998 (1.6%) respondents did not state how often they spoke Irish. Monolingualism is now restricted to a handful of elderly on Gaeltacht regions as well as mother-tongue speakers of Irish under school age. 14% of the population of the Republic of Ireland listen to Irish radio programming daily, 16% listen 2-5 times a week, while 24% listen to Irish programming once a week. The number of inhabitants of the official-designated Gaeltacht regions of Ireland is 91,862, as of the 2006 census. Of these, 70.8% aged three and over speak Irish and approximately 60% speak Irish on a daily basis. The 2001 census in Northern Ireland showed that 167,487 (10.4%) people "had some knowledge of Irish" (see Irish language in Northern Ireland). Combined, this means that at least one in three people (~1.8 million) on the island of Ireland can understand Irish to some extent. On 13 June 2005, EU foreign ministers unanimously decided to make Irish an official language of the European Union. The new arrangements came into effect on 1 January 2007, and Irish was first used at a meeting of the EU Council of Ministers, by Minister Noel Treacy, T.D., on 22 January 2007. Names of the language In English The language is usually referred to in English as Irish, sometimes as Modern Irish or Irish Gaelic. The term Irish Gaelic is often used when English speakers discuss the relationship between the three Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) or when discussion of Irish is confused to mean Hiberno-English, the form of English as spoken in Ireland. Scottish Gaelic is often referred to in English as simply Gaelic. The archaic term Erse (from Erische), originally a Scots form of the word Irish applied in Scotland (by Lowlanders) to all of the Goidelic languages, is no longer used for any Goidelic language, and in most current contexts is considered derogatory. Door Raymond Hickey, 2002, A Source Book for Irish English, John Benjamins Publishing Company: Netherlands Door Christopher Whyte, 2004, Modern Scottish Poetry, Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh In Irish In the (the official written standard) the name of the language is (), which reflects the southern Connacht pronunciation. Before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled ; originally this was the genitive of , the form used in classical Modern Irish. Older spellings of this include in Middle Irish and in Old Irish. The modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge. Other forms of the name found in the various modern Irish dialects, in addition to south Connacht mentioned above, include () or () in Ulster Irish and northern Connacht Irish and () in Munster Irish. Official status In the Republic of Ireland Irish is given recognition by the Constitution of Ireland as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland (with English being a second official language). Since the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922 (see also History of the Republic of Ireland), the Irish Government required a degree of proficiency in Irish for all those who became newly appointed to civil service positions (including postal workers, tax officials, agricultural inspectors, etc.). Proficiency in just one official language for entrance to the public service was introduced in 1974, in part through the actions of protest organizations like the Language Freedom Movement. While the First Official Language requirement was also dropped for wider public service jobs, Irish remains a required subject of study in all schools within the Republic which receive public money (see also Education in the Republic of Ireland). Those wishing to teach in primary schools in the State must also pass a compulsory examination called "Scrúdú Cáilíochta sa Ghaeilge". The need for a pass in Leaving Certificate Irish or English for entry to the Gardaí (police) was introduced in September 2005, although applicants are given lessons in the language during the two years of training. All official documents of the Irish Government must be published in both Irish and English or Irish alone (this is according to the official languages act 2003, which is enforced by "an comisinéir teanga", the language ombudsman). The National University of Ireland requires all students wishing to embark on a degree course in the NUI federal system, must pass the subject Irish in the Leaving Certificate or GCE/GCSE Examinations. Exemption are made from this requirement for students born outside of the Republic and students diagnosed with having dyslexia. NUI Entry Requirements - Ollscoil na hÉireann - National University of Ireland In 1938, the founder of Conradh na Gaeilge (The Gaelic League), Douglas Hyde, was inaugurated as the first President of Ireland. The record of his delivering his auguration Declaration of Office in Roscommon Irish remains almost the only surviving remnant of anyone speaking in that dialect. The National University of Ireland, Galway is required to appoint people who are competent in the Irish language, as long as they meet all other respects of the vacancy they are appointed to. This requirement is laid down by the University College Galway Act, 1929 (Section 3). Irish Statue Book, University College Galway Act, 1929. Retrieved on 13 October 2007. It is expected that the requirement may be repealed in due course. Even though modern parliamentary legislation is supposed to be issued in both Irish and English, in practice it is frequently only available in English. This is notwithstanding that Article 25.4 of the Constitution of Ireland requires that an "official translation" of any law in one official language be provided immediately in the other official language—if not already passed in both official languages. In Northern Ireland Prior to the establishment of the Northern Ireland state in 1921, Irish was recognised as a school subject and as "Celtic" in some third level institutions. Between 1921 and 1972, Northern Ireland had a measure of devolved government. During those years the political party holding power in the Stormont Parliament, the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP), was hostile to the language. In broadcasting, there was an exclusion on the reporting of minority cultural issues, and Irish was excluded from radio and television for almost the first fifty years of the Northern Ireland state. http://www.gppac.net/documents/pbp_f/part1/7_changi.htm Changing History - Peace Building in Northern Ireland By Mari Fitzduff The language received a degree of formal recognition in Northern Ireland from the United Kingdom, under the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, Belfast Agreement - Full text - Section 6 (Equality) - "Economic, Social and Cultural issues" and then, in 2001, by the Government's ratification in respect of the language of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The British government promised to create legislation encouraging the language as part of the 2006 St Andrews Agreement. In the European Union While an official language of the European Union, only co-decision regulations must be produced in Irish for the moment, due to a renewable five-year derogation on what has to be translated, requested by the Irish Government when negotiating the language's new official status. Any expansion in the range of documents to be translated will depend on the results of the first five-year review and on whether the Irish authorities decide to seek an extension. The Irish government has committed itself to train the necessary number of translators and interpreters and to bear the related costs. EU Directorate-General for Translation, Irish becomes the 21st official language of the EU. Retrieved 11 September 2008. Before Irish became an official language on 1 January 2007, it was afforded the status of treaty language and only the highest-level documents of the EU had been translated into Irish. Gaeltacht There are parts of Ireland where Irish is still spoken as a traditional, native language used daily. These regions are known collectively as Gaeltachts, or in the plural Irish Gaeltachtaí. These are in: County Galway (), including Connemara (), the Aran Islands (), Carraroe () and Spiddal (); on the west coast of County Donegal (); in the part which is known as Tyrconnell (); Dingle Peninsula () in County Kerry (). Smaller ones also exist in: Mayo (); Meath (); Waterford (); and Cork (). To summarise the extent of the survival: (See Hindley, 'The Death of the Irish Language') Irish remains as a natural vernacular in the following areas: south Connemara, from a point west of Spiddal, covering Inverin, Carraroe, Rosmuck, and the islands; the Aran Islands; northwest Donegal in the area around Gweedore, including Rannafast, Gortahork, the surrounding townlands and Tory Island; in the townland of Rathcarn, Co. Meath. Gweedore (),County Donegal is the largest Gaeltacht parish in Ireland. The numerically and socially strongest Gaeltacht areas are those of South Connemara, the west of the Dingle Peninsula and northwest Donegal, in which the majority of residents use Irish as their primary language. These areas are often referred to as the ("true Gaeltacht") and collectively have a population just under 20,000. Irish summer colleges are attended by tens of thousands of Irish teenagers annually. Students live with Gaeltacht families, attend classes, participate in sports, go to céilithe and are obliged to speak Irish. All aspects of Irish culture and tradition are encouraged. According to data compiled by the Irish Department of Community, Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs, only one quarter of households in officially Gaeltacht areas possess a fluency in Irish. The author of a detailed analysis of the survey, Donncha Ó hÉallaithe of the Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology, described the Irish language policy followed by Irish governments a "complete and absolute disaster". The Irish Times, referring to his analysis published in the Irish language newspaper Foinse, quoted him as follows: "It is an absolute indictment of successive Irish Governments that at the foundation of the Irish State there were 250,000 fluent Irish speakers living in Irish-speaking or semi Irish-speaking areas, but the number now is between 20,000 and 30,000." Dialects There are a number of distinct dialects of Irish. Roughly speaking, the three major dialect areas coincide with the provinces of Munster (), Connacht () and Ulster (). Records of some dialects of Leinster were made by the Irish Folklore Commission among other bodies prior to their extinction. Newfoundland, in eastern Canada, is also seen to have a minor dialect of Irish, closely resembling the Munster Irish spoken during the 16th to 17th centuries (see Newfoundland Irish). Munster dialects Munster Irish is mainly spoken in the Gaeltacht areas of Kerry (), Ring () near Dungarvan () in County Waterford () and Muskerry () and Cape Clear Island () in the western part of County Cork (). The most important subdivision in Munster is that between Decies Irish (Na Déise) (spoken in Waterford) and the rest of Munster Irish. Some typical features of Munster Irish are: The use of personal endings instead of pronouns with verbs (know as an fhoirm tháite), thus "I must" is in Munster , while other dialects prefer ( means "I"). "I was and you were" is in Munster but in other dialects. Note that this is not an absolute. Bhí mé and bhí tú are also used in the South, while bhíos and bhís in the West and North, particularly when the words are last in the clause. Use of independent/dependent forms of verbs that are not included in the Standard. For example, "I see" in Munster is (this is the independent form – note that Northern Irish also uses a similar form, tchím), whereas "I do not see" is (this is the dependent form, after particles such as ní). Chím is replaced by feicim in the Standard. Similarly, the traditional form preserved in Munster I give/ has become / in the Standard; I get/ has become /; and I say/ has become /. In front of nasals and ll some short vowels are lengthened while others are diphthongised. A copular construction involving is frequently used. Thus is Éireannach mé may be replaced by Éireannach is ea mé in Munster. Both masculine and feminine words are subject to lenition in the dative after insan (sa/san) 'in the', den 'of the' and don 'to/for the' : sa tsiopa, "in the shop", compared to the Standard sa siopa (the Standard lenites only feminine nouns in the dative in these cases). Eclipsis of f after sa: sa bhfeirm, "in the farm", instead of san fheirm. Stress is often on the second syllable of a word, e.g. ("pin"), as opposed to in Connacht and Ulster. Connacht dialects The strongest dialect of Connacht Irish is to be found in Connemara and the Aran Islands. Since most other Connacht dialects have died out during the 20th century Connemara Irish is sometimes seen as synonymous with Connacht Irish. Much closer to the larger Connacht Gaeltacht is the dialect spoken in the smaller region on the border between Galway () and Mayo (). The northern Mayo dialect of Erris () and Achill () is in grammar and morphology essentially a Connacht dialect, but shows some similarities to Ulster Irish due to large-scale immigration of dispossessed people following the Plantation of Ulster. There are features in Connemara Irish outside the official standard—notably the preference for verbal nouns ending in , e.g. instead of , "weakening". The non-standard pronunciation with lengthened vowels and heavily reduced endings give Connemara Irish its distinct sound. Distinguishing features of this dialect include the pronunciation of broad bh as , rather than as in Munster. For example ("my boat") is pronounced in Connacht and Ulster as opposed to in the south. In addition Connacht and Ulster speakers tend to include the "we" pronoun rather than use the standard compound form used in Munster e.g. is used for "we were" instead of elsewhere. The present-day Irish of Meath (in Leinster) is a special case. It belongs mainly to the Connemara dialect. The Irish-speaking community in Meath is mostly a group of Connemara speakers who moved there in the 1930s after a land reform campaign spearheaded by Máirtín Ó Cadhain (who subsequently became one of the greatest modernist writers in the language). Irish President Douglas Hyde was one of the last of speakers of the Roscommon dialect of Irish. Ulster dialects Linguistically the most important of the Ulster dialects today is that of the Rosses (), which has been used extensively in literature by such authors as the brothers Séamus Ó Grianna and Seosamh Mac Grianna, locally known as Jimí Fheilimí and Joe Fheilimí. This dialect is essentially the same as that in Gweedore ( = Inlet of Streaming Water), and used by native singers Enya () and Máire Brennan and their siblings in Clannad ( = Family from the Dobhar[a section of Gweedore]) Na Casaidigh, and Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh from another local band Altan. Ulster Irish sounds very different and shares several unusual features with Scottish Gaelic, as well as having lots of characteristic words and shades of meanings. However, since the demise of those Irish dialects spoken natively in what is today Northern Ireland, it is probably an exaggeration to see Ulster Irish as an intermediary form between Scottish Gaelic and the southern and western dialects of Irish. For instance, Scottish Gaelic has many non-Ulster features in common with Munster Irish. One noticeable trait of Ulster Irish is the use of the negative particle in place of the Munster and Connacht version . Even in Ulster, —most typical of Scottish Gaelic—has largely ousted the more common (except in "is not") in northernmost dialects (e.g. Rosguill and Tory Island). An Caighdeán Oifigiúil An Caighdeán Oifigiúil ("The Official Standard"), often shortened to An Caighdeán, is the standard language, which is taught in most schools in Ireland. What has been called "Dublin Irish" and "Gaelscoil Irish" is also spoken in the capital and amongst the students of Irish-speaking schools throughout the country. This is, arguably, simply the national standard of Irish, or An Caighdeán Oifigiúil. Comparisons The differences between dialects are considerable, and have led to recurrent difficulties in defining standard Irish. A good example is the greeting "How are you?". Just as this greeting varies from region to region, and between social classes, among English speakers, this greeting varies among Irish speakers: Ulster: ("What is it as you are?" Note: or and sometimes are alternative renderings of ) Connacht: ("What way [is it] that you are?") Munster: or ("How are you?") "Standard" Irish: ("How are you?") In recent decades contacts between speakers of different dialects have become frequent and mixed dialects have originated. Linguistic structure The features most unfamiliar to English speakers of the language are the orthography, the initial consonant mutations, the Verb Subject Object word order, and the use of two different forms for "to be". None of these features are peculiar to Irish, however. All of them occur in other Celtic languages as well as in non-Celtic languages: morphosyntactically triggered initial consonant mutations are found in Fula, VSO word order is found in Classical Arabic and Biblical Hebrew, and Spanish has two different forms for "to be". Syntax Word order in Irish is of the form VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) so that, for example, "He hit me" is [hit-past tense] [he] [me]. One aspect of Irish syntax that is unfamiliar to speakers of other languages is the use of the copula (known in Irish as ). The copula is used to describe what or who someone is, as opposed to how and where. It is used to say that a noun is another noun, rather than an adjective. This has been likened to the difference between the verbs and in Spanish and Portuguese (see Romance copula), although this is only a rough approximation. Morphology Another feature of Irish grammar that is shared with other Celtic languages is the use of prepositional pronouns (), which are essentially conjugated prepositions. For example, the word for "at" is , which in the first person singular becomes "at me". When used with the verb ("to be") indicates possession; this is the equivalent of the English verb "to have". "I have a book."(Literally, "there is a book at me.")"You have a book.""He has a book.""She has a book.""We have a book.""You (plural) have a book.""They have a book." Orthography and pronunciation The written language looks rather daunting to those unfamiliar with it. Once understood, the orthography is relatively straightforward. The acute accent, or (´), serves to lengthen the sound of the vowels and in some cases also changes their quality. For example, in Munster Irish (Kerry), a is or and á is in "law" but in Ulster Irish (Donegal), á tends to be . Around the time of World War II, Séamas Daltún, in charge of (the official translations department of the Irish government), issued his own guidelines about how to standardise Irish spelling and grammar. This de facto standard was subsequently approved of by the State and called the Official Standard or . It simplified and standardised the orthography. Many words had silent letters removed and vowel combination brought closer to the spoken language. Where multiple versions existed in different dialects for the same word, one or more were selected. Examples: → , "Irish language" ( or is still used in books written in dialect by Munster authors, or as a facetious name for the Munster dialect) → , "Louth" → , "food" The standard spelling does not always reflect every dialect's pronunciation. For example, in standard Irish, bia, "food", has the genitive bia. But in Munster Irish, the genitive is pronounced . For this reason, the spelling is still used by the speakers of some dialects, in particular those that show a meaningful and audible difference between (nominative case) and (genitive case) "of food, food's". In Munster, the latter spelling regularly produces the pronunciation because final -idh, -igh regularly delenites to -ig in Munster pronunciation. Another example would be the word crua, meaning "hard". This pronounced in Munster, in line with the pre-Caighdeán spelling, cruaidh. In Munster, ao is pronounced and aoi pronounced , but the new spellings of saoghal, "life, world", genitive: saoghail, have become saol, genitive saoil. This produces irregularities in the matchup between the spelling and pronunciation in Munster, because the word is pronounced , genitive . Modern Irish has only one diacritic sign, the acute (á é í ó ú), known in Irish as the "long mark", plural . In English, this is frequently referred to as simply the , where the adjective is used as a noun. The dot-above diacritic, called a or (often shortened to ), derives from the punctum delens used in medieval manuscripts to indicate deletion, similar to crossing out unwanted words in handwriting today. From this usage it was used to indicate the lenition of s (from to ) and f (from to zero) in Old Irish texts. Lenition of c, p, and t was indicated by placing the letter h after the affected consonant; lenition of other sounds was left unmarked. Later both methods were extended to be indicators of lenition of any sound except l and n, and two competing systems were used: lenition could be marked by a or by a postposed h. Eventually, use of the predominated when texts were writing using Gaelic letters, while the h predominated when writing using Roman letters. Today the Gaelic script and the are rarely used except where a "traditional" style is required, e.g. the motto on the University College Dublin coat of arms or the symbol of the Irish Defence Forces, The Irish Defence Forces cap badge . Letters with the are available in Unicode and Latin-8 character sets (see Latin Extended Additional chart). Unicode 5.0, . Retrieved on 13 October 2007. Mutations In Irish, there are two classes of initial consonant mutations: Lenition (in Irish, "softening") describes the change of stops into fricatives. Indicated in old orthography by a written above the changed consonant, this is now shown in writing by adding an -h: "throw!" — "I threw" (this is an example of the lenition as a past-tense marker, which is caused by the use of , although it is now usually omitted) "market", "market-place", "bargain" — "the man of the street" (word for word "Tadhg of the market-place"; here we see the lenition marking the genitive case of a masculine noun) "Seán, John" — "O John!" (here we see lenition as part of what is called the vocative case — in fact, the vocative lenition is triggered by the or vocative marker before ) Eclipsis (in Irish, ) covers the voicing of voiceless stops, as well as the nasalisation of voiced stops. "father" — "our Father" "start", "at the start" "Galway" — "in Galway" History Written Irish is first attested in Ogham inscriptions from the fourth century AD; this stage of the language is known as Primitive Irish. Old Irish, dating from the sixth century, used the Latin alphabet and is attested primarily in marginalia to Latin manuscripts. Middle Irish, dating from the tenth century, is the language of a large corpus of literature, including the famous Ulster Cycle. Early Modern Irish, dating from the thirteenth century, was the literary language of both Ireland and Gaelic-speaking Scotland, and is attested by such writers as Geoffrey Keating. From the eighteenth century the language went into a decline, rapidly losing ground to English due in part to restrictions dictated by British rule - a conspicuous example of the process known by linguists as language shift. In the mid-nineteenth century it lost a large portion of its speakers to death and emigration resulting from poverty, particularly in the wake of the Great Famine (1845–1849). At the end of the nineteenth century, members of the Gaelic Revival movement made efforts to encourage the learning and use of Irish in Ireland. Current status Republic of Ireland The number of native Irish-speakers in the Republic of Ireland today is a smaller fraction of the population than it was at independence. Many Irish speaking families encouraged their children to speak English as it was the language of education and employment; the Irish-speaking areas today were always relatively poor and remote, and this remoteness caused the survival of the language as a vernacular. The Official Languages Act of 2003 gave people the right to interact with state bodies in Irish. It is too early to assess how well this is working in practice. Other factors were outward migration of Irish speakers from the Gaeltacht (see related issues at Irish diaspora) and inward migration of English-speakers. The Planning and Development Act (2000) attempted to address the latter issue, with varied levels of success. Planning controls now require new housing in Gaeltacht areas to be allocated to English-speakers and Irish-speakers in the same ratio as the existing population of the area. This will prevent new houses allocated to Irish-speakers being immediately sold on to English-speakers. However, the restriction only lasts for a few years. Also, people are not required to reach native speaker standards of fluency to qualify as Irish-speakers. On 19 December 2006 the government announced a 20-year strategy to help Ireland become a fully bilingual country. This involved a 13 point plan and encouraging the use of language in all aspects of life. RTÉ News, 19 December 2006, Govt announces 20-year bilingual strategy. Retrieved on 13 October 2007. Government of Ireland, . Retrieved on 13 October 2007. Daily life Several computer software products have the option of an Irish-language interface. Prominent examples include KDE, Mozilla Firefox, Mozilla Thunderbird, OpenOffice.org, and Microsoft Windows XP. . Many English-speaking Irish people use small and simple phrases (known as cúpla focal, "a few words") in their everyday speech, e.g. ("goodbye"), ("get home safely"), ("good health"; used when drinking like "bottoms up" or "cheers"), ("thank you"), ("a hundred thousand welcomes", a tourist board saying, also used by President Hillery to welcome Pope John Paul II to Ireland in 1979) and ("How are you?"). There are many more small sayings that have crept into Hiberno-English. The term craic has been popularised outside Ireland in this Gaelicized spelling: "How's the craic?" or "What's the craic'?" ("how's the fun?"/"how is it going?"), though the word is not Irish in origin, and the expression "How's the crack?" was widely used in Ireland since at least the 1960s before the Irish-language spelling "craic" became the common journalistic style. Many public bodies have Irish language or bilingual names, but some have downgraded the language. An Post, the Republic's postal service, displays Irish place names in both Irish and English with equal prominence outside its offices and continues to have place names in Irish on its postmarks as well as recognising addresses (as does the Royal Mail in Northern Ireland). Traditionally, the private sector has been less supportive, although support for the language has come from some private companies. For example, Irish supermarket chain Superquinn introduced bilingual signs in its stores in the 1980s, a move which was followed more recently by the British chain Tesco for its stores in the Republic. Woodies DIY now also have bilingual signs in their chain of stores. In contrast, the "100% Irish" SuperValu has few if any Irish signs, and the German retailers Aldi and Lidl have none at all. In an effort to increase the use of the Irish language by the State, the Official Languages Act was passed in 2003. This act ensures that most publications made by a governmental body must be published in both official languages, Irish and English. In addition, the office of Language Commissioner has been set up to act as an ombudsman with regard to equal treatment for both languages. A major factor in the decline of natively-spoken Irish has been the movement of English speakers into the Gaeltacht (predominantly Irish speaking areas) and the return of native Irish-speakers who have returned with English-speaking partners. This has been stimulated by government grants and infrastructure projects: The state has anglicised the Gaeltacht by encouraging the immigration of English-speakers, http://homepage.ntlworld.com/r.a.mccartney/baile_nua/migration.html "only about half Gaeltacht children learn Irish in the home... this is related to the high level of in-migration and return migration which has accompanied the economic restructuring of the Gaeltacht in recent decades". The Irish Language in a Changing Society: Shaping The Future, p. xxvi. In a last-ditch effort to stop the demise of Irish-speaking in Connemara in Galway, planning controls have been introduced on the building of new homes in Irish speaking areas. Thanks in large part to Gael-Taca and Gaillimh Le Gaeilge and two local groups a significant number of new residential developments are named in Irish today in most of the Republic of Ireland. In several counties there are a large number being named in Irish. Sunday Times article on Gael-Taca Media Support for the language has been made through the media, notably with the launch of Raidió na Gaeltachta (Gaeltacht radio) and Teilifís na Gaeilge (Irish language television, initially abbreviated to 'TnaG', now renamed TG4) and Raidió na Life in Dublin, both have been relatively successful. TG4 has offered Irish-speaking young people a forum for youth culture as Gaeilge (in Irish) through rock and pop shows, travel shows, dating games, and even a controversial award-winning soap opera in Irish called Ros na Rún. Most of TG4's viewership, however, tends to come from showing Gaelic football, hurling, soccer and rugby union matches and also films in English, and English pop music programmes, although some of its Irish language programmes attract large audiences. In 2007 TG4 reported that overall it "has a share of 3% of the national television market". TG4 official website This market share is up from about 1.5% in the late 1990s. TG4 delivers 16 hours a day of television from an annual budget of €30 million, which is widely judged to be relatively efficient. The budget has the full support of all political parties in parliament. TG4 is the most successful and high-profile government initiative for the Irish language for the past fifty years. The Irish language daily newspaper Lá Nua published five days a week and had circulation of several thousand, until it ceased publication in December 2008. There is also a weekly paper, Foinse. These require government sponsorship. The Irish News has two pages in Irish every day. The Irish Times had up until recently one article in Irish every week. Now it has several articles with some articles appended with short lists giving the meaning of some of the words used in English. Another paper, Saol, and about 5 magazines are also published in the language, as well as internet-only publications such as "Beo!". The immigrants magazine Metro Éireann also has articles in Irish every issue, as do many local papers throughout the country including university publications. The BBC offers a website for beginners called Blas ("a taste"). Blas website URL There are community radio stations broadcast in Irish in Dublin and Belfast. Raidió na Life is based in Dublin and broadcast in Dublin and to parts of some surrounding counties and Raidió Fáilte is based and broadcast in Belfast. Raidió Fáilte has applied for a license to broadcast throughout Northern Ireland. Community radio stations in Ireland try to have at least one Irish language programme per week depending on their number of employees/volunteers who speak it. The community radio station for North-East Dublin Near90fm's "Ar Muin na Muice" programme is broadcast five days a week and occasionally one of their current affairs programmes "Between The Lines" is also broadcast in Irish. Each year in March, an Irish language music CD is released in tandem with Seachtain na Gaeilge. Various Irish artists come together each year to work on this collaboration, which has seen many artists produce songs in Irish. The titles of the albums released are: Snag '05, Ceol 06, Ceol '07 and Ceol '08. Placenames The Placenames Order (Gaeltacht Districts)/ (2004) requires the original Irish placenames to be used in the Gaeltacht on all official documents, maps and roadsigns. This has removed the legal status of those placenames in the Gaeltacht in English. Opposition to these measures comes from several quarters including some people within popular tourist destinations located within the Gaeltacht (namely in Dingle) who claim that tourists may not recognise the Irish forms of the placenames. However following a campaign in the 1960s and early 1970s, most roadsigns in Gaeltacht regions have been in Irish only. Maps and government documents did not change, though. Previously Ordnance Survey (government) maps showed placenames bilingually in the Gaeltacht (and generally in English only elsewhere). Unfortunately, most other map companies wrote only the English placenames, leading to significant confusion in the Gaeltacht. The act therefore updates government documents and maps in line with what has been reality in the Gaeltacht for the past 30 years. Private map companies are expected to follow suit. Beyond the Gaeltacht only English placenames were officially recognised (pre 2004). However, further placenames orders have been passed to enable both the English and the Irish placenames to be used. The village of Straffan is still marked variously as and , even though Irish has not been the spoken widely there for two centuries. In the 1830s John O'Donovan listed it as "Srufáin" Ordnance Survey Letters of County Kildare, co-authored by John O'Donovan. The nearby village of Kilteel was "Cill tSile" for centuries, meaning "The church of Saint Sheila", but since 2000 it is shown as "Cill Cheile" which does not carry the same meaning. There are numerous other examples, raising the question of how, by whom and why such new names are chosen. Irish vehicle registration plates are bilingual: the county of registration is shown in Irish above the plate number as a kind of surtitle, and is encoded from English within the plate number. For example, a Dublin plate is surtitled Baile Átha Cliath and the plate number includes "-D-". Religious texts The Bible has been available in Irish since the 17th century, and the four Gospels had been translated several times. In 1964 the Bible was translated at Maynooth for Roman Catholics for the first time under the supervision of Professor Pádraig Ó Fiannachta and was finally published in 1981. An Bíobla Naofa (Maynooth 1981) The Church of Ireland Book of Common Prayer of 2004 is published in both Irish and English. Education The Irish language is a compulsory subject in government funded schools in the Republic of Ireland and has been so since the early days of the state. It is taught as a second language (L2) at second level, to native (L1) speakers and learners (L2) alike. http://www.ncca.ie/uploadedfiles/Publications/Languagesdiscussionpaper.pdf Language in the Post-Primary Curriculum, November 2003. English is offered as a first (L1) language only, even to those who speak it as a second language. The curriculum was reorganized in the 1930s by Father Timothy Corcoran SJ of UCD, who could not speak the language himself. Professor R. Comerford, Ireland (Hodder Books, London 2003) p145. The Irish Government has endeavoured to address the unpopularity of the language by revamping the curriculum at primary school level to focus on spoken Irish. However, at secondary school level, students must analyse literature and poetry, and write lengthy essays, debates and stories in Irish for the (L2) Leaving Certificate examination. The exemption from learning Irish on the grounds of time spent abroad, or learning disability, is subject to Circular 12/96 (primary education) and Circular M10/94 (secondary education) issued by the Department of Education and Science. In March 2007, the Minister for Education, Mary Hanafin, announced that more focus would be devoted to the spoken language, and that from 2012, the percentage of marks available in the Leaving Certificate Irish exam would increase from 25% to 40% for the oral component. Department of Education & Science, 11 March 2007, Minister Hanafin announces increase in marks for Oral Irish to 40% in exams. Retrieved on 13 October 2007. This increased emphasis on the oral component of the Irish examinations is likely to change the way Irish is examined. Independent, 12 July 2007. Pupils lap up hi-tech learning of Irish. Retrieved on 13 October 2007. Learnosity, National Council for Curriculum and Assessment: Ireland. Retrieved on 13 October 2007. Recently the abolition of compulsory Irish has been discussed. In 2005 Enda Kenny, leader of Ireland's main opposition party, Fine Gael, called for the language to be made an optional subject in the last two years of secondary school. Mr Kenny, despite being a fluent speaker himself (and a teacher), stated that he believed that compulsory Irish has done the language more harm than good. Gaelscoileanna A relatively recent development is the proliferation of gaelscoileanna (schools) in which Irish is the medium of education. By September 2005 there were 168 gaelscoileanna at primary level and 43 at secondary level in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland together (excluding the Gaeltacht, whose schools are not considered gaelscoileanna), which amounted to approximately 31,000 students. This has grown from a total of less than 20 in the early 1970s and there are 15 more being planned at present. With the opening of Gaelscoil Liatroma in County Leitrim in 2005 there is now at least one gaelscoil in each of the 32 traditional counties of Ireland. In Gaeltacht areas, the medium of education has been traditionally through Irish, ever since the foundation of the State. The majority of Gaeltacht students tend to be L1 Irish Gaelic speakers, but even in the Gaeltacht areas the language is taught as an L2 language whilst English is taught as an L1 language. Professor David Little has commented: "..the needs of Irish as L1 at post-primary level have been totally ignored, as at present there is no recognition in terms of curriculum and syllabus of any linguistic difference between learners of Irish as L1 and L2." The Irish Equality Authority recently questioned the official State practice of awarding 5-10% extra marks to students who take some of their examinations through Irish. The Royal Irish Academy's 2006 conference on "Language Policy and Language Planning in Ireland" found that the study of Irish and other languages is declining in Ireland. The number of schoolchildren studying "higher level" Irish for the Leaving Certificate dropped from 15,719 in 2001 to 14,358 in 2005. To reverse this decline, it was recommended that training and living for a time in a Gaeltacht area should be "compulsory" for teachers of Irish. 2006 RIA language conference report Although the Gaeltacht is defined as an entirely Irish-language speaking area, the Irish government also pays families living in the Gaeltacht areas with school-age children to speak Irish. These are inspected and graded according to ability. In the 2006-07 school year, 2,216 families received the full grant of €260 p.a., 937 families received a reduced grant and 225 families did not meet the criteria. This payment scheme is called Scéim Labhairt na Gaeilge, the first example in Europe where citizens are paid to speak their first official language. Irish Independent, 20 November 2007, page 11 Irish colleges Supplementing the formal curriculum, and after the end of the primary (usually from 4th class onwards) and secondary school years, some pupils attend an "Irish college". These programmes are residential Irish language summer courses, and give students the opportunity to be immersed in the language, usually for periods of three weeks over the summer months. Some courses are college based while others are based with host families in Gaeltacht areas under the guidance of a bean an tí. Students attend classes, participate in sports, art, drama, music, go to céilithe and other summer camp activities through the medium of Irish. As with the conventional school set-up The Department of Education establishes the boundaries for class size and qualifications required by teachers. Northern Ireland As in the Republic, the Irish language is a minority language in Northern Ireland, known in Irish as . Attitudes towards the language in Northern Ireland have traditionally reflected the political differences between its two divided communities. The language has been regarded with suspicion by Unionists, who have associated it with the Roman Catholic-majority Republic, and more recently, with the Republican movement in Northern Ireland itself. Erection of public street signs in Irish were effectively banned under laws by the Parliament of Northern Ireland, which stated that only English could be used. Many republicans in Northern Ireland, including Sinn Féin President Gerry Adams, learned Irish while in prison, a development known as the jailtacht. Allen Feldman. Formations of Violence: The Narrative of the Body and Political Terror in Northern Ireland.U of Chicago P, 1991. Chapter 3. Although the language was taught in Catholic secondary schools (especially by the Christian Brothers), it was not taught at all in the controlled sector, which is mostly attended by Protestant pupils. Irish-medium schools, however, known as gaelscoileanna, were founded in Belfast and Derry, and an Irish-language newspaper called Lá Nua ("New Day") was established in Belfast. BBC Radio Ulster began broadcasting a nightly half-hour programme in Irish in the early 1980s called Blas ("taste, accent"), and BBC Northern Ireland also showed its first TV programme in the language in the early 1990s. The Ultach Trust was established with a view to broadening the appeal of the language among Protestants, although DUP politicians like Sammy Wilson ridiculed it as a "leprechaun language". Ulster-Scots, promoted by many loyalists, was, in turn, ridiculed by nationalists (and even some Unionists) as "a DIY language for Orangemen". According to recent statistics, there is no significant difference between the number of Catholic and Protestant speakers of Ulster-Scots in Ulster, although those involved in promoting Ulster-Scots as a language are almost always unionist. Ulster-Scots is defined in legislation (The North/South Co-operation (Implementation Bodies) Northern Ireland Order 1999) as: the variety of the Scots language which has traditionally been used in parts of Northern Ireland and in Donegal in Ireland. (internet archive copy as of 14 May 2005) Irish received official recognition in Northern Ireland for the first time in 1998 under the Good Friday Agreement. A cross-border body known as Foras na Gaeilge was established to promote the language in both Northern Ireland and the Republic, taking over the functions of the previous Republic-only . In 2001, the British government ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in respect to Irish in Northern Ireland. The Good Friday Agreement's provisions on "parity of esteem" have been used to give the language an official status there. In March 2005, the Irish-language TV service TG4 began broadcasting from the Divis transmitter near Belfast, as a result of an agreement between the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Northern Ireland Office, although so far this is the only transmitter to carry it. Belfast City Council has designated the Falls Road area (from Milltown Cemetery to Divis Street) as the Gaeltacht Quarter of Belfast, one of the four cultural quarters of the city. There is a growing number of Irish-medium schools throughout Northern Ireland (see picture above). Under the St Andrews Agreement, the UK Government committed to introduce an Irish Language Act. Although a consultation document on the matter was published in 2007, the restoration of devolved government by the Northern Ireland Assembly later that year meant that responsibility for language transferred from London to Belfast. In October 2007, the then Minister of Culture, Arts and Leisure, Edwin Poots MLA announced to the Assembly that he did not intend to bring forward an Irish language Bill. Outside Ireland An interest in the Irish language is maintained throughout the English-speaking world among the Irish diaspora and there are active Irish language groups in North American, British, and Australian cities. In Australia, a network of people have established special Irish schools around the country teaching the language and music. The Irish language emigrated to North America along with the Irish people. Although Irish is one of the smaller European languages spoken in North America, it has cultural importance in the northeast United States and in Newfoundland, and according to the 2000 Census, approximately 26,000 people in the U.S. speak Irish at home. MLA Language Map Data Center, Irish Gaelic. Retrieved on 22 July 2007 The Irish language came to Newfoundland in the late 1600s and was commonly spoken among the Newfoundland Irish until the middle of the 20th century. Today it remains the only place outside of Europe that can claim a unique Irish name (Talamh an Éisc, meaning Land of the Fish). In 2007 a number of Canadian speakers founded the first officially designated "Gaeltacht" outside of Ireland in an area near Kingston, Ontario (see main article Permanent North American Gaeltacht). Despite being called a Gaeltacht, the area has no permanent inhabitants. The site (named Gaeltacht Bhaile na hÉireann) is located in Tamworth, Ontario and is to be a retreat centre for Irish-speaking Canadians and Americans. Gaelport, Irish at home in Canada, 17 February 2007 Gaelport, First Gaeltacht abroad planned for Canada, 23 January 2007 The Irish language reached Australia in 1788, along with English. In the early colonial period, Irish was seen as an opposition language used by convicts and repressed by the colonial authorities. Cumann Gaeilge na hAstráile. The Irish Language in Australia. Retrieved on 13 October 2007. Although the Irish were a greater proportion of the European population than in any other British colony, the use of the language quickly declined. As legal barriers to the integration of the Irish and their descendants into Australian life were progressively removed, English became the language of social advancement. The 2001 census revealed that there are 828 speakers of the language in the country. "Languages Spoken At Home" from Australian Governament Office of Multicultural Interests website. Retrieved 27 December 2007 The Department of Celtic Studies at the University of Sydney offers courses in both Modern Irish linguistics as well as Old Irish. http://www.arts.usyd.edu.au/departs/celticstudies/index.php?page=undergraduate_uos In May 2007, the University of Cambridge in Great Britain started offering courses in Modern Irish in addition to Medieval Irish. Many Australian slang words are Irish-derived and there are arguments that Australian English is more influenced by Irish than other varieties of English. There is a small movement to re-establish the language in contemporary Australia. Transcript of Lingua Franca of 26 September 1998, Why Learn Irish?. Retrieved on 13 October 2007. The Special Broadcasting Service transmits Irish language radio and television. Future In 2008, the Irish government launched a national survey entitled Plean2028 asking people for their suggestions on how best to advance the state of the Irish language in areas such as education, media, government, status etc. Some suggestions made have been: The creation of a Gaeltacht Quarter in Dublin The introduction of an optional 6 month Gaeltacht work experience for Transition Year students in secondary school. The creation of a national young persons' radio station in the language. The introduction of statutory naming committees at council level to name new residential developments where the use of Irish names would be encouraged although not compulsory unless local councils voted to name all of their new residential developments in Irish as in Galway City Council and Shannon Town Council. See also Béarlachas Cumann Gaelach Gaelic Revival Dictionary of the Irish Language Differences between Scottish Gaelic and Irish Hiberno-Latin, a variety of Medieval Latin used in Irish monasteries. It included Greek, Hebrew and Celtic neologisms. Irish name Irish words used in the English language Language Freedom Movement List of artists who have released Irish language songs List of Celtic language media List of English words of Irish origin List of Ireland-related topics List of Irish-Gaelic television channels List of Irish language media List of television channels in Celtic languages Place names in Irish Modern literature in Irish Notes External links General BCI: Irish language media stats Foras na Gaeilge - Official promotional body for the Irish language throughout the island of Ireland Gaeilge ar an ghréasán Irish online resources 'Gael-Taca (Corcaigh)' "Learning Irish?," BBC "Social Network for learners, teachers and speakers," Grammar and pronunciation A dialect of Donegal (a phonological description of the dialect of Glenties by E. C. Quiggin, from 1906) An Gael Magazine - Irish Gaelic Arts, Culture, And History Alive Worldwide Today A short Irish and Breton phrase list with Japanese translation(Renewal) incl sound file Braesicke's Gramadach na Gaeilge (Engl. translation) Die araner mundart (a phonological description of the dialect of the Aran Islands by F. N. Finck, from 1899) Dictionaries Acmhainn.ie - Dictionary and terminology resource Collaborative Irish dictionary Foclóir Téarmaíochta, a large terminology database developed by FIONTAR, DCU General Gaelic Dictionaries Online English-Irish dictionary Irish-English Audio/Image dictionary | Irish_language |@lemmatized irish:294 goidelic:4 language:150 indo:1 european:9 family:9 originate:2 ireland:75 historically:1 speak:32 people:18 natively:3 small:8 minority:6 population:9 mostly:3 gaeltacht:47 area:25 also:23 play:1 important:3 symbolic:1 role:1 life:7 state:18 use:55 across:1 country:6 variety:4 medium:12 personal:2 context:2 social:5 situation:1 enjoy:1 constitutional:1 status:8 national:10 first:17 official:36 republic:20 union:5 officially:4 recognised:1 northern:32 main:4 community:11 household:2 government:27 retrieve:13 january:5 estimate:4 cso:1 april:1 fully:2 native:8 speaker:36 range:2 endanger:1 europe:3 report:3 department:8 rural:2 affair:4 live:6 strongly:1 speaking:10 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4,453 | Epistle_to_the_Galatians | The Epistle to the Galatians is a book of the New Testament. It is a letter from Paul of Tarsus to a number of early Christian communities in the Roman province of Galatia in central Anatolia. It is principally concerned with the controversy surrounding Gentile Christians and the Mosaic Law within Early Christianity. Along with the Epistle to the Romans, it is the most theologically significant of the Pauline epistles, and has been particularly influential in Protestant thought. Outline Salutation (1:1-5) No other gospel (1:6-10) Conversion of Paul (1:11-24) Council of Jerusalem? (2:1-10) Incident at Antioch (2:11-14) Jews, like Gentiles, saved by faith (2:15-21) Law or Faith (3:1-14) Law and Promise (3:15-20) Slaves and Sons (3:21-4:7) Sons of God (3:26) Concern for the Galatians (4:8-20) Interpretation of Hagar and Sarah (4:21-5:1) Christian Freedom (5:2-15) The Great Commandment (5:14) Fruit of the Spirit (5:16-26) The Law of Christ (6:1-10) Final Warning and Benediction (6:11-18) Contents This epistle addresses the question "Is the Mosaic Law binding on Christians?", see also Biblical law in Christianity. After an introductory address (Gal 1:1–10), the apostle discusses the subjects which had occasioned the epistle. In Chapter 1 he defends his apostolic authority (1:11–19; 2:1–14). Chapters 2, 3, and 4 show the influence of the Judaizers in destroying the very essence of the gospel. Chapter 3 exhorts the Galatian believers to stand fast in the faith as it is in Jesus, and to abound in the fruit of the Spirit. Chapter 4 then concludes with a summary of the topics discussed and with the benediction, followed by 5; 6:1–10 teaching about the right use of their Christian freedom. For example, it is clear that some took "freedom in Christ" as justification of antinomianism. In the conclusion of the epistle (6:11), Paul writes, "Ye see how large a letter I have written with mine own hand." It is implied that this was different from his ordinary usage, which was simply to write the concluding salutation with his own hand, indicating that the rest of the epistle was written by another hand. Regarding this conclusion, Lightfoot, in his Commentary on the epistle, says: "At this point the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name (2 Thess 2:2; 3:17) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries... In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his hand-writing may reflect the energy and determination of his soul." Alternatively, some commentators have postulated that Paul's recurring illness was poor eyesight, which caused him to write in characteristically large letters. Galatians, Tyndale New Testament Commentary, revised edition, page 233. Galatians also contains a catalogue of vices and virtues, a popular formulation of Christian ethics. An interesting literary interpretation of this period of Christianity and the character of Paul can be found in Rudyard Kipling's short story "The Church that was at Antioch". A Roman soldier and follower of Mithraism discovers the faith on his death bed, after having tried to defuse tension between the Gentile and Jewish Christians over issues of Mosaic Law such as circumcision and the preparation of food. Historical context Galatia Paul's letter is addressed "to the churches in Galatia" (Galatians 1:2), but the location of these churches is a matter of debate. A minority of scholars have argued that the "Galatia" is an ethnic reference to a Celtic people living in northern Asia Minor, but most agree that it is a geographical reference to the Roman province in central Asia Minor, which had been settled by immigrant Celts in the 270s BC and retained Gaulish features of culture and language in Paul's day. Acts of the Apostles records Paul traveling to the "region of Galatia and Phrygia", which lay immediately west of Galatia. The main theme was that the people of Galatia have turned away from Christ's teachings. The churches of Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe) were founded by Paul himself (Acts 16:6; Gal 1:8; 4:13, 4:19). They seem to have been composed mainly of converts from paganism (4:8). After Paul's departure, the churches were led astray from Paul's Christ centered teachings by individuals proposing "another gospel" (which centered around Judaism and salvation through the Mosaic Law, so-called Legalism (theology)), whom Paul saw as preaching a "different gospel" than that of Jesus Christ (which was centered around salvation by God's grace and Christ's atonement, not the "works" of the Mosaic law). (1:6–9). The Galatians appear to have been receptive to the teaching of these newcomers, and the epistle is Paul's response to what he sees as their willingness to turn from his teaching. The identity of these "opponents" is disputed. We do not have a record of their activity, but are left to reconstruct it from Paul's response. However, the majority of modern scholars view them as Jewish Christians (i.e. Judaizers), who taught that in order for pagans to belong to the people of God, they must be subject to some or all of the Jewish Law. The letter indicates controversy concerning circumcision, Sabbath observance, and the Mosaic Covenant. It would appear, from Paul's response, that they cited the example of Abraham, who was circumcised as a mark of receiving the covenant blessings (), see also Abrahamic religion. They certainly appear to have questioned Paul's authority as an apostle, perhaps appealing to the greater authority of the Jerusalem church governed by James the Just. Paul responds angrily; he relates his conversion and apostolic credentials, his relationship with the Jerusalem Church, and engages in a debate over the interpretation of the Abraham story. Date and audience Galatians was presumably written between the late 40s and early 50s. M. Coogan, ed. The New Oxford Annotated Bible (Oxford University Press: New York, 2001), 309 NT. There ar three main theories about when Galatians was written and to whom. The North Galatian view holds that the epistle was written very soon after Paul's second visit to Galatia. Acts 18:23 The visit to Jerusalem, mentioned in Gal 2:1–10, seems identical with that of Acts 15, or Acts 690:22, and it is spoken of as a thing of the past. Consequently, the epistle seems to have been written after the Council of Jerusalem. The similarity between this epistle and that to the Romans has led to the conclusion that they were both written at the same time, namely, in the winter of AD 57–58, during Paul's stay in Corinth. Acts 20:2–3 This letter to the Galatians is written on the urgency of the occasion, tidings having reached him of the state of matters; and that to the Romans in a more deliberate and systematic way, in exposition of the same fundamental doctrines of the gospel. It should be noted that the Gospel of Luke and Acts which is said to be written by the same author as Luke were written much later than Paul's epistles therefore its most likely Paul's description of the Council or Jerusalem in c50 CE was written decades before Luke and Acts so the reference above is backwards. Paul's description of the Council of Jerusalem was written before Acts and is therefore the more accurate. In Acts (c70-80CE) written later than Galatians, Peter claims that Jesus selected him to minister to the Gentiles which is the opposite of what Paul states in Galatians 2:7 "...they saw that God had given me the task of teaching the Gospel to the Gentiles, just as he gave Peter the task of teaching the Gospel to the Jews". According to Paul, Peter was firmly in the camp of those insisting Gentiles must first be circumcised and follow Mosaic Law to the point of having sharp words with Paul Galatians 2:11 "But when Peter came to Antioch I rebuked him in public for he was clearly wrong." In fact when men sent by James the Just (brother of Jesus and leader of the Jerusalem Jesus Movement) arrived there, Galatians 2:12 "Peter had been eating with the Gentile Believers but when these men arrived, he drew back and would not eat with the Gentiles". Peter was certainly subservient to James the Just who was the leader of the Jerusalem Jesus Movement in Galatians while in the much later Acts Peter is the one chosen by God to preach to the Gentiles and the protagonist for the Gentiles at the Council of Jerusalem while in Galatians the situation is reversed. It's more likely the later Acts written by the same author as Luke whose works were slanted towards Gentiles was a rewrite to provide the basis for the claim of Peter as the Rock on which the orthodox Christian church was based alone with the invention of Apostolic succession. It was James the Just who succeeded Jesus and was executed by Anas is c60CE and that until then Peter was one of the Apostles but not the leader of the group. If one must chose between a later autograph accepting as the argument goes above that there is no doubt Paul wrote Galatians, then it's likely that the author of Luke and Acts glossed the story to support the position the reapidly evolving Jesus Movement to support the views of those leading the movement (church) at that point. The South Galatian view holds that Paul wrote Galatians before or shortly after the First Jerusalem Council, probably on his way to it, and that it was written to churches he had presumably planted during either his time in Tarsus (he would have traveled a short distance, since Tarsus is in Cilicia) after his first visit to Jerusalem as a Christian Acts 9:30 , or during his first missionary journey, when he traveled throughout southern Galatia. If it was written to the believers in South Galatia, it would likely have been written in 49. J. Hayford, ed. New Spirit Filled Life Bible (Thomas Nelson, Inc., Nashville: 2002) 1628. A third theory http://www.theologywebsite.com/nt/galatians.shtml is that Galatians 2:1-10 is the visit of Acts 11:30. This theory implies that the epistle was written before the Council was convened, making it the earliest of Paul's epistles. Textual criticism No original of the letter is known to exist. The earliest reasonably complete version available to scholars today, named P46, dates to approximately the year 200 A.D., approximately 150 years after the original was presumably drafted. This fragmented papyrus, parts of which are missing, almost certainly contains errors introduced in the process of being copied from earlier manuscripts. Ehrman, Bart (2005) Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why, HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-06-073817-0. page 60. However, through careful research relating to paper construction, handwriting development, and the established principles of textual criticism, scholars can be rather certain about where these errors and changes appeared and what the original text probably said. Metzger, Bruce M., A Textual Commentary on the New Testament, 2nd ed., United Bible Societies, 1994. 1*-16*. ISBN 3-438-06010-8 Authenticity Virtually all scholars agree that Galatians is one of the most certain examples of Paul's writing. The main arguments in favor of the authenticity of Galatians include its style and themes, which are common to the core letters of the Pauline corpus, and the historical connection to Acts of the Apostles. Moreover, Paul's description of the Council of Jerusalem (Gal 2:1–10) gives a different point of view from the description in Acts 15:2–29. The central dispute in the letter concerns the question of how Gentiles could convert to Christianity, which shows that this letter was written at a very early stage in church history, when the vast majority of Christians were Jewish or Jewish proselytes. This puts it during the lifetime of Paul himself. There is no hint in the letter of a developed organization within the Christian community at large. See also Textual variants in the Epistle to the Galatians References External links Online translations of the Epistle to Galatians: Bible Gateway 35 languages/50 versions at GospelCom.net Unbound Bible 100+ languages/versions at Biola University Online Bible at GospelHall.org Translation of Galatians by Gerald O. Hoenecke, et al. Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897: Epistle to the Galatians, commencing "The genuineness of this epistle is not called in question. Its Pauline origin is universally acknowledged." G. A. van den Bergh van Eysinga, "The Spuriousness of so-called Pauline epistles exemplified by the Epistle to the Galatians," 1912: a review of the critical analysis that identified Galatians among the "four Epistles" considered by some critical readers to be post-Pauline. Galatians, Paul, The Torah-Law & Legalism: | Epistle_to_the_Galatians |@lemmatized epistle:23 galatian:30 book:1 new:6 testament:3 letter:12 paul:32 tarsus:3 number:1 early:7 christian:12 community:2 roman:6 province:2 galatia:11 central:3 anatolia:1 principally:1 concern:4 controversy:2 surround:1 gentile:12 mosaic:7 law:12 within:2 christianity:4 along:1 theologically:1 significant:1 pauline:5 particularly:1 influential:1 protestant:1 thought:1 outline:1 salutation:2 gospel:8 conversion:2 council:8 jerusalem:13 incident:1 antioch:4 jew:2 like:1 save:1 faith:4 promise:1 slave:1 son:2 god:5 interpretation:3 hagar:1 sarah:1 freedom:3 great:2 commandment:1 fruit:2 spirit:3 christ:6 final:1 warning:1 benediction:2 content:1 address:3 question:4 bind:1 see:5 also:4 biblical:1 introductory:1 gal:4 apostle:6 discuss:2 subject:2 occasion:2 chapter:4 defend:1 apostolic:3 authority:3 show:2 influence:1 judaizers:2 destroy:1 essence:1 exhort:1 believer:3 stand:1 fast:1 jesus:9 abound:1 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4,454 | Eindhoven_University_of_Technology | The Eindhoven University of Technology (in Dutch: Technische Universiteit Eindhoven or TU/e, and formerly Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven or THE) is a university of technology located in Eindhoven, Netherlands. The motto of the university is: Mens agitat molem (Mind over matter). Overview The Eindhoven University of Technology was founded as the Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven (THE) on June 15, 1956 by the Dutch government. It was the second institute of its kind in the Netherlands, preceded only by the Delft University of Technology. It is located on its own campus in the center of Eindhoven, just north of the central station. It is currently home to about 240 professors, 7200 students, 250 PDEng-students, 600 Ph.D. students, 200 post-doc students and 3000 regular employees. It also supports about 100 student associations and 15 alumni associations TU/e: Facts and figures URL accessed on July 3, 2006 . Yearly, the Eindhoven University of Technology produces almost 3000 scientific publications, 140 PhD-awards, and 40 patents. The Eindhoven University of Technology is main participant in the technological top institutes DPI and NIMR. One of the former students of the university is Gerard Kleisterlee, the current CEO of Philips. The university is located in an area where several companies active in technology are doing their research, like Philips, ASML and DAF. The university maintains close contacts with most of these companies. As of April 29 2005, Prof.dr.ir. C.J. van Duijn has the position of rector magnificus. In 2006, the University celebrated its 50th birthday. In a 2003 European Commission report European Commission ranking of the 22 European universities with the highest scientific publication impact(see here for the full report) , TU/e was ranked as 3rd among European research universities (after Cambridge and Oxford, at equality with TU Munich and thus making it the highest ranked Technical University in Europe), based on the impact of its scientific research. In 'The Times Higher Education Supplement World University Ranking 2005'. The world’s top 100 technology universities URL accessed on July 3 2006 it was ranked 74th among world universities, and 67th in 2006. The university operates several international cooperations with other universities all over the world; the Brain Bridge with Zhejiang University, People's Republic of China, is an example of such a cooperation. Departments TU/e comprises nine departments: Biomedical Engineering Architecture, Building and Planning Electrical Engineering Industrial Design Chemical Engineering and Chemistry Technology Management Applied Physics Mechanical Engineering Mathematics and Computer Science Distinguished alumni Kees Schouhamer Immink, scientist and president Turing Machines Inc. Gerard Kleisterlee, president Philips since 2001 Camiel Eurlings, Dutch Minister of Transport, Public Works and Water Management since 2006 G.M. Nijssen, Dutch computer scientist Jan Dietz, Dutch computer scientist Jo Coenen, Dutch architect René van Zuuk, Dutch architect Wiel Arets, Dutch architect Distinguished faculty Nicolaas Govert de Bruijn Edsger Dijkstra Jack van Lint Wietse Venema Bert Meijer References External links TU/e Departments at TU/e List of student societies (dutch) All Masters at TU/e TiasNimbas, the business school of Eindhoven University of Technology and Tilburg University | Eindhoven_University_of_Technology |@lemmatized eindhoven:10 university:22 technology:10 dutch:9 technische:3 universiteit:1 tu:8 e:7 formerly:1 hogeschool:2 locate:3 netherlands:2 motto:1 men:1 agitat:1 molem:1 mind:1 matter:1 overview:1 found:1 june:1 government:1 second:1 institute:2 kind:1 precede:1 delft:1 campus:1 center:1 north:1 central:1 station:1 currently:1 home:1 professor:1 student:7 pdeng:1 ph:1 post:1 doc:1 regular:1 employee:1 also:1 support:1 association:2 alumnus:2 fact:1 figure:1 url:2 access:2 july:2 yearly:1 produce:1 almost:1 scientific:3 publication:2 phd:1 award:1 patent:1 main:1 participant:1 technological:1 top:2 dpi:1 nimr:1 one:1 former:1 gerard:2 kleisterlee:2 current:1 ceo:1 philip:3 area:1 several:2 company:2 active:1 research:3 like:1 asml:1 daf:1 maintain:1 close:1 contact:1 april:1 prof:1 dr:1 ir:1 c:1 j:1 van:3 duijn:1 position:1 rector:1 magnificus:1 celebrate:1 birthday:1 european:4 commission:2 report:2 ranking:1 high:3 impact:2 see:1 full:1 rank:3 among:2 cambridge:1 oxford:1 equality:1 munich:1 thus:1 make:1 ranked:1 technical:1 europe:1 base:1 time:1 education:1 supplement:1 world:4 operate:1 international:1 cooperation:2 brain:1 bridge:1 zhejiang:1 people:1 republic:1 china:1 example:1 department:3 comprises:1 nine:1 biomedical:1 engineering:4 architecture:1 building:1 planning:1 electrical:1 industrial:1 design:1 chemical:1 chemistry:1 management:2 apply:1 physic:1 mechanical:1 mathematics:1 computer:3 science:1 distinguish:2 kees:1 schouhamer:1 immink:1 scientist:3 president:2 turing:1 machine:1 inc:1 since:2 camiel:1 eurlings:1 minister:1 transport:1 public:1 work:1 water:1 g:1 nijssen:1 jan:1 dietz:1 jo:1 coenen:1 architect:3 rené:1 zuuk:1 wiel:1 arets:1 faculty:1 nicolaas:1 govert:1 de:1 bruijn:1 edsger:1 dijkstra:1 jack:1 lint:1 wietse:1 venema:1 bert:1 meijer:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 list:1 society:1 master:1 tiasnimbas:1 business:1 school:1 tilburg:1 |@bigram url_access:2 prof_dr:1 celebrate_birthday:1 biomedical_engineering:1 turing_machine:1 de_bruijn:1 edsger_dijkstra:1 external_link:1 |
4,455 | List_of_German-language_poets | This list contains the names of individuals (of any ethnicity or nationality) who wrote poetry in the German language. Most are identified as "German poets," but some are not German. All, though, wrote poetry in the German language. See also: List of German-language philosophers, List of German-language authors, poetry, German literature, List of German-language playwrights and German Wikipedia's list. A Dietmar von Aist Alfred Andersch Achim von Arnim Bettina von Arnim Hans Arp H. C. Artmann Hartmann von Aue Rose Ausländer B Ingeborg Bachmann Hugo Ball Johannes Robert Becher Gottfried Benn Thomas Bernhard Johannes Bobrowski Rudolf Borchardt Elisabeth Borchers Nicolas Born Volker Braun Bertolt Brecht Clemens von Brentano Rolf Dieter Brinkmann Hermann Burger Wilhelm Busch C Paul Celan Hanns Cibulka Matthias Claudius D Tankred Dorst Annette von Droste-Hülshoff E Albert Ehrenstein Günter Eich Joseph von Eichendorff Hans Magnus Enzensberger Wolfram von Eschenbach F Gerhard Falkner Erich Fried Max Frisch G Stefan George Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Yvan Goll Günter Grass Durs Grünbein Johann Christian Günther H Reinmar von Hagenau Peter Handke Heinrich Heine Helmut Heißenbüttel Georg Herwegh Hermann Hesse Georg Heym Paul Heyse Jacob van Hoddis Michael Hofmann Friedrich Hölderlin Arno Holz I J Ernst Jandl Johannes Jansen Elfriede Jelinek Ernst Jünger K Anna Louisa Karsch Erich Kästner Marie Luise Kaschnitz Adrian Kasnitz Gottfried Keller Hans Peter Keller Gottfried Kinkel Rainer Kirsch Sarah Kirsch Karin Kiwus Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock Thomas Kling Helmut Krausser Karl Krolow Björn Kuhligk Thomas Kunst Reiner Kunze L Else Lasker-Schüler Christine Lavant Alfred Lichtenstein Ulrich von Liechtenstein Till Lindemann M Karl May Friederike Mayröcker Ernst Meister Karl Mickel Alfred Mombert Christian Morgenstern Heinrich von Morungen Heiner Müller Inge Müller N Friedrich Nietzsche Helga M. Novak Novalis (Friedrich von Hardenberg) O Ernst Ortlepp P August von Platen-Hallermünde Reinhard Priessnitz Q R Neidhart von Reuental Rainer Maria Rilke Dominique Kristof Rimbaud Friedrich Rückert S Hans Sachs Nelly Sachs Alexios Schandermani (born 1953) Johannes Scheffler, named Angelus Silesius Friedrich Schiller Sibylla Schwarz Kurt Schwitters Moriz Seeler Friedrich Leopold zu Stolberg-Stolberg Moritz von Strachwitz Gottfried von Strassburg Botho Strauss Stricker Ingo Sundmacher (born 1965) T Ludwig Tieck Georg Trakl Hugo von Trimberg Süßkind von Trimberg Kurt Tucholsky Ulrich von Türheim Heinrich von dem Türlin U Ludwig Uhland V Hendrik van Veldeke Walther von der Vogelweide Johann Heinrich Voß W Achim Wagner Jan Wagner Robert Walser Erich Weinert Ron Winkler Oswald von Wolkenstein Konrad von Würzburg X Y Z Ulrich von Zatzikhoven External links Projekt Gutenberg-DE: all authors List of authors German Poetry | List_of_German-language_poets |@lemmatized list:6 contain:1 name:2 individual:1 ethnicity:1 nationality:1 write:2 poetry:4 german:10 language:5 identify:1 poet:1 though:1 see:1 also:1 philosopher:1 author:3 literature:1 playwright:1 wikipedia:1 dietmar:1 von:25 aist:1 alfred:3 andersch:1 achim:2 arnim:2 bettina:1 han:4 arp:1 h:2 c:2 artmann:1 hartmann:1 aue:1 rise:1 ausländer:1 b:1 ingeborg:1 bachmann:1 hugo:2 ball:1 johannes:4 robert:2 becher:1 gottfried:4 benn:1 thomas:3 bernhard:1 bobrowski:1 rudolf:1 borchardt:1 elisabeth:1 borchers:1 nicolas:1 bear:1 volker:1 braun:1 bertolt:1 brecht:1 clemens:1 brentano:1 rolf:1 dieter:1 brinkmann:1 hermann:2 burger:1 wilhelm:1 busch:1 paul:2 celan:1 hanns:1 cibulka:1 matthias:1 claudius:1 tankred:1 dorst:1 annette:1 droste:1 hülshoff:1 e:1 albert:1 ehrenstein:1 günter:2 eich:1 joseph:1 eichendorff:1 magnus:1 enzensberger:1 wolfram:1 eschenbach:1 f:1 gerhard:1 falkner:1 erich:3 fry:1 max:1 frisch:1 g:1 stefan:1 george:1 johann:3 wolfgang:1 goethe:1 yvan:1 goll:1 grass:1 durs:1 grünbein:1 christian:2 günther:1 reinmar:1 hagenau:1 peter:2 handke:1 heinrich:4 heine:1 helmut:2 heißenbüttel:1 georg:3 herwegh:1 hesse:1 heym:1 heyse:1 jacob:1 van:2 hoddis:1 michael:1 hofmann:1 friedrich:7 hölderlin:1 arno:1 holz:1 j:1 ernst:4 jandl:1 jansen:1 elfriede:1 jelinek:1 jünger:1 k:1 anna:1 louisa:1 karsch:1 kästner:1 marie:1 luise:1 kaschnitz:1 adrian:1 kasnitz:1 keller:2 kinkel:1 rainer:2 kirsch:2 sarah:1 karin:1 kiwus:1 gottlieb:1 klopstock:1 kling:1 krausser:1 karl:3 krolow:1 björn:1 kuhligk:1 kunst:1 reiner:1 kunze:1 l:1 else:1 lasker:1 schüler:1 christine:1 lavant:1 lichtenstein:1 ulrich:3 liechtenstein:1 till:1 lindemann:1 may:1 friederike:1 mayröcker:1 meister:1 mickel:1 mombert:1 morgenstern:1 morungen:1 heiner:1 müller:2 inge:1 n:1 nietzsche:1 helga:1 novak:1 novalis:1 hardenberg:1 ortlepp:1 p:1 august:1 platen:1 hallermünde:1 reinhard:1 priessnitz:1 q:1 r:1 neidhart:1 reuental:1 maria:1 rilke:1 dominique:1 kristof:1 rimbaud:1 rückert:1 sachs:2 nelly:1 alexios:1 schandermani:1 born:2 scheffler:1 angelus:1 silesius:1 schiller:1 sibylla:1 schwarz:1 kurt:2 schwitters:1 moriz:1 seeler:1 leopold:1 zu:1 stolberg:2 moritz:1 strachwitz:1 strassburg:1 botho:1 strauss:1 stricker:1 ingo:1 sundmacher:1 ludwig:2 tieck:1 trakl:1 trimberg:2 süßkind:1 tucholsky:1 türheim:1 dem:1 türlin:1 u:1 uhland:1 v:1 hendrik:1 veldeke:1 walther:1 der:1 vogelweide:1 voß:1 w:1 wagner:2 jan:1 walser:1 weinert:1 ron:1 winkler:1 oswald:1 wolkenstein:1 konrad:1 würzburg:1 x:1 z:1 zatzikhoven:1 external:1 link:1 projekt:1 gutenberg:1 de:1 |@bigram ethnicity_nationality:1 von_arnim:2 han_arp:1 bertolt_brecht:1 wilhelm_busch:1 wolfram_von:1 von_eschenbach:1 johann_wolfgang:1 von_goethe:1 günter_grass:1 heinrich_heine:1 hermann_hesse:1 ulrich_von:3 friedrich_nietzsche:1 rainer_maria:1 maria_rilke:1 friedrich_schiller:1 kurt_schwitters:1 hendrik_van:1 walther_von:1 johann_heinrich:1 external_link:1 |
4,456 | Blazing_Saddles | Blazing Saddles is a satirical Western comedy film directed by Mel Brooks. Starring Cleavon Little and Gene Wilder, it was written by Brooks, Andrew Bergman, Richard Pryor, Norman Steinberg, and Al Uger, and was based on Bergman's story and draft. Director and Leading Actors The movie was nominated for three Academy Awards, and is considered one of the great American comedies, coming in at number six on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs list. Brooks appears in multiple supporting roles, including Governor Le Petomane and a Yiddish-speaking Indian Chief. Slim Pickens, Alex Karras, David Huddleston, and Brooks regulars Dom DeLuise, Madeline Kahn, and Harvey Korman are also featured. Musician Count Basie has a cameo as himself. The film exposes the racism obscured by myth-making Hollywood accounts of the American West, but in a highly satirical way; the ethnic slur "nigger" is heard 17 times in Blazing Saddles, while the film's hero is black. The film was nevertheless a tremendous success. Plot In the American Old West of 1874, construction on a new railroad runs into quicksand. The route has to be changed, which will require it to go through Rock Ridge, a frontier town where everyone has the last name of "Johnson" (including a "Howard Johnson", a "Van Johnson" and an "Olson Johnson".) The conniving State Attorney General Hedley Lamarr (Harvey Korman) – not to be confused, as he often is in the film, with actress Hedy Lamarr – wants to buy the land along the new railroad route cheaply by driving the townspeople out. He sends a gang of thugs, led by his flunky Taggart (Slim Pickens), to scare them away, prompting the townsfolk to demand that Governor William J. LePetomane (Mel Brooks) appoint a new sheriff. The Attorney General convinces the dim-witted Governor to select Bart (Cleavon Little), a black railroad worker who was about to be hanged, as the new sheriff. Because Bart is black, Lamarr believes that this will so offend the townspeople they will either abandon the town or lynch the new sheriff. With his quick wits and the assistance of drunken gunslinger Jim (Gene Wilder), also known as "The Waco Kid" ("I must have killed more men than Cecil B. DeMille"), Bart works to overcome the townsfolk's hostile reception. He defeats and befriends Mongo (Alex Karras), an immensely strong (but exceptionally dim-witted) henchman sent by Taggart, and beats German seductress-for-hire Lili von Shtupp (Madeline Kahn) at her own game, before inspiring the town to lure Lamarr's newly-recruited and incredibly diverse army of thugs (characterized by Lamarr as ideally consisting of "rustlers, cutthroats, murderers, bounty hunters, desperadoes, mugs, pugs, thugs, nitwits, half-wits, dimwits, vipers, snipers, con men, Indian agents, Mexican bandits, muggers, buggerers, bushwhackers, hornswagglers, horse thieves, bull dykes, train robbers, bank robbers, ass kickers, shit kickers and Methodists" in addition to nearly every other kind of stock movie villain) into an ambush. (In the later scene where Lamarr conducts his hiring event, the candidates in line for consideration include stereotypical bikers, banditos, crusaders, Nazis and Klansmen). The resulting fight between the townsfolk and Lamarr's army of thugs is such that it literally breaks the fourth wall; the fight spills out from the film lot in the Warner Bros. Studios into a neighboring musical set (being directed by Dom DeLuise), then the studio commissary where a pie fight ensues, and finally pouring out into the surrounding streets. The film ends with Bart shooting Hedley Lamarr in the groin at the 'premiere' of Blazing Saddles outside Grauman's Chinese Theater, saving the town, joining Jim inside a theater to view the end of the movie, persuading people of all colors and creeds to live in harmony and, finally, riding (in a limousine) off into the sunset. Cast Alex Karras as Mongo, who is "only pawn in game of life." Cleavon Little as Sheriff Bart Gene Wilder as Jim, aka "The Waco Kid" Mel Brooks as Gov. William J. Le Petomane / Indian Chief Madeline Kahn as Lili Von Shtüpp, the Teutonic Titwillow Harvey Korman as Hedley Lamarr Slim Pickens as Taggart Dom DeLuise as Buddy Bizarre Liam Dunn as Reverend Johnson George Furth as Van Johnson Burton Gilliam as Lyle John Hillerman as Howard Johnson David Huddleston as Olson Johnson Alex Karras as Mongo Jack Starrett as Gabby Johnson Robyn Hilton as Miss Stein (the governor's secretary) Rodney Allen Rippy as Young Bart Charles McGregor as Charlie Anne Bancroft as Extra in Church Congregation (uncredited) Cast notes: Count Basie appears as himself in a cameo appearance, with his band. Mel Brooks also appears in a tiny cameo on Hedley Lamarr's line of toughs, wearing sunglasses and a bomber jacket, and dubbed the speaking voice for one of the German chorus boys backing Madeline Kahn's performance of "I'm Tired", speaking lines such as "Give her a break!", "Let her alone!" and, "Don't you know she's pooped?!" Production Blazing Saddles was Mel Brooks' first movie shot in anamorphic format. To date, this film and History of the World, Part I are the only films Brooks has shot in this format. Brooks repeatedly had conflicts with studio executives over the cast and content. They objected to both the highly provocative script and to the "irregular" activities of the writers (particularly Richard Pryor, who reportedly led all night writing jams where loud music and drugs played a prominent role in the creative process). Brooks wanted Richard Pryor to play the sheriff's role, but the studio objected. Warner executives expressed concern about Pryor's reliability because of his heavy drug use at the time and the belief that he was mentally unstable. 2001 Review, mostly of Brooks's DVD commentary, from Salon.com Pryor was, however, hired as one of the film's screenwriters. In a similar vein, Gene Wilder was the second choice to play the character of the Waco Kid. He was quickly brought in to replace Gig Young after the first day of filming because Young was suffering from delirium tremens on the set due to his alcoholism. IMDb Biography for Gig Young After screening the movie, the head of Warner Brothers Pictures complained about the use of the word "nigger", the campfire scene and the punching of a horse, and told Brooks to remove all these elements from the film. As Brooks' contract gave him control of the final cut, the complaints were disregarded and all three elements were retained in the film with it holding the distinction of being the first film to display flatulence. Brooks wanted the movie's title song to reflect the western genre, and advertised in the trade papers that he wanted a "Frankie Laine-type" sound. Several days later, singer Frankie Laine himself visited Brooks' office offering his services. Brooks had not told Laine that the movie was planned as a comedy, and says "'Frankie sang his heart out... and we didn't have the heart to tell him it was a spoof - we just said 'oh, great! He never heard the whip cracks; we put those in later. We got so lucky with his serious interpretation of the song." From the libretto of the La-LaLand Records soundtrack album In an interview included in the DVD release of Blazing Saddles, Mel Brooks claimed that Hedy Lamarr threatened to sue, saying the film's running "Hedley Lamarr" joke infringed her right to publicity. This is lampooned when Hedley corrects Governor Le Petomane's pronunciation of his name, and Le Petomane replies with "What the hell are you worried about? This is 1874, you'll be able to sue her!". Brooks says they settled out of court for a small sum. A very similar gag, with a male character named "Peter Hedley Lamar, Jr." occurs in the 1941 Buster Keaton short "General Nuisance." In the same interview, Brooks related how he managed to convince John Wayne to read the script after meeting him in the Warner Brothers studio commissary. Wayne was impressed with the script, but politely declined a cameo appearance, fearing it was "too dirty" for his family image. He is also said to have told Brooks that he "would be first in line to see the film, though." Influences The overall plot (i.e. thwarting a ruthless scheming land-grabber), was a cliche of countless "Western" movies including "Destry Rides Again" and "Once Upon a Time in the West." The film, town, and many of the scenes, music, and themes in Blazing Saddles were parodies of the classic Gary Cooper film High Noon. The church scene in particular was imitated down to the costumes and 'murmuring' of the townsfolk. Brooks' The Ballad Of Rock Ridge uses motifs and melodies that echo "Do Not Forsake Me, Oh My Darlin'", performed by Tex Ritter. Madeline Kahn's role, Lili Von Shtupp, is a parody of Marlene Dietrich's in the 1939 western film Destry Rides Again, while "I'm Tired" is a parody of Dietrich's "Falling in Love Again (Can't Help It)", a song written by Frederick Hollander for The Blue Angel (1930). 'Shtup' is a Yiddish vulgarism for sexual intercourse. (When broadcast on television, Lili's last name is usually changed to "Shhhhhh...", but is still written normally on the title card.) The bead work on Brooks' Indian headdress in the movie poster says "Kosher for Passover" in Hebrew (kosher l'pesach) although jokingly misspelled; it actually reads "Posher for Kassover" (posher l'kesach). When Brooks is speaking 'Indian', he's actually speaking Yiddish. Right before the "I'm Tired" scene, after Jim tells Bart about Lili Von Shtupp, the tune that is playing in the background is the theme from the fictional play Springtime For Hitler which appears in Mel Brooks' first film The Producers. Another reference to the previous film is when Governor Le Petomane echoes Max Bialystock's line "Hello Boys!" Another reference to Brooks' films is in the scene when Hedley is comforting Taggert when a horse and rider are being executed. The song Hedley hums to calm Taggart is the melody used later in Young Frankenstein to soothe the monster. The name of Harvey Korman's character, Hedley Lamarr, is regularly mispronounced by others as Hedy Lamarr (in reference to the actress). In History of the World, Part I (a later Mel Brooks film), he plays Count De Monet (Mo-nay) another character whose name is often mispronounced as "Count Da Money". One of the characters played by Mel Brooks, Gov. William J. Le Petomane, is named after Joseph Pujol, Le Pétomane, who was a turn of the century artiste in France. Pujol's stage performance consisted of controlled displays of flatulence. Extraordinary control of his abdominal muscles and rectal sphincter allowed him to draw air and water into his rectum and so create a wide range of sounds at will. The scene involving the executioner outside the window is used in a larger fashion by the same actor in Brooks' later comedy, Robin Hood: Men in Tights. The extensions to the ISO 9660 standard for Unix Filesystem attributes are named as Rock Ridge extensions after the movie's town. Reception While the film is widely considered a classic comedy today, critical reaction was mixed when the film was first released. Vincent Canby wrote: Review of Blazing Saddles by Vincent Canby Roger Ebert called the film a "crazed grabbag of a movie that does everything to keep us laughing except hit us over the head with a rubber chicken. Mostly, it succeeds. It's an audience picture; it doesn't have a lot of classy polish and its structure is a total mess. But of course! What does that matter while Alex Karras is knocking a horse cold with a right cross to the jaw?" Blazing Saddles is widely credited with temporarily ending the Western genre of motion pictures due to its astute parodying of genre conventions. Elly, Derek ed. Variety Movie Guide '97. London. Hamilyn, 1996. referenced by Friedman, Lester D. in American Cinema of the 1970s: Themes and Variations. Rutgers University Press, 2007. ISBN 0813540232. p.129 Google Book Search The film grossed $119.5 Million in the box office becoming only the tenth film in history up to that point to pass the $100 million mark. http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=blazingsaddles.htm Awards and honors The film was nominated for three Academy Awards in 1975 (Best Actress in a Supporting Role for Madeline Kahn, Best Film Editing, and Best Music, Original Song) and two BAFTA awards (Best Newcomer for Cleavon Little and Best Screenplay). The film won the Writers Guild of America Award for "Best Comedy Written Directly for the Screen" for writers Mel Brooks, Norman Steinberg, Andrew Bergman, Richard Pryor, and Alan Uger. Awards for Blazing Saddles (1974) In 2006, Blazing Saddles was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." The American film critic Dave Kehr queried if the historical significance of Blazing Saddles lay in the fact that it was the first film from a major studio to have a fart joke. National Film Registry Announces New Titles Legacy TV pilot A television pilot was produced for CBS based on Andrew Bergman's initial story, titled Black Bart, which was the original title of the film. It featured Louis Gossett Jr. as Bart and Steve Landesberg as the drunk sidekick. Mel Brooks had little if anything to do with the pilot, as writer Andrew Bergman is listed as the sole creator. The pilot did not sell but CBS aired it once on April 4, 1975. It was later included as a bonus feature on the Blazing Saddles 30th Anniversary DVD. Musical adaptation With the production of musical adaptations of The Producers and Young Frankenstein, rumors have spread about a possible adaptation to Blazing Saddles. Brooks joked about the concept in the final number in Young Frankenstein, in which the full company sings, "next year Blazing Saddles!" Tony Award-winning choreographer, Jerry Mitchell mentioned hearing of Brooks talking about the possibility in an interview with Broadway World. However, no one has confirmed whether a show is in the works. Please, Mel Brooks, Skip ‘Blazing Saddles: The Musical’ - Vulture - Entertainment & Culture Blog - New York Magazine Soundtrack release After nearly 35 years, the first-ever official, studio-licensed release, in any format, of the full music soundtrack to Blazing Saddles finally came out from La-La Land Records on August 26, 2008. Remastered from original studio vault elements, this Limited Edition CD features the classic songs from the film as well as composer John Morris' score. Bonus tracks on the album include special instrumental versions of all the songs, and the disc features exclusive liner notes featuring comments from Mel Brooks and John Morris. It has been released as a "limited edition" of 3,000 units. 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4,457 | Espagnole_sauce | In cooking, espagnole sauce ( ) is one of the mother sauces that are the basis of sauce-making in classic French cooking. In the late 19th century, Auguste Escoffier codified the recipe, which is still followed today. Auguste Escoffier (1903), Le Guide culinaire, Editions Flammarion Origin of the name Although espagnole is the French word for Spanish, the sauce has little connection with Spanish cuisine. According to Louis Diat, the creator of vichyssoise and the author of the classic Gourmet's Basic French Cookbook: "There is a story that explains why the most important basic brown sauce in French cuisine is called sauce espagnole, or Spanish sauce. According to the story, the Spanish cooks of Louis XIII's bride, Anne, helped to prepare their wedding feast, and insisted upon improving the rich brown sauce of France with Spanish tomatoes. This new sauce was an instant success, and was gratefully named in honor of its creators." However, in Kettner's Book of the Table published in 1877, there is an entirely different explanation: (The name Kettner in the title refers to Auguste Kettner, former chef to Napoleon III who immigrated to England and in 1867 opened a restaurant in Soho–Kettner's– one of the oldest restaurants in London.) Preparation The basic method of making espagnole is to prepare a very dark brown roux, to which veal stock or water is added, along with browned bones, pieces of beef, vegetables, and various seasonings. This blend is allowed to slowly reduce while being frequently skimmed. The classical recipe calls for additional veal stock to be added as the liquid gradually reduces but today water is generally used instead. Tomato paste or pureed tomatoes are added towards the end of the process, and the sauce is further reduced. Uses Espagnole has a strong taste and is rarely used directly on food. As a mother sauce, however, it serves as the starting point for many derivative sauces, such as Sauce Africaine, Sauce Bigarade, Sauce Bourguignonne, Sauce aux Champignons, Sauce Charcutière, Sauce Chasseur, Sauce Chevreuil and Demi-glace. There are hundreds of other derivatives in the classical French repertoire. Escoffier included a recipe for a Lenten espagnole sauce, using fish stock and mushrooms, in the Le Guide culinaire but doubted its necessity. See also Brown sauce (meat stock based) demi-glace References External links The Cook's Decameron from Project Gutenberg Emeril Lagasse's recipe at foodtv.com Free Culinary School Podcast Episode 12 A podcast episode that talks about how to make classical versions of Sauce Espagnole. | Espagnole_sauce |@lemmatized cooking:2 espagnole:7 sauce:22 one:2 mother:2 basis:1 making:1 classic:2 french:5 late:1 century:1 auguste:3 escoffier:3 codify:1 recipe:4 still:1 follow:1 today:2 le:2 guide:2 culinaire:2 edition:1 flammarion:1 origin:1 name:3 although:1 word:1 spanish:5 little:1 connection:1 cuisine:2 accord:2 louis:2 diat:1 creator:2 vichyssoise:1 author:1 gourmet:1 basic:3 cookbook:1 story:2 explain:1 important:1 brown:4 call:2 cook:2 xiii:1 bride:1 anne:1 help:1 prepare:2 wedding:1 feast:1 insist:1 upon:1 improve:1 rich:1 france:1 tomato:3 new:1 instant:1 success:1 gratefully:1 honor:1 however:2 kettner:4 book:1 table:1 publish:1 entirely:1 different:1 explanation:1 title:1 refers:1 former:1 chef:1 napoleon:1 iii:1 immigrate:1 england:1 open:1 restaurant:2 soho:1 old:1 london:1 preparation:1 method:1 make:2 dark:1 roux:1 veal:2 stock:4 water:2 add:3 along:1 browned:1 bone:1 piece:1 beef:1 vegetable:1 various:1 seasoning:1 blend:1 allow:1 slowly:1 reduce:3 frequently:1 skim:1 classical:3 additional:1 liquid:1 gradually:1 generally:1 use:3 instead:1 paste:1 pureed:1 towards:1 end:1 process:1 far:1 us:1 strong:1 taste:1 rarely:1 directly:1 food:1 serve:1 starting:1 point:1 many:1 derivative:2 africaine:1 bigarade:1 bourguignonne:1 aux:1 champignons:1 charcutière:1 chasseur:1 chevreuil:1 demi:2 glace:2 hundred:1 repertoire:1 include:1 lenten:1 fish:1 mushroom:1 doubt:1 necessity:1 see:1 also:1 meat:1 base:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 decameron:1 project:1 gutenberg:1 emeril:1 lagasse:1 foodtv:1 com:1 free:1 culinary:1 school:1 podcast:2 episode:2 talk:1 version:1 |@bigram auguste_escoffier:2 guide_culinaire:2 tomato_paste:1 external_link:1 project_gutenberg:1 emeril_lagasse:1 |
