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4,300 | Baku_(spirit) | A baku by Katsushika Hokusai. A baku by Katsushika Hokusai. For other uses, see Baku (disambiguation). are Japanese supernatural beings that devour dreams and nightmares. They have a long history in Japanese folklore and art, and more recently have appeared in Japanese anime and manga (see examples cited below). The Japanese term baku has two current meanings, referring to both the traditional dream-devouring creature and to the zoological tapir (e.g., the Malaysian tapir). Nakagawa, 1999, pp. 33-34. In recent years, there have been changes in how the baku is depicted. History and Description The traditional Japanese nightmare-devouring baku originates in Chinese folklore and was familiar in Japan as early as the Muromachi period (14th-15th century). Hori Tadao 2005 Hori Tadao (2005) has described the dream-eating abilities attributed to the traditional baku and relates them to other preventatives against nightmare like the use of amulets. Kaii-Yōkai Denshō Database, citing a 1957 paper, and Mizuki (2004) also describe the dream-devouring capacities of the traditional baku. An early 17th century Japanese manuscript, the Sankai Ibutsu (山海異物), describes the baku as a Chinese mythical chimera with an elephant’s trunk, rhinoceros eyes, an ox tail, and tiger paws, which in belief protected against pestilence and evil, although eating nightmares was not included among its abilities. Nakagawa, 1999 However, in a 1791 Japanese wood-block illustration, a specifically dream-destroying baku is depicted with an elephant’s head, tusks, and trunk, with horns and tiger’s claws. Kern, 2007 The elephant’s head, trunk, and tusks are characteristic of baku portrayed in classical era (pre-Meiji) Japanese wood-block prints (see illustration) and in shrine, temple, and netsuke carvings. http://www.sirasaki.co.jp/baku/baku.html. (Accessed September 5, 2007.) http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fv20070216a1.html. (Accessed September 8, 2007.) http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/shrine-guide-2.shtml. (Accessed September 8, 2007.) http://www.tokugawaantiques.com/product.php?productid=579. (Accessed September 8, 2007.) http://www.lacma.org/programs/ArtWorkMonth0306.aspx. (Accessed September 8, 2007.) Writing in the Meiji era, Lafcadio Hearn (1902) described a baku with very similar attributes that was also able to devour nightmares. Hearn 1902. Since the 1980s in manga, anime, and other forms of popular culture, the baku appears not as a chimera of an elephant and tiger but as a zoologically recognizable tapir. Examples include Takahashi Rumiko's manga Urusei Yatsura (1995) Takahashi Rumiko 1995 and Mikimoto Haruhiko's manga Marionette Generation (2001, original 1990), Mikimoto Haruhiko, 2001 and in anime, Oshii Mamoru’s 1984 film about Lum, Beautiful Dreamer. Oshii Mamoru, 1984 Such baku also appear in Pokémon and Digimon (Drowzee is a baku-like Pokémon, and Digimon features a character called Bakumon) . "Baku" is a main character in the Playstation 2 game Dual Hearts, characterized as a "pig" that eats dreams. However, not all modern baku/yumekui are tapirs ("yumekui" means "dreamcatcher"). In Satoshi Kon’s 2007 animated film “Paprika,” Paprika, a young woman who is kami of the Dreamtime, is a baku/yumekui who devours a dream-villain at the film’s climax. Kon Satoshi, 2007 Hakase Mizuki's 2007 manga Ba_ku (sic) and Shin Mashiba's 2008 manga Nightmare Inspector: Yumekui Kenbun are also about baku/yumekui who are not tapirs. Hakase Mizuki 2007 Shin Mashiba 2008 Merry Nightmare from the manga-series Yumekui Merry also appears as a human. Yoshitaka Ushiki 2008 The Playstation game FFIX features a character named Baku who resembles a pig. Dream-eating, tapir-shaped baku have also entered non-Japanese popular culture. The picture book "The Dream Eater" by Christian Garrison tells the story of a young boy, Yukio, who meets a baku and brings it to his village . Neil Gaiman’s "The Dream Hunters,” which is based on Japanese mythology, features baku. A video game featuring a dream-eating tapir also exists (see external link); furthermore, the pokemon Drowzee vaguely resembles a tapir and is said to eat dreams. Notes References Hakase Mizuki 2007 Ba_ku. Los Angeles, CA: TokyoPop. (The underscore is correct; it's in the original title.) Hearn, Lafcadio 1902 Kottō: Being Japanese Curios, with Sundry Cobwebs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. pages 245-248. ISBN 4-8613-3027-0. Hori Tadao 2005 "Cultural note on dreaming and dream study in the future: Release from nightmare and development of dream control technique," Sleep and Biological Rhythms 3 (2), 49–55. Kaii-Yōkai Denshō Database. International Research Center for Japanese Studies. Retrieved on 2007-05-12. (summary of excerpt from Warui Yume o Mita Toki ( 悪い夢をみたとき, When You've Had a Bad Dream?) by Keidō Matsushita, published in volume 5 of the journal Shōnai Minzoku (庄内民俗, Shōnai Folk Customs) on June 15, 1957). Kern, Adam L. 2007 Manga from the Floating World: Comicbook culture and the kibyoshi of Edo Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Asian Center. page 236, figure 4.26. Kon Satoshi 2007 Paprika. Tokyo: Sony Pictures. ASIN B000O58V8O. Mashiba, Shin 2008 Nightmare Inspector: Yumekui Kenbun. San Francisco: Viz Media. ISBN 978-1-4215-1758-2. Mikimoto Haruhiko 2001 (original 1990) A Profile of the Heart. In: Marionette Generation, Volume 1, San Francisco: Viz Communications. pages 159-178. Mizuki, Shigeru 2004 Mujara 5: Tōhoku, Kyūshū-hen (in Japanese). Japan: Soft Garage. page 137. ISBN 4-8613-3027-0. Nakagawa Masako 1999 Sankai ibutsu: An early seventeenth-century Japanese illustrated manuscript. Sino-Japanese Studies, 11:24-38. pages 33-34. Oshii Mamoru 1984 Beautiful Dreamer. New York:US Manga Corp. ASIN: B0001Y4MRW. Takahashi Rumiko 1995 Waking to a nightmare. In: The Return of Lum: Urusei Yatsura. San Francisco: Viz. Pp. 141-156. External links http://www.kirstenmunson.com/tapirgame.html. (Accessed August 5, 2007.) See also Dreamcatcher | Baku_(spirit) |@lemmatized baku:25 katsushika:2 hokusai:2 us:1 see:5 disambiguation:1 japanese:15 supernatural:1 devour:5 dream:15 nightmare:10 long:1 history:2 folklore:2 art:1 recently:1 appear:4 anime:3 manga:9 example:2 cite:2 term:1 two:1 current:1 meaning:1 refer:1 traditional:4 devouring:1 creature:1 zoological:1 tapir:6 e:1 g:1 malaysian:1 nakagawa:3 pp:2 recent:1 year:1 change:1 depict:2 description:1 originates:1 chinese:2 familiar:1 japan:3 early:3 muromachi:1 period:1 century:3 hori:3 tadao:3 describe:4 eating:4 ability:2 attribute:2 relate:1 preventative:1 like:2 use:1 amulet:1 kaii:2 yōkai:2 denshō:2 database:2 paper:1 mizuki:5 also:8 capacity:1 manuscript:2 sankai:2 ibutsu:2 山海異物:1 mythical:1 chimera:2 elephant:4 trunk:3 rhinoceros:1 eye:1 ox:1 tail:1 tiger:3 paw:1 belief:1 protect:1 pestilence:1 evil:1 although:1 include:2 among:1 however:2 wood:2 block:2 illustration:2 specifically:1 destroying:1 head:2 tusk:2 horn:1 claw:1 kern:2 characteristic:1 portray:1 classical:1 era:2 pre:1 meiji:2 print:1 shrine:2 temple:1 netsuke:1 carving:1 http:6 www:5 sirasaki:1 co:3 jp:2 html:4 accessed:6 september:5 search:1 japantimes:1 cgi:1 bin:1 onmarkproductions:1 com:3 guide:1 shtml:1 tokugawaantiques:1 product:1 php:1 productid:1 lacma:1 org:1 program:1 aspx:1 write:1 lafcadio:2 hearn:3 similar:1 able:1 since:1 form:1 popular:2 culture:3 zoologically:1 recognizable:1 takahashi:3 rumiko:3 urusei:2 yatsura:2 mikimoto:3 haruhiko:3 marionette:2 generation:2 original:3 oshii:3 mamoru:3 film:3 lum:2 beautiful:2 dreamer:2 pokémon:2 digimon:2 drowzee:2 feature:4 character:3 call:1 bakumon:1 main:1 playstation:2 game:3 dual:1 heart:2 characterize:1 pig:2 eat:2 modern:1 yumekui:7 tapirs:2 mean:1 dreamcatcher:2 satoshi:3 kon:3 animate:1 paprika:3 young:2 woman:1 kami:1 dreamtime:1 villain:1 climax:1 hakase:3 sic:1 shin:3 mashiba:3 inspector:2 kenbun:2 merry:2 series:1 human:1 yoshitaka:1 ushiki:1 ffix:1 name:1 resemble:2 shape:1 enter:1 non:1 picture:2 book:1 eater:1 christian:1 garrison:1 tell:1 story:1 boy:1 yukio:1 meet:1 bring:1 village:1 neil:1 gaiman:1 hunter:1 base:1 mythology:1 video:1 exist:1 external:2 link:2 furthermore:1 pokemon:1 vaguely:1 say:1 note:2 reference:1 los:1 angeles:1 ca:1 tokyopop:1 underscore:1 correct:1 title:1 kottō:1 curio:1 sundry:1 cobweb:1 macmillan:1 ltd:1 page:5 isbn:3 cultural:1 dreaming:1 study:3 future:1 release:1 development:1 control:1 technique:1 sleep:1 biological:1 rhythm:1 international:1 research:1 center:2 retrieve:1 summary:1 excerpt:1 warui:1 yume:1 mita:1 toki:1 悪い夢をみたとき:1 bad:1 keidō:1 matsushita:1 publish:1 volume:2 journal:1 shōnai:2 minzoku:1 庄内民俗:1 folk:1 custom:1 june:1 adam:1 l:1 floating:1 world:1 comicbook:1 kibyoshi:1 edo:1 cambridge:1 harvard:1 university:1 asian:1 figure:1 tokyo:1 sony:1 asin:2 san:3 francisco:3 viz:3 medium:1 profile:1 communication:1 shigeru:1 mujara:1 tōhoku:1 kyūshū:1 hen:1 soft:1 garage:1 masako:1 seventeenth:1 illustrated:1 sino:1 new:1 york:1 u:1 corp:1 waking:1 return:1 kirstenmunson:1 tapirgame:1 august:1 |@bigram anime_manga:1 pre_meiji:1 http_www:5 baku_baku:1 cgi_bin:1 lafcadio_hearn:1 manga_anime:1 neil_gaiman:1 external_link:2 vaguely_resemble:1 los_angeles:1 san_francisco:3 sino_japanese:1 |
4,301 | Gilles_Apap | Gilles Apap (born May 21 1963) is a violinist who plays gypsy music, swing, Irish music, and bluegrass music, as well as the masterpieces of classical music. Born in Bougie, Algeria, he was raised in Nice, France. In 1985 he won the first prize in the contemporary music category at the Yehudi Menuhin Competition. He released a CD with Sony Classical in 1996 called Gilles Apap & the Transylvanian Mountain Boys. He has worked as the concertmaster of the Santa Barbara Symphony in California. He has played with the Irish fiddler Kevin Burke. On his own label, Apapaziz, he has released Enescu, Debussy and Ravel: violin sonatas and, on Appassionato No Piano On That One in 2001. Quotations Discography 1994 Gilles Apap and the Transylvanian Mountain Boys: Who? (Sony) 1996 Gilles Apap and the Transylvanian Mountain Boys: Gilles Apap & the Transylvanian Mountain Boys (Sony) 1997 Gilles Apap and the Transylvanian Mountain Boys: d’Ici & d’Ailleurs 1999 Enescu, Debussy and Ravel: Sonatas for violin and piano (Apapaziz) 2001 No Piano On That One (Appassionato) 2002 Vivaldi's Four Seasons and Fiddle Tunes 2003 Gilles Apap and The Sinfonia Varsovia 2006 Gilles Apap: Music for Solo Violin Films 1993 The unknown fiddler of Santa Barbara (Regie: Bruno Monsaingeon) 1993 Gilles Apap and Friends (Regie: Bruno Monsaingeon) 1993 Thirty Two Short Films About Glenn Gould 1999 Gilles Apap plays Mozart's Third Concerto 2004 Apap Masala, Gilles Apap in India (Regie: Max Jourdan) External links Official Website Yehudi Menuhin International Competition for Young Violinists - Official Website BlueGrass West! Official Website of collaborator Peter Feldmann | Gilles_Apap |@lemmatized gilles:11 apap:12 bear:2 may:1 violinist:2 play:3 gypsy:1 music:6 swing:1 irish:2 bluegrass:2 well:1 masterpiece:1 classical:2 bougie:1 algeria:1 raise:1 nice:1 france:1 win:1 first:1 prize:1 contemporary:1 category:1 yehudi:2 menuhin:2 competition:2 release:2 cd:1 sony:3 call:1 transylvanian:5 mountain:5 boy:5 work:1 concertmaster:1 santa:2 barbara:2 symphony:1 california:1 fiddler:2 kevin:1 burke:1 label:1 apapaziz:2 enescu:2 debussy:2 ravel:2 violin:3 sonata:2 appassionato:2 piano:3 one:2 quotation:1 discography:1 ici:1 ailleurs:1 vivaldi:1 four:1 season:1 fiddle:1 tune:1 sinfonia:1 varsovia:1 solo:1 film:2 unknown:1 regie:3 bruno:2 monsaingeon:2 friend:1 thirty:1 two:1 short:1 glenn:1 gould:1 mozart:1 third:1 concerto:1 masala:1 india:1 max:1 jourdan:1 external:1 link:1 official:3 website:3 international:1 young:1 west:1 collaborator:1 peter:1 feldmann:1 |@bigram gilles_apap:11 yehudi_menuhin:2 apap_transylvanian:5 transylvanian_mountain:5 santa_barbara:2 violin_sonata:1 sonata_violin:1 violin_piano:1 glenn_gould:1 external_link:1 |
4,302 | Armed_forces_of_the_Netherlands | The military of the Netherlands is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix Koninklijke (Royal): Koninklijke Landmacht (KL), the Royal Netherlands Army. Koninklijke Marine (KM), the Royal Netherlands Navy, including the Marine-Luchtvaartdienst (Naval Air Service) and Korps Mariniers (Marine Corps). Koninklijke Luchtmacht (KLu), the Royal Netherlands Air Force. Koninklijke Marechaussee (KMar), the Royal Military Police, tasks include military police and some civil police duties. Conscription in the Netherlands was suspended in 1996. All military specialities, except the Submarine service and the Marine Corps, are open to women. The Korps Commandotroepen, the Special Operations Force of the Netherlands Army, is open to women, but because of the extremely high physical demands for initial training, it is found impossible for women to become a commando. The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs 68,000 personnel, including both civilian and military personnel. Within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, there are small local armed forces on the islands of Aruba (Arumil) and Curaçao (Antmil). These operate under the auspices of the Royal Netherlands Navy and Marines. Budget rise The budget for the military in 2007 was €7.7 billion. Several political parties have suggested raising the military expenditure so that it is closer to the NATO standard for military expenditures, which is 2.0% of the GDP. For 2008 there is a budget increase of around €500 million, bringing the budget in 2008 to €8.2 billion. With the agreement to stay in Afghanistan until 2010, another €850 million will be added to the budget over the next years, to compete with the International Security Assistance Force mission in Afghanistan. The Budget for 2009 is now around €8.5 billion. Contemporary campaigns Royal Netherlands Air Force F-16s have been deployed on operations over Bosnia, Kosovo and Afghanistan Since the 1990s, the Dutch army has been involved in four major military campaigns: Bosnian War Kosovo War Multinational force in Iraq Multinational force in Afganistan; the Dutch army serving in Afghanistan, and leading the effort in the province Uruzgan is part of the International Security Assistance Force. References See also Netherlands Military ranks of the Dutch armed forces External links Official homepage of the Ministry of Defense Official homepage of the Royal Netherlands Air Force Official homepage of the Royal Netherlands Army Official homepage of the Royal Netherlands Navy Official homepage of the Royal Military Police Military aircraft in the Netherlands | Armed_forces_of_the_Netherlands |@lemmatized military:12 netherlands:14 compose:1 four:2 branch:1 carry:1 prefix:1 koninklijke:5 royal:11 landmacht:1 kl:1 army:5 marine:5 km:1 navy:3 include:3 luchtvaartdienst:1 naval:1 air:4 service:2 korps:2 mariniers:1 corp:2 luchtmacht:1 klu:1 force:10 marechaussee:1 kmar:1 police:4 task:1 civil:1 duty:1 conscription:1 suspend:1 speciality:1 except:1 submarine:1 open:2 woman:3 commandotroepen:1 special:1 operation:2 extremely:1 high:1 physical:1 demand:1 initial:1 training:1 find:1 impossible:1 become:1 commando:1 dutch:4 ministry:2 defence:1 employ:1 personnel:2 civilian:1 within:1 kingdom:1 small:1 local:1 arm:2 island:1 aruba:1 arumil:1 curaçao:1 antmil:1 operate:1 auspex:1 budget:6 rise:1 billion:3 several:1 political:1 party:1 suggest:1 raise:1 expenditure:2 closer:1 nato:1 standard:1 gdp:1 increase:1 around:2 million:2 bring:1 agreement:1 stay:1 afghanistan:4 another:1 add:1 next:1 year:1 compete:1 international:2 security:2 assistance:2 mission:1 contemporary:1 campaign:2 f:1 deploy:1 bosnia:1 kosovo:2 since:1 involve:1 major:1 bosnian:1 war:2 multinational:2 iraq:1 afganistan:1 serve:1 lead:1 effort:1 province:1 uruzgan:1 part:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 rank:1 external:1 link:1 official:5 homepage:5 defense:1 aircraft:1 |@bigram marine_corp:2 external_link:1 |
4,303 | Comic_strip | Winsor McCay's Little Nemo, an American Sunday comic strip from the very early 20th century, featuring narrative sequences spread over panel rows, a heightened use of perspective and dream-like plots. A comic strip is a sequence of cartoons that tells a story, often humorous, though adventures and soap opera-like dramas are also prevalent. They are written and drawn by a comics artist or cartoonist, and many are published on a recurring basis (usually daily or weekly) in newspapers and on the Internet. In the UK and the rest of Europe comic strips are also serialized in comic book magazines, with a strip's story sometimes continuing over three pages or more. Comic strips have also appeared in U.S. magazines such as Boys' Life. As the name implies, comic strips can be humorous (for example, "gag-a-day" strips such as Blondie, Bringing Up Father and Pearls Before Swine). Starting in the early 1930s, comic strips began to include adventure stories. Buck Rogers, Tarzan and The Adventures of Tintin were some of the first. Soap-opera continuity strips such as Judge Parker and Mary Worth gained popularity in the 1940s. All are called, generically, "comic strips", though cartoonist Will Eisner has suggested that "sequential art" would be a better name for them. History Storytelling using a sequence of pictures has existed at least since the ancient Egyptians. One medieval European example in textile form is the Bayeux Tapestry. Examples in print form exist in 19th century Germany, and in 18th century England, where some of the first satirical or humorous sequential narrative drawings were produced, see William Hogarth. William Hogarth's English cartoons from the 18th century, which include both "single panel" work and also narrative sequences such as A Rake's Progress. The Biblia pauperum ("Paupers' Bible"), a tradition of picture Bibles beginning in the later Middle Ages, sometimes depicted Biblical events with words spoken by the figures in the miniatures written on scrolls coming out of their mouths - which makes them to some extent ancestors of the modern cartoon strips. The Swiss teacher, author and caricature artist Rodolphe Toepffer (Geneva, 1799-1846) is considered the father of the modern comic strips. His illustrated stories such as Histoire de M. Vieux Bois (1827), first published in the USA in 1842 as "The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck", or "Histoire de Monsieur Jabot" (1831) are believed to have inspired subsequent generations of German and American comic artists. In 1865, the German painter, author and caricaturist Wilhelm Busch created the strip Max and Moritz, about two trouble-making boys, which had a direct influence on the American comic strip. Max and Moritz was a series of severely moralistic tales in the vein of German children's stories such as Struwwelpeter ("Shockheaded Peter"); in one, the boys, after perpetrating some mischief, are tossed into a sack of grain, run through a mill, and consumed by a flock of geese. Max and Moritz provided an inspiration for German immigrant Rudolph Dirks, who created the Katzenjammer Kids in 1897. Familiar comic-strip iconography such as stars for pain, speech and thought balloons, and sawing logs for snoring originated in Dirks' strip. Hugely popular, Katzenjammer Kids was responsible for one of the first comic-strip copyright ownership suits in the history of the medium. When Dirks left Hearst for the promise of a better salary under Pulitzer (unusual, since cartoonists regularly deserted Pulitzer for Hearst) Hearst, in a highly unusual court decision, retained the rights to the name "Katzenjammer Kids", while creator Dirks retained the rights to the characters. Hearst promptly hired Harold Knerr to draw his own version of the strip. Dirks renamed his version Hans and Fritz (later, The Captain and The Kids). Thus, two versions distributed by rival syndicates graced the comics pages for decades. Dirks' version, eventually distributed by United Feature Syndicate, ran until 1979. In America, the great popularity of comics sprang from the newspaper war between Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst. The Little Bears was the first American comic with recurring characters, while the first color comic supplement was published by the Chicago Inter-Ocean sometime in the latter half of 1892. The first newspaper comic strips appeared in America in the late 19th century. The Yellow Kid is usually credited as the first newspaper comic strip. However, the artform combining words and pictures evolved gradually, and there are many examples of proto-comic strips. Mutt and Jeff was the first successful daily comic strip, first appearing in 1907. The American comic strip developed this format into the 20th century. It introduced such devices as the word balloon for speech, the hat flying off to indicate surprise, and specific typographical symbols to represent cursing. The first comic books were anthologies of newspaper comic strips. In newspapers Newspaper comic strips are divided into daily strips and Sunday strips. Most newspaper comic strips are syndicated; that is, a syndicate hires people to write and draw the strip, and then distributes it to many newspapers for a fee. A few newspaper strips are exclusive to one newspaper. For example the Pogo comic strip by Walt Kelly originally appeared only in the New York Star in 1948, and was not picked up for syndication until the following year. Daily strip from 1913 from Mutt and Jeff by Bud Fisher In the United States, a daily strip appears in newspapers on weekdays, Monday through Saturday, as contrasted with a Sunday strip, some of which only appear on Sundays. Daily strips are usually in black and white, though a few newspapers, beginning in the later part of the 20th century, published them in color. The major formats are strips, which are wider than they are tall, and panels, which are square, circular, or taller than they are wide. Strips usually, but not always, are broken up into several smaller panels, with continuity from panel to panel. Panels usually, but not always, are not broken up and lack continuity. The daily Peanuts is a strip, and the daily Dennis the Menace is a panel. J. R. Williams' long-run Out Our Way continued as a daily panel even after it expanded into a Sunday strip, "Out Our Way with the Willets". Early daily strips were large, often running the entire width of the newspaper, and were sometimes three or more inches in height. At first, one newspaper page only included one daily strip, usually either at the top or the bottom of the page. By the 1920s, many newspapers had a comics page on which many strips were collected together. Over decades, the size of daily strips became smaller and smaller, until by the year 2000, four standard daily strips could fit in an area once occupied by a single daily strip. NEA Syndicate experimented briefly with a two-tier daily strip, Star Hawks, but after a few years, Star Hawks dropped down to a single tier. In Flanders, the two-tier strip is the standard publication style of most daily strips like Spike and Suzy and Nero. They appear Monday through Saturday, as until 2003 there were no Sunday papers in Flanders. In the last decades, they have switched from black and white to color. Sunday strips Sunday newspapers traditionally included a special color section. Early Sunday strips, such as Thimble Theatre and Little Orphan Annie, filled an entire newspaper page, a format known to collectors as full page. Later strips, such as The Phantom and Terry and the Pirates, were usually only half that size, with two strips to a page in full-size newspapers, such as the New Orleans Times Picayune, or with one strip on a tabloid page, as in the Chicago Daily News. When Sunday strips began to appear in more than one format, it became necessary for the cartoonist to allow for rearranged, cropped or dropped panels. During World War II, because of paper shortages, the size of Sunday strips began to shrink. After the war, strips continued to get smaller and smaller, to save the expense of printing so many color pages. The last full-page comic strip was the Prince Valiant strip for 11 April 1971. Today, most Sunday strips are smaller than the daily strips of the 1930s. Underground comic strips The decade of the 1960s saw the rise of underground newspapers, which often carried comic strips, such as Fritz the Cat and The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers. Bloom County and Doonesbury began as strips in college newspapers, and later moved to national syndication. Underground comic strips covered subjects that are usually taboo in newspaper strips, such as sex and drugs. Many underground artists, notably Vaughn Bode, Dan O'Neill and Gilbert Shelton went on to draw comic strips for magazines such as Playboy, National Lampoon and Pete Millar's CARtoons. Webcomic Webcomics, also known as online comics and internet comics, are comics that are available to read on the Internet. Many are exclusively published online, while some are published in print but maintain a web archive for either commercial or artistic reasons. Two of the most popular are Penny Arcade, focused primarily on video gaming, and User Friendly, which bases its humor on the Internet and other computer-user issues. The majority of traditional newspaper comic strips have some Internet presence. King Features Syndicate and other syndicates often provide archives of recent strips on their websites. Scott Adams, creator of Dilbert, started a trend by including his email address in each strip. Conventions and genres Most comic strip characters do not age throughout the strip's life, but in some strips, like Lynn Johnston's award-winning For Better or For Worse, the characters age as the years pass. The first strip to feature aging characters was Gasoline Alley. The history of comic strips also includes series that are not humorous, but tell an ongoing dramatic story. Examples include The Phantom, Prince Valiant, Dick Tracy, Mary Worth, Modesty Blaise and Tarzan. Sometimes these are spin-offs from comic books, for example Superman, Batman, and The Amazing Spider-Man. A number of strips have featured animals as main characters. Some are non-verbal (Marmaduke, The Angriest Dog in the World), some have verbal thoughts but aren't understood by humans, (Garfield, Snoopy in Peanuts), and some can converse with humans (Bloom County, Calvin and Hobbes, Mutts, Citizen Dog, Buckles, Get Fuzzy, Pearls Before Swine, and Pooch Cafe). Other strips are centered entirely on animals, as in Pogo and Donald Duck. Gary Larson's The Far Side was unusual, as there were no central characters. Instead The Far Side used a wide variety of characters including humans, monsters, aliens, chickens, cows, worms, amoebas and more. John McPherson's Close to Home also uses this theme, though the characters are mostly restricted to humans and real-life situations. Wiley Miller not only mixes human, animal and fantasy characters, he does several different comic strip continuities under one umbrella title, Non Sequitur. Bob Thaves's Frank & Ernest began in 1972 and paved the way for some of these strips as its human characters were manifest in diverse forms — as animals, vegetables, and minerals. Social and political influence The comics have long held a distorted mirror to contemporary society, and almost from the beginning have been used for political or social commentary. This ranged from the right-wing views of Little Orphan Annie to the liberalism of Doonesbury. Pogo used animals to particularly devastating effect, caricaturing many prominent politicians of the day as animal denizens of Pogo's Okeefenokee Swamp. In a fearless move, Pogo's creator Walt Kelly took on Joseph McCarthy in the 1950s, caricaturing him as a bobcat named Simple J. Malarkey, a megalomaniac who was bent on taking over the characters' birdwatching club and rooting out all undesirables. Kelly also defended the medium against possible government regulation in the McCarthy era. At a time when comic books were coming under fire for supposed sexual, violent and subversive content, Kelly feared the same would happen to comic strips. Going before the Congressional subcommittee, he proceeded to charm the members with his drawings and the force of his personality. The comic strip was safe for satire. Some comic strips, such as Doonesbury and The Boondocks, may be printed on the editorial or op-ed page rather than the comics page because of their regular political commentary. For example, the August 12, 1974 Doonesbury strip was awarded a 1975 Pulitzer Prize for its depiction of the Watergate scandal. Dilbert is sometimes found in the business section of a newspaper instead of the comics page because of the strip's commentary about office politics, and Tank McNamara often appears on the sports page because of its subject matter. Publicity and recognition The world's longest comic strip is long and on display at Trafalgar Square as part of the London Comedy Festival. The London Cartoon Strip was created by 15 of Britain's best known cartoonists and depicts the history of London. The Reuben, named for cartoonist Rube Goldberg, is the most prestigious award for U.S. comic strip artists. Reuben awards are presented annually by the National Cartoonists' Society (NCS). Today's strip artists, with the help of the NCS, enthusiastically promote the medium, which is considered to be in decline due to fewer markets and ever-shrinking newspaper space. One particularly humorous example of such promotional efforts is the Great Comic Strip Switcheroonie, held in 1997 on April Fool's Day, an event in which dozens of prominent artists took over each other's strips. Garfield’s Jim Davis, for example, switched with Blondie’s Stan Drake, while Scott Adams (Dilbert) traded strips with Bil Keane (The Family Circus). Even the United States Postal Service got into the act, issuing a series of commemorative stamps marking the comic-strip centennial in 1996. While the Switcheroonie was a one-time publicity stunt, for one artist to take over a feature from its originator is an old tradition in newspaper cartooning (as it is in the comic book industry). In fact, the practice has made possible the longevity of the genre's more popular strips. Examples include Little Orphan Annie (drawn and plotted by Harold Gray from 1924-44 and thereafter by a succession of artists including Leonard Starr and Andrew Pepoy), and Terry and The Pirates, started by Milton Caniff in 1934 and picked up by a string of successors, notably George Wunder. A business-driven variation has sometimes led to the same feature continuing under a different name. In one case, in the early 1940s, Don Flowers' Modest Maidens was so admired by William Randolph Hearst that he lured Flowers away from the Associated Press and to King Features Syndicate by doubling the cartoonist's salary, and renamed the feature Glamor Girls to avoid legal action by the AP. The latter continued to publish Modest Maidens, drawn by Jay Allen in Flowers' style. Issues in U.S. newspaper comic strips As newspapers change, the changes have affected comic strips. Size In the early decades of the 20th century, all Sunday comics received a full page and daily strips were generally the width of the page. Bill Watterson has written extensively on the issue, claiming that size reduction and dropped panels reduce both the potential and freedom of a cartoonist. When Watterson's Calvin and Hobbes grew to fame, he insisted that his Sunday strip be published without cropping and at a half-page size, a move criticized by newspaper editors and a few cartoonists, including Family Circus cartoonist Bil Keane. One newspaper, the Reading Eagle, continues to run many strips in the largest available size. Format In an issue related to size limitations, Sunday comics are often bound to rigid formats that allow their panels to be rearranged in several different ways while remaining readable. Such formats usually include throwaway panels at the beginning, which some newspapers will omit for space. As a result, cartoonists have less incentive to put great efforts into these panels. Second author Many older strips are no longer drawn by the original cartoonist, who has either died or retired. A cartoonist, paid by the syndicate, or sometimes a relative of the original cartoonist continues writing the strip, a tradition that was commonplace in the early half of the 20th century. Hägar the Horrible and Frank and Ernest are both drawn by the sons of the creators. Some strips which are still in affiliation with the original creator are produced by small teams or entire companies, such as Jim Davis' Garfield and Lynn Johnston's For Better or for Worse. This act is commonly criticised by, primarily modern, cartoonists including Bill Watterson and Pearls Before Swine'''s Stephan Pastis. The issue was in fact addressed in six consecutive Pearls strips. Charles Schulz, of Peanuts fame, requested that the strip not be continued by another cartoonist upon his retirement. Schulz also rejected the idea of hiring an inker or letterer, comparing it to a golfer hiring a man to make his putts. The problems cited with attaining a second cartoonist state that the second cartoonist is generally less funny or compelling than the creator, and also the cartoonist is not as familiar with the characters. Also, many have said that continuing retired strips stops newer cartoonists from breaking through. Censorship Starting in the late 1940s, newspaper comic strips were subject to very strict censorship by the national syndicates who distributed them. Li'l Abner was censored for the first, but not the last time in September 1947, and was pulled from papers by Scripps-Howard. The controversy, as reported in Time, centered around Capp's portrayal of the U.S. Senate. Said Edward Leech of Scripps, "We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks... boobs and undesirables." Stephan Pastis has said that the "unwritten" censorship code is still "stuck somewhere in the 1950s." Generally, comics are not allowed to include such words as "damn", "sucks", "screwed", and "hell", although there have been a few exceptions. In addition, many images, such as naked back sides and shooting guns, cannot be shown, according to Dilbert cartoonist Scott Adams . Many issues such as sex, drugs, and terrorism cannot, or can very rarely, be openly discussed in strips, although there are exceptions, usually for satire, as in the case of Bloom County. This has led many cartoonists to resort to double entendre and, as in the case of Luann'' cartoonist Greg Evans on several occasions, speak in a manner so that young children will not understand. Many of these words, images, and issues are common in every day life, and many young cartoonists have claimed they should be allowed in the comics. Many of the censored words and topics are mentioned daily on television, as well as in other forms of visual media. Web comics, and comics distributed primarily to college newspapers, are much freer in this respect. See also Cartoon Research Library List of comic strips Biblia pauperum References Specific references: General references: External links National Cartoonists Society Comic Strips at ComicStripNation.com | Comic_strip |@lemmatized winsor:1 mccay:1 little:5 nemo:1 american:5 sunday:15 comic:65 strip:107 early:7 century:9 feature:9 narrative:3 sequence:4 spread:1 panel:14 row:1 heighten:1 use:6 perspective:1 dream:1 like:4 plot:2 cartoon:6 tell:2 story:6 often:6 humorous:5 though:4 adventure:4 soap:2 opera:2 drama:1 also:12 prevalent:1 write:5 draw:7 artist:9 cartoonist:26 many:18 publish:8 recur:2 basis:1 usually:10 daily:20 weekly:1 newspaper:33 internet:5 uk:1 rest:1 europe:1 serialize:1 book:5 magazine:3 sometimes:7 continue:9 three:2 page:18 appear:9 u:4 boy:3 life:4 name:6 implies:1 example:11 gag:1 day:4 blondie:2 bring:1 father:2 pearl:3 swine:3 start:4 begin:7 include:14 buck:1 rogers:1 tarzan:2 tintin:1 first:14 continuity:4 judge:1 parker:1 mary:2 worth:2 gain:1 popularity:2 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4,304 | Light_pollution | This time exposure photo of New York City at night shows sky glow, one form of light pollution. Comparison of the view of the night sky from a small rural town (top) and a metropolitan area (bottom). Light pollution vastly reduces the visibility of stars. Light pollution, also known as photopollution or luminous pollution, is excessive or obtrusive artificial light. The International Dark-Sky Association (IDA), "The Light Pollution Authority," The IDA's official website (The IDA's slogan is at the bottom of the homepage.) defines light pollution as: It obscures the stars in the night sky for city dwellers, interferes with astronomical observatories, and, like any other form of pollution, disrupts ecosystems and has adverse health effects. Light pollution can be divided into two main types: 1) annoying light that intrudes on an otherwise natural or low-light setting and 2) excessive light (generally indoors) that leads to discomfort and adverse health effects. Since the early 1980s, a global dark-sky movement has emerged, with concerned people campaigning to reduce the amount of light pollution. Light pollution is a side effect of industrial civilization. Its sources include building exterior and interior lighting, advertising, commercial properties, offices, factories, streetlights, and illuminated sporting venues. It is most severe in highly industrialized, densely populated areas of North America, Europe, and Japan and in major cities in the Middle East and North Africa like Cairo, but even relatively small amounts of light can be noticed and create problems. Like other forms of pollution (such as air, water, and noise pollution) light pollution causes damage to the environment. Impact on energy usage Energy conservation advocates contend that light pollution must be addressed by changing the habits of society, so that lighting is used more efficiently, with less waste and less creation of unwanted or unneeded illumination. The case against light pollution is strengthened by a range of studies on health effects, suggesting that excess light may induce loss in visual acuity, hypertension, headaches and increased incidence of carcinoma. Several industry groups also recognize light pollution as an important issue. For example, the Institution of Lighting Engineers in the United Kingdom provides its members information about light pollution, the problems it causes, and how to reduce its impact. http://www.ile.org.uk/index.php?page=pollution Since not everyone is irritated by the same lighting sources, it is common for one person's light "pollution" to be light that is desirable for another. One example of this is found in advertising, when an advertiser wishes for particular lights to be bright and visible, even though others find them annoying. Other types of light pollution are more certain. For instance, light that accidentally crosses a property boundary and annoys a neighbor is generally wasted and pollutive light. Disputes are still common when deciding appropriate action, and differences in opinion over what light is considered reasonable, and who should be responsible, mean that negotiation must sometimes take place between parties. Where objective measurement is desired, light levels can be quantified by field measurement or mathematical modeling, with results typically displayed as an isophote map or light contour map. Authorities have also taken a variety of measures for dealing with light pollution, depending on the interests, beliefs and understandings of the society involved. Measures range from doing nothing at all, to implementing strict laws and regulations about how lights may be installed and used. Types Example of a light pollution source using a broad spectrum metal halide lamp pointing upward. Location: Uniqema Gouda the Netherlands Light pollution is a broad term that refers to multiple problems, all of which are caused by inefficient, unappealing, or (arguably) unnecessary use of artificial light. Specific categories of light pollution include light trespass, over-illumination, glare, light clutter, and sky glow. A single offending light source often falls into more than one of these categories. Light trespass Light trespass occurs when unwanted light enters one's property, for instance, by shining over a neighbor's fence. A common light trespass problem occurs when a strong light enters the window of one's home from the outside, causing problems such as sleep deprivation or the blocking of an evening view. A number of cities in the U.S. have developed standards for outdoor lighting to protect the rights of their citizens against light trespass. To assist them, the International Dark-Sky Association has developed a set of model lighting ordinances. International Dark-Sky Association The Dark-Sky Association was started to reduce the light going up into the sky which reduces visibility of stars, see sky glow below. This is any light which is emitted more than 90 degrees above nadir. By limiting light at this 90 degree mark they have also reduced the light output in the 80-90 degree range which creates most of the light trespass issues. U.S. federal agencies may also enforce standards and process complaints within their areas of jurisdiction. For instance, in the case of light trespass by white strobe lighting from communication towers in excess of FAA minimum lighting requirements the FCC maintains a database of Antenna Structure Registration information which citizens may use to identify offending structures and provides a mechanism for processing consumer inquiries and complaints. The US Green Building Council (USGBC) has also incorporated into their environmentally friendly building standard known as LEED, a credit for reducing the amount of light trespass and sky glow. Light trespass can be reduced by selecting light fixtures which limit the amount of light emitted more than 80 degrees above the nadir. The IESNA definitions include full cutoff (0%), cutoff (10%), and semi-cutoff (20%). (These definitions also include limits on light emitted above 90 degrees to reduce sky glow.) Ordinances have also been written to limit the amount of light at the property line and beyond, but may be unrealistic or vague. Realistic limits and clarity in measurement need to be provided. Stating "zero light at the property line" is too vague. Absolute zero means that even if a light fixture is a mile away and the light source is visible, it is in violation, and would require hoods to be placed over every light fixture. What is realistic may vary according to whether an area is residential or industrial, urban, suburban or rural. The credit offered by LEED provides limits at the property line and 10-15 feet beyond it. At the 10-15 foot distance LEED limits light to 0.01 fc. (For comparison, a full moon provides 0.03 fc and a moonless night 0.004 fc). This is a very difficult limit to comply with while providing even light on a parking lot and driveway. How is the light to be measured? Horizontal measurements are common for interior and exterior lighting calculations. However, for light trespass the concern is how much light shines into a person's eye. Measurements may be made at approximate eye level (5' high) of the vertical light level facing into the site, or aimed at the brightest light source. Exceptions might be allowed where drives enter the street. This would permit street lights at the drive entrance to make cars more visible as they pull into traffic. Limiting pole height is another common ordinance tactic to reduce light trespass. This becomes counterproductive when the ordinance also has max:min ratios for safety concerns. Reducing pole height will increase dark spots on a site. Increasing the number of poles is only viable to a certain point due to the width of the aisles & parking. Otherwise poles would need to be placed in the parking spaces and aisles to maintain even lighting. Keep pole height requirements limited to neighborhood appearance. Large retail parking lots around 25-30 feet and residential neighborhood around or less in height. Another effective ordinance is to limit the maximum light on the site. Businesses are in an arms race with their neighbors. The brighter the building or parking lot the more business it attracts. Putting a limit on the arms race allows the lighting designer to tell the developer 'No' when he demands more light. A simple, effective ordinance would be to require all site fixtures with lamps over 50W to have cutoff optics. Maximum pole height XX feet above grade. At beyond the property line the vertical light at 5' above grade level shall not exceed 0.10 fc, except at drive entrances to the site. No point on the site shall exceed 10.0 fc horizontal at grade level. Parking lots and drives shall have a uniformity of 15:1 max:min. Over-illumination Office building illuminated by high pressure sodium (HPS) lamps shining upward, of which much light goes into the sky and neighboring apartment blocks and causes light pollution. Location: Nijmegen, the Netherlands Composite satellite image of the Earth at night in 2007 Over-illumination is the excessive use of light. Specifically within the United States, over-illumination is responsible for approximately two million barrels of oil per day in energy wasted. This is based upon U.S. consumption of equivalent of of petroleum. http://www.eia.doe.gov/basics/energybasics101.htm It is further noted in the same U.S. Department of Energy source that over 30 percent of all energy is consumed by commercial, industrial and residential sectors. Energy audits of existing buildings demonstrate that the lighting component of residential, commercial and industrial uses consumes about 20 to 40 percent of those land uses, variable with region and land use. (Residential use lighting consumes only 10 to 30 percent of the energy bill while commercial buildings major use is lighting. Irby Circuit - Energy Savings ) Thus lighting energy accounts for about four or five million barrels of oil (equivalent) per day. Again energy audit data demonstrates that about 30 to 60 percent of energy consumed in lighting is unneeded or gratuitous. Lumina Technologies, Santa Rosa, Ca., Survey of 156 California commercial buildings energy use, August, 1996 An alternative calculation starts with the fact that commercial building lighting consumes in excess of 81.68 terawatts (1999 data) of electricity, Energy Information Administration - Commercial Energy Consumption Survey according to the U.S. DOE. Thus commercial lighting alone consumes about four to five million barrels per day (equivalent) of petroleum, in line with the alternate rationale above to estimate U.S. lighting energy consumption. Over-illumination stems from several factors: Not using timers, occupancy sensors or other controls to extinguish lighting when not needed Improper design, especially of workplace spaces, by specifying higher levels of light than needed for a given task Incorrect choice of fixtures or light bulbs, which do not direct light into areas as needed Improper selection of hardware to utilize more energy than needed to accomplish the lighting task Incomplete training of building managers and occupants to use lighting systems efficiently Inadequate lighting maintenance resulting in increased stray light and energy costs "Daylight lighting" can be required by citizens to reduce crime or by shop owners to attract customers, so over-illumination can be a design choice, not a fault. In both cases target achievement is questionable. Substitution of old mercury lamps with more efficient sodium or metal halide lamps using the same electrical power Indirect lighting techniques, such as lighting a vertical wall to bounce photons on the ground. Most of these issues can be readily corrected with available, inexpensive technology; however, there is considerable inertia in the field of lighting design and with landlord/tenant practices that create barriers to rapid correction of these matters. Most importantly public awareness would need to improve for industrialized countries to realize the large payoff in reducing over-illumination. Glare Glare is often the result of excessive contrast between bright and dark areas in the field of view. For example, glare can be associated with directly viewing the filament of an unshielded or badly shielded light. Light shining into the eyes of pedestrians and drivers can obscure night vision for up to an hour after exposure. Caused by high contrast between light and dark areas, glare can also make it difficult for the human eye to adjust to the differences in brightness. Glare is particularly an issue in road safety, as bright and/or badly shielded lights around roads may partially blind drivers or pedestrians unexpectedly, and contribute to accidents. Glare can also result in reduced contrast, due to light scattering in the eye by excessive brightness, or to reflection of light from dark areas in the field of vision, with luminance similar to the background luminance. This kind of glare is a particular instance of disability glare, called veiling glare. Glare can be categorized into different types. One such classification is described in a book by Bob Mizon, coordinator for the British Astronomical Association's Campaign for Dark Skies. "Light Pollution: Responses and Remedies" By Bob Mizon. ISBN 1-85233-497-5 (Springer, 2001) According to this classification: Blinding glare describes effects such as that caused by staring into the Sun. It is completely blinding and leaves temporary or permanent vision deficiencies. Disability glare describes effects such as being blinded by oncoming car lights, or light scattering in fog or in the eye, reducing contrast, as well as reflections from print and other dark areas that render them bright, with significant reduction in sight capabilities. Discomfort glare does not typically cause a dangerous situation in itself, though it is annoying and irritating at best. It can potentially cause fatigue if experienced over extended periods. Light clutter Light clutter refers to excessive groupings of lights. Groupings of lights may generate confusion, distract from obstacles (including those that they may be intended to illuminate), and potentially cause accidents. Clutter is particularly noticeable on roads where the street lights are badly designed, or where brightly lit advertising surrounds the roadways. Depending on the motives of the person or organization who installed the lights, their placement and design may even be intended to distract drivers, and can contribute to accidents. Clutter may also present a hazard in the aviation environment if aviation safety lighting must compete for pilot attention with non-relevant lighting. http://www.faa.gov/ATPubs/AIM/chap2toc.htm For instance, runway lighting may be confused with an array of suburban commercial lighting and aircraft collision avoidance lights may be confused with ground lights. Sky glow Mexico City at night, with a brightly illuminated sky. Sky glow refers to the "glow" effect that can be seen over populated areas. It is the combination of all light reflected from what it has illuminated escaping up into the sky and from all of the badly directed light in that area that also escapes into the sky, being scattered (redirected) by the atmosphere back toward the ground. This scattering is very strongly related to the wavelength of the light when the air is very clear (with very little aerosols). Rayleigh scattering dominates in such clear air, making the sky appear blue in the daytime. When there is significant aerosol (typical of most modern polluted conditions), the scattered light has less dependence on wavelength, making a whiter daytime sky. Because of this Rayleigh effect, and because of the eye's increased sensitivity to white or blue-rich light sources when adapted to very low light levels (see Purkinje effect), white or blue-rich light contributes significantly more to sky-glow than an equal amount of yellow light. Sky glow is of particular irritation to astronomers, because it reduces contrast in the night sky to the extent where it may even become impossible to see any but the brightest stars. The Bortle Dark-Sky Scale, originally published in Sky & Telescope magazine, is sometimes used to quantify sky glow and general sky clarity. The Bortle Scale rates the darkness of the sky and the visibility of night sky phenomena such as the gegenschein and the zodiacal band, easily masked by sky glow, on a scale of one to nine, providing a detailed description of each step on the scale. Light is particularly problematic for amateur astronomers, whose ability to observe the night sky from their property is likely to be inhibited by any stray light from nearby. Most major optical astronomical observatories are surrounded by zones of strictly-enforced restrictions on light emissions. "Direct" sky glow can be reduced by selecting lighting fixtures which limit the amount of light emitted more than 90 degrees above the nadir. The IESNA definitions include full cutoff (0%), cutoff (2.5%), and semi-cutoff (5%). "Indirect" skyglow produced by reflections from vertical and horizontal surfaces is harder to manage; the only effective method for preventing it is by minimizing over-illumination. Measurement and global effects False colors show various intensities of radiation — both direct and indirect — from artificial light sources that reach space (Image credit: P. Cinzano) Measuring the effect of sky glow on a global scale is a complex procedure. The natural atmosphere is not completely dark, even in the absence of terrestrial sources of light. This is caused by two main sources: airglow and scattered light. At high altitudes, primarily above the mesosphere, UV radiation from the sun is so intense that ionization occurs. When these ions collide with electrically neutral particles they recombine and emit photons in the process, causing airglow. The degree of ionization is sufficiently large to allow a constant emission of radiation even during the night when the upper atmosphere is in the Earth's shadow. Apart from emitting light, the sky also scatters incoming light, primarily from distant stars and the Milky Way, but also sunlight that is reflected and backscattered from interplanetary dust particles (the so-called Zodiacal light). The amount of airglow and zodiacal light is quite variable but given optimal conditions the darkest possible sky has a brightness of about 22 magnitude/square arcsecond. If a full moon is present, the sky brightness increases to 18 magnitude/sq. arcsecond, 40 times brighter than the darkest sky. In densely populated areas a sky brightness of 17 magnitude/sq. arcsecond is not uncommon, or as much as 100 times brighter than is natural. To precisely measure how bright the sky gets, night time satellite imagery of the earth is used as raw input for the number and intensity of light sources. These are put into a physical model of scattering due to air molecules and aerosoles to calculate cumulative sky brightness. Maps that show the enhanced sky brightness have been prepared for the entire world. The World Atlas of the Artificial Night Sky Brightness Inspection of the area surrounding Madrid reveals that the effects of light pollution caused by a single large conglomeration can be felt up to 100 km away from the center. Global effects of light pollution are also made obvious. The entire area consisting of southern England, Netherlands, Belgium, west Germany, and northern France have a sky brightness of at least 2 to 4 times above normal (see above right). The only place in continental Europe where the sky can attain its natural darkness is in northern Scandinavia. In North America the situation is comparable. From the east coast to west Texas up to the Canadian border there is very significant global light pollution. Consequences Energy waste Lighting is responsible for one-fourth of all energy consumption worldwide, Nightlights of North America, Poster, Global Resource Information Database - Sioux Falls, United Nations Environment Programme and case studies have shown that several forms of over-illumination constitute energy wastage, including non-beneficial upward direction of night-time lighting. In 2007, Terna, the company responsible for managing electricity flow in Italy, reported a saving of 645.2 million kWh in electricity consumption during the daylight saving period from April to October. It attributes this saving to the delayed need for artificial lighting during the evenings. Press release, Terna, October 26, 2007. In Australia, public lighting is the single largest source of local government's greenhouse gas emissions, typically accounting for 30 to 50% of their emissions. There are 1.94 million public lights—one for every 10 Australians—that annually cost A$210 million, use 1,035 GWh of electricity and are responsible for 1.15 million tonnes of CO2 emissions. Current public lighting in Australia, particularly for minor roads and streets, uses large amounts of energy and financial resources, while often failing to provide high quality lighting. There are many ways to improve lighting quality while reducing energy use and greenhouse gas emissions as well as lowering costs. http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/local/publiclighting/index.html Effects on human health and psychology Medical research on the effects of excessive light on the human body suggests that a variety of adverse health effects may be caused by light pollution or excessive light exposure, and some lighting design textbooks Gary Steffy, Architectural Lighting Design, John Wiley and Sons (2001) ISBN 0-471-38638-3 use human health as an explicit criterion for proper interior lighting. Health effects of over-illumination or improper spectral composition of light may include: increased headache incidence, worker fatigue, medically defined stress, decrease in sexual function and increase in anxiety. Susan L. Burks, Managing your Migraine, Humana Press, New Jersey (1994) ISBN 0-89603-277-9 Cambridge Handbook of Psychology, Health and Medicine, edited by Andrew Baum, Robert West, John Weinman, Stanton Newman, Chris McManus, Cambridge University Press (1997) ISBN 0-521-43686-9 L. Pijnenburg, M. Camps and G. Jongmans-Liedekerken, Looking closer at assimilation lighting, Venlo, GGD, Noord-Limburg (1991) Igor Knez, Effects of colour of light on nonvisual psychological processes, Journal of Environmental Psychology, Volume 21, Issue 2, June 2001, Pages 201-208 Common levels of fluorescent lighting in offices are sufficient to elevate blood pressure by about eight points. There is some evidence that lengthy daily exposure to moderately high lighting leads to diminished sexual performance. Specifically within the USA, there is evidence that levels of light in most office environments lead to increased stress as well as increased worker errors. Craig DiLouie, Advanced Lighting Controls: Energy Savings, Productivity, Technology and Applications The Fairmont Press, Inc., (2006) ISBN 0-88173-510-8 Bain, A., “The Hindenburg Disaster: A Compelling Theory of Probable Cause and Effect,” Procs. NatL Hydr. Assn. 8th Ann. Hydrogen Meeting, Alexandria, Va., March 11-13, pp 125-128 (1997) Several published studies also suggest a link between exposure to light at night and risk of breast cancer, due to suppression of the normal nocturnal production of melatonin. In 1978 Cohen et al. proposed that reduced production of the hormone melatonin might increase the risk of breast cancer and citing "environmental lighting" as a possible causal factor. Cohen M, Lippman M, Chabner B. Role of pineal gland in aetiology and treatment of breast cancer. Lancet 1978;2:14-16. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute (NCI) and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences have concluded a study that suggests that artificial light during the night can be a factor for breast cancer. The Independent Avoid breast cancer. Sleep in the dark... In 2007, "shiftwork that involves circadian disruption" was listed as a probable carcinogen by the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer. (IARC Press release No. 180). Multiple studies have documented a link between night shift work and the increased incidence of breast cancer. Schernhammer E, Schulmeister K. Melatonin and cancer risk: does light at night compromise physiologic cancer protection by lowering serum melatonin levels? Br J Cancer 2004;90:941–943. Hansen J. Increased breast cancer risk among women who work predominantly at night. Epidemiology 2001; 12:74–77. Hansen J. Light at night, shiftwork, and breast cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001; 93:1513–1515. Schernhammer E, Laden F, Speizer FE et al. Rotating night shifts and risk of breast cancer in women participating in the nurses' health study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001; 93:1563–1568. A good review of current knowledge of the health consequences of exposure to artificial light at night and an explanation of the causal mechanisms has been published in the Journal of Pineal Research in 2007. Navara KJ, Nelson RJ (2007) The dark side of light light at night: physiological, epidemiological, and ecological consequences. J. Pineal Res. 2007; 43:215–224 A more recent discussion (2009), written by Professor Steven Lockley, Harvard Medical School, can be found in the CfDS handbook "Blinded by the Light?". http://www.britastro.org/dark-skies/handbook.html Chapter 4, "Human health implications of light pollution" states that "... light intrusion, even if dim, is likely to have measurable effects on sleep disruption and melatonin suppression. Even if these effects are relatively small from night to night, continuous chronic circadian, sleep and hormonal disruption may have longer-term health risks". The New York Academy of Sciences is hosting a 1 day meeting, 19 June, 2009 titled Circadian Disruption and Cancer. http://network.nature.com/hubs/nyc/events/8335 Moreover remember that 40 Danish women shift workers have this year(2009) been awarded compensation for breast cancer "caused" by shift work made possible by light at night - the commonest cause of light pollution. Disruption of ecosystems Life exists with natural patterns of light and dark, so disruption of those patterns influences many aspects of animal behavior. (pdf) Light pollution can confuse animal navigation, alter competitive interactions, change predator-prey relations, and influence animal physiology. Studies suggest that light pollution around lakes prevents zooplankton, such as Daphnia, from eating surface algae, helping cause algal blooms that can kill off the lakes' plants and lower water quality. Light pollution may also affect ecosystems in other ways. For example, Lepidopterists and entomologists have documented that night-time light may interfere with the ability of moths and other nocturnal insects to navigate. (Reproduced on-line in part, by the International Dark-Sky Association.) Night blooming flowers that depend on moths for pollination may be affected by night lighting, as there is no replacement pollinator that would not be affected by the artificial light. This can lead to species decline of plants that are unable to reproduce, and change an area's longterm ecology. Migrating birds can be disoriented by lights on tall structures. Estimates by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service of the number of birds killed after being attracted to tall towers range from 4-5 million per year to an order of magnitude higher. The Fatal Light Awareness Program (FLAP) works with building owners in Toronto, Canada and other cities to reduce mortality of birds by turning out lights during migration periods. Other well-known casualties of light pollution are sea turtle hatchlings emerging from nests on beaches. It is a common misconception that hatchling sea turtles are attracted to the moon. They are not; rather, they find the ocean by moving away from the dark silhouette of dunes and their vegetation, a behavior with which artificial lights interfere. (pdf) Juvenile seabirds may also be disoriented by lights as they leave their nests and fly out to sea. Frogs and salamanders are also affected by light pollution. Light pollution can negatively impact the migratory and breeding behaviour of frogs and salamanders. W. Rowan. (1938). Light and seasonal reproduction in animals. Biological Reviews, 13(4), 374-401. L. Scheling. 2006. Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting. 27(3), Natural Areas Journal, :281–282 Woltz, H. W., Gibbs, J. P., & Ducey, P. K. (2008). Road crossing structures for amphibians and reptiles: Informing design through behavioral analysis. Biological Conservation, 141(11), 2745-2750. doi: doi: DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2008.08.010. Barrett, K., & Guyer, C. (2008). Differential responses of amphibians and reptiles in riparian and stream habitats to land use disturbances in western Georgia, USA. Biological Conservation, 141(9), 2290-2300. doi: doi: DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2008.06.019. Effect on astronomy The constellation Orion, imaged at left from dark skies, and at right from within the Provo/Orem, UT metropolitan area. Skyglow reduces the contrast between stars and galaxies in the sky and the sky itself, making it more difficult to detect fainter objects. This is one factor that has caused newer telescopes to be built in increasingly remote areas. Some astronomers use narrow-band "nebula filters" which only allow specific wavelengths of light commonly seen in nebulae, or broad-band "light pollution filters" which are designed to reduce (but not eliminate) the effects of light pollution by filtering out spectral lines commonly emitted by sodium- and mercury-vapor lamps, thus enhancing contrast and improving the view of dim objects such as galaxies and nebulae. Unfortunately this affects color perception, so these filters cannot be used to visually estimate variable star brightness, and no filter can match the effectiveness of a dark sky for visual or photographic purposes. Due to low surface brightness, the visibility of diffuse sky objects such as nebulae and galaxies is affected by light pollution more than are stars. A simple method for estimating the darkness of a location is to look for the Milky Way. Light trespass can impact observations when stray light enters the tube of the telescope from off-axis, and is reflected from surfaces other than the telescope's mirrors (if any) so that it eventually reaches the eyepiece, causing a glow across the field of view since it has not been focused. The usual measures to reduce this glare, if reducing the light directly (e.g. by changing one's location or having the light turned off) is not an option, include flocking the telescope tube and accessories to reduce reflection, and putting a light shield (also usable as a dew shield) on the telescope to reduce light entering from angles other than those near the target. In one Italian regional lighting code this effect of stray light is defined as "optical pollution", due to the fact that there is a direct path from the light source to the "optic" - the observer's eye or telescope. Reduction Reducing light pollution implies many things, such as reducing sky glow, reducing glare, reducing light trespass, and reducing clutter. The method for best reducing light pollution, therefore, depends on exactly what the problem is in any given instance. Possible solutions include: Utilizing light sources of minimum intensity necessary to accomplish the light's purpose. Turning lights off using a timer or occupancy sensor or manually when not needed. Improving lighting fixtures, so that they direct their light more accurately towards where it is needed, and with less side effects. Adjusting the type of lights used, so that the light waves emitted are those that are less likely to cause severe light pollution problems. Evaluating existing lighting plans, and re-designing some or all of the plans depending on whether existing light is actually needed. Improving lighting fixtures A flat-lens cobra luminaire, which is a full-cutoff fixture, may be effective in reducing light pollution. It ensures that light is only directed below the horizontal, which means less light is wasted through directing it outwards and upwards. This drop-lens cobra luminaire allows light to escape sideways and upwards, where it may cause problems. The use of full cutoff lighting fixtures, as much as possible, is advocated by most campaigners for the reduction of light pollution. It is also commonly recommended that lights be spaced appropriately for maximum efficiency, and that lamps within the fixtures not be overpowered. A full cutoff fixture, when correctly installed, reduces the chance for light to escape above the plane of the horizontal. Light released above the horizontal may sometimes be lighting an intended target, but often serves no purpose. When it enters into the atmosphere, light contributes to sky glow. Some governments and organizations are now considering, or have already implemented, full cutoff fixtures in street lamps and stadium lighting. The use of full cutoff fixtures may help to reduce sky glow by preventing light from escaping unnecessarily. Full cutoff typically reduces the visibility of the lamp and reflector within a luminaire, so the effects of glare may also be reduced. Campaigners also commonly argue that full cutoff fixtures are more efficient than other fixtures, since light that would otherwise have escaped into the atmosphere may instead be directed towards the ground. However, full cutoff fixtures may also trap more light in the fixture than other types of luminaires, corresponding to lower luminaire efficiency. The use of full cutoff fixtures may allow for lower wattage lamps to be used in the fixtures, producing the same or sometimes a better effect, due to being more carefully controlled. In every lighting system, some sky glow also results from light reflected from the ground. This reflection can be reduced, however, by being careful to use only the lowest wattage necessary for the lamp, and setting spacing between lights appropriately. NYSERDA How-to Guide to Effective Energy-Efficient Street Lighting for Planners and Engineers. NYSERDA-Planners (October 2002). New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. A common criticism of full cutoff lighting fixtures is that they are sometimes not as aesthetically pleasing to look at. This is most likely because historically there has not been a large market specifically for full cutoff fixtures, and because people typically like to see the source of illumination. Due to the specificity with their direction of light, full cutoff fixtures sometimes also require expertise to install for maximum effect. The effectiveness of using full cutoff roadway lights to combat light pollution has also been called into question. According to computer simulations, luminaires with full cutoff distributions (as opposed to cutoff or semi cutoff, compared here) have to be closer together to meet the same light level, uniformity and glare requirements specified by the IESNA. D. Keith, “Roadway Lighting Design for the Optimization of UPD, STV and Uplight”, Journal of the IES, v29n2 D. Keith, “Unit Power Density Evaluation of Roadway Lighting Systems”, Journal of the IES, v31n2 D. Keith, “Evaluating Lighting System Components Through Comparison of Roadway UPD Values”, Journal of the IES, v32n1 D. Keith, “Correlations of Roadway UUD Values to UPD, Uplight and Classification”, Journal of the IES, v32n1 These simulations attempted to optimize the height and spacing of the lights while constraining the overall design to within the IESNA requirements, and then compared total uplight and energy consumption of different luminaire designs and powers. Cutoff designs paradoxically performed better than full cutoff designs. This indicates that, in roadway installations, over-illumination required by full cutoff fixtures may be more detrimental than direct uplight created by fewer cutoff fixtures. Therefore, existing systems could be improved more by reducing the number of luminaires than by switching to full cutoff designs: however, taking into account the definition of "light pollution" according to some Italian regional bills (ie "every irradiance of artificial light outside competence areas and particularly upward the sky") only full cutoff design prevents light pollution. The majority of Italian regions require "zero upward light", which usually implies use of overall full cut-off lamps for new luminaries, but violations are common. It should be noted too that the Italian Lombardy region, where only full cutoff design is allowed (Lombardy act n. 17/2000 promoted by Cielobuio-coordination for the protection of the night sky), has the 2007 lowest energy consumption for public lighting in the nation according to the population: this information can be verified using data released by Terna company. Adjusting types of light sources Several different types of light sources exist, each having different properties that affect their appropriateness for certain tasks, particularly efficiency and spectral power distribution. It is often the case that inappropriate light sources have been selected for a task, either due to ignorance or because more sophisticated light sources were unavailable at the time of installation. Therefore, badly chosen light sources often contribute unnecessarily to light pollution and energy waste. By re-assessing and changing the light sources used, it is often possible to reduce energy use and pollutive effects while simultaneously greatly improving efficiency and visibility. Some types of light sources, in order of energy efficiency, are: Type of light sourceColorLuminous effectiveness in lumens per wattLow Pressure Sodium (LPS/SOX)yellow/amber80 - 200High Pressure Sodium (HPS/SON)pink/amber-white90 - 130Metal Halide bluish-white/white60 -120Mercury-Vapour blue-greenish white13 - 48Incandescent yellow/white8 - 25 Many astronomers request that nearby communities use low pressure sodium lights as much as possible, because the principal wavelength emitted is comparably easy to work around or in rare cases filter out. The low cost of operating sodium lights is another feature. In 1980, for example, San Jose, California, replaced all street lamps with low pressure sodium lamps, whose light is easier for nearby Lick Observatory to filter out. Similar programs are now in place in Arizona and Hawaii. Disadvantages of low pressure sodium lighting are that fixtures must usually be larger than competing fixtures, and color cannot be distinguished — due to its emitting principally a single wavelength of light (see security lighting). Due to the substantial size of the lamp, particularly in higher wattages such as 135 W and 180 W, control of light emissions from low pressure sodium luminaires is more difficult. For applications requiring more precise direction of light (such as narrow roadways) the native lamp efficacy advantage of this lamp type is decreased and may be entirely lost compared to high pressure sodium lamps. Allegations that this also leads to higher amounts of light pollution from luminaires running these lamps arise principally because of older luminaires with poor shielding, still widely in use in the UK and in some other locations. Modern low-pressure sodium fixtures with better optics and full shielding, and the decreased sky glow impacts of yellow light (see sky glow discussion) preserve the luminous efficacy advantage of low-pressure sodium and result in most cases is less energy consumption and less visible light pollution. Unfortunately, due to continued lack of accurate information (see for example section 4.10 What Types of Lamps Are Used in Outdoor Lighting? in the IDA Outdoor Lighting Code Handbook) many lighting professionals continue to disparage low-pressure sodium, contributing to its decreased acceptance and specification in lighting standards and therefore its use. Because of the scatter of light by the atmosphere, different sources produce dramatically different amounts of skyglow from the same amount of light sent into the atmosphere. For a discussion of these effects see the section on sky glow. Re-designing lighting plans In some cases, evaluation of existing plans has determined that more efficient lighting plans are possible. For instance, light pollution can be reduced by turning off unneeded outdoor lights, and only lighting stadiums when there are people inside. Timers are especially valuable for this purpose. One example of a lighting plan assessment can be seen in a report originally commissioned by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister in the United Kingdom, and now available through the Department for Communities and Local Government. Department for Communities and Local Government, United Kingdom. The report details a plan to be implemented throughout the UK, for designing lighting schemes in the countryside, with a particular focus on preserving the environment. In another example, the city of Calgary has recently replaced most residential street lights with models that are comparably energy efficient. The City of Calgary: Envirosmart Streetlight Retrofit Program The motivation is primarily operation cost and environmental conservation. The costs of installation are expected to be regained through energy savings within six to seven years. The Swiss agency for energy efficiency (SAFE) uses a concept which promises to be of great use in the diagnosis and design of road lighting, i.e. "consommation électrique spécifique (CES)", which can be translated into English as "specific electric power consumption (SEC)". Thus, based on observed lighting levels in a wide range of Swiss towns, SAFE has defined target values for electric power consumption per metre for roads of various categories. Thus, SAFE currently recommends an SEC of 2 to 3 watts per meter for roads of less than 10 metre width (4 to 6 watts per metre for wider roads). Such a measure provides an easily applicable environmental protection constraint on conventional "norms", which usually are based on the recommendations of lighting manufacturing interests, who may not take into account environmental criteria. In view of ongoing progress in lighting technology, target SEC values will need to be periodically revised downwards. A newer method for predicting and measuring various aspects of light pollution was described in the journal Lighting Research Technology (September 2008). Scientists at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute have developed a comprehensive method called Outdoor Site-Lighting Performance (OSP), which allows users to quantify — and thus optimize — the performance of existing and planned lighting designs and applications to minimize excessive or obtrusive light leaving the boundaries of a property. OSP can be used by lighting engineers immediately, particularly for the investigation of glow and trespass (glare analyses are more complex to perform and current commercial software does not readily allow them), and can help users compare several lighting design alternatives for the same site. Lighting Research Center Develops Framework for Assessing Light Pollution Newswise, Retrieved on September 8, 2008. See also Bortle Dark-Sky Scale Dark Sky preserve Earth Hour History of street lighting in the United States Lighting List of environmental health hazards National Dark Sky Week Over-illumination Scotobiology Tribute in Light References External links Related organizations International Dark-Sky Association Links and Web Resources Austria: Verein Kuffner Sternwarte (How many stars?) Campaign for Dark Skies (UK) New England Light Pollution Advisory Group SELENE (New York) Citizens for Responsible Lighting (based around a distributed discussion group) Virginia Outdoor Lighting Taskforce Italian site of Cielobuio-coordination for the protection of the night sky Spanish Cel Fosc Fatal Light Awareness Program (FLAP) (Toronto) Starlight: a common heritage. Sydney Outdoor Lighting Improvement Society Research about light pollution The Challenge article "Is Light Pollution Killing Our Birds" The Discover article relating light pollution to insects, birds, and breast cancer (requires paid registration) Ecology of the night symposium (2003 conference) "Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting" (2002 conference, by the Urban Wildlands Group) Light pollution and the protection of the night environment, UNESCO, IDA Regional Meeting, 360 pages,(2002) English — Italian. Proceedings are available as a downloadable PDF. Sherbrooke College Light pollution research activities Adelaide's Light Pollution Examples of the good, bad and ugly lighting "Our Vanishing Night", Verlyn Klinkenborg. National Geographic, November 2008, pp102–23. Collections of links related to light pollution BAA CfDS Discussion Forum Open Directory Project: Light Pollution The Dark Side: an article in The New Yorker magazine about light pollution Reclaiming the Night Sky, article by Judith Dobrzynski from The New Republic on light pollution Astronomical Society of South Australia article on Light Pollution Turn Out the Lights! ALI - the Alliance for Lighting Information - website contains information about light, lighting and related topics. 