4,458 | Long_Island | Long Island is an island located in southeastern New York, USA, just east of Manhattan. Stretching northeast into the Atlantic Ocean, Long Island contains four counties, two of which (Queens and Kings) are boroughs of New York City—more precisely, Kings County is coterminous with the Borough of Brooklyn—, and two of which (Nassau and Suffolk) are mainly suburban. Numerous bridges and tunnels through Kings (also known as the Borough of Brooklyn) and Queens connect Long Island to the three other boroughs of New York City. Ferries connect Suffolk County northward across Long Island Sound to the state of Connecticut. Both the longest and the largest island in the contiguous United States, Long Island extends 118 miles (190 km) from New York Harbor, and has a maximum width of 23 miles (37 km) between the northern (Long Island Sound) coast and the southern Atlantic coast. With an area of 1,401 square miles (3,629 km2), Long Island is the 11th largest in the United States, and the 149th largest island in the world. The land area of Long Island is larger than that of the state of Rhode Island and larger than any U.S. territory except Puerto Rico. Long Island had a population of 7,448,618 as of the 2000 census, with the population estimated at 7.7 million as of July 1, 2008, making it the most populated island in any U.S. state or territory. It is also the 17th most populous island in the world, ahead of Ireland, Jamaica and the Japanese island of Hokkaidō. Its population density is . If it were a state, Long Island would rank 12th in population. Overview The westernmost end of Long Island contains the New York City boroughs of Brooklyn (Kings County) and Queens (Queens County). The central and eastern portions contain the suburban Nassau and Suffolk counties. However, colloquial usage of the term "Long Island" refers only to Nassau and Suffolk counties; the more dense and urban Brooklyn and Queens are not usually referred to as "Long Island", since they are politically part of New York City. Nassau County is more urbanized and congested than Suffolk County, with pockets of rural affluence in the cliffs of the Gold Coast of the North Shore overlooking the Long Island Sound. South Shore communities are built along protected wetlands and white sand beaches fronting on the Atlantic Ocean and Outer Barrier Islands. Old money from the time of the Revolutionary War populated the island and still does to this day. American aristocrats and European nobility in the Roaring Twenties established large estates on the North Shore. Today, many exist in their original state, while others have been donated to the public as parks, arboretums, universities and museums. Owing to economic growth and the suburbanization of the metropolitan region after World War II, Nassau was the fastest growing county in the United States from the 1950s to the 1970s. Suffolk County remains less congested despite substantial growth in high technology and light manufacturing sectors since 1990. In its far east sections, Suffolk remains small-town rural, as in Greenport on the North Fork and some of the outward areas of The Hamptons, although summer tourism swells the population in those areas. Long Island is known for its affluence and high quality of life. According to the 2000 Census, Nassau County is the third richest county per capita in New York State, and the 30th richest in the nation. Long Island's Nassau County has the second highest property taxes in the United States. Suffolk County has redeveloped North Fork potato fields into a burgeoning wine region. The South Fork is known for beach towns, including the world-renowned Hamptons, and for Montauk Point, home of Montauk Point Lighthouse at the eastern tip of the island. Geography Geology NASA Landsat satellite image of Long Island and surrounding areas. Long Island, as part of the Outer Lands region, is formed largely of two spines of glacial moraine, with a large, sandy outwash plain beyond. These moraines consist of gravel and loose rock left behind during the two most recent pulses of Wisconsin glaciation some 21,000 years ago (19,000 BC). The northern moraine, which directly abuts the North Shore of Long Island at points, is known as the Harbor Hill moraine. The more southerly moraine, known as the Ronkonkoma moraine, forms the "backbone" of Long Island; it runs primarily through the very center of Long Island, roughly coinciding with the length of the Long Island Expressway. The land to the south of this moraine to the South Shore is the outwash plain of the last glacier. Known as the Hempstead Plains, this land contained one of the few natural prairies to exist east of the Appalachian Mountains. The glaciers melted and receded to the north, resulting in the difference between the North Shore beaches and the South Shore beaches. The North Shore beaches are rocky from the remaining glacial debris, while the South Shore's are crisp, clear, outwash sand. Running along the center of the island like a spine is the moraine left by the glaciers. (Bald Hill is the highest point along the moraine.) The glaciers also formed Lake Ronkonkoma, a kettle lake. Climate Long Island has a climate similar to other coastal areas of the Northeastern United States; it has warm, humid summers and cold winters. The Atlantic Ocean helps bring afternoon sea breezes that temper the heat in the warmer months and limit the frequency and severity of thunderstorms. Severe thunderstorms are not uncommon, especially when they approach the island from the mainland areas of the Bronx, Westchester County and Connecticut in the northwest. Average yearly snowfall totals range from approximately 20 to 35 inches (50-89 cm), with the north shore and western parts averaging more than the south shore and the east end. In any given winter, however, some parts of the island could see up to 75 inches (190 cm) or more. There are also some very quiet winters, in which most parts of the island could see less than 10 inches (25 cm).An Animated Map Of A Nor'easter's Movement. Long Island is somewhat vulnerable to hurricanes. Its northern location and relatively cool waters tend to weaken storms to below hurricane strength by the time they reach Long Island, although despite this, some storms have made landfall at Category 1 or greater strength, including two unnamed Category 3 storms in 1938 (New England Hurricane of 1938) and 1944, Hurricane Donna in 1960, Hurricane Belle in 1976, Hurricane Gloria in 1985, Hurricane Bob in 1991 (brushed the eastern tip) and Hurricane Floyd in 1999. (There is debate among climatologists as to whether Hurricane Floyd made landfall as a Category 1 or as a very strong "almost hurricane strength" tropical storm. The official records note it as the latter.) Demographics Long Island is one of the most densely populated regions in the United States. As of the United States 2000 Census, the total population of all four counties of Long Island was 7,448,618. New York City's portion of the census was 4,694,705, with Brooklyn's population at 2,465,326 and Queens having 2,229,379 residents. The combined population of Nassau and Suffolk counties was 2,753,913 people; Suffolk County's share at 1,419,369 and Nassau County's at 1,334,544. Nassau County had a larger population for decades, but Suffolk County surpassed it in the 1990 census as growth and development continued to spread eastward. As Suffolk County has over twice the land area of Nassau County, the latter still has a much higher population density. Combining all four counties, Long Island's population is greater than 38 of the 50 United States. If it were an independent nation, it would rank as the 96th most populated nation, falling between Switzerland and Israel. Population figures from the U.S. Census Bureau Census 2000 http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US36&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-format=ST-2&-mt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTP6_ST2&-CONTEXT=gct show that non-whites are in the majority in the two urban counties of New York City, while whites are in the majority in the two suburban counties of Nassau and Suffolk. Catholics are the largest religious group, with non-affiliated in second place. Racial groups, ethnicity, and religious groups on Long IslandCounty Population2000census %white %blackorAfricanAmerican %Asian %Other %mixedrace %Hispanic/Latinoof anyrace %Catholic % notaffiliated %Jewish %Protestant Estimateof % notreportingRaceEthnicityReligious groupsKings2,465,32641.2%36.4%7.5%10.6%4.3%19.8% 37%4%15%8%33%Queens2,229,37944.1%20.0%17.6%12.3%6.1%25.0% 29%37%11%5%15%Nassau1,334,54479.3%10.1%4.7%3.8%2.1%10.0% 52%9%16%7%15%Suffolk1,419,36984.6%6.9%2.4%4.0%2.1%10.5% 52%21%7%8%11%Totals7,448,61857.2%21.2%9.0%8.6%4.0%17.8% 40%18%12%7%20%Source for Race and Ethnicity: 2000 CensusAmerican Indian, Native Alaskan, Native Hawaiian, and Pacific Islander make up just 0.4% of the population of Long Island, and have been included with "Other".Source for religious groups: ARDA The Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA), Year 2000 Report Churches were asked for their membership numbers. ARDA estimates that most of the churches not reporting were black Protestant congregations. History Montaukett tribe and their neighbors The Brooklyn Bridge is the first of seven bridges constructed across the East River, connecting Long Island with the Borough of Manhattan (in background). At the time of European contact, the Lenape people (named the Delaware by Europeans) inhabited the western end of the Island, and spoke the Munsee dialect of the Algonquian language family. Giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to record an encounter with these people when he entered what is now New York Bay in 1524. The eastern portion of the island was inhabited by speakers of the Mohegan-Montauk-Narragansett language group of the same language family, indicative of their ties to the aboriginal peoples inhabiting what is now Connecticut and Rhode Island. The western portion of Long Island was later settled by the Dutch, while the eastern region was settled by English Puritans from New Haven, Connecticut, settling in Southold on October 21, 1640. The entirety of Long Island came under English dominion in 1664 when the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam was taken over by the English and renamed New York. In 1683, the English established the three original counties on Long Island: Kings, Queens, and Suffolk. During the American Revolutionary War, the island was captured from General George Washington early by the British in the Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the entire war. The island remained a British stronghold until the end of the war, and was the center of much of General Washington's espionage activities due to the proximity to the British North American military headquarters in New York City. After the British victory on Long Island many Patriots fled, leaving mostly Loyalists behind. In the 19th century, Long Island was still mainly rural and agricultural. The predecessor to the Long Island Rail Road began service in 1836 from the ferry terminal (to Manhattan) through Brooklyn to Jamaica in Queens, and completed the line to the east end of Long Island in 1844. From 1830 until 1930, population roughly doubled every twenty years, and several cities were incorporated, such as the City of Brooklyn in Kings County, and Long Island City in Queens. Until the 1883 completion of the Brooklyn Bridge, the only connection between Long Island and the rest of the United States was by boat. Other bridges and tunnels followed, and a suburban character spread as population increased. On January 1, 1898, Kings County and portions of Queens were consolidated into The City of Greater New York, abolishing all cities and towns within them. The easternmost 280 square miles (725 km2) of Queens County, which were not part of the consolidation plan, separated from Queens in 1899 to form Nassau County. In the 1920s and 1930s, Long Island began the transformation from backwoods and farms to the paradigm of the American suburb. Railroads made possible commuting suburbs before construction of the Long Island Expressway and other major roadways. Robert Moses created various parkway projects to span the island, along with state parks for the enjoyment of many. Gradually development started to follow the parkways, with various communities springing up along the more traveled routes. After World War II, Long Island's population skyrocketed, mostly in Nassau County and western Suffolk County. People who worked and lived in New York City moved out to Long Island in new developments built during the post-war boom. The most famous post-war development was the town of Levittown: the area became the first place to massively reproduce houses on a grand scale- providing great opportunity for GI's returning home to start a family. The immigration waves of southern and eastern Europe, followed by more recent ones from Latin America, have been pivotal in creating the diversity on Long Island that many other American regions lack. These immigrations are reflected in the large Italian American, Irish American and Jewish American populations. Economy The counties of Nassau and Suffolk have been long renown for their affluence. F-14 Tomcat on static display pedestal at Grumman Memorial Park, Calverton, New York From about 1930 to about 1990, Long Island was considered one of the aviation centers of the United States, with companies such as Grumman Aircraft having their headquarters and factories in the Bethpage area. Long Island has played a prominent role in scientific research and in engineering. It is the home of the Brookhaven National Laboratory in nuclear physics and Department of Energy research. In recent decades companies such as Sperry Rand, Computer Associates (headquartered in Islandia), and Motorola Enterprise Mobility (now occupying the former headquarters of Symbol Technologies, previously a Grumman plant in Holtsville, New York), have made Long Island a center for the computer industry. Gentiva Health Services, a national provider of home health and pharmacy services, also is headquartered on Long Island. Stony Brook University of the State University of New York conducts far-ranging medical and technology research. Long Island is also home to the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, which was directed for 35 years by James D. Watson (who, along with Francis Crick, discovered the double helix structure of DNA). Long Island is home to the East Coast's largest industrial park, the Hauppauge Industrial Park. The park has over 1,300 companies employing more than 55,000 Long Islanders. Companies in the park and abroad are represented by the Hauppauge Industrial Association. as much as 20 percent of Long Islanders commute to New York City jobs. The eastern end of the island is still partly agricultural. In the last 25 years, development of vineyards on the North Fork became a major new industry, replacing potato fields. Pumpkin farms have been added to traditional truck farming. Farms allow fresh fruit picking by Long Islanders for much of the year. Fishing continues to be an important industry, especially at Northport and Montauk. Government and politics Map of Long Island showing county and municipal boundaries. Nassau County and Suffolk County each have their own governments, with a County Executive leading each. Each has a county legislature and countywide-elected officials, such as district attorney, county clerk and county comptroller. The towns in both counties have their own governments as well, with town supervisors and a town council. Within Nassau, there are two small incorporated cities (Glen Cove and Long Beach) with a combined population of about 65,000. Brooklyn and Queens, on the other hand, do not have independent county governments. As boroughs of New York City, both have Borough Presidents, largely ceremonial offices with little political power. The shutdown of the city's Board of Estimate due to a Supreme Court decision declaring it unconstitutional, led to a reorganization of the city government. Two Indian reservations - Poospatuck Reservation and Shinnecock Reservation located in Suffolk County are the home of Native Americans. Numerous island place names are Native American in origin. Nassau and Suffolk Counties have voted for the Democratic candidate in every presidential election since (and including) 1996. Law enforcement and crime In 2005, Forbes magazine listed Long Island (Nassau & Suffolk counties) as having 2,042 crimes per 100,000 residents, less than half the US average. http://www.forbes.com/lists/2005/05/04/cz_05bestplaces_bestcrimeslide.html Queens and Brooklyn are patrolled by the New York City Police Department; Nassau has its own police department, as does Suffolk. New York State Police patrol state parks and parkways; several dozen villages and the two cities in Nassau have their own police departments. Both Nassau and Suffolk have a sheriff's office that handles civil process, evictions, warrant service and enforcement, prisoner transport and detention, and operation of the county jail. The Nassau County Sheriff's Department employs about 1,000 correction officers and 100 deputy sheriffs and performs the above duties although deputy sheriffs have full police officer powers and can make arrests for any crime they come across. The Suffolk County Sheriff's Office has approximately 900 correction officers and 260 deputy sheriffs and operates the two jail facilities in Suffolk County. The deputy sheriffs in Suffolk County have a full service patrol unit, including K9, Aviation, SWAT, and Marine divisions as well as a Criminal Investigation Division and various other special details and assignments. N.Y.S Court Officers secure court houses for Long Island courts. Additionally, the Suffolk County Sheriff's Department now maintains patrols along the Long Island Expressway as well as Sunrise Highway. State parkways are still patrolled by the New York State Police. Secession proposals On March 28, 2008 Suffolk County, NY Comptroller Joseph Sawicki proposed a plan that would make Long Island (specifically, Nassau and Suffolk counties) the 51st state of the United States of America. Sawicki says that all the Long Island taxpayers' money would stay on Long Island, rather than the funds being dispersed all over the entire state of New York. The state of Long Island would include over 2.7 million people. Another Secession proposal was made on May 12, 2009. As of yet the results of the proposal are unknown Transportation Platforms at Jamaica LaGuardia Airport Aerial view <center>I-495 NY Nassau County Every major form of transportation serves Long Island, including John F. Kennedy International Airport, LaGuardia Airport, and Long Island MacArthur Airport, multiple smaller airports, railroads, subways, and several major highways. There are historic and modern bridges, recreational and commuter trails, and ferries as well. The Long Island Expressway, Northern State Parkway, and Southern State Parkway, all products of the automobile-centered planning of Robert Moses, make east-west travel on the island straightforward, if not always quick. There are currently ten road crossings out of Long Island, all within New York City limits at the extreme western end of the island. Plans for a Long Island Crossing at various locations in Nassau and Suffolk Counties have been discussed for decades, but there are currently no firm plans to construct such a crossing. Major roads of Long IslandWest-East Roads Montauk Highway Sunrise Highway* Belt Parkway / Southern State Parkway Hempstead Turnpike Grand Central Parkway / Northern State Parkway Long Island Expressway Jericho Turnpike/Middle Country Road Northern BoulevardSouth-North Roads Brooklyn-Queens Expressway Van Wyck Expressway Cross Island Parkway Meadowbrook State Parkway Wantagh State Parkway Newbridge Road Cedar Swamp Road/Broadway Seaford-Oyster Bay Expressway Broad Hollow Road Deer Park Avenue Robert Moses Causeway Sagtikos State Parkway Sunken Meadow State Parkway Islip Avenue Nicolls Road William Floyd ParkwayRoads in boldface are limited access roads. *Sunrise Highway is only limited-access from western Suffolk county eastwards. Rail The Long Island Rail Road is the busiest commuter railroad system in North America, carrying an average of 282,400 customers each weekday on 728 daily trains. Chartered on April 24, 1834, it is also the oldest railroad still operating under its original name. http://mta.info/lirr/pubs/aboutlirr.htm Education Primary and secondary education Long Island's Nassau and Suffolk counties are home to 125 public school districts containing a total of 656 public schools. In contrast, all of Brooklyn and Queens are served by the New York City Department of Education, the largest school district in the United States. Long Island is also home to a number of private and parochial schools.The main alley of Stony Brook West Campus Colleges and universities Nassau and Suffolk counties are home to numerous colleges and universities, including: Public Branches of the State University of New York Stony Brook University, including Stony Brook Southampton campus SUNY College at Old Westbury Farmingdale State College Nassau Community College Suffolk County Community College Other United States Merchant Marine Academy Private Adelphi University Briarcliffe College - in Queens at Long Island City; Nassau at Bethpage; and Suffolk at Patchogue Dowling College Five Towns College Hofstra University Gibbs College, Melville Long Island University, C.W. Post Campus Molloy College - in Rockville Centre New York Institute of Technology Polytechnic Institute of New York University (formerly Polytechnic University, now part of NYU) - has a "Long Island Graduate Center" in Suffolk, at Melville Saint John's University Main campus is in Queens, branch campus in Suffolk County St. John's University: Oakdale Campus Saint Joseph's College (Suffolk Campus) Touro Law Center Watson School of Biological Sciences Webb Institute For colleges in Brooklyn and Queens, see List of colleges and universities in New York City. Leisure and recreation Resort areas Food Both Nassau and Suffolk County are home to thousands of restaurants, many of them top quality. As New York is known as a melting pot, every kind of restaurant from Mexican to Hungarian to Indian to Bengali can be found. These specialty restaurants are often family owned. Small family-owned pizzerias are ubiquitous. It is not uncommon for a town on Long Island to have several different pizzerias, each with its own distinct flavor. The Long Island Pizza Festival & Bake-Off is an annual competition in which "mom and pop" pizzerias compete to be named best on Long Island. Bagel stores and delis are common. Some bagel stores are Jewish-owned and approved as kosher. Long Island bagels are considered some of the best in the world. Often more than one deli can be found in a town. Diners also abound on Long Island; many are Greek- and German-owned, and many, depending on the business of the town, are open all night, for late-night patrons. Almost all major fast food and casual dining chains have a presence on Long Island as well. Athletics Long Island is home to numerous famous athletes, including hall of famers Jim Brown, Julius Erving, John Mackey and Carl Yastrzemski. Others include Gold Medalist Sarah Hughes, D'Brickashaw Ferguson, Billy Donovan, Jumbo Elliott, Matt Serra, Boomer Esiason, Vinny Testaverde, Craig Biggio, Frank Catalanotto, Greg Sacks, Rob Burnett, Steve Park, Frank Viola, Marques Colston and Speedy Claxton. Club Sport Founded League Venue Long Island Rough Riders Soccer 1994 United Soccer Leagues Mitchel Athletic Complex <tr> New York Islanders Ice hockey 1972 National Hockey League Nassau Coliseum <tr> Long Island Lizards Lacrosse 2001 Major League Lacrosse Mitchel Athletic Complex <tr> New York Titans Indoor lacrosse 2007 National Lacrosse League Nassau Coliseum/MSG <tr> New York Dragons Arena Football 1995 Arena Football League Nassau Coliseum <tr> Long Island Ducks Baseball 2000 Atlantic League Citibank Park <tr> Strong Island Sound Basketball 2005 American Basketball Association Suffolk County Community College <tr> New York Mets Baseball 1962 Major League Baseball Citi Field <tr> Brooklyn Cyclones Baseball 2001 New York-Penn League KeySpan Park Ebbets Field, which stood in Brooklyn from 1913 to 1957, was the home of the Brooklyn Dodgers baseball team, who decamped to California after the 1957 season to become the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Dodgers won several National League penants in the 1940s and 1950s, losing several times in the World Series—often called Subway Series—to their Bronx rivals, the New York Yankees. The Dodgers won their lone championship in Brooklyn in the 1955 World Series versus the Yankees. The Brooklyn Nets Arena is a proposed sports arena, business and residential complex to be built partly on a platform over the Atlantic Yards at Atlantic Avenue, and is intended to serve as a new home for the New Jersey Nets. The New York Mets baseball team now plays at the new Citi Field in Flushing, Queens. Their former stadium, Shea Stadium was also home for (The New York Jets football team from 1964 until 1983. The new stadium is designed with an exterior facade and main entry rotunda inspired by Ebbets Field. The Brooklyn Cyclones are a minor league baseball team, affiliated with the New York Mets. The Cyclones play at KeySpan Park just off the boardwalk on Coney Island in Brooklyn. Nassau County is home to the New York Islanders of the National Hockey League and the New York Dragons of the Arena Football League, who both play at the Nassau Coliseum in Uniondale. Long Island has been a hot spot for outdoor lacrosse at the youth and college level, which made way for a Major League Lacrosse team in 2001, the Long Island Lizards. The Lizards play at Mitchel Athletic Complex in Uniondale. The longest dirt Thoroughbred racecourse in the world is located in the Nassau County community of Elmont at Belmont Park. Long Island is also home to the Long Island Ducks minor league baseball team of the Atlantic League. Their stadium, Citibank Park, is located in Central Islip. The American Basketball Association's Strong Island Sound play home games at Suffolk County Community College. The two main rugby teams are the Long Island RFC in East Meadow and the Suffolk Bull Moose in Stony Brook. It also has a professional soccer club, the Long Island Rough Riders, who play at Mitchel Athletic Complex in Uniondale. The Rough Riders have won two national championships, in 1995 and 2002. Another category of sporting events popular in this region are Firematic Racing events, involving many local Volunteer fire departments. Music Music on Long Island (Nassau and Suffolk) is influenced by the proximity to New York City and by the youth culture of the suburbs. Psychedelic rock was widely popular in the 1960s as flocks of disaffected youth travelled to NYC to participate in protest and the culture of the time. R & B also has a history on Long Island, especially in Nassau County, where population is denser and more closely influenced by New York City. Nikon at Jones Beach Theater Nikon at Jones Beach Theater is an outdoor amphitheatre, located at Jones Beach State Park. Jones Beach State Park is a popular place to view summer concerts, with new as well as classic artists performing there during the summer months at its outdoor venue. It hosts a large Fourth of July fireworks show every year, and the stands are filled. People park cars along the highway leading to the show, and others watch from the nearby beaches. Long Island is also known for its schools' music programs. Many schools in Suffolk County have distinguished music programs, with high numbers of students who are accepted into the state-wide All-State music groups, or even the National All-Eastern Coast music groups. Both the Suffolk County and Nassau County Music Educator's Associations are recognized by The National Association of Music Education (MENC) , and host numerous events, competitions, and other music-related activities. Notable musicians of the Long Island (Nassau and Suffolk County) music scene include; Billy Joel, Pat Benatar, godfather of punk rock Lou Reed, Paul Simon, Johnny Ramone, Dream Theater, Debbie Gibson, Eddie Money, new-age musician John Tesh, Public Enemy, Mariah Carey, Busta Rhymes, Shaggy, folk singer Oscar Brand, Harry Chapin, De La Soul, Brooklyn Bridge, Ashanti, Dee Snider, LL Cool J, Lindsay Lohan, Chuck D, Flavor Flav, EPMD, Rakim, Blue Öyster Cult, Stray Cats, Nine Days, Vanilla Fudge, Marty Beller and Danny Weinkauf (They Might Be Giants)Glassjaw, Taking Back Sunday, Sam "Bluzman" Taylor, Straylight Run, Patent Pending, Nightmare of You, The Repercussions, From Autumn to Ashes, Brand New, Virtuoso guitarists Steve Vai, Joe Satriani, and Lee Ranaldo, and underground MCs Aesop Rock and MF Doom . Artists from the counties of Kings and Queens have been numerous. Notable hip-hop artists from these counties have included Jay Z, Nas, 50 Cent, Lloyd Banks, Mobb Deep, LL Cool J, Q-Tip, Fugees, Mos Def, Foxy Brown, Fabolous, Notorious B.I.G., Wu-Tang Clan, the Beastie Boys, They Might Be Giants,Run-D.M.C., and A Tribe Called Quest. Folk artist Art Garfunkel also hails from Queens. Long Island gallery See also List of Long Islanders, famous residents of Nassau and Suffolk List of people from New York City, including famous residents of Brooklyn and Queens List of references to Long Island places in popular culture Geography and environment of New York City Long Island Association Shoreham Nuclear Power Plant Long Island Marathon References External links Geology of Long Island | Long_Island |@lemmatized long:106 island:124 locate:5 southeastern:1 new:57 york:45 usa:1 east:10 manhattan:3 stretch:1 northeast:1 atlantic:8 ocean:3 contain:5 four:3 county:74 two:13 queen:22 king:8 borough:8 city:28 precisely:1 coterminous:1 brooklyn:23 nassau:42 suffolk:46 mainly:2 suburban:4 numerous:6 bridge:7 tunnel:2 also:16 know:8 connect:3 three:2 ferry:3 northward:1 across:3 sound:5 state:42 connecticut:4 large:14 contiguous:1 united:14 extend:1 mile:4 km:2 harbor:3 maximum:1 width:1 northern:6 coast:5 southern:4 area:11 square:2 world:9 land:5 rhode:2 u:4 territory:2 except:1 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4,459 | Curium | This article is about the chemical element Curium; for the ancient city also called Curium (located in Cyprus), see Kourion Curium () is a synthetic chemical element with the symbol Cm and atomic number 96. A radioactive metallic transuranic element of the actinide series, curium is produced by bombarding plutonium with alpha particles (helium ions) and was named for Marie Curie and her husband Pierre. Characteristics The isotope curium-248 has been synthesized only in milligram quantities, but curium-242 and curium-244 are made in multigram amounts, which allows for the determination of some of the element's properties. Curium-244 can be made in quantity by subjecting plutonium to neutron bombardment. Curium does not occur in nature. There are few commercial applications for curium but it may one day be useful in radioisotope thermoelectric generators. Curium bio-accumulates in bone tissue where its radiation destroys bone marrow and thus stops red blood cell creation. A rare earth homolog, curium is somewhat chemically similar to gadolinium but with a more complex crystal structure. Chemically reactive, its metal is silvery-white in color and the element is more electropositive than aluminium (most trivalent curium compounds are slightly yellow). Curium has been studied greatly as a potential fuel for radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG). Curium-242 can generate up to 120 watts of thermal energy per gram (W/g); however, its very short half-life makes it undesirable as a power source for long-term use. Curium-242 can decay by alpha emission to plutonium-238 which is the most common fuel for RTGs. Curium-244 has also been studied as an energy source for RTGs having a maximum energy density ~3 W/g, Gmelins Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie, System Nr. 71, Band 7 a, Transurane, Teil A 2, p. 289. but produces a large amount of neutron radiation from spontaneous fission. Curium-243 with a ~30 year half-life and good energy density of ~1.6 W/g would seem to make an ideal fuel, but it produces significant amounts of gamma and beta radiation from radioactive decay products. Compounds Some compounds are: curium dioxide (CmO2) curium trioxide (Cm2O3) curium bromide (CmBr3) curium chloride (CmCl3) curium tetrafluoride (CmF4) curium iodide (CmI3) History Curium was first synthesized at the University of California, Berkeley by Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James, and Albert Ghiorso in 1944. The team named the new element after Marie Curie and her husband Pierre who are famous for discovering radium and for their work in radioactivity. It was chemically identified at the Metallurgical Laboratory (now Argonne National Laboratory) at the University of Chicago. It was actually the third transuranium element to be discovered even though it is the fourth in the series. Curium-242 (half-life 163 days) and one free neutron were made by bombarding alpha particles onto a plutonium-239 target in the 60-inch cyclotron at Berkeley. G. T. Seaborg, R. A. James, A. Ghiorso: "The New Element Curium (Atomic Number 96)", NNES PPR (National Nuclear Energy Series, Plutonium Project Record), Vol. 14 B, The Transuranium Elements: Research Papers, Paper No. 22.2, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1949; Abstract; Typoskript (January 1948). Due to the fact that the discovery of the new elements, curium and americium, was closely related to the Manhattan Project the results were confidential and publication was impossible. Seaborg announced the discovery of the elements on the radio show for kids, the Quiz Kids, five days before the official presentation at an American Chemical Society meeting on November 11, 1945. Seaborg also patented the synthesis of the new elements. Patent Nr. 3161462 bei Google Patents. Louis Werner and Isadore Perlman created a visible sample of curium-242 hydroxide at the University of California in 1947 by bombarding americium-241 with neutrons. L. B. Werner, I. Perlman: "Isolation of Curium", NNES PPR (National Nuclear Energy Series, Plutonium Project Record), Vol. 14 B, The Transuranium Elements: Research Papers, Paper No. 22.5, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1949. Curium was made in its elemental form in 1951 for the first time. Isotopes 19 radioisotopes of curium have been characterized, with the most stable being Cm-247 with a half-life of 1.56 × 107 years, Cm-248 with a half-life of 3.40 × 105 years, Cm-250 with a half-life of 9000 years, and Cm-245 with a half-life of 8500 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 30 years, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 33 days. This element also has 4 meta states, with the most stable being Cm-244m (t½ 34 ms). The isotopes of curium range in atomic weight from 233.051 u (Cm-233) to 252.085 u (Cm-252). Nuclear fuel cycle Transmutation flow between 238Pu and 244Cm in LWR. Fission percentage is 100 minus shown percentages.Total rate of transmutation varies greatly by nuclide.245Cm–248Cm are long-lived with negligible decay. Thermal neutron cross sections 242Cm243Cm244Cm245Cm246Cm247CmFission56171.0421450.1481.90Capture1613015.203691.2257C/F ratio3.200.2114.620.178.710.70 LEU spent fuel 20 years after 53 MWd/kg burnup 3 common isotopes 513700390 Fast reactor MOX fuel (avg 5 samples, burnup 66-120GWd/t) Total curium 3.09% 27.64%70.16%2.166%0.0376%0.000928% The odd-mass number isotopes are fissile, the even-mass number isotopes are not and can only capture neutrons, but very slowly. Therefore in a thermal reactor the even-mass isotopes accumulate as burnup increases. The MOX which is to be used in power reactors should contain little or no curium as the neutron activation of 248Cm will create californium which is a strong neutron emitter. The californium would pollute the back end of the fuel cycle and increase the dose to workers. Hence if the minor actinides are to be used as fuel in a thermal neutron reactor, the curium should be excluded from the fuel or placed in special fuel rods where it is the only actinide present. Applications The Curium isotopes 244Cm and 242Cm are strong alpha emitters with a halflife in the months to years range and produce considerable heat during this process. These properties make them useful for applications as alpha particle source and as heat generator in radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG). A 244Curium source is used for the Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer on board several American and European space missions, for example the Mars Exploration Rover and the Rosetta/Philae. The use in RTG is proposed for several future missions. References Literature Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition, Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1. External links Los Alamos National Laboratory - Curium It's Elemental – Curium Human Health Fact Sheet on Curium WebElements.com – Curium NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Curium, Radioactive | Curium |@lemmatized article:1 chemical:3 element:15 curium:42 ancient:1 city:1 also:4 call:1 locate:1 cyprus:1 see:1 kourion:1 synthetic:1 symbol:1 cm:8 atomic:3 number:4 radioactive:4 metallic:1 transuranic:1 actinide:3 series:4 produce:4 bombard:3 plutonium:6 alpha:6 particle:4 helium:1 ion:1 name:2 marie:2 curie:2 husband:2 pierre:2 characteristic:1 isotope:8 synthesize:2 milligram:1 quantity:2 make:7 multigram:1 amount:3 allow:1 determination:1 property:2 subject:1 neutron:9 bombardment:1 occur:1 nature:1 commercial:1 application:3 may:1 one:2 day:4 useful:2 radioisotope:4 thermoelectric:3 generator:4 bio:1 accumulates:1 bone:2 tissue:1 radiation:3 destroy:1 marrow:1 thus:1 stop:1 red:1 blood:1 cell:1 creation:1 rare:1 earth:1 homolog:1 somewhat:1 chemically:3 similar:1 gadolinium:1 complex:1 crystal:1 structure:1 reactive:1 metal:1 silvery:1 white:1 color:1 electropositive:1 aluminium:1 trivalent:1 compound:3 slightly:1 yellow:1 study:2 greatly:2 potential:1 fuel:10 rtg:3 generate:1 watt:1 thermal:4 energy:6 per:1 gram:1 w:3 g:4 however:1 short:1 half:9 life:8 undesirable:1 power:2 source:4 long:2 term:1 use:5 decay:3 emission:1 common:2 rtgs:2 maximum:1 density:2 gmelins:1 handbuch:1 der:1 anorganischen:1 chemie:1 system:1 nr:2 band:1 transurane:1 teil:1 p:1 large:1 spontaneous:1 fission:2 year:8 good:1 would:2 seem:1 ideal:1 significant:1 gamma:1 beta:1 product:1 dioxide:1 trioxide:1 bromide:1 chloride:1 tetrafluoride:1 iodide:1 history:1 first:2 university:4 california:2 berkeley:2 glenn:1 seaborg:4 ralph:1 james:2 albert:2 ghiorso:2 team:1 new:6 famous:1 discover:2 radium:1 work:1 radioactivity:1 identify:1 metallurgical:1 laboratory:3 argonne:1 national:4 chicago:1 actually:1 third:1 transuranium:3 even:3 though:1 fourth:1 free:1 onto:1 target:1 inch:1 cyclotron:1 r:1 nne:2 ppr:2 nuclear:3 project:3 record:2 vol:2 b:3 research:2 paper:4 mcgraw:2 hill:2 book:2 co:2 inc:2 york:2 abstract:1 typoskript:1 january:1 due:1 fact:2 discovery:2 americium:2 closely:1 relate:1 manhattan:1 result:1 confidential:1 publication:1 impossible:1 announce:1 radio:1 show:2 kid:2 quiz:1 five:1 official:1 presentation:1 american:2 society:1 meeting:1 november:1 patent:3 synthesis:1 bei:1 google:1 louis:1 werner:2 isadore:1 perlman:2 create:2 visible:1 sample:2 hydroxide:1 l:1 isolation:1 elemental:2 form:1 time:1 characterize:1 stable:2 remain:1 less:2 majority:1 live:2 meta:1 state:1 range:2 weight:1 u:2 cycle:2 transmutation:2 flow:1 lwr:1 percentage:2 minus:1 total:2 rate:1 varies:1 nuclide:1 negligible:1 cross:1 section:1 f:1 leu:1 spent:1 mwd:1 kg:1 burnup:3 fast:1 reactor:4 mox:2 avg:1 odd:1 mass:3 fissile:1 capture:1 slowly:1 therefore:1 accumulate:1 increase:2 contain:1 little:1 activation:1 californium:2 strong:2 emitter:2 pollute:1 back:1 end:1 dose:1 worker:1 hence:1 minor:1 exclude:1 place:1 special:1 rod:1 present:1 isotopes:1 halflife:1 month:1 considerable:1 heat:2 process:1 x:1 ray:1 spectrometer:1 board:1 several:2 european:1 space:1 mission:2 example:1 mar:1 exploration:1 rover:1 rosetta:1 philae:1 propose:1 future:1 reference:1 literature:1 guide:1 revise:1 edition:1 stwertka:1 oxford:1 press:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 los:1 alamos:1 human:1 health:1 sheet:1 webelements:1 com:1 nlm:1 hazardous:1 substance:1 databank:1 |@bigram transuranic_element:1 marie_curie:2 neutron_bombardment:1 radioisotope_thermoelectric:3 thermoelectric_generator:3 bone_marrow:1 chemically_reactive:1 silvery_white:1 handbuch_der:1 spontaneous_fission:1 radioactive_decay:1 glenn_seaborg:1 albert_ghiorso:1 metallurgical_laboratory:1 argonne_national:1 transuranium_element:3 mcgraw_hill:2 closely_relate:1 isotope_radioisotope:1 radioactive_isotope:1 varies_greatly:1 thermal_neutron:2 neutron_activation:1 alpha_emitter:1 ray_spectrometer:1 albert_stwertka:1 stwertka_oxford:1 external_link:1 los_alamos:1 alamos_national:1 webelements_com:1 |
4,460 | Musical_notation | Hand-written musical notation by J. S. Bach: beginning of the Prelude from the Suite for Lute in G minor BWV 995 (transcription of Cello Suite No. 5, BWV 1011) BR Bruxelles II. 4805. Music notation or musical notation is any system which represents aurally perceived music, through the use of written symbols. History The earliest form of musical notation can be found in a cuneiform tablet that was created at Nippur in about 2000 B.C. The tablet represents fragmentary instructions for performing music, that the music was composed in harmonies of thirds, and that it was written using a diatonic scale. Kilmer 1986 A tablet from about 1250 B.C. shows a more developed form of notation. Kilmer 1965 Although the interpretation of the notation system is still controversial, it is clear that the notation indicates the names of strings on a lyre, the tuning of which is described in other tablets. West 1994 Although they were fragmentary, these tablets represent the earliest recorded melodies found anywhere in the world. Ancient Greece Photograph of the original stone at Delphi containing the second of the two hymns to Apollo. The music notation is the line of occasional symbols above the main, uninterrupted line of Greek lettering. Ancient Greek musical notation was capable of representing pitch and note-duration, and to a limited extent, harmony. It was in use from at least the 6th century BC until approximately the 4th century AD; several complete compositions and fragments of compositions using this notation survive. The notation consists of symbols placed above text syllables. An example of a complete composition is the Seikilos epitaph, which has been variously dated between the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD. Three hymns by Mesomedes of Crete exist in manuscript. The Delphic Hymns, dated to the 2nd century BC, also use this notation, but they are not completely preserved. Ancient Greek notation appears to have fallen out of use around the time of the Decline of the Roman Empire. Arab world Al-Kindi (801–873 AD) was the first great theoretician of Arabic music. He proposed adding a fifth string to the 'ud and discussed the cosmological connotations of music. He surpassed the achievement of the Greek musicians, in using the alphabetical annotation for one eighth. He published fifteen treatises on music theory, but only five have survived. Al-Farabi, the influential persian polymath, (872–950) wrote a notable book on music theory entitled Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir (The Great Book of Music). His pure Arabian tone system is still used in Arabic music. Habib Hassan Touma (1996), The Music of the Arabs, p. 170, trans. Laurie Schwartz, Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, ISBN 0-931340-88-8 Arabic maqam is the system of melodic modes used in traditional Arabic music, which is mainly melodic. The word maqam in Arabic means place, location or rank. The Arabic maqam is a melody type. Each maqam is built on a scale, and carries a tradition that defines its habitual phrases, important notes, melodic development and modulation. Both compositions and improvisations in traditional Arabic music are based on the maqam system. Maqams can be realized with either vocal or instrumental music, and do not include a rhythmic component. A theory on the origins of the Western solfège musical notation suggests that it may have had Arabic origins. It has been argued that the solfège syllables (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti) may have been derived from the syllables of the Arabic solmization system Durr-i-Mufassal ("Separated Pearls") (dal, ra, mim, fa, sad, lam). This origin theory was first proposed by Francis Meninski in his Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum (1680) and then by Jean Benjamin De Laborde in his Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne (1780). Early Europe Scholar and music theorist Isidore of Seville, writing in the early 7th century, remarked that it was impossible to notate music. By the middle of the 9th century, however, a form of notation began to develop in monasteries in Europe for Gregorian chant, using symbols known as neumes; the earliest surviving musical notation of this type is in the Musica disciplina of Aurelian of Réôme, from about 850. There are scattered survivals from the Iberian Peninsula before this time, of a type of notation known as Visigothic neumes, but its few surviving fragments have not yet been deciphered. The ancestors of modern symbolic music notation originated in the Roman Catholic Church, as monks developed methods to put plainchant (sacred songs) to paper. The earliest of these ancestral systems, from the 8th century, did not originally utilise a staff, and used neum (or neuma or pneuma), a system of dots and strokes that were placed above the text. Although capable of expressing considerable musical complexity, they could not exactly express pitch or time and served mainly as a reminder to one who already knew the tune, rather than a means by which one who had never heard the tune could sing it exactly at sight. Early Music Notation To address the issue of exact pitch, a staff was introduced consisting originally of a single horizontal line, but this was progressively extended until a system of four parallel, horizontal lines was standardized. The vertical positions of each mark on the staff indicated which pitch or pitches it represented (pitches were derived from a musical mode, or key). Although the four-line staff has remained in use until the present day for plainchant, for other types of music, staffs with differing numbers of lines have been used at various times and places for various instruments. The modern five-line staff was first adopted in France and became almost universal by the 16th century (although the use of staffs with other numbers of lines was still widespread well into the 17th century). Because the neum system arose from the need to notate songs, exact timing was initially not a particular issue because the music would generally follow the natural rhythms of the Latin language. However, by the 10th century a system of representing up to four note lengths had been developed. These lengths were relative rather than absolute and depended on the duration of the neighbouring notes. It was not until the 14th century that something like the present system of fixed note lengths arose. Starting in the 15th century, vertical bar lines were used to divide the staff into sections. These did not initially divide the music into measures (bars) of equal length (as most music then featured far fewer regular rhythmic patterns than in later periods), but appear to have been introduced as an aid to the eye for "lining up" notes on different staves that were to be played or sung at the same time. The use of regular measures (bars) became commonplace by the end of the 17th century. The founder of what is now considered the standard music stave was Guido d'Arezzo, an Italian Benedictine monk who lived from 995–1050. His revolutionary method—combining a four-line stave with the first form of notes known as 'neumes'—was the precursor to the five-line stave, which was introduced in the 14th century and is still in use today. Guido D'Arezzo's achievements paved the way for the modern form of written music, music books, and the modern concept of a composer. Modern notation An example of modern musical notation: Prelude, Op. 28, No. 7, by Frederic Chopin Modern music notation originated in European classical music and is now used by musicians of many different genres throughout the world. The system uses a five-line staff. Pitch is shown by placement of notes on the staff (sometimes modified by accidentals), and duration is shown with different note values and additional symbols such as dots and ties. Notation is read from left to right, which makes setting music for right-to-left scripts difficult. A staff of written music generally begins with a clef, which indicates the particular range of pitches encompassed by the staff. Notes representing a pitch outside of the scope of the five line staff can be represented using ledger lines, which provide a single note with additional lines and spaces. Following the clef, the key signature on a staff indicates the key of the piece by specifying certain notes to be flat or sharp throughout the piece, unless otherwise indicated. Following the key signature is the time signature. Measures (bars) divide the piece into regular groupings of beats, and the time signatures specify those groupings. Directions to the player regarding matters such as tempo and dynamics are added above or below the staff. For vocal music, lyrics are written. For short pauses (breaths), retakes (looks like ') are added. In music for ensembles, a "score" shows music for all players together, while "parts" contain only the music played by an individual musician. A score can be constructed (laboriously) from a complete set of parts and vice versa. Variations Percussion notation conventions are varied because of the wide range of percussion instruments. Percussion instruments are generally grouped into two categories: pitched and non-pitched. The notation of non-pitched percussion instruments is the more problematic and less standardized. Figured bass notation originated in baroque basso continuo parts. It is also used extensively in accordion notation. The bass notes of the music are conventionally notated, along with numbers and other signs which determine the chords to be played. It does not, however, specify the exact pitches of the harmony, leaving that for the performer to improvise. A lead sheet A lead sheet specifies only the melody, lyrics and harmony, using one staff with chord symbols placed above and lyrics below. It is used to capture the essential elements of a popular song without specifying how the song should be arranged or performed. lright|A chord chart A chord chart or "chart" contains little or no melodic information at all but provides detailed harmonic and rhythmic information, using slash notation and rhythmic notation. This is the most common kind of written music used by professional session musicians playing jazz or other forms of popular music and is intended primarily for the rhythm section (usually containing piano, guitar, bass and drums). Simpler chord charts for songs may contain only the chord changes, placed above the lyrics where they occur. Such charts depend on prior knowledge of the melody, and are used as reminders in performance or informal group singing. The shape note system is found in some church hymnals, sheet music, and song books, especially in the Southern United States. Instead of the customary elliptical note head, note heads of various shapes are used to show the position of the note on the major scale. Sacred Harp is one of the most popular tune books using shape notes. Notation in various countries India Indian music, early 20th century The Indian scholar and musical theorist Pingala (c. 200 BC), in his Chanda Sutra, used marks indicating long and short syllables to indicate meters in Sanskrit poetry. In the notation of Indian rāga, a solfege-like system called sargam is used. As in Western solfege, there are names for the seven basic pitches of a major scale (Shadja, Rishabh, Gandhar, Madhyam, Pancham, Dhaivat and Nishad, usually shortened Sa Re Ga ma Pa Dha Ni). The tonic of any scale is named Sa, and the dominant Pa. Sa is fixed in any scale, and Pa is fixed at a fifth above it (a Pythagorean fifth rather than an equal-tempered fifth). These two notes are known as achala swar ('fixed notes'). Each of the other five notes, Re, Ga, ma, Dha and Ni, can take a 'regular' (shuddha) pitch, which is equivalent to its pitch in a standard major scale (thus, shuddha Re, the second degree of the scale, is a whole-step higher than Sa), or an altered pitch, either a half-step above or half-step below the shuddha pitch. Re, Ga, Dha and Ni all have altered partners that are a half-step lower (Komal-"flat") (thus, komal Re is a half-step higher than Sa). Ma has an altered partner that is a half-step higher (teevra-"sharp") (thus, tivra Ma is an augmented fourth above Sa). Re, Ga, ma, Dha and Ni are called vikrut swar ('movable notes'). In the written system of Indian notation devised by Ravi Shankar, the pitches are represented by Western letters. Capital letters are used for the achala swar, and for the higher variety of all the vikrut swar. Lowercase letters are used for the lower variety of the vikrut swar. Other systems exist for non-twelve-tone equal temperament and non-Western music, such as the Indian svar lippi. New systems that remove handicaps in existing systems are also being developed like Ome Swarlipi. Russia In Byzantium and Russia, sacred music was notated with special 'hooks and banners'. China Chinese Qin notation, 1425 The earliest known examples of text referring to music in China are inscriptions on musical instruments found in the Tomb of Marquis Ye of Zeng (d. 433 B.C.E.). Sets of 41 chimestones and 65 bells bore lengthy inscriptions concerning pitches, scales, and transposition. The bells still sound the pitches that their inscriptions refer to. Although no notated musical compositions were found, the inscriptions indicate that the system was sufficiently advanced to allow for musical notation. Two systems of pitch nomenclature existed, one for relative pitch and one for absolute pitch. For relative pitch, a solmization system was used. The tablature of the guqin is unique and complex; the older form is composed of written words describing how to play a melody step-by-step using the plain language of the time, i.e. Descriptive Notation (Classical Chinese); the newer form, composed of bits of Chinese characters put together to indicate the method of play is called Prescriptive Notation. Rhythm is only vaguely indicated in terms of phrasing. Tablatures for the qin are collected in what is called qinpu. The jianpu system of notation (probably an adaptation of a French Galin-Paris-Cheve system) had gained widespread acceptance by 1900 C.E. In this system, notes of the scale are numbered. For a typical Pentatonic scale, the numbers 1,2,3,5,6 would be used as notes and 0 as rests. Dots above or below a numeral indicate the octave of the note it represents. Key signatures, barlines, and time signatures are also employed. Many symbols from Western standard notation, such as bar lines, time signatures, accidentals, tie and slur, and the expression markings are also used. The number of dashes following a numeral represents the number of crotchets (4th notes) by which the note extends. The number of underlines is analogous to the number of flags or beams on notes or rests in standard notation. In the present-day jianpu system, the melody is notated alone or with chords. Harmonic and rhythmic elements are left to the discretion of the performers. Japan Japanese music is highly diversified, and therefore requires various systems of notation. In Japanese shakuhachi music, for example, glissandos and timbres are often more significant than distinct pitches, whereas taiko notation focuses on discrete strokes. Indonesia Notation plays a relatively minor role in the oral traditions of Indonesia. However, in Java and Bali, several systems were devised beginning at the end of the 19th century, initially for archival purposes. Today the most widespread are cipher notations ("not angka" in the broadest sense) in which the pitches are represented with some subset of the numbers 1 to 7, with 1 corresponding to either highest note of a particular octave, as in Sundanese gamelan, or lowest, as in the kepatihan notation of Javanese gamelan. Notes in the ranges outside the central octave are represented with one or more dots above or below the each number. For the most part, these cipher notations are mainly used to notate the skeletal melody (the balungan) and vocal parts (gerongan), although transcriptions of the elaborating instrument variations are sometimes used for analysis and teaching. Drum parts are notated with a system of symbols largely based on letters representing the vocables used to learn and remember drumming patterns; these symbols are typically laid out in a grid underneath the skeletal melody for a specific or generic piece. The symbols used for drum notation (as well as the vocables represented) are highly variable from place to place and performer to performer. In addition to these current systems, two older notations used a kind of staff: the Solonese script could capture the flexible rhythms of the pesinden with a squiggle on a horizontal staff, while in Yogyakarta a ladder-like vertical staff allowed notation of the balungan by dots and also included important drum strokes. In Bali, there are a few books published of Gamelan gender wayang pieces, employing alphabetical notation in the old Balinese script. Composers and scholars both Indonesian and foreign have also mapped the slendro and pelog tuning systems of gamelan onto the western staff, with and without various symbols for microtones. The Dutch composer Ton de Leeuw also invented a three line staff for his composition Gending. However, these systems do not enjoy widespread use. In the second half of the twentieth century, Indonesian musicians and scholars extended cipher notation to other oral traditions, and a diatonic scale cipher notation has become common for notating western-related genres (church hymns, popular songs, and so forth). Unlike the cipher notation for gamelan music, which uses a "fixed Do" (that is, 1 always corresponds to the same pitch, within the natural variability of gamelan tuning), Indonesian diatonic cipher notation is "moveable-Do" notation, so scores must indicate which pitch corresponds to the number 1 (for example, "1=C." Other systems and practices Cipher notation In many cultures, including Chinese (jianpu or gongche), Indonesian (kepatihan), and Indian (sargam), the "sheet music" consists primarily of the numbers, letters or native characters representing notes in order. Those different systems are collectively known as cipher notations. The numbered notation is an example, so are letter notation and Solfège if written in musical sequence. Solfège Solfège is a way of assigning syllables to names of the musical scale. In order, they are today: Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Ti Do' (for the octave). The classic variation is: Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si Do' . These functional names of the musical notes were introduced by Guido of Arezzo (c.991 – after 1033) using the beginning syllables of the first six musical lines of the Latin hymn Ut queant laxis. The original sequence was Ut Re Mi Fa Sol La, where each verse would start a note higher. "Ut" later became "Do". The equivalent syllables used in Indian music are: Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni, while the 'bilinear music notation' system offers a chromatic method: Li (Je) Ja (Bo) Baw Zu (Zer or Fer) Fee (De) Da (Go) and Gaw. See also: solfège, sargam, Kodály Hand Signs. In China Qi is used instead of Ti (Qi for 七, Chinese 7). Tonic sol-fa is a type of notation using the initial letters of solfège. Letter notation The notes of the 12-tone scale can be written by their letter names A–G, possibly with a trailing sharp or flat symbol, such as A or B. This is the most common way of specifying a note in English speech or written text. Tablature Tablature was first used in the Renaissance for lute music. A staff is used, but instead of pitch values, the fret or frets to be fingered are written instead. Rhythm is written separately and durations are relative and indicated by horizontal space between notes. In later periods, lute and guitar music was written with standard notation. Tablature caught interest again in the late 20th century for popular guitar music and other fretted instruments, being easy to transcribe and share over the internet in ASCII format. Websites like OLGA.net (currently off-line pending legal disputes) have archives of text-based popular music tablature. Klavar notation Klavar notation (or "klavarskribo") is a chromatic system of notation geared mainly towards keyboard instruments, which transposes the usual "graph" of music. The pitches are indicated horizontally, with "staff" lines in twos and threes like the keyboard, and the sequence of music is read vertically from top to bottom. A considerable body of repertoire has been transcribed into Klavar notation. Klavar notation eliminates the need of accidentals and key signatures, and its advocates claim that this facilitates music-reading. 12-note non-equal temperament Sometimes the pitches of music written in just intonation are notated with the frequency ratios, while Ben Johnston has devised a system for representing just intonation with traditional western notation and the addition of accidentals which indicate the cents a pitch is to be lowered or raised. Chromatic staff notations Over the past three centuries, hundreds of music notation systems have been proposed as alternatives to traditional western music notation. Many of these systems seek to improve upon traditional notation by using a "chromatic staff" in which each of the 12 pitch classes has its own unique place on the staff. Examples are the Ailler-Brennink notation, Tom Reed's Twinline notation, John Keller's Express Stave, and José A. Sotorrio's Bilinear Music Notation. These notation systems do not require the use of standard key signatures, accidentals, or clef signs. They also represent interval relationships more consistently and accurately than traditional notation. The Music Notation Project (formerly known as the Music Notation Modernization Association) has a website with information on many of these notation systems. Graphic notation The term 'graphic notation' refers to the contemporary use of non-traditional symbols and text to convey information about the performance of a piece of music. It is used for experimental music, which in many cases is difficult to transcribe in standard notation. Practitioners include Christian Wolff, Earle Brown, John Cage, Morton Feldman, Krzysztof Penderecki, Cornelius Cardew, and Roger Reynolds. See Notations, edited by John Cage and Alison Knowles, ISBN 0-685-14864-5. Simplified Music Notation Simplified Music Notation is an alternative form of musical notation designed to make sight-reading easier. It is based on classical staff notation, but sharps and flats are incorporated into the shape of the noteheads. Notes such as double sharps and double flats are written at the pitch at which they are actually played, but preceded by symbols called 'History Signs' to show that they have been transposed. The notation was designed to help people who struggle with sight-reading, including those who suffer from working memory impairments, dyslexia and other learning difficulties. Parsons code Parsons code is used to encode music so that it can be easily searched. This style is designed to be used by individuals without any musical background. Braille music Braille music is a complete, well developed, and internationally accepted musical notation system that has symbols and notational conventions quite independent of print music notation. It is linear in nature, similar to a printed language and different from the two-dimensional nature of standard printed music notation. To a degree Braille music resembles musical markup languages such as XML for Music or NIFF. Integer notation In integer notation, or the integer model of pitch, all pitch classes and intervals between pitch classes are designated using the numbers 0 through 11. It is not used to notate music for performance, but is a common analytical and compositional tool when working with chromatic music, including twelve-tone technique, serial, or otherwise atonal music. Turntablist transcription methodology Computer musical notation Beside notations developed for human readers and performers, there are also many computer oriented representations of music designed to either be turned into conventional notation, or read directly by the computer. There are a great many software programs designed to produce musical notation. These are called musical notation software, or sometimes Scorewriters. In addition to this software, there are many file formats used to store musical information that this software and other programs can convert into notation, sound, or into some other usable form. In a sense, these file formats are a "notation" for computers. The most common musical file format is probably the MIDI file format, which stores pitch and timing information about music (as well as velocity, volume, pitch bend, and modulation) and can be used to control a MIDI instrument which will produce the specified sound. There are also hybrid formats, such as ABC notation, GNU LilyPond and MusicXML, that are text files that can be read and edited by a capable human, but can also be manipulated by the computer. One notable system is the NEUMES standard, which is being used to form a computerized catalog of Medieval plainchant that can be searched by melody, text, or any encoded aspect of the music. Similarly, the Mutopia Project maintains a library of scores available in such formats (though they are not searchable by content). Late 1980s saw the first tracker programs appearing. On trackers notes are entered via the alphanumeric keys of the computer keyboard, while parameters, effects and so forth are entered in hexadecimal. Finally there are notational forms that are not intended to be processed by computer, but are nonetheless commonly used to transmit information via computer, such as text file guitar tablature which has become extremely popular following the growth of the World Wide Web. Perspectives of musical notation in composition and musical performance According to Richard Middleton (1990, p.104–6), and also Philip Tagg (1979, p.28–32), musicology and to a degree European-influenced musical practice suffer from a 'notational centricity'; a methodology slanted by the characteristics of notation. Notation-centric training induces particular forms of listening, and these then tend to be applied to all sorts of music, appropriately or not. Musicological methods tend to foreground those musical parameters which can be easily notated...they tend to neglect or have difficulty with widened parameters which are not easily notated. Examples include the unique vocal style of Joni Mitchell and the String Quartets of Elliott Sharp. Because of the limitations of conventional musical notation, many present-day composers of various genres prefer to compose music which is either not notated, or notated only through the computer language of digital recording. A further perspective on musical notation is provided in the "Composer's Note" from Fredrick Pritchard's "Brushed With Blue", Op. 55, pub. Effel Publications, 2002. "The written language of music is at once indispensable yet hopelessly inadequate in conveying every detail of a musical concept. While musical scores are static, music itself is a living art, and as such requires the freedom to change, not only from bar to bar but from day to day and from year to year, the elements of experience and spontaneity unleashing the various potentials of a given work. The composer therefore entrusts the performer as co-creator of his art." Patents Recent on a new color based musical notation scheme In some countries, new musical notations can be patented. In the United States, for example, about 90 patents have been issued on new notation systems. The earliest patent, was published in 1839. See also Modal notation Mensural notation Modern musical symbols Music engraving Guido of Arezzo, inventor of modern musical notation Znamenny Chant Time unit box system, a notation system useful for polyrhythms Tongan music notation, a subset of standard music notation Eye movement in music reading Music OCR History of music publishing Scorewriter List of scorewriters Sheet music Notes References Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0-335-15275-9. Tagg, Philip (1979). Cited in Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0-335-15275-9. Albrecht Schneider: Music, sound, language, writing. Transcription and notation in comparative musicology and music ethnology, in: Zeitschrift für Semiotik, 1987, Volume: 9, Number: 3–4. Sotorrio, José A (1997). Bilinear Music Notation –A New Notation System for the Modern Musician, Spectral Music, ISBN 978-0-9548498-2-5. Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn (1965). The Strings of Musical Instruments: their Names, Numbers, and Significance, Studies in Honor of Benno Landsberger = Assyriological Studies, xvi, 261–8 Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn (1986). Journal of Cuneiform Studies, xxxviii, 94–98 West, M. L., The Babylonian Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic Texts, Music & Letters, Vol. 75, No. 2. (May, 1994), pp. 161–179 Further reading Hall, Rachael (2005). Math for Poets and Drummers. Saint Joseph's University. Read, Gardner (1978). Modern Rhythmic Notation. Victor Gollance Ltd. Read, Gardner (1987). Source Book of Proposed Music Notation Reforms. Greenwood Press. Stone, Kurt (1980). Music Notation in the Twentieth Century: A Practical Guidebook''. W. W. Norton & Company. External links Music Notation and Terminology by Karl Wilson Gehrkens Contains a Guide to Byzantine Music Notation (neumes) On-line activity that counts musical notes! Glossary of U.S. and British English musical terms Online lessons, including notation, aimed at students/teachers of the ABRSM music theory exams A collection of interactive lessons and trainers that can be downloaded for offline use Extremes of Conventional Musical Notation Information on Stanford University Course on music representation. Links page shows examples of different notations Abstracts on Musical Notation from Zeitschrift für Semiotik Collection of lessons covering Rhythmic Musical Notation for drummers Potato print — examples of musical symbols from the 16th and 17th century The Music Notation Project — alternative music notation systems that use chromatic staves Ensemble Kerylos, who has reconstructed ancient instruments and plays Ancient Greek melodies. 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4,461 | Natural_number | Natural numbers can be used for counting (one apple, two apples, three apples, ...). In mathematics, a natural number means either an element of the set {, , , ...} (the positive integers) or an element of the set {, 1, 2, 3, ...} (the non-negative integers). Natural numbers have two main purposes: counting ("there are 3 apples on the table") and ordering ("this is the 3rd largest city in the country"). Properties of the natural numbers related to divisibility, such as the distribution of prime numbers, are studied in number theory. Problems concerning counting, such as Ramsey theory, are studied in combinatorics. History of natural numbers and the status of zero The natural numbers had their origins in the words used to count things, beginning with the number 1. Calculus I by Jerrold E. Marsden and Alan Weinstein, page 15 The first major advance in abstraction was the use of numerals to represent numbers. This allowed systems to be developed for recording large numbers. For example, the Babylonians developed a powerful place-value system based essentially on the numerals for 1 and 10. The ancient Egyptians had a system of numerals with distinct hieroglyphs for 1, 10, and all the powers of 10 up to one million. A stone carving from Karnak, dating from around 1500 BC and now at the Louvre in Paris, depicts 276 as 2 hundreds, 7 tens, and 6 ones; and similarly for the number 4,622. A much later advance in abstraction was the development of the idea of zero as a number with its own numeral. A zero digit had been used in place-value notation as early as 700 BC by the Babylonians, but they omitted it when it would have been the last symbol in the number. "... a tablet found at Kish ... thought to date from around 700 BC, uses three hooks to denote an empty place in the positional notation. Other tablets dated from around the same time use a single hook for an empty place. " The Olmec and Maya civilization used zero as a separate number as early as 1st century BC, developed independently, but this usage did not spread beyond Mesoamerica. The concept as used in modern times originated with the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta in 628. Nevertheless, medieval computists (calculators of Easter), beginning with Dionysius Exiguus in 525, used zero as a number without using a Roman numeral to write it. Instead nullus, the Latin word for "nothing", was employed. The first systematic study of numbers as abstractions (that is, as abstract entities) is usually credited to the Greek philosophers Pythagoras and Archimedes. However, independent studies also occurred at around the same time in India, China, and Mesoamerica. In the nineteenth century, a set-theoretical definition of natural numbers was developed. With this definition, it was convenient to include 0 (corresponding to the empty set) as a natural number. Including 0 is now the common convention among set theorists, logicians, and computer scientists. Many other mathematicians also include 0, although some have kept the older tradition and take 1 to be the first natural number. Sometimes the set of natural numbers with 0 included is called the set of whole numbers or counting numbers. Notation Mathematicians use N or (an N in blackboard bold, displayed as in Unicode) to refer to the set of all natural numbers. This set is countably infinite: it is infinite but countable by definition. This is also expressed by saying that the cardinal number of the set is . To be unambiguous about whether zero is included or not, sometimes an index "0" is added in the former case, and a superscript "*" or subscript "1" is added in the latter case: (Sometimes, an index or superscript "+" is added to signify "positive". However, this is often used for "nonnegative" in other cases, as R+ = [0,∞) and Z+ = { 0, 1, 2,... }, at least in European literature. The notation "*", however, is standard for nonzero or rather invertible elements.) Some authors who exclude zero from the naturals use the terms natural numbers with zero, whole numbers or counting numbers, denoted W, for the set of nonnegative integers. Others use the notation P for the positive integers. Set theorists often denote the set of all natural numbers including zero by a lower-case Greek letter omega: ω. This stems from the identification of an ordinal number with the set of ordinals that are smaller. Algebraic properties addition multiplication closure: a + b is a natural number a × b is a natural number associativity: a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c commutativity: a + b = b + a a × b = b × a existence of an identity element: a + 0 = a a × 1 = a distributivity: a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c) No zero divisors: if ab = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0 (or both) Properties One can recursively define an addition on the natural numbers by setting a + 0 = a and = for all a, b. Here S should be read as "successor". This turns the natural numbers into a commutative monoid with identity element 0, the so-called free monoid with one generator. This monoid satisfies the cancellation property and can be embedded in a group. The smallest group containing the natural numbers is the integers. If we define 1 := S(0), then b + 1 = b + S(0) = S(b + 0) = S(b). That is, b + 1 is simply the successor of b. Analogously, given that addition has been defined, a multiplication × can be defined via a × 0 = 0 and a × S(b) = (a × b) + a. This turns into a free commutative monoid with identity element 1; a generator set for this monoid is the set of prime numbers. Addition and multiplication are compatible, which is expressed in the distribution law: = . These properties of addition and multiplication make the natural numbers an instance of a commutative semiring. Semirings are an algebraic generalization of the natural numbers where multiplication is not necessarily commutative. If we interpret the natural numbers as "excluding 0", and "starting at 1", the definitions of + and × are as above, except that we start with a + 1 = S(a) and . For the remainder of the article, we write ab to indicate the product a × b, and we also assume the standard order of operations. Furthermore, one defines a total order on the natural numbers by writing a ≤ b if and only if there exists another natural number c with a + c = b. This order is compatible with the arithmetical operations in the following sense: if a, b and c are natural numbers and a ≤ b, then ≤ and . An important property of the natural numbers is that they are well-ordered: every non-empty set of natural numbers has a least element. The rank among well-ordered sets is expressed by an ordinal number; for the natural numbers this is expressed as "ω". While it is in general not possible to divide one natural number by another and get a natural number as result, the procedure of division with remainder is available as a substitute: for any two natural numbers a and b with b ≠ 0 we can find natural numbers q and r such that a = bq + r and r < b. The number q is called the quotient and r is called the remainder of division of a by b. The numbers q and r are uniquely determined by a and b. This, the Division algorithm, is key to several other properties (divisibility), algorithms (such as the Euclidean algorithm), and ideas in number theory. Generalizations Two generalizations of natural numbers arise from the two uses: A natural number can be used to express the size of a finite set; more generally a cardinal number is a measure for the size of a set also suitable for infinite sets; this refers to a concept of "size" such that if there is a bijection between two sets they have the same size. The set of natural numbers itself and any other countably infinite set has cardinality (). Ordinal numbers "first", "second", "third" can be assigned to the elements of a totally ordered finite set, and also to the elements of well-ordered countably infinite sets like the set of natural numbers itself. This can be generalized to ordinal numbers which describe the position of an element in a well-order set in general. An ordinal number is also used to describe the "size" of a well-ordered set, in a sense different from cardinality: if there is an order isomorphism between two well-ordered sets they have the same ordinal number. The first ordinal number that is not a natural number is expressed as ; this is also the ordinal number of the set of natural numbers itself. Many well-ordered sets with cardinal number have an ordinal number greater than ω. For example, has cardinality . The least ordinal of cardinality (i.e., the initial ordinal) is . For finite well-ordered sets, there is one-to-one correspondence between ordinal and cardinal numbers; therefore they can both be expressed by the same natural number, the number of elements of the set. This number can also be used to describe the position of an element in a larger finite, or an infinite, sequence. Other generalizations are discussed in the article on numbers. Formal definitions Historically, the precise mathematical definition of the natural numbers developed with some difficulty. The Peano axioms state conditions that any successful definition must satisfy. Certain constructions show that, given set theory, models of the Peano postulates must exist. Peano axioms The Peano axioms give a formal theory of the natural numbers starting with 0. The axioms are: There is a natural number 0. Every natural number a has a natural number successor, denoted by S(a). Intuitively, S(a) is a+1. There is no natural number whose successor is 0. Distinct natural numbers have distinct successors: if a ≠ b, then S(a) ≠ S(b). If a property is possessed by 0 and also by the successor of every natural number which possesses it, then it is possessed by all natural numbers. (This postulate ensures that the proof technique of mathematical induction is valid.) It should be noted that the "0" in the above definition need not correspond to what we normally consider to be the number zero. "0" simply means some object that when combined with an appropriate successor function, satisfies the Peano axioms. All systems that satisfy these axioms are isomorphic, the name "0" is used here for the first element, which is the only element that is not a successor. For example, the natural numbers starting with one also satisfy the axioms, if the symbol 0 is interpreted as the natural number 1, the symbol S(0) as the number 2, etc. Constructions based on set theory A standard construction A standard construction in set theory, a special case of the von Neumann ordinal construction, is to define the natural numbers as follows: We set 0 := { }, the empty set, and define S(a) = a ∪ {a} for every set a. S(a) is the successor of a, and S is called the successor function. If the axiom of infinity holds, then the set of all natural numbers exists and is the intersection of all sets containing 0 which are closed under this successor function. If the set of all natural numbers exists, then it satisfies the Peano axioms. Each natural number is then equal to the set of natural numbers less than it, so that 0 = { } 1 = {0} = {{ }} 2 = {0,1} = {0, {0}} = {{ }, {{ }}} 3 = {0,1,2} = {0, {0}, {0, {0}}} = {{ }, {{ }}, {{ }, {{ }}}} n = {0,1,2,...,n−2,n−1} = {0,1,2,...,n−2} ∪ {n−1} = (n−1) ∪ {n−1} and so on. When a natural number is used as a set, this is typically what is meant. Under this definition, there are exactly n elements (in the naïve sense) in the set n and n ≤ m (in the naïve sense) if and only if n is a subset of m. Also, with this definition, different possible interpretations of notations like Rn (n-tuples versus mappings of n into R) coincide. Even if the axiom of infinity fails and the set of all natural numbers does not exist, it is possible to define what it means to be one of these sets. A set n is a natural number means that it is either 0 (empty) or a successor, and each of its elements is either 0 or the successor of another of its elements. Other constructions Although the standard construction is useful, it is not the only possible construction. For example: one could define 0 = { } and S(a) = {a}, producing 0 = { } 1 = {0} = {{ }} 2 = {1} = {{{ }}}, etc. Or we could even define 0 = {{ }} and S(a) = a ∪ {a} producing 0 = {{ }} 1 = {{ }, 0} = {{ }, {{ }}} 2 = {{ }, 0, 1}, etc. Arguably the oldest set-theoretic definition of the natural numbers is the definition commonly ascribed to Frege and Russell under which each concrete natural number n is defined as the set of all sets with n elements. Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik: eine logisch-mathematische Untersuchung über den Begriff der Zahl (1884). Breslau. Whitehead, Alfred North, and Bertrand Russell. Principia Mathematica, 3 vols, Cambridge University Press, 1910, 1912, and 1913. Second edition, 1925 (Vol. 1), 1927 (Vols 2, 3). Abridged as Principia Mathematica to *56, Cambridge University Press, 1962. This may appear circular, but can be made rigorous with care. Define 0 as {{ }} (clearly the set of all sets with 0 elements) and define S(A) (for any set A) as {x ∪ {y} | x ∈ A ∧ y ∉ x } (see set-builder notation). Then 0 will be the set of all sets with 0 elements, 1 = S(0) will be the set of all sets with 1 element, 2 = S(1) will be the set of all sets with 2 elements, and so forth. The set of all natural numbers can be defined as the intersection of all sets containing 0 as an element and closed under S (that is, if the set contains an element n, it also contains S(n)). This definition does not work in the usual systems of axiomatic set theory because the collections involved are too large (it will not work in any set theory with the axiom of separation); but it does work in New Foundations (and in related systems known to be relatively consistent) and in some systems of type theory. See also Integer Whole number Negative and non-negative numbers Countable set Notes References Edmund Landau, Foundations of Analysis, Chelsea Pub Co. ISBN 0-8218-2693-X. Richard Dedekind, Essays on the theory of numbers, Dover, 1963, ISBN 0486210103 / Kessinger Publishing, LLC , 2007, ISBN 054808985X External links Axioms and Construction of Natural Numbers Essays on the Theory of Numbers by Richard Dedekind at Project Gutenberg be-x-old:Натуральны лік | Natural_number |@lemmatized natural:62 number:102 use:19 count:4 one:12 apple:4 two:7 three:2 mathematics:1 mean:5 either:4 element:24 set:69 positive:3 integer:6 non:3 negative:3 main:1 purpose:1 counting:2 table:1 order:13 large:4 city:1 country:1 property:8 relate:1 divisibility:2 distribution:2 prime:2 study:4 theory:12 problem:1 concern:1 ramsey:1 combinatorics:1 history:1 status:1 zero:11 origin:1 word:2 thing:1 begin:2 calculus:1 jerrold:1 e:2 marsden:1 alan:1 weinstein:1 page:1 first:6 major:1 advance:2 abstraction:3 numeral:5 represent:1 allowed:1 system:7 develop:5 record:1 example:4 babylonian:2 powerful:1 place:4 value:2 base:2 essentially:1 ancient:1 egyptian:1 distinct:3 hieroglyph:1 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4,462 | Luddite | The Leader of the Luddites, engraving of 1812 The Luddites were a social movement of British textile artisans in the early nineteenth century who protested—often by destroying mechanized looms—against the changes produced by the Industrial Revolution, which they felt were leaving them without work. This English historical movement has to be seen in its context of the harsh economic climate due to the Napoleonic Wars, and the degrading working conditions in the new textile factories; but since then, the term Luddite has been used derisively to describe anyone opposed to technological progress and technological change. The Luddite movement, which began in 1811 and 1812 when mills and pieces of factory machinery were burned by handloom weavers, took its name from the fictive Ned Ludd. For a short time the movement was so strong that it clashed in battles with the British Army. Measures taken by the government included a mass trial at York in 1812 that resulted in many executions and penal transportation. The principal objection of the Luddites was against the introduction of new wide-framed automated looms that could be operated by cheap, relatively unskilled labour, resulting in the loss of jobs for many skilled textile workers. History The original Luddites claimed to be led by one "King Ludd" (also known as "General Ludd" or "Captain Ludd") whose signature appears on a "workers' manifesto" of the time. King Ludd was based on the earlier Ned Ludd, who some believed to have destroyed two large stocking frames in the village of Anstey, Leicestershire in 1779. Naturally, in a situation where machine breaking could lead to heavy penalties or even execution, the use of an imaginary name was an understandable tactical necessity. Research by historian Kevin Binfield . http://campus.murraystate.edu/academic/faculty/kevin.binfield/luddites/LudditeHistory.htm Accessed 4 June 2008. is particularly useful in placing the Luddite movement in historical context – as organised action by stockingers had occurred at various times since 1675, and the present action had to be seen in the context of the hardships suffered by the working class during the Napoleonic Wars. The stocking frame The movement began in Nottingham in 1811 and spread rapidly throughout England in 1811 and 1812. Many wool and cotton mills were destroyed until the British government harshly suppressed the movement. The Luddites met at night on the moors surrounding the industrial towns, practising drills and maneuvers and often enjoyed local support. The main areas of the disturbances were Nottinghamshire in November 1811, followed by the West Riding of Yorkshire in early 1812 and Lancashire from March 1813. Battles between Luddites and the military occurred at Burton's Mill in Middleton, and at Westhoughton Mill, both in Lancashire. It was rumoured at the time that agents provocateurs employed by the magistrates were involved in provoking the attacks. Magistrates and food merchants were also objects of death threats and attacks by the anonymous King Ludd and his supporters. Some industrialists even had secret chambers constructed in their buildings, which may have been used as a hiding place. BBC NEWS | England | Leicestershire |Workmen discover secret chambers "Machine breaking" (industrial sabotage) was subsequently made a capital crime by the Frame Breaking Act (Lord Byron, one of the few prominent defenders of the Luddites, famously spoke out against this legislation), and 17 men were executed after an 1813 trial in York. Many others were transported as prisoners to Australia. At one time, there were more British troops fighting the Luddites than Napoleon I on the Iberian Peninsula. Hobsbawm, Eric (1964) "The Machine Breakers" in Labouring Men. Studies in the History of Labour., London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, page 6. Hobsbawm has popularized this comparison and refers to the original statement in Darvall, Frank Ongley (1969) Popular Disturbances and Public Order in Regency England, London, Oxford University Press, page 260. Three Luddites, led by George Mellor, ambushed and assassinated a mill-owner (William Horsfall from Ottiwells Mill in Marsden) at Crosland Moor, Huddersfield, Mellor firing the shot to the groin which would, soon enough, prove fatal. Horsefall had remarked previously that he would "Ride up to his saddle in Luddite blood". The Luddites responsible were hanged in York, and shortly thereafter "Luddism" waned. However, the movement can also be seen as part of a rising tide of English working-class discontent in the early 19th century (see also, for example, the Pentrich Rising of 1817, which was a general uprising, but led by an unemployed Nottingham stockinger, and probable ex-Luddite, Jeremiah Brandreth). An agricultural variant of Luddism, centering on the breaking of threshing machines, was crucial to the widespread Swing Riots of 1830 in southern and eastern England. In recent years, the terms Luddism and Luddite or Neo-Luddism and Neo-Luddite have become synonymous with anyone who opposes the advance of technology due to the cultural and socioeconomic changes that are associated with it. Criticism of Luddism The term "Luddite fallacy" has become a concept in neoclassical economics reflecting the belief that labour-saving technologies (i.e., technologies that increase output-per-worker) increase unemployment by reducing demand for labour. The fallacy lies in assuming that employers will seek to keep production constant by employing a smaller, more productive workforce instead of allowing production to grow while keeping workforce size constant. In his work on English history, The Making of the English Working Class, E. P. Thompson presented an alternative view of Luddite history. He argues that Luddites were not opposed to new technology in itself, but rather to the abolition of set prices and therefore also to the introduction of the free market. Thompson argues that it was the newly-introduced economic system that the Luddites were protesting. For example, the Luddite song, "General Ludd's Triumph": The guilty may fear, but no vengeance he aims At the honest man's life or Estate His wrath is entirely confined to wide frames And to those that old prices abate "Wide frames" were the cropping frames, and the old prices were those prices agreed by custom and practice. Thompson cites the many historical accounts of Luddite raids on workshops where some frames were smashed whilst others (whose owners were obeying the old economic practice and not trying to cut prices) were left untouched. This would clearly distinguish the Luddites from someone who was today called a luddite; whereas today a luddite would reject new technology because it is new, the Luddites were acting from a sense of self-preservation rather than merely fear of change. The Luddites in fiction Shirley by Charlotte Brontë, a social novel set against the backdrop of the Luddite riots in the Yorkshire textile industry in 1811–1812. The Difference Engine by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling, a novel speculating on what might have been had Charles Babbage completed his Difference Engine during the Industrial Revolution. Mark of the Rani, a story from the 1985 season of the British TV program Doctor Who is set during the height of the Luddite movement. Mad Stan, a villain in the cartoon Batman Beyond, was a Luddite who opposed all information spreading technology. His solution for the failings of society and its technology was to "Blow it all up!". In The Dark Tower VI: Song of Susannah by Stephen King, Steve, as a character, mentions to Roland and Eddie that the city of Lud, from The Dark Tower III: The Waste Lands, was named after the Luddites. The Luddites are an enemy group in the MMORPG City of Villains. Ben Bova's Moonbase Saga explores the use of nanorobotics on Earth and on the Moon. Nanoluddites, under the direction of The New Morality conservative religious movement, vigorously oppose the technology. External links Luddites and Luddism (Kevin Binfield, ed.) References See also Antimodernism Critique of technology Jacquard loom Neo-Luddism Peterloo Propaganda of the deed Sabotage Swing Riots Technophobia Technorealism Techno-utopianism Bibliography Bailey, Brian J., The Luddite Rebellion (1998), New York : New York University Press, ISBN 0814713351. Binfield, Kevin. Writings of the Luddites, (2004), Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0-8018-7612-5 Fox, Nicols. Against the Machine: The Hidden Luddite History in Literature, Art, and Individual Lives, (2003), Island Press] ISBN 1-55963-860-5 Jones, Steven E. Against Technology: From Luddites to Neo-Luddism, (2006) Routledge, ISBN 9780415978682 Sale, Kirkpatrick. Rebels Against the Future: The Luddites and Their War on the Industrial Revolution, (1996) ISBN 0-201-40718-3 Hunt, Lynn, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, R. Po-chia Hsia, and Bonnie G. Smith. The Making of the West. 3rd ed. Edited by Mary Dougherty. Vol. C of Since 1740. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2009. External links On-line Luddism Index Is it O.K. to be a Luddite? by Thomas Pynchon Luddism and the Neo-Luddite Reaction by Martin Ryder, University of Colorado at Denver School of Education CBC program Ideas on Luddites Extracts from Kevin Binfield's book. Luddites Stan Iverson Memorial Archives (articles, links & timeline) Historical reports and accounts on key events concerning the Luddite movement hosted by Marxists.org The Luddites and the Combination Acts from the Marxists Internet Archive Luddite Wines in South Africa make only a Shiraz wine in true Luddite style | Luddite |@lemmatized leader:1 luddite:46 engrave:1 social:2 movement:11 british:5 textile:4 artisan:1 early:4 nineteenth:1 century:2 protest:2 often:2 destroy:3 mechanize:1 loom:3 change:4 produce:1 industrial:5 revolution:3 felt:1 leave:2 without:1 work:3 english:4 historical:4 see:5 context:3 harsh:1 economic:3 climate:1 due:2 napoleonic:2 war:3 degrade:1 working:3 condition:1 new:8 factory:2 since:3 term:3 use:4 derisively:1 describe:1 anyone:2 oppose:5 technological:2 progress:1 begin:2 mill:6 piece:1 machinery:1 burn:1 handloom:1 weaver:1 take:2 name:3 fictive:1 ned:2 ludd:8 short:1 time:5 strong:1 clash:1 battle:2 army:1 measure:1 government:2 include:1 mass:1 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4,463 | L'Hôpital's_rule | In calculus, l'Hôpital's rule (also called Bernoulli's rule) uses derivatives to help evaluate limits involving indeterminate forms. Application (or repeated application) of the rule often converts an indeterminate form to a determinate form, allowing easy evaluation of the limit. The rule is named after the 17th-century French mathematician Guillaume de l'Hôpital, who published the rule in his book l'Analyse des Infiniment Petits pour l'Intelligence des Lignes Courbes (literal translation: Analysis of the Infinitely Small to Understand Curved Lines) (1696), the first textbook on differential calculus. However, it is believed that the rule was discovered by the Swiss mathematician Johann Bernoulli. (See also l'Hôpital controversy) The Stolz-Cesàro theorem is a similar result involving limits of sequences, but it uses finite difference operators rather than derivatives. In its simplest form, l'Hôpital's rule states that for functions ƒ and g: If or and exists, then The differentiation of the numerator and denominator often simplifies the quotient and/or converts it to a determinate form, allowing the limit to be evaluated more easily. General form The general form of l'Hôpital's rule covers many more cases. Suppose that c and L are extended real numbers (i.e., real numbers, positive infinity, or negative infinity). Suppose that either or And suppose that Then The limits may also be one-sided limits. Requirement that limit exists The requirement that the limit exists is essential. Differentiation of indeterminate forms can sometimes lead to limits that do not exist. If this happens, then l'Hôpital's rule does not apply. For example, if ƒ(x) = x + sin(x) and g(x) = x, then which does not exist, whereas Examples Here is an example involving the sinc function and the indeterminate form 0/0: Alternatively, just observe that the limit is the definition of the derivative of the sine function at zero. This is a more elaborate example involving 0/0. Applying l'Hôpital's rule a single time still results in an indeterminate form. In this case, the limit may be evaluated by applying the rule three times: This example involves 0/0. Suppose that b > 0. Then Here is another example involving 0/0: This example involves ∞/∞. Assume is a positive integer. Then Repeatedly apply l'Hôpital's rule until the exponent is zero to conclude that the limit is zero. Here is another example involving ∞/∞: Here is an example involving the impulse response of a raised-cosine filter and 0/0: One can also use l'Hôpital's rule to prove the following theorem. If is continuous at x, then Sometimes L'Hôpital's rule is invoked in a tricky way: suppose converges as . It follows: :. and so exists and Other indeterminate forms Other indeterminate forms, such as 1∞, 00, ∞0, 0·∞, and ∞ − ∞, can sometimes be evaluated using l'Hôpital's rule. For example, to evaluate a limit involving ∞ − ∞, convert the difference of two functions to a quotient: where l'Hôpital's rule was applied in going from (1) to (2) and then again in going from (3) to (4). l'Hôpital's rule can be used on indeterminate forms involving exponents by using logarithms to "move the exponent down". Here is an example involving the indeterminate form 00: It is valid to move the limit inside the exponential function because the exponential function is continuous. Now the exponent has been "moved down". The limit is of the indeterminate form 0·(−∞), but as shown in an example above, l'Hôpital's rule may be used to determine that Thus Other methods of evaluating limits Although l'Hôpital's rule is a powerful way of evaluating otherwise hard-to-evaluate limits, it is not always the easiest way. Consider This limit may be evaluated using l'Hôpital's rule: It is valid to move the limit inside the cosine function because the cosine function is continuous. Another way to evaluate this limit is to use a substitution. Let y = 1/x. As |x| approaches infinity, y approaches zero. So, The final limit may be evaluated using l'Hôpital's rule or by noting that it is the definition of the derivative of the sine function at zero. Still another way to evaluate this limit is to use a Taylor series expansion: For |x| ≥ 1, the expression in parentheses is bounded, so the limit in the last line is zero. Logical circularity In some cases it may constitute circular reasoning to use l'Hôpital's rule to evaluate a limit. Consider If the purpose of evaluating this limit is to prove that if , then and one uses l'Hôpital's rule and this same fact to evaluate the limit, then the argument uses the conclusion as an assumption (i.e., begging the question) and is therefore fallacious (even though the conclusion is true). Heuristic argument The following simple argument suggests that l'Hôpital's rule (or something like it) is true. It is not a proof of l'Hôpital's rule because it requires stronger hypotheses than does l'Hôpital's rule. Suppose that and are continuous at , , and g′(c) ≠ 0. Then Proof of l'Hôpital's rule A standard proof of l'Hôpital's rule uses Cauchy's mean value theorem. l'Hôpital's rule has many variations depending on whether and are finite or infinite, whether and converge to zero or infinity, and whether the limits are one-sided or two-sided. All the variations follow from the two main variations below without requiring any essentially new reasoning. Zero over zero Suppose that and are finite and and converge to zero. First, define (or redefine) and . This makes and continuous at , but does not change the limit (since, by definition, the limit does not depend on the value at the point ). Since exists, there is an interval such that for all in the interval, with the possible exception of , both and exist and is not zero. If is in the interval , then the mean value theorem and Cauchy's mean value theorem both apply to the interval (and a similar statement holds for in the interval ). The mean value theorem implies that is not zero (since otherwise there would be a in the interval with ). Cauchy's mean value theorem now implies that there is a point in such that If approaches , then approaches . Since exists, it follows that Infinity over infinity Suppose that is finite, is positive infinity, and and converge to positive infinity. For every , there is an such that The mean value theorem implies that if , then g(x) ≠ g(m) (since otherwise there would be a in the interval with ). Cauchy's mean value theorem applied to the interval now implies that Since converges to positive infinity, if is large enough, then f(x) ≠ f(m). Write Now, For sufficiently large, this is less than and therefore * Note: Steps are Missing See also Indeterminate forms Notes External links l'Hôpital's rule at PlanetMath | L'Hôpital's_rule |@lemmatized calculus:2 l:29 hôpital:26 rule:30 also:5 call:1 bernoulli:2 use:15 derivative:4 help:1 evaluate:15 limit:29 involve:12 indeterminate:11 form:16 application:2 repeat:1 often:2 convert:3 determinate:2 allow:2 easy:2 evaluation:1 name:1 century:1 french:1 mathematician:2 guillaume:1 de:3 publish:1 book:1 analyse:1 infiniment:1 petits:1 pour:1 intelligence:1 ligne:1 courbes:1 literal:1 translation:1 analysis:1 infinitely:1 small:1 understand:1 curved:1 line:2 first:2 textbook:1 differential:1 however:1 believe:1 discover:1 swiss:1 johann:1 see:2 controversy:1 stolz:1 cesàro:1 theorem:9 similar:2 result:2 sequence:1 finite:4 difference:2 operator:1 rather:1 simple:2 state:1 function:9 ƒ:2 g:5 exists:4 differentiation:2 numerator:1 denominator:1 simplify:1 quotient:2 easily:1 general:2 cover:1 many:2 case:3 suppose:8 c:2 extend:1 real:2 number:2 e:2 positive:5 infinity:9 negative:1 either:1 may:6 one:4 side:3 requirement:2 exist:5 essential:1 sometimes:3 lead:1 happen:1 apply:7 example:11 x:11 sin:1 whereas:1 examples:1 sinc:1 alternatively:1 observe:1 definition:3 sine:2 zero:12 elaborate:1 single:1 time:2 still:2 three:1 b:1 another:4 assume:1 integer:1 repeatedly:1 exponent:4 conclude:1 impulse:1 response:1 raise:1 cosine:3 filter:1 prove:2 following:2 continuous:5 invoke:1 tricky:1 way:5 converges:2 follow:3 two:3 go:2 logarithm:1 move:4 valid:2 inside:2 exponential:2 show:1 determine:1 thus:1 method:1 although:1 powerful:1 otherwise:3 hard:1 always:1 consider:2 substitution:1 let:1 approach:4 final:1 note:3 taylor:1 series:1 expansion:1 expression:1 parenthesis:1 bound:1 last:1 logical:1 circularity:1 constitute:1 circular:1 reason:2 purpose:1 fact:1 argument:3 conclusion:2 assumption:1 beg:1 question:1 therefore:2 fallacious:1 even:1 though:1 true:2 heuristic:1 suggest:1 something:1 like:1 proof:3 require:2 strong:1 hypothesis:1 standard:1 cauchy:4 mean:7 value:8 variation:3 depend:2 whether:3 infinite:1 converge:3 main:1 without:1 essentially:1 new:1 define:1 redefine:1 make:1 change:1 since:6 point:2 interval:8 possible:1 exception:1 statement:1 hold:1 implies:2 would:2 imply:2 every:1 large:2 enough:1 f:2 write:1 sufficiently:1 less:1 step:1 miss:1 external:1 link:1 planetmath:1 |@bigram l_hôpital:26 hôpital_rule:24 literal_translation:1 differential_calculus:1 johann_bernoulli:1 numerator_denominator:1 sinc_function:1 exponential_function:2 external_link:1 |
4,464 | Bengali_language | Bengali or Bangla (IPA: বাংলা) is an Indo-Aryan language of the eastern Indian subcontinent, evolved from the Magadhi Prakrit and Sanskrit languages. Bengali is native to the region of eastern South Asia known as Bengal, which comprises present day Bangladesh, the Indian state of West Bengal, southern Assam- also known as Barak Valley, and part of Tripura. With nearly 230 million total speakers, Bengali is one of the most spoken languages (ranking fifth or sixth) in the world. Bengali is the primary language spoken in Bangladesh and is the second most spoken language in India. Along with Assamese, it is geographically the most eastern of the Indo-Iranian languages and the most eastern of the Indo-European languages. With its long and rich literary tradition, Bengali serves to bind together a culturally diverse region. In 1952, when Bangladesh used to be East Pakistan, this strong sense of identity led to the Bengali Language Movement, in which several people braved bullets and died on February 21. This day has now been declared as the International Mother Language Day. History Like other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Bengali arose from the eastern Middle Indic languages of the Indian subcontinent. Magadhi Prakrit and Maithili, the earliest recorded spoken languages in the region and the language of the Buddha, evolved into Ardhamagadhi ("Half Magadhi") in the early part of the first millennium CE. Ardhamagadhi, as with all of the Prakrits of North India, began to give way to what are called Apabhramsa languages just before the turn of the first millennium. The local Apabhramsa language of the eastern subcontinent, Purvi Apabhramsa or Apabhramsa Abahatta, eventually evolved into regional dialects, which in turn formed three groups: the Bihari languages, the Oriya languages, and the Bengali-Assamese languages. Some argue that the points of divergence occurred much earlier—going back to even 500 but the language was not static: different varieties coexisted and authors often wrote in multiple dialects. For example, Magadhi Prakrit is believed to have evolved into Apabhramsa Abahatta around the 6th century which competed with Bengali for a period of time. Abahattha in Usually three periods are identified in the history of Bengali: Old Bengali (900/1000–1400)—texts include Charyapada, devotional songs; emergence of pronouns Ami, tumi, etc; verb inflections -ila, -iba, etc. Oriya and Assamese branch out in this period. Middle Bengali (1400–1800)—major texts of the period include Chandidas's Srikrishnakirtan; elision of word-final ô sound; spread of compound verbs; Persian influence. Some scholars further divide this period into early and late middle periods. New Bengali (since 1800)—shortening of verbs and pronouns, among other changes (e.g. tahar → tar "his"/"her"; koriyachhilô → korechhilo he/she had done). Historically closer to Pali, Bengali saw an increase in Sanskrit influence during the Middle Bengali (Chaitanya era), and also during the Bengal Renaissance. Of the modern Indo-European languages in South Asia, Bengali and Marathi maintain a largely Sanskrit vocabulary base while Hindi and others such as Punjabi, Sindhi and Gujarati are more influenced by Arabic and Persian. Shaheed Minar, or the Martyr's monument, in Dhaka, commemorates the struggle for the Bengali language. Until the 18th century, there was no attempt to document Bengali grammar. The first written Bengali dictionary/grammar, Vocabolario em idioma Bengalla, e Portuguez dividido em duas partes, was written by the Portuguese missionary Manoel da Assumpcam between 1734 and 1742 while he was serving in Bhawal. Nathaniel Brassey Halhed, a British grammarian, wrote a modern Bengali grammar (A Grammar of the Bengal Language (1778)) that used Bengali types in print for the first time. Bangla language in Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the great Bengali reformer, also wrote a "Grammar of the Bengali Language" (1832). During this period, the Choltibhasha form, using simplified inflections and other changes, was emerging from Shadhubhasha (older form) as the form of choice for written Bengali. Bengali was the focus, in 1951–52, of the Bengali Language Movement (Bhasha Andolon) in what was then East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). Although Bengali language was spoken by majority of Pakistan's population, Urdu was legislated as the sole national language. On February 21, 1952, protesting students and activists were fired upon by military and police in Dhaka University and three young students and several other people were killed. Later in 1999, UNESCO decided to celebrate every 21 February as International Mother Language Day in recognition of the deaths of the three students. In a separate event in May 1961, police in Silchar, India, killed eleven people who were protesting legislation that mandated the use of the Assamese language. Geographical distribution The native geographic extent of Bengali Bengali is native to the region of eastern South Asia known as Bengal, which comprises Bangladesh, the Indian state of West Bengal and many parts of Assam. There are also significant Bengali-speaking communities in the Middle East, Europe, North America and South-East Asia. Official status Bengali is the national and official language of Bangladesh and one of the 23 official languages recognised by the Republic of India. It is the official language of the states of West Bengal and Tripura. It is also a major language in the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It was made an official language of Sierra Leone in order to honour the Bangladeshi peacekeeping force from the United Nations stationed there. It is also the co-official language of Assam, which has three predominantly Sylheti-speaking districts of southern Assam: Cachar, Karimganj, and Hailakandi. The national anthems of both India and Bangladesh were written by the Bengali Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore. Dialects Regional variation in spoken Bengali constitutes a dialect continuum. Linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterjee grouped these dialects into four large clusters—Rarh, Banga, Kamarupa and Varendra; Bangla language in but many alternative grouping schemes have also been proposed. The south-western dialects (Rarh) form the basis of standard colloquial Bengali, while Bangali is the dominant dialect group in Bangladesh. In the dialects prevalent in much of eastern and south-eastern Bengal (Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka and Sylhet divisions of Bangladesh), many of the stops and affricates heard in West Bengal are pronounced as fricatives. Western palato-alveolar affricates চ [], ছ [], জ [] correspond to eastern [], ছ় [], []~[]. The influence of Tibeto-Burman languages on the phonology of Eastern Bengali is seen through the lack of nasalized vowels. Some variants of Bengali, particularly Chittagonian and Chakma Bengali, have contrastive tone; differences in the pitch of the speaker's voice can distinguish words. Rajbangsi, Kharia Thar and Mal Paharia are closely related to Western Bengali dialects, but are typically classified as separate languages. Similarly, Hajong is considered a separate language, although it shares similarities to Northern Bengali dialects. During the standardization of Bengali in the late 19th and early 20th century, the cultural center of Bengal was in the British founded city of Kolkata (then Calcutta). What is accepted as the standard form today in both West Bengal and Bangladesh is based on the West-Central dialect of Nadia, an Indian district located on the border of Bangladesh. There are cases where speakers of Standard Bengali in West Bengal will use a different word than a speaker of Standard Bengali in Bangladesh, even though both words are of native Bengali descent. For example, nun (salt) in the west corresponds to lôbon in the east. Spoken and literary varieties Bengali exhibits diglossia between the written and spoken forms of the language. Two styles of writing, involving somewhat different vocabularies and syntax, have emerged: Shadhubhasha (সাধু shadhu = 'chaste' or 'sage'; ভাষা bhasha = 'language') was the written language with longer verb inflections and more of a Sanskrit-derived (তৎসম tôtshôm) vocabulary. Songs such as India's national anthem Jana Gana Mana (by Rabindranath Tagore) and national song Vande Mātaram (by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay) were composed in Shadhubhasha. However, use of Shadhubhasha in modern writing is negligible, except when it is used deliberately to achieve some effect. Choltibhasha (চলতিভাষা ) or Cholitobhasha (চলিত cholito = 'current' or 'running') , known by linguists as Manno Cholit Bangla (Standard Colloquial Bengali), is a written Bengali style exhibiting a preponderance colloquial idiom and shortened verb forms, and is the standard for written Bengali now. This form came into vogue towards the turn of the 19th century, promoted by the writings of Peary Chand Mitra (Alaler Gharer Dulal, 1857), Pramatha Chowdhury (Sabujpatra, 1914) and in the later writings of Rabindranath Tagore. It is modeled on the dialect spoken in the Shantipur region in Nadia district, West Bengal. This form of Bengali is often referred to as the "Nadia standard" or "Shantipuri bangla". While most writings are carried out in Standard Colloquial Bengali, spoken dialects exhibit a greater variety. South-eastern West Bengal, including Kolkata, speak in Standard Colloquial Bengali. Other parts of West Bengal and western Bangladesh speak in dialects that are minor variations, such as the Medinipur dialect characterised by some unique words and constructions. However, a majority in Bangladesh speak in dialects notably different from Standard Colloquial Bengali. Some dialects, particularly those of the Chittagong region, bear only a superficial resemblance to Standard Colloquial Bengali. The dialect in the Chattagram region is least widely understood by the general body of Bengalis. The majority of Bengalis are able to communicate in more than one variety—often, speakers are fluent in cholitobhasha (Standard Colloquial Bengali) and one or more regional dialects. Even in Standard Colloquial Bengali, Muslims and Hindu use different words. Due to cultural and religious traditions, Hindus and Muslims might use, respectively, Sanskrit-derived and Perso-Arabic words. Some examples of lexical alternation between these two forms are: hello: nômoshkar (S) corresponds to assalamualaikum/slamalikum (A) invitation: nimontron/nimontonno (S) corresponds to daoat (A) water : jol (S) corresponds to pani (S) father : baba (P) corresponds to abbu/abba (A) (here S = derived from Sanskrit, D = deshi; P= derived from Persian, A = derived from Arabic) Writing system Anandabazar Patrika, a popular news daily published from Kolkata in Bengali. The Bengali writing system is not a purely alphabetic script such as the Latin script. Rather, it is an abugida called the Bengali script, which is a variant of the Eastern Nagari script used throughout Bangladesh and eastern India (Assam, West Bengal and the Mithila region of Bihar). The Eastern Nagari script is believed to have evolved from a modified Brahmic script around 1000 CE Bangla Script in and is similar to the Devanagari abugida used for Sanskrit and many modern Indic languages such as Hindi. The Bengali script has particularly close historical relationships with the Assamese script, the Oriya script (although this relationship is not strongly evident in appearance) and Mithilakshar (the native script for Maithili language). The Bengali script is a cursive script with eleven graphemes or signs denoting the independent form of nine vowels and two diphthongs, and thirty-nine signs denoting the consonants with the so called "inherent" vowels. Bangla Script in The concept of capitalization is absent in Bengali orthography or spelling system. There is no variation in initial, medial and final forms of letters as in the Arabic script. The letters run from left to right on a horizontal line, and spaces are used to separate orthographic words. Although the list of consonant signs in the basic inventory of the Bengali script appear to represent phonetic segments, they are actually orthographically syllabic in nature. Every consonant sign has the vowel অ (or sometimes the vowel ও ) "embedded" or "inherent" in it. For example, the basic consonant sign ম (called and pronounced in isolation) can represent the sounds or when used in a word, as in মত "opinion" and মন "mind", respectively, with no added symbol for the inherent vowels and . A consonant sound followed by some vowel sound other than is orthographically realized by using a variety of vowel allographs above, below, before, after, or around the consonant sign, thus forming the ubiquitous consonant-vowel ligature. These allographs, called kars (cf. Hindi matras) are dependent vowel forms and cannot stand on their own. For example, the graph মি represents the consonant followed by the vowel , where is represented as the allograph ি (called i-kar) and is placed before the default consonant sign. Similarly, the graphs মা , মী , মু , মূ , মৃ , মে /, মৈ , মো and মৌ represent the same consonant ম combined with seven other vowels and two diphthongs. It should be noted that in these consonant-vowel ligatures, the so-called "inherent" vowel is first expunged from the consonant before adding the vowel, but this intermediate expulsion of the inherent vowel is not indicated in any visual manner on the basic consonant sign ম. To emphatically represent a consonant sound without any inherent vowel attached to it, a special diacritic, called the hôshonto (্), may be added below the basic consonant sign (as in ম্ ). This diacritic, however, is not common, and is chiefly employed as a guide to pronunciation. Three other commonly used diacritics in the Bengali are the superposed chôndrobindu (ঁ), denoting a suprasegmental for nasalization of vowels (as in চাঁদ "moon"), the postposed onushshôr (ং) indicating the velar nasal (as in বাংলা "Bengali") and the postposed bishôrgo (ঃ) indicating the voiceless glottal fricative (as in উঃ! "ouch!"). The vowel signs in Bengali can take two forms: the independent form found in the basic inventory of the script and the dependent, abridged, allograph form (as discussed above). To represent a vowel in isolation from any preceding or following consonant, the independent form of the vowel is used. For example, in মই "ladder" and in ইলিশ "Hilsa fish", the independent form of the vowel ই is used (cf. the dependent form ি). A vowel at the beginning of a word is always realized using its independent form. The Bengali consonant clusters (যুক্তব্যঞ্জন juktobênjon in Bengali) are usually realized as ligatures (যুক্তাক্ষর juktakkhor), where the consonant which comes first is put on top of or to the left of the one that immediately follows. In these ligatures, the shapes of the constituent consonant signs are often contracted and sometimes even distorted beyond recognition. In Bengali writing system, there are nearly 285 such ligatures denoting consonant clusters. Although there exist a few visual formulas to construct some of these ligatures, many of them have to be learned by rote. Recently, in a bid to lessen this burden on young learners, efforts have been made by educational institutions in the two main Bengali-speaking regions (West Bengal and Bangladesh) to address the opaque nature of many consonant clusters, and as a result, modern Bengali textbooks are beginning to contain more and more "transparent" graphical forms of consonant clusters, in which the constituent consonants of a cluster are readily apparent from the graphical form. However, since this change is not as widespread and is not being followed as uniformly in the rest of the Bengali printed literature, today's Bengali-learning children will possibly have to learn to recognize both the new "transparent" and the old "opaque" forms, which ultimately amounts to an increase in learning burden. Bengali punctuation marks, apart from the daŗi (|), the Bengali equivalent of a full stop, have been adopted from western scripts and their usage is similar. Bangla language in Whereas in western scripts (Latin, Cyrillic, etc.) the letter-forms stand on an invisible baseline, the Bengali letter-forms hang from a visible horizontal headstroke called the matra (not to be confused with its Hindi cognate matra, which denotes the dependent forms of Hindi vowels). The presence and absence of this matra can be important. For example, the letter ত and the numeral ৩ "3" are distinguishable only by the presence or absence of the matra, as is the case between the consonant cluster ত্র and the independent vowel এ . The letter-forms also employ the concepts of letter-width and letter-height (the vertical space between the visible matra and an invisible baseline). Signature of Rabindranath Tagore—an example of penmanship in Bengali. Spelling-to-pronunciation inconsistencies In spite of some modifications in the nineteenth century, the Bengali spelling system continues to be based on the one used for Sanskrit, Bangla language in and thus does not take into account some sound mergers that have occurred in the spoken language. For example, there are three letters (শ, ষ, and স) for the voiceless palato-alveolar fricative , although the letter স does retain the voiceless alveolar fricative sound when used in certain consonant conjuncts as in স্খলন "fall", স্পন্দন "beat", etc. There are two letters (জ and য) for the voiced postalveolar affricate as well. What was once pronounced and written as a retroflex nasal ণ is now pronounced as an alveolar (unless conjoined with another retroflex consonant such as ট, ঠ, ড and ঢ), although the spelling does not reflect this change. The near-open front unrounded vowel is orthographically realized by multiple means, as seen in the following examples: এত "so much", এ্যাকাডেমী "academy", অ্যামিবা "amoeba", দেখা "to see", ব্যস্ত "busy", ব্যাকরণ "grammar". The realization of the inherent vowel can be another source of confusion. The vowel can be phonetically realized as or depending on the word, and its omission is seldom indicated, as in the final consonant in কম "less". Many consonant clusters have different sounds than their constituent consonants. For example, the combination of the consonants ক্ and ষ is graphically realized as ক্ষ and is pronounced (as in রুক্ষ "rugged") or (as in ক্ষতি "loss") or even (as in ক্ষমতা "power"), depending on the position of the cluster in a word. The Bengali writing system is, therefore, not always a true guide to pronunciation. For a detailed list of these inconsistencies, consult Bengali script. Uses in other languages The Bengali script, with a few small modifications, is also used for writing Assamese. Other related languages in the region also make use of the Bengali alphabet. Meitei, a Sino-Tibetan language used in the Indian state of Manipur, has been written in the Bengali abugida for centuries, though Meitei Mayek (the Meitei abugida) has been promoted in recent times. The Bengali script has been adopted for writing the Sylheti language as well, replacing the use of the old Sylheti Nagori script. Romanization Several conventions exist for writing Indic languages including Bengali in the Latin script, including "International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" or IAST (based on diacritics), "Indian languages Transliteration" or ITRANS (uses upper case alphabets suited for ASCII keyboards), and the National Library at Calcutta romanization. In the context of Bangla Romanization, it is important to distinguish between transliteration from transcription. Transliteration is orthographically accurate (i.e. the original spelling can be recovered), whereas transcription is phonetically accurate (the pronunciation can be reproduced). Since English does not have the sounds of Bangla, and since pronunciation does not completely reflect the spellings, being faithful to both is not possible. Although it might be desirable to use a transliteration scheme where the original Bangla orthography is recoverable from the Latin text, Bangla words are currently Romanized on Wikipedia using a phonemic transcription, where the pronunciation is represented with no reference to how it is written. The Wikipedia Romanization scheme is given in the table below, with the IPA transcriptions as used above. +Vowels FrontCentralBackClosei uClose-mide oOpen-midê ôOpen a +Consonants LabialDentalAlveolarApico-PostalveolarLamino-PostalveolarVelarGlottalNasalm n ng Plosive voicelesspphtth ţţhchchh kkh voicedbbhddh đđhjjhggh Fricative s sh h Liquid l, rŗ Sounds The phonemic inventory of Bengali consists of 29 consonants and 14 vowels, including the seven nasalized vowels. An approximate phonetic scheme is set out below in International Phonetic Alphabet. +Vowels FrontCentralBackClose Close-mid Open-mid Open +Consonants LabialDentalAlveolarApico-PostalveolarLamino-PostalveolarVelarGlottalNasal Plosive voiceless1 voiced Fricative Liquid , Diphthongs Magadhan languages such as Bengali are known for their wide variety of diphthongs, or combinations of vowels occurring within the same syllable. Several vowel combinations can be considered true monosyllabic diphthongs, made up of the main vowel (the nucleus) and the trailing vowel (the off-glide). Almost all other vowel combinations are possible, but only across two adjacent syllables, such as the disyllabic vowel combination in কুয়া kua "well". As many as 25 vowel combinations can be found, but some of the more recent combinations have not passed through the stage between two syllables and a diphthongal monosyllable. There are nineteen diphthongs in Bangal language. +DiphthongsIPATransliterationExampleiinii "I take"iubiubhôl "upset"einei "there is not"eekhee "having eaten"euđheu "wave"eokheona "do not eat"êenêe "she takes"êonêo "you take"aipai "I find"aepae "she finds"aupau "sliced bread"aopao "you find"ôenôe "she is not"ôonôo "you are not"oinoi "I am not"oedhoe "she washes"oodhoo "you wash"ounouka "boat"uidhui "I wash" Stress In standard Bengali, stress is predominantly initial. Bengali words are virtually all trochaic; the primary stress falls on the initial syllable of the word, while secondary stress often falls on all odd-numbered syllables thereafter, giving strings such as shô-ho-jo-gi-ta "cooperation", where the boldface represents primary and secondary stress. The first syllable carries the greatest stress, with the third carrying a somewhat weaker stress, and all following odd-numbered syllables carrying very weak stress. However in words borrowed from Sanskrit, the root syllable is stressed, causing them to be out of harmony with native Bengali words. Adding prefixes to a word typically shifts the stress to the left. For example, while the word shob-bho "civilized" carries the primary stress on the first syllable [shob], adding the negative prefix [ô-] creates ô-shob-bho "uncivilized", where the primary stress is now on the newly-added first syllable অ ô. In any case, word-stress does not alter the meaning of a word and is always subsidiary to sentence-stress. Intonation For Bengali words, intonation or pitch of voice has minor significance, apart from a few isolated cases. However in sentences intonation does play a significant role. In a simple declarative sentence, most words and/or phrases in Bengali carry a rising tone, with the exception of the last word in the sentence, which only carries a low tone. This intonational pattern creates a musical tone to the typical Bengali sentence, with low and high tones alternating until the final drop in pitch to mark the end of the sentence. In sentences involving focused words and/or phrases, the rising tones only last until the focused word; all following words carry a low tone. This intonation pattern extends to wh-questions, as wh-words are normally considered to be focused. In yes-no questions, the rising tones may be more exaggerated, and most importantly, the final syllable of the final word in the sentence takes a high falling tone instead of a flat low tone. Vowel length Vowel length is not contrastive in Bengali; all else equal, there is no meaningful distinction between a "short vowel" and a "long vowel", unlike the situation in many other Indic languages. However, when morpheme boundaries come into play, vowel length can sometimes distinguish otherwise homophonous words. This is due to the fact that open monosyllables (i.e. words that are made up of only one syllable, with that syllable ending in the main vowel and not a consonant) have somewhat longer vowels than other syllable types. For example, the vowel in cha: "tea" is somewhat longer than the first vowel in chaţa "licking", as cha: is a word with only one syllable, and no final consonant. (The long vowel is marked with a colon : in these examples.) The suffix ţa "the" can be added to cha: to form cha:ţa "the tea". Even when another morpheme is attached to cha:, the long vowel is preserved. Knowing this fact, some interesting cases of apparent vowel length distinction can be found. In general Bengali vowels tend to stay away from extreme vowel articulation. Furthermore, using a form of reduplication called "echo reduplication", the long vowel in cha: can be copied into the reduplicant ţa:, giving cha:ţa: "tea and all that comes with it". Thus, in addition to cha:ţa "the tea" (long first vowel) and chaţa "licking" (no long vowels), we have cha:ţa: "tea and all that comes with it" (both long vowels). Consonant clusters Native Bengali (tôdbhôbo) words do not allow initial consonant clusters; the maximum syllabic structure is CVC (i.e. one vowel flanked by a consonant on each side). Many speakers of Bengali restrict their phonology to this pattern, even when using Sanskrit or English borrowings, such as গেরাম geram (CV.CVC) for গ্রাম gram (CCVC) "village" or ইস্কুল iskul (VC.CVC) for স্কুল skul (CCVC) "school". Sanskrit (তৎসম tôtshômo) words borrowed into Bengali, however, possess a wide range of clusters, expanding the maximum syllable structure to CCCVC. Some of these clusters, such as the mr in মৃত্যু mrittu "death" or the sp in স্পষ্ট spôshţo "clear", have become extremely common, and can be considered legal consonant clusters in Bengali. English and other foreign (বিদেশী bideshi) borrowings add even more cluster types into the Bengali inventory, further increasing the syllable capacity to CCCVCCCC, as commonly-used loanwords such as ট্রেন ţren "train" and গ্লাস glash "glass" are now even included in leading Bengali dictionaries. Final consonant clusters are rare in Bengali. Most final consonant clusters were borrowed into Bengali from English, as in লিফ্ট lifţ "lift, elevator" and ব্যাংক bêņk "bank". However, final clusters do exist in some native Bengali words, although rarely in standard pronunciation. One example of a final cluster in a standard Bengali word would be গঞ্জ gônj, which is found in names of hundreds of cities and towns across Bengal, including নবাবগঞ্জ Nôbabgônj and মানিকগঞ্জ Manikgônj. Some nonstandard varieties of Bengali make use of final clusters quite often. For example, in some Purbo (eastern) dialects, final consonant clusters consisting of a nasal and its corresponding oral stop are common, as in চান্দ chand "moon". The Standard Bengali equivalent of chand would be চাঁদ chãd, with a nasalized vowel instead of the final cluster. Grammar Bengali nouns are not assigned gender, which leads to minimal changing of adjectives (inflection). However, nouns and pronouns are highly declined (altered depending on their function in a sentence) into four cases while verbs are heavily conjugated. As a consequence, unlike Hindi, Bengali verbs do not change form depending on the gender of the nouns. Word order As a Head-Final language, Bengali follows Subject Object Verb word order, although variations to this theme are common. Bengali makes use of postpositions, as opposed to the prepositions used in English and other European languages. Determiners follow the noun, while numerals, adjectives, and possessors precede the noun. Yes-no questions do not require any change to the basic word order; instead, the low (L) tone of the final syllable in the utterance is replaced with a falling (HL) tone. Additionally optional particles (e.g. কি -ki, না -na, etc.) are often encliticized onto the first or last word of a yes-no question. Wh-questions are formed by fronting the wh-word to focus position, which is typically the first or second word in the utterance. Nouns Nouns and pronouns are inflected for case, including nominative, objective, genitive (possessive), and locative. The case marking pattern for each noun being inflected depends on the noun's degree of animacy. When a definite article such as -টা -ţa (singular) or -গুলা -gula (plural) is added, as in the tables below, nouns are also inflected for number. +Singular Noun Inflection Animate Inanimate Nominative ছাত্রটাchhatro-ţathe studentজুতাটা juta-ţathe shoe Objectiveছাত্রটাকে chhatro-ţa-kethe studentজুতাটা juta-ţathe shoe Genitiveছাত্রটার chhatro-ţa-rthe student'sজুতাটার juta-ţa-rthe shoe's Locative -জুতাটায় juta-ţa-(t)eon/in the shoe+Plural Noun Inflection Animate Inanimate Nominativeছাত্ররাchhatro-rathe studentsজুতাগুলা juta-gulathe shoes Objectiveছাত্রদের(কে)chhatro-der(ke)the studentsজুতাগুলা juta-gulathe shoes Genitiveছাত্রদেরchhatro-derthe students'জুতাগুলার juta-gula-rthe shoes' Locative -জুতাগুলাতেjuta-gula-teon/in the shoes When counted, nouns take one of a small set of measure words. As in many East Asian languages (e.g. Chinese, Japanese, Thai, etc.), nouns in Bengali cannot be counted by adding the numeral directly adjacent to the noun. The noun's measure word (MW) must be used between the numeral and the noun. Most nouns take the generic measure word -টা -ţa, though other measure words indicate semantic classes (e.g. -জন -jon for humans). +Measure Words Bengali Bengali transliteration Literal translation English translation নয়টা গরু Nôe-ţa goru Nine-MW cow Nine cowsকয়টা বালিশ Kôe-ţa balish How many-MW pillow How many pillows অনেকজন লোক Ônek-jon lok Many-MW person Many people চার-পাঁচজন শিক্ষক Char-pãch-jon shikkhôk Four-five-MW teacher Four or five teachers Measuring nouns in Bengali without their corresponding measure words (e.g. আট বিড়াল aţ biŗal instead of আটটা বিড়াল aţ-ţa biŗal "eight cats") would typically be considered ungrammatical. However, when the semantic class of the noun is understood from the measure word, the noun is often omitted and only the measure word is used, e.g. শুধু একজন থাকবে। Shudhu êk-jon thakbe. (lit. "Only one-MW will remain.") would be understood to mean "Only one person will remain.", given the semantic class implicit in -জন -jon. In this sense, all nouns in Bengali, unlike most other Indo-European languages, are similar to mass nouns. Verbs Verbs divide into two classes: finite and non-finite. Non-finite verbs have no inflection for tense or person, while finite verbs are fully inflected for person (first, second, third), tense (present, past, future), aspect (simple, perfect, progressive), and honor (intimate, familiar, and formal), but not for number. Conditional, imperative, and other special inflections for mood can replace the tense and aspect suffixes. The number of inflections on many verb roots can total more than 200. Inflectional suffixes in the morphology of Bengali vary from region to region, along with minor differences in syntax. Bengali differs from most Indo-Aryan Languages in the zero copula, where the copula or connective be is often missing in the present tense. Bangla language in Thus "he is a teacher" is she shikkhôk, (literally "he teacher"). Among Bengali speakers brought up in neighbouring linguistic regions (e.g. Hindi), the lost copula may surface in utterances such as she shikkhôk hochchhe. This is viewed as ungrammatical by other speakers, and speakers of this variety are sometimes (humorously) referred as "hochchhe-Bangali". In this respect, Bengali is similar to Russian and Hungarian. Vocabulary Sources of modern Bengali words Bengali has as many as 100,000 separate words, of which 50,000 are considered tôtshômo (direct reborrowings from Sanskrit), 21,100 are tôdbhôbo (native words with Sanskrit cognates), and the rest being bideshi (foreign borrowings) and deshi (Austroasiatic borrowings) words. However, these figures do not take into account the fact that a large proportion of these words are archaic or highly technical, minimizing their actual usage. The productive vocabulary used in modern literary works, in fact, is made up mostly (67%) of tôdbhôbo words, while tôtshômo only make up 25% of the total. Tatsama in Tatbhava in Deshi and Bideshi words together make up the remaining 8% of the vocabulary used in modern Bengali literature. Due to centuries of contact with Europeans, Mughals, Arabs, Turks, Persians, Afghans, and East Asians, Bengali has incorporated many words from foreign languages. The most common borrowings from foreign languages come from three different kinds of contact. Close contact with neighboring peoples facilitated the borrowing of words from Hindi, Assamese and several indigenous Austroasiatic languages (like Santali). Byomkes Chakrabarti A Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali, K.P. Bagchi & Co., Kolkata, 1994, ISBN 8170741289 of Bengal. After centuries of invasions from Persia and the Middle East, numerous Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and Pashtun words were absorbed into Bengali. Portuguese, French, Dutch and English words were later additions during the colonial period. Sample audio Sample text The following is a sample text in Bengali of the Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (by the United Nations): Bengali in Eastern Nagari script ধারা ১: সমস্ত মানুষ স্বাধীনভাবে সমান মর্যাদা এবং অধিকার নিয়ে জন্মগ্রহণ করে। তাঁদের বিবেক এবং বুদ্ধি আছে; সুতরাং সকলেরই একে অপরের প্রতি ভ্রাতৃত্বসুলভ মনোভাব নিয়ে আচরণ করা উচিৎ। Bengali in Romanization . Bengali in IPA . Gloss Clause 1: All human free-manner-in equal dignity and right taken birth-take do. Their reason and intelligence have; therefore everyone-indeed one another's towards brotherhood-ly attitude taken conduct do should. Translation Article 1: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience. Therefore, they should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. See also Notes References . . . . . . Chakrabarti, Byomkes, A Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali, K.P. Bagchi & Co., Kolkata, 1994, ISBN 8170741289 Byomkes Chakrabarti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shaw, Rameswar : sadharan Bhasabigna O Bangal Bhasa, Pustak Bipani, Kolkata, 1997 Haldar, Narayan : Bangla Bhasa Prsanga : Banan Kathan Likhanriti, Pustak Bipani, Kolkata, 2007 . External links Bangla Academy, regulatory body in Bangladesh. Paschimbanga Bangla Akademi, regulatory body in West Bengal, India. Ethnologue report for Bengali Samsad Bengali-English dictionary. 3rd ed. online. Requires unicode enabled browser. Free Bangla Unicode Solutions. The South Asian Literary Recordings Project, The Library of Congress. 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4,465 | Biochemistry | Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living organisms. It deals with the structure and function of cellular components such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and other biomolecules. Although there are a vast number of different biomolecules many are complex and large molecules (called polymers) that are composed of similar repeating subunits (called monomers). Each class of polymeric biomolecule has a different set of subunit types. For example, a protein is a polymer whose subunits are selected from a set of 20 or more amino acids. Biochemistry studies the chemical properties of important biological molecules, like proteins, in particular the chemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions. The biochemistry of cell metabolism and the endocrine system has been extensively described. Other areas of biochemistry include the genetic code (DNA, RNA), protein synthesis, cell membrane transport, and signal transduction. Since all known life forms that are still alive today are descended from the same common ancestor, they have generally similar biochemistries. It is unknown whether alternative biochemistries are possible or practical. History Originally, it was generally believed that life was not subject to the laws of science the way non-life was. It was thought that only living beings could produce the molecules of life (from other, previously existing biomolecules). Then, in 1828, Friedrich Wöhler published a paper on the synthesis of urea, proving that organic compounds can be created artificially. The dawn of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme, diastase (today called amylase), in 1833 by Anselme Payen. Eduard Buchner contributed the first demonstration of a complex biochemical process outside of a cell in 1896: alcoholic fermentation in cell extracts of yeast. Although the term “biochemistry” seems to have been first used in 1882, it is generally accepted that the formal coinage of biochemistry occurred in 1903 by Carl Neuberg, a German chemist. Previously, this area would have been referred to as physiological chemistry. Since then, biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-20th century, with the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labeling, electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle). Another significant historic event in biochemistry is the discovery of the gene and its role in the transfer of information in the cell. This part of biochemistry is often called molecular biology. In the 1950s, James D. Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, and Maurice Wilkins were instrumental in solving DNA structure and suggesting its relationship with genetic transfer of information. In 1958, George Beadle and Edward Tatum received the Nobel Prize for work in fungi showing that one gene produces one enzyme. In 1988, Colin Pitchfork was the first person convicted of murder with DNA evidence, which led to growth of forensic science. More recently, Andrew Z. Fire and Craig C. Mello received the 2006 Nobel Prize for discovering the role of RNA interference (RNAi), in the silencing of gene expression Today, there are three main types of biochemistry as established by Michael E. Sugar. Plant biochemistry involves the study of the biochemistry of autotrophic organisms such as photosynthesis and other plant specific biochemical processes. General biochemistry encompasses both plant and animal biochemistry. Human/medical/medicinal biochemistry focuses on the biochemistry of humans and medical illnesses. Monomers and Polymers Monomers and polymers are a structural basis in which the four main macromolecules (Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids), or biopolymers, of biochemistry are based on. Monomers are smaller micromolecules that are put together to make macromolecules. Polymers are those macromolecules that are created when monomers are synthesized together. When they are synthesized, the two molecules undergo a process called dehydration synthesis. Carbohydrates A molecule of sucrose (glucose + fructose), a disaccharide. Carbohydrates have monomers called monosaccharides. Some of these monosaccharides include glucose (C6H12O6), fructose (C6H12O6), and deoxyribose (C5H10O4). When two monosaccharides undergo dehydration synthesis, water is produced, as two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom are lost from the two monosaccharides' carboxyl group. Lipids A triglyceride with a glycerol molecule on the left and three fatty acids coming off it. Lipids are usually made up of a molecule of glycerol and other molecules. In triglycerides, or the main lipid, there is one molecule of glycerol, and three fatty acids. Fatty acids are considered the monomer in that case, and could be saturated or unsaturated. Lipids, especially phospholipids, are also used in different pharmaceutical products, either as co-solubilisers e.g. in Parenteral infusions or else as drug carrier components (e.g. in a Liposome or Transfersome). Proteins The general structure of an α-amino acid, with the amino group on the left and the carboxyl group on the right. Proteins are large molecules, and have monomers of amino acids. There are 20 different known kinds of amino acids, and they contain a carboxyl group, an amino group, and an "R" group. The "R" group is what makes each amino acid different. When Amino acids combine, they form a special bond called a peptide bond, and become a polypeptide, or a protein. Nucleic Acids The structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the picture shows the monomers being put together. Nucleic acids are very important in biochemistry, as they are what make up DNA, something all cellular organism use to store their genetic information. The most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid. Their monomers are called nucleotides. The most common nucleotides are called adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, and uracil. Adenine binds with thymine and uracil, thymine only binds with adenine, and cytosine and guanine can only bind with each other. Carbohydrates The function of carbohydrates includes energy storage and providing structure. Sugars are carbohydrates, but not all carbohydrates are sugars. There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other known type of biomolecule; they are used to store energy and genetic information, as well as play important roles in cell to cell interactions and communications. Monosaccharides Glucose The simplest type of carbohydrate is a monosaccharide, which among other properties contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 (generalized formula CnH2nOn, where n is at least 3). Glucose, one of the most important carbohydrates, is an example of a monosaccharide. So is fructose, the sugar that gives fruits their sweet taste. Some carbohydrates (especially after condensation to oligo- and polysaccharides) contain less carbon relative to H and O, which still are present in 2:1 (H:O) ratio. Monosaccharides can be grouped into aldoses (having an aldehyde group at the end of the chain, e. g. glucose) and ketoses (having a keto group in their chain; e. g. fructose). Both aldoses and ketoses occur in an equilibrium between the open-chain forms and (starting with chain lengths of C4) cyclic forms. These are generated by bond formation between one of the hydroxyl groups of the sugar chain with the carbon of the aldehyde or keto group to form a hemiacetal bond. This leads to saturated five-membered (in furanoses) or six-membered (in pyranoses) heterocyclic rings containing one O as heteroatom. Disaccharides Sucrose: ordinary table sugar and probably the most familiar carbohydrate. Two monosaccharides can be joined together using dehydration synthesis, in which a hydrogen atom is removed from the end of one molecule and a hydroxyl group (—OH) is removed from the other; the remaining residues are then attached at the sites from which the atoms were removed. The H—OH or H2O is then released as a molecule of water, hence the term dehydration. The new molecule, consisting of two monosaccharides, is called a disaccharide and is conjoined together by a glycosidic or ether bond. The reverse reaction can also occur, using a molecule of water to split up a disaccharide and break the glycosidic bond; this is termed hydrolysis. The most well-known disaccharide is sucrose, ordinary sugar (in scientific contexts, called table sugar or cane sugar to differentiate it from other sugars). Sucrose consists of a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule joined together. Another important disaccharide is lactose, consisting of a glucose molecule and a galactose molecule. As most humans age, the production of lactase, the enzyme that hydrolyzes lactose back into glucose and galactose, typically decreases. This results in lactase deficiency, also called lactose intolerance. Sugar polymers are characterised by having reducing or non-reducing ends. A reducing end of a carbohydrate is a carbon atom which can be in equilibrium with the open-chain aldehyde or keto form. If the joining of monomers takes place at such a carbon atom, the free hydroxy group of the pyranose or furanose form is exchanged with an OH-side chain of another sugar, yielding a full acetal. This prevents opening of the chain to the aldehyde or keto form and renders the modified residue non-reducing. Lactose contains a reducing end at its glucose moiety, whereas the galactose moiety form a full acetal with the C4-OH group of glucose. Saccharose does not have a reducing end because of full acetal formation between the aldehyde carbon of glucose (C1) and the keto carbon of fructose (C2). Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides Cellulose as polymer of β-D-glucose When a few (around three to six) monosaccharides are joined together, it is called an oligosaccharide (oligo- meaning "few"). These molecules tend to be used as markers and signals, as well as having some other uses. Many monosaccharides joined together make a polysaccharide. They can be joined together in one long linear chain, or they may be branched. Two of the most common polysaccharides are cellulose and glycogen, both consisting of repeating glucose monomers. Cellulose is made by plants and is an important structural component of their cell walls. Humans can neither manufacture nor digest it. Glycogen, on the other hand, is an animal carbohydrate; humans and other animals use it as a form of energy storage. Use of carbohydrates as an energy source See also carbohydrate metabolism Glucose is the major energy source in most life forms. For instance, polysaccharides are broken down into their monomers (glycogen phosphorylase removes glucose residues from glycogen). Disaccharides like lactose or sucrose are cleaved into their two component monosaccharides. Glycolysis (anaerobic) Glucose is mainly metabolized by a very important and ancient ten-step pathway called glycolysis, the net result of which is to break down one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate; this also produces a net two molecules of ATP, the energy currency of cells, along with two reducing equivalents in the form of converting NAD+ to NADH. This does not require oxygen; if no oxygen is available (or the cell cannot use oxygen), the NAD is restored by converting the pyruvate to lactate (lactic acid) (e. g. in humans) or to ethanol plus carbon dioxide (e. g. in yeast). Other monosaccharides like galactose and fructose can be converted into intermediates of the glycolytic pathway. Aerobic In aerobic cells with sufficient oxygen, like most human cells, the pyruvate is further metabolized. It is irreversibly converted to acetyl-CoA, giving off one carbon atom as the waste product carbon dioxide, generating another reducing equivalent as NADH. The two molecules acetyl-CoA (from one molecule of glucose) then enter the citric acid cycle, producing two more molecules of ATP, six more NADH molecules and two reduced (ubi)quinones (via FADH2 as enzyme-bound cofactor), and releasing the remaining carbon atoms as carbon dioxide. The produced NADH and quinol molecules then feed into the enzyme complexes of the respiratory chain, an electron transport system transferring the electrons ultimately to oxygen and conserving the released energy in the form of a proton gradient over a membrane (inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotes). Thereby, oxygen is reduced to water and the original electron acceptors NAD+ and quinone are regenerated. This is why humans breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. The energy released from transferring the electrons from high-energy states in NADH and quinol is conserved first as proton gradient and converted to ATP via ATP synthase. This generates an additional 28 molecules of ATP (24 from the 8 NADH + 4 from the 2 quinols), totaling to 32 molecules of ATP conserved per degraded glucose (two from glycolysis + two from the citrate cycle). It is clear that using oxygen to completely oxidize glucose provides an organism with far more energy than any oxygen-independent metabolic feature, and this is thought to be the reason why complex life appeared only after Earth's atmosphere accumulated large amounts of oxygen. Gluconeogenesis In vertebrates, vigorously contracting skeletal muscles (during weightlifting or sprinting, for example) do not receive enough oxygen to meet the energy demand, and so they shift to anaerobic metabolism, converting glucose to lactate. The liver regenerates the glucose, using a process called gluconeogenesis. This process is not quite the opposite of glycolysis, and actually requires three times the amount of energy gained from glycolysis (six molecules of ATP are used, compared to the two gained in glycolysis). Analogous to the above reactions, the glucose produced can then undergo glycolysis in tissues that need energy, be stored as glycogen (or starch in plants), or be converted to other monosaccharides or joined into di- or oligosaccharides. The combined pathways of glycolysis during exercise, lactate's crossing via the bloodstream to the liver, subsequent gluconeogenesis and release of glucose into the bloodstream is called the Cori cycle. Proteins A schematic of hemoglobin. The red and blue ribbons represent the protein globin; the green structures are the heme groups. Like carbohydrates, some proteins perform largely structural roles. For instance, movements of the proteins actin and myosin ultimately are responsible for the contraction of skeletal muscle. One property many proteins have is that they specifically bind to a certain molecule or class of molecules—they may be extremely selective in what they bind. Antibodies are an example of proteins that attach to one specific type of molecule. In fact, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which uses antibodies, is currently one of the most sensitive tests modern medicine uses to detect various biomolecules. Probably the most important proteins, however, are the enzymes. These molecules recognize specific reactant molecules called substrates; they then catalyze the reaction between them. By lowering the activation energy, the enzyme speeds up that reaction by a rate of 1011 or more: a reaction that would normally take over 3,000 years to complete spontaneously might take less than a second with an enzyme. The enzyme itself is not used up in the process, and is free to catalyze the same reaction with a new set of substrates. Using various modifiers, the activity of the enzyme can be regulated, enabling control of the biochemistry of the cell as a whole. In essence, proteins are chains of amino acids. An amino acid consists of a carbon atom bound to four groups. One is an amino group, —NH2, and one is a carboxylic acid group, —COOH (although these exist as —NH3+ and —COO− under physiologic conditions). The third is a simple hydrogen atom. The fourth is commonly denoted "—R" and is different for each amino acid. There are twenty standard amino acids. Some of these have functions by themselves or in a modified form; for instance, glutamate functions as an important neurotransmitter. Generic amino acids (1) in neutral form, (2) as they exist physiologically, and (3) joined together as a dipeptide. Amino acids can be joined together via a peptide bond. In this dehydration synthesis, a water molecule is removed and the peptide bond connects the nitrogen of one amino acid's amino group to the carbon of the other's carboxylic acid group. The resulting molecule is called a dipeptide, and short stretches of amino acids (usually, fewer than around thirty) are called peptides or polypeptides. Longer stretches merit the title proteins. As an example, the important blood serum protein albumin contains 585 amino acid residues. The structure of proteins is traditionally described in a hierarchy of four levels. The primary structure of a protein simply consists of its linear sequence of amino acids; for instance, "alanine-glycine-tryptophan-serine-glutamate-asparagine-glycine-lysine-…". Secondary structure is concerned with local morphology. Some combinations of amino acids will tend to curl up in a coil called an α-helix or into a sheet called a β-sheet; some α-helixes can be seen in the hemoglobin schematic above. Tertiary structure is the entire three-dimensional shape of the protein. This shape is determined by the sequence of amino acids. In fact, a single change can change the entire structure. The alpha chain of hemoglobin contains 146 amino acid residues; substitution of the glutamate residue at position 6 with a valine residue changes the behavior of hemoglobin so much that it results in sickle-cell disease. Finally quaternary structure is concerned with the structure of a protein with multiple peptide subunits, like hemoglobin with its four subunits. Not all proteins have more than one subunit. Ingested proteins are usually broken up into single amino acids or dipeptides in the small intestine, and then absorbed. They can then be joined together to make new proteins. Intermediate products of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathway can be used to make all twenty amino acids, and most bacteria and plants possess all the necessary enzymes to synthesize them. Humans and other mammals, however, can only synthesize half of them. They cannot synthesize isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. These are the essential amino acids, since it is essential to ingest them. Mammals do possess the enzymes to synthesize alanine, asparagine, aspartate, cysteine, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine, the nonessential amino acids. While they can synthesize arginine and histidine, they cannot produce it in sufficient amounts for young, growing animals, and so these are often considered essential amino acids. If the amino group is removed from an amino acid, it leaves behind a carbon skeleton called an α-keto acid. Enzymes called transaminases can easily transfer the amino group from one amino acid (making it an α-keto acid) to another α-keto acid (making it an amino acid). This is important in the biosynthesis of amino acids, as for many of the pathways, intermediates from other biochemical pathways are converted to the α-keto acid skeleton, and then an amino group is added, often via transamination. The amino acids may then be linked together to make a protein. A similar process is used to break down proteins. It is first hydrolyzed into its component amino acids. Free ammonia (NH3), existing as the ammonium ion (NH4+) in blood, is toxic to life forms. A suitable method for excreting it must therefore exist. Different strategies have evolved in different animals, depending on the animals' needs. Unicellular organisms, of course, simply release the ammonia into the environment. Similarly, bony fish can release the ammonia into the water where it is quickly diluted. In general, mammals convert the ammonia into urea, via the urea cycle. Lipids The term lipid comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids, fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids and terpenoids (eg. retinoids and steroids). Some lipids are linear aliphatic molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are aromatic, while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are rigid. Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. Generally, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic ("water-fearing"), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure is polar or hydrophilic ("water-loving") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions). In the case of cholesterol, the polar group is a mere -OH (hydroxyl or alcohol). In the case of phospholipids, the polar groups are considerably larger and more polar, as described below. Lipids are an integral part of our daily diet. Most oils and milk products that we use for cooking and eating like butter, cheese, ghee etc, are comprised of fats. Vegetable oils are rich in various polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Lipid-containing foods undergo digestion within the body and are broken into fatty acids and glycerol, which are the final degradation products of fats and lipids. Nucleic acids A nucleic acid is a complex, high-molecular-weight biochemical macromolecule composed of nucleotide chains that convey genetic information. The most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Nucleic acids are found in all living cells and viruses. Aside from the genetic material of the cell, nucleic acids often play a role as second messengers, as well as forming the base molecule for adenosine triphosphate, the primary energy-carrier molecule found in all living organisms. Nucleic acid, so called because of its prevalence in cellular nuclei, is the generic name of the family of biopolymers. The monomers are called nucleotides, and each consists of three components: a nitrogenous heterocyclic base (either a purine or a pyrimidine), a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. Different nucleic acid types differ in the specific sugar found in their chain (e.g. DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid contains 2-deoxyriboses). Also, the nitrogenous bases possible in the two nucleic acids are different: adenine, cytosine, and guanine occur in both RNA and DNA, while thymine occurs only in DNA and uracil occurs in RNA. Relationship to other "molecular-scale" biological sciences Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology Researchers in biochemistry use specific techniques native to biochemistry, but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas from genetics, molecular biology and biophysics. There has never been a hard-line between these disciplines in terms of content and technique, but members of each discipline have in the past been very territorial; today the terms molecular biology and biochemistry are nearly interchangeable. The following figure is a schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationship between the fields: Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules. The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry. Genetics is the study of the effect of genetic differences on organisms. Often this can be inferred by the absence of a normal component (e.g. one gene). The study of "mutants" – organisms which lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called "wild type" or normal phenotype. Genetic interactions (epistasis) can often confound simple interpretations of such "knock-out" studies. Molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the genetic material. The central dogma of molecular biology where genetic material is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein, despite being an oversimplified picture of molecular biology, still provides a good starting point for understanding the field. This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for RNA. Chemical Biology seeks to develop new tools based on small molecules that allow minimal perturbation of biological systems while providing detailed information about their function. Further, chemical biology employs biological systems to create non-natural hybrids between biomolecules and synthetic devices (for example emptied viral capsids that can deliver gene therapy or drug molecules). See also Lists List of basic biochemistry topics List of biochemistry topics List of biochemists List of biomolecules List of geneticists & biochemists List of nucleic acid simulation software Important publications in biochemistry (biology) Important publications in biochemistry (chemistry) Related topics Biological psychiatry Biophysics Chemical ecology Computational biomodeling EC number Hypothetical types of biochemistry International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Metabolome Metabolomics Molecular biology Molecular medicine Plant biochemistry Structural biology Stoichiometry Small molecule Veterinary References Further reading Proceedings of National academy of Science of the United States of America, ISSN: 1091-6490 (electronic) External links The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology Biochemistry, 5th ed. Full text of Berg, Tymoczko, and Stryer, courtesy of NCBI. Biochemistry, 2nd ed. Full text of Garrett and Grisham. Biochemistry Animation (Narrated Flash animations.) 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4,466 | Fugue_state | A fugue state, formally Dissociative Fugue (previously called Psychogenic Fugue) (DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders 300.13 Dissociative Fugue (formerly Psychogenic Fugue) ( DSM-IV 300.13, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition) ), is a rare psychiatric disorder characterized by reversible amnesia for personal identity, including the memories, personality and other identifying characteristics of individuality. The state is usually short-lived (hours to days), but can last months or longer. Dissociative fugue usually involves unplanned travel or wandering, and is sometimes accompanied by the establishment of a new identity. After recovery from fugue, previous memories usually return intact, however there is complete amnesia for the fugue episode. Importantly, an episode is not characterized as a fugue if it can be related to the ingestion of psychotropic substances, to trauma, to a general medical condition, or to psychiatric conditions such as delerium or dementia, bipolar disorder or depression. Fugues are usually precipitated by a stressful episode, and upon recovery there may be amnesia for the original stressor (Dissociative Amnesia). Clinical definition The etiology of the fugue state is related to Dissociative Amnesia, (DSM-IV Codes 300.12 Dissociative Amnesia, DSM-IV Codes 300.12 ( Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition ) ) which has several other subtypes Dissociative Amnesia, DSM-IV Code 300.12 ( PsychNet-UK.com ) : Selective Amnesia, Generalised Amnesia, Continuous Amnesia, Systematised Amnesia, in addition to the subtype Dissociative Fugue. Unlike retrograde amnesia (which is popularly referred to simply as "amnesia", the state where someone completely forgets who they are), Dissociative Amnesia is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication, DSM-IV Codes 291.1 & 292.83) or a neurological or other general medical condition (e.g., Amnestic Disorder due to a head trauma, DSM-IV Codes 294.0) Complete List of DSM-IV Codes ( PsychNet-UK.com ) . It is a complex neuropsychological process Background to Dissociation ( The Pottergate Centre for Dissociation & Trauma ) . As the person experiencing a Dissociative Fugue may have recently suffered the reappearance of an event or person representing an earlier life trauma, the emergence of an armoring or defensive personality seems to be for some, a logical apprehension of the situation. Therefore, the terminology fugue state may carry a slight linguistic distinction from Dissociative Fugue, the former implying a greater degree of motion. For the purposes of this article then, a fugue state would occur while one is acting out a Dissociative Fugue. The DSM-IV defines as: sudden, unexpected travel away from home or one's customary place of work, with inability to recall one's past, confusion about personal identity, or the assumption of a new identity, or significant distress or impairment. The Merck Manual Merck Manual 1999 section 15 (Psychiatric Disorders), chapter 188 (Dissociative Disorders) defines Dissociative Fugue as: One or more episodes of amnesia in which the inability to recall some or all of one's past and either the loss of one's identity or the formation of a new identity occur with sudden, unexpected, purposeful travel away from home. In support of this definition, the Merck Manual further defines Dissociative Amnesia as: An inability to recall important personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, that is too extensive to be explained by normal forgetfulness. Diagnosis Some disorders have similar symptoms. The clinician, therefore, in his or her diagnostic attempt must rule out the following disorders in order to establish a precise diagnosis: dementia, head trauma, substance intoxication, early symptoms of neurological disorders (eg multiple sclerosis) may resemble conversion symptoms. Similarly, other psychological disorders may manifest symptoms similar to Dissociative Fugues. These include bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and major depressive disorder. Case studies David Fitzpatrick, a sufferer of dissociative identity disorder from the United Kingdom, was profiled on Five's television series Extraordinary People. He entered a fugue state on December 22, 2005. The Man With No Past Jody Roberts, a reporter for the Tacoma News Tribune, went missing in 1985, only to be found 12 years later in Sitka, Alaska, living under the name of "Jane Dee Williams." While there were some initial suspicions that she had been faking amnesia, some experts have come to believe that she genuinely suffered a protracted fugue state. Hannah Upp, a teacher from New York, went missing on August 28, 2008. She was rescued from the New York Harbor on September 16 with no recollection of the time in between. The episode was diagnosed as dissociative fugue. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/01/nyregion/thecity/01miss.html?_r=3&pagewanted=1&ref=nyregion See also Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders (DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders) Dissociative Identity Disorder (formerly Multiple Personality Disorder) (DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders 300.14) Psychogenic amnesia; Dissociative Amnesia (formerly Psychogenic Amnesia) (DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders 300.12) Depersonalization Disorder (DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders 300.6) Dissociation (psychology) References External links "Dissociative Fugue" from the Mental Health Matters website. "Dissociative Fugue" from the Merck & Co. website. | Fugue_state |@lemmatized fugue:24 state:8 formally:1 dissociative:28 previously:1 call:1 psychogenic:4 dsm:14 iv:14 disorder:23 formerly:3 diagnostic:3 statistical:2 manual:5 mental:3 fourth:2 edition:2 rare:1 psychiatric:3 characterize:2 reversible:1 amnesia:20 personal:3 identity:8 include:2 memory:2 personality:3 identify:1 characteristic:1 individuality:1 usually:5 short:1 live:2 hour:1 day:1 last:1 month:1 long:1 involve:1 unplanned:1 travel:3 wandering:1 sometimes:1 accompany:1 establishment:1 new:5 recovery:2 previous:1 return:1 intact:1 however:1 complete:2 episode:5 importantly:1 relate:2 ingestion:1 psychotropic:1 substance:3 trauma:5 general:2 medical:2 condition:3 delerium:1 dementia:2 bipolar:2 depression:1 precipitate:1 stressful:2 upon:1 may:5 original:1 stressor:1 clinical:2 definition:2 etiology:1 cod:4 several:1 subtypes:1 code:2 psychnet:2 uk:2 com:3 selective:1 generalise:1 continuous:1 systematise:1 addition:1 subtype:1 unlike:1 retrograde:1 popularly:1 refer:1 simply:1 someone:1 completely:1 forgets:1 due:2 direct:1 physiological:1 effect:1 e:2 g:2 drug:1 abuse:1 medication:1 neurological:2 amnestic:1 head:2 list:1 complex:1 neuropsychological:1 process:1 background:1 dissociation:3 pottergate:1 centre:1 person:2 experience:1 recently:1 suffer:2 reappearance:1 event:1 represent:1 early:2 life:1 emergence:1 armoring:1 defensive:1 seem:1 logical:1 apprehension:1 situation:1 therefore:2 terminology:1 carry:1 slight:1 linguistic:1 distinction:1 former:1 imply:1 great:1 degree:1 motion:1 purpose:1 article:1 would:1 occur:2 one:6 act:1 defines:3 sudden:2 unexpected:2 away:2 home:2 customary:1 place:1 work:1 inability:3 recall:3 past:3 confusion:1 assumption:1 significant:1 distress:1 impairment:1 merck:4 section:1 chapter:1 either:1 loss:1 formation:1 purposeful:1 support:1 important:1 information:1 traumatic:1 nature:1 extensive:1 explain:1 normal:1 forgetfulness:1 diagnosis:2 similar:2 symptom:4 clinician:1 attempt:1 must:1 rule:1 follow:1 order:1 establish:1 precise:1 intoxication:1 eg:1 multiple:2 sclerosis:1 resemble:1 conversion:1 similarly:1 psychological:1 manifest:1 schizophrenia:1 major:1 depressive:1 case:1 study:1 david:1 fitzpatrick:1 sufferer:1 united:1 kingdom:1 profile:1 five:1 television:1 series:1 extraordinary:1 people:1 enter:1 december:1 man:1 jody:1 robert:1 reporter:1 tacoma:1 news:1 tribune:1 go:2 miss:2 find:1 year:1 later:1 sitka:1 alaska:1 name:1 jane:1 dee:1 williams:1 initial:1 suspicion:1 fake:1 expert:1 come:1 believe:1 genuinely:1 protracted:1 hannah:1 upp:1 teacher:1 york:2 august:1 rescue:1 harbor:1 september:1 recollection:1 time:1 diagnose:1 http:1 www:1 nytimes:1 nyregion:2 thecity:1 html:1 pagewanted:1 ref:1 see:1 also:1 structure:1 interview:1 depersonalization:1 psychology:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 health:1 matter:1 website:2 co:1 |@bigram dissociative_fugue:12 dsm_iv:14 iv_dissociative:6 dissociative_disorder:7 diagnostic_statistical:2 mental_disorder:2 psychiatric_disorder:2 psychotropic_substance:1 bipolar_disorder:2 dissociative_amnesia:7 sudden_unexpected:2 merck_manual:3 neurological_disorder:1 multiple_sclerosis:1 depressive_disorder:1 dissociative_identity:2 http_www:1 www_nytimes:1 nytimes_com:1 external_link:1 mental_health:1 |
4,467 | Distance_education | Distance education, or distance learning, is a field of education that focuses on the pedagogy and andragogy, technology, and instructional systems design that aim to deliver education to students who are not physically "on site". Rather than attending courses in person, teachers and students may communicate at times of their own choosing by exchanging printed or electronic media, or through technology that allows them to communicate in real time and through other online ways. Distance education courses that require a physical on-site presence for any reason including the taking of examinations is considered to be a hybrid or blended course of study. History Distance education dates back to at least as early as 1728, when "an advertisement in the Boston Gazette...[named] 'Caleb Phillips, Teacher of the new method of Short Hand" was seeking students for lessons to be sent weekly. Holmberg, B. (2005). The evolution, principles and practices of distance education. Bibliotheks-und Informationssystem der Universitat Oldenburg. p. 13. Modern distance education has been practiced at least since Isaac Pitman taught shorthand in Great Britain via correspondence in the 1840s. The development of the postal service in the 19th century led to the growth of Commercial correspondence colleges with nation-wide reach. The University of London was the first university to offer distance learning degrees, establishing its External Programme in 1858. "Key Facts", University of London External Programme Website, http://www.londonexternal.ac.uk/about_us/facts.shtml The Society to Encourage Studies at Home was founded in 1873 in Boston, Massachusetts. In Australia, the University of Queensland established its Department of Correspondence Studies in 1911. White, M. (1982). 'Distance education in Australian higher education — a history', Distance Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, pp. 255-278. Another pioneering institution was the University of South Africa, which has been offering Correspondence Education courses since 1946. In New Zealand, university-level distance education or extramural study began in 1960 at Massey University. The largest distance education university in the United Kingdom is the Open University founded 1969. In Germany the FernUniversität in Hagen was founded 1974. There are now many similar institutions around the world, often with the name Open University (in English or in the local language), and more than a dozen of them have grown to become 'mega-universities' Daniel, J.S. (1996). Mega-Universities and Knowledge Media: Technology Strategies for Higher Education, Kogan Page, London. isbn 0-7494-2119-3. , a term coined to denote institutions with more than 100,000 students. Charles Wedemeyer of the University of Wisconsin-Madison is considered the father of modern distance education in America. From 1964-1968 the Carnegie Foundation funded Wedemeyer's Articulated Instructional Media Project (AIM) which brought in a variety of communications technologies aimed at providing learning to an off-campus population. According to Moore's recounting, AIM impressed the British who imported these ideas and used them to create the first Open University, now called United Kingdom Open University (UKOU) to distinguish it from other open universities which have emerged. UKOU was established in the late 1960s and used television and radio as its primary delivery methodologies, thus placing it in the forefront of applying emerging technologies to learning. It is fair to say that all "open universities" use distance education technologies as delivery methodologies. , pages 33-36 There are many private and public, non-profit and for-profit institutions offering courses and degree programs through distance education. Levels of accreditation vary; some institutions offering distance education in the United States have received little outside oversight, and some may be fraudulent diploma mills. In many other jurisdictions, an institution may not use the term "University" without accreditation and authorisation, normally by the national government. Online education is rapidly increasing among mainstream universities in the United States, where online doctoral programs have even developed at prestigious research institutions. Hebert, D. G. (2007). “Five Challenges and Solutions in Online Music Teacher Education,” Research and Issues in Music Education, Vol. 5 In the twentieth century, radio, television, and the Internet have all been used to further distance education. Computers and the Internet have made distance learning distribution easier and faster. Gold, L & Maitland, C (1999). What's the difference? A review of contemporary research on the effectiveness of distance learning in higher education. Washington, DC: NEA. Private, for-profit University of Phoenix, which is primarily an online university, now has two hundred thousand students and expects to serve five hundred thousand by 2010, yet little is known about student success or lack of success in such a fast-growing institution. Merriam, s., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in Adulthood New York: Wiley. In 2006 the Sloan Consortium reported that more than 96 percent of the largest colleges and universities in the United States offered online courses and that almost 3.2 million U.S. students were taking at least one online course during the fall 2005 term. Making the Grade: Online Education in the United States, 2006, The Sloan Consortium, http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/survey/survey06.asp Two of Canada’s leading distance education providers are Open Learning (TRU-OL) of Thompson Rivers University and Athabasca University (AU). TRU-OL educational goals are obtainable for anyone through accessible and varied courses that can be taken anytime and at an individually-determined pace. With over 400 individual courses and more than 57 programs available for completion by distance and online learning, students can take a variety of programs such as: adult secondary school completion; certificates and diplomas, including advanced and post-baccalaureate; associate degrees; and bachelor's degrees. AU educational goals are the removal of barriers that restrict access to and success in university level study and to increasing equality of educational opportunity for adult learners worldwide. AU offers over 700 courses in more than 90 undergraduate and graduate programs, including the Doctor of Education in Distance Education (D.Ed.) and the Doctor in Business Administration (DBA). In Ontario, Canada the Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities established the elearnnetwork.ca in 2007 to provide access to students in small and rural communities across Ontario who wanted to pursue college or university courses from their community by distance education. http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/March2007/06/c7425.html CNW Newsgroup: Improving Access To Higher Education For Rural Students In Southern Ontario In the province of Manitoba, the department of Education, Citizenship and Youth provides three options in distance education: Independent Study Option, Teacher Mediated Option and Web-based Course Option. The Independent Study Option (ISO) provides the opportunity and flexibility for both school-age and adult learners to study a wide range of compulsory optional print based distance education courses from Grades 7 to 12. This form of distance education also provides students with support by email or phone. The Independent Study Option also offers several courses in French. In the event that a student leaves the province on a temporary or permanent basis, the ISO also provides the opportunity for continuing the study of Manitoba curriculum en route to receiving a Senior Years graduation diploma. Teacher Mediated Option (TMO) supports the delivery of distance learning courses that are scheduled within the school day and use a variety of technologies to assist students including: instruction twice a school cycle for 40 minutes per class by audio teleconference, recording of classes as required for use up to five days after the class has occurred, and corresponding with an instructor between classes by email or phone. These courses are only available to students attending school or an adult learning centre. Web-bases course in Manitoba are available to schools wishing to deliver high school courses on the internet. Manitoba uses the Blackboard learning System CE version 6.2. While being delivered through the internet, these courses are taught by a teacher who may be off-site. Assignments are submitted online by students to teachers, and a final examination is written on site. http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/dl/index.html Technologies used in delivery The types of available technologies used in distance education are divided into two groups: synchronous and asynchronous. Synchronous technology is a mode of online delivery where all participants are "present" at the same time. Requires a timetable to be organized. Asynchronous technology is a mode of online delivery where participants access course materials on their own schedule. Students are not required to be together at the same time. Synchronous technologies Telephone Videoconferencing Web Conferencing Asynchronous technologies Audiocassette E-mail Message Board Forums Print Materials Lever-Duffy, Judy and Jean B. McDonald. Teaching and Learning with Technology. Pearson Education, Inc., 2008, 2005, 2003. Voice Mail/fax Videocassette There are also Learning Management Systems or Learning Management Content Systems which can be used for both Synchronous and Asynchronous learning. (LMS is not so much a learning tool as a framework for an instructor to better administer the classroom.) Types of distance education courses Correspondence conducted through regular mail Internet conducted either synchronously or asynchronously Telecourse/Broadcast, in which content is delivered via radio or television CD-ROM, in which the student interacts with computer content stored on a CD-ROM PocketPC/Mobile Learning where the student accesses course content stored on a mobile device or through a wireless server RDI, UK university courses now offered on Mobile Devices, Retrieved January 5, 2009 Integrated distance learning, the integration of live, in-group instruction or interaction with a distance learning curriculum GHP, MBA Trends: Integrated Distance Learning, Retrieved August 6, 2008 Distance Education has traversed four to five 'generations' of technology in its history. Taylor, J.C. 2003, 'The Fifth Generation of Distance Education', Translation in the Chinese Journal of Open Education Research, 3, 25 - 27, June These are print, audio/video broadcasting, audio/video teleconferencing, computer aided instruction, e-learning/ online-learning, computer broadcasting/webcasting etc. Yet the radio remains a very viable form, especially in the developing nations, because of its reach. Australian children in extremely remote areas have been participating in the "School of the air" since the 1940's using 2 way radio . In India the FM Channel is very popular and is being used by universities, to broadcast educational programs of variety on areas such as teacher education, rural development, programs in agriculture for farmers, science education, creative writing, mass communication, in addition to traditional courses in liberal arts, science and business administration. The increasing popularity of mp3 players, PDAs and Smart Phone has provided an additional medium for the distribution of distance education content, and some professors now allow students to listen or even watch video of a course as a Podcast iTunes U, Retrieved February 9, 2007 . Some colleges have been working with the U.S. military to distribute entire course content on a PDA to deployed personnel. Defense Activity For Non-Traditional Education Support, DANTES Retrieved February 27, 2007 Testing and evaluation Distance education has long had trouble with testing. The delivery of testing materials is fairly straightforward, which makes sure it is available to the student and he or she can read it at their leisure. The problem arises when the student is required to complete assignments and testing. Online courses have had difficulty controlling cheating in quizzes, tests, or examinations because of the lack of teacher control. In a classroom situation a teacher can monitor students and visually uphold a level of integrity consistent with an institution's reputation. However, with distance education the student can be removed from supervision completely. Some schools address integrity issues concerning testing by requiring students to take examinations in a controlled setting. What do you do in a course? The Open University. Accessed on 2008-02-18 Assignments have adapted by becoming larger, longer, and more thorough so as to test for knowledge by forcing the student to research the subject and prove they have done the work. Quizzes are a popular form of testing knowledge and many courses go by the honor system regarding cheating. Even if the student is checking questions in the textbook or online, there may be an enforced time limit or the quiz may be worth so little in the overall mark that it becomes inconsequential. Exams and bigger tests may be harder to regulate. Used in combination with invigilators, a pre-arranged supervisor trusted with overseeing big tests and examinations may be used to increase security. Many Midterms and Final examinations are held at a common location so that professors can supervise directly. When the Internet became a popular medium for distance education many websites were founded offering secure exam software and packages to help professors manage their students more effectively. CLEP In recent years, the CollegeBoard has been promoting its College Level Examination Program (CLEP) tests. http://www.collegeboard.com/student/index.html?student These tests are fully accredited and can be used for many of the general education and even core requirements of many degree templates. The tests are administered in approved testing centers and are closely proctored to prevent cheating. CLEP tests are computer-based, online tests that consist of roughly 80-120 multiple choice questions. Because the test is computer-based, the candidate's score can be tallied as soon as the test is completed. CLEP's passing grade is a 50 (roughly equivalent to a C-grade) and is scaled all the way to 80 (roughly the equivalent of an A-grade) for a perfect score. CLEP operates on a pass or fail basis, in that the actual grade does not determine credit awarded, but is strictly based on whether the candidate passes or not. DSST In addition to CLEP tests, the DANTES Standardized Subject Tests (DSST) http://getcollegecredit.com/ is also frequently used to cover areas that CLEP does not offer tests in. These are very similar in format and administration to CLEP, being computer-based, online, and proctored, with immediate test results available. DSST also offers a number of its exams in paper based format, though they must be sent in to DSST's offices for grading, resulting in a delay for application of credit. Traditionally, DSST has used a grading system nearly identical to that of CLEP, but has recently been overhauling its tests and applying a new grading system, with a 300-500 point grade, with 400 as the passing grade. Credit is awarded based on pass or fail. See also Continuing education Open learning Electronic learning Computer-assisted language learning Degree completion program Educational technology Learning management system M-learning Social Networking Virtual school Web Conferencing List of Open Education Insitution References External links The Official United States Distance Learning Association An Instructional Media Selection Guide for Distance Learning, an official publication of the United States Distance Learning Association http://www.txdla.org/ The Texas Distance Learning Association (TxDLA) | Distance_education |@lemmatized distance:41 education:49 learning:12 field:1 focus:1 pedagogy:1 andragogy:1 technology:16 instructional:3 system:8 design:1 aim:4 deliver:4 student:29 physically:1 site:4 rather:1 attend:2 course:29 person:1 teacher:10 may:8 communicate:2 time:5 choosing:1 exchange:1 print:4 electronic:2 medium:6 allow:2 real:1 online:17 way:3 require:6 physical:1 presence:1 reason:1 include:4 taking:1 examination:7 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4,468 | John_Lennon | John Winston Ono Lennon, MBE (born John Winston Lennon; 9 October 1940 – 8 December 1980) was an English rock musician, singer, and songwriter who gained worldwide fame as one of the founding members of The Beatles. With Paul McCartney, Lennon formed one of the most influential and successful songwriting partnerships of the 20th century and "wrote some of the most popular music in rock and roll history". "The Lennon-McCartney Songwriting Partnership" bbc.co.uk, 4 November 2005. bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2 - Retrieved 14 December 2006 Lennon revealed a rebellious nature and biting wit in his music, on film, in books, and at press conferences and interviews. He was controversial through his work as a peace activist and artist. After The Beatles, Lennon enjoyed a successful solo career with such acclaimed albums as John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band and Imagine and iconic songs such as "Give Peace a Chance" and "Imagine". After a self-imposed "retirement" from 1976 to 1980, Lennon reemerged with a comeback album, Double Fantasy, which would win the 1981 Grammy Award for Album of the Year. Less than one month after the release of the album, Lennon was murdered in New York City on 8 December 1980. In 2002, respondents to a BBC poll on the 100 Greatest Britons voted Lennon into eighth place. In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked Lennon number 38 on its list of "The Immortals: The Fifty Greatest Artists of All Time" and ranked The Beatles at number one. He was also ranked fifth greatest singer of all time by Rolling Stone in 2008. He was posthumously inducted into both the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1987, , Songwriters Hall of Fame. Retrieved on 2009-04-11 and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994. , Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Retrieved on 2009-04-11 Early years: 1940–1957 John Winston Lennon was born in the Liverpool Maternity Hospital, Oxford Street, Liverpool, to Julia Lennon (née Stanley) and Alfred (Alf, or Freddie) Lennon, during the course of a German air raid in World War II. Julia's sister, Mary "Mimi" Smith, ran through the blacked-out back roads to reach the hospital. During the two-mile trek to the hospital, she used the explosions to see where she was going. Spitz (2005), p24. John was named after his paternal grandfather, John 'Jack' Lennon, and Winston Churchill. Alf was a merchant seaman during World War II, and was often away from home, but sent regular pay cheques to Julia, who was living with the young Lennon at 9 Newcastle Road, Liverpool, but the cheques stopped when Alf went AWOL in 1943. Spitz (2005), p25. ”The Beatles Anthology” DVD 2003 (Episode 6 - 0:37:32) Lennon talking about living at 9 Newcastle Road in Liverpool. When Alf eventually came home in 1944, he offered to look after his wife and son, but Julia (who was pregnant with another man's child) rejected the idea. Spitz (2005), p27. After considerable pressure from her sister, Mimi Smith (who contacted Liverpool's Social Services to complain about Julia), Julia handed the care of Lennon over to Mimi. Cynthia Lennon (2005), p55. In July 1946, Alf visited Mimi and took Lennon to Blackpool, secretly intending to emigrate to New Zealand with him. Cynthia Lennon (2005), p56. Julia followed them, and after a very heated argument, Alf made the five-year-old Lennon choose between Julia or him, and Lennon chose him twice. As Julia walked away, however, Lennon began to cry and followed her. Alf then lost contact with Lennon until the height of Beatlemania, when father and son met again. Spitz (2005), p30. Mendips, George and Mimi Smith's home, where Lennon lived for most of his childhood and adolescence. Throughout the rest of his childhood and adolescence, Lennon lived with his Aunt Mimi and her husband George Smith, who had no children of their own, in Woolton, in a house called "Mendips" (251 Menlove Avenue). Mimi bought volumes of short stories for Lennon, and George, who was a dairyman at his family's farm, engaged Lennon in solving crossword puzzles, and bought him a harmonica. (Smith died on 5 June 1955). Cynthia Lennon (2005), p56. Spitz (2005), p32. Julia Lennon visited Mendips almost every day, and when Lennon was 11 he often visited her at 1 Blomfield Road, Liverpool. Julia taught Lennon how to play the banjo, and played Elvis Presley's records for him. The first song he learned was Fats Domino's "Ain't That A Shame". Cynthia Lennon (2005), p40. Cynthia Lennon (2005), p41. Lennon was raised as an Anglican and attended Dovedale Primary School until he passed his Eleven-Plus exam. From September 1952 to 1957, he attended the Quarry Bank High School in Liverpool, where he was known as a "happy-go-lucky" pupil, drawing comical cartoons and mimicking his teachers. Miles (1997), p107. Spitz (2005), pp32-33. Julia bought Lennon his first guitar in 1957, which was a Gallotone Champion acoustic (a cheap model that was "guaranteed not to split"). Julia insisted it be delivered to her house and not to Mimi's, who hoped that Lennon would grow bored with music; she was sceptical of Lennon's claim that he would be famous one day, often telling him, "The guitar's all very well, John, but you'll never make a living out of it". Spitz (2005), p45. On 15 July 1958, when Lennon was 17, Julia was killed in Menlove Avenue (close to Mimi's house) when struck by a car driven by an off-duty police officer. Miles (1997), p48. Keith Badman The Beatles Off The Record p18. Her death was a bond between Lennon and Paul McCartney, who also had lost his own mother (to breast cancer) on 31 October 1956. Miles (1997), p20. Lennon failed all his GCE O-level examinations, and was only accepted into the Liverpool College of Art with help from his school's headmaster and Mimi. There, Lennon met his future wife, Cynthia Powell, when he was a Teddy Boy. Cynthia Lennon (2005), p22. Lennon was often disruptive in class and ridiculed his teachers, resulting in them refusing to have him as a student. Coleman - Lennon: The Definitive Biography p93. Coleman - Lennon: The Definitive Biography p97. Lennon failed an annual Art College exam despite help from Powell, and dropped out before his last year of college. Cynthia Lennon (2005), p67. The Beatles: 1957–1970 The Beatles arriving in the U.S. in 1964. When Lennon decided that he wanted to try making music himself, he and fellow Quarry Bank High School friend, Eric Griffiths, took guitar lessons at Hunts Cross in Liverpool, although Lennon gave up the lessons soon after. Spitz (2005) p48. Lennon started The Quarrymen in March 1957. Spitz (2005), p47. On 6 July 1957, Lennon met McCartney at the Quarrymen's second concert at the St. Peter's Church Woolton Garden fête. Spitz (2005), p93. McCartney's father told his son that Lennon would get him "into a lot of trouble", but later allowed The Quarrymen to rehearse in the front room at 20 Forthlin Road. Cynthia Lennon (2005), p46. Miles (1997), p38. There, Lennon and McCartney began writing songs together. The first song Lennon completed was "Hello, Little Girl" when he was 18 years old, which later became a hit for the Fourmost. Miles (1997), pp38-39. McCartney convinced Lennon to allow George Harrison to join the Quarrymen (even though Lennon thought Harrison to be too young) after Harrison played the song "Raunchy" for Lennon on the upper deck of a bus. Miles (1997), p49. Harrison joined the band as lead guitarist, and Stuart Sutcliffe — Lennon's friend from art school — later joined as bassist. Miles (1997), p47. Miles (1997), p50. After a series of name changes, the group decided on The Beatles. Lennon was always considered the leader of the group, as McCartney explained: "We all looked up to John. He was older and he was very much the leader - he was the quickest wit and the smartest and all that kind of thing". Cynthia Lennon (2005), pp45-46. Allan Williams became the Beatles' first manager in May 1960, after they had played in his Jacaranda club. Cynthia Lennon (2005), p64. A few months later he booked them into Bruno Koschmider's Indra club in Hamburg, Germany. Miles (1997), p56. Lennon's Aunt Mimi was horrified when he told her about the trip to Hamburg, and pleaded with him to continue his studies. Cynthia Lennon (2005), pp70-71. After the first residency Sutcliffe left The Beatles to concentrate on his artwork, and to be with his girlfriend, Astrid Kirchherr. McCartney took over as bass player for the group. Miles (1997), pp74-75. Koschmider reported McCartney and drummer Pete Best for arson after the two attached a condom to a nail in the 'Bambi' (a cinema where they were staying) and set fire to it. Miles (1997), p72. They were deported, as was Harrison for working under age. Miles (1997), pp72-73. A few days later Lennon's work permit was revoked and he went home by train. Cynthia Lennon (2005), p79. Lennon's guitars. After Harrison turned 18 and the immigration problems had been solved, The Beatles went back to Hamburg for another residency in April 1961. While they were there, they recorded "My Bonnie" with Tony Sheridan. Cynthia Lennon “John” p97. News of Sheridan and The Beatles' record was published on the front page of Mersey Beat — a Liverpool music magazine — which was available at Brian Epstein's music store, and prompted Epstein to order extra copies from Polydor. Miles (1997), p84. In April 1962, The Beatles went back to Hamburg to play at the Star-Club, and were told that Sutcliffe had died two days before they arrived. Cynthia Lennon “John” p109. This was another blow for Lennon, after losing his uncle and his mother. On 9 May 1962, George Martin signed The Beatles to EMI's comedy label, Parlophone. After their first recording session, Martin voiced his displeasure with Best. Cynthia Lennon “John” 2006 p119. It was decided that Ringo Starr, drummer with Rory Storm and the Hurricanes, should join, although it was left to Epstein to inform Best. Epstein dismissed Best on 16 August 1962, almost exactly two years after Best had joined the group. Miles (1997), p57. Spitz (2005), p330. The Beatles released their first double-sided original single, "Love Me Do" b/w "P.S. I Love You" on 5 October; it reached #17 on the British charts (although Starr did not play on these tracks, Martin having secured the services of Andy White, a session drummer, before he knew Best had been replaced). On 11 February 1963, the group recorded their first album Please Please Me in one day with Lennon suffering from a common cold. Miles (1997), p93. Originally the Lennon-McCartney songs on the first pressing of the album, as well as the single "From Me to You" and its B-side "Thank You Girl", were credited to "McCartney-Lennon", but this was later changed to "Lennon-McCartney". Cross “The Beatles: Day-by-Day, Song-by-Song, Record-by-Record“ 2005 Lennon and McCartney usually needed an hour or two to finish a song, most of which were written in hotel rooms after a concert, at Wimpole Street — Jane Asher's home — or at Cavendish Avenue; McCartney's home Miles (1997), p149. or at Kenwood (Lennon's house). Miles (1997), p171. The album and single hit #1 in Britain, and EMI offered the album to their U.S. subsidiary, Capitol Records, but they turned it down. Spizer, The Beatles Are Coming!, 498 Production, 2003 p11. Epstein finally secured a deal with Vee-Jay Records; a predominantly black R&B and gospel label. Spizer, The Beatles Are Coming!, 498 Production, 2003 p8. Neither the single or the accompanying album, Introducing The Beatles was successful in the US. By the time the group recorded "She Loves You", they were dropped from Vee Jay and once again, Capitol declined to release their records. EMI were forced to release it on the even more obscure Swan Records label. Spizer, The Beatles Are Coming!, 498 Production, 2003 p45. It did eventually hit #1 in January 1964, after Capitol Records finally released "I Want To Hold Your Hand" in America. Following their historic appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show, The Beatles would embark on a two-year non-stop period of productivity: constant international tours, making movies, and writing hit songs. Lennon wrote two books, In His Own Write and A Spaniard in the Works, John Winston Lennon, Coleman, Sidjwick & Jackson 1984, pg 239-240. while The Beatles achieved recognition from the British Establishment when they were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire in the 1965 Queen's Birthday Honours. John Lennon in 1964 Lennon complained that nobody heard them play for all the screaming, and their musicianship was beginning to suffer. John Winston Lennon, Coleman, Sidjwick & Jackson 1984, p288. By the time he wrote his 1965 song "Help!", Lennon had put on quite a bit of weight and said he was subconsciously crying out for help and seeking change. Beatles Anthology, Chronicle, 2000 p171. The catalyst for this change occurred on 4 March 1966, when Lennon was interviewed for the London Evening Standard by Maureen Cleave, and talked about Christianity by saying: "Christianity will go. It will vanish and shrink. I do not know what will go first, rock 'n' roll or Christianity...We're more popular than Jesus now". Five months later, an American teen magazine called Datebook reprinted part of the quote on its front cover. The American Bible Belt protested in the South and Midwest, and conservative groups staged public burnings of Beatles' records and memorabilia. Radio stations banned Beatles music and concert venues cancelled performances. Even The Vatican got involved with a public denouncement of Lennon's comments. On 11 August 1966, the Beatles held a press conference in Chicago, Illinois, in order to address the growing furore. The governing members of the Vatican accepted his apology and the furor eventually died down, but the Beatles soon decided to stop touring, and never performed a scheduled concert again. Lennon later wrote, "I always remember to thank Jesus for the end of my touring days; if I hadn't said that The Beatles were 'bigger than Jesus' and upset the very Christian Ku Klux Klan, well, Lord, I might still be up there with all the other performing fleas! God bless America. Thank you, Jesus". In a 2008 article marking the 40th anniversary of the Beatles' "White Album" release, the Vatican newspaper, L'Osservatore Romano, issued the statement: "The remark by John Lennon, which triggered deep indignation, mainly in the United States, after many years sounds only like a 'boast' by a young working-class Englishman faced with unexpected success, after growing up in the legend of Elvis and rock and roll. The fact remains that 38 years after breaking up, the songs of the Lennon-McCartney brand have shown an extraordinary resistance to the passage of time, becoming a source of inspiration for more than one generation of pop musicians". Lennon left The Beatles in September 1969 but agreed not to make an announcement while the band renegotiated their recording contract. He became irate when McCartney issued a self question-and-answer interview in April 1970, declaring that he was no longer a member of The Beatles. Spitz (2005), p853. Lennon's reaction when told was, "Jesus Christ! He [McCartney] gets all the credit for it!" Lennon later told Rolling Stone: "I was a fool not to do what Paul did, which was use it to sell a record." (McCartney's first solo album) and later wrote, "I started the band. I finished it". John Lennon 1987 Skywriting by Word of Mouth : And Other Writings, Including "The Ballad of John and Yoko" Harper Paperbacks In 1970, Jann Wenner conducted an interview with Lennon for Rolling Stone (known as "Lennon Remembers") that revealed his bitterness towards McCartney and the hostility he felt that the other members had for Ono. Lennon said: "[W]e got fed up with being sidemen for Paul... After Brian Epstein died we collapsed. Paul took over and supposedly led us. But what is leading us when we went round in circles?" Wenner (2000), p24. Solo career At the end of 1968, Lennon performed as part of the group Dirty Mac, in The Rolling Stones' film Rock and Roll Circus. The supergroup, made up of Lennon, Eric Clapton, Keith Richards and Mitch Mitchell, also backed Ono's performance. Lennon and Ono were married on 20 March 1969, and he soon released a series of 14 lithographs called "Bag One" depicting scenes from their honeymoon, Fawcett, One Day At A Time, Evergreen 1976, p185. eight of which were deemed indecent and most were banned and confiscated. John Ono Lennon, Coleman, Sidjwick & Jackson 1984, p279. Lennon and Ono recorded three albums of experimental music together: Unfinished Music No.1: Two Virgins, John Ono Lennon, Coleman, Sidjwick & Jackson 1984, pp48-49. an album known more for its cover than the musical content, Unfinished Music No.2: Life with the Lions, and Wedding Album. His first "solo" album was Live Peace in Toronto 1969—recorded prior to the breakup of The Beatles—recorded at a Rock 'n' Roll Festival in Toronto with The Plastic Ono Band. He also recorded three solo singles: the anti-war anthem, "Give Peace a Chance", "Cold Turkey", and "Instant Karma!". Following The Beatles' split in 1970, Lennon released John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band, a raw emotional album that dealt with Lennon's pain in losing his mother and split with The Beatles. It included "Working Class Hero", which was banned by BBC Radio for its inclusion of the word "fucking". Schechter “The Beatles: Day-by-Day, Song-by-Song, Record-by-Record“ 2005 p106. His album Imagine followed in 1971, and the title song would later become an anthem for anti-war movements. It also included the track "How Do You Sleep?" -- a musical attack on McCartney. Although Lennon softened his stance in the mid-70s and claimed he wrote the song about himself, he revealed in 1980, "I used my resentment against Paul... to create a song... not a terrible vicious horrible vendetta... I used my resentment and withdrawing from Paul and the Beatles, and the relationship with Paul, to write 'How Do You Sleep'. I don't really go 'round with those thoughts in my head all the time". On 31 August 1971, Lennon left England for New York, and released the "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)" single in December 1971. To advertise the single, Lennon and Ono paid for billboards in 9 major cities (and 7 different languages) which declared: "WAR IS OVER!... if you want it". Some Time in New York City was then released in 1972. Recorded with Elephant's Memory, it contained songs about women's rights, race relations, Britain's role in Northern Ireland, and Lennon's problems obtaining a United States Green Card. Lennon had been interested in left-wing politics since the late 1960s, and reportedly donated money to the Trotskyist Workers Revolutionary Party. In 1972, Lennon released "Woman Is the Nigger of the World". Many radio stations refused to broadcast the song, although Lennon was allowed to perform it on The Dick Cavett Show. On 30 August 1972 Lennon and Elephant's Memory gave two benefit concerts at Madison Square Garden in New York to benefit the patients at the Willowbrook State School mental facility on Staten Island. These were to be Lennon's last full-length concert appearances. In November 1973, Lennon released Mind Games, which was credited to "the Plastic U.F.Ono Band". He also wrote "I'm the Greatest" for Starr's album Ringo (his own demo version of the song appears on the John Lennon Anthology) and produced "Too Many Cooks (Spoil The Soup)" for Mick Jagger. In September 1974, Lennon released Walls and Bridges and the single "Whatever Gets You Thru the Night" (a #1 duet with Elton John). A second single from the album, "#9 Dream", was released in December. He wrote "Goodnight Vienna" for Starr, and played piano on the recording. On 28 November, Lennon made a surprise guest appearance at Elton John's Thanksgiving concert at Madison Square Garden after he lost a bet with John that "Whatever Gets You" would reach #1. Lennon performed "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", "Whatever Gets You Thru the Night" and "I Saw Her Standing There". In January 1975, Lennon co-wrote and recorded "Fame" with David Bowie and Carlos Alomar which became Bowie's first U.S. #1 hit. Lennon released Rock 'n' Roll, an album of cover songs, in February 1975 – with Phil Spector as co-producer. Lennon made his last stage appearance on ATV's 18 April 1975 special called A Salute to Lew Grade performing "Imagine", "Stand By Me" (cut from the televised edition), and "Slippin' and Slidin'" from his Rock 'n' Roll LP. Lennon's backup band was BOMF (known as "Etc." that evening). Tannenbaum, John & Yoko: A New York Love Story The band members wore two-faced masks which were digs at Grade, with whom Lennon and McCartney had been in conflict because of Grade's control of The Beatles' publishing company. Dick James, The Beatles' publisher, had sold his majority share in Maclen Music (Lennon's and McCartney's publishing company) to Grade in 1969. During "Imagine", Lennon interjected the line "and no immigration too", a reference to his battle to remain in the United States. In October 1975, Lennon fulfilled his contractual obligation to EMI/Capitol for one more album by releasing Shaved Fish, a greatest hits compilation. Lennon wrote and recorded "Cookin' (In The Kitchen of Love)" with Ringo Starr in June 1976, his last recording session until his 1980 comeback. Eight Arms To Hold You: The Solo Beatles Compendium, Madinger/Easter, 44.1 Publishing, 2000 In 1977, Lennon announced he would be taking three years off to raise his and Ono's son, Sean. He emerged from retirement in November 1980, releasing Double Fantasy, which also featured Ono. That previous June, Lennon traveled to Bermuda on a 43-foot sloop, where he wrote songs for the album. The name of the album refers to a species of freesia flower that Lennon had seen in the Bermuda Botanical Gardens and saw it as a perfect description of his marriage to Ono. Lennon had written and recorded enough material for another album and was already planning his follow-up, Milk and Honey, which was released posthumously in 1984. Marriages and relationships In one of his last major interviews Lennon said that he had never questioned his chauvinistic attitudes towards women until he met Ono. Lennon was always distant with his first son, Julian, but was close to his second son, Sean, calling him "My pride". Near the end of his life, Lennon said that he accepted the role of househusband, after taking on the role of a wife and mother in his relationship with Ono. Lennon was always asked about his fellow Beatles and his answer would change with every interview. Cynthia Lennon Lennon and Cynthia Powell in 1959. Cynthia Powell met Lennon at the Liverpool Art College in 1957. Although Lennon was not her type, she was attracted to him. After hearing Lennon comment favourably about another girl who looked like Brigitte Bardot, Powell changed the colour of her hair to blonde. Cynthia Lennon (2005), pp25-26. Their relationship started after a college party before the summer holidays when Lennon asked Powell to go to a public house with him and some friends. Cynthia Lennon (2005), p27. Powell told him she was engaged (to a young man called Barry, in Hoylake) so Lennon stormed off, shouting, "I didn't ask you to fucking marry me, did I!?" Spitz (2005), p156. Lennon was often jealous, and once slapped Powell across the face (knocking her head against the wall) the day after he saw her dancing with Sutcliffe. Miles (1997), pp48-49. In mid-1962, Powell discovered she was pregnant with Lennon's child. Cynthia Lennon “John”. p122. They were married on 23 August at the Mount Pleasant Register Office in Liverpool. Manager Epstein thought a married Beatle might alienate some fans and insisted the Lennons keep their union a secret. John Charles Julian Lennon was born in Sefton General Hospital on 8 April 1963. Cynthia Lennon “John” pp128-129. Lennon was on tour and would not see his new-born for three days. He then went on holiday to Spain with Epstein, which would lead to speculation of an affair between the two (Epstein was widely known to be gay). Shortly afterwards, at Paul McCartney's twenty-first birthday party, a drunken Lennon physically attacked Cavern Club MC Bob Wooler for saying "How was your honeymoon, John?" (Wooler was referring to Lennon's marriage, and not Lennon's holiday in Spain with Epstein). Cynthia Lennon, John, p155. In 1991, a fictionalized account of the Lennon/Epstein holiday was made into an independent movie called The Hours And Times. Lennon was distant to Julian, who felt closer to McCartney than to his father. Julian later said, "I've never really wanted to know the truth about how dad was with me. There was some very negative stuff talked about me ... like when he said I'd come out of a whiskey bottle on a Saturday night. Stuff like that. You think, where's the love in that? Paul and I used to hang about quite a bit ... more than dad and I did. We had a great friendship going and there seems to be far more pictures of me and Paul playing together at that age than there are pictures of me and my dad." Cynthia Lennon had become aware of Lennon's infidelities, but cites his increasing drug use for their growing apart. She was also aware of Lennon's friendship with Ono. Eventually, according to Powell, she suggested to Lennon that perhaps Ono was the woman for him. Cynthia Lennon: A Twist of Lennon, Avon 1978, p182. When Lennon and The Beatles went to Bangor to meditate, Powell and Lennon were separated on the train platform. A policeman, who did not recognize her, kept her from boarding the train. As she watched Lennon's train pull out of the station, she broke into tears. In the documentary Imagine she explained, "Normally I wouldn't have broken down, I'd have kept my cool... I knew I'd get there anyway. But at that point I felt so sad. This was symbolic of our life... I'm getting off at this station." Cynthia Lennon Interview, Imagine, Documentary, Warner Brothers 1988 Lennon later tried to sue Powell for divorce, claiming she had committed adultery and not him. Coleman - Lennon: The Definitive Biography p464. When it was discovered that Ono had become pregnant, Powell petitioned Lennon for divorce. During negotiations Lennon refused to give his wife any more than £75,000, supposedly saying, "What have you done to deserve it? Christ, it's like winning the bloody pools." The case was settled out of court, with Powell receiving £100,000, £2,400 annually, custody of Julian and the Lennons' house (Kenwood). Coleman - Lennon: The Definitive Biography p467. Yoko Ono John Lennon and Yoko Ono (1969). There are two versions of how Lennon and Ono met: The first version says that on 9 November 1966, Lennon went to the Indica gallery in London, where Ono was preparing her conceptual art exhibit, and they were introduced by gallery owner John Dunbar. Peel "The Unknown Paul McCartney" 2002 Lennon was intrigued by Ono's "Hammer A Nail" Piece: patrons hammered a nail into a wooden board, creating the art piece. Lennon wanted to hammer a nail in the clean board, but Ono stopped him because the exhibit had not opened. Dunbar then said to Ono, "Don't you know who this is?" Ono had not heard of The Beatles but relented, on the condition that Lennon pay her five shillings. Lennon then said, "I'll give you an imaginary five shillings and hammer an imaginary nail." The second version is that in late 1965, Ono was in London compiling original musical scores for a book that John Cage was working on. She knocked on McCartney's door, but he declined to give her any manuscripts as he kept all his originals, but suggested that Lennon might oblige. When asked, Lennon gave the original handwritten lyrics to "The Word" from Rubber Soul to Ono. They were reproduced in Cage's book, Notations. Miles (1997), p272. Lennon began his physical relationship with Ono in May 1968, after Lennon returned from India, where he had received numerous postcards from Ono, who was in London. As Cynthia Lennon was in Greece on holiday, Lennon invited Ono to his home, where they spent the night recording what would become the Two Virgins album, and later said they made love at dawn. Liner notes for Two Virgins CD When Cynthia returned home she found Lennon and Ono, who was wearing Cynthia's bathrobe, drinking tea together. Lennon simply said, "Oh, Hi". Cynthia Lennon: A Twist of Lennon, Avon 1978, p183. Cynthia filed for divorce later that year, on the grounds of Lennon's adultery, which was proven by Ono's pregnancy. Ono later miscarried John Ono Lennon II on 21 November 1968. During Lennon's last two years in The Beatles, he and Ono began public protests against the Vietnam War. Lennon sent back his MBE insignia in 1969, which Queen Elizabeth had bestowed upon him in 1965. He wrote: "Your Majesty, I am returning this in protest against Britain's involvement in the Nigeria-Biafra thing, against our support of America in Vietnam, and against "Cold Turkey" slipping down the charts. With love. John Lennon of Bag." The couple were married in Gibraltar on 20 March 1969, and spent their honeymoon in Amsterdam campaigning for an international "Bed-In" for peace. They planned another "Bed-in" in the United States, but were denied entry. The couple then went to neighbouring Montréal, and during a "Bed-in" at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel recorded "Give Peace a Chance". Lennon and Ono often combined advocacy with performance art, as in their "Bagism", which was first introduced during a Vienna press conference. Lennon detailed this period in The Beatles' song "The Ballad of John and Yoko". Cross “The Beatles: Day-by-Day, Song-by-Song, Record-by-Record” 2005 p322. In April 1969, on the roof of Apple Records, Lennon changed his name to John Ono Lennon. Ray Coleman: John Ono Lennon (Vol II), Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd., p64. After Ono was injured in a car accident, Lennon arranged for a king-sized bed to be brought to the recording studio as he worked on The Beatles' last album, Abbey Road. Geoff Emerick, Here There and Everywhere: My Life Recording The Music of The Beatles, Gotham Books, 2006, pp279-280. To escape the acrimony of The Beatles' breakup, Ono suggested they move permanently to New York, which they did on 31 August 1971. They first lived in the St. Regis Hotel on 5th Avenue, East 55th Street, and then moved a loft at 105 Bank Street, Greenwich Village, New York City, on 16 October 1971. After a robbery, they relocated to the more secure Dakota at 1 West 72nd Street, in February 1973. May Pang/The "Lost Weekend" May Pang. In June 1973, as Lennon was about to record Mind Games, Ono decided that she and Lennon should separate. Ono suggested that he take their personal assistant, May Pang, as a companion. Lennon soon moved to California with Pang, and embarked upon an eighteen-month period he would later call his "Lost Weekend." While Lennon and Pang were living in L.A., Lennon's drunken behaviour was widely reported by the media. Lennon also took the opportunity to mend fences with the other Beatles and get reacquainted with his son, Julian, whom he had not seen in four years. Pang "Instamatic Karma" 