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4,305 | Admiralty | The Admiralty was formerly the authority in the United Kingdom responsible for the command of the Royal Navy. Originally exercised by a single person, the office of Lord High Admiral was from the 18th century onward almost invariably put "in commission", and was exercised by a Board of Admiralty. In 1964 the functions of the Admiralty were transferred to a new Admiralty Board, which is a committee of the tri-service Defence Council of the United Kingdom and part of the Ministry of Defence. The new Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board (not to be confused with the historical Navy Board described later in this article). It is not uncommon for the various authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to simply as The Admiralty. The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom is now vested in the Sovereign. However, there continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom and a Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom, both of which are honorary offices. History Flag of the Lord High Admiral The office of Admiral of England (or Lord Admiral and later Lord High Admiral) was created around 1400, though there were before this Admirals of the Northern and Western Seas. In 1546 King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine, later to become the Navy Board, to oversee administrative affairs of the naval service. Operational control of the Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State. In 1628, Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission and control of the Royal Navy passed to a committee in the form of the Board of Admiralty. The office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709, after which the office was almost permanently in commission (the last Lord High Admiral being the future King William IV in the early 19th century). In 1831 the Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity and its duties and responsibilities were given over to the Admiralty. In 1964 the Admiralty was subsumed into the Ministry of Defence along with the War Office and the Air Ministry. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new Admiralty Board, Army Board and Air Force Board, each headed by the Secretary of State for Defence. As mentioned above, there is also a new Navy Board in charge of the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy. The Board of Admiralty When the office of Lord High Admiral was in commission, as it was for most of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries until it reverted to the Crown, it was exercised by a Board of Admiralty, officially known as the Commissioners for Exercising the Office of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, &c. (alternatively of England, Great Britain or the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland depending on the period). The Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords, and Civil Lords, normally politicians. The quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary. The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, who was a member of the Cabinet. After 1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian, while the professional head of the navy came to be (and is still today) known as the First Sea Lord. Admiralty buildings The Old Admiralty or Ripley Building. The Admiralty complex lies between Whitehall, Horse Guards Parade and The Mall and includes five buildings. Since the Admiralty no longer exists as a department, these are now used as an "office bank" by the British government: The Admiralty The oldest building, this was long known simply as The Admiralty, and is now referred to popularly as the Old Admiralty and officially as the Ripley Building. The Admiralty complex in 1794. The different colours indicate different departments or residences for the several Lords of the Admiralty. The pale coloured extension behind the small courtyard on the left is Admiralty House. It is a three storey u-shaped brick building, and completed in 1726. Alexander Pope implied the architecture is rather dull, lacking either the vigour of the baroque style which was fading from fashion at the time, or the austere grandeur of the Palladian style which was just coming into vogue. It is mainly notable for being perhaps the first purpose built office building in Great Britain. It contained a board room, other state rooms and offices and apartments for the Lords of the Admiralty. Robert Adam designed the screen which was added to the entrance front in 1788. Nowadays the Ripley Building is allocated to the Cabinet Office. Admiralty House Admiralty House is a moderately proportioned mansion to the south of the Ripley Building, built in the late 18th century as the residence of the First Lord of the Admiralty, serving that purpose until 1964. Winston Churchill was one of its occupants. It lacks its own entrance from Whitehall, and is entered through the Ripley Building. It is a three storey building in yellow brick with neo-classicistic interiors. Its rear facade faces directly onto Horse Guards Parade. The architect was Samuel Pepys Cockerell. There are now three ministerial flats in the building . The Admiralty Extension (which is also one of the two buildings which are sometimes referred to as the "Old Admiralty") dates from the turn of the 20th century. Old Admiralty Building (or Admiralty Extension or OAB) This is the largest of the Admiralty Buildings. It was begun in the late 19th century and redesigned while the construction was in progress to accommodate the extra offices needed due to the naval arms race with the German Empire. It is red brick building with white stone detailing in the Queen Anne style with French influences. It is now used by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Foreign and Commonwealth Office staff refer to the building as the OAB (Old Admiralty Building). Admiralty Arch Admiralty Arch is linked to the Old Admiralty Building by a bridge and is part of the ceremonial route from Trafalgar Square to Buckingham Palace. It contains further office space currently used by the Cabinet Office. The Admiralty Citadel This is a squat windowless World War II fortress north west of Horse Guards Parade, now covered in ivy. See Military citadels under London for further details. "Admiralty" as a metaphor for "sea power" In some cases, the term admiralty is used in a wider sense, as meaning sea power or rule over the seas, rather than in strict reference to the institution exercising such power. For example, the well-known lines from Kipling's Song of the Dead: If blood be the price of admiralty, Lord God, we ha' paid in full! See also List of Lord High Admirals and First Lords of the Admiralty List of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty Lord High Admiral of Scotland Admiralty administration References Bradley, Simon, and Nikolaus Pevsner. London 6: Westminster (from the Buildings of England series). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-300-09595-3. External links The Admiralty at the Survey of London online | Admiralty |@lemmatized admiralty:47 formerly:1 authority:2 united:7 kingdom:7 responsible:1 command:1 royal:5 navy:12 originally:1 exercise:5 single:1 person:1 office:18 lord:27 high:12 admiral:18 century:6 onward:1 almost:2 invariably:1 put:2 commission:5 board:18 function:1 transfer:1 new:5 committee:2 tri:1 service:2 defence:5 council:2 part:2 ministry:4 meet:1 twice:1 year:1 day:4 run:2 control:3 confuse:1 historical:1 describe:1 later:3 article:1 uncommon:1 various:1 charge:2 refer:4 simply:2 title:1 vest:1 sovereign:1 however:1 continue:1 vice:1 rear:2 honorary:1 history:1 flag:1 england:3 create:1 around:1 though:1 northern:2 western:1 sea:6 king:2 henry:1 viii:1 establish:1 marine:1 become:1 oversee:1 administrative:1 affair:1 naval:3 operational:1 remain:1 responsibility:2 one:3 nine:1 great:5 officer:1 state:3 charles:1 pass:2 form:1 number:2 time:2 permanently:1 last:1 future:1 william:1 iv:1 early:1 abolish:1 separate:1 entity:1 duty:1 give:1 subsume:1 along:1 war:2 air:2 within:1 expanded:1 army:1 force:1 head:2 secretary:2 mention:1 also:3 revert:1 crown:1 officially:2 know:5 commissioner:5 britain:4 ireland:2 c:1 alternatively:1 depend:1 period:1 consist:1 always:2 mixture:1 civil:1 normally:1 politician:1 quorum:1 two:2 president:1 first:6 member:1 cabinet:3 civilian:1 professional:1 come:2 still:1 today:1 build:3 old:7 ripley:5 building:19 complex:2 lie:1 whitehall:2 horse:3 guard:3 parade:3 mall:1 include:1 five:1 since:1 longer:1 exist:1 department:2 use:4 bank:1 british:1 government:1 long:1 known:1 popularly:1 different:2 colour:2 indicate:1 residence:2 several:1 pale:1 extension:3 behind:1 small:1 courtyard:1 left:1 house:3 three:3 storey:2 u:1 shape:1 brick:3 complete:1 alexander:1 pope:1 implied:1 architecture:1 rather:2 dull:1 lack:2 either:1 vigour:1 baroque:1 style:3 fade:1 fashion:1 austere:1 grandeur:1 palladian:1 vogue:1 mainly:1 notable:1 perhaps:1 purpose:2 contain:2 room:2 apartment:1 robert:1 adam:1 design:1 screen:1 add:1 entrance:2 front:1 nowadays:1 allocate:1 moderately:1 proportioned:1 mansion:1 south:1 late:2 serve:1 winston:1 churchill:1 occupant:1 enter:1 yellow:1 neo:1 classicistic:1 interior:1 facade:1 face:1 directly:1 onto:1 architect:1 samuel:1 pepys:1 cockerell:1 ministerial:1 flat:1 sometimes:1 date:1 turn:1 oab:2 large:1 begin:1 redesign:1 construction:1 progress:1 accommodate:1 extra:1 need:1 due:1 arm:1 race:1 german:1 empire:1 red:1 white:1 stone:1 detail:2 queen:1 anne:1 french:1 influence:1 foreign:2 commonwealth:2 staff:1 arch:2 link:2 bridge:1 ceremonial:1 route:1 trafalgar:1 square:1 buckingham:1 palace:1 space:1 currently:1 citadel:2 squat:1 windowless:1 world:1 ii:1 fortress:1 north:1 west:1 cover:1 ivy:1 see:2 military:1 london:3 metaphor:1 power:3 case:1 term:1 wider:1 sense:1 mean:1 rule:1 strict:1 reference:2 institution:1 example:1 well:1 line:1 kipling:1 song:1 dead:1 blood:1 price:1 god:1 ha:1 pay:1 full:1 list:2 scotland:1 administration:1 bradley:1 simon:1 nikolaus:1 pevsner:1 westminster:1 series:1 connecticut:1 yale:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:1 external:1 survey:1 online:1 |@bigram almost_invariably:1 vice_admiral:1 rear_admiral:1 henry_viii:1 lord_admiralty:7 winston_churchill:1 samuel_pepys:1 trafalgar_square:1 buckingham_palace:1 external_link:1 |
4,306 | Cyprus | Cyprus (, transliterated: Kýpros, ; ), officially the Republic of Cyprus (, Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía, ; ), is a Eurasian island country situated in the eastern Mediterranean, east of Greece , west of Lebanon, Syria and Israel, north of Egypt and south of Turkey. Cyprus is the Mediterranean's third largest island, and one of its most popular tourist destinations, attracting over 2.4 million tourists per year. Invest in Cyprus website - figures do not include tourism to the occupied North A former British colony, it became an independent republic in 1960 Cyprus date of independence (click on Historical review) and a member of the Commonwealth in 1961. The Republic of Cyprus is one of the advanced economies in the region, and has been a member of the European Union since 1 May 2004. In 1974, following years of intercommunal violence between ethnic Greeks and Turks and an attempted coup d'état by Greek Cypriot nationalists aimed at annexing the island to Greece and engineered by the military junta then in power in Athens, BBC News website Turkey invaded and occupied one third of the island. This led to the displacement of thousands of Cypriots and the establishment of a separate Turkish Cypriot political entity in the north. This event and its resulting political situation are matters of ongoing dispute. The Republic of Cyprus, the internationally recognised state, has de jure sovereignty over the entire island of Cyprus and its surrounding waters except small portions that are allocated by treaty to the United Kingdom as sovereign military bases. The island is de facto partitioned into four main parts: the area under the effective control of the Republic of Cyprus, comprising about 59% of the island's area in the south; the Turkish-occupied area in the north, calling itself the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, covering about 36% of the island's area and recognised only by Turkey; the United Nations-controlled Green Line, separating the two, covering about 3% of the island's area; and two British Sovereign Base Areas (Akrotiri and Dhekelia), According to Article 1 and Annex A of the Treaty of Establishment of the Republic of Cyprus - see covering about 3% of the island's area. Etymology The name Cyprus has a somewhat uncertain etymology. One suggestion is that it comes from the Greek word for the Mediterranean cypress tree (Cupressus sempervirens), κυπάρισσος (kypárissos), or even from the Greek name of the henna plant (Lawsonia alba), κύπρος (kýpros). Another school suggests that it stems from the Eteocypriot word for copper. Georges Dossin, for example, suggests that it has roots in the Sumerian word for copper (zubar) or for bronze (kubar), from the large deposits of copper ore found on the island. Through overseas trade the island has given its name to the Classical Latin word for the metal through the phrase aes Cyprium, "metal of Cyprus", later shortened to Cuprum. Fisher, Fred H. Cyprus: Our New Colony And What We Know About It. London: George Routledge and Sons 1878, pp. 13-14. Cyprus is also called "the island of Aphrodite or love", Les îles des Princes, banlieue maritime d'Istanboul: guide touristique - Page 136 by Ernest Mamboury since in Greek mythology, the goddess Aphrodite, of beauty and love, was born in Cyprus. The Old Assyrian expression for "far sunny island" was kypeř-až ṇ-itiṣ, which was many times literally translated to Greek as kyperus nytis, or kyprezu-nytys which meant (in Old Cretan dialect) "southern sunny island". It is then related to that the Cretan people named it so, and that the results were a "southern sunny island", "Kipriuznyt". Another possibility is that the Phoenicians named it "Kỹiprii Uűzta" (Orange Island), the name resurfaced during Roman times and they thought it was named after one of their emperors, and named it "Ciprea Augusta". Over time, Augusta vanished and Ciprea was left. Geography Apollon bay Aphrodite bay Geological map of Cyprus History Ancient times Temple to Apollon Ilatis outside the city of Limassol |Kourion Theatre outside the city of Limassol Cyprus is the mythical birthplace of Aphrodite, Adonis and home to King Cinyras, Teucer and Pygmalion. Encyclopedia of Freemasonry Part 1 and Its Kindred Sciences Comprising the Whole Range of Arts … - Page 25 The earliest confirmed site of human activity is Aetokremnos, situated on the south coast, indicating that hunter-gatherers were active on the island from around 10,000 BC, with settled, village communities dating from 8200 BC. The arrival of the first humans correlates with the extinction of the dwarf hippos and dwarf elephants. There were several fluxes of population and settlement as well as newcomers to the island during the Neolithic age, although earthquakes caused the infrastructure to fail around 3800 BC. Several waves of incoming peoples followed, including some from Asia minor which strengthened the metal working crafts on the island, although finds from this time are rare those finds are of high quality. The Bronze Age was heralded by the arrival of Anatolians who came to the island around 2400 BC. The Mycenaean Greeks first reached Cyprus around 1600 BC, with settlements dating from this period scattered all over the island. Another wave of Greek settlement is believed to have taken place in the period 1100-1050 BC, with the island's predominantly Greek character dating from this period. Several Phoenician colonies were founded in the 8th century BC, like Kart-Hadasht meaning 'New Town', near present day Larnaca and Salamis. Cyprus was conquered by Assyria in 709 BC, before a brief spell under Egyptian rule and eventually Persian rule in 545 BC. Cypriots, led by Onesilos, joined their fellow-Greeks in the Ionian cities during the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt in 499 BC against the Achaemenid Empire. The island was brought under permanent Greek rule by Alexander the Great and the Ptolemies of Egypt following his death. Full Hellenisation took place during the Ptolemaic period, which ended when Cyprus was annexed by the Roman Republic in 58 BC. Cyprus was one of the first stops in apostle Paul's missionary journey. Middle Ages Caterina Cornaro, Queen of Cyprus. In 395, Cyprus became part of the Byzantine Empire, The World Book Encyclopedia - Page 1207 by World Book who lost control of the island to the Arabs in 649 before reclaiming it in 966. Richard I of England captured the island in 1191 during the Third Crusade, using it as a major supply base that was relatively safe from the Saracens. A year later Guy of Lusignan purchased the island from the Templars to compensate for the loss of his kingdom. The Republic of Venice seized control of the island in 1489 after the abdication of Queen Caterina Cornaro. She was the widow of James II who was the last Lusignan king of Cyprus. Using it as an important commercial hub, the Venetians soon fortified Nicosia; the current capital city in Cyprus, with its famous Venetian Walls. Throughout Venetian rule, the Ottoman Empire frequently raided Cyprus. In 1539 the Ottomans destroyed Limassol and so fearing the worst, the Venetians also fortified Famagusta, Nicosia, and Kyrenia. Ottoman and British rule In 1570, a full scale conquest under Piyale Pasha with 60,000 troops brought the island under Ottoman control, despite stiff resistance by the inhabitants of Nicosia and Famagusta. 20,000 Nicosians were put to death, and every church, public building, and palace was looted. Cyprus - OTTOMAN RULE, U.S. Library of Congress The Ottomans applied the millet system and allowed religious authorities to govern their own non-Muslim minorities, but at the same time invested the Eastern Orthodox Church as a mediator between Christian Cypriots and the authorities granting it not only religious but political and economic powers. Heavy taxation led to rebellions, resulting in approximately twenty-eight bloody uprisings taking place between 1572 and 1668, forcing the Sultans to intervene. The first large scale census of the Ottoman Empire in 1831, counting only men, showed 14,983 Muslims and 29,190 Christians. "Memalik-i Mahrusa-i Sahanede 1247 senesinde mevcut olan nufus defteri", Istanbul University library, ms.kat d-8 no:8867. By 1872, the population of the island had risen to 144,000 comprising 44,000 Muslims and 100,000 Christians. Osmanli Nufusu 1830–1914 by Kemal Karpat, ISBN 975-333-169-X and Die Völker des Osmanischen by Ritter zur Helle von Samo. Historic map of Cyprus by Ottoman Empire's Kaptan Pasha, Piri Reis Administration, but not sovereignty, of the island was ceded to the British Empire in 1878 with the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). The island would serve Britain as a key military base in its colonial routes. By 1906, when the Famagusta harbour was completed, Cyprus was a strategic naval outpost overlooking the Suez Canal, the crucial main route to India which was then Britain's most important colony. Following World War I and the Ottoman alliance with the Central powers, the United Kingdom annexed the island. In 1923, under the Treaty of Lausanne, the nascent Turkish republic relinquished any claim to Cyprus and in 1925 it was declared a British Crown Colony. Many Greek Cypriots fought in the British Army during both world wars, in the hope that Cyprus would eventually be united with Greece. In January 1950 the Eastern Orthodox Church organised a referendum, which was boycotted by the Turkish Cypriot community, where over 90% voted in favour of "enosis", meaning union with Greece. Restricted autonomy under a constitution was proposed by the British administration but eventually rejected. In 1955 the EOKA organisation was founded, seeking independence and union with Greece through armed struggle. At the same time the TMT, calling for Taksim, or partition, was established by the Turkish Cypriots as a counterweight. Turmoil on the island was met with force by the British who started openly favouring Turks in police and administration as part of a divide-and-conquer policy. Independence In August 16,1960, Cyprus attained independence after an agreement in Zürich and London between the United Kingdom, Greece and Turkey. Britain retained two Sovereign Base Areas in Akrotiri and Dhekelia while government posts and public offices were allocated by ethnic quotas giving the minority Turks a permanent veto, 30% in parliament and administration, and granting the 3 mother-states guarantor rights. In 1963 inter-communal violence broke out, partially sponsored by both "motherlands" with Turkish Cypriots in some areas withdrawing into enclaves and Greek Cypriot leader Archbishop Makarios III calling for constitutional changes as a means to ease tensions. The United Nations was involved, and the United Nations forces in Cyprus (UNICYP) deployed at flash points. Division The Greek military government in power in Greece in the early 1970s became dissatisfied with the policy of Makarios in Cyprus and the lack of progress towards Enosis. Partly for this reason, and partly as a distraction from domestic opposition, the junta organised a coup in Cyprus on 13 July 1974. Nikos Sampson was forcefully installed by the Greek Junta as president of Cyprus. Although a nationalist, he did not declare union with Greece and proclaimed that Cyprus would remain independent and non-aligned. Yet the Turkish government was uneasy about the de facto situation, so they protested and sought British intervention, which never materialised. Seven days later Turkey invaded Cyprus claiming a right, under the Zurich and London agreements, to intervene in order to restore constitutional order. The Greeks announced the formation of a new EOKA paramilitary group to resist the invaders but this proved counter-productive, hastening the expulsions of Greeks from Turkish-held areas. Heavily outnumbered, the Greek forces were unable to resist the Turkish advance. The Ayia Napa area was only saved from occupation because it lay behind the British Sovereign Base area, which the Turks were cautious not to invade. International pressure led to a ceasefire and at that point 37% of the land fell within the Turkish occupation zone, 170,000 Greek Cypriots were evicted from their homes in the north with 50,000 Turkish Cypriots following the opposite path. In 1983 Turkish Cypriots unilaterally proclaimed independence, which was only recognised by Turkey. As of today, there are 1,534 Greek Cypriots and 502 Turkish Cypriots missing as a result of the fighting. The events of the summer of 1974 dominate the politics on the island, as well as Greco-Turkish relations. Around 100,000 settlers from Turkey are believed to be living in the north in violation of the Geneva Convention and various UN resolutions. Following the invasion and the capture of its northern territory by Turkish troops, the Republic of Cyprus announced that all of its ports of entry in the north are closed, as they are effectively not under its control. Recent history Modern Nicosia Since de facto, though not de jure, partition of the Republic, the north and south have followed separate paths. The Republic of Cyprus is a constitutional democracy that has reached great levels of prosperity, with a booming economy and good infrastructure. It is part of the UN, the European Union and several other organisations by whom it is recognised as the sole legitimate government of the whole island. The area of the island not under effective control of the Republic of Cyprus, Northern Cyprus, is dependent on help from Turkey. The last major effort to settle the Cyprus dispute was the Annan Plan. It gained the support of the Turkish Cypriots but was rejected by the Greek Cypriots. In July 2006, the island served as a safe haven for people fleeing Lebanon due to the conflict between Israel and Hezbollah. In March 2008, a wall that for decades had stood at the boundary between the Greek Cypriot controlled side and the UN buffer zone was demolished. The wall had cut across Ledra Street in the heart of Nicosia and was seen as a strong symbol of the island's 32-year division. On 3 April 2008, Ledra Street was reopened in the presence of Greek and Turkish Cypriot officials. Ledra Street crossing opens in Cyprus. Associated Press article published on International Herald Tribune Website, 3 April 2008 Government The Presidential Palace (Residence) in Nicosia. Cyprus is a Presidential republic. The head of state and of the government is the President, who is elected by a process of Universal suffrage for a five-year term. Executive power is exercised by the government with legislative power vested in the House of Representatives whilst the Judiciary is independent of both the executive and the legislature. The 1960 Constitution provided for a presidential system of government with independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as a complex system of checks and balances, including a weighted power-sharing ratio designed to protect the interests of the Turkish Cypriots. The executive, was headed by a Greek Cypriot president and a Turkish Cypriot vice president elected by their respective communities for five-year terms and each possessing a right of veto over certain types of legislation and executive decisions. Legislative power rested on the House of Representatives, also elected on the basis of separate voters' rolls. Since 1964, following clashes between the two communities, the Turkish Cypriot seats in the House remain vacant. Turkish Cypriots refuse to establish the state of affairs before the invasion of Cyprus in their attempt to de jure partition the Republic of Cyprus. This is evident in the Secretary-General of the United Nations report at the time. The Turkish Cypriot leaders have adhered to a rigid stand against any measures which might involve having members of the two communities live and work together, or which might place Turkish Cypriots in situations where they would have to acknowledge the authority of Government agents. Indeed, since the Turkish Cypriot leadership is committed to physical and geographical separation of the communities as a political goal, it is not likely to encourage activities by Turkish Cypriots which may be interpreted as demonstrating the merits of an alternative policy. The result has been a seemingly deliberate policy of self-segregation by the Turkish Cypriots Quotation from March 1999 report submitted by Cyprus in the framework of the Convention for the Protectino of Mational Minorities citing United Nations Secretary General Report S/6426, 10 June 1965 In 1974 Cyprus was divided de facto into the Greek Cypriot controlled southern two-thirds of the island and the Turkish controlled northern third. The Turkish Cypriots subsequently declared independence in 1983 as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus but have not been recognised by any country in the world, except Turkey. In 1985, the TRNC adopted a constitution and held its first elections. All foreign governments (except Turkey), as well as the United Nations, recognise the sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus over the whole island of Cyprus. The House of Representatives currently has 59 members elected for a five year term, 56 members by proportional representation and 3 observer members representing the Maronite, Latin and Armenian minorities. 24 seats are allocated to the Turkish community but remain vacant since 1964. The political environment is dominated by the communist AKEL, the liberal conservative Democratic Rally, the centrist Democratic Party, the social-democratic EDEK and the centrist EURO.KO. On 17 February 2008 Dimitris Christofias of the AKEL was elected President of Cyprus and the first electoral victory without being part of a wider coalition. This made Cyprus one of only three countries in the world to currently have a democratically elected communist government, the others being Moldova and Nepal, and the only European Union member state currently under communist leadership. Christofias took over government from Tassos Papadopoulos of the Democratic Party who had been in office since February 2003. Districts The Republic of Cyprus is divided into six districts: Nicosia, Famagusta, Kyrenia, Larnaca, Limassol and Paphos. Map of Cyprus Districts Greek name Turkish name</tr> Famagusta Αμμόχωστος (Ammochostos) Gazimağusa </tr> Kyrenia Κερύvεια (Keryneia) Girne</tr> Larnaca Λάρνακα (Larnaka) Larnaka/İskele</tr> Limassol Λεμεσός (Lemesos) Limasol/Leymosun</tr> Nicosia Λευκωσία (Lefkosia) Lefkoşa</tr> Paphos Πάφος (Pafos) Baf/Gazibaf</tr> Exclaves and enclaves Pyrgos, a Greek Cypriot exclave on Morphou Bay Cyprus has four exclaves, all in territory that belongs to the British Sovereign Base Area of Dhekelia. The first two are the villages of Ormidhia and Xylotymvou. The third is the Dhekelia Power Station, which is divided by a British road into two parts. The northern part is an exclave, like the two villages, whereas the southern part is located by the sea and therefore not an exclave, although it has no territorial waters of its own. The UN buffer zone runs up against Dhekelia and picks up again from its east side off Ayios Nikolaos, connected to the rest of Dhekelia by a thin land corridor, and in that sense the buffer zone turns the southeast corner of the island, the Paralimni area, into a de facto, though not de jure, exclave. Pyrgos is a de facto exclave of the government-controlled part of the island. It is the only Greek Cypriot town located on the TRNC-controlled Morphou Bay. Human rights The constant focus on the division of the island can sometimes mask other human rights issues. Prostitution is rife in both the government-controlled and the Turkish-controlled regions, and the island as a whole has been criticised for its role in the sex trade as one of the main routes of human trafficking from Eastern Europe. The regime in the North has been the focus of occasional freedom of speech criticisms regarding heavy-handed treatment of newspaper editors. Domestic violence legislation in the Republic remains largely unimplemented, and it has not yet been passed into law in the North. Reports on the mistreatment of domestic staff, mostly immigrant workers from developing countries, are sometimes reported in the Greek Cypriot press, and are the subject of several campaigns by the anti-racist charity KISA. Military The Cypriot National Guard is the main military institution of the Republic of Cyprus. It is a combined arms force, with land, air and naval elements. The land forces of the Cypriot National Guard comprise the following units: First Infantry Division (Ιη Μεραρχία ΠΖ) Second Infantry Division (ΙΙα Μεραρχία ΠΖ) Fourth Infantry Brigade (ΙVη Ταξιαρχία ΠΖ) Twentieth Armored Brigade (ΧΧη ΤΘ Ταξιαρχία) Third Support Brigade (ΙΙΙη Ταξιαρχία ΥΠ) Eighth Support Brigade (VIIIη Ταξιαρχία ΥΠ) The air force includes the 449th Helicopter Gunship Squadron (449 ΜΑΕ) - operating SA-342L and Bell 206 and the 450th Helicopter Gunship Squadron (450 ME/P) - operating Mi-35P, BN-2B and PC-9. Current Senior officers include Supreme Commander, Cypriot National Guard: Lt. Gen. Konstantinos Bisbikas, Deputy Commander, Cypriot National Guard: Lt. Gen. Savvas Argyrou and Chief of Staff, Cypriot National Guard: Maj. Gen. Gregory Stamoulis. Economy Cyprus is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. The Cypriot economy is prosperous and has diversified in recent years. According to the latest IMF estimates, its per capita GDP (adjusted for purchasing power) is, at $28,381, just above the average of the European Union. List of countries by future GDP (PPP) per capita estimates Cyprus has been sought as a base for several offshore businesses for its highly developed infrastructure. Economic policy of the Cyprus government has focused on meeting the criteria for admission to the European Union. Adoption of the euro as a national currency is required of all new countries joining the European Union, and the Cypriot government adopted the currency on 1 January 2008. Oil has recently been discovered in the seabed between Cyprus and Egypt, and talks are underway between Lebanon and Egypt to reach an agreement regarding the exploration of these resources. The seabed separating Lebanon and Cyprus is believed to hold significant quantities of crude oil and natural gas. The economy of the Turkish-occupied area is dominated by the services sector, including the public sector, trade, tourism and education, with smaller agriculture and light manufacturing sectors. The economy operates on a free-market basis, although it continues to be handicapped by the political isolation of Turkish Cypriots, the lack of private and governmental investment, high freight costs, and shortages of skilled labor. Despite these constraints, the economy turned in an impressive performance in 2003 and 2004, with growth rates of 9.6% and 11.4%. The average income in the area is $5,000 per capita, and the Turkish government has pledged to increase this to $12,000 through investment and aid. Abdullah Gul, quoted in the Turkish Daily News 14 April 2007 . Growth has been buoyed by the relative stability of the Turkish new lira and by a boom in the education and construction sectors. The island has witnessed a massive growth in tourism over the years and as such the property rental market in Cyprus has grown along side. Added to this is the capital growth in property that has been created from the demand of incoming investors and property buyers to the island. Demographics Population growth (numbers for the entire island, excluding in recent years some 150,000 Turkish immigrants residing in Northern Cyprus). Population structure. According to the first population census after the declaration of independence, carried out in December 1960 and covering the entire island, Cyprus had a total population of 573,566, with Greek Cypriots comprising 77% of the island's population and Turkish Cypriots 18% (other nationals accounted for the remaining 5%). Eric Solsten, ed. Cyprus: A Country Study, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, 1991. According to the last census covering the entire island (April 1973), the population of Cyprus was 631,778 with the Turkish Cypriots estimated at 19% of the total (about 120,000). Statistical Abstract 2007, Republic of Cyprus, Statistical Service, Report No. 53 The subsequent censuses conducted in 1976-2001 after the de facto division of the island covered only the population in the area controlled by the Republic of Cyprus government, and the number of Turkish Cypriots residing in Northern Cyprus was estimated by the Republic of Cyprus Statistical Service based on population growth rates and migration data. In the last census of 2001 carried out by the Republic of Cyprus, the population in the area controlled by the government was 703,529. The number of Turkish Cypriots residing in Northern Cyprus was estimated by the Republic of Cyprus Statistical Service at 87,600, or 11% of the reported total. The latest available estimates by the Republic of Cyprus Statistical Service put the island’s population at the end of 2006 at 867,600, with 89.8% (778,700) in the government controlled area and 10.2% (88,900) Turkish Cypriots in Northern Cyprus. However, the Republic of Cyprus estimate of Turkish Cypriots does not represent the total population of Northern Cyprus. In addition, the Republic of Cyprus Statistical Service also estimated that 150,000-160,000 Turkish immigrants (described as “illegal settlers” in the Republic of Cyprus Statistical Abstract 2007, footnote on p. 72) were living in Northern Cyprus, bringing the de facto population of Northern Cyprus to about 250,000. This estimate produced by the Republic of Cyprus matches the results of the 2006 population census carried out by the 'government' of Northern Cyprus, which gives 265,100 as the total population of TRNC. TRNC General Population and Housing Unit Census 2006 The total population of Cyprus is thus slightly over 1 million, comprising 778,700 in the territory controlled by the government of the Republic of Cyprus and 265,100 in the territory controlled by the government of TRNC. Cyprus has seen a large influx of guest workers from countries such as Thailand, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka, as well as major increases in the numbers of permanent Russian, British or other EU residents. Sizeable communities from Russia and Ukraine (mostly Pontic Greeks, immigrating after the fall of the Eastern Bloc), Bulgaria, Romania, and Eastern European states. By the end of 2007, about 124,000 immigrants settled in Cyprus, the three largest groups being 37,000 Greeks, 27,000 Britons, and 10,000 Russians. The island is also home to a Maronite minority of 6,000, an Armenian minority of around 2,000, and refugees mainly from Serbia, Palestine, and Lebanon. There is also a Kurdish minority present in Cyprus. Outside Cyprus there is a significant and thriving Cypriot diaspora in other countries, within the United States, the United Kingdom, Greece and Australia hosting the majority of migrants who left the island after the de facto division in 1974. Specifically in the United Kingdom it is estimated that there are 150,000 Cypriots. Religion Church of Ayios Lazaros in Larnaca Most Greek Cypriots are members of the Greek Orthodox Church, whereas most Turkish Cypriots are Muslim. According to Eurobarometer 2005, Social values, Science and technology. Eurobarometer 2005. TNS Opinion & Social Cyprus is one of the most religious countries in the European Union, along with Malta, Romania, Greece, and Poland. It is also one of only five EU states that have an official state religion (Cypriot Orthodox Church, the other four states being Malta, Greece, Denmark, and United Kingdom (Church of England)). In addition to the Christian Orthodox and Muslim communities, there are also small Bahá'í, Jewish, Protestant (including Pentecostal), Roman Catholic, Maronite (Eastern Rites Catholic) and Armenian Apostolic communities in Cyprus. Education Pancyprian Gymnasium, the oldest functioning high school in Cyprus. Cyprus has a highly developed system of primary and secondary education offering both public and private education. The high quality of instruction can be attributed to a large extent to the above-average competence of the teachers but also to the fact that nearly 7% of the GDP is spent on education which makes Cyprus one of the top three spenders of education in the EU along with Denmark and Sweden. State schools are generally seen as equivalent in quality of education to private-sector institutions. However, the value of a state high-school diploma is limited by the fact that the grades obtained account for only around 25% of the final grade for each topic, with the remaining 75% assigned by the teacher during the semester, in a minimally transparent way. Cypriot universities (like universities in Greece) ignore high school grades almost entirely for admissions purposes. While a high-school diploma is mandatory for university attendance, admissions are decided almost exclusively on the basis of scores at centrally administered university entrance examinations that all university candidates are required to take. The majority of Cypriots receive their higher education at Greek, British, Turkish, other European and North American universities. It is noteworthy that Cyprus currently has the highest percentage of citizens of working age who have higher-level education in the EU at 30% which is ahead of Finland's 29.5%. In addition 47% of its population aged 25–34 have tertiary education, which is the highest in the EU. The body of Cypriot students is highly mobile, with 78.7% studying in a university outside Cyprus. Private colleges and state-supported universities have been developed. University of Cyprus: Established in 1989 The Cyprus Academy of Art: Established in 1995 and offers the only EDEXCEL Accredited Diploma in Foundation Studies in Cyprus. Cyprus University of Technology: Started in 2007 European University - Cyprus: Established in 1961 as Cyprus College and changed its name in 2007 University of Nicosia: Established in 1981 and formerly known as Intercollege; It changed to its present name in 2007. There are a total of 5,000 students at the Nicosia, Limassol and Larnaca campuses Frederick University Students from overseas are also increasing. Universities in the north side of Cyprus include: Eastern Mediterranean University, Famagusta Near East University, Nicosia (North) Girne American University, Girne European University of Lefke, Lefke Cyprus International University, Nicosia (North) Middle East Technical University, North Cyprus Campus, Guzelyurt Culture Art Notable artists include Rhea Bailey, Mihail Kkasialos, Ioannis Kissonergis, Theodoulos Gregoriou, Helene Black, George Skoteinos, Kalopedis family, Nicos Nicolaides, Stass Paraskos, Arestís Stasí, Telemachos Kanthos, Adamantios Diamantis, Konstantia Sofokleous and Chris Achilleos. Music The traditional folk music of Cyprus has many common elements with Greek mainland and island folk music, including dances like the sousta, syrtos, zeibekikos, tatsia, and the kartsilamas. The instruments commonly associated with Cyprus folk music are the violin ["fkiolin"], the lute ["laouto"], the accordion, and the Cyprus flute "pithkiavlin". There is also a form of musical poetry known as "chattista", which is often performed at traditional feasts and celebrations. Composers associated with traditional music in Cyprus include Evagoras Karageorgis, Marios Tokas, Solon Michaelides, Savvas Salides. Pop music in Cyprus is generally influenced by the Greek pop music "Laïka" scene, with several artists such as Anna Vissi and Evridiki earning widespread popularity. Cypriot rock and "Éntekhno" rock music is often associated with artists such as Michalis Hatzigiannis and Alkinoos Ioannidis. Metal also has a following in Cyprus, represented by bands such as Armageddon, Winter's Verge, RUST and Blynd Rev. 16:16. Literature Literary production of the antiquity includes the Cypria, an epic poem probably composed in the later seventh century BC and attributed to Stasinus. The Cypria is one of the very first specimens of Greek and European poetry. "An indication that at least the main contents of the Cypria were known around 650 BCE is provided by the representation of the Judgment of Paris on the Chigi vase" (Burkert 1992:103). On the proto-Corinthian ewer of ca. 640 BCE known as the Chigi "vase", Paris is identified as Alexandros, as he was apparently called in Cypria. The Cypriot Zeno of Citium was the founder of the Stoic philosophy. Epic poetry, notably the "acritic songs", flourished during Middle Ages. Two chronicles, one written by Leontios Machairas and the other by Voustronios, refer to the period under French domination (15th century). Poèmes d'amour written in medieval Greek Cypriot date back from 16th century. Some of them are actual translations of poems written by Petrarch, Bembo, Ariosto and G. Sannazzaro. Th. Siapkaras- Pitsillidés, Le Pétrarchisme en Cypre. Poèmes d' amour en dialecte Chypriote d' après un manuscript du XVIe siècle, Athènes 1975 (2ème édition) Modern literary figures from Cyprus include the poet and writer Kostas Montis, poet Kyriakos Charalambides, poet Michalis Pasardis, writer Nicos Nicolaides, Stylianos Atteshlis, Altheides and also Demetris Th. Gotsis. Dimitris Lipertis and Vasilis Michaelides are folk poets who wrote poems mainly in the Cypriot-Greek dialect. Lawrence Durrell lived on Cyprus for a time, and wrote the book Bitter Lemons concerning his time there, which book in 1957 won the second Duff Cooper Prize. The majority of the play Othello by William Shakespeare is set on the island of Cyprus. Cyprus also figures in religious literature, most notably in Acts of the Apostles, according to which the Apostles Barnabas and Paul preached on the island. Cuisine Slices of fresh halloumi cheese with mint leaves packed in the center. Halloumi, a popular cheese made from a mixture of goat's and sheep's milk, originates from Cyprus, and is commonly served sliced, either fresh or grilled, as an appetiser. Seafood and fish dishes of Cyprus include squid, octopus, red mullet, and sea bass. Cucumber and tomato are used widely in salads. Common vegetable preparations include potatoes in olive oil and parsley, pickled cauliflower and beets, asparagus and kolokassi. Other traditional delicacies of the island are meat marinated in dried coriander, seeds and wine, and eventually dried and smoked, such as lountza (smoked pork loin), charcoal-grilled lamb, souvlaki (pork and chicken cooked over charcoal), and sheftalia (minced meat wrapped in mesentery). Pourgouri (bulgur, cracked wheat) is the traditional carbohydrate other than bread. Fresh vegetables and fruits are common ingredients in Cypriot cuisine. Frequently used vegetables include courgettes, green peppers, okra, green beans, artichokes, carrots, tomatoes, cucumbers, lettuce and grape leaves, and pulses such as beans, broad beans, peas, black-eyed beans, chick-peas and lentils. The commonest among fruits and nuts are pears, apples, grapes, oranges, mandarines, nectarines, mespila, blackberries, cherry, strawberries, figs, watermelon, melon, avocado, lemon, pistachio, almond, chestnut, walnut, hazelnut. An important aspect of Greek Cypriot cuisine is the meze. This is a meal comprising a broad range of Cypriot dishes - each one a small portion, allowing the diner to sample a good proportion of the restaurant's menu in a single meal. A typical meze will consist of local bread, tashi (a local variety of tahini), Greek salad, natural yoghurt, taramasalata, olives, kalamari, keftedes, fish (fried or grilled), fried lountza, dolmades, halloumi (grilled or fried),souvlakia (pork and chicken), sheftalia, lamb chop, chips, stifado (usually beef, but sometimes rabbit or octopus), afelia, followed by fresh fruit of the season. Exactly what you get will depend on the season and will vary from restaurant to restaurant. In years gone by, a meze would be delivered very slowly, allowing the diners to chat and drink for several hours whilst picking at each dish, but these days (perhaps due to tourists misinterpreting this deliberately slow service as poor service) it is more usual for the dishes to be presented at a more conventional pace. Coffee along with a Cyprus brandy usually complete the meal. Sports Antonis Papadopoulos Stadium Governing bodies of sport in Cyprus include the Cyprus Automobile Association, Cyprus Badminton Federation, Cyprus Basketball Federation, Cyprus Cricket Association, Cyprus Football Association, Cyprus Rugby Federation and the Cyprus Volleyball Federation. Marcos Baghdatis is one of the most successful tennis players in international stage. He reached the Wimbledon semi-final in 2006. Also Kyriakos Ioannou a Cypriot high jumper born in Limassol achieved a jump of 2.35 m at the 11th IAAF World Championships in Athletics held in Osaka, Japan, in 2007 winning the bronze medal Football is by far the most popular spectator sport. Notable teams include APOEL Nicosia FC, Anorthosis Famagusta FC, AC Omonia, Apollon Limassol, Nea Salamina Famagusta, AEK Larnaca and AEL Limassol. Stadiums or sports venues in Cyprus include the GSP Stadium (the largest in Cyprus), Makario Stadium, Neo GSZ Stadium, Antonis Papadopoulos Stadium, Ammochostos Stadium and Tsirion Stadium. The Cyprus Rally is also on the World Rally Championship sporting calendar. Media Cyprus: Newspapers include the Phileleftheros, Politis (Cyprus), Simerini, Cyprus Mail, the Cyprus Observer, Famagusta Gazette, Cyprus Today, Cyprus Weekly, Financial Mirror, Haravgi and Makhi. TV channels include ANT1 Cyprus, Alfa TV, CNC Plus TV, Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation, Lumiere TV, Middle East Television, Mega Channel Cyprus and Sigma TV. In the north: TV: BRT 1, BRT 2, Kibris Genc TV, Avrasya Tv, Kanal T, AS TV, Kibris TV, Ada TV, Kibrisli TV + all of mainland Turkey's TV channels are available by analog and satellite. Newspapers: Kibris Gazetesi, Halkin Sesi, Cyprus Observer, Cyprus Times, Cyprus Daily, Gunes, Dialog, Havadis. Numismatics Cypriot euro coins. In Cyprus, the euro was introduced in 2008. Three different designs were selected for the Cypriot coins. To commemorate this event, a €5 collector coin was also issued. This coin is a legacy of an old national practice of minting silver and gold commemorative coins. Unlike normal issues, these coins are not legal tender in all of the eurozone; so it can not be used in any other country but only in Cyprus. Infrastructure Transportation Main roads of Cyprus A1 Highway - Limassol Larnaca International Airport Paphos International Airport. The Cyprus Government Railway ceased operation on the 31st December 1951, the remaining modes of transport are by road, sea, and air. Of the of roads in the Greek Cypriot area as of 1998, were paved, and were unpaved. As of 1996 the Turkish Cypriot area had a similar ratio of paved to unpaved, with approximately of paved road and unpaved. Cyprus is one of only four EU nations in which vehicles drive on the left-hand side of the road, a remnant of British colonisation, the others being Ireland, Malta and the United Kingdom. Motorways A1 Nicosia to Limassol A2 connects A1 near Pera Chorio with A3 by Larnaca A3 Larnaca to Agia Napa A5 connects A1 near Kofinou with A3 by Larnaca A6 Pafos to Limassol A9 Nicosia to Astromeritis + Number of licensed vehicles Public Works Department official statistics Vehicle Category20012002200320042005Private vehicles270,348277,554291,645324,212344,953Taxis1,6411,5591,6961,7701,845Rental cars8,0808,5099,1609,6528,336Buses3,0032,9973,2753,1993,217 Light trucks (lighter than 40 tonnes)107,060106,610107,527105,017105,327 Heavy trucks (over 40 tonnes)10,88211,18212,11912,80813,028Motorcycles (2 wheels)12,95614,98316,00916,80216,836Motorcycles (3 wheels)42414355558Scooters28,98725,25225,46424,53922,987TOTAL442,999448,687466,938498,054517,087 In 1999, Cyprus had six heliports and two international airports: Larnaca International Airport and Paphos International Airport. Nicosia International Airport has been closed since 1974 and although Ercan airport was still in use it was only for flights from Turkey. Since 2006 Ercan International Airport has been mentioned in talks between Britain, United States and the EU for direct flights, with the EU sanctioning the opening, however International flights direct are still unavailable. Public transport in Cyprus is limited to privately run bus services (except in Nicosia), taxis, and 'shared' taxi services (referred to locally as service taxis). Per capita private car ownership is the 5th highest in the world. In 2006 extensive plans were announced to improve and expand bus services and restructure public transport throughout Cyprus, with the financial backing of the European Union Development Bank. The main harbours of the island are Limassol harbour and Larnaca harbour, which service cargo, passenger, and cruise ships. Health care Urban hospitals include: Nicosia New General Hospital Nicosia Old General Hospital Makario Hospital (Nicosia) Limassol New General Hospital Limassol Old General Hospital Larnaca New General Hospital Larnaca Old General Hospital Paphos General Hospital Telecommunications Cyta, the state-owned telecommunications company, manages most Telecommunications and Internet connections on the island. However, following the recent liberalisation of the sector, a few private telecommunications companies have emerged including MTN, Cablenet, TelePassport, OTEnet Telecom and PrimeTel. International membership The island nation Cyprus is member of: Australia Group,CN, CE, CFSP, EBRD, EIB, , FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ITUC, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IHO,ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ITU, MIGA, NAM, NSG, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO. International rankings Organization Survey Ranking State of World Liberty Project State of World Liberty Index 9 out of 159 United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 2006 Human Development Index 2004 Human Development Index 2000 29 out of 177 29 out of 177 29 out of 177 The Economist Worldwide Quality-of-life Index, 2005 23 out of 111 University of Leicester Satisfaction with Life Index 49 out of 178 Heritage Foundation/Wall Street Journal Index of Economic Freedom 20 out of 157 Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2006 Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2005 30 out of 168 25(tied) out of 168 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2006 Corruption Perceptions Index 2005 Corruption Perceptions Index 2004 37 out of 163 37 out of 158 36 out of 145 World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 46 out of 125 International Monetary Fund GDP per capita 31 out of 180 Yale University/Columbia University Environmental Sustainability Index 2005 not ranked Nationmaster Labor strikes not ranked A.T. Kearney / Foreign Policy Globalisation Index 2006 Globalisation Index 2005 Globalisation Index 2004 not ranked See also Turkish Republic of North Cyprus List of Cyprus-related articles List of Cyprus-related topics List of international rankings Outline of Asia Outline of Cyprus Outline of geography Further reading References Official Cyprus Government Web Site Embassy of Greece, USA – Cyprus: Geographical and Historical Background External links Government Cyprus High Commission Trade Centre - London Cypriot Diaspora Project Republic of Cyprus - English Language Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus Press and Information Office Annan Plan at annanplan.com Chief of State and Cabinet Members Cyprus Elections to European Parliament General information Cyprus from UCB Libraries GovPubs Cyprus information from the United States Department of State includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports The UN in Cyprus Top of the class - Cyprus Internet Directory "The Cyprus Conflict" An extensive educational web site dedicated to the Cyprus Conflict Official publications The British government's Foreign Affairs Committee report on Cyprus. Letter by the President of the Republic, Mr Tassos Papadopoulos, to the U.N. Secretary-General, Mr Kofi Annan, dated 7 June, which circulated as an official document of the U.N. Security Council Legal Issues arising from certain population transfers and displacements on the territory of the Republic of Cyprus in the period since 20 July 1974 Address to Cypriots by President Papadopoulos (FULL TEXT) The Republic of Cyprus Press and Information Office, Aspects of the Cyprus Problem Non-affiliated news website focusing mainly on the effect of globalisation and foreign interests on the Cyprus problem European Court of Human Rights Case of Cyprus v. 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4,307 | King_Crimson | King Crimson are an English progressive rock band founded by guitarist Robert Fripp and drummer Michael Giles in 1969. They have typically been categorised as a foundational progressive rock group, although they incorporate diverse influences ranging from jazz, classical and experimental music to psychedelic, New Wave, hard rock, gamelan and folk music. King Crimson have garnered little radio or music video airplay, but gained a large cult following. Their debut album, In the Court of the Crimson King, is widely regarded as a landmark in progressive rock, and made the list of the 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. Their later excursions into even more unconventional territory have been influential on many contemporary musical artists. Throughout the early-1970s, King Crimson's membership fluctuated as the band explored elements of jazz and funk. Today, its early music seems to owe a lot to the compositional frameworks of jazz innovators, like Charles Mingus. As the band developed an improvisational sound influenced by hard rock, the band's personnel became more stable in the mid-1970s, before breaking up in 1974. The band re-formed in 1981 for three years, influenced by New Wave and gamelan music, before breaking up again for around a decade. Following their 1994 reunion, King Crimson blended aspects of their 1980s and 1970s sound with influences from more recent musical genres, a synthesis which has continued into the 21st century. King Crimson's membership has fluctuated considerably throughout their existence, with eighteen musicians and two lyricists passing through the ranks as full band members. Fripp, the only constant member of King Crimson, has arranged several distinct lineups, but has stated that he does not necessarily consider himself the band's leader. He describes King Crimson as "a way of doing things", and notes that he never originally intended to be seen as the head of the group. History 1960s In August 1967, drummer Michael Giles and his brother and bassist, Peter, advertised for a singing organist. Robert Fripp, a guitarist who did not sing, responded. The trio of Giles, Giles and Fripp was formed and they recorded one album together, The Cheerful Insanity of Giles, Giles and Fripp. Fripp said of the encounter: "The Giles Brothers were looking for a singing organist. I was a non-singing guitar player. After 30 days of recording and playing with them I asked if I got the job or not — joking like, you know? And Michael Giles rolled a cigarette and said, very slowly, 'Well, let's not be in too much of a hurry to commit ourselves, shall we?' I still don't know if I ever got the job." The initial band was changing, however, as their debut record had not been particularly successful, even being dispraised by Keith Moon of The Who in a magazine review. Fripp had seen the band 1-2-3 (later known as Clouds) at the Marquee, which inspired some of Crimson's penchant for classical melodies and jazz-like improvisation. Retrieved on 2007-09-04. The first musician to be added to their new line-up was the multi-instrumentalist Ian McDonald on keyboards, reeds and woodwinds. McDonald had been writing songs with lyricist Peter Sinfield who also joined the new group which briefly included Fairport Convention singer Judy Dyble. McDonald had said to Peter in 1968 of his band Creation: "Peter, I have to tell you that your band is hopeless, but you write some great words. Would you like to get together on a couple of songs?" One of the first songs McDonald and Sinfield wrote together was "In the Court of the Crimson King". Fripp's childhood friend, singer-guitarist Greg Lake, was recruited by the others, and replaced Peter Giles on bass, also singing for the band. Thus, the first incarnation of the band was "conceived" on 30 November 1968 and first rehearsed on 13 January 1969. Shortly afterward they purchased a mellotron and began using it to create an original orchestral rock sound. The name King Crimson was coined by lyricist Peter Sinfield as a synonym for Beelzebub, prince of demons. According to Fripp, Beelzebub would be an anglicised form of the Arabic phrase "B'il Sabab", meaning "the man with an aim" (although it literally means "with a cause"). King Crimson made their live debut on 9 April 1969, and made a breakthrough by playing the free concert in Hyde Park, London, staged by The Rolling Stones in July 1969 before 650,000 people. The first King Crimson album, In the Court of the Crimson King, was released in October on EG Records, described by Fripp as "an instant smash" and "New York's acid album of 1970" (notwithstanding that Fripp and Giles claim that the band never used psychedelic drugs). The album received public compliments from Pete Townshend, The Who guitarist, calling the album "an uncanny masterpiece." The sound of the album has been described as setting the "aural antecedent" for alternative rock and grunge, whilst the softer tracks are described as having an "ethereal" and "almost sacred" feel. Music reviewer Annie Gaffney wrote that they were credited with starting the entire progressive rock movement that was popular in the early 1970s. After playing shows in England, the band embarked on a tour of the United States, performing alongside many contemporary popular musicians and musical groups, and "astounding audiences and critics" with their original sound. Personal tensions within the band eventually reached a limit, however, and the original line-up played their last show together in San Francisco at the Fillmore West on 16 December 1969. Ian McDonald and Michael Giles left King Crimson to pursue solo work, recording the McDonald and Giles studio album in 1970. 1970s King Crimson's line-up changed repeatedly in the years immediately following the breakup of the original band. The remaining trio of Fripp, Sinfield, and Lake persevered for a short while, releasing the single "Cat Food/Groon" in early 1970. During this time, material was being developed for King Crimson's second album, In the Wake of Poseidon, often seen as being very similar to the band's debut album. Lake departed in early 1970 to form Emerson, Lake & Palmer, although he still agreed to sing on the second album since the band hadn't found a replacement vocalist. Woodwind player Mel Collins took part in the recording sessions, singer Gordon Haskell took vocals on one song, and bassist Peter Giles of Giles, Giles & Fripp appeared on several tracks. Elton John was considered as a singer for the album. Haskell took over singing in addition to playing bass for the band's third album, Lizard, which had heavy jazz and classical influences and is described as being an "acquired taste". Andy McCulloch played drums for the album, with Jon Anderson of Yes performing vocals on one song. Haskell and McCulloch left King Crimson before Lizard was released. Drummer Ian Wallace and vocalist Boz Burrell were selected for the new band, among others who were unsuccessful, including Bryan Ferry and Rick Kemp. The group began planning live shows, but were thwarted again when their chosen bassist abruptly left. Faced with limited choices, Fripp taught Burrell to play the bass rather than start the search all over again (despite Boz not having played an instrument before, he apparently picked it up quite quickly). Bassist-singer John Wetton (ex Mogul Thrash) was invited to join the group in mid-1971 but he declined, accepting a place in Family instead, although he kept in touch with Fripp Strange Band - Family history . In 1971 King Crimson undertook their first tour since 1969 with the new line-up, and that year the band released a new album, Islands. At the end of that year, King Crimson parted ways with long-time member and lyricist Peter Sinfield, who then reunited with Greg Lake in becoming the primary lyricist for Emerson, Lake & Palmer. The remaining members undertook a tour of the United States the following year, with the intention of disbanding afterwards. Recordings from this tour were later released as the Earthbound live album, noted and criticised for its bootleg-level sound quality and a sound close in style to funk, with scat singing on the improvised pieces. Shortly after the Earthbound tour, Collins, Wallace and Burrell left King Crimson to form a band called Snape, with British blues guitarist Alexis Korner. Burrell would later become the bassist of Bad Company. Once again, Fripp began the task of looking for new members. These included improvising percussionist Jamie Muir; vocalist and bassist John Wetton, formerly of the band Family and a college acquaintance of Fripp; violin, viola and keyboard player David Cross; and drummer Bill Bruford, who had chosen to leave the commercially successful Yes at the peak of their early career in favour of the comparatively unstable and unpredictable King Crimson. With Sinfield gone, the band recruited a new lyricist, Wetton's friend Richard Palmer-James. Rehearsals and touring began in late 1972 and the album Larks' Tongues in Aspic was released early the next year. The album was noted for its revolutionary sound (exemplified by such pieces as the title track in its two parts), which was a significant change from what King Crimson had done before, and had influences from the heavy metal sound that was in its infancy. Muir left the group in early 1973 following an on-stage injury. During the lengthy tour that followed, the remaining members began assembling material for their next album, Starless and Bible Black, released in January 1974, earning them a positive Rolling Stone review. Most of the album was recorded from live performances, but after careful editing it was received as just another studio album. During the band's 1974 tour of Europe and America, David Cross left the group after a performance in Central Park in New York, and left the remaining trio to record a new album, Red. The record included guest appearances by musicians from previous albums: Robin Miller on oboe; Marc Charig on cornet; former King Crimson member Mel Collins on soprano saxophone; David Cross on the live track "Providence"; and Ian McDonald, from the original incarnation of the band, made a guest appearance on alto saxophone. Red has been described as "an impressive achievement" for a group about to disband, with "intensely dynamic" musical chemistry between the band members that resulted in a record "aggressive and loud enough to strip the wallpaper off your living room wall". McDonald had plans to rejoin as a full-time member of King Crimson while Fripp, increasingly disillusioned with the music business, was turning his attention to the writings of the mystic George Gurdjieff, and did not want to tour as he felt that the "world was coming to an end". The Red line-up never toured, and two months before the album's release Fripp announced that King Crimson had "ceased to exist" and was "completely over for ever and ever", and the group disbanded on 25 September 1974. A posthumous live album, USA, documenting this version of King Crimson's final tour of the United States, was released in 1975 to critical acclaim, reviewers calling it "a must" for fans of the band and "insanity you're better off having". Technical issues with some of the original tapes rendered some of David Cross' violin parts inaudible when mixed in 1974, so Eddie Jobson was brought in to provide studio overdubs of violin and keyboards. Further edits were also necessary to allow for the time limitations of a single vinyl album. 1980s Early in 1981, Fripp considered forming a new group, with no intention of reforming King Crimson; however, a step that led to this was contacting Bill Bruford to ask if he wanted to join the new band. Bruford agreed and the pair recruited Tony Levin, who had been a session musician for John Lennon and Yoko Ono, Peter Gabriel, and others. Besides being a bass player, Levin brought a new sound with the use of the Chapman Stick, described as an "utterly original style" created by "one of New York City's most sought-after studio musicians". Fripp also contacted guitarist Adrian Belew, who was on tour with Talking Heads and had previously worked with David Bowie and Frank Zappa. Fripp had never been in a band with another guitarist before so the decision to seek a second guitarist was indicative of Fripp's desire to create a sound unlike previous incarnations of King Crimson. Belew, who also became the band's singer and lyricist, joined following his tour with Talking Heads. The four played live in the first half of 1981 using the name Discipline, supported by The Lounge Lizards. By October 1981, the band had begun using the name King Crimson. The group released a trilogy of albums: Discipline in 1981, Beat in 1982, and Three of a Perfect Pair in 1984. Beat marked the first King Crimson album to have been recorded with the same band lineup as the album preceding it, was the first King Crimson album not to have been produced by a member of the group, and was named for the beat generation and its writings. This theme was reflected in the music with song titles such as "Neal and Jack and Me" and "The Howler", with Belew even being asked by Fripp to read Keroauc's novel On the Road. This version of King Crimson bore some resemblance to New Wave music, which can be attributed in part to the work of both Belew and Fripp with Talking Heads and David Bowie, Levin's work with Peter Gabriel, and Fripp's solo album Exposure and side project League of Gentlemen. With this new band, described by J. D. Considine in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide as having a "jaw-dropping technique" of "knottily rhythmic, harmonically demanding workouts", Fripp intended to create the sound of a "rock gamelan", with an interlocking rhythmic quality to the paired guitars that he found similar to Indonesian gamelan ensembles. After Three of a Perfect Pair, King Crimson disbanded for around a decade, during which time Fripp formed the record label Discipline Global Mobile for King Crimson and related projects, besides starting the Guitar Craft music school in 1985. 1990s and 2000s King Crimson reformed as a sextet in 1994, after numerous possible line-ups were considered, consisting of the 1980s band, but with Warr Guitar player Trey Gunn and drummer Pat Mastelotto added. This "double trio" formation released the EP Vrooom in 1994, followed by the studio album Thrak in 1995, and the challenging avantgarde live album Thrakattak in 1996. The new King Crimson sound featured elements of the interlocking guitars on Discipline and the heavy rock feel of Red. The album Thrak was described as having "jazz-scented rock structures, characterised by noisy, angular, exquisite guitar interplay" and an "athletic, ever-inventive rhythm section", whilst being in tune with the sound of alternative rock musicians in the mid-1990s. However, the grandiose project of having King Crimson with six band members did not last for long. In mid-1997 the band came to a compositional impasse and, rather than split up, decided to work in smaller "sub-groups" called ProjeKcts. This enabled the group to continue developing musical ideas and searching for Crimson's next direction without the hassle and expense of convening all six members at once. ProjeKcts One, Two, Three, and Four were each a splinter group (a "fraKctalisation", according to Fripp) of King Crimson. They toured throughout the US, UK and Japan, and released various recordings demonstrating the improvisational musical high wire act that the constituent musicians are able to produce. These recordings, similar to the Thrakattak album, were described by music critic Considine as "frequently astonishing" but lacking in melody, and thus difficult for the casual listener. The DGM record company also founded the King Crimson Collector's Club in 1998, a service that regularly releases live recordings from concerts throughout the band's career, many of which are now available for download online. By the time the ProjeKcts were complete, Bruford and Levin had ceased to be involved with King Crimson for the time being, leaving to work with Earthworks and Peter Gabriel/Seal respectively. Belew, Fripp, Gunn, and Mastelotto remained, releasing the studio album The ConstruKction of Light (2000), accompanied by the album Heaven and Earth released under the name ProjeKct X in the same year. The ConstruKction of Light was criticized for lacking new ideas, as was Heaven and Earth. The band toured around this time, and played shows opening for the band Tool in 2001, during which their lead singer Maynard James Keenan humorously commented: "For me, being on stage with King Crimson is like Lenny Kravitz playing with Led Zeppelin, or Britney Spears onstage with Debbie Gibson." The band continued their activity throughout the decade. In 2002 the EP Happy with What You Have to Be Happy With was released, and in 2003 the studio album The Power to Believe came out with the band touring in support of it. In late November 2003, Trey Gunn announced his departure. Levin would become the active bassist of King Crimson again, with the group of him, Fripp, Belew and Mastelotto convening for rehearsals in early 2004. However, nothing followed on from this and the band went inactive again. The new ProjeKct Six, consisting only of Fripp and Belew, toured in 2006 playing four shows in the northeastern United States opening for Porcupine Tree. One of these shows was postponed due to the sudden death of Adrian Belew's long-time friend and engineer, Ken Latchney. A new King Crimson line-up was announced in late 2007 and scheduled for rehearsals in 2008 , consisting of Fripp, Belew, Mastelotto, Levin and MSJ-Interview with Pat Mastelotto Gavin Harrison of Porcupine Tree. In August 2008 the band set out on a brief four-city tour in preparation for the group's 40th Anniversary in 2009. A short time thereafter, on August 20, 2008, DGMLive issued a download-only release of the August 7th, 2008 concert in Chicago. The show reveals a drum-centric direction but the setlist, consistent with the rest of the tour, contains no new material or extended improvisation. However, many of the pieces from the back catalogue receive striking new arrangements, most notably the renditions of "Neurotica," "Sleepless," and "Level Five," all of which are given percussion-heavy overhauls, presumably to highlight the return to the dual-drummer format. More recordings from the New York shows are scheduled for download soon as well. There had been talk of more Crimson shows in 2009, but nothing definite has arisen yet. In 2008, Steven Wilson began remixing the studio catalogue into 5.1 Surround Sound for possible future release. 