2008 In May 1974, Lennon and Pang returned to New York where Lennon began work on Walls and Bridges. On the evening of 23 August 1974, both Lennon and Pang claimed to have seen a U.F.O. in the sky from their balcony. Lennon mentioned the sighting in the booklet accompanying the Walls and Bridges album. When Lennon lost a bet to Elton John and joined him on stage at Madison Square Garden in November 1974, Ono was in the audience. Although Lennon would later claim he had no idea she was there, it was he who arranged for her seats. Sean Lennon After a period of being separated, Lennon and Ono reconciled in 1975. Their son, Sean, was born on Lennon's 35th birthday, October 9, 1975. After Sean's birth, the couple lived in relative seclusion at the Dakota in New York. John Lennon retired from music to become a househusband caring for their child. He cited many reasons for his hiatus from music: he had been under contract since he was 22 years old and he was now free from obligation; rock and roll was not as interesting as it once was; and, because of his limited relationship with his first son, he decided to devote all his time to Sean. Julian Lennon Lennon's relationship with his first son was always strained. After Lennon and Ono moved to New York, Julian would not see his father again until 1973. Pang, Instamatic Karma, Back cover quote from Cynthia and Julian Lennon With Pang's encouragement, it was arranged for Julian (and Powell) to visit Lennon in Los Angeles, where they went to Disneyland. Cynthia Lennon “John” 2006 pp336-340. Julian started to see his father more regularly, and played drums on "Ya Ya" from Lennon's 1974 album Walls and Bridges. Cynthia Lennon “John” 2006 p344. Lennon also bought Julian a Gibson Les Paul guitar, and a drum machine for Christmas in 1973, and encouraged Julian's interest in music by showing him some chords. Cynthia Lennon “John” 2006 p345. In his 1980 Playboy interview, Lennon was quoted as saying: "Sean was a planned child, and therein lies the difference. I don't love Julian any less as a child. He's still my son, whether he came from a bottle of whiskey or because they didn't have pills in those days. He's here, he belongs to me, and he always will." In an interview shortly before his death, Lennon said he was trying to re-establish a connection with the then 17-year-old Julian, and confidently predicted that "Julian and I will have a relationship in the future." Both Julian and Sean Lennon went on to have recording careers years after their father's death. After Lennon's death, it was revealed that Julian was not mentioned in Lennon's will. It was said that Ono gave Julian £20 million, which Julian refuted by saying that it was minimal compared to the figure reported. The former Beatles Although his friendship with Ringo Starr would remain consistently warm, Lennon's public feelings towards his other fellow Beatles would often vary. He was close to George Harrison after the initial break-up, but the two had drifted apart after Lennon moved to America. In December 1974, Harrison was in New York for his Dark Horse tour, and Lennon agreed to join him on stage. However, an argument ensued over Lennon's refusal to sign the agreement that would legally dissolve The Beatles partnership (meant to be at New York's Plaza Hotel on 19 December) and Lennon never appeared. (Lennon would eventually sign the papers in Walt Disney World in Florida, while on holiday there with Pang and Julian.) In 1980, after Harrison released an autobiography called "I Me Mine", Lennon was angered that he was not properly acknowledged and issued some stinging remarks voicing his displeasure. Lennon's most intense feelings were reserved for McCartney. In addition to "How Do You Sleep?", Lennon would argue with McCartney through the press for three years after the group split. In 1974, the two would become close again, and even played together for the one and only time since the Beatles split (see A Toot and a Snore in '74). In later years, the two grew apart again. Lennon said that the last time McCartney had visited they watched the episode of Saturday Night Live in which Lorne Michaels made a $3,000 cash offer to get The Beatles to reunite on the show. They had considered going to the studio to appear as a joke, but were too tired. This event was fictionalized in the 2000 television film, Two of Us. Lennon always felt a musical competitiveness with McCartney and kept an ear on his music. During his "retirement", Lennon was content to sit back as long as McCartney was producing "garbage". In 1980, McCartney released "Coming Up", and Lennon took notice. "I can't get that song out of my head," he would jokingly complain, and felt compelled to record again. In 1980, Lennon was asked whether the group were dreaded enemies or the best of friends. He replied that they were neither, and he had not seen any of them for a long time. But added warmly, "I still love those guys. The Beatles are over, but John, Paul, George and Ringo go on." Political activism Recording "Give Peace a Chance". Lennon and Ono used their honeymoon at the Amsterdam Hilton, in March 1969, as a "Bed-in for Peace" that attracted worldwide media coverage. At the second "Bed-in" in Montreal, in June 1969, they recorded "Give Peace a Chance" in their hotel room at The Queen Elizabeth. The song was sung by a quarter million demonstrators in Washington, D.C. at the second Vietnam Moratorium Day, on 15 October 1969. When Lennon and Ono moved to New York City in August 1971, they befriended peace activists Jerry Rubin and Abbie Hoffman. Lennon performed at the "Free John Sinclair" concert in Ann Arbor, Michigan, on 10 December 1971. Sinclair was an antiwar activist, co-founder of the White Panther Party and poet who was serving ten years in state prison for selling two joints of marijuana to an undercover policeman after a series of previous convictions for possession of marijuana. Lennon and Ono appeared on stage with David Peel, Phil Ochs, Stevie Wonder and other musicians, plus antiwar radical and Yippie member, Jerry Rubin, and Bobby Seale of the Black Panthers. Lennon performed the song, "John Sinclair", which he had just written, calling on the authorities to "Let him be, set him free, let him be like you and me". Some 20,000 people attended the rally, and three days after the concert the State of Michigan released Sinclair from prison. This performance was released on the two-CD John Lennon Anthology (1998) and the album Acoustic (2004). Lennon later performed the song on the David Frost Show accompanied by Ono and Jerry Rubin. In 1972, the Nixon Administration tried to have Lennon deported from the U.S., as Richard Nixon believed that Lennon's proactive antiwar activities and support for George McGovern could cost him re-election. Republican Senator Strom Thurmond suggested, in a February 1972 memo, that "deportation would be a strategic counter-measure" against Lennon. The next month the Immigration and Naturalization Service began deportation proceedings against Lennon, arguing that his 1968 misdemeanor conviction for cannabis possession in London had made him ineligible for admission to the U.S. Lennon spent the next four years in deportation hearings. While his deportation battle continued, Lennon appeared at rallies in New York City and on TV shows, including a week hosting the Mike Douglas Show in February 1972, where Jerry Rubin and Bobby Seale appeared as his guests. On 23 March 1973, Lennon was ordered to leave the U.S. within 60 days, while Ono was granted permanent residence. In response, Lennon and Ono held a press conference at the New York chapter of the American Bar Association on 1 April 1973 to announce the formation of the conceptual state of "Nutopia"; a place with "no land, no boundaries, no passports, only people", and all of its inhabitants would be ambassadors. The Lennons asked for political asylum in the U.S. while waving the white flag of Nutopia; two white handkerchiefs. The entire press conference can be seen in the 2006 documentary released by Lions Gate, The U.S. vs. John Lennon. In June 1973, Lennon and Ono made their last political statement by attending the Watergate hearings in Washington, D.C. Lennon's order of deportation was overturned in 1975. In 1976, Lennon's U.S. immigration status was finally resolved favourably, and he received his green card. Nixon's successor, Gerald Ford, showed little interest in continuing the battle. When Jimmy Carter was inaugurated as president on 19 January 1977, Lennon and Ono attended the Inaugural Ball. FBI surveillance and de-classified documents After Lennon's death, historian Jon Wiener filed a Freedom of Information Act request for FBI files on Lennon Wiener “Gimme Some Truth: The John Lennon FBI Files“ 1999 , which document the Bureau's role in the Nixon Administration attempt to deport Lennon in 1972 to stop his anti-war campaign before the Nixon re-election campaign. The FBI admitted it had 281 pages of files on Lennon but refused to release most of them, they contained "national security" information. In 1983, Wiener sued the FBI with the help of the American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California. It took fourteen years of litigation to force the FBI to release the withheld pages. The ACLU, representing Wiener, won a favorable decision in their suit against the FBI in the Ninth Circuit in 1991. Wiener v. FBI, 943 F.2d 972 (9th Cir. 1991). The Bush Justice Department appealed the decision to the Supreme Court in April, 1992, but the court declined to review the case. The Justice Department settled most of the outstanding issues in the case outside the court in 1997, when most all of the contested documents but 10 were released, , respecting President Bill Clinton's new rule that documents should be withheld only if releasing them would involve "foreseeable harm." In January 2000, Wiener published a book titled Gimme Some Truth: The John Lennon FBI Files (University of California Press) which contains facsimiles of the documents, including "lengthy reports by confidential informants detailing the daily lives of anti-war activists, memos to the White House, transcripts of TV shows on which Lennon appeared, and a proposal that Lennon be arrested by local police on drug charges". Gimme Some Truth The John Lennon FBI Files University of California Press by Jon Wiener 9780520222465 Has Stephen Colbert Been Hiding John Lennon’s F.B.I. Legacy? NY Times The story is told in the documentary The U.S. Versus John Lennon. The final 10 documents in Lennon's FBI file, which had been withheld as containing "national security information provided by a foreign government under an explicit promise of confidentiality," and reported on Lennon's ties with London anti-war activists in 1971, were released in December 2006. Drugs, meditation and primal therapy Lennon was first given drugs in Hamburg, Germany, as The Beatles had to play long sets and were often given Preludin by customers or by Astrid Kirchherr, whose mother bought them for her. Miles (1997), pp66-67. McCartney would usually take one, but Lennon would often take four or five, and later took amphetamines called "Black Bombers" and "Purple Hearts". Cynthia Lennon (2005), p76. The Beatles first smoked marijuana with Bob Dylan in New York in 1964; Dylan mistakenly interpreted the lyric "I can't hide" from "I Want to Hold Your Hand" as "I get high" and presumed that The Beatles were already familiar with the drug. Miles (1997), p185. Miles (1997), pp188-189. Lennon later said The Beatles "smoked marijuana for breakfast", and that other people had trouble talking to them, because they were sniggering all the time. In a 1995 interview, Cynthia said there were problems throughout their marriage because of the pressures of The Beatles' fame and rigorous touring, and because of Lennon's increasing use of drugs. During his first marriage Lennon tried LSD, and read The Psychedelic Experience by Timothy Leary, Richard Alpert, and Ralph Metzner, which was based on, and quoted from, the Tibetan Book of the Dead. He later used heroin, and wrote about the withdrawal symptoms he experienced in "Cold Turkey". Coleman - Lennon: The Definitive Biography p570. On 24 August 1967, The Beatles met the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi at the London Hilton, and later went to Bangor, in North Wales, to attend a weekend of personal instruction. The time Lennon later spent in India at the Maharishi's ashram was productive, as most of the songs recorded for The White Album, and Abbey Road were composed there by Lennon and McCartney. Miles (1997), p397. Although later turning against the Maharishi, Lennon still advocated meditation when interviewed. In 1968, Cynthia Lennon went on vacation to Greece, leaving Lennon at Kenwood with Pete Shotton; his school friend and so-called assistant. In 1970, Lennon and Ono went through primal therapy with Dr. Arthur Janov in Los Angeles, California. The therapy consisted of releasing emotional pain from early childhood. Lennon and Ono ended the sessions before completing a full course of therapy, as Ono constantly argued with Janov. The song "Mother" is based on Lennon's experience and understanding of Primal Therapy. Humour Each of The Beatles was known, especially during Beatlemania, for his sense of humour. During live performances of "I Want to Hold Your Hand", Lennon often changed the words to "I want to hold your gland", because of the difficulty hearing the vocals above the noise of screaming audiences. At the Royal Variety Show in 1963—in the presence of members of the British royalty—Lennon told the audience, "For our next song, I'd like to ask for your help. For the people in the cheaper seats, clap your hands ... and the rest of you, if you'll just rattle your jewellery." Lennon put on weight during 1965, and later said, "It was my fat-Elvis period." Lawrence John Lennon: In His Own Words 2005 p 62. During the "Get Back" sessions, Lennon introduced "Dig a Pony" by shouting, "I dig a pygmy by Charles Hawtrey and the Deaf Aids; phase one in which Doris gets her oats!" The phrase was later edited to precede "Two of Us" on Let It Be. Lennon often counter-pointed McCartney's upbeat lyrics, as in "Getting Better": McCartney: "I've got to admit it's getting better, a little better, all the time." Lennon: "Can't get no worse." Leonard “The Beatles - Complete Scores” 1993 p310. Lennon appeared in various television comedy shows, such as the Morecambe and Wise show with the rest of The Beatles, and played a doorman in a gents' toilet in Not Only But Also. Lennon's humour could also be cruel, such as when Brian Epstein asked Lennon for a title for Epstein's autobiography, and Lennon answered: "How about Queer Jew ?" Coleman - Lennon: The Definitive Biography p23. When Lennon heard that the title of the book would be A Cellarful of Noise, he said to a friend: "More like A Cellarful of Boys". Coleman - Lennon: The Definitive Biography p90. Writing and art Lennon started writing and drawing early in life, with encouragement from his Uncle George, and created his own comic strip in his school book, which he called "The Daily Howl". It contained drawings—frequently of crippled people—and satirical writings, often with a play on words. Lennon wrote a weather report saying, "Tomorrow will be Muggy, followed by Tuggy, Wuggy and Thuggy." Spitz (2005), p31. He often drew caricatures of his school teachers, and when he was in Hamburg he sent love poems and drawings to Cynthia (his future wife) once writing, "Our first Christmas, I love you, yes, yes, yes." Cynthia Lennon (2005), p35. When Liverpool's Mersey Beat magazine was founded, Lennon was asked to contribute. His first piece was about the origins of The Beatles: "A man appeared on a flaming pie, and said you are Beatles with an 'A'." Cynthia Lennon (2005), pp98-99. The first two books by Lennon are examples of literary nonsense: In His Own Write (1964) and A Spaniard in the Works (1965). Ono later allowed the works of Lennon to be published after his death: Skywriting by Word of Mouth (1986) and Ai: Japan Through John Lennon's Eyes: A Personal Sketchbook (1992), which contained Lennon's drawings illustrating the definitions of Japanese words. Real Love: The Drawings for Sean followed in 1999. The Beatles Anthology included writing and drawings by Lennon. Lennon's love of nonsense language was influenced by his appreciation for Stanley Unwin. Pseudonyms Throughout his solo career, Lennon appeared on his own albums (as well as those of other artists, like Elton John) under such pseudonyms as Dr Winston O'Boogie, Mel Torment (a play on singer Mel Tormé), and The Reverend Fred Gherkin. He and Ono (as Ada Gherkin "ate a gherkin", and other sobriquets) also travelled under such names, thus avoiding unwanted public attention. Lennon also named his session musicians under various different band names during his career, including: The Plastic Ono Band (for the Plastic Ono Band album) The Plastic Ono Band with the Flux Fiddlers (Imagine) The Plastic U.F.Ono Band (Mind Games) The Plastic Ono Nuclear Band/Little Big Horns and the Philharmanic Orchestrange (Walls and Bridges) Death The entrance to the Dakota building where Lennon lived and was shot. On the night of 8 December 1980, at around 10:49 p.m., Mark David Chapman shot Lennon in the back four times in the entrance of the Dakota. Earlier that evening, Lennon had autographed a copy of Double Fantasy for Chapman who had been stalking Lennon since October. Lennon was taken to the Emergency Room of nearby Roosevelt Hospital but was pronounced dead on arrival at 11:07 p.m. On the following day, Ono issued a statement: "There is no funeral for John. John loved and prayed for the human race. Please pray the same for him. Love, Yoko and Sean." Chapman pleaded guilty to second degree murder and was sentenced to 20 years to life; he remains in prison, having been denied all requests for parole. Lennon's body was cremated at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York; his ashes were then kept by Yoko. Hours before his murder, Lennon told RKO Radio that he felt he could go out anywhere in New York City and feel safe. While still a Beatle, Lennon was asked how he might die. Lennon replied: “I'll probably be popped off by some loony.“ Awards with The Beatles BRIT Awards: 1977: Outstanding contribution to music during the past 25 years. 1977: Best British band of the past 25 years. 1977: Best British album of the past 25 years (for Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band). 1983: Outstanding contribution to music. Solo career 1982 Grammy Award - 1981 Album of the Year (for Double Fantasy) 1982 BRIT Awards - Outstanding contribution to music. In 2002, a 100 Greatest Britons BBC poll voted Lennon into eighth place. In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked Lennon number 38 on its list of "The Immortals: The Fifty Greatest Artists of All Time". In 2008, Rolling Stone magazine ranked Lennon number five on its list of "100 Greatest Singers of All Time". Discography Unfinished Music No.1: Two Virgins (with Yoko Ono) (1968) Unfinished Music No.2: Life with the Lions (with Yoko Ono) (1969) Wedding Album (with Yoko Ono) (1969) Live Peace In Toronto (with Plastic Ono Band) (1969) John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band (1970) Imagine (1971) Some Time in New York City (with Yoko Ono) (1972) Mind Games (1973) Walls and Bridges (1974) Rock 'n' Roll (1975) Double Fantasy (with Yoko Ono) (1980) Milk and Honey (with Yoko Ono) (1984) Live In New York City (Recorded live in 1972) (1986) Menlove Ave. (1986) Musical instruments Notes References External links The Liverpool Lennons BBC Lennon Site Lennon FBI files John Lennon: "Ringo's Right, We Can't Tour Again" 1969 article and interview focusing on John's extra-Beatles work with Yoko (reprinted by Crawdaddy! in 2007). | John_Lennon |@lemmatized john:61 winston:7 ono:76 lennon:341 mbe:2 bear:4 october:8 december:10 english:1 rock:12 musician:4 singer:4 songwriter:3 gain:1 worldwide:2 fame:7 one:14 found:2 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4,469 | Desmond_Morris | Desmond John Morris (born 24 January 1928 in the village of Purton, north Wiltshire, UK) is most famous for his work as a zoologist and ethologist, but is also known as a surrealist artist and author. Life Morris was educated at Dauntsey's School, an independent school in West Lavington, Wiltshire. After military service, he attended the University of Birmingham where he graduated in 1951 with a First Class Honours Degree in Zoology. In 1954, he was awarded a D.Phil. from Oxford University for his doctoral thesis on the Reproductive Behaviour of the Ten-spined Stickleback, supervised by Niko Tinbergen. He then was employed by the Zoological Society of London as Curator of Mammals at the London Zoo, which he left in 1966 in frustration about stagnation at the zoo. He is sometimes wrongly stated to be a relative of Welsh zoologist, Johnny Morris, but this is not the case. In the media Morris first came to public attention in the 1950s as a presenter of the ITV television programme Zoo Time, but achieved world-wide fame in 1967 with his book "The Naked Ape". The book is an unabashed look at the human species, notable for its focus on humanity's animal-like qualities and our similarity with apes, and for explaining human behaviour as largely evolved to meet the challenges of prehistoric life as a hunter-gatherer. Reprinted many times and in many languages, it continues to be a best-seller. His later studies, books and television shows have continued this focus on human behaviour, explained from a bluntly zoological point of view. This approach itself, and his specific conclusions, have often attracted controversy. Art Painting by Congo. In addition to his scientific pursuits, he is an artist in the Surrealist tradition. Morris has exhibited with Joan Miró and contributed significantly to the British Surrealist movement. He had his first solo show in 1948, and has shown regularly ever since. In 1957, he curated an exhibition of chimpanzee paintings and drawings at the Institute of Contemporary Arts, London, including paintings by a young chimpanzee called Congo. Film adviser Morris oversaw the creation of the gestural and body language for the Paleolithic human characters in the 1981 film Quest for Fire. See also Sociobiology Sexual selection in human evolution Bibliography The Biology of Art (1963) - a look at the paintings of primates and their relation to human art The Mammals: A Guide to the Living Species (1965) — a comprehensive and compelling listing of all mammal genera, all non-rodent non-bat species, and additional information on select species. The Naked Ape (1967) — an unabashed look at the human species. The book is notable for its focus on humanity's animal-like qualities and our similarity with apes. Reprinted many times and in many languages, it continues to be a best-seller. The Human Zoo (1969) — a continuation of the previous book, analysing human behaviour in big modern societies and their resemblance to animal behaviour in captivity. Intimate Behaviour (1971) — this book examines and analyses any physical contact acted out by human animals. From clapping, to having a hair cut, to hand jive, to patting on the back, to hugging, to babe suckling, to copulation... Manwatching (1977), reprinted as Peoplewatching (2002) Gestures: Their Origin and Distribution (1979) Animal Days (1979) — Autobiographical The Soccer Tribe (1981) Pocket Guide to Manwatching (1982) Inrock (1983) Bodywatching – A Field Guide to the Human Species (1985) — Hundreds of photos analyzing the human body from hair down to the feet. Catwatching (1986) — a study of one of the most popular of household pets across the centuries. Dogwatching (1986) — an in-depth study of "man's best friend". Horsewatching (1989) — subtitled "Why does a horse whinny and everything else you ever wanted to know" Animalwatching (1990) Babywatching (1991) The Human Animal (1994) — book and BBC documentary TV series Cat World: A Feline Encyclopedia (1997) The Naked Eye (2001) Dogs: The Ultimate Dictionary of over 1000 Dog Breeds (2001) Peoplewatching: The Desmond Morris Guide to Body Language (2002) The Naked Woman: A Study of the Female Body (2004) Linguaggio muto (Dumb language) (2004) Watching (2006) The Naked Man: A Study of the Male Body (2008) External links www.desmond-morris.com Official website including a complete biography | Desmond_Morris |@lemmatized desmond:3 john:1 morris:8 bear:1 january:1 village:1 purton:1 north:1 wiltshire:2 uk:1 famous:1 work:1 zoologist:2 ethologist:1 also:2 know:2 surrealist:3 artist:2 author:1 life:2 educate:1 dauntsey:1 school:2 independent:1 west:1 lavington:1 military:1 service:1 attend:1 university:2 birmingham:1 graduate:1 first:3 class:1 honour:1 degree:1 zoology:1 award:1 phil:1 oxford:1 doctoral:1 thesis:1 reproductive:1 behaviour:6 ten:1 spin:1 stickleback:1 supervise:1 niko:1 tinbergen:1 employ:1 zoological:2 society:2 london:3 curator:1 mammal:3 zoo:4 leave:1 frustration:1 stagnation:1 sometimes:1 wrongly:1 state:1 relative:1 welsh:1 johnny:1 case:1 medium:1 come:1 public:1 attention:1 presenter:1 itv:1 television:2 programme:1 time:3 achieve:1 world:2 wide:1 fame:1 book:7 naked:5 ape:4 unabashed:2 look:3 human:13 specie:6 notable:2 focus:3 humanity:2 animal:6 like:2 quality:2 similarity:2 explain:2 largely:1 evolve:1 meet:1 challenge:1 prehistoric:1 hunter:1 gatherer:1 reprint:3 many:4 language:5 continue:3 best:3 seller:2 late:1 study:5 show:3 bluntly:1 point:1 view:1 approach:1 specific:1 conclusion:1 often:1 attract:1 controversy:1 art:4 painting:4 congo:2 addition:1 scientific:1 pursuit:1 tradition:1 exhibit:1 joan:1 miró:1 contribute:1 significantly:1 british:1 movement:1 solo:1 regularly:1 ever:2 since:1 curated:1 exhibition:1 chimpanzee:2 drawing:1 institute:1 contemporary:1 include:2 young:1 call:1 film:2 adviser:1 oversee:1 creation:1 gestural:1 body:5 paleolithic:1 character:1 quest:1 fire:1 see:1 sociobiology:1 sexual:1 selection:1 evolution:1 bibliography:1 biology:1 primate:1 relation:1 guide:4 living:1 comprehensive:1 compel:1 listing:1 genus:1 non:2 rodent:1 bat:1 additional:1 information:1 select:1 continuation:1 previous:1 analyse:2 big:1 modern:1 resemblance:1 captivity:1 intimate:1 examine:1 physical:1 contact:1 act:1 clap:1 hair:2 cut:1 hand:1 jive:1 pat:1 back:1 hug:1 babe:1 suckling:1 copulation:1 manwatching:2 peoplewatching:2 gesture:1 origin:1 distribution:1 day:1 autobiographical:1 soccer:1 tribe:1 pocket:1 inrock:1 bodywatching:1 field:1 hundred:1 photo:1 analyze:1 foot:1 catwatching:1 one:1 popular:1 household:1 pet:1 across:1 century:1 dogwatching:1 depth:1 man:2 friend:1 horsewatching:1 subtitle:1 horse:1 whinny:1 everything:1 else:1 want:1 animalwatching:1 babywatching:1 bbc:1 documentary:1 tv:1 series:1 cat:1 feline:1 encyclopedia:1 eye:1 dog:2 ultimate:1 dictionary:1 breed:1 woman:1 female:1 linguaggio:1 muto:1 dumb:1 watching:1 male:1 external:1 link:1 www:1 com:1 official:1 website:1 complete:1 biography:1 |@bigram doctoral_thesis:1 naked_ape:2 hunter_gatherer:1 joan_miró:1 everything_else:1 naked_eye:1 desmond_morris:2 external_link:1 |
4,470 | Basque_language | Basque speaking area Location of the Basque language provinces within Spain and France Basque (native name: Euskara) is the language spoken by the Basque people who inhabit the Basque Country, a region spanning an area in north-eastern Spain and south-western France. It is spoken by approximately a third of the Basques, with its stronghold in the contiguous area from central Biscay through Gipuzkoa, northern Navarre and parts of Labourd to sparsely populated Lower Navarre and Soule. Until reintroduced into the education system, it had not been spoken in most of Álava, in western Biscay, or in the southern half of Navarre in the recent past. Out of a total of nearly 3,000,000 Basques, it is estimated that some 1,063,000 speak Basque in which 632,000 are native speakers. Approximately 566,000 of the latter live in the Spanish Basque country, with the rest residing in the French part. A standardised form of the Basque language called Batua was created at the end of the 20th century. This standard is mainly used in the Spanish Basque country, and to a lesser extent in the Northern Basque Country due to the limited availability of schools teaching in Basque or offering it as a subject. Apart from this standardised version, there are six main Basque dialects, comprising Bizkaian, Gipuzkoan, and Upper Navarrese (in Spain), and Lower Navarrese, Lapurdian, and Zuberoan (in France). However, the dialect boundaries are not congruent with political boundaries. Names of the language In Basque, the name of the language is officially Euskara (alongside various dialect forms). There are currently three etymological theories surrounding the etymology of the name Euskara that are taken seriously by linguists and vasconists which are discussed in detail on the Basque people page. In French the language is normally called basque or, in recent times euskara. There is a greater variety of Spanish names for the language. Today, it is most commonly referred to as el vasco, la lengua vasca or el euskera. Both terms, vasco and basque, are inherited from Latin ethnonym vascones which in turn goes back to the Greek term ουασκωνους (ouaskōnous), an ethnonym used by Strabo. Trask, L. The History of Basque Routledge: 1997 ISBN 0-415-13116-2 The term Vascuence, derived from Latin vasconĭce has acquired negative connotations over the centuries and is not well liked amongst Basque speakers generally. Its use is documented at least as far back as the 14th century when a law passed in Huesca in 1349 stated that Item nuyl corridor nonsia usado que faga mercadería ninguna que compre nin venda entre ningunas personas, faulando en algaravia nin en abraych nin en basquenç: et qui lo fara pague por coto XXX sol - essentially penalising the use of Arab, Hebrew or Vascuence (Basque) with a fine of 30 sols. History and classification Geographically surrounded by Indo-European languages, Basque is classified as a language isolate, the last remaining pre-Indo-European language in Western Europe. Larry Trask The history of Basque (1997) Consequently its prehistory may not be reconstructible by means of the comparative method except by applying it to language internal dialectal differences. Little is known of its origins but it is likely that an early form of the Basque language was present in Western Europe before the arrival of the Indo-European languages to the area. Latin inscriptions in Aquitania preserve a number of words with cognates in reconstructed proto-Basque, for instance the personal names Nescato and Cison (neskato and gizon mean "young girl" and "man" respectively in modern Basque Hiztegia 3000 ). This language is generally referred to as Aquitanian and is assumed to have been spoken in the area before the Roman conquests in the western Pyrenees. Roman neglect of this area allowed Aquitanian to survive while the Iberian and Tartessian languages became extinct. Through the long contact with Romance languages, Basque acquired a sizeable number of Romance loans. Initially the source was Latin, later Gascon (a branch of Occitan) in the northeast, Aragonese in the southeast and Spanish in the southwest. In June 2006, the head of the archaeological site of Iruña-Veleia Eliseo Gil claimed to have found an epigraphic set with a series of 270 Basque inscriptions and drawings from the third century. Third-century Basque inscriptions found in archaeological site Some of the words and phrases found were remarkably similar to modern Basque and so were hailed as the first written evidence of Basque. However, the whole finding soon came under serious question and the suspicion of an archaeological forgery has become widespread, after an independent team assessed the alleged evidence and concluded in 2008 that it was false. Page with the text of all the official reports on the falsehood of the Veleia Basque inscriptions (in Spanish): IRUÑA/VELEIA Yet the former head of the site has made the case for his stance on the findings, while not dismissing flat out the independent team's conclusion. TV programme slot where E. Gil defends his position Hypotheses on connections with other languages The impossibility of linking Basque with its Indo-European neighbours in Europe has inspired many scholars to search for its possible relatives elsewhere. Besides many pseudoscientific comparisons, the appearance of long-range linguistics gave rise to several attempts to connect Basque with geographically very distant language families. All hypotheses on the origin of Basque are controversial, and the suggested evidence is not generally accepted by most linguists. Some of these hypothetical connections are as follows: Iberian: another ancient language once spoken in the peninsula, shows several similarities with Aquitanian and Basque. However, there is not enough evidence to distinguish areal contacts from genetic relationship. Iberian itself remains unclassified. Are Iberian and Basque related? The problem with "magical translators" (Jesús Rodríguez Ramos) Eduardo Orduña Aznar claims to have established correspondence between Basque and Iberian numerals http://ifc.dpz.es/publicaciones/ver/id/2622 and noun case markers. Georgian: Linking Basque to South Caucasian languages, seems now widely discredited. The hypothesis was inspired by the existence of the ancient Kingdom of Iberia farther east in the Mediterranean. According to J.P. Mallory, in his 1989 book In Search of the Indo-Europeans, the hypothesis was also inspired by a Basque place-name ending in -adze. Northeast Caucasian languages, such as Chechen, are seen by some linguists, like Michel Morvan, as more likely candidates for a very distant connection. A Final (?) Response to the Basque Debate in Mother Tongue 1 (John D. Bengston) Dene-Caucasian superfamily: Based on the possible Caucasian link, some linguists, for example John Bengtson and Merritt Ruhlen, have proposed including Basque in the Dene-Caucasian superfamily of languages, but this proposed superfamily includes languages from North America and Eurasia, and its existence is highly controversial. Vasconic substratum hypothesis: This proposal, by the German linguist Theo Vennemann, claims that there is enough toponymical evidence to conclude that Basque is the only survivor of a larger family that once extended throughout most of Europe, and has also left its mark in modern Indo-European languages spoken in Europe. Theo Vennemann homepage Geographic distribution Percentage of fluent speakers of Basque (areas where Basque is not spoken are included within the 0-4% interval). Percentage of people fluent in Basque language in Navarre (2001). The region in which Basque is spoken is smaller than what is known as the Basque Country, or Euskal Herria in Basque. Basque toponyms show that Basque was spoken further along the Pyrenees than today. An example is the Aran Valley (now a Gascon-speaking part of Catalonia), since haran itself is the Basque word for "valley". However, the growing influence of Latin began to drive Basque out from the less mountainous portions of the region. The Reconquista temporarily counteracted this tendency when the Christian lords called on northern Iberian peoples — Basques, Asturians, and "Franks" — to colonize the new conquests. The Basque language became the main everyday language, while other languages like Spanish, Gascon, French, or Latin were preferred for the administration and high education. Basque experienced a rapid decline in Alava and Navarre during the 1800s. However, the rise of Basque nationalism spurred increased interest in the language as a sign of ethnic identity, and with the establishment of autonomous governments, it has recently made a modest comeback. Basque-language schools have brought the language to areas such as Encartaciones and the Navarrese Ribera, where it may have disappeared as a native language in the Middle Ages. Official status Official status of the Basque language in Navarre Historically, Latin or Romance languages have been the official languages in this region. However, Basque was explicitly recognized in some areas. For instance, the local charter of the Basque-colonized Ojacastro valley (now in La Rioja) allowed the inhabitants to use Basque in legal processes in the 13th and 14th centuries. Today Basque holds co-official language status in the Basque regions of Spain: the full autonomous community of the Basque Country and some parts of Navarre. Basque has no official standing in the Northern Basque Country of France and French citizens are barred from officially using Basque in a French court of law. However, the use of Basque by Spanish nationals in French courts is allowed (with translation), as Basque is officially recognized on the other side of the border. The positions of the various existing governments differ with regard to the promotion of Basque in areas where Basque is commonly spoken. The language has official status in those territories that are within the Basque Autonomous Community, where it is spoken and promoted heavily, but only partially in Navarre. Here the "Ley del Vascuence" ("Law of Basque"), seen as contentious by many Basques, divides Navarre into three language areas: Basque-speaking, non-Basque-speaking, and mixed. The support for the language and the linguistic rights of citizens vary depending on which of the three areas you are in. Dialects Louis-Lucien Bonaparte's original 1869 map of Basque dialects. The modern Basque dialects show a high degree of dialectal divergence, sometimes making cross-dialect communication difficult. This is especially true in the case of Zuberoan which is regarded as the most divergent Basque dialect. Between 6 Pagola, RM Euskalkiz Euskalki Basque Government 1984 and 9 recent Basque dialects are normally distinguished: Biscayan Guipuscoan Upper Navarrese Lower Navarrese Lapurdian Souletin Influence on other languages Although the influence of the neighbouring Romance languages on the Basque language (especially the lexicon, but also to some degree Basque phonology and grammar) has been much more extensive, there has been some feedback from Basque into these languages as well. In particular Gascon and Aragonese, and to a lesser degree Spanish have been influenced. In the case of Aragonese and Gascon, this has been through substrate interference following language shift from Aquitanian or Basque to a Romance language, affecting all levels of the language, including place names around the Pyrenees. Haase, Martin Zur Typologie des Baskischen Lecture Handout at the Ludwig Maximilians Universität, Munich 1997 Rohlfs, Gerhard Le Gascon: études de philologie pyrénéenne. Zeitschrift für Romanische Philologie Beiheft 85 Tübingen&Pau 1980 Although a number of words of alleged Basque origin in the Spanish language are circulated (eg anchoa 'anchovis', bizarro 'bizarre', perro 'dog' etc), most of these have more easily explicable Romance etymologies or not particularly convincing derivations from Basque. Ignoring cultural terms, the most notable exception are perhaps the Pyrenean and Iberian Romance words for "left (side)" (izquierdo, esquerdo, esquerre, quer, esquer) which are arguably derived from Basque ezker izquierdo in the Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico, volume III, Joan Corominas, José A. Pascual, Editorial Gredos, 1989, Madrid, ISBN 84-249-1365-5. to avoid the connotations of the Latin root sinister. The lack of initial /r/ in Basque and Gascon, which both employ prosthetic vowels, could arguably be due to a Basque influence but this issue is under-researched. The other most commonly claimed substrate influences: the Old Spanish merger of /v/ and /b/. the simple five vowel system. change of initial /f/ into /h/ and a later zero (eg fablar → hablar, with Old Basque lacking /f/). However, these alleged influences on Spanish are difficult to maintain for a number of reasons: Old Spanish b was almost invariably realised as a bilabial fricative /β/, making a simple merger between /v/ and /β/ much more likely. In addition, this shift also took place widely in the Romance world in languages like Portuguese, Galician, Occitan and Catalan, where it is difficult to argue for Basque adstratum or substratum influence. 5 vowel systems are amongst the most common in the world and do not constitute any sort of reliable evidence of adstratum or substratum influences. There are various issues with the /f/ to /h/ proposal. 1) Spanish did not fully shift /f/ to /h/, instead, it has preserved /f/ before /ue/ and /ɾ/ (cf fuerte, frente). 2) Evidence of Arabic loanwords in Castilian points to /f/ continuing to exist long after a Basque substrate might have had any effect on Castilian. 3) Basque regularly developed Latin /f/ into /b/. 4) The same change also occurs in Gascon, parts of Sardinia, Italy and the Romance languages of the Balkans where no Basque substrate can be reasonably argued for. Hence the position of Castilian /f/ to /h/ developing due to Basque influences is untenable. Beyond these arguments, a number of traveller groups of Castile are also said to use or have used Basque words in their jargon, such as the gacería, the mingaña and the Galician fala dos arxinas. Some gypsy communities in the Basque Country spoke Erromintxela, which mixes Romany vocabulary with Basque syntax and morphology (comparable to the Caló of the Spanish-speaking Gitanos). Basque pidgins A number of Basque-based or influenced pidgins existed. In the 16th Century, Basque sailors used a Basque-Icelandic pidgin in their contacts with Iceland. Glossaria duo vasco-islandica, Nicolaas Gerard Hendrik Deen, Amsterdam, H.J. Paris, 1937. Basque Pidgins in Iceland and Canada, Nicolaas G.H. Deen, Peter Bakker, Gidor Bilbao, Jose Ignacio Hualde. Anejos de ASJU, XXIII, [Gipuzkoako Foru Aldundia], 1991). Includes a reedition of Deen's Glossaria. Another Basque pidgin arose from contact between Basque whalers and the indigenous inhabitants in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Strait of Belle Isle. Bakker, Peter A Basque nautical pidgin: a missing link in the history of Fu Journal of Pidgin and Creole languages 1987 Grammar Basque is an ergative-absolutive language. The subject of an intransitive verb is in the absolutive case (which is unmarked), and the same case is used for the direct object of a transitive verb. The subject of the transitive verb (that is, the agent) is marked differently, with the ergative case (shown by the suffix -k). This also triggers main and auxiliary verbal agreement. The auxiliary verb, which accompanies most main verbs, agrees not only with the subject, but with any direct object and the indirect object present. Among European languages, this polypersonal system (multiple verb agreement) is only found in Basque, some Caucasian languages, and Hungarian (all non-Indo-European). The ergative-absolutive alignment is also unique among European languages, but not rare worldwide. Consider the phrase: "Martin buys the newspapers for me." Martin-ek is the agent (transitive subject), so it is marked with the ergative case ending -k (with an epenthetic -e-). Egunkariak has an -ak ending which marks plural object (plural absolutive, direct object case). The verb is erosten dizkit, in which erosten is a kind of gerund ("buying") and the auxiliary dizkit means "he/she (does) them for me". This dizkit can be split like this: di- is used in the present tense when the verb has a subject (ergative), a direct object (absolutive), and an indirect object, and the object is he/she/it/them. -zki- means the absolutive (in this case the newspapers) is plural, if it were singular there would be no infix; and -t or '-da-' means "to me/for me" (indirect object). in this instance there is no suffix after -t. A zero suffix in this position indicates that the ergative (the subject) is third person singular (he/she/it). The phrase "you buy the newspapers for me" would translate as: The auxiliary verb is composed as di-zki-da-zue and means 'you pl. (do) them for me' di- = direct object, present tense -zki- = direct object is plural -da- = indirect object (to me/for me) {-t becomes -da- when not final.} -zue = subject (you pl.) In spoken Basque, the auxiliary verb is never dropped even if it is redundant: "Zuek niri egunkariak erosten dizkidazue", you pl. buying the newspapers for me. However, the pronouns are almost always dropped: "egunkariak erosten dizkidazue", the newspapers buying be-them-for-me-you(plural). The pronouns are used only to show emphasis: "egunkariak zuek erosten dizkidazue", it is you (pl.) who buy the newspapers for me; or "egunkariak niri erosten dizkidazue", it is me for whom you buy the newspapers. Modern Basque dialects allow for the conjugation of about fifteen verbs, called synthetic verbs, some only in literary contexts. These can be put in the present and past tenses in the indicative and subjunctive moods, in three tenses in the conditional and potential moods, and in one tense in the imperative. Colloquial Basque, however, only uses indicative present, indicative past, and imperative. Each verb that can be taken intransitively has a nor (absolutive) paradigm and possibly a nor-nori (absolutive-dative) paradigm, as in the sentence Aititeri txapela erori zaio ("The hat fell from grandfather['s head]"). (Basque) INFLECTION §1.4.2.2. Potential paradigms: absolutive and dative. Each verb that can be taken transitively uses those two paradigms for passive-voice contexts in which no agent is mentioned, and also has a nor-nork (absolutive-ergative) paradigm and possibly a nor-nori-nork (absolutive-dative-ergative) paradigm. The last would entail the dizkidazue example above. In each paradigm, each constituent noun can take on any of eight persons, five singular and three plural, with the exception of nor-nori-nork in which the absolutive can only be third person singular or plural. (This draws on a language universal: *"Yesterday the boss presented the committee me" sounds at least odd, if not incorrect.) The most ubiquitous auxiliary, izan, can be used in any of these paradigms, depending on the nature of the main verb. There are more persons in the singular (5) than in the plural (3) for synthetic verbs because of the two familiar persons—informal masculine and feminine second person singular. The pronoun hi is used for both of them, but where the masculine form of the verb uses a -k, the feminine uses an -n. This is a property not found in Indo-European languages. The entire paradigm of the verb is further augmented by inflecting for "listener" (the allocutive) even if the verb contains no second person constituent. If the situation is one in which the familiar masculine may be used, the form is augmented and modified accordingly; likewise for the familiar feminine. (Gizon bat etorri da, "a man has come"; gizon bat etorri duk, "a man has come [you are a male close friend]", gizon bat etorri dun, "a man has come [you are a female close friend]", gizon bat etorri duzu, "a man has come [I talk to you]" Aspecto, tiempo y modo in Spanish, Aditzen aspektua, tempusa eta modua in Basque. ) Notice that this nearly multiplies the number of possible forms by three. Still, the restriction on contexts in which these forms may be used is strong since all participants in the conversation must be friends of the same sex, and not too far apart in age. Some dialects dispense with the familiar forms entirely. Note, however, that the formal second person singular conjugates in parallel to the other plural forms, perhaps indicating that it used to be the second person plural, started being used as a singular formal, and then the modern second person plural was formulated as an innovation. All the other verbs in Basque are called periphrastic, behaving much like a participle would in English. These have only three forms total, called aspects: perfect (various suffixes), habitual (suffix -t[z]en), and future/potential (suffix. -ko/-go). Verbs of Latinate origin in Basque, as well as many other verbs, have a suffix -tu in the perfect, adapted from the Latin -tus suffix. The synthetic verbs also have periphrastic forms, for use in perfect tenses and in simple tenses in which they are deponent. Within a verb phrase, the periphrastic comes first, followed by the auxiliary. A Basque noun-phrase is inflected in 17 different ways for case, multiplied by 4 ways for its definiteness and number. These first 68 forms are further modified based on other parts of the sentence, which in turn are inflected for the noun again. It's been estimated that, with two levels of recursion, a Basque noun may have 458,683 inflected forms. Basic syntactic construction is Subject-Objects-Verb (unlike Spanish, French or English where Subject-Verb-Objects construction is more common). The order of the phrases within a sentence can be changed with thematic purposes, whereas the order of the words within a phrase is usually rigid. As a matter of fact, Basque phrase order is topic-focus, meaning that in neutral sentences (such as sentences to inform someone of a fact or event) the topic is stated first, then the focus. In such sentences, the verb phrase comes at the end. In brief, the focus directly precedes the verb phrase. This rule is also applied in questions, for instance, What is this? can be translated as Zer da hau? or Hau zer da?, but in both cases the question tag zer immediately precedes the verb da. This rule is so important in Basque that, even in grammatical descriptions of Basque in other languages, the Basque word galdegai (focus) is used. In negative sentences, the order changes. Since the negative particle ez must always directly precede the auxiliary, the topic most often comes beforehand, and the rest of the sentence follows. This includes the periphrastic, if there is one: Aitak frantsesa ikasten du, "Father is learning French," in the negative becomes Aitak ez du frantsesa ikasten, in which ikasten ("learning") is separated from its auxiliary and placed at the end. Phonology Table of consonant phonemes of Standard Basque Labial Coronal Dorsal Glottal Bilabial Labio-dental Lamino-dental Apico-alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Nasal m n ñ, -in- Plosive p b t d tt, -it- dd, -id- k gAffricate tz ts tx Fricative f z s x j h Lateral l ll, -il- Rhotic Trill r-, -rr-, -r Tap -r- Basque has a distinction between laminal and apical articulation for the alveolar fricatives and affricates. In the laminal consonants the friction occurs across the blade of the tongue, while in apical ones, it occurs at the tip (apex). The laminal alveolar fricative () is made with the tongue tip pointing toward the lower teeth; its affricate counterpart is . These are written with an orthographic z (z, tz). The voiceless apicoalveolar fricative () is written s; the tip of the tongue points toward the upper teeth. The corresponding affricate () is ts. In the westernmost parts of the Basque country, only the apical s and the alveolar affricate tz are used. Basque also features postalveolar sibilants (, written x, and , written tx), sounding like English sh and ch. There are two palatal stops, voiced and unvoiced, as well as a palatal nasal and a palatal lateral (the palatal stops are not present in all dialects). These and the postalveolar sounds are typical of diminutives, which are used frequently in child language and motherese (mainly to show affection rather than size). For example, tanta "drop" vs. ttantta "droplet". A few common words, such as txakur "dog", use palatal sounds even though in current usage they have lost the diminutive sense; the corresponding non-palatal forms now acquiring an augmentative or pejorative sense: zakur "big dog". Many dialects of Basque exhibit a derived palatalization effect in which coronal onset consonants are changed into the palatal counterpart after the high front vowel . For example, the in egin "to act" becomes palatal when the suffix -a is added: = "the action". The sound represented by j has a variety of realizations according to the regional dialect: (the last one is typical of the Spanish Basque Country). The vowel system is the same as Spanish for most speakers. It consists of five pure vowels, . Speakers of the Zuberoan dialect also have a sixth, front rounded vowel (represented in writing by ü but pronounced , much like a German ö), as well as a set of contrasting nasalized vowels, indicating a strong influence from French. Stress and pitch Basque features great dialectal variation in stress, from a weak pitch-accent in the central dialects to a marked stress in some outer dialects, with varying patterns of stress placement. Stress is in general not distinctive (and for historical comparisons not very useful); there are, however, a few instances where stress is phonemic, serving to distinguish between a few pairs of stress-marked words and between some grammatical forms (mainly plurals from other forms). E.g., basóà ("the forest", absolutive case) vs. básoà ("the glass", absolutive case; an adoption from Spanish vaso); basóàk ("the forest", ergative case) vs. básoàk ("the glass", ergative case) vs. básoak ("the forests" or "the glasses", absolutive case). Given its great deal of variation among dialects, stress is not marked in the standard orthography and Euskaltzaindia (the Academy of the Basque Language) only provides general recommendations for a standard placement of stress, basically to place a high-pitched weak stress (weaker than that of Spanish, let alone that of English) on the second syllable of a syntagma, and a low-pitched even-weaker stress on its last syllable, except in plural forms where stress is moved to the first syllable. This scheme provides Basque with a distinct musicality which sets its sound apart from the prosodical patterns of Spanish (which tends to stress the second-to-last syllable). Euskaldun berriak ("new Basque-speakers", i.e. second-language Basque-speakers) with Spanish as their first language tend to carry the prosodical patterns of Spanish into their pronunciation of Basque, giving rise to a pronunciation that is considered substandard; e.g., pronouncing nire ama ("my mum") as nire áma (- - ´ -), instead of as niré amà (- ´ - `). Vocabulary By contact with neighbouring peoples, Basque has adopted many words from Latin, Spanish, Gascon, among others. There is a considerable number of Latin loans (sometimes obscured by being subject to Basque phonology and grammar for centuries), for example: lore ("flower", from florem), errota ("mill", from rotam, "[mill] wheel"), gela ("room", from cellam). Writing system An example of Basque lettering in a funerary stela. Basque is written using the Latin alphabet. The universal special letter is ñ; sometimes ç and ü are also used. Basque does not use Cc, Qq, Vv, Ww, Yy except for loanwords; nevertheless, the adopted Basque alphabet (established by Euskaltzaindia) does include them. Basque alphabet Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Ññ Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz The phonetically meaningful digraphs dd, ll, rr, ts, tt, tx, tz are treated as double letters. All letters and digraphs represent unique phonemes. The main exception is when l or n are preceded by i, that in most dialects palatalizes their sound into /ʎ/ and /ɲ/, even if these are not written. Hence, Ikurriña can also be written Ikurrina without changing the sound, while the proper name Ainhoa requires the mute h to break the palatalization of the n. H is mute in most regions, but in the Northeast is pronounced in many places, the main reason for its existence in the Basque alphabet. Its acceptance was a matter of contention during the standardization since the speakers of the most extended dialects had to learn where to place these silent h's. The letters of the alphabet in a Basque style font. In Sabino Arana's (1865-1903) orthography, ll and rr were replaced with ĺ and ŕ, respectively. A typically Basque style of lettering is sometimes used for inscriptions. It derives from the work of stone and wood carvers and is characterized by thick serifs. Number system used by millers An example of the number system employed by millers. Basque millers traditionally employed a separate number system of unknown origin. Aguirre Sorondo, A Tratado de Molinología: Los molinos en Guipúzcoa Donostia: Eusko Ikaskuntza, 1988 In this system the symbols are either arranged along a vertical line or horizontally. On the vertical line the single digits and fractions are usually off to one side, usually at the top. When used horizontally, the smallest units are usually on the right and the largest on the left. The system is, as is the Basque system of counting in general, vigesimal. Although the system is in theory capable of indicating numbers above 100, most recorded examples do not go above 100 in general. Interestingly, fractions are relatively common, especially 1/2. The exact systems used vary from area to area but generally follow the same principle with 5 usually being a diagonal line or a curve off the vertical line (a V shape is used when writing a 5 horizontally). Units of ten are usually a horizontal line through the vertical. The twenties are based on a circle with intersecting lines. This system is not in general use anymore but is occasionally employed for decorative purposes. Phrases Basic phrases Bai = Yes Ez = No Kaixo! = Hello Agur! / Aio! = Goodbye! Ikusi arte = See you! Eskerrik asko! = Thank you! Egun on = Good morning (literally: Good day) Egun on, bai = Standard reply to Egun on Arratsalde on = Good evening Gabon = Good night Mesedez = Please Barkatu = Excuse (me) (when asking for something) Barkatu = I'm sorry. Aizu! = Listen! (To get someone's attention, not very polite, to be used with friends) = Can I have a coffee? = Can I have a macchiato? Kafesnea nahi nuke = Can I have a café latte? Garagardoa nahi nuke = Can I have a beer? Komunak = Toilets Non dago komuna? = Where are the toilets? Non dago tren-geltokia? = Where is the train station? Non dago autobus-geltokia? = Where is the bus station? Ba al da hotelik hemen inguruan? = Is there any hotel around here? Zorionak = Happy holidays (During Christmas and new year's), congratulations or could be Happy birthday. Zer moduz? = How are you? Advanced phrases Eup! = The colloquial way of greeting someone on the street, also apa or aupa or iep!. Kaixo aspaldiko! = Like Kaixo, but adds "Long time, no see"-meaning. Eskerrik asko = Thank you (very much). Ez horregatik = You're welcome (response to Eskerrik asko). Ez dut ulertzen = I don't understand = I don't speak Basque = Do you speak English? Neska polit(t)a / Neska ederra = (You're a) beautiful girl Zein da zure izena? = What is your name? Pozten nau zu ezagutzeak = Nice to meet you Ongi etorri! = Welcome! Egun on denoi = Good morning everyone! Berdin/Hala zuri ere = The same to you (E.g. after Kaixo or Egun on) Jakina! / Noski! / Bai horixe! = Sure! OK! Nongoa zara? = Where are you from? Euskalerrikoa naiz = I am from the Basque Country. Non bizi zara?=Where do you live? Non dago...? = Where is...? Badakizu euskaraz? = Do you speak Basque? Bai ote? = Really? Maybe? Bizi gara!! = We are alive!! Bagarela!! = So we are!! (Answer to the above) Topa! / Txin-txin = Cheers! Hementxe! = Over/right here! Geldi! = Stop Lasai = Take it easy Ez dut nahi = I don't want it Kaka zaharra! = Crap! (Literally old crap) Emak bakia! (Emak bakea! in Standard Basque) = Leave me alone! (Best known for being used by the artist Man Ray as both the title of a film and a sculpture). It can also be interpreted as "The female [gives] the peace". Numbers The Basque numbering system is vigesimal. 0zero, or huts1bat2bi3hiru4lau5bost6sei7zazpi8zortzi9bederatzi10hamar11hamaika12hamabi13hamahiru14hamalau15hamabost16hamasei17hamazazpi18hemezortzi19hemeretzi20hogei21hogeita bat 22hogeita bi 23hogeita hiru 30hogeita hamar (literal meaning split: hogei-ta-hamar = twenty-and-ten = 20+10)31hogeita hamaika (hogei-ta-hamaika = twenty-and-eleven = 20+11)40berrogei (ber-hogei = two times-twenty = 2×20)50berrogeita hamar (ber-hogei-ta-hamar = two times-twenty-and-ten = 2×20+10)60hirurogei (hirur-hogei = three times-twenty = 3×20)70hirurogeita hamar (hirur-hogei-ta-hamar = three times-twenty-and-ten = 3×20+10)80laurogei (laur-hogei = four times-twenty = 4×20)90laurogeita hamar (laur-hogei-ta-hamar = four times-twenty-and-ten = 4×20+10)100ehun 200berrehun 300hirurehun 1000mila 2000bi mila 1,000,000milioi batnumber __________ zenbaki (train, bus, etc.)halferdilessgutxiagomoregehiago Examples The blacksmith slave Captive in the rainforests of the West they brought you to Rome, slave, they gave you the blacksmith work and you make chains. The red iron that you carry out the oven can be adapted as you want, you can make swords in order that your people could break the chains, but you, this slave, you make chains, more chains. :Joseba SarrionandiaEsklabu erremintaria Sartaldeko oihanetan gatibaturik erromara ekarri zinduten, esklabua, erremintari ofizioa eman zizuten eta kateak egiten dituzu. Labetik ateratzen duzun burdin goria nahieran molda zenezake, ezpatak egin ditzakezu zure herritarrek kateak hauts deitzaten, baina zuk, esklabu horrek, kateak egiten dituzu, kate gehiago. :Joseba Sarrionandia See also Basque dialects Vasconic languages Basque people List of Basques Basque Country Languages of France Languages of Spain Wiktionary: Swadesh list of Basque words List of Basque proverbs Dictionaries Basque Dictionary from Webster's Dictionary Basque bilingual dictionaries Morris Student Plus Basque-English Dictionary Etymological dictionaries M. Löpelmann, Etymologisches Wörterbuch der baskischen Sprache, Berlin, 1968. R.L. Trask Etymological Dictionary of Basque edited for web publication by Max W. Wheeler (University of Sussex, 2008). An edition of the unfinished etymological dictionary of the late R. L. Trask. Grammar University of the Basque Country: A Brief Grammar of Euskara, the Basque Language Basque psycholinguistics Basque Verb Tables Free on-line Course of Basque Language Dictionaries Morris Student Plus: Basque - English - Basque dictionary (67,000 headwords + 120,000 expressions and idioms) Classification History of the Basque Language by Manfred Owstrowski) A Final (?) Response to the Basque Debate in Mother Tongue 1 by John D. Bengston (scanned pages) Basque lettering Basque alphabet according to EuskaltzaindiaArquitectura popular y grafía vasca, by P. and J. de Zabalo, Biblioteca de Cultura Vasca, Editorial Vasca Ekin, Buenos Aires, 1947. Designs for a national typography derived from Medieval and Modern-Age inscriptions.Tipografías vascas, a blog post reviewing Basque-style computer fonts.Grafía vasca, in the Spanish-language Auñamendi Encyclopedia. Basque media Berria: Newspaper in BasqueEiTB: Tv and radio in Basque Argia: Weekly magazine in Basque References External links Deustuko:Basque language course (spanish) Schools of languages of the Basque country that teach Basque Euskaltzaindia (The Royal Academy of the Basque Language) official web Ethnologue has reports on Basque (ISO 639-1: eu), Navarro-Labourdin (ISO 639-3: bqe) and Souletin Basque. Center for Basque Studies at University of Nevada, Reno Basque language at Buber.net Concise course of Basque A proposal for Basque SAMPA Basque Studies Program Newsletter · Issue 18, 1978. Miguel Echegaray shares several suggestions of possible etymological connections between Basque and English words. The Devil Wanted to Learn Basque from France Monthly Linguistic maps of Basque Country Euskara Kultur Elkargoa-Basque Cultural Foundation Basque in the Rosetta Project Department of Language Policy of the Basque Government Basque (euskara) usual phrases with Japanese translation incl. sound file Ethnographic Map of Pre-Roman Iberia (200 BC) Basque Culture Institute Thematic Basque vocabulary Bibliography BENGTSON, John D., 2004. "Some features of Dene-Caucasian phonology (with special reference to Basque)." Cahiers de l'Institut de Linguistique de Louvain (CILL). BENGTSON, John D., 2006. "Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene-Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Languages." BENGTSON, John D., 1997. Review of "The History of Basque". London: Routledge, 1997. Pp.xxii,458" by R.L. Trask. BENGTSON, John D., 1997. "Ein Vergleich von Burushaski und Nordkaukasisch". In "GEORGICA (Zeitschrift für Kultur, Sprache und Geschichte Georgiens und Kaukasiens)." BENGTSON, John D., 1996. "A Final (?) Response to the Basque Debate in Mother Tongue 1." HUALDE, José Ignacio & ORTIZ DE URBINA, Jon (eds.): A Grammar of Basque. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2003. ISBN 3-11-017683-1. MICHELENA, L., 1990. "Fonética histórica vasca". Bilbao. ISBN 84-7907-016-1 MORVAN, Michel, 1996. The linguistic origins of basque (in French). Bordeaux: Presses universitaires. ISBN 2-86781-182-1 ORPUSTAN, Jean-Baptiste, 1999. The basque language in the Middle Ages (in French). Baigorri. ISBN 2-909262-22-7. SOTA, M. de la, et alii, 1976: Diccionario Retana de autoridades de la lengua vasca: con cientos de miles de nuevas voces y acepciones, Antiguas y modernas, Bilbao: La Gran Enciclopedia Vasca. ISBN 8424802489. TRASK, R. Larry: History of Basque. New York/London: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-13116-2. Van Eys, W. J., 1873: Dictionnaire basque-français (in French). Paris / London: Maisonneuve / Williams & Norgate. 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4,471 | Asteroid | 253 Mathilde, a C-type asteroid measuring about across. Photograph taken in 1997 by the NEAR Shoemaker probe. Asteroids, sometimes called minor planets or planetoids, are small Solar System bodies in orbit around the Sun, especially in the inner Solar System; they are smaller than planets but larger than meteoroids. The term "asteroid" has historically been applied primarily to bodies in the inner Solar System since the outer Solar System was poorly known when it came into common usage. The distinction between asteroids and comets is made on visual appearance: Comets show a perceptible coma while asteroids do not. Terminology Traditionally, small bodies orbiting the Sun were classified as asteroids, comets or meteoroids, with anything smaller than ten metres across being called a meteoroid. The term "asteroid" is somewhat ill-defined. It never had a formal definition, with the broader term minor planet being preferred by the International Astronomical Union until 2006, when the term "small Solar System body" (SSSB) was introduced to cover both minor planets and comets. The 2006 definition of SSSB says that they "include most of the Solar System asteroids, most Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), comets, and other small bodies". The Final IAU Resolution on the definition of "planet" ready for voting (IAU) Other languages prefer "planetoid" (Greek for "planet-like"), and this term is occasionally used in English for the larger asteroids. The word "planetesimal" has a similar meaning, but refers specifically to the small building blocks of the planets that existed at the time the Solar System was forming. The term "planetule" was coined by the geologist William Daniel Conybeare to describe minor planets, but is not in common use. When found, asteroids were seen as a class of objects distinct from comets, and there was no unified term for the two until "small Solar System body" was coined in 2006. The main difference between an asteroid and a comet is that a comet shows a coma due to sublimation of near surface ices by solar radiation. A few objects have ended up being dual-listed because they were first classified as minor planets but later showed evidence of cometary activity. Conversely, some (perhaps all) comets are eventually depleted of their surface volatile ices and become asteroids. A further distinction is that comets typically have more eccentric orbits than most asteroids; most "asteroids" with notably eccentric orbits are probably dormant or extinct comets. For almost two centuries, from the discovery of the first asteroid, 1 Ceres, in 1801 until the discovery of the first centaur, 2060 Chiron, in 1977, all known asteroids spent most of their time at or within the orbit of Jupiter, though a few such as 944 Hidalgo ventured far beyond Jupiter for part of their orbit. When astronomers started finding additional small bodies that permanently resided further out than Jupiter, now called centaurs, they numbered them among the traditional asteroids, though there was debate over whether they should be classified as asteroids or as a new type of object. Then, when the first trans-Neptunian object, 1992 QB1, was discovered in 1992, and especially when large numbers of similar objects started turning up, new terms were invented to sidestep the issue: Kuiper Belt object (KBO), trans-Neptunian object (TNO), scattered-disc object (SDO), and so on. These inhabit the cold outer reaches of the Solar System where ices remain solid and comet-like bodies are not expected to exhibit much cometary activity; if centaurs or TNOs were to venture close to the Sun, their volatile ices would sublimate, and traditional approaches would classify them as comets rather than asteroids. The innermost of these are the Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs), called "objects" partly to avoid the need to classify them as asteroids or comets. "Are Kuiper Belt Objects asteroids?", "Ask an astronomer", Cornell University KBOs are believed to be predominantly comet-like in composition, though some may be more akin to asteroids. "Asteroids and Comets", NASA website Furthermore, most do not have the highly eccentric orbits associated with comets, and the ones so far discovered are very much larger than traditional comet nuclei. (The much more distant Oort cloud is hypothesized to be the main reservoir of dormant comets.) Other recent observations, such as the analysis of the cometary dust collected by the Stardust probe, are increasingly blurring the distinction between comets and asteroids, "Comet Dust Seems More Asteroidy" Scientific American, January 25, 2008 suggesting "a continuum between asteroids and comets" rather than a sharp dividing line. "Comet samples are surprisingly asteroid-like", New Scientist, 24 January 2008 The minor planets beyond Jupiter's orbit are rarely directly referred to as "asteroids", but all are commonly lumped together under the term "asteroid" in popular presentations. For instance, a joint NASA-JPL public-outreach website states, It is, however, becoming increasingly common for the term "asteroid" to be restricted to minor planets of the inner Solar System, Are Kuiper Belt Objects asteroids? and therefore this article will restrict itself for the most part to the classical asteroids: objects of the main asteroid belt, Jupiter trojans, and near-Earth objects. When the IAU introduced the class small solar system bodies in 2006 to include most objects previously classified as minor planets and comets, they created the class of dwarf planets for the largest minor planets—those which have sufficient mass to have become ellipsoidal under their own gravity. According to the IAU, "the term 'minor planet' may still be used, but generally the term 'small solar system body' will be preferred." Questions and Answers on Planets, IAU Currently only the largest object in the asteroid belt, Ceres, at about 950 km across, has been placed in the dwarf planet category, although there are several large asteroids (Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea) that may be classified as dwarf planets when their shapes are better known. "Three new planets may join solar system", New Scientist, 16 August 2006 Formation It is believed that planetesimals in the main asteroid belt evolved much like the rest of the Solar Nebula until Jupiter neared its current mass, at which point excitation from orbital resonances with Jupiter ejected over 99% of planetesimals in the belt. Both simulations and a discontinuity in spin rate and spectral properties suggest that asteroids larger than approximately 120 km in diameter accreted during that early era, whereas smaller bodies are fragments from collisions between asteroids during or after the Jovian disruption. Bottke, Durda, Nesvorny, Jedicke, Morbidelli, Vokrouhlicky, & Levison, 2005, "The fossilized size distribution of the main asteroid belt", Icarus 175:111 At least two asteroids, Ceres and Vesta, grew large enough to melt and differentiate, with heavy metallic elements sinking to the core, leaving rocky minerals in the crust. In the Nice model, a large number of Kuiper Belt objects are captured in the outer Main Belt, at distances greater than 2.6 AU. Most were subsequently ejected by Jupiter, but those that remained may be the D-type asteroids, and possibly include Ceres. William B. McKinnon, 2008, "On The Possibility Of Large KBOs Being Injected Into The Outer Asteroid Belt". American Astronomical Society, DPS meeting #40, #38.03 Characteristics Objects in the main asteroid belt vary greatly in size, from a diameter of 950 kilometres for the dwarf planet Ceres and over 500 kilometres for the asteroids 2 Pallas and 4 Vesta down to rocks just tens of metres across. At 10 metres and below, these rocks are generally considered to be meteoroids. A few of the largest are roughly spherical and are very much like miniature planets. The vast majority, however, are much smaller and are irregularly shaped. The physical composition of asteroids is varied and in most cases poorly understood. Ceres appears to be composed of a rocky core covered by an icy mantle, whereas Vesta is thought to have a nickel-iron core, olivine mantle, and basaltic crust, and 10 Hygiea appears to have a primitive composition of undifferentiated carbonaceous chondrite. Many, perhaps most, of the smaller asteroids are piles of rubble held together loosely by gravity. Some have moons or are co-orbiting pairs of binary asteroids. All three conditions, as well as scattered asteroid families, may be the result of collisions which disrupted a parent asteroid. Asteroids are believed to contain traces of amino-acids and other organic compounds, and some speculate that asteroid impacts may have seeded the early Earth with the chemicals necessary to initiate life, or may have even brought life itself to Earth (see also Panspermia). Life is Sweet: Sugar-Packing Asteroids May Have Seeded Life on Earth, Space.com, 19 December 2001 Only one asteroid, 4 Vesta (which has a particularly reflective surface), is normally visible to the naked eye, and this only in very dark skies when it is favorably positioned. Very rarely, small asteroids passing close to Earth may be naked-eye visible for a short period of time. Closest Flyby of Large Asteroid to be Naked-Eye Visible, Space.com, 4 February 2005 The orbits of asteroids are often influenced by the gravity of other bodies in the solar system or the Yarkovsky effect. {| |- valign=top |rowspan=2|The relative masses of the nine large main-belt asteroids for which precise (< 15% estimated error) data is available. Given the poor precision for asteroids estimated to be somewhat less massive than a few other may turn out to be more massive than Psyche, or |The same nine objects, compared to the remaining mass of the main belt. |- | Distribution within the Solar System The Main asteroid belt (white) and the Trojan asteroids (green) The vast majority of known asteroids orbit within the main asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, generally in relatively low-eccentricity (i.e., not very elongated) orbits. This belt is currently estimated to contain between 1.1 and 1.9 million asteroids larger than 1 km in diameter, and millions of smaller ones. World Book at NASA It is thought that these asteroids are remnants of the protoplanetary disk, and in this region the accretion of planetesimals into planets during the formative period of the solar system was prevented by large gravitational perturbations by Jupiter. Although fewer Trojan asteroids sharing Jupiter's orbit are currently known, it is thought that there are as many as there are asteroids in the main belt. The dwarf planet Ceres is the largest object in the asteroid belt, with a diameter of over 975 km. The next largest are the asteroids 2 Pallas and 4 Vesta, both with diameters of over 500 km. Normally Vesta is the only main belt asteroid that can, on occasion, become visible to the naked eye. However, on some very rare occasions, a near-Earth asteroid may briefly become visible without technical aid; see 99942 Apophis. Left to right: 4 Vesta, 1 Ceres, Earth's Moon The mass of all the objects of the Main asteroid belt, lying between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, is estimated to be about 3.0-3.6 kg, or about 4 percent of the mass of the Moon. Of this, Ceres comprises 0.95 kg, some 32 percent of the total. Adding in the next three most massive asteroids, 4 Vesta (9%), 2 Pallas (7%), and 10 Hygiea (3%), brings this figure up to 51%; while the three after that, 511 Davida (1.2%), 704 Interamnia (1.0%), and 52 Europa (0.9%), only add another 3% to the total mass. The number of asteroids then increases rapidly as their individual masses decrease. Various classes of asteroid have been discovered outside the main asteroid belt. Near-Earth asteroids have orbits in the vicinity of Earth's orbit. Trojan asteroids are gravitationally locked into synchronisation with Jupiter, either leading or trailing the planet in its orbit. A couple trojans have been found orbiting with Mars. Neptune also has a few known trojans, and these are thought to be actually be much more numerous than the Jovian trojans. However, they are often included in the trans-Neptunian population rather than counted with the asteroids. A group of asteroids called Vulcanoids are hypothesised by some to lie very close to the Sun, within the orbit of Mercury, but none has so far been found. Classification Asteroids are commonly classified according to two criteria: the characteristics of their orbits, and features of their reflectance spectrum. Orbit groups and families Many asteroids have been placed in groups and families based on their orbital characteristics. Apart from the broadest divisions, it is customary to name a group of asteroids after the first member of that group to be discovered. Groups are relatively loose dynamical associations, whereas families are much tighter and result from the catastrophic break-up of a large parent asteroid sometime in the past. Families have only been recognized within the main asteroid belt. They were first recognised by Kiyotsugu Hirayama in 1918 and are often called Hirayama families in his honor. About 30% to 35% of the bodies in the main belt belong to dynamical families each thought to have a common origin in a past collision between asteroids. A family has also been associated with the plutoid dwarf planet . Quasi-satellites and horseshoe objects Some asteroids have unusual horseshoe orbits that are co-orbital with the Earth or some other planet. Examples are 3753 Cruithne and . The first instance of this type of orbital arrangement was discovered between Saturn's moons Epimetheus and Janus. Sometimes these horseshoe objects temporarily become quasi-satellites for a few decades or a few hundred years, before returning to their prior status. Both Earth and Venus are known to have quasi-satellites. Such objects, if associated with Earth or Venus or even hypothetically Mercury, are a special class of Aten asteroids. However, such objects could be associated with outer planets as well. Spectral classification This picture of 433 Eros shows the view looking from one end of the asteroid across the gouge on its underside and toward the opposite end. Features as small as 35 m across can be seen. In 1975, an asteroid taxonomic system based on colour, albedo, and spectral shape was developed by Clark R. Chapman, David Morrison, and Ben Zellner. These properties are thought to correspond to the composition of the asteroid's surface material. The original classification system had three categories: C-types for dark carbonaceous objects (75% of known asteroids), S-types for stony (silicaceous) objects (17% of known asteroids) and U for those that did not fit into either C or S. This classification has since been expanded to include a number of other asteroid types. The number of types continues to grow as more asteroids are studied. The two most widely used taxonomies currently used are the Tholen classification and SMASS classification. The former was proposed in 1984 by David J. Tholen, and was based on data collected from an eight-color asteroid survey performed in the 1980s. This resulted in 14 asteroid categories. In 2002, the Small Main-Belt Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey resulted in a modified version of the Tholen taxonomy with 24 different types. Both systems have three broad categories of C, S, and X asteroids, where X consists of mostly metallic asteroids, such as the M-type. There are also a number of smaller classes. Note that the proportion of known asteroids falling into the various spectral types does not necessarily reflect the proportion of all asteroids that are of that type; some types are easier to detect than others, biasing the totals. Problems with spectral classification Originally, spectral designations were based on inferences of an asteroid's composition. However, the correspondence between spectral class and composition is not always very good, and there are a variety of classifications in use. This has led to significant confusion. While asteroids of different spectral classifications are likely to be composed of different materials, there are no assurances that asteroids within the same taxonomic class are composed of similar materials. At present, the spectral classification based on several coarse resolution spectroscopic surveys in the 1990s is still the standard. Scientists have been unable to agree on a better taxonomic system, largely due to the difficulty of obtaining detailed measurements consistently for a large sample of asteroids (e.g. finer resolution spectra, or non-spectral data such as densities would be very useful). Discovery 243 Ida and its moon Dactyl, the first satellite of an asteroid to be discovered. The first named minor planet, 1 Ceres, was discovered in 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi, and was originally considered a new planet. Ceres, originally considered a new planet, is the largest asteroid and is now classified as a dwarf planet. All other asteroids are now classified as small solar system bodies along with comets, centaurs, and the smaller TNOs. This was followed by the discovery of other similar bodies, which with the equipment of the time appeared to be points of light, like stars, showing little or no planetary disc (though readily distinguishable from stars due to their apparent motions). This prompted the astronomer Sir William Herschel to propose the term "asteroid", from Greek αστεροειδής, asteroeidēs = star-like, star-shaped, from ancient Greek Aστήρ, astēr = star. In the early second half of the nineteenth century, the terms "asteroid" and "planet" (not always qualified as "minor") were still used interchangeably; for example, the Annual of Scientific Discovery for 1871, page 316, reads "Professor J. Watson has been awarded by the Paris Academy of Sciences, the astronomical prize, Lalande foundation, for the discovery of 8 new asteroids in one year. The planet Lydia (No. 110), discovered by M. Borelly at the Marseilles Observatory [...] M. Borelly had previously discovered 2 planets bearing the numbers 91 and 99 in the system of asteroids revolving between Mars and Jupiter" (emphasis added). Historical methods Asteroid discovery methods have dramatically improved over the past two centuries. In the last years of the 18th century, Baron Franz Xaver von Zach organized a group of 24 astronomers to search the sky for the missing planet predicted at about 2.8 AU from the Sun by the Titius-Bode law, partly as a consequence of the discovery, by Sir William Herschel in 1781, of the planet Uranus at the distance predicted by the law. This task required that hand-drawn sky charts be prepared for all stars in the zodiacal band down to an agreed-upon limit of faintness. On subsequent nights, the sky would be charted again and any moving object would, hopefully, be spotted. The expected motion of the missing planet was about 30 seconds of arc per hour, readily discernible by observers. The first asteroid, 1 Ceres, was not discovered by a member of the group, but rather by accident in 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi, director of the observatory of Palermo in Sicily. He discovered a new star-like object in Taurus and followed the displacement of this object during several nights. His colleague, Carl Friedrich Gauss, used these observations to determine the exact distance from this unknown object to the Earth. Gauss' calculations placed the object between the planets Mars and Jupiter. Piazzi named it after Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture. Three other asteroids (2 Pallas, 3 Juno, and 4 Vesta) were discovered over the next few years, with Vesta found in 1807. After eight more years of fruitless searches, most astronomers assumed that there were no more and abandoned any further searches. However, Karl Ludwig Hencke persisted, and began searching for more asteroids in 1830. Fifteen years later, he found 5 Astraea, the first new asteroid in 38 years. He also found 6 Hebe less than two years later. After this, other astronomers joined in the search and at least one new asteroid was discovered every year after that (except the wartime year 1945). Notable asteroid hunters of this early era were J. R. Hind, Annibale de Gasparis, Robert Luther, H. M. S. Goldschmidt, Jean Chacornac, James Ferguson, Norman Robert Pogson, E. W. Tempel, J. C. Watson, C. H. F. Peters, A. Borrelly, J. Palisa, the Henry brothers and Auguste Charlois. In 1891, however, Max Wolf pioneered the use of astrophotography to detect asteroids, which appeared as short streaks on long-exposure photographic plates. This dramatically increased the rate of detection compared with previous visual methods: Wolf alone discovered 248 asteroids, beginning with 323 Brucia, whereas only slightly more than 300 had been discovered up to that point. Still, a century later, only a few thousand asteroids were identified, numbered and named. It was known that there were many more, but most astronomers did not bother with them, calling them "vermin of the skies". Manual methods of the 1900s and modern reporting Until 1998, asteroids were discovered by a four-step process. First, a region of the sky was photographed by a wide-field telescope, or Astrograph. Pairs of photographs were taken, typically one hour apart. Multiple pairs could be taken over a series of days. Second, the two films of the same region were viewed under a stereoscope. Any body in orbit around the Sun would move slightly between the pair of films. Under the stereoscope, the image of the body would appear to float slightly above the background of stars. Third, once a moving body was identified, its location would be measured precisely using a digitizing microscope. The location would be measured relative to known star locations. These first three steps do not constitute asteroid discovery: the observer has only found an apparition, which gets a provisional designation, made up of the year of discovery, a letter representing the week of discovery, and finally a letter and a number indicating the discovery's sequential number (example: ). The final step of discovery is to send the locations and time of observations to the Minor Planet Center, where computer programs determine whether an apparition ties together previous apparitions into a single orbit. If so, the object receives a catalogue number and the observer of the first apparition with a calculated orbit is declared the discoverer, and granted the honor of naming the object subject to the approval of the International Astronomical Union. Computerized methods 2004 FH is the center dot being followed by the sequence; the object that flashes by during the clip is an artificial satellite. There is increasing interest in identifying asteroids whose orbits cross Earth's, and that could, given enough time, collide with Earth (see Earth-crosser asteroids). The three most important groups of near-Earth asteroids are the Apollos, Amors, and Atens. Various asteroid deflection strategies have been proposed, as early as the 1960s. The near-Earth asteroid 433 Eros had been discovered as long ago as 1898, and the 1930s brought a flurry of similar objects. In order of discovery, these were: 1221 Amor, 1862 Apollo, 2101 Adonis, and finally 69230 Hermes, which approached within 0.005 AU of the Earth in 1937. Astronomers began to realize the possibilities of Earth impact. Two events in later decades increased the level of alarm: the increasing acceptance of Walter Alvarez' hypothesis that an impact event resulted in the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction, and the 1994 observation of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 crashing into Jupiter. The U.S. military also declassified the information that its military satellites, built to detect nuclear explosions, had detected hundreds of upper-atmosphere impacts by objects ranging from one to 10 metres across. All of these considerations helped spur the launch of highly efficient automated systems that consist of Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) cameras and computers directly connected to telescopes. Since 1998, a large majority of the asteroids have been discovered by such automated systems. A list of teams using such automated systems includes: The Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR) team The Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT) team Spacewatch The Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search (LONEOS) team The Catalina Sky Survey (CSS) The Campo Imperatore Near-Earth Objects Survey (CINEOS) team The Japanese Spaceguard Association The Asiago-DLR Asteroid Survey (ADAS) The LINEAR system alone has discovered 97,470 asteroids, as of September 18, 2008. Between all of the automated systems, 4711 near-Earth asteroids have been discovered including over 600 more than 1 km in diameter. The rate of discovery peaked in 2000, when 38,679 minor planets were numbered, and has been going down steadily since then (719 minor planets were numbered in 2007). Naming A newly discovered asteroid is given a provisional designation (such as ) consisting of the year of discovery and an alphanumeric code indicating the half-month of discovery and the sequence within that half-month. Once an asteroid's orbit has been confirmed, it is given a number, and later may also be given a name (e.g. 433 Eros). The formal naming convention uses parentheses around the number (e.g. (433) Eros), but dropping the parentheses is quite common. Informally, it is common to drop the number altogether, or to drop it after the first mention when a name is repeated in running text. Symbols The first few asteroids discovered were assigned symbols like the ones traditionally used to designate Earth, the Moon, the Sun and planets. The symbols quickly became ungainly, hard to draw and recognise. By the end of 1851 there were 15 known asteroids, each (except one) with its own symbol(s). Asteroid Symbol Ceres Old planetary symbol of Ceres Variant symbol of Ceres Other sickle variant symbol of Ceres 2 Pallas Old symbol of Pallas Variant symbol of Pallas 3 Juno Old symbol of Juno Other symbol of Juno 4 Vesta Old symbol of Vesta Old planetary symbol of Vesta Modern astrological symbol of Vesta 5 Astraea 6 Hebe 7 Iris 8 Flora 9 Metis 10 Hygiea 11 Parthenope 12 Victoria 13 Egeria <small>Never assigned. 14 Irene "A dove carrying an olive-branch, with a star on its head," never drawn. 15 Eunomia 28 Bellona 35 Leukothea 37 Fides Johann Franz Encke made a major change in the Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch (BAJ, Berlin Astronomical Yearbook) for 1854. He introduced encircled numbers instead of symbols, although his numbering began with Astraea, the first four asteroids continuing to be denoted by their traditional symbols. This symbolic innovation was adopted very quickly by the astronomical community. The following year (1855), Astraea's number was bumped up to 5, but Ceres through Vesta would be listed by their numbers only in the 1867 edition. A few more asteroids (28 Bellona, 35 Leukothea, and 37 Fides ) would be given symbols as well as using the numbering scheme. The circle would become a pair of parentheses, and the parentheses sometimes omitted altogether over the next few decades. Exploration Vesta, imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope 951 Gaspra, the first asteroid to be imaged in close up. Until the age of space travel, objects in the asteroid belt were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes and their shapes and terrain remained a mystery. The best modern ground-based telescopes, as well as the Earth-orbiting Hubble Space Telescope, can resolve a small amount of detail on the surfaces of the very largest asteroids, but even these mostly remain little more than fuzzy blobs. Limited information about the shapes and compositions of asteroids can be inferred from their light curves (their variation in brightness as they rotate) and their spectral properties, and asteroid sizes can be estimated by timing the lengths of star occulations (when an asteroid passes directly in front of a star). Radar imaging can yield good information about asteroid shapes and orbital and rotational parameters, especially for near-Earth asteroids. The first close-up photographs of asteroid-like objects were taken in 1971 when the Mariner 9 probe imaged Phobos and Deimos, the two small moons of Mars, which are probably captured asteroids. These images revealed the irregular, potato-like shapes of most asteroids, as did subsequent images from the Voyager probes of the small moons of the gas giants. The first true asteroid to be photographed in close-up was 951 Gaspra in 1991, followed in 1993 by 243 Ida and its moon Dactyl, all of which were imaged by the Galileo probe en route to Jupiter. The first dedicated asteroid probe was NEAR Shoemaker, which photographed 253 Mathilde in 1997, before entering into orbit around 433 Eros, finally landing on its surface in 2001. Other asteroids briefly visited by spacecraft en route to other destinations include 9969 Braille (by Deep Space 1 in 1999), and 5535 Annefrank (by Stardust in 2002). In September 2005, the Japanese Hayabusa probe started studying 25143 Itokawa in detail and may return samples of its surface to earth. The Hayabusa mission has been plagued with difficulties, including the failure of two of its three control wheels, rendering it difficult to maintain its orientation to the sun to collect solar energy. Following that, the next asteroid encounters will involve the European Rosetta probe (launched in 2004), which flew by 2867 Šteins in 2008 and will buzz 21 Lutetia in 2010. In September 2007, NASA launched the Dawn Mission, which will orbit the dwarf planet Ceres and the asteroid 4 Vesta in 2011-2015, with its mission possibly then extended to 2 Pallas. It has been suggested that asteroids might be used in the future as a source of materials which may be rare or exhausted on earth (asteroid mining), or materials for constructing space habitats (see Colonization of the asteroids). Materials that are heavy and expensive to launch from earth may someday be mined from asteroids and used for space manufacturing and construction. In fiction Asteroids and asteroid belts are a staple of science fiction stories. Asteroids play several potential roles in science fiction: as places which human beings might colonize; as resources for extracting minerals; as a hazard encountered by spaceships travelling between two other points; and as a threat to life on Earth due to potential impacts. Notes See also Asteroid belt Asteroid mining Mission Marco Polo BOOTES (Burst Observer and Optical Transient Exploring System) Category:Asteroid groups and families Category:Asteroids Category:Binary asteroids Centaur (planetoid) Dwarf planet Impact event Asteroid deflection strategies List of asteroids named after people List of asteroids named after places List of minor planets List of noteworthy asteroids Meanings of asteroid names Mesoplanet Minor planet Minor Planet Center Near-Earth object Pronunciation of asteroid names References External links Rocks from the Main Belt asteroids Alphabetical list of minor planet names (ASCII) (Minor Planet Center) Near Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT) Asteroids Page at NASA's Solar System Exploration Asteroid Simulator with Moon and Earth Everything you wanted to know about comets and asteroids - Provided by New Scientist. Alphabetical and numerical lists of minor planet names (Unicode) (Institute of Applied Astronomy) Known Asteroid Impacts & Their Effects Future Asteroid Interception Research Near Earth Objects Dynamic Site Asteroids Dynamic Site Up-to date osculating orbital elements and proper orbital elements University of Pisa, Italy. JPL small bodies database Current down-loadable ASCII table of orbit data and absolute mags H for over 200000 asteroids, sorted by number. Caltech/JPL. Asteroid naming statistics Spaceguard UK Large amount of information on asteroid groups collected by Gérard Faure, translation Richard Miles. 1908 Siberian asteroid Committee on Small Body Nomenclature List of minor planet orbital groupings and families from ProjectPluto Cunningham, Clifford, "Introduction to Asteroids: The Next Frontier", ISBN 0-943396-16-6 James L. Hilton: When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets? Kirkwood, Daniel; Relations between the Motions of some of the Minor Planets (1874). Schmadel, L.D. (2003). Dictionary of Minor Planet Names. 5th ed. IAU/Springer-Verlag: Heidelberg. Asteroid articles in Planetary Science Research Discoveries be-x-old:Астэроід | Asteroid |@lemmatized mathilde:2 c:6 type:13 asteroid:189 measure:3 across:7 photograph:6 take:4 near:18 shoemaker:3 probe:8 sometimes:3 call:7 minor:25 planet:54 planetoid:3 small:27 solar:21 system:29 body:20 orbit:32 around:4 sun:8 especially:3 inner:3 large:25 meteoroid:4 term:14 historically:1 apply:1 primarily:1 since:4 outer:4 poorly:2 know:9 come:1 common:6 usage:1 distinction:3 comet:27 make:3 visual:2 appearance:1 show:5 perceptible:1 coma:2 terminology:1 traditionally:2 classify:9 anything:1 ten:2 metre:4 somewhat:2 ill:1 define:1 never:3 formal:2 definition:3 broad:3 prefer:3 international:2 astronomical:6 union:2 sssb:2 introduce:3 cover:2 say:1 include:9 trans:4 neptunian:4 object:44 tnos:3 final:2 iau:6 resolution:3 ready:1 voting:1 language:1 greek:3 like:12 occasionally:1 use:16 english:1 word:1 planetesimal:4 similar:5 meaning:2 refers:1 specifically:1 building:1 block:1 exist:1 time:7 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4,472 | Country | European [[topography Same map as above, but showing sovereign states instead of topographies Country () may refer to the territory of a state, or to a smaller, or former, political division of a geographical region. In another meaning of the word, the country (or countryside) is also a term used to refer to rural areas. Usually, but not always, a country coincides with a sovereign territory and is associated with a state, nation and government. In common usage, the term country is used in the sense of both nations and states, with definitions varying. In some cases it is used to refer both to states and to other political entities, while in some occasions it refers only to states It is not uncommon for general information or statistical publications to adopt the wider definition for purposes such as illustration and comparison. Some entities which constitute cohesive geographical entities, and may be former states, but which are not presently sovereign states are commonly regarded and referred to as countries. The "constituent countries" of the United Kingdom: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, are one example, and the countries of the former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia were others. Former states such as Bavaria (now part of Germany) and Piedmont (now part of Italy) would not normally be referred to as "countries" in contemporary English. The degree of autonomy of non-state countries varies widely. Some are possessions of states, as several states have overseas dependencies (such as the British Virgin Islands, Netherlands Antilles, and American Samoa), with territory and citizenry distinct from their own. Such dependent territories are sometimes listed together with independent states on lists of countries, and may be treated as a "country of origin" in international trade, as Hong Kong is. Etymology and development of the word Country has developed from the Latin contra, meaning "against", used in the sense of "that which lies against, or opposite to, the view", i.e. the landscape spread out to the view. From this came the Late Latin term contrata, which became the modern Italian contrada. The term appears in Middle English from the 13th century, already in several different senses. In English the word has increasingly become associated with political divisions, so that one sense, associated with the indefinite article - "a country" - is now a synonym for state, in the sense of sovereign territory. OED, Country But several other senses of the word remain, including "country" as the opposite of "town", a term for rural areas in general, as in country music. This is used with a generalized definite article - "the country". Areas much smaller than a political state may be called by names such as the West Country in England, the Black Country (a heavily industrialized part of England), "Constable Country" (a part of East Anglia painted by John Constable), the "big country" (used in various contexts of the American West), "coal country" (used of parts of the US and elsewhere) and many other terms. The equivalent terms in French and Romance languages (pays and variants) and the Germanic languages (land and variants) have not carried the process of being identified with political sovereign states as far as the English "country", and in many European countries the words are used for sub-divisions of the national territory, as in the German Länder, as well as a less formal term for a sovereign state. France has very many "pays" that are officially recognised at some level, and are either natural regions, like the Pays de Bray, or reflect old political or economic unities, like the Pays de la Loire. At the same time the United States and Brazil are also "pays" in everyday French speech. A version of "country" can be found in the modern French language as contrée, based on the word cuntrée in Old French, that is used similarly to the word "pays" to define regions and unities, but can also be used to describe a political state in some particular cases. The modern Italian contrada is a word with its meaning varying locally, but usually meaning a ward or similar small division of a town, or a village or hamlet in the countryside. See also List of countries Political history of the world References External links The CIA World Factbook Country Portals from the United States Department of State, including Background Notes Country Profiles from BBC News Country Studies from the United States Library of Congress Foreign Information by Country and Country & Territory Guides from GovPubs at UCB Libraries PopulationData.net United Nations statistics division Average Latitude & Longitude of Countries be-x-old:Краіна | Country |@lemmatized european:2 topography:2 map:1 show:1 sovereign:6 state:22 instead:1 country:32 may:4 refer:6 territory:7 small:3 former:4 political:8 division:5 geographical:2 region:3 another:1 meaning:1 word:8 countryside:2 also:4 term:8 use:10 rural:2 area:3 usually:2 always:1 coincide:1 associate:3 nation:3 government:1 common:1 usage:1 sense:4 definition:2 vary:2 case:2 entity:3 occasion:1 uncommon:1 general:2 information:2 statistical:1 publication:1 adopt:1 wide:1 purpose:1 illustration:1 comparison:1 constitute:1 cohesive:1 presently:1 commonly:1 regarded:1 constituent:1 united:5 kingdom:1 england:3 scotland:1 wale:1 northern:1 ireland:1 one:2 example:1 soviet:1 union:1 yugoslavia:1 others:1 bavaria:1 part:5 germany:1 piedmont:1 italy:1 would:1 normally:1 contemporary:1 english:4 degree:1 autonomy:1 non:1 varies:1 widely:1 possession:1 several:3 overseas:1 dependency:1 british:1 virgin:1 island:1 netherlands:1 antilles:1 american:2 samoa:1 citizenry:1 distinct:1 dependent:1 sometimes:1 list:3 together:1 independent:1 treat:1 origin:1 international:1 trade:1 hong:1 kong:1 etymology:1 development:1 develop:1 latin:2 contra:1 mean:3 lie:1 opposite:2 view:2 e:1 landscape:1 spread:1 come:1 late:1 contrata:1 become:2 modern:3 italian:2 contrada:2 appear:1 middle:1 century:1 already:1 different:1 sens:2 increasingly:1 indefinite:1 article:2 synonym:1 oed:1 remain:1 include:2 town:2 music:1 generalized:1 definite:1 much:1 call:1 name:1 west:2 black:1 heavily:1 industrialized:1 constable:2 east:1 anglia:1 paint:1 john:1 big:1 various:1 context:1 coal:1 u:1 elsewhere:1 many:3 equivalent:1 french:4 romance:1 language:3 pay:6 variant:2 germanic:1 land:1 carry:1 process:1 identify:1 far:1 sub:1 national:1 german:1 länder:1 well:1 less:1 formal:1 france:1 officially:1 recognise:1 level:1 either:1 natural:1 like:2 de:2 bray:1 reflect:1 old:3 economic:1 unity:2 la:1 loire:1 time:1 brazil:1 everyday:1 speech:1 version:1 find:1 contrée:1 base:1 cuntrée:1 similarly:1 define:1 describe:1 particular:1 locally:1 ward:1 similar:1 village:1 hamlet:1 see:1 history:1 world:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 cia:1 factbook:1 portal:1 department:1 background:1 note:1 profile:1 bbc:1 news:1 study:1 library:2 congress:1 foreign:1 guide:1 govpubs:1 ucb:1 populationdata:1 net:1 statistic:1 average:1 latitude:1 longitude:1 x:1 краіна:1 |@bigram soviet_union:1 netherlands_antilles:1 hong_kong:1 east_anglia:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 ucb_library:1 latitude_longitude:1 |