21st Century Schizoid Band and other spin-offs The 2000s also saw the reunion of former King Crimson members from the band's first four albums. The 21st Century Schizoid Band, toured and played material from the band's earliest period. Of note, former member Boz Burrell died on 21 September 2006 following a heart attack, and five months later, former member Ian Wallace died of oesophageal cancer on 22 February 2007. In August 2008, a line-up called Crimson Project with Adrian Belew, Tony Levin, Pat Mastelotto, Eddie Jobson and Eric Slick (from the Adrian Belew Power Trio) played a short set at a Russian festival. Tony Levin's Road Diary, 30 Aug entry Musical Style Fripp has described King Crimson as "a way of doing things", among other quotes he has used to describe the project throughout the decades with many changes in membership, configuration, and instrumentation. Influences The music of King Crimson was initially grounded to some extent in the rock of the 1960s, especially the acid rock and psychedelic rock movements, as the band played Donovan's "Get Thy Bearings", and were known to play The Beatles' "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" in their rehearsals. However, unlike the rock bands that had come before them, King Crimson largely stripped away the blues-based foundations of rock music and replaced these with influences from classical composers. The first incarnation of King Crimson played the Mars section of Gustav Holst's suite The Planets as a regular part of their live set. The influence of Béla Bartók has also been noted by Fripp. As a result of this influence, In the Court of the Crimson King is frequently viewed as the nominal starting point of the symphonic rock or progressive rock movements. King Crimson also initially displayed heavy jazz influences, most obvious on the well-known track "21st Century Schizoid Man". King Crimson's music from 1981 onwards shows an influence of gamelan music, and late 20th century classical composers such as Philip Glass, Steve Reich, and Terry Riley. Musical themes While the group constantly creates new sounds and new pieces, several themes have remained constant from the earliest versions of the band to the present. The most obvious of these themes is composition by the use of a gradually building rhythmic motif. The Holst piece Mars that the original King Crimson played is a clear example of this, with its complex pulse in 5/4 time over which strings and winds, or mellotron in the case of King Crimson, play a skirling melody. This piece evolved into "The Devil's Triangle", based on variations of the central theme of Mars, split into three parts which were increasingly removed from the original Mars, on the In the Wake of Poseidon album. It was followed by many other forms, from "The Talking Drum" in 1973 (on Larks' Tongues in Aspic), "Industry" in 1984 (on Three of a Perfect Pair) all the way to "Dangerous Curves" in 2003 (on The Power to Believe). A second recurring theme is an instrumental piece, often embedded as a break in a song, in which the band plays a passage of considerable rhythmic and polyrhythmic complexity. One of King Crimson's best-known songs, 21st Century Schizoid Man, is an early example. The series of pieces collectively titled Larks' Tongues in Aspic, as well as pieces of similar intent, such as "Thrak" and "Level Five", go deeper into polyrhythmic complexity, delving into rhythms that wander into and out of general synchronisation with each other, yet through polyrhythmic synchronisation all 'finish' together. These polyrhythms are abundant in the band's 1980s work, which contained gamelan-like rhythmic layers and continual staccato patterns overlaying each other. Another theme is the composition of difficult passages for individual instruments, especially Fripp's guitar, notably during "Fracture" on Starless and Bible Black. Other themes includes pieces with a loud, aggressive sound not unlike heavy metal music, and the juxtaposition of ornate tunes and ballads with unusual, often dissonant noises. Improvisation From the beginning, King Crimson performances featured improvisations. These improvisations can be embedded into loosely-composed pieces such as "Moonchild" or "Thrak", and even "very structured pieces". Most of the band's performances over the years have included at least one stand-alone improvisation where the band simply started playing and took the music wherever it went, sometimes including passages of restrained silence (as with Bill Bruford's contribution to the improvised "Trio"). The earliest example of an unambiguously improvising King Crimson on record is the spacious, oft-criticised extended middle-section of "Moonchild" from In the Court of the Crimson King, in which the composed parts act as bookends to the improvisation. What differentiates King Crimson's approach from most other jazz and rock groups is that Crimson's improvisation avoids the notion of one soloist at a time taking centre stage while the rest of the band lays back and plays along with established rhythm and chord changes. Rather, King Crimson improvisation is a group affair, a kind of organic music-making process in which each member of the band is able to make creative decisions and contributions as the music is being played. Individual soloing is largely eschewed; each musician is to listen to each other and to the group sound, to be able to react creatively within the group dynamic. David Cross described the process in this manner: "We're so different from each other that one night someone in the band will play something that the rest of us have never heard before and you just have to listen for a second. Then you react to his statement, usually in a different way than they would expect. It's the improvisation that makes the group amazing for me. You know, taking chances. There is no format really in which we fall into. We discover things while improvising and if they're really basically good ideas we try and work them in as new numbers, all the while keeping the improvisation thing alive and continually expanding." With this approach, Fripp stresses the "magic" metaphor; to him, when group improvisation of this sort really clicks, it is white magic. Unlike most rock improvisation or jamming, these sessions are rarely jazz or blues-based. They vary so much in sound that King Crimson has been able to release several albums consisting entirely of improvised music, such as the Thrakattak album. Occasionally, particular improvised pieces will be performed in different forms at different shows, becoming more and more refined and eventually appearing on official studio releases (the most recent example being "Power to Believe III", which originally existed as the stage improvisation "Deception of the Thrush", a piece played onstage for a long time before appearing on record). Influence on other bands King Crimson have been influential both on the early 1970s progressive rock movement and numerous contemporary artists. Bands such as Genesis and Yes were influenced by the band's initial style of symphonic mellotron rock. Tool are widely held to have been heavily influenced by King Crimson, with their vocalist Maynard James Keenan even joking on a tour with them that "Now you know who we ripped off. Just don't tell anyone, especially the members of King Crimson". Nirvana are known to have been influenced by King Crimson as a result of Kurt Cobain having mentioned the importance of the Red album to him. The band Porcupine Tree is influenced by King Crimson, and as with Tool, King Crimson (in the form of ProjeKct Six) has been the support band at their shows. The angular, dissonant guitar patterns associated with Fripp’s distinctive approach are also evident in the music of Thrash-Metal pioneers Voivod, especially in the band’s mid-period work. Voivod also did a cover of "21st Century Schizoid Man" on their 1997 recording Phobos. Iron Maiden members credit the band as a reference for them. Mudvayne has also cited King Crimson as an influence. Progressive/Heavy Metal rock band Between the Buried and Me are heavily influenced by King Crimson so much so that on their 2006 album The Anatomy Of they covered the song Three of a Perfect Pair Membership King Crimson has had 18 musicians pass through its ranks as full band members. Many others have collaborated with the band at various points in lyric-writing, the studio and in live performance. Most of the musicians who have been members of King Crimson had notable musical careers outside the band, to the extent that it has been calculated that there are over a thousand releases on which members and former members of King Crimson appear. In a 2007 interview drummer Pat Mastelotto reported that the 2008 line-up of King Crimson would include another band member to join him on the drums, later named as Gavin Harrison of the band Porcupine Tree, Robert Fripp's diary, November 09, 2007. making him the first British band member to join King Crimson since 1972. Current band Robert Fripp — guitar, electric piano, mellotron, keyboards, allsorts (1969–present) Adrian Belew — guitar, vocals (1981–present) Tony Levin — bass guitar, chapman stick, backing vocals (1981–1999; 2003–present) Pat Mastelotto — drums, percussion (1994–present) Gavin Harrison — drums (2007–present) Former members Greg Lake — bass guitar, vocals and tambourine (1969–1970) Michael Giles — drums, vocals (1969–1970) Ian McDonald — saxophone, clarinet, flute, mellotron, vibes, vocals (1969; 1974) Peter Sinfield — lyrics, synthesizer (1969–1971) Mel Collins — saxophone, flute, vocals, mellotron (1970–1972; 1974) Gordon Haskell — bass guitar, vocals (1970) Andy McCulloch — drums (1970) Rick Kemp - bass guitar (1971) Boz Burrell — bass guitar, vocals (1971–1972) Ian Wallace — drums, percussion, vocals (1971–1972) John Wetton — bass guitar, vocals (1972–1974) Jamie Muir — percussion, allsorts (1972–1973) Bill Bruford — drums, percussion (1972–1998) David Cross — violin, viola, flute, mellotron, electric piano, keyboards (1972–1974) Richard Palmer-James — lyrics (1972–1974) Trey Gunn — Warr guitar, Chapman stick (1994–2003) Additional and guest musicians Peter Giles, brother of Michael Giles and a member of Giles, Giles & Fripp, played bass on King Crimson's second album In the Wake of Poseidon, whilst Greg Lake only provided vocals on the album. The band's sound on the albums Lizard and Islands is largely due to the jazz-influence of those musicians who guested with them during this time. They included pianist Keith Tippett, and several musicians from his jazz sextet, such as Mark Charig on cornet, Nick Evans on trombone and Harry Miller on double bass, and classical musicians Robin Miller on oboe and Paulina Lucas on vocals. Jon Anderson of the band Yes was also a lead vocalist on the opening movement of the title track of the Lizard album. In early 1975 Eddie Jobson overdubbed new violin and electric piano parts on some tracks of the USA album. Some of the musicians who played with the band on Lizard re-surfaced to contribute to the Red album. Whilst not a performing musician, Adrian Belew's then-wife Margaret wrote the lyrics to the song "Indiscipline" from the Discipline album in 1981 and the "Two Hands" from Beat in 1982. Discography In the Court of the Crimson King (October 1969); US #28 UK #3 Gold In the Wake of Poseidon (May 1970); US #31 UK #4 Lizard (December 1970); US #113 UK #29 Islands (December 1971); US #76 UK #30 Larks' Tongues in Aspic (March 1973); US #61 UK #20 Starless and Bible Black (June 1974); US #64 UK #28 Red (November 1974); US #66 Discipline (September 1981); US #45 Beat (June 1982); US #52 Three of a Perfect Pair (March 1984); US #58 UK #30 Thrak (April 1995); US #83 The ConstruKction of Light (May 2000) The Power to Believe (March 2003); US #150 References External links Discipline Global Mobile Live Elephant Talk King Crimson and The Marquee Club Krimson News ProjeKction - LinkedIn Group King Crimson | King_Crimson |@lemmatized king:77 crimson:82 english:1 progressive:7 rock:24 band:78 found:2 guitarist:8 robert:4 fripp:41 drummer:7 michael:6 giles:20 typically:1 categorise:1 foundational:1 group:26 although:4 incorporate:1 diverse:1 influence:20 range:1 jazz:11 classical:6 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4,308 | Albertosaurus | Albertosaurus (; meaning "Alberta lizard") is a genus of tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in western North America during the Late Cretaceous Period, more than 70 million years ago. The type species, A. sarcophagus, was restricted in range to the modern-day Canadian province of Alberta, after which the genus is named. Scientists disagree on the content of the genus, with some recognizing Gorgosaurus libratus as a second species. As a tyrannosaurid, Albertosaurus was a bipedal predator with tiny, two-fingered hands and a massive head with dozens of large, sharp teeth. It may have been at the top of the food chain in its local ecosystem. Although relatively large for a theropod, Albertosaurus was much smaller than its more famous relative Tyrannosaurus, probably weighing less than 2 metric tons. Fossils of more than thirty individuals have been recovered, providing scientists with a more detailed knowledge of Albertosaurus anatomy than is available for most other tyrannosaurids. The discovery of 22 individuals at one site provides evidence of pack behavior and allows studies of ontogeny and population biology which are impossible with lesser-known dinosaurs. Description Albertosaurus sarcophagus with a human for scale Albertosaurus was smaller than the truly gigantic tyrannosaurids like Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus. Typical adults measured up to 9 meters (30 ft) long, while rare individuals of great age could grow to over 10 meters (33 ft) in length. Several independent mass estimates, obtained by different methods, suggest that an adult Albertosaurus weighed between 1.3 tonnes (1.4 short tons) and 1.7 tonnes (1.9 tons). Partial Albertosaurus jaws, Royal Ontario Museum. The massive skull of Albertosaurus, perched on a short, S-shaped neck, was approximately 1 meter (3.3 ft) long in the largest adults. Wide openings in the skull (fenestrae) reduced the weight of the head while also providing space for muscle attachment and sensory organs. Its long jaws contained more than 60 banana-shaped teeth; larger tyrannosaurids possessed fewer teeth. Unlike most theropods, Albertosaurus and other tyrannosaurids were heterodont, with teeth of different forms depending on their position in the mouth. The premaxillary teeth at the tip of the upper jaw were much smaller than the rest, more closely packed, and D-shaped in cross section. Above the eyes were short bony crests that may have been brightly colored in life and used in courtship to attract a mate. All tyrannosaurids, including Albertosaurus, shared a similar body appearance. Typically for a theropod, Albertosaurus was bipedal and balanced the heavy head and torso with a long tail. However, tyrannosaurid forelimbs were extremely small for their body size and retained only two digits. The hind limbs were long and ended in a four-toed foot. The first digit, called the hallux, was short and only the other three contacted the ground, with the third (middle) digit longer than the rest. Albertosaurus may have been able to reach speeds of 25–30 miles per hour. "Albertosaurus." In: Dodson, Peter & Britt, Brooks & Carpenter, Kenneth & Forster, Catherine A. & Gillette, David D. & Norell, Mark A. & Olshevsky, George & Parrish, J. Michael & Weishampel, David B. The Age of Dinosaurs. Publications International, LTD. p. 106-107. ISBN 0-7853-0443-6. Classification and systematics Albertosaurus is a member of the theropod family Tyrannosauridae, in the subfamily Albertosaurinae. Its closest relative is the slightly older Gorgosaurus libratus (sometimes called Albertosaurus libratus; see below). These two species are the only described albertosaurines, although other undescribed species may exist. Thomas Holtz found Appalachiosaurus to be an albertosaurine in 2004, but his more recent unpublished work locates it just outside Tyrannosauridae, in agreement with other authors. The other major subfamily of tyrannosaurids is the Tyrannosaurinae, including Daspletosaurus, Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus. Compared with these robust tyrannosaurines, albertosaurines had slender builds, with proportionately smaller skulls and longer bones of the lower leg (tibia) and feet (metatarsals and phalanges). Discovery and naming Albertosaurus was named by Henry Fairfield Osborn in a very brief note at the end of his 1905 description of Tyrannosaurus rex. The name honors Alberta, the Canadian province in which the first remains were found. The generic name also incorporates the Greek term σαυρος/sauros ("lizard"), the most common suffix in dinosaur names. The type species is A. sarcophagus, which means "flesh-eater" and has the same etymology as the funeral container with which it shares its name: a combination of the Ancient Greek words σαρξ/sarx ("flesh") and Φαγειν/phagein ("to eat"). More than thirty specimens of all ages are known to science. Early discoveries The Red Deer River near Drumheller, Alberta. Almost three-quarters of all Albertosaurus remains have been discovered alongside the river, in outcrops like the ones on either side of this picture. The type specimen is a partial skull, collected in 1884 from an outcrop of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation alongside the Red Deer River in Alberta. This specimen and a smaller skull associated with some skeletal material were recovered by expeditions of the Geological Survey of Canada, led by the famous geologist Joseph B. Tyrrell. The two skulls were assigned to the preexisting species "Laelaps incrassatus" by Edward Drinker Cope in 1892, despite the fact that the name Laelaps was preoccupied by a genus of mite and had been changed to Dryptosaurus in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh. Cope refused to recognize the new name created by his archrival Marsh, so it fell to Lawrence Lambe to change "Laelaps incrassatus" to Dryptosaurus incrassatus when he described the remains in detail in 1904. Shortly later, Osborn pointed out that D. incrassatus was based on generic tyrannosaurid teeth, so the two Alberta skulls could not be confidently referred to that species. The Alberta skulls also differed markedly from the remains of D. aquilunguis, type species of Dryptosaurus, so Osborn created the new name Albertosaurus sarcophagus for them in 1905. He did not describe the remains in any great detail, citing Lambe's complete description the year before. Both specimens (CMN 5600 and 5601) are stored in the Canadian Museum of Nature in Ottawa. Dry Island bonebed In 1910, American paleontologist Barnum Brown uncovered the remains of a large group of Albertosaurus at another quarry alongside the Red Deer River. Because of the large number of bones and the limited time available, Brown's party did not collect every specimen, but made sure to collect remains from all of the individuals they could identify in the bonebed. Among the bones deposited in the American Museum of Natural History collections in New York City are seven sets of right metatarsals, along with two isolated toe bones that did not match any of the metatarsals in size. This indicated the presence of at least nine individuals in the quarry. The Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology rediscovered the bonebed in 1997 and resumed fieldwork at the site, which is now located inside Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park. (not printed until 2000) Further excavation from 1997 to 2005 turned up the remains of 13 more individuals of various ages, including a diminutive two-year-old and a very old individual estimated at over 10 meters (33 ft) in length. None of these individuals are known from complete skeletons, and most are represented by remains in both museums. Gorgosaurus libratus Sub-adult Gorgosaurus specimen in "death pose", Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology In 1913, paleontologist Charles H. Sternberg recovered another tyrannosaurid skeleton from the slightly older Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta. Lawrence Lambe named this dinosaur Gorgosaurus libratus in 1914. Other specimens were later found in Alberta and Montana. Finding few differences to separate the two genera, Dale Russell declared the name Gorgosaurus a junior synonym of Albertosaurus, which had been named first, and G. libratus was renamed Albertosaurus libratus in 1970. This addition extended the temporal range of the genus Albertosaurus backwards by several million years and its geographic range southwards by hundreds of kilometers. In 2003, Phil Currie compared several tyrannosaurid skulls and came to the conclusion that the two species are more distinct than previously thought. The decision to use one or two genera is rather arbitrary, as the two species are sister taxa, more closely related to each other than to any other species. Recognizing this, Currie nevertheless recommended that Albertosaurus and Gorgosaurus be retained as separate genera, as they are no more similar than Daspletosaurus and Tyrannosaurus, which are almost always separated. In addition, several albertosaurine specimens have been recovered from Alaska and New Mexico, and Currie suggested that the Albertosaurus-Gorgosaurus situation may be clarified once these are described fully. Most authors have followed Currie's recommendation, but some have not. Other discoveries William Parks described a new species, Albertosaurus arctunguis, based on a partial skeleton excavated near the Red Deer River in 1928, but this species has been considered identical to A. sarcophagus since 1970. Parks' specimen (ROM 807) is housed in the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto. Six more skulls and skeletons have since been discovered in Alberta and are housed in various Canadian museums. Fossils have also been reported from the American states of Montana, New Mexico, and Wyoming, but these probably do not represent A. sarcophagus and may not even belong to the genus Albertosaurus. Albertosaurus megagracilis was based on a small tyrannosaurid skeleton from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana. It was renamed Dinotyrannus in 1995, but is now thought to represent a juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex. Paleobiology Growth pattern A graph showing the hypothesized growth curves (body mass versus age) of four tyrannosaurids, with Albertosaurus drawn in red Most age categories of Albertosaurus are represented in the fossil record. Using bone histology, the age of an individual animal at the time of death can often be determined, allowing growth rates to be estimated and compared with other species. The youngest known Albertosaurus is a two-year-old discovered in the Dry Island bonebed, which would have weighed about 50 kilograms (110 lb) and measured slightly more than 2 meters (7 ft) in length. The 10 meter (33 ft) specimen from the same quarry is the oldest and largest known, at 28 years of age. When specimens of intermediate age and size are plotted on a graph, an S-shaped growth curve results, with the most rapid growth occurring in a four-year period ending around the sixteenth year of life, a pattern also seen in other tyrannosaurids. The growth rate during this phase was 122 kilograms (268 lb) per year, based on an adult 1.3 tonnes (1.4 short tons). Other studies have suggested higher adult weights; this would affect the magnitude of the growth rate but not the overall pattern. Tyrannosaurids similar in size to Albertosaurus had similar growth rates, although the much larger Tyrannosaurus rex grew almost five times faster (601 kilograms 1325 lb per year) at its peak. The end of the rapid growth phase suggests the onset of sexual maturity in Albertosaurus, although growth continued at a slower rate throughout the animals' lives. Sexual maturation while still actively growing appears to be a shared trait among small and large dinosaurs as well as in large mammals such as humans and elephants. This pattern of relatively early sexual maturation differs strikingly from the pattern in birds, which delay their sexual maturity until after they have finished growing. Life history Albertosaurus skeleton at the Redpath Museum, Montreal Most known Albertosaurus individuals were aged 14 years or more at the time of death. Juvenile animals are rarely found as fossils for several reasons, mainly preservation bias, where the smaller bones of younger animals were less likely to preserved by fossilization than the larger bones of adults, and collection bias, where smaller fossils are less likely to be noticed by collectors in the field. Young Albertosaurus are relatively large for juvenile animals, but their remains are still rare in the fossil record compared with adults. It has been suggested that this phenomenon is a consequence of life history, rather than bias, and that fossils of juvenile Albertosaurus are rare because they simply did not die as often as adults did. A hypothesis of Albertosaurus life history postulates that hatchlings died in large numbers, but have not been preserved in the fossil record due to their small size and fragile construction. After just two years, juveniles were larger than any other predator in the region aside from adult Albertosaurus, and more fleet of foot than most of their prey animals. This resulted in a dramatic decrease in their mortality rate and a corresponding rarity of fossil remains. Mortality rates doubled at age twelve, perhaps the result of the physiological demands of the rapid growth phase, and then doubled again with the onset of sexual maturity between the ages of fourteen and sixteen. This elevated mortality rate continued throughout adulthood, perhaps due to high physiological demands, stress and injuries received during intraspecific competition for mates and resources, and eventually, the ever-increasing effects of senescence. The higher mortality rate in adults may explain their more common preservation. Very large animals were rare because few individuals survived long enough to attain such sizes. High infant mortality rates, followed by reduced mortality among juveniles and a sudden increase in mortality after sexual maturity, with very few animals reaching maximum size, is a pattern observed in many modern large mammals, including elephants, African buffalo, and rhinoceros. The same pattern is also seen in other tyrannosaurids. The comparison with modern animals and other tyrannosaurids lends support to this life history hypothesis, but bias in the fossil record may still play a large role, especially since more than two-thirds of all Albertosaurus specimens are known from one locality. Pack behavior Albertosaurus models, Royal Tyrell Museum. The Dry Island bonebed discovered by Barnum Brown and his crew contains the remains of 22 Albertosaurus, the most individuals found in one locality of any Cretaceous theropod, and the second-most of any large theropod dinosaur behind the Allosaurus assemblage at the Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Utah. The group seems to be composed of one very old adult; eight adults between 17 and 23 years old; seven sub-adults undergoing their rapid growth phases at between 12 and 16 years old; and six juveniles between the ages of 2 and 11 years, who had not yet reached the growth phase. The near-absence of herbivore remains and the similar state of preservation between the many individuals at the Albertosaurus bonebed quarry led Phil Currie to conclude that the locality was not a predator trap like the La Brea Tar Pits in California, and that all of the preserved animals died at the same time. Currie claims this as evidence of pack behavior. Other scientists are skeptical, observing that the animals may have been driven together by drought, flood or for other reasons. (published abstract only) There is abundant evidence for gregarious behavior among herbivorous dinosaurs, including ceratopsians and hadrosaurs. However, only rarely are so many dinosaurian predators found at the same site. Small theropods like Deinonychus, Coelophysis and Megapnosaurus (Syntarsus) rhodesiensis have been found in aggregations, as have larger predators like Allosaurus and Mapusaurus. There is some evidence of gregarious behavior in other tyrannosaurids as well. Fragmentary remains of smaller individuals were found alongside "Sue," the Tyrannosaurus mounted in the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, and a bonebed in the Two Medicine Formation of Montana contains at least three specimens of Daspletosaurus, preserved alongside several hadrosaurs. These findings may corroborate the evidence for social behavior in Albertosaurus, although some or all of the above localities may represent temporary or unnatural aggregations. Others have speculated that instead of social groups, at least some of these finds represent Komodo dragon-like mobbing of carcasses, where aggressive competition leads to some of the predators being killed and cannibalized. Currie also offers speculation on the pack-hunting habits of Albertosaurus. The leg proportions of the smaller individuals were comparable to those of Ornithomimids, which were probably among the fastest dinosaurs. Younger Albertosaurus were probably equally fleet-footed, or at least faster than their prey. Currie hypothesized that the younger members of the pack may have been responsible for driving their prey towards the adults, who were larger and more powerful, but also slower. Juveniles may also have had different lifestyles than adults, filling predator niches between the enormous adults and the smaller contemporaneous theropods, the largest of which were two orders of magnitude smaller than adult Albertosaurus in mass. A similar situation is observed in modern Komodo dragons, with hatchlings beginning life as small insectivores before growing to become the dominant predators on their islands. However, as the preservation of behavior in the fossil record is exceedingly rare, these ideas cannot readily be tested. Paleoecology The Horseshoe Canyon Formation is exposed in its type section at Horseshoe Canyon, Alberta. All identifiable fossils of Albertosaurus sarcophagus are known from the Horseshoe Canyon Formation in Alberta. This geologic formation dates to the early Maastrichtian stage of the Late Cretaceous Period, 73 to 70 Ma (million years ago). Immediately below this formation is the Bearpaw Shale, a marine formation representing a section of the Western Interior Seaway. The seaway was receding as the climate cooled and sea levels subsided towards the end of the Cretaceous, exposing land that had previously been underwater. It was not a smooth process, however, and the seaway would periodically rise to cover parts of the region throughout Horseshoe Canyon times before finally receding altogether in the years after. Due to the changing sea levels, many different environments are represented in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation, including offshore and near-shore marine habitats and coastal habitats like lagoons, estuaries and tidal flats. Numerous coal seams represent ancient peat swamps. Like most of the other vertebrate fossils from the formation, Albertosaurus remains are found in deposits laid down in the deltas and floodplains of large rivers during the later half of Horseshoe Canyon times. The fauna of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation is well-known, as vertebrate fossils, including those of dinosaurs, are quite common. Sharks, rays, sturgeons, bowfins, gars and the gar-like Aspidorhynchus made up the fish fauna. Mammals included multituberculates and the marsupial Didelphodon. The saltwater plesiosaur Leurospondylus has been found in marine sediments in the Horseshoe Canyon, while freshwater environments were populated by turtles, Champsosaurus, and crocodilians like Leidyosuchus and Stangerochampsa. Dinosaurs dominate the fauna, especially hadrosaurs, which make up half of all dinosaurs known, including the genera Edmontosaurus, Saurolophus and Hypacrosaurus. Ceratopsians and ornithomimids were also very common, together making up another third of the known fauna. Along with much rarer Ankylosaurians and pachycephalosaurs, all of these animals would have been prey for a diverse array of carnivorous theropods, including troodontids, dromaeosaurids, and caenagnathids. Adult Albertosaurus were the apex predators in this environment, with intermediate niches possibly filled by juvenile albertosaurs. References External links Some entries in Online Collections Database at the American Museum of Natural History: AMNH 5218 (numerous pictures of bones included) AMNH 5226 (pictures of a series of tail vertebrae included) List of specimens from The Theropod Database. Skeletal images at The Graveyard. A brief history of Joseph B. Tyrrell and his discovery of the holotype skull of Albertosaurus sarcophagus. 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4,309 | Parallel_ATA | Parallel ATA (PATA) is an interface standard for the connection of storage devices such as hard disks, solid-state drives, and CD-ROM drives in computers. The standard is maintained by X3/INCITS committee http://www.t13.org T13 . It uses the underlying AT Attachment and AT Attachment Packet Interface (ATA/ATAPI) standards. The current Parallel ATA standard is the result of a long history of incremental technical development. ATA/ATAPI is an evolution of the AT Attachment Interface, which was itself evolved in several stages from Western Digital's original Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) interface. As a result, many near-synonyms for ATA/ATAPI and its previous incarnations exist, including abbreviations such as IDE which are still in common informal use. After the market introduction of Serial ATA in 2003, the original ATA was retroactively renamed Parallel ATA. Parallel ATA only allows cable lengths up to . Because of this length limit the technology normally appears as an internal computer storage interface. For many years ATA provided the most common and the least expensive interface for this application. By the beginning of 2007, it had largely been replaced by Serial ATA (SATA) in new systems. History and terminology The name of the standard was originally conceived as "PC/AT Attachment" as its primary feature was a direct connection to the 16-bit ISA bus introduced with the IBM PC/AT. The name was shortened to "AT Attachment" to avoid possible trademark issues. It is not spelled out as "Advanced Technology" anywhere in current or recent versions of the specification; it is simply "AT Attachment". IDE and ATA-1 The first version of what is now called the ATA/ATAPI interface was developed by Western Digital under the name Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE). Together with Control Data Corporation (who manufactured the hard drive part) and Compaq Computer (into whose systems these drives would initially go), they developed the connector, the signalling protocols, and so on with the goal of remaining software compatible with the existing ST-506 hard drive interface. "IDE drives on-board controllers are configured to appear to the computer like standard ST506 drives" The first such drives appeared in Compaq PCs in 1986. The term Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) refers not just to the connector and interface definition, but also to the fact that the drive controller is integrated into the drive, as opposed to a separate controller on or connected to the motherboard. The interface cards used to connect a parallel ATA drive to, for example, a PCI slot are not drive controllers, they are merely bridges between the host bus and the ATA interface. The integrated controller presented the drive to the host computer as an array of 512-byte blocks with a relatively simple command interface. This relieved the software in the host computer of the chores of stepping the disk head arm, moving the head arm in and out, and so on, as had to be done with earlier ST-506 and ESDI hard drives. All of these low-level details of the mechanical operation of the drive were now handled by the controller on the drive itself. This also eliminated the need to design a single controller that could handle many different types of drives, since the controller could be unique for the drive. The host need only ask for a particular sector, or block, to be read or written, and either accept the data from the drive or send the data to it. The interface used by these IDE drives was standardized in 1994 as ANSI standard X3.221-1994, AT Attachment Interface for Disk Drives. After later versions of the standard were developed, this became known as "ATA-1". The second ATA interface Originally, there was only one ATA controller in early PCs, which could support up to two hard drives. At the time in combination with the floppy drive, this was sufficient for most people, and eventually it became common to have two hard drives installed. When the CDROM was developed, many computers were unable to accept them due to already having two hard drives installed. Adding the CDROM would have required removal of one of the drives. SCSI was available as a CDROM expansion option at the time, but devices with SCSI were more expensive than ATA devices due to the need for a smart controller that is capable of bus arbitration. SCSI typically added US$ 100-300 to the cost of a storage device, in addition to the cost of a SCSI controller. The less-expensive solution was the addition of the second ATA interface, typically included as an expansion option on a sound card. It was included on the sound card because early business PCs did not include support for more than simple beeps from the internal speaker, and tuneful sound playback was considered unnecessary for early business software. When the CDROM was introduced, it was logical to also add digital audio to the computer at the same time. An older business PC could be upgraded in this manner to meet the Multimedia PC standard for early software packages that used sound and colorful video animation. The second drive interface initially was not well-defined. It was first introduced with modified controller interfaces specific to certain CDROM drives such as Mitsumi, Sony or Panasonic Creative Labs sound card documentation showing diagram with custom Mitsumi, Sony, and Panasonic CDROM drive connectors http://stason.org/TULARC/pc/sound-cards-multimedia/CREATIVE-LABS-INC-Sound-card-16-BIT-AUDIO-CARD-PAN.html , and it was common to find early sound cards with two or three separate connectors each designed to match a certain brand of CDROM drive. This evolved into the standard ATA interface for ease of cross-compatability, though the sound card ATA interface still usually supported only a single CDROM and not hard drives. This second ATA interface on the sound card eventually evolved into the second motherboard ATA interface which was long included as a standard component in all PCs until after the introduction of SATA or Serial ATA, when motherboards began to be shipped with only a single legacy ATA interface and two or more SATA connectors. EIDE and ATA-2 In 1994, about the same time that the ATA-1 standard was adopted, Western Digital introduced drives under a slightly new name, Enhanced IDE (EIDE). These included most of the features of the forthcoming ATA-2 specification and several additional enhancements. Other manufacturers introduced their own variations of ATA-1 such as "Fast ATA" and "Fast ATA-2". The new version of the ANSI standard, AT Attachment Interface with Extensions ATA-2 (X3.279-1996), was approved in 1996. It included most of the features of the manufacturer-specific variants. ATA-2 also was the first to note that devices other than hard drives could be attached to the interface: ATAPI As mentioned in the previous sections ATA was originally designed for and worked only with hard disks and devices that could emulate them. The introduction of ATAPI (ATA Packet Interface) by a group called the Small Form Factor committee allowed ATA to be used for a variety of other devices that require functions beyond those necessary for hard disks. For example, any removable media device needs a "media eject" command, and a way for the host to determine whether the media is present, and these were not provided in the ATA protocol. The Small Form Factor committee approached this problem by defining ATAPI, the "ATA Packet Interface". ATAPI is actually a protocol allowing the ATA interface to carry SCSI commands and responses; therefore all ATAPI devices are actually "speaking SCSI" other than at the electrical interface. In fact, some early ATAPI devices were simply SCSI devices with an ATA/ATAPI to SCSI protocol converter added on. The SCSI commands and responses are embedded in "packets" (hence "ATA Packet Interface") for transmission on the ATA cable. This allows any device class for which a SCSI command set has been defined to be interfaced via ATA/ATAPI. ATAPI devices are also "speaking ATA", as the ATA physical interface and protocol are still being used to send the packets. On the other hand, ATA hard drives and solid state drives do not use ATAPI. ATAPI devices include CD-ROM and DVD-ROM drives, tape drives, and large-capacity floppy drives such as the Zip drive and SuperDisk drive. The SCSI commands and responses used by each class of ATAPI device (CD-ROM, tape, etc.) are described in other documents or specifications specific to those device classes and are not within ATA/ATAPI or the T13 committee's purview. ATAPI was adopted as part of ATA in INCITS 317-1998, AT Attachment with Packet Interface Extension (ATA/ATAPI-4). Current terminology The terms "integrated drive electronics" (IDE), "enhanced IDE" and "EIDE" have come to be used interchangeably with ATA (now Parallel ATA). However the terms "IDE" and "EIDE" are at best imprecise. Every ATA drive is an "integrated drive electronics" drive, but not every "integrated drive electronics" drive is an ATA drive, as the term also correctly describes SCSI drives: They have the drive controllers on board and present the drive to the host as an array of blocks. In addition there have been several generations of "EIDE" drives marketed, compliant with various versions of the ATA specification. An early "EIDE" drive might be compatible with ATA-2, while a later one with ATA-6. Nevertheless a request for an "IDE" or "EIDE" drive from a computer parts vendor will almost always yield a drive that will work with modern systems' ATA interfaces. Another common usage is to refer to the specification version by the fastest mode supported. For example, ATA-4 supported Ultra DMA modes 0 through 2, the latter providing a maximum transfer rate of 33 megabytes per second. ATA-4 drives are thus sometimes called "UDMA-33" drives. Similarly, ATA-6 introduced a maximum transfer speed of 100 megabytes per second, and some drives complying to this version of the standard are marketed as "PATA/100" drives. Parallel ATA With the introduction of Serial ATA around 2003, conventional ATA is sometimes referred to as Parallel ATA (P-ATA), referring to the method in which data travels over wires in this interface. Drive size limitations The original ATA specification used a 28-bit addressing mode, allowing for the addressing of 228 (268,435,456) sectors (blocks) of 512 bytes each, resulting in a maximum capacity of about 137 gigabytes . (This is displayed by Windows operating systems as "128 GB".) However the BIOS in early PCs imposed smaller limits such as 8.46 GB, with a maximum of 1024 cylinders, 256 heads and 63 sectors, but this was not a limit imposed by the ATA interface. ATA-6 introduced 48-bit addressing, increasing the limit to 144 petabytes. As a consequence, any ATA drive of capacity larger than 137 gigabytes must be an ATA-6 or later drive. Connecting such a drive to a host with an ATA-5 or earlier interface will limit the usable capacity to the maximum of the controller. Some OSs, including Windows 2000 pre-SP4, disable 48-bit LBA by default, requiring the user to take extra steps to use the entire capacity of an ATA drive larger than 137 gigabytes. Parallel ATA interface Ribbon cable with two connectors Until the introduction of Serial ATA, 40-pin connectors generally attached drives to a ribbon cable. Each cable has two or three connectors, one of which plugs into an adapter interfacing with the rest of the computer system. The remaining connector(s) plug into drives. Parallel ATA cables transfer data 16 bits at a time. ATA's ribbon cables have had 40 wires for most of its history (44 conductors for the smaller form-factor version used for 2.5" drives), but an 80-wire version appeared with the introduction of the Ultra DMA/33 (UDMA) mode. All of the additional wires in the new cable are ground wires, interleaved with the previously defined wires to reduce the effects of capacitive coupling between neighboring signal wires, reducing crosstalk. Capacitive coupling is more of a problem at higher transfer rates, and this change was necessary to enable the 66 megabytes per second (MB/s) transfer rate of UDMA4 to work reliably. The faster UDMA5 and UDMA6 modes also require 80-conductor cables. ATA cables:40 wire ribbon cable (top) 80 wire ribbon cable (bottom) Though the number of wires doubled, the number of connector pins and the pinout remain the same as 40-conductor cables, and the external appearance of the connectors is identical. Internally the connectors are different; the connectors for the 80-wire cable connect a larger number of ground wires to a smaller number of ground pins, while the connectors for the 40-wire cable connect ground wires to ground pins one-for-one. 80-wire cables usually come with three differently colored connectors (blue — controller, gray — slave drive, and black — master drive) as opposed to uniformly colored 40-wire cable's connectors (all black). The gray connector on 80-conductor cables has pin 28 CSEL not connected; making it the slave position for drives configured cable select. Using non-standard cables The ATA standard has always specified a maximum cable length of 46 cm (18 inches), and flat cables with particular impedance and capacitance characteristics. It may be desirable to use alternative cables, e.g. to have longer cables when connecting drives within a large computer case or when mounting several physical drives into one computer, or to use rounded cables to improve airflow (cooling) inside the computer case. Such cables are widely available on the market and used successfully in most cases. However, the user must understand that they are outside the parameters set by the specifications and should be used with caution. The short standard cable length makes the use of parallel ATA for external devices impossible in most situations. Pin 20 In the ATA standard, Pin 20 is defined as key and is not used. However, some flash memory disks can use pin 20 as VCC_in to power the disk without needing a special power cable Welcome to Transcend website . Pin 28 Pin 28 of the gray (slave/middle) connector of an 80 conductor cable is not attached to any conductor of the cable. It is attached normally on the black (master drive end) and blue (motherboard end) connectors. Pin 34 Pin 34 is connected to ground inside the blue connector of an 80 conductor cable but not attached to any conductor of the cable. It is attached normally on the gray and black connectors. See page 315 of . Differences between connectors on 80 conductor cables Differences between connectors The image shows PATA connectors after removal of strain relief, cover, and cable. Pin one is at bottom left of the connectors, pin 2 is top left, etc., except that the lower image of the blue connector shows the view from the opposite side, and pin one is at top right. Each contact comprises a pair of points which together pierce the insulation of the ribbon cable with such precision that they make a connection to the desired conductor without harming the insulation on the neighboring wires. The center row of contacts are all connected to the common ground bus and attached to the odd numbered conductors of the cable. The top row of contacts are the even-numbered sockets of the connector (mating with the even-numbered pins of the receptacle) and attach to every other even-numbered conductor of the cable. The bottom row of contacts are the odd-numbered sockets of the connector (mating with the odd-numbered pins of the receptacle) and attach to the remaining even-numbered conductors of the cable. Note the connections to the common ground bus from sockets 2 (top left), 19 (center bottom row), 22, 24, 26, 30, and 40 on all connectors. Also note (enlarged detail, bottom, looking from the opposite side of the connector) that socket 34 of the blue connector does not contact any conductor but unlike socket 34 of the other two connectors, it does connect to the common ground bus. On the gray connector, note that socket 28 is completely missing, so that pin 28 of the drive attached to the gray connector will be open. On the black connector, sockets 28 and 34 are completely normal, so that pins 28 and 34 of the drive attached to the black connector will be connected to the cable. Pin 28 of the black drive reaches pin 28 of the host receptacle but not pin 28 of the gray drive, while pin 34 of the black drive reaches pin 34 of the gray drive but not pin 34 of the host. Instead, pin 34 of the host is grounded. The standard dictates color-coded connectors for easy identification by both installer and cable maker. All three connectors are different from one another. The blue (host) connector has the socket for pin 34 connected to ground inside the connector but not attached to any conductor of the cable. Since the old 40 conductor cables do not ground pin 34, the presence of a ground connection indicates that an 80 conductor cable is installed. The wire for pin 34 is attached normally on the other types and is not grounded. Installing the cable backwards (with the black connector on the system board, the blue connector on the remote device and the gray connector on the center device) will ground pin 34 of the remote device and connect host pin 34 through to pin 34 of the center device. The gray center connector omits the connection to pin 28 but connects pin 34 normally, while the black end connector connects both pins 28 and 34 normally. Multiple devices on a cable If two devices attach to a single cable, one must be designated as device 0 (commonly referred to as master) and the other as device 1 (slave). This distinction is necessary to allow both drives to share the cable without conflict. The master drive is the drive that usually appears "first" to the computer's BIOS and/or operating system. On old BIOSes (486 era and older), the drives are often referred to by the BIOS as "C" for the master and "D" for the slave following the way DOS would refer to the active primary partitions on each. The mode that a drive must use is often set by a jumper setting on the drive itself, which must be manually set to master or slave. If there is a single device on a cable, it should be configured as master. However, some hard drives have a special setting called single for this configuration (Western Digital, in particular). Also, depending on the hardware and software available, a single drive on a cable can work reliably even though configured as the slave drive (this configuration is most often seen when a CD ROM has a channel to itself). Cable select A drive mode called cable select was described as optional in ATA-1 and has come into fairly widespread use with ATA-5 and later. A drive set to "cable select" automatically configures itself as master or slave, according to its position on the cable. Cable select is controlled by pin 28. The host adapter grounds this pin; if a device sees that the pin is grounded, it becomes the master device; if it sees that pin 28 is open, the device becomes the slave device. This setting is usually chosen by a jumper setting on the drive called "cable select", usually marked CS, which is separate to the "master" or "slave" setting. Note that if two drives are configured as master and slave manually, this configuration does not need to correspond to their position on the cable. Pin 28 is only used to let the drives know their position on the cable; it is not used by the host when communicating with the drives. With the 40-wire cable it was very common to implement cable select by simply cutting the pin 28 wire between the two device connectors; putting the slave device at the end of the cable, and the master on the "middle" connector. This arrangement eventually was standardized in later versions. If there is just one device on the cable, this results in an unused "stub" of cable, which is undesirable for physical convenience and electrical reasons. The stub causes signal reflections, particularly at higher transfer rates. Starting with the 80-wire cable defined for use in ATAPI5/UDMA4, the master device goes at the end of the cable (black connector), the middle-slave connector is gray, the blue connector goes onto the motherboard. So, if there is only one (master) device on the cable, there is no cable "stub" to cause reflections. Also, cable select is now implemented in the slave device connector, usually simply by omitting the contact from the connector body. Master and slave clarification Although they are in common use, the terms master and slave do not actually appear in current versions of the ATA specifications. The two devices are correctly referred to as device 0 (master) and device 1 (slave), respectively. It is a common myth that the controller on the master drive assumes control over the slave drive, or that the master drive may claim priority of communication over the other device on the channel. In fact, the drivers in the host operating system perform the necessary arbitration and serialization, and each drive's controller operates independently. The terms "master" and "slave" have not been without controversy. In 2003, the County of Los Angeles, California, USA demanded that suppliers stop using the terms because the county found them unacceptable in light of its "cultural diversity and sensitivity." Serialized, overlapped, and queued operations The parallel ATA protocols up through ATA-3 require that once a command has been given on an ATA interface, it must complete before any subsequent command may be given. Operations on the devices must be serialized—with only one operation in progress at a time—with respect to the ATA host interface. A useful mental model is that the host ATA interface is busy with the first request for its entire duration, and therefore can not be told about another request until the first one is complete. The function of serializing requests to the interface is usually performed by a device driver in the host operating system. The ATA-4 and subsequent versions of the specification have included an "overlapped feature set" and a "queued feature set" as optional features. However, support for these is extremely rare in actual parallel ATA products and device drivers. By contrast, overlapped and queued operations have been common in other storage buses. In particular, tagged command queuing is characteristic of SCSI; this has long been seen as a major advantage of SCSI. The Serial ATA standard has supported native command queueing since its first release, but it is an optional feature for both host-adapters and target-devices. Many less expensive PC motherboards do not support NCQ. Nearly all SATA/II hard drives sold today support NCQ, while very few removable (CD/DVD) drives do. Two devices on one cable — speed impact There are many debates about how much a slow device can impact the performance of a faster device on the same cable. There is an effect, but the debate is confused by the blurring of two quite different causes, called here "Lowest speed" and "One operation at a time". "Lowest speed" It is a common misconception that, if two devices of different speed capabilities are on the same cable, both devices' data transfers will be constrained to the speed of the slower device. For all modern ATA host adapters this is not true, as modern ATA host adapters support independent device timing. This allows each device on the cable to transfer data at its own best speed. Even with older adapters without independent timing, this effect only applies to the data transfer phase of a read or write operation. This is usually the shortest part of a complete read or write operation. "One operation at a time" This is caused by the omission of both overlapped and queued feature sets from most parallel ATA products. Only one device on a cable can perform a read or write operation at one time, therefore a fast device on the same cable as a slow device under heavy use will find it has to wait for the slow device to complete its task first. However, most modern devices will report write operations as complete once the data is stored in its onboard cache memory, before the data is written to the (slow) magnetic storage. This allows commands to be sent to the other device on the cable, reducing the impact of the "one operation at a time" limit. The impact of this on a system's performance depends on the application. For example, when copying data from an optical drive to a hard drive (such as during software installation), this effect probably doesn't matter: Such jobs are necessarily limited by the speed of the optical drive no matter where it is. But if the hard drive in question is also expected to provide good throughput for other tasks at the same time, it probably should not be on the same cable as the optical drive. HDD Passwords and Security The disk lock is a built-in security feature in the disk. It is part of the ATA specification, and thus not specific to any brand or device. A disk always has two passwords: A User password and a Master password. Most disks support a Master Password Revision Code. Reportedly some disks can tell you if the Master password has been changed, or if it still the factory default. The revision code is word 92 in the IDENTIFY response. Reportedly on some disks a value of 0xFFFE means the Master password is unchanged. The standard does not distinguish this value. A disk can be locked in two modes: High security mode or Maximum security mode. Bit 8 in word 128 of the IDENTIFY response tell you which mode your disk is in: 0 = High, 1 = Maximum. In High security mode, you can unlock the disk with either the User or Master password, using the "SECURITY UNLOCK DEVICE" ATA command. There is an attempt limit, normally set to 5, after which you must power cycle or hard-reset the disk before you can attempt again. Also in High security mode the SECURITY ERASE UNIT command can be used with either the User or Master password. In Maximum security mode, you cannot unlock the disk without the User password - the only way to get the disk back to a usable state is to issue the SECURITY ERASE PREPARE command, immediately followed by SECURITY ERASE UNIT. In Maximum security mode the SECURITY ERASE UNIT command requires the User password and will completely erase all data on the disk. The operation is rather slow, expect half an hour or more for big disks. (Word 89 in the IDENTIFY response indicates how long the operation will take.) Rockbox - Unlocking a password protected harddisk c't 8/2005, S. 172: Hard Disk Security External Parallel ATA devices It is extremely uncommon to find external PATA devices that directly use the interface for connection to a computer. PATA is primarily restricted to devices installed internally, due to the short data cable specification. A device connected externally needs additional cable length to form a U-shaped bend so that the external device may be placed alongside, or on top of the computer case, and the standard cable length is too short to permit this. For ease of reach from motherboard to device, the connectors tend to be positioned towards the front edge of motherboards, for connection to devices protruding from the front of the computer case. This front-edge position makes extension out the back to an external device even more difficult. Ribbon cables are poorly shielded, and the standard relies upon the cabling to be installed inside a shielded computer case to meet RF emissions limits. All external PATA devices, such as external hard drives, use some other interface technology to bridge the distance between the external device and the computer. USB is the most common external interface, followed by Firewire. A bridge chip inside the external devices converts from the USB interface to PATA, and typically only supports a single external device without cable select or master/slave. A side effect of the PATA bridge chip is that most bridges do not properly support PATA device idle and power save, which causes external hard drives to spin continuously even when the connected computer is in standby or turned off. This can result in shortened hard drive lifespan due to continuous operation at all times when the external device is powered. ATA standards versions, transfer rates, and features The following table shows the names of the versions of the ATA standards and the transfer modes and rates supported by each. Note that the transfer rate for each mode (for example, 66.7 MB/s for UDMA4, commonly called "Ultra-DMA 66") gives its maximum theoretical transfer rate on the cable. This is simply two bytes multiplied by the effective clock rate, and presumes that every clock cycle is used to transfer end-user data. In practice, of course, protocol overhead reduces this value. Congestion on the host bus to which the ATA adapter is attached may also limit the maximum burst transfer rate. For example, the maximum data transfer rate for conventional PCI bus is 133 MB/s, and this is shared among all active devices on the bus. In addition, no ATA hard drives in 2005 existed that were capable of measured sustained transfer rates of above 80 MB/s. Furthermore, sustained transfer rate tests do not give realistic throughput expectations for most workloads: They use I/O loads specifically designed to encounter almost no delays from seek time or rotational latency. Hard drive performance under most workloads is limited first and second by those two factors; the transfer rate on the bus is a distant third in importance. Therefore, transfer speed limits above 66 MB/s really affect performance only when the hard drive can satisfy all I/O requests by reading from its internal cache — a very unusual situation, especially considering that such data is usually already buffered by the operating system. As of 2008 mechanical hard disk drives can transfer data at up to 127 MB/s, which is within the capabilities of the older PATA/133 specification. However, high-performance flash drives can transfer data at up to 201 MB/s. Only the Ultra DMA modes use CRC to detect errors in data transfer between the controller and drive. This is a 16 bit CRC, and it is used for data blocks only. Transmission of command and status blocks do not use the fast signaling methods that would necessitate CRC. For comparison, in Serial ATA, 32 bit CRC is used for both commands and data. www.serialata.org Standard Other Names Transfer Modes (MB/s) Maximum disk size Other New Features ANSI Reference pre-ATA IDE PIO 0 2.1 GB 22-bit logical block addressing (LBA) - ATA-1 ATA, IDE PIO 0, 1, 2 (3.3, 5.2, 8.3)Single-word DMA 0, 1, 2 (2.1, 4.2, 8.3)Multi-word DMA 0 (4.2) 137 GB 28-bit logical block addressing (LBA) X3.221-1994(obsolete since 1999) ATA-2 EIDE, Fast ATA, Fast IDE, Ultra ATA PIO 3, 4: (11.1, 16.6)Multi-word DMA 1, 2 (13.3, 16.6) PCMCIA connector X3.279-1996(obsolete since 2001) ATA-3 EIDE Single-word DMA modes dropped S.M.A.R.T., Security, 44 pin connector for 2.5" drives X3.298-1997(obsolete since 2002) ATA/ATAPI-4 ATA-4, Ultra ATA/33 Ultra DMA 0, 1, 2 (16.7, 25.0, 33.3) aka UDMA/33 AT Attachment Packet Interface (ATAPI) (support for CD-ROM, tape drives etc.), Optional overlapped and queued command set features, Host Protected Area (HPA), CompactFlash Association (CFA) feature set for solid state drives NCITS 317-1998 ATA/ATAPI-5 ATA-5, Ultra ATA/66 Ultra DMA 3, 4 (44.4, 66.7)aka UDMA/66 80-wire cables; CompactFlash connector NCITS 340-2000 ATA/ATAPI-6 ATA-6, Ultra ATA/100 UDMA 5 (100)aka UDMA/100 144 PB 48-bit LBA, Device Configuration Overlay (DCO),Automatic Acoustic Management NCITS 361-2002 ATA/ATAPI-7 ATA-7, Ultra ATA/133 UDMA 6 (133)aka UDMA/133SATA/150 SATA 1.0, Streaming feature set, long logical/physical sector feature set for non-packet devices NCITS 397-2005 (vol 1) NCITS 397-2005 (vol 2) NCITS 397-2005 (vol 3) ATA/ATAPI-8 ATA-8 — Hybrid drive featuring non-volatile cache to speed up critical OS files In progress Related standards, features, and proposals ATAPI Removable Media Device (ARMD) ATAPI devices with removable media, other than CD and DVD drives, are classified as ARMD (ATAPI Removable Media Device) and can appear as either a super-floppy (non-partitioned media) or a hard drive (partitioned media) to the operating system. These can be supported as bootable devices by a BIOS complying with the ATAPI Removable Media Device BIOS Specification http://www.phoenix.com/NR/rdonlyres/EDD1AAA0-177E-4024-A0B1-E4BD06B673F7/0/specsatapi.pdf , originally developed by Compaq Computer Corporation and Phoenix Technologies. It specifies provisions in the BIOS of a personal computer to allow the computer to be bootstrapped from devices such as Zip drives, Jaz drives, SuperDisk (LS-120) drives, and similar devices. These devices have removable media like floppy disk drives, but capacities more commensurate with hard drives, and programming requirements unlike either. Due to limitations in the floppy controller interface most of these devices were ATAPI devices, connected to one of the host computer's ATA interfaces, similarly to a hard drive or CD-ROM device. However, existing BIOS standards did not support these devices. An ARMD-compliant BIOS allows these devices to booted from and used under the operating system without requiring device-specific code in the OS. A BIOS implementing ARMD allows the user to include ARMD devices in the boot search order. Usually an ARMD device is configured earlier in the boot order than the hard drive. Similarly to a floppy drive, if bootable media is present in the ARMD drive, the BIOS will boot from it; if not, the BIOS will continue in the search order, usually with the hard drive last. There are two variants of ARMD, ARMD-FDD and ARMD-HDD. Originally ARMD caused the devices to appear as a sort of "very large floppy drive," either the primary floppy drive device 00h or the secondary device 01h. Some operating systems required code changes to support "floppy disks" with capacities far larger than any actual floppy drive. Also, floppy drive emulation proved to be unsuitable for certain devices such as Iomega Zip drives. Later the ARMD-HDD, ARMD-"Hard disk device", variant was developed to address these issues. Under ARMD-HDD, an ARMD device appears to the BIOS and the operating system as a hard drive. ATA over Ethernet In August 2004, Sam Hopkins and Brantley Coile of Coraid specified a lightweight ATA-over-Ethernet protocol to carry ATA commands over Ethernet instead of directly connecting them to a PATA host adapter. This permitted the established block protocol to be reused in Storage area network applications. See also Master-slave (technology) Advanced Host Controller Interface (AHCI) List of computer standards List of device bandwidths CE-ATA Consumer Electronics (CE) ATA Serial ATA FATA (hard drive) SCSI BIOS for BIOS Boot Specification (BBS) INT 13 for BIOS Enhanced Disk Drive Specification (SFF-8039i) ATA-over-Ethernet (AoE) References External Links Vintage computer forum thread about creating a an ATA card for 8088 compatable PC's | Parallel_ATA |@lemmatized parallel:15 ata:133 pata:11 interface:49 standard:29 connection:8 storage:6 device:100 hard:33 disk:27 solid:3 state:4 drive:140 cd:8 rom:7 computer:26 maintain:1 incits:2 committee:4 http:3 www:3 org:3 use:40 underlie:1 attachment:10 packet:9 atapi:30 current:4 result:5 long:6 history:3 incremental:1 technical:1 development:1 evolution:1 evolve:3 several:4 stage:1 western:4 digital:5 original:3 integrate:6 electronics:7 ide:15 many:6 near:1 synonym:1 previous:2 incarnation:1 exist:4 include:11 abbreviation:1 still:4 common:14 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4,310 | Graphic_design | Graphic symbols are often utilitarian and anonymous, as these pictographs from the US National Park Service illustrate. The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines which focus on visual communication and presentation. Various methods are used to create and combine symbols, images and/or words to create a visual representation of ideas and messages. A graphic designer may use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result. Graphic design often refers to both the process (designing) by which the communication is created and the products (designs) which are generated. Common uses of graphic design include magazines, advertisements, product packaging and web design. For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece. Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements. History Page from the Book of Kells: Folio 114v, Decorated text. Tunc dicit illis Graphic Design spans the history of humankind from the caves of Lascaux to the dazzling neons of Ginza. In both this lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, there is sometimes a blurring distinction and over-lapping of advertising art, graphic design and fine art. After all, they share many of the same elements, theories, principles, practices and languages, and sometimes the same benefactor or client. In advertising art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services. In graphic design, "the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression and feeling to artifacts that document human experience." Meggs, Philip B., 'A history of graphic design'. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1983 The advent of printing During the Tang dynasty (618–906) between the 4th and 7th century A.D. wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book. Beginning in the 11th century, longer scrolls and books were produced using movable type printing making books widely available during the Song dyanasty (960–1279). “Printing” The Silk Road Foundation. Retrieved May 31, 2008.<http://www.silk-road.com/artl/printing.shtml>. Sometime around 1450, Johann Gutenberg's printing press made books widely available in Europe. The book design of Aldus Manutius developed the book structure which would become the foundation of western publication design. This era of graphic design is called Humanist or Old Style. “Graphic Design History” Article Cat. Retrieved May 31, 2008.<http://www.articlecat.com/Article/Graphic-Design-History/933>. Emergence of the design industry In late 19th century Europe, especially in the United Kingdom, the movement began to separate graphic design from fine art. Piet Mondrian is known as the father of graphic design. He was a fine artist, but his use of grids inspired the modern grid system used today in advertising, print and web layout. “Graphic Design History” Article Cat. Retrieved May 31, 2008.<http://www.articlecat.com/Article/Graphic-Design-History/933>. In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing the government of the importance of design in his Journal of Design and Manufactures. He organized the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design. From 1892 to 1896 William Morris' Kelmscott Press published books that are some of the most significant of the graphic design products of the Arts and Crafts movement, and made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium. Morris proved that a market existed for works of graphic design in their own right and helped pioneer the separation of design from production and from fine art. The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its obsession with historical styles. This historicism was, however, important as it amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design. Morris' work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general. “Graphic Design History” Article Cat. Retrieved May 31, 2008.<http://www.articlecat.com/Article/Graphic-Design-History/933>. Twentieth century design A Boeing 747 Air Force One aircraft. The cyan blue form, the US flag, presidential seal and the lettering were all designed at different times and combined in this one final design. Graphic design is applied in virtually every organization or society. There are virtually no limits to the size and applications of graphic design. Who originally coined the term "graphic design" appears to be in dispute. It has been attributed to Richard Guyatt, the British designer and academic, but another source suggests William Addison Dwiggins, an American book designer in the early 20th century “Graphic Design History” Article Cat. Retrieved May 31, 2008.<http://www.articlecat.com/Article/Graphic-Design-History/933>. The signage in the London Underground is a classic of the modern era and used a font designed by Edward Johnston in 1916. In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production. The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitarian purposes. They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus, etc. Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, New Typography. He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential. Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, and El Lissitzky are the fathers of graphic design as we know it today. They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century. The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application. Crouch, Christopher. 2000. Modernism in Art Design and Architecture, New York: St. Martins Press. ISBN 0312218303 (cloth) ISBN 031221832X (pbk) A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging. The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a "mass-produced" minimalism to America; sparking a wild fire of "modern" architecture and design. Notable names in mid-century modern design include Adrian Frutiger, designer of the typefaces Univers and Frutiger; Paul Rand, who, from the late 1930s until his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic design known as corporate identity; and Josef Müller-Brockmann, who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and 1960s era. Applications From road signs to technical schematics, from interoffice memorandums to reference manuals, graphic design enhances transfer of knowledge. Readability is enhanced by improving the visual presentation of text. Design can also aid in selling a product or idea through effective visual communication. It is applied to products and elements of company identity like logos, colors, and text. Together these are defined as branding (see also advertising). Branding has increasingly become important in the range of services offered by many graphic designers, alongside corporate identity, and the terms are often used interchangeably. Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography, science, and math. These publications have layouts which illustrate theories and diagrams. A common example of graphics in use to educate is diagrams of human anatomy. Graphic design is also applied to layout and formatting of educational material to make the information more accessible and more readily understandable. Graphic design is applied in the entertainment industry in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling. Other examples of design for entertainment purposes include novels, comic books, opening credits and closing credits in film, and programs and props on stage. This could also include artwork used for t-shirts and other items screenprinted for sale. From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information - known as information design. Newspapers, magazines, blogs, television and film documentaries may use graphic design to inform and entertain. With the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools such as Adobe Flash are increasingly being used to illustrate the background to news stories. Skills A graphic design project may involve the stylization and presentation of existing text and either preexisting imagery or images developed by the graphic designer. For example, a newspaper story begins with the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes the graphic designer's job to organize the page into a reasonable layout and determine if any other graphic elements should be required. In a magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art director will commission photographers or illustrators to create original pieces just to be incorporated into the design layout. Contemporary design practice has been extended to the modern computer, for example in the use of WYSIWYG user interfaces, often referred to as interactive design, or multimedia design. Visual arts Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic elements must be originated by means of visual art skills. These graphics are often (but not always) developed by a graphic designer. Visual arts include works which are primarily visual in nature using anything from traditional media, to photography or computer generated art. Graphic design principles may be applied to each graphic art element individually as well as to the final composition. Typography Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging type. Type glyphs (characters) are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques. The arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading (line spacing) and letter spacing. Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and clerical workers. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation. Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users. Page layout Page layout is the part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement and style treatment of elements (content) on a page. Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalog layouts, proper page design has long been a consideration in printed material. With print media, elements usually consist of type (text), images (pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing. Interface design Graphic designers are often involved in interface design, such as web design and software design when end user interactivity is a design consideration of the layout or interface. Combining visual communication skills with the interactive communication skills of user interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with software developers and web developers to create both the look and feel of a web site or software application and enhance the interactive experience of the user or web site visitor. Printmaking Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on paper and other materials or surfaces. Except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is not a reproduction of another work of art and is technically known as an impression. Painting or drawing, on the other hand, create a unique original piece of artwork. Prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix. Common types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for engraving or etching; stone, used for lithography; blocks of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screen-printing. But there are many other kinds, discussed below. Works printed from a single plate create an edition, in modern times usually each signed and numbered to form a limited edition. Prints may also be published in book form, as artist's books. A single print could be the product of one or multiple techniques. Chromatics Chromatics is the field of how eyes perceive color and how to explain and organize those colors in the printer and on the monitor. The Retina in the eye is covered by two light-sensitive receptors that are named rods and cones. Rods are sensitive to light, but not sensitive to color. Cones are the opposite of rods. They are less sensitive to light, but color can be perceived. Kaj Johansson, Peter Lundberg, and Robert Ryberg “A Guide To Graphic Print Production“ pp.36 Tools Examples of graphic design made on a computer, setting out various possibilities for a Wikimedia Commons project icon. Critical, observational, quantitative and analytic thinking are required for design layouts and rendering. If the executor is merely following a sketch, script or instructions (as may be supplied by an art director) they are not usually considered the author. The layout is produced using external traditional or digital image editing tools. Selecting the appropriate tools for each project is critical in how the project will be perceived by its audience. In the mid 1980s, the arrival of desktop publishing and graphic art software applications introduced a generation of designers to computer image manipulation and creation that had previously been manually executed. Computer graphic design enabled designers to instantly see the effects of layout or typographic, and to simulate the effects of traditional media without requiring a lot of space. However, traditional tools such as pencils or markers are often used to develop ideas even when computers are used for finalization. Indeed, a designer or art director may well hand sketch numerous concepts as part of the creative process. Some of these sketches may even be shown to a client for early stage approval, before moving on to develop the idea further using a computer and graphic design software tools. Computers are generally considered to be an indispensable tool used in the graphic design industry. Computers and software applications are generally seen, by creative professionals, as more effective production tools than traditional methods. However, some designers continue to use manual and traditional tools for production, such as Milton Glaser. New ideas can come by way of experimenting with tools and methods. Some designers explore ideas using pencil and paper to avoid creating within the limits of whatever computer fonts, clipart, stock photos, or rendering filters (e.g. Kai's Power Tools) are available on any particular configuration. Others use many different mark-making tools and resources from computers to sticks and mud as a means of inspiring creativity. One of the key features of graphic design is that it makes a tool out of appropriate image selection in order to convey meaning. Mike Rohde, Wall Street Journal Mention in Jeremy Wagstaff's Loose Wire, Retrieved 3-19-2007 Computers and the creative process There is some debate whether computers enhance the creative process of graphic design. www.designtalkboard.com retrieved 3-18-2007 Rapid production from the computer allows many designers to explore multiple ideas quickly with more detail than what could be achieved by traditional hand-rendering or paste-up on paper, moving the designer through the creative process more quickly. Jann Lawrence Pollard and Jerry James Little, Creative Computer Tools for Artists: Using Software to Develop Drawings and Paintings, Nov 2001 Introduction However, being faced with limitless choices does not help isolate the best design solution and can lead to designers endlessly iterating without a clear design outcome. A graphic designer may use sketches to explore multiple or complex ideas quickly Jacci Howard Bear, desktoppub.about.com Retrieved 3-19-2008 without the potential distractions of technical difficulties from software malfunctions or learning the software. Hand rendered comps are often used to get approval of an idea execution before investing time to produce finished visuals on a computer or in paste-up. The same thumbnail sketches or rough drafts on paper may be used to rapidly refine and produce the idea on the computer in a hybrid process. This hybrid process is especially useful in logo design Gregory Thomas, How to Design Logos, Symbols and Icons: 24 Internationally Renowned Studios Reveal How They Develop Trademarks for Print and New Media, April 2003, pp:48 where a software learning curve may detract from a creative thought process. The traditional-design/computer-production hybrid process may be used for freeing one's creativity in page layout or image development as well. Traditional graphic designers may employ computer-savvy production artists to produce their ideas from sketches, without needing to learn the computer skills themselves. However, this practice is less utilized since the advent of desktop publishing and its integration with most graphic design courses. Occupations Graphic design career paths cover all ends of the creative spectrum and often overlap. They can also vary depending on the industry focus of a particular design organisation. The main responsibilities (not necessarily titles) include graphic designer, art director, creative director, and the entry level production artist. Depending on the industry served, the responsibilities may have different titles such as "DTP Associate" or "Graphic Artist," but the graphic design principles usually remain consistent. The responsibilities may come from or lead to specialized skills such as illustration, photography or interactive design. A graphic designer reports to the art director, creative director, senior media creative or chief creative director. As a designer becomes more senior, they may spend less time on hands-on layout and more time dealing with larger focus creative activity, such as brand development and corporate identity development. Moreover, as graphic designers become more senior, they are often expected to interact more directly with clients. See also Related disciplines Architecture Art director Communication design Copywriting Creative direction Desktop publishingEnvironmental graphic design Industrial design Information design Instructional design Interface design Marketing communicationsMotion design New Media Technical writing Typography Web graphic design Related topics List of notable graphic designers List of graphic design institutions Aesthetics Color theory Composition (visual arts) Design principles and elementsEuropean Design Awards Graphic art software Graphic design occupations Graphics Information graphics Logotype Style guideVisualization (computer graphics) Value (colorimetry) Newspaper Paper Pen Footnotes External links About.com graphic design page American Institute of Graphic Arts Design Encyclopedia (The) Graphic Arts Guild Government Graphic Design Statistics Graphic design job definitions Icograda (International Council of Graphic Design Associations) | Graphic_design |@lemmatized graphic:87 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4,311 | Great_Lakes | A satellite image of the Great Lakes. A map showing the Great Lakes. The Great Lakes are a chain of freshwater lakes located in eastern North America, on the Canada – United States border. Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth. LUHNA Chapter 6: Historical Landcover Changes in the Great Lakes Region They are sometimes referred to as the "Third Coast" by some citizens of the United States. Because of their size, some regard them as inland seas. Geography The Great Lakes region contains not only the five main lakes themselves, but also numerous minor lakes and rivers, as well as approximately 35,000 islands. Bathymetry Lake ErieLake HuronLake MichiganLake OntarioLake Superior Surface area Water volume Elevation Average depth Maximum depth Major settlements See List of cities on the Great Lakes for a complete list. Buffalo, NYCleveland, OHErie, PAToledo, OHLeamington, ON Sarnia, ONOwen Sound, ONAlpena, MIPort Huron, MIBay City, MI Chicago, ILGary, INGreen Bay, WIMilwaukee, WITraverse City, MIMuskegon, MI Hamilton, ONKingston, ONOshawa, ONRochester, NYToronto, ONMississauga, ON Duluth, MNSault Ste. Marie, ONSault Ste. Marie, MIThunder Bay, ONMarquette, MISuperior, WI Relative elevations, average depths, maximum depths, and volumes of the Great Lakes. Notes: The area of each rectangle is proportionate to the volume of each lake. All measurements at Low Water Datum. Source: EPA Lake Michigan-Huron Lakes Michigan and Huron are hydrologically a single lake, sometimes called Lake Michigan-Huron; they have the same surface elevation of , and are connected not by a river but by the deep Straits of Mackinac. Rivers Sarnia, ON, the largest city on Lake Huron, and the St. Clair River shoreline. The smokestacks of Chemical Valley along the river are visible in the background. The St. Marys River connects Lake Superior to Lake Huron. The St. Clair River connects Lake Huron to Lake St. Clair The Detroit River connects Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie. Through its middle is the border between Canada and the United States. The Niagara River, including Niagara Falls, connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. The St. Lawrence River connects Lake Ontario to the Atlantic Ocean Other bodies of water Georgian Bay is a large bay located within Lake Huron, separated by the Bruce Peninsula and Manitoulin Island. It contains the majority of the islands of the Great Lakes, with a count of approximately 30,000. The North Channel, a narrower westerly extension of Georgian Bay, separates Manitoulin Island from mainland Northern Ontario. The Straits of Mackinac connects Lake Michigan to Lake Huron. The Welland Canal connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, bypassing the Niagara River which cannot be fully navigated due to the presence of Niagara Falls. Lake St. Clair is the smallest lake in the Great Lake system but due to its relatively small size (compared to the five "Great Lakes"), it is rarely, if ever, considered a Great Lake. Lake Nipigon to the north of Lake Superior was formed by an extension or aulacogen of the Midcontinent Rift System which also formed Lake Superior, so the two lake beds are connected by shared geology. Lake Nipigon is sometimes called the sixth Great Lake. The shoreline of a beach in the Apostle Islands, Lake Superior Islands Dispersed throughout the Great Lakes are approximately 35,000 islands. The largest among them is Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron, the largest island in any inland body of water and home to the world's largest lake within a lake, Lake Manitou. The second-largest island is Isle Royale in Lake Superior. Both of these islands are large enough to contain multiple lakes themselves. Connection to ocean and open water The Saint Lawrence Seaway and Great Lakes Waterway opened the Great Lakes to ocean-going vessels. The move to wider ocean-going container ships — which do not fit through the locks on these routes — has limited shipping on the lakes. Despite their vast size, large sections of the Great Lakes freeze over in winter, interrupting most shipping. Some icebreakers ply the lakes. The Great Lakes are also connected to the Gulf of Mexico by way of the Illinois River (from Chicago), to the Mississippi, to the Gulf. An alternate track is via the Illinois River (from Chicago), to the Mississippi, to the Ohio, up the Ohio, and then through the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway (combination of a series of rivers and lakes and canals), to Mobile Bay and the Gulf. Commercial tug-and-barge traffic on these waterways is heavy. Pleasure boats can also enter or exit the Great Lakes by way of the Erie Canal and Hudson River in New York. The Erie Canal connects to the Great Lakes at the east end of Lake Erie (at Buffalo, NY) and at the south side of Lake Ontario (at Oswego, NY). Boundaries A map showing the Great Lakes and their watershed, with State, Provincial and International boundaries. The lakes are bound by the Canadian province of Ontario and the U.S. states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, New York, Indiana, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. However, not all of the lakes border on all of these regions. Four of the five lakes form part of the Canada-United States border; the fifth, Lake Michigan, is contained entirely within the United States. The Saint Lawrence River, which marks the same international border for a portion of its course, is the primary outlet of these interconnected lakes, and flows through Quebec and past the Gaspé Peninsula to the northern Atlantic Ocean. Great Lakes Circle Tour The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. Great Lakes Circle Tour. Name Origins Lake ErieLake HuronLake MichiganLake OntarioLake Superior Origins of Name Erie (tribe); shorten form of Iroquoian word Erielhonan or “long tail” Named by French explorers of inhabitants in the area, Wyandot or “Hurons” likely from the Ojibwa word mishigami meaning "great water” Wyandot (Huron) word ontarío meaing “Great Lake” English translation of French term “lac supérieur Statistics The Great Lakes contain roughly 22% of the world’s fresh surface water: , or 6.0×1015 U.S. gallons (2.3×1016 liters). This is enough water to cover the 48 contiguous U.S. states to a uniform depth of . Although the lakes contain a large percent of the world's fresh water, the Great Lakes make up only a small portion of America's drinking water (roughly 4.2%). The combined surface area of the lakes is approximately —nearly the same size as the United Kingdom, and larger than the U.S. states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Vermont and New Hampshire combined. The Great Lakes coast measures approximately ; however, the length of a coastline is impossible to measure exactly and is not a well-defined measure (see Coastline paradox). Geology A diagram of the formation of the Great Lakes. It has been estimated that the foundational geology which created the conditions shaping the present day upper Great Lakes was laid from 1.1 to 1.2 billion years ago, when two previously fused tectonic plates split apart and created the Midcontinent Rift. A valley was formed providing a basin that eventually became modern day Lake Superior. When a second fault line, the Saint Lawrence rift, formed approximately 570 million years ago, the basis for Lakes Ontario and Erie were created, along with what would become the St. Lawrence River. The Great Lakes are estimated to have been formed at the end of the last ice age (i.e. about 10,000 years ago), when the Laurentide ice sheet receded. The retreat of the ice sheet left behind a large amount of meltwater (see Lake Agassiz) which filled up the basins that the glaciers had carved, thus creating the Great Lakes as we know them today. Because of the uneven nature of glacier erosion, some higher hills became Great Lakes islands. The Niagara Escarpment follows the contour of the Great Lakes between New York and Wisconsin. Climate Lake effect The effect of Great Lakes on weather in the region is called the lake effect. In winter, the moisture picked up by the prevailing winds from the west can produce very heavy snowfall, especially along lake shores to the east such as Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Ontario, and New York. The lakes also moderate seasonal temperatures somewhat, by absorbing heat and cooling the air in summer, then slowly radiating that heat in autumn. This temperature buffering produces areas known as "fruit belts", where fruit typically grown farther south can be produced. Western Michigan has apple and cherry orchards, and vineyards adjacent to the lake shore as far north as the Grand Traverse Bay. The eastern shore of Lake Michigan and the southern shore of Lake Erie have many wineries as a result of this, as does the Niagara Peninsula between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. A similar phenomenon occurs in the Finger Lakes region of New York as well as Prince Edward county on the northeast shore of Lake Ontario. Related to lake effect, is the occurrence of fog over medium-sized areas, particularly along the shorelines of the lakes. This is most noticeable along Lake Superior's shores, due to its maritime climate.The Great Lakes have been observed to help strengthen storms, such as Hurricane Hazel in 1954, and a frontal system in 2007 that spawned a few tornadoes in Michigan and Ontario, picking up warmth from the lakes to fuel them. Also observed in 1996, was a rare subtropical cyclone forming in Lake Huron, dubbed the 1996 Lake Huron cyclone. Economy The lakes are extensively used for transport, though cargo traffic has decreased considerably in recent years. The Great Lakes Waterway makes each of the lakes accessible. Historical economy A woodcut of Le Griffon The brigantine Le Griffon, which was commissioned by René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, was built at Cayuga Creek, near the southern end of the Niagara River, and became the first sailing ship to travel the upper Great Lakes on August 7, 1679. During settlement, the Great Lakes and its rivers were the only practical means of moving people and freight. Barges from middle North America were able to reach the Atlantic Ocean from the Great Lakes when the Erie Canal opened in 1825. By 1848, with the opening of the Illinois and Michigan Canal at Chicago, direct access to the Mississippi River was possible from the lakes. With these two canals an all-inland water route was provided between New York City and New Orleans. The main business of many of the passenger lines in the 1800s was transporting immigrants. Many of the larger cities owe their existence to their position on the lakes as a freight destination as well as for being a magnet for immigrants. After railroads and surface roads developed, the freight and passenger businesses dwindled and except for ferries and a few foreign cruise ships, now has vanished. The immigration routes still have an effect today. Immigrants often formed their own communities and some areas have a pronounced ethnicity, such as Dutch, German, Polish, Finnish, and many others. Since many immigrants settled for a time in New England before moving westward, many areas on the U.S. side of the Great Lakes also have a New England feel, especially in home styles and accent. Since general freight these days is transported by railroads and trucks, domestic ships mostly move bulk cargoes, such as iron ore, coal and limestone for the steel industry. The domestic bulk freight developed because of the nearby mines. It was more economical to transport the ingredients for steel to centralized plants rather than try to make steel on the spot. Ingredients for steel, however, are not the only bulk shipments made. Grain exports are also a major cargo on the lakes. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, iron and other ores such as copper were shipped south on (downbound ships), and supplies, food, and coal were shipped north (upbound). Because of the location of the coal fields in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, and the general northeast track of the Appalachian Mountains, railroads naturally developed shipping routes that went due north to ports such as Erie, Pennsylvania and Ashtabula, Ohio. Because the lake maritime community largely developed independently, it has some distinctive vocabulary. Ships, no matter the size, are called boats. When the sailing ships gave way to steamships, they were called steamboats—the same term used on the Mississippi. The ships also have a distinctive design (see Lake freighter). Ships that primarily trade on the lakes are known as lakers. Foreign boats are known as salties. One of the more common sights on the lakes is the 1,000‑by‑105 foot (305-by-32 m), self-unloader. This is a laker with a conveyor belt system that can unload itself by swinging a crane over the side. Today, the Great Lakes fleet is much smaller in numbers than it once was because of the increased use of overland freight, and a few larger ships replacing many small ones. Modern economy The Great Lakes are today used as a major mode of transport for bulk goods. In 2002, 162 million net tons of dry bulk cargo were moved on the Lakes. This was, in order of volume: iron ore, grain, and potash. The iron ore and much of the stone and coal are used in the steel industry. There is also some shipping of liquid and containerized cargo but most container ships cannot pass the locks on the Saint Lawrence Seaway because the ships are too wide. The total amount of shipping on the lakes has been on a downward trend for several years. Recreational boating and tourism are major industries on the Great Lakes. A few small cruise ships operate on the Great Lakes including a couple of sailing ships. Sport fishing, commercial fishing, and Native American fishing represent a US$4 billion a year industry with salmon, whitefish, smelt, lake trout, and walleye being major catches. The Great Lakes are used to supply drinking water to tens of millions of people in bordering areas. This valuable resource is collectively administered by the state and provincial governments adjacent to the lakes. Great Lakes Passenger Steamers From 1844 through 1857, palace steamers carried passengers and cargo around the Great Lakes. Throughout the 20th century, large luxurious passenger steamers sailed from Chicago all the way to Detroit and Cleveland. These were primarily operated by the Detroit & Cleveland Navigation Company. Several ferries currently operate on the Great Lakes to carry passengers to various islands, including Isle Royale, Pelee Island, Mackinac Island, Beaver Island, both Bois Blanc Islands, Kelleys Island, South Bass Island, North Manitou Island, South Manitou Island, Harsens Island, Manitoulin Island, and the Toronto Islands. As of 2007, three car ferry services cross the Great Lakes, two on Lake Michigan: a steamer from Ludington, Michigan to Manitowoc, Wisconsin and a high speed catamaran from Milwaukee to Muskegon, Michigan, and one on Lake Erie: a boat from Kingsville, Ontario, or Leamington, Ontario to Pelee Island, Ontario then onto Sandusky, Ohio. An international ferry across Lake Ontario from Rochester, New York to Toronto ran during 2004 and 2005, but is no longer in operation. Some Passenger Steamers Ship's Name Year Built Nationality Ship's Name Year Built Nationality Ship's Name Year Built Nationality Niagara (palace steamer) 1856 United States SS Christopher Columbus 1892 United States SS Eastland 1902 United States Milwaukee Clipper 1904 United States SS Keewatin 1907 Canadian Comet (steamboat) 1857 United States Shipwrecks The large size of the Great Lakes increases the risk of water travel; storms and reefs are common threats. The lakes are prone to sudden and severe storms, particularly in the autumn, from late October until early December. Hundreds of ships have met their end on the lakes. The greatest concentration of shipwrecks lies near Thunder Bay (Michigan), beneath Lake Huron, near the point where eastbound and westbound shipping lanes converge. The Lake Superior shipwreck coast from Grand Marais, Michigan to Whitefish Point became known as the "Graveyard of the Great Lakes". More vessels have been lost in the Whitefish Point area than any other part of Lake Superior. Stonehouse, Frederick (1985, 1998). Lake Superior’s Shipwreck Coast, p. 267, Avery Color Studios, Gwinn, Michigan, U.S.A. ISBN 0-932232-43-3, The Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve serves as an underwater museum to protect the many shipwrecks in this area. The last major freighter wrecked on the lakes was the SS Edmund Fitzgerald, which sank on November 10, 1975, just over offshore from Whitefish Point. The largest loss of life in a shipwreck out on the lakes may have been that of the Lady Elgin, wrecked in 1860 with the loss of around 400 lives. In a horrifying incident at a Chicago dock in 1915, the SS Eastland rolled over while loading passengers, killing 841. In August 2007, the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society announced that it had found the wreckage of Cyprus, a long, century-old ore carrier. Cyprus sank during a Lake Superior storm on October 11, 1907, during its second voyage while hauling iron ore from Superior, Wisconsin, to Buffalo, New York. The entire crew of 23 drowned, except one, a man named Charles Pitz, who floated on a life raft for almost seven hours. In June 2008 deep sea divers in Lake Ontario found the wreck of the 1780 Royal Navy warship HMS Ontario in what has been described as an "archaeological miracle". There are no plans to raise her as the site is being treated as a war grave. See also :Category:Shipwrecks in the Great Lakes List of Great Lakes shipwrecks Great Storms of the North American Great Lakes Great Lakes Storm of 1913 Mataafa Storm of 1905 Michigan Underwater Preserves Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary Political issues and legislation Great Lakes water use and diversions The International Joint Commission was established in 1909 to help prevent and resolve disputes relating to the use and quality of boundary waters, and to advise Canada and the United States on questions related to water resources. Concerns over diversion of Lake water are of concern to both Americans and Canadians. Some water is diverted through the Chicago River to operate the Illinois Waterway but the flow is limited by treaty. Possible schemes for bottled water plants and diversion to dry regions of the continent raise concerns. Under the U.S. "Water Resources Development Act", diversion of water from the Great Lakes Basin requires the approval of all eight Great Lakes governors through the Great Lakes Commission, which rarely occurs. International treaties regulate large diversions. In 1998, the Canadian company Nova Group won approval from the Province of Ontario to withdraw of Lake Superior water annually to ship by tanker to Asian countries. Public outcry forced the company to abandon the plan before it began. Since that time, the eight Great Lakes Governors and the Premiers of Ontario and Quebec have negotiated the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement and the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Basin Water Resources Compact that would prevent most future diversion proposals and all long-distance ones. The agreements also strengthen protection against abusive water withdrawal practices within the Great Lakes basin. On December 13, 2005, the Governors and Premiers signed these two agreements, the first of which is between all ten jurisdictions. It is somewhat more detailed and protective, though its legal strength has not yet been tested in court. The second, the Great Lakes Compact, has been approved by the state legislatures of all eight states that border the Great Lakes as well as the U.S. Congress, and was signed into law by President George W. Bush on 3 October 2008. http://www.greatlakeslaw.org/glelc/great-lakes-compact.html Coast Guard live fire exercises In 2006, the United States Coast Guard (USCG) proposed a plan to designate 34 areas in the Great Lakes, at least five miles (8 km) offshore, as permanent safety zones for live fire machine gun practice. In August 2006 the plan was published in the Federal Register. The USCG reserved the right to hold target practice whenever the weather allowed with a two hour notice. These firing ranges would be open to the public when not in use. In response to requests from the public, the Coast Guard held a series of public meetings in nine U.S. cities to solicit comment. During these meetings many people voiced concerns about the plan and its impact on the environment. A preliminary health risk assessment stated that the "proposed training will result in no elevated risks for a freshwater system such as the Great Lakes using 'realistic worst case' assumptions, and further investigation is not recommended ... if typical rather than worst case assumptions were used, the predicted risk would be even less." Representative Phil English (PA03) - English Praises Coast Guard’s Decision on Proposed Live Fire Zones However, the assessment was based on lead levels after five years, and so one could infer that lead levels could meet or exceed EPA safe levels for lead after fifteen years. The Coast Guard established an information page about their proposal at http://www.uscgd9safetyzones.com On December 18, 2006, the Coast Guard announced its decision to withdraw the entire proposal. Officials said they would look into alternative ammunition, modifying the proposed zones and have more public dialogue before proposing a new plan. Great Lakes Collaboration Implementation Act During the 109th United States Congress in 2006, the Great Lakes Collaboration Implementation Act (Bill HR5100) was introduced to enact the recommendations of the Great Lakes Regional Collaboration, an effort established in 2004 to produce a strategy for restoring and maintaining the Great Lakes. The bill was introduced by U.S. senators Mike DeWine and Carl Levin, along with representatives Vern Ehlers and Rahm Emanuel. The bill states that "the Great Lakes are on the brink of an ecologic catastrophe" and that "if the pattern of deterioration is not reversed immediately, the damage could be irreparable". It cites the closing of over 1,800 beaches in 2003, the dead zone in Lake Erie, and the US$500 million damage each year due to the zebra mussel as evidences that "a comprehensive restoration of the system is needed to prevent the Great Lakes from collapsing". http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=109_cong_bills&docid=f:h5100ih.txt.pdf A press release states that the bill aims to stop the introduction and spreading of invasive species, prevent the Asian carp from invading the Great Lakes, phase out mercury, restore animal habitats, and prevent sewage contamination. Emanuel (Il05) - Press Release - Emanuel, Ehlers Introduce Great Lakes Regional Collaboration Implementation Act A coalition called Healing Our Waters,or HOW was formed by several environmental groups and foundations in 2005 to educate and assist citizens in advocating for the cleanup of the Great Lakes. Additions to the five Great Lakes Lake Champlain, a lake on the border between upstate New York and northwestern Vermont that is part of the Saint Lawrence-Great Lakes Watershed, briefly became labeled by the U.S. government as the sixth "Great Lake of the United States" on March 6, 1998, when President Clinton signed Senate Bill 927. This bill, which reauthorized the National Sea Grant Program, contained a line penned by Senator Patrick Leahy (D-VT) declaring Lake Champlain to be a Great Lake. Not coincidentally, this status allows neighboring states to apply for additional federal research and education funds allocated to these national resources. The claim was viewed with some amusement by other countries, particularly in the Canadian media, and the lake is small compared to other Canadian lakes (such as Great Bear Lake which has over 27 times more surface area). Following a small uproar (and several New York Times and Time Magazine Congress's attempt to dub Lake Champlain a 'Great Lake' articles), the Great Lake status was rescinded on March 24, 1998 (although Vermont universities continue to receive funds to monitor and study the lake). Similarly, there has been interest in making Lake St. Clair a Great Lake. In October 2002, backers planned to present such a proposal at the Great Lakes Commission annual meeting "Does size matter? Lake St. Clair advocates believe that it deserves to be called 'great'", The Plain Dealer, October 14, 2002. , but ultimately withheld it as it appeared to them to have too little support "Great Lakes panel wants monster fish to stay away", The Plain Dealer, October 16, 2002. . Ecology Ecological challenges The ecological history of the Great Lakes includes both great losses and enormous recovery; the system today is in the most-obvious ways much healthier than it was a half-century ago, while in less-apparent ways it remains seriously compromised. Before the arrival of Europeans, the Great Lakes provided fish to the indigenous groups who lived near them. Early European settlers were astounded by both the variety and quantity of fishes; there were 150 different species in the Great Lakes. Historically, fish populations were the early indicator of the condition of the Lakes, and have remained one of the key indicators even in the current era of sophisticated analyses and measuring instruments. According to the bi-national (U.S. and Canadian) resource book, The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book, "the largest Great Lakes fish harvests were recorded in 1889 and 1899 at some 67,000 tonnes [147 million pounds]," though the beginning of environmental impacts on the fish can be traced back nearly a century prior to those years. By 1801, the New York Legislature found it necessary to pass regulations curtailing obstructions to the natural migrations of Atlantic salmon from Lake Erie into their spawning channels. In the early nineteenth century, Upper Canada's government found it necessary to introduce similar legislation prohibiting the use of weirs and nets at the mouths of Lake Ontario’s tributaries. Other protective legislation was passed as well, but enforcement remained difficult and often quite spotty. On both sides of the Canada–United States border, the proliferation of dams and impoundments multiplied, necessitating more regulatory efforts. The decline in fish populations was unmistakable by the middle of the nineteenth century, as the obstructions in the rivers prevented salmon and sturgeon from reaching their spawning grounds. The decline in salmon was recognized by Canadian officials and reported as virtually a complete absence by the end of the 1860s. The Wisconsin Fisheries Commission noted a reduction of roughly 25 percent in general fish harvests by 1875. Many Michigan rivers sport multiple dams that range from mere relics to those with serious loss of life potential. The state's dam removal budget has been frozen in recent years; in the 1990s, the state was removing 1 dam per year. Overfishing was cited as responsible for the decline of the population of various whitefish, important because of their culinary desirability and, hence, economic consequence. Moreover, between 1879 and 1899, reported whitefish harvests declined from some 24.3 million pounds (11 million kg) to just over 9 million pounds (4 million kg). Recorded sturgeon catches fell from 7.8 million pounds (1.5 million kg) in 1879 to 1.7 million pounds (770,000 kg) in 1899. The population of giant freshwater mussels was eliminated as the mussels were harvested for use as buttons by early Great Lakes entrepreneurs. There were, however, other factors in the population declines besides overfishing and the problems posed by water obstructions. Logging in the Great Lakes region removed tree cover near stream channels which provide spawning grounds, and this affected necessary shade and temperature-moderating conditions. Removal of tree cover also destabilized soil, allowing soil to be carried in greater quantity into the streambeds, and even brought about more frequent flooding. Running cut logs down the Lakes’ tributary rivers also stirred bottom sediments. In 1884, the New York Fish Commission determined that the dumping of sawmill waste (chips and sawdust) was impacting fish populations. In the development of ecological problems in the Great Lakes, it was the influx of parasitic lamprey populations after the development of the Erie Canal and the much later Welland Canal that led to the two federal governments attempting to work together. Despite a variety of efforts to eliminate or minimize the lamprey, by the mid 1950s the lake trout populations of Lakes Michigan and Huron were reduced by about 99%, with the lamprey deemed largely to blame. This led to the launch of the bi-national Great Lakes Fishery Commission. Other ecological problems in the Lakes and their surroundings have stemmed from urban runoff and sprawl, sewage disposal, and toxic industrial effluent. These, of course, also affect aquatic food chains and fish populations. Some of these glaring problem areas are what attracted the high-level publicity of Great Lakes ecological troubles in the 1960s and 1970s. Evidence of chemical pollution in the Lakes and their tributaries now stretches back for decades. In the 1960s Ohio’s Cuyahoga River -- or more precisely a combination of oil, chemicals, and trash floating atop it in Cleveland -- ignited and smoldered, creating international headlines. The Cuyahoga, and a TIME Magazine cover story about the "death" of Lake Erie, helped focus public and policymaker attention and inspire the first Earth Day events in 1970. New advocacy organizations such as the Lake Michigan Federation, founded in 1970 by Lee Botts, brought new public pressure to bear. The first U.S. Clean Water Act, signed by President Richard Nixon in 1972, was a key step forward as was the innovative "Evolution of the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement", Paul Muldoon and Lee Botts, Michigan State University Press, 2005 bi-national Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement signed by Canada and the U.S. Thanks to a variety of steps taken to reduce industrial and municipal pollution discharges into the system, basic water quality had by the 1980s improved sharply and Lake Erie in particular was significantly healthier. The ongoing discharge of toxic substances has also been sharply reduced thanks to federal and state bans of substances like PCBs and DDT, though historic toxics remain embedded in harbor and rivermouth sediments in dozens of "Great Lakes Areas of Concern". The authoritative but now outdated 1972 book The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book noted that "only pockets remain of the once large commercial fishery." In the meanwhile however the great water quality improvements realized during the 1970s and 1980s, combined with successful salmonid stocking programs, have enabled the growth of a large recreational fishery. Invasive species Since the 1800s an estimated 160 species have invaded the Great Lakes ecosystem, with ship ballast being a primary suspected pathway , causing severe economic and ecological impacts. According to the Inland Seas Education Association, on average a new invasive species enters the Great Lakes every eight months. A zebra mussel-encrusted Vector Averaging Current Meter from Lake Michigan. One such infestation in the Great Lakes was the introduction of the zebra mussel, which was first discovered in 1988. Baxter Bulletin - www.baxterbulletin.com The mollusk is an efficient feeder, competing with native mussels. It also reduces available food and spawning grounds for fishes. The zebra mussel also hurts utility and manufacturing industries by clogging or blocking pipes. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that the economic impact of the zebra mussel will be about $5 billion over the next decade. The alewife first entered the system west of Lake Ontario via 19th-century canals. By the 1960s the small silver fish had become a familiar nuisance to beachgoers across lakes Michigan, Huron and Erie as periodic mass dieoffs resulted in vast numbers of them washing up on shore; estimates by various governments have placed the percentage of Lake Michigan's biomass which was made up of alewives in the early 1960s as high as 90 percent. The various state and federal governments began stocking several species of salmonids in the late 1960s, including the native lake trout as well as non-native chinook and coho salmon; by the 1980s alewife populations had dropped drastically. Ironically, today the sharply lower numbers of alewives is seen as a problem by those involved in the large recreational fishing sector that has grown up particularly on Lake Michigan. The ruffe, a small percid fish, became the most abundant fish species in Lake Superior's St. Louis River within five years of its detection in 1986. Its range, which has expanded to Lake Huron, poses a significant threat to the lower lake fishery. Five years after first being observed in the St. Clair River, the round goby can now be found in all of the Great Lakes. The goby is considered undesirable for several reasons: It preys upon bottom-feeding fishes, overruns optimal habitat, spawns multiple times a season, and can survive poor water quality conditions. Several species of water fleas have accidentally been introduced into the Great lakes such as Bythotrephes cederstroemi and the Fishhook waterflea potentially having an effect on the zooplankton population. Several species of crayfish have also been introduced that may contend with native crayfish populations. More recently an electric fence has been set up across the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal in order to keep several species of invasive Asian carps out of the area. These fast-growing planktivorous fishes have heavily colonized the Mississippi and Illinois river systems. See also Eastern Continental Divide Great Lakes Areas of Concern Great Lakes census statistical areas Great Lakes Commission Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal International Boundary Waters Treaty List of cities along the Great Lakes Michigan Islands National Wildlife Refuge Michigan Underwater Preserves Muskellunge Northern Pike Seiche Sixty Years' War for control of the Great Lakes Surfing the Great Lakes Third Coast Valparaiso Moraine Notes References Beltran, R. et al.. The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book. (Washington & Ottawa: United States Environmental Protection Agency and Government of Canada, 1995, ISBN 0-662-23441-3). Cappel, Constance. editor, "Odawa Language and Legends: Andrew J. Blackbird and Raymond Kiogima," Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2006. Cappel, Constance, "The Smallpox Genocide of the Odawa Tribe at L'Arbre Croche, 1763: The History of a Native American People," Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2007. Dempsey, Dave On the Brink: The Great Lakes in the 21st Century. (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-87013-705-0). George Cuthbertson authored and illustrated “Freshwater, a history of the Great Lakes,” (Toronto: MacMillan, 1931). Further reading Coon, W.F. and R.A. Sheets. Estimate of Ground Water in Storage in the Great Lakes Basin, United States, 2006: National Water Availability and Use Program'' [Scientific Investigations Report 2006-5180]. Reston, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, 2006. External links Official Environment Canada website: Our Great Lakes US Dept. of Commerce - NOAA - Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory Official United States Environmental Protection Agency website: Great Lakes Alliance For The Great Lakes CBC Archives: Trouble Waters: Pollution in the Great Lakes Great Lakes Coast Watch Great Lakes Commission Great Lakes Information Network Great Lakes United Healthy Lakes, Healthy Lives Internation Joint Commission - Canada and United States International Association for Great Lakes Research The Great Clean Up, a 1976 documentary on Great Lakes pollution Great Lakes Dive Sites - An overview of diving in the Great Lakes be-x-old:Вялікія азёры | Great_Lakes |@lemmatized satellite:1 image:1 great:140 lake:237 map:2 show:2 chain:2 freshwater:5 locate:2 eastern:3 north:9 america:3 canada:10 unite:3 state:36 border:9 consist:1 superior:17 michigan:30 huron:19 erie:20 ontario:22 form:10 large:22 group:4 earth:2 luhna:1 chapter:1 historical:3 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4,312 | Helen_Gandy | Helen W. Gandy (April 8, 1897 – July 7, 1988) was an American civil servant. Gandy, who at age twenty-one left her native New Jersey for Washington, D.C., was the secretary to Federal Bureau of Investigation director J. Edgar Hoover for fifty-four years. Hoover called her "indispensable" and she exercised great behind-the-scenes influence on Hoover and the workings of the Bureau. Following Hoover's death in 1972, she spent weeks destroying his "Personal File," thought to be where the most incriminating material he used to manipulate and control the most powerful figures in Washington was kept. Background Annie Gandy, her mother, painted by Thomas Eakins. Gandy, "a wraith-like, grim-faced spinster from New Jersey" Athan G. Theoharis and John Stewart Cox. The Boss: J. Edgar Hoover and the Great American Inquisition. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-87722-532-X , was born in Rockville, one of three children (two daughters and a son) of Franklin Dallas and Annie (Williams) Gandy. She grew up in Fairton or Port Norris (sources differ) and graduated from Bridgeton High School in Bridgeton. In 1918, aged twenty-one, she moved to Washington, D.C., where she later took classes at Strayer Business College and George Washington University Law School. Gandy briefly worked in a department store in Washington before she found a job as a file clerk at the Justice Department in 1918. Within weeks, she went to work as a typist for Hoover, effective March 25, 1918, having told Hoover in her interview she had "no immediate plans to marry." She, like Hoover, would never marry, both being completely devoted to the Bureau. J. Edgar Hoover, director of the F.B.I, photographed in 1961. Gandy worked for him from 1921 to his death in 1972. When Hoover went to the Bureau of Investigation (as it was then known) as its assistant director on August 22, 1921, he specifically requested Miss Gandy return from vacation to help him in the new post. Hoover became director of the Bureau in 1924 and Gandy continued in his service. She was promoted to "office assistant" on August 23, 1937, and "executive assistant" on October 1, 1939. Though she would receive promotions in her civil service grade subsequently, she would retain her title as executive assistant to her retirement on May 2, 1972, the day Hoover died. Hoover said of her "if there is anyone in this Bureau whose services are indispensable I consider Miss Gandy to be that person." Despite this, Curt Gentry wrote: Theirs was a rigidly formal relationship. He'd always called her 'Miss Gandy' (when angry, barking it out as one word). In all those fifty-four years he had never once called her by her first name. Hoover biographers Theoharis and Cox would say "her stern face recalled Cerberus at the gate," a view echoed by Anthony Summers in his life of Hoover, who also pictured Gandy as Hoover's first line of defense against the outside world. Anthony Summers. Official and Confidential: The Secret Life of J. Edgar Hoover. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1993. ISBN 0-399-13800-5 When Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, Hoover's nominal boss, had a direct telephone line installed between their offices, Hoover refused to answer the phone. "Put that damn thing on Miss Gandy's desk where it belongs," Hoover would declare. Curt Gentry would describe her influence: Her genteel manner and pleasant voice contrasted sharply with this domineering presence. Yet behind the politeness was a resolute firmness not unlike his, and no small amount of influence. Many a career in the Bureau had been quietly manipulated by her. Even those who disliked him, praised her, most often commenting on her remarkable ability to get along with all kinds of people. That she had held her position for fifty-four years was the best evidence of this, for it was a Bureau tradition that the closer you were to him, the more demanding he was. William C. Sullivan, an agent with the Bureau for three decades, reported in his memoir when he worked in the public relations section answering mail from the public, he gave a correspondent the wrong measurements for Hoover's personal popover recipe, relying on memory rather than the files. Gandy, ever protective of her boss, caught the error and brought it to Hoover's attention. The director then placed an official letter of reprimand in Sullivan's file for the lapse. W. Mark Felt, deputy associate director of the Bureau, wrote in his memoir that Gandy "was bright and alert and quick-tempered—and completely dedicated to her boss." The Files J. Edgar Hoover died during the night of May 1–May 2, 1972. When his housekeeper, Annie Fields, discovered the body on the morning of the second, her second call (after telephoning acting director Clyde Tolson) was to Gandy, who learned the news at 8:40 A.M. Within an hour, the "D List", "d" standing for destruction, was being distributed and the destruction of files began. However, The New York Times quoted an anonymous F.B.I. source in the spring of 1975 that "Gandy had begun almost a year before Mr. Hoover's death and was instructed to purge the files that were then in his office." L. Patrick Gray, was appointed Acting FBI Director by President Nixon after Hoover's death. Anthony Summers reported that G. Gordon Liddy stated his sources in the F.B.I. said "by the time Gray went in to get the files, Miss Gandy had already got rid of them." The day after Hoover died, L. Patrick Gray, who had been named acting director by President Richard Nixon upon Tolson's resignation from that position, went to Hoover's office. Gandy paused from her work to give Gray a tour. He found file cabinets open and packing boxes being filled with papers. She informed him the boxes contained personal papers of Hoover's. Gandy stated Gray flipped through a few files and approved her work, but Gray was to deny he looked at any papers. Gandy also told Gray it would be a week before she could clear Hoover's effects out so he could move into the suite. Gray reported to Nixon that he had secured Hoover's office and its contents. However, he had sealed only Hoover's personal inner office, where no files were stored, not the entire suite of offices. Since 1957, Hoover's "Official/Confidential" files, containing material too sensitive to include in the Bureau's central files, had been kept in the outer office, where Gandy sat. Curt Gentry reported that Gray would not have known where to look in Gandy's office for the files, as her office was lined floor to ceiling with filing cabinets. And without her index to the files, he would not have been able to locate incriminating material for files were deliberately mislabeled, e.g. President Nixon's file was labeled "Obscene Matters". The next day, May 4, she turned over twelve boxes of the "Official/Confidential" containing 167 files and 17,750 pages to Mark Felt. Many of them contained derogatory information. Gray told the press that afternoon that "there are no dossiers or secret files. There are just general files and I took steps to preserve their integrity." Gandy retained the "Personal File". Gandy worked on going through Hoover's "Personal File" in the office until May 12. She then transferred at least thirty-two file drawers of material to the basement rec room of Hoover's Washington home at 4936 Thirtieth Place, Northwest, where she would continue her work from May 13 to July 17. Gandy later testified nothing official had been removed from the Bureau's offices, "not even his badge." There the destruction was overseen by John P. Mohr, the number three man in the Bureau after Hoover and Tolson. They were aided by James Jesus Angleton, the Central Intelligence Agency's counterintelligence chief, whom Hoover's neighbors saw removing boxes from Hoover's home. Mohr would claim the boxes Angleton removed were cases of spoiled wine. When the House Committee on Government Oversight investigated the F.B.I.'s spying on and harassment of Martin Luther King, Jr. and others in 1975, Gandy was called to testify. "I tore them up, put them in boxes, and they were taken away to be shredded," she told the congressmen about the papers. The Bureau's Washington field office had F.B.I. drivers transport the material to Hoover's home, then once Gandy had gone through the material, the drivers transported it back to the field office in the Old Post Office Building on Pennsylvania Avenue where it was shredded and burned. Gandy stated that Hoover had left standing instructions to destroy his personal papers upon his death and that this instruction was confirmed by Tolson and Gray. Gandy stated that she destroyed no official papers, that everything was personal papers of Hoover. The staff of the subcommittee did not believe her, but she told the committee "I have no reason to lie." Representative Andrew Maguire (D-New Jersey), a freshman member of the 94th Congress, said "I find your testimony very difficult to believe." Gandy held her ground: "That is your privilege." "I can give you my word. I know what there was—letters to and from friends, personal friends, a lot of letters," she testified. Gandy also said the files she took to his home also included his financial papers, such as tax returns and investment statements, the deed to his home, and papers relating to his dogs' pedigrees. Curt Gentry wrote Helen Gandy must have felt quite safe in testifying as she did for who could contradict her? Only one other person knew exactly what the files contained and he was dead. Curt Gentry in J. Edgar Hoover: The Man and His Secrets describes the nature of the files: Bardsley, Marilyn. "The Life and Career of J. Edgar Hoover", Crime Library on truTV.com. Retrieved on August 5, 2008. "... their contents included blackmail material on the patriarch of an American political dynasty, his sons, their wives, and other women; allegations of two homosexual arrests which Hoover leaked to help defeat a witty, urbane Democratic presidential candidate; the surveillance reports on one of America's best-known first ladies and her alleged lovers, both male and female, white and black; the child molestation documentation the director used to control and manipulate one of the Red-baiting proteges; a list of the Bureau's spies in the White House during the eight administrations when Hoover was FBI director; the forbidden fruit of hundreds of illegal wiretaps and bugs, containing, for example, evidence that an attorney general (and later Supreme Court justice) had received payoffs from the Chicago syndicate; as well as celebrity files, with all the unsavory gossip Hoover could amass on some of the biggest names in show business." Of course, Gentry's account is merely speculation, as the actual contents of the files are unknown. In continued efforts by many who disliked Hoover and the FBI, such uncorroborated accounts abound. Later years While she officially retired the day Hoover died, she spent the next few weeks destroying his papers and Hoover left her $5,000 in his will. In 1961, she and her sister, Lucy G. Rodman, donated a portrait of their mother by Thomas Eakins to the Smithsonian American Art Museum. "Mother (Annie Williams Gandy), Smithsonian American Art Museum. Retrieved on August 5, 2008. Gandy lived in Washington, D.C., until 1986, when she moved to DeLand, Florida, in Volusia County where a niece lived. An avid trout fisherman "Helen W. Gandy, FBI Secretary." The Washington Post. July 13, 1988. C8. , she died of a heart attack on July 7, 1988, either in DeLand (says her New York Times obituary "Helen W. Gandy, Secretary, 91." The New York Times. July 16, 1988. 33. ) or in nearby Orange City, Florida (says her Post obituary). Notes References John Crewdson. "U.S. Investigating Missing F.B.I. Data." The New York Times. June 7, 1972. 14. W. Mark Felt. The FBI Pyramid: From the Inside. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1979. (ISBN 0-399-11904-3). Franklin Dallas Gandy. Post on Ancestry.com . Retrieved July 18, 2005. Curt Gentry. J. Edgar Hoover: The Man and the Secrets. New York: W.W. Norton, 1991. (ISBN 0-393-02404-0) Richard Hack. Puppetmaster: The Secret Life of J. Edgar Hoover. Beverly Hills, California: New Millennium Press, 2004. (ISBN 1-893224-87-2) "Hoover's Political Spying for Presidents". Time Magazine. December 15, 1975. "Obituaries". Orlando Sentinel. July 9, 1988. D10. Gandy's Social Security Death Index. Her SSN was 577-60-1115 William C. Sullivan with Bill Brown. The Bureau: My Thirty Years in Hoover's F.B.I. New York: W.W. Norton, 1979. (ISBN 0-393-01236-0) Athan G. Theoharis, Tony G. Poveda, Susan Rosefeld, and Richard Gid Powers. The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide. New York: Checkmark Books, 2000. (ISBN 0-8160-4228-4) Robert McG. Thomas. "John Mohr, 86, Hoover Confident and Ally at F.B.I." The New York Times. February 1, 1997. 26. "The Truth About Hoover" (cover story) Time Magazine. December 22, 1975. United Press International. "Secretary Says She Destroyed Hoover's Letters on His Orders." The New York Times. December 2, 1975. 14. United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Committee on Government Operations. Subcommittee on Government Information and Individual Rights. Inquiry Into the Destruction of Former FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's Files and FBI Recordkeeping: Hearing Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives, 94th Congress, December 1, 1975. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1975. 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4,313 | Cell_membrane | Illustration of a Eukaryotic cell membrane The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane or plasmalemma) is the biological membrane separating the interior of a cell from the outside environment. Kimball's Biology Pages, Cell Membranes It is a semipermeable lipid bilayer found in all cells. It contains a wide variety of biological molecules, primarily proteins and lipids, which are involved in a vast array of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion channel conductance and cell signaling. The plasma membrane also serves as the attachment point for both the intracellular cytoskeleton and, if present, the extracellular cell wall. Function The cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell and, in animal cells, physically separates the intracellular components from the extracellular environment, thereby serving a function similar to that of skin. In fungi, some bacteria, and plants, an additional cell wall forms the outermost boundary; however, the cell wall plays mostly a mechanical support role rather than a role as a selective boundary. The cell membrane also plays a role in anchoring the cytoskeleton to provide shape to the cell, and in attaching to the extracellular matrix to help group cells together in the formation of tissues. The barrier is selectively permeable and able to regulate what enters and exits the cell, thus facilitating the transport of materials needed for survival. The movement of substances across the membrane can be either passive, occurring without the input of cellular energy, or active, requiring the cell to expend energy in moving it. The membrane also maintains the cell potential. Specific proteins embedded in the cell membrane can act as molecular signals that allow cells to communicate with each other. Protein receptors are found ubiquitously and function to receive signals from both the environment and other cells. These signals are transduced and passed in a different form into the cell. For example, a hormone binding to a receptor could open an ion channel in the receptor and allow calcium ions to flow into the cell. Other proteins on the surface of the cell membrane serve as "markers" that identify a cell to other cells. The interaction of these markers with their respective receptors forms the basis of cell-cell interaction in the immune system. Structure Fluid mosaic model According to the fluid mosaic model of S. J. Singer and Garth Nicolson, the biological membranes can be considered as a two-dimensional liquid where all lipid and protein molecules diffuse more or less freely . This picture may be valid in the space scale of 10 nm. However, the plasma membranes contain different structures or domains that can be classified as (a) protein-protein complexes; (b) lipid rafts, (c) pickets and fences formed by the actin-based cytoskeleton; and (d) large stable structures, such as synapses or desmosomes. The fluid mosaic model can be seen when the membrane proteins of two cells (e.g., a human cell and a mouse cell) are tagged with different-coloured fluorescent labels. When the two cells are fused, the two colours intermix, indicating that the proteins are free to move in the 2D plane. Proteins in the cell membranes may be integral or peripheral. Peripheral proteins are present on only one side of the membrane, and integral proteins span the entire membrane. Lipid bilayer Diagram of the arrangement of amphipathic lipid molecules to form a lipid bilayer. The yellow polar head groups separate the grey hydrophobic tails from the aqueous cytosolic and extracellular environments. The cell membrane consists primarily of a thin layer of amphipathic phospholipids which spontaneously arrange so that the hydrophobic "tail" regions are shielded from the surrounding polar fluid, causing the more hydrophilic "head" regions to associate with the cytosolic and extracellular faces of the resulting bilayer. This forms a continuous, spherical lipid bilayer. The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent polar solutes (e.g. amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins, and ions) from diffusing across the membrane, but generally allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules. This affords the cell the ability to control the movement of these substances via transmembrane protein complexes such as pores and gates. Flippases and Scramblases concentrate phosphatidyl serine, which carries a negative charge, on the inner membrane. Along with NANA, this creates an extra barrier to charged moieties moving through the membrane. Membranes serve diverse functions in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. One important role is to regulate the movement of materials into and out of cells. The phospholipid bilayer structure (fluid mosaic model) with specific membrane proteins accounts for the selective permeability of the membrane and passive and active transport mechanisms. In addition, membranes in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes facilitate the synthesis of ATP through chemiosmosis. Membrane polarity Alpha intercalated cell The apical membrane of a polarized cell is the part of the plasma membrane that forms its lumenal surface, distinct from the basolateral membrane. This is particularly evident in epithelial and endothelial cells, but also describes other polarized cells, such as neurons. The basolateral membrane of a polarized cell is the part of the plasma membrane that forms its basal and lateral surfaces, distinct from the Apical membrane (or lumenal) surface. This is particularly evident in epithelial cells, but also describes other polarized cells, such as neurons. "Basolateral membrane" is a compound phrase referring to the terms basal (base) membrane and lateral (side) membrane, which, especially in epithelial cells, are essentially functionally identical in composition and activity. Proteins (such as ion channels and pumps) are free to move from the basal to the lateral surface of the cell or vice versa in accordance with the fluid mosaic model. Tight junctions that join epithelial cells near their apical surface prevent the migration of proteins to the apical membrane. The basal and lateral surfaces thus remain roughly equivalent to one another, yet distinct from the apical surface. Integral membrane proteins The cell membrane contains many integral membrane proteins, which pepper the entire surface. These structures, which can be visualized by electron microscopy or fluorescence microscopy, can be found on the inside of the membrane, the outside, or membrane spanning. These may include integrins, cadherins, desmosomes, clathrin-coated pits, caveolaes, and different structures involved in cell adhesion. Membrane skeleton The cytoskeleton is found underlying the cell membrane in the cytoplasm and provides a scaffolding for membrane proteins to anchor to, as well as forming organelles that extend from the cell. Indeed, cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and intimately with the cell membrane. Anchoring proteins restricts them to a particular cell surface — for example, the apical surface of epithelial cells that line the vertebrate gut — and limits how far they may diffuse within the bilayer. The cytoskeleton is able to form appendage-like organelles, such as cilia, which are microtubule-based extensions covered by the cell membrane, and filopodia, which are actin-based extensions. These extensions are ensheathed in membrane and project from the surface of the cell in order to sense the external environment and/or make contact with the substrate or other cells. The apical surfaces of epithelial cells are dense with actin-based finger-like projections known as microvilli, which increase cell surface area and thereby increase the absorption rate of nutrients. Localized decoupling of the cytoskeleton and cell membrane results in formation of a bleb. Composition Cell membranes contain a variety of biological molecules, notably lipids and proteins. Material is incorporated into the membrane, or deleted from it, by a variety of mechanisms: Fusion of intracellular vesicles with the membrane (exocytosis) not only excretes the contents of the vesicle but also incorporates the vesicle membrane's components into the cell membrane. The membrane may form blebs around extracellular material that pinch off to become vesicles (endocytosis). If a membrane is continuous with a tubular structure made of membrane material, then material from the tube can be drawn into the membrane continuously. Although the concentration of membrane components in the aqueous phase is low (stable membrane components have low solubility in water), there is an exchange of molecules between the lipid and aqueous phases. Lipids Examples of the major membrane phospholipids and glycolipids: phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho), phosphatidylethanolamine (PtdEtn), phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns), phosphatidylserine (PtdSer). The cell membrane consists of three classes of amphipathic lipids: phospholipids, glycolipids, and steroids. The amount of each depends upon the type of cell, but in the majority of cases phospholipids are the most abundant. In RBC studies, 30% of the plasma membrane is lipid. The fatty chains in phospholipids and glycolipids usually contain an even number of carbon atoms, typically between 16 and 20. The 16- and 18-carbon fatty acids are the most common. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated, with the configuration of the double bonds nearly always cis. The length and the degree of unsaturation of fatty acid chains have a profound effect on membranes fluidity as unsaturated lipids create a kink, preventing the fatty acids from packing together as tightly, thus decreasing the melting temperature (increasing the fluidity) of the membrane. The ability of some organisms to regulate the fluidity of their cell membranes by altering lipid composition is called homeoviscous adaptation. The entire membrane is held together via non-covalent interaction of hydrophobic tails, however the structure is quite fluid and not fixed rigidly in place. Under physiological conditions phospholipid molecules in the cell membrane are in the liquid crystalline state. It means the lipid molecules are free to diffuse and exhibit rapid lateral diffusion along the layer in which they are present. However, the exchange of phospholipid molecules between intracellular and extracellular leaflets of the bilayer is a very slow process. Lipid rafts and caveolae are examples of cholesterol-enriched microdomains in the cell membrane. In animal cells cholesterol is normally found dispersed in varying degrees throughout cell membranes, in the irregular spaces between the hydrophobic tails of the membrane lipids, where it confers a stiffening and strengthening effect on the membrane. Carbohydrates Plasma membranes also contain carbohydrates, predominantly glycoproteins, but with some glycolipids (cerebrosides and gangliosides). For the most part, no glycosylation occurs on membranes within the cell; rather generally glycosylation occurs on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane. The glycocalyx is an important feature in all cells, especially epithelia with microvilli. Recent data suggest the glycocalyx participates in cell adhesion, lymphocyte homing, and many others. The penultimate sugar is galactose and the terminal sugar is sialic acid, as the sugar backbone is modified in the golgi apparatus. Sialic acid carries a negative charge, providing an external barrier to charged particles. Proteins Type Description Examples Integral proteinsor transmembrane proteins Span the membrane and have a hydrophilic cytosolic domain, which interacts with internal molecules, a hydrophobic membrane-spanning domain that anchors it within the cell membrane, and a hydrophilic extracellular domain that interacts with external molecules. The hydrophobic domain consists of one, multiple, or a combination of α-helices and β sheet protein motifs. Ion channels, proton pumps, G protein-coupled receptorLipid anchored proteins Covalently-bound to single or multiple lipid molecules; hydrophobically insert into the cell membrane and anchor the protein. The protein itself is not in contact with the membrane. G proteinsPeripheral proteins Attached to integral membrane proteins, or associated with peripheral regions of the lipid bilayer. These proteins tend to have only temporary interactions with biological membranes, and, once reacted the molecule, dissociates to carry on its work in the cytoplasm. Some enzymes, some hormones The cell membrane plays host to a large amount of protein that is responsible for its various activities. The amount of protein differs between species and according to function, however the typical amount in a cell membrane is 50%. These proteins are undoubtedly important to a cell: Approximately a third of the genes in yeast code specifically for them, and this number is even higher in multicellular organisms. The cell membrane, being exposed to the outside environment, is an important site of cell-cell communication. As such, a large variety of protein receptors and identification proteins, such as antigens, are present on the surface of the membrane. Functions of membrane proteins can also include cell-cell contact, surface recognition, cytoskeleton contact, signaling, enzymatic activity, or transporting substances across the membrane. Most membrane proteins must be inserted in some way into the membrane. For this to occur, an N-terminus "signal sequence" of amino acids directs proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum, which inserts the proteins into a lipid bilayer. Once inserted, the proteins is then transported to its final destination in vesicles, where the vesicle fuses with the target membrane. Variation The cell membrane has slightly different composition in different cell types and has therefore different denominations in different cell types: Sarcolemma in myocytes Oolemma in oocytes. Permeability The permeability of membranes is the ease of molecules to pass through it. Permability depends mainly on the electric charge of the molecule and to a lesser extent the molar mass of the molecule. Electrically-neutral and small molecules pass the membrane easier than charged, large ones. The inability of charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane results in pH parturition of substances throughout the fluid compartments of the body. See also Cell damage, including damage to the cell membrane Ammonium transporter AP2 adaptors Bacterial cell structure Cell adhesion Efflux (microbiology) Elasticity of cell membranes Gram-negative bacteria Gram-positive bacteria References External links Lipids, Membranes and Vesicle Trafficking - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology Cell membrane protein extraction protocol Membrane homeostasis, tension regulation, mechanosensitive membrane exchange and membrane traffic 3D structures of proteins associated with plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells Lipid composition and proteins of some eukariotic membranes | Cell_membrane |@lemmatized illustration:1 eukaryotic:3 cell:95 membrane:104 also:10 call:2 plasma:9 plasmalemma:1 biological:5 separate:3 interior:1 outside:3 environment:6 kimball:1 biology:2 page:1 semipermeable:1 lipid:24 bilayer:11 find:5 contain:6 wide:1 variety:4 molecule:18 primarily:2 protein:42 involve:2 vast:1 array:1 cellular:2 process:2 adhesion:4 ion:6 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4,314 | Hobby | A hobby is a spare-time recreational pursuit. Etymology A hobby horse is a wooden or wickerwork toy made to be ridden just like a real horse (which was sometimes called a "Hobby"). From this came the expression "to ride one's hobby-horse", meaning "to follow a favourite pastime", and in turn, hobby in the modern sense of recreation. Chicago Manual Style (CMS): hobby. Dictionary.com. Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/hobby (accessed: July 12, 2007). Retrieved July 12, 2007, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/hobby Hobbies are practiced for interest and enjoyment, rather than financial reward. Examples include collecting, creative and artistic pursuits, making, tinkering, sports and adult education. Engaging in a hobby can lead to acquiring substantial skill, knowledge and experience. However, personal fulfillment is the aim. What are hobbies for some people are professions for others: a chef may enjoy playing computer games as a hobby, while a professional game tester might enjoy cooking. Generally speaking, the person who does something for fun, not remuneration, is called an amateur (or hobbyist), as distinct from a professional. An important determinant of what is considered a hobby, as distinct from a profession (beyond the lack of remuneration), is probably how easy it is to make a living at the activity. Almost no one can make a living at cigarette card or stamp collecting, but many people find it enjoyable; so it is commonly regarded as a hobby. Amateur astronomers often make meaningful contributions to the professionals. It is not entirely uncommon for a hobbyist to be the first to discover a celestial body or event. In the UK, the pejorative noun anorak (similar to the Japanese "otaku", meaning a geek or enthusiast) is often applied to people who obsessively pursue a particular hobby that is otherwise considered boring, such as train spotting or stamp collecting. Development of hobbies into other ventures Whilst some hobbies strike many people as trivial or boring, hobbyists have found something compelling and entertaining about them. Much early scientific research was, in effect, a hobby of the wealthy; more recently, Linux began as a student's hobby. A hobby may not be as trivial as it appears at a time when it has relatively few followers. Thus a British conservationist recalls that when seen wearing field glasses at a London station in the 1930s he was asked if he was going to the (horse) races. The anecdote indicates that at the time an interest in nature was not widely perceived as a credible hobby. Practitioners of that hobby went on to become the germs of the conservation movement that flourished in Britain from 1965 onwards and became a global political movement within a generation. Conversely, the hobby of aircraft spotting probably originated as part of a serious activity designed to detect arriving waves of enemy aircraft entering English airspace during World War II. In peacetime it usually has no such practical or social purpose. Developing a Hobby Into Hobby Business It is easier to turn a Hobby Business into a money making opportunity because the driver is passion and to some degree obsession. Turning your passion into a business say for example in arts and crafts, a home studio is all you need; a space to be creative. Gift shops, specialty stores, galleries and arts cafes are the best avenues to exhibit and sell artworks, pottery, woodcraft, sewing craft. Another example of Hobby Business is a hobby farm. Breeding alpacas is very popular among early retirees as is the old fashioned hobby of preserving and pickling. Homemade, specialty foods, such as, puddings, preserves and sauces are taking over in popularity over the more mainstream commercial varieties, because of the trending attitude to buy organic especially if they are homemade produce grown from the manufacturer's own farm. Scrapbooking is a modern profitable hobby. Known as scrappers, these hobbyists, have created a new industry from their passion. Scrapbooking websites are growing and thriving worldwide. Types of hobbies Collecting The hobby of collecting consists of acquiring specific items based on a particular interest of the collector. These collections of things are often highly organized, carefully cataloged, and attractively displayed. Since collecting depends on the interests of the individual collector, it may deal with almost any subject. The depth and breadth of the collection may also vary. Some collectors choose to focus on a specific subtopic within their area of general interest: for example, 19th Century postage stamps, milk bottle labels from Sussex, or Mongolian harnesses and tack. Others prefer to keep a more general collection, accumulating Star Trek merchandise, or stamps from all countries of the world. There are also individuals, who take up collection of coins (Numismatics) or autographs (Philography) as their hobby; in both the cases the people try to hold on to the identities. Some collections are capable of being completed, at least to the extent of owning one sample of each possible item in the collection (e.g. a copy of every book by Agatha Christie). Collectors who specifically try to assemble complete collections in this way are sometimes called "completists." Upon completing a particular collection, they may stop collecting, expand the collection to include related items, or begin an entirely new collection. The most popular fields in collecting have specialized commercial dealers that trade in the items being collected, as well as related accessories. Many of these dealers started as collectors themselves, then turned their hobby into a profession. There are some limitations on collecting, however. Someone who has the financial means to collect stamps might not be able to collect sports-cars, for example. One alternative to collecting physical objects is collecting experiences of a particular kind. Examples include collecting through observation or photography (especially popular for transportation, e.g. train spotting, aircraft spotting, metrophiles, bus spotting; see also I-Spy), bird-watching, and systematically visiting continents, countries (and collecting stamps in their passports), states, national parks, counties etc. Games Card game, 1895. A game is a structured or semi-structured recreational activity, usually undertaken for enjoyment (although sometimes for physical or vocational training). A goal that the players try to reach and a set of rules concerning what the players can or cannot do create the challenge and structure in a game, and are thus central to its definition. Known to have been played as far back as prehistoric times, games are generally distinct from work, which is usually carried out for remuneration. Because a wide variety of activities are enjoyable, numerous types of games have developed. What creates an enjoyable game varies from one individual to the next. Age, understanding (of the game), intelligence level, and (to some extent) personality are factors that determine what games a person enjoys. Depending on these factors, people vary the number and complexity of objectives, rules, challenges, and participants to increase their enjoyment. Games generally involve mental and/or physical stimulation. Many games help develop practical skills and serve as exercise or perform an educational, simulational or psychological role & also roaming. Outdoor recreation Outdoor pursuits can be loosely considered to be the group of sports and activities which are dependent on the great outdoors, incorporating such things as hill walking, hiking, backpacking, canoeing, kayaking, climbing, caving, and arguably broader groups such as watersports and snowsport. Outdoor sports most often include nature in the "sport". While obviously enjoyed by many as a bit of fun, an adrenaline rush, or an escape from reality, outdoor sport is also frequently used as an extremely effective medium in education and teambuilding. It is this ethos that has given rise to links with young people, such as the Duke of Edinburgh's Award and PGL, and large numbers of outdoor education centres being established, as the stress on the importance of a balanced and widespread education continues to grow. Depending on the persons' desired level of adrenaline, outdoors can be considered a type of hobby. As interest increases, so has the rise of commercial outdoor pursuits, with outdoor kit stores opening up in large numbers and thriving, as well as outdoor pursuits journalism and magazines, both on paper and online. The increased accessibility of outdoor pursuits resources has been the source of some negative publicity over the years also, with complaints of destroying the landscape. A widely-seen example is the destruction of hillsides as footpaths are eroded by excessive numbers of visitors. Performing arts An amateur magician performing. Many hobbies involve performing by the hobbyist, such as singing, acting, juggling, magic, dancing and other performing arts. Creative Hobbies Some hobbies result in an end product of sorts. Examples of this would be woodworking, photography, moviemaking, jewelry making, playing a musical instrument, software projects, artistic projects (such as drawing, painting, etc.), creating models out of card or paper called papercraft up to higher end projects like building or restoring a car, or building a computer from scratch. While these may just be for the enjoyment of the hobbyist, they sometimes have potential to be a small business. Scale Modeling / Dioramas Replicas of real things in a smaller scale go all the way back to prehistoric times, as small clay "dolls" and other children's toys have been found near known population areas. Greeks, Romans, and Persians took the form to a greater depth during their years of world domination, using scale replicas of enemy fortifications, coastal defense lines, and other geographic fixtures to plan battles. At the turn of the Industrial Age through the 1920s, families could more often afford things such as electric trains, wind up toys (typically boats or cars) and the increasingly valuable tin toy soldiers. Model engineering refers to building functioning machinery in metal, such as internal combustion motors and live steam models or locomotives. This is a demanding hobby, requiring a multitude of large and expensive tools, e.g. lathes and mills. This hobby originated in the UK in the late 1800s, later spread and flourished in the mid-1900s. Due to the expense and space required, it is becoming more rare. Scale modeling as we know it today became popular shortly after World War II. Prior to 1946, children as well as adults were content in carving and shaping wooden replicas from block wood kits, often depicting enemy aircraft to help in identification in case of invasion. With the advent of modern plastics, the amount of skill required to get the basic shape accurately shown for any given subject was lessened, making it easier for people of all ages to begin assembling replicas in varying scales. Superheros, aeroplanes, boats, cars, tanks, artillery, and even figures of soldiers became quite popular subjects to build, paint and display. Although almost any subject can be found in almost any scale, there are common scales for such miniatures which remain constant today... The most popular scales for each subject are (in order of popularity): A "night shot" of a coffee-table sized Z scale model railroad layout. Cars (1:24, 1:25, 1:32) Railroads (1:87/1:76, 1:160, 1:220, plus ridable "backyard railroads", 1:8 and smaller.) Planes (1:48, 1:72, 1:32) Armor (1:35, 1:72: 1:48) Soldiers (1:32, 1:35, 1:48, 1:6) Figures are probably the most variable of all subjects in terms of scale, and are often referred to as their metric equivalent... for example, a 1:32 scale figure soldier is more commonly described as "54mm". Likewise other popular sizes are 90mm, 120mm and almost every increment in between. An example of a Diorama hobbie is Warhammer 40,000, from Games Workshop In addition to plastic kits, resin has become a popular material for "short run" productions. The level of detail is often quite exquisite, and while more expensive than the typical plastic soldier, is much easier to work with and modify than White Metal or Pewter figures. Scale modeling is no longer a high growth industry as it was during the 60's and 70's, but there are still thousands of retail shops selling kits, supplies, paints, and tools to support both the new and established hobbyist. There are certainly more companies producing more varieties of kits on various subjects than ever before, and the levels of detail has become unbelievably accurate with the advent of modern drafting and molding equipment, and digitized CAD software to drive accuracy to the 1000th of an inch. With the increased costs of good kits moving upward, and entertainment competition for youth moving more towards computers and video gaming in the home, the average age of the avid hobbyist is now much older than ever before - with adults making up the vast majority of enthusiasts. At the same time, there are probably more people building now than ever, and there is a large selection of supportive magazines such as Fine Scale Modeller, Military Miniatures in Review (MMiR) and Tamiya Magazine to please almost every niche and taste of interest, from every imaginable era. There are also several modeling clubs in most cities, with the largest and best known International Plastic Modeler's Society (IPMS)supporting chapters and contests around the world. Cooking Cooking is an act of preparing food for eating. It encompasses a vast range of methods, tools and combinations of ingredients to improve the flavour or digestibility of food. It generally requires the selection, measurement and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure in an effort to achieve the desired result. Constraints on success include the variability of ingredients, ambient conditions, tools and the skill of the individual cooking. The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the myriad nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural and religious considerations that impact upon it. Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually, though not always, chemically transforms it, thus changing its flavor, texture, appearance, and nutritional properties. Cooking proper, as opposed to roasting, requires the boiling of water in a receptacle, and was practised at least since the 10th millennium BC with the introduction of pottery. There is archaeological evidence of roasted foodstuffs, both animal and vegetable, in human (Homo erectus) campsites dating from the earliest known use of fire some 800,000 years ago. Gardening Gardening is the art of growing plants with the goal of crafting a purposeful landscape. Residential gardening most often takes place in or about a residence, in a space referred to as the garden. Although a garden typically is located on the land near a residence, it may also be located in a roof, in an atrium, on a balcony, in a windowbox, or on a patio or vivarium. A gardener Gardening also takes place in non-residential green areas, such as parks, public or semi-public gardens (botanical gardens or zoological gardens), amusement and theme parks, along transportation corridors, and around tourist attractions and hotels. In these situations, a staff of gardeners or groundskeepers maintains the gardens. Indoor gardening is concerned with the growing of houseplants within a residence or building, in a conservatory, or in a greenhouse. Indoor gardens are sometimes incorporated as part of air conditioning or heating systems. Water gardening is concerned with growing plants adapted to pools and ponds. Bog gardens are also considered a type of water garden. These all require special conditions and considerations. A simple water garden may consist solely of a tub containing the water and plant(s). Reading Reading, such as reading books, magazines, comics, or newspapers, is a common and one that can its origins back many hundreds of years. A love of literature later in life may be sparked by an interest in reading children's literature as a child Children's reading Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch (1863–1944). On the Art of Reading. 1920. (retrieved21 April 2009) One of the great benefits of reading as a hobby is that it can be taken up and put down whenever a free moment presents itself. When reading paperback books, it is easy to take the reading material on holiday or on public transport with very little inconvenience. One great advantage is that it allow the human mind to create its own view of the world portrayed in the book, something that can be disappointing when a book is made into a play for television or into a film. See also Amateur radio Avocation Bibliography Stebbins, Robert A. (2007) Serious Leisure: A Perspective for Our Time. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. 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4,315 | Puerto_Rico | Puerto Rico ( or ), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( — literally Associated Free State of Puerto Rico), is a self-governing unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of the Virgin Islands. Puerto Rico is composed of an archipelago that includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller islands and keys, the largest of which are Vieques, Culebra, and Mona. The main island of Puerto Rico is the smallest by land area and second smallest by population among the four Greater Antilles, which also include Cuba, Hispaniola, and Jamaica. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen, from Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name. Allatson, Paul. Key Terms in Latino/a Cultural and Literary Studies, p. 47. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. ISBN 1405102500. Dictionary: Taino Indigenous Peoples of the Caribbean Retrieved: February 21, 2008. (Based on the encyclopedia "Clásicos de Puerto Rico", 2nd. edition. Ed. Cayetano Coll y Toste. Publisher: Ediciones Latinoamericanas, S.A., 1972.). The terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also popularly known as "La Isla del Encanto", which translated means "The Island of Enchantment." History Pre-Columbian era The history of the archipelago of Puerto Rico before the arrival of Christopher Columbus is not well known. What is known today comes from archaeological findings and early Spanish accounts. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Iñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, 293 years after the first Spaniards arrived on the island. Taíno Village at the Tibes Ceremonial Center The first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen. An archaeological dig in the island of Vieques in 1990 found the remains of what is believed to be an Arcaico (Archaic) man (named Puerto Ferro man) dated to around 2000 BC. Between AD 120 and 400 arrived the Igneri, a tribe from the South American Orinoco region. Between the 4th and 10th centuries, the Arcaicos and Igneri co-existed (and perhaps clashed) on the island. Between the 7th and 11th centuries the Taíno culture developed on the island, and by approximately 1000 AD had become dominant. This lasted until Christopher Columbus arrived in 1492. 500 Years of Puerto Rican History through the Eyes of Others. The Newberry library Spanish colony When Christopher Columbus arrived in Puerto Rico during his second voyage on November 19, 1493, the island was inhabited by a group of Arawak Indians known as Taínos. They called the island "Borikén" or, in Spanish, "Borinquen". Today, Puerto Ricans are also known as Boricuas, or people from Borinquen. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist. Later the island took the name of Puerto Rico (Spanish for "Rich Port") while the capital was named San Juan. In 1508, Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León became the island's first governor to take office. Vicente Yáñez Pinzón was the first appointed governor but he never arrived on the island. Garita at fort San Felipe del Morro The Spanish soon colonized the island. Taínos were forced into slavery and were decimated by the harsh conditions of work and by diseases brought by the Spaniards. "History of Smallpox - Smallpox Through the Ages". Texas Department of State Health Services. In 1511, the Taínos revolted against the Spanish; cacique Urayoán, as planned by Agüeybaná II, ordered his warriors to drown the Spanish soldier Diego Salcedo to determine whether the Spaniards were immortal. After drowning Salcedo, they kept watch over his body for three days to confirm his death. The revolt was easily crushed by Ponce de León and within a few decades much of the native population had been decimated by disease, violence, and a high occurrence of suicide. By 1520, when Charles V issued a royal decree that collectively emancipated the remaining Taíno population, the Taíno presence had almost vanished. Puerto Rico. Russell Schimmer, GSP, Yale University. African slaves were introduced to replace the Taíno. Puerto Rico soon became an important stronghold and port for the Spanish Empire. Various forts and walls, such as La Fortaleza, El Castillo San Felipe del Morro and El Castillo de San Cristóbal, were built to protect the port of San Juan from European enemies. France, The Netherlands and England made several attempts to capture Puerto Rico but failed to wrest long-term occupancy. During the late 17th and early 18th centuries colonial emphasis was on the more prosperous mainland territories, leaving the island impoverished of settlers. In 1809, in the midst of the Peninsular War, the Supreme Central Junta based in Cádiz recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain with the right to send representatives to the recently convened Spanish parliament. The representative, Ramon Power y Giralt, died after serving a three-year term in the Cortes. These parliamentary and constitutional reforms, which were in force from 1810 to 1814 and again from 1820 to 1823, were reversed twice afterwards when the traditional monarchy was restored by Ferdinand VII. Nineteenth century reforms augmented the population and economy, and expanded the local character of the island. After the rapid gaining of independence by the South and Central American states in the first part of the century, Puerto Rico and Cuba became the only Spanish colonies found in the Americas. The Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. This time the decree was printed in three languages — Spanish, English and French — intending to attract Europeans of non-Spanish origin, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity and strength with the arrival of new settlers. Free land was offered to those who wanted to populate the islands on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. Real Cédula de 1789 "para el comercio de Negros" The Original Lares Revolutionary Flag Toward the end of the 19th century, poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as "Grito de Lares". It began in the rural town of Lares but was subdued when rebels moved to the neighboring town of San Sebastián. Leaders of this independence movement included Ramón Emeterio Betances, considered the "father" of the Puerto Rican independence movement, and other political figures such as Segundo Ruiz Belvis. In 1897, Luis Muñoz Rivera and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to Charters of Autonomy for Cuba and Puerto Rico. In 1898, Puerto Rico's first, but short-lived, autonomous government was organized as an 'overseas province' of Spain. The charter maintained a governor appointed by Spain, which held the power to annul any legislative decision, and a partially elected parliamentary structure. In February, Governor-General Manuel Macías inaugurated the new government under the Autonomous Charter. General elections were held in March and the autonomous government began to function on July 17, 1898. United States colony On July 25, 1898, during the Spanish-American War, Puerto Rico was invaded by the United States with a landing at Guánica. As an outcome of the war, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, along with Cuba, the Philippines, and Guam to the U.S. under the Treaty of Paris. The United States and Puerto Rico thus began a long-standing relationship. Puerto Rico began the 20th century under the military rule of the U.S. with officials, including the governor, appointed by the President of the United States. The Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto Rico a certain amount of popular government, including a popularly-elected House of Representatives. In 1917, the Jones-Shafroth Act granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship and provided for a popularly-elected Senate to complete a bicameral Legislative Assembly. As a result of their new U.S. citizenship, many Puerto Ricans were drafted into World War I and all subsequent wars with U.S. participation. Natural disasters, including a major earthquake, a tsunami and several hurricanes, and the Great Depression impoverished the island during the first few decades under American rule. Some political leaders, like Pedro Albizu Campos who led the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, demanded change. On March 21, 1937, a march was organized in the southern city of Ponce by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party which turned into a bloody event when the local police opened fire upon the cadets and bystanders. It has since then become known as the Ponce massacre. The internal governance changed during the latter years of the Roosevelt–Truman administrations, as a form of compromise led by Muñoz Marín and others. It culminated with the appointment by President Truman in 1946 of the first Puerto Rican-born governor, Jesús T. Piñero. On June 11, 1948, Piñero, signed the "Ley de la Mordaza" (Gag Law) or Law 53 as it was officially known, passed by the Puerto Rican legislature which made it illegal to display the Puerto Rican Flag, sing patriotic songs, talk of independence and to fight for the liberation of the island. It resembled the anti-communist Smith Law passed in the United States. Puerto Rican History Commonwealth In 1947, the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to democratically elect their own governor. Luis Muñoz Marín was elected during the 1948 general elections, becoming the first popularly-elected governor of Puerto Rico. In 1950, the Truman Administration allowed for a democratic referendum in Puerto Rico to determine whether Puerto Ricans desired to draft their own local constitution. Act of July 3, 1950, Ch. 446, 64 Stat. 319. On October 30, 1950, Albizu-Campos and other nationalists led a 3-day revolt against the United States in various cities and towns of Puerto Rico. The most notable occurred in Jayuya and Utuado. In the Jayuya revolt, known as the Jayuya Uprising, the United States declared martial law and attacked Jayuya with infantry, artillery and bombers. The Utuado Uprising culminated in what is known as the Utuado massacre. On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo attempted to assassinate President Harry S Truman. Torresola was killed during the attack, but Collazo was captured. Collazo served 29 years in a federal prison, being released in 1979. Don Pedro Albizu Campos also served many years in a federal prison in Atlanta, Georgia, for seditious conspiracy to overthrow the U.S. government in Puerto Rico. A local constitution was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6, 1952, ratified by the U.S. Congress, approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year, and proclaimed by Gov. Muñoz Marín on July 25, 1952, the anniversary of the 1898 arrival of U.S. troops. Puerto Rico adopted the name of Estado Libre Asociado (literally translated as "Free Associated State"), officially translated into English as Commonwealth, for its body politic. Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico - in Spanish (Spanish). Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico - in English (English translation). During the 1950s Puerto Rico experienced rapid industrialization, due in large part to Operación Manos a la Obra ("Operation Bootstrap"), an offshoot of FDR's New Deal, which aimed to transform Puerto Rico's economy from agriculture-based to manufacturing-based. Presently, Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination and a leading pharmaceutical and manufacturing center. Yet it still struggles to define its political status. Three plebiscites have been held in recent decades to resolve the political status but no changes have been attained. Support for the pro-statehood party, Partido Nuevo Progresista (PNP) and the pro-commonwealth party, Partido Popular Democrático (PPD) remains about equal. The only registered pro-independence party, the Partido Independentista Puertorriqueño (PIP), usually receives 3-5% of the electoral votes. On October 25, 2006, the State Department of Puerto Rico conferred Puerto Rican citizenship to Juan Mari Brás. Comunicado de Prensa, Departamento de Estado Concederá Certificacion de Ciudadania de Puerto Rico al Licenciado Juan Mari Bras, 25 de Octubre de 2006. Retrieved: February 24, 2008. The Supreme Court of Puerto Rico and the Puerto Rican Secretary of Justice determined that Puerto Rican citizenship exists and was recognized in the Constitution of Puerto Rico. Since the summer of 2007, the Puerto Rico State Department has developed the protocol to grant Puerto Rican citizenship to Puerto Ricans. Government and politics South view of the Capitol, home of the Legislative Assembly in Puerto Rico Puerto Rico has a republican form of government, Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Article I, Section 2 subject to U.S. jurisdiction and sovereignty. Its current powers are all delegated by the United States Congress and lack full protection under the United States Constitution. Puerto Rico's head of state is the President of the United States. The government of Puerto Rico, based on the formal republican system, is composed of three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. The executive branch is headed by the Governor, currently Luis Fortuño. The legislative branch consists of a bicameral Legislative Assembly made up of a Senate upper chamber and a House of Representatives lower chamber. The Senate is headed by the President of the Senate, while the House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker of the House. The judicial branch is headed by the Chief Justice of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court. The legal system is a mix of the civil law and the common law systems. The governor and legislators are elected by popular vote every four years. Members of the Judicial branch are appointed by the governor with the "advice and consent" of the Senate. Puerto Rico is represented in the United States Congress by a nonvoting delegate, formally called a Resident Commissioner (currently Pedro Pierluisi). Current legislation has returned the Commissioner's power to vote in the Committee of the Whole, but not on matters where the vote would represent a decisive participation. Rules of the House of Representatives Puerto Rican elections are governed by the Federal Election Commission. Puerto Rico Primary Election Report Notice 2008 Presidential Primary Dates and Candidates Filling Datelines for Ballot Access While residing in Puerto Rico, Puerto Ricans cannot vote in U.S. presidential elections, but they can vote in primaries. Puerto Ricans who become residents of a U.S. state can vote in presidential elections. As Puerto Rico is not an independent country, it hosts no embassies. It is host, however, to consulates from 41 countries, mainly from the Americas and Europe. Consulados. Link to Puerto Rico Most consulates are located in San Juan. As an unincorporated territory of the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first-order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. government, but has 78 municipalities at the second level. Mona Island is not a municipality, but part of the municipality of Mayagüez. Mayagüez. Enciclopedia de Puerto Rico Municipalities are subdivided into wards or barrios, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for a four year term. The municipality of San Juan (previously called "town"), was founded first, in 1521, San Germán in 1570, Coamo in 1579, Arecibo in 1614, Aguada in 1692 and Ponce in 1692. An increase of settlement saw the founding of 30 municipalities in the 18th century and 34 in the 19th. Six were founded in the 20th century; the last was Florida in 1971. LinktoPR.com - Fundación de los Pueblos. From 1952 to 2007, Puerto Rico had three political parties which stood for three distinct future political scenarios. The Popular Democratic Party (PPD) seeks to maintain the island's "association" status as a commonwealth, improved commonwealth and/or seek a true free sovereign-association status or Free Associated Republic, and has won a plurality vote in referendums on the island's status held over six decades after the island was invaded by the U.S. The New Progressive Party (PNP) seeks statehood. The Puerto Rican Independence Party seeks independence. In 2007, a fourth party, the Puerto Ricans for Puerto Rico Party (PPR), was ratified. The PPR claims that it seeks to address the islands' problems from a status-neutral platform. Non-registered parties include the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, the Socialist Workers Movement, the Hostosian National Independence Movement, and others. Political status Since 1917, people born in Puerto Rico are U.S. citizens. As such, they are entitled to vote at the federal level, but not from the island, as the territory is not incorporated. The legal restriction to vote at the federal level extends only to the territory, not to its citizens. In this fashion, all U.S. citizens can vote at the federal level from any part of the world or incorporated territories of the U.S. By the same token, no U.S. citizen may vote at the federal level if they reside in Puerto Rico, although they can vote at the "state" (local) level. Most Federal level taxes do not apply to island residents, as taxation is one of the powers delegated to the local authorities. See also: Voting rights in Puerto Rico Puerto Rico is an "unincorporated territory" of the United States which according to the U.S. Supreme Court's Insular Cases is "a territory appurtenant and belonging to the United States, but not a part of the United States." Downes v. Bidwell 182 U.S. 244, 287 (1901); Balzac v. Porto Rico, 258 U.S. 298 (1922). Puerto Rico is subject to the Congress’ plenary powers under the territorial clause of Article IV, sec. 3, of the U.S. Constitution. U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3, cl. 2 ("The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States..."). U.S. federal law applies to Puerto Rico, even though Puerto Rico is not a state of the American Union and has no voting representative in the U.S. Congress. Due to the establishment of the Federal Relations Act of 1950, all federal laws that are "not locally inapplicable" are automatically the law of the land in Puerto Rico. 39 Stat. 954, 48 USCA 734 "The statutory laws of the United States not locally inapplicable, except as hereinbefore or hereinafter otherwise provided, shall have the same force and effect in Porto Rico as in the United Status…". Estado Libre Asociado In 1950, the U.S. Congress granted Puerto Ricans the right to organize a constitutional convention via a referendum that gave them the option of voting their preference, "yes" or "no", on a proposed U.S. law that would organize Puerto Rico as a "commonwealth" that would suppose continued United States sovereignty over Puerto Rico and its people. Puerto Rico's electorate expressed its support for this measure in 1951 with a second referendum to ratify the constitution. The Constitution of Puerto Rico was formally adopted on July 3, 1952. The Constitutional Convention specified the name by which the body politic would be known. On February 4, 1952, the convention approved Resolution 22 which chose in English the word "Commonwealth", meaning a "politically organized community" or "state", which is simultaneously connected by a compact or treaty to another political system. The convention adopted a translation into Spanish of the term, inspired by the Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann) of "Estado Libre Asociado" (ELA) to represent the agreement. Literally translated into English the phrase Estado Libre Asociado means "Associated Free State." While the approval of the commonwealth constitution marked a historic change in the civil government for the islands, neither it, nor the public laws approved by Congress in 1950 and 1952, revoked statutory provisions concerning the legal relationship of Puerto Rico to the United States. This relationship is based on the Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution. The statutory provisions that set forth the conditions of the relationship are commonly referred to as the Federal Relations Act (FRA). While specified subsections of the FRA were "adopted in the nature of a compact," other provisions, by comparison, are excluded from the compact reference. Matters still subject to congressional authority and established pursuant to legislation include the citizenship status of residents, tax provisions, civil rights, trade and commerce, public finance, the administration of public lands controlled by the federal government, the application of federal law over navigable waters, congressional representation, and the judicial process, among others. . In 1967, the Puerto Rico's Legislative Assembly polled the political preferences of the Puerto Rican electorate by passing a plebiscite Act that provided for a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. This constituted the first plebiscite by the Legislature for a choice on three status options (commonwealth, statehood, and independence). Claiming "foul play" and dubbing the process as illegitimate and contrary to International Law norms regarding decolonization procedures, the plebiscite was boycotted by the major pro-statehood and pro-independence parties of the time, the [Republican Party of Puerto Rico] and the Puerto Rican Independence Party, respectively. The Commonwealth option, represented by the PDP, won with a majority of 60.4% of the votes. After the plebiscite, efforts in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, to enact legislation to address the status issue died in U.S. Congressional committees. In subsequent plebiscites organized by Puerto Rico held in 1993 and 1998 (without any formal commitment on the part of the U.S. Government to honor the results), the current political status failed to receive majority support (receiving 48.6% in 1993 and less than one percent, 0.3%, in 1998, when the "none of the above option" received the joint vote of voters who supported "enhanced" commonwealth with sovereignty from the U.S. and some pro-independence supporters). Elections in Puerto Rico: 1993 Status Plebiscite Results. Elections in Puerto Rico: 1998 Status Plebiscite Results. International status On November 27, 1953, shortly after the establishment of the Commonwealth, the General Assembly of the United Nations approved Resolution 748, removing Puerto Rico's classification as a non-self-governing territory under article 73(e) of the Charter from UN. But the General Assembly did not apply its full list of criteria to Puerto Rico to determine if it has achieved self-governing status. According to the White House Task Force on Puerto Rico's Political Status in its December 21, 2007 report, the U.S., in its written submission to the UN in 1953, never represented that Congress could not change its relationship with Puerto Rico without the territory's consent. It stated that the U.S. Justice Department in 1959 reiterated that Congress held power over Puerto Rico pursuant to the Territorial Clause Art. IV, Sec. 3, clause 2, U.S. Constitution of the U.S. Constitution. In a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill, the "U.S. House Committee on Resources stated that PR's current status does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self-government". It concluded that PR is still an unincorporated territory of the U.S. under the territorial clause, that the establishment of local self-government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by the U.S. Congress, and that U.S. Congress can also withdraw the U.S. citizenship of PR residents of PR at any time, for a legitimate Federal purpose. The application of the Constitution to Puerto Rico is limited by the Insular Cases. Within the United States Under the Constitution of Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico is described as a 'Commonwealth' and Puerto Ricans enjoy a degree of administrative autonomy similar to that of a U.S. state. Puerto Ricans have been granted U.S. citizenship in 1917 due to the Jones-Shafroth Act. The act was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on March 2, 1917. U.S. Federal law approved by the President Harry S. Truman on June 27, 1952 declared U.S. Citizens at birth to all persons born in Puerto Rico on or after January 13, 1941 and all persons born in Puerto Rico between April 11, 1899, and January 12, 1941, are automatically conferred citizenship, but, since Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory and not a U.S. state, the U.S. Constitution does not enfranchise U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico. President George H. W. Bush issued a memorandum on November 30, 1992 to heads of executive departments and agencies establishing the current administrative relationship between the federal government and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. This memorandum directs all federal departments, agencies, and officials to treat Puerto Rico administratively as if it were a state, insofar as doing so would not disrupt federal programs or operations. Puerto Rico does participate in the internal political process of both the Democratic and Republican parties in the U.S., accorded equal-proportional representation in both parties, and delegates from the islands vote in each party's national convention. Puerto Rico is classified by the U.S. government as an independent taxation authority by mutual agreement with the U.S. Congress. Contrary to common misconception, residents of Puerto Rico pay some U.S. federal taxes: import/export taxes, federal commodity taxes, social security taxes, etc. Most residents do not pay federal income tax but pay federal payroll taxes (Social Security and Medicare), and Puerto Rico income taxes. But federal employees, or those who do business with the federal government, Puerto Rico-based corporations that intend to send funds to the U.S. and others also pay federal income taxes. Because the cutoff point for income taxation is lower than that of the U.S. IRS code, and because the per-capita income in Puerto Rico is much lower than the average per-capita income on the mainland, more Puerto Rico residents pay less income tax (or fewer income taxes) to the local taxation authority than if the IRS code were applied to the island. Residents are eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement. But Puerto Rico is excluded from Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and receives less than 15% of the Medicaid funding it would be allotted as a state, while Medicare providers receive only partial state-like reimbursements for services rendered to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico (even though the latter paid fully into the system). Puerto Ricans may enlist in the U.S. military. Since becoming statutory United States citizens in 1917, Puerto Ricans have been included in the compulsory draft whenever it has been in effect. Puerto Ricans have participated in all U.S. wars since 1898, most notably World War II, the Korean and Vietnam wars, as well as the current Middle Eastern conflicts. Recent developments The nature of Puerto Rico's political relationship with the U.S. is the subject of ongoing debate in Puerto Rico, the United States Congress, and the United Nations. In 2005 and 2007, two reports were issued by the U.S. President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status. Both reports conclude that Puerto Rico continues to be a territory of U.S. under the plenary powers of the U.S. Congress. Reactions from Puerto Rico's two major political parties were mixed. The Popular Democratic Party (PPD) challenged the task force's report and committed to validating the current status in all international forums, including the United Nations. It also rejects any "colonial or territorial status" as a status option, and vows to keep working for the enhanced Commonwealth status that was approved by the PPD in 1998 which included sovereignty, an association based on "respect and dignity between both nations", and common citizenship. Independence Hearing by the Puerto Rico Herald. The New Progressive Party (PNP) supported the White House Report's conclusions and supported bills to provide for a democratic referendum process among Puerto Rico voters. Geography Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra, Mona, Desecheo, and Caja de Muertos. Of these last five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Mona is uninhabited most of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources. There are also many other even smaller islands including Monito and "La Isleta de San Juan" which includes Old San Juan and Puerta de Tierra. Puerto Rican mountains The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has an area of , of which is land and is water. CIA - The World Factbook -- Puerto Rico#Geography The maximum length of the main island from east to west is , and the maximum width from north to south is . Comparing land areas, Puerto Rico is 8/10 the size of Jamaica and 8/100 the size of Cuba, the next smallest and the largest countries in the Greater Antilles, respectively. Compared to U.S. states, it is larger than Delaware and Rhode Island combined, but slightly smaller than Connecticut. The main island is mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the north and south. The main mountain range is called "La Cordillera Central" (The Central Range). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta (4,390 feet; 1,338 m), is located in this range. Another important peak is El Yunque, one of the highest in the Sierra de Luquillo at the El Yunque National Forest, with an elevation of 3,494 feet (1,065 m). Puerto Rico has 17 lakes, all man-made, Los Lagos de Puerto Rico (archived from the original on 2007-06-29). and more than 50 rivers, most originating in the Cordillera Central. Rivers in the northern region of the island are typically longer and of higher water flow rates than those of the south, since the south receives less rain than the central and northern regions. Corcho Beach in Vieques Puerto Rico is composed of Cretaceous to Eocene volcanic and plutonic rocks, overlain by younger Oligocene and more recent carbonates and other sedimentary rocks. Most of the caverns and karst topography on the island occurs in the northern region in the carbonates. The oldest rocks are approximately 190 million years old (Jurassic) and are located at Sierra Bermeja in the southwest part of the island. They may represent part of the oceanic crust and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm. Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates and is being deformed by the tectonic stresses caused by their interaction. These stresses may cause earthquakes and tsunamis. These seismic events, along with landslides, represent some of the most dangerous geologic hazards in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean. The most recent major earthquake occurred on October 11, 1918 and had an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter scale. It originated off the coast of Aguadilla and was accompanied by a tsunami. Illustration of the Puerto Rico Trench The Puerto Rico Trench, the largest and deepest trench in the Atlantic, is located about north of Puerto Rico in the at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates. It is long and about wide. At its deepest point, named the Milwaukee Deep, it is deep, or about . Located in the tropics, Puerto Rico enjoys an average temperature of throughout the year. Temperatures do not change drastically throughout the seasons. The temperature in the south is usually a few degrees higher than the north and temperatures in the central interior mountains are always cooler than the rest of the island. The Hurricane season spans from June to November. The all-time low in Puerto Rico has been , registered in Aibonito. Species endemic to the archipelago are 239 plants, 16 birds and 39 amphibians/reptiles, recognized as of 1998. Most of these (234, 12 and 33 respectively) are found on the main island. Island Directory. The most recognizable endemic species and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the Coquí, a small frog easily identified by the sound of its call, and from which it gets its name. Most Coquí species (13 of 17) live in the El Yunque National Forest, a tropical rainforest in the northeast of the island previously known as the Caribbean National Forest. El Yunque is home to more than 240 plants, 26 of which are endemic to the island. It is also home to 50 bird species, including the critically endangered Puerto Rican Amazon. Across the island in the southwest, the of dry land at the Guánica Dry Forest Reserve contain over 600 uncommon species of plants and animals, including 48 endangered species and 16 endemic to Puerto Rico. Economy 2009 Puerto Rico Quarter In the early 1900s the greatest contributor to Puerto Rico's economy was agriculture and its main crop was sugar. In the late 1940s a series of projects codenamed Operation Bootstrap encouraged a significant shift to manufacture via tax exemptions. Manufacturing quickly replaced agriculture as the main industry of the island. Puerto Rico is classified as a high income country by the World Bank. Data and Statistics of Country Groups of the World Bank Income report for Puerto Rico by the World Bank. Economic conditions have improved dramatically since the Great Depression due to external investment in capital-intensive industries such as petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals and technology. Once the beneficiary of special tax treatment from the U.S. government, today local industries must compete with those in more economically depressed parts of the world where wages are not subject to U.S. minimum wage legislation. In recent years, some U.S. and foreign owned factories have moved to lower wage countries in Latin America and Asia. Puerto Rico is subject to U.S. trade laws and restrictions. Also, starting around 1950, there was heavy migration from Puerto Rico to the Continental United States, particularly New York City, in search of better economic conditions. Puerto Rican migration to New York displayed an average yearly migration of 1,800 for the years 1930-1940, 31,000 for 1946-1950, 45,000 for 1951-1960, and a peak of 75,000 in 1953. Latino/a Education Network Service, retrieved February 5, 2007 As of 2003, the U.S. Census Bureau estimates that more people of Puerto Rican birth or ancestry live in the U.S. than in Puerto Rico. Anglelo Falcón, "Atlas of Stateside Puerto Ricans", Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration, published December 6, 2004, retrieved February 5, 2007 On May 1, 2006, the Puerto Rican government faced significant shortages in cash flows, which forced the closure of the local Department of Education and 42 other government agencies. All 1,536 public schools closed, and 95,762 people were furloughed in the first-ever partial shutdown of the government in the island's history. Puerto Rico Extends Government Shutdown. The Washington Post On May 10, 2006, the budget crisis was resolved with a new tax reform agreement so that all government employees could return to work. On November 15, 2006 a 5.5% sales tax was implemented. Municipalities are required by law to apply a municipal sales tax of 1.5% bringing the total sales tax to 7%. Navigating Puerto Rico’s New Sales-and-Use Tax. AICPA Tourism is an important component of Puerto Rican economy supplying an approximate $1.8 billion. In 1999, an estimated 5 million tourists visited the island, most from the U.S. Nearly a third of these are cruise ship passengers. A steady increase in hotel registrations since 1998 and the construction of new hotels and new tourism projects, such as the Puerto Rico Convention Center, indicate the current strength of the tourism industry. Puerto Ricans had median household income of $17,741 for 2007, which makes Puerto Rico's economy comparable to the independent nations of Latvia or Poland. R1901. Median Household Income. U.S Census Burea By comparison, the poorest state of the Union, Mississippi, had median household income of $36,338 in 2007. R1901. Median Household Income. U.S Census Burea Puerto Rico’s public debt has grown at a faster pace than the growth of its economy, reaching $46.7 billion in 2008. Puerto Rico Governor enacts measures to eliminate deficit. The Caribbean News In January 2009, Governor Luis Fortuño enacted several measures aimed at eliminating the government's $3.3 billion deficit. Puerto Rico gov signs deficit bill. The Bond Buyer The island unemployment rate is 12% as January 2009. Merrill Wary of P.R credit. The Bond Buyer Demographics Population and racial makeup Royal Decree of Graces, 1815. During the 1800s hundreds of Corsican, French, Lebanese, Chinese, and Portuguese families arrived in Puerto Rico, along with large numbers of immigrants from Spain (mainly from Catalonia, Asturias, Galicia, the Balearic Islands, Andalusia, and the Canary Islands) and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain's former colonies in South America. Other settlers included Irish, Scots, Germans, Italians and thousands others who were granted land by Spain during the Real Cedula de Gracias de 1815 ("Royal Decree of Graces of 1815"), which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with a certain amount of free land. This mass immigration during the 19th century helped the population grow from 155,000 in 1800 to almost a million at the close of the century. A census conducted by royal decree on September 30, 1858, gives the following totals of the Puerto Rican population at this time: 300,430 identified as Whites; 341,015 as Free colored; and 41,736 as Slaves. During the early 20th century Jews began to settle in Puerto Rico. The first large group of Jews to settle in Puerto Rico were European refugees fleeing German–occupied Europe in the 1930s and 1940s. The second influx of Jews to the island came in the 1950s, when thousands of Cuban Jews fled after Fidel Castro came to power. The Virtual Jewish History Tour Puerto Rico More recently, Puerto Rico has become the permanent home of over 100,000 legal residents who immigrated from not only Spain, but from Latin America: Argentines, Cubans, Dominicans, Colombians and Venezuelans. <div class="NavFrame" style="padding:0;border-style:none;"> <div class="NavFrame" style="border-style:none;padding:0;"> Racial distribution<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"> Race - Puerto Rico - 2000 Census U.S. Census Bureau; Profiles of General Demographic Characteristics: 2000 Census of Population and Housing, Puerto Rico. Retrieved 2008-01-27 Race Population % of Total White3,064,86280.5% Black/African American302,9338.0% American Indian and Alaska Native13,3360.4% Asian7,9600.2% Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander1,0930.0% Some other race260,0116.8% Two or more races158,4154.2% Population density, Census 2000 Emigration has been a major part of Puerto Rico's recent history. Starting soon after World War II, poverty, cheap airfare and promotion by the island government caused waves of Puerto Ricans to move to the continental United States, particularly to New York City, New York; Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, and Camden, New Jersey; Chicago, Illinois; Springfield and Boston, Massachusetts; Orlando, Miami and Tampa, Florida; Philadelphia; Hartford, Connecticut; Washington, D.C., and Los Angeles, California. This trend continued even as Puerto Rico's economy improved and its birth rate declined. According to the 2000 U.S. Census there were almost four million inhabitants. Eighty percent of Puerto Ricans described themselves as "white"; 8% as "black"; 12% as "mulatto" and 0.4% as "American Indian or Alaska Native". Puerto Rico DP-1. Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: 2000. Genetics A 2002 study of Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of 800 Puerto Ricans found that 61.1% had Amerindian maternal mtDNA, 26.4% African, and 12.5% Caucasian. Martínez Cruzado, Juan C. (2002). The Use of Mitochondrial DNA to Discover Pre-Columbian Migrations to the Caribbean: Results for Puerto Rico and Expectations for the Dominican Republic. KACIKE: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology [On-line Journal], Special Issue, Lynne Guitar, Ed. Available at: http://www.kacike.org/MartinezEnglish.pdf [Date of access: September 25, 2006] Conversely, patrilineal input showed that 70% of all Puerto Rican males have inherited Y chromosome DNA from a male European ancestor, 20% from a male African ancestor, and fewer than 10% from a male Amerindian ancestor. This suggests that the largest components of the Puerto Rican genetic pool are European/Caucasian, Amerindian, and African, in descending order. In a study done on Puerto Rican women born on the island but living in NY in 2004, the ancestry proportions corresponding to the three parental populations were found to be 53.3±2.8% European, 29.1±2.3% West African, and 17.6±2.4% Native American based on autosomal ancestry informative markers. The study also showed 98% of the people sampled had European ancestry markers, 87% had African ancestry markers, 84% had Native American ancestry markers, 5% showed only African and European markers, 4% showed only Native American and European markers, 2% showed only African markers, and 2% showed only European markers. Bonilla et al., Ancestral proportions and their association with skin pigmentation and bone mineral density in Puerto Rican women from New York City. Hum Gen (2004) 115: 57-58 Available at: http://onedroprule.org/forum/index.php?file=bonilla-2004-pigmnt-bmd-pr-women.pdf [Date of access: May 30, 2008] Language The official languages are Spanish and English with Spanish being the primary language. English is taught as a second language in public and private schools from elementary levels to high school and in universities. Description of Puerto Rico by Topuertorico.org. Particularly, the Spanish of Puerto Rico, has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies that differentiate it from the language as spoken in other Spanish-speaking countries. This is mainly due to the influences from ancestral languages, such as those from the Taínos and Africans, and more recently from the English language influence resulting from its relationship with the United States. Religion The Roman Catholic Church has been historically the dominant religion in Puerto Rico. The first dioceses in the Americas was erected in Puerto Rico in 1511. All municipalities in Puerto Rico have at least one Catholic church (building), most of which are located at the town center or "plaza". Protestantism which was suppressed under the Spanish regime has been encouraged under American rule making modern Puerto Rico interconfessional. Taíno religious practices have been rediscovered/reinvented to a degree by a handful of advocates. Various African religious practices have been present since the arrival of African slaves. In particular, the Yoruba beliefs of Santeria and/or Ifá, and the Kongo-derived Palo Mayombe find adherence among a few individuals who practice some form of African traditional religion. Puerto Rico is also home to the largest and richest Jewish community in the Caribbean with 3,000 Jewish inhabitants. Puerto Rico is the only Caribbean island in which the Conservative, Reform and Orthodox Jewish movements are represented. Luxner News Culture Kapok tree (Ceiba), the national tree of Puerto Rico "Cocina Criolla" can be traced back to the original native inhabitants of the island Puerto Rican culture is a mix of four cultures, African (from the slaves), Taíno (Amerindians), Spanish, and more recently, North American. From Africans, the Puerto Ricans have obtained the "bomba and plena", a type of music and dance including percussions and maracas. From the Amerindians (Taínos), they kept many names for their municipalities, foods, musical instruments like the güiro and maracas. Many words and other objects have originated from their localized language. From the Spanish they received the Spanish language, the Catholic religion and the vast majority of their cultural and moral values and traditions. From the United States they received the English language, the university system and a variety of hybrid cultural forms that developed between the U.S. mainland and the island of Puerto Rico. The University of Puerto Rico was founded in 1903, five years after the island became part of the U.S. Much of the Puerto Rican culture centers on the influence of music. Like the country as a whole, Puerto Rican music has been developed by mixing other cultures with its own unique flavor. Early in the history of Puerto Rican music, the influences of African and Spanish traditions were most noticeable. However, the cultural movements across the Caribbean and North America have played a vital role in the more recent musical influences that have reached Puerto Rico. Giovannetti, Jorge L. "Popular Music and Culture in Puerto Rico: Jamaican and Rap Music as Cross-Cultural Symbols." In Musical Migrations: Transnationalism and Cultural Hybridity in the Americas, ed. Frances R. Aparicio and Cándida F. Jáquez, 81-98. Puerto Rican Music TV The official symbols of Puerto Rico are the Reinita mora or Puerto Rican Spindalis (a type of bird), the Flor de Maga (a type of flower), and the Ceiba or Kapok (a type of tree). The unofficial animal and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the Coquí (a type of frog). Other popular symbols of Puerto Rico are the "jíbaro", the "countryman", and the carite. Sports Juan Evangelista Venegas, first Puerto Rican to win an Olympic medal Baseball was one of the first sports to gain widespread popularity in Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Baseball League serves as the only active professional league, operating during the winter. No Major League Baseball franchise or affiliate plays in Puerto Rico, however, San Juan hosted the Montreal Expos for several series in 2003 and 2004 before they moved to Washington, D.C. and became the Washington Nationals. Puerto Rico has participated in the World Cup of Baseball winning one gold (1951), four silver and four bronze medals and the Caribbean Series, winning fourteen times. Famous Puerto Rican baseball players include Roberto Clemente and Orlando Cepeda, enshrined in the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1973 and 1999, respectively. Baseball Hall of Fame entry for Roberto Clemente accessed on September 30, 2007 Baseball Hall of Fame entry for Orlando Cepeda accessed on September 30, 2007 Boxing, basketball, and volleyball are considered popular sports as well. Puerto Rico has the third-most boxing world champions and its the global leader in champions per capita. These include Miguel Cotto, Félix Trinidad, Wilfred Benítez, and Wilfredo Gómez. The Puerto Rico national basketball team joined the International Basketball Federation in 1957. Since then, it has won more than 30 medals in international competitions, including gold in three FIBA Americas Championships and the 1994 Goodwill Games. August 8, 2004, became a landmark date for the team when it became the first team to defeat the United States in an Olympic tournament since the integration of National Basketball Association players. Winning the inaugural game with scores of 92-73 as part of the 2004 Summer Olympics organized in Athens, Greece. BBC Sports - Olympics 2004. Miscellaneous practices of this sport have experienced some success, including the "Puerto Rico All Stars" team, which has won twelve world championships in unicycle basketball. Organized Streetball has gathered some exposition, with teams like "Puerto Rico Street Ball" competing against established organizations including the Capitanes de Arecibo and AND1's Mixtape Tour Team. Consequently, practitioners of this style have earned participation in international teams, including Orlando "El Gato" Meléndez, who became the first Puerto Rican born athlete to play for the Harlem Globetrotters. Orlando Antigua, whose mother is Puerto Rican, made history in 1995, when he became the first Hispanic and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters. New York Times - A Non-Black Player Joins Globetrotters The Puerto Rico Islanders Football Club, founded in 2003, plays in the United Soccer Leagues First Division, which constitutes the second tier of football in North America. Puerto Rico is also a member of FIFA and CONCACAF. In 2008 the archipelago's first unified league, the Puerto Rico Soccer League, was established. Secondary sports include Professional wrestling and road running. The World Wrestling Council and International Wrestling Association are the largest wrestling promotions in the main island. The World's Best 10K, held annually in San Juan, has been ranked among the 20 most competitive races globally. Puerto Rico has representation in all international competitions including the Summer and Winter Olympics, the Pan American Games, the Caribbean World Series, and the Central American and Caribbean Games. Puerto Rican athletes have won 6 medals (1 silver, 5 bronze) in Olympic competition, the first one in 1948 by boxer Juan Evangelista Venegas. On March 2006 San Juan's Hiram Bithorn Stadium hosted the opening round as well as the second round of the newly formed World Baseball Classic. The 2010 Central American and Caribbean Games will be held in Mayagüez in 2010. Education Education in Puerto Rico is divided in three levels — Primary (elementary school grades 1-6), Secondary (intermediate and high school grades 7-12), and Higher Level (undergraduate and graduate studies). As of 2002, the literacy rate of the Puerto Rican population was 94.1%; by gender, it was 93.9% for males and 94.4% for females. CIA FactBook According to the 2000 Census, 60.0% of the population attained a high school degree or higher level of education, and 18.3% has a bachelor's degree or higher. This ranks as worst and 6th worst, respectively, among U.S. states, where the national averages are 80.4% and 24.4%. Instruction at the primary school level is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 18 and is enforced by the state. The Constitution of Puerto Rico grants the right to an education to every citizen on the island. To this end, public schools in Puerto Rico provide free and non-sectarian education at the elementary and secondary levels. At any of the three levels, students may attend either public or private schools. As of 1999, there were 1532 public schools and 569 private schools in the island. The largest and oldest university system in Puerto Rico is the public University of Puerto Rico (UPR) with 11 campuses. The largest private university systems on the island are the Sistema Universitario Ana G. Mendez which operates the Universidad del Turabo, Metropolitan University and Universidad del Este, the multi-campus Inter American University, the Pontifical Catholic University, and the Universidad del Sagrado Corazón. Puerto Rico has four schools of Medicine and four Law Schools. Transportation Cities and towns in Puerto Rico are interconnected by a system of roads, freeways, expressways, and highways maintained by the Highways and Transportation Authority under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and patrolled by the Police of Puerto Rico. The island's metropolitan area is served by a public bus transit system and a metro system called Tren Urbano (in English: Urban Train). Other forms of public transportation include sea-born ferries (that serve Puerto Rico's archipelago) as well as Carros Públicos (private mini buses). The island has three international airports, the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in Carolina, Mercedita Airport in Ponce, and the Rafael Hernandez Airport in Aguadilla, and 27 local airports. The Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport is the largest aerial transportation hub in the Caribbean, and one of the largest in the world in terms of passenger and cargo movement. Puerto Rico has 9 ship ports in different cities across the main island. The San Juan Port is the largest in Puerto Rico, and is the busiest port in the Caribbean and the 10th busiest in the United States in terms of commercial activity and cargo movement, respectively. The second largest port is the Port of the Americas in Ponce currently under expansion to increase cargo capacity to 1.5 million 20 ft. containers (TEUs) per year. See also Notes and references External links Puerto Rican government Official website United States government Application of the U.S. Constitution in U.S. Insular Areas United Nations (U.N.) Declaration on Puerto Rico U.N. 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4,316 | Mathematical_formulation_of_quantum_mechanics | The mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics is the body of mathematical formalisms which permits a rigorous description of quantum mechanics. It is distinguished from mathematical formalisms for theories developed prior to the early 1900s by the use of abstract mathematical structures, such as infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces and operators on these spaces. Many of these structures were drawn from functional analysis, a research area within pure mathematics that was influenced in part by the needs of quantum mechanics. In brief, values of physical observables such as energy and momentum were no longer considered as values of functions on phase space, but as eigenvalues (more precisely: as spectral values (point spectrum plus absolute continuous plus singular continuous spectrum)) of linear operators in Hilbert space. This formulation of quantum mechanics continues to be used today. At the heart of the description are ideas of quantum state and quantum observable which are radically different from those used in previous models of physical reality. While the mathematics permits calculation of many quantities that can be measured experimentally, there is a definite theoretical limit to values that can be simultaneously measured. This limitation was first elucidated by Heisenberg through a thought experiment, and is represented mathematically in the new formalism by the non-commutativity of quantum observables. Prior to the emergence of quantum mechanics as a separate theory, the mathematics used in physics consisted mainly of differential geometry and partial differential equations; probability theory was used in statistical mechanics. Geometric intuition clearly played a strong role in the first two and, accordingly, theories of relativity were formulated entirely in terms of geometric concepts. The phenomenology of quantum physics arose roughly between 1895 and 1915, and for the 10 to 15 years before the emergence of quantum theory (around 1925) physicists continued to think of quantum theory within the confines of what is now called classical physics, and in particular within the same mathematical structures. The most sophisticated example of this is the Sommerfeld–Wilson–Ishiwara quantization rule, which was formulated entirely on the classical phase space. History of the formalism The "old quantum theory" and the need for new mathematics In the decade of 1890, Planck was able to derive the blackbody spectrum which was later used to solve the classical ultraviolet catastrophe by making the unorthodox assumption that, in the interaction of radiation with matter, energy could only be exchanged in discrete units which he called quanta. Planck postulated a direct proportionality between the frequency of radiation and the quantum of energy at that frequency. The proportionality constant, h, is now called Planck's constant in his honour. In 1905, Einstein explained certain features of the photoelectric effect by assuming that Planck's energy quanta were actual particles, which are called photons. light at the right frequency. All of these developments were phenomenological and flew in the face of the theoretical physics of the time. Bohr and Sommerfeld went on to modify classical mechanics in an attempt to deduce the Bohr model from first principles. They proposed that, of all closed classical orbits traced by a mechanical system in its phase space, only the ones that enclosed an area which was a multiple of Planck's constant were actually allowed. The most sophisticated version of this formalism was the so-called Sommerfeld–Wilson–Ishiwara quantization. Although the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom could be explained in this way, the spectrum of the helium atom (classically an unsolvable 3-body problem) could not be predicted. The mathematical status of quantum theory remained uncertain for some time. In 1923 de Broglie proposed that wave-particle duality applied not only to photons but to electrons and every other physical system. The situation changed rapidly in the years 1925–1930, when working mathematical foundations were found through the groundbreaking work of Erwin Schrödinger and Werner Heisenberg and the foundational work of John von Neumann, Hermann Weyl and Paul Dirac, and it became possible to unify several different approaches in terms of a fresh set of ideas. The "new quantum theory" Erwin Schrödinger's wave mechanics originally was the first successful attempt at replicating the observed quantization of atomic spectra with the help of a precise mathematical realization of de Broglie's wave-particle duality. To be more precise: already before Schrödinger the young student Werner Heisenberg invented his matrix mechanics, which was the first correct quantum mechanics, i.e. the essential breakthrough. But Schrödinger's wave mechanics was created independently, was uniquely based on de Broglie's concepts, less formal and easier to understand, visualize and exploit. Originally the equivalence of Schrödinger's theory with that of Heisenberg was not seen; showing it was also an important accomplishment of Schrödinger himself in 1926, some months after the first publication of his theory: Schrödinger proposed an equation (now bearing his name) for the wave associated to an electron in an atom according to de Broglie, and explained energy quantization by the well-known fact that differential operators of the kind appearing in his equation had a discrete spectrum. However, Schrödinger himself initially did not understand the fundamental probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics, as he thought that the absolute square of the wave function of an electron should be interpreted as the charge density of an object smeared out over an extended, possibly infinite, volume of space. It was Max Born, who introduced the interpretation of the absolute square of the wave function as the probability distribution of the position of a pointlike object. Born's idea was soon taken over by Niels Bohr in Copenhagen, who then became the "father" of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. With hindsight, Schrödinger's wave function can be seen to be closely related to the classical Hamilton–Jacobi equation. The correspondence to classical mechanics was even more explicit, although somewhat more formal, in Heisenberg's matrix mechanics. I.e., the equation for the operators in the Heisenberg representation, as it is now called, closely translates to classical equations for the dynamics of certain quantities in the Hamiltonian formalism of classical mechanics, where one uses Poisson brackets. Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics formulation was based on algebras of infinite matrices, being certainly very radical in light of the mathematics of classical physics, although he started from the index-terminology of the experimentalists of that time, not even knowing that his "index-schemes" were matrices. In fact, in these early years linear algebra was not generally known to physicists in its present form. Although Schrödinger himself after a year proved the equivalence of his wave-mechanics and Heisenberg's matrix mechanics, the reconciliation of the two approaches is generally associated to Paul Dirac, who wrote a lucid account in his 1930 classic Principles of Quantum Mechanics, being the third, and perhaps most important, person working independently in that field (he soon was the only one, who found a relativistic generalization of the theory). In his above-mentioned account, he introduced the bra-ket notation, together with an abstract formulation in terms of the Hilbert space used in functional analysis; he showed that Schrödinger's and Heisenberg's approaches were two different representations of the same theory and found a third, most general one, which represented the dynamics of the system. His work was particularly fruitful in all kind of generalizations of the field. Concerning quantum mechanics, Dirac's method is now called canonical quantization. The first complete mathematical formulation of this approach is generally credited to John von Neumann's 1932 book Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, although Hermann Weyl had already referred to Hilbert spaces (which he called unitary spaces) in his 1927 classic book. It was developed in parallel with a new approach to the mathematical spectral theory based on linear operators rather than the quadratic forms that were David Hilbert's approach a generation earlier. Though theories of quantum mechanics continue to evolve to this day, there is a basic framework for the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics which underlies most approaches and can be traced back to the mathematical work of John von Neumann. In other words, discussions about interpretation of the theory, and extensions to it, are now mostly conducted on the basis of shared assumptions about the mathematical foundations. Later developments The application of the new quantum theory to electromagnetism resulted in quantum field theory, which was developed starting around 1930. Quantum field theory has driven the development of more sophisticated formulations of quantum mechanics, of which the one presented here is a simple special case. In fact, the difficulties involved in implementing any of the following formulations cannot be said yet to have been solved in a satisfactory fashion except for ordinary quantum mechanics. Feynman path integrals axiomatic, algebraic and constructive quantum field theory geometric quantization quantum field theory in curved spacetime C* algebra formalism On a different front, von Neumann originally dispatched quantum measurement with his infamous postulate on the collapse of the wavefunction, raising a host of philosophical problems. Over the intervening 70 years, the problem of measurement became an active research area and itself spawned some new formulations of quantum mechanics. Relative state/Many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics Decoherence Consistent histories formulation of quantum mechanics Quantum logic formulation of quantum mechanics A related topic is the relationship to classical mechanics. Any new physical theory is supposed to reduce to successful old theories in some approximation. For quantum mechanics, this translates into the need to study the so-called classical limit of quantum mechanics. Also, as Bohr emphasized, human cognitive abilities and language are inextricably linked to the classical realm, and so classical descriptions are intuitively more accessible than quantum ones. In particular, quantization, namely the construction of a quantum theory whose classical limit is a given and known classical theory, becomes an important area of quantum physics in itself. Finally, some of the originators of quantum theory (notably Einstein and Schrödinger) were unhappy with what they thought were the philosophical implications of quantum mechanics. In particular, Einstein took the position that quantum mechanics must be incomplete, which motivated research into so-called hidden-variable theories. The issue of hidden variables has become in part an experimental issue with the help of quantum optics. de Broglie–Bohm–Bell pilot wave formulation of quantum mechanics Bell's inequalities Kochen–Specker theorem Mathematical structure of quantum mechanics A physical system is generally described by three basic ingredients: states; observables; and dynamics (or law of time evolution) or, more generally, a group of physical symmetries. A classical description can be given in a fairly direct way by a phase space model of mechanics: states are points in a symplectic phase space, observables are real-valued functions on it, time evolution is given by a one-parameter group of symplectic transformations of the phase space, and physical symmetries are realized by symplectic transformations. A quantum description consists of a Hilbert space of states, observables are self adjoint operators on the space of states, time evolution is given by a one-parameter group of unitary transformations on the Hilbert space of states, and physical symmetries are realized by unitary transformations. Postulates of quantum mechanics The following summary of the mathematical framework of quantum mechanics can be partly traced back to von Neumann's postulates. Each physical system is associated with a (topologically) separable complex Hilbert space H with inner product . Rays (one-dimensional subspaces) in H are associated with states of the system. In other words, physical states can be identified with equivalence classes of vectors of length 1 in H, where two vectors represent the same state if they differ only by a phase factor. Separability is a mathematically convenient hypothesis, with the physical interpretation that countably many observations are enough to uniquely determine the state. The Hilbert space of a composite system is the Hilbert space tensor product of the state spaces associated with the component systems. For a non-relativistic system consisting of a finite number of distinguishable particles, the component systems are the individual particles. Physical symmetries act on the Hilbert space of quantum states unitarily or antiunitarily due to Wigner's theorem (supersymmetry is another matter entirely). Physical observables are represented by densely-defined self-adjoint operators on H. The expected value (in the sense of probability theory) of the observable A for the system in state represented by the unit vector H is By spectral theory, we can associate a probability measure to the values of A in any state ψ. We can also show that the possible values of the observable A in any state must belong to the spectrum of A. In the special case A has only discrete spectrum, the possible outcomes of measuring A are its eigenvalues. More generally, a state can be represented by a so-called density operator, which is a trace class, nonnegative self-adjoint operator normalized to be of trace 1. The expected value of A in the state is If is the orthogonal projector onto the one-dimensional subspace of H spanned by , then Density operators are those that are in the closure of the convex hull of the one-dimensional orthogonal projectors. Conversely, one-dimensional orthogonal projectors are extreme points of the set of density operators. Physicists also call one-dimensional orthogonal projectors pure states and other density operators mixed states. One can in this formalism state Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and prove it as a theorem, although the exact historical sequence of events, concerning who derived what and under which framework, is the subject of historical investigations outside the scope of this article. Furthermore, to the postulates of quantum mechanics one should also add basic statements on the properties of spin and Pauli's exclusion principle, see below. Superselection sectors. The correspondence between states and rays needs to be refined somewhat to take into account so-called superselection sectors. States in different superselection sectors cannot influence each other, and the relative phases between them are unobservable. Pictures of dynamics In the so-called Schrödinger picture of quantum mechanics, the dynamics is given as follows: The time evolution of the state is given by a differentiable function from the real numbers R, representing instants of time, to the Hilbert space of system states. This map is characterized by a differential equation as follows: If denotes the state of the system at any one time t, the following Schrödinger equation holds: where H is a densely-defined self-adjoint operator, called the system Hamiltonian, i is the imaginary unit and is the reduced Planck constant. As an observable, H corresponds to the total energy of the system. Alternatively, by Stone's theorem one can state that there is a strongly continuous one-parameter unitary group U(t): H → H such that for all times s, t. The existence of a self-adjoint Hamiltonian H such that is a consequence of Stone's theorem on one-parameter unitary groups. (It is assumed that H does not depend on time and that the perturbation starts at ; otherwise one must use the Dyson series, formally written as where is Dyson's time-ordering symbol. (This symbol permutes a product of noncommuting operators of the form into the uniquely determined re-ordered expression with The result is a causal chain, the primary cause in the past on the utmost r.h.s., and finally the present effect on the utmost l.h.s. .) The Heisenberg picture of quantum mechanics focuses on observables and instead of considering states as varying in time, it regards the states as fixed and the observables as changing. To go from the Schrödinger to the Heisenberg picture one needs to define time-independent states and time-dependent operators thus: It is then easily checked that the expected values of all observables are the same in both pictures and that the time-dependent Heisenberg operators satisfy This assumes A is not time dependent in the Schrödinger picture. Notice the commutator expression is purely formal when one of the operators is unbounded. One would specify a representation for the expression to make sense of it. The so-called Dirac picture or interaction picture has time-dependent states and observables, evolving with respect to different Hamiltonians. This picture is most useful when the evolution of the observables can be solved exactly, confining any complications to the evolution of the states. For this reason, the Hamiltonian for the observables is called "free Hamiltonian" and the Hamiltonian for the states is called "interaction Hamiltonian". In symbols: The interaction picture does not always exist, though. In interacting quantum field theories, Haag's theorem states that the interaction picture does not exist. This is because the Hamiltonian cannot be split into a free and an interacting part within a superselection sector. Moreover, even if in the Schrödinger picture the Hamiltonian does not depend on time, e.g. , in the interaction picture it does, at least, if V does not commute with , since . So the above-mentioned Dyson-series has to be used anyhow. The Heisenberg picture is the closest to classical Hamiltonian mechanics (for example, the commutators appearing in the above equations directly translate into the classical Poisson brackets); but this is already rather "high-browed", and the Schrödinger picture is considered easiest to visualize and understand by most people, to judge from pedagogical accounts of quantum mechanics. The Dirac picture is the one used in perturbation theory, and is specially associated to quantum field theory and many-body physics. Similar equations can be written for any one-parameter unitary group of symmetries of the physical system. Time would be replaced by a suitable coordinate parameterizing the unitary group (for instance, a rotation angle, or a translation distance) and the Hamiltonian would be replaced by the conserved quantity associated to the symmetry (for instance, angular or linear momentum). Representations The original form of the Schrödinger equation depends on choosing a particular representation of Heisenberg's canonical commutation relations. The Stone–von Neumann theorem states all irreducible representations of the finite-dimensional Heisenberg commutation relations are unitarily equivalent. This is related to quantization and the correspondence between classical and quantum mechanics, and is therefore not strictly part of the general mathematical framework. The quantum harmonic oscillator is an exactly-solvable system where the possibility of choosing among more than one representation can be seen in all its glory. There, apart from the Schrödinger (position or momentum) representation one encounters the Fock (number) representation and the Bargmann-Segal (phase space or coherent state) representation. All three are unitarily equivalent. Time as an operator The framework presented so far singles out time as the parameter that everything depends on. It is possible to formulate mechanics in such a way that time becomes itself an observable associated to a self-adjoint operator. At the classical level, it is possible to arbitrarily parameterize the trajectories of particles in terms of an unphysical parameter s, and in that case the time t becomes an additional generalized coordinate of the physical system. At the quantum level, translations in s would be generated by a "Hamiltonian" H − E, where E is the energy operator and H is the "ordinary" Hamiltonian. However, since s is an unphysical parameter, physical states must be left invariant by "s-evolution", and so the physical state space is the kernel of H − E (this requires the use of a rigged Hilbert space and a renormalization of the norm). This is related to quantization of constrained systems and quantization of gauge theories. It is also possible to formulate a quantum theory of "events" where time becomes an observable( see D. Edwards ). Spin In addition to their other properties all particles possess a quantity, which has no correspondence at all in conventional physics, namely the spin, which is some kind of intrinsic angular momentum (therefore the name). In the position representation, instead of a wavefunction without spin, , one has with spin: , where belongs to the following discrete set of values: . One distinguishes bosons (S = 0 or 1 or 2 or ...) and fermions (S = 1/2 or 3/2 or 5/2 or ...) Pauli's principle The property of spin relates to another basic property concerning systems of N identical particles: Pauli's exclusion principle, which is a consequence of the following permutation behaviour of an N-particle wave function; again in the position representation one must postulate that for the transposition of any two of the N particles one always should have i.e., on transposition of the arguments of any two particles the wavefunction should reproduce, apart from a prefactor (−1)2S} which is +1 for bosons, but (−1) for fermions. Electrons are fermions with S = 1/2; quanta of light are bosons with S = 1. In nonrelativistic quantum mechanics all particles are either bosons or fermions; in relativistic quantum theories also "supersymmetric" theories exist, where a particle is a linear combination of a bosonic and a fermionic part. Only in dimension d=2 one can construct entities where is replaced by an arbitrary complex number with magnitude 1 ( -> anyons). Although spin and the Pauli principle can only be derived from relativistic generalizations of quantum mechanics the properties mentioned in the last two paragraphs belong to the basic postulates already in the non-relativistic limit. Especially, many important properties in natural science, e.g. the periodic system of chemistry, are consequences of the two properties. The problem of measurement The picture given in the preceding paragraphs is sufficient for description of a completely isolated system. However, it fails to account for one of the main differences between quantum mechanics and classical mechanics, that is the effects of measurement. The von Neumann description of quantum measurement of an observable A, when the system is prepared in a pure state ψ is the following (note, however, that von Neumann's description dates back to the 1930s and is based on experiments as performed during that time – more specifically the Compton–Simon experiment; it is not applicable to most present-day measurements within the quantum domain): Let A have spectral resolution where EA is the resolution of the identity (also called projection-valued measure) associated to A. Then the probability of the measurement outcome lying in an interval B of R is |EA(B) ψ|2. In other words, the probability is obtained by integrating the characteristic function of B against the countably additive measure If the measured value is contained in B, then immediately after the measurement, the system will be in the (generally non-normalized) state EA(B) ψ. If the measured value does not lie in B, replace B by its complement for the above state. For example, suppose the state space is the n-dimensional complex Hilbert space Cn and A is a Hermitian matrix with eigenvalues λi, with corresponding eigenvectors ψi. The projection-valued measure associated with A, EA, is then where B is a Borel set containing only the single eigenvalue λi. If the system is prepared in state Then the probability of a measurement returning the value λi can be calculated by integrating the spectral measure over Bi. This gives trivially The characteristic property of the von Neumann measurement scheme is that repeating the same measurement will give the same results. This is also called the projection postulate. A more general formulation replaces the projection-valued measure with a positive-operator valued measure (POVM). To illustrate, take again the finite-dimensional case. Here we would replace the rank-1 projections by a finite set of positive operators whose sum is still the identity operator as before (the resolution of identity). Just as a set of possible outcomes {λ1 ... λn} is associated to a projection-valued measure, the same can be said for a POVM. Suppose the measurement outcome is λi. Instead of collapsing to the (unnormalized) state after the measurement, the system now will be in the state Since the Fi Fi* 's need not be mutually orthogonal projections, the projection postulate of von Neumann no longer holds. The same formulation applies to general mixed states. In von Neumann's approach, the state transformation due to measurement is distinct from that due to time evolution in several ways. For example, time evolution is deterministic and unitary whereas measurement is non-deterministic and non-unitary. However, since both types of state transformation take one quantum state to another, this difference was viewed by many as unsatisfactory. The POVM formalism views measurement as one among many other quantum operations, which are described by completely positive maps which do not increase the trace. In any case it seems that the above-mentioned problems can only be resolved if the time evolution included not only the quantum system, but also, and essentially, the classical measurement apparatus (see above). The relative state interpretation An alternative interpretation of measurement is Everett's relative state interpretation, which was later dubbed the "many-worlds interpretation" of quantum mechanics. List of mathematical tools Part of the folklore of the subject concerns the mathematical physics textbook Courant–Hilbert, put together by Richard Courant from David Hilbert's Göttingen University courses. The story is told (by mathematicians) that physicists had dismissed the material as not interesting in the current research areas, until the advent of Schrödinger's equation. At that point it was realised that the mathematics of the new quantum mechanics was already laid out in it. It is also said that Heisenberg had consulted Hilbert about his matrix mechanics, and Hilbert observed that his own experience with infinite-dimensional matrices had derived from differential equations, advice which Heisenberg ignored, missing the opportunity to unify the theory as Weyl and Dirac did a few years later. Whatever the basis of the anecdotes, the mathematics of the theory was conventional at the time, whereas the physics was radically new. The main tools include: linear algebra: complex numbers, eigenvectors, eigenvalues functional analysis: Hilbert spaces, linear operators, spectral theory differential equations: partial differential equations, separation of variables, ordinary differential equations, Sturm–Liouville theory, eigenfunctions harmonic analysis: Fourier transforms See also: list of mathematical topics in quantum theory. References T.S. Kuhn, Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity, 1894–1912, Clarendon Press, Oxford and Oxford University Press, New York, 1978. S. Auyang, How is Quantum Field Theory Possible?, Oxford University Press, 1995. D. Edwards, The Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, Synthese, 42 (1979),pp.1–70. G. Emch, Algebraic Methods in Statistical Mechanics and Quantum Field Theory, Wiley-Interscience, 1972. R. Jost, The General Theory of Quantized Fields, American Mathematical Society, 1965. A. Gleason, Measures on the Closed Subspaces of a Hilbert Space, Journal of Mathematics and Mechanics, 1957. G. Mackey, Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, W. A. Benjamin, 1963 (paperback reprint by Dover 2004). J. von Neumann, Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, Princeton University Press, 1955. Reprinted in paperback form. R. F. Streater and A. S. Wightman, PCT, Spin and Statistics and All That, Benjamin 1964 (Reprinted by Princeton University Press) M. Reed and B. Simon, Methods of Mathematical Physics, vols I–IV, Academic Press 1972. G. Teschl, Mathematical Methods in Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Schrödinger Operators, http://www.mat.univie.ac.at/~gerald/ftp/book-schroe/, American Mathematical Society, 2009. N. Weaver, "Mathematical Quantization", Chapman & Hall/CRC 2001. H. 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4,317 | International_Organization_for_Standardization | The International Organization for Standardization (Organisation internationale de normalisation), widely known as ISO (), is an international-standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization promulgates worldwide proprietary industrial and commercial standards. It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. While ISO defines itself as a non-governmental organization, its ability to set standards that often become law, either through treaties or national standards, makes it more powerful than most non-governmental organizations . In practice, ISO acts as a consortium with strong links to governments . Name and abbreviation The organization's logos in its two official languages, English and French, include the word ISO (), and it is usually referred to by this short-form name. ISO is not an acronym or initialism for the organization's full name in either official language. Rather, the organization adopted ISO based on the Greek word isos (), meaning equal. Recognizing that the organization’s initials would be different in different languages, the organization's founders chose ISO as the universal short form of its name. This, in itself, reflects the aim of the organization: to equalize and standardize across cultures. International Standards and other publications ISO's main products are the International Standards. ISO also publishes Technical Reports, Technical Specifications, Publicly Available Specifications, Technical Corrigenda, and Guides. The ISO directives are published in two distinct parts:* * International Standards are identified in the format ISO[/IEC][/ASTM] [IS] nnnnn[:yyyy] Title, where nnnnn is the number of the standard, yyyy is the year published, and Title describes the subject. IEC for International Electrotechnical Commission is included if the standard results from the work of ISO/IEC JTC1 (the ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee). ASTM is used for standards developed in cooperation with ASTM International. The date and IS are not used for an incomplete or unpublished standard, and may under some circumstances be left off the title of a published work. Technical Reports are issued when "a technical committee or subcommittee has collected data of a different kind from that which is normally published as an International Standard". such as references and explanations. The naming conventions for these are the same as for standards, except TR prepended instead of IS in the report's name. Examples: ISO/IEC TR 17799:2000 Code of Practice for Information Security Management ISO/TR 19033:2000 Technical product documentation — Metadata for construction documentation Technical Specifications can be produced when "the subject in question is still under development or where for any other reason there is the future but not immediate possibility of an agreement to publish an International Standard". Publicly Available Specifications may be "an intermediate specification, published prior to the development of a full International Standard, or, in IEC may be a 'dual logo' publication published in collaboration with an external organization". Both are named by convention similar to Technical Reports, for example: ISO/TS 16952-1:2006 Technical product documentation — Reference designation system — Part 1: General application rules ISO/PAS 11154:2006 Road vehicles — Roof load carriers ISO sometimes issues a Technical Corrigendum. These are amendments to existing standards because of minor technical flaws, usability improvements, or to extend applicability in a limited way. Generally, these are issued with the expectation that the affected standard will be updated or withdrawn at its next scheduled review. ISO Guides are meta-standards covering "matters related to international standardization". They are named in the format "ISO[/IEC] Guide N:yyyy: Title", for example: ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004 Standardization and related activities — General vocabulary ISO/IEC Guide 65:1996 General requirements for bodies operating product certification ISO document copyright ISO documents are copyrighted and ISO charges for copies of most. ISO does not, however, charge for most draft copies of documents in electronic format. Although useful, care must be taken using these drafts as there is the possibility of substantial change before it becomes finalized as a standard. Some standards by ISO and its official U.S. representative (and the International Electrotechnical Commission's via the U.S. National Committee) are made freely available. Members A map of standards bodies who are ISO membersKey: ISO has 158 national members, out of the 195 total countries in the world. ISO has three membership categories: Member bodies are national bodies that are considered to be the most representative standards body in each country. These are the only members of ISO that have voting rights. Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards organization. These members are informed about ISO's work, but do not participate in standards promulgation. Subscriber members are countries with small economies. They pay reduced membership fees, but can follow the development of standards. Participating members are called "P" members as opposed to observing members which are called "O" members. Products named after ISO The fact that many of the ISO-created standards are ubiquitous has led, on occasion, to common use of "ISO" to describe the actual product that conforms to a standard. Some examples of this are: CD images end in the file extension "ISO" to signify that they are using the ISO 9660 standard filesystem as opposed to another file system - hence CD images are commonly referred to as "ISOs". Virtually all computers with CD-ROM drives can read CDs that use this standard. Some DVD-ROMs also use ISO 9660 filesystems. Photographic film's sensitivity to light, its "film speed," is described by ISO 5800:1987. Hence, the film's speed is often referred to as its "ISO number." ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 To deal with the consequences of substantial overlap in areas of standardization and work related to information technology, ISO and IEC formed a Joint Technical Committee known as the ISO/IEC JTC1. It was the first such joint committee, and to date remains the only one. IWA document Like ISO/TS, International Workshop Agreement (IWA) is another armoury of ISO for providing rapid response to requirements for standardization in areas where the technical structures and expertise are not currently in place. The utility harmonizes technical urgency industrial wide. Criticism With the exception of a small number of isolated standards, ISO standards are normally not available free of charge, but for a purchase fee, which has been seen by some as too expensive for small Open source projects. The ISO/IEC JTC1 fast-track procedures ("Fast-track" as used by OOXML and "PAS" as used by OpenDocument) have garnered criticism in relation to the standardization of Office Open XML (ISO/IEC 29500). Martin Bryan, outgoing Convenor of ISO/IEC JTC1/SC34 WG1, is quoted as saying: I would recommend my successor that it is perhaps time to pass WG1’s outstanding standards over to OASIS, where they can get approval in less than a year and then do a PAS submission to ISO, which will get a lot more attention and be approved much faster than standards currently can be within WG1. The disparity of rules for PAS, Fast-Track and ISO committee generated standards is fast making ISO a laughing stock in IT circles. The days of open standards development are fast disappearing. Instead we are getting 'standardization by corporation'. Computer security entrepreneur and Ubuntu investor, Mark Shuttleworth, commented on the Standardization of Office Open XML process by saying I think it de-values the confidence people have in the standards setting process, and Shuttleworth alleged that ISO did not carry out its responsibility. He also noted that Microsoft had intensely lobbied many countries that traditionally had not participated in ISO and stacked technical committees with Microsoft employees, solution providers and resellers sympathetic to Office Open XML. When you have a process built on trust and when that trust is abused, ISO should halt the process ... ISO is an engineering old boys club and these things are boring so you have to have a lot of passion … then suddenly you have an investment of a lot of money and lobbying and you get artificial results ... The process is not set up to deal with intensive corporate lobbying and so you end up with something being a standard that’s not clear. See also American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Deutsches Institut für Normung, German Institute for Standardization (DIN) British Standards Institution (BSI) Countries in International Organization for Standardization Canadian Standards Association European Committee for Standardization (CEN) Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) set of standards (GOST) International Classification for Standards International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and ISO/IEC standards. International healthcare accreditation International Telecommunication Union (ITU) ISO A4 ISO country code List of ISO standards List of ISO divisions List of WHO standards List of Codex Alimentarius standards Standardization Standards organization Terminology planning policy CARICOM Regional Organisation for Standards and Quality (CROSQ) Notes External links ISO's official website (free access to the catalogue of standards only, not to the contents) Publicly Available Standards (free access to a small subset of the standards) ISO/IEC JTC1 ISO Advanced search for standards and/or projects be-x-old:ISO | International_Organization_for_Standardization |@lemmatized international:18 organization:15 standardization:12 organisation:2 internationale:1 de:2 normalisation:1 widely:1 know:2 iso:65 standard:53 set:5 body:6 compose:1 representative:3 various:1 national:6 found:1 february:1 promulgate:1 worldwide:1 proprietary:1 industrial:2 commercial:1 headquarter:1 geneva:1 switzerland:1 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4,318 | Limburg_an_der_Lahn | The river Lahn in Limburg Map of Limburg and its constituent communities Cathedral with the old Lahn bridge Limburg an der Lahn (officially: Limburg a. d. Lahn) is the district seat of Limburg-Weilburg in Hesse, Germany. Geography Location Limburg lies in western Hesse between the Taunus and the Westerwald on the river Lahn. The town lies roughly centrally in a basin within the Rhenish Slate Mountains which is surrounded by the low ranges of the Taunus and Westerwald and called the Limburg Basin (Limburger Becken). Owing to the favourable soil and climate, the Limburg Basin stands as one of Hesse’s most bountiful agricultural regions and moreover, with its convenient Lahn crossing, it has had great importance to transport since the Middle Ages. Within the basin, the Lahn’s otherwise rather narrow lower valley broadens out noticeably, making Limburg’s mean elevation only 117 m above sea level. Neighbouring communities Limburg forms together with the town of Diez a middle centre (in terms of Central place theory) but with partial functions of an upper centre in western Middle Hesse. Limburg’s residential neighbourhoods reach beyond town limits; the neighbouring centres of Elz and Diez run seemlessly together. Surrounding towns and communities are the community of Elz and the town of Hadamar in the north, the community of Beselich in the northeast, the town of Runkel in the east, the communities of Villmar and Brechen in the southeast, the community of Hünfelden in the south (all in Limburg-Weilburg), the community of Holzheim in the southwest, and the town of Diez and the communities of Aull and Gückingen in the west (all in the Rhein-Lahn-Kreis in Rhineland-Palatinate). The nearest major cities are Wetzlar and Gießen to the northeast, Wiesbaden and Frankfurt to the south and Koblenz to the west. Constituent communities The town consists of eight formerly autonomous Ortsteile, listed here by population. Limburg: 18,393 Lindenholzhausen: 3,377 Linter: 3,160 Eschhofen: 2,803 Staffel: 2,656 Offheim: 2,572 Dietkirchen: 1,724 Ahlbach: 1,281 Likewise often called a constituent community is Blumenrod, although this is actually only a big residential neighbourhood in the main town’s south end. Its landmark is the Domäne Blumenrod, a former manor house that has been restored and remodelled by the Limburg Free Evangelical community. Limburg’s biggest outlying centre is Lindenholzhausen (3,329 residents as of June 2006); the second biggest is Linter. Etymology The derivation of the name “Limburg” is not quite clear and may well hearken back to a castle built here (Burg means “castle” in German). In 910 the town was first mentioned as Lintpurc. Two of the popular theories are: The name was chosen because of the closeness to the Linterer Bach, a former brook in Linter that has now run dry and that emptied into the Lahn at the Domfelsen (crag). Linda is the Gaulish word for water. Rather unlikely but very popular is the connection to a dragon saga (see Lindworm) and the connection with the monastery of Saint George the “Dragon Slayer” founded in Limburg. However, the monastery was built after the castle and founded around the time of the first written mention of the name. History The oldest preserved section of the Limburger Schloss, seen from the courtyard About 800, the first castle buildings arose on the Limburg crags. This was designed for protection, probably for a ford on the river Lahn. In the decades that followed, the town arose under the castle’s protection. Limburg had its first documentary mention in 910 under the name Lintpurc when Louis the Child granted Konrad Kurzbold an estate in the community on which he was to build a church. Konrad Kurzbold laid the foundation stones for Saint George’s Monastery Church, where he was also buried. The community soon gathered importance with the monastery’s founding and profited by the lively goods trade on the Via Publica. In 1150, a wooden bridge was built across the Lahn. The long-distance road from Cologne to Frankfurt am Main thereafter ran through Limburg. In the early 13th century, Limburg Castle was built in its current form. Shortly thereafter, the town passed into the ownership of the Lords of Ysenburg. In 1214, the community was granted town rights. Remains of the fortification wall from the years 1130, 1230 and 1340 with a greatest ever length of roughly one thousand metres show even today the blossoming town’s quick development in the Middle Ages. There is proof of a mint in Limburg in 1180. Mediaeval window at the back of the cathedral (peristyle) One line of the Lords of Ysenburg resided from 1258 to 1406 at Limburg Castle and named themselves for their seat, the Lords of Limburg. From this line came Imagina of Isenburg-Limburg, German King Adolf’s wife. The ruling class among the mediaeval townsfolk were rich merchant families whose houses stood right near the castle tower and were surrounded by the first town wall once it was built. The area of today’s Rossmarkt (“Horse Market”), in which many simple craftsmen lived, was only brought within the fortifications once the second town wall was built. The inhabitants there, however, unlike the merchant élite, were accorded no entitlement to a voice in town affairs and were not allowed to send representatives to town council. Nevertheless, they had to bear the main financial burden of running the town. Only in 1458 were they allowed to send two representatives to town council. Remains of the town wall on Eschhöfer Weg Saint George’s Cathedral (Sankt-Georgs-Dom) built on the old monastery church’s site, and also called Georgsdom, was consecrated in 1235. On 14 May 1289, a devastating fire wiped great parts of the inner town out, although these were built anew. One of the houses built at that time was the Römer 2-4-6, which is today one of Germany’s oldest timber-frame houses. In 1337, Limburg’s Jews were driven out of town. Only in 1341 could they once again settle in the town, by royal order. In 1344 a half share of the town was pledged to the Electorate of Trier, and in 1420, the town went wholly into Trier’s ownership. This event, along with another town fire in 1342, the Black Death in 1349, 1356 and 1365, but above all the Territorial Princes’ rise, led to a gradual decline. In 1315 and 1346, presumably in two sections, the old stone Lahn Bridge was built. Limburg – extract from the Topographia Hassiae by Matthäus Merian 1655 Limburg Cathedral today Old Town In the environment that pervaded the Peasants' War, unrest also arose among the townsfolk in 1525. After the Elector of Trier had demanded that the townsmen turn a Lutheran preacher out of the town, a board made up of townsmen who were ineligible for council functions handed the council a 30-point comprehensive list of demands on 24 May. It dealt mainly with financial participation and equality in taxation, trade and building issues with the merchant class. In the days that followed, these demands were reduced in negotiations between the council and the board to 16 points, which were likely also taken up with the Elector afterwards. On 5 August, however, Archbishop Richard ordered the council to overturn all concessions to the townsmen. Furthermore, a ban on assembly was decreed, and the ineligible townsmen were stripped of their right to send two representatives to council. In 1806, Limburg passed to the newly founded Duchy of Nassau. In 1818 the town wall was torn down. In 1827 the town was raised to a Catholic episcopal seat. In 1866 the Duchy and thereby Limburg passed to Prussia in the wake of the Austro-Prussian War. As of 1862, Limburg became a railway hub and from 1886 a district seat. In 1892, the Pallottines settled in town, but only the men; the women came in 1895. From 1919 to 1923, Limburg was the “capital” of a short-lived state called Free State Bottleneck (or Freistaat Flaschenhals in German) because it was the nearest unoccupied town to the Weimar Republic. During World War I there was a major prisoner of war camp at Limburg an der Lahn. Many Irish members of the British Army were interned there until the end of the war and at one stage they were visited by the Irish republican leader Roger Casement in an attempt to win recruits for the forthcoming Irish rebellion. Politics Town council The municipal election held on 26 March 2006 yielded the following results: Parties and voter communities %2006 seats2006 %2001 seats2001CDUChristian Democratic Union of Germany52.62349.622SPDSocial Democratic Party of Germany24.51128.313 GRÜNE Bündnis 90/Die Grünen9.046.23 FDP Free Democratic Party4.321.51FWGFreie Wähler Gemeinschaft Limburg5.9310.75BZLBürgervereinigung Zukunft Limburg3.723.71Total100.045100.045voter turnout in %42.649.7 Mayor The town’s mayor is currently Martin Richard (CDU). Town partnerships Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, Rhône, France Oudenburg, West Flanders, Belgium Lichfield, Staffordshire, England, United Kingdom Patenschaft In 1956, a Patenschaft – roughly, a sponsorship – was undertaken for Sudeten Germans driven out of the town of Mährisch Neustadt in the Sternberg district. Economy and infrastructure The old Lahn Bridge was where the Via Publica crossed the Lahn Lahn Valley Bridge on the InterCityExpress high-speed rail line Lahn Valley Bridge on the A3, in the background the ICE bridge, in the foreground at left part of the campground Transport Limburg is a traditional transport hub. Already in the Middle Ages, the Via Publica crossed the navigable Lahn here. Today the A 3 (Emmerich–Oberhausen–Cologne–Frankfurt–Nürnberg–Passau) and Bundesstraße 8, which both follow the Via Publica’s alignment as closely as possible, run through the town. Bundesstraße 49 links Limburg to Koblenz towards the west and Wetzlar and Gießen towards the east. The section between Limburg and Wetzlar is currently being widened to four lanes. This section as far as Obertiefenbach is also known as Die lange Meil (“The Long Mile”). Bundesstraße 54 links Limburg on the one hand with Siegen to the north and on the other by way of Diez with Wiesbaden, which may likewise be reached over Bundesstraße 417 (Hühnerstraße). Already by 1248, a wooden bridge spanned the Lahn, but was replaced after the flooding in 1306 with a stone bridge, the Alte Lahnbrücke. Other road bridges are the Lahntalbrücke Limburg (1964) on the A 3, the Lahnbrücke near Staffel and the Neue Lahnbrücke from 1968, over which run the Bundesstraßen before they cross under the inner town through the Schiedetunnel, a bypass tunnel. Once the Lahntalbahn had been built, Limburg was joined to the railway network in 1862. Limburg railway station developed into a transport hub. Other railway lines are the Unterwesterwaldbahn, the Oberwesterwaldbahn and the Main-Lahn-Bahn. At Niedernhausen station on the Main-Lahn-Bahn, transfer to the Ländchesbahn to Wiesbaden is possible. With the exception of the upper section of the Lahntalbahn, which is still served by Deutsche Bahn, all railway lines are run by Vectus Verkehrsgesellschaft mbH, based in Limburg. Once the InterCityExpress Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line had been built, Limburg acquired an ICE station. It is the only railway station in Germany at which exclusively ICE trains stop. The high-speed rail line crosses the Lahn over the Lahntalbrücke and then dives into the Limburger Tunnel. The nearest airport is Frankfurt Airport, 63 km away on the A 3. Travel time there on the ICE is roughly 25 minutes. Cologne Bonn Airport is 110 km away and can be reached on the ICE in 44 minutes. The Lahn between Lahnstein and Wetzlar is a Bundeswasserstraße (“Federal waterway”). Since the Lahntalbahn’s expansion, however, the waterway’s importance has been declining. It is used mainly by tourists with small motorboats, canoes and rowboats. Limburg is the landing site of the tourboat Wappen von Limburg. Established businesses Mundipharma headquarters in the Dietkircher Höhe commercial park Blechwarenfabrik Limburg (sheet/plate metal) Bundesanzeiger Verlag (publishing house) Harmonic Drive AG MOBA Mobile Automation AG Mundipharma Tetra Pak Vectus Verkehrsgesellschaft mbH (transport) Nassauische Neue Presse (newspaper) Public institutions Education Tilemannschule Marienschule with the old building at left and the former boarding school dorm at right Limburg has four schools which lead to, among other qualifications, the Abitur: Tilemannschule, which has existed since the late 19th century and was named after the famous Limburg chancellory head Tilemann Elhen von Wolfhagen in the 1950s Marienschule, a private girls’ Gymnasium, which has existed since 1895 and which belongs to the Bishopric of Limburg. Peter-Paul-Cahensly-Schule with vocational Gymnasium in the fields of economics and administration, data processing, electrical engineering and machine building Adolf-Reichwein-Schule with vocational Gymnasium in the fields of dietetics and health sciences Professional training schools: Peter-Paul-Cahensly-Schule Friedrich-Dessauer-Schule Adolf-Reichwein-Schule Marienschule Hauptschulen and Realschulen: Johann-Wolfgang-von-Goethe-Schule Leo-Sternberg-Schule Theodor-Heuss-Schule Libraries: Dombibliothek Diözesanbibliothek St. Vincenz Hospital Krankenhaus St. Vincenz The hospital perched on the Schafsberg overlooking the town has at its disposal 433 beds and 15 specialist departments. Sport and leisure In Limburg there are various sport clubs; some are even represented in Bundesligen, and even at the world level. Limburger Club für Wassersport 1895/1907 e.V. (training base for the Deutscher Ruderverband) Limburger Hockey Club Schwimmverein Poseidon Limburg e. V. (swimming) various clubs in the outlying centres such as the Turnverein Eschhofen (gymnastics club), the fistball stronghold in Limburg-Weilburg Youth meeting place in Limburg The Evangelical Church offers with its Jugendfreizeitstätte Limburg (JFS for short, meaning “Youth Leisure Place”) a meeting place for youth with many events. With table football, Internet café and many events, this institution is not only church-based, with two staff and a Zivildienstleistender supporting the visitors not only with their problems. Limburg Mothers’ Centre The Mütterzentrum Limburg is a family meeting place for those with or without children on Hospitalstraße. The club is supported by the town of Limburg and the Bundesland of Hesse and offers among other things a parents’ service that looks after children, a broad array of course offerings for children and adults, a miniature kindergarten and a café. Volunteer fire brigades Limburg an der Lahn Volunteer Fire Brigade, founded 1867 (includes Youth Fire Brigade) Ahlbach Volunteer Fire Brigade, founded 1908 (includes Youth Fire Brigade) Dietkirchen Volunteer Fire Brigade, founded 1934 (includes Youth Fire Brigade) Eschhofen Volunteer Fire Brigade, founded 1901 (includes Youth Fire Brigade) Lindenholzhausen Volunteer Fire Brigade, founded 1933 (includes Youth Fire Brigade) Linter Volunteer Fire Brigade, founded 1935 (includes Youth Fire Brigade) Offheim Volunteer Fire Brigade, founded 1898 (includes Youth Fire Brigade) Staffel Volunteer Fire Brigade, founded 1880 (includes Youth Fire Brigade) Culture and sightseeing Theatre The cabaret troupe “Thing”, founded more than 25 years ago, moved after a short time from its initial home in the outlying centre of Staffel to the Josef-Kohlmaier-Halle, a civic event hall, where its stage can now be found in the hall’s club rooms. The troupe is run by an independent acting club. On the programme are chanson, cabaret, literature and jazz as well as folk, rock and performances by singer-songwriters. It makes a point of furthering young artists. Each month, three or four events are staged. The dedication of “Thing” was recognized on 6 December 2003 when the Kulturpreis Mittelhessen (“Middle Hesse Culture Prize”) was awarded to it. Limburg Cathedral has a famous boys’ choir, the Limburger Domsingknaben, although they are actually based at the “Musical Boarding School” in Hadamar just outside Limburg. Museums The Katzenturm, formerly part of the town wall, today a navy museum Fischmarkt View through a gate near the Limburg cathedral treasury The old DM 1000 note. In Limburg there are several museums. The most important are: Town of Limburg art collections that offer changing exhibits Staurothek, cathedral treasury and diocesan museum with the Limburger Staurothek (a cross reliquary) Museum Limburg Navy Museum Pallottine Mission museum Buildings Only a few towns, like Limburg, have been able to keep a full set of nearly unscathed mediaeval buildings. The formerly walled town core between St. George’s Cathedral, Grabenstraße (a street marking the old town moat) and the 600-year-old Lahn Bridge thus stands today as a whole under monumental protection. The Altstadt (“Old Town”) boasts a fine cathedral and is full of narrow streets with timber-frame houses, dating mainly from the 17th and 18th centuries. Limburger Dom, one of the most complete creations of Late Romanesque architecture. It was printed on the reverse of the 1,000 Deutsche Mark note from the second series, which was in circulation from 1960 to 1989. The cathedral was recently renovated and painted to reflect its original appearance. Limburger Schloss, built in early 13th century by Gerlach von Ysenburg Burgmannenhaus, built about 1544; serves as a museum today St. Anna-Kirche (church), stained glass from third fourth of 14th century with eighteen scenes from the New Testament Old Lahn Bridge, from 1315, place where the Via Publica (road) crossed the Lahn In the Old Town stand many timber-frame houses from the 13th to 19th centuries. One peculiarity seen in Limburg timber-frame houses is the “hall house” from the High Middle Ages which has a great hall on the ground floor. When restoration work began in the Old Town in 1972, the houses were carefully restored. Among the best known timber-frame houses are: Haus Kleine Rütsche 4, narrowest spot on the historic trade road between Frankfurt and Cologne, whose breadth is written at the Haymarket (Heumarkt) in Cologne Haus der sieben Laster (“House of the Seven Vices”) at Brückengasse 9, built in 1567, timber-frame house with carvings showing Christianity’s seven deadly sins, namely pride, greed, envy, lust, gluttony, wrath and sloth Werner-Senger-Haus, very beautiful stone hall house with timber-frame façade from 13th century Houses at the fishmarket. The square’s name in the 13th century was still Fismart (“Yarn Market” or “Wool Market”) in the Limburg dialect, and it was the Limburg wool weavers’ trading centre Peter Paul Schweitzer: Nur ein hölzerner Fisch auf dem Limburger Fischmarkt in Jahrbuch 2004 des Landkreises Limburg-Weilburg, ISBN 3-927006-38-6 S. 177-179 Römer 2-4-6, Germany’s oldest freestanding house; in the garden a mikvah was found Rathaus (“Town Hall”), built in 1899 “Huttig” (town wall tower remnant) Former noble estate of the Counts of Walderdorff at Fahrgasse 5 Famous people Sons and daughters of the town Hubert Hilf (1820–1909), entrepreneur and politician, Member of the Reichstag Leo Sternberg (1876–1937), writer Otfried Eberz (1878–1958), philosopher Josef Eberz (1880–1942), painter and graphic artist Franz Häuser (b. 1945), jurist, professor, rector of the University of Leipzig Dieter Thomas (b. 1947), cabaret performer and cofounder of the Frankfurter Fronttheater Christoph Prégardien (b. 1956), singer Olaf Zimmermann (b. 1961), publicist and art dealer, chief executive of the German Cultural Council Honorary citizens Franz Kamphaus (b. 1932), bishop emeritus of the Bishopric of Limburg Other people Tilemann Elhen von Wolfhagen (about 1347–after 1402), German humanist Frederik Hetmann (1934–2006), writer Walter Neuhäusser (b. 1926), architect Hendrike von Sydow (b. 1956), cabaret performer and film director, cofounder of the Frankfurter Fronttheater Further reading Eugen Stille: Limburg an der Lahn und seine Geschichte, Limburger Vereinsdruckerei, Selbstverlag E. Stille, Limburg/Kassel 1971 Heinz Maibach: Limburg an der Lahn in alten Ansichten, Siebte Auflage, Zaltbommel/Niederlande 1993 Heinz Maibach: Dokumente zur Limburger Stadt- und Kreisgeschichte 1870-1945, Limburg 1992 Fügen, Randolf: Highlights in Mittelhessen. 1. Auflage. Wartenberg Verlag Gudersberg-Gleichen 2003 ISBN 3-8313-1044-0 References External links Town’s official website Limburger Dom Limburg Cathedral Boys' Choir Pictures of Limburg and its cathedral Limburger Altstadt | Limburg_an_der_Lahn |@lemmatized river:3 lahn:29 limburg:75 map:1 constituent:3 community:15 cathedral:12 old:16 bridge:12 der:6 officially:1 district:3 seat:4 weilburg:4 hesse:6 germany:4 geography:1 location:1 lie:2 western:2 taunus:2 westerwald:2 town:53 roughly:4 centrally:1 basin:4 within:3 rhenish:1 slate:1 mountain:1 surround:3 low:2 range:1 call:4 limburger:14 becken:1 owe:1 favourable:1 soil:1 climate:1 stand:4 one:9 bountiful:1 agricultural:1 region:1 moreover:1 convenient:1 crossing:1 great:4 importance:3 transport:5 since:4 middle:7 age:4 otherwise:1 rather:2 narrow:3 valley:3 broaden:1 noticeably:1 make:3 mean:3 elevation:1 sea:1 level:2 neighbouring:2 form:2 together:2 diez:4 centre:8 term:1 central:1 place:6 theory:2 partial:1 function:2 upper:2 residential:2 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4,319 | Foreign_relations_of_Cambodia | The Royal Cambodian Government (RGC) has established diplomatic relations with most countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, as well as all of its Asian neighbors, to include the People's Republic of China, Vietnam, Laos, South Korea, North Korea, and Thailand. The RGC is a member of most major international organizations, including the United Nations and its specialized agencies such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. The RGC is an Asian Development Bank (ADB) member, a member of ASEAN, and is in the process of securing membership in the WTO. In 2005 Cambodia attended the inaugural East Asia Summit. International disputes Cambodia is involved in a dispute regarding offshore islands and sections of the boundary with Vietnam. In addition, the maritime boundary Cambodia has with Vietnam is undefined. Parts of Cambodia's border with Thailand are indefinite, and the maritime boundary with Thailand is not clearly defined. Illicit drugs Cambodia is a transshipment site for Golden Triangle heroin, and possibly a site of money laundering. Reportedly, there is corruption related to narcotics in parts of the government, military and police. Cambodia is also a possible site of small-scale opium, heroin, and amphetamine production. The country is a large producer of cannabis for the international market. See also External links Cambodian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Diplomatic list US Department of State: Foreign relations with Southeast Asia 1961-63 Foreign relations between Cambodia and Germany Japan-Cambodia Relations List of foreign embassies in Cambodia Foreign relations between Cambodia and Australia AsiaSociety: essays relating to the development of Cambodia | Foreign_relations_of_Cambodia |@lemmatized royal:1 cambodian:2 government:2 rgc:3 establish:1 diplomatic:2 relation:5 country:2 include:3 united:3 state:2 kingdom:1 france:1 well:1 asian:2 neighbor:1 people:1 republic:1 china:1 vietnam:3 lao:1 south:1 korea:2 north:1 thailand:3 member:3 major:1 international:4 organization:1 nation:1 specialized:1 agency:1 world:1 bank:2 monetary:1 fund:1 development:2 adb:1 asean:1 process:1 secure:1 membership:1 wto:1 cambodia:11 attend:1 inaugural:1 east:1 asia:2 summit:1 dispute:2 involve:1 regard:1 offshore:1 island:1 section:1 boundary:3 addition:1 maritime:2 undefined:1 part:2 border:1 indefinite:1 clearly:1 define:1 illicit:1 drug:1 transshipment:1 site:3 golden:1 triangle:1 heroin:2 possibly:1 money:1 laundering:1 reportedly:1 corruption:1 relate:2 narcotic:1 military:1 police:1 also:2 possible:1 small:1 scale:1 opium:1 amphetamine:1 production:1 large:1 producer:1 cannabis:1 market:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 ministry:1 foreign:5 affair:1 list:2 u:1 department:1 southeast:1 germany:1 japan:1 embassy:1 australia:1 asiasociety:1 essay:1 |@bigram diplomatic_relation:1 vietnam_lao:1 monetary_fund:1 illicit_drug:1 money_laundering:1 external_link:1 foreign_affair:1 southeast_asia:1 |
4,320 | Digital | Digital has multiple meanings. All of the following meanings are based on digital: Digital circuit, a type of electrical circuit Digital Equipment Corporation, a company commonly known as "Digital" Digital Research, another company Digital control is a part of control theory Digital signal, a kind of signal in information theory Digital signage, using display screens to show changeable content Digital library, a library in the "digital world" Digital Revolution: the revolution of rapid expansion and reduced cost of digital devices Digitalism, a philosophy Vitalis Takawira, an athlete nicknamed "Digital" Digital Structures, a record label D.I.G.I.T.A.L., KRS-One's eighth album Digital (Joy Division song) | Digital |@lemmatized digital:16 multiple:1 meaning:2 following:1 base:1 circuit:2 type:1 electrical:1 equipment:1 corporation:1 company:2 commonly:1 know:1 research:1 another:1 control:2 part:1 theory:2 signal:2 kind:1 information:1 signage:1 use:1 display:1 screen:1 show:1 changeable:1 content:1 library:2 world:1 revolution:2 rapid:1 expansion:1 reduced:1 cost:1 device:1 digitalism:1 philosophy:1 vitalis:1 takawira:1 athlete:1 nickname:1 structure:1 record:1 label:1 g:1 l:1 kr:1 one:1 eighth:1 album:1 joy:1 division:1 song:1 |@bigram |
4,321 | May_Day | May Day occurs on May 1 and refers to several public holidays. Anthony Aveni, "May Day: A Collision of Forces," The Book of the Year: A Brief History of Our Seasonal Holidays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 79-89. Traditional May Day celebrations May Day is related to the Celtic festival of Beltane and the Germanic festival of Walpurgis Night. May Day falls exactly half of a year from November 1, another cross-quarter day which is also associated with various northern European pagan and neopagan festivals such as Samhain. May Day marks the end of the uncomfortable winter half of the year in the Northern hemisphere, and it has traditionally been an occasion for popular and often raucous celebrations, regardless of the locally prevalent political or religious establishment. As Europe became Christianized the pagan holidays lost their religious character and either changed into popular secular celebrations, as with May Day, or were merged with or replaced by new Christian holidays as with Christmas, Easter, and All Saint's Day. In the twentieth century, many neopagans began reconstructing the old traditions and celebrating May Day as a pagan religious festival again. Origins The earliest May Day celebrations appeared in pre-Christian, with the festival of Flora the Roman Goddess of flowers, the Walpurgis Night celebrations of the Germanic countries. It is also associated with the Gaelic Beltane. Many pagan celebrations were abandoned or Christianized during the process of conversion in Europe. A more secular version of May Day continues to be observed in Europe and America. In this form, May Day may be best known for its tradition of dancing the Maypole and crowning of the Queen of the May. Various Neopagan groups celebrate reconstructed (to varying degrees) versions of these customs on May 1. The day was a traditional summer holiday in many pre-Christian European pagan cultures. While February 1 was the first day of Spring, May 1 was the first day of summer; hence, the summer solstice on June 25 (now June 21) was Midsummer. In the Roman Catholic tradition, May is observed as Mary's month, and in these circles May Day is usually a celebration of the Blessed Virgin Mary. In this connection, in works of art, school skits, and so forth, Mary's head will often be adorned with flowers. Fading in popularity since the late 20th century is the giving of "May baskets," small baskets of sweets and/or flowers, usually left anonymously on neighbours' doorsteps.Charming May Day Baskets Europe Finland While most celebrations take place on Mayday eve (see Walpurgis Night#Finland), May Day itself is a public holiday that is the only carnival-style festivity in the country. People, particularly students party on this day, arranging picnics and wearing the student cap. However, all political organizations, including right and left wing parties, also arrange speeches and such events. Greece May First is also International Workers Day, a holiday celebrating the struggles and achievements of the working class (such as unionization, 8-hours working day, healthcare and insurance provisions etc...). Workers' groups and unions are often active on this day; major manifestations are sometimes scheduled for May Day. Since May Day corresponds with the peak of the flower season, flower shows and festivals are common. The ancient Minoans are believed to have celebrated one of their two "New Year" celebrations about this time - the other was in October. One very common commemoration is the making of a May wreath which is hung on doorways, balconies, in chapels, and many other places. Keep an eye out for them. Ireland May Day has been celebrated in Ireland since pagan times as the feast of Bealtaine and in latter times as Mary's day, bonfires are lit to mark the coming of summer and to banish the long nights of winter. United Kingdom Roodmas was an explicitly Christian Mass celebrated in England at midnight on May 1, presumably to diminish the popularity of traditional Walpurgis Night celebrations. England Morris dancing on May Day in Oxford, England 2004. Traditional English May Day rites and celebrations include Morris dancing, crowning a May Queen and celebrations involving a Maypole. Much of this tradition derive from the pagan Anglo-Saxon customs held during "Þrimilci-mōnaþ" Caput XV: De mensibus Anglorum from De mensibus Anglorum. Available online: (the Old English name for the month of May meaning Month of Three Milkings). May Day has been a traditional day of festivities throughout the centuries. With Christianity came agricultural feasts such as Plough Sunday (the first Sunday in January), Rogationtide, Harvest Festival and May Day. It is most associated with towns and villages celebrating springtime fertility and revelry with village fetes and community gatherings. Since May 1st is the Feast of St Philip & St James, they became the patron saints of workers. Seeding has been completed by this date and it was convenient to give farm labourers a day off. Perhaps the most significant of the traditions is the Maypole, around which traditional dancers circle with ribbons. The May Day Bank Holiday, on the first Monday in May, was traditionally the only one to affect the state school calendar, although new arrangements in some areas to even out the length of school terms mean that the Good Friday and Easter Monday Bank Holidays, which vary from year to year, may also fall during term time. 1 May, 1707 was the day the Act of Union came into effect, joining England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. In Oxford, it is traditional for revellers to gather below Magdalen College tower to listen to Magdalen College School's choir May Morning. It is then thought to be traditional for some people (often mistakenly labelled as Oxford University students) to jump off Magdalen Bridge into the River Cherwell. However this has actually only been fashionable since the 1970s. In recent years the bridge has been closed on 1 May to prevent people from jumping, as the water under the bridge is only deep and jumping from the bridge has resulted in serious injury in the past yet there are still people who insist on climbing the barriers and leaping into the water, causing injury. May Day revellers party on bridge In Durham, students of the University of Durham gather on Prebend's Bridge at 5am to see the sunrise and enjoy pagan festivities, folk music, dancing, madrigal singing and a BBQ. This is emerging as a Durham tradition. A good example of more traditional May Day festivities is still witnessed in Whitstable, Kent where the Jack in the Green festival was revived in 1976 and continues to lead an annual procession of morris dancers through the town on the May Bank Holiday. A separate revival occurred in Hastings in 1983 and has become a major event in the town calendar. Padstow also holds its annual 'Obby 'Oss festival. A traditional Sweeps Festival is performed over the May bank holiday in Rochester, Kent where the Jack In the Green is woken at dawn on the 1st of May by Morris dancers. Maydayrun The Maydayrun involves thousands of motorbikes taking a trip from London (Locksbottom) to the Hastings seafront, East Sussex. The event has been taking place for almost 30 years now and has grown in interest from around the country, both commercially and publicly. The event is not officially organised; the police only manage the traffic, while volunteers manage the parking. Hastings fills up with tourists and bikes by about 11 AM, and the A21 from Kent to East Sussex is the road the bikers travel. As a result, the road is severely congested during the event. Cornwall - South West England Padstow in Cornwall holds its annual 'Obby-Oss' day of festivities. This is believed to be one of the oldest fertility rites in the UK; revellers dance with the Oss through the streets of the town and even through the private gardens of the citizens, accompanied by accordion players and followers dressed in white with red or blue sashes who sing the traditional 'May Day' song. The whole town is decorated with springtime greenery, and every year thousands of onlookers attend. Prior to the 19th century distinctive May day celebrations were widespread throughout West Cornwall and have recently been revived in St. Ives and in 2008 will be revived in Penzance. Kingsand, Cawsand and Millbrook in Cornwall celebrate Flower Boat Ritual on the May Day bank holiday. A model of the ship The Black Prince is covered in flowers and is taken in procession from the Quay at Millbrook to the beach at Cawsand where it is cast adrift. The houses in the villages are decorated with flowers and people traditionally wear red and white clothes. There are further celebrations in Cawsand Square with Morris dancing and May pole dancing. Scotland In St Andrews, some of the students gather on the beach late on April 30 and run into the North Sea at sunrise on May Day, occasionally naked. This is accompanied by torchlit processions and much elated celebration. Both Edinburgh and Glasgow organize Mayday festivals and rallies. In Edinburgh, the Beltane Fire Festival is held on the evening of May eve and into the early hours of May Day on the city's Calton Hill. France On May 1st, 1561, King Charles IX of France received a lily of the valley as a lucky charm. He decided to offer a lily of the valley each year to the ladies of the court. At the beginning of the 20th century, it became custom on the 1st of May, to give a sprig of lily of the valley, a symbol of springtime. The government permits individuals and workers' organisations to sell them free of taxation. It is also traditional for the lady receiving the spray of lily of valley to give a kiss in return. Now, people may present loved ones with bunches of lily of the valley or dog rose flowers http://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/france/labor-day May Day in France Germany A stamp from East Germany celebrating the 100-year anniversary of International Workers Day on 1 May 1990. In rural regions of Germany, especially the Harz Mountains, Walpurgisnacht celebrations of Pagan origin are traditionally held on the night before May Day, including bonfires and the wrapping of maypoles, and young people use this opportunity to party, while the day itself is used by many families to get some fresh air. Motto: "Tanz in den Mai!" ("Dance into May!"). In the Rhineland, a region in the western part of Germany, May 1 is also celebrated by the delivery of a tree covered in streamers to the house of a girl the night before. The tree is typically from a love interest, though a tree wrapped only in white streamers is a sign of dislike. On leap years, it is the responsibility of the females to place the maypole, though the males are still allowed and encouraged to do so. Pacific In Hawaii, May Day is also known as Lei Day, and is normally set aside as a day to celebrate island culture in general and native Hawaiian culture in particular. While it was invented by a poet and a local newspaper columnist in the 1920s, it has since been adopted by state and local government as well as by the residents, and has taken on a sense of general spring celebration there. The first Lei Day was proposed in 1927 in Honolulu. Leonard "Red" and Ruth Hawk composed "May Day is Lei Day in Hawai'i," the traditional holiday song. Originally it was a contemporary fox trot, later rearranged as the Hawaiian hula song performed today. Americas May Day festivities at National Park Seminary in Maryland, 1907. May Day was also celebrated by some early European settlers of the American continent. In some parts of the United States, May Baskets are made. These baskets are small and usually filled with flowers or treats and left at someone's doorstep. The basket giver would ring the bell and run away. The person receiving the basket would try to catch the fleeing giver. If they caught the person, a kiss was to be exchanged. Modern May Day ceremonies in the U.S. vary greatly from region to region and many unite both the holiday's "Green Root" (pagan) and "Red Root" (labor) traditions Colleen J. Sheehy (Ed.), Theatre of Wonder: 25 Years in the Heart of the Beast (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 79-89. . Among the largest is the May Day Parade and Pageant created by In the Heart of the Beast Puppet and Mask Theatre, an event that has happened every year since 1975 in Minneapolis and now attracts some 35,000 people. May 1 also is recognized in the U.S. as Law Day. "The Rule of Law" American Bar Association International Workers' Day Approximately 700,000 people at a May Day concert in Rome Concert a Roma, Repubblica May Day can refer to various labour celebrations conducted on May 1 that commemorate the fight for the eight hour day. May Day in this regard is called International Workers' Day, or Labour Day. The idea for a "workers holiday" began in Australia in 1856. With the idea having spread around the world, the choice of May 1st became a commemoration by the Second International for the people involved in the 1886 Haymarket affair. What Are the Origins of May Day?, Rosa Luxemburg, Sprawa Robotnicza, 1894 The Haymarket affair occurred during the course of a three-day general strike in Chicago, Illinois, United States that involved common laborers, artisans, merchants, and immigrants. Following an incident in which police opened fire and killed four strikers at the McCormick Harvesting Machine Co. plant, a rally was called for the following day at Haymarket Square. The event remained peaceful, yet towards the end of the rally, as police moved in to disperse the event, an unknown assailant threw a bomb into the crowd of police. The bomb and resulting police riot left at least a dozen people dead, including seven policemen. A sensational show trial ensued in which eight defendants were openly tried for their political beliefs, and not necessarily for any involvement in the bombing. The trial led to the eventual public hanging of seven anarchists. The Haymarket incident was a source of outrage from people around the globe. In the following years, memory of the "Haymarket martyrs" was remembered with various May Day job actions and demonstrations. May Day has become an international celebration of the social and economic achievements of the labour movement. Although May Day received its inspiration from the United States, the U.S. Congress designated May 1 as Loyalty Day in 1958 due to the day's perceived appropriation by the Soviet Union.Roots of May Day are in Chicago Alternatively, Labor Day traditionally occurs on the first Monday in September in the United States. People often use May Day as a day for political protest, such as the million people who demonstrated against far-right candidate Jean-Marie Le Pen in France, or as a day for protest against government actions, such as rallies in support of undocumented workers across the United States. Anti-Le Pen Protests Draw a Million Into Streets of France Business joins May Day reform cry in L.A. May Day is rally day in Seattle References External links May Day in Cuba, a Retrospective Photos by Bill Hackwell, Havana Times Apr 27 2009 Pretanic World Holiday Traditions from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland that may pre-date the Christian Era English Heathenism - Roots of May Day in English heathenism. May Day history at The Holiday Spot Mayday in Berlin The history of May Day - Radio France Internationale in English Round-up of 2009 May Day marches - Radio France Internationale in English | May_Day |@lemmatized may:88 day:87 occur:4 refers:1 several:1 public:3 holiday:18 anthony:1 aveni:1 collision:1 force:1 book:1 year:15 brief:1 history:3 seasonal:1 oxford:5 university:4 press:2 traditional:13 celebration:19 relate:1 celtic:1 festival:12 beltane:3 germanic:2 walpurgis:4 night:7 fall:2 exactly:1 half:2 november:1 another:1 cross:1 quarter:1 also:11 associate:2 various:4 northern:2 european:3 pagan:10 neopagan:2 samhain:1 mark:2 end:2 uncomfortable:1 winter:2 hemisphere:1 traditionally:5 occasion:1 popular:2 often:5 raucous:1 regardless:1 locally:1 prevalent:1 political:4 religious:3 establishment:1 europe:4 become:6 christianize:2 lose:1 character:1 either:1 change:1 secular:2 merge:1 replace:1 new:3 christian:5 christmas:1 easter:2 saint:2 twentieth:1 century:5 many:6 neopagans:1 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4,322 | Ottawa | Ottawa ( or sometimes ) is the capital of Canada and a municipality within the Province of Ontario. Located in the Ottawa Valley in the eastern portion of Southern Ontario, the city lies on the southern banks of the Ottawa River, a major waterway forming the local boundary between the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec. The 2006 Census recorded the population at over 812,000, making it the fourth largest municipality in the country and second largest in Ontario. Connected by several bridges to its Quebec neighbour, the City of Gatineau on the northern shores of the Ottawa River, the two cities had a combined 2006 population of over 1,130,000, making it the country's fourth largest metropolitan area. Ottawa is governed by a 24-member city council consisting of 23 councillors each representing one ward and the mayor, elected at-large. As a single tier municipality, Ottawa has responsibility for all municipal services, including fire, ambulance, police, parks, roads, sidewalks, public transit, drinking water, stormwater, sanitary sewage and solid waste. There is no federal capital district in Canada. Although it does not constitute a separate administrative district, Ottawa is part of the federally designated National Capital Region (NCR), which encompasses Ottawa, Gatineau and surroundings areas having a population of over 1,451,000. The National Capital Commission is a federal crown corporation charged with the responsibility of plannng and managing the federal government's interests in the NCR. As with other national capitals, the word "Ottawa" is also used to refer by metonymy to the country's federal government, especially as opposed to provincial or municipal authorities. History Chaudière Falls before damming and the construction of mills at this part of the river. The Ottawa region was long home to the Odawa or Odaawaa First Nations people. The Odawa are an Algonquin people who called the river the Kichi Sibi or Kichissippi, unrelated to Mississippi, meaning "Great River". The Algonquin people never relinquished any land claims to the Government of Canada. In 2008 the Algonquins made a land claim to the federal government asserting that they have ownership to the Ottawa River watershed in Ontario and its natural resources. The first European settlement in the region was that of Philemon Wright who started a community on the Quebec side of the river in 1800. Wright discovered that transporting timber by river from the Ottawa Valley to Montreal was possible, and the area was soon booming based almost exclusively upon the timber trade. Liked by many European nations for its extremely straight and strong trunk, the White Pine was found throughout the valley. In the years following the War of 1812, in addition to settling some military regiment families, the government began sponsored immigration schemes which brought over Irish Catholics and Irish Protestants to settle the Ottawa area, which began a steady stream of Irish immigration there in the next few decades. Along with French Canadians who crossed over from Quebec, these two groups provided the bulk of workers involved in the Rideau Canal project and the booming timber trade, both instrumental in putting Ottawa on the map. The region's population grew significantly when the canal was completed by Colonel John By in 1832. It was intended to provide a secure route between Montreal and Kingston on Lake Ontario, by-passing the stretch of the St. Lawrence River bordering New York State (the U.S invasions of Canada in the War of 1812 being a recent memory). Construction of the canal began at the northern end, where Colonel By set up a military barracks on what later became Parliament Hill, and laid out a townsite that soon became known as Bytown. Original city leaders of Bytown include a number of Wright's sons,most notably Ruggles Wright. Nicholas Sparks, Braddish Billings and Abraham Dow were the first to settle on the Ontario side of the Ottawa river. The west side of the canal became known as "Uppertown" where the Parliament buildings are located, while the east side of the canal (wedged between the canal and Rideau River) was known as the "Lowertown". At that time, Lowertown was a crowded, boisterous shanty town, frequently receiving the worst of disease epidemics, such as the Cholera outbreak in 1832, and typhus in 1847. Ottawa became a centre for lumber milling and square-cut timber industry in Canada and, in fact, for North America as a whole. From there, it quickly expanded further up (or westward along) the Ottawa River, and logs were boomed by raftsmen great distances down the river to the mills. Bytown was renamed Ottawa in 1855, when it was incorporated as a city. Ottawa as the capital On December 31, 1857, Queen Victoria was asked to choose a common capital for the Province of Canada (modern Quebec and Ontario) and chose Ottawa. There are old folk tales about how she made the choice: that she did so by sticking her hatpin on a map roughly halfway between Toronto and Montreal, or that she liked watercolours she had seen of the area. While such stories have no historical basis, they do illustrate how arbitrary the choice of Ottawa seemed to Canadians at the time. While Ottawa is now a major metropolis and Canada's fourth largest city, at the time it was a sometimes unruly logging town in the hinterland, far away from the colony's main cities, Quebec City and Montreal in Canada East, and Kingston and Toronto in Canada West. The Centre Block, on Parliament Hill. In fact, the Queen's advisers suggested she pick Ottawa for many important reasons: first, it was the only settlement of any significant size located right on the border of Canada East and Canada West (the post 1841 name for the then united regions formerly known as Upper and Lower Canada, today the Quebec/Ontario border), making it a compromise between the two colonies and their French and English populations; second, the War of 1812 had shown how vulnerable major Canadian cities were to American attack, since they were all located very close to the border while Ottawa was (then) surrounded by a dense forest far from the border; third, the government owned a large parcel of land on a spectacular spot overlooking the Ottawa River. Ottawa's position in the back country made it more defensible, while still allowing easy transportation via the Ottawa River to Canada East, and the Rideau Canal to Canada West. Two other considerations were that Ottawa was at a point nearly exactly midway between Toronto and Quebec City (~500 km/310 mi) and that the small size of the town made it less likely that politically motivated mobs could go on a rampage and destroy government buildings, as had been the case in the previous Canadian capitals. The Ottawa River and the Rideau Canal network meant that Ottawa could be supplied by water from Kingston and Montreal without going along the potentially treacherous US-Canada border. Annexation history of Ottawa The original Centre Block of the Parliament Buildings in Ottawa was destroyed by fire on February 3, 1916. The House of Commons and Senate were temporarily relocated to the recently constructed Victoria Memorial Museum, currently the Canadian Museum of Nature, located about south of Parliament Hill on McLeod Street at Metcalfe Street. A new Centre Block was completed in 1922, the centrepiece of which is a dominant Gothic revival styled structure known as the Peace Tower which has become a common emblem of the city. On September 5, 1945, only weeks after the end of World War II, Ottawa was the site of the event that many people consider to be the official start of the Cold War. A Soviet cipher clerk, Igor Gouzenko, defected from the Soviet embassy with over 100 secret documents Soviet Spy Scandal, from CBC's "Canada: A People's History". Accessed December 22, 2008. . At first, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) refused to take the documents, as the Soviets were still allies of Canada and Britain, and the newspapers were not interested in the story. After hiding out for a night in a neighbour's apartment, listening to his own home being searched, Gouzenko finally persuaded the RCMP to look at his evidence, which provided proof of a massive Soviet spy network operating in western countries, and, indirectly, led to the discovery that the Soviets were working on an atomic bomb to match that of the Americans. In 2001, the old city of Ottawa (estimated 2005 population 350,000) was amalgamated with the suburbs of Nepean (135,000), Kanata (85,000), Gloucester (120,000), Rockcliffe Park (2,100), Vanier (17,000) and Cumberland (55,000), and the rural townships of West Carleton (18,000), Osgoode (13,000), Rideau (18,000) and Goulbourn (24,000), along with the systems and infrastructure of the Regional Municipality of Ottawa-Carleton, Orléans, Ontario (84,695), to become one municipality. Ottawa-Carleton used to be just Carleton County before 1969 and consisted of what is now the City of Ottawa except for Cumberland. Geography and climate Map of Ottawa showing urban area, highways, waterways, and historic townships Ottawa is situated on the south bank of the Ottawa River, and contains the mouths of the Rideau River and Rideau Canal. The oldest part of the city (including what remains of Bytown) is known as Lower Town, and occupies an area between the canal and the rivers. Across the canal to the west lies Centretown (often just called "downtown"), which is the city's financial and commercial hub. Situated between Centretown and the Ottawa River, the slight elevation of Parliament Hill is home to many of the capital's landmark government buildings, including the Peace Tower, and the Legislative seat of Canada. As of June 29, 2007, the Rideau Canal, which stretches to Kingston, Fort Henry and four Martello towers in the Kingston area was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In view: St. John the Baptist Ukrainian Catholic National Shrine, the Rideau Canal, the Rideau River, Colonel By Drive, Carleton University, Downtown Ottawa and the Laurentian mountainsThe Rideau Canal serves as a waterway in summer and a skating rink in winter. The City of Ottawa has a main urban area but there are many other urban, suburban and rural areas within the city's limits. The main suburban area extends a considerable distance to the east, west and south of the centre, and includes the former cities of Gloucester, Nepean and Vanier, the former village of Rockcliffe Park and also the community of Blackburn Hamlet (pop. 8,527), the community of Orléans (pop. 110,000). The Kanata suburban area consists of Kanata (pop. 90,000) and the former village of Stittsville (pop. 20,000). Nepean is another major suburb which also includes Barrhaven (pop. 70,000) and the former village of Manotick (pop. 7,545). There are also the communities of Riverside South (pop. 8,000) on the other side of the Rideau River, Morgan's Grant (pop. 8,000) and Greely (pop. 4,152), southeast of Riverside South. There are also a number of rural communities (villages and hamlets) that lie beyond the greenbelt but are administratively part of the Ottawa municipality. Some of these communities are Burritts Rapids (hamlet, pop. 300); Ashton (hamlet, pop. 300); Fallowfield (hamlet, pop. 600); Kars (small village, pop. 1,539); Fitzroy Harbour (small village, pop. 1,549); Munster (large village, pop. 1,390); Carp (large village, pop. 1,400); North Gower (large village, pop. 1,700); Metcalfe (large village, pop. 1,810); Constance Bay (large village, pop. 2,327) and Osgoode (large village, pop. 2,571) and Richmond (very large village, pop. 3,301). There are also a number of towns in the national capital region but outside the city of Ottawa, one of these urban communities is Almonte, Ontario (town, pop. 4,649). Across the Ottawa River, which forms the border between Ontario and Quebec, lies the city of Gatineau. Although formally and administratively separate cities in two separate provinces, Ottawa and Gatineau (along with a number of nearby municipalities) collectively constitute the National Capital Region, with a combined population exceeding one million residents, which is considered a single metropolitan area. One federal crown corporation (the National Capital Commission, or NCC) has significant land holdings in both cities, including sites of historical and touristic importance. The NCC, through its responsibility for planning and development of these lands, is an important contributor to both cities. Around the main urban area is an extensive greenbelt, administered by the National Capital Commission for conservation and leisure, and comprising mostly forest, farmland and marshland. Ottawa itself is a single-tiered city, meaning it is in itself a census division and has no county or regional municipality government above it. Ottawa is bounded on the east by the United Counties of Prescott and Russell; by Renfrew County and Lanark County in the west; on the south by the United Counties of Leeds and Grenville and the United Counties of Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry; and on the north by the Regional County Municipality of Les Collines-de-l'Outaouais and the City of Gatineau. Ottawa is made up of eleven historic townships, ten of which are from historic Carleton County and one from historic Russell. They are Cumberland, Fitzroy, Gloucester, Goulbourn, Huntley, March, Marlborough, Nepean, North Gower, Osgoode and Torbolton. Climate Ottawa has a humid continental climate (Koppen Dfb) with a range of temperatures from a record high of 37.8 °C (100°F), recorded July 4, 1913, to a record low of -38.9 °C (-38 °F) recorded on December 29, 1933, the fourth coldest temperature recorded in a capital city (after Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia; Astana, Kazakhstan and Moscow, Russia). This extreme range in temperature allows Ottawa to boast a variety of annual activities—more notable events such as the Winterlude Festival on the Rideau Canal in the winter and the National Canada Day celebrations on Parliament Hill in July—and the requirement of a wide range of clothing. Because of its relatively warm summers, Ottawa is only the seventh coldest capital in the world by annual average temperature, however by mean January temperature, Ottawa ranks third behind Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia and Astana, Kazakhstan and has a colder average January temperature than Moscow, much further north than Ottawa. Snow and ice are dominant