4,473 | Lois_Lane | Lois Joanne Lane-Kent is a fictional character, the primary love interest of Superman in the comic books of DC Comics. Created by writer Jerry Siegel and artist Joe Shuster, she first appeared in Action Comics #1 (1938). Lois is Superman's chief romantic interest and, in the current DC continuity, his wife. Like Superman's alter ego Clark Kent, she is a reporter for the Metropolis newspaper, The Daily Planet. Lois' physical appearance was originally based on a model hired by Siegel and Shuster named Joanne Carter, Richardson, James. "The Early History of Lois Lane: Superman's Girlfriend is Forever Needing Rescuing From Peril," Suite101.com (Dec. 16, 2008). Accessed Apr. 5, 2009. who would later marry Siegel. Lois's personality was based on Torchy Blane, a female reporter featured in a series of films from the 1930s. Siegel took her name from actress Lola Lane, who portrayed Torchy in one of the middle entries. Letters to the Editor, Time magazine (May 30, 1988), pp. 6-7. Depictions of Lois Lane have varied since her character was created in 1938, spanning the 70-year history of Superman comic books and other media adaptations. During the Silver Age, she was the star of Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane, a comic title that had a light and frivolous tone. However, the original Golden Age version of Lois, as well as versions of her from the 1970s onwards, portray Lois as a tough-as-nails journalist and intellectual equal to Superman. One thing has remained throughout the character's 70-year history, however: she has always been the most prominent love-interest in Superman's life and is seen by many fans as the archetypical comic book love interest. Profile Aspects of Lois' personality have varied over the years (depending on the comic writers' handling of the character and American social attitudes toward women at the time), but in most incarnations she has been depicted as a determined, strong-willed person, whether it involves beating her rival reporter Clark Kent to a story or (in what became a trademark of 1950s and 1960s era Superman stories) alternating between elaborate schemes to convince Superman to marry her and proving to others her suspicion that Clark was in reality Superman. She also traditionally had a cool attitude toward Clark, who in her view paled in comparison to his alter ego. At times, the character has been portrayed as a damsel in distress. Lois is regarded as attractive, but not in the exaggerated "supermodel" sense often seen in superhero comics' depictions of women. Her appearance has varied over the years, depending either on current fashion or (especially more recently) the way she's depicted in contemporary media adaptations; for instance, in the mid-1990s, when the series Lois and Clark began airing, Lois received a hair cut that made her look more like Teri Hatcher, and her eyes were typically violet to match the Lois of the television cartoon Superman: The Animated Series after that show began airing. Traditionally, Lois has black hair, though for a period from the late 1980s through the late 1990s, Lois was depicted with brown hair in the comics. She started with red hair in the original Sunday papers. Lois is the daughter of Ellen and Sam Lane. In the earlier comics, her parents were farmers in a town called Pittsdale; the modern comics, however, depict Sam as a retired soldier, and Lois as a former "army brat", born at Ramstein Air Base with Lois having been trained by her father in areas such as hand-to-hand combat and the use of firearms. Lois also has one younger sibling, her sister Lucy Lane. In most versions of Superman, Lois is shown to be a crack investigative reporter, one of the best in the city and certainly the best at the newspaper she works at. However, despite such brilliance, she has generally been unable to see through Clark's rather primitive disguise of glasses and figure out that he is Superman--despite being the character who is most up close and personal with both Superman and Clark. Sometimes Lois suspects that Clark is Superman, but generally fails to prove it. Sometimes the contradiction is played for humor. In the current comics, Lois is married to Clark Kent (and aware of his secret identity), but has kept her maiden name for professional purposes. Fictional character biography The comics have seen several incarnations of Lois Lane over the decades. Golden Age The Golden Age Lois Lane and Superman, from the cover of Superman #27 (March-April 1944). Pencils by Wayne Boring. In the earliest Golden Age comics, Lois was featured as an aggressive, career-minded reporter for the Daily Star (the paper's name was changed to The Daily Planet in the early 1940s), who, after Clark Kent joined the paper and Superman debuted around the same time, found herself attracted to Superman, but displeased with her new journalistic competition in the form of Kent. Starting in the late 1940s or early 1950s comics, Lois began to suspect that Clark Kent was Superman, and started to make various attempts at uncovering his secret identity, all of which backfired (usually thanks to Superman's efforts). In the Golden Age comics, Lois also had a niece named Susie Tompkins, whose main trait was getting into trouble by telling exaggerated tall tales and fibs to adults. Susie's last appearance was in 1955; subsequent comics presented Lois' only sibling, Lucy, as single and childless. After DC instituted its multiverse system in the early 1960s for organizing its continuity, it was deemed that the Lois of the Golden Age comics (i.e., comics published from 1938 through the early 1950s) lived on the parallel world of "Earth-Two" versus the then-mainstream (Silver Age) universe of "Earth-One." In 1978's Action Comics #484, it was revealed that sometime in the 1950s, the Earth-Two Lois became infatuated with Clark Kent after the latter lost his memory of his superheroic identity (thanks to a spell cast by the old Justice Society of America enemy, the Wizard), with the result of Clark acting more aggressive and extroverted. Clark and Lois began to date each other, and were soon married; however, during the honeymoon, Lois discovered that Clark was indeed Superman, and after recruiting the aid of the Wizard, restored Clark's memory. A series of stories in The Superman Family #195-199 & #201-222 titled "Mr. and Mrs. Superman" presented the further adventures of the now-married Lois and Clark (in several of which Susie Tompkins made a return as a recurring character). During the Crisis on Infinite Earths miniseries, the Earth-Two Lois Lane was seen for one of the final times, as she, the Earth-Two Superman, and the Earth-Prime Superboy are taken by Earth-Three's Alexander Luthor, Jr. (who himself was the son of Earth-Three's Lois Lane, who had perished, along with her husband Alexander Luthor, Sr., in the first issue of the series) into a paradise-like dimension at the end of the story (after all the parallel Earths, including Earth-Two, had been eliminated in favor of just one Earth), after which this version of Lois was (seemingly) permanently discarded from DC's continuity. In 2005's Infinite Crisis miniseries, it was revealed that the Earth-Two Lois Lane, along with Superboy, Alexander Luthor, Jr. and Superman, have been watching the events of the post-Crisis DC Universe from their pocket dimension. Out of the four observers, she is the only one who still believes that the new universe is just going through a rough patch; Superboy-Prime and Alexander Luthor are convinced that Earth is utterly corrupt, and Kal-L is slowly becoming swayed to their way of thinking. This version of Lois is frail, and died for reasons not explicitly revealed, though probably connected to her octogenarian status. This was the main reason for Kal-L's determination to restore Earth-2, as he believed that Lois' health would recover once back on her proper Earth. Despite the restoration of Earth-2, however, Lois Lane died in the arms of Superman in Infinite Crisis #5, regardless of Kal-L's protests that he couldn't let her die. After Kal-L died at the hands of Superboy-Prime at the end of Infinite Crisis #7, he commented that he finally understood Lois's final words- "It's... not... going..."- as meaning that it would never end for them, and one day it would be understood that even the heroes who had been lost in the original Crisis were still out there somewhere. After his demise, they are shown reunited in the stars, while their bodies are buried on Earth alongside Kon-El's, who gave his life to stop Superboy-Prime's attempts to restore his Earth. Silver Age When the reading audience of comic books became predominately young boys in the mid-to-late 1950s, the focus of Superman stories shifted toward science fiction-inspired plots involving extraterrestrials, fantasy creatures and bizarre, often contrived, plots. Lois' main interests in various late 1950s and 1960s stories became vying with her rival Lana Lang for Superman's affections, attempting to prove Clark Kent and Superman were one and the same, and tricking or otherwise forcing Superman into marriage. Superman's rationale for resisting her matrimonial desires was that she could be trusted not to keep his secret identity hidden, and that marrying her would put her in increased danger from his enemies (Of course, this ignored the fact that his romantic relationship with her was already public knowledge). This change in Lois' personality from her earlier 1940s self might also be a result of American society's attitudes toward women and their societal roles in the 1950s. Regardless, Lois married several times in the Superman stories of this era — to other characters such as Batman and Jimmy Olsen. She also married a convicted criminal on death row (and various Superman pastiches). All these marriages were either annulled or otherwise forgotten. Lois became more and more popular during this decade, and after appearing as the lead character in two issues of DC's title Showcase in 1957, DC created an on-going title for the character, titled Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane beginning in March 1958 and running for 137 issues until September 1974. Most of these placed an emphasis on Lois' romance with Superman, and were drawn by artist Kurt Schaffenberger; indeed, Schaffenberger's rendition of Lois became cited by many Voger, Mark and Voglesong, Kathy (PHT). "Front Page Romance," Hero Gets Girl!: The Life and Art of Kurt Schaffenberger (TwoMorrows Publishing, 2003). Eury, Michael. "Kurt Schaffenberger: Ladies' Man," in "The Superman Mythology," The Krypton Companion: A Historical Exploration of Superman Comic Books of 1958-1986 (TwoMorrows Publishing, 2006), p. 67. as the "definitive" version of Lois, and he was often asked by DC editor Mort Weisinger to redraw other artists' depictions of Lois Lane in other DC titles where she appeared. By the end of the 1960s, as attitudes toward women's role in American society changed, Lois' character changed as well. Stories in the 1970s depicted her as fully capable and less reliant on Superman. She engaged in more solo adventures without Superman being involved, and was much less interested in discovering Superman's secret identity. For example, in her solo stories in Superman Family (an anthology title started in the mid-1970s after the cancellation of Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane and Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen), Lois regularly battled criminals and often defeated them using her quick wits and considerable skill in the Kryptonian martial art of Klurkor, taught to her by Kryptonian survivors in the bottle-city of Kandor Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane #78 (Oct. 1967). . After the 1985-1986 miniseries Crisis on Infinite Earths, writer and artist John Byrne revised the Superman legend, and eliminated the Silver Age version of Lois from continuity; before this happened, a final non-canonical "imaginary story" Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow? was written by writer Alan Moore, meant as a send-off for the "pre-Crisis" versions of the characters, including Lois. Modern Age Lois Lane, as she appears on the cover of The Man of Steel (miniseries) #2 (1986). Pencils by John Byrne. Lois underwent a character alteration beginning with John Byrne's The Man of Steel miniseries, which completely rewrote Superman's origin and history. In this modern version of events, Lois was portrayed as a tough-as-nails reporter who rarely needed rescuing. She was depicted as strong, opinionated, yet sensitive. Another major change made was that Lois did not fall in love with Superman (though she may have harbored a slight crush at first). One reason was the revised nature of the Superman/Clark Kent relationship. In the original Silver Age stories, Superman had been the man who disguised himself as Clark Kent. In this new revised concept, it was Clark Kent who lived a life in which his activity as Superman was decidedly secondary. Lois initially resented the rookie Clark Kent getting the story on Superman as his first piece when she had spent ages trying to get an interview, but she eventually became his best friend. Lois' first real relationship in this version was with Jose Delgado, a Metropolis vigilante whose legs are shattered in a battle with a Lexcorp cyborg/human hybrid gone amok. Delgado eventually recovered. He and Lois would have several on and off experiences together before the relationship completely disintegrated, mainly due to Clark and Lois becoming much closer as friends. Following Clark's brief rampage under the influence of The Eradicator, Lois was hesitant to forgive Clark for "selling out" to Collin Thornton and running Newstime Magazine, but forgave him in a span of mere minutes when he returned to "grovel for his job back." Clark elected to repay Lois by finally letting go of his self-imposed inhibitions and passionately kissed her. The two became a couple, and eventually Lois accepted a proposal of marriage (Superman (vol. 2) #50). Clark shortly after revealed to her that he was Superman. DC had planned on Lois and Clark being married in 1993's Superman (vol. 2) #75. However, with the then-upcoming television show Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, DC decided they did not want to have the two married in the comics and not married on TV. Partially as a result of this, Superman was killed in Superman (vol. 2) #75 instead, dying in Lois' arms after a battle royal with the monster Doomsday. After a period of time, Superman returned to life, and both he and Lois resumed their relationship, though not without a few problems (such as a brief reappearance of Clark's former college girlfriend, the mermaid Lori Lemaris). Lois eventually decided to take an overseas assignment to assert her independence and not be dependent on Clark, who had begun to overprotect her. When Clark became convinced Lois was in danger, he and her father Sam allied to aid her secretly. When Lois returned to Metropolis, she had been through several life-threatening exploits, and was slightly amused when Clark informed her his powers had been recently depleted, and that he was her editor (due to Perry White's cancer). Upon discovering Clark still had her wedding ring within a handkerchief, Lois warmly broke down, teasing Clark and finally agreeing to become his wife. In 1996, coinciding with the Lois and Clark television program, Lois and Clark were finally wed in the one-shot special Superman: The Wedding Album, which featured the work of nearly every then-living artist who had ever worked on Superman. The Wedding Album itself, however, was forced to spend part of its opening pages accommodating and reconciling the then-current comic storyline of Lois and Clark having broken off their engagement (the television program's producers had failed to provide adequate lead time for the Superman comics' writers). Since their marriage, Clark and Lois' continue to remain one of the stronger relationships in most comic series. In 2007, the couple recently took the 'next step' in adopting a newly arrived Kryptonian boy, who they name Chris Kent. The boy is discovered to be the son of Jor-El's arch-foe, General Zod. Although initially uneasy about raising a super-powered boy, Lois has shown immense aptitude of being 'Mommy Lois'. However, following a devastating battle with Zod, Chris sacrificed himself to seal the Phantom Zone rift, trapping himself inside with Zod's forces, leaving Lois without her son. When the Titans Tomorrow arrive at the Kent's apartment in order to kidnap Superman, Lois is knocked out, bound and gagged, and hidden in the couple's bedroom. Before Clark can untie her, he is ambushed and beaten into submission by the Titans. In the second issue of Final Crisis, Lois and Perry are caught in an explosion triggered by Clayface destroying the Daily Planet and apparently Lois is seriously injured or possibly even dead. In the third issue, it is revealed that only Clark's heat vision is keeping her heart beating. Clark is visited by a mysterious phantom who insists that he must depart Earth immediately if he is to save his wife's life. The story is continued in the 3D tie-in comic "Superman Beyond", where the female Monitor Zillo Valla stops time around Lois, allowing Superman to leave her side for a while, recruiting him and several of his multiversal doppelgangers in a mission to save the entire Multiverse, promising immediate care for Lois. After facing off against the dark Monitor Mandrakk, Superman brought back a distilled drop of The Bleed, and administered it through a kiss, restoring her to full health. Lois was later seen in Final Crisis #6, one of the few still free humans. Other versions During the years (1942-1985) that Editora Brasil-América (EBAL), and the Editora Abril published the Brazilian versions of Superman comics, Lois Lane's name was translated to "Miriam Lane" and later to "Miriam Lois Lane". Kingdom Come In the Elseworlds series Kingdom Come (now Earth-22 in the DC Multiverse), flashbacks reveal that ten years prior to the story's beginning, the Joker murdered ninety-three people in the Daily Planet, and Lois was the only woman in that body count. While her face is never shown in any of the flashbacks, her body is seen hunched over her desk. In the Justice Society of America Kingdom Come Special: Superman by Alex Ross, the fate of Earth-22's Lois was fully revealed. She actually survived the Joker Venom by wearing a gas mask and tried to fight the Joker with a fire extinguisher, only to be bashed in the head with her Daily Planet paperweight. By the time Superman got to the Planet building she was still alive, but dying from an unrepairable wound. Lois's dying words were thanks for Superman's love for her, and telling him not to cross the line by becoming a killer, or to lose Clark Kent. She died in her husband's arms. Justice Society of America Kingdom Come Special: Superman All Star Superman In 2005, DC launched a new All Star Superman comic series by Grant Morrison and Frank Quitely. The series takes place outside normal DC continuity. In this storyline, they are not married, and although Superman revealed his secret identity to Lois in issue #2, she didn't believe him. At the end of the issue, Superman (who believed he was dying) presents Lois with a super-powered chemical and a superhero costume and Lois Lane becomes Superwoman for 24 hours. Tangent Comics In one of the possible origins for the Green Lantern of Earth-9. Lois Lane is shown to be an archaeologist, explorer and adventurer who is murdered by billionaire playboy, Booster Gold, for trying to protect a group of Sea Devils, eventually being resurrected as the Green Lantern. In other media Radio and animation Actress Rollie Bester originated the role of Lois Lane for the original 1940s radio series, soon followed by Helen Choate. For the bulk of the radio series, Joan Alexander played Lois Lane, as well as voicing the character for a series of Superman theatrical cartoons for Fleischer Studios (1941-1943), and returning to the role in the 1960s for Filmation animated TV series. Lois has also made some appearances in Super Friends and its sequel series Challenge of the Super Friends. Actress Dana Delany played Lois Lane in the Superman animated television series of the 1990s and in the character's subsequent appearances on Justice League and its successor Justice League Unlimited, all of which are a part of the DC animated universe. In this version, series creator Bruce Timm and character designer James Tucker reinvented Lois more like her original comic counterpart, in that at first her relationship with Clark was very much a rivalry about which was the better reporter, and she would at times actively attempt to trick him out of stories, but Lois eventually learns to respect Clark, and in episodes like "The Late Mr. Kent", takes a faked death of Clark significantly hard, admitting to Superman (unaware he is Clark) that she regretted never telling her rival she respected and loved him as a person and a reporter. At first, Lois was skeptical about Superman, but she grew closer to him throughout the series. She previously dated Lex Luthor before she broke off the relationship. Lois also had a relationship with Gotham City's Wayne Enterprises CEO Bruce Wayne, but it didn't last after Lois discovers that he is the infamous masked vigilante Batman. Superman and Lois did not share their first kiss until the final moments of "Legacy", Superman'''s last episode (although Lois had kissed an alternate version of Superman in "Brave New Metropolis"). Superman and Lois are shown to be dating by the time of Justice League Unlimited. In the episode "Divided We Fall", the writers planned to have Superman reveal his secret identity to Lois, but the decision was reportedly vetoed by DC. Delany based her performance of the character on Roz Russell character in His Girl Friday. Dana Delany reprises her role as Lois in Season 5 of The Batman. She, along with Jimmy Olsen, are in Gotham City reporting on Superman's visit to deliver a check from Metropolis, when Metallo attacks Superman. She and Jimmy follow the fight to the junkyard where she takes a picture of Superman with Batman after defeating Metallo. Back in Metropolis, she is kidnapped by Clayface and Black Mask for Lex Luthor to infuriate Superman. After being rescued, Lois tells Superman that Black Mask was working with Luthor. Superman leaves to confront Luthor. Actress Anne Heche plays Lois Lane in the 2007 WB Animation DVD Superman: Doomsday. The animated feature is based from the award-winning DC Comics storyline The Death of Superman trilogy, with Adam Baldwin as The Man of Steel and James Marsters as Lex Luthor. In this story, Lois is shown as being in a relationship with Superman, but is only 'unofficially' aware of his identity as Clark Kent; she reveals to Martha Kent after his death while fighting Doomsday that she knew about his secret identity, but he never told her himself. After the climatic battle with his insane clone, Superman and Lois reconcile and renew their relationship, with Superman finally officially revealing his identity to her. Kyra Sedgwick voices Lois Lane in WB Animation feature Justice League: The New Frontier. Broadway musical Actress Patricia Marand played Lois Lane in Broadway musical It's a Bird, It's a Plane, It's a Superman in 1966. For her performance she was nominated for Broadway's 1966 Tony Award as Best Supporting or Featured Actress (Musical). Actress Lesley Ann Warren portrayed Lois in the television production of It's a Bird, It's a Plane, It's Superman in 1975 opposite David Wilson. She was also among the many actresses who auditioned for the role opposite Christopher Reeve for the 1978 film Superman. Live-action films Actress Margot Kidder played Lois Lane against Christopher Reeve's Clark Kent in the 1970s and 1980s films Superman, Superman II, Superman III and Superman IV: The Quest for Peace. Her role in Superman III was greatly reduced, however, due to a conflict with the producers of the film. Kidder also appeared briefly in two episodes of the television program Smallville as Dr. Bridgette Crosby, an emissary of Dr. Swann (played by Christopher Reeve), but declined to make a third appearance after Reeve's death because she felt it would be doing his memory a disservice. Actress Kate Bosworth played Lois Lane in the 2006 Bryan Singer-directed film Superman Returns. In this version, she has given birth to a son named Jason White, who is later revealed to be Superman's son. The film's continuity is semi-sequel to that of Superman and Superman II, so Bosworth's Lois could be considered similar to Margot Kidder's Lois Lane but with differences. Lois Lane appears in the Watchmen tie-in Under the Hood, where she is seen in a Superman comic book. Live-action television Actress Noel Neill played Lois Lane in more venues and instances than any other actress. She played the role in the 1948 and 1950 Saturday movie serials with Kirk Alyn playing Clark Kent/Superman. She returned to the role in the second season of Adventures of Superman television program opposite George Reeves and had a cameo in the 1978 film Superman as Lois Lane's mother. She was later a guest star in The Adventures of Superboy alongside Jack Larson (Jimmy Olsen) as an office worker at the Bureau for Extra-Normal Matters. She also has a role in the Bryan Singer-directed film Superman Returns. Actress Phyllis Coates played Lois Lane in the theatrical feature Superman and the Mole Men opposite George Reeves as Superman and continued in the role in the first season of the Adventures of Superman television program. She also portrayed Ellen Lane, the socialite divorcee mother of Lois Lane in the first season of the 1990s television program Lois and Clark. Actress Teri Hatcher played Lois Lane on the ABC television series Lois and Clark for four seasons, starting in 1993, with the two leading characters getting married during its run; this is the first television or film series that showed Lois and Clark's romance fully realized. When Teri Hatcher hosted Saturday Night Live, she participated in a sketch where she pretended not to recognize well-known SNL cast members who joined her on stage when they wore glasses, poking fun at the fact that Lois Lane never seemed to realize that Clark Kent is just Superman wearing glasses. Smallville Lois Lane (played by Erica Durance) makes her first appearance in season four, when she comes to Smallville investigating the supposed death of her cousin, Chloe Sullivan (Allison Mack). While investigating Chloe’s death with Clark Kent (Tom Welling), the pair uncover the truth that Chloe is still alive, but in witness protection until Lionel Luthor’s trial, and that Lionel (John Glover) knows the truth and has sent someone to kill her. Lois and Clark stop the would-be killer, allowing Chloe to testify against Lionel. Before Lois can leave Smallville, her father informs her that she failed to achieve all of her high school credits, and that he has enrolled her in Smallville High so that she can complete her twelfth grade year. Staying with the Kents, Lois attends Smallville High, where Chloe convinces her to become a reporter for the Torch, in an effort to help her earn some of the remaining credits. With Lex’s help, Clark manages to get Lois her remaining credits ahead of schedule so that she can attend Metropolis University, and vacate his bedroom. In season five, Jonathan Kent (John Schneider), who is running for the state senate, asks Lois to be his Chief of Staff after witnessing her take charge against his former Chief of Staff, when they publish stories that go against Jonathan’s values. Lois continues her duties under Martha Kent (Annette O'Toole), who is requested by the Governor to take Jonathan’s place, after he suffers a fatal heart attack. In season six, Lois rediscovers an interest in journalism after she is almost struck by a barn door that falls out of the sky while she is having a morning jog. Her story is bought by the Inquisitor, a tabloid newspaper which also gives her a job as a reporter. She also begins a romantic relationship with billionaire Oliver Queen (Justin Hartley), who, unbeknown to her, masquerades at night as the vigilante Green Arrow. Queen’s "job" as Green Arrow often gets in the way of their relationship. Eventually, Lois deduces that Oliver is Green Arrow, setting up an elaborate scheme to prove it. Unfortunately, Clark and Oliver are wise to her plan and Clark dresses up as Green Arrow to throw Lois off Oliver’s trail. When Oliver is forced to leave Metropolis to track down all of Lex’s experimental facilities his relationship with Lois comes to an end. At the end of the sixth season, Lois discovers that Lex Luthor (Michael Rosenbaum) has been doing experimental research on army soldiers, one of which was her childhood friend. As a result, Lois begins looking into Lex’s LuthorCorp projects. In season seven, while looking into Lex’s research projects, Lois discovers an alien spaceship. Her attempt to craft a news story out of the situation lands her a job at the Daily Planet – in the basement alongside her cousin Chloe. While at the Daily Planet, Lois begins a new relationship with her editor, Grant Gabriel (Michael Cassidy). Eventually, the two agree to part ways. At the start of season eight, after Chloe is arrested by the Department of Domestic Security, Lois believes that Lex is really behind the abduction and goes to his mansion to search his files for her location. She eventually discovers whereabouts and arrives, alongside Clark, who also discovered Chloe’s location, to save her. Lois also takes Clark under her wing, teaching him how to be a reporter, after he accepts an internship at the Daily Planet, sitting at the desk directly across from Lois. Her feelings for Clark become stronger as the season progresses, admitting to Oliver that she has never felt this way about someone before, as well as almost sharing a kiss with Clark before being interrupted by the arrival of Clark's ex-girlfriend, Lana Lang (Kristin Kreuk). In the episode "Infamous", Clark reveals his identity to Lois so she will write his story after his old enemy, Linda Lake (Tori Spelling), threatens to expose him to the world. Lois is surprised that she didn't work out that Clark had superpowers but is supportive. Her support is put to the test when Linda Lake tries to manipulate the public into believing that Clark is an invading alien. Clark plans to use a ring given to him by the Legion of Superheroes that enables him to go back in time and stop Linda from ever revealing his secret. Before he puts his plan into action, Lois expresses her sadness that Clark won't tell her his secret again, as she thinks that she isn't special enough but Clark tells her that he won't tell her because she is so special and he wants to protect her. In the episode "Stiletto," Lois subdues a criminal who is attacking Chloe; her victim thinks she must have super powers, and Lois decides to go along with him, calling herself "Stiletto" because of her uncomfortable high heels. She puts together a costume and appears as the character, rescuing several others in distress, including Clark, but also trying to attract the attention of "The Red Blue Blur," the mysterious superhero she wants to interview. Clark, using a device to disguise his voice, telephones Lois and identifies himself only by his pseudonym. In "Doomsday" Lois is upset that Clark doesn't seem concerned by Chole's disappearance with Davis. Clark then calls her from a phone booth as the "Red Blue Blur" to ask her to publish a letter for him in the event he dies fighting Doomsday. She agrees but wants to meet him in person, which Clark says they cannot do. Lois sets up a date at a phone booth for them to meet at midnight. Later when Jimmy breaks into Tess Mercer's office he finds that Lois is already there, Jimmy tells her to stay there and keep watch on Tess' computer that tells them where Chole and Davis are. On her way out of the Daily Planet Lois is confronted by Tess who demands to know where the orb is that was stolen from her vault. Lois doesn't know what Tess is talking about and the two women start fighting. The fight spills onto many desks and culminates on the floor where Lois discovers the Legion ring that Clark was hiding and she disappears in a flash of light to an unknown time period. See also Relationship of Clark Kent and Lois Lane In popular culture Nash Rambler Convertible "Landau" Coupe c.1950, with retracting roof and rigid doors, featured car of Lois Lane of the 1950s television series Adventures of Superman The secondary female lead in the musical Kiss Me, Kate is named Lois Lane; she plays Bianca in the show-within-a-show's production of The Taming of the Shrew: The Musical. Whether she was named after the Superman character is unknown. Several parodic or homage versions of Lois Lane have appeared in Marvel Comics, usually unnamed or with the first name Lois and no surname, and often in the company of a similarly unnamed Clark analogue. A more indirect homage was Terri Kidder, a reporter for the Daily Bugle who was named after two actresses who had played Lois. She was killed in The Pulse #2. There is a street in Albemarle, North Carolina named "Lois Lane". http://encounterchristchurch.com, Retrieved on 2009-05-04. There is a street in the Metro Detroit area (specifically, the city of Southfield, Michigan) called "Lois Lane". There is a street in the Corporate Park of Staten Island named "Lois Lane". There is a street in Orange County in the city of Fullerton named "Lois Lane". The American sitcom Seinfeld made numerous references to Lois over its nine-year run: In the 1993 episode The Outing, Jerry tells a female reporter for a college newspaper: "I was attracted to you, too. You remind me of Lois Lane." A 1994 episode ("The Mom & Pop Store") has Elaine tell Jerry she's been doing some snooping for him. "Ah! What'd you find out, Lois?" he replies. In the episode "The Race", Jerry dates a woman named "Lois" and makes several Superman-related references to her name. In "The Face Painter" (1995), George discovers that a woman he is dating is deaf in one ear and therefore might not have heard him tell her he loves her. "Don't you see what this means?" he says. "It's like the whole thing never happened. It's like when Superman reversed the rotation of the earth to save Lois Lane!" The 1998 episode "The Cartoon" has Jerry make fun of Elaine's drawings, leading her to reply: "It's better than your drawings of naked Lois Lane." In "The Strong Box" (also 1998), Elaine dates a man whose mysterious ways lead Jerry to joke that he is a crimefighter protecting his secret identity. When they find out the man is poor, Jerry and George comment, respectively, that his "super power was lack of money" and that "maybe his girlfriend is Lois Loan." In a 1994 episode, "The Marine Biologist", when Elaine accuses Jerry of helping a strange woman just so he can take her out on a date, Jerry replies that Superman is never suspected of such intentions when saving a woman's life, prompting Elaine to comment "Well, you're not Superman", to which Jerry responds, "Well, you're not Lois Lane..." There was also an episode where actress Teri Hatcher became Jerry's love interest because she reminded him of Lois Lane. He became obsessed with knowing if her breasts were "real" or not and had Elaine check in the spa steam room. Elaine tripped and mistakenly felt her up, which ended Jerry's relationship, since Hatcher's character deduced it was his plan all along. Jerry deeply regretted the result, as the Hatcher character was the only girlfriend to fulfill his Lois Lane fetish. In the Sabrina, the teenage Witch episode "Bada-Ping!", Salem described Sabrina as "Lois Lame". In Just Jack's first single off his second album Overtones (2007), Writer's Block, Jack seems dating Lois Lane while loving Mary Jane. "I'm loving Mary Jane, flying with Lois Lane, I buy the bullet train, don't know yet if I'm glad I came". The Spin Doctors' 1991 album, Pocket Full of Kryptonite, takes its title as a reference to the album's first song, "Jimmy Olsen's Blues." The song is sung from the point of view of a Jimmy Olsen who's in love with Lois Lane and jealous of Superman because of it. In the song "I-E-A-I-A-I-O" by System of a Down, Lois Lane was mentioned in one of the tongue-twisters in the song: "Fighting crime, with a partner, Lois Lane, Jimmy Carter." In the USA Network television series Monk, Adrian Monk's nurse, Sharona, reveals to a date that her job as the nurse assistant to the obsessive-compulsive detective makes her feel like Lois Lane. Later in the episode, when Sharona follows the killer they've been after, police captain Stottlemeyer snaps at Monk, "Who does Sharona think she is?" Monk answers sheepishly, "Lois Lane." In the movie One Fine Day (1996), the editor of the newspaper reporter Jack Taylor (George Clooney) has a cat named after Lois Lane. In the movie Mermaids'' (1990), Kate Flax (Christina Ricci) asked her sister Charlotte (Winona Ryder) if her boyfriend ever kissed her like Superman kisses Lois Lane. In the song "Do Ya Thang" by rapper Ice Cube, Lois Lane is mentioned in the line: "I forgot this hoe's name, I'll call her Lois Lane." In the song "Superman" by the band Peggy Sue, Lois Lane is mentioned in the line: "I'm in love with Lois Lane, but she doesn't even know my real name" In the song "Invincible" by Emma Bunton, b-side from the single Take My Breath Away (Emma Bunton song) and written by Bryan Adams, Lois Lane is mentioned in the line: "Like Superman and Lois Lane, we are just as strong, we are just the same". In the song "Rapper's Delight" by The Sugar Hill Gang, Lois Lane is mentioned in the line: "I said, "By the way, baby, what's your name?"/She said, "I go by name of Lois Lane" The song "Lois Lane" by Sloppy Seconds is about the death of Lois Lane. References External links Lois Lane profile at the Smallville Wiki Lois Lane Index - her many incarnations Supermanica: Lois Lane Supermanica entry on the Pre-Crisis Lois Lane Lois Lane - information from the 90s animated series The Superman Database - Full list of every issue of "Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane" ever published w/ Cover Art, Plots and more. 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4,474 | Njörðr | "Njörd's desire of the Sea" (1908) by W. G. Collingwood. Njörðr is a Vanir god in Norse mythology. In surviving sources, Njörðr is the father of the major deities Freyr and Freyja by his unnamed Van sister, was in an ill-fated marriage with the goddess Skaði, lives in Nóatún (Old Norse "ship-enclosure" Orchard (1997:119). ) and is associated with sea, seafaring, wind, fishing, wealth, and crop fertility. Njörðr is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, in euhemerized form as a beloved mythological early king of Sweden in Heimskringla, also written by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century, as one of three gods invoked in the 14th century Hauksbók ring oath, and in numerous Scandinavian place names. Njörðr has been the subject of an amount of scholarly discourse and theory, often connecting him with the figure of the much earlier attested Germanic goddess Nerthus, the hero Hadingus, and theorizing on his formerly more prominent place in Norse paganism due to the appearance of his name in numerous place names. Etymology, toponyms, and eponyms The name Njörðr corresponds to that of the older Germanic fertility goddess Nerthus, and both derive from the Proto-Germanic term Nerþuz. The original meaning of the name is contested, but it may be related to the Irish word nert which means "force" and "power". It has been suggested that the change of sex from the female Nerthus to the male Njörðr is due to the fact that feminine nouns with u-stems disappeared early in Germanic language while the masculine nouns with u-stems prevailed. Other scholars hold the change to be based not on grammatical gender but on the evolution of religious beliefs. Hellquist (1922:519) The name Njörðr may be related to the name of the Norse goddess Njörun. Jónsson (1913:110) and Magnússon (1989:671). Njörðr's name appears in various place names in Scandinavia, such as Nærdhæwi (now Nalavi), Njærdhavi (now Mjärdevi), Nærdhælunda (now Närlunda), Nierdhatunum (now Närtuna) in Sweden, Njarðvík in eastern Iceland, Njarðarlög and Njarðey (now Nærøy) in Norway. Vigfússon (1874:456). Njörðr's name appears in a word for sponge; Njarðarvöttr (Old Norse "Njörðr's glove"). Additionally, in Old Icelandic translations of Classical mythology the Roman god Saturn's name is glossed as "Njörðr". Vigfússon (1874:456). Attestations Njörðr is attested in the following works: Poetic Edda Njörðr, Skaði, and Freyr as depicted in "The Lovesickness of Frey" (1908) by W. G. Collingwood. Njörðr is described as a future survivor of Ragnarök in stanza 39 of the poem Vafþrúðnismál. In the poem, the god Odin, disguised as "Gagnráðr" faces off with the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir in a battle of wits. While Odin states that Vafþrúðnir knows all the fates of the gods, Odin asks Vafþrúðnir "from where Njörðr came to the sons of the Æsir", that Njörðr rules over quite a lot of temples and sanctuaries, and further adds that Njörðr was not raised among the Æsir. In response, Vafþrúðnir says: "In Vanaheim the wise Powers made him and gave him as hostage to the gods; at the doom of men he will come back home among the wise Vanir." Larrington (1999:46). In stanza 16 of the poem Grímnismál, Njörðr is described as having a hall in Nóatún made for himself. The stanza describes Njörðr as a "prince of men," that he is "lacking in malice," and that he "rules over the "high-timbered temple." Larrington (1999:54). In stanza 43, the creation of the god Freyr's ship Skíðblaðnir is recounted, and Freyr is cited as the son of Njörðr. Larrington (1999:58). In the prose introduction to the poem Skírnismál, Freyr is mentioned as the son of Njörðr, and stanza 2 cites the goddess Skaði as the mother of Freyr. Larrington (1999:61). Further in the poem, Njörðr is again mentioned as the father of Freyr in stanzas 38, 39, and 41. Larrington (1999:67). Lokasenna (1895) by Lorenz Frølich. In the late flyting poem Lokasenna, an exchange between Njörðr and Loki occurs in stanzas 33, 34, 35, and 36. After Loki has an exchange with the goddess Freyja, in stanza 33 Njörðr states: "That's harmless, if, beside a husband, a woman has a lover or someone else; what is surprising is a pervert god coming in here, who has borne children." Larrington (1999:90). Loki responds in the stanza 34, stating that "from here you were sent east as hostage to the gods" (a reference to the Æsir-Vanir War) and that "the daughters of Hymir used you as a pisspot, and pissed in your mouth." In stanza 35, Njörðr responds that: "That was my reward, when I, from far away, was sent as a hostage to the gods, that I fathered that son, whom no one hates and is thought the prince of the Æsir. Loki tells Njörðr to "stop" and "keep some moderation," and that he "won't keep it a secret any longer" that Njörðr's son Freyr was produced with his unnamed sister, "though you'd expect him to be worse than he is." The god Tyr then interjects and the flyting continues in turn. Njörðr is referenced in stanza 22 of the poem Þrymskviða, where he is referred to as the father of the goddess Freyja. In the poem, the jötunn Þrymr mistakenly thinks that he will be receiving the goddess Freyja as his bride, and while telling his fellow jötunn to spread straw on the benches in preparation for the arrival of Freyja, he refers to her as the daughter of Njörðr of Nóatún. Larrington (1999:100). Towards the end of the poem Sólarljóð, Njörðr is cited as having nine daughters. Two of the names of these daughters are given; the eldest Ráðveig and the youngest Kreppvör. Thorpe (1907:120). Prose Edda Njörðr is mentioned in the Prose Edda books Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál. Gylfaginning "Njörðr and Skaði on the way to Nóatún" (1882) by Friedrich Wilhelm Heine. "Skadi's longing for the Mountains" (1908) by W. G. Collingwood. In the Prose Edda, Njörðr is introduced in chapter 23 of the book Gylfaginning. In this chapter, Njörðr is described by the enthroned figure of High as living in the heavens at Nóatún, but also as ruling over the movement of the winds, having the ability to calm both sea and fire, and that he is to be invoked in seafaring and fishing. High continues that Njörðr is very wealthy and prosperous, and that he can also grant wealth in land and valuables to those who request his aid. Njörðr originates from Vanaheimr and is devoid of Æsir stock, and he is described as having been traded with Hœnir in hostage exchange with between the Æsir and Vanir. Byock (2006:33-34). High further states that Njörðr's wife is Skaði, that she is the daughter of the jötunn Þjazi, and recounts a tale involving the two. High recalls that Skaði wanted to live in the home once owned by her father called Þrymheimr ("Thunder Home"). However, Njörðr wanted to live nearer to the sea. Subsequently, the two made an agreement that they would spend nine nights in Þrymheimr and then next three nights in Nóatún (or nine winters in Þrymheimr and another nine in Nóatún according to the Codex Regius manuscript Byock (2006:141). ). However, when Njörðr returned from the mountains to Nóatún, he says: "Hateful for me are the mountains, I was not long there, only nine nights. The howling of the wolves sounded ugly to me after the song of the swans." Byock (2006:33-34). Skaði then responds: "Sleep I could not on the sea beds for the screeching of the bird. That gull wakes me when from the wide sea he comes each morning." Byock (2006:33-34). High states that afterward Skaði went back up to the mountains to Þrymheimr and recites a stanza where Skaði skis around, hunts animals with a bow, and lives in her fathers old house. Chapter 24 begins, which describes Njörðr as the father of two beautiful and powerful children: Freyr and Freyja. Byock (2006:35). In chapter 37, after Freyr has spotted the beautiful jötunn Gerðr, he becomes overcome with sorrow, and refuses to sleep, drink, or talk. Njörðr then sends for Skírnir to find out who he seems to be so angry at, and, not looking forward to being treated roughly, Skírnir reluctantly goes to Freyr. Byock (2006:45). Skáldskaparmál "Njörðr" (1832) from the book Die Helden und Götter des Nordens, oder Das Buch der sagen. Njörðr is introduced in Skáldskaparmál within a list of 12 Æsir attending a banquet held for Ægir. Faulkes (1995:59). Further in Skáldskaparmál, the skaldic god Bragi recounds the death of Skaði's father Þjazi by the Æsir. As one of the three acts of reparation performed by the Æsir for Þjazi's death, Skaði was allowed by the Æsir to choose a husband from amongst them, but given the stipulation that she may not see any part of them but their feet when making the selection. Expecting to choose the god Baldr by the beauty of the feet she selects, Skaði instead finds that she has picked Njörðr. Faulkes (1995:61). In chapter 6, a list of kennings is provided for Njörðr: "God of chariots," "Descendant of Vanir," "a Van," father of Freyr and Freyja, and "the giving god." This is followed by an excerpt from a composition by the 11th century skald Þórðr Sjáreksson, explained as containing a reference to Skaði leaving Njörðr: Gundrun became her son's slayer; the wise god-bride [Skadi] could not love the Van; Kialar [Odin] trained horses pretty well; Hamdir is said not to have held back sword-play. Faulkes (1995:75). Chapter 7 follows and provides various kennings for Freyr, including referring to him as the son of Njörðr. This is followed by an excerpt from a work by the 10th century skald Egill Skallagrímsson that references Njörðr (here anglicized as "Niord"): For Freyr and Niord have endowed Griotbiorn with a power of wealth. In chapter 20, "daughter of Njörðr" is given as a kenning for Freyja. In chapter 33, Njörðr is cited among the gods attending a banquet held by Ægir. Faulkes (1995:86). In chapter 37, Freyja is again referred to as Njörðr's daughter in a verse by the 12th century skald Einarr Skúlason. Faulkes (1995:98). In chapter 75, Njörðr is included in a list of the Æsir. Faulkes (1995:157). Additionally, Njörðr is used in kennings for "warrior" or "warriors" various times in Skáldskaparmál. Faulkes (1995:248). Heimskringla A depiction of Njörðr by Carl Frederick von Saltza from an 1893 edition of the Poetic Edda. Njörðr appears in or is mentioned in three Kings' sagas collected in Heimskringla; Ynglinga saga, the Saga of Hákon the Good and the Saga of Harald Graycloak. In chapter 4 of Ynglinga saga, Njörðr is introduced in connection with the Æsir-Vanir War. When the two sides became tired of war, they came to a peace agreement and exchanged hostages. For their part, the Vanir send to the Æsir their most "outstanding men"; Njörðr, described as wealthy, and Freyr, described as his son, in exchange for the Æsir's Hœnir. Additionally, the Æsir send Mímir in exchange for the wise Kvasir. Hollander (2007:8). Further into chapter 4, Odin appoints Njörðr and Freyr as priests of sacrificial offerings, and they became gods among the Æsir. Freyja is introduced as a daughter of Njörðr, and as the priestess at the sacrifices. In the saga, Njörðr is described as having once wed his unnamed sister while he was still among the Vanir, and the couple produced their children Freyr and Freyja from this union, though this custom was forbidden among the Æsir. Hollander (2007:8). Chapter 5 relates that Odin gave all of his temple priests dwelling places and good estates, in Njörðr's case being Nóatún. Hollander (2007:10). Chapter 8 states that Njörðr married a woman named Skaði, though she would not have intercourse with him. Skaði then marries Odin, and the two had numerous sons. Hollander (2007:12). In chapter 9, Odin dies and Njörðr takes over as ruler of the Swedes, and he continues the sacrifices. The Swedes recognize him as their king, and pay him tribute. Njörðr's rule is marked with peace and many great crops, so much so that the Swedes believed that Njörðr held power over the crops and over the prosperity of mankind. During his rule, most of the Æsir die, their bodies are burned, and sacrifices are made by men to them. Njörðr has himself "marked for" Odin and he dies in his bed. Njörðr's body is burnt by the Swedes, and they weep heavily at his tomb. After Njörðr's reign, his son Freyr replaces him, and he is greatly loved and "blessed by good seasons like his father". Hollander (2007:13). In chapter 14 of Saga of Hákon the Good a description of the pagan Germanic custom of Yule is given. Part of the description includes a series of toasts. The toasts begin with Odin's toasts, described as for victory and power for the king, followed by Njörðr and Freyr's toast, intended for good harvests and peace. Following this, a beaker is drank for the king, and then a toast is given for departed kin. Hollander (2007:107). Chapter 28 quotes verse where the kenning "Njörðr-of-roller-horses" is used for "sailor". Hollander (2007:119). In the Saga of Harald Graycloak, a stanza is given of a poem entitled Vellekla ("Lack of Gold") by the 10th century Icelandic skald Einarr skálaglamm that mentions Njörðr in a kenning for "warrior". Hollander (2007:135). Egils saga In chapter 80 of the 13th century Icelandic saga Egils saga, Egill Skallagrímsson composes a poem in praise of Arinbjörn (Arinbjarnarkviða). In stanza 17, Egill writes that all others watch in marvel how Arinbjörn gives out wealth, as he has been so endowed by the gods Freyr and Njörðr. Scudder (2001:163) Theories Nerthus "Nerthus" (1905) by Emil Doepler. Njörðr is often identified with the goddess Nerthus, whose reverence by various Germanic tribes is described by Roman historian Tacitus in his 1st CE century work Germania. The connection between the two is due to the linguistic relationship between Njörðr and the reconstructed *Nerþus, Simek (2007:234) "Nerthus" being the feminine, Latinized form of what Njörðr would have looked like around 1 CE. Lindow (2001:237-238) This has led to theories about the relation of the two, including that Njörðr may have once been a hermaphroditic god or, generally considered more likely, that the name may indicate an otherwise unattested divine brother and sister pair such as Freyr and Freyja. Simek (2007:234) Consequently, Nerthus has been identified with Njörðr's unnamed sister with whom he had Freyja and Freyr, which is mentioned in Lokasenna. Orchard (1997:117-118). Hadingus Hadingus meets the one-eyed old man, illustration by Louis Moe Parallels have been pointed out between Njörðr and the figure of Hadingus, attested in book I of Saxo Grammaticus' 13th century work Gesta Danorum. Lindow (2001:157-158). Some of these similarities include that, in parallel to Skaði and Njörðr in Skáldskaparmál, Hadingus is chosen by his wife Regnhild after selecting him from other men at a banquet by his lower legs, and, in parallel to Skaði and Njörðr in Gylfaginning, Hadingus complains in verse of his displeasure at his life away from the sea and how he is disturbed by the howls of wolves, while his wife Regnhild complains of life at the shore and states her annoyance at the screeching sea birds. Lindow (2001:157-158). Georges Dumézil theorized that in the tale Hadingus passes through all three functions of his trifunctional hypothesis, before ending as an Odinic hero, paralleling Njörðr's passing from the Æsir to the Vanir in the Æsir-Vanir War. Dumézil (1973). Svafrþorinn In stanza 8 of the poem Fjölsvinnsmál, Svafrþorinn is stated as the father of Menglöð by an unnamed mother, who the hero Svipdagr seeks. Menglöð has often been theorized as the goddess Freyja, and according to this theory, Svafrþorinn would therefore be Njörðr. The theory is complicated by the etymology of the name Svafrþorinn (þorinn meaning "brave" and svafr means "gossip" (or possibly connects to sofa "sleep"), which Rudolf Simek says makes little sense when attempting to connect it to Njörðr. Simek (2007:305). Modern influence Njörðr has been the subject of an amount of artistic depictions. Depictions include "Freyr und Gerda; Skade und Niurd" (drawing, 1883) by K. Ehrenberg, "Njörðr" (1893) by Carl Frederick von Saltza, "Skadi" (1901) by E. Doepler d. J., and "Njörd's desire of the Sea" (1908) by W. G. Collingwood. Notes References Byock, Jesse (Trans.) (2006). The Prose Edda. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0140447555 Dumézil, Georges (1973) translated by Coltman, Derek. From Myth to Fiction: The Saga of Hadingus. University of Chicago Press Faulkes, Anthony (Trans.) (1995). Edda. Everyman. ISBN 0-4608-7616-3 Vigfússon, Guðbrandur (1874). An Icelandic-English Dictionary: Based on the Ms. Collections of the Late Richard Cleasby. Clarendon Press. Hellquist, E. (1922): Svensk etymologisk ordbok. C. W. K. Gleerups förlag, Lund. Hollander, M. Lee (Trans.) (2007). Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73061-9 Jónsson, Finnur (1913). Goðafræði Norðmanna og Íslendinga eftir heimildum. Hið íslenska bókmentafjelag. Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.) (1999). The Poetic Edda. Oxford World's Classics. ISBN 0192839462 Lindow, John (2001). Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515382-0 Magnússon, Ásgeir Blöndal (1989). Íslensk orðsifjabók. Orðabók Háskólans. Orchard, Andy (1997). Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. Cassell. ISBN 0 304 34520 2 Scudder, Bernard (Trans.) (2001). Egil's Saga as collected in The Sagas of Icelanders. Penguin. ISBN 0141000031 Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer. ISBN 0859915131 Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.) (1907). The Elder Edda of Saemund Sigfusson''. 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4,475 | Bicycle | A common utility bicycle Wooden Dandy horse (around 1820), the first two-wheeler and as such the archetype of the bicycle A bicycle, bike, or cycle is a pedal-driven, human-powered vehicle with two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A person who rides a bicycle is called a cyclist or a bicyclist. Bicycles were introduced in the 19th century and now number about one billion worldwide. DidYouKnow.cd. There are about a billion or more bicycles in the world. Retrieved 30 July 2006. They are the principal means of transportation in many regions. They also provide a popular form of recreation, and have been adapted for such uses as children's toys, adult fitness, military and police applications, courier services, and competitive sports. The basic shape and configuration of a typical bicycle has changed little since the first chain-driven model was developed around 1885. Many details have been improved, especially since the advent of modern materials and computer-aided design. These have allowed for a proliferation of specialized designs for particular types of cycling. The invention of the bicycle has had an enormous impact on society, both in terms of culture and of advancing modern industrial production. Several components that eventually played a key role in the development of the automobile were originally invented for the bicycle - e.g., ball bearings, pneumatic tires, chain-driven sprockets, spoke-tensioned wheels, paved roads (replacing cobblestone) etc. History Multiple innovators contributed to the history of the bicycle by developing precursor human-powered vehicles. The documented ancestors of today's modern bicycle were known as push bikes (still called push bikes outside of North America), draisines, or hobby horses. Being the first human means of transport to make use of the two-wheeler principle, the draisine (or Laufmaschine, "running machine"), invented by the German Baron Karl von Drais, is regarded as the archetype of the bicycle. It was introduced by Drais to the public in Mannheim in summer 1817 and in Paris in 1818. Its rider sat astride a wooden frame supported by two in-line wheels and pushed the vehicle along with his/her feet while steering the front wheel. A penny-farthing or ordinary bicycle photographed in the Škoda Auto museum in the Czech Republic In the early 1860s, Frenchmen Pierre Michaux and Pierre Lallement took bicycle design in a new direction by adding a mechanical crank drive with pedals on an enlarged front wheel (the velocipede). Another French inventor by the name of Douglas Grasso had a failed prototype of Pierre Lallement's bicycle several years earlier. Several why-not-the-rear-wheel inventions followed, the best known being the rod-driven velocipede by Scotsman Thomas McCall in 1869. The French creation, made of iron and wood, developed into the "penny-farthing" (more formally an "ordinary bicycle", a retronym, since there were then no other kind). Norcliffe, Glen. The Ride to Modernity: The Bicycle in Canada, 1869-1900 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001), p.50, citing Derek Roberts. It featured a tubular steel frame on which were mounted wire spoked wheels with solid rubber tires. These bicycles were difficult to ride due to their very high seat and poor weight distribution. Bicycle in Plymouth, England at the start of the 20th century The dwarf ordinary addressed some of these faults by reducing the front wheel diameter and setting the seat further back. This necessitated the addition of gearing, effected in a variety of ways, to attain sufficient speed. Having to both pedal and steer via the front wheel remained a problem. J. K. Starley, J. H. Lawson, and Shergold solved this problem by introducing the chain drive (originated by Henry Lawson's unsuccessful "bicyclette"), Norcliffe, p.47. connecting the frame-mounted pedals to the rear wheel. These models were known as dwarf safeties, or safety bicycles, for their lower seat height and better weight distribution. Starley's 1885 Rover is usually described as the first recognizably modern bicycle. Soon, the seat tube was added, creating the double-triangle diamond frame of the modern bike. Further innovations increased comfort and ushered in a second bicycle craze, the 1890s' Golden Age of Bicycles. In 1888, Scotsman John Boyd Dunlop introduced the first practical pneumatic tire, which soon became universal. Soon after, the rear freewheel was developed, enabling the rider to coast. This refinement led to the 1898 invention of coaster brakes. Derailleur gears and hand-operated cable-pull brakes were also developed during these years, but were only slowly adopted by casual riders. By the turn of the century, cycling clubs flourished on both sides of the Atlantic, and touring and racing became widely popular. Bicycles and horse buggies were the two mainstays of private transportation just prior to the automobile, and the grading of smooth roads in the late 19th century was stimulated by the widespread advertising, production, and use of these devices. Uses Transporting milk churns in Kolkata, India Bicycles have been and are employed for many uses: Working bicycle in Amsterdam, Netherlands Utility: bicycle commuting and utility cycling Work: mail delivery, paramedics, police, and general delivery. Recreation: bicycle touring, mountain biking, BMX and physical fitness. Racing: track racing, criterium, roller racing and time trial to multi-stage events like the Tour of California, Giro d'Italia, the Tour de France, the Vuelta a España, the Volta a Portugal, among others. Military: scouting, troop movement, supply of provisions, and patrol. See bicycle infantry. Show: entertainment and performance, e.g. circus clowns. Used as instrument by Frank Zappa. Technical aspects A Half Wheeler trailer bike at the Golden Gate Bridge The bicycle has undergone continual adaptation and improvement since its inception. These innovations have continued with the advent of modern materials and computer-aided design, allowing for a proliferation of specialized bicycle types. Types Bicycles can be categorized in different ways: e.g. by function, by number of riders, by general construction, by gearing or by means of propulsion. The more common types include utility bicycles, mountain bicycles, racing bicycles, touring bicycles, hybrid bicycles, cruiser bicycles, and BMX bicycles. Less common are tandems, lowriders, tall bikes, fixed gear (fixed-wheel), folding models and recumbents (one of which was used to set the IHPVA Hour record). Unicycles, tricycles and quadracycles are not strictly bicycles, as they have respectively one, three and four wheels, but are often referred to informally as "bikes". Bicycles leaning in a turn Dynamics A bicycle stays upright while moving forward by being steered so as to keep its center of gravity over the wheels. This steering is usually provided by the rider, but under certain conditions may be provided by the bicycle itself. The combined center of mass of a bicycle and its rider must lean into a turn in order successfully navigate it. This lean is induced by a method known as countersteering, which can be performed by the rider turning the handlebars directly with the hands or indirectly by leaning the bicycle. Short-wheelbase or tall bicycles, when braking, can generate enough stopping force at the front wheel in order to flip longitudinally. The act of purposefully using this force to lift the rear wheel and balance on the front without tipping over is a trick known as a stoppie, endo or front wheelie. Performance A racing upright bicycle The bicycle is extraordinarily efficient in both biological and mechanical terms. The bicycle is the most efficient self-powered means of transportation in terms of energy a person must expend to travel a given distance. "Bicycle Technology", S.S. Wilson, Scientific American, March 1973 From a mechanical viewpoint, up to 99% of the energy delivered by the rider into the pedals is transmitted to the wheels, although the use of gearing mechanisms may reduce this by 10-15%. "Johns Hopkins Gazette", 30 August 1999 In terms of the ratio of cargo weight a bicycle can carry to total weight, it is also a most efficient means of cargo transportation. A recumbent bicycle A human traveling on a bicycle at low to medium speeds of around 10-15 mph (15–25 km/h), uses only the energy required to walk, is the most energy-efficient means of transport generally available. Air drag, which is proportional to the square of speed, requires dramatically higher power outputs as speeds increase. If the rider is sitting upright, the rider's body creates about 75% of the total drag of the bicycle/rider combination. Drag can be reduced by seating the rider in a supine position or a prone position, thus creating a recumbent bicycle or human powered vehicle. Drag can also be reduced by covering the bicycle with an aerodynamic fairing. In addition, the carbon dioxide generated in the production and transportation of the food required by the bicyclist, per mile traveled, is less than 1/10th that generated by energy efficient cars. How Much Do Bicycles Pollute? Looking at the Carbon Dioxide Produced by Bicycles Construction and parts In its early years, bicycle construction drew on pre-existing technologies. More recently, bicycle technology has in turn contributed ideas in both old and new areas. Frame Diagram of a bicycle. The great majority of today's bicycles have a frame with upright seating which looks much like the first chain-driven bike. Such upright bicycles almost always feature the diamond frame, a truss consisting of two triangles: the front triangle and the rear triangle. The front triangle consists of the head tube, top tube, down tube and seat tube. The head tube contains the headset, the set of bearings that allows the fork to turn smoothly for steering and balance. The top tube connects the head tube to the seat tube at the top, and the down tube connects the head tube to the bottom bracket. The rear triangle consists of the seat tube and paired chain stays and seat stays. The chain stays run parallel to the chain, connecting the bottom bracket to the rear dropouts. The seat stays connect the top of the seat tube (at or near the same point as the top tube) to the rear dropouts. A Triumph with a step-through frame. Historically, women's bicycle frames had a top tube that connected in the middle of the seat tube instead of the top, resulting in a lower standover height at the expense of compromised structural integrity, since this places a strong bending load in the seat tube, and bicycle frame members are typically weak in bending. This design, referred to as a step-through frame, allows the rider to mount and dismount in a dignified way while wearing a skirt or dress. While some women's bicycles continue to use this frame style, there is also a variation, the mixte, which splits the top tube into two small top tubes that bypass the seat tube and connect to the rear dropouts. The ease of stepping through is also appreciated by those with limited flexibility or other joint problems. Because of its persistent image as a "women's" bicycle, step-through frames are not common for larger frames. Another style is the recumbent bicycle. These are inherently more aerodynamic than upright versions, as the rider may lean back onto a support and operate pedals that are on about the same level as the seat. The world's fastest bicycle is a recumbent bicycle but this type was banned from competition in 1934 by the Union Cycliste Internationale. History Loudly Tells WhyThe Recumbent Bike Is Popular Today Historically, materials used in bicycles have followed a similar pattern as in aircraft, the goal being high strength and low weight. Since the late 1930s alloy steels have been used for frame and fork tubes in higher quality machines. Celluloid found application in mudguards, and aluminum alloys are increasingly used in components such as handlebars, seat post, and brake levers. In the 1980s aluminum alloy frames became popular, and their affordability now makes them common. More expensive carbon fiber and titanium frames are now also available, as well as advanced steel alloys and even bamboo. Drivetrain and gearing A set of rear sprockets (also known as a cassette) and a derailleur Since cyclists' legs are most efficient over a narrow range of pedaling speeds (cadence), a variable gear ratio helps a cyclist to maintain an optimum pedalling speed while covering varied terrain. As a first approximation, utility bicycles often use a hub gear with a small number (3 to 5) of widely-spaced gears, road bicycles and racing bicycles use derailleur gears with a moderate number (10 to 22) of closely-spaced gears, while mountain bicycles, hybrid bicycles, and touring bicycles use dérailleur gears with a larger number (15 to 30) of moderately-spaced gears, often including an extremely low gear (granny gear) for climbing steep hills. Different gears and ranges of gears are appropriate for different people and styles of cycling. Multi-speed bicycles allow gear selection to suit the circumstances: one uses a high gear when cycling downhill, a medium gear when cycling on a flat road, and a low gear when cycling uphill. In a lower gear every turn of the pedals leads to fewer rotations of the rear wheel. This allows the energy required to move the same distance to be distributed over more pedal turns, reducing fatigue when riding uphill, with a heavy load, or against strong winds. A higher gear allows a cyclist to make fewer pedal turns to maintain a given speed, but with more effort per turn of the pedals. The drivetrain begins with pedals which rotate the cranks, which are held in axis by the bottom bracket. Most bicycles use a chain to transmit power to the rear wheel. A relatively small number of bicycles use a shaft drive to transmit power. A very small number of bicycles (mainly single-speed bicycles intended for short-distance commuting) use a belt drive as an oil-free way of transmitting power. A bicycle with shaft drive instead of a chain With a chain drive transmission, a chainring attached to a crank drives the chain, which in turn rotates the rear wheel via the rear sprocket(s) (cassette or freewheel). There are four gearing options: two-speed hub gear integrated with chain ring, up to 3 chain rings, up to 11 sprockets, hub gear built in to rear wheel (3-speed to 14-speed). The most common options are either a rear hub or multiple chain rings combined with multiple sprockets (other combinations of options are possible but less common). With a shaft drive transmission, a gear set at the bottom bracket turns the shaft, which then turns the rear wheel via a gear set connected to the wheel's hub. There is some small loss of efficiency due to the two gear sets needed. The only gearing option with a shaft drive is to use a hub gear. Steering and seating Conventional dropdown handlebars with added aerobars The handlebars turn the fork and the front wheel via the stem, which rotates within the headset. Three styles of handlebar are common. Upright handlebars, the norm in Europe and elsewhere until the 1970s, curve gently back toward the rider, offering a natural grip and comfortable upright position. Drop handlebars "drop" as they curve forward and down, offering the cyclist best braking power from a more aerodynamic "crouched" position, as well as more upright positions in which the hands grip the brake lever mounts, the forward curves, or the upper flat sections for increasingly upright postures. Mountain bikes generally feature a 'straight handlebar' or 'riser bar' with varying degrees of sweep backwards and centimeters rise upwards, as well as wider widths which can provide better handling due to increased leverage against the wheel. A Selle San Marco saddle designed for women Saddles also vary with rider preference, from the cushioned ones favored by short-distance riders to narrower saddles which allow more room for leg swings. Comfort depends on riding position. With comfort bikes and hybrids the cyclist sits high over the seat, their weight directed down onto the saddle, such that a wider and more cushioned saddle is preferable. For racing bikes where the rider is bent over, weight is more evenly distributed between the handlebars and saddle, the hips are flexed, and a narrower and harder saddle is more efficient. Differing saddle designs exist for male and female cyclists, accommodating the genders' differing anatomies, although bikes typically are sold with saddles most appropriate for men. A recumbent bicycle has a reclined chair-like seat that some riders find more comfortable than a saddle, especially riders who suffer from certain types of seat, back, neck, shoulder, or wrist pain. Recumbent bicycles may have either under-seat or over-seat steering. Brakes Linear-pull brake, also known by the Shimano trademark: V-Brake, on rear wheel of a mountain bike Modern bicycle brakes may be rim brakes, in which friction pads are compressed against the wheel rims, internal hub brakes, in which the friction pads are contained within the wheel hubs, disc brakes, with a separate rotor for braking. Disc brakes are more common on off-road bicycles, tandems and recumbent bicycles than on road-specific bicycles. A front disc brake, mounted to the fork and hub With hand-operated brakes, force is applied to brake levers mounted on the handlebars and transmitted via Bowden cables or hydraulic lines to the friction pads. A rear hub brake may be either hand-operated or pedal-actuated, as in the back pedal coaster brakes which were popular in North America until the 1960s, and are common in children's bicycles. Track bicycles do not have dedicated brakes. Brakes are not required for riding on a track because all riders ride in the same direction around a track which does not necessitate sharp deceleration. Track riders are still able to slow down because all track bicycles are fixed-gear, meaning that there is no freewheel. Without a freewheel, coasting is impossible, so when the rear wheel is moving, the crank is moving. To slow down, the rider applies resistance to the pedals – this acts as a braking system which can be as effective as a friction-based rear wheel brake, but not as effective as a front wheel brake. Suspension This mountain bicycle features oversized tires, a full-suspension frame, two disc brakes and handlebars oriented perpendicular to the bike's axis Bicycle suspension refers to the system or systems used to suspend the rider and all or part of the bicycle. This serves two purposes: To keep the wheels in continuous contact with rough surfaces in order to improve control. To isolate the rider and luggage from jarring due to rough surfaces. Bicycle suspensions are used primarily on mountain bicycles, but are also common on hybrid bicycles, and can even be found on some road bicycles, as they can help deal with problematic vibration. Suspension is especially important on recumbent bicycles, since while an upright bicycle rider can stand on the pedals to achieve some of the benefits of suspension, a recumbent rider cannot. Wheels The wheel axle fits into dropouts in the frame and forks. A pair of wheels may be called a wheelset, especially in the context of ready-built "off the shelf", performance-oriented wheels. Tires vary enormously. Skinny, road-racing tires may be completely smooth, or (slick). On the opposite extreme, off-road tires are much wider and thicker, and usually have a deep tread for gripping in muddy conditions. Accessories, repairs, and tools Touring bicycle equipped with head lamp, pump, rear rack, fenders/mud-guards, water bottles and cages, and numerous saddle-bags. Puncture repair kit with tire levers, sandpaper to clean off an area of the inner tube around the puncture, a tube of rubber solution (vulcanizing fluid), round and oval patches, a metal grater and piece of chalk to make chalk powder (to dust over excess rubber solution). Kits often also include a wax crayon to mark the puncture location. Some components, which are often optional accessories on sports bicycles, are standard features on utility bicycles to enhance their usefulness and comfort. Mudguards, or fenders, protect the cyclist and moving parts from spray when riding through wet areas and chainguards protect clothes from oil on the chain while preventing clothing from being caught between the chain and crankset teeth. Kick stands keep a bicycle upright when parked. Front-mounted baskets for carrying goods are often used. Luggage carriers and panniers mounted above the rear tire can be used to carry equipment or cargo. Parents sometimes add rear-mounted child seats and/or an auxiliary saddle fitted to the crossbar to transport children. Toe-clips and toestraps and clipless pedals help keep the foot locked in the proper position on the pedals, and enable the cyclist to pull as well as push the pedals—although not without their hazards, eg. may lock foot in when needed to prevent a fall. Technical accessories include cyclocomputers for measuring speed, distance, etc. Other accessories include lights, reflectors, security locks, mirror, water bottles and cages, and bell. Bicycle helmets may help reduce injury in the event of a collision or accident, and a certified helmet is legally required for some riders in some jurisdictions. Helmets are classified as an accessory or an item of clothing by others. Many cyclists carry tool kits. These may include a tire patch kit (which, in turn, may contain any combination of a hand pump or CO2 Pump, tire levers, spare tubes, self-adhesive patches, or tube-patching material, an adhesive, a piece of sandpaper or a metal grater (for roughing the tube surface to be patched), and sometimes even a block of French chalk.), wrenches, hex keys, screwdrivers, and a chain tool. There are also cycling specific multi-tools that combine many of these implements into a single compact device. More specialized bicycle components may require more complex tools, including proprietary tools specific for a given manufacturer. Some bicycle parts, particularly hub-based gearing systems, are complex, and many cyclists prefer to leave maintenance and repairs to professional bicycle mechanics. In some areas it is possible to purchase road-side assistance from companies such as the Better World Club. Other cyclists maintain their own bicycles, perhaps as part of their enjoyment of the hobby of cycling or simply for economic reasons. The ability to repair and maintain your own bicycle is also celebrated within the DIY movement. Standards A number of formal and industry standards exist for bicycle components to help make spare parts exchangeable and to maintain a minimum product safety. The International Organization for Standardization, ISO, has a special technical committee for cycles, TC149, that has the following scope: "Standardization in the field of cycles, their components and accessories with particular reference to terminology, testing methods and requirements for performance and safety, and interchangeability." CEN, European Committee for Standardisation, also has a specific Technical Committee, TC333, that defines European standards for cycles. Their mandate states that EN cycle standards shall harmonize with ISO standards. Some CEN cycle standards were developed before ISO published their standards, leading to strong European influences in this area. European cycle standards tend to describe minimum safety requirements, while ISO standards have historically harmonized parts geometry. The TC149 ISO bicycle committee, including the TC149/SC1 ("Cycles and major sub-assemblies") subcommittee, has published the following standards: ISO 4210 Cycles—Safety requirements for bicycles ISO 6692 Cycles—Marking of cycle components ISO 6695 Cycles—Pedal axle and crank assembly with square end fitting—Assembly dimensions ISO 6696 Cycles—Screw threads used in bottom bracket assemblies ISO 6697 Cycles—Hubs and freewheels—Assembly dimensions ISO 6698 Cycles—Screw threads used to assemble freewheels on bicycle hubs ISO 6699 Cycles—Stem and handlebar bend—Assembly dimensions ISO 6701 Cycles—External dimensions of spoke nipples ISO 6742 Cycles—Lighting and retro-reflective devices—Photometric and physical requirements ISO 8090 Cycles—Terminology (same as BS 6102-4) ISO 8098 Cycles—Safety requirements for bicycles for young children ISO 8488 Cycles—Screw threads used to assemble head fittings on bicycle forks ISO 8562 Cycles—Stem wedge angle ISO 10230 Cycles—Splined hub and sprocket—Mating dimensions ISO 11243 Cycles—Luggage carriers for bicycles—Concepts, classification and testing Other ISO Technical Committees have published various cycle relevant standards, for example: ISO 5775 Bicycle tire and rim designations ISO 9633 Cycle chains—Characteristics and test methods Published cycle standards from CEN TC333 include: EN 14764 City and trekking bicycles - Safety requirements and test methods EN 14765 Bicycles for young children - Safety requirements and test methods EN 14766 Mountain-bicycles - Safety requirements and test methods EN 14781 Racing bicycles - Safety requirements and test methods EN 14782 Bicycles - Accessories for bicycles - Luggage carriers EN 15496 Cycles - Requirements and test methods for cycle locks Yet to be approved cycle standards from CEN TC333: EN 15194 Cycles—Electrically power assisted cycles (EPAC bicycle) EN 15532 Cycles—Terminology 00333011 Cycles - Bicycles trailers - safety requirements and test methods Parts For details on specific bicycle parts, see list of bicycle parts and :category:bicycle parts. Social and historical aspects The bicycle has had a considerable effect on human society, in both the cultural and industrial realms. A commuting bike in Amsterdam In daily life Around the turn of the 20th century, bicycles reduced crowding in inner-city tenements by allowing workers to commute from more spacious dwellings in the suburbs. They also reduced dependence on horses. Bicycles allowed people to travel for leisure into the country, since bicycles were three times as energy efficient as walking and three to four times as fast. A bike-sharing station in Barcelona Recently, several European cities have implemented successful schemes known as community bicycle programs or bike-sharing. These initiatives complement a city's public transport system and offer an alternative to motorized traffic to help reduce congestion and pollution. Users take a bicycle at a parking station, use it for a limited amount of time, and then return it to the same or different station. Examples include Bicing in Barcelona, Vélo'v in Lyon and Vélib' in Paris. In cities where the bicycle is not an integral part of the planned transportation system, commuters often use bicycles as elements of a mixed-mode commute, where the bike is used to travel to and from train stations or other forms of rapid transit. Folding bicycles are useful in these scenarios, as they are less cumbersome when carried aboard. Los Angeles removed a small amount of seating on some trains to make more room for bicycles and wheel chairs http://la.streetsblog.org/2008/10/16/metro-making-room-for-bikes-on-their-trains/ . Bicycles offer an important mode of transport in many developing countries. Until recently, bicycles have been a staple of everyday life throughout Asian countries. They are the most frequently used method of transport for commuting to work, school, shopping, and life in general. As a result, bicycles there are almost always equipped with baskets. Female emancipation Woman with bicycle, 1890s The diamond-frame safety bicycle gave women unprecedented mobility, contributing to their emancipation in Western nations. As bicycles became safer and cheaper, more women had access to the personal freedom they embodied, and so the bicycle came to symbolize the New Woman of the late 19th century, especially in Britain and the United States. The bicycle was recognized by 19th-century feminists and suffragists as a "freedom machine" for women. American Susan B. Anthony said in a New York World interview on February 2 1896: "Let me tell you what I think of bicycling. I think it has done more to emancipate women than anything else in the world. It gives women a feeling of freedom and self-reliance. I stand and rejoice every time I see a woman ride by on a wheel...the picture of free, untrammeled womanhood." In 1895 Frances Willard, the tightly-laced president of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, wrote a book called How I Learned to Ride the Bicycle, in which she praised the bicycle she learned to ride late in life, and which she named "Gladys", for its "gladdening effect" on her health and political optimism. Willard used a cycling metaphor to urge other suffragists to action, proclaiming, "I would not waste my life in friction when it could be turned into momentum." Male anger at the freedom symbolized by the New (bicycling) Woman was demonstrated when the male undergraduates of Cambridge University showed their opposition to the admission of women as full members of the university by hanging a woman bicyclist in effigy in the main town square. This was as late as 1897. Newnham College Cambridge: The History of the College The bicycle craze in the 1890s also led to a movement for so-called rational dress, which helped liberate women from corsets and ankle-length skirts and other restrictive garments, substituting the then-shocking bloomers. Economic implications Columbia Bicycles advertisement from 1886 Bicycle manufacturing proved to be a training ground for other industries and led to the development of advanced metalworking techniques, both for the frames themselves and for special components such as ball bearings, washers, and sprockets. These techniques later enabled skilled metalworkers and mechanics to develop the components used in early automobiles and aircraft. They also served to teach the industrial models later adopted, including mechanization and mass production (later copied and adopted by Ford and General Motors), Norcliffe, Glen. The Ride to Modernity: The Bicycle in Canada, 1869-1900 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001), pp.23, 106, & 108. GM's practice of sharing chassis, bodies, and other parts is exactly what Pope was doing. vertical integration Norcliffe, p.106. (also later copied and adopted by Ford), aggressive advertising Norcliffe, pp.142-7. (as much as 10% of all advertising in U.S. periodicals in 1898 was by bicycle makers), Norcliffe, p.145. lobbying for better roads (which had the side benefit of acting as advertising, and of improving sales by providing more places to ride), Norcliffe, p.108. all first practised by Pope. Norcliffe, p.108. In addition, bicycle makers adopted the annual model change Norcliffe, p.23. Babaian, Sharon. The Most Benevolent Machine: A Historical Assessment of Cycles in Canada (Ottawa: National Museum of Science and Technology, 1998), p.97. (later derided as planned obsolescence, and usually credited to General Motors), which proved very successful. Babaian, p.98. Furthermore, early bicycles were an example of conspicuous consumption, being adopted by the fashionable elites. Norcliffe, pp.8, 12, 14, 23, 147-8, 187-8, 208, & 243-5. In addition, by serving as a platform for accessories, which could ultimately cost more than the bicycle itself, it paved the way for the likes of the Barbie doll. Norcliffe, pp.23, 121, & 123. Moreover, they helped create, or enhance, new kinds of businesses, such as bicycle messengers, Norcliffe, p.212. travelling seamstresses, Norcliffe, p.214. riding academies, Norcliffe, p.131. and racing rinks Norcliffe, p.30 & 131. (Their board tracks were later adapted to early motorcycle and automobile racing.) Also, there were a variety of new inventions, such as spoke tighteners, Norcliffe, p.125. and specialized lights, Norcliffe, p.123 & 125. socks and shoes, Norcliffe, p.125 & 126. and even cameras (such as the Eastman Company's Poco). Norcliffe, p.238. Probably the best known and most widely used of these inventions, adopted well beyond cycling, is Charles Bennett's Bike Web, which came to be called the "jock strap". Norcliffe, p.128. A man uses a bicycle to carry goods in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso They also presaged a move away from public transit Norcliffe, p.214-5. that would explode with the introduction of the automobile. This liberation would be repeated again with the appearance of the snowmobile. Norcliffe, p.227. J. K. Starley's company became the Rover Cycle Company Ltd. in the late 1890s, and then simply the Rover Company when it started making cars. The Morris Motor Company (in Oxford) and Škoda also began in the bicycle business, as did the Wright brothers. Alistair Craig, whose company eventually emerged to become the engine manufacturers Ailsa Craig, also started from manufacturing bicycles, in Glasgow in March 1885. In general, U.S. and European cycle manufacturers used to assemble cycles from their own frames and components made by other companies, although very large companies (such as Raleigh) used to make almost every part of a bicycle (including bottom brackets, axles, etc.) In recent years, those bicycle makers have greatly changed their methods of production. Now, almost none of them produce their own frames. Many newer or smaller companies only design and market their products; the actual production is done by Asian companies. For example, some 60% of the world's bicycles are now being made in China. Despite this shift in production, as nations such as China and India become more wealthy, their own use of bicycles has declined due to the increasing affordability of cars and motorcycles. One of the major reasons for the proliferation of Chinese-made bicycles in foreign markets is the lower cost of labor in China. The Economist, 15 February 2003 One of the profound economic implications of bicycle use is that it liberates the user from oil consumption (Ballantine, 1972). The bicycle is a inexpensive, fast, healthy and environmentally friendly mode of transport (Illich, 1974) Legal requirements Reflectors for riding after dark Early in its development, like in the case of automobiles, there were restrictions on the operation of bicycles. Along with advertising, and to gain free publicity, Albert A. Pope litigated on behalf of cyclists Norcliffe, Glen. The Ride to Modernity: The Bicycle in Canada, 1869-1900 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001), p.108. The 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic of the United Nations considers a bicycle to be a vehicle, and a person controlling a bicycle (whether actually riding or not) is considered an operator. The traffic codes of many countries reflect these definitions and demand that a bicycle satisfy certain legal requirements, sometimes even including licensing, before it can be used on public roads. In many jurisdictions, it is an offense to use a bicycle that is not in roadworthy condition. In most jurisdictions, bicycles must have functioning front and rear lights when ridden after dark. As some generator or dynamo-driven lamps only operate while moving, rear reflectors are frequently also mandatory. Since a moving bicycle makes little noise, some countries insist that bicycles have a warning bell for use when approaching pedestrians, equestrians, and other cyclists. See also Cycling - use of bicycles General Bicycle commuting Bicycle industry and List of bicycle manufacturing companies Bicycle law Bicycle lighting Bicycle lock Bicycle locker Bicycle safety Bicycle tools List of bicycle and human powered vehicle museums List of bicycle parts Trampe bicycle lift Special uses and related vehicle types Balance bicycle Beach cruiser Bicycle trailer Boda-boda Cycle rickshaw Faired bicycle Folding bicycle Freight bicycle Infantry bicycle Monowheel Quadricycle Shaft-driven bicycle Tandem bicycle Trailer bike Tricycle Utility cycling Unicycle Velocipede Workbike Other Human-powered transport List of environment topics Safety standards Transportation technology, timeline of Notes References All About Bicycling, Rand McNally. Richard Ballantine, Richard's Bicycle Book, Pan, 1975. Caunter C. F. The History and Development of Cycles Science Museum London 1972. Daniel Kirshner. Some nonexplanations of bicycle stability. American Journal of Physics, 48(1), 1980. The abstract reads "In this paper we attempt to verify a nongyroscopic theory of bicycle stability, and fail". David B. Perry, Bike Cult: the Ultimate Guide to Human-powered Vehicles, Four Walls Eight Windows, 1995. Roni Sarig, The Everything Bicycle Book, Adams Media Corporation, 1997 US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. "America's Highways 1776-1976", pp. 42–43. Washington, DC, US Government Printing Office. David Gordon Wilson, Bicycling Science, MIT press, ISBN 0-262-73154-1 David V. Herlihy, Bicycle: The History, Yale University Press, 2004 Frank Berto, The Dancing Chain: History and Development of the Derailleur Bicycle, San Francisco: Van der Plas Publications, 2005, ISBN 1-892495-41-4. The Data Book: 100 Years of Bicycle Component and Accessory Design, San Francisco: Van der Plas Publications, 2005, ISBN 1-892495-01-5. Other authors: Eddie Borysewicz, Greg LeMond, Davis Phinney, Connie Carpenter. External links Pedaling History Museum The world's largest bicycle museum P.E.P.A. Τhe official site of Cycling Association of Veteran Athletes of Greece Home Made Electric Bicycle A range of Traffic Advisory Leaflets produced by the UK Department for Transport covering cycling. Menotomy Vintage Bicycles - Databases of antique bicycle photos, features, price guide and research tools. Very large archives. The Bicycle - Worlds most efficient form of transportation Discussion of the Bicycle and its advantages over motor vehicles Brown, Sheldon (2005). Extensive Online Bicycle Glossary Hudson, William (2003). Myths and Milestones in Bicycle Evolution. Retrieved March 30 2005. A History of Bicycles and Other Cycles at the Canada Science and Technology Museum Jones, David E. H. (1970). The Stability of the Bicycle. Scanned in copy for download for personal use. 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4,476 | Harmonic_analysis | Harmonic analysis is the branch of mathematics that studies the representation of functions or signals as the superposition of basic waves. It investigates and generalizes the notions of Fourier series and Fourier transforms. The basic waves are called "harmonics"(in physics), hence the name "harmonic analysis," but the name "harmonic" in this context is generalized beyond its original meaning of integer frequency multiples. In the past two centuries, it has become a vast subject with applications in areas as diverse as signal processing, quantum mechanics, and neuroscience. The classical Fourier transform on Rn is still an area of ongoing research, particularly concerning Fourier transformation on more general objects such as tempered distributions. For instance, if we impose some requirements on a distribution f, we can attempt to translate these requirements in terms of the Fourier transform of f. The Paley-Wiener theorem is an example of this. The Paley-Wiener theorem immediately implies that if f is a nonzero distribution of compact support (these include functions of compact support), then its Fourier transform is never compactly supported. This is a very elementary form of an uncertainty principle in a harmonic analysis setting. See also Convergence of Fourier series. Fourier series can be conveniently studied in the context of Hilbert spaces, which provides a connection between harmonic analysis and functional analysis. Abstract harmonic analysis One of the more modern branches of harmonic analysis, having its roots in the mid-twentieth century, is analysis on topological groups. The core motivating idea are the various Fourier transforms, which can be generalized to a transform of functions defined on Hausdorff locally compact topological groups. The theory for abelian locally compact groups is called Pontryagin duality; it is considered to be in a satisfactory state, as far as explaining the main features of harmonic analysis goes. Harmonic analysis studies the properties of that duality and Fourier transform; and attempts to extend those features to different settings, for instance to the case of non-abelian Lie groups. For general nonabelian locally compact groups, harmonic analysis is closely related to the theory of unitary group representations. For compact groups, the Peter-Weyl theorem explains how one may get harmonics by choosing one irreducible representation out of each equivalence class of representations. This choice of harmonics enjoys some of the useful properties of the classical Fourier transform in terms of carrying convolutions to pointwise products, or otherwise showing a certain understanding of the underlying group structure. See Non-commutative harmonic analysis If the group is neither abelian nor compact, no general satisfactory theory is currently known. By "satisfactory" one would mean at least the equivalent of Plancherel theorem. However, many specific cases have been analyzed, for example SLn. In this case, it turns out that representations in infinite dimension play a crucial role. Other branches Study of the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the Laplacian on domains, manifolds, and (to a lesser extent) graphs is also considered a branch of harmonic analysis. See e.g., hearing the shape of a drum. Harmonic analysis on Euclidean spaces deals with properties of the Fourier transform on Rn that have no analog on general groups. For example, the fact that the Fourier transform is invariant to rotations. Decomposing the Fourier transform to its radial and spherical components leads to topics such as Bessel functions and spherical harmonics. See the book reference. Harmonic analysis on tube domains is concerned with generalizing properties of Hardy spaces to higher dimensions. See also Fourier series References Elias M. Stein and Guido Weiss, Introduction to Fourier Analysis on Euclidean Spaces, Princeton University Press, 1971. ISBN 0-691-08078-X Yitzhak Katznelson, An introduction to harmonic analysis, Third edition. Cambridge University Press, 2004. 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4,477 | Kidney | The kidneys are paired organs seen in many types of animals, including vertebrates and some invertebrates. Part of the urinary system, they are responsible for urine production as well as a number of other homeostatic functions. These include regulation of electrolytes, acid-base balance, and blood pressure; excretion of wastes such as urea and ammonium; reabsorption of glucose and amino acids; and production of hormones including vitamin D and erythropoietin. Located behind the abdominal cavity in the retroperitoneum, the kidneys receive blood from the paired renal arteries, and drain into the paired renal veins. Each kidney excretes urine into a ureter, itself a paired structure that empties into the urinary bladder. Renal physiology is the study of kidney function, while nephrology is the medical specialty concerned with diseases of the kidney. Diseases of the kidney are diverse, but individuals with kidney disease frequently display characteristic clinical features. Common clinical presentations include the nephritic and nephrotic syndromes, acute kidney failure, chronic kidney disease, urinary tract infection, nephrolithiasis, and urinary tract obstruction. Anatomy Location In humans, the kidneys are located behind the abdominal cavity, in a space called the retroperitoneum. There are two, one on each side of the spine; they are approximately at the vertebral level T12 to L3. The right kidney sits just below the diaphragm and posterior to the liver, the left below the diaphragm and posterior to the spleen. Above each kidney is an adrenal gland (also called the suprarenal gland). The asymmetry within the abdominal cavity caused by the liver typically results in the right kidney being slightly lower than the left, and left kidney being located slightly more medial than the right. The upper (cranial) parts of the kidneys are partially protected by the eleventh and twelfth ribs, and each whole kidney and adrenal gland are surrounded by two layers of fat (the perirenal and pararenal fat) and the renal fascia. Each adult kidney weighs between 125 and 170 g in males and between 115 and 155 g in females. The left kidney is typically slightly larger than the right. Structure Bean-shaped structures, each kidney has concave and convex surfaces. The concave surface, the renal hilum, is the point at which the renal artery enters the organ, and the renal vein and ureter leaves. The kidney is surrounded by tough fibrous tissue, the renal capsule, which is itself surrounded by perinephric fat, renal fascia (of Gerota), and paranephric fat. The anterior (front) border of these tissues is the peritoneum, while the posterior (rear) border is the transversalis fascia. The substance, or parenchyma, of the kidney is divided into two major structures: superficial is the renal cortex and deep is the renal medulla. Grossly, these structures take the shape of 8 to 18 cone-shaped renal lobes, each containing renal cortex surrounding a portion of medulla called a renal pyramid (of Malphigi). Between renal pyramids, which are composed of medulla, are projections of cortex called renal columns (of Bertin). Nephrons, the urine-producing functional structures of the kidney, span the cortex and medulla. The initial filtering portions of the nephron, the renal corpuscles, are located in the cortex and each sends a renal tubule that passes from the cortex deep into the medullary pyramids. Part of the renal cortex, a medullary ray is a collection of renal tubules that drain into a single collecting duct. The tip, or papilla, of each pyramid empties urine into a minor calyx, minor calyces empty into major calyces, and major calyces empty into the renal pelvis and ultimately the ureter and urinary bladder. These urine-filled spaces comprise the renal sinus. Blood supply The kidneys receive blood from the renal arteries, left and right, which branch directly from the abdominal aorta. Despite their relatively small size, the kidneys receive approximately 20% of the cardiac output. Each renal artery branches into segmental arteries, dividing further into interlobar arteries which penetrate the renal capsule and extend through the renal columns between the renal pyramids. The interlobar arteries then supply blood to the arcuate arteries that run through the boundary of the cortex and the medulla. Each arcuate artery supplies several interlobular arteries that feed into the afferent arterioles that supply the glomeruli. After filtration occurs the blood moves through a small network of venules that converge into interlobar veins. As with the arteriole distribution the veins follow the same pattern, the interlobar provide blood to the arcuate veins then back to the interlobar veins which come to form the renal vein exiting the kidney for transfusion for blood. Histology Microscopic photograph of the renal medulla. Microscopic photograph of the renal cortex. Renal histology studies the structure of the kidney as viewed under a microscope. Various distinct cell types occur in the kidney, including: Kidney glomerulus parietal cell Kidney glomerulus podocyte Kidney proximal tubule brush border cell Loop of Henle thin segment cell Thick ascending limb cell Kidney distal tubule cell Kidney collecting duct cell Interstitial kidney cell Embryology The mammalian kidney develops from intermediate mesoderm. Kidney development, also called nephrogenesis, proceeds through a series of three successive phases, each marked by the development of a more advanced pair of kidneys: the pronephros, mesonephros, and metanephros. Evolutionary adaptation Kidneys of various animals show evidence of evolutionary adaptation and have long been studied in ecophysiology and comparative physiology. Kidney morphology, often indexed as the relative medullary thickness, is associated with habitat aridity among species of mammals. Etymology Medical terms related to the kidneys commonly use terms such as renal and the prefix nephro-. The adjective renal, meaning related to the kidney, is from the Latin rēnēs, meaning kidneys; the prefix nephro- is from the Ancient Greek word for kidney, nephros (νεφρός). For example, surgical removal of the kidney is a nephrectomy, while a reduction in kidney function is called renal dysfunction. Diseases and disorders Congenital Congenital hydronephrosis Congenital obstruction of urinary tract Duplicated ureter Horseshoe kidney Polycystic kidney disease Renal dysplasia Unilateral small kidney Multicystic dysplastic kidney Parenchyma Acquired Drawing of an enlarged kidney by John Hunter. Diabetic nephropathy Glomerulonephritis Hydronephrosis is the enlargement of one or both of the kidneys caused by obstruction of the flow of urine. Interstitial nephritis Kidney stones (nephrolithiasis) are a relatively common and particularly painful disorder. Kidney tumors Wilms tumor Renal cell carcinoma Lupus nephritis Minimal change disease In nephrotic syndrome, the glomerulus has been damaged so that a large amount of protein in the blood enters the urine. Other frequent features of the nephrotic syndrome include swelling, low serum albumin, and high cholesterol. Pyelonephritis is infection of the kidneys and is frequently caused by complication of a urinary tract infection. Renal failure Acute renal failure Stage 5 Chronic Kidney Disease Kidney failure Generally, humans can live normally with just one kidney, as one has more functioning renal tissue than is needed to survive. Only when the amount of functioning kidney tissue is greatly diminished will chronic kidney disease develop. Renal replacement therapy, in the form of dialysis or kidney transplantation, is indicated when the glomerular filtration rate has fallen very low or if the renal dysfunction leads to severe symptoms. History Human thought about kidneys The Latin term renes is related to the English word "reins", a synonym for the kidneys in Shakespearean English (eg. Merry Wives of Windsor 3.5), which was also the time the King James Version was translated. Kidneys were once popularly regarded as the seat of the conscience and reflection The Patient as Person: Explorations in Medical Ethics p. 60 by Paul Ramsey, Margaret Farley, Albert Jonsen, William F. May (2002) History of Nephrology 2 p. 235 by International Association for the History of Nephrology Congress, Garabed Eknoyan, Spyros G. Marketos, Natale G. De Santo - 1997; Reprint of American Journal of Nephrology; v. 14, no. 4-6, 1994. , and a number of verses in the Bible (eg. Ps. 7:9, Rev. 2:23) state that God searches out and inspects the kidneys, or "reins", of humans. Similarly, the Talmud (Berakhoth 61.a) states that one of the two kidneys counsels what is good, and the other evil. Animal kidneys as food The kidneys of animals can be cooked and eaten by humans (along with other offal). Kidneys are usually grilled or sautéed, but in more complex dishes they are stewed with a sauce that will improve their flavor. In many preparations kidneys are combined with pieces of meat or liver, like in mixed grill or in Meurav Yerushalmi. Among the most reputed kidney dishes, the British Steak and kidney pie, the Swedish Hökarpanna (pork and kidney stew), the French Rognons de veau sauce moutarde (veal kidneys in mustard sauce) and the Spanish "Riñones al Jerez" (kidneys stewed in sherry sauce), deserve special mention. Rognons dans les recettes See also Artificial kidney References External links electron microscopic images of the kidney (Dr. Jastrow's EM-Atlas) European Renal Genome project kidney function tutorial Kidney Foundation of Canada kidney disease information National Kidney Foundation Kidney Foundation (Canada) BC Renal Agency - Official site for the province-wide network of renal care providers in British Columbia, Canada World Kidney Day website UNC Nephropathology American Society of Nephrology | Kidney |@lemmatized kidney:80 pair:2 organ:2 see:2 many:2 type:2 animal:4 include:6 vertebrate:1 invertebrate:1 part:3 urinary:7 system:1 responsible:1 urine:7 production:2 well:1 number:2 homeostatic:1 function:5 regulation:1 electrolyte:1 acid:2 base:1 balance:1 blood:9 pressure:1 excretion:1 waste:1 urea:1 ammonium:1 reabsorption:1 glucose:1 amino:1 hormone:1 vitamin:1 erythropoietin:1 locate:4 behind:2 abdominal:4 cavity:3 retroperitoneum:2 receive:3 paired:3 renal:44 artery:10 drain:2 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proximal:1 brush:1 loop:1 henle:1 thin:1 segment:1 thick:1 ascend:1 limb:1 distal:1 collect:1 interstitial:2 embryology:1 mammalian:1 develop:2 intermediate:1 mesoderm:1 development:2 nephrogenesis:1 proceeds:1 series:1 three:1 successive:1 phase:1 mark:1 advanced:1 pronephros:1 mesonephros:1 metanephros:1 evolutionary:2 adaptation:2 show:1 evidence:1 long:1 ecophysiology:1 comparative:1 morphology:1 often:1 index:1 relative:1 thickness:1 associate:1 habitat:1 aridity:1 among:2 specie:1 mammal:1 etymology:1 term:3 relate:3 commonly:1 use:1 prefix:2 nephro:2 adjective:1 mean:2 latin:2 rēnēs:1 ancient:1 greek:1 word:2 nephros:1 νεφρός:1 example:1 surgical:1 removal:1 nephrectomy:1 reduction:1 dysfunction:2 disorder:2 congenital:3 hydronephrosis:2 duplicate:1 horseshoe:1 polycystic:1 dysplasia:1 unilateral:1 multicystic:1 dysplastic:1 acquire:1 drawing:1 enlarged:1 john:1 hunter:1 diabetic:1 nephropathy:1 glomerulonephritis:1 enlargement:1 flow:1 nephritis:2 stone:1 particularly:1 painful:1 tumor:2 wilms:1 carcinoma:1 lupus:1 minimal:1 change:1 damage:1 amount:2 protein:1 frequent:1 swell:1 serum:1 albumin:1 high:1 cholesterol:1 pyelonephritis:1 complication:1 stage:1 generally:1 live:1 normally:1 functioning:1 need:1 survive:1 greatly:1 diminish:1 replacement:1 therapy:1 dialysis:1 transplantation:1 indicate:1 glomerular:1 rate:1 fall:1 lead:1 severe:1 symptom:1 history:3 think:1 kidneys:1 renes:1 english:2 rein:2 synonym:1 shakespearean:1 eg:2 merry:1 wife:1 windsor:1 time:1 king:1 james:1 version:1 translate:1 popularly:1 regard:1 seat:1 conscience:1 reflection:1 patient:1 person:1 exploration:1 ethic:1 p:3 paul:1 ramsey:1 margaret:1 farley:1 albert:1 jonsen:1 william:1 f:1 may:1 international:1 association:1 congress:1 garabed:1 eknoyan:1 spyros:1 marketos:1 natale:1 de:2 santo:1 reprint:1 american:2 journal:1 v:1 verse:1 bible:1 rev:1 state:2 god:1 search:1 inspect:1 similarly:1 talmud:1 berakhoth:1 counsel:1 good:1 evil:1 food:1 cook:1 eat:1 along:1 offal:1 usually:1 grill:2 sautéed:1 complex:1 dish:2 stew:3 sauce:4 improve:1 flavor:1 preparation:1 combine:1 piece:1 meat:1 like:1 mixed:1 meurav:1 yerushalmi:1 reputed:1 british:2 steak:1 pie:1 swedish:1 hökarpanna:1 pork:1 french:1 rognons:2 veau:1 moutarde:1 veal:1 mustard:1 spanish:1 riñones:1 al:1 jerez:1 sherry:1 deserve:1 special:1 mention:1 dans:1 le:1 recettes:1 artificial:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 electron:1 image:1 dr:1 jastrow:1 em:1 atlas:1 european:1 genome:1 project:1 tutorial:1 foundation:3 canada:3 information:1 national:1 bc:1 agency:1 official:1 site:1 province:1 wide:1 care:1 provider:1 columbia:1 world:1 day:1 website:1 unc:1 nephropathology:1 society:1 |@bigram vertebrate_invertebrate:1 amino_acid:1 abdominal_cavity:3 renal_artery:4 excrete_urine:1 urinary_bladder:2 kidney_disease:7 chronic_kidney:3 urinary_tract:4 tract_infection:2 adrenal_gland:2 eleventh_twelfth:1 concave_convex:1 collect_duct:1 surgical_removal:1 polycystic_kidney:1 cell_carcinoma:1 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4,478 | Agarose_gel_electrophoresis | Digital image of 3 plasmid restriction digests run on a 1% w/v agarose gel, 3 Volts/cm, stained with ethidium bromide. The DNA size marker is a commercial 1 kbp ladder. The position of the wells and direction of DNA migration is noted. Agarose gel electrophoresis is a method used in biochemistry and molecular biology to separate DNA, or RNA molecules by size. This is achieved by moving negatively charged nucleic acid molecules through an agarose matrix with an electric field (electrophoresis). Shorter molecules move faster and migrate farther than longer ones. Sambrook J, Russel DW (2001). Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual 3rd Ed. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. Cold Spring Harbor, NY. Applications Estimation of the size of DNA molecules following restriction enzyme digestion, e.g. in restriction mapping of cloned DNA. Analysis of PCR products, e.g. in molecular genetic diagnosis or genetic fingerprinting Separation of restricted genomic DNA prior to Southern transfer, or of RNA prior to Northern transfer. The advantages are that the gel is easily poured, does not denature the samples. The samples can also be recovered. The disadvantages are that gels can melt during electrophoresis, the buffer can become exhausted, and different forms of genetic material may run in unpredictable forms. After the experiment is finished, the resulting gel can be stored in a plastic bag in a refrigerator. Factors affecting migration The most important factor is the length of the DNA molecule, smaller molecules travel farther. But conformation of the DNA molecule is also a factor. To avoid this problem linear molecules are usually separated, usually DNA fragments from a restriction digest, linear DNA PCR products, or RNAs. Increasing the agarose concentration of a gel reduces the migration speed and enables separation of smaller DNA molecules. The higher the voltage, the faster the DNA moves. But voltage is limited by the fact that it heats and ultimately causes the gel to melt. High voltages also decrease the resolution (above about 5 to 8 V/cm). Conformations of a DNA plasmid that has not been cut with a restriction enzyme will move with different speeds (slowest to fastest): nicked or open circular, linearised, or supercoiled plasmid. Visualisation: Ethidium Bromide (EtBr) and dyes The most common dye used to make DNA or RNA bands visible for agarose gel electrophoresis is ethidium bromide, usually abbreviated as EtBr. It fluoresces under UV light when intercalated into DNA (or RNA). By running DNA through an EtBr-treated gel and visualizing it with UV light, any band containing more than ~20ng DNA becomes distinctly visible. EtBr is a known mutagen, however, and safer alternatives are available. SYBR Green I is another dsDNA stain, produced by Invitrogen. It is more expensive, but 25 times more sensitive, and possibly safer than EtBr, though there is no data addressing its mutagenicity or toxicity in humans. SYBR Green I Nucleic Acid Gel Stain SYBR Safe is a variant of SYBR Green that has been shown to have low enough levels of mutagenicity and toxicity to be deemed nonhazardous waste under U.S. Federal regulations. SYBR Safe DNA Gel Stain It has similar sensitivity levels to EtBr, but, like SYBR Green, is significantly more expensive. Since EtBr stained DNA is not visible in natural light, scientists mix DNA with negatively charged loading buffers before adding the mixture to the gel. Loading buffers are useful because they are visible in natural light (as opposed to UV light for EtBr stained DNA), and they co-sediment with DNA (meaning they move at the same speed as DNA of a certain length). Xylene cyanol and Bromophenol blue are common loading buffers; they run about the same speed as DNA fragments that are 5000 bp and 300 bp in length respectively, but the precise position varies with percentage of the gel. Other less frequently used progress markers are Cresol Red and Orange G which run at about 125 bp and 50 bp. Percent agarose and resolution limits Agarose gel electrophoresis can be used for the separation of DNA fragments ranging from 50 base pair to several megabases (millions of bases) using specialized apparatus. The distance between DNA bands of a given length is determined by the percent agarose in the gel. In general lower concentrations of agarose are better for larger molecules because they result in greater separation between bands that are close in size. The disadvantage of higher concentrations is the long run times (sometimes days). Instead high percentage agarose gels should be run with a pulsed field electrophoresis (PFE), or field inversion electrophoresis. Most agarose gels are made with between 0.7% (good separation or resolution of large 5–10kb DNA fragments) and 2% (good resolution for small 0.2–1kb fragments) agarose dissolved in electrophoresis buffer. Up to 3% can be used for separating very tiny fragments but a vertical polyacrylamide gel is more appropriate in this case. Low percentage gels are very weak and may break when you try to lift them. High percentage gels are often brittle and do not set evenly. 1% gels are common for many applications. Buffers There are a number of buffers used for agarose electrophoresis. The most common being: tris acetate EDTA (TAE), Tris/Borate/EDTA (TBE) and Sodium borate (SB). TAE has the lowest buffering capacity but provides the best resolution for larger DNA. This means a lower voltage and more time, but a better product. SB is relatively new and is ineffective in resolving fragments larger than 5 kbp; However, with its low conductivity, a much higher voltage could be used (up to 35 V/cm), which means a shorter analysis time for routine electrophoresis. As low as one base pair size difference could be resolved in 3% agarose gel with an extremely low conductivity medium (1 mM Lithium borate). Brody JR, Calhoun ES, Gallmeier E, Creavalle TD, Kern SE (2004). Ultra-fast high-resolution agarose electrophoresis of DNA and RNA using low-molarity conductive media. Biotechniques. 37:598-602. Analysis After electrophoresis the gel is illuminated with an ultraviolet lamp (usually by placing it on a light box, while using protective gear to limit exposure to ultraviolet radiation) to view the DNA bands. The ethidium bromide fluoresces reddish-orange in the presence of DNA. The DNA band can also be cut out of the gel, and can then be dissolved to retrieve the purified DNA. The gel can then be photographed usually with a digital or polaroid camera. Although the stained nucleic acid fluoresces reddish-orange, images are usually shown in black and white (see figures). Gel electrophoresis research often takes advantage of software-based image analysis tools, such as ImageJ. 1 2 3 A 1% agarose 'slab' gel prior to UV illumination, behind a perspex UV shield. Only the marker dyes can be seen The gel with UV illumination, the ethidium bromide stained DNA glows orange Digital photo of the gel. Lane 1. Commercial DNA Markers (1kbplus), Lane 2. empty, Lane 3. a PCR product of just over 500 bases, Lane 4. Restriction digest showing the a similar fragment cut from a 4.5 kb plasmid vector Typical method Materials Typically 10-30 μl/sample of the DNA fragments to separate are obtained, as well as a mixture of DNA fragments (usually 10-20) of known size (after processing with DNA size markers either from a commercial source or prepared manually). Buffer solution, usually TBE buffer or TAE 1.0x, pH 8.0 Agarose An ultraviolet-fluorescent dye, ethidium bromide, (5.25 mg/ml in H2O). The stock solution be careful handling this. Alternative dyes may be used, such as SYBR Green. Nitrile rubber gloves. Latex gloves do not protect well from ethidium bromide A color marker dye containing a low molecular weight dye such as "bromophenol blue" (to enable tracking the progress of the electrophoresis) and glycerol (to make the DNA solution denser so it will sink into the wells of the gel). A gel rack A "comb" Power Supply UV lamp or UV lightbox or other method to visualize DNA in the gel Preparation There are several methods for preparing gels. A common example is shown here. Other methods might differ in the buffering system used, the sample size to be loaded, the total volume of the gel (typically thickness is kept to a constant amount while length and breadth are varied as needed). Most agarose gels used in modern biochemistry and molecular biology are prepared and run horizontally. Make a 1% agarose solution in 100ml TAE, for typical DNA fragments (see figures). A solution of up to 2-4% can be used if you analyze small DNA molecules, and for large molecules, a solution as low as 0.7% can be used. Carefully bring the solution just to the boil to dissolve the agarose, preferably in a microwave oven. Let the solution cool down to about 60 °C at room temperature, or water bath. Stir or swirl the solution while cooling. Wear gloves from here on, ethidium bromide is a mutagen, for more information on safety see ethidium bromide Add 5 µl ethidium bromide stock (10 mg/ml) per 100 ml gel solution for a final concentration of 0.5 ug/ml. Be very careful when handling the concentrated stock. Some researchers prefer not to add ethidium bromide to the gel itself, instead soaking the gel in an ethidium bromide solution after running. Stir the solution to disperse the ethidium bromide, then pour it into the gel rack. Insert the comb at one side of the gel, about 5-10 mm from the end of the gel. When the gel has cooled down and become solid, carefully remove the comb. The holes that remain in the gel are the wells or slots. Put the gel, together with the rack, into a tank with TAE. Ethidium bromide at the same concentration can be added to the buffer. The gel must be completely covered with TAE, with the slots at the end electrode that will have the negative current. Procedure After the gel has been prepared, use a micropipette to inject about 2.5 µl of stained DNA (a DNA ladder is also highly recommended). Close the lid of the electrophoresis chamber and apply current (typically 100 V for 30 minutes with 15 ml of gel). The colored dye in the DNA ladder and DNA samples acts as a "front wave" that runs faster than the DNA itself. When the "front wave" approaches the end of the gel, the current is stopped. The DNA is stained with ethidium bromide, and is then visible under ultraviolet light. The agarose gel with three slots/wells (S). Injection of DNA ladder (molecular weight markers) into the first slot. DNA ladder injected. Injection of samples into the second and third slot. A current is applied. The DNA moves toward the positive anode due to the negative charges on its phosphate backbone. Small DNA strands move fast, large DNA strands move slowly through the gel. The DNA is not normally visible during this process, so the marker dye is added to the DNA to avoid the DNA being run entirely off the gel. The marker dye has a low molecular weight, and migrates faster than the DNA, so as long as the marker has not run past the end of the gel, the DNA will still be in the gel. Add the color marker dye to the DNA ladder. Agarose gel with samples loaded in the slots, before the electrophoresis process A pattern of DNA-bands under UV light Figure 1: Schematic drawing of the electrophoresis process, see text for description of steps See also gel electrophoresis SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis Southern blot Northern blot PCR Restriction endonuclease References External links How to run a DNA or RNA gel Animation of gel analysis of DNA restriction fragments Detailed description and movies of the preparation and uses of agarose gels Step by step photos of running a gel and extracting DNA Drinking straw electrophoresis! | Agarose_gel_electrophoresis |@lemmatized digital:3 image:3 plasmid:4 restriction:8 digest:3 run:14 w:1 v:4 agarose:23 gel:60 volt:1 cm:3 stain:9 ethidium:15 bromide:15 dna:63 size:8 marker:11 commercial:3 kbp:2 ladder:6 position:2 well:6 direction:1 migration:3 note:1 electrophoresis:20 method:5 use:16 biochemistry:2 molecular:7 biology:2 separate:4 rna:7 molecule:12 achieve:1 move:8 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4,479 | Cuauhtémoc | Cuauhtémoc (also known as Cuauhtemotzin, Guatimozin or Guatemoc; c. 1502– 28 February 1525) was the Aztec ruler (tlatoani) of Tenochtitlan from 1520 to 1521. The name Cuāuhtemōc means "One That Has Descended Like an Eagle" in Nahuatl — commonly rendered in English as "Falling Eagle" — and wrong was . Andrews (2003, pp.594–595). Cuauhtémoc took power in 1520 as successor of Cuitláhuac and was a nephew of the emperor Moctezuma II, and his young wife was one of Moctezuma's daughters. He ascended to the throne when he was 18 years of age, as his city was being besieged by the Spanish and devastated by an epidemic of smallpox brought to the New World by Spanish Invaders. Probably after the killings in the main temple, there were few Aztec captains available to take the position. Torture "The Torture of Cuauhtémoc", a 19th century painting by Leandro Izaguirre. Statue of Cuauhtémoc on Avenida Reforma in Mexico City. The inscription at the bottom of the statue translates as "In memory of Cuauhtémoc (spelled Quautemoc) and his warriors who battled heroically in defense of their country." On August 13, 1521, Cuauhtémoc went to call for reinforcements from the countryside to aid the falling Tenochtitlán, after eighty days of continuous urban warfare against the Spanish. Of all the Nahuas, only Tlatelolcas remained loyal, and the surviving Tenochcas looked for refuge in Tlatelolco where even women took part in the battle. Cuauhtémoc was captured while crossing Lake Texcoco in disguise. He surrendered to Hernán Cortés along with the surviving pipiltin (nobles), and offered him his knife and asked to be killed. At first, Cortés treated his foe chivalrously. "A Spaniard knows how to respect valor even in an enemy," he declared. However, he allowed Aldrete, the royal treasurer, to have Cuauhtemoc tortured to make him reveal the whereabouts of hidden treasure. Cuauhtémoc, insisting that there was no hidden treasure, stood up under the ordeal. Cuauhtémoc was tortured by having his feet put to a fire, along with Tetlepanquetzal, the tlatoani of Tlacopán, and the Cihuacóatl (counselor) Tlacotzin, but even so they refused to divulge information about the treasures the Spanish coveted. It is said that during the torture, Tetlepanquetzal asked him to reveal the location of the treasures in order to stop the pain given to them, and Cuauhtémoc is quoted to say "Do you think I am in a bath for pleasure?" This would be popularized in the 19th century as "Do you think I am in a bed of roses?" The date and details of this episode are unknown. In the end, a shamed Cortés delivered Cuauhtémoc from Aldrete's hands. Eventually Cortés recovered some gold from a noble's house, but most of the tales about "Aztec gold" is a myth. Since for the Aztecs, gold had no intrinsic value, they did not have big solid pieces of gold, instead they preferred wood covered with gold. After those pieces were melted, they only gave a fraction of the gold that Cortés and his men expected. Execution Mosaic of what is considered to be Cuauhtemoc's last address as tlatoani in Nahuatl and Spanish In 1525, Cortés took Cuauhtémoc and several other indigenous nobles on his expedition to Honduras, fearing that Cuauhtémoc could have led an insurrection in his absence. Restall (2004, p.148). While the expedition was stopped in the Chontal Maya capital of Itzamkanac, known as Acalan in Nahuatl, Cortés had Cuauhtémoc executed for allegedly conspiring to kill him and the other Spaniards. There are a number of discrepancies in the various accounts of the event. According to Cortés himself, on 27 February 1525 it was revealed to him by a citizen of Tenochtitlan named Mexicalcingo that Cuauhtémoc, Coanacoch (the ruler of Texcoco) and Tetlepanquetzal (the ruler of Tlacopan) were plotting his death. Cortés interrogated them until each confessed, and then had Cuauhtémoc, Tetlepanquetzal, and another lord named Tlacatlec hanged. Cortés wrote that the other lords would be too frightened to plot against him again, as they believed he had uncovered the plan through magic powers. Cortés's account is supported by the historian Francisco López de Gómara. Restall (2004, pp.149–150). According to Bernal Díaz del Castillo, a conquistador serving under Cortés who recorded his experiences in his book The Conquest of New Spain, the supposed plot was revealed by two men, named Tapia and Juan Velásquez. Díaz portrays the executions as unjust and based on no evidence, and admits to having liked Cuauhtémoc personally. He also records Cuauhtémoc giving the following speech to Cortés, through his interpreter Malinche: Díaz wrote that afterwards, Cortés suffered from insomnia due to guilt, and badly injured himself while wandering at night. Restall (2004, pp.150,152). Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxóchitl, a Mestizo historian and descendant of Coanacoch, wrote an account of the executions in the 17th century partly based on Texcocan oral tradition. According to Ixtlilxóchitl the three lords were joking cheerfully with each other, due to a rumor that Cortés had decided to return the expedition to Mexico, when Cortés asked a spy to tell him what they are talking about. The spy reported honestly, but Cortés invented the plot himself. Cuauhtémoc, Coanacoch and Tetlepanquetzal were all hanged, as well as eight others. However, Cortés cut down Coanacoch, the last to be hanged, after his brother began rallying his warriors. Coanacoch did not have long to enjoy his reprieve — Ixtlilxóchitl wrote that he died a few days later. Restall (2004, p.152). According to the account of the Chontal Maya inhabitants of Itzamkanac recorded in the 17th century, Cuauhtémoc approached Paxbolonacha, the local Maya ruler, telling him of the evils of the Spaniards, and suggesting that the Mayas and Nahuas join forces to kill them. Paxbolonacha refused, observing the Spaniards to be peaceful and well-behaved, and after Cuauhtémoc continued to ask repeatedly, went to Cortés and informed him of Cuauhtémoc's plan. Cortés kept Cuauhtémoc in chains for three days. He was then baptized, although his baptismal name was unknown — "some say he was named don Juan and some say he was named don Hernando". Finally, he was beheaded, and his head impaled on a ceiba tree in front of the temple at Yaxdzan. Restall (2004, pp.152–153). Legacy Monument to Cuauhtémoc in Veracruz, Mexico Tlacotzin, Cuauhtémoc's cihuacoatl, was appointed his successor as tlatoani. He died the next year before returning to Tenochtitlan. The modern-day town of Ixcateopan in the state of Guerrero is home to an ossuary purportedly containing Cuauhtémoc's remains. Many places in Mexico are named in honour of Cuauhtémoc. These include Ciudad Cuauhtémoc in Chihuahua and the Cuauhtémoc borough of the Mexican Federal District. There is also a Cuauhtémoc station on the Mexico City metro and the Monterrey Metrorrey. Cuauhtémoc is also one of the few non-Spanish given names for Mexican boys that is perennially popular. In the Aztec campaign of the PC game Age of Empires II: The Conquerors, the player plays as Cuauhtémoc, despite the name Montezuma for the campaign itself. In the next installment to the series, Age of Empires 3: The War Chiefs, Cuauhtémoc was the leader of Aztecs. In the 1996 Rage Against The Machine single People of the Sun, lyricist Zack De La Rocha rhymes "When the fifth sun sets get back reclaimed, The spirit of Cuauhtémoc alive an untamed". Cuauhtémoc, in the name Guatemoc, is portrayed sympathetically in the adventure novel Montezuma's Daughter, by H. Rider Haggard. First appearing in Chapter XIV, he becomes friends with the protagonist after they save each other's lives. His coronation, torture, and death are described in the novel. Notes References | Cuauhtémoc |@lemmatized cuauhtémoc:35 also:4 know:3 cuauhtemotzin:1 guatimozin:1 guatemoc:2 c:1 february:2 aztec:6 ruler:4 tlatoani:4 tenochtitlan:3 name:11 cuāuhtemōc:1 mean:1 one:3 descend:1 like:2 eagle:2 nahuatl:3 commonly:1 render:1 english:1 fall:2 wrong:1 andrew:1 pp:4 take:4 power:2 successor:2 cuitláhuac:1 nephew:1 emperor:1 moctezuma:2 ii:2 young:1 wife:1 daughter:2 ascend:1 throne:1 year:2 age:3 city:3 besiege:1 spanish:6 devastate:1 epidemic:1 smallpox:1 bring:1 new:2 world:1 invader:1 probably:1 killing:1 main:1 temple:2 captain:1 available:1 position:1 torture:6 century:4 painting:1 leandro:1 izaguirre:1 statue:2 avenida:1 reforma:1 mexico:5 inscription:1 bottom:1 translate:1 memory:1 spelled:1 quautemoc:1 warrior:2 battle:2 heroically:1 defense:1 country:1 august:1 go:2 call:1 reinforcement:1 countryside:1 aid:1 tenochtitlán:1 eighty:1 day:4 continuous:1 urban:1 warfare:1 nahuas:2 tlatelolcas:1 remain:2 loyal:1 survive:2 tenochcas:1 look:1 refuge:1 tlatelolco:1 even:3 woman:1 part:1 capture:1 cross:1 lake:1 texcoco:2 disguise:1 surrender:1 hernán:1 cortés:21 along:2 pipiltin:1 nobles:1 offer:1 knife:1 ask:4 kill:3 first:2 treat:1 foe:1 chivalrously:1 spaniard:4 respect:1 valor:1 enemy:1 declare:1 however:2 allow:1 aldrete:2 royal:1 treasurer:1 cuauhtemoc:2 make:1 reveal:4 whereabouts:1 hidden:2 treasure:4 insist:1 stand:1 ordeal:1 foot:1 put:1 fire:1 tetlepanquetzal:5 tlacopán:1 cihuacóatl:1 counselor:1 tlacotzin:2 refuse:2 divulge:1 information:1 covet:1 say:4 location:1 order:1 stop:2 pain:1 give:4 quote:1 think:2 bath:1 pleasure:1 would:2 popularize:1 bed:1 rose:1 date:1 detail:1 episode:1 unknown:2 end:1 shamed:1 deliver:1 hand:1 eventually:1 recover:1 gold:6 noble:2 house:1 tale:1 myth:1 since:1 intrinsic:1 value:1 big:1 solid:1 piece:2 instead:1 prefer:1 wood:1 cover:1 melt:1 fraction:1 men:2 expect:1 execution:3 mosaic:1 consider:1 last:2 address:1 several:1 indigenous:1 expedition:3 honduras:1 fear:1 could:1 lead:1 insurrection:1 absence:1 restall:5 p:2 chontal:2 maya:4 capital:1 itzamkanac:2 acalan:1 execute:1 allegedly:1 conspire:1 number:1 discrepancy:1 various:1 account:4 event:1 accord:4 citizen:1 mexicalcingo:1 coanacoch:5 tlacopan:1 plot:4 death:2 interrogate:1 confess:1 another:1 lord:3 tlacatlec:1 hang:3 write:4 frighten:1 believe:1 uncover:1 plan:2 magic:1 support:1 historian:2 francisco:1 lópez:1 de:3 gómara:1 bernal:1 díaz:3 del:1 castillo:1 conquistador:1 serve:1 record:3 experience:1 book:1 conquest:1 spain:1 suppose:1 two:1 tapia:1 juan:2 velásquez:1 portray:2 unjust:1 base:2 evidence:1 admit:1 personally:1 follow:1 speech:1 interpreter:1 malinche:1 afterwards:1 suffer:1 insomnia:1 due:2 guilt:1 badly:1 injure:1 wander:1 night:1 fernando:1 alva:1 ixtlilxóchitl:3 mestizo:1 descendant:1 partly:1 texcocan:1 oral:1 tradition:1 three:2 joke:1 cheerfully:1 rumor:1 decide:1 return:2 spy:2 tell:2 talk:1 report:1 honestly:1 invent:1 well:2 eight:1 others:1 cut:1 brother:1 begin:1 rally:1 long:1 enjoy:1 reprieve:1 die:2 later:1 inhabitant:1 approach:1 paxbolonacha:2 local:1 evil:1 suggest:1 join:1 force:1 observe:1 peaceful:1 behave:1 continue:1 repeatedly:1 inform:1 keep:1 chain:1 baptize:1 although:1 baptismal:1 hernando:1 finally:1 behead:1 head:1 impale:1 ceiba:1 tree:1 front:1 yaxdzan:1 legacy:1 monument:1 veracruz:1 cihuacoatl:1 appoint:1 next:2 modern:1 town:1 ixcateopan:1 state:1 guerrero:1 home:1 ossuary:1 purportedly:1 contain:1 many:1 place:1 honour:1 include:1 ciudad:1 chihuahua:1 borough:1 mexican:2 federal:1 district:1 station:1 metro:1 monterrey:1 metrorrey:1 non:1 boy:1 perennially:1 popular:1 campaign:2 pc:1 game:1 empire:2 conqueror:1 player:1 play:1 despite:1 montezuma:2 installment:1 series:1 war:1 chief:1 leader:1 rage:1 machine:1 single:1 people:1 sun:2 lyricist:1 zack:1 la:1 rocha:1 rhyme:1 fifth:1 set:1 get:1 back:1 reclaim:1 spirit:1 alive:1 untamed:1 sympathetically:1 adventure:1 novel:2 h:1 rider:1 haggard:1 appear:1 chapter:1 xiv:1 become:1 friend:1 protagonist:1 save:1 life:1 coronation:1 describe:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram ascend_throne:1 lake_texcoco:1 hernán_cortés:1 hidden_treasure:2 francisco_lópez:1 de_gómara:1 bernal_díaz:1 díaz_del:1 del_castillo:1 badly_injure:1 veracruz_mexico:1 rider_haggard:1 |
4,480 | Common_Lisp | Common Lisp, commonly abbreviated CL, is a dialect of the Lisp programming language, published in ANSI standard document ANSI INCITS 226-1994 (R2004), (formerly X3.226-1994 (R1999)). Document page at ANSI website Developed to standardize the divergent variants of Lisp which predated it, it is not an implementation but rather a language specification. Several implementations of the Common Lisp standard are available, including proprietary products and open source software. Common Lisp is a general-purpose, multi-paradigm programming language. It supports a combination of procedural, functional and object-oriented programming paradigms. As a dynamic programming language, it facilitates rapid development, with iterative compilation into efficient run-time programs. Common Lisp includes CLOS, an object system that supports multimethods and method combinations. It is extensible through standard features such as Lisp macros (compile-time code rearrangement accomplished by the program itself) and reader macros (extension of syntax to give special meaning to characters reserved for users for this purpose). Syntax Common Lisp is a dialect of Lisp; it uses S-expressions to denote both code and data structure. Function and macro calls are written as lists, with the name of the function first, as in these examples: (+ 2 2) ; adds 2 and 2, yielding 4. (defvar *x*) ; Ensures that a variable *x* exists, ; without giving it a value. The asterisks are part of ; the name. The symbol *x* is also hereby endowed with ; the property that subsequent bindings of it are dynamic, ; rather than lexical. (setf *x* 42.1) ; sets the variable *x* to the floating-point value 42.1 ;; Define a function that squares a number: (defun square (x) (* x x)) ;; Execute the function: (square 3) ; Returns 9 ;; the 'let' construct creates a scope for local variables. Here ;; the variable 'a' is bound to 6 and the variable 'b' is bound ;; to 4. Inside the 'let' is a 'body', where the last computed value is returned. ;; Here the result of adding a and b is returned from the 'let' expression. ;; The variables a and b have lexical scope, unless the symbols have been ;; marked as special variables (for instance by a prior DEFVAR). (let ((a 6) (b 4)) (+ a b)) ; returns 10 Data types Common Lisp has many data types—more than many other languages. Scalar types Number types include integers, ratios, floating-point numbers, and complex numbers. Common Lisp uses bignums to represent numerical values of arbitrary size and precision. The ratio type represents fractions exactly, a facility not available in many languages. Common Lisp automatically coerces numeric values among these types as appropriate. The Common Lisp character type is not limited to ASCII characters. Most modern implementations allow Unicode characters. The symbol type is common to Lisp languages, but largely unknown outside them. A symbol is a unique, named data object with several parts: name, value, function, property list and package. Of these, value cell and function cell are the most important. Symbols in Lisp are often used similarly to identifiers in other languages: to hold value of a variable; however there are many other uses. Normally, when a symbol is evaluated, its value is returned. Some symbols evaluate to themselves, for example all symbols in keyword package are self-evaluating. Boolean values in Common Lisp are represented by the self-evaluating symbols T and NIL. Common Lisp has namespaces for symbols, called 'packages'. Data structures Sequence types in Common Lisp include lists, vectors, bit-vectors, and strings. There are many operations which can work on any sequence type. As in almost all other Lisp dialects, lists in Common Lisp are composed of conses, sometimes called cons cells or pairs. A cons is a data structure with two slots, called its car and cdr. A list is a linked chain of conses. Each cons's car refers to a member of the list (possibly another list). Each cons's cdr refers to the next cons -- except for the last cons, whose cdr refers to the nil value. Conses can also easily be used to implement trees and other complex data structures; though it is usually advised to use structure or class instances instead. It is also possible to create circular data structures with conses. Common Lisp supports multidimensional arrays, and can dynamically resize arrays if required. Multidimensional arrays can be used for matrix mathematics. A vector is a one-dimensional array. Arrays can carry any type as members (even mixed types in the same array) or can be specialized to contain a specific type of members, as in a vector of integers. Many implementations can optimize array functions when the array used is type-specialized. Two type-specialized array types are standard: a string is a vector of characters, while a bit-vector is a vector of bits. Hash tables store associations between data objects. Any object may be used as key or value. Hash tables, like arrays, are automatically resized as needed. Packages are collections of symbols, used chiefly to separate the parts of a program into namespaces. A package may export some symbols, marking them as part of a public interface. Packages can use other packages. Structures, similar in use to C structs and Pascal records, represent arbitrary complex data structures with any number and type of fields (called slots). Structures allow single-inheritance. Classes are similar to structures, but offer more dynamic features and multiple-inheritance. (See CLOS.) Classes have been added late to Common Lisp and there is some conceptual overlap with structures. Objects created of classes are called Instances. A special case are Generic Functions. Generic Functions are both functions and instances. Functions Common Lisp supports first-class functions. For instance, it is possible to write functions that take other functions as arguments or return functions as well. This makes it possible to describe very general operations. The Common Lisp library relies heavily on such higher-order functions. For example, the sort function takes a relational operator as an argument and key function as an optional keyword argument. This can be used not only to sort any type of data, but also to sort data structures according to a key. (sort (list 5 2 6 3 1 4) #'>) ; Sorts the list using the > function as the relational operator. ; Returns (6 5 4 3 2 1). (sort (list '(9 A) '(3 B) '(4 C)) #'< :key #'first) ; Sorts the list according to the first element of each sub-list. ; Returns ((3 B) (4 C) (9 A)). The evaluation model for functions is very simple. When the evaluator encounters a form (F A1 A2...) then it is to assume that the symbol named F is one of the following: A special operator (easily checked against a fixed list) A macro operator (must have been defined previously) The name of a function (default), which may either be a symbol, or a sub-form beginning with the symbol lambda. If F is the name of a function, then the arguments A1, A2, ..., An are evaluated in left-to-right order, and the function is found and invoked with those values supplied as parameters. Defining functions The macro defun defines functions. A function definition gives the name of the function, the names of any arguments, and a function body: (defun square (x) (* x x)) Function definitions may include declarations, which provide hints to the compiler about optimization settings or the data types of arguments. They may also include documentation strings (docstrings), which the Lisp system may use to provide interactive documentation: (defun square (x) "Calculates the square of the single-float x." (declare (single-float x) (optimize (speed 3) (debug 0) (safety 1))) (* x x)) Anonymous functions (function literals) are defined using lambda expressions, e.g. (lambda (x) (* x x)) for a function that squares its argument. Lisp programming style frequently uses higher-order functions for which it is useful to provide anonymous functions as arguments. Local functions can be defined with flet and labels. (flet ((square (x) (* x x))) (square 3)) There are a number of other operators related to the definition and manipulation of functions. For instance, a function may be recompiled with the compile operator. (Some Lisp systems run functions in an interpreter by default unless instructed to compile; others compile every entered function on the fly.) Defining generic functions and methods The macro defgeneric defines generic functions. The macro defmethod defines methods. Generic functions are a collection of methods. Methods can specialize their parameters over classes or objects. When a generic function is called, multiple-dispatch will determine the correct method to use. (defgeneric add (a b)) (defmethod add ((a number) (b number)) (+ a b)) (defmethod add ((a vector) (b number)) (map 'vector (lambda (n) (+ n b)) a)) (add #(1 2 3 4) 7) ; returns #(8 9 10 11) (add 2 3) ; returns 5 Generic Functions are also a first class data type. There are many more features to Generic Functions and Methods than described above. The function namespace The namespace for function names is separate from the namespace for data variables. This is a key difference between Common Lisp and Scheme. Operators which define names in the function namespace include defun, flet, labels, defmethod and defgeneric. To pass a function by name as an argument to another function, one must use the function special operator, commonly abbreviated as #'. The first sort example above refers to the function named by the symbol > in the function namespace, with the code #'>. Scheme's evaluation model is simpler: there is only one namespace, and all positions in the form are evaluated (in any order) -- not just the arguments. Code written in one dialect is therefore sometimes confusing to programmers more experienced in the other. For instance, many Common Lisp programmers like to use descriptive variable names such as list or string which could cause problems in Scheme as they would locally shadow function names. Whether a separate namespace for functions is an advantage is a source of contention in the Lisp community. It is usually referred to as the Lisp-1 vs. Lisp-2 debate. Lisp-1 refers to Scheme's model and Lisp-2 refers to Common Lisp's model. These names were coined in a 1988 paper by Richard P. Gabriel and Kent Pitman, which extensively compares the two approaches. Other types Other data types in Common Lisp include: Pathnames represent files and directories in the filesystem. The Common Lisp pathname facility is more general than most operating systems' file naming conventions, making Lisp programs' access to files broadly portable across diverse systems. Input and output streams represent sources and sinks of binary or textual data, such as the terminal or open files. Common Lisp has a built-in pseudo-random number generator (PRNG). Random state objects represent reusable sources of pseudo-random numbers, allowing the user to seed the PRNG or cause it to replay a sequence. Conditions are a type used to represent errors, exceptions, and other "interesting" events to which a program may respond. Classes are first-class objects, and are themselves instances of classes called metaclasses. Readtables are a type of object which control how Common Lisp's reader parses the text of source code. By controlling which readtable is in use when code is read in, the programmer can change or extend the language's syntax. Scope Like programs in many other programming languages, Common Lisp programs make use of names to refer to variables, functions, and many other kinds of entities. Named references are subject to scope. The association between a name and the entity which the name refers to is called a binding. Scope refers to the set of circumstances in which a name is determined to have a particular binding. Determiners of Scope The circumstances which determine scope in Common Lisp include: the location of a reference within an expression. If it's the leftmost position of a compound, it refers to a special operator or a macro or function binding, otherwise to a variable binding or something else. the kind of expression in which the reference takes place. For instance, (GO X) means transfer control to label X, whereas (PRINT X) refers to the variable X. Both scopes of X can be active in the same region of program text, since tagbody labels are in a separate namespace from variable names. A special form or macro form has complete control over the meanings of all symbols in its syntax. For instance in (defclass x (a b) ()), a class definition, the (a b) is a list of base classes, so these names are looked up in the space of class names, and x isn't a reference to an existing binding, but the name of a new class being derived from a and b. These facts emerge purely from the semantics of defclass. The only generic fact about this expression is that defclass refers to a macro binding; everything else is up to defclass. the location of the reference within the program text. For instance, if a reference to variable X is enclosed in a binding construct such as a LET which defines a binding for X, then the reference is in the scope created by that binding. for a variable reference, whether or not a variable symbol has been, locally or globally, declared special. This determines whether the reference is resolved within a lexical environment, or within a dynamic environment. the specific instance of the environment in which the reference is resolved. An environment is a run-time dictionary which maps symbols to bindings. Each kind of reference uses its own kind of environment. References to lexical variables are resolved in a lexical environment, et cetera. More than one environment can be associated with the same reference. For instance, thanks to recursion or the use of multiple threads, multiple activations of the same function can exist at the same time. These activations share the same program text, but each has its own lexical environment instance. To understand what a symbol refers to, the Common Lisp programmer must know what kind of reference is being expressed, what kind of scope it is uses if it is a variable reference (dynamic versus lexical scope), and also the run-time situation: in what environment is the reference resolved, where was the binding introduced into the environment, et cetera. Kinds of Environment Global Some environments in Lisp are globally pervasive. For instance, if a new type is defined, it is known everywhere thereafter. References to that type look it up in this global environment. Dynamic One type of environment in Common Lisp is the dynamic environment. Bindings established in this environment have dynamic extent, which means that a binding is established at the start of the execution of some construct, such as a LET block, and disappears when that construct finishes executing: its lifetime is tied to the dynamic activation and deactivation of a block. However, a dynamic binding is not just visible within that block; it is also visible to all functions invoked from that block. This type of visibility is known as indefinite scope. Bindings which exhibit dynamic extent (lifetime tied to the activation and deactivation of a block) and indefinite scope (visible to all functions which are called from that block) are said to have dynamic scope. Common Lisp has support for dynamically scoped variables, which are also called special variables. Certain other kinds of bindings are necessarily dynamically scoped also, such as restarts and catch tags. Function bindings cannot be dynamically scoped (but, in recognition of the usefulness of dynamically scoped function bindings, a portable library exists now which provides them). Dynamic scope is extremely useful because it adds referential clarity and discipline to global variables. Global variables are frowned upon in computer science as potential sources of error, because they can give rise to ad-hoc, covert channels of communication among modules that lead to unwanted, surprising interactions. In Common Lisp, a special variable which has only a top-level binding behaves just like a global variable in other programming languages. A new value can be stored into it, and that value simply replaces what is in the top-level binding. Careless replacement of the value of a global variable is at the heart of bugs caused by use of global variables. However, another way to work with a special variable is to give it a new, local binding within an expression. This is sometimes referred to as "rebinding" the variable. Binding a dynamically scoped variable temporarily creates a new memory location for that variable, and associates the name with that location. While that binding is in effect, all references to that variable refer to the new binding; the previous binding is hidden. When execution of the binding expression terminates, the temporary memory location is gone, and the old binding is revealed, with the original value intact. Of course, multiple dynamic bindings for the same variable can be nested. In Common Lisp implementations which support multithreading, dynamic scopes are specific to each thread of execution. Thus special variables serve as an abstraction for thread local storage. If one thread rebinds a special variable, this rebinding has no effect on that variable in other threads. The value stored in a binding can only be retrieved by the thread which created that binding. If each thread binds some special variable *X*, then *X* behaves like thread-local storage. Among threads which do not rebind *X*, it behaves like an ordinary global: all of these threads refer to the same top-level binding of *X*. Dynamic variables can be used to extend the execution context with additional context information which is implicitly passed from function to function without having to appear as an extra function parameter. This is especially useful when the control transfer has to pass through layers of unrelated code, which simply cannot be extended with extra parameters to pass the additional data. A situation like this usually calls for a global variable. That global variable must be saved and restored, so that the scheme doesn't break under recursion: dynamic variable rebinding take care of this. And that variable must be made thread-local (or else a big mutex must be used) so the scheme doesn't break under threads: dynamic scope implementations can take care of this also. In the Common Lisp library, there are many standard special variables. For instance, the all standard I/O streams are stored in the top-level bindings of well-known special variables. The standard output stream is stored in *standard-output*. Suppose a function foo writes to standard output: (defun foo () (format t "Hello, world")) It would be nice to capture its output in a character string. No problem, just rebind *standard-output* to a string stream and call it: (with-output-to-string (*standard-output*) (foo)) -> "Hello, world" ; gathered output returned as a string Lexical Common Lisp supports lexical environments. Formally, the bindings in a lexical environment have lexical scope and may have either indefinite extent or dynamic extent, depending on the type of namespace. Lexical scope means that visibility is physically restricted to the block in which the binding is established. References which are not textually (i.e. lexically) embedded in that block simply do not see that binding. The tags in a TAGBODY have lexical scope. The expression (GO X) is erroneous if it is not actually embedded in a TAGBODY which contains a label X. However, the label bindings disappear when the TAGBODY terminates its execution, because they have dynamic extent. If that block of code is re-entered by the invocation of a lexical closure, it is invalid for the body of that closure to try to transfer control to a tag via GO: (defvar *stashed*) ;; will hold a function (tagbody (setf *stashed* (lambda () (go some-label))) (go end-label) ;; skip the (print "Hello") some-label (print "Hello") end-label) -> NIL When the TAGBODY is executed, it first evaluates the setf form which stores a function in the special variable *stashed*. Then the (go end-label) transfers control to end-label, skipping the code (print "Hello"). Since end-label is at the end of the tagbody, the tagbody terminates, yielding NIL. Suppose that the previously remembered function is now called: (funcall *stashed*) ;; Error! This situation is erroneous. One implementation's response is an error condition containing the message, "GO: tagbody for tag SOME-LABEL has already been left". The function tried to evaluate (go some-label), which is lexically embedded in the tagbody, and resolves to the label. However, the tagbody isn't executing (its extent has ended), and so the control transfer cannot take place. Local function bindings in Lisp have lexical scope, and variable bindings also have lexical scope by default. By contrast with GO labels, both of these have indefinite extent. When a lexical function or variable binding is established, that binding continues to exist for as long as references to it are possible, even after the construct which established that binding has terminated. References to a lexical variables and functions after the termination of their establishing construct are possible thanks to lexical closures. Lexical binding is the default binding mode for Common Lisp variables. For an individual symbol, it can be switched to dynamic scope, either by a local declaration, by a global declaration. The latter may occur implicitly through the use of a construct like DEFVAR or DEFPARAMETER. It is an important convention in Common Lisp programming that special (i.e. dynamically scoped) variables have names which begin and end with an asterisk. If adhered to, this convention effectively creates a separate namespace for special variables, so that variables intended to be lexical are not accidentally made special. Lexical scope is useful for several reasons. Firstly, references to variables and functions can be compiled to efficient machine code, because the run-time environment structure is relatively simple. In many cases it can be optimized to stack storage, so opening and closing lexical scopes has minimal overhead. Even in cases where full closures must be generated, access to the closure's environment is still efficient; typically each variable becomes an offset into a vector of bindings, and so a variable reference becomes a simple load or store instruction with a base-plus-offset addressing mode. Secondly, lexical scope (combined with indefinite extent) gives rise to the lexical closure, which in turn creates a whole paradigm of programming centered around the use of functions being first-class objects, which is at the root of functional programming. Thirdly, perhaps most importantly, even if lexical closures are not exploited, the use of lexical scope isolates program modules from unwanted interactions. Due to their restricted visibility, lexical variables are private. If one module A binds a lexical variable X, and calls another module B, references to X in B will not accidentally resolve to the X bound in A. B simply has no access to X. For situations in which disciplined interactions through a variable are desirable, Common Lisp provides special variables. Special variables allow for a module A to set up a binding for a variable X which is visible to another module B, called from A. Being able to do this is an advantage, and being able to prevent it from happening is also an advantage; consequently, Common Lisp supports both lexical and dynamic scope. Macros A macro in Lisp superficially resembles a function in usage. However, rather than representing an expression which is evaluated, it represents a transformation of the program source code. Macros allow Lisp programmers to create new syntactic forms in the language. For instance, this macro provides the until loop form, which may be familiar from languages such as Perl: (defmacro until (test &body body) `(do () (,test) ,@body)) ;; example (until (= (random 10) 0) (write-line "Hello")) All macros must be expanded before the source code containing them can be evaluated or compiled normally. Macros can be considered functions that accept and return abstract syntax trees (Lisp S-expressions). These functions are invoked before the evaluator or compiler to produce the final source code. Macros are written in normal Common Lisp, and may use any Common Lisp (or third-party) operator available. The backquote notation used above is provided by Common Lisp specifically to simplify the common case of substitution into a code template. Variable capture and shadowing Common Lisp macros are capable of what is commonly called variable capture, where symbols in the macro-expansion body coincide with those in the calling context, allowing the programmer to create macros wherein various symbols have special meaning. The term variable capture is somewhat misleading, because all namespaces are vulnerable to unwanted capture, including the operator and function namespace, the tagbody label namespace, catch tag, condition handler and restart namespaces. Variable capture can introduce software defects. This happens in one of the following two ways: In the first way, a macro expansion can inadvertently make a symbolic reference which the macro writer assumed will resolve in a global namespace, but the code where the macro is expanded happens to provide a local, shadowing definition it which steals that reference. Let this be referred to as type 1 capture. The second way, type 2 capture, is just the opposite: some of the arguments of the macro are pieces of code supplied by the macro caller, and those pieces of code are written such that they make references to surrounding bindings. However, the macro inserts these pieces of code into an expansion which defines its own bindings that accidentally captures some of these references. The Scheme dialect of Lisp provides a macro-writing system which provides the referential transparency that eliminates both types of capture problem. This type of macro system is sometimes called "hygienic", in particular by its proponents (who regard macro systems which do not automatically solve this problem as unhygienic). In Common Lisp, macro hygiene is ensured one of two different ways. One approach is to use gensyms: guaranteed-unique symbols which can be used in a macro-expansion without threat of capture. The use of gensyms in a macro definition is a manual chore, but macros can be written which simplify the instantiation and use of gensyms. Gensyms solve type 2 capture easily, but they are not applicable to type 1 capture in the same way, because the macro expansion cannot rename the interfering symbols in the surrounding code which capture its references. Gensyms could be used to provide stable aliases for the global symbols which the macro expansion needs. The macro expansion would use these secret aliases rather than the well-known names, so redefinition of the well-known names would have no ill effect on the macro. Another approach is to use packages. A macro defined in its own package can simply use internal symbols in that package in its expansion. The use of packages deals with type 1 and type 2 capture. However, packages don't solve the type 1 capture of references to standard Common Lisp functions and operators. The reason is that the use of packages to solve capture problems revolves around the use of private symbols (symbols in one package, which are not imported into, or otherwise made visible in other packages). Whereas the Common Lisp library symbols are external, and frequently imported into or made visible in user-defined packages. The following is an example of unwanted capture in the operator namespace, occurring in the expansion of a macro: ;; expansion of UNTIL makes liberal use of DO (defmacro until (expression &body body) `(do () (,expression) ,@body)) ;; macrolet establishes lexical operator binding for DO (macrolet ((do (...) ... something else ...)) (until (= (random 10) 0) (write-line "Hello"))) The UNTIL macro will expand into a form which calls DO which is intended to refer to the standard Common Lisp macro DO. However, in this context, DO may have a completely different meaning, so UNTIL may not work properly. Common Lisp solves the problem of the shadowing of standard operators and functions by forbidding their redefinition. Because it redefines the standard operator DO, the preceding is actually a fragment of non-conforming Common Lisp, which allows implementations to diagnose and reject it. Common Lisp Object System Common Lisp includes a toolkit for object-oriented programming, the Common Lisp Object System or CLOS, which is one of the most powerful object systems available in any language. Originally proposed as an add-on, CLOS was adopted as part of the ANSI standard for Common Lisp. CLOS is a dynamic object system with multiple dispatch and multiple inheritance, and differs radically from the OOP facilities found in static languages such as C++ or Java. As a dynamic object system, CLOS allows changes at runtime to generic functions and classes. Methods can be added and removed, classes can be added and redefined, objects can be updated for class changes and the class of objects can be changed. CLOS has been integrated into ANSI Common Lisp. Generic Functions can be used like normal functions and are a first-class data type. Every CLOS class is integrated into the Common Lisp type system. Many Common Lisp types have a corresponding class. There is more potential use of CLOS for Common Lisp. The specification does not say whether conditions are implemented with CLOS. Pathnames and streams could be implemented with CLOS. These further usage possibilities of CLOS for ANSI Common Lisp are not part of the standard. Actual Common Lisp implementations are using CLOS for pathnames, streams, input/output, conditions, the implementation of CLOS itself and more. Comparison with other Lisps Common Lisp is most frequently compared with, and contrasted to, Scheme—if only because they are the two most popular Lisp dialects. Scheme predates CL, and comes not only from the same Lisp tradition but from some of the same engineers—Guy L. Steele, with whom Gerald Jay Sussman designed Scheme, chaired the standards committee for Common Lisp. Common Lisp is a general-purpose programming language, in contrast to Lisp variants such as Emacs Lisp and AutoLISP which are embedded extension languages in particular products. Unlike many earlier Lisps, Common Lisp (like Scheme) uses lexical variable scope. Most of the Lisp systems whose designs contributed to Common Lisp—such as ZetaLisp and Franz Lisp—used dynamically scoped variables in their interpreters and lexically scoped variables in their compilers. Scheme introduced the sole use of lexically scoped variables to Lisp; an inspiration from ALGOL 68 which was widely recognized as a good idea. CL supports dynamically scoped variables as well, but they must be explicitly declared as "special". There are no differences in scoping between ANSI CL interpreters and compilers. Common Lisp is sometimes termed a Lisp-2 and Scheme a Lisp-1, referring to CL's use of separate namespaces for functions and variables. (In fact, CL has many namespaces, such as those for go tags, block names, and loop keywords.) There is a long-standing controversy between CL and Scheme advocates over the tradeoffs involved in multiple namespaces. In Scheme, it is (broadly) necessary to avoid giving variables names which clash with functions; Scheme functions frequently have arguments named lis, lst, or lyst so as not to conflict with the system function list. However, in CL it is necessary to explicitly refer to the function namespace when passing a function as an argument -- which is also a common occurrence, as in the sort example above. CL also differs from Scheme in its handling of boolean values. Scheme uses the special values #t and #f to represent truth and falsity. CL follows the older Lisp convention of using the symbols T and NIL, with NIL standing also for the empty list. In CL, any non-NIL value is treated as true by conditionals such as if as are non-#f values in Scheme. This allows some operators to serve both as predicates (answering a boolean-valued question) and as returning a useful value for further computation. Lastly, the Scheme standards documents require tail-call optimization, which the CL standard does not. Most CL implementations do offer tail-call optimization, although often only when the programmer uses an optimization directive. Nonetheless, common CL coding style does not favor the ubiquitous use of recursion that Scheme style prefers -- what a Scheme programmer would express with tail recursion, a CL user would usually express with an iterative expression in do, dolist, loop, or (more recently) with the iterate package. Implementations See the Category Common Lisp implementations. Common Lisp is defined by a specification (like Ada and C) rather than by a single implementation (like Perl prior to version 6). There are many implementations, and the standard spells out areas in which they may validly differ. In addition, implementations tend to come with library packages, which provide functionality not covered in the standard. Free Software libraries have been created to support such features in a portable way, most notably Common-Lisp.net and the Common Lisp Open Code Collection project. Common Lisp implementations may use any mix of native code compilation, byte code compilation or interpretion. Common Lisp has been designed to support incremental compilers, file compilers and block compilers. Standard declarations to optimize compilation (such as function inlining) are proposed in the language specification. Most Common Lisp implementations compile source code to native machine code. Some implementations can create (optimized) stand-alone applications. Others compile to bytecode, which reduces speed but eases binary-code portability. There are also compilers that compile Common Lisp code to C code. The misconception that Lisp is a purely interpreted language is most likely due to the fact that Lisp environments provide an interactive prompt and that code is compiled one-by-one, in an incremental way. With Common Lisp incremental compilation is widely used. Some Unix-based implementations (CLISP, SBCL) can be used as script interpreters; that is, invoked by the system transparently in the way that a Perl or Unix shell interpreter is. List of implementations Commercial implementations include: Allegro Common Lisp Corman Common Lisp, which is particularly adapted to Microsoft Windows LispWorks Scieneer Common Lisp, which is designed for high-performance scientific computing. Freely redistributable implementations include: Armed Bear Common Lisp A CL implementation that runs on the Java Virtual Machine. It includes a compiler to Java byte code, and allows access to Java libraries from CL. Armed Bear CL - although it used to be a component of the Armed Bear J Editor - is now an independent project. CLISP A bytecode-compiling implementation, portable and runs on a number of Unix and Unix-like systems (including Mac OS X), as well as Microsoft Windows and several other systems. CLforJava A CL implementation in Java that is actively developed at the College of Charleston. Clozure CL (CCL) Originally a free software / open source fork of Macintosh Common Lisp. As the name implies, CCL was originally native to the Macintosh. Clozure CL now runs on Mac OS X, FreeBSD, Linux, Solaris and Windows. 32 and 64 bit x86 ports are supported on each platform. Additionally there are Power PC ports for Mac OS and Linux. CCL was previously known as OpenMCL, but that name is no longer used, to avoid confusion with the open source version of Macintosh Common Lisp. CMUCL Originally from Carnegie Mellon University, now maintained as Free Software by a group of volunteers. CMUCL uses a fast native-code compiler. It is available on Linux and BSD for Intel x86; Linux for Alpha; Mac OS X for Intel x86 and PowerPC; and Solaris, IRIX, and HP-UX on their native platforms. Embeddable Common Lisp (ECL) Designed to be embedded in C programs. GNU Common Lisp (GCL) The GNU Project's Lisp compiler. Not yet fully ANSI-compliant, GCL is however the implementation of choice for several large projects including the mathematical tools Maxima, AXIOM and ACL2. GCL runs on Linux under eleven different architectures, and also under Windows, Solaris, and FreeBSD. Macintosh Common Lisp Version 5.2 for Apple Macintosh computers with a PowerPC processor running Mac OS X is open source. Movitz Implements a Lisp environment for x86 computers without relying on any underlying OS. Poplog Poplog implements a version of CL, with POP-11, and optionally Prolog, and Standard ML (SML), allowing mixed language programming. For all, the implementation language is POP-11, which is compiled incrementally. It also has an integrated Emacs-like editor that communicates with the compiler. Steel Bank Common Lisp (SBCL) A branch from CMUCL. "Broadly speaking, SBCL is distinguished from CMU CL by a greater emphasis on maintainability." SBCL runs on the platforms CMUCL does, except HP/UX; in addition, it runs on Linux for AMD64, PowerPC, SPARC, and MIPS , and has experimental support for running on Windows. SBCL does not use an interpreter by default; all expressions are compiled to native code unless the user switches the interpreter on. Java based implementations: Armed Bear Common Lisp, CLforJava Historical implementations include Vax Common Lisp - Digital Equipment Corporation's implementation that ran on VAX systems running VMS or ULTRIX. Applications See the Category Common Lisp software. Common Lisp is used in many commercial applications, including the Yahoo! Store web-commerce site, which originally involved Paul Graham and was later rewritten in C++ and Perl. "In January 2003, Yahoo released a new version of the editor written in C++ and Perl. It's hard to say whether the program is no longer written in Lisp, though, because to translate this program into C++ they literally had to write a Lisp interpreter: the source files of all the page-generating templates are still, as far as I know, Lisp code." Paul Graham, Beating the Averages Other notable examples include: Jak and Daxter video games for Playstation2 OpenMusic is an object-oriented visual programming environment based on Common Lisp, used in Computer assisted composition. ITA Software's low fare search engine, used by travel websites such as Orbitz and Kayak.com and airlines such as American Airlines, Continental Airlines and US Airways. There also exist open-source applications written in Common Lisp, such as: ACL2, a full-featured theorem prover for an applicative variant of Common Lisp. Maxima, a sophisticated computer algebra system. Stumpwm, a tiling, keyboard driven X11 Window Manager written entirely in Common Lisp. See also Common Lisp the Language On Lisp Practical Common Lisp References External links The CLiki, a Wiki for Free Software Common Lisp systems running on Unix-like systems. Common Lisp software repository. The Common Lisp directory - information repository for all things Common Lisp. Lisping at JPL The Nature of Lisp Essay that examines Lisp by comparison with XML. 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4,481 | Lassa_fever | Lassa fever is an acute viral hemorrhagic fever first described in 1969 in the town of Lassa, in Borno State, Nigeria located in the Yedseram river valley at the south end of Lake Chad. Clinical cases of the disease had been known for over a decade earlier but not connected with this viral pathogen. The infection is endemic in West African countries, and causes 300-500,000 cases annually with approximately 5,000 deaths. Outbreaks of the disease have been observed in Nigeria, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, and the Central African Republic, but it is believed that human infections also exist in Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mali, and Senegal. Its primary animal host is the Natal Multimammate Mouse (Mastomys natalensis), an animal indigenous to most of Sub-Saharan Africa. Although the rodents are also a source of protein for peoples of these areas, the virus is probably transmitted by the contact with the feces and urine of animals accessing grain stores in residences. Virology Genome Lassa fever is caused by the Lassa virus, a member of the Arenaviridae family; it is an enveloped, single-stranded, bisegmented RNA virus. Replication for Lassa virus is very rapid, while also demonstrating temporal control in replication. There are two genome segments. The first step involved is making mRNA copies of the - sense genome. This ensures that there is adequate proteins, which are required for replication. The N and L proteins are made from the mRNA produced. The - sense genome then makes viral complementary RNA (vcRNA) copies of itself which are + sense. The vcRNA is a template for producing - sense progeny but mRNA is also synthesized from it. The mRNA synthesized from vcRNA translate the G (spike) proteins and Z proteins. Thus, with this temporal control, the spike proteins are produced last, making the infection further undetected by the host immune system. Nucleotide studies of the genome have shown that Lassa has four lineages – three found in Nigeria and the fourth in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. The Nigerian strains seem likely to have been ancestral to the others but additional work is required to confirm this. Receptors The virus shares a receptor – alpha-dystroglycan (alpha-DG) a versatile receptor for proteins of the extracellular matrix – with the prototypic arenavirus lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. Receptor recognition depends on a specific sugar modification of alpha-dystroglycan by a group of glycosyltransferases – the LARGE proteins. These proteins appear to be under positive selection in West Africa where Lassa is endemic. Alpha-dystroglycan is also as a receptor by those of the New World clade C arenaviruses (Oliveros and Latino viruses). The New World areanviruses of clades A and B – which include the important viruses Machupo, Guanarito, Junin, and Sabia in addition to the non pathogenic Amapari virus - in contrast use transferrin receptor 1 as their cellular receptor. It has been shown that a small aliphatic amino acid at the GP1 glycoprotein amino acid position 260 is required for high-affinity binding to alpha-DG. In addition, GP1 amino acid position 259 also appears to be important, since all arenaviruses showing high-affinity alpha-DG binding possess a bulky aromatic amino acid (tyrosine or phenylalanine) at this position. Unlike most enveloped viruses which use clathrin coated pits for cellular entry and bind to their receptors in a pH dependent fashion, Lassa and lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus instead use an endocytotic pathway independent of clathrin, caveolin, dynamin and actin. Once within the cell the viruses are rapidly delivered to endosomes via vesicular trafficking albeit one that is largely independent of the small GTPases Rab5 and Rab7. On contact with the endosome pH-dependent membrane fusion occurs mediated by the envelope glycoprotein. Pathogenesis Lassa virus will infect almost every tissue in the human body. It starts with the mucosa, intestine, lungs and urinary system, and then progresses to the vascular system. Epidemiology Vectors Lassa virus is zoonotic (transmitted from animals), in that it spreads to man from rodents, specifically multi-mammate rats (Mastomys natalensis). This is probably the most common rodent in equatorial Africa, ubiquitous in human households and eaten as a delicacy in some areas. In these rats infection is in a persistent asymptomatic state. The virus is shed in their excreta (urine and feces), which can be aerosolized. In fatal cases, Lassa fever is characterized by impaired or delayed cellular immunity leading to fulminant viremia. Infection in humans typically occurs via exposure to animal excrement through the respiratory or gastrointestinal tracts. Inhalation of tiny particles of infective material (aerosol) is believed to be the most significant means of exposure. It is possible to acquire the infection through broken skin or mucous membranes that are directly exposed to infective material. Transmission from person to person has also been established, presenting a disease risk for healthcare workers. Frequency of transmission via sexual contact has not been established. Prevalence The dissemination of the infection can be assessed by prevalence of antibodies to the virus in populations of: Sierra Leone 8–52% Guinea 4–55% Nigeria approx. 21% Like other hemorrhagic fevers, Lassa fever can be transmitted directly from one human to another. It can be contracted by an airborne route or with direct contact with infected human blood, urine, or semen. Transmission through breast milk has also been observed. Medical aspects Prevention Control of the Mastomys rodent population is impractical, so measures are limited to keeping rodents out of homes and food supplies, as well as maintaining effective personal hygiene. Gloves, masks, laboratory coats, and goggles are advised while in contact with an infected person. Researchers at the USAMRIID facility, where military biologists study infectious diseases, have a promising vaccine candidate. They have developed a replication-competent vaccine against Lassa virus based on recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus vectors expressing the Lassa virus glycoprotein. After a single intramuscular injection, test primates have survived lethal challenge, while showing no clinical symptoms. Symptoms In 80% of cases the disease is inapparent, but in the remaining 20% it takes a complicated course. It is estimated that the virus is responsible for about 5,000 deaths annually. The fever accounts for up to ⅓ of deaths in hospitals within the affected regions and 10 to 16% of total cases. After an incubation period of six to twenty-one days, an acute illness with multiorgan involvement develops. Non-specific symptoms include fever, facial swelling, and muscle fatigue, as well as conjunctivitis and mucosal bleeding. The other symptoms arising from the affected organs are: Gastrointestinal tract Nausea Vomiting (bloody) Diarrhea (bloody) Stomach ache Constipation Dysphagia (difficulty swallowing) Hepatitis Cardiovascular system Pericarditis Hypertension Hypotension Tachycardia (abnormally high heart rate) Respiratory tract Cough Chest pain Dyspnoea Pharyngitis Pleuritis Nervous system Encephalitis Meningitis Unilateral or bilateral hearing deficit Seizures Clinically, Lassa fever infections are difficult to distinguish from other viral hemorrhagic fevers such as Ebola and Marburg, and from more common febrile illnesses such as malaria. The virus is excreted in urine for three to nine weeks and in semen for three months. Diagnosis There is a range of laboratory investigations that are performed to diagnose the disease and assess its course and complications. ELISA test for antigen and IgM antibodies gives 88% sensitivity and 90% specificity for the presence of the infection. Other laboratory findings in Lassa fever include lymphopenia (low white blood cell count), thrombocytopenia (low platelets), and elevated aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels in the blood. Prognosis About 15%-20% of hospitalized Lassa fever patients will die from the illness. It is estimated that the overall mortality rate is 1%, however during epidemics mortality can climb as high as 50%. The mortality rate is greater than 80% when it occurs in pregnant women during their third trimester; fetal death also occurs in nearly all those cases. Abortion decreases the risk of death to the mother. Thanks to treatment with Ribavirin, fatality rates are continuing to decline. Work on a vaccine is continuing, with multiple approaches showing positive results in animal trials. Treatment All persons suspected of Lassa fever infection should be admitted to isolation facilities and their body fluids and excreta properly disposed of. Early and aggressive treatment using Ribavirin was pioneered by Joe McCormick in 1979. After extensive testing, it was determined that early administration is critical to success. Additionally, Ribavirin is almost twice as effective when given intravenously as when taken by mouth. Ribavirin is a prodrug which appears to interfere with viral replication by inhibiting RNA-dependent nucleic acid synthesis, although the precise mechanism of action is disputed. The drug is relatively inexpensive, but the cost of the drug is still very high for many of those in poverty-stricken West African states. Fluid replacement, blood transfusion and fighting hypotension are usually required. Intravenous interferon therapy has also been used. When Lassa fever infects pregnant women late in their third trimester, it is necessary to abort the pregnancy for the mother to have a good chance of survival. This is because the virus has an affinity for the placenta and other highly vascular tissues. The fetus has only a one in ten chance of survival no matter what course of action is taken; hence focus is always on saving the life of the mother. Following abortion, women should receive the same treatment as other Lassa fever patients. Siga Technologies is developing an antiviral drug that has been shown effective in treating experimentally infected guinea pigs. In a study conducted at the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), treatment with ST-193 once a day for 14 days resulted in significant reduction in mortality (71% of the animals survived at the low dose), whereas all untreated animals and those treated with ribavirin died within 20 days of the infection. See also Lujo virus References External links WHO factsheet CDC info - viral fevers Health Protection Agency - viral haemorrhagic fevers Merlin | Lassa_fever |@lemmatized lassa:20 fever:17 acute:2 viral:7 hemorrhagic:3 first:2 describe:1 town:1 borno:1 state:3 nigeria:4 locate:1 yedseram:1 river:1 valley:1 south:1 end:1 lake:1 chad:1 clinical:2 case:6 disease:7 know:1 decade:1 earlier:1 connect:1 pathogen:1 infection:11 endemic:2 west:3 african:3 country:1 cause:2 annually:2 approximately:1 death:5 outbreak:1 observe:2 liberia:2 sierra:3 leone:3 guinea:4 central:1 republic:2 believe:2 human:6 also:11 exist:1 democratic:1 congo:1 mali:1 senegal:1 primary:1 animal:8 host:2 natal:1 multimammate:1 mouse:1 mastomys:3 natalensis:2 indigenous:1 sub:1 saharan:1 africa:3 although:2 rodent:5 source:1 protein:9 people:1 area:2 virus:23 probably:2 transmit:3 contact:5 feces:2 urine:4 access:1 grain:1 store:1 residence:1 virology:1 genome:5 member:1 arenaviridae:1 family:1 enveloped:2 single:2 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untreated:1 see:1 lujo:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 factsheet:1 cdc:1 info:1 health:1 protection:1 agency:1 haemorrhagic:1 merlin:1 |@bigram lassa_fever:10 hemorrhagic_fever:3 liberia_sierra:2 sierra_leone:3 leone_guinea:2 republic_congo:1 mali_senegal:1 sub_saharan:1 saharan_africa:1 lassa_virus:6 extracellular_matrix:1 amino_acid:4 acid_tyrosine:1 virus_infect:1 gastrointestinal_tract:2 mucous_membrane:1 breast_milk:1 infectious_disease:2 intramuscular_injection:1 incubation_period:1 nausea_vomit:1 respiratory_tract:1 chest_pain:1 excrete_urine:1 igm_antibody:1 sensitivity_specificity:1 mortality_rate:2 viral_replication:1 nucleic_acid:1 poverty_stricken:1 blood_transfusion:1 vascular_tissue:1 guinea_pig:1 external_link:1 |
4,482 | İskender_kebap | Yavuz İskenderoğlu's version İskender kebab is one of the most famous meat foods of Northwestern Turkey and takes its name from its inventor, İskender Efendi, who lived in Bursa in the late 19th century. It can be assumed to be derived from a verticalized version Cağ Kebabı, from Erzurum. It is a kind of döner kebab prepared from thinly cut grilled lamb or beef basted with tomato sauce over pieces of pide bread and generously slathered with melted butter and yogurt. Additionally, one cylindrical meatball can be placed on top. It is commonly consumed with şıra as a drink to aid digestion. Tomato sauce and boiling butter are sometimes poured over the dish, at the table. "Kebapçı İskender" is trademarked by Yavuz İskenderoğlu, whose family still runs the restaurant in Bursa. This dish is available in many restaurants throughout the country mostly under the name "İskender kebap", "Bursa kebabı", or at times with an alternative one made up by the serving restaurant such as "Uludağ kebabı". Differences from döner kebab Cemil Çalışır's version A serving of İskender kebap contains thin and wide strips of meat, on the other hand döner kebap has smaller pieces of meat. A real İskender kebap is prepared by stacking large pieces of meat vertically, which is why the meat strips are large. In lower quality restaurants, ground meat is used, which is not suitable for İskender kebap. The fat content of Iskender meat is lower than that of döner meat. İskender kebap is also served with yogurt. It is also the first ever vertical kebab, making it also the first ever proper döner kebab. See also Al pastor Cağ kebab Döner kebab in the world Dürüm Gyros List of Kebabs Shawarma Souvlaki References External links Original İskender Restaurant | İskender_kebap |@lemmatized yavuz:2 skenderoğlu:2 version:3 skender:9 kebab:8 one:3 famous:1 meat:8 food:1 northwestern:1 turkey:1 take:1 name:2 inventor:1 efendi:1 live:1 bursa:3 late:1 century:1 assume:1 derive:1 verticalized:1 cağ:2 kebabı:3 erzurum:1 kind:1 döner:6 prepare:2 thinly:1 cut:1 grilled:1 lamb:1 beef:1 baste:1 tomato:2 sauce:2 piece:3 pide:1 bread:1 generously:1 slather:1 melted:1 butter:2 yogurt:2 additionally:1 cylindrical:1 meatball:1 place:1 top:1 commonly:1 consume:1 şıra:1 drink:1 aid:1 digestion:1 boiling:1 sometimes:1 pour:1 dish:2 table:1 kebapçı:1 trademark:1 whose:1 family:1 still:1 run:1 restaurant:5 available:1 many:1 throughout:1 country:1 mostly:1 kebap:6 time:1 alternative:1 make:2 serve:2 uludağ:1 difference:1 cemil:1 çalışır:1 serving:1 contain:1 thin:1 wide:1 strip:2 hand:1 small:1 real:1 stack:1 large:2 vertically:1 low:2 quality:1 ground:1 use:1 suitable:1 fat:1 content:1 iskender:1 also:4 first:2 ever:2 vertical:1 proper:1 see:1 al:1 pastor:1 world:1 dürüm:1 gyros:1 list:1 shawarma:1 souvlaki:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 original:1 |@bigram döner_kebab:4 tomato_sauce:2 butter_yogurt:1 skender_kebap:5 external_link:1 |
4,483 | Jazz_dance | Jazz dancers. Jazz dance is an umbrella term that can refer to several related dance styles. All of them are connected via common roots, namely tap, ballet, jazz music, and African-American rhythms and dance. History Jazz dance originated from the African American vernacular dance of the late 1800s to the mid-1900s. Until the mid 1950s, the term "jazz dance" often referred to tap dance, because tap dancing (set to jazz music) was the main performance dance of the era. During the later jazz age, popular forms of jazz dance were the Cakewalk, Black Bottom (dance), Charleston, Jitterbug, Boogie Woogie, Swing dancing and the related Lindy Hop. After the 1950s, pioneers such as Katherine Dunham took the essence of Caribbean traditional dance and made it into a performing art. With the growing domination of other forms of entertainment music, jazz dance evolved on Broadway into the new, smooth style that is taught today and known as Modern Jazz, while tap dance branched off to follow its own, separate evolutionary path. The performance style of jazz dance was popularized to a large extent by Bob Fosse’s work, which is exemplified by Broadway shows such as Chicago, Cabaret, Damn Yankees, and The Pajama Game. Today, jazz dance is present in many different forms and venues. Jazz dance is commonly taught in dance schools and performed by dance companies around the world. It continues to be an essential element of musical theatre choreography, where it may be interwoven with other dance styles as appropriate for a particular show. Jazz dancing can be seen in music videos, in competitive dance, and on the television show, So You Think You Can Dance. Technique Technique is the foundation for all dance movement. A strong technical foundation which enables a dancer to focus on the stylistic and performance aspects of dance. Technique is essential for leaps and turns, where correct posture is essential to properly execute such moves. Also, jazz dancers' strong and sharp movements are greatly aided by a good background in ballet technique. However, while ballet movement emphasizes the upbeat of music, jazz dance emphasizes the downbeat. Center control is important in jazz technique. The body's center is the focal point from which all movement emanates, thus making it possible to maintain balance while executing powerful movements. Spotting is important as a turning technique as well. This technique enables a dancer to execute Pirouettes and fouetté's without becoming dizzy. Jazz classes require some form of moderate intensity stretching in order to warm up the muscles and help prevent injuries. Some techniques used in the warm up consist of elongating leg muscles and strengthening the core. Most jazz dancers wear leather jazz shoes, coloured either black or beige, to help them move smoothly when executing turns (e.g. pirouette). Common dance moves In a toe rise, the dancer rises from a kneeling position while supporting the body on the tops of the toes. An acro dancer performs a straddle split leap, one of several leaps also found in jazz dance. Although jazz dance can be performed its traditional form, it is often influenced by other dance styles such as acro, ballet, contemporary, lyrical, and hip hop. In turn, many other dance styles are influenced by jazz dance. Common jazz dance moves include: Ball change Jeté Split Leap Switch Leap/Swish Split Stag Leap Pas de bourrée Piqué passé Pirouette Pivot step Renversé Toe Rise Touch step Chancé Chaîné Turns Posé Turns Step-ball Change Rush-ins Turning Pas de bourrée Step-Tuck Chassé Jazz Runs Step Ball Change Centre Split Leap Lame Duck Turn Illusion Kick Authentic Jazz Moves (almost all of them are 8-count and start on 8): Suzie Q (dance move) Shim Sham Shim Sham Break Basic Charleston Charleston Break Savoy Kick Fall Off The Log Boogie Back Boogie Forward Boogie Drop Shorty George Fish Tail Tick Tock Tack Annies Half Break Mess Around Camel Walk Rusty Dusty Scarecrow Broken legs Box Step Apple Jack Gaze Afar Horse (kick-ball-change - step - skip - step - kick-ball-change - down (gaze afar)) Rocking Hesitation Jumpin' Charleston Squat Charleston Skating Truckin' Spank A Baby Peckin' Around The World Charleston Crazy Legs Lock-turn Rubber Legs Kick Around (downhold on 8) Knee Slap Shine Your Shoes Siska-boom-bah (roundkick - triplestep) Single - Single - Double Kick Tabby The Cat Flyin' Charleston (high-kick - slide - back-step - kick-step) Corkscrew Flea Hop (Slip Slop) Bees' Knees Shouts Notable directors, dancers, and choreographers Katherine Dunham, considered the grandmaster of jazz dance technique. She was a key inspiration to most modern jazz dance legends. Jack Cole, considered the father of jazz dance technique. He was a key inspiration to Matt Mattox, Bob Fosse, Jerome Robbins, Gwen Verdon, and many other choreographers. Eugene Louis Facciuto (aka "Luigi"), an accomplished dancer who, after suffering a crippling automobile accident in the 1950s, created a new style of jazz dance based on the warm-up exercises he invented to circumvent his physical handicaps. Bob Fosse, a noted jazz choreographer who created a new form of jazz dance that was inspired by Fred Astaire and the burlesque and vaudeville styles. Gus Giordano, an influential jazz dancer and choreographer. Jerome Robbins, choreographer for a number of hit musicals, including Peter Pan, The King and I, Fiddler on the Roof, Gypsy, Funny Girl, and West Side Story. Gwen Verdon, known for her roles in Damn Yankees, Chicago, and Sweet Charity. External links Street-Fusion Jazz Dance essay on JazzCotech website | Jazz_dance |@lemmatized jazz:34 dancer:10 dance:38 umbrella:1 term:2 refer:2 several:2 related:2 style:8 connect:1 via:1 common:3 root:1 namely:1 tap:4 ballet:4 music:5 african:2 american:2 rhythm:1 history:1 originate:1 vernacular:1 late:2 mid:2 often:2 dancing:3 set:1 main:1 performance:3 era:1 age:1 popular:1 form:6 cakewalk:1 black:2 bottom:1 charleston:7 jitterbug:1 boogie:4 woogie:1 swing:1 lindy:1 hop:3 pioneer:1 katherine:2 dunham:2 take:1 essence:1 caribbean:1 traditional:2 make:2 performing:1 art:1 grow:1 domination:1 entertainment:1 evolve:1 broadway:2 new:3 smooth:1 teach:2 today:2 know:2 modern:2 branch:1 follow:1 separate:1 evolutionary:1 path:1 popularize:1 large:1 extent:1 bob:3 fosse:3 work:1 exemplify:1 show:3 chicago:2 cabaret:1 damn:2 yankee:2 pajama:1 game:1 present:1 many:3 different:1 venue:1 commonly:1 school:1 perform:3 company:1 around:4 world:2 continue:1 essential:3 element:1 musical:2 theatre:1 choreography:1 may:1 interweave:1 appropriate:1 particular:1 see:1 video:1 competitive:1 television:1 think:1 technique:10 foundation:2 movement:5 strong:2 technical:1 enable:2 focus:1 stylistic:1 aspect:1 leap:7 turn:8 correct:1 posture:1 properly:1 execute:4 move:6 also:2 sharp:1 greatly:1 aid:1 good:1 background:1 however:1 emphasize:2 upbeat:1 downbeat:1 center:2 control:1 important:2 body:2 focal:1 point:1 emanates:1 thus:1 possible:1 maintain:1 balance:1 powerful:1 spotting:1 turning:1 well:1 pirouette:3 fouetté:1 without:1 become:1 dizzy:1 class:1 require:1 moderate:1 intensity:1 stretch:1 order:1 warm:3 muscle:2 help:2 prevent:1 injury:1 use:1 consist:1 elongate:1 leg:2 strengthen:1 core:1 wear:1 leather:1 shoe:2 colour:1 either:1 beige:1 smoothly:1 e:1 g:1 toe:3 rise:3 kneel:1 position:1 support:1 top:1 acro:2 straddle:1 split:4 one:1 find:1 although:1 influence:2 contemporary:1 lyrical:1 hip:1 include:2 ball:5 change:5 jeté:1 switch:1 swish:1 stag:1 pa:2 de:2 bourrée:2 piqué:1 passé:1 pivot:1 step:10 renversé:1 touch:1 chancé:1 chaîné:1 posé:1 rush:1 tuck:1 chassé:1 run:1 centre:1 lame:1 duck:1 illusion:1 kick:8 authentic:1 almost:1 count:1 start:1 suzie:1 q:1 shim:2 sham:2 break:4 basic:1 savoy:1 fall:1 log:1 back:2 forward:1 drop:1 shorty:1 george:1 fish:1 tail:1 tick:1 tock:1 tack:1 annies:1 half:1 mess:1 camel:1 walk:1 rusty:1 dusty:1 scarecrow:1 legs:2 box:1 apple:1 jack:2 gaze:2 afar:2 horse:1 skip:1 rock:1 hesitation:1 jumpin:1 squat:1 skate:1 truckin:1 spank:1 baby:1 peckin:1 crazy:1 lock:1 rubber:1 downhold:1 knee:2 slap:1 shine:1 siska:1 boom:1 bah:1 roundkick:1 triplestep:1 single:2 double:1 tabby:1 cat:1 flyin:1 high:1 slide:1 corkscrew:1 flea:1 slip:1 slop:1 bee:1 shout:1 notable:1 director:1 choreographer:5 consider:2 grandmaster:1 key:2 inspiration:2 legends:1 cole:1 father:1 matt:1 mattox:1 jerome:2 robbins:2 gwen:2 verdon:2 eugene:1 louis:1 facciuto:1 aka:1 luigi:1 accomplished:1 suffer:1 cripple:1 automobile:1 accident:1 create:2 base:1 exercise:1 invent:1 circumvent:1 physical:1 handicap:1 noted:1 inspire:1 fred:1 astaire:1 burlesque:1 vaudeville:1 gus:1 giordano:1 influential:1 number:1 hit:1 peter:1 pan:1 king:1 fiddler:1 roof:1 gypsy:1 funny:1 girl:1 west:1 side:1 story:1 role:1 sweet:1 charity:1 external:1 link:1 street:1 fusion:1 essay:1 jazzcotech:1 website:1 |@bigram boogie_woogie:1 lindy_hop:1 performing_art:1 bob_fosse:3 damn_yankee:2 hip_hop:1 lame_duck:1 dancer_choreographer:2 jerome_robbins:2 automobile_accident:1 fred_astaire:1 fiddler_roof:1 external_link:1 |
4,484 | Anton_Diabelli | Anton Diabelli, lithograph by Josef KriehuberAnton Diabelli (September 5, 1781 – April 8, 1858) was an Austrian music publisher, editor and composer. Best known in his time as a publisher, he is most familiar today as the composer of the waltz on which Ludwig van Beethoven wrote his set of thirty-three Diabelli Variations. Diabelli was born in Mattsee near Salzburg. He was trained to enter the priesthood, but also took music lessons with Michael Haydn. He moved to Vienna to teach the piano and guitar before becoming partners with Pietro Cappi in 1818 and setting up a music publishing firm with him. The firm, Cappi & Diabelli (which became Diabelli & Co. in 1824) became well known by arranging popular pieces so they could be played by amateurs at home. The firm became well known in more serious music circles by becoming the first to publish works by Franz Schubert, a composer the firm later championed. Diabelli produced a number of works as a composer, including an operetta called Adam in der Klemme, several masses and songs and numerous piano and classical guitar pieces. Among these are pieces for four hands (two pianists playing at one piano), which are popular amongst amateur pianists. The composition for which Diabelli is now best known was actually written as part of a publishing venture. In 1819, he decided to try to publish a volume of variations on a waltz he had penned expressly for this purpose, with one variation by every important Austrian composer living at the time, as well as several significant non-Austrians. Fifty composers responded with pieces, including Schubert, an eleven-year-old Franz Liszt, and Johann Nepomuk Hummel. Carl Czerny was enlisted to write a coda, and they were published as Vaterländischer Künstlerverein. Beethoven, however, instead of providing just one variation, provided thirty-three, and his were published in a volume of their own in 1824. They constitute what is generally regarded as one of the greatest of Beethoven's piano pieces and as the greatest set of variations of their time, and are generally known simply as the Diabelli Variations. Diabelli's publishing house expanded throughout his life, before he retired in 1851, leaving it under the control of Carl Anton Spina. When Diabelli died in 1858, Spina continued to run the firm, and published much music by Johann Strauss II and Josef Strauss. In 1872, the firm was taken over by Friedrich Schreiber, and in 1876 it merged with the firm of August Cranz, who bought the company in 1879 and ran it under his name. He died in Vienna at the age of 76. Diabelli's composition Pleasures of Youth: Six Sonatinas is a collection of six sonatinas depicting a struggle between unknown opposing forces. This is suggested by the sharp and frequent change in dynamics from forte to piano. When forte is indicated, the pianist is meant to evoke a sense of wickedness, thus depicting the antagonist. In contrast, the markings of piano represent the protagonist with its softer, more tranquil tones. External links Sheetmusic Rischel & Birket-Smith's Collection of guitar music Det Kongelige Bibliotek, Denmark Boije Collection The Music Library of Sweden www.karadar.com/Dictionary/diabelli.html | Anton_Diabelli |@lemmatized anton:2 diabelli:13 lithograph:1 josef:2 kriehuberanton:1 september:1 april:1 austrian:3 music:7 publisher:2 editor:1 composer:6 best:2 know:5 time:3 familiar:1 today:1 waltz:2 ludwig:1 van:1 beethoven:3 write:3 set:3 thirty:2 three:2 variation:6 bear:1 mattsee:1 near:1 salzburg:1 train:1 enter:1 priesthood:1 also:1 take:2 lesson:1 michael:1 haydn:1 move:1 vienna:2 teach:1 piano:6 guitar:3 become:5 partner:1 pietro:1 cappi:2 publishing:3 firm:7 co:1 well:3 arrange:1 popular:2 piece:5 could:1 play:2 amateur:2 home:1 serious:1 circle:1 first:1 publish:5 work:2 franz:2 schubert:2 later:1 champion:1 produce:1 number:1 include:2 operetta:1 call:1 adam:1 der:1 klemme:1 several:2 mass:1 song:1 numerous:1 classical:1 among:1 four:1 hand:1 two:1 pianist:3 one:4 amongst:1 composition:2 actually:1 part:1 venture:1 decide:1 try:1 volume:2 pen:1 expressly:1 purpose:1 every:1 important:1 living:1 significant:1 non:1 fifty:1 respond:1 eleven:1 year:1 old:1 liszt:1 johann:2 nepomuk:1 hummel:1 carl:2 czerny:1 enlist:1 coda:1 vaterländischer:1 künstlerverein:1 however:1 instead:1 provide:2 constitute:1 generally:2 regard:1 great:2 simply:1 house:1 expand:1 throughout:1 life:1 retire:1 leave:1 control:1 spina:2 die:2 continue:1 run:2 much:1 strauss:2 ii:1 friedrich:1 schreiber:1 merge:1 august:1 cranz:1 buy:1 company:1 name:1 age:1 pleasure:1 youth:1 six:2 sonatina:2 collection:3 depict:2 struggle:1 unknown:1 oppose:1 force:1 suggest:1 sharp:1 frequent:1 change:1 dynamic:1 forte:2 indicate:1 mean:1 evoke:1 sense:1 wickedness:1 thus:1 antagonist:1 contrast:1 marking:1 represent:1 protagonist:1 soft:1 tranquil:1 tone:1 external:1 link:1 sheetmusic:1 rischel:1 birket:1 smith:1 det:1 kongelige:1 bibliotek:1 denmark:1 boije:1 library:1 sweden:1 www:1 karadar:1 com:1 dictionary:1 html:1 |@bigram ludwig_van:1 van_beethoven:1 franz_schubert:1 franz_liszt:1 johann_nepomuk:1 nepomuk_hummel:1 johann_strauss:1 external_link:1 det_kongelige:1 kongelige_bibliotek:1 |
4,485 | Cereal | Oats, barley, and some food products made from cereal grains. Cereals, grains or cereal grains, are grasses (members of the monocot families Poaceae or Gramineae) The seeds of several other plants, such as buckwheat, are also used in the same manner as grains, but since they are not grasses they cannot strictly be called such cultivated for the edible components of their fruit seeds (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis) - the endocarp, germ and bran. Cereal grains are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop; they are therefore staple crops. In their natural form (as in whole grain), they are a rich source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats and oils, and protein. However, when refined by the removal of the bran and germ, the remaining endocarp is mostly carbohydrate and lacks the majority of the other nutrients. In some developing nations, grain in the form of rice, wheat, or maize (in American terminology, corn) constitutes a majority of daily sustenance. In developed nations, cereal consumption is more moderate and varied but still substantial. The word cereal derives from Ceres, the name of the Roman goddess of harvest and agriculture. Production The following table shows annual production of cereal grains, in 1961, 1961 is the earliest year for which FAO statistics are available. 2005 and 2006, ranked by 2006 production. All but buckwheat and quinoa are true grasses (these two are pseudocereals). Grain 2006 (t) 2005 (t) 1961 (t) Maize 695,287,651 712,877,757 205,004,683 A staple food of peoples in North America, South America, and Africa and of livestock worldwide; often called "corn" or "Indian corn" in North America, Australia, and New Zealand. Rice The weight given is for paddy rice 634,575,804 631,508,532 284,654,697 The primary cereal of tropical and some temperate regions Wheat 605,256,883 628,697,531 222,357,231 The primary cereal of temperate regions Barley 138,704,379 141,334,270 72,411,104 Grown for malting and livestock on land too poor or too cold for wheat Sorghum 56,525,765 59,214,205 40,931,625 Important staple food in Asia and Africa and popular worldwide for livestock Millets 31,783,428 30,589,322 25,703,968 A group of similar but distinct cereals that form an important staple food in Asia and Africa. Oats 23,106,021 23,552,531 49,588,769 Formerly the staple food of Scotland and popular worldwide for livestock Rye 13,265,177 15,223,162 35,109,990 Important in cold climates Triticale 11,338,788 13,293,233 0 Hybrid of wheat and rye, grown similarly to rye Buckwheat 2,365,158 2,078,299 2,478,596 A pseudocereal, as it is a Polygonacea and not a Poaceae or Gramineae, used in Eurasia. Major uses include various pancake and groats Fonio 378,409 363,021 178,483 Several varieties of which are grown as food crops in Africa Quinoa 58,989 58,443 32,435 Pseudocereal, grown in the Andes Maize, wheat and rice, between them, accounted for 87% of all grain production, worldwide, and 43% of all food calories in 2003. Other grains that are important in some places, but that have little production globally (and are not included in FAO statistics), include: Teff, popular in Ethiopia but scarcely known elsewhere. This ancient grain is a staple in Ethiopia. It is high in fiber and protein. Its flour is often used to make injera. It can also be eaten as a warm breakfast cereal similar to farina with a chocolate or nutty flavor. Its flour and whole grain products can usually be found in natural foods stores. Wild rice, grown in small amounts in North America Amaranth, ancient pseudocereal, formerly a staple crop of the Aztec Empire (besides maize) Kañiwa, close relative of quinoa Several other species of wheat have also been domesticated, some very early in the history of agriculture: Spelt, a close relative of common wheat Einkorn, a wheat species with a single grain Emmer, one of the first crops domesticated in the Fertile Crescent Durum, the only tetraploid species of wheat currently cultivated, used to make semolina Farming A wheat field in Dorset, England. While each individual species has its own peculiarities, the cultivation of all cereal crops is similar. All are annual plants; consequently one planting yields one harvest. Wheat, rye, triticale, oats, barley, and spelt are the cool-season cereals. These are hardy plants that grow well in moderate weather and cease to grow in hot weather (approximately 30°C but this varies by species and variety). The other warm-season cereals are tender and prefer hot weather. Barley and rye are the hardiest cereals, able to overwinter in the subarctic and Siberia. Many cool-season cereals are grown in the tropics. However, some are only grown in cooler highlands, where it may be possible to grow multiple crops in a year. Planting The warm-season cereals are grown in tropical lowlands year-round and in temperate climates during the frost-free season. Rice is commonly grown in flooded fields, though some strains are grown on dry land. Other warm climate cereals, such as sorghum, are adapted to arid conditions. Cool-season cereals are well-adapted to temperate climates. Most varieties of a particular species are either winter or spring types. Winter varieties are sown in the autumn, germinate and grow vegetatively, then become dormant during winter. They resume growing in the springtime and mature in late spring or early summer. This cultivation system makes optimal use of water and frees the land for another crop early in the growing season. Winter varieties do not flower until springtime because they require vernalization: exposure to low temperature for a genetically determined length of time. Where winters are too warm for vernalization or exceed the hardiness of the crop (which varies by species and variety), farmers grow spring varieties. Spring cereals are planted in early springtime and mature later that same summer, without vernalization. Spring cereals typically require more irrigation and yield less than winter cereals. Period Once the cereal plants have grown their seeds, they have completed their life cycle. The plants die and become brown and dry. As soon as the parent plants and their seed kernels are reasonably dry, harvest can begin. In developed countries, cereal crops are universally machine-harvested, typically using a combine harvester, which cuts, threshes, and winnows the grain during a single pass across the field. In developing countries, a variety of harvesting methods are in use, from combines to hand tools such as the scythe or cradle. If a crop is harvested during wet weather, the grain may not dry adequately in the field to prevent spoilage during its storage. In this case, the grain is sent to a dehydrating facility, where artificial heat dries it. In North America, farmers commonly deliver their newly harvested grain to a grain elevator, a large storage facility that consolidates the crops of many farmers. The farmer may sell the grain at the time of delivery or maintain ownership of a share of grain in the pool for later sale. Storage facilities should be protected from small grain pests, rodents and birds. Standardization ISO has published a series of standards regarding the products of the topic and these standards are covered by ICS 67.060 . See also Food quality Food safety Food price crisis Pulse (legume) Zadoks scale Notes External links Cereal Recipes Cereals by the Vegetarian Society Lost Crops of Africa : Grains | Cereal |@lemmatized oat:3 barley:4 food:12 product:3 make:4 cereal:26 grain:23 grass:3 member:1 monocot:1 family:1 poaceae:2 gramineae:2 seed:4 several:3 plant:9 buckwheat:3 also:4 use:7 manner:1 since:1 cannot:1 strictly:1 call:3 cultivate:2 edible:1 component:1 fruit:2 botanically:1 type:3 caryopsis:1 endocarp:2 germ:2 bran:2 grow:18 great:1 quantity:1 provide:1 energy:1 worldwide:5 crop:13 therefore:1 staple:7 natural:2 form:3 whole:2 rich:1 source:1 vitamin:1 mineral:1 carbohydrate:2 fat:1 oil:1 protein:2 however:2 refine:1 removal:1 remain:1 mostly:1 lack:1 majority:2 nutrient:1 developing:1 nation:2 rice:6 wheat:11 maize:4 american:1 terminology:1 corn:3 constitute:1 daily:1 sustenance:1 developed:2 consumption:1 moderate:2 varied:1 still:1 substantial:1 word:1 derives:1 cere:1 name:1 roman:1 goddess:1 harvest:7 agriculture:2 production:5 follow:1 table:1 show:1 annual:2 early:5 year:3 fao:2 statistic:2 available:1 rank:1 quinoa:3 true:1 two:1 pseudocereals:1 people:1 north:4 america:5 south:1 africa:5 livestock:4 often:2 indian:1 australia:1 new:1 zealand:1 weight:1 give:1 paddy:1 primary:2 tropical:2 temperate:4 region:2 grown:1 malt:1 land:3 poor:1 cold:2 sorghum:2 important:4 asia:2 popular:3 millet:1 group:1 similar:3 distinct:1 formerly:2 scotland:1 rye:5 climate:4 triticale:2 hybrid:1 similarly:1 pseudocereal:3 polygonacea:1 eurasia:1 major:1 us:1 include:3 various:1 pancake:1 groat:1 fonio:1 variety:8 andes:1 account:1 calorie:1 place:1 little:1 globally:1 teff:1 ethiopia:2 scarcely:1 know:1 elsewhere:1 ancient:2 high:1 fiber:1 flour:2 injera:1 eat:1 warm:5 breakfast:1 farina:1 chocolate:1 nutty:1 flavor:1 usually:1 find:1 store:1 wild:1 small:2 amount:1 amaranth:1 aztec:1 empire:1 besides:1 kañiwa:1 close:2 relative:2 specie:7 domesticate:2 history:1 spelt:2 common:1 einkorn:1 single:2 emmer:1 one:3 first:1 fertile:1 crescent:1 durum:1 tetraploid:1 currently:1 semolina:1 farm:1 field:4 dorset:1 england:1 individual:1 peculiarity:1 cultivation:2 consequently:1 yield:2 cool:3 season:7 hardy:1 well:2 weather:4 cease:1 hot:2 approximately:1 c:1 varies:2 tender:1 prefer:1 hardiest:1 able:1 overwinter:1 subarctic:1 siberia:1 many:2 tropic:1 cooler:1 highland:1 may:3 possible:1 multiple:1 lowland:1 round:1 frost:1 free:2 commonly:2 flooded:1 though:1 strain:1 dry:5 adapt:2 arid:1 condition:1 particular:1 either:1 winter:6 spring:5 sow:1 autumn:1 germinate:1 vegetatively:1 become:2 dormant:1 resume:1 springtime:3 mature:2 late:2 summer:2 system:1 optimal:1 water:1 another:1 flower:1 require:2 vernalization:3 exposure:1 low:1 temperature:1 genetically:1 determine:1 length:1 time:2 exceed:1 hardiness:1 farmer:4 later:1 without:1 typically:2 irrigation:1 less:1 period:1 complete:1 life:1 cycle:1 die:1 brown:1 soon:1 parent:1 kernel:1 reasonably:1 begin:1 country:2 universally:1 machine:1 combine:2 harvester:1 cut:1 threshes:1 winnow:1 pas:1 across:1 develop:1 method:1 hand:1 tool:1 scythe:1 cradle:1 wet:1 adequately:1 prevent:1 spoilage:1 storage:3 case:1 send:1 dehydrating:1 facility:3 artificial:1 heat:1 deliver:1 newly:1 elevator:1 large:1 consolidate:1 sell:1 delivery:1 maintain:1 ownership:1 share:1 pool:1 sale:1 protect:1 pest:1 rodent:1 bird:1 standardization:1 iso:1 publish:1 series:1 standard:2 regard:1 topic:1 cover:1 ic:1 see:1 quality:1 safety:1 price:1 crisis:1 pulse:1 legume:1 zadoks:1 scale:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 recipe:1 vegetarian:1 society:1 lose:1 |@bigram cereal_grain:5 vitamin_mineral:1 carbohydrate_fat:1 paddy_rice:1 wheat_sorghum:1 wheat_rye:2 maize_wheat:1 breakfast_cereal:1 fertile_crescent:1 barley_rye:1 temperate_climate:2 combine_harvester:1 grain_elevator:1 standardization_iso:1 external_link:1 |
4,486 | Minor_League_Baseball | REDIRECT Minor league baseball | Minor_League_Baseball |@lemmatized redirect:1 minor:1 league:1 baseball:1 |@bigram league_baseball:1 |
4,487 | Arctic_Circle | The Arctic Circle is one of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the Earth. In , it is the parallel of latitude that runs approximately 66° 34′03″ (or 66.56756°) north of the Equator. The region north of this circle is known as the Arctic, and the zone just to the south is called the Northern Temperate Zone. The equivalent Polar circle in the Southern Hemisphere is called the Antarctic Circle. The Arctic Circle marks the southern extremity of the polar day (24-hour sunlit day, often referred to as the "midnight sun") and polar night (24-hour sunless night). North of the Arctic Circle, the sun is above the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year and below the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year. On the Arctic Circle those events occur, in principle, exactly once per year, at the June and December solstices, respectively. In fact, because of atmospheric refraction and because the sun appears as a disk and not a point, part of the midnight sun may be seen on the night of the summer solstice up to about 50′ () south of the Arctic Circle; similarly, on the day of the winter solstice, part of the sun may be seen up to about 50′ north of the Arctic Circle. That is true at sea level; those limits increase with elevation above sea level although in mountainous regions, there is often no direct view of the horizon. The position of the Arctic Circle is not fixed, but directly depends on the Earth's axial tilt, which fluctuates within a margin of 2° over a 40,000 year period, Arctic Circle notably due to tidal forces resulting from the orbit of the Moon. The Arctic Circle is currently drifting northwards at a speed of about per year, see Circle of latitude for more information. Geography The Arctic Circle passes through the Arctic Ocean, the Scandinavian Peninsula, North Asia, Northern America and Greenland. The land on the Arctic Circle is divided between eight countries, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, the United States (i.e. Alaska), Canada, Denmark (i.e. Greenland) and Iceland. Starting at the Prime Meridian and heading eastwards, the Arctic Circle passes through: {| class="wikitable" ! Longitude ! Country, territory or sea ! Notes |- | 5° 10° | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Arctic Ocean | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Norwegian Sea |- |15° | |Rødøy, Svartisen, Saltfjell, Bogvatnet |- |20° | |Jokkmokk |- |25° | | Rovaniemi, Lake Kemijärvi |- |30° 40° | Karelia | Kandalaksha Gulf, Kola Peninsula, Northern Sea Route (east) |- |41°-43° | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | White Sea | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | |- |45° 50° | Nenetsia | |- |55° 60° | Komi | |- |65° 70° 75° 80° | Yamalia |Salekhard, Gulf of Ob |- | 85° | Krasnoyarsk | |- | 90° 100° 105° | Evenkia | |- |110° 120° 130° 135° 140° 150° 155° | Sakha | Udachnaya pipe |- |160° 170° E 180° | Chukotka | |- |170° W | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Arctic Ocean | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Chukchi Sea, Northwest Passage (west), Northern Sea Route (west) |- |165° | Alaska | Seward Peninsula |- |163° | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Arctic Ocean | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Kotzebue Sound |- |165° 160° 150° | Alaska | Selawik Lake, Fort Yukon |- |140° 130° | Yukon | |- |120° | Northwest Territories | Great Bear Lake |- | 110° 100° 90° 85° | Nunavut | Repulse Bay |- |80° | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Foxe Basin | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | |- | 70° 65° | Nunavut | Baffin Island, Mount Thor |- |60° 55° | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Atlantic Ocean | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Davis Strait, Northwest Passage (east) |- |50° 45° 40° 35° | |Helheim Glacier |- | 30° 25° | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Atlantic Ocean | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Denmark Strait |- |20° 15° | | Island of Grímsey |- |10° 5° | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Arctic Ocean | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Norwegian Sea |} Relatively few people live north of the Arctic Circle due to the Arctic climate. The three largest communities above the Arctic Circle are situated in Russia; Murmansk (population 325,100), Norilsk (135,000), and Vorkuta (85,000). Tromsø (in Norway) has about 62,000 inhabitants, whereas Rovaniemi (in Finland), which lies slightly south of the line, has slightly fewer than 58,000. See also Antarctic Circle Arctic haze Scott Polar Research Institute Territorial claims in the Arctic Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Capricorn References External links Terra Incognita: Exploration of the Canadian Arctic—Historical essay about early expeditions to the Canadian Arctic, illustrated with maps, photographs and drawings | Arctic_Circle |@lemmatized arctic:25 circle:20 one:1 five:1 major:1 latitude:3 mark:2 map:2 earth:2 parallel:1 run:1 approximately:1 north:6 equator:1 region:2 know:1 zone:2 south:3 call:2 northern:4 temperate:1 equivalent:1 polar:4 southern:2 hemisphere:1 antarctic:2 extremity:1 day:3 hour:4 sunlit:1 often:2 refer:1 midnight:2 sun:5 night:3 sunless:1 horizon:3 continuous:2 least:2 per:4 year:5 event:1 occur:1 principle:1 exactly:1 june:1 december:1 solstice:3 respectively:1 fact:1 atmospheric:1 refraction:1 appear:1 disk:1 point:1 part:2 may:2 see:4 summer:1 similarly:1 winter:1 true:1 sea:9 level:2 limit:1 increase:1 elevation:1 although:1 mountainous:1 direct:1 view:1 position:1 fix:1 directly:1 depend:1 axial:1 tilt:1 fluctuate:1 within:1 margin:1 period:1 notably:1 due:2 tidal:1 force:1 result:1 orbit:1 moon:1 currently:1 drift:1 northward:1 speed:1 information:1 geography:1 pass:2 ocean:7 scandinavian:1 peninsula:3 asia:1 america:1 greenland:2 land:1 divide:1 eight:1 country:2 norway:2 sweden:1 finland:2 russia:2 united:1 state:1 e:3 alaska:3 canada:1 denmark:2 iceland:1 start:1 prime:1 meridian:1 heading:1 eastward:1 class:1 wikitable:1 longitude:1 territory:2 note:1 style:16 background:16 norwegian:2 rødøy:1 svartisen:1 saltfjell:1 bogvatnet:1 jokkmokk:1 rovaniemi:2 lake:3 kemijärvi:1 karelia:1 kandalaksha:1 gulf:2 kola:1 route:2 east:2 white:1 nenetsia:1 komi:1 yamalia:1 salekhard:1 ob:1 krasnoyarsk:1 evenkia:1 sakha:1 udachnaya:1 pipe:1 chukotka:1 w:1 chukchi:1 northwest:3 passage:2 west:2 seward:1 kotzebue:1 sound:1 selawik:1 fort:1 yukon:2 great:1 bear:1 nunavut:2 repulse:1 bay:1 foxe:1 basin:1 baffin:1 island:2 mount:1 thor:1 atlantic:2 davis:1 strait:2 helheim:1 glacier:1 grímsey:1 relatively:1 people:1 live:1 climate:1 three:1 large:1 community:1 situate:1 murmansk:1 population:1 norilsk:1 vorkuta:1 tromsø:1 inhabitant:1 whereas:1 lie:1 slightly:2 line:1 also:1 haze:1 scott:1 research:1 institute:1 territorial:1 claim:1 tropic:2 cancer:1 capricorn:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 terra:1 incognita:1 exploration:1 canadian:2 historical:1 essay:1 early:1 expedition:1 illustrate:1 photograph:1 drawing:1 |@bigram temperate_zone:1 southern_hemisphere:1 atmospheric_refraction:1 summer_solstice:1 winter_solstice:1 axial_tilt:1 arctic_ocean:5 greenland_iceland:1 class_wikitable:1 kola_peninsula:1 northwest_passage:2 seward_peninsula:1 yukon_northwest:1 baffin_island:1 atlantic_ocean:2 tropic_cancer:1 tropic_capricorn:1 external_link:1 terra_incognita:1 |
4,488 | Christopher_Guest | Christopher Haden-Guest, 5th Baron Haden-Guest (born February 5, 1948), better known as Christopher Guest, is an American screenwriter, composer, musician, director, actor and comedian. He is most widely known in Hollywood for having written, directed and starred in several "mockumentary" films that feature a repertory-like ensemble cast. In the United Kingdom, he holds a Baronial peerage, and has publicly expressed a desire to see the House of Lords reformed as a democratically-elected chamber. Despite initial activity in the Lords, his career there was cut short by the House of Lords Act 1999. Early years Guest was born in New York City, the son of Peter Haden-Guest, a British United Nations diplomat who later became 4th Baron Haden-Guest, and his second wife, Jean Pauline Hindes, a former vice president of casting at CBS. Guest's maternal grandparents were Jewish immigrants from Russia, while a paternal great-grandfather was Colonel Albert Goldsmid, a British Jew who founded the Jewish Lads' and Girls' Brigade. Although both of Guest's parents were born Jewish, they became atheists and Guest had no religious upbringing. Guest spent parts of his childhood in his father's native UK. Guest attended The High School of Music & Art (New York City), studying classical music (clarinet). He later took up the mandolin and became interested in country music. He also played guitar with Arlo Guthrie, who went to the same school. Guest later began performing with bluegrass bands until he took up rock and roll. Nearly a decade before he was born, his uncle David Guest, a lecturer and Communist Party member, was killed in the Spanish Civil War fighting in the International Brigades. Peerage and heirs Guest became the 5th Baron Haden-Guest, of Saling, in the County of Essex, when his father died in 1996. He succeeded upon the ineligibility of his older half-brother, Anthony Haden-Guest, who was born prior to the marriage of his parents. According to an article in The Guardian, Guest attended the House of Lords regularly until the House of Lords Act 1999 barred most hereditary peers from their seats. In the article Guest remarked: Guest married actress Jamie Lee Curtis in 1984 at the home of their mutual friend Rob Reiner. They have two adopted children: Anne (born 1986) and Thomas (born 1996). As Guest's children are adopted, they cannot inherit the family barony under the terms of the letters patent that created it, though a 2004 Royal Warrant addressing the style of a peer's adopted children states that they can use courtesy titles. The current heir presumptive to the barony is Guest's younger brother, the actor Nicholas Haden-Guest. Career 1970s Guest began his career in theatre during the early 1970s with one his earliest professional performances being the role of Norman in Michael Weller's Moonchildren for the play's American premiere at the Arena Stage in Washington D.C. in November 1971. Guest continued with the production when it moved to Broadway in 1972. The following year he began making contributions to The National Lampoon Radio Hour for a variety of National Lampoon audio recordings. He both performed comic characters (Flash Bazbo-Space Explorer, Mr. Rogers, music critic Roger de Swans, and sleazy record company rep Ron Fields) and also wrote, arranged and performed numerous musical parodies (of Bob Dylan, James Taylor and others). He was also featured alongside Chevy Chase and John Belushi in the Off-Broadway revue National Lampoon's Lemmings. One of his earliest films includes a bit part as a uniformed police officer in Death Wish 1974 starring Charles Bronson. 1980s Along with Martin Short, Billy Crystal and Harry Shearer, Guest was hired as a one-year only cast member for the 1984-85 season on NBC's Saturday Night Live. Recurring characters on SNL played by Guest include: Frankie, of Willie and Frankie (two co-workers who recount in detail physically painful situations in which they've found themselves); Herb Minkman, a shady novelty toymaker with a brother named Al (played by Crystal); Rajeev Vindaloo, an eccentric foreign man in the same vein as Andy Kaufman's Latka character from Taxi; and Senor Cosa, a Spanish ventriloquist often seen on the recurring spoof of The Joe Franklin Show. He also experimented behind the camera with pre-filmed sketches, notably directing a documentary-style short starring Shearer and Short as synchronized swimmers. In another short film from SNL, Guest and Crystal appear as retired Negro-League baseball players, "The Rooster and the King." He has also appeared as Count Rugen in The Princess Bride, Charley Ford in The Long Riders, Lord Cromer in Mrs Henderson Presents and Dr. Stone in A Few Good Men. He had a cameo role as Dylan, a smarmy pedestrian, in the 1986 remake of The Little Shop of Horrors. As a co-writer and director, Guest made the Hollywood satire The Big Picture. Guest's biggest role of the first two decades of his career, however, is likely that of Nigel Tufnel in the 1984 "rockumentary" film This Is Spinal Tap. Amplifier manufacturers actually began to produce amps with knobs going up to 11 (rather than the traditional scale of 10), as a result of a popular scene where a benighted Tufnel proudly shows off such an amp, believing it to be louder. "This one goes to 11!" has become something of a mantra among musicians ever since. Guest made his first appearance as Tufnel on the 1978 sketch comedy program The TV Show, and appears as Tufnel most recently in a television ad for Volkswagen. 1990s-present The experience of having made Spinal Tap would directly inform the second phase of his career. Starting in 1996, Guest began writing, directing and acting in his own series of heavily improvised films. Many of them would come to be definitive examples of what came to be known as "mockumentaries." His frequent writing partner is Eugene Levy. Together, Levy, Guest and a small band of other actors have formed a loose repertory group, which appear across the several films. These include Catherine O'Hara, Michael McKean, Parker Posey, Jane Lynch, John Michael Higgins, Harry Shearer, Ed Begley, Jr. and Fred Willard. Guest and Levy write backgrounds for each of the characters and notecards for each specific scene, outlining the plot, and then leave it up to the actors to improvise the dialogue, which is supposed to result in a much more natural conversation than scripted dialogue would. Each of these movies also shares a hallmark plot development, where the movie leads up to some kind of a highly anticipated performance, or the outcome of a performance. This could reflect Guest's background in theater, and simply a kind of meta-commentary, as a real performance is of course what is being improvised for the duration. Notably, everyone who appears in these movies receives the same fee, and the same portion of profits. Despite making a number of mockumentaries, Guest himself dislikes the term. He maintains that his intention is not to mock anyone, but to explore insular, perhaps obscure communities through his method of filmmaking. When pressed in a 2003 interview by Charlie Rose, however, he could not provide a word to substitute for "mockumentary." Charlie Rose interview with Christopher Guest, 2003 He had a guest voice-over role in the animated comedy series SpongeBob SquarePants as SpongeBob's cousin, Stanley. Guest will appear in the upcoming 2009 comedy The Invention of Lying. He is also currently a member of the musical group The Beyman Bros, which he formed with his childhood friend David Nichtern and Spinal Tap's current keyboardist CJ Vanston. Their debut album Memories of Summer as a Child was released on January 20, 2009. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=100007776 Off-stage demeanor Guest is sometimes off-putting in interviews and promotional appearances (having been described by reviewer Warren Etheredge as, "rude, condescending and intolerable"), as well as with people who have met him outside of the work environment because contrary to expectations of him as a comedian he often seems deadpan, even dour. Of this, Guest has said, "People want me to be funny all the time. They think I'm being funny no matter what I say or do and that's not the case. I rarely joke unless I'm in front of a camera. It's not what I am in real life. It's what I do for a living." Filmography Girlfriends (1978) - as Eric The Long Riders (1980) - as Charley Ford This Is Spinal Tap (1984) - as Nigel Tufnel (Also Writer) Beyond Therapy (1987) - as Bob The Princess Bride (1987) - as Count Tyrone Rugen, the six-fingered man The Big Picture (1989) - (Writer/Director only) A Few Good Men (1992) - as Dr. Stone Waiting for Guffman (1996) - as Corky St. Clair (Also Writer/Director) Small Soldiers (1998) - Slamfist/Scratch-It (Voice Only) Best in Show (2000) - as Harlan Pepper (Also Writer/Director) A Mighty Wind (2003) - as Alan Barrows (Also Writer/Director) Mrs Henderson Presents - as Lord Cromer For Your Consideration (2006) - as Jay Berman (Also Writer/Director) Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian (2009) - as Ivan the Terrible The Invention of Lying (2009) References External links Interview for release of A Mighty Wind Interview with Christopher Guest Terry Gross Interview with Christopher Guest - September 14, 1989. 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4,489 | M | M is the thirteenth letter of the modern Latin alphabet. Its name in English () is spelled em. "M" Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (1989); Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged (1993); "em," op. cit. History The letter M derives its shape from the Phoenician Mem, via the Greek Mu (Μ, μ). Semitic Mem probably originally pictured water. It is known that Semitic people working in Egypt c. 2000 BC borrowed a hieroglyph for Water that was first used for an alveolar nasal (, because of the Egyptian word for Water, "n-t". This same symbol became used for M in Semitic, because their word for water began with that sound. Egyptian hieroglyph "N" Proto-Semitic M Phoenician M Etruscan M Greek MU Roman MnImage:Proto-semiticM-01.pngImage:PhoenicianM-01.pngRoman M The letter M represents the bilabial nasal consonant sound, , in Classical languages as well as the modern languages. The Oxford English Dictionary (first edition) says that 'm' is sometimes a vowel in words like spasm and in the suffix -ism. In modern terminology, this would be described as a syllabic consonant — IPA . Codes for computing In Unicode the capital M is codepoint U+004D and the lower case m is U+006D. The ASCII code for capital M is 77 and for lowercase m is 109; or in binary 01001101 and 01101101, correspondingly. The EBCDIC code for capital M is 212 and for lowercase m is 148. The numeric character references in HTML and XML are "M" and "m" for upper and lower case respectively. See also М, м - Em (Cyrillic) Μ, μ - Mu (Greek) References | M |@lemmatized thirteenth:1 letter:3 modern:3 latin:1 alphabet:1 name:1 english:4 spell:1 em:3 oxford:2 dictionary:3 edition:2 merriam:1 webster:1 third:1 new:1 international:1 language:3 unabridged:1 op:1 cit:1 history:1 derive:1 shape:1 phoenician:2 mem:2 via:1 greek:3 mu:3 μ:4 semitic:4 probably:1 originally:1 pictured:1 water:4 know:1 people:1 work:1 egypt:1 c:1 bc:1 borrow:1 hieroglyph:2 first:2 use:2 alveolar:1 nasal:2 egyptian:2 word:3 n:2 symbol:1 become:1 begin:1 sound:2 proto:2 etruscan:1 roman:1 mnimage:1 semiticm:1 pngimage:1 phoenicianm:1 pngroman:1 represent:1 bilabial:1 consonant:2 classical:1 well:1 say:1 sometimes:1 vowel:1 like:1 spasm:1 suffix:1 ism:1 terminology:1 would:1 describe:1 syllabic:1 ipa:1 code:3 compute:1 unicode:1 capital:3 codepoint:1 u:2 low:2 case:2 ascii:1 lowercase:2 binary:1 correspondingly:1 ebcdic:1 numeric:1 character:1 reference:2 html:1 xml:1 upper:1 respectively:1 see:1 also:1 м:2 cyrillic:1 |@bigram merriam_webster:1 op_cit:1 μ_μ:2 alveolar_nasal:1 egyptian_hieroglyph:1 proto_semitic:1 nasal_consonant:1 |
4,490 | Anaximenes_of_Miletus | Anaximenes of Miletus Anaximenes () of Miletus (c. 585 BC–c. 525 BC) was a Greek Pre-Socratic philosopher from the latter half of the 6th century, probably a younger contemporary of Anaximander, whose pupil or friend he is said to have been. Richard D. McKirahan, Jr., Philosophy Before Socrates (Hackett, 1994) 48. Theories Anaximenes held that air (Greek aer, translates closer to mist) is the most basic element. Richard D. McKirahan, Jr., 48. It is the source of all that exists (the arche). Everything is air at different degrees of density, and under the influence of heat, which expands, and of cold, which contracts its volume, it gives rise to the several phases of existence. Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies, i.8.1–8 The process is gradual, and takes place in two directions, as heat or cold predominates; this is called rarefaction and condensation. Through rarefaction, the ultimate result is fire, whereas condensation tends toward stone. In this way was formed a broad disk of earth, floating on the circumambient air. Similar condensations produced the sun and stars; the flaming state of these bodies is due to the velocity of their motions. He is reported to have said "As our souls, being air, hold us together, so breath and air embrace the entire universe." Pseudo-Plutarch, Opinions of the Philosophers, 876AB; Phillip Wheelwright, The Presocratics (MacMillan, 1966) 60. Context What makes the three Milesian philosophers, Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes, stand out is that the theoretical human has become a reality. The way of thinking has in its basic form moved away from the mythological thinking (or mythos) and into the domain of the theoretical thinking (or logos). From now on it is about explaining the universal and the general. Everything in the universe can now be approached by the thoughts of humans. This notably influenced the Pythagoreans. The ancient city of Miletus is located in the territory of modern day Turkey. See also The crater Anaximenes on the Moon is named in his honour. Philosophy Material monism References Further reading | Anaximenes_of_Miletus |@lemmatized anaximenes:5 miletus:3 c:2 bc:2 greek:2 pre:1 socratic:1 philosopher:3 latter:1 half:1 century:1 probably:1 young:1 contemporary:1 anaximander:2 whose:1 pupil:1 friend:1 say:2 richard:2 mckirahan:2 jr:2 philosophy:2 socrates:1 hackett:1 theory:1 hold:2 air:5 aer:1 translate:1 close:1 mist:1 basic:2 element:1 source:1 exist:1 arche:1 everything:2 different:1 degree:1 density:1 influence:2 heat:2 expand:1 cold:2 contract:1 volume:1 give:1 rise:1 several:1 phase:1 existence:1 hippolytus:1 refutation:1 heresy:1 process:1 gradual:1 take:1 place:1 two:1 direction:1 predominates:1 call:1 rarefaction:2 condensation:3 ultimate:1 result:1 fire:1 whereas:1 tend:1 toward:1 stone:1 way:2 form:2 broad:1 disk:1 earth:1 float:1 circumambient:1 similar:1 produce:1 sun:1 star:1 flame:1 state:1 body:1 due:1 velocity:1 motion:1 report:1 soul:1 u:1 together:1 breath:1 embrace:1 entire:1 universe:2 pseudo:1 plutarch:1 opinion:1 phillip:1 wheelwright:1 presocratics:1 macmillan:1 context:1 make:1 three:1 milesian:1 thales:1 stand:1 theoretical:2 human:2 become:1 reality:1 thinking:3 move:1 away:1 mythological:1 mythos:1 domain:1 logos:1 explain:1 universal:1 general:1 approach:1 thought:1 notably:1 pythagoreans:1 ancient:1 city:1 locate:1 territory:1 modern:1 day:1 turkey:1 see:1 also:1 crater:1 moon:1 name:1 honour:1 material:1 monism:1 reference:1 reading:1 |@bigram pre_socratic:1 socratic_philosopher:1 refutation_heresy:1 pseudo_plutarch:1 |
4,491 | Marco_Polo | Marco Polo (September 15, 1254 Lloyd, J & Mitchinson, J: "The Book of General Ignorance". Faber and Faber, 2006 ISBN 0307394913. – January 9, 1324 at earliest, but no later than June 1325 ) was a trader and explorer from the Venetian Republic John Barrow, Travels in China (1804) who gained fame for his worldwide travels, recorded in the book Il Milione ("The Million" or The Travels of Marco Polo) also known as Oriente Poliano (the Orient of the Polos) and the Description of the World. Polo, together with his father Niccolò, and his uncle Maffeo, was one of the first Westerners to travel the Silk Road to China (which he referred to as Cathay) and visit Kublai Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty. Voyage of Niccolò and Maffeo Polo Niccolò and Maffeo Polo leaving Constantinople for the east, in 1259. The Polo name originally did not belong to a family of explorers, but to a family of traders. Marco Polo's father, Niccolò (also Nicolò in Venetian) and his uncle, Maffeo (also Maffio), were prosperous merchants who traded with the East. They were partners with a third brother, named Marco il vecchio (the Elder). The three brothers were all Venetian merchants who established trading posts in Constantinople, Sudak in the Crimea, and in a western part of the Mongol Empire. In 1252, Niccolò and Maffeo left Venice for Constantinople, where they resided for several years. "Le Livre des Merveilles", p.11 The two brothers lived in the Venetian quarter of Constantinople, where they enjoyed political chances and tax relief because of their country's role in establishing the Latin Empire in the Fourth Crusade of 1204. However, the family judged the political situation of the city precarious, so they decided to transfer their business northeast to Soldaia, a city in Crimea, and left Constantinople in 1259. Their decision proved wise. Constantinople was recaptured in 1261 by Michael Palaeologus, the ruler of the Empire of Nicaea, who promptly burned the Venetian quarter. Captured Venetian citizens were blinded, Zorzi, Alvise,He Leaved Because He Wanted to. Vita di Marco Polo veneziano, Rusconi Editore, 1982 while many of those who managed to escape perished aboard overloaded refugee ships fleeing to other Venetian colonies in the Aegean Sea. As their new home on the north rim of the Black Sea, Soldaia had been frequented by Venetian traders since the 12th century. The Mongol army sacked it in 1223, but the city had never been definitively conquered until 1239, when it became a part of the newly formed Mongol state known as the Golden Horde. Searching for better profits, the Polos continued their journey to Sarai, where the court of Berke Khan, the ruler of the Golden Horde, was located. At that time, the city of Sarai — already visited by William of Rubruck a few years earlier — was no more than a huge encampment, and the Polos stayed for about a year. Finally, they decided to avoid Crimea, because of a civil war between Berke and his cousin Hulagu or perhaps because of the bad relationship between Berke Khan and the Byzantine Empire. Instead, they moved further east to Bukhara, in modern day Uzbekistan, where the family lived and traded for three years. Niccolò and Maffeo in Bukhara, where they stayed for three years. They were invited by an envoy of Hulagu (right) to travel east to visit Kublai Khan. In 1264, Niccolò and Maffeo joined up with an embassy sent by the Ilkhanate ruler Hulagu to his brother Kublai Khan. In 1266, they reached the seat of the Kublai Khan at Dadu, present day Beijing, China. In his book, Il Milione, Marco explains how Kublai Khan officially received the Polos and sent them back with a Mongol named Koeketei as an ambassador to the Pope. They brought with them a letter from the Khan requesting 100 educated people to come and teach Christianity and Western customs to his people and oil from the lamp of the Holy Sepulcher. The letter also contained the paiza, a golden tablet a foot long and three inches (76 mm) wide, authorizing the holder to require and obtain lodging, horses and food throughout the Kublai Khan's dominion. Koeketei left in the middle of the journey, leaving the Polos to travel alone to Ayas in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. From that port city, they sailed to Saint Jean d'Acre, capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Niccolò and Maffeo Polo remitting a letter from Kublai Khan to Pope Gregory X in 1271. The long sede vacante — between the death of Pope Clement IV, in 1268, and the election of Pope Gregory X, in 1271 — prevented the Polos from fulfilling Kublai’s request. As suggested by Theobald Visconti, then papal legate for the realm of Egypt, in Acre for the Ninth Crusade, the two brothers returned to Venice in 1269 or 1270, waiting for the nomination of the new Pope. Voyages of Marco Polo Journey to Cathay and service to the Khan The Polo family arrives in a Chinese city As soon as he was elected in 1271, Pope Gregory X (the former Theobald Visconti) received the letter from Kublai Khan, remitted by Niccòlo and Maffeo. Kublai Khan was asking for the dispatch of a hundred missionaries, and some oil from the lamp of Jerusalem. The two Polos (this time accompanied by the 17 year-old Marco Polo) returned to Mongolia, accompanied by two Dominican monks, Niccolò de Vicence and Guillaume de Tripoli. The two friars did not finish the voyage due to fear, but the Polos reached Kanbaliq and remitted the presents from the Pope to Kublai in 1274. "Le Livre des Merveilles", p.5-17 It is usually said that Marco Polo used the Northern Silk Road although the possibility of a southern route has been advanced. The Real Eve: Modern Man's Journey Out of Africa, Stephen Oppenheimer (2004) The Tibetan monk and confidant of Kublai Khan, Drogön Chögyal Phagpa (1235-1280) mentions in his diaries for 1271 a foreign friend of Kublai Khan, who was quite possibly one of the elder Polos or even Marco Polo, although, unfortunately, no name is given. Klafkowski, Piotr. (1977). "History of Buddhism in Mongolia—A Preliminary Survey", p. 28 and note. Buddhist Studies. The Journal of the Department of Buddhist Studies, University of Delhi. May, 1977. The Polos spent the next 17 years in China. Kublai Khan took a liking to Marco, who was an engaging storyteller. He was sent on many diplomatic missions throughout his empire. Marco carried out diplomatic assignments but also entertained the khan with interesting stories and observations about the lands he traveled. Marco reported that apart from entrusting him with diplomatic missions, Kublai Khan also made him governor for three years of the large commercial city of Yangzhou. It has been pointed out that his 'governorship' was in fact due to a typographical error. Other serious doubts have been cast on this claim, and on all his China travels, by scholars looking at Chinese records of the time and other independent evidence. See eg Wood, Frances, in References. An Italian community would actually reside in Yangzhou throughout the 14th century, as documented by the findings of the 1342 tombstone of Katarina Vilioni. Return to Europe According to Marco’s travel account, the Polos asked several times for permission to return to Europe but the Khan appreciated the visitors so much that he would not agree to their departure. Only in 1291 did Kublai entrust Marco with his last duty, to escort the Mongol princess Koekecin (Cocacin in Il Milione) to her betrothed, the Ilkhan Arghun. The party traveled by sea, departing from the southern port city of Quanzhou and sailing to Sumatra, and then to Persia, via Sri Lanka and India (where his visits included Mylapore, Madurai and Alleppey, which he nicknamed Venice of the East). In 1293 or 1294 the Polos reached the Ilkhanate, ruled by Gaykhatu after the death of Arghun, and left Koekecin with the new Ilkhan. Then they moved to Trebizond and from that city sailed to Venice. Koekecin would become the principal wife of the Mongol Il-Khan ruler Ghazan. In terms of the legacy of Marco Polo's travel to China, it was noteworthy as one of the first European visitors to travel to the East; considerable exposure of China's culture to the European continent resulted. The trip also showed Europeans the value of the Silk Road in negotiating this travel; however, even though this trackway was used since the first millennium BC, the use of the Silk Road actually declined markedly within about 150 years after Marco Polo's expedition, due to the opening of sea routes. Silk Road, North China, C. Michael Hogan, the Megalithic Portal, editor A. Burnham (2007) Il Milione A page from a manuscript of Il Milione On their return from China in 1295, the family settled in Venice where they became a sensation and attracted crowds of listeners who had difficulties believing their reports of distant China. According to a late tradition, since they did not believe him, Marco Polo invited them all to dinner one night during which the Polos dressed in the simple clothes of a peasant in China. Shortly before the crowds ate, the Polos opened their pockets to reveal hundreds of rubies and other jewels which they had received in Asia. Though they were much impressed, the people of Venice still doubted the Polos. Marco Polo was later captured in a minor clash of the war between Venice and Genoa, or in the naval Battle of Curzola, according to a dubious tradition. He spent the few months of his imprisonment, in 1298, dictating to a fellow prisoner, Rustichello da Pisa, a detailed account of his travels in the then-unknown parts of China. His book, Il Milione (the title comes from either "The Million", then considered an extremely large number, or from Polo's family nickname Emilione), was written in Old French, a language Polo did not speak, and entitled Le divisament dou monde ("The description of the world"). The book was soon translated into many European languages and is known in English as The Travels of Marco Polo. The original is lost and there are now several often-conflicting versions of the translations. The book became an instant success — quite an achievement at a time when the invention of the European printing press was still two hundred years in the future. Later life Map of the journey Marco Polo was finally released from captivity in the summer of 1299, and he returned home to Venice, where his father and uncles had bought a large house in the central quarter named contrada San Giovanni Crisostomo with the company's profits. The company continued its activities, and Marco was now a wealthy merchant. While he personally financed other expeditions, he would never leave Venice again. In 1300, he married Donata Badoer, a woman from an old, respected patrician family. Marco would have three children with her: Fantina, Bellela and Moreta. All of them later married into noble families. Between 1310 and 1320, he wrote a new version of his book, Il Milione, in Italian. The text was lost, but not before a Franciscan friar, named Francesco Pipino, translated it into Latin. This Latin version was then translated back into the Italian, creating conflicts between different editions of the book. Marco Polo died in his home in January 1324, at almost 70 years old. He was supposedly buried in the Church of San Lorenzo. Historical and cultural impact Handwritten notes by Christopher Colombus on the Latin edition of Marco Polo's Le livre des merveilles. Statue of Marco Polo in Hangzhou, China, near the West Lake Although the Polos were by no means the first Europeans to reach China overland (see, for example, Giovanni da Pian del Carpine), thanks to Polo's book their trip was the first to be widely known, and the best-documented journey there of its time. Marco Polo's description of the Far East and its riches inspired Christopher Columbus' decision to try to reach those lands by a western route. A heavily annotated copy of Polo's book was among the belongings of Columbus. Björn Landström, Columbus; Macmillan, NY, 1967; p.27 The name Marco Polo was also given to a children's game (Marco Polo), a story in the science fiction series Doctor Who (Marco Polo) and a three-masted clipper ship built in Saint John, New Brunswick, in 1851. The fastest ship of her day, Marco Polo was the first ship to sail around the world in under six months. Several ships of the Italian navy were named Marco Polo. The airport in Venice is named Marco Polo International Airport. See also the Marcopolo satellites and Marcopolo S.A., a Brazilian bus manufacturer. The travels of Marco Polo are given an extended fantasy treatment in the Irish writer Brian Oswald Donn-Byrne's Messer Marco Polo, and in Gary Jennings' 1984 novel The Journeyer. He also appears as the pivotal character in Italo Calvino's novel Invisible Cities. Marco Polo also inspired the creation of Marco Volo, a character in the role-playing game Forgotten Realms. In 1982, Giuliano Montaldo directed an ambitious television miniseries, simply titled "Marco Polo". The Italian financed project starred Ken Marshall as Marco Polo and guest-starred a handful of Academy Award-winning actors, such as Denholm Elliott, F. Murray Abraham, Anne Bancroft, John Gielgud, John Houseman, Burt Lancaster, and also Tony Lo Bianco and Leonard Nimoy. The music was scored by Ennio Morricone. The miniseries won 2 Emmy Awards and was nominated for 6 more. In 2007 another mini series was released, 'Marco Polo' starring Ian Somerhalder and Brian Dennehy. The Marco Polo sheep, a subspecies of sheep, is named for the explorer, who described the species during his crossing of Pamir (ancient Mount Imeon) in 1271. Polo, Marco and Rustichello of Pisa. The Travels of Marco Polo, Vol. 1. Ed. Henry Yule (1903), and Henry Cordier (1920). Gutenberg Project, 2004. The names "Marco" and "Polo" are on the hurricane naming lists for the North Atlantic and Northeast Pacific, respectively, and are scheduled to be used in the same year. The most recent use of both names was in 2008. Both systems were two of the smallest tropical cyclones on record. The frequent flyer program of Hong Kong flag carrier Cathay Pacific is known as the Marco Polo Club. Cartography The Fra Mauro map. Marco Polo's travels may have had some impact on the development of European cartography, ultimately leading to the European voyages of exploration a century later. The 1453 Fra Mauro map is said by Giovanni Battista Ramusio to have been an improved copy of the one brought from Cathay by Marco Polo: "That fine illuminated world map on parchment, which can still be seen in a large cabinet alongside the choir of their monastery (The Calmoldese monastery of Santo Michele on Murano) was by one of the brothers of the monastery, who took great delight in the study of cosmography, diligently drawn and copied from a most beautiful and very old nautical map and a world map that had been brought from Cathay by the most honourable Messer Marco Polo and his father." Ramusio v.3. "Dichiarazione d'alcuni luoghi ne' libri di messer Marco Polo, con l'istoria del reubarbaro", preface to Marco Polo's book. Quoted in "Fra Mauro's world map" Piero Falchetta, p61 Controversies Marco Polo was born in Croatia? Marco Polo's alleged birthplace in town of Korčula, in Croatia According to some historians, Marco Polo was born on the island of Korčula in Croatia. http://www.silk-road.com/artl/marcopolo.shtml http://www.korcula.net/mpolo/james1.htm http://www.croatianhistory.net/etf/polo.html http://www.korcula.net/mpolo/mpolobrit.htm http://www.vlada.hr/en/multimedija_i_fotogalerije/video/informativni_i_promotivni_tv_spotovi/promotional_videos_of_croatian_tourist_board/croatia_homeland_of_marco_polo http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19960928/ai_n14066413 http://www.korculainfo.com/blog/index.php/korcula-in-financial-times/ Korčula is small town on the island of Korčula in Adriatic sea on the Dalmatian coast of Croatia, which was at that time struggled between Venetian Empire and Croatia-Hungarian Kingdom. The house on Korčula in which Marco Polo was allegedly born is still standing. Historical evidence of a Dalmatian and a Korčulan origin for the Polo family is provided by a number of literary documents. A manuscript in the British Museum, on well-known families in the Europe of his day, testifies to the Dalmatian origins of the Polo family. A chronicle published by Achivo Storico per la Dalmatia not only refers similarly to the family's Dalmatian origin, but also states that before Marco Polo became an established Venetian citizen after writing his famous account of his travels, the Polo family had had no association with the City of Venice. Another document published around 1400 in Buletino di Archeologia e Storia Dalmatia refers to a certain Bogavaz Polo as being the owner of a dwelling-house in Korčula, while a record exists of a Mateo Polo applying to the Community of Korcula, in 1430, for the award of a plot of land on which to establish his shipbuilding workshop "as his forefathers had been making small ships there for centuries" (Archive Kapor, Korcula). Added to this documentary evidence is the hard fact that there are in Korčula today many families bearing the name ‘de Polo’. Marco Polo visited the Mongol empire? Some modern historians question the veracity of Marco Polo's account, and wonder whether he really visited the Mongol empire, or whether Marco Polo was simply repeating stories that he had heard from other traders. Dr. Frances Wood has questioned whether or not Marco Polo was even in China, and has pointed out several things that a European traveler probably would have mentioned, but which Polo did not, and that there is no mention of Marco Polo in Chinese accounts of the period. Historian Peter Jackson argues that there are several different versions of Polo's book, and questions whether it even represents Polo's account at all, but was instead simply written by a romance writer of the time. Questions have also been raised as to whether Marco Polo, if he did visit China, was genuinely an ambassador, or if he was simply one of the many travelers at the time who claimed to be an ambassador. However, Laurence Bergreen, in his book, Marco Polo From Venice to Xanadu, writes "it would have been a more amazing feat to amass so much accurate information about Asia without actually going there, than to have made the trip and write about it." Furthermore, other scholars have argued that none of these assumptions about what observations Marco Polo should have made about China are relevant to Marco Polo's account as he rarely interacted with the native culture. F. Wood's, Did Marco Polo Go To China? A Critical Appraisal by I. de Rachewiltz. http://dspace.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/41883/1/Marcopolo.html See also Afanasy Nikitin Central Asia Chronology of European exploration of Asia Crusade Europeans in Medieval China Foreign relations of Imperial China Friar Julian Giovanni da Pian del Carpine Hetoum I of Armenia (1254-1255) Ibn Battuta Middle Ages Mongol Empire Mount Imeon Niccolò de' Conti Odoric of Pordenone Rabban Bar Sauma (A Turco-Mongol who visited Europe in the 1280s) Radhanites Republic of Venice Silk Road Sino-Roman relations Timeline of Mongol conquests Trade routes William of Rubruck Notes References Bergreen, Laurence, Marco Polo, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 2007, ISBN 978-1-4000-4345-3 Hart, Henry H., Marco Polo, Venetian Adventurer, University of Oklahoma Press, 1967 Larner, John, Marco Polo and the Discovery of the World, Yale University Press, 1999 Polo, Marco, Travels in the Land of Kubilai Khan, Penguin Books, 2005 Wood, Frances, Did Marco Polo Go to China?, Westview Press, 1995 Yule, Henry (Ed.), The Travels of Marco Polo, Dover Publications, New York, 1983 [new edition of: London, 1870] External links Polo's travels F. 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4,492 | List_of_country_calling_codes | This is a list of country calling codes defined by ITU-T recommendation E.164. The telephone numbering plan for a telephone system includes an international dialing prefix, such as "00" or "011", which must be dialed before the country calling code when dialing an international phone number. Generally, as in the list below, the need for this prefix is indicated with a "+". At a glance Country calling codes form a prefix code, hence they can be organized as a tree: +0: --+1: US, CA (see NANP)+1 242: BS +1 246: BB +1 264: AI +1 268: AG +1 284: VG+1 340: VI +1 345: KY+1 441: BM +1 473: GD +1 649: TC +1 664: MS +1 670: MP +1 671: GU +1 684: AS+1 758: LC +1 767: DM +1 784: VC +1 787: PR+1 809: DO +1 829: DO +1 849: DO +1 868: TT +1 869: KN +1 876: JM+1 939: PR+20: EG+210: -- +211: -- +212: MA, EH +213: DZ +214: -- +215: -- +216: TN +217: -- +218: LY +219: --+220: GM +221: SN +222: MR +223: ML +224: GN +225: CI +226: BF +227: NE +228: TG +229: BJ+230: MU +231: LR +232: SL +233: GH +234: NG +235: TD +236: CF +237: CM +238: CV +239: ST+240: GQ +241: GA +242: CG +243: CD +244: AO +245: GW +246: IO +247: AC +248: SC +249: SD+250: RW +251: ET +252: SO, QS +253: DJ +254: KE +255: TZ +256: UG +257: BI +258: MZ +259: --+260: ZM +261: MG +262: RE, YT +263: ZW +264: NA +265: MW +266: LS +267: BW +268: SZ +269: KM+27: ZA+28: --+290: SH, TA +291: ER +292: -- +293: -- +294: -- +295: -- +296: -- +297: AW +298: FO +299: GL+30: GR+31: NL+32: BE+33: FR+34: ES+350: GI +351: PT +352: LU +353: IE +354: IS +355: AL +356: MT +357: CY +358: FI, AX +359: BG+36: HU+370: LT +371: LV +372: EE +373: MD +374: AM, QN +375: BY +376: AD +377: MC +378: SM +379: VA+380: UA +381: RS +382: ME +383: -- +384: -- +385: HR +386: SI +387: BA +388: EU +389: MK+39: IT, VA+40: RO+41: CH+420: CZ +421: SK +422: -- +423: LI +424: -- +425: -- +426: -- +427: -- +428: -- +429: --+43: AT+44: GB, GG, IM, JE+45: DK+46: SE+47: NO, SJ+48: PL+49: DE+500: FK +501: BZ +502: GT +503: SV +504: HN +505: NI +506: CR +507: PA +508: PM +509: HT+51: PE+52: MX+53: CU+54: AR+55: BR+56: CL+57: CO+58: VE+590: GP, BL, MF +591: BO +592: GY +593: EC +594: GF +595: PY +596: MQ +597: SR +598: UY +599: AN+60: MY+61: AU, CX, CC+62: ID+63: PH+64: NZ+65: SG+66: TH+670: TL +671: -- +672: NF, AQ +673: BN +674: NR +675: PG +676: TO +677: SB +678: VU +679: FJ+680: PW +681: WF +682: CK +683: NU +684: -- +685: WS +686: KI +687: NC +688: TV +689: PF+690: TK +691: FM +692: MH +693: -- +694: -- +695: -- +696: -- +697: -- +698: -- +699: --+7: RU, KZ+800: XT +801: -- +802: -- +803: -- +804: -- +805: -- +806: -- +807: -- +808: XS +809: --+81: JP+82: KR+83: --+84: VN+850: KP +851: -- +852: HK +853: MO +854: -- +855: KH +856: LA +857: -- +858: -- +859: --+86: CN+870: XN +871: XE +872: XF, PN +873: XI +874: XW +875: -- +876: -- +877: -- +878: XP +879: --+880: BD +881: XG +882: XV +883: XL +884: -- +885: -- +886: TW +887: -- +888: XD +889: --+89: --+90: TR, QY+91: IN+92: PK+93: AF+94: LK+95: MM+960: MV +961: LB +962: JO +963: SY +964: IQ +965: KW +966: SA +967: YE +968: OM +969: --+970: PS +971: AE +972: IL, PS +973: BH +974: QA +975: BT +976: MN +977: NP +978: -- +979: XR+98: IR+990: -- +991: XC +992: TJ +993: TM +994: AZ, QN +995: GE +996: KG +997: -- +998: UZ +999: -- In depth While there is a general geographic grouping to the zones, many exceptions exist for various political and historical reasons. Thus, the geographical indicators below are approximations only. Zone 1 – North American Numbering Plan Area Areas within NANPA (North American Numbering Plan Area) are assigned area codes as if they were all areas within one country. The codes below in format +1-XXX represent area code XXX within the +1 NANPA zone — not a separate country code. The North American Numbering Plan Area includes: +1 United States of America, including U.S. territories: +1-340 U.S. Virgin Islands +1-670 Northern Mariana Islands +1-671 Guam +1-684 American Samoa +1-787 and +1-939 Puerto Rico +1 Canada +1 Many, but not all, Caribbean nations: +1-264 Anguilla +1-268 Antigua and Barbuda +1-242 Bahamas +1-246 Barbados +1-441 Bermuda +1-284 British Virgin Islands +1-345 Cayman Islands +1-767 Dominica +1-809, +1-829 and +1-849 Dominican Republic +1-473 Grenada +1-876 Jamaica +1-664 Montserrat +1-869 Saint Kitts and Nevis +1-758 Saint Lucia +1-784 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines +1-868 Trinidad and Tobago +1-649 Turks and Caicos Islands Zone 2 – Mostly Africa, some Atlantic and Indian Ocean islands +20 – Egypt +210 – unassigned +211 – unassigned +212 – Morocco +213 – Algeria +214 – unassigned +215 – unassigned +216 – Tunisia +217 – unassigned +218 – Libya +219 – unassigned +220 – Gambia +221 – Senegal +222 – Mauritania +223 – Mali +224 – Guinea +225 – Côte d'Ivoire +226 – Burkina Faso +227 – Niger +228 – Togo +229 – Benin +230 – Mauritius +231 – Liberia +232 – Sierra Leone +233 – Ghana +234 – Nigeria +235 – Chad +236 – Central African Republic +237 – Cameroon +238 – Cape Verde +239 – São Tomé and Príncipe +240 – Equatorial Guinea +241 – Gabon +242 – Republic of the Congo +243 – Democratic Republic of the Congo +244 – Angola +245 – Guinea-Bissau +246 – Diego Garcia +247 – Ascension Island +248 – Seychelles +249 – Sudan +250 – Rwanda +251 – Ethiopia +252 – Somalia +253 – Djibouti +254 – Kenya +255 – Tanzania +256 – Uganda +257 – Burundi +258 – Mozambique +259 – unassigned, was intended for Zanzibar but never implemented - see +255 Tanzania +260 – Zambia +261 – Madagascar +262 – Réunion; also Mayotte (formerly with +269 Comoros) +263 – Zimbabwe +264 – Namibia +265 – Malawi +266 – Lesotho +267 – Botswana +268 – Swaziland +269 – Comoros (Mayotte was here but is now with +262 Réunion) +27 – South Africa +28x – unassigned +290 – Saint Helena, Tristan da Cunha +291 – Eritrea +292 – unassigned +293 – unassigned +294 – unassigned +295 – discontinued (was assigned to San Marino, see +378) +296 – unassigned +297 – Aruba +298 – Faroe Islands +299 – Greenland Zones 3/4 – Europe Originally larger countries, such as the United Kingdom or France, were assigned two-digit codes (to compensate for their usually longer domestic numbers) and small countries, such as Iceland, were assigned three-digit codes; however, since the 1980s, all new assignments have been three-digit regardless of countries’ sizes. +30 – Greece +31 – The Netherlands +32 – Belgium +33 – France +34 – Spain +350 – Gibraltar +351 – Portugal +352 – Luxembourg +353 – Ireland +354 – Iceland +355 – Albania +356 – Malta +357 – Cyprus +358 – Finland +359 – Bulgaria +36 – Hungary +37 – discontinued (was assigned to the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) until April 1992; this area is now covered by Germany's country code 49) +370 – Lithuania +371 – Latvia +372 – Estonia +373 – Moldova +374 – Armenia Nagorno-Karabakh uses +374 47 for landlines, and +374 97 for mobile phones +375 – Belarus +376 – Andorra +377 – Monaco +377 44 – used by mobile phone networks in Republic of Kosovo +378 – San Marino +379 – assigned to Vatican City but uses 39 with Italy. +38 – discontinued (was assigned to Yugoslavia before break-up) +380 – Ukraine +381 – Serbia +381 – Republic of Kosovo, uses +381 for landlines but +377 44 Monaco and +386 49 Slovenia for mobile phones. +382 – Montenegro +383 – unassigned +384 – unassigned +385 – Croatia +386 – Slovenia +386 49 – used by mobile phone networks in Republic of Kosovo +387 – Bosnia and Herzegovina +388 – shared code for groups of nations +388 3 – European Telephony Numbering Space - Europe-wide services +389 – Republic of Macedonia +39 – Italy and Vatican City +40 – Romania +41 – Switzerland +42 – previously assigned to Czechoslovakia until its breakup. Czech Republic and Slovakia used this common code until 1 March 1997. +420 – Czech Republic +421 – Slovakia +422 – unassigned +423 – Liechtenstein +424 – unassigned +425 – unassigned +426 – unassigned +427 – unassigned +428 – unassigned +429 – unassigned +43 – Austria +44 – United Kingdom +45 – Denmark +46 – Sweden +47 – Norway +48 – Poland +49 – Germany Zone 5 – Mexico, Central America, South America and the French American dependencies +500 – Falkland Islands +501 – Belize +502 – Guatemala +503 – El Salvador +504 – Honduras +505 – Nicaragua +506 – Costa Rica +507 – Panama +508 – Saint-Pierre and Miquelon +509 – Haiti +51 – Peru +52 – Mexico +53 – Cuba +54 – Argentina +55 – Brazil +56 – Chile +57 – Colombia +58 – Venezuela +590 – Guadeloupe +590 – Saint Barthélemy +590 – Saint Martin +591 – Bolivia +592 – Guyana +593 – Ecuador +594 – French Guiana +595 – Paraguay +596 – Martinique +597 – Suriname +598 – Uruguay +599 – Netherlands Antilles Zone 6 – Southeast Asia and Oceania +60 – Malaysia +61 – Australia including external territories of Christmas Island and Cocos Islands – see Telephone numbers in Australia +62 – Indonesia +63 – Philippines +64 – New Zealand +65 – Singapore +66 – Thailand +670 – East Timor - formerly Northern Mariana Islands which is now included in NANPA as code +1-670 (See Zone 1, above) +671 – formerly Guam - Now included in NANPA as code +1-671 (See Zone 1, above) +672 – Australian external territories other than Christmas, Cocos Islands, such as Australian Antarctic Territory, Norfolk Island +673 – Brunei +674 – Nauru +675 – Papua New Guinea +676 – Tonga +677 – Solomon Islands +678 – Vanuatu +679 – Fiji +680 – Palau +681 – Wallis and Futuna +682 – Cook Islands +683 – Niue Island +684 – formerly American Samoa - Now included in NANPA as code +1-684 (See Zone 1, above) +685 – Samoa +686 – Kiribati +687 – New Caledonia +688 – Tuvalu +689 – French Polynesia +690 – Tokelau +691 – Federated States of Micronesia +692 – Marshall Islands +693 – unassigned +694 – unassigned +695 – unassigned +696 – unassigned +697 – unassigned +698 – unassigned +699 – unassigned Zone 7 – Russia and Kazakhstan +7 – Russia, Kazakhstan. Formerly the code of the Soviet Union. Zone 8 – East Asia and Special Services +800 – International Freephone (UIFN) +801 – unassigned +802 – unassigned +803 – unassigned +804 – unassigned +805 – unassigned +806 – unassigned +807 – unassigned +808 – reserved for Shared Cost Services +809 – unassigned +81 – Japan +82 – South Korea +83x – unassigned +84 – Vietnam +850 – North Korea +851 – unassigned +852 – Hong Kong +853 – Macau +854 – unassigned +855 – Cambodia +856 – Laos +857 – unassigned +858 – unassigned +859 – unassigned +86 – People's Republic of China (mainland only) +870 – Inmarsat "SNAC" service +871 – unassigned (formerly used by Inmarsat, Atlantic East), discontinued in 2008 +872 – unassigned (formerly used by Inmarsat, Pacific), discontinued in 2008 +873 – unassigned (formerly used by Inmarsat, Indian), discontinued in 2008 +874 – unassigned (formerly used by Inmarsat, Atlantic West), discontinued 2008 +875 – reserved for Maritime Mobile service +876 – reserved for Maritime Mobile service +877 – reserved for Maritime Mobile service +878 – Universal Personal Telecommunications services +879 – reserved for national non-commercial purposes +880 – Bangladesh +881 – Global Mobile Satellite System +882 – International Networks +883 – International Networks +884 – unassigned +885 – unassigned +886 – Republic of China ("Taiwan") - listed by ITU as "Taiwan, China" +887 – unassigned +888 – Telecommunications for Disaster Relief by OCHA +889 – unassigned +89x – unassigned Zone 9 – West, South and Central Asia +90 – Turkey +90 392 – Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus +91 – India +92 – Pakistan +93 – Afghanistan +94 – Sri Lanka +95 – Burma +960 – Maldives +961 – Lebanon +962 – Jordan +963 – Syria +964 – Iraq +965 – Kuwait +966 – Saudi Arabia +967 – Yemen +968 – Oman +969 – formerly People's Democratic Republic of Yemen - now unified under 967 Yemen (formerly the Yemen Arab Republic) +970 – reserved (for the Palestinian Authority). +971 – United Arab Emirates +972 – Israel +973 – Bahrain +974 – Qatar +975 – Bhutan +976 – Mongolia +977 – Nepal +978 – unassigned - originally assigned to Dubai, now covered under 971 +979 – International Premium Rate Service - originally assigned to Abu Dhabi, now covered under 971 +98 – Iran +990 – unassigned +991 – International Telecommunications Public Correspondence Service trial (ITPCS) +992 – Tajikistan +993 – Turkmenistan +994 – Azerbaijan +995 – Georgia +996 – Kyrgyzstan +997 – unassigned +998 – Uzbekistan +999 – reserved for future global service Zone 0 – unassigned Locations with no country code In Antarctica dialing is dependent on the parent country of each base: Base Calling Code Country Aboa +358 Finland Vernadsky Research Base +380 Ukraine Almirante Brown Antarctic Base +54 Argentina Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station +1 United States Artigas Base +598 Uruguay Asuka Station +81 Japan Belgrano II +54 Argentina Bellingshausen Station +7 Russia Bernardo O'Higgins Station +56 Chile Byrd Station +1 United States Captain Arturo Prat Base +56 Chile Casey Station +61 Australia Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctic Base +55 Brazil Concordia Station +33 / +39 France Italy Dakshin Gangotri Station +91 (Abandoned) India Davis Station +61 Australia Dome Fuji Station +81 Japan Dumont d'Urville Station +33 France Base Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva and Villa Las Estrellas +56 Chile Esperanza Base +54 Gabriel de Castilla Spanish Antarctic Station +34 Spain Georg von Neumayer Station +49 (Replaced by Neumayer Station) Germany Gonzalez Videla Station +56 Chile Great Wall Station +86 China Halley Research Station +44 United Kingdom Henryk Arctowski Polish Antarctic Station +48 Poland Jinnah Antarctic Station +92 Pakistan Juan Carlos I Base +34 Spain Jubany +54 Argentina King Sejong Station +82 South Korea Kunlun Station +86 China Law-Racoviţă Station +40 Romania Leningradskaya Station +7 Russia Machu Picchu Research Station +51 Peru Macquarie Island Station +61 Australia Maitri Station +91 India Marambio Base +54 Argentina Mario Zucchelli Station +39 Italy Mawson Station +61 Australia McMurdo Station +1 United States Mendel Polar Station +420 Czech Republic Mirny Station +7 Russia Mizuho Station +81 Japan Molodyozhnaya Station +7 / +375 Russia Belarus Neumayer Station +49 Germany Novolazarevskaya Station +7 Russia Orcadas Base +54 Argentina Palmer Station +1 United States Princess Elisabeth Base +32 Belgium Professor Julio Escudero Base +56 Chile Progress Station +7 Russia Rothera Research Station +44 United Kingdom Russkaya Station +7 Russia San Martín Station +54 Argentina SANAE IV (South African National Antarctic Expeditions) +27 South Africa St. Kliment Ohridski Base +359 Bulgaria Scott Base +64 New Zealand Showa Station +81 Japan Svea +46 Sweden Tor Station +47 Norway Troll Station +47 Norway Wasa Station +46 Sweden Vostok Station +7 Russia Zhongshan (Sun Yat-Sen) Station +86 China Kohnen-Station +49 Germany Others places with no calling codes: Location Calling Code Country Reasons for no Code Kerguelen Archipelago none France no permanent local switches Pitcairn Island none British overseas territory no connections to local switching; removed land lines and only satellite phones are dialable; one payphone exists Complete Listing Note: The table can be sorted alphabetically or numerically using the icon. Country Code Afghanistan 93 Albania 355 Algeria 213 American Samoa 1-684 This country or territory is part of the North American Numbering Plan (NANP), even though it may be geographically far from North America (Mexico is not included). The country code for all NANP countries is 1; the numbers that follow are used in the same way as area codes are in the U.S. and Canada. Andorra 376 Angola 244 Anguilla 1-264 Antigua and Barbuda 1-268 Argentina 54 Armenia 374 Aruba 297 Ascension 247 Australia 61 Australian External Territories 672 Austria 43 Azerbaijan 994 Bahamas 1-242 Bahrain 973 Bangladesh 880 Barbados 1-246 Barbuda 1-268 Belarus 375 Belgium 32 Belize 501 Benin 229 Bermuda 1-441 Bhutan 975 Bolivia 591 Bosnia and Herzegovina 387 Botswana 267 Brazil 55 British Indian Ocean Territory 246 British Virgin Islands 1-284 Brunei 673 Bulgaria 359 Burkina Faso 226 Burundi 257 Cambodia 855 Cameroon 237 Canada 1 Cape Verde 238 Cayman Islands 1-345 Central African Republic 236 Chad 235 Chatham Island (New Zealand) 64 Chile 56 China 86 Christmas Island 61 Cocos-Keeling Islands 61 Colombia 57 Comoros 269 Congo 242 Congo - Brazzaville 242 Congo, Dem. Rep. of (Zaire) 243 Congo - Kinshasa 243 Cook Islands 682 Costa Rica 506 Ivory Coast 225 Croatia 385 Cuba 53 Cuba (Guantanamo Bay) 5399 Curaçao 599 Cyprus 357 Czech Republic 420 Denmark 45 Diego Garcia 246 Djibouti 253 Dominica 1-767 Dominican Republic 1-809, 1-829 and 1-849 East Timor 670 Easter Island 56 Ecuador 593 Egypt 20 El Salvador 503 Ellipso (Mobile Satellite service) 8812, 8813 EMSAT (Mobile Satellite service) 88213 Equatorial Guinea 240 Eritrea 291 Estonia 372 Ethiopia 251 Falkland Islands 500 Faroe Islands 298 Fiji 679 Finland 358 France 33 French Antilles 596 French Guiana 594 French Polynesia 689 Gabon 241 Gambia 220 Georgia 995 Germany 49 Ghana 233 Gibraltar 350 Global Mobile Satellite System (GMSS) 881 Globalstar (Mobile Satellite Service) 8818, 8819 Greece 30 Greenland 299 Grenada 1-473 Guadeloupe 590 Guam 1-671 Guantanamo Bay 5399 Guatemala 502 Guinea 224 Guinea-Bissau 245 Guyana 592 Haiti 509 Honduras 504 Hong Kong SAR China 852 Hungary 36 Iceland 354 ICO Global (Mobile Satellite Service) 8810, 8811 India 91 Indonesia 62 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean - East) 871 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean - West) 874 Inmarsat (Indian Ocean) 873 Inmarsat (Pacific Ocean) 872 Inmarsat SNAC 870 International Freephone Service 800 International Shared Cost Service (ISCS) 808 Iran 98 Iraq 964 Ireland 353 Iridium (Mobile Satellite service) 8816, 8817 Israel 972 Italy 39 Jamaica 1-876 Japan 81 Jordan 962 Kazakhstan 7-7 Russia and Kazakhstan make up the Seventh World Numbering Zone. From August 2007, Kazakhstan changed all area codes to start with 7; however, 6 is also reserved for Kazakhstan. Digits 3, 4, 5 and 9 are reserved for Russia. Usage of 8 is mixed, but internationally accessible numbers starting with 8 only exist in Russia. Numbers starting with 0, 1 and 2 are not internationally accessible (access codes and similar arrangements). Kenya 254 Kiribati 686 North Korea 850 South Korea 82 Kuwait 965 Kyrgyzstan 996 Laos 856 Latvia 371 Lebanon 961 Lesotho 266 Liberia 231 Libya 218 Liechtenstein 423 Lithuania 370 Luxembourg 352 Macau SAR China 853 Macedonia 389 Madagascar 261 Malawi 265 Malaysia 60 Maldives 960 Mali 223 Malta 356 Marshall Islands 692 Martinique 596 Mauritania 222 Mauritius 230 Mayotte 262 Mexico 52 Micronesia 691 Midway Island 1-808 Moldova 373 Monaco 377 Mongolia 976 Montenegro 382 Montserrat 1-664 Morocco 212 Mozambique 258 Myanmar 95 Namibia 264 Nauru 674 Nepal 977 Netherlands 31 Netherlands Antilles 599 Nevis 1-869 New Caledonia 687 New Zealand 64 Nicaragua 505 Niger 227 Nigeria 234 Niue 683 Norfolk Island 672 Northern Mariana Islands 1-670 Norway 47 Oman 968 Pakistan 92 Palau 680 Palestinian Territory 970 Panama 507 Papua New Guinea 675 Paraguay 595 Peru 51 Philippines 63 Poland 48 Portugal 351 Puerto Rico 1-787 or 1-939 Qatar 974 Réunion 262 Romania 40 Russia 7 Rwanda 250 Saint Barthélemy 590 Saint Helena 290 Saint Kitts and Nevis 1-869 Saint Lucia 1-758 Saint Martin 590 Saint Pierre and Miquelon 508 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 1-784 Samoa 685 San Marino 378 São Tomé and Príncipe 239 Saudi Arabia 966 Senegal 221 Serbia 381 Seychelles 248 Sierra Leone 232 Singapore 65 Slovakia 421 Slovenia 386 Solomon Islands 677 Somalia 252 South Africa 27 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands 500 Spain 34 Sri Lanka 94 Sudan 249 Suriname 597 Swaziland 268 Sweden 46 Switzerland 41 Syria 963 Taiwan 886 Tajikistan 992 Tanzania 255 Thailand 66 Thuraya (Mobile Satellite service) 88216 Timor Leste 670 Togo 228 Tokelau 690 Tonga 676 Trinidad and Tobago 1-868 Tunisia 216 Turkey 90 Turkmenistan 993 Turks and Caicos Islands 1-649 Tuvalu 688 Uganda 256 Ukraine 380 United Arab Emirates 971 United Kingdom 44 United States 1 Universal Personal Telecommunications (UPT) 878 Uruguay 598 U.S. Virgin Islands 1-340 Uzbekistan 998 Vanuatu 678 Vatican 379 Venezuela 58 Vietnam 84 Wake Island 808 Wallis and Futuna 681 Yemen 967 Zambia 260 Zanzibar 255 Zimbabwe 263 History CCITT, the predecessor of the ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T), developed the first formal list of telephone country codes. This list was included in the 1964 CCITT Blue Book, among other international telecommunication recommendations, which would eventually become ITU-T recommendation E.164. An earlier system of country codes for European use was mentioned in the 1960 CCITT Red Book. Some of these country codes were retained in the CCITT country code assignments and remain in effect (e.g. France +33, United Kingdom +44). For further details on country code history and development, see History of Country Codes (WTNG). See also E.164 International Telecommunication Union List of international call prefixes International mobile phone codes Telephone numbering plan Group identifiers in ISBNs, a similar form of country code Local conventions for writing telephone numbers References External links List of ITU-T Recommendation E.164 assigned country codes as of 15 April 2009 List of Country Codes from AT&T. be-x-old:Сьпіс тэлефонных кодаў краін | List_of_country_calling_codes |@lemmatized list:9 country:26 call:7 code:37 define:1 itu:6 recommendation:4 e:6 telephone:6 numbering:6 plan:6 system:4 include:9 international:13 dialing:2 prefix:4 must:1 dial:2 phone:7 number:9 generally:1 need:1 indicate:1 glance:1 form:2 hence:1 organize:1 tree:1 u:5 ca:1 see:9 nanp:3 b:1 bb:1 ai:1 ag:1 vg:1 vi:1 ky:1 bm:1 gd:1 tc:1 mp:1 gu:1 lc:1 dm:1 vc:1 pr:2 tt:1 kn:1 jm:1 eg:1 eh:1 dz:1 tn:1 ly:1 gm:2 sn:1 mr:1 ml:1 gn:1 ci:1 bf:1 ne:1 tg:1 bj:1 mu:1 lr:1 sl:1 gh:1 ng:1 td:1 cf:1 cm:1 cv:1 st:2 gq:1 ga:1 cg:1 cd:1 ao:1 gw:1 io:1 ac:1 sc:1 sd:1 rw:1 et:1 qs:1 dj:1 ke:1 tz:1 ug:1 bi:1 mz:1 zm:1 mg:1 yt:1 zw:1 na:1 mw:1 l:1 bw:1 sz:1 km:1 za:1 sh:1 ta:1 er:1 aw:1 fo:1 gl:1 gr:1 nl:1 fr:1 gi:1 pt:1 lu:1 ie:1 al:1 mt:1 cy:1 fi:1 ax:1 bg:1 hu:1 lt:1 lv:1 ee:1 md:1 qn:2 ad:1 mc:1 sm:1 va:2 ua:1 r:1 hr:1 si:1 ba:1 eu:1 mk:1 ro:1 ch:1 cz:1 sk:1 li:1 gb:1 gg:1 im:1 je:1 dk:1 se:1 sj:1 pl:1 de:2 fk:1 bz:1 gt:1 sv:1 hn:1 ni:1 cr:1 pa:1 pm:1 ht:1 pe:1 mx:1 cu:1 ar:1 br:1 cl:1 co:1 gp:1 bl:1 mf:1 bo:1 gy:1 ec:1 gf:1 py:1 mq:1 sr:1 uy:1 au:1 cx:1 cc:1 id:1 ph:1 nz:1 sg:1 th:1 tl:1 nf:1 aq:1 bn:1 nr:1 pg:1 sb:1 vu:1 fj:1 pw:1 wf:1 ck:1 nu:1 w:1 ki:1 nc:1 tv:1 pf:1 tk:1 fm:1 mh:1 ru:1 kz:1 xt:1 x:2 jp:1 kr:1 vn:1 kp:1 hk:1 mo:1 kh:1 la:2 cn:1 xn:1 xe:1 xf:1 pn:1 xi:1 xw:1 xp:1 bd:1 xg:1 xv:1 xl:1 tw:1 xd:1 tr:1 qy:1 pk:1 af:1 lk:1 mm:1 mv:1 lb:1 jo:1 sy:1 iq:1 kw:1 sa:1 ye:1 om:1 p:1 ae:1 il:1 ps:1 bh:1 qa:1 bt:1 mn:1 np:1 xr:1 ir:1 xc:1 tj:1 tm:1 az:1 ge:1 kg:1 uz:1 depth:1 general:1 geographic:1 grouping:1 zone:15 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4,493 | Archimedean_solid | In geometry an Archimedean solid is a highly symmetric, semi-regular convex polyhedron composed of two or more types of regular polygons meeting in identical vertices. They are distinct from the Platonic solids, which are composed of only one type of polygon meeting in identical vertices, and from the Johnson solids, whose regular polygonal faces do not meet in identical vertices. The symmetry of the Archimedean solids excludes the members of the dihedral group, the prisms and antiprisms. The Archimedean solids can all be made via Wythoff constructions from the Platonic solids with tetrahedral, octahedral and icosahedral symmetry. See Convex uniform polyhedron. Origin of name The Archimedean solids take their name from Archimedes, who discussed them in a now-lost work. During the Renaissance, artists and mathematicians valued pure forms and rediscovered all of these forms. This search was completed around 1620 by Johannes Kepler, who defined prisms, antiprisms, and the non-convex solids known as the Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra. Classification There are 13 Archimedean solids (15 if the mirror images of two enantiomorphs, see below, are counted separately). Here the vertex configuration refers to the type of regular polygons that meet at any given vertex. For example, a vertex configuration of (4,6,8) means that a square, hexagon, and octagon meet at a vertex (with the order taken to be clockwise around the vertex). The number of vertices is 720° divided by the vertex angle defect. Name(Vertex configuration) Transparent Solid Net Faces Edges Vertices Symmetry group truncated tetrahedron(3.6.6) Truncated tetrahedron(Animation) 8 4 triangles4 hexagons 18 12 Td cuboctahedron(3.4.3.4) Cuboctahedron(Animation) 14 8 triangles6 squares 24 12 Oh truncated cubeor truncated hexahedron(3.8.8) Truncated hexahedron(Animation) 14 8 triangles6 octagons 36 24 Oh truncated octahedron(4.6.6) Truncated octahedron(Animation) 14 6 squares8 hexagons 36 24 Oh rhombicuboctahedronor small rhombicuboctahedron(3.4.4.4 ) Rhombicuboctahedron(Animation) 26 8 triangles18 squares 48 24 Oh truncated cuboctahedronor great rhombicuboctahedron(4.6.8) Truncated cuboctahedron(Animation) 26 12 squares8 hexagons6 octagons 72 48 Oh snub cubeor snub hexahedron or snub cuboctahedron(2 chiral forms)(3.3.3.3.4) Snub hexahedron (Ccw)(Animation)Snub hexahedron (Cw)(Animation) 38 32 triangles6 squares 60 24 O icosidodecahedron(3.5.3.5) Icosidodecahedron(Animation) 32 20 triangles12 pentagons 60 30 Ih truncated dodecahedron(3.10.10) Truncated dodecahedron(Animation) 32 20 triangles12 decagons 90 60 Ih truncated icosahedronor buckyballor football/soccer ball(5.6.6 ) Truncated icosahedron(Animation) 32 12 pentagons20 hexagons 90 60 Ih rhombicosidodecahedronor small rhombicosidodecahedron(3.4.5.4) Rhombicosidodecahedron(Animation) 62 20 triangles30 squares12 pentagons 120 60 Ih truncated icosidodecahedronor great rhombicosidodecahedron(4.6.10) Truncated icosidodecahedron(Animation) 62 30 squares20 hexagons12 decagons 180 120 Ih snub dodecahedronor snub icosidodecahedron(2 chiral forms)(3.3.3.3.5) Snub dodecahedron (Ccw)(Animation)Snub dodecahedron (Cw)(Animation) 92 80 triangles12 pentagons 150 60 I The cuboctahedron and icosidodecahedron are edge-uniform and are called quasi-regular. The snub cube and snub dodecahedron are known as chiral, as they come in a left-handed (Latin: levomorph or laevomorph) form and right-handed (Latin: dextromorph) form. When something comes in multiple forms which are each other's three-dimensional mirror image, these forms may be called enantiomorphs. (This nomenclature is also used for the forms of certain chemical compounds). The duals of the Archimedean solids are called the Catalan solids. Together with the bipyramids and trapezohedra, these are the face-uniform solids with regular vertices. See also semiregular polyhedron uniform polyhedron List of uniform polyhedra References (Section 3-9) External links Archemedian Solids by Eric W. Weisstein, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. Paper models of Archimedean Solids and Catalan Solids Paper models(nets) of Archimedean solids The Uniform Polyhedra by Dr. R. Mäder Virtual Reality Polyhedra, The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra by George W. Hart Penultimate Modular Origami by James S. Plank Interactive 3D polyhedra in Java Contemporary Archimedean Solid Surfaces Designed by Tom Barber Stella: Polyhedron Navigator: Software used to create many of the images on this page. | Archimedean_solid |@lemmatized geometry:1 archimedean:9 solid:18 highly:1 symmetric:1 semi:1 regular:6 convex:3 polyhedron:11 compose:2 two:2 type:3 polygon:3 meeting:2 identical:3 vertex:13 distinct:1 platonic:2 one:1 johnson:1 whose:1 polygonal:1 face:3 meet:3 symmetry:3 exclude:1 member:1 dihedral:1 group:2 prism:2 antiprisms:2 make:1 via:1 wythoff:1 construction:1 tetrahedral:1 octahedral:1 icosahedral:1 see:3 uniform:6 origin:1 name:3 take:2 archimedes:1 discuss:1 lose:1 work:1 renaissance:1 artist:1 mathematician:1 value:1 pure:1 form:9 rediscover:1 search:1 complete:1 around:2 johannes:1 kepler:2 define:1 non:1 know:2 poinsot:1 classification:1 mirror:2 image:3 enantiomorph:2 count:1 separately:1 configuration:3 refers:1 give:1 example:1 mean:1 square:4 hexagon:4 octagon:3 order:1 clockwise:1 number:1 divide:1 angle:1 defect:1 transparent:1 net:2 edge:2 truncate:15 tetrahedron:2 animation:15 td:1 cuboctahedron:5 oh:5 cubeor:2 hexahedron:5 octahedron:2 rhombicuboctahedronor:1 small:2 rhombicuboctahedron:3 cuboctahedronor:1 great:2 snub:11 chiral:3 ccw:2 cw:2 icosidodecahedron:5 pentagon:3 ih:5 dodecahedron:5 decagon:2 icosahedronor:1 buckyballor:1 football:1 soccer:1 ball:1 icosahedron:1 rhombicosidodecahedronor:1 rhombicosidodecahedron:3 icosidodecahedronor:1 dodecahedronor:1 call:3 quasi:1 cube:1 come:2 left:1 hand:2 latin:2 levomorph:1 laevomorph:1 right:1 dextromorph:1 something:1 multiple:1 three:1 dimensional:1 may:1 nomenclature:1 also:2 use:2 certain:1 chemical:1 compound:1 duals:1 catalan:2 together:1 bipyramids:1 trapezohedron:1 semiregular:1 list:1 reference:1 section:1 external:1 link:1 archemedian:1 eric:1 w:2 weisstein:1 wolfram:1 demonstration:1 project:1 paper:2 model:2 dr:1 r:1 mäder:1 virtual:1 reality:1 encyclopedia:1 george:1 hart:1 penultimate:1 modular:1 origami:1 james:1 plank:1 interactive:1 java:1 contemporary:1 surface:1 design:1 tom:1 barber:1 stella:1 navigator:1 software:1 create:1 many:1 page:1 |@bigram archimedean_solid:9 convex_polyhedron:1 regular_polygon:2 platonic_solid:2 prism_antiprisms:2 uniform_polyhedron:4 johannes_kepler:1 kepler_poinsot:1 poinsot_polyhedron:1 truncate_dodecahedron:2 football_soccer:1 truncate_icosahedron:1 snub_dodecahedron:3 external_link:1 w_weisstein:1 wolfram_demonstration:1 |
4,494 | Ask_and_Embla | "Hœnir, Lóðurr and Odin create Askr and Embla" (1895) by Lorenz Frølich. In Norse Mythology, Ask and Embla (Old Norse: Askr ok Embla) were the first two humans created by the gods. The pair are attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. In both sources, three gods find Ask and Embla, bestow upon them various gifts, and one of the gods is Odin. However, the names of the two gods that accompany Odin differ per source. A number of theories surround the figures, and the two are sometimes referenced in popular culture. Etymology A depiction of Ask and Embla (1919) by Robert Engels. Old Norse askr literally means "ash tree" but the etymology of embla is uncertain, and two possibilities of the meaning of embla are generally proposed. The first meaning, "elm tree", is problematic, and is reached by deriving *Elm-la from *Almilōn and subsequently to almr ("elm"). Simek (2007:74). The second suggestion is "vine", which is reached through *Ambilō, which may be related to the Greek term ámpelos, itself meaning "vine, liana". Simek (2007:74). The latter etymology has resulted in a number of theories. According to Benjamin Thorpe "Grimm says the word embla, emla, signifies a busy woman, from amr, ambr, aml, ambl, assidous labour; the same relation as Meshia and Meshiane, the ancient Persian names of the first man and woman, who were also formed from trees." Thorpe (1907:337). Attestations In stanza 17 of the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá, the völva reciting the poem describes that Hœnir, Lóðurr and Odin once found Ask and Embla on land. The völva says that the two were capable of very little, lacking in ørlög and describes that they were given three gifts by the three gods: Old Norse: Ǫnd þau né átto, óð þau né hǫfðo, lá né læti né lito góða. Ǫnd gaf Óðinn, óð gaf Hœnir, lá gaf Lóðurr ok lito góða. Dronke (1997:11). Benjamin Thorpe translation: Spirit they possessed not, sense they had not, blood nor motive powers, nor goodly colour. Spirit gave Odin, sense gave Hœnir, blood gave Lodur, and goodly colour. Thorpe (1866:5). Henry Adams Bellows translation: Soul they had not, sense they had not, Heat nor motion, nor goodly hue; Soul gave Othin, sense gave Hönir, Heat gave Lothur and goodly hue. Bellows (1936:8). According to chapter 9 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning, the three brothers Vili, Vé, and Odin, are the creators of the first man and woman. The brothers were once walking along a beach and found two trees there. They took the wood and from it created the first human beings; Ask and Embla. One of the three gave them the breath of life, the second gave them movement and intelligence, and the third gave them shape, speech, hearing and sight. Further, the three gods gave them clothing and names. Ask and Embla go on to become the progenitors of all humanity and were given a home within the walls of Midgard. Byock (2006:18). Theories "Ask och Embla" (1948) by Stig Blomberg. In Sölvesborg, Sweden. Photo by Henrik Sendelbach. A Proto-Indo-European basis has been theorized for the duo based around the etymology of embla meaning "vine." In Indo-European societies, an analogy is derived from the drilling of fire and sexual intercourse. Vines were used as a flammable wood, where they were placed beneath a drill made of harder wood, resulting in fire. Further evidence of ritual making of fire in Scandinavia has been theorized from a depiction on a stone plate on a Bronze Age grave in Kivik, Scania, Sweden. A figure named Æsc (Old English "ash tree") appears as the son of Hengest in the Anglo-Saxon genealogy for the kings of Kent. This has resulted in an amount of theories that the figures may have had an earlier basis in pre-Norse Germanic mythology. Orchard (1997:8). Connections have been proposed between Ask and Embla and the Vandal kings Assi and Ambri, attested in Paul the Deacon's 7th century CE work Origo Gentis Langobardorum. There, the two ask the god Godan (Odin) for victory. The name Ambri, like Embla, likely derives from *Ambilō. A preceding stanza to the account of the creation of Ask and Embla in Völuspá provides a catalog of dwarves, and stanza 10 has been considered as describing the creation of human forms from the earth. This may potentially mean that dwarves formed humans, and that the three gods gave them life. Lindow (2001:62-63). Carolyne Larrington theorizes that humans are metaphorically designated as trees in Old Norse works (examples include "trees of jewellery" for women and "trees of battle" for men) due to the origin of humankind stemming from trees; Ask and Embla. Larrington (1999:279). Modern influence Ask and Embla have been the subject of a number of references and artistic depictions. A sculpture depicting the two stands in the southern Swedish city of Sölvesborg, created in 1948 by Stig Blomberg. Ask and Embla are depicted on two of the sixteen wooden panels found on the Oslo City Hall in Oslo, Norway by Dagfin Werenskjold. In 2003, Faroese artist Anker Eli Petersen included a depiction of the couple in his series of Faroe Islands stamps. See also Líf and Lífþrasir, two humans who survive the events of Ragnarök and repopulate the reborn world in Norse mythology. Notes References Bellows, Henry Adams (Trans.) (1936). The Poetic Edda. Princeton University Press. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation. Byock, Jesse (Trans.) (2006). The Prose Edda. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0140447555 Dronke, Ursula (Trans.) (1997). The Poetic Edda: Volume II: Mythological Poems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198111819 Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.) (1999). The Poetic Edda. Oxford World's Classics. ISBN 0192839462 Lindow, John (2001). Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515382-0 Orchard, Andy (1997). Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. Cassell. ISBN 0 304 34520 2 Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer. ISBN 0859915131 Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.) (1907). The Elder Edda of Saemund Sigfusson. Norrœna Society. Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.) (1866). Edda Sæmundar Hinns Frôða: The Edda of Sæmund the Learned. Part I. London: Trübner & Co. | Ask_and_Embla |@lemmatized hœnir:4 lóðurr:3 odin:7 create:4 askr:3 embla:19 lorenz:1 frølich:1 norse:9 mythology:5 ask:13 old:5 ok:2 first:5 two:10 human:6 god:9 pair:1 attest:2 poetic:5 edda:11 compile:1 century:3 early:2 traditional:1 source:3 prose:3 write:1 snorri:1 sturluson:1 three:7 find:4 bestow:1 upon:1 various:1 gift:2 one:2 however:1 name:5 accompany:1 differ:1 per:1 number:3 theory:4 surround:1 figure:3 sometimes:1 reference:3 popular:1 culture:1 etymology:4 depiction:4 robert:1 engels:1 literally:1 mean:4 ash:2 tree:9 uncertain:1 possibility:1 meaning:2 generally:1 propose:2 elm:3 problematic:1 reach:2 derive:2 la:1 almilōn:1 subsequently:1 almr:1 simek:3 second:2 suggestion:1 vine:4 ambilō:2 may:3 relate:1 greek:1 term:1 ámpelos:1 liana:1 latter:1 result:3 accord:2 benjamin:4 thorpe:6 grimm:1 say:2 word:1 emla:1 signify:1 busy:1 woman:4 amr:1 ambr:1 aml:1 ambl:1 assidous:1 labour:1 relation:1 meshia:1 meshiane:1 ancient:1 persian:1 man:2 also:2 form:3 attestation:1 stanza:3 poem:3 völuspá:2 völva:2 recite:1 describe:3 land:1 capable:1 little:1 lack:1 ørlög:1 give:13 ǫnd:2 þau:2 né:4 átto:1 óð:2 hǫfðo:1 lá:2 læti:1 lito:2 góða:2 gaf:3 óðinn:1 dronke:2 translation:2 spirit:2 possess:1 sense:4 blood:2 motive:1 power:1 goodly:4 colour:2 lodur:1 henry:2 adam:2 bellow:3 soul:2 heat:2 motion:1 hue:2 othin:1 hönir:1 lothur:1 chapter:1 book:1 gylfaginning:1 brother:2 vili:1 vé:1 creator:1 walk:1 along:1 beach:1 take:1 wood:3 breath:1 life:2 movement:1 intelligence:1 third:1 shape:1 speech:1 hearing:1 sight:1 far:1 clothing:1 go:1 become:1 progenitor:1 humanity:1 home:1 within:1 wall:1 midgard:1 byock:2 och:1 stig:2 blomberg:2 sölvesborg:2 sweden:2 photo:1 henrik:1 sendelbach:1 proto:1 indo:2 european:2 basis:2 theorize:3 duo:1 base:1 around:1 society:2 analogy:1 drilling:1 fire:3 sexual:1 intercourse:1 use:1 flammable:1 place:1 beneath:1 drill:1 make:1 harder:1 evidence:1 ritual:2 making:1 scandinavia:1 stone:1 plate:1 bronze:1 age:1 grave:1 kivik:1 scania:1 æsc:1 english:1 appear:1 son:1 hengest:1 anglo:1 saxon:1 genealogy:1 king:2 kent:1 amount:1 pre:1 germanic:1 orchard:2 connection:1 vandal:1 assi:1 ambri:2 paul:1 deacon:1 ce:1 work:2 origo:1 gentis:1 langobardorum:1 godan:1 victory:1 like:1 likely:1 derives:1 precede:1 account:1 creation:2 provide:1 catalog:1 dwarf:2 consider:1 earth:1 potentially:1 lindow:2 carolyne:2 larrington:3 metaphorically:1 designate:1 example:1 include:2 jewellery:1 battle:1 men:1 due:1 origin:1 humankind:1 stem:1 modern:1 influence:1 subject:1 artistic:1 sculpture:1 depict:2 stand:1 southern:1 swedish:1 city:2 sixteen:1 wooden:1 panel:1 oslo:2 hall:2 norway:1 dagfin:1 werenskjold:1 faroese:1 artist:1 anker:1 eli:1 petersen:1 couple:1 series:1 faroe:1 island:1 stamp:1 see:1 líf:1 lífþrasir:1 survive:1 event:1 ragnarök:1 repopulate:1 reborn:1 world:2 note:1 trans:6 princeton:1 university:3 press:3 new:1 york:1 american:1 scandinavian:1 foundation:1 jesse:1 penguin:1 classic:2 isbn:6 ursula:1 volume:1 ii:1 mythological:1 oxford:3 john:1 guide:1 hero:1 belief:1 andy:1 dictionary:2 myth:1 legend:1 cassell:1 rudolf:1 translate:1 angela:1 northern:1 brewer:1 elder:1 saemund:1 sigfusson:1 norrœna:1 sæmundar:1 hinns:1 frôða:1 sæmund:1 learn:1 part:1 london:1 trübner:1 co:1 |@bigram lorenz_frølich:1 norse_mythology:3 ask_embla:11 poetic_edda:5 prose_edda:3 snorri_sturluson:1 benjamin_thorpe:2 poem_völuspá:1 adam_bellow:1 vili_vé:1 proto_indo:1 indo_european:2 sexual_intercourse:1 anglo_saxon:1 gentis_langobardorum:1 oslo_norway:1 faroe_island:1 penguin_classic:1 larrington_carolyne:1 carolyne_trans:1 orchard_andy:1 legend_cassell:1 simek_rudolf:1 thorpe_benjamin:2 elder_edda:1 london_trübner:1 trübner_co:1 |
4,495 | Alexander | Alexander is a common male first name. Origin The name in English is taken from the Greek name Ἀλέξανδρος (Alexandros). Etymologically, the name is a compound of the Greek verb ἀλέξω (alexō) "to push back","to hold off" and the noun ἀνδρός (andros), genitive of ἀνήρ (anēr) "man". Thus it may be roughly translated as the man who was unbeatable http://el.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%80%CE%BB%CE%AD%CE%BE%CF%89 . The earliest attested record of the name is the Mycenaean Greek of the feminine Alexandra, written in Linear B. Mycenaean (Linear B) – English Glossary The Mycenaean World, John Chadwick, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976, 1999 The name was one of the titles ("epithets") given to the Greek goddess Hera and as such is usually taken to mean "one who comes to save warriors". In the Iliad, the character Paris is known also as Alexander. The name's popularity was spread throughout the Greek world by the military conquests of King Alexander III , commonly known as "Alexander the Great". Most later Alexanders in various countries were directly or indirectly named for him. In Russia, the name was uncommon until the time of Tsar Alexander I, due to whom it became one of the most common of Russian first names and gained a considerable number of Russian variations and abbreviations (see below). Variants and diminutives Albanian – Aleksandër, Aleks, Leka, Sandri, Skënder Amharic – Eskender Arabic – الاسكندر / اسكندر (Iskandar), Skandar, Skender Armenian - Ալեքսանդր (Aleksandr/Alexandr), Ալեքսան (Aleksan/Alexan), Ալեք (Aleq), Ալիկ (Alik) Belarusian – Аляксандp (Aliaksandr), Алeсь (Aleś) Bulgarian - Александър (Aleksandar), Сашо (Sasho), Aлекс (Aleks) Bangla - Sikandar Alakshendra, Iskandar, Skandar, Alekzandar Catalan – Alexandre, Àlex, Xandre Corsican - Lisandru Croatian - Aleksandar, Saša Czech - Alexandr Dutch - Alexander, Sander, Xander Ethiopian - Eskender English – Alexander, Alec, Alex, Lex, Sandy, Andy, Alexis, Alexa, Alexandria, Alexandra, Sandra, Al, Sasha, Ali, Lexxi, Zander, Xander, Sashi, Eck Esperanto – Aleksandro, Aleksaĉjo, Aleĉjo, Aĉjo, Alekso, Aleksandra (feminine), Aleksino (feminine), Aleksanjo (feminine), Anjo (feminine) French - Alexandre, Alexis, Alex Finnish - Aleksanteri, Santeri, Santtu Galician – Alexandre, Álex Georgian/ქართულად – ალექსანდრე (Aleksandre), ალეკო (Aleko), ლექსო (Lekso), სანდრო (Sandro) Greek - Αλέξανδρος Hebrew – אלכסנדר (Alexander), אלכס (Alex) Hindi – Hindustani – Sikandar Alakshendra अलक्षेन्द्र Hungarian – Sándor Irish (Gaeilge) – Alasandar Italian – Alessandro, Ale, Sandro, Alessio Japanese - Arrekusu Kurdish - Askander, Eskander Kyrgyz – Искендер (İskender) Latvian – Aleksandrs (Aleksandrs) Malay – Iskandar Malayalam – ചാണ്ടി (Chandy) Maltese – Lixandru Norwegian – Aleksander Persian – اسكندر (Eskandar) Polish - Aleksander, Alek, Olek, Aleks Portuguese – Alexandre, Alexandra (feminine), Alexandro (rare), Alex, Sandro, Sandra (feminine), Sandrina (feminine), Alessandro, Alessandra (feminine) Romanian — Alexandru, Alexandra (feminine), Alex, Sandu, Sanda (feminine), Sandra (feminine), Alecu, Aleca (feminine), Sasa (feminine) Russian — Александр (Aleksandr), Саша (Sasha), Шура (Shura), Саня (Sanya), Шурик (Shurik), Сашок (Sashok), Алик (Alik) Sanskrit language – Alekchendra Scots Gaelic – Alasdair, Alastair, Alistair, Alisdair Serbian - Александар (Aleksandar), Алекса (Aleksa), Алекс (Aleks), Саша (Saša), Сале (Sale), Аца (Aca) Slovenian - Aleksander, Aleks, Sandi, Sašo Spanish - Alejandro, Alejo, Alex, Jandro, Jano Swedish - Alexander, Alex, Alexandra (feminine) Tamil – Aleksandar Turkish – İskender Ukrainian — Олександр (Olexandr, Oleksandr), Сашко (Sashko), Олесь (Oles') Urdu – Hindustani – Sikandar Urdu – Pakistani – Sikander ("Sikander-e-Azam" is "Alexander the Great") Uzbek – Iskandar Yiddish – סענדער – Sender, Senderl Alexander as a given name Monarchs Antiquity Alaksandu, ca. 1280 BC Alexander of Corinth, 10th king of Corinth (816–791 BC) Alexander I of Macedon Alexander of Pherae despot of Pherae between 369 and 358 BC Alexander I of Epirus king of Epirus about 342 BC Alexander II of Epirus king of Epirus 272 BC Alexander II of Macedon Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon), King of Macedon, 356–323 BC Alexander IV of Macedon Alexander Balas, ruler of the Seleucid kingdom of Syria between 150 and 146 BC Alexander Jannaeus king of Judea, 103-76 BCE Alexander Severus, (208–235), Roman Empire Domitius Alexander, Roman usurper who declared himself emperor in 308 Middle Ages Alexander, Byzantine Emperor (912–913) Alexander I of Scotland (c. 1078–1124) Alexander II of Scotland (1198–1249) Alexander Nevsky (1220–1263), Grand Prince of Novgorod and Vladimir Alexander III of Scotland (1241–1286) Aleksander (1338–before 1386), prince of Podolia (son of Narymunt) Sikandar Butshikan, Sultan of Kashmir (1389–1413) Alexandru cel Bun, voivode of Moldavia (1400–1432) Skenderbeg (1405–1468), prince of Albania Alexandru I Aldea, ruler of the principality of Wallachia (1431–1436) Eskender, Emperor of Ethiopia (1472–1494) Alexander Jagiellon (Alexander of Poland) (1461–1506), king of Poland Alexandru Lăpuşneanu, voivode of Moldavia (1552–1561 and 1564–1568) Sikandar Shah Suri, Shah of Delhi (1555) Sikandar Lodhi, Sultan of Delhi (16th Century) Modern Alexander I of Russia (1777–1825), emperor of Russia Sikandar Jah, Nizam of Hyderabad, (1803–1829) Alexander II of Russia (1818–1881), emperor of Russia Alexander III of Russia (1845–1894), emperor of Russia Alexander Karađorđević, Prince of Serbia (1842–1858) Alexander of Bulgaria (1857–1893), first prince of Bulgaria Alexander John Cuza, prince of Romania (1859–1866) Alexander I Obrenović of Serbia (1876–1903), king of Serbia Alexander, Prince of Lippe (1831–1905), prince of Lippe Alexander I of Yugoslavia (1888–1934), first king of Yugoslavia Zog I also known as Skenderbeg III, (1895–1961), king of Albanians Alexander of Greece (king) (1917–1920), king of Greece Leka, Crown Prince of Albania, (born 1939), king of Albanians (throne pretender) Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange Religious leaders Pope Alexander I, (pope 97–105) Alexander of Apamea, 5th century bishop of Apamea Pope Alexander II, (pope 1058–1061) Pope Alexander III, (pope 1164–1168) Pope Alexander IV, (pope 1243–1254) Pope Alexander V, ("Peter Philarges" ca. 1339–1410) Pope Alexander VI, (1493–1503), Roman pope Pope Alexander VII, (1599–1667) Pope Alexander VIII, (pope 1689–1691), Alexander of Constantinople, bishop of Constantinople (314–337) St. Alexander of Alexandria, Coptic Pope, Patriarch of Alexandria between 313 and 328 Pope Alexander II of Alexandria, Coptic Pope (702–729) Alexander of Lincoln, bishop of Lincoln Alexander Essebiensis aka Alexander of Ashby, 13th century prior and poet Alexander of Jerusalem See also Saint Alexander, various saints with this name Other people Alexander (artists), the name of a number of artists of ancient Greece, Rome and Macedon Alexander (3rd century BC general), commanded the cavalry under Antigonus III Doson Alexander of Athens, Athenian comic poet Alexander Lyncestes, a contemporary of Alexander the Great Alexander Aetolus, a poet and member of the Alexandrian Pleiad Alexander, son of Lysimachus, 3rd century BC Macedonian royal Alexander of Aetolia, briefly conquered Aegira in 220 BC Alexander (general), son of Polyperchon, the regent of Macedonia Alexander Isius, 2nd century military commander of the Aetolians Alexander of Acarnania (d. 191 BC), confidante of Antiochus III the Great Alexander Lychnus, early 1st century BC poet and historian Alexander Jannaeus, 1st century BC king of Judea Alexander Polyhistor, Greek scholar of the 1st century Alexander of Myndus, ancient Greek writer on zoology and divination Alexander of Aegae, peripatetic philosopher of the 1st century Alexander of Judaea, son of Aristobulus II, king of Judaea Alexander of Cotiaeum, 2nd century Greek grammarian and tutor of Marcus Aurelius Alexander the Paphlagonian, 2nd century Greek imposter Alexander Peloplaton, Greek rhetorician of the 2nd century Alexander of Lycopolis, 4th century author of an early Christian treatise against Manicheans Alexander Beyer (* 1973), German actor Claude Alexander Conlin (1880–1954), stage magician Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922), scientist and inventor of the telephone Alexander Hamilton (1755 or 1757–1804), United States founding father and first Secretary of the Treasury Alexander of Aphrodisias, Greek commentator and philosopher Alexander of Greece (rhetorician) Alexander of Hales, 13th-century Medieval theologian Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), a German natural scientist Alexander, le Pargiter, 13th-century abbot Alexander Pope (1688-1744), English Poet Alexander Pushkin (1799–1837), Russian author (Germanized form of name) Paris (mythology) aka Alexander, the Trojan prince who kidnapped Helen Alexandre, Chevalier de Vendôme (1598–1629), illegitiate child of Henry IV of France Prince Alexander John of Wales (1871), short-lived son of Edward VII Alexander Freeman (b. 1970), Liberian soccer player Alexander Kruger (b. 1963), English decathlete Alexander Lucas, a Canadian businessman Alexandre Filipe Clemente Leitão (b. 1979), Portuguese soccer player A few other princes have borne the name Alexander: George V of Hanover (1819–1878) Prince Alfred of Edinburgh and Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1874–1899) Prince George, Duke of Kent (1902–1942) Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester (1944–)] Alexander as a surname see Alexander (surname) Fictional people with the name Alexander Hamish Alexander, a character in David Weber's Honorverse Lyta Alexander, a Telepath in the Science fiction TV-series Babylon 5 Alexander (Summons), a summoned avatar from the Final Fantasy series of games. He is one of the terrestrial avatars in Final Fantasy XI Alexander Anderson, a regenerative warrior-priest from the Hellsing series. Alexander "Lex" Luthor, a supervillain in the DC Comics universe and archnemesis of Superman, as well as Alexander Luthor, his heroic Earth-Three counterpart, and the latter's son, Alexander Luthor, Jr. Alexander "Alex" Karev is one of the main characters on the show Grey's Anatomy. See also Hera Alexandros, an epithet of the Greek goddess Hera Philip References | Alexander |@lemmatized alexander:109 common:2 male:1 first:5 name:16 origin:1 english:5 take:2 greek:13 ἀλέξανδρος:1 alexandros:2 etymologically:1 compound:1 verb:1 ἀλέξω:1 alexō:1 push:1 back:1 hold:1 noun:1 ἀνδρός:1 andros:1 genitive:1 ἀνήρ:1 anēr:1 man:2 thus:1 may:1 roughly:1 translate:1 unbeatable:1 http:1 el:1 wiktionary:1 org:1 wiki:1 bc:14 ce:3 bb:1 ad:1 cf:1 early:3 attested:1 record:1 mycenaean:3 feminine:15 alexandra:5 write:1 linear:2 b:5 glossary:1 world:2 john:3 chadwick:1 new:1 york:1 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 one:5 title:1 epithet:2 give:2 goddess:2 hera:3 usually:1 mean:1 come:1 save:1 warrior:2 iliad:1 character:3 paris:2 know:3 also:4 popularity:1 spread:1 throughout:1 military:2 conquest:1 king:15 iii:8 commonly:1 great:5 late:1 various:2 country:1 directly:1 indirectly:1 russia:7 uncommon:1 time:1 tsar:1 due:1 become:1 russian:4 gain:1 considerable:1 number:2 variation:1 abbreviation:1 see:4 variant:1 diminutive:1 albanian:3 aleksandër:1 aleks:5 leka:2 sandri:1 skënder:1 amharic:1 eskender:3 arabic:1 الاسكندر:1 اسكندر:2 iskandar:4 skandar:2 skender:3 armenian:1 ալեքսանդր:1 aleksandr:2 alexandr:2 ալեքսան:1 aleksan:1 alexan:1 ալեք:1 aleq:1 ալիկ:1 alik:2 belarusian:1 аляксандp:1 aliaksandr:1 алeсь:1 aleś:1 bulgarian:1 александър:1 aleksandar:4 сашо:1 sasho:1 aлекс:1 bangla:1 sikandar:7 alakshendra:2 alekzandar:1 catalan:1 alexandre:6 àlex:1 xandre:1 corsican:1 lisandru:1 croatian:1 saša:2 czech:1 dutch:1 sander:1 xander:2 ethiopian:1 alec:1 alex:8 lex:2 sandy:1 andy:1 alexis:2 alexa:1 alexandria:4 sandra:3 al:1 sasha:2 ali:1 lexxi:1 zander:1 sashi:1 eck:1 esperanto:1 aleksandro:1 aleksaĉjo:1 aleĉjo:1 aĉjo:1 alekso:1 aleksandra:1 aleksino:1 aleksanjo:1 anjo:1 french:1 finnish:1 aleksanteri:1 santeri:1 santtu:1 galician:1 álex:1 georgian:1 ქართულად:1 ალექსანდრე:1 aleksandre:1 ალეკო:1 aleko:1 ლექსო:1 lekso:1 სანდრო:1 sandro:3 αλέξανδρος:1 hebrew:1 אלכסנדר:1 אלכס:1 hindi:1 hindustani:2 अलक:1 ष:1 न:1 द:1 र:1 hungarian:1 sándor:1 irish:1 gaeilge:1 alasandar:1 italian:1 alessandro:2 ale:1 alessio:1 japanese:1 arrekusu:1 kurdish:1 askander:1 eskander:1 kyrgyz:1 искендер:1 latvian:1 aleksandrs:2 malay:1 malayalam:1 ച:1 ണ:1 ട:1 chandy:1 maltese:1 lixandru:1 norwegian:1 aleksander:4 persian:1 eskandar:1 polish:1 alek:1 olek:1 portuguese:2 alexandro:1 rare:1 sandrina:1 alessandra:1 romanian:1 alexandru:4 sandu:1 sanda:1 alecu:1 aleca:1 sasa:1 александр:1 саша:2 шура:1 shura:1 саня:1 sanya:1 шурик:1 shurik:1 сашок:1 sashok:1 алик:1 sanskrit:1 language:1 alekchendra:1 scot:1 gaelic:1 alasdair:1 alastair:1 alistair:1 alisdair:1 serbian:1 александар:1 алекса:1 aleksa:1 алекс:1 сале:1 sale:1 аца:1 aca:1 slovenian:1 sandi:1 sašo:1 spanish:1 alejandro:1 alejo:1 jandro:1 jano:1 swedish:1 tamil:1 turkish:1 ukrainian:1 олександр:1 olexandr:1 oleksandr:1 сашко:1 sashko:1 олесь:1 oles:1 urdu:2 pakistani:1 sikander:2 e:1 azam:1 uzbek:1 yiddish:1 סענדער:1 sender:1 senderl:1 monarchs:1 antiquity:1 alaksandu:1 ca:2 corinth:2 macedon:6 pherae:2 despot:1 epirus:4 ii:7 iv:3 balas:1 ruler:2 seleucid:1 kingdom:1 syria:1 jannaeus:2 judea:2 bce:1 severus:1 roman:3 empire:1 domitius:1 usurper:1 declare:1 emperor:6 middle:1 age:1 byzantine:1 scotland:3 c:1 nevsky:1 grand:1 prince:16 novgorod:1 vladimir:1 podolia:1 son:6 narymunt:1 butshikan:1 sultan:2 kashmir:1 cel:1 bun:1 voivode:2 moldavia:2 skenderbeg:2 albania:2 aldea:1 principality:1 wallachia:1 ethiopia:1 jagiellon:1 poland:2 lăpuşneanu:1 shah:2 suri:1 delhi:2 lodhi:1 century:16 modern:1 jah:1 nizam:1 hyderabad:1 karađorđević:1 serbia:3 bulgaria:2 cuza:1 romania:1 obrenović:1 lippe:2 yugoslavia:2 zog:1 greece:4 crown:1 born:1 throne:1 pretender:1 willem:1 orange:1 religious:1 leader:1 pope:18 apamea:2 bishop:3 v:2 peter:1 philarges:1 vi:1 vii:2 viii:1 constantinople:2 st:1 coptic:2 patriarch:1 lincoln:2 essebiensis:1 aka:2 ashby:1 prior:1 poet:5 jerusalem:1 saint:2 people:2 artist:2 ancient:2 rome:1 general:2 command:1 cavalry:1 antigonus:1 doson:1 athens:1 athenian:1 comic:2 lyncestes:1 contemporary:1 aetolus:1 member:1 alexandrian:1 pleiad:1 lysimachus:1 macedonian:1 royal:1 aetolia:1 briefly:1 conquer:1 aegira:1 polyperchon:1 regent:1 macedonia:1 isius:1 commander:1 aetolians:1 acarnania:1 confidante:1 antiochus:1 lychnus:1 historian:1 polyhistor:1 scholar:1 myndus:1 writer:1 zoology:1 divination:1 aegae:1 peripatetic:1 philosopher:2 judaea:2 aristobulus:1 cotiaeum:1 grammarian:1 tutor:1 marcus:1 aurelius:1 paphlagonian:1 imposter:1 peloplaton:1 rhetorician:2 lycopolis:1 author:2 christian:1 treatise:1 manichean:1 beyer:1 german:2 actor:1 claude:1 conlin:1 stage:1 magician:1 graham:1 bell:1 scientist:2 inventor:1 telephone:1 hamilton:1 united:1 state:1 found:1 father:1 secretary:1 treasury:1 aphrodisia:1 commentator:1 hale:1 medieval:1 theologian:1 von:1 humboldt:1 natural:1 le:1 pargiter:1 abbot:1 pushkin:1 germanized:1 form:1 mythology:1 trojan:1 kidnap:1 helen:1 chevalier:1 de:1 vendôme:1 illegitiate:1 child:1 henry:1 france:1 wale:1 short:1 live:1 edward:1 freeman:1 liberian:1 soccer:2 player:2 kruger:1 decathlete:1 lucas:1 canadian:1 businessman:1 filipe:1 clemente:1 leitão:1 bear:1 george:2 hanover:1 alfred:1 edinburgh:1 saxe:1 coburg:1 gotha:1 duke:2 kent:1 richard:1 gloucester:1 surname:2 fictional:1 hamish:1 david:1 weber:1 honorverse:1 lyta:1 telepath:1 science:1 fiction:1 tv:1 series:3 babylon:1 summons:1 summoned:1 avatar:2 final:2 fantasy:2 game:1 terrestrial:1 xi:1 anderson:1 regenerative:1 priest:1 hellsing:1 luthor:3 supervillain:1 dc:1 universe:1 archnemesis:1 superman:1 well:1 heroic:1 earth:1 three:1 counterpart:1 latter:1 jr:1 karev:1 main:1 show:1 grey:1 anatomy:1 philip:1 reference:1 |@bigram wiktionary_org:1 org_wiki:1 goddess_hera:2 directly_indirectly:1 scot_gaelic:1 alexander_jannaeus:2 alexander_severus:1 alexander_nevsky:1 nizam_hyderabad:1 patriarch_alexandria:1 antiochus_iii:1 marcus_aurelius:1 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4,496 | Jerzy_KosiÅ%84ski | Jerzy Kosiński (June 14, 1933 – May 3, 1991) was a Polish-American novelist, best known for the novels The Painted Bird (1965) and Being There (1971), the latter of which was adapted into a film in 1979. Early life, teaching, and marriage Kosiński was born Josef Lewinkopf to Jewish parents in Łódź, Poland. As a child during World War II, he lived in central Poland under a false identity his father gave him to use, Jerzy Kosiński. A Roman Catholic priest issued him a forged baptismal certificate. The Kosiński family survived the Holocaust thanks to local villagers, who offered assistance to Jewish Poles often at great personal risk (the penalty for assisting Jews in Nazi-occupied Poland was death). Kosiński's father received help not only from Polish town leaders and churchmen, but also from individuals such as Marianna Pasiowa, a member of the Polish underground network helping Jews to evade capture. The family lived openly in Dąbrowa Rzeczycka near Stalowa Wola, and attended church in nearby Wola Rzeczycka, obtaining support from villagers in Kępa Rzeczycka. They were sheltered temporarily by a Catholic family in Rzeczyca Okrągła. The young Jerzy even served as an altar boy in a local church. James Park Sloan. Jerzy Kosiński: A Biography (New York: Dutton/Penguin, 1996), pp.7–54. After World War II, Kosiński remained with his parents in Poland, moved to Jelenia Góra, and earned degrees in history and political science at the University of Łódź. He worked as an assistant in Institute of History and Sociology at the Polish Academy of Sciences. In 1957, he emigrated to the United States, creating a fake foundation which supposedly sponsored him; he later claimed that the letters from eminent Polish communist authorities guaranteeing his loyal return, which were needed for anyone leaving the communist country at that time, had all been forged by him. After taking odd jobs to get by, such as driving a truck, Kosiński graduated from Columbia University. In 1965, he became an American citizen. He received grants from Guggenheim Fellowship in 1967, Ford Foundation in 1968, and the American Academy in 1970, which allowed him to write a political non-fiction book, opening new doors of opportunity. In the States he became a lecturer at Yale, Princeton, Davenport University, and Wesleyan. In 1962 Kosiński married Mary Hayward Weir who was 10 years his senior. They were divorced in 1966. Weir died in 1968 from brain cancer. Kosiński was left nothing in her will. He later fictionalized this marriage in his novel Blind Date speaking of Weir under pseudonym Mary-Jane Kirkland. Kosiński went on to marry Katherina "Kiki" von Fraunhofer, a marketing consultant and descendant of Bavarian aristocracy. They met in 1968. Death Kosiński suffered from multiple illnesses at the end of his life, and was under attack from journalists who alleged he was a plagiarist. By the time he reached his late 50s, Kosiński was suffering from an irregular heartbeat as well as severe physical and nervous exhaustion. Kosiński committed suicide on May 3, 1991, by taking a fatal dose of barbiturates. His parting suicide note read: "I am going to put myself to sleep now for a bit longer than usual. Call it Eternity". (Newsweek, May 13, 1991) Novels Kosiński's novels have appeared on the New York Times Best Seller list and according to Greenwood Press, have been translated into over 30 languages, with total sales estimated at 70 million in 1991. Greenwood Press advertisement The Painted Bird The Painted Bird, Kosiński's controversial 1965 novel, is a fictional account (though not clearly stated as such), that depicts the personal experiences of a boy (of unknown religious and ethnic background) wandering around unidentified areas of Eastern Europe during World War II and taking refuge among a series of people, many of whom are brutally cruel and abusive, either to him or to others. Soon after the book was published in the US, Kosiński was accused by the then-Communist Polish government of being "anti-Polish," especially following the regime's 1968 anti-Semitic campaign.. "Poland Publishes 'The Painted Bird'", The New York Times, April 22, 1989. The book was banned in Poland from its initial publication until the fall of the Communist government in 1989. When it was finally printed, thousands of Poles in Warsaw lined up for as long as eight hours to purchase copies of the work autographed by Kosiński. Polish literary critic and University of Warsaw professor Paweł Dudziak remarked that "in spite of unclear role of its author [The Painted Bird] is an achievement in English literature." He stressed that since the book is a work of fiction and does not document real-world events, accusations of anti-Polish sentiment may result only from taking it too literally. Paweł Dudziak, JERZY KOSIŃSKI, 2003. Last accessed on 10 April 2007. The book received recommendations from Elie Wiesel who wrote in The New York Times Book Review that it was: "One of the best... Written with deep sincerity and sensitivity." Richard Kluger, reviewing it for Harper's Magazine wrote: "Extraordinary... literally staggering ... one of the most powerful books I have ever read." John Yardley, reviewing it for The Miami Herald, wrote: "Of all the remarkable fiction that emerged from World War II, nothing stands higher than Jerzy Kosiński's The Painted Bird. A magnificent work of art, and a celebration of the individual will. No one who reads it will forget it; no one who reads it will be unmoved by it." From book promotional advertisement by Barnes & Noble However, reception of the book was not uniformly positive. After being translated into Polish, it was read by the people with whom the Lewinkopf family lived during the war. They recognized names of Jewish children sheltered by them (who also survived the war), depicted in the novel as victims of abuse by characters based on them. Also, according to Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski, The Painted Bird was Kosiński's most successful attempt at profiteering from the Holocaust by maintaining an aura of a chronicle. Philip Routh, The Rise and Fall of Jerzy Kosiński Arts and Opinion, Vol. 6, No.6, 2007; also in Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski, On literary profiteers of the Holocaust In addition, several claims that Kosiński committed plagiarism in writing The Painted Bird were leveled against him. (See 'Criticism' section, below.) Steps Steps (1968), a novel comprising scores of loosely connected vignettes, won the National Book Award in 1969. www.scaruffi.com/fiction/nba.html In 1975, Chuck Ross, a Los Angeles freelance writer, conducted an experiment with Steps by sending 21 pages of the book to four publishers under the pseudonym Erik Demos. The book was turned down by all of them, including Random House (which originally published Steps) and Houghton Mifflin (which published three of Kosiński’s other novels). Ross revealed his findings in New West magazine four years later. His article includes Kosiński's advice that next time he should offer the entire text. Ross repeated his experiment by submitting the entire text of Steps to literary agents in 1981, with equally dismal results. Time Magazine on Ross experiment American novelist David Foster Wallace described Steps as a "collection of unbelievably creepy little allegorical tableaux done in a terse elegant voice that's like nothing else anywhere ever". Foster Wallace continued in praise: "Only Kafka's fragments get anywhere close to where Kosiński goes in this book, which is better than everything else he ever did combined." http://www.salon.com/books/bag/1999/04/12/wallace/ Samuel Coale, in a 1974 discussion of Kosiński's fiction, wrote that "the narrator of Steps for instance, seems to be nothing more than a disembodied voice howling in some surrealistic wilderness." Samuel Coale. The Quest for the Elusive Self: the Fiction of Jerzy Kosiński. Critique: Studies in Modern Fiction. 