during the winter season. Ottawa receives about 235 centimetres (93 in) of snowfall annually. Its biggest snowfall was recorded on March 3-4, 1947 with 73 cm (2.5 feet) of snow. Average January temperature is -10.8 °C (13 °F), although days well above freezing and nights below -30 °C (-22 °F) both occur in the winter. The snow season is quite variable; in an average winter, a lasting snow cover is on the ground from mid-December until early April, although some years are snow-free until beyond Christmas, particularly in recent years. The 2007–08 winter season snowfall (432.7 cm / 170.3 inches) came within 10 cm (4 inches) of the record snowfall set in 1970-1971 (444.1 cm / 174.8 inches). High wind chills are common, with annual averages of 51, 14 and 1 days with wind chills below -20 °C (-4 °F), -30 °C (-22 °F) and -40 °C (-40 °F) respectively. The lowest recorded wind chill was of -47.8 °C (-54.0 °F) on January 8, 1968. Freezing rain is also relatively common, even relative to other parts of the country. One such large storm caused power outages and affected the local economy, and came to be known as the 1998 Ice Storm. Summers are fairly warm and humid in Ottawa, although they are moderate in length. The average July maximum temperature is 26 °C (80 °F), with occasional northerly incursions of comfortable, cool air which drop humidity levels, although daytime temperatures of 30 °C (86 °F) or higher are commonplace in most summers. A maximum temperature of 39.5 °C (103 °F) was recorded in the summer of 2005 at certain locations. During periods of hot weather, high humidity is often an aggravating factor, especially close to the rivers. Ottawa annually averages 41, 12 and 2 days with humidex (combined temperature & humidity index) above 30 °C (86 °F), 35 °C (95 °F) and 40 °C (104 °F) respectively. The highest recorded humidex was 48 °C (118 °F) on August 1, 2006. Spring and fall are variable, prone to extremes in temperature and unpredictable swings in conditions. Hot days above 30 °C (86 °F) have occurred as early as March (as in 2002) or as late as October, as well as snow well into May and early in October (although such events are extremely unusual and brief). Average annual precipitation averages around 943 millimetres (37 in.). The biggest one-day rainfall occurred on September 9, 2004 when the remnants of Hurricane Frances dumped nearly 136 mm (5½ inches) of rain in the city. There are about 2,060 hours of average sunshine annually (47% of possible). Destructive summer weather events such as tornadoes, major flash floods, extreme heat waves, severe hail and remnant effects from hurricanes are rare, but all have occurred in the Ottawa area. Some of the most notable tornadoes in the region occurred in 1978 (F2), 1994 (F3), 1999 (F1) and 2002 (F1). On February 24, 2006, an earthquake measuring 4.5 on the Richter Scale struck Ottawa. On January 1, 2000, an earthquake measuring 5.2 on the Richter Scale struck Ottawa. On average, a small tremor occurs in Ottawa every three years. Transportation Inter-city services Ottawa is served by inter-city passenger rail service by VIA Rail, a number of airlines that fly into the Ottawa Macdonald-Cartier International Airport, and inter-city bus companies such as Greyhound operating out of the Ottawa Central Bus Station. Highways, streets and roads The capital city of Canada is also served by a network of freeways, the main one being provincial Highway 417 (called The Queensway), Ottawa-Carleton Regional Road 174 (formerly Provincial Highway 17), and Highway 416 (Veterans' Memorial Highway), connecting Ottawa to the rest of the 400-Series Highway network in Ontario. Highway 417 is also the Ottawa portion of the Trans-Canada Highway. The city also has several scenic parkways (promenades), such as the Ottawa River Parkway, Aviation Parkway and has a freeway connection to Autoroute 5 and Autoroute 50, in Hull. For a complete listing of the parkways and roads in Ottawa, see the List of Ottawa roads. Public transit The O-Train, Ottawa's light rail train systemThe public transit system is operated by OC Transpo, a department of the city. An integrated system of services is available consisting of: (1) regular buses travelling on fixed routes in mixed traffic, typical of most urban transit systems; (2) a bus rapid transit (BRT) system - a high frequency bus service operating on the transitway - a network comprised of mostly grade-separated dedicated bus lanes within their own right-of-way and having full stations with Park & Ride facilities further supported by on-road reserved bus lanes and priority traffic signal controls; (3) a light rail transit (LRT) system known as the O-Train operating on one north-south route; and (4) a door-to-door bus service for the disabled known as ParaTranspo. Both OC Transpo and the Quebec-based Société de transport de l'Outaouais (STO) operate bus services between Ottawa and Gatineau. A transfer or bus pass of one is accepted on the other without having to pay a top-up fare on regular routes. Navigable waterways Ottawa sits at the confluence of three major rivers: the Ottawa River, the Gatineau River and the Rideau River. The Ottawa and Gatineau rivers were historically important in the logging and lumber industries, and the Rideau as part of the Rideau Canal system connecting the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River with the Ottawa River. The Rideau Canal, which starts in Kingston, Ontario, winds its way through the city. The final flight of locks on the canal are between Parliament Hill and the Château Laurier. Also, during the winter season the canal is usually open and is a form of transportation downtown for about 7.8 kilometres (4.8 mi) for ice skaters (from a point near Carleton University to the Rideau Centre) and forms the world's largest skating rink. Bicycle and pedestrian pathways There is a large network of paved multi-use pathways that wind their way through much of the city, including along the Ottawa River, Rideau River, and Rideau Canal. These pathways are used for transportation, tourism, and recreation. Because most streets either have wide curb lanes or bicycle lanes, cycling is a popular mode of transportation in the region throughout the year. Transportation Master Plan The city's summarizes expansion and improvement plans for: and Landmarks and notable institutions The Château Laurier in downtown Ottawa. Ottawa is home to a wealth of national museums, official residences, government buildings, memorials and heritage structures. Federal buildings in the National Capital Region are managed by the Public Works Canada, while most of the federal lands in the Region are managed by the National Capital Commission or NCC; its control of much undeveloped land gives the NCC a great deal of influence over the city's development. In 2006, the National Capital Commission completed work on the long-discussed Confederation Boulevard, a ceremonial route linking key attractions in National Capital Region, on both sides of the Ottawa River, in Ottawa as well as Gatineau, Quebec. The Ottawa skyline has remained conservative in skyscraper height throughout the years due to a skyscraper height restriction. First installed to keep Parliament Hill visible from most parts of the City, that initial restriction was changed to a more realistic law many years later. The restriction allows no building to overwhelm the skyline, keeping almost all the downtown building around the same 25-30 story range. Other cities with building height restrictions like Ottawa's include Washington DC, Belfast, Northern Ireland, St. Petersburg, Russia, amongst others. Below is a map of the National Capital Region showing the prominent buildings and structures. Click on the stars to read articles on the individual buildings. Primary industries Ottawa's primary employers are the Canadian federal government and the hi-tech industry. Ottawa has become known as "Silicon Valley North." Sports Scotiabank Place, where the Ottawa Senators of the National Hockey League play. Ottawa is home to one major league professional sports team, the Ottawa Senators of the National Hockey League. The Senators' home rink is located at Scotiabank Place. Ottawa also has a major junior ice hockey team, the Ottawa 67's of the Ontario Hockey League and the professional women's hockey team, the Ottawa Senators (CWHL). Ottawa recently hosted the 2009 World Junior Hockey Championships and hosts the annual Bell Capital Cup tournament. Ottawa was home to a minor league professional baseball team, the Ottawa Voyageurs of the Canadian-American Association of Professional Baseball which plays at the Ottawa Baseball Stadium. The Voyageurs were formerly known as the Ottawa Rapidz. The Voyageurs/Rapidz folded after only one year. Ottawa was also home to a AAA minor league baseball team, the Ottawa Lynx of the International League. The team was sold in 2006 and the Lynx left Ottawa following the 2007 season, moving to Allentown, Pennsylvania. Ottawa's two major universities, Carleton University and the University of Ottawa both have athletic associations; the team names are the Carleton Ravens and the Ottawa Gee-Gees respectively. The Ravens are nationally-ranked in basketball. The Gee-Gees are nationally-ranked in football. Ottawa had a significant presence in the Canadian Football League with the Ottawa Rough Riders football team and an attempted revival with the Ottawa Renegades (established 2002 - suspended operations in 2006, due to financial difficulties and poor fan attendance). Football was played at Frank Clair Stadium. On March 25, 2008, CFL commissionner Mark Cohon awarded a conditional franchise to a group led by 67s owner Jeff Hunt. Ottawa is also home to a semi-professional football team in the Empire Football League, the Ottawa Demon Deacons and 3 Major Junior Football teams in the QJFL, the Ottawa Junior Riders, Ottawa Sooners and the Cumberland Panthers. Ottawa's top association football (soccer) team is the Ottawa Fury who play in the women's W-League and the men's USL Premier Development League. Harness and Horse racing can be found at Rideau Carleton Raceway off Albion Road and auto racing can be found at the Capital City Speedway off Highway 7. The Rideau Canoe Club, located at Hog's Back Park on the Rideau River, produces and supports many national- and international-level paddlers. The city also supports many casual sporting activities, such as skating on the Rideau Canal or curling in winter, cycling and jogging along the Ottawa River, Rideau Canal, and Rideau River in summer, playing Ultimate all year round (especially through the O.C.U.A.), skiing and hiking in the Greenbelt and the nearby Gatineau Park, and sailing on Lac Deschenes, part of the Ottawa River or golfing on many of the golf courses in the Ottawa area. During the coldest parts of winter there is ice fishing on the Ottawa river. Ottawa has many cricket clubs for people of all ages. Eastern Ontario's top rugby players are members of the Ottawa Harlequins which competes each summer in the Rugby Canada Super League. Sports teams Club League Venue Established Championships Ottawa Senators NHL Scotiabank Place 1992–present 0 (Stanley Cups)1 (President's Trophy)1 (Prince of Wales Trophy)</td> Ottawa Senators NHL (and other leagues) ice hockey Ottawa Auditorium 1884–1934 12 (Stanley Cups)1 (Prince of Wales Trophy) 1 (Allan Cup)</td> Ottawa Lynx International League (AAA Baseball) Lynx Stadium 1993-2007 1 Ottawa Rapidz Canadian-American Association of Professional Baseball Ottawa Baseball Stadium 2008 0 Ottawa Gee-Gees CIS various University of Ottawa 1848 2 (Vanier Cup) Carleton Ravens CIS various Carleton University 1942 6 (Canadian University Basketball) Ottawa 67's OHL ice hockey Ottawa Civic Centre 1967-present 3 (OHL) 2 (Memorial Cups) Ottawa Raiders NWHL ice hockey Sandy Hill Arena 1999-2007 0 Ottawa Senators (CWHL) CWHL ice hockey Sandy Hill Arena/Bell Sensplex 2007-present 0 Ottawa Loggers RHI roller hockey Ottawa Civic Centre 1997-99 n/a Ottawa Fury W-League and USL PDL association football (soccer) Keith Harris Stadium 2003 0 Ottawa Harlequins Rugby Canada Super League (Rugby Union) Twin Elm Rugby Park 1999 0 Ottawa Rebel National Lacrosse League Scotiabank Place 2001 - 2003 0 Ottawa Renegades Canadian Football League Frank Clair Stadium 2002 - 2006 0 Ottawa Rough Riders Canadian Football League Frank Clair Stadium 1876 - 1996 9 (Grey Cups) Ottawa Swans Ontario Australian Football League Rideau Carleton Raceway 2007-present 0 Ottawa Sooners Canadian Junior Football LeagueQuebec Junior Football League Keith Harris Stadium 1960-present 5 CJFL Championships3 QJFL Championships Ottawa Junior Riders Quebec Junior Football LeagueCanadian Junior Football League Nepean Sportsplex 1995-present 6 QJFL Championships Cumberland Panthers Quebec Junior Football League Millennium Sports Park 2004-present 0 Media Government The Elgin Street facade of the Heritage Building section of Ottawa City Hall. In addition to being the capital of Canada, Ottawa is politically diverse with regard to local politics. Most of the city traditionally supports the Liberal Party, although only some parts of the city are consistent Liberal strongholds. Perhaps the safest areas for the Liberals are the ones dominated by francophones, especially in Vanier and central Gloucester. Central Ottawa is usually more left-leaning, and the New Democratic Party can win ridings there as government unions and activist groups are fairly strong. Some of Ottawa's suburbs are swing areas, notably central Nepean and, despite its Francophone population, Orléans. The southern and western parts of the old city of Ottawa are generally moderate or slightly left of centre but periodically swing to the Conservative Party. The farther one goes from the city centre into suburban fringes like Kanata and Barrhaven and rural areas, the voters tend to be increasingly conservative, both fiscally and socially. This is especially true in the former Townships of West Carleton, Goulbourn, Rideau and Osgoode, which are more in line with the staunchly conservative areas in the surrounding counties. However not all rural areas support the Conservative Party. Rural parts of the former township of Cumberland, with a large number of Francophones, traditionally support the Liberal Party, though their support has recently weakened. Ottawa became the legislative capital of the Northwest Territories when it reverted to 1870 constitutional status, after Alberta, and Saskatchewan were carved out in 1905. From 1905 to 1951 almost all of the council members were civil servants living in Ottawa. From 1951 to 1967 the territory alternated legislative sessions with various Northwest Territories communities. Ottawa only held legislative sessions of the council. Fort Smith, Northwest Territories became the administrative centre and officially housed the civil service from 1911 to 1967. Demographics Map of Ottawa showing the francophone concentrations Ethnic OriginPopulationPercentCanadian227,49028.4%English194,84524.3%Irish180,52522.5%French172,16521.5%Scottish158,34019.8%German67,6608.4%Italian39,2304.9%Chinese34,4354.3%Polish25,6853.2%Dutch22,7002.8%North American Indian21,6002.7%East Indian20,5252.6%Lebanese17,5002.1%African people16, 0002.0% In 2006 the population of the city of Ottawa was 812,129 , while the population of the Census Metropolitan Area was 1,130,761 . The population of the pre-amalgamated city was 337,031 at the 2001 census, and had fallen to 328,105 at the 2006 Census. The census of May 2006 estimates 1,148,800 people living in the greater Ottawa (Ottawa-Gatineau) area. In 2001 females made up 51.23 percent of the population. Youths under 14 years of age number 19.30 percent of the total population, while those of retirement age (65 years and older) make up 10.81 percent resulting in an average age of 36.6 years of age. Foreign born residents in Ottawa made up 22.28 percent of the population in which many come from China, Lebanon, northeast Africa, Iran, and The Balkans . Members of visible minority groups (non-white/European) constituted 20.2 percent, while those of Aboriginal origin numbered 1.5 percent of the total population. The largest visible minority groups consisted are: Black Canadians: 4.9%, Chinese Canadian: 3.8%, South Asian: 3.3%, and Arab: 3.0%, as well as smaller mixed race, and other East Asian groups. Because Ottawa is the core of an urban area extending into French-speaking Quebec, the city is very bilingual. Those who speak English as a first language constitute 62.6 percent, those who speak both English and French, 0.85 percent, while those who speak French as a first language number 14.9 percent. Other languages include Arabic, Chinese, Italian, Spanish, German, Persian and many others. As expressed in 2001 census, the most popular religion is Christianity as 79.34 percent of the population described themselves belonging to various Christian denominations, the most popular being Roman Catholicism: 54.16%, Protestantism: 21.85%, Christian Orthodox: 1.68%, while the remaining 1.64% consists of independent Christian churches like Jehovah's Witness, LDS etc. Non-Christian religions are also very well established in Ottawa, the largest being Islam: 3.97%, Judaism: 1.09%, and Buddhism: 0.95%. Those professing no religion number about 13.29 percent. Education Tabaret Hall at the University of Ottawa. Ottawa has the highest per capita concentration of engineers, scientists, and residents with PhDs in Canada. Algonquin College Carleton University Dominican University College La Cité Collégiale Saint Paul University University of Ottawa Items of interest Canada Day celebrations on Wellington Street, in front of the Château Laurier, in Ottawa. The National Research Council of Canada's shortwave time signal station, CHU, is located in Ottawa. The Ottawa ankle rules were developed in, and named after the city. List of attractions in Ottawa List of Ottawa cinemas Beaver Tails The August Ontario civic holiday, which is called Simcoe Day in Toronto and Peter Robinson Day in Peterborough, is named Colonel By Day in Ottawa. In Isaac Asimov's "I, Robot" ,Ottawa served as the capital of the Northern Region, one of the four Global Regions. Diplomatic missions in Canada Sister cities of Ottawa Sister Cities Beijing, China (1999) Buenos Aires, Argentina Catania, Sicily, Italy (2003) Campobasso, Molise, Italy See also Ottawa City Council Ottawa (City of) defunct electoral district Ottawa municipal election, 2003 Ottawa municipal election, 2006 1900 Hull-Ottawa fire 1929 Ottawa sewer explosion City of Ottawa (municipal government) City of Ottawa Act Dominion Arboretum List of communities in the Ottawa area List of Ottawa churches List of Ottawa mayors List of Ottawa media outlets List of people from Ottawa Regional Municipality of Ottawa-Carleton List of bridges in Ottawa List of Ottawa buildings List of Ottawa schools List of tallest buildings in Ottawa-Gatineau List of embassies and high commissions in Ottawa List of designated heritage properties in Ottawa List of crossings of the Ottawa River Eastern Ontario Southern Ontario Notes References Sources Statistics Canada 2001 Census of Canada, retrieved October 10, 2006. External links City of Ottawa's website National Capital Freenet - Directory of Ottawa and Environs Musée Bytown Museum Interesting Facts About Ottawa from Canadian Geographic Parliament Hill Webcam Ontario Photos, Ottawa Ottawa-Gatineau Watershed Atlas (OGWA) November:Ottawa be-x-old:Атава | Ottawa |@lemmatized ottawa:193 sometimes:2 capital:27 canada:31 municipality:10 within:4 province:4 ontario:21 locate:8 valley:4 eastern:3 portion:2 southern:4 city:58 lie:4 bank:2 river:41 major:10 waterway:4 form:4 local:3 boundary:1 quebec:14 census:8 record:10 population:16 make:11 fourth:4 large:19 country:6 second:2 connect:3 several:2 bridge:2 neighbour:2 gatineau:13 northern:4 shore:1 two:6 combined:2 metropolitan:3 area:25 govern:1 member:4 council:5 consist:6 councillor:1 represent:1 one:16 ward:1 mayor:2 elect:1 single:3 tier:1 responsibility:3 municipal:5 service:8 include:10 fire:3 ambulance:1 police:2 park:8 road:6 sidewalk:1 public:4 transit:6 drink:1 water:2 stormwater:1 sanitary:1 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4,323 | Foreign_relations_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland | The foreign relations of Ireland are substantially influenced by its membership of the European Union, although bilateral relations with the United States and United Kingdom are also important to the country. It is one of the group of smaller nations in the EU, and has traditionally followed a non-aligned foreign policy. Ireland tends towards independence in foreign policy, thus it is not a member of NATO and has a longstanding policy of military neutrality. This policy has helped the Irish Defence Forces to be successful in their contributions to UN peace-keeping missions since 1960 (in the Congo Crisis) and subsequently in Cyprus, Lebanon and Bosnia and Herzegovina. European Union Ireland is consistently the most pro-European of EU member states, with 77% of the population approving of EU membership according to a Eurobarometer poll in 2006. Standard Eurobarometer 65 "Question QA11a: Generally speaking, do you feel that (OUR COUNTRY'S) membership of the European Union is...? Answers: A good thing." Survey conducted May-July 2006, published July 2006. Ireland was a founding member of the euro single currency. In May 2004, Ireland was one of only three countries to open its borders to workers from the 10 new member states. EU issues important to Ireland include the Common Agricultural Policy, corporation tax harmonization and the EU Constitution. The Irish electorate declined to ratify the Treaty of Lisbon in the summer of 2008. , Dick Roche is Minister of State with special responsibility for European Affairs at the Department of Foreign Affairs. Ireland has held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union on six occasions (in 1975, 1979, 1984, 1990, 1996 and 2004) and is scheduled to hold the presidency again in 2013. United Kingdom Since independence, Ireland had been involved in a dispute with the United Kingdom over the status of Northern Ireland. Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland formerly claimed Northern Ireland as a part of the "national territory", though in practice the Irish government did recognise the UK's jurisdiction over the region. With the onset of the Troubles in 1969, the Irish government sought an accommodation with the British government to bring the violence to an end . Following the burning of the British embassy in Dublin in 1972, the Sunningdale Agreement of 1973 and the Anglo-Irish Agreement of 1985 were important steps in this process. In 1998, both nations signed the Belfast Agreement and now co-operate closely to find a solution to the region's problems. Articles 2 and 3 were amended as part of this agreement, the territorial claim being replaced with a statement of aspiration to unite the people of the island of Ireland. As part of the Belfast Agreement the two states also ended the dispute over their respective names: Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Each agreed to accept and use the others' correct name. The Irish Government has sought, with mixed success, to prevent the importation of weapons and ammunition through the state by the illegal IRA, for use in their conflict with the security forces in Northern Ireland. In the 1970s the Irish warship, the LÉ Ciara intercepted a ship carrying weapons from Libya which were more than likely destined for the republican paramilitaries. Law enforcement acts such as these additionally improved relations with the government of the United Kingdom. However, the independent judiciary blocked many attempts to extradite suspects between 1970 and 1998 on the basis that their crime might have been 'political'. Ireland is also a party to the Rockall continental shelf dispute that also involves Denmark, Iceland, and the United Kingdom. Ireland and the United Kingdom have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area. However, neither have concluded similar agreements with Iceland or Denmark (on behalf of the Faroe Islands) and the matter remains under negotiation. Iceland now claims a substantial area of the continental shelf to the west of Ireland, to a point 49°48'N 19°00'W, which is further south than Ireland. The controversial Sellafield nuclear fuel reprocessing plant in western England has been a contentious issue between the two governments. The Irish government has sought the closure of the plant, taking a case against the UK government under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. However, the European Court of Justice found that the case should have been dealt with under EU law. Irish Government must pursue Sellafield case via EU — European Parliament press release, 8 June 2006. Irish Sellafield appeal ruled illegal — The Guardian news article, 30 May 2006. , David Reddaway was the British ambassador to Ireland, and since June 14, 2007, the London born and English educated David Cooney has been the Ambassador of Ireland to the United Kingdom, but on December 17, 2008 he was appointed as the Secretary General of the Department of Foreign Affairs to replace Dermot Gallagher, who retires in January 2009. See also: List of Ambassadors from the United Kingdom to Ireland United States The Irish Embassy in Washington D.C.. The use of Shannon Airport as a stop-over point for US forces en-route to Iraq has caused domestic controversy. Opponents of this policy brought an unsuccessful High Court case against the government in 2003, arguing that this use of Irish airspace violated Irish neutrality. Horgan v. An Taoiseach & others IEHC 64 (28 April 2003) — High Court judgement in the unsuccessful case brought by Ed Horgan Foreign direct investment by U.S. companies is vital to the Irish economy — the U.S. is Ireland's largest source of foreign investment, and exports to the U.S. amounted to 10% of GDP in 2005. Trade and Investment Factfile — from the American Chamber of Commerce in Ireland website (retrieved 15 November 2006) The large Irish-American population in the United States strengthens ties between the two countries. The U.S. government has appointed a Special Envoy to Northern Ireland to help with the Northern Ireland peace process. , this position is held by Mitchell Reiss. Areas of interest between the U.S. and Ireland include the Northern Ireland peace process, the status of Irish illegal immigrants in the U.S. Ireland backs U.S. legalizing illegal aliens — Washington Times newspaper article, 2 December 2005 (retrieved 13 November 2006) and investment by U.S. companies in Ireland. , Michael Collins was the Irish ambassador to the United States, and Thomas C. Foley was the U.S. ambassador to Ireland. See also: Embassy of the United States in Dublin, United States Ambassador to Ireland People's Republic of China Ireland's official relationship with the People's Republic of China began on 22 June 1979. Centre for Asian Studies, University Collete Dublin, China the Emerging Power: Prospects for Sino-Irish Relations, By Conor O'Clery, Asia Correspondent, The Irish Times - Ireland’s official relationship with the People’s Republic of China began on June 22nd 1979. The Irish government press release said: "Ireland recognises the Government of the people’s Republic of China as the sole legal Government of China...." Following his visit to China in 1998, former Taoiseach Bertie Ahern authorised the establishment of an Asia Strategy. Irish Department of Foreign Affairs: A Decade of the Asia Strategy The aim of this Strategy was to ensure that the Irish Government and Irish enterprise work coherently to enhance the important relationships between Ireland and Asia. Irish Department of Foreign Affairs: A Decade of the Asia Strategy By 2004, China (including Hong Kong, Taiwan and Macau) had become Ireland’s 7th largest trading partner. Speech by Mr Dermot Ahern, TD, Minister for Foreign Affairs at a business lunch co-hosted with Enterprise Ireland for His Excellency Huang Ju, Vice Premier of the People’s Republic of China, 17/11/2004 (Department of Foreign Affairs Website) Ireland has raised its concerns in the area of human rights with China on a number of occasions. On 12 May 2007, during a visit to Beijing, Taoiseach Brian Cowen (then Minister for Finance) discussed human rights issues with Chinese Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing. Oireachtas: WRITTEN answer on Wednesday, 31st January, 2007. Ref No: 43859/06 Tánaiste Mary Coughlan also raised human rights issues and concerns with visiting Chinese Vice-Premier Zeng Peiyan. Oireachtas: WRITTEN answer on Wednesday, 31st January, 2007. Ref No: 43859/06 Ireland also participates in the EU-China Human Rights Dialogue. Concerning the Taiwan issue, Ireland follows a One-China policy. In 2007, the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Dermot Ahern summarised the Irish position as follows: Oireachtas: ORAL answer on Thursday, 8th February, 2007 by the Minister for Foreign Affairs (Ref No: 3911/07) In 2008, the Irish Minister for Foreign reiterating his Government's One China policy, expressed his concern about the potential for increased Cross-Straits tensions in the lead-up to the Presidential elections in Taiwan and, in particular, the planned referendum on UN membership in the name of Taiwan. The Minister stated that the Irish Government did not support the holding of the referendum on Taiwan, a unilateral action that might undermine the status quo. Department of Foreign Affairs (Ireland): Statement by Dermot Ahern, TD, Minister for Foreign Affairs on Taiwan and Cross-Straits Relations, 12/03/2008 Georgia Ireland supports EU initiatives to promote peace between Georgia and Russia. Ireland recognises Georgian sovereignty over the separatist regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Ireland condemned the decision of Russia to recognise South Ossetia and Abkhazia as independent states. Opening Statement by Minister For Foreign Affairs to the Joint Committee on European Affairs - 9th September 2008 The separatist Parliament of Abkhazia expressly called on Ireland to recognise Abkhaz independence, drawing parallels between Ireland’s own historic struggle for independence and international recognition with its own, the Abkhaz Parliament’s statement recalling that: Abkhazia asks Ireland and Belarus to recognise independence “Just like Ireland, Abkhazia has finally acquired long-awaited independence and recognition at the cost of enormous efforts...[Ireland] was de-facto independent for a long time, but remained unrecognised. Ireland was the only unrecognised country in Europe until the world's largest country recognised a free parliament of Ireland. And that country was Russia.” The parallel the Abkhaz Parliament referred to stems from the fact that the breakaway and largely unrecognised Irish Republic (1919-22), arguably enjoyed some form of recognition from Russia. Slovenia Ireland and Slovenia established diplomatic relations in 1991. Ireland has an embassy in Ljubljana. Website of the Irish embassy in Ljubljana Since January 2002, Slovenia has had an embassy in Dublin. Website of the Slovenian embassy in Dublin Saudi Arabia Ireland is represented in the United Arab Emirates through its embassy in Riyadh (Saudi Arabia) and a Visa Facilitation Office in Dubai. The United Arab Emirates are represented in Ireland through their embassy in London (United Kingdom). World Embassy Information Irish Department of Foreign Affairs United Nations The United Nations was founded in 1945, but Ireland's membership was blocked by the Soviet Union until it joined in 1955. Since July 25, 2007, the Irish ambassador to the UN Office at Geneva has been Dáithí Ó Ceallaigh. United Nations Office at Geneva — retrieved 7 January 2009 Ireland has been elected to the UN Security Council as a non-permanent member on three occasions — in 1962, in 1981-1982 and most recently in 2001-2002. Permanent Mission of Ireland to the United Nations — retrieved 13 November 2006 Ireland is a member state of the International Criminal Court, having signed the Rome Statute in 1998 and ratified it in 2002. International Criminal Court: Ireland — retrieved 13 November 2006 Peacekeeping missions Ireland has a long history of participation in UN peacekeeping efforts starting in 1958, just three years after joining the UN. , 85 members of the Irish Defence Forces had been killed on peacekeeping missions. Overseas Service: Ireland and the United Nations — from the Irish Defence Forces website, retrieved 13 November 2006 List of major peacekeeping operations: Defence Forces Service Overseas: List of Missions — from the Irish Defence Forces website, retrieved 13 November 2006. June 1958–December 1958: UNOGIL observer mission to Lebanon 1958–present: UNTSO mission to the Middle East 1960–1964: ONUC mission to Congo 1964–present: UNFICYP mission to Cyprus 1973–1974: UNEF II mission to Sinai after the Yom Kippur War 1978–present: UNIFIL mission to Lebanon 1988–1991: UNIIMOG mission to the Iran-Iraq border following the Iran–Iraq War 1993–1995: UNOSOM II "peace enforcement" mission to Somalia 1997–2004: SFOR mission to former Yugoslavia 1999–present: KFOR mission to Kosovo 1999–2000: INTERFET mission to East Timor 2003–present: UNMIL mission to Liberia 2008–present: EUFOR Chad/CAR mission to Chad and the Central African Republic As well as these missions, Irish personnel have served as observers in Central America, Russia, Cambodia, Afghanistan, Namibia, Western Sahara, Kuwait and South Africa. International organisations Ireland is a member of or otherwise participates in the following international organisations: CIA - The World Factbook - Ireland — CIA World Factbook entry (retrieved 15 November 2006) Asian Development Bank, Australia Group, Bank for International Settlements, Council of Europe, Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, European Investment Bank, Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union, European Space Agency, European Union, Food and Agriculture Organization, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Criminal Court, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, International Development Association, International Energy Agency, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Finance Corporation, International Labour Organization, International Monetary Fund, International Maritime Organization, Interpol, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, International Organization for Migration, Inter-Parliamentary Union, International Organization for Standardization, International Telecommunication Union, Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency, United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara, United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Nuclear Energy Agency, Nuclear Suppliers Group, Organization of American States (observer), OECD, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Paris Club, Permanent Court of Arbitration, Partnership for Peace, United Nations, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, UNESCO, UNHCR, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon, United Nations Mission in Liberia, United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire, United Nations Truce Supervision Organization, Universal Postal Union, World Customs Organization, Western European Union (observer), World Health Organization, World Intellectual Property Organization, World Meteorological Organization, World Trade Organization, Zangger Committee. Foreign aid Ireland's aid program was founded in 1974, and in 2006 its budget amounted to €734 million. The government has set a target of reaching the Millennium Development Goal of 0.7% of Gross National Product in aid by 2012, a target which is projected to amount to €1.5 billion based on current GNP growth. Ireland’s Overseas Aid Increases by 11.4% — Irish government press release, 4 April 2006. Irish development aid is concentrated on eight priority countries: Lesotho, Mozambique, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Zambia, Uganda, Vietnam and East Timor. Irish Aid: Frequently Asked Questions — Irish government website, retrieved 13 November 2006. in 2006, Malawi was announced as the ninth priority country, with a tenth country to follow. Irish government white paper on aid — Irish government white paper, 2006 , Peter Power was the Minister of State with special responsibility for Overseas Development and Human Rights at the Department of Foreign Affairs, replacing Michael Kitt. Human rights There have been no serious civil, human or social rights abuses/problems in the State, according to Amnesty International and the U.S. State Department. Amnesty International - Ireland US Department of State - Human rights in Ireland, 2007 The country consistently comes among the top nations in terms of freedom and rights ratings. IndexRanking (Most Recent)ResultFreedom in the World - Political Liberties1st (Joint)1 ("Free")Freedom in the World - Civil Rights1st (Joint)1 ("Free")Index of Economic Freedom3rd82.4 ("Free")Worldwide Press Freedom Index Ranking4th (Joint)2.00 ("Most Free")Global Peace Index6th1.41 ("More Peaceful")Democracy Index12th9.01 ("Full Democracy")International Property Rights Index13th (Joint)7.9Corruption Perceptions Index16th (Joint)7.7Failed States Index174th (4th from the bottom)19.5 ("Sustainable") Relations by country Country Formal Relations BeganNotes 1947-07-29 Argentina has an embassy in Dublin. Ireland has an embassy in Buenos Aires. In March 2008, it was announced that there was a special new visa programme between the two countries. BreakingNews.ie - New deal to allow Irish to work in Argentina List of Treaties ruling relations Argentina and Ireland (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish) 1996 Ireland recognized Armenia’s independence in December 1991. Armenia is represented in Ireland through its embassy in London (United Kingdom). Armenian embassy in London (also accredited to Ireland) Ireland is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Sofia (Bulgaria) and through an honorary consulate in Yerevan. Irish embassy in Sofia (also accredited to Armenia) Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.Australia has an embassy in Dublin. Australia embassy in Dublin Ireland has an embassy in Canberra, a Consulate General in Sydney and an honorary consulate in Victoria. Irish honorary consulate in Victoria Both nations are former British colonies. About 20% of the Australian population have Irish ancestry, which often predates Irish Independence in 1922. Australia Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with IrelandSee Austria–Ireland relationsSee Barbados–Ireland relationsSee Belgium–Ireland relations Bulgaria has an embassy in Dublin. Bulgarian embassy in Dublin Ireland has an embassy in Sofia. Irish embassy in Bulgaria Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and of the European Union.See Canada–Ireland relationsSee Chile–Ireland relationsSee Colombia–Ireland relations Colombia is represented in Ireland through its embassy in London, United Kingdom. Colombian embassy in London (also accredited to Ireland) Ireland is represented in Colombia through its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico and an honorary consulate in Bogotá Irish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction of the honorary consulate in Bogota See Czech Republic – Ireland relationsSee Denmark–Ireland relationsSee Egypt–Ireland relationsSee Estonia–Ireland relationsSee Ethiopia–Ireland relationsSee Finland–Ireland relationsSee France–Ireland relationsSee Greece–Ireland relationsSee Holy See – Ireland relationsSee Hungary–Ireland relationsSee Iceland–Ireland relationsSee Iran–Ireland relations 1975 Since January 25, 1996, Ireland has an embassy in Tel Aviv. Irish embassy in Tel Aviv Israel has an embassy in Dublin. Israeli embassy in Dublin Both countries are full members of the Union for the MediterraneanSee Ireland–Italy relationsSee Ireland–Japan relations 2008-02-17 Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia in 17 February 2008 and Ireland recognized it on 29 February 2008. 1991-10-09 Ireland recognized Latvia's independence on August 27, 1991. Ireland has an embassy in Riga. Since 2003, Latvia has an embassy in Dublin. Latvian embassy in Dublin Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Ireland 1991-09-02 Ireland recognised Lithuania on August 27, 1991. Ireland has an embassy in Vilnius. Lithuania has an embassy in Dublin and an honorary consulate in Carrickmacross. Lithuanian embassy in Dublin Both countries are full members of the European Union. There are around 50,000 Lithuanians living in Ireland. The current Irish Ambasadore to Lithuanina is Donal Denham. Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Ireland (in Lithuanian only) 1925 Ireland has an embassy in Luxembourg City. Irish embassy in Luxembourg City Luxembourg has an honorary consulate in Dublin. Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and of the European Union. Ireland has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur. Malaysia has an embassy in Dublin.See Ireland–Mexico relationsSee Ireland–Netherlands relationsSee Ireland – New Zealand relationsSee Ireland–Norway relationsSee Ireland–Pakistan relations 1979-06-22See People's Republic of China – Ireland relations Ireland has an embassy in Beijing, a general consulate in Shanghai and an honorary consulate in Hong Kong. Irish embassy in Beijing China has an embassy in Dublin. Chinese embassy in Dublin There are around 16,500 people of Chinese descent living in Ireland. Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with IrelandSee Ireland–Poland relationsSee Ireland–Portugal relationsSee Ireland–Romania relationsSee Ireland–Russia relationsSee Ireland – Saudi Arabia relationsSee Ireland–Serbia relationsSee Ireland–Slovakia relationsSee Ireland – South Africa relationsSee Ireland – South Korea relationsSee Ireland–Spain relationsSee Ireland–Sweden relationsSee Irish–Turkish relationsSee Ireland–Ukraine relationsSee Ireland – United Arab Emirates relationsSee British – Irish relationsSee Ireland – United States relationsSee Ireland–Vietnam relationsSee Ireland–Zambia relations See also Common Travel Area Diplomatic missions of Ireland List of diplomatic missions in Ireland Message to the Free Nations of the World References External links Legal Treaties - Department of Foreign Affairs — text of treaties signed by Ireland. | Foreign_relations_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland |@lemmatized foreign:28 relation:19 ireland:138 substantially:1 influence:1 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4,324 | Wikipedia:Status_of_the_porting_of_U.S._Dept_of_State_info | Here's a list of the countries with info on the Dept of State site. The information at this site is in the public domain unless it explicitly says otherwise on whatever page you are viewing there. The CIA site and the Dept of State site don't cover all of the countries; each of them is missing info on various countries; also they are not in agreement on what name to link to the countries under--that is the source of the various anachronisms on the List of countries page. Furthermore, they are not always in agreement on various figures including population and GDP, even (on occasion) when supposedly taken from the same year. If you notice a discrepancy, it's probably best to use the more cautious figure. user:-- April suggested adding bits on contentious relationships between countries, including e.g. the U.S. and Afghanistan, but not including the more U.S.-centric bits about countries with amicable relations (e.g. location of U.S. embassies in Jamaica, Ireland, etc.)If anyone wants to help, please don't hesitate. :-)Afghanistan -- bits added under History, Economy, Demographics, Transportation, and Foreign relations Albania -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations Algeria -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations Andorra -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations Angola -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations Antigua and Barbuda -- bits added under History, Politics, and Foreign relations Argentina -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations Armenia -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations Australia -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations Austria -- added bits under Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations Azerbaijan -- added bits under History, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations Bahamas -- added bits under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations Bahrain -- added bits under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations Bangladesh -- added bits under History, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations; moved para under "Economy" to "Geography" Barbados -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations Belarus -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations. did not add extensive section on the U.S.' efforts to assist militarily. Belgium -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations Belize -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Benin -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign Relations, though I suspect the source page may have been truncated, and so someone knowledgeable about Benin should check that "Demographics" and "Politics" are comprehensive Bermuda -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Communications, and Transportation; added parts of "U.S.-Bermuda relations" to Bermuda's main page. Bolivia -- bits added under History, Demographics, Government, Foreign relations Bosnia and Herzegovina -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Botswana -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Transportation, Communications, Military, Foreign relations Brazil -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Brunei Darussalam -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Bulgaria -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Burkina Faso -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Transportation; put "Foreign relations" and p. of "U.S.-Burkina Faso relations" under Transnational Issues Burundi -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Cambodia -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy; created subpage "Architecture" and bits added there, Foreign relations Cameroon -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Canada -- bits added under Government and Economy; put "U.S.-Canada relations" under Transnational Issues Cape Verde -- bits added under History, Demographics, Geography, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Cayman Islands -- not a country, but so what? I'm not keeping several lists to get this done -- bits added under History, Politics, and Economy Central African Republic -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Chad -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Chile -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Peoples Republic of China -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations. Left quite a lot of info on U.S.-China relations unadded, available here if anyone's interested in adding it Colombia -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Military, and created "Foreign relations." bits from U.S.-Columbia relations in re: trade added to the Economy page. Comoros -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations Democratic Republic of the Congo -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Republic of the Congo -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Costa Rica -- bits added under Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Côte d'Ivoire -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Croatia -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Cuba -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Cyprus -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations Czech Republic -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Military, and created "Foreign relations." Denmark -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Djibouti -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations Dominica -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations at this point I've quit adding the "current govt officials" bits as they won't generally be timely for long; also I'm not adding the "embassy in U.S. bits" as I haven't added e.g. "embassy in UK" or "embassy in Greenland" bits Dominican Republic -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Ecuador -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations El Salvador -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Equatorial Guinea -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Eritrea -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Estonia -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Ethiopia -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Fiji -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Finland -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations France -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Gabon -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations The Gambia -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Georgia -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Germany -- bits added under Demographics, Politics, Economony, Transnational issues, History of Germany. Ghana -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Greece -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Grenada -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Guatemala -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Guinea -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Guinea-Bissau -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations Guyana -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Haiti -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Foreign relations. much history of the government of Haiti put under History, not Government. Also parts of an extensive section on U.S.-Haiti relations were left unadded here, though some of it was added to Economy and another part of it was added to Military Holy See -- bits added under Vatican City's main page, as well as under its Government; put "Foreign relations" under its Transnational issues Honduras -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Hong Kong -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Hungary -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Iceland -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Transportation, Military, Foreign relations India -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Indonesia -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy (including part but not all of U.S.-Indonesian relations), Military, Foreign relations Iran -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Iraq -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Ireland -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy Israel -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Italy -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military (including part of U.S.-Italian relations), Foreign relations Jamaica -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Japan -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Jordan -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Kazakhstan -- bits added under Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations; bits on environmental concern added to the Kazakhstan article itself Kenya -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Kiribati -- bits added under History, Geography, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Korea -- bits added to history from the Dept of State's page on North Korea Kuwait -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations Kyrgyzstan -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations Laos -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Latvia -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Lebanon -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Lesotho -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Liberia -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Libya -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Liechtenstein -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy Lithuania -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Luxembourg -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Macau -- not fully independent, but oh well. bits added under Demographics, Politics, Economy; section on History added to the subject's main page Madagascar -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Malawi -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Malaysia -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Maldives -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations. Mali -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations (the "HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL HIGHLIGHTS" section was split and added into the History, Demographics, and Economy pages as seemed appropriate) Malta -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Marshall Islands -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Mauritania -- bits added under History and Politics Mauritius -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Mexico -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Communications, Transportation, Military, Foreign relations. quite a bit on U.S.-Mexican relations left out. Micronesia -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Moldova -- bits added under Geography, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Monaco -- bits added under History, Geography, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Foreign relations Mongolia -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Foreign relations Morocco -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Foreign relations Mozambique -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Foreign relations Namibia -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Military, Foreign relations Nepal -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Military, Foreign relations The Netherlands -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations, Drugs policy page New Zealand -- bits added under History, Politics, , Demographics, Economy, Foreign relations; also added bits re: nuclear testing from U.S.-New Zealand relations page to the foreign relations here Nicaragua -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Niger -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Nigeria -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations North Korea -- bits added under Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations; quite a bit of info about U.S.-North Korean relations left unadded for lack of knowledge enough to render it NPOV Norway -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Oman -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Politics, Foreign relations Pakistan -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Politics, Military, Foreign relations Palau -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Economy, Politics, Foreign relations Panama -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Politics, Military, Foreign relations Papua New Guinea -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Politics; some but not all of the "Foreign relations" section added (parts of it seem too U.S.-centric, and maybe I should have added less of it than I did. I don't want to bias the 'pedia any more than it's biased already by being written predominantly by people from the U.S.) Paraguay -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Peru -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations; part of the Demographics section broken off into the waiting (empty) page Culture of Peru Philippines -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Poland -- bits added under Politics, Demographics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations; bits under History left unadded; I see there's been a lot of controversy around this page. The U.S. Department of State has a writeup of Poland's history available to anyone who cares to incorporate it. Portugal -- bits added under Economy, Foreign relations Qatar -- bits added under History, Politics, Demographics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Romania -- bits added under History, Politics, Geography, Economy, Demographics, Foreign relations Russia -- bits added under Politics, Economy, Demographics, Military, Foreign relations; "population aging" and "HIV/AIDS" put under demographics rather than "Economy of" because to follow the Dept of State's example seemed inhumane; "human rights" section put under "politics of" (because tucking it under "foreign relations seemed quite the slight towards Russian residents); many bits available at the Dept of State site were not added to the several articles on Russian history and so await a more knowledgeable wikipedian. Rwanda -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Samoa -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations San Marino -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations São Tomé and Príncipe -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Saudi Arabia -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations (including bits from U.S./Saudi relations, put under the heading "human rights") Senegal -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Seychelles -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Singapore -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Communications, Transportation, Military, Foreign relations Slovakia -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Slovenia -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations Copied and pasted (but did not wikify) the text for the remainder (21 Dec 2003): Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa South Korea Spain Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Swaziland Sweden Switzerland Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations Tuvalu Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom Uruguay Uzbekistan Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam Yemen Yugoslavia Zambia ZimbabweSee also :'' Countries of the world | Wikipedia:Status_of_the_porting_of_U.S._Dept_of_State_info |@lemmatized list:3 country:9 info:4 dept:5 state:6 site:5 information:1 public:1 domain:1 unless:1 explicitly:1 say:1 otherwise:1 whatever:1 page:13 view:1 cia:1 cover:1 miss:1 various:3 also:5 agreement:2 name:1 link:1 source:2 anachronism:1 furthermore:1 always:1 figure:2 include:6 population:2 gdp:1 even:1 occasion:1 supposedly:1 take:1 year:1 notice:1 discrepancy:1 probably:1 best:1 use:1 cautious:1 user:1 april:1 suggest:1 add:170 bit:114 contentious:1 relationship:1 e:3 g:3 u:20 afghanistan:2 centric:2 amicable:1 relation:158 location:1 embassy:4 jamaica:2 ireland:2 etc:1 anyone:3 want:2 help:1 please:1 hesitate:1 bits:52 history:148 economy:151 demographic:117 transportation:7 foreign:145 albania:1 politics:146 algeria:1 geography:34 military:63 andorra:1 angola:1 antigua:1 barbuda:1 argentina:1 armenia:1 australia:1 austria:1 azerbaijan:1 bahamas:1 bahrain:1 bangladesh:1 move:1 para:1 barbados:1 belarus:1 extensive:2 section:7 effort:1 assist:1 militarily:1 belgium:1 belize:1 benin:2 though:2 suspect:1 may:1 truncate:1 someone:1 knowledgeable:2 check:1 comprehensive:1 bermuda:3 communication:4 part:7 main:3 bolivia:1 government:5 bosnia:1 herzegovina:1 botswana:1 brazil:1 brunei:1 darussalam:1 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environmental:1 concern:1 article:2 kenya:1 kiribati:1 korea:4 north:3 kuwait:1 kyrgyzstan:1 laos:1 latvia:1 lebanon:1 lesotho:1 liberia:1 libya:1 liechtenstein:1 lithuania:1 luxembourg:1 macau:1 fully:1 independent:1 oh:1 subject:1 madagascar:1 malawi:1 malaysia:1 maldives:1 mali:1 historical:1 cultural:1 highlight:1 split:1 seemed:1 appropriate:1 malta:1 marshall:1 mauritania:1 mauritius:1 mexico:1 mexican:1 micronesia:1 moldova:1 monaco:1 mongolia:1 morocco:1 mozambique:1 namibia:1 nepal:1 netherlands:1 drug:1 policy:1 new:3 zealand:2 nuclear:1 test:1 nicaragua:1 niger:1 nigeria:1 korean:1 lack:1 knowledge:1 enough:1 render:1 npov:1 norway:1 oman:1 pakistan:1 palau:1 panama:1 papua:1 seem:3 maybe:1 less:1 bias:2 pedia:1 already:1 write:1 predominantly:1 paraguay:1 peru:2 break:1 waiting:1 empty:1 culture:1 philippine:1 poland:2 controversy:1 around:1 department:1 writeup:1 care:1 incorporate:1 portugal:1 qatar:1 romania:1 russia:1 age:1 hiv:1 aid:1 rather:1 follow:1 example:1 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4,325 | Gorilla | Gorillas are the largest of the living primates. They are ground-dwelling herbivores that inhabit the forests of Africa. Gorillas are divided into two species and (still under debate as of 2008) either four or five subspecies. The DNA of gorillas is 98%–99% identical to that of a human, In a talk presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association on November 20, 1999, Jonathan Marks stated: "Humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas are within two percentage points of one another genetically." and they are the next closest living relatives to humans after the two chimpanzee species. Gorillas live in tropical or subtropical forests. Although their range covers a small percentage of Africa, gorillas cover a wide range of elevations. The Mountain Gorilla inhabits the Albertine Rift montane cloud forests of the Virunga Volcanoes, ranging in altitude from 2225 to 4267 m (7300-14000 ft). Lowland Gorillas live in dense forests and lowland swamps and marshes as low as sea level. Etymology The American physician and missionary Thomas Staughton Savage and naturalist Jeffries Wyman first described the Western Gorilla (they called it Troglodytes gorilla) in 1847 from specimens obtained in Liberia. Conniff R. Discovering gorilla. Evolutionary Anthropology, 18: 55-61. The name was derived from the Greek word Gorillai (a "tribe of hairy women") described by Hanno the Navigator, a Carthaginian navigator and possible visitor (circa 480 BC) to the area that later became Sierra Leone. Evolution and classification The closest relatives of gorillas are chimpanzees and humans, from which gorillas diverged about 7 million years ago. Human genes differ only 1.6% on average from their corresponding gorilla genes in their sequence, but there is further difference in how many copies each gene has. Until recently there was considered to be a single gorilla species, with three subspecies: the Western Lowland Gorilla, the Eastern Lowland Gorilla and the Mountain Gorilla.<ref name=Groves2002>{{cite journal | first = Colin | last = Groves | authorlink = Colin Groves | year = 2002 | url = http://arts.anu.edu.au/grovco/Gorilla%20Biology.pdf | title = A history of gorilla taxonomy | journal = Gorilla Biology: A Multidisciplinary Perspective, Andrea B. Taylor & Michele L. Goldsmith (editors) | publisher = Cambridge University Press | pages = 15–34 | doi = 10.2277/0521792819}}</ref> There is now agreement that there are two species with two subspecies each. More recently it has been claimed that a third subspecies exists in one of the species. Primatologists continue to explore the relationships between various gorilla populations. The species and subspecies listed here are the ones upon which most scientists agree. Genus Gorilla Western Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) Western Lowland Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) Cross River Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli) Eastern Gorilla (Gorilla beringei) Mountain Gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) Eastern Lowland Gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) The proposed third subspecies of Gorilla beringei, which has not yet received a trinomen, is the Bwindi population of the Mountain Gorilla, sometimes called the Bwindi Gorilla. Behavior Group life A silverback is an adult male gorilla, typically more than 12 years of age and named for the distinctive patch of silver hair on his back. A silverback gorilla has large canine teeth that come with maturity. Black backs are sexually mature males of up to 11 years of age. Silverbacks are the strong, dominant troop leaders. Each typically leads a troop (group size ranges from 5 to 30) and is in the center of the troop's attention, making all the decisions, mediating conflicts, determining the movements of the group, leading the others to feeding sites and taking responsibility for the safety and well-being of the troop. Younger males called blackbacks may serve as backup protection. Males will slowly begin to leave their original troop when they are about 11 years old, traveling alone or with a group of other males for 2–5 years before being able to attract females to form a new group and start breeding. While infant gorillas normally stay with their mother for 3–4 years, silverbacks will care for weaned young orphans, though never to the extent of carrying the little gorillas. If challenged by a younger or even by an outsider male, a silverback will scream, beat his chest, break branches, bare his teeth, then charge forward. Sometimes a younger male in the group can take over leadership from an old male. If the leader is killed by disease, accident, fighting or poachers, the group will split up, as the animals disperse to look for a new protective male. Very occasionally, a group might be taken over in its entirety by another male. There is a strong risk that the new male may kill the infants of the dead silverback. Food and foraging Gorillas are herbivores , eating fruits, leaves, and shoots. Further they are classified as foliovores. Much like other animals that feed on plants and shoots, they sometimes ingest small insects also. Gorillas spend most of the day eating. Their large sagittal crest and long canines allow them to crush hard plants like bamboo. Lowland gorillas feed mainly on fruit while Mountain gorillas feed mostly on herbs, stems and roots. Reproduction and lifespan Gestation is 8½ months. There are typically 3 to 4 years between births. Infants stay with their mothers for 3–4 years. Females mature at 10–12 years (earlier in captivity); males at 11–13 years. Lifespan is between 30–50 years, although there have been exceptions. For example the Dallas Zoo's Jenny lived to the age of 55. .tv3.co.nz, World's oldest gorilla celebrates 55th birthday gmanews.tv/story, Gorilla celebrates 55th birthday with frozen cake Associated Press, Oldest living gorilla dies at 55, Houston Chronicle, 2008-08-05, retrieved 2008-09-05 Recently, gorillas have been observed engaging in face-to-face sex, a trait that was once considered unique to humans and the Bonobo. Caught in the act! Gorillas mate face to face Physical characteristics Gorillas move around by knuckle-walking. Adult males range in height from 165-175 cm (5 ft 5 in – 5 ft 9 in), and in weight from 140–204.5 kg (310–450 lb). Adult females are often half the size of a silverback, averaging about 140 cm (4 ft 7 in) tall and 100 kg (220 lb). Occasionally, a silverback of over 183 cm (6 ft) and 225 kg (500 lb) has been recorded in the wild. However, obese gorillas in captivity have reached a weight of 270 kg (600 lb). Gorillas have a facial structure which is described as mandibular prognathism, that is, their mandible protrudes farther out than the maxilla. The Eastern Gorilla is more darkly colored than the Western Gorilla, with the Mountain Gorilla being the darkest of all. The Mountain Gorilla also has the thickest hair. The Western Lowland Gorilla can be brown or grayish with a reddish forehead. In addition, gorillas that live in lowland forests are more slender and agile than the more bulky Mountain Gorilla. Almost all gorillas share the same blood type (B) and, like humans, have individual finger prints. Intelligence Gorillas are closely related to humans and are considered highly intelligent. A few individuals in captivity, such as Koko, have been taught a subset of sign language (see animal language for a discussion). Tool use The following observations were made by a team led by Thomas Breuer of the Wildlife Conservation Society in September 2005. Gorillas are now known to use tools in the wild. A female gorilla in the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in the Republic of Congo was recorded using a stick as if to gauge the depth of water whilst crossing a swamp. A second female was seen using a tree stump as a bridge and also as a support whilst fishing in the swamp. This means that all of the great apes are now known to use tools. In September 2005, a two and a half year old gorilla in the Republic of Congo was discovered using rocks to smash open palm nuts inside a game sanctuary. While this was the first such observation for a gorilla, over forty years previously chimpanzees had been seen using tools in the wild, famously 'fishing' for termites. It is a common tale among native peoples that gorillas have used rocks and sticks to thwart predators, even rebuking large mammals. Great apes are endowed with a semi-precision grip, and certainly have been able to use both simple tools and even weapons, by improvising a club from a convenient fallen branch. Studies The word "gorilla" comes from the history of Hanno the Navigator, a Carthaginian explorer on an expedition on the west African coast. They encountered "a savage people, the greater part of whom were women, whose bodies were hairy, and whom our interpreters called Gorillae" http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Hanno.html Periplus of Hanno, final paragraph . The word was then later used as the species name, though it is unknown whether what these ancient Carthaginians encountered were truly gorillas, another species of ape or monkeys, or humans. American physician and missionary Thomas Staughton Savage obtained the first specimens (the skull and other bones) during his time in Liberia in Africa. The first scientific description of gorillas dates back to the publication of by Savage and the naturalist Jeffries Wyman in 1847 in Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, Savage TS. (1847). Communication describing the external character and habits of a new species of Troglodytes (T. gorilla). Boston Soc Nat Hist: 245–247. Savage TS, Wyman J. (1847). Notice of the external characters and habits of Troglodytes gorilla, a new species of orang from the Gaboon River, osteology of the same. Boston J Nat Hist 5:417–443. where Troglodytes gorilla is described, now known as the Western Gorilla. Other species of gorilla are described in the next couple of years. Explorer Paul du Chaillu was the first westerner to see a live gorilla during his travel through western equatorial Africa from 1856 to 1859. He brought dead specimens to England in 1861. A History of Museum Victoria: Melbourne 1865: Gorillas at the Museum The first systematic study was not conducted until the 1920s, when Carl Akeley of the American Museum of Natural History traveled to Africa to hunt for an animal to be shot and stuffed. On his first trip he was accompanied by his friends Mary Bradley, a famous mystery writer, and her husband. After their trip, Mary Bradley wrote On the Gorilla Trail. She later became an advocate for the conservation of gorillas and wrote several more books (mainly for children). In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Robert Yerkes and his wife Ava helped further the study of gorillas when they sent Harold Bigham to Africa. Yerkes also wrote a book in 1929 about the great apes. After WWII, George Schaller was one of the first researchers to go into the field and study primates. In 1959, he conducted a systematic study of the Mountain Gorilla in the wild and published his work. Years later, at the behest of Louis Leakey and the National Geographic, Dian Fossey conducted a much longer and more comprehensive study of the Mountain Gorilla. It was not until she published her work that many misconceptions and myths about gorillas were finally disproved, including the myth that gorillas are violent. Endangerment Both species of gorilla are endangered, and have been subject to intense poaching for a long time. Threats to gorilla survival include habitat destruction and the bushmeat trade. In 2004 a population of several hundred gorillas in the Odzala National Park, Republic of Congo was essentially wiped out by the Ebola virus. A 2006 study published in Science concluded that more than 5,000 gorillas may have died in recent outbreaks of the Ebola virus in central Africa. The researchers indicated that in conjunction with commercial hunting of these apes, the virus creates "a recipe for rapid ecological extinction". Conservation efforts include the Great Ape Survival Project, a partnership between the United Nations Environment Programme and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, and also an international treaty, the Agreement on the Conservation of Gorillas and Their Habitats, concluded under UNEP-administered Convention on Migratory Species. The Gorilla Agreement is the first legally binding instrument exclusively targeting Gorilla conservation and came into effect on 1 June 2008. Cultural references Since they came to the attention of western society in the 1860s, gorillas have been a recurring element of many aspects of popular culture and media. For example, gorillas have featured prominently in monstrous fantasy films such as King Kong'', and pulp fiction such as the stories of Tarzan and Conan have featured gorillas as physical opponents to the titular protagonists. See also List of apes – notable individual apes List of fictional apes References External links Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting International Gorilla Conservation Programme (Video) Primate Info Net Gorilla Factsheet - taxonomy, ecology, behavior and conservation San Diego Zoo Gorilla Factsheet - features a video and photos World Wildlife Fund: Gorillas - conservation, facts and photos Gorilla protection - Gorilla conservation at Virunga National Park Welcome to the Year of the Gorilla 2009 | Gorilla |@lemmatized gorilla:103 large:4 living:1 primate:3 ground:1 dwelling:1 herbivore:2 inhabit:2 forest:5 africa:7 divide:1 two:6 specie:13 still:1 debate:1 either:1 four:1 five:1 subspecies:6 dna:1 identical:1 human:9 talk:1 present:1 annual:1 meeting:1 american:4 anthropological:1 association:1 november:1 jonathan:1 mark:1 state:1 chimpanzee:4 within:1 percentage:2 point:1 one:4 another:3 genetically:1 next:2 closest:1 live:7 relative:2 tropical:1 subtropical:1 although:2 range:5 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4,326 | Economy_of_Macau | The economy of Macau has remained one of the most open in the world since its reversion to China in 1999. Apparel exports and gambling-related tourism are mainstays of the economy. Since Macau has little arable land and few natural resources, it depends on mainland China for most of its food, fresh water, and energy imports. Japan and Hong Kong are the main suppliers of raw materials and capital goods. Although Macau was hit hard by the 1997-98 Asian financial crisis and the global downturn in 2001, its economy grew approximately 13.1% annually on average between 2001 and 2006. During the first three quarters of 2007, Macau registered year-on-year GDP increases of 31.4%. A rapid rise in the number of mainland visitors due to China's easing of travel restrictions, increased public works expenditures, and significant investment inflows associated with the liberalization of Macau's gaming industry drove the five-year recovery. The budget also returned to surplus since 2002 because of the surge in visitors from China and a hike in taxes on gambling profits, which generated about 70% of government revenue. History Macau was a barren fishing village with a population of about 400 before the Portuguese arrived in the 16th century, during the Age of Discovery. In 1535, the Portuguese traders obtained by bribing the right to anchor ships in Macau harbors and engage in trading activities. Portuguese and Chinese merchants flocked to Macau, and it quickly became an important regional trading center in Portugal's lucrative trade along three major routes: Macau-Malacca-Goa-Lisbon, Guangzhou-Macau-Nagasaki and Macau-Manila-Mexico. However, with the decline of Portugal as a world power in the 17th and 18th centuries, the trading routes were challenged by other powers such as the Dutch and the British. After China ceded Hong Kong to the British in 1842, Macau's position as a major regional trading center declined further still because larger ships were drawn to the deep water port of Victoria Harbor. In an attempt to reverse the decline, from 1848 to the early 1870s Macau engaged in the infamous trade of coolies (slave laborers) as a transit port, shipping locals from southern China to Cuba, Peru, and other South American ports to work on plantations or in mines. Fishing re-emerged as a dominant economic activity in Macau as it lost its position as a regional trading center. In the early 1920s, over 70% of Macau's 84,000 residents were engaged in fishing. Meanwhile, some other businesses started to develop, such as matches, firecrackers, incense and fishing-boat building. But the most notable was the gambling business. Gambling was first legalized in the 19th century in an attempt to generate revenues for the government. The first casino monopoly concession was granted to the Tai Xing Company in 1937. The company was, however, too conservative to fully exploit the economic potential of gambling. The industry saw a major breakthrough in 1962 when the government granted the Sociedade de Turismo e Diversoes de Macau (STDM), a syndicate jointly formed by Hong Kong and Macau businessmen, the monopoly rights to all forms of gambling. The STDM introduced western-style games and modernized the marine transport between Macau and Hong Kong, bringing millions of gamblers from Hong Kong every year. In the 1970s Macau also saw a rapid development in its manufacturing sector. With Macau's low-cost operating environment and its surplus quotas under the Multi Fiber Arrangement (MFA), many Hong Kong industrialists established textile and garment manufacturing bases in Macau. At its golden age in the 1980s, the manufacturing sector accounted for about 40% of Macau's GDP; textiles and garments accounted for about 90% of Macau's total visible exports. However, the manufacturing sector has experienced a gradual decline since the early 1990s due to phasing out of the MFA quota system and the rising labor costs relative to mainland China and Southeast Asian