14, (3), pp. 25-37. Quoted in: Harold Bloom. Twentieth-century American Literature.. Chelsea House Publishers, 1985. ISBN 0877548048, ISBN 9780877548041 Being There Being There was made into a 1979 movie directed by Hal Ashby, starring Peter Sellers. The screenplay was coauthored by the award winning screenwriter Robert C. Jones with Kosiński. The film won the 1981 British Academy of Film and Television Arts (Film) Best Screenplay Award, as well as the 1980 Writers Guild of America Award (Screen) for Best Comedy Adapted from Another Medium. It was also nominated for the 1980 Golden Globes Best Screenplay Award (Motion Picture). www.imdb.com/name/nm0467085/awards Criticism According to Eliot Weinberger, an American writer, essayist, editor and translator, Kosiński was not the author of The Painted Bird. Weinberger alleged in his 2000 book Karmic Traces that Kosiński was not fluent in English at the time of its writing. Eliot Weinberger Genuine Fakes in his collection Karmic Traces; New Directions, 2000, ISBN 0811214567; ISBN 978-0811214568 In a review of Jerzy Kosiński: A Biography by James Park Sloan, D. G. Myers, Associate Professor of English at Texas A&M University wrote "For years Kosinski passed off The Painted Bird as the true story of his own experience during the Holocaust. Long before writing it he regaled friends and dinner parties with macabre tales of a childhood spent in hiding among the Polish peasantry. Among those who were fascinated was Dorothy de Santillana, a senior editor at Houghton Mifflin, to whom Kosinski confided that he had a manuscript based on his experiences. Upon accepting the book for publication Santillana said, "It is my understanding that, fictional as the material may sound, it is straight autobiography." Although he backed away from this claim, Kosinski never wholly disavowed it." D. G. Myers, Jerzy Kosinski: A Biography by James Park Sloan M. A. Orthofer addressed Weinberger's assertion by saying: "Kosinski was, in many respects, a fake – possibly near as genuine a one as Weinberger could want. (One aspect of the best fakes is the lingering doubt that, possibly, there is some authenticity behind them – as is the case with Kosinski.) Kosinski famously liked to pretend he was someone he wasn't (as do many of the characters in his books), he occasionally published under a pseudonym, and, apparently, he plagiarized and forged left and right." "Facts and Fakes" by M.A.Orthofer Kosinski himself addressed these claims in the introduction to the 1976 reissue of The Painted Bird, saying that "Well-intentioned writers critics, and readers sought facts to back up their claims that the novel was autobiographical. They wanted to cast me in the role of spokesman for my generation, especially for those who had survived the war; but for me survival was an individual action that earned the survivor the right to speak only for himself. Facts about my life and my origins, I felt, should not be used to test the book's authenticity, any more than they should be used to encourage readers to read The Painted Bird. Furthermore, I felt then, as I do now, that fiction and autobiography are very different modes." Plagiarism allegations In June 1982, a Village Voice report by Geoffrey Stokes and Eliot Fremont-Smith accused Kosinski of plagiarism, claiming that much of his work was derivative of prewar books unfamiliar to English readers, and that Being There was a plagiarism of Kariera Nikodema Dyzmy — The Career of Nicodemus Dyzma — a 1932 Polish bestseller by Tadeusz Dołęga-Mostowicz. They also alleged Kosinski wrote The Painted Bird in Polish, and had it secretly translated into English. The report claimed that Kosinski's books had actually been ghost-written by "assistant editors", finding stylistic differences among Kosinski's novels. Kosinski, according to them, had depended upon his free-lance editors for "the sort of composition that we usually call writing." American biographer James Sloan notes that New York poet, publisher and translator, George Reavey, claimed to have written The Painted Bird for Kosinski. Reaveyhttp://www.leaderu.com/ftissues/ft9610/myers.html D. G. Myers, Jerzy Kosinski: A Biography by James Park Sloan] The article found a more realistic picture of Kosinski's life during the Holocaust — a view which was supported by biographers Joanna Siedlecka and Sloan. The article asserted that The Painted Bird, assumed by some to be semi-autobiographical, was largely a work of fiction. The information showed that rather than wandering the Polish countryside, as his fictional character did, Kosinski spent the war years in hiding with a Polish Catholic family. Terence Blacker, a profitable English publisher (who helped publish Kosinski's books ) and author of children's books and mysteries for adults, wrote in his article published in The Independent in 2002: "The significant point about Jerzy Kosinski was that ... his books ... had a vision and a voice consistent with one another and with the man himself. The problem was perhaps that he was a successful, worldly author who played polo, moved in fashionable circles and even appeared as an actor in Warren Beatty's Reds. He seemed to have had an adventurous and rather kinky sexuality which, to many, made him all the more suspect. All in all, he was a perfect candidate for the snarling pack of literary hangers-on to turn on. There is something about a storyteller becoming rich and having a reasonably full private life that has a powerful potential to irritate so that, when things go wrong, it causes a very special kind of joy." "Plagiarism? Let's just call it postmodernism" by Terence Blacker D.G. Myers responded to Blacker's assertions in his review of Jerzy Kosinski: A Biography by James Park Sloan: "This theory explains much: the reckless driving, the abuse of small dogs, the thirst for fame, the fabrication of personal experience, the secretiveness about how he wrote, the denial of his Jewish identity. 'There was a hollow space at the center of Kosinski that had resulted from denying his past,' Sloan writes, 'and his whole life had become a race to fill in that hollow space before it caused him to implode, collapsing inward upon himself like a burnt-out star.' On this theory, Kosinski emerges as a classic borderline personality, frantically defending himself against… all-out psychosis. Journalist John Corry, wrote a 6,000-word feature article in The New York Times in November 1982, responding and defending Kosinski, which appeared on the front page of the Arts and Leisure section. Among other things, Corry alleged that reports claiming that "Kosinski was a plagiarist in the pay of the C.I.A. were the product of a Polish Communist disinformation campaign." select.nytimes.com Kosinski himself responded that he had never maintained that the book was autobiographical, even though years earlier he confided to Dorothy de Santillana, a senior editor at Houghton Mifflin, that his manuscript "draws upon a childhood spent, by the casual chances of war, in the remotest villages of Eastern Europe." In 1988 he wrote The Hermit of 69th Street, in which he sought to demonstrate the absurdity of investigating prior work by inserting footnotes for practically every term in the book. New York Theatre Wire: "More Lies About Jerzy" by Lucy Komisar "Ironically," wrote theatre critic Lucy Komisar, "possibly his only true book... about a successful author who is shown to be a fraud." (ibid.) TV, radio, film, and newspaper appearances Kosiński appeared 12 times on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson during 1971-73 and The Dick Cavett Show in 1974, was a guest on the talk radio show of Long John Nebel, posed half-naked for a cover photograph by Annie Leibovitz for the New York Times Magazine in 1982, and presented the Oscar for screenwriting in 1982. He also played the role of Bolshevik revolutionary and Politburo member Grigory Zinoviev in Warren Beatty's film Reds. The Time magazine critic wrote: "As Reed's Soviet nemesis, novelist Jerzy Kosinski acquits himself nicely – a tundra of ice against Reed's all-American fire." Newsweek complimented Kosinski's "delightfully abrasive" performance. Friendships Kosiński was friends with Roman Polanski and claimed to have narrowly missed being at Polanski and Sharon Tate's mansion on the night Tate was murdered by Charles Manson's followers, due to lost luggage. His novel Blind Date discussed the Manson murders. Interests He practiced the photographic arts, with one-man exhibitions to his credit in Warsaw's Crooked Circle Gallery (1957), and in the Andre Zarre Gallery in New York (1988). He watched surgeries and read to terminally ill patients. Kosiński was also very interested in polo and compared himself to a character from his novel Passion Play: "The character, Fabian, is at the mercy of his aging and his sexual obsession. It's my calling card. I'm 46. I'm like Fabian." Bibliography The Future Is Ours, Comrade: Conversations with the Russians (1960), published under the pseudonym "Joseph Novak" No Third Path (1962), published under the pseudonym "Joseph Novak" The Painted Bird (1965) The Art of the Self: Essays à propos Steps (1968) Steps (1969) Being There (1971) The Devil Tree (1973, revised & expanded 1982) Cockpit (1975) Blind Date (1977) Passion Play (1979) Pinball (1982) The Hermit of 69th Street (1988) Passing By: Selected Essays, 1962-1991 (1992) Awards & honors Prix du Meilleur Livre Etranger (award for best foreign work of fiction) for The Painted Bird (France) 1969 -- National Book Award for Steps. 1970—Award in Literature, National Institute of Arts and Letters and American Academy of Arts and Letters. 1973-75—President of the American Chapter of P.E.N. Re-elected 1974, serving maximum 2 terms allowed. 1974—B'rith Shalom Humanitarian Freedom Award. 1977 -- American Civil Liberties Union First Amendment Award. 1979 -- Writers Guild of America, East Best Screenplay Award for Being There with award winning screenwriter Robert C. Jones. 1980—Polonia Media Perspectives Achievement Award. 1981 -- British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) Best Screenplay of the Year Award for Being There. International House Harry Edmonds Life Achievement Award. Received Ph.D. Honoris Causa in Hebrew Letters from Spertus College of Judaica. 1988—Received Ph.D. Honoris Causa in Humane Letters from Albion College, Michigan. 1989—Received Ph.D. Honoris Causa in Humane Letters from State University of New York at Potsdam. References Further reading Books Eliot Weinberger Genuine Fakes in his collection Karmic Traces; New Directions, 2000, ISBN 0811214567; ISBN 978-0811214568. Sepp L. Tiefenthaler, Jerzy Kosinski: Eine Einfuhrung in Sein Werk, 1980, ISBN 3416015568 Norman Lavers, Jerzy Kosinski, 1982, ISBN 0805773525 Byron L. Sherwin, Jerzy Kosinski: Literary Alarm Clock, 1982, ISBN 0941542009 Barbara Ozieblo Rajkowska, Protagonista De Jerzy Kosinski: Personaje unico, 1986, ISBN 847496122X Paul R. Lilly, Jr., Words in Search of Victims: The Achievement of Jerzy Kosinski, Kent, Ohio, Kent State University Press, 1988, ISBN 0873383664 Welch D. Everman, Jerzy Kosinski: the Literature of Violation, Borgo Press, 1991, ISBN 0893702765. Tom Teicholz, ed. Conversations with Jerzy Kosinski, Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993, ISBN 0878056254 Joanna Siedlecka, Czarny ptasior (The Black Bird), CIS, 1994, ISBN 8385458042. James Park Sloan, Jerzy Kosinski: a Biography, Diane Pub. Co., 1996, ISBN 0788153250. Agnieszka Salska, Marek Jedlinski, Jerzy Kosinski : Man and Work at the Crossroads of Cultures, 1997, ISBN 8371710879 Barbara Tepa Lupack, ed. Critical Essays on Jerzy Kosinski, New York: G.K. Hall, 1998, ISBN 0783800738 Articles Oleg Ivsky, Review of The Painted Bird in Library Journal, Vol. 90, October 1, 1965, p. 4109 Irving Howe, Review of The Painted Bird in Harper's Magazine, October 1965 Andrew Feld, Review in Book Week, October 17, 1965, p. 2 Anne Halley, Review of The Painted Bird in Nation, Vol. 201, November 29, 1965, p. 424 D.A.N. Jones, Review of Steps in The New York Review of Books, Volume 12, Number 4, February 27, 1969 Irving Howe, Review of Being There in Harper's Magazine, July 1971, p. 89. David H. Richter, The Three Denouements of Jerzy Kosinski's "The Painted Bird", Contemporary Literature, Vol. 15, No. 3, Summer 1974, pp. 370–85 Gail Sheehy, "The Psychological Novelist as Portable Man", Psychology Today, December 11, 1977, pp. 126–30 Margaret Kupcinskas Keshawarz, "Simas Kidirka: A Literary Symbol of Democratic Individualism in Jerzy Kosinski's Cockpit", Lituanus (Lithuanian Quarterly Journal of Arts and Sciences), Vol. 25, No.4, Winter 1979 Roger Copeland, "An Interview with Jerzy Kosinski", New York Art Journal, Vol. 21, pp. 10–12, 1980 Robert E. Ziegler, "Identity and Anonymity in the Novels of Jerzy Kosinski", Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature, Vol. 35, No. 2, 1981, pp. 99–109 Barbara Gelb, "Being Jerzy Kosinski", New York Times Magazine, February 21, 1982, pp. 42–46 Stephen Schiff, "The Kosinski Conundrum", Vanity Fair, June 1988, pp 114–19 Thomas S. Gladsky, "Jerzy Kosinski's East European Self", Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction, Vol. XXIX, No. 2, Winter 1988, pp. 121–32 Michael Schumacher, "Jerzy Kosinski", Writer's Yearbook, 1990, Vol. 60, pp. 82–87. John Corry, "The Most Considerate of Men", American Spectator, Vol. 24, No. 7, July 1991, pp. 17–18 External links The Paris Review Interview with Kosinski Yale University: Katherina von Fraunhofer-Kosinski Collection of Jerzy Kosinski | Jerzy_KosiÅ%84ski |@lemmatized jerzy:33 kosiński:35 june:3 may:5 polish:16 american:12 novelist:4 best:10 know:1 novel:13 painted:21 bird:22 latter:1 adapt:2 film:7 early:1 life:7 teaching:1 marriage:2 bear:1 josef:1 lewinkopf:2 jewish:4 parent:2 łódź:2 poland:6 child:3 world:5 war:9 ii:4 live:3 central:1 false:1 identity:3 father:2 give:1 use:3 roman:2 catholic:3 priest:1 issue:1 forge:3 baptismal:1 certificate:1 family:5 survive:3 holocaust:5 thanks:1 local:2 villager:2 offer:2 assistance:1 pole:2 often:1 great:1 personal:3 risk:1 penalty:1 assist:1 jew:2 nazi:1 occupied:1 death:2 receive:6 help:3 town:1 leader:1 churchman:1 also:8 individual:3 marianna:1 pasiowa:1 member:2 underground:1 network:1 evade:1 capture:1 openly:1 dąbrowa:1 rzeczycka:3 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4,497 | Marilyn_Manson_(band) | Marilyn Manson is an American rock band founded by Brian Warner and Scott Putesky in the city of Fort Lauderdale, Florida. Advocates of nonconformity and iconoclasm, often utilizing controversial imagery and lyrical content, it is difficult to categorize the band, however, as each album thus far has had a distinct and individual sound, and the band and frontman endeavor to devise and use a unique image and aesthetic for each album's era. The band was formed in 1989 as "Marilyn Manson & the Spooky Kids". The band's uniquely theatrical performances gathered a local cult following that subsequently developed into a worldwide fanbase. The band's lineup almost always changes between album releases. The current members of the band are the eponymous lead singer Marilyn Manson, bassist Twiggy Ramirez, drummer Ginger Fish and keyboardist Chris Vrenna. Marilyn Manson's reputation has likewise grown, with the band now considered one of modern music's most widely-known and most controversial; this has been due, in large part, to eponymous lead singer Marilyn Manson — born Brian Warner — and his frequent clashes with religious and political figures. The name of each band member was originally created by combining the first name of an iconic female sex symbol and the last name of an iconic mass murderer or serial killer, doing so to demonstrate the odd dichotomy of society (American society, in particular). In recent years, new members of the band have strayed away from this formula and used their own names. The members of the band dress in outlandish makeup and costumes, and have engaged in intentionally shocking behavior both onstage and off. Their lyrics often receive criticism for their anti-religious sentiment and their references to sex, violence and drugs. Marilyn Manson's music and performances have frequently been called offensive and obscene, and, more than a few times, protests and petitions have led to the group being banned from performing. As this controversy began to wane, so did the band's mainstream popularity. Despite this, its many devoted fans have made Marilyn Manson a consistently high-profile group: three of the band's albums have been awarded platinum certification and three more have been awarded gold, and the band has seen four of its releases debut in the top ten, including two number-one albums. In June 2003, Jon Wiederhorn of MTV.com referred to Marilyn Manson as "the only true artist today". Wiederhorn, Jon. The Argument: Marilyn Manson is the Only True Artist Today. MTV.com news feature, June 6, 2003. VH1 also ranked Marilyn Manson as the 78th best rock band on their 100 Great Artists of Hard Rock. Rock On The Net: VH1: 100 Greatest Hard Rock Artists Band history The Spooky Kids and the early years (1989–1992) A 1992 flyer for a Marilyn Manson & The Spooky Kids show, with artwork by Marilyn Manson.It parodies Baphomet. In 1989, Brian Warner was a college student working toward a journalism degree, and gaining experience in the field by writing music articles for a South Florida lifestyle magazine, 25th Parallel. It was in this capacity that he was able to meet several of the musicians to whom his own band would later be compared, including My Life With the Thrill Kill Kult and Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails. He met Scott Putesky shortly afterward and, after showing him some lyrics and poems he had written, proposed that they form a band together. Warner, guitarist Putesky, and bassist Brian Tutunick recorded their first demo tape as Marilyn Manson & The Spooky Kids in 1990, taking on the stage names of Marilyn Manson, Daisy Berkowitz and Olivia Newton Bundy, respectively. They were soon joined by Stephen Bier, who called himself Madonna Wayne Gacy; Bundy was replaced by Gidget Gein, born Brad Stewart. In 1991, drummer Fred Streithorst joined the band, with the stage name Sara Lee Lucas. The stage names used by each member were representative of a concept the band considered central: the dichotomy of good and evil, and the existence of both, together, in every whole. "Marilyn Monroe had a dark side", explained Manson in his autobiography, "just as Charles Manson has a good, intelligent side". Manson, Marilyn. The Long Hard Road out of Hell, HarperCollins, 1998. ISBN 0-06-098746-4 Images of both Monroe and Manson, as well as of others equally famous and notorious, were common in the band's early promotional materials. The Spooky Kids' popularity in the area grew quickly, largely because of radio DJ Scott David of WYNX-FM, an early fan who eagerly played songs from the band's demo tapes on the air; and because of the band's highly visual concerts, which drew from performance art and used many shock techniques. It was not uncommon to see onstage "naked women nailed to a cross, a child in a cage, or bloody animal body parts"; Baker, Greg. "Manson Family Values", 20 July 1994, at MiamiNewTimes.com; last accessed September 9, 2006. Manson, Berkowitz, and Gein variously performed in women's clothing or bizarre costumes; and, for lack of a professional pyrotechnician, they would occasionally set their own stage props on fire. The band would dramatically contrast these grotesque theatrics with elements drawn from the culture of the members' youth in the 1970s and 1980s: characters from that era's children's television made regular, often somewhat altered, appearances on Marilyn Manson flyers and newsletters, and were frequently sampled in the music. They continued to perform and release cassettes — shortening their name to Marilyn Manson in 1992 — until the summer of 1993, when the band drew the attention of Trent Reznor, who at the time had just founded his own record label, Nothing Records. Portrait of an American Family and Smells Like Children (1993–1995) Reznor offered Marilyn Manson a contract with his new label and the opportunity to support Nine Inch Nails on their upcoming headlining tour. The band accepted both offers, and recording sessions for its national debut, Portrait of an American Family, began in July 1993. Working with producer Roli Mosimann at Criteria Studios in Miami, Florida, the band recorded a selection of new songs along with material from their Spooky Kids repertoire and, by the end of Autumn 1993, had completed the first version of their debut, titled The Manson Family Album. It was not, however, well-received. The abrasive sonic "rawness" that Mosimann's production had brought to such groups as Swans had failed to materialize on The Manson Family Album; Reznor and all the band's members found it flat and lifeless, and poorly representative of Marilyn Manson's dynamic performances. "I thought, 'This really sucks', Manson explained, "so I played it for Trent, and he thought it sucked". At the same time, the band was having difficulties with bassist Gidget Gein, who had begun to lose control of his addiction to heroin. While reworking the album Manson played two shows in South Florida under the name Mrs Scabtree. The Mrs. featured two members of MM, the guitarist from the Itch, a member of Amboog-a-lard (Jeordie White), Manson proteges Jack Off Jill, lead bass by Pat Joyce, and rhythm bass by Killer. Baker, Greg. Miami New Times, March 16, 1993. Baker, Greg. Miami New Times, February 09, 1994. In October 1993, Reznor agreed to rework the production on Marilyn Manson's album, taking them and their tapes to The Record Plant in Los Angeles. Gein, who had been hospitalized after an overdose, was not invited. After seven weeks of mixing, remixing, and rerecording, the album — now titled Portrait of an American Family — was ready to be presented to Interscope Records. Even as the first single "Get Your Gunn" was beginning to receive radio airplay, Gein received a letter declaring his services "no longer needed" by Marilyn Manson after he overdosed on heroin for the fourth time; he was replaced by Twiggy Ramirez, then known as Jeordie White, of Miami thrash band Amboog-a-Lard. MTV.com:"/ MTV news Oct 13, 2008". URL accessed March 2, 2009. In December 1993, Ramirez first performed as the band's new bass player on a week's worth of headline dates through Florida with Jack Off Jill opening. While playing Club 5 in Jacksonville, Florida Manson was accused by the town's Christian Coalition of violating the town's adult entertainment codes. Jack Off Jill singer Jessicka was accused of solicitation and offering to engage in lewdness. Both singers were arrested and charged with misdemeanors. Baker, Greg. Miami New Times, January 05, 1995. On the first date of a fourteen-week national tour opening for Nine Inch Nails, Ramirez made his national touring debut. It was during this tour that Manson had occasion to meet with Church of Satan founder Dr. Anton LaVey. After a cordial meeting, LaVey honored Manson with the title of "Reverend" — meaning, in the Church of Satan, a person who is revered by the church, and not necessarily one who dedicates his life to preaching the religion to others, as with a priest or minister. Madonna Wayne Gacy (or Pogo) the keyboardist from 1989 to 2007. In March 1995, the band began its first national headlining tour, a two-month outing with Monster Voodoo Machine as support; this would be drummer Sara Lee Lucas's last tour with the band. Tension between Lucas and Manson had apparently grown as the tour wore on and, on the next-to-last night of the tour, Manson secretly decided to end the show with a flourish: during a performance of the then-current single, "Lunchbox", he doused Lucas's drum kit in lighter fluid and set it ablaze — with Lucas still attempting to play on behind it. (Manson apparently forgot that the band had one more date to play.) Lucas quit the band after the final gig the next night. Less than two weeks later his replacement, Ginger Fish, joined the group, Marilyn Manson was touring again, this time on a bill with Danzig and Korn. That tour ended in summer 1995, after which the band relocated to the new home of Nothing Studios in New Orleans, Louisiana to begin work on the third single from Portrait of an American Family, "Dope Hat". Accompanied by a music video which featured Manson in the role of Willy Wonka in a shock-horror version of Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory, the proposed single for "Dope Hat" eventually developed into an hour-long Remix album, Smells like Children. The album's fifteen tracks of covers, remixes, and bizarre sonic experiments also included the band's version of the Eurythmics' "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)", which would prove to be Marilyn Manson's first legitimate hit: the video was placed in heavy rotation on MTV (in stark contrast with the "Dope Hat" video, which MTV had banished to late-night airplay only a few months before) and the mainstream music press was suddenly clamoring to cover the group. A five-month headlining tour followed, from September through February, during which the band began to debut new material like "Irresponsible Hate Anthem", "Minute of Decay", and "Smells like Children". Rumors of a new album circulated widely during this time, and were confirmed when the band returned to Nothing's New Orleans studio in early 1996 to perform what Manson termed "a musical ritual designed to bring about the Apocalypse". Quoted from 1997 Marilyn Manson press kit, The Antichrist Superstar Story Antichrist Superstar (1996–1997) Twiggy Ramirez live in Argentina, November 24 1996. Marilyn Manson's second full-length studio album, Antichrist Superstar, was released on October 8, 1996. It was recorded at Nothing Studios with Trent Reznor himself acting as executive producer; the process of making the album was reportedly a long and difficult one, highlighted by experiments allegedly involving sleep deprivation and near-constant drug use in an effort to create an environment suited to the album's moody and occasionally violent content. During this time, antagonism between band members was high, which caused the departure of guitarist and founding member Daisy Berkowitz. With Berkowitz out of the band, Twiggy Ramirez performed lead guitar for much of the recording of Antichrist Superstar, and the group placed an ad seeking a new guitarist for its upcoming tour; Timothy Linton, auditioned for and was given the position. Breaking with the six-year tradition of icon / killer naming structures, the newest member was dubbed Zim Zum – a name derived from Kabbalah The Nachtkabarett. Alchemy & Kabbalah: Zim Zim , one of the major sources of inspiration for the album. The album's first single, "The Beautiful People", made a fairly major impact on the alternative rock charts, and created enough anticipation for Antichrist Superstar that the album debuted at number three on the album charts. The year-and-a-half long Dead to the World Tour in support of the album followed; it was the band's longest and widest yet, and included Marilyn Manson's live debut in Alaska, Hawaii, the United Kingdom, continental Europe, South America, Asia and Australia as their fame spread to all corners of the world. In the United States, however, the band was receiving more attention than ever before, and not all of it was positive. As the tour was getting underway, the band found itself the target of congressional hearings, led by Senator Joseph Lieberman, to determine the effects, if any, of violent lyrics on young listeners. Lieberman would later go on to refer to Marilyn Manson as "perhaps the sickest group ever promoted by a mainstream record company". Strauss, Neil. "A Band to Scare Parents With", Longview (TX) News-Journal, 18 May 1997, at NCAC.org; last accessed September 9, 2006. In addition, nearly every performance on the tour was picketed by religious organizations, pleading with fans to not see the musician who once said "I think every time people listen to this new album maybe God will be destroyed in their brainwashed minds." Interview in huH Magazine, October 1996 (p.37) On November 10, 1997, the band released a remix/live EP, Remix & Repent, featuring new versions of Antichrist Superstar'''s four singles, "The Beautiful People", "Tourniquet", "Antichrist Superstar", and "Man that You Fear", alongside songs recorded live on the U.S. leg of the Dead to the World Tour. Two unreleased songs from the Antichrist Superstar recording sessions were contributed to film soundtracks: "Apple of Sodom" to David Lynch's Lost Highway, and "The Suck for Your Solution" to the Howard Stern biopic Private Parts. As the year ended, Manson made the announcement of the upcoming publication of his first book, the autobiographical Long Hard Road out of Hell; the book was released in February 1998, along with another live document of the world tour, a home video entitled Dead to the World. The release of the follow-up to Antichrist Superstar was, according to the band, also imminent, accompanied by early rumors of the involvement of Billy Corgan and The Dust Brothers with the as-yet-untitled album. Mechanical Animals (1998–1999) On September 15, 1998, Marilyn Manson released Mechanical Animals, an album strongly influenced by David Bowie. Interscope's promotion of the album was massive, including an enormous billboard of singer Manson as an androgynous extraterrestrial over Times Square, and repeated appearances on MTV and other networks to promote the album and the single "The Dope Show"; propelled by the success of Antichrist Superstar and by this press push, the album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 Albums chart. The band had recast itself in a new image for this album; setting aside the bleak darkness of the previous record for a more concealed morbidity. Marilyn Manson was now a glam rock band, borrowing its visual presentation largely from Bowie, and from Roxy Music and its contemporaries. By this time, the band had permanently relocated to Los Angeles, and Zim Zum had been replaced by glam-influenced guitarist John Lowery, who joined the band as John 5. After a brief promotional tour, the band set out on the Rock Is Dead (tour) world tour with Hole and Monster Magnet as support. The tour, however, would be a problematic one: on March 1, 1999, the three bands played the first show in Spokane, Washington; by March 14, Hole had left the tour and Manson had broken his ankle, forcing postponements of some shows. Jack Off Jill and Nashville Pussy were asked to take select remaining opening slots on tour. MTV.com: "/ MTV news March 22, 1999". URL accessed June 18, 2007. Less than three weeks after the tour resumed, two students (Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold) at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado killed thirteen people, and then took their own lives; early media reports declared them fans of "violent" music and video games. Glasgow, Greg. Marilyn Manson Concert Canceled. The (Boulder, CO) Daily Camera, April 23, 1999. On April 28, out of respect for the victims, Marilyn Manson canceled the remaining dates of the Rock Is Dead tour, and would not reappear in Denver until the 2001 Ozzfest. Manson's song The Nobodies was directly inspired by the shootings. Holy Wood (2000–2001) Marilyn Manson singing Coma White live. The rest of 1999 and much of 2000 was a period of relative silence for Marilyn Manson. The band spent over a year quietly writing and recording in a studio in Death Valley, with only the single Astonishing Panorama of the Endtimes — an outtake from Antichrist Superstar Manson, Marilyn. Posted at marilynmanson.net (official website); reported by Seems Like Salvation News, June 9, 1999 — appearing during that time. On November 14, 2000, Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death) was released. Returning to the darker, more visceral sound of Antichrist Superstar, much of the album's content was written in response to the Columbine massacre. This is Manson's best selling album by far selling over 9 million copies. Described by the band as the third part of a trilogy begun with Antichrist Superstar and continued in Mechanical Animals, its overarching theme is an exploration of the relationship between death and fame in American culture, and its lyrics and artwork contain many references to John F. Kennedy and Lee Harvey Oswald, John Lennon and Mark David Chapman, and even Abraham Lincoln and John Wilkes Booth. The Guns, God and Government (tour) world tour expanded upon the exploration of America's fascination with violence, and with the tour's logo — a rifle and handguns arranged to resemble the Christian cross — Manson made no attempt to conceal what he saw as the source of that fascination. On May 16, 2001, it was announced on the Marilyn Manson website that Manson planned to quote the Bible at his next concert, to "balance out" his violent lyrics, "so we can examine the virtues of wonderful Christian stories of disease, murder, adultery, suicide and child sacrifice. Now that seems like entertainment to me". Associated Press report, Marilyn Manson Will Quote the Bible On June 21, 2001, Manson did indeed read from the Bible onstage in Denver, Colorado, presenting such passages as Leviticus 20:9 ("For every one that curseth his father or his mother shall surely be put to death") and Psalm 137:9 ("Happy shall he be, that taketh and dasheth thy little ones against the stones"). The Golden Age of Grotesque (2002–2004) With the "triptych" of the previous three albums now complete, Marilyn Manson was free to begin a fresh project. In 2002, Jonathan Davis of Korn invited Marilyn Manson into a studio to record vocals on a track he wrote entitled "Redeemer". The song, produced by both Jon and Richard Gibbs, was then released on the Queen Of The Damned soundtrack. After finding inspiration in the decadent Swing era of the 1920s, the band recorded The Golden Age of Grotesque that year and the album was released on May 13, 2003. Eschewing the lyrical depth and volume of symbolism and hidden meaning of Holy Wood, the new album was relatively straightforward; in an extended metaphor, Manson compares his own often-criticized music to the entartete Kunst banned by the Nazi regime. New member Tim Skold, replacing Twiggy Ramirez, added a new dimension to the band's sound; he brought with him from KMFDM that band's use of heavy industrial beats, for better or worse — The Golden Age of Grotesque was frequently impugned as derivative of KMFDM and lacking the originality that Marilyn Manson had become known for. The album still managed a number one debut on the album charts, selling over 118,000 copies in the US its first week of release. Another world tour, the Grotesk Burlesk, followed, which furthered the album's Weimar Republic-inspired theme by adding elements of German Kabarett to the group's performances. Elaborate artwork by Gottfried Helnwein appeared in the band's stage dressing, and the members began appearing both on-stage and off- in designer suits and with fashion superstars. Lest We Forget (2004–2005) Lest We Forget: The Best Of was released on September 28, 2004. It was referred to by the singer as his "farewell" album. It was supported by a series of "greatest hits" performances, the Against All Gods tour. After the release of the single "Personal Jesus", the band made a number of promotional appearances; at one of these, the Comet awards show in Germany, drummer Ginger Fish fell from his drum riser, fracturing his skull and wrist. Former Nine Inch Nails drummer Chris Vrenna replaced him; since his recovery from the accident Fish had been recording and performing with a new band, Martyr Plot, before rejoining Marilyn Manson. John 5 had also been replaced; Mark Chaussee of Fight took over lead guitar on the Against All Gods tour, and was subsequently replaced in the studio by Tim Skold. Though John 5 denied any hostility towards Marilyn Manson following the announcement of his departure, at the band's appearance on the Rock am Ring music festival in 2003 an incident took place between John 5 and Marilyn Manson where Manson deliberately kicked the guitarist. John 5 responded with anger, throwing off his guitar mid-song and raising his fists to Manson as if to fight with him, before resuming the song without any further incident. Lest We Forget was certified Gold in 2005. It has been speculated that Manson's "farewell album" comment may be an indication that the membership of Marilyn Manson may no longer be permanent, and that the musicians who record the albums and play live may, in the future, rotate, as has been the case with Nine Inch Nails and KMFDM. Manson's 2007 album, "Eat Me, Drink Me", was recorded by the core Manson and Skold. Harris, Chris. Marilyn Manson Likens His New Guitar God To A Naked Woman, MTV News feature, October 28, 2005. Eat Me, Drink Me (2006–2007) Marilyn Manson live in Eat Me Drink Me Era. Marilyn Manson's sixth studio album, Eat Me, Drink Me, was released on June 5, 2007, debuting at number 8 in the United States with more than 88,000 copies sold. Released more than four years after The Golden Age of Grotesque, Eat Me, Drink Me marked another change in musical styles that the band has become famous for. The sound was of a mix between his David Bowie styled Glam rock and a Bauhaus styled Goth rock. One remarkable note of the album is that it was written entirely by Manson and Skold in a rented home studio. The album is also the first major label Manson album without Madonna Wayne Gacy (Pogo) as a listed member, making lead singer Marilyn Manson the only original member since Portrait of an American Family. Chris Vrenna, who replaced Ginger Fish temporarily on the Against All Gods Tour on drums will be replacing Pogo on tour for the time being. Marilyn Manson co-headlined a tour with Slayer in order to promote the album with Bleeding Through as the opening act and Deadly Apples on select dates. Rumors also circulated for some time that Marilyn Manson wrote the song "Mutilation is the Most Sincere Form of Flattery" as an attack on the band My Chemical Romance, for his Eat Me, Drink Me release (which he later denied, saying that it was aimed at people in general seeking to imitate him). In another interview Manson stated that "I'm embarrassed to be me because these people are doing a really sad, pitiful, shallow version of what I've done". In response to this, Gerard Way, the lead singer of My Chemical Romance claimed nothing Manson could say would bring the band down. On January 9, 2008 Marilyn Manson posted a bulletin on MySpace confirming that former bassist Twiggy Ramirez was rejoining the band, and Tim Skold had parted ways with the band. The duo have apparently started writing new material already. Future collaborations with Skold haven't been ruled out as yet. Marilyn Manson | The Official Web Site The Heirophant - Marilyn Manson Encyclopedia and Community Rolling Stone : Marilyn Manson Bringing Twiggy Songs, Satan, “One Giant Evil Cocktail” On Tour Rolling Stone : Marilyn Manson Says Led Zeppelin Is Responsible For Reunion With Twiggy The High End of Low (2008–present) The seventh studio album by Marilyn Manson began recording sessions following the band's Rape of the World tour, which ended on March 2, 2008. MansonUSA.com Tour Dates SectionRape Of The World Tour Date Schedule, MansonUSA.com, Sept 09, 2008 On November 29, 2007 at The Heirophant, it was reported that Marilyn Manson planned to begin writing songs for their seventh studio album in January or February (2008). The Heirophant Manson Talks About A New Album And Phantasmagoria The Heirophant November 29, 2008 Manson said "after my greatest hits album (Lest We Forget: The Best of) came out I took a long break from music because it was a period where I was not sure who I wanted to be. I left music for a while but that's not an error I want to repeat in the future," and mentioned Kerry King, James Iha former guitarist of The Smashing Pumpkins, and Nick Zinner of the Yeah Yeah Yeahs as likely contributors. Kerrang! MagazineManson: "New album is very violent", Kerrang! Magaine, May 23, 2008 On January 11, 2008 in the interview Everyone Will Suffer Now at MansonUSA, Manson said "I just feel like there is a big change happening now. It's going to be the one. Eat Me, Drink Me is opening the window and this is going to be the Hurricane Katrina." A new single for this album is scheduled to come out in early January. The Heirophant Everyone Will Suffer Now Page 3/11 The Heirophant January 11, 2008 Since Manson parted company with Skold and reunited with Ramirez, the two, along with Fish and Vrenna are working on the album in Los Angeles ahead of a planned February 2009 release following soon to be announced tour dates. In an interview with Steppin' Out, Manson described the new album as, "very ruthless, very heavy, and very violent". Kerrang! MagazineManson: "New album is very violent", Kerrang! Magazine, May 23, 2008 Last Marilyn Manson presentation Of Eat Me, Drink Me. On August 14, 2008, it was announced by Manson at a public interview in Seoul, Korea that former Limp Bizkit guitarist and current Black Light Burns frontman Wes Borland has joined the lineup, replacing Rob Holliday on guitars. The band attended the ETP Festival and are wrapping up production on the new album. However, Borland left the band to reunite with Limp Bizkit for the third time. It is understood that this is on a permanent basis, while it is unknown who will take up Borland's place as lead guitar player. Borland told Kerrang Magazine in the UK that he quit after having none of the nine songs he wrote for the record make the final cut, and was extremely dissatisfied at the thought of being just a hired gun. A replacement for Borland has yet to be named. On October 5, the band played a special show at the yearly Hot Topic managers meeting. The show took place at the LA Marriott Hotel by the airport. Manson was overheard comparing the new album to Antichrist Superstar in a party for Scream 2008 Awards, http://www.mansonusa.com/headlines/fullnews.php?id=577 where he also stated the album is "pretty much finished" with him expecting to release a new song before the end of the year and hoping to release the album around Valentine's Day. http://www.mansonusa.com/headlines/fullnews.php?id=581 Marilyn Manson has been interviewed in the recent issue of Revolver Magazine (February 2009). Manson briefly discusses the new album and reveals the titles for two new songs, "I Wanna Kill You Like They Do in the Movies" and "Armagoddamnmotherfuckinggeddon". The albums producer Sean Beavan, posted a Myspace blog revealing two more song titles, "15" and "Four Rusted Horses". Manson tells Revolver "I've got my fire back," and the new album "really wipes the floor with everything we've done before." http://www.mansonusa.com/headlines/fullnews.php?id=590 A statement was released by Manson on Christmas Eve in order to dispel some rumors that had recently been circulating: "Ladies and Gentlemen, I'd like to make an announcement. The rumors that I found a 'replacement' for Evan, or that I have a new girlfriend are absolutely not true. I am finishing up my album, and I also have never even met Ne-Yo. I can assure him that he would not want to be associated with something this godless. Get over the holiday so I can happily ruin the new year for anyone that assumed music was going to stay boring and sweet." http://www.mansonusa.com/headlines/fullnews.php?id=591 On January 12, a new song title was released by Rudy Coby, a collaborator and friend of Marilyn Manson. The song is called, "Devour", and was said that it is the first track on the new album. It has been announced that Marilyn Manson will join Slayer as headliners for the Rockstar Energy Mayhem Festival tour in 2009. The press release for the tour states that "Manson is currently in the studio working on his seventh studio album scheduled for release May 18th on Interscope Records." On February 2, Rolling Stone confirmed that the new album's title is The High End of Low. It is currently in the mixing process and that later this month, he will shoot a video for "I Want to Kill You Like they Do in the Movies". http://www.rollingstone.com/blogs/smokingsection/2009/02/marilyn-manson-to-hit-new-low.php . On March 18, 2009, Kerrang! reported that the album will contain a total of 15 tracks with the final being titled "15" as well as revealing a new song entitled "We're from America" which Manson had this to say about: "I think a lot of people will hear the track and initially think it's just political, but it's not just that, it's also me describing a lot of fucked-up scenarios that I'm going through in my personal life. Someone asked me, 'Why are you so fucked up?', 'Well, I am from America.' I hate the fact that so many people have fucked the country up, and so many people fucked up my personal life and I allowed it to happen. So in a way, I feel like America as a whole feels, but in no way does that make me a tree-hugging patriotic freedom rocker." The track was released exclusively on his official website as a free download on March 27, 2009. Beginning April 7, it will be available for purchase as a digital single. The album's official first single "Arma-God-Damn-Mother-Fuckin'-geddon" arrived to radio stations on April 21. http://news.prnewswire.com/DisplayReleaseContent.aspx?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/03-23-2009/0004992609&EDATE= On April 16, 2009, marilynmanson.com was updated with a new splash page featuring the projected album artwork as well as the track listing for The High End of Low. Controversy In December 1996, a press conference was called by William J. Bennett, Senator Joseph Lieberman, and activist C. DeLores Tucker, aimed at MCA, the owner of Interscope Records. Calling several albums released by the label — including Antichrist Superstar — "profane," "violent," "filth," and "crap," Manson the blame of suicide 11/6/97while apparently listening to The Reflecting God the group questioned MCA president Edgar Bronfman, Jr.'s ability to head the label competently while profiting from such material. That November 6, U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Oversight of Government Management and Restructuring held a public hearing on the effect of violent rock and rap lyrics on youths. Supporters of the band claim it was merely another salvo in Senator Lieberman's declared war on the band. The hearing, chaired by Representative Sam Brownback, featured the testimony of Lieberman and Tucker, and of Raymond Kuntz, of Burlington, North Dakota, who blamed his son's suicide on Antichrist Superstar, which Lieberman denounced as "vile, hateful, nihilistic and damaging." In addition, the band's performances have come under fire — the Dead to the World Tour, in particular, was followed by protesters at nearly every North American venue it visited. The band's March 10, 1997 performance in Columbia, South Carolina was canceled "in response to growing public pressure by religious, civic and political leaders who criticized the group's image". Paula O' Keefe, "The History of Marilyn Manson, 1997 Update Part 1 of 2", at Spookhouse.net; last accessed September 9, 2006. The owner of Calgary's Max Bell Centre had Marilyn Manson's July 25 show canceled, citing "immorality" and the band's "use of animals on stage." Another concert in Portland was canceled a few days later due to Manson's reputation, and the venue's inability to get insurance for the show. Paula O' Keefe, "The History of Marilyn Manson, 1997 Update Part 2 of 2", at Spookhouse.net; last accessed September 9, 2006. The New Jersey date of Ozzfest '97, to be held at Giants Stadium, was canceled by the New Jersey Sports and Exhibition Authority, who cited Marilyn Manson's performance as its reason; the event was only held after Ozzy Osbourne himself successfully sued the state, which compelled the authorities to allow the concert. Legislation was introduced and passed in South Carolina and Utah allowing state-operated venues to ban groups like Marilyn Manson from performing and, in at least one instance, in Florida, local schools have gone so far as to threaten expulsion for students in attendance of Marilyn Manson concerts. Strauss, Neil. "A Band to Scare Parents With", Longview (TX) News-Journal, 18 May 1997, at NCAC.org; last accessed September 9, 2006. School shootings Following the Columbine High School massacre, there were accusations that killers Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold were influenced by Marilyn Manson's music. When later evidence was presented that neither Harris nor Klebold were fans of the band, many were led to criticize the media for using the band as a scapegoat instead of analyzing the underlying societal problems surrounding the incident. Cullen, Dave. Inside the Columbine High investigation. Salon News, September 23, 1999. In the controversial documentary Bowling for Columbine, Michael Moore interviewed Manson about the tragedy. When asked what he would say to the two killers, Manson replied "I wouldn't say a single word to them; I would listen to what they have to say, and that's what no one did". Marilyn Manson in Bowling for Columbine Eminem referenced the controversy in his song 'The Way I Am', which contains the line, "When a dude's gettin' bullied and shoots up his school/And they blame it on Marilyn, and the heroin/Where were the parents at?". Marilyn Manson made a cameo in the video for the song, and even contributed vocals to a guitar-heavy remix. The controversy connecting Marilyn Manson and American school shootings continued on October 10, 2007 when 14-year-old Asa Coon opened gunfire on his high school in Cleveland, Ohio. SuccessTech Academy went to lock-down status around 1:15pm, when Coon shot four people; including two students, and two teachers, before turning the gun on himself. Police reports, and student interviews claim that Coon was wearing a Marilyn Manson t-shirt during the rampage. On several occasions, Coon told students and teachers that he did not believe in, nor respect God; instead worshipped vocalist Marilyn Manson. Coon was known for violent behavior, and stood out among a predominately black student body for his appearance -- which included black boots, a black trench coat, black nail polish, and rock t-shirts. School Shooting When Manson toured his Eat Me, Drink Me album in late 2007, during certain songs news reports of the shooting were projected onto the screen at the back of the stage. Musical style Marilyn Manson has come to be known for altering both its image and its musical trappings frequently; the group's sound incorporating, at various stages, elements of spoken-word poetry, glam rock, and — more recently — vaudeville and burlesque. Genres ascribed to the band over its career include alternative metal Manson at allmusic , alternative rock Mechanical Animals review at allmusic Eat Me Drink Me review at IGN Music , glam rock Manson at Rolling Stone Holy Wood review at Popmatters , goth rock, hard rock Manson at Musicmight , heavy metal, industrial metal, industrial rock Marilyn Manson at NME and shock rock Essi Berelian, The Rough Guide to Heavy Metal, 2005, p. 215 . Lead singer Manson was fond of David Bowie, Black Sabbath and Kiss as a young music fan, Manson, Marilyn. The Long Hard Road out of Hell, HarperCollins, 1998. ISBN 0-06-098746-4 but every permanent member of the band has brought his own unique style and set of influences to the band's sonic palette. Influences Initially, after being introduced to Big Black by a fellow Miami clubgoer, who would become his keyboard player, Madonna Wayne Gacy, Manson had the desire to form a rock band that used a drum machine — an uncommon technique outside of dance music at the time. The earliest incarnations of Marilyn Manson used this setup, and produced experimental, drum-heavy compositions similar to Steve Albini's work with Big Black; later, with the addition of a live drummer, the band's composing process, recording techniques, and live performances were by necessity altered. Guitarist Daisy Berkowitz and bassist Gidget Gein, who came from punk rock backgrounds, brought the musicianship and songwriting style of the Jim Carroll Band (whose "People Who Died" was an early favorite cover for Marilyn Manson) and the showmanship of The New York Dolls to the mixture. The result was something that Nothing Records would initially compare to Jane's Addiction, Gein, Gidget. Interview. , August 6, 2003. but which, after the band spent some time at Nothing, would also gather sonic elements from other bands on that label's roster, like Nine Inch Nails and Prick. Marilyn Manson was also influenced by his mentor who raised his notoriety in the industrial scene, Nine Inch Nails' Trent Reznor. Reznor started Manson on his record label, Nothing Records, as well as allowing him a spot in his touring entourage. Evidently, Manson is heavily influenced by the shock rock stylings of such artists as Mötley Crüe, Alice Cooper, Kiss and some of Iggy Pop; however, late influences have come from the glam rock of David Bowie (who Manson claims is his biggest influence), whose chameleon-like ability to shift from one style to another, replete with a new look and musical philosophy, was a characteristic which would also be frequently ascribed to Marilyn Manson by the music press. Ankeny, Jason. Marilyn Manson. Allmusic. Accessed December 1, 2005 Such an influence is exemplified in the similarities between the music videos of Bowie's "The Heart's Filthy Lesson" and many of Manson's videos, such as "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)". (Floria Sigismondi has directed music videos for both Bowie (Little Wonder) and Manson (The Beautiful People and Tourniquet)) The hard rock background of John 5 amplified this aspect of the band's sound in live performance; Tim Skold, a former guitarist, bassist, and vocalist in Shotgun Messiah, later blended in that band's mixture of industrial drums and guitars. Both Manson and Twiggy Ramirez have mentioned the influence of Queen on their more melodic work, particularly on Mechanical Animals and Eat Me, Drink Me, the latter of which Twiggy did not work on. Composition and songwriting All of the band's lyrics are written by Manson, whose songwriting style is characterized by a tendency toward misanthropy and attacks on the religious right and the media, as well as sharp and inventive wordplay. He frequently makes use of puns and double entendres in his writing — for instance, a song on the Holy Wood album, which references the shootings at Columbine High School, is titled "Target Audience"; the album also makes frequent allusions to assassination, and the song "The Fall of Adam" refers to "Abraham Lincoln Town Cars". These witticisms often take the form of neologisms, delivered several at a time in rapid-fire fashion: the title song from Mechanical Animals includes the lines "We were neurophobic and perfect / the day that we lost our souls . . . You were my mechanical bride / my phenobarbidoll / A manniqueen of depression / with the face of a dead star". Concerning Manson's vocal melodies, the lyrics are usually written in a spoken, shouting, or melody driven fashion, the latter usually being reserved for the chorus sections. Music is primarily composed by the other permanent band members, who at present are Twiggy Ramirez on studio & live bass and occasional studio guitars; and Ginger Fish, on live drums. Until their respective departures from the band, Daisy Berkowitz and Twiggy Ramirez were chief contributors to the compositions, with receiving "music by" credits on every Marilyn Manson album prior to The Golden Age of Grotesque with the exception of Portrait of an American Family, with Berkowitz having shared many songwriting credits with Gidget Gein. According to the albums' credits, every permanent member of the band has had input, at some point, in its songwriting process. Marilyn Manson often records cover versions of songs by other artists; the band's two most successful singles have been a brooding metal version of Eurythmics' "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)", and a heavily synthesized "Tainted Love" (as popularized by Soft Cell, though originally performed by Gloria Jones). Notable covers the band has recorded have been by Depeche Mode ("Personal Jesus"), David Bowie ("Golden Years"), Gary Numan ("Down in the Park"), Patti Smith ("Rock N Roll Nigger") and numerous other artists. Manson has also dabbled in "psychoacoustics", the effect of sound (audible and inaudible) on the mind. These experiments were put to use by Manson when he scored the film "Resident Evil". Of the soundtrack, Manson stated that he used a number of methods to create "tension" in the film, including the use of sounds that, while inaudible to the human ear, still register and affect the brain. Band members Most, if not all, members of the band have contributed performances (either live or in-studio) on instruments other than their primary ones. For instance, Ramirez has played guitar on several records while his live instrument is bass, Gacy has played theremin and calliope, Manson has played pan flute, harpsichord, keyboards, and guitar, and Berkowitz has been credited with bass guitar and drum machines. Chris Vrenna filled in on drums for Ginger Fish when he was injured, and later replaced Pogo on keyboards. Further details on these contributions can be found in the individual members' articles, and in the articles on the band's albums. Current Marilyn Manson – lead vocals (since 1989) Twiggy Ramirez – guitars, bass (1993–2002, since 2008) Chris Vrenna – keyboards (since 2007) Ginger Fish – drums, percussion (since 1995) Former Zsa Zsa Speck – keyboards (1989) Olivia Newton Bundy – bass (1989) Gidget Gein – bass (1990–1993) Sara Lee Lucas – drums, percussion (1990–1995) Daisy Berkowitz – guitars (1989–1996) Zim Zum – guitars (1996–1998) John 5 – guitars (1998–2004) Madonna Wayne Gacy – keyboards (1989–2007) Tim Skold – guitars, bass (2002–2008) Touring Mark Chaussee – guitars (2004–2005) Chris Vrenna – drums, percussion (2004–2005) Rob Holliday – bass (2007–2008), guitars (2008) Wes Borland – guitars (2008–2009) Discography 1994: Portrait of an American Family1996: Antichrist Superstar1998: Mechanical Animals2000: Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death)2003: The Golden Age of Grotesque2007: Eat Me, Drink Me2009: The High End of Low'' References External links Official website The Heirophant - MansonUSA 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4,498 | Lead_Belly | Huddie William Ledbetter (January 1888 – December 6, 1949) was an American folk musician, notable for his clear and forceful singing, his virtuosity on the twelve string guitar, and the rich songbook of folk standards he introduced. He is best known as Leadbelly or Lead Belly. Though many releases list him as "Leadbelly," he himself spelled it "Lead Belly." This is also the usage on his tombstone, Leadbetter grave site Delta Blues.net as well as of the Lead Belly Foundation. Although he most commonly played the twelve string, he could also play the piano, mandolin, harmonica, violin, concertina, and accordion. In some of his recordings, such as in one of his versions of the folk ballad "John Hardy", he performs on the accordion instead of the guitar. In other recordings he just sings while clapping his hands or stomping his foot. The topics of Lead Belly's music covered a wide range of subjects, including gospel songs; blues songs about women, liquor and racism; and folk songs about cowboys, prison, work, sailors, cattle herding and dancing. He also wrote songs concerning the newsmakers of the day, such as President Franklin Roosevelt, Adolf Hitler, Jean Harlow, the Scottsboro Boys, and Howard Hughes. Biography Early life Lead Belly playing an accordion. Lead Belly's date of birth is uncertain. He was probably born in January 1888, although his gravestone gives his year of birth as 1889. The earliest year given for his birth has been 1885, although other sources stated either 1888 or 1889. According to the 1900 census, Hudy (the spelling given in the census) is one of two listed children (the other is his stepsister, Australia Carr), of Wes and Sallie (Brown) Ledbetter of Justice Precinct 2, Harrison County, Texas. Wesley and Sallie were legally wed on February 26, 1888, shortly after Lead Belly's likely date of birth, even though they had lived together as husband and wife for years. The 1900 census, differing from the usual census in that it lists the month and year of birth, rather than just the age, states the birth year of 'Hudy' Ledbetter to be 1888 and the month listed as January; Huddie's age is listed as twelve. The census of 1910 and the census of 1930 confirm 1888 as the year of birth. The day of his birth has also been debated. The most common date given is January 20, but other sources suggest he was born on January 21 or 29. The only document we have that Ledbetter, himself, helped fill out is his World War II draft registration from 1942 where he gives his birth date as January 23, 1889. Lead Belly was born to Wesley and Sallie Ledbetter as Huddie William Ledbetter in a plantation near Mooringsport, Louisiana, but the family moved to Leigh, Texas, when he was five. By 1903, Lead Belly was already a 'musicianer', a singer and guitarist of some note. He performed for nearby Shreveport, Louisiana audiences in St. Paul's Bottoms, a notorious red-light district in the city. Lead Belly began to develop his own style of music after exposure to a variety of musical influences on Shreveport's Fannin Street, a row of saloons, brothels, and dance halls in the Bottoms. At the time of the 1910 census, Lead Belly, still officially listed as 'Hudy', was living next door to his parents with his first wife, Aletha "Lethe" Henderson, who at the time of the census was seventeen years old, and was, therefore, fifteen at the time of their marriage in 1908. It was also there that he received his first instrument, an accordion, from his uncle, and by his early 20s, after fathering at least two children, he left home to find his living as a guitarist (and occasionally, as a laborer). Lead Belly would later claim that as a youth he would "make it" with 8 to 10 women a night. Influenced by the sinking of the RMS Titanic in April 1912, he would go on to write the song "The Titanic", which noted the racial indifferences of the time. "The Titanic" was the first song he ever learned to play on a 12-string guitar, which was later to become his signature instrument. He first played it in 1912 when performing with Blind Lemon Jefferson (1897-1929) in and around Dallas, Texas. Lead Belly noted that he had to leave out the verse about boxer Jack Johnson when playing before a white audience. Prison years Lead Belly's volatile nature sometimes led him into trouble with the law. In 1915 he was convicted "of carrying a pistol" and sentenced to do time on the Harrison County chain gang, from which he miraculously escaped, finding work in nearby Bowie county under the assumed name of Walter Boyd. In January 1918 he was thrown into prison for the second time, this time after killing one of his relatives, Will Stafford, in a fight over a woman. In 1918 he was incarcerated in Sugar Land, Texas, where he probably learned the song "Midnight Special". Lomax, Alan, (editor). Folk Song USA. New American Library. In 1925 he was pardoned and released, having served seven years, or virtually all of the minimum of his seven-to-35-year sentence, after writing a song appealing to Governor Pat Morris Neff for his freedom. Lead Belly had swayed Governor Neff by appealing to his strong religious values. That, in combination with good behavior (including entertaining by playing for the guards and fellow prisoners), was Lead Belly's ticket out of jail. It was quite a testament to his persuasive powers, as Neff had run for governor on a pledge not to issue pardons (pardon by the governor was at that time the only recourse for prisoners, since in most Southern prisons there was no provision for parole). According to Charles K. Wolf and Kip Lornell's book, The Life and Legend of Leadbelly (1999), Neff had regularly brought guests to the prison on Sunday picnics to hear Lead Belly perform. In 1930, Lead Belly was back in prison, after a summary trial, this time in Louisiana, for attempted homicide — he had knifed a white man in a fight. It was there, three years later, that he was "discovered" by musicologists John Lomax and his eighteen-year-old son Alan Lomax during a visit to the Angola Prison Farm. They were enchanted by Lead Belly's talent, passion, and singularity as a performer and recorded hundreds of his songs on portable aluminum disc recording equipment for the Library of Congress. They returned to record in July of the following year (1934). On August 1, Lead Belly was released (again having served almost all of his minimum sentence), this time after the Lomaxes had taken a petition to Louisiana Governor O.K. Allen at Lead Belly's urgent request. The petition was on the other side of a recording of his signature song, "Goodnight Irene." A prison official later wrote to John Lomax denying that Lead Belly's singing had anything to do his release from Angola, and state prison records confirm that he was eligible for early release due to good behavior. A descendant of his has also confirmed this. For a time, however, both Lead Belly and the Lomaxes believed that the record they had taken to the governor had hastened his release from Angola. There are several, somewhat conflicting stories about how Ledbetter acquired his famous nickname, though the consensus is that it was probably while in prison. Some say his fellow inmates dubbed him "Lead Belly" as a play on his last name and reference to his physical toughness; others say he earned the name after being shot in the stomach with shotgun buckshot. The Mudcat Cafe. Leadbelly - King of the 12 String Guitar Retrieved on January 30, 2007 Another theory has it that the name refers to his ability to drink homemade liquor, which Southern farmers, black and white, used to make to supplement their incomes. Blues singer Big Bill Broonzy thought it came from a supposed tendency to lay about "with a stomach weighted down by lead" in the shade when the chain gang was supposed to be working. (This seems unlikely, unless it was ironic, given his well-known capacity for hard work.) Whatever its origin, he adopted the nickname as a pseudonym while performing, and it stuck. Regarding his toughness, it is also recounted that during his second prison term, another inmate stabbed him in the neck (leaving him with a fearsome scar that he subsequently covered with a bandanna), and he took the knife away and in turn almost killed his attacker with it. Bob Dylan once remarked, on his XM radio show, that Lead Belly was "One of the few ex-cons who recorded a popular children’s album." Inside Bob Dylan's Brain, Vanity Fair, April 2008 Life after prison Huddie Ledbetter (Lead Belly) and Martha Promise Ledbetter, Wilton, Conn. By the time Lead Belly was released from prison, the United States was deep in the Great Depression and jobs were very scarce. A month after his release and in need of regular work in order to avoid having his release canceled and being sent back to prison, in September 1934, Lead Belly met with John A. Lomax and begged him to take him on as a driver. For three months he assisted the 67-year-old John Lomax in his folk song collecting in the South. (Alan Lomax (then 19) was ill and didn't accompany them on this trip.) In December, Lead Belly participated in a "smoker" (group sing) at an MLA meeting in Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania, where John A. Lomax had a prior lecturing engagement. He was written up in the press as a convict who had sung his way out of prison. On New Year's Day, 1935, the pair arrived in New York City, where John Lomax was scheduled to meet with his publisher, Macmillan, about a new collection of folk songs. The newspapers were eager to write about the "singing convict" and Time magazine made one of its first filmed newsreels about him. Lead Belly attained fame (though not fortune). The following week, he began recording with the American Record Corporation (ARC), but achieved little commercial success with these records. Part of the reason for the poor record sales may have been because ARC insisted on releasing only his blues songs rather than the folk songs for which he would later become better known. In any case, Lead Belly continued to struggle financially. Like many performers, what income he made during his lifetime would come from touring, not from record sales. In February 1935, he married his sweetheart, Martha Promise, who came north from Louisiana for the purpose. The month of February was spent recording his and other African-American repertoire and interviews about his life with Alan Lomax for their forthcoming book, Negro Folk Songs as Sung by Lead Belly (1936). Concert appearances were slow to materialize, however, and in March 1935, Lead Belly accompanied John A. Lomax on a two-week lecture tour of colleges and universities in the Northeast, culminating at Harvard. These lectures had been scheduled before John Lomax had teamed up with Lead Belly. At the end of month, John Lomax decided he could no longer work with Lead Belly and gave him and Martha money to go back to Louisiana by bus. He gave Martha the money that Lead Belly had earned from three months of performing, but in installments, on the pretext that Lead Belly would drink it all if given a lump sum. From Louisiana Lead Belly then successfully sued Lomax for the full amount and for release from his management contract with Lomax. The quarrel was very bitter and there were hard feelings on both sides. Curiously, however, in the midst of the legal wrangling Lead Belly wrote to John A. Lomax proposing that they team up together once again. But it was not to be. Nor was the book the Lomaxes published that year about Lead Belly financially successful. In January 1936, Lead Belly returned to New York on his own without John Lomax for an attempted comeback. He performed twice a day at Harlem's Lafayette theater in a live dramatic recreation of the Time Life newsreel (itself a recreation) about his prison encounter with John A. Lomax, in which he had worn stripes, even though by this time he was no longer associated with Lomax. Life magazine ran a three-page article titled, "Lead Belly - Bad Nigger Makes Good Minstrel," in the April 19, 1937 issue. It included a full-page, color (rare in those days) picture of him sitting on grain sacks playing his guitar and singing. Also included was a striking picture of Martha Promise (identified in the article as his manager); photos showing Lead Belly's hands playing the guitar (with the caption "these hands once killed a man"); Texas Governor Pat M. Neff; and the "ramshackle" Texas State Penitentiary. The article attributes both of his pardons to his singing of his petitions to the governors, who were so moved that they pardoned him. The article's text ends with "he... may well be on the brink of a new and prosperous period." Lead Belly failed to stir the enthusiasm of Harlem audiences. Instead, he attained success playing at concerts and benefits for an audience of leftist folk music aficionados. He developed his own style of singing and explaining his repertoire in the context of Southern black culture, taking the hint from his previous participation in John A. Lomax's college lectures. He was especially successful with his repertoire of children's game songs (as a younger man in Louisiana he had sung regularly at children's birthday parties in the black community). He was written up as a heroic figure by the black novelist, Richard Wright, then a member of the Communist Party, in the columns of the Daily Worker, of which Wright was the Harlem editor. The two men became personal friends, though Lead Belly himself was apolitical—if anything, a supporter of Wendell Willkie, the centrist Republican candidate, for whom he wrote a campaign song. In 1939, Lead Belly was back in jail for assault, after stabbing a man in a fight in Manhattan. Alan Lomax, then 24, took him under his wing and helped raise money for his legal expenses, dropping out of graduate school to do so. After his release (in 1940-41), Lead Belly appeared as a regular on Alan Lomax and Nicholas Ray's groundbreaking CBS radio show, Back Where I Come From, broadcast nationwide. He also appeared in night clubs with Josh White, becoming a fixture in New York City's surging folk music scene and befriending the likes of Sonny Terry, Brownie McGhee, Woody Guthrie, and a young Pete Seeger, all fellow performers on Back Where I Come From. During the first half of the decade he recorded for RCA, the Library of Congress, and for Moe Asch (future founder of Folkways Records), and in 1944 headed to California, where he recorded strong sessions for Capitol Records. Ledbetter was the first American country blues musician to see success in Europe. In 1949 Lead Belly had a regular radio broadcast on station WNYC in New York on Sunday nights on Henrietta Yurchenko's show. Later in the year he began his first European tour with a trip to France, but fell ill before its completion, and was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or Lou Gehrig's disease. His final concert was at the University of Texas in a tribute to his former mentor, John A. Lomax, who had died the previous year. Martha also performed at that concert, singing spirituals with her husband. Lead Belly died later that year in New York City, and was buried in the Shiloh Baptist Church cemetery in Mooringsport, west of Blanchard, Louisiana, in Caddo Parish. Technique Lead Belly styled himself "King of the 12-string guitar," and despite his use of other instruments like the concertina, the most enduring image of Lead Belly as a performer is wielding his unusually large Stella twelve-string. This guitar had a slightly longer scale length than a standard guitar, slotted tuners, ladder bracing, and a trapeze-style tailpiece to resist bridge lifting. Lead Belly played with finger picks much of the time, using a thumb pick to provide a walking bass line and occasionally to strum. This technique, combined with low tunings and heavy strings, gives many of his recordings a piano-like sound. Lead Belly's tuning is debatable, but appears to be a downtuned variant of standard tuning; more than likely he tuned his guitar strings relative to one another, so that the actual notes shifted as the strings wore. Lead Belly's playing style was popularized by Pete Seeger, who adopted the twelve-string guitar in the 1950s and released an instructional LP and book using Lead Belly as an exemplar of technique. In some of the recordings where Lead Belly accompanied himself, he would make an unusual type of grunt between his verses, best described as "Haah!" Many of his songs, such as, "Looky Looky Yonder", "Take this Hammer", "Linin' Track" and "Julie Ann Johnson" feature this unusual vocalization. Lead Belly explained that, "Every time the men say 'haah', the hammer falls. The hammer rings, and we swing, and we sing", Youtube. Lead Belly singing "Take this Hammer". Retrieved on January 30,2008 an apparent reference to prisoners' work songs. The grunt represents the tired deep breaths the men would take while working, singing and pausing in cadence with the work. Musical legacy Lead Belly's vast songbook, much of which he adapted from previous sources, has provided material for numerous folk, country, pop and rock acts since his time. Examples: The Beach Boys recorded "Cotton Fields" as "Cotton Fields (The Cotton Song)" on their 1969 album 20/20. Creedence Clearwater Revival recorded "Midnight Special" and "Cotton Fields" for their 1969 album Willy and the Poor Boys ABBA recorded both "Pick A Bale Of Cotton" and "Midnight Special" Pete Seeger's band The Weavers had a hit with "Goodnight Irene" the year after Lead Belly's death Ram Jam recorded "Black Betty" in 1977, released in two versions, one edited for AM format length; album version (Epic PE34885) Davy Graham covered "Leavin' Blues" Harry Belafonte covered "Sylvie" (attributed to Huddie Ledbetter and "Paul Campbell," a collective pen name Wikipedia article, "Kisses Sweeter than Wine (song)" for The Weavers) for his album Belafonte at Carnegie Hall (1959). The Rolling Stones adapted "The Bourgeois Blues" for "When the Whip Comes Down". Tom Jones and Wyclef Jean recorded a version of "Black Betty" in 2003, dedicated to Lead Belly and complete with a few of the aforementioned chain gang "haah"'s and "aah"'s. Van Morrison's first performance as a child was "Good Night, Irene", and he later recorded the song with Lonnie Donegan. In the title track to Morrison's Astral Weeks, the lyrics that refer to Lead Belly: "Talkin' to Huddie Ledbetter/Showin' pictures on the wall/" seem to be based on Morrison's real life custom of carrying around a poster of Lead Belly and hanging it on the wall wherever he was living. This was revealed in a Rolling Stone interview in 1978, where Morrison refers Lead Belly as "my guru". Rolling Stone interview with Van Morrison He also mentions Lead Belly in the lyrics to his 1982 semi-autobigraphical song "Cleaning Windows" alongside other blues musicians that inspired Morrison in his youth. Bryan Ferry also covered "Good Night, Irene" for his album, Frantic. "Good Night, Irene" is traditionally the signature tune for supporters of British football league team, Bristol Rovers. Nigel Blackwell impersonates Lead Belly in the Half Man Half Biscuit song "24 Hour Garage People" Led Zeppelin adapted 'Gallis Pole' (itself a variation of an old folk song, "The Maid Freed from the Gallows") into 'Gallows Pole' on their third album Weddings Parties Anything have recorded "Bourgouis Blues". Alexander Veljanov (singer of Deine Lakaien) covered "Black Girl" (aka "Where Did You Sleep Last Night") on his second solo album "The Sweet Life" (2001). Alabama 3 covered "Bourgeoisie Blues" (their spelling) on their album Exile on Coldharbor Lane Rory Gallagher covered 'Western Plain', his version going by the title 'Out On The Western Plain' The group X recorded Lead Belly's "Dancin' with Tears in My Eyes" as a tribute to singer Exene Cervenka's sister Mary on Under the Big Black Sun (1982). The Animals recorded a version of "The House of the Rising Sun" with a variant chord progression. The White Stripes have frequently ended their show with a rock adaptation of Lead Belly's version of "Boll Weevil." Bill Monroe's recording of "In the Pines" is often mistaken to be an altered version of Lead Belly's "Where Did You Sleep Last Night?" Monroe's version was actually a bluegrass adaption of the old time standard "The Longest Train", that had been recorded as early as 1927, by The Tenneva Ramblers. Lead Belly has also been covered by Ry Cooder, Lonnie Donegan, Grateful Dead, Johnny Cash, Gene Autry, The Beach Boys, Odetta, Billy Childish (who named his son Huddie), Mungo Jerry, Paul King, Michelle Shocked, Tom Waits, Ron Sexsmith, British Sea Power, Rod Stewart, Ernest Tubb, Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds, The White Stripes, The Fall, The Doors, Smog, Old Crow Medicine Show, Spiderbait, Raffi, and the jazz guitarist Bill Frisell among many others. Ludacris covered "Pick a Bale of Cotton" in the song "The Potion" on his album The Red Light District. Lead Belly has been mentioned in songs by Pete Seeger, Bob Dylan, Van Morrison, Pearl Jam, Old Crow Medicine Show, The Dead Milkmen, Bubbi Morthens (an Icelandic musician), Dulaney Banks and Stone Temple Pilots. Scott H. Biram covers "Whoa Back Buck" on the album "Preachin' and Hollerin'" Old Crow Medicine Show covers "Easy Rider", renaming it "CC Rider" on their self-titled album Mark Lanegan covered "Where Did You Sleep Last Night" for his album The Winding Sheet (1990), with Kurt Cobain participating. Nirvana covered "Where Did You Sleep Last Night" in 1993 on their MTV Unplugged performance. Kurt Cobain prefaces the song by referring to Lead Belly as "my favorite performer... our favorite performer". Cobain also mentions an offer that was made to him by a man representing the Lead Belly estate to sell him Lead Belly's guitar for $500,000. He then states that he personally asked David Geffen to purchase the guitar for him. Nirvana's 2004 boxed set With the Lights Out contains four Lead Belly covers: "Where Did You Sleep Last Night"; "They Hung Him On A Cross", "Ain't It A Shame" and an instrumental cover of "Grey Goose". He is mentioned in the lyrics of "Afterglow 61" by Son Volt: "Goodnight Irene inside the prison walls, Killed a man and lived to sing about it all, Stella 12 on Highway 61." Discography The Library of Congress recordings The Library of Congress recordings, done by John and Alan Lomax from 1934 to 1943, were released in a six volume series by Rounder Records in the early-to-mid-1990s: Midnight Special (1991) Gwine Dig a Hole to Put the Devil In (1991) Let It Shine on Me (1991) The Titanic (1994) Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen (1994) Go Down Old Hannah (1995) Folkways recordings The Folkways recordings, done for Moe Asch from 1941 to 1947, were released in a three volume series by Smithsonian Folkways in the late 1990s: Where Did You Sleep Last Night - Lead Belly Legacy Vol.1 (1996) Bourgeois Blues - Lead Belly Legacy Vol.2 (1997) Shout On - Lead Belly Legacy Vol.3 (1998) Smithsonian Folkways have also released a number of other collections of his recordings for the label: Lead Belly Sings Folk Songs (1989) Lead Belly's Last Sessions (4 CD box set) (1994) Recorded late 1948 in New York City. These were his only commercial recordings on magnetic tape. Lead Belly Sings For Children (1999) Includes the 1960 Folkways album Negro Folk Songs for Young People in its entirety, and five of the six tracks from the 1941 album Play Parties in Song and Dance as Sung by Lead Belly, recorded for Moe Asch, as well as other songs recorded for Asch from 1941 to 1948, and one previously unreleased track, a radio broadcast of "Take this Hammer." Folkways: The Original Vision (Woody Guthrie and Lead Belly) (2004) Expanded version of the original 1989 compilation. Other compilations Huddie Ledbetter's Best (1989, BGO Records) - contains Lead Belly's recordings made for Capitol Records in 1944 in California. King of the 12-String Guitar (1991, Sony/Legacy Records) - a collection of blues songs and prison ballads recorded in 1935 in New York City for the American Record Company, including previously unreleased alternate takes. Private Party November 21, 1948 (2000, Document Records) - contains Lead Belly's intimate performance at a private party in late 1948 in Minneapolis. Take This Hammer (2003, RCA Victor) - collects all 26 songs Lead Belly recorded for RCA in 1940, half of which feature the Golden Gate Jubilee Quartet. References and notes Sources White, Gary; Stuart, David; Aviva, Elyn. "Music in Our World". 2001. ISBN 0-07-027212-3. (p. 196) Lornell, Kip and Wolfe, Charles. The Life and Legend of Leadbelly (Da Capo Press, 1999) External links The Lead Belly Foundation The Lead Belly Blues Festival "Where Did You Sleep Last Night" MP3 file on The Internet Archive "Ledbetter, Huddie (Leadbelly)" in the Handbook of Texas Online Allmusic Discography for Lead Belly on Folkways from 1945 Recording of Lead Belly and Woody Guthrie live on WNYC Radio, Dec. 1940, with commentary by WNYC radio producer Henrietta Yurchenco Lead Belly: A Life in Pictures Lead Belly And The Lomaxes A FAQ and Timeline dealing with Lead Belly and Alan Lomax's association Nashville Songwriters Foundation | Lead_Belly |@lemmatized huddie:9 william:2 ledbetter:14 january:10 december:2 american:6 folk:15 musician:4 notable:1 clear:1 forceful:1 singing:6 virtuosity:1 twelve:5 string:11 guitar:14 rich:1 songbook:2 standard:4 introduce:1 best:3 know:4 leadbelly:6 lead:96 belly:93 though:6 many:5 release:17 list:5 spell:2 also:15 usage:1 tombstone:1 leadbetter:1 grave:1 site:1 delta:1 blue:13 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4,499 | Braveheart | Braveheart is a 1995 historical action-drama movie produced and directed by Mel Gibson, who also starred in the title role. The film was written for screen and then novelized by Randall Wallace. Gibson portrays a legendary Scot, William Wallace, who gained recognition when he came to the forefront of the First War of Scottish Independence by opposing Edward I of England (portrayed by Patrick McGoohan) and subsequently abetted by Edward's daughter-in-law Princess Isabelle (played by Sophie Marceau) and a claimant to the Scottish throne, Robert the Bruce (played by Angus Macfadyen). The film won five Academy Awards at the 68th Academy Awards, including the Academy Award for Best Picture and Best Director, and had been nominated for an additional five. Produced by Icon Productions for Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox, the film's success helped revive the historical epic genre, with subsequent films such as Gladiator, Troy, Kingdom of Heaven, 300, and Mongol. Plot In A.D. 1280 Edward I of England, known as "Longshanks", has occupied much of Scotland, and his oppressive rule there leads to the deaths of William Wallace's father and brother. Years later, after Wallace has been raised abroad by his uncle, the Scots continue to live under the harsh thumb of Longshanks' cruel laws. Wallace returns, intent on living as a farmer and avoiding involvement in the ongoing "troubles." Wallace rekindles a romance with his childhood friend Murron after showing her the carefully preserved thistle she gave him as a child, and the two marry in secret to avoid the primae noctis decree the King has set forth. But after Wallace attacks a group of English soldiers attempting to rape her, the village Sheriff prevents the escape of and publicly cuts Murron's throat unbeknown to Wallace who believed her to have escaped. In retribution, an enraged Wallace, with the assistance of his fellow villagers, slaughters the English garrison. He then cuts the sheriff's throat with the same dagger that killed Murron. Knowing that the local English lord will retaliate, Wallace and his men enter his castle dressed in English uniforms and burn it down. In response to Wallace's exploits, the commoners of Scotland rise in revolt against England. As his legend spreads, hundreds of Scots from the surrounding clans volunteer to join Wallace's militia. Wallace leads his army through a series of successful battles against the English, including the Battle of Stirling and sacking the city of York. However, he is betrayed by the Scottish nobility and defeated at the Battle of Falkirk. He goes into hiding, fighting a guerrilla war against English forces, and personally murders the two Scottish nobles who betrayed him at Falkirk. Meanwhile, Princess Isabelle, whose husband Prince Edward (Longshanks's son and heir) ignores her, meets with Wallace as the English King's emissary. She and Wallace share a tryst, during which she conceives Wallace's child. Still believing there is some good in the nobility of his country, Wallace eventually agrees to meet with the Bruce. He is caught in a trap set by the elder Bruce and the other nobles, beaten unconscious, and handed over to the English Crown. Robert the Bruce is enraged by his father's treachery, and disowns him forever. In London, Wallace is brought before the English magistrates and tried for high treason. He denies the charges, declaring that he had never accepted Edward as his King. The court responds by sentencing him to be "purified by pain." Later, in a London square, William Wallace is tortured, being hanged, racked, and disemboweled. The magistrate offers him a quick death in exchange for a plea for mercy. Awed by Wallace's courage, the Londoners watching the execution begin to yell for mercy to be given. William signals to the magistrate that he wishes to speak. Using the last strength in his body, he cries, "Freedom!" and turns his head, seeing an image of Murron in the crowd smiling at him as he is beheaded. Some time later, Robert the Bruce takes control of the remaining Scottish army and faces a ceremonial line of English troops at the fields of Bannockburn. Cheering Wallace's name, Robert the Bruce and the Scots charge the stunned English lines and win their freedom. Production Gibson thought that he himself was too old to play the role of William Wallace and wished instead to cast actor Jason Patric. However, Gibson's company Icon Productions had difficulty raising enough money even if he were to star in the film. Warner Bros. was willing to fund the project on the condition that Gibson sign for another Lethal Weapon sequel, which he refused. Paramount Pictures only agreed to domestic distribution of Braveheart after Fox Studios partnered for international rights. While the crew spent six weeks shooting on location in Scotland, the major battle scenes were shot in Ireland using members of the Irish Army Reserve as extras. The opposing armies are made up of reservists, up to 1,600 in some scenes, who had been given permission to grow beards and swapped their drab uniforms for medieval garb. Braveheart 10th Chance To Boost Tourism In Trim, Meath Chronicle, August 28, 2003 . Retrieved 30 April 2007. According to Gibson, he was inspired by the big screen epics he had loved as a child, such as Stanley Kubrick's Spartacus and William Wyler's The Big Country. Cast Catherine McCormack as Murron MacClannough, wife of William Wallace Sophie Marceau as Princess Isabelle Patrick McGoohan as King Edward I of England Mel Gibson as William Wallace. After his wife is killed by the English, he starts an uprising demanding justice that leads to a war for independence. Patrick McGoohan as King Edward I of England. Nicknamed "Longshanks", the King of England is determined to ruthlessly put down the Scottish threat and ensure his kingdom's sovereignty. Angus Macfadyen as Robert the Bruce. Son of the elder Bruce and claimant to the throne of Scotland, he is inspired by Wallace's dedication and bravery. Brendan Gleeson as Hamish Campbell. Wallace's childhood friend and captain in Wallace's army, he is often short-sighted and thinks with his fists. Sophie Marceau as Princess Isabelle. Unhappily married to the effete Edward, Prince of Wales, she finds herself deeply attracted to Wallace's passion and bravery. Peter Hanly as Prince Edward. The son of King Edward and husband of Princess Isabelle through arranged marriage. Ian Bannen as Robert the Bruce, Sr.. Unable to seek the throne personally due to his disfiguring leprosy, he pragmatically schemes to put his son on the throne of Scotland. James Cosmo as Campbell the Elder. The father of Hamish Campbell and captain in Wallace's army. Catherine McCormack as Murron MacClannough, the executed wife of Wallace. Her name was changed from Marion Braidfute in the script so as to not be confused with the Maid Marian of Robin Hood note. David O'Hara as Stephen. An Irish recruit among Wallace's army, he endears himself to Wallace with his humor, which may or may not be insanity. He professes to be the most wanted man on "his" island, and claims to speak to God personally. He becomes Wallace's protector, saving his life several times. Brian Cox as Argyle. After the death of Wallace's father and brother, Argyle takes Wallace as a child into his care, promising to teach the boy how to use a sword after he learns to use his head. Cox also had a role in another period Scottish film, Rob Roy, which was released the same year. James Robinson II as young William Wallace. The 10-year old actor reportedly spent weeks trying to copy Gibson's mannerisms for the film. Reception Box office On its opening weekend, Braveheart grossed US$9,938,276 in the United States and $75.6 million in its entire domestic box office run. Worldwide, Braveheart grossed over $210 million and was the 18th highest grossing film of 1995. The film's depiction of the Battle of Stirling is often considered one of the greatest movie battles in cinema history. The film generated huge interest in Scotland and in Scottish history, not only around the world, but also in Scotland itself. Fans come from all over the world to see the places in Scotland where William Wallace fought for Scottish freedom, and also to Ireland to see the locations used in the film. At a Braveheart Convention in 1997, held in Stirling the day after the Scottish Devolution vote and attended by 200 delegates from around the world, Braveheart author Randall Wallace, Seoras Wallace of the Wallace Clan, Scottish historian David Ross and Bláithín FitzGerald from Ireland gave lectures on various aspects of the film. Several of the actors also attended including James Robinson (Young William), Andrew Weir (Young Hamish), Julie Austin (the young bride) and Mhairi Calvey (Young Murron). Awards The film won numerous awards including the 1995 Academy Award for: Best Picture Best Director - Mel Gibson Best Cinematography - John Toll Best Makeup - Peter Frampton, Paul Pattison & Lois Burwell Best Sound Editing - Lon Bender, Per Hallberg Nominated: Film Editing Costume Design Best Original Screenplay Sound Best Original Dramatic Score Cultural effects The film is credited by Lin Anderson, author of Braveheart: From Hollywood To Holyrood as having played a significant role in affecting the Scottish political landscape in the mid to late 1990s. Wallace Monument In 1997 a statue of Gibson as "William Wallace" was placed outside the Wallace Monument near Stirling, Scotland. The statue, which includes the word "Braveheart" on Wallace's shield, the work of sculptor Tom Church, was the cause of much controversy and one local resident stated that it was wrong to "desecrate the main memorial to Wallace with a lump of crap". In 1998 the statue was vandalised by someone who smashed the face in with a hammer. After repairs were made, the statue was encased in a cage at night to prevent further vandalism. This has only incited more calls for the statue to be removed as it now appears that the Gibson/Wallace figure is imprisoned. Criticism Accusations of homophobia The depiction of Prince Edward as an effeminate homosexual in the film drew accusations of 'homophobia' against Gibson. Gibson defended his depiction of Prince Edward as weak and ineffectual, saying, “'I'm just trying to respond to history. You can cite other examples – Alexander the Great, for example, who conquered the entire world, was also a homosexual. But this story isn't about Alexander the Great. It's about Edward II.” The San Francisco Chronicle, May 21, 1995, “Mel Gibson Dons Kilt and Directs” by Ruth Stein Gibson asserted that the reason the king killed his son’s lover was because the king was a “psychopath,” and he expressed bewilderment that some audience members would laugh at this murder: "We cut a scene out, unfortunately . . . where you really got to know that character (Edward II) and to understand his plight and his pain. . . . But it just stopped the film in the first act so much that you thought, 'When's this story going to start?'" USA Today, May 24, 1995, “Gibson has faith in family and freedom” by Marco R. della Cava It is strongly debated whether Edward II, who fathered at least five children, was gay or bisexual. Source Review Some have criticized Braveheart for its portrayal of the Prince of Wales as weak and effeminate and for the scene in which Edward I throws his son’s male lover out of the window. Masculinity and marginality in 'Rob Roy' and 'Braveheart' Winter 1997 Anglophobia Braveheart has been accused of Anglophobia. The film was referred in The Economist as "xenophobic" and John Sutherland writing in the Guardian stated that, "Braveheart gave full rein to a toxic Anglophobia". http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2003/aug/11/religion.world Colin MacArthur, author of Brigadoon, Braveheart and the Scots: Distortions of Scotland in Hollywood Cinema calls it "a f***in’ atrocious film" and writes that a worrying aspect of the film is its appeal to "(neo-) fascist groups and the attendant psyche. http://books.google.com/books?id=XMOUo5VUkoQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Brigadoon,+Braveheart+And+The+Scots&ei=mYF6SYvYMaKIyASPsaG2Bg#PPA5,M1 MacArthur was quoted in The Times "The political effects are truly pernicious. It’s a xenophobic film." The Independent has noted, "The Braveheart phenomenon, a Hollywood-inspired rise in Scottish nationalism, has been linked to a rise in anti-English prejudice". Historical inaccuracies Mel Gibson as William Wallace anachronistically wearing woad Historian Elizabeth Ewan describes Braveheart as a film which "almost totally sacrifices historical accuracy for epic adventure". Ewan, Elizabeth. "Braveheart." American Historical Review 100, no. 4 (October 1995): 1219–21. Historian Sharon Kressa notes that the film contains numerous historical errors, beginning with the wearing of belted plaid by Wallace and his men. She points out that in the period in question, "... no Scots ... wore belted plaids (let alone kilts of any kind)." http://medievalscotland.org/scotbiblio/bravehearterrors.shtml Medieval Scotland website Moreover, when highlanders finally did begin wearing the belted plaid, it was not "in the rather bizarre style depicted in the film." She compares the inaccuracy to "... a film about Colonial America showing the colonial men wearing 20th century business suits, but with the jackets worn back-to-front instead of the right way around." Historian Alex von Tunzelmann writing in The Guardian noted several historical inaccuracies: William Wallace never met Isabelle, as she married the Prince of Wales three years after Wallace's death; in the film the Battle of Stirling Bridge didn't include Stirling Bridge itself; and the primae noctis decree was never used by King Edward. Tunzelmann, Alex. "Braveheart: dancing peasants, gleaming teeth and a cameo from Fabio", The Guardian, 2008-07-30. Retrieved on 2008-08-03. Screenwriter Randall Wallace is very vocal about defending his script from historians who have dismissed the film as a Hollywood perversion of actual events. Admitting that Braveheart is based more on Blind Harry's poem than any historical source, he has said: "Is Blind Harry true? I don't know. I know that it spoke to my heart and that's what matters to me, that it spoke to my heart." Anderson, Lin. "Braveheart: From Hollywood to Holyrood." Luath Press Ltd. (2005): 27. In the DVD audio commentary of Braveheart, director Mel Gibson acknowledges many of the historical inaccuracies but defends his choices as director, noting that the way events were portrayed in the film were much more "cinematically compelling" than the historical and/or mythical fact. Soundtrack The soundtrack for Braveheart was composed by James Horner, who has composed the soundtracks for over a hundred films. The music was performed by the London Symphony Orchestra. The soundtrack, comprised of 77 minutes of background music taken from significant scenes in the film, was noticeably successful, and Horner produced a follow-up soundtrack in 1997 titled More Music from Braveheart. International and French versions of the soundtrack have also been released. Braveheart (1995) Main Title (2:51) A Gift of a Thistle (1:37) Wallace Courts Murron (4:25) The Secret Wedding (6:33) Attack on Murron (3:00) Revenge (6:23) Murron’s Burial (2:13) Making Plans/ Gathering the Clans (1:52) “Sons of Scotland” (6:19) The Battle of Stirling (5:57) For the Love of a Princess (4:07) Falkirk (4:04) Betrayal & Desolation (7:48) Mornay’s Dream (1:15) The Legend Spreads (1:09) The Princess Pleads for Wallace’s Life (3:38) “Freedom”/The Execution/ Bannockburn (7:24) End Credits (7:16) More Music from Braveheart (1997) The follow-up soundtrack features dialogue taken from the actual film, while the original soundtrack was purely an instrumental recording. Prologue/ "I Shall Tell You of William…" (dialogue-Robert the Bruce) (3:35) Outlawed Tunes on Outlawed Bag Pipes (2:03) The Royal Wedding (dialogue-Robert the Bruce) (2:12) "The Trouble with Scotland" (dialogue-King Edward the Longshanks) (0:40) Scottish Wedding Music (1:14) Prima Noctum (1:46) The Proposal (dialogue-Wallace and Murron) (1:35) "Scotland Is Free!" (dialogue-Wallace) (0:17) Point of War/JonnyCope/Up in the Morning Early (traditional) (2:59) Conversing with the Almighty (dialogue-various) (1:20) The Road to the Isles/ Grendaural Highlanders/ The Old Rustic Bridge by the Hill (traditional) (3:52) "Son of Scotland!" (dialogue-Wallace) (12:09) Vision of Murron (1:45) "Unite the Clans!" (dialogue-Wallace) (0:23) The Legend Spreads (dialogue-Storytellers) (1:07) "Why Do You Help Me?" (dialogue-Wallace and Princess Isabelle) (0:37) For the Love of a Princess (previously released score) (4:05) "Not Every man Really Lives" (dialogue-Wallace and Isabelle) "The Prisoner wishes to Say a Word (dialogue-The Executioner and Wallace) (3:43) "After the Beheading" (dialogue-Robert the Bruce) (1:48) "You Have Bled for Wallace!" (dialogue-Robert the Bruce) (1:22) Warrior Poets (dialogue-Wallace) (0:29) Scotland the Brave (traditional) (2:47) Leaving Glenurquhart (traditional) (3:32) Kirkhill (traditional) (4:08) References External links Braveheart at Metacritic Roger Ebert's review of Braveheart Gary R. 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