countries. Labor and employment Employed population by occupation 2007 Occupation No. in thousands Senior officials/managers 14.6Professionals 9.9Technicians 28.1Clerks 83.7Service & sale workers 63.2Workers in agriculture/fishery 0.8Craft & similar workers 33.7 The work force in Macau is mainly composed of manufacturing; construction; wholesale and retail; hotels and restaurants; financial services, real estate, and other business activities; public administration and other personal and social services, including gaming; transport, storage and communications. Due to the double-digit economic growth in recent years, the unemployment rate dropped from the record high 6.8% in 2000 to 3.1% in Qtr 3, 2007. With the opening of several casino resorts and other major constructions underway, it is reported that many sectors, especially the construction sector, experience a shortage of labor. The government responds by importing labor from other neighboring regions, including mainland China, Hong Kong, the Philippines and India. Currently the number of imported labors stands at a record high of 75,391 (Q2 2007), representing more than a quarter of the labor force in Macau. Some local workers complain about the lack of jobs due to the influx of cheap imported labor. Some also claim that the problem of illegal labor is severe . Another concern is the widening of income inequality in the region: Macau's Gini coefficient, a popular measure of income inequality where a low value indicates a more equal income distribution, rises from 0.43 in 1998 to 0.48 in 2006. It is higher than those of other neighbouring regions, such as mainland China (0.447), South Korea (0.316) and Singapore (0.425). The monetary system BNU Tower in Macau. Macau adopts the so-called currency board system under which the legal tender, pataca (MOP), is 100 percent backed by foreign exchange reserves, the Hong Kong dollar (HKD). Moreover, the currency board, Monetary Authority of Macao (AMCM), has a statutory obligation to issue and redeem pataca on demand against Hong Kong dollar at a fixed exchange rate and without limit. The pataca is pegged to the Hong Kong dollar at a rate of 1.03 MOP per HKD, which is maintained by the AMCM. Each pataca divides into 100 avos. Coins are issued in 10, 20, and 50 avos and 1, 2, 5, and 10 patacas (2 and 10 patacas coins are rarely used in the territory); notes are in 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, and 1000 pataca denominations. Hong Kong dollar is freely used and accounts for more than half of the total deposits in Macau's banks. Chan, 39 In addition, Chinese yuan is also widely accepted. Two banks issue currency: the Banco Nacional Ultramarino and the Bank of China (starting from October 1995). The historical exchange rates between the pataca and the US dollar (USD) are given below. MOP per USD Period8.01 20007.99 19997.98 19987.99 19977.962 19968.034 1993-95 Trade In 1999, Macau's free-market economy produced total exports of US$2.2 billion (MOP 17.6 billion) and consisted mainly of textiles and garments, toys, electronic goods, and footwear. Total imports for the same period reached US$2 billion (MOP 16.3 billion), and consisted mostly of raw materials and semi-manufactures, consumer goods, capital goods, and mineral fuels and oils. Total reexports were about US$317 million (MOP 2.5 billion). In 1999 positive growth rates were seen in all three categories. Principal import trade partners in 1999 were China (35.7%), Hong Kong (18.1%), the European Union (12.9%), Taiwan (9.5%), Japan (6.7%), the United States (5.1%), and other countries (12%). Exports went to the United States (47%), the European Union (30.2%), China (9.2), Hong Kong (6.8%), and other countries (6.8%). In the second half of the 20th century, Macau's economy was diversified with the development of light industry, the influx of migrants from mainland China to serve as a labor force, and increased tourism. Portugal's efforts to develop economic and cultural links between Macau and Brazil and Portuguese holdings in Africa, however, were not successful. Economic ties to the European Union and Taiwan are considered important aspects of Macau's economic role as part of the People's Republic of China. Direct access to the neighboring Zhuhai Special Economic Zone facilitates trade with mainland China. As a special administrative region, Macau functions as a free port and as a separate customs territory. Sectors Tourism and gambling Macau Tower at night. Visitor arrivals by place of residence in 2006 Place of residenceNo. of visitor arrivals (in thousands)Mainland China11985.6Hong Kong6940.7Taiwan (ROC)1437.8Southeast Asia693.4Total21998.1 Tourism is the backbone of Macau's economy, and much of it geared towards gambling, which was legalized in the 19th century and has since been the linchpin of the economy and an important source of revenue for the government. In 1962, the gambling industry operated under a government-issued monopoly license by Stanley Ho's Sociedade de Turismo e Diversões de Macau (STDM), which replaced the Tai Heng Entertainment Corporation that had held a gaming monopoly for the previous 24 years. Macau had nine casinos in the 1990s; gambling reportedly represented 20 to 25% of Macau's GDP. The monopoly ended in 2001 when the gaming industry was liberalized and several casino operators from Las Vegas attempted to enter the market. These new operators include Las Vegas Sands, which opened Sands Macao , the largest casino in the world as measured by total number of table games, in 2004 and Venetian Macau in 2007; Wynn Resorts, which opened Wynn Macau in 2006; and MGM Mirage, which opened MGM Grand Macau in 2007. In addition, other casino owners, including Australian Crown Casino and Hong Kong Galaxy Entertainment Group have also opened several hotel casinos in Macau. As a result of the surge in number of casinos and construction from other new casino entrants, Macau's economy has been growing rapidly in recent years. Gaming revenues from Macau's casinos are now greater than those of Las Vegas Strip , making Macau the highest-volume gambling center in the world. . Numerous other hotel casinos, including Galaxy Cotai Megaresort and Ponte 16, are also to be opened in near future. Casino Lisboa The interior of The Venetian Macao Due to the opening of the new hotel casinos and China's easing of travel restrictions, there has been a rapid rise in the number of mainland visitors. From 9.1 million visitors in 2000, arrivals to Macau has grown to 18.7 million visitors in 2005 and 22 million visitors in 2006, with over 50% of the arrivals coming from mainland China and another 30% from Hong Kong. Macau is expected to receive between 24 and 25 million visitors in 2007. Macau also received the Future Award 2007, voted by 26,000 German travel trade members of GoAsia, for being regarded as the most promising future tourism destination in Asia. Macau is currently rated as one of the world's top tourism destinations by the World Tourism Organisation. Manufacturing Macau's manufacturing industries emerged in the first few decades of the 20th century, which mainly consisted of junk building, factories for matches, firecrackers and incense. Modern industries, however, did not take off until the 1970s when the textiles and garments industry was rising rapidly, while other light industries such as plastics, electronics, toys, and artificial flowers also experienced respectable growth. Textiles and garments further increased its dominance in the manufacturing sector towards the end of the 1980s. Much of Macau's textile industry has moved to the mainland as the Multi-Fiber Agreement is phased out. The territory has relied more on gambling and tourism-related services to generate growth. Banking Macau is an offshore financial centre, a tax haven, and a free port with no foreign exchange control regimes. The offshore finance business is regulated and supervised by the Monetary Authority of Macao, while the regulation and supervision of the offshore non-finance business is mainly controlled by the Macau Trade and Investment Promotion Institute. In 2007, Moody's Investors Service upgraded Macau's foreign and local currency government issuer ratings to 'Aa3' from 'A1', citing its government's solid finances as a large net creditor. The rating agency also upgraded Macau's foreign currency bank deposit ceiling to 'Aa3' from 'A1'. There are twenty other licensed banks, sixteen of which are foreign. Macau has five of the top 500 commercial banks in Asia, including Banco Tai Fung and Banco Seng Heng. Economic diversification The large role of gaming and tourism underscores a degree of risk for Macau’s economy. Because the economy is so reliant on tourism and gambling for its well-being, if the flow of tourists slows, it could come as a shock to the small market. The push for diversification came in the closing years of Portuguese administration, under Governor General Vasco Rocha Vieira, and has continued to the present, under Chief Executive Edmund Ho. The government is seeking foreign investment as a means of economic diversification as well. Much of the foreign investment into Macau, however, has gone into the gaming sector after the end of the monopoly in 2001. Otherwise, foreign companies have entered into the mobile phone market and internet services after telecommunications market liberalization in 2001. Energy Electricity - production: 1.893 billion kWh (2004) fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 1.899 billion kWh (2004) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2004) Electricity - imports: 153.3 million kWh (2004) See also Economy of the People's Republic of China Tourism in Macau Individual Visit Scheme References Further reading External links Portal of the government of Macau Statistics and Census Service of Macau | Economy_of_Macau |@lemmatized economy:11 macau:62 remain:1 one:2 open:6 world:6 since:5 reversion:1 china:18 apparel:1 export:5 gamble:8 related:2 tourism:11 mainstay:1 little:1 arable:1 land:1 natural:1 resource:1 depend:1 mainland:11 food:1 fresh:1 water:2 energy:2 import:6 japan:2 hong:15 kong:15 main:1 supplier:1 raw:2 material:2 capital:2 good:4 although:1 hit:1 hard:1 asian:2 financial:3 crisis:1 global:1 downturn:1 grow:3 approximately:1 annually:1 average:1 first:4 three:3 quarter:2 register:1 year:8 gdp:3 increase:4 rapid:3 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4,327 | Alfonso_XII_of_Spain | Alfonso XII (born Alfonso Francisco de Asís Fernando Pío Juan María de la Concepción Gregorio Pelayo) (Madrid, 28 November 1857 – El Pardo, 25 November 1885) was king of Spain, reigning from 1875 to 1885, after a coup d'état restored the monarchy and ended the ephemeral First Spanish Republic. Alfonso was the son of Isabella II of Spain, and allegedly, Francis of Assisi de Borbon, her King Consort. His true biological paternity is uncertain, though his legal paternity is not: his mother was married to her (presumed homosexual) cousin Francis of Assisi de Borbon, the King Consort of Spain, at the time of Alfonso's conception and birth. Some theories suggest that Alfonso's biological father might have been either Enrique Puigmoltó y Mayans, Captain of the Royal Guard, or General Francisco Serrano. In exile When Queen Isabella and her husband were forced to leave Spain by the Revolution of 1868, Alfonso accompanied them to Paris. From there, he was sent to the Theresianum at Vienna to continue his studies. On 25 June 1870, he was recalled to Paris, where his mother abdicated in his favour, in the presence of a number of Spanish nobles who had tied their fortunes to that of the exiled queen. He assumed the title of Alfonso XII, for although no King of united Spain had borne the name "Alfonso XI", the Spanish monarchy was regarded as continuous with the more ancient monarchy represented by the eleven kings of León and Castile, also named Alfonso. Shortly afterwards, Alfonso proceeded to the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in the United Kingdom in order to continue his military studies. While there, he issued, on 1 December 1874, in reply to a birthday greeting from his followers, a manifesto proclaiming himself the sole representative of the Spanish monarchy. At the end of that year, when Marshal Serrano left Madrid to take command of the northern army in the Carlist War, Brigadier Martínez Campos, who had long been working more or less openly for the king, led some battalions of the central army to Sagunto, rallied to his own flag the troops sent against him, and entered Valencia in the king's name. Thereupon the president of the council resigned, and his power was transferred to the king's plenipotentiary and adviser, Canovas del Castillo. Return from exile Within a few days after Canovas del Castillo took power, the new king, proclaimed on 29 December 1874, arrived at Madrid, passing through Barcelona and Valencia and was acclaimed everywhere (1875). In 1876, a vigorous campaign against the Carlists, in which the young king took part, resulted in the defeat of Don Carlos and the Duke's abandonment of the struggle. On 23 January 1878 at the Basilica of Atocha in Madrid, Alfonso married his cousin, Princess Maria de las Mercedes, daughter of Antoine, Duke of Montpensier, but she died within six months of the marriage. Towards the end of the same year, a young workman of Tarragona, Juan Oliva Moncasi, fired at the king in Madrid. Second marriage and rule On 29 November 1879 st the Basilica of Atocha in Madrid, Alfonso married a much more distant relative, the Maria Christina of Austria, daughter of Archduke Karl Ferdinand of Austria and of his wife Archduchess Elisabeth of Austria. During the honeymoon, a pastrycook named Otero fired at the young sovereign and his wife as they were driving in Madrid. The children of this marriage were: María de las Mercedes, Princess of Asturias, (11 September 1880 – 17 October 1904), married on 14 February 1901 to Prince Carlos of Bourbon, and titular heiress from the death of her father until the posthumous birth of her brother María Teresa, (12 November 1882 – 23 September 1912), married to Prince Ferdinand of Bavaria on 12 January 1906 Alfonso XIII (17 May 1886 – 28 February 1941). Born posthumously, this son was king from the moment of his birth and thus never held any other Spanish titles from the crown, such as Infante or Prince of Asturias. He married Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg, called "Ena", a carrier of haemophilia, and two of their sons died young from the disease. The third was a deaf-mute as a result of a childhood illness. The fourth was the father of the current King of Spain. In 1881, the king refused to sanction a law by which the ministers were to remain in office for a fixed term of eighteen months. Upon the consequent resignation of Canovas del Castillo, he summoned Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, the Liberal leader, to form a new cabinet. Death and impact Monument to Alfonso XII in Parque del Retiro, Madrid. In November 1885, Alfonso died, just short of his 28th birthday, of tuberculosis. Coming to the throne at such an early age, Alfonso had served no apprenticeship in the art of ruling, but he possessed great natural tact and a sound judgment ripened by the trials of exile. Benevolent and sympathetic in disposition, he won the affection of his people by fearlessly visiting districts ravaged by cholera or devastated by earthquake in 1885. His capacity for dealing with men was considerable, and he never allowed himself to become the instrument of any particular party. During his short reign, peace was established both at home and abroad, finances were well regulated, and the various administrative services were placed on a basis that afterwards enabled Spain to pass through the disastrous war with the United States without the threat of a revolution. He was the 996th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain, the 104th Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword in 1861 and the 775th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1881. Illegitimate issue He has two sons by Elena Sánz y Martínez de Arrizala (Castellón de la Plana, 15 December 1849 - Paris, 24 December 1898), who also had another son by an unknown father other than the King named Jorje Sánz y Martínez de Arrizala: Alfonso Sánz y Martínez de Arrizala (Madrid, 28 January 1880 - 1970), married in 1922 to María de Guadalupe Lymantur y Mariscal (- Marbella, 1977), daughter of Julio Limantour y Marquet (Mexico City, 17 June 1863 - Mexico City, 11 October 1909) and wife Elena Mariscal y ..., paternal granddaughter of French Joseph Yves Limantour (Pleomour, 1812 - Mexico City, 1885) and wife Adèle Marquet (Bordeaux - ?), and maternal granddaughter of Ignacio Mariscal y ... (Oaxaca, Oaxaca, 5 July 1829 - Mexico City, 17 April 1910) and wife ..., and had issue: Elena Sánz y Lymantur (1922 - 1979), married in 1949 to Robert Borgs, and had issue: Bruce Borgs (b. 1953) Warren Borgs (b. 1957) María Luisa Sánz y Limantour (1925 -), married in 1944 to Alberto Wittig y Cooke, son of Alberto Wittig and wife Cecilia Cooke, and had issue: Leslie Wittig y Sánz(b. Santiago-Chile), unmarried and without issue Jaime Wittig y Sánz (b. Lisbon), unmarried and without issue Priscilla Wittig y Sánz (b. Paris, 1945), married to Gonzalo García y Rawson (b. Valparaiso-Chile), and had issue: Priscilla García y Wittig (b. Marbella-Spain 1982) Alejandra García y Wittig (b. Madrid 1984) Patricia Wittig y Sánz (b. Paris, 1946), married to Luis González y López de Carrizosa (b. Jerez de la Frontera), and had issue: Pablo González y Wittig (b. 1975) Marcos González y Wittig (b. 1979) Bruno González y Wittig (b. 1981) Moira González y Wittig (b. 1985) Jennifer Wittig y Sánz (b. Lisbon), unmarried and without issue Fernando Sánz y Martínez de Arrizala (Madrid, 28 February 1881 - Nice, 1922), unmarried and without issue References Ancestry External links Royal House of Spain Imperial House of Austria |- | Alfonso_XII_of_Spain |@lemmatized alfonso:17 xii:3 bear:3 francisco:2 de:14 asís:1 fernando:2 pío:1 juan:2 maría:5 la:5 concepción:1 gregorio:1 pelayo:1 madrid:11 november:5 el:1 pardo:1 king:15 spain:10 reign:2 coup:1 état:1 restore:1 monarchy:4 end:3 ephemeral:1 first:1 spanish:5 republic:1 son:6 isabella:2 ii:1 allegedly:1 francis:2 assisi:2 borbon:2 consort:2 true:1 biological:2 paternity:2 uncertain:1 though:1 legal:1 mother:2 marry:11 presumed:1 homosexual:1 cousin:2 time:1 conception:1 birth:3 theory:1 suggest:1 father:4 might:1 either:1 enrique:1 puigmoltó:1 mayan:1 captain:1 royal:3 guard:1 general:1 serrano:2 exile:3 queen:2 husband:1 force:1 leave:2 revolution:2 accompany:1 paris:5 send:2 theresianum:1 vienna:1 continue:2 study:2 june:2 recall:1 abdicate:1 favour:1 presence:1 number:1 noble:1 tie:1 fortune:1 exiled:1 assume:1 title:2 although:1 united:3 name:5 xi:1 regard:1 continuous:1 ancient:1 represent:1 eleven:1 león:1 castile:1 also:2 shortly:1 afterwards:2 proceed:1 military:2 academy:1 sandhurst:1 kingdom:1 order:4 issue:11 december:4 reply:1 birthday:2 greet:1 follower:1 manifesto:1 proclaim:2 sole:1 representative:1 year:2 marshal:1 take:3 command:1 northern:1 army:2 carlist:1 war:2 brigadier:1 martínez:5 campos:1 long:1 work:1 less:1 openly:1 lead:1 battalion:1 central:1 sagunto:1 rally:1 flag:1 troop:1 enter:1 valencia:2 thereupon:1 president:1 council:1 resign:1 power:2 transfer:1 plenipotentiary:1 adviser:1 canovas:3 del:4 castillo:3 return:1 within:2 day:1 new:2 arrive:1 pass:2 barcelona:1 acclaim:1 everywhere:1 vigorous:1 campaign:1 carlists:1 young:4 part:1 result:2 defeat:1 carlos:2 duke:2 abandonment:1 struggle:1 january:3 basilica:2 atocha:2 princess:3 maria:2 mercedes:2 daughter:3 antoine:1 montpensier:1 die:3 six:1 month:2 marriage:3 towards:1 workman:1 tarragona:1 oliva:1 moncasi:1 fire:2 second:1 rule:1 st:1 much:1 distant:1 relative:1 christina:1 austria:4 archduke:1 karl:1 ferdinand:2 wife:6 archduchess:1 elisabeth:1 honeymoon:1 pastrycook:1 otero:1 sovereign:1 drive:1 child:1 asturias:2 september:2 october:2 february:3 prince:3 bourbon:1 titular:1 heiress:1 death:2 posthumous:1 brother:1 teresa:1 bavaria:1 xiii:1 may:1 posthumously:1 moment:1 thus:1 never:2 hold:1 crown:1 infante:1 victoria:1 eugenie:1 battenberg:1 call:1 ena:1 carrier:1 haemophilia:1 two:2 disease:1 third:1 deaf:1 mute:1 childhood:1 illness:1 fourth:1 current:1 refuse:1 sanction:1 law:1 minister:1 remain:1 office:1 fixed:1 term:1 eighteen:1 upon:1 consequent:1 resignation:1 summon:1 práxedes:1 mateo:1 sagasta:1 liberal:1 leader:1 form:1 cabinet:1 impact:1 monument:1 parque:1 retiro:1 short:2 tuberculosis:1 come:1 throne:1 early:1 age:1 serve:1 apprenticeship:1 art:1 ruling:1 possess:1 great:1 natural:1 tact:1 sound:1 judgment:1 ripen:1 trial:1 benevolent:1 sympathetic:1 disposition:1 win:1 affection:1 people:1 fearlessly:1 visit:1 district:1 ravage:1 cholera:1 devastate:1 earthquake:1 capacity:1 deal:1 men:1 considerable:1 allow:1 become:1 instrument:1 particular:1 party:1 peace:1 establish:1 home:1 abroad:1 finance:1 well:1 regulate:1 various:1 administrative:1 service:1 place:1 basis:1 enable:1 disastrous:1 state:1 without:5 threat:1 knight:2 golden:1 fleece:1 grand:1 cross:1 tower:1 sword:1 garter:1 illegitimate:1 elena:3 sánz:11 arrizala:4 castellón:1 plana:1 another:1 unknown:1 jorje:1 guadalupe:1 lymantur:2 mariscal:3 marbella:2 julio:1 limantour:3 marquet:2 mexico:4 city:4 paternal:1 granddaughter:2 french:1 joseph:1 yves:1 pleomour:1 adèle:1 bordeaux:1 maternal:1 ignacio:1 oaxaca:2 july:1 april:1 robert:1 borgs:3 bruce:1 b:15 warren:1 luisa:1 alberto:2 wittig:13 cooke:2 cecilia:1 leslie:1 santiago:1 chile:2 unmarried:4 jaime:1 lisbon:2 priscilla:2 gonzalo:1 garcía:3 rawson:1 valparaiso:1 alejandra:1 patricia:1 luis:1 gonzález:5 lópez:1 carrizosa:1 jerez:1 frontera:1 pablo:1 marcos:1 bruno:1 moira:1 jennifer:1 nice:1 reference:1 ancestry:1 external:1 link:1 house:2 imperial:1 |@bigram alfonso_xii:3 la_concepción:1 el_pardo:1 coup_état:1 francis_assisi:2 queen_isabella:1 abdicate_favour:1 alfonso_xi:1 león_castile:1 shortly_afterwards:1 academy_sandhurst:1 canovas_del:3 del_castillo:3 maria_christina:1 maría_teresa:1 alfonso_xiii:1 prince_asturias:1 deaf_mute:1 golden_fleece:1 wittig_sánz:5 sánz_b:5 santiago_chile:1 la_frontera:1 external_link:1 |
4,328 | Electrical_engineering | Electrical Engineers design complex power systems... ... and electronic circuits. Electrical engineering, sometimes referred to as electrical and electronic engineering, is a field of engineering that deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics and electromagnetism. The field first became an identifiable occupation in the late nineteenth century after commercialization of the electric telegraph and electrical power supply. It now covers a range of subtopics including power, electronics, control systems, signal processing and telecommunications. Electrical engineering may or may not include electronic engineering. Where a distinction is made, usually outside of the United States, electrical engineering is considered to deal with the problems associated with large-scale electrical systems such as power transmission and motor control, whereas electronic engineering deals with the study of small-scale electronic systems including computers and integrated circuits. Alternatively, electrical engineers are usually concerned with using electricity to transmit energy, while electronic engineers are concerned with using electricity to transmit information. History Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century. The first electrical engineer was probably William Gilbert who designed the versorium: a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. He was also the first to draw a clear distinction between magnetism and static electricity and is credited with establishing the term electricity. In 1775 Alessandro Volta's scientific experimentations devised the electrophorus, a device that produced a static electric charge, and by 1800 Volta developed the voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric battery. Vaunt Design Group. (2005).Inventor Alessandro Volta Biography. Troy MI: The Great Idea Finder. Accessed 21 March 2008. Thomas Edison built the world's first large-scale electrical supply network However, it was not until the 19th century that research into the subject started to intensify. Notable developments in this century include the work of Georg Ohm, who in 1827 quantified the relationship between the electric current and potential difference in a conductor, Michael Faraday, the discoverer of electromagnetic induction in 1831, and James Clerk Maxwell, who in 1873 published a unified theory of electricity and magnetism in his treatise Electricity and Magnetism. During these years, the study of electricity was largely considered to be a subfield of physics. It was not until the late 19th century that universities started to offer degrees in electrical engineering. The Darmstadt University of Technology founded the first chair and the first faculty of electrical engineering worldwide in 1882. In the same year, under Professor Charles Cross, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology began offering the first option of Electrical Engineering within a physics department. In 1883 Darmstadt University of Technology and Cornell University introduced the world's first courses of study in electrical engineering, and in 1885 the University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in the United Kingdom. The University of Missouri subsequently established the first department of electrical engineering in the United States in 1886. Nikola Tesla made long-distance electrical transmission networks possible. During this period, the work concerning electrical engineering increased dramatically. In 1882, Edison switched on the world's first large-scale electrical supply network that provided 110 volts direct current to fifty-nine customers in lower Manhattan. In 1887, Nikola Tesla filed a number of patents related to a competing form of power distribution known as alternating current. In the following years a bitter rivalry between Tesla and Edison, known as the "War of Currents", took place over the preferred method of distribution. AC eventually replaced DC for generation and power distribution, enormously extending the range and improving the safety and efficiency of power distribution. The efforts of the two did much to further electrical engineering—Tesla's work on induction motors and polyphase systems influenced the field for years to come, while Edison's work on telegraphy and his development of the stock ticker proved lucrative for his company, which ultimately became General Electric. However, by the end of the 19th century, other key figures in the progress of electrical engineering were beginning to emerge. (published 1996 in the NFPA Journal) Modern developments During the development of radio, many scientists and inventors contributed to radio technology and electronics. In his classic UHF experiments of 1888, Heinrich Hertz transmitted (via a spark-gap transmitter) and detected radio waves using electrical equipment. In 1895, Nikola Tesla was able to detect signals from the transmissions of his New York lab at West Point (a distance of 80.4 km / 49.95 miles). Leland Anderson, "Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power", Sun Publishing Company, LC 92-60482, ISBN 0-9632652-0-2 (ed. excerpts available online) In 1897, Karl Ferdinand Braun introduced the cathode ray tube as part of an oscilloscope, a crucial enabling technology for electronic television. John Fleming invented the first radio tube, the diode, in 1904. Two years later, Robert von Lieben and Lee De Forest independently developed the amplifier tube, called the triode. In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi furthered the art of hertzian wireless methods. Early on, he sent wireless signals over a distance of one and a half miles. In December 1901, he sent wireless waves that were not affected by the curvature of the Earth. Marconi later transmitted the wireless signals across the Atlantic between Poldhu, Cornwall, and St. John's, Newfoundland, a distance of . Marconi's biography at Nobelprize.org retrieved 21 June 2008. In 1920 Albert Hull developed the magnetron which would eventually lead to the development of the microwave oven in 1946 by Percy Spencer. In 1934 the British military began to make strides towards radar (which also uses the magnetron) under the direction of Dr Wimperis, culminating in the operation of the first radar station at Bawdsey in August 1936. In 1941 Konrad Zuse presented the Z3, the world's first fully functional and programmable computer. In 1946 the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) of John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly followed, beginning the computing era. The arithmetic performance of these machines allowed engineers to develop completely new technologies and achieve new objectives, including the Apollo missions and the NASA moon landing. The invention of the transistor in 1947 by William B. Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain opened the door for more compact devices and led to the development of the integrated circuit in 1958 by Jack Kilby and independently in 1959 by Robert Noyce. Starting in 1968, Ted Hoff and a team at Intel invented the first commercial microprocessor, which presaged the personal computer. The Intel 4004 was a 4-bit processor released in 1971, but in 1973 the Intel 8080, an 8-bit processor, made the first personal computer, the Altair 8800, possible. Education Electrical engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in electrical engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually four or five years and the completed degree may be designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Technology or Bachelor of Applied Science depending upon the university. The degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, computer science, project management and specific topics in electrical engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the sub-disciplines of electrical engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards the end of the degree. Some electrical engineers also choose to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a Master of Engineering/Master of Science (MEng/MSc), a Master of Engineering Management, a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Engineering, an Engineering Doctorate (EngD), or an Engineer's degree. The Master and Engineer's degree may consist of either research, coursework or a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy and Engineering Doctorate degrees consist of a significant research component and are often viewed as the entry point to academia. In the United Kingdom and various other European countries, the Master of Engineering is often considered an undergraduate degree of slightly longer duration than the Bachelor of Engineering. Various including graduate degree requirements at MIT, study guide at UWA, the curriculum at Queen's and unit tables at Aberdeen Practicing engineers In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience requirements) before being certified. Once certified the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa ), Chartered Engineer (in India, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Zimbabwe), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand) or European Engineer (in much of the European Union). The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may seal engineering work for public and private clients". This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's Engineers Act. In other countries, such as Australia, no such legislation exists to practise engineering, however it is a mandate that if an engineer is to sign off or seal an engineering document or drawing then that person must be registered as a Certified Practising Engineer (or CPEng). Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion. In this way these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, the charge of criminal negligence. An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental law. Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET). The IEEE claims to produce 30% of the world's literature in electrical engineering, has over 360,000 members worldwide and holds over 3,000 conferences annually. The IET publishes 21 journals, has a worldwide membership of over 150,000, and claims to be the largest professional engineering society in Europe. Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electrical engineers. Membership and participation in technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in the field and a habit of continued learning are therefore essential to maintaining proficiency. (see here regarding copyright) In countries such as Australia, Canada and the United States electrical engineers make up around 0.25% of the labor force (see note). Outside of these countries, it is difficult to gauge the demographics of the profession due to less meticulous reporting on labor statistics. However, in terms of electrical engineering graduates per-capita, electrical engineering graduates would probably be most numerous in countries such as Taiwan, Japan, India and South Korea. Tools and work From the Global Positioning System to electric power generation, electrical engineers have contributed to the development of a wide range of technologies. They design, develop, test and supervise the deployment of electrical systems and electronic devices. For example, they may work on the design of telecommunication systems, the operation of electric power stations, the lighting and wiring of buildings, the design of household appliances or the electrical control of industrial machinery. (see Internet Archive) Satellite communications is one of many projects an electrical engineer might work on Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of physics and mathematics as these help to obtain both a qualitative and quantitative description of how such systems will work. Today most engineering work involves the use of computers and it is commonplace to use computer-aided design programs when designing electrical systems. Nevertheless, the ability to sketch ideas is still invaluable for quickly communicating with others. Although most electrical engineers will understand basic circuit theory (that is the interactions of elements such as resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors and inductors in a circuit), the theories employed by engineers generally depend upon the work they do. For example, quantum mechanics and solid state physics might be relevant to an engineer working on VLSI (the design of integrated circuits), but are largely irrelevant to engineers working with macroscopic electrical systems. Even circuit theory may not be relevant to a person designing telecommunication systems that use off-the-shelf components. Perhaps the most important technical skills for electrical engineers are reflected in university programs, which emphasize strong numerical skills, computer literacy and the ability to understand the technical language and concepts that relate to electrical engineering. For many engineers, technical work accounts for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time may also be spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparing budgets and determining project schedules. Trevelyan, James; (2005). What Do Engineers Really Do?. University of Western Australia. (seminar with slides) Many senior engineers manage a team of technicians or other engineers and for this reason project management skills are important. Most engineering projects involve some form of documentation and strong written communication skills are therefore very important. The workplaces of electrical engineers are just as varied as the types of work they do. Electrical engineers may be found in the pristine lab environment of a fabrication plant, the offices of a consulting firm or on site at a mine. During their working life, electrical engineers may find themselves supervising a wide range of individuals including scientists, electricians, computer programmers and other engineers. Sub-disciplines Electrical engineering has many sub-disciplines, the most popular of which are listed below. Although there are electrical engineers who focus exclusively on one of these sub-disciplines, many deal with a combination of them. Sometimes certain fields, such as electronic engineering and computer engineering, are considered separate disciplines in their own right. Power Power pole Power engineering deals with the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity as well as the design of a range of related devices. These include transformers, electric generators, electric motors, high voltage engineering and power electronics. In many regions of the world, governments maintain an electrical network called a power grid that connects a variety of generators together with users of their energy. Users purchase electrical energy from the grid, avoiding the costly exercise of having to generate their own. Power engineers may work on the design and maintenance of the power grid as well as the power systems that connect to it. Such systems are called on-grid power systems and may supply the grid with additional power, draw power from the grid or do both. Power engineers may also work on systems that do not connect to the grid, called off-grid power systems, which in some cases are preferable to on-grid systems. The future includes Satellite controlled power systems, with feedback in real time to prevent power surges and prevent blackouts. Control Control systems play a critical role in space flight Control engineering focuses on the modeling of a diverse range of dynamic systems and the design of controllers that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner. To implement such controllers electrical engineers may use electrical circuits, digital signal processors, microcontrollers and PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers). Control engineering has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of commercial airliners to the cruise control present in many modern automobiles. It also plays an important role in industrial automation. Control engineers often utilize feedback when designing control systems. For example, in an automobile with cruise control the vehicle's speed is continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the motor's power output accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, control theory can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback. Electronics Circuit board Electronic engineering involves the design and testing of electronic circuits that use the properties of components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes and transistors to achieve a particular functionality. The tuned circuit, which allows the user of a radio to filter out all but a single station, is just one example of such a circuit. Another example (of a pneumatic signal conditioner) is shown in the adjacent photograph. Prior to the second world war, the subject was commonly known as radio engineering and basically was restricted to aspects of communications and radar, commercial radio and early television. Later, in post war years, as consumer devices began to be developed, the field grew to include modern television, audio systems, computers and microprocessors. In the mid to late 1950s, the term radio engineering gradually gave way to the name electronic engineering. Before the invention of the integrated circuit in 1959, electronic circuits were constructed from discrete components that could be manipulated by humans. These discrete circuits consumed much space and power and were limited in speed, although they are still common in some applications. By contrast, integrated circuits packed a large number—often millions—of tiny electrical components, mainly transistors, into a small chip around the size of a coin. This allowed for the powerful computers and other electronic devices we see today. Microelectronics Microprocessor Microelectronics engineering deals with the design and microfabrication of very small electronic circuit components for use in an integrated circuit or sometimes for use on their own as a general electronic component. The most common microelectronic components are semiconductor transistors, although all main electronic components (resistors, capacitors, inductors) can be created at a microscopic level. Microelectronic components are created by chemically fabricating wafers of semiconductors such as silicon (at higher frequencies, compound semiconductors like gallium arsenide and indium phosphide) to obtain the desired transport of electronic charge and control of current. The field of microelectronics involves a significant amount of chemistry and material science and requires the electronic engineer working in the field to have a very good working knowledge of the effects of quantum mechanics. Signal processing A Bayer filter on a CCD requires signal processing to get a red, green, and blue value at each pixel Signal processing deals with the analysis and manipulation of signals. Signals can be either analog, in which case the signal varies continuously according to the information, or digital, in which case the signal varies according to a series of discrete values representing the information. For analog signals, signal processing may involve the amplification and filtering of audio signals for audio equipment or the modulation and demodulation of signals for telecommunications. For digital signals, signal processing may involve the compression, error detection and error correction of digitally sampled signals. Signal Processing is a very mathematically oriented and intensive area forming the core of Digital Signal Processing (DSP) and it is rapidly expanding with new applications in every field of electrical engineering such as communications, control, radar, TV/Audio/Video engineering, power electronics and bio-medical engineering as many already existing analog systems are replaced with their digital counterparts. Although in the classical era, analog signal processing only provided a mathematical description of a system to be designed, which is actually implemented by the analog hardware engineers, Digital Signal Processing both provides a mathematical description of the systems to be designed and also actually implements them (either by software programming or by hardware embedding) without much dependency on hardware issues, which exponentiates the importance and success of DSP engineering. The deep and strong relations between signals and the information they carry makes signal processing equivalent of information processing. Which is the reason why the field finds so many diversified applications. DSP processor ICs are found in every type of modern electronic systems and products including, SDTV | HDTV sets, radios and mobile communication devices, Hi-Fi audio equipments, Dolby noise reduction algorithms, GSM mobile phones, mp3 multimedia players, camcorders and digital cameras, automobile control systems, noise cancelling headphones, digital spectrum analyzers, intelligent missile guidance, radar, GPS based cruise control systems and all kinds of image processing, video processing, audio processing and speech processing systems. Telecommunications Milstar Telecommunications engineering focuses on the transmission of information across a channel such as a coax cable, optical fiber or free space. Transmissions across free space require information to be encoded in a carrier wave in order to shift the information to a carrier frequency suitable for transmission, this is known as modulation. Popular analog modulation techniques include amplitude modulation and frequency modulation. The choice of modulation affects the cost and performance of a system and these two factors must be balanced carefully by the engineer. Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication engineers design the transmitters and receivers needed for such systems. These two are sometimes combined to form a two-way communication device known as a transceiver. A key consideration in the design of transmitters is their power consumption as this is closely related to their signal strength. If the signal strength of a transmitter is insufficient the signal's information will be corrupted by noise. Instrumentation Radar gun Instrumentation engineering deals with the design of devices to measure physical quantities such as pressure, flow and temperature. The design of such instrumentation requires a good understanding of physics that often extends beyond electromagnetic theory. For example, radar guns use the Doppler effect to measure the speed of oncoming vehicles. Similarly, thermocouples use the Peltier-Seebeck effect to measure the temperature difference between two points. Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the sensors of larger electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains constant. For this reason, instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control engineering. Computers Personal digital assistant Computer engineering deals with the design of computers and computer systems. This may involve the design of new hardware, the design of PDAs or the use of computers to control an industrial plant. Computer engineers may also work on a system's software. However, the design of complex software systems is often the domain of software engineering, which is usually considered a separate discipline. Desktop computers represent a tiny fraction of the devices a computer engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures are now found in a range of devices including video game consoles and DVD players. Related disciplines Mechatronics is an engineering discipline which deals with the convergence of electrical and mechanical systems. Such combined systems are known as electromechanical systems and have widespread adoption. Examples include automated manufacturing systems, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems and various subsystems of aircraft and automobiles. The term mechatronics is typically used to refer to macroscopic systems but futurists have predicted the emergence of very small electromechanical devices. Already such small devices, known as micro electromechanical systems (MEMS), are used in automobiles to tell airbags when to deploy, in digital projectors to create sharper images and in inkjet printers to create nozzles for high definition printing. In the future it is hoped the devices will help build tiny implantable medical devices and improve optical communication. Biomedical engineering is another related discipline, concerned with the design of medical equipment. This includes fixed equipment such as ventilators, MRI scanners and electrocardiograph monitors as well as mobile equipment such as cochlear implants, artificial pacemakers and artificial hearts. See also Analog signal processing Computer engineering Electronic design automation Electronic engineering IEEE Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) List of electrical engineering topics (alphabetical) List of electrical engineering topics (thematic) List of electrical engineers Muntzing Note Note I - There were around 300,000 people () working as electrical engineers in the US; in Australia, there were around 17,000 () and in Canada, there were around 37,000 (), constituting about 0.2% of the labour force in each of the three countries. Australia and Canada reported that 96% and 88% of their electrical engineers respectively are male. See also: and and References External links IEEE Global History Network A wiki-based site with many resources about the history of IEEE, its members, their professions and electrical and informational technologies and sciences. 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4,329 | Halloween | Halloween (also spelled Hallowe’en) is a holiday celebrated on October 31. It has roots in the Celtic festival of Samhain and the Christian holy day of All Saints’ Day. It is largely a secular celebration, but some Christians and pagans have expressed strong feelings about its religious overtones. Irish immigrants carried versions of the tradition to North America during Ireland's Great Famine of 1846. The day is often associated with the colors orange and black, and is strongly associated with symbols such as the jack-o'-lantern. Halloween activities include trick-or-treating, ghost tours, bonfires, costume parties, visiting haunted attractions, carving jack-o'-lanterns, reading scary stories, and watching horror movies. History Halloween has origins in the ancient Celtic festival known as Samhain (; from the Old Irish ). Nicholas Rogers, "Samhain and the Celtic Origins of Halloween," Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 11-21. The festival of Samhain is a celebration of the end of the harvest season in Gaelic culture, and is sometimes Hutton, Ronald (1996) Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain. Oxford, Oxford University Press ISBN 0192880454 regarded as the "Celtic New Year". Danaher, Kevin (1972) The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs Dublin, Mercier. ISBN 1-85635-093-2 pp.190–232 Traditionally, the festival was a time used by the ancient Celtic pagans to take stock of supplies and slaughter livestock for winter stores. The ancient Celts believed that on October 31, now known as Halloween, the boundary between the living and the deceased dissolved, and the dead become dangerous for the living by causing problems such as sickness or damaged crops. The festivals would frequently involve bonfires, into which the bones of slaughtered livestock were thrown. Costumes and masks were also worn at the festivals in an attempt to copy the evil spirits or placate them. Campbell, John Gregorson (1900, 1902, 2005) The Gaelic Otherworld. Edited by Ronald Black. Birlinn Ltd. ISBN 1-84158-207-7 pp.559-62 Origin of name The term Halloween, originally spelled Hallowe’en, is shortened from All Hallows’ Eve (both even and eve are abbreviations of evening, but Halloween gets its n from even) as it is the eve of "All Hallows’ Day", which is now also known as All Saints’ Day. It was a day of religious festivities in various northern European pagan traditions, Danaher, Kevin (1972) The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs Dublin, Mercier. ISBN 1-85635-093-2 pp.190–232 until Popes Gregory III and Gregory IV moved the old Christian feast of All Saints’ Day from May 13 (which had itself been the date of a pagan holiday, the Feast of the Lemures) to November 1. In the 9th century, the Church measured the day as starting at sunset, in accordance with the Florentine calendar. Although All Saints’ Day is now considered to occur one day after Halloween, the two holidays were, at that time, celebrated on the same day. Symbols On Hallows’ eve, the ancient Celts would place a skeleton on their window sill to represent the departed. Originating in Europe, these lanterns were first carved from a turnip or rutabaga. Believing that the head was the most powerful part of the body, containing the spirit and the knowledge, the Celts used the "head" of the vegetable to frighten off any superstitions. Welsh, Irish and British myth are full of legends of the Brazen Head, which may be a folk memory of the widespread ancient Celtic practice of headhunting - the results of which were often nailed to a door lintel or brought to the fireside to speak their wisdom. The name jack-o'-lantern can be traced back to the Irish legend of Stingy Jack, History of the Jack O'Lantern, Pumpkin Nook a greedy, gambling, hard-drinking old farmer. He tricked the devil into climbing a tree and trapped him by carving a cross into the tree trunk. In revenge, the devil placed a curse on Jack, condemning him to forever wander the earth at night with the only light he had: a candle inside of a hollowed turnip. The carving of pumpkins is associated with Halloween in North America, Skal, David J. (2002). Death Makes a Holiday: A Cultural History of Halloween. New York: Bloomsbury, 34. ISBN 1-58234-230-X. where pumpkins were not only readily available but much larger, making them easier to carve than turnips. Many families that celebrate Halloween carve a pumpkin into a frightening or comical face and place it on their doorstep after dark. In America, the tradition of carving pumpkins is known to have preceded the Great Famine period of Irish immigration. The carved pumpkin was originally associated with harvest time in general, in America and did not become specifically associated with Halloween until the mid-to-late 19th century. The imagery surrounding Halloween is largely an amalgamation of the Halloween season itself, works of Gothic and horror literature, in particular novels Frankenstein and Dracula, and nearly a century of work from American filmmakers and graphic artists, Nicholas Rogers, "Halloween Goes to Hollywood," Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 103-124. and a rather commercialized take on the dark and mysterious. Halloween imagery tends to involve death, evil, the occult, magic, or mythical monsters. Traditional characters include the Devil, the Grim Reaper, ghosts, ghouls, demons, witches, pumpkin-men, goblins, vampires, werewolves, zombies, mummies, skeletons, black cats, spiders, bats, owls, crows, and vultures. Hal Siemer, Spooky Halloween: A Celebration of the Dark, QuestMagazine.com. Particularly in America, symbolism is inspired by classic horror films (which contain fictional figures like Frankenstein's monster and The Mummy). Elements of the autumn season, such as pumpkins, corn husks, and scarecrows, are also prevalent. Homes are often decorated with these types of symbols around Halloween. The two main colors associated with Halloween are orange and black. Steven Heller. Halloween: Vintage Holiday Graphics. Taschen. 2005. Trick-or-treating and guising |Typical Halloween scene in Dublin, Ireland. Costumes Halloween costumes are traditionally those of monsters such as ghosts, skeletons, witches, and devils. Costumes are also based on themes other than traditional horror, such as those of characters from television shows, movies, and other pop culture icons. Costume sales BIGresearch conducted a survey for the National Retail Federation in the United States and found that 53.3% of consumers planned to buy a costume for Halloween 2005, spending $38.11 on average (up $10 from the year before). They were also expected to spend $4.96 billion in 2006, up significantly from just $3.3 billion the previous year. UNICEF "Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF" has become a common sight during Halloween in North America. Started as a local event in a Philadelphia suburb in 1950 and expanded nationally in 1952, the program involves the distribution of small boxes by schools (or in modern times, corporate sponsors like Hallmark, at their licensed stores) to trick-or-treaters, in which they can solicit small-change donations from the houses they visit. It is estimated that children have collected more than $119 million (US) for UNICEF since its inception. In 2006, UNICEF discontinued their Halloween collection boxes in parts of the world, citing safety and administrative concerns. Games and other activities In this Halloween greeting card from 1904, divination is depicted: the young woman looking into a mirror in a darkened room hopes to catch a glimpse of the face of her future husband. There are several games traditionally associated with Halloween parties. One common game is dunking or apple bobbing, in which apples float in a tub or a large basin of water the participants must use their teeth to remove an apple from the basin (to make things even more challenging, try removing the stems from the apples) "Halloween Party Game Ideas" Kidzworld.com. Retrieved on 2009-03-17. . A variant of dunking involves kneeling on a chair, holding a fork between the teeth and trying to drop the fork into an apple. Another common game involves hanging up treacle or syrup-coated scones by strings; these must be eaten without using hands while they remain attached to the string, an activity that inevitably leads to a very sticky face. Kids can play a "kill the witch game" by drawing and coloring a witch on a large piece of paper, cutting out circles from black construction paper and sticking tape on the back to make the witch's warts. Then blindfold the players, spin them around three times and have 'em pin ugly warts on the witch! The player who sticks the wart closest to the nose wins. "Halloween Party Game Ideas" Kidzworld.com. Retrieved on 2009-03-17. Some games traditionally played at Halloween are forms of divination. In Puicíní (pronounced "poocheeny"), a game played in Ireland, a blindfolded person is seated in front of a table on which several saucers are placed. The saucers are shuffled, and the seated person then chooses one by touch; the contents of the saucer determine the person's life during the following year. In 19th-century Ireland, young women placed slugs in saucers sprinkled with flour. A traditional Irish and Scottish form of divining one's future spouse is to carve an apple in one long strip, then toss the peel over one's shoulder. The peel is believed to land in the shape of the first letter of the future spouse's name. This custom has survived among Irish and Scottish immigrants in the rural United States. Unmarried women were frequently told that if they sat in a darkened room and gazed into a mirror on Halloween night, the face of their future husband would appear in the mirror. However, if they were destined to die before marriage, a skull would appear. The custom was widespread enough to be commemorated on greeting cards from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The telling of ghost stories and viewing of horror films are common fixtures of Halloween parties. Episodes of TV series and specials with Halloween themes (with the specials usually aimed at children) are commonly aired on or before the holiday, while new horror films, are often released theatrically before the holiday to take advantage of the atmosphere. Haunted attractions Haunted attractions are entertainment venues designed to thrill and scare patrons; most are seasonal Halloween businesses. Origins of these paid scare venues are difficult to pinpoint, but it is generally accepted that they were first commonly used by the Junior Chamber International (Jaycees) for fundraising. They include haunted houses, corn mazes, and hayrides, and the level of sophistication of the effects has risen as the industry has grown. Haunted attractions in the United States bring in an estimate $300–500 million each year, and draw some 400,000 customers, although trends suggest a peak in 2005. This increase in interest has led to more highly technical special effects and costuming that is comparable with that in Hollywood films. Foods Candy apple Because the holiday comes in the wake of the annual apple harvest, candy apples (also known as toffee, caramel or taffy apples) are a common Halloween treat made by rolling whole apples in a sticky sugar syrup, sometimes followed by rolling them in nuts. At one time, candy apples were commonly given to children, but the practice rapidly waned in the wake of widespread rumors that some individuals were embedding items like pins and razor blades in the apples. Nicholas Rogers, "Razor in the Apple: Struggle for Safe and Sane Halloween, c. 1920-1990," Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 78-102. While there is evidence of such incidents, they are quite rare and have never resulted in serious injury. Nonetheless, many parents assumed that such heinous practices were rampant. At the peak of the hysteria, some hospitals offered free x-rays of children's Halloween hauls in order to find evidence of tampering. Virtually all of the few known candy poisoning incidents involved parents who poisoned their own children's candy, and there have been occasional reports of children putting needles in their own (and other children's) candy in need of a bit of attention. One custom that persists in modern-day Ireland is the baking (or more often nowadays, the purchase) of a barmbrack (Irish "báirín breac"), which is a light fruitcake, into which a plain ring, a coin and other charms are placed before baking. It is said that those who get a ring will find their true love in the ensuing year. This is similar to the tradition of king cake at the festival of Epiphany. Other foods associated with the holiday: Candy corn Báirín Breac (Ireland) Colcannon (Ireland) Bonfire toffee (in the UK) Toffee Apple (Australia when celebrated, England, Wales and Scotland, instead of "Candy Apples") Apple cider Cider Roasted sweet corn Popcorn Roasted pumpkin seeds Pumpkin pie and pumpkin bread "Fun-sized" or individually wrapped pieces of small candy, typically in Halloween colors of orange, and brown/black. Novelty candy shaped like skulls, pumpkins, bats, worms, etc. Small bags of potato chips, pretzels and caramel corn Chocolates, caramels, and gum Pumpkin and Apple pie ice cream are sometimes enjoyed. Around the world Halloween is not celebrated in all countries and regions of the world, and among those that do the traditions and importance of the celebration vary significantly. Celebration in the United States has had a significant impact on how the holiday is observed in other nations. The history of Halloween traditions in a given country also lends context to how it is presently celebrated. Religious perspectives In North America, Christian attitudes towards Halloween are quite diverse. In the Anglican Church, some dioceses have chosen to emphasize the Christian traditions of All Saints’ Day, while some other Protestants celebrate the holiday as Reformation Day, a day of remembrance and prayers for unity. Celtic Christians may have Samhain services that focus on the cultural aspects of the holiday, in the belief that many ancient Celtic customs are "incompatible with the new Christian religion. Christianity embraced the Celtic notions of family, community, the bond among all people, and respect for the dead. Throughout the centuries, pagan and Christian beliefs intertwine in a gallimaufry (hodgepodge) of celebrations from October 31 through November 5, all of which appear both to challenge the ascendancy of the dark and to revel in its mystery." Many Christians ascribe no negative significance to Halloween, treating it as a purely secular holiday devoted to celebrating "imaginary spooks" and handing out candy. Halloween celebrations are common among Roman Catholic parochial schools throughout North America and in Ireland. In fact, the Roman Catholic Church sees Halloween as having a Christian connection. Halloween’s Christian Roots AmericanCatholic.org. Retrieved on October 24, 2007. Father Gabriele Amorth, a Vatican-appointed exorcist in Rome, has said, "[I]f English and American children like to dress up as witches and devils on one night of the year that is not a problem. If it is just a game, there is no harm in that." Gyles Brandreth, "The Devil is gaining ground" The Sunday Telegraph (London), March 11, 2000. Most Christians hold the view that the tradition is far from being "satanic" in origin or practice and that it holds no threat to the spiritual lives of children: being taught about death and mortality, and the ways of the Celtic ancestors actually being a valuable life lesson and a part of many of their parishioners' heritage. Other Christians, primarily of the Evangelical and Fundamentalist variety, are concerned about Halloween, and reject the holiday because they believe it trivializes (and celebrates) "the occult" and what they perceive as evil. Halloween: Satan's New Year (2006) by Billye Dymally, Halloween: Counterfeit Holy Day (2005) by Kele Gershom, and Halloween: What's a Christian to Do? (1998) by Steve Russo. An opposing viewpoint is found in The Magic Eightball Test: A Christian Defense of Halloween and All Things Spooky (2006) by Lint Hatcher. A response among some fundamentalists in recent years has been the use of Hell houses or themed pamphlets (such as those of Jack T. Chick) which attempt to make use of Halloween as an opportunity for evangelism. Some consider Halloween to be completely incompatible with the Christian faith due to its origin as a pagan "Festival of the Dead." In more recent years, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Boston has organized a "Saint Fest" on the holiday. Many contemporary Protestant churches view Halloween as a fun event for children, holding events in their churches where children and their parents can dress up, play games, and get candy. Religions other than Christianity also have varied views on Halloween. Some Wiccans feel that the tradition is offensive to "real witches" for promoting stereotypical caricatures of "wicked witches". See also List of Halloween television specials Fakelore Friday the 13th Ghost Festival Devil's Night The Clique Halloween events Samhain References Further reading Diane C. Arkins, Halloween: Romantic Art and Customs of Yesteryear, Pelican Publishing Company (2000). 96 pages. ISBN 1-56554-712-8 Diane C. Arkins, Halloween Merrymaking: An Illustrated Celebration Of Fun, Food, And Frolics From Halloweens Past, Pelican Publishing Company (2004). 112 pages. ISBN 1-58980-113-X Lesley Bannatyne, Halloween: An American Holiday, An American History, Facts on File (1990, Pelican Publishing Company, 1998). 180 pages. ISBN 1-56554-346-7 Lesley Bannatyne, A Halloween Reader. Stories, Poems and Plays from Halloweens Past, Pelican Publishing Company (2004). 272 pages. ISBN 1-58980-176-8 Phyllis Galembo, Dressed for Thrills: 100 Years of Halloween Costumes and Masquerade, Harry N. Abrams, Inc. (2002). 128 pages. ISBN 0-8109-3291-1 Lint Hatcher, The Magic Eightball Test: A Christian Defense of Halloween and All Things Spooky, Lulu.com (2006). ISBN 978-1847287564 Ronald Hutton, Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain, Oxford Paperbacks (2001). 560 pages. ISBN 0-19-285448-8 Jean Markale, The Pagan Mysteries of Halloween: Celebrating the Dark Half of the Year (translation of Halloween, histoire et traditions), Inner Traditions (2001). 160 pages. ISBN 0-89281-900-6 Lisa Morton, The Halloween Encyclopedia, McFarland & Company (2003). 240 pages. ISBN 0-7864-1524-X Nicholas Rogers, Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night, Oxford University Press (2002). 198 pages. ISBN 0-19-514691-3 Jack Santino (ed.), Halloween and Other Festivals of Death and Life, University of Tennessee Press (1994). 280 pages. ISBN 0-87049-813-4 David J. Skal, Death Makes A Holiday: A Cultural History of Halloween, Bloomsbury USA (2003). 224 pages. ISBN 1-58234-305-5 Ben Truwe, The Halloween Catalog Collection. Portland, Oregon: Talky Tina Press (2003). ISBN 0-9703448-5-6. External links U.S. Census data about Halloween in the United States Feast of Samhain/Celtic New Year/Celebration of All Celtic Saints—Celtic Christianity Samhain: Season of Death and Renewal—Celtic Studies, Gaelic culture and religion | Halloween |@lemmatized halloween:75 also:10 spell:2 hallowe:2 en:2 holiday:17 celebrate:10 october:4 root:2 celtic:14 festival:10 samhain:8 christian:17 holy:2 day:16 saint:7 largely:2 secular:2 celebration:9 pagan:11 express:1 strong:1 feeling:1 religious:3 overtone:1 irish:10 immigrant:2 carry:1 version:1 tradition:11 north:5 america:8 ireland:10 great:2 famine:2 often:5 associate:8 color:4 orange:3 black:6 strongly:1 symbol:3 jack:8 lantern:5 activity:3 include:3 trick:5 treating:2 ghost:5 tour:1 bonfire:3 costume:9 party:9 visit:2 haunt:5 attraction:4 carve:7 read:2 scary:1 story:3 watch:1 horror:6 movie:2 history:8 origins:1 ancient:6 know:5 old:3 nicholas:4 rogers:4 origin:5 ritual:6 night:8 new:9 york:4 oxford:7 university:6 press:7 end:1 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4,330 | Fantasy_sport | A fantasy sport (also known as rotisserie, roto, or owner simulation) is a game where fantasy owners build a team that competes against other fantasy owners based on the statistics generated by individual players or teams of a professional sport. Probably the most common variant converts statistical performance into points that are compiled and totaled according to a roster selected by a manager that makes up a fantasy team. These point systems are typically simple enough to be manually calculated by a "league commissioner." More complex variants use computer modeling of actual games based on statistical input generated by professional sports. In fantasy sports there is the ability to trade, cut, and sign players, like a real sports owner. Size of hobby It's estimated by the Fantasy Sports Trade Association that 29.9 million people age 12 and above in the U.S. and Canada played fantasy sports in 2007 . A prior study by the FSTA showed 19.4 million people age 12 and above in the U.S. and Canada played fantasy sports in 2006 and 34.5 million people had ever played fantasy sports . A 2006 study showed 22 percent of U.S. adult males 18 to 49 years old, with Internet access, play fantasy sports. Fantasy Sports is estimated to have a $3–$4 Billion annual economic impact across the sports industry. Fantasy sports is also popular throughout the world with leagues for soccer, Australian-rules football, cricket and other non-U.S. based sports. History Early history - pre-"rotisserie" The concept of picking players and running a contest based on their year-to-date stats has been around since shortly after World War II, but was never organized into a widespread hobby or formal business. In 1960, Harvard University sociologist William Gamson started the "Baseball Seminar" where colleagues would form rosters that earned points on the players' final standings in batting average, RBI, ERA and wins. Alan Schwarz: The Numbers Game : Baseball's Lifelong Fascination with Statistics Thomas Dunne Books p. 175, ISBN 0312322224 Gamson later brought the idea with him to the University of Michigan where some professors played the game. One professor playing the game was Bob Sklar, who taught an American Studies seminar which included Daniel Okrent, who learned of the game his professor played. Alan Schwarz: The Numbers Game : Baseball's Lifelong Fascination with Statistics Thomas Dunne Books p. 175, ISBN 0312322224 At around the same time a league from Glassboro State College also formed a similar baseball league and had its first draft in 1976. While those two leagues focused on baseball, it may be football that produced the first version of the hobby. The Greater Oakland Professional Pigskin Prognosticators League began in the early 1960s with eight teams. George Blanda was the first player taken in the first draft in 1963.1963 draft results Modern founding - "La Rotisserie" The landmark development in fantasy sports came with the development of Rotisserie League Baseball in 1980. Magazine writer/editor Daniel Okrent is credited with inventing it, the name coming from the New York City restaurant La Rotisserie Francaise where he and some friends used to meet and play. The game's innovation was that "owners" in a Rotisserie league would draft teams from the list of active Major League Baseball players and would follow their statistics during the ongoing season to compile their scores. In other words, rather than using statistics for seasons whose outcomes were already known, the owners would have to make similar predictions about players' playing time, health, and expected performance that real baseball managers must make. Because Okrent was a member of the media, other journalists, especially sports journalists, were introduced to the game. Many early players were introduced to the game by these sports journalists, especially during the 1981 Major League Baseball strike; with little else to write about, many baseball writers wrote columns about Rotisserie league. A July 8, 1980 New York Times Article titled "What George Steinbrenner is to the American League, Lee Eisenberg is to the Rotisseries League" set off a media storm that led to stories about the league on CBS TV and other publications. In March 1981, Dan Okrent wrote an essay about the Rotisserie League for Inside Sports called "The Year George Foster Wasn't Worth $36." The article included the rules of the game. Founders of the original Rotisserie league published a guide book starting in 1984. In 1982, Ballantine published the first widely-available Bill James Abstract, which helped fuel fantasy baseball interest. Fantasy fans often used James' statistical tools and analysis as way to improve their teams. Michael Lewis: Moneyball: the art of winning an unfair game W. W. Norton, New York c2003., ISBN 0-393-05765-8 James was not a fantasy player and barely acknowledged fantasy baseball in his annual Abstract, but fantasy baseball interest is credited with his strong sales. Soon the hobby spread to other sports as well and by 1988, USA Today estimated that five hundred thousand people were playing. Early analysts/businesses In the few years after Okrent helped popularize fantasy baseball, a host of experts and business emerged to service the growing hobby. Okrent, based on discussions with colleagues at USA Today, credits Rotisserie league baseball with much of USA Today's early success, since the paper provided much more detailed box scores than most competitors and eventually even created a special paper, Baseball Weekly, that almost exclusively contained statistics and box scores. Among the first high-profile experts were John Benson, Alex Patton and Ron Shandler. Benson became perhaps the most famous name in the business in the late 1980s, publishing his first book in 1989 and developing one of the first draft-software simulation programs. He had a 900 number at $2.50 per minute. Patton published his first book ('Patton's 1989 Fantasy Baseball League Price Guide ") in 1989 and his dollar values were included in USA Today Baseball Weekly's fantasy annual throughout the 1990s. Ron Shandler published his "Baseball SuperSTATS" book in November 1986. At first the book wasn't meant for fantasy baseball fans, but rather as a book of Sabrmetric analysis. But it wasn't just baseball that saw new businesses and growth. Fantasy Football Index became the first annual fantasy football guide in 1987. Fantasy Sports Magazine debuted in 1989 as the first regular publication covering more than one fantasy sport. Fantasy Football Weekly was launched in 1992 (later becoming Fanball.com) and had $2 million in revenue by 1999. A large number of companies emerged to calculate the stats for fantasy leagues and primarily send results via fax. In 1993, USA Today included a weekly columnist on fantasy baseball, John Hunt, and he became perhaps the most visible writer in the industry before the rise of the Internet. Hunt started the first high-profile experts league, the League of Alternate Baseball Reality which first included notables as Peter Gammons, Keith Olbermann and Bill James. The hobby continued to grow with 1 million to 3 million playing from 1991 to 1994. Internet boom But the seminal moment for the growth of fantasy sports was the rise of the Internet in the mid-1990s. The new technology lowered the barrier to entry to the hobby as stats could quickly be compiled online and news and information became readily available. While several fantasy businesses had migrated to the internet in the mid-1990s, the watershed era for online fantasy sports was in 1997 when two web sites made their debut that forever changed the fantasy sports industry: Commissioner.com and RotoNews.com. Commissioner.com launched in January 1, 1997 and first offered a fantasy baseball commissioner service that changed the nature of fantasy sports with real-time stats, league message boards, daily updated box scores and other features -- all for $300 per league. Commissioner.com was sold to Sportsline late in 1999 for $31 million in cash and stock in a watershed moment for the fantasy industry. The sale proved fantasy sports had grown from a mere hobby to big business. By 2003, Commissioner.com helped Sportsline generate $11 million from fantasy revenue. Commissioner.com is now the fantasy sports engine behind CBSsports.com's fantasy area (after Sportsline was sold to CBS). RotoNews.com also launched in January 1997 and published its first player note on February 16, 1997. RotoNews revolutionized how fantasy sports information was presented on the web with the innovation of the "player note" which were snippets of information every time a player got hurt, traded, benched or had a news event that impacted his fantasy value - all search-able in a real-time database. Most sites today follow how RotoNews had a "news" and "analysis" element to each player update. Within two years RotoNews had become one of the top ten most trafficked sports sites on the web, according to Media Metrix, ranking higher than such sites as NBA.com. RotoNews.com was sold to Broadband Sports in 1999 and later survived as RotoWire.com. It wasn't long before the larger media players got involved. Yahoo.com added fantasy sports in 1999 and offered most of its games for free - a largely new business model for fantasy sports. A trade group for the industry, the Fantasy Sports Trade Association was formed in 1998. Other entries during this era included Fanball.com, launched in 1999 by the parent company of Fantasy Football Weekly. The first survey of the fantasy sports market in the U.S. in 1999 showed 29.6 million people age 18 and older played fantasy games. However, that figure was reduced in later years when it was determined the survey also included people who play NCAA bracket pools, which are not exactly fantasy sports (where you pick individual players). Dotcom era While fantasy sports were fueled by the dot-com boom of the Internet, there was a turbulent period when many of the high-flying Internet companies of the era crashed in 2001. Fanball.com went bankrupt in 2001 (later to re-emerge in 2001). RotoNews.com's parent company, Broadband Sports, went belly up in 2001. The company would re-emerge as RotoWire.com. There were also wide variations on business models. RotoNews.com launched the Web's first free commissioner service in 1998, quickly becoming the largest league management service. Yahoo.com became the first major media company to offer games for free in 1999. Due to the rising competition, Commissioner.com, which had charged as much as $300, offered its commissioner services for free starting with football in 2000. Two years later the trend reversed. Sportsline moved back to a pay model for commissioner services (which it largely still has today). TheHuddle.com, a free site since 1997, started to charge for information. RotoWire.com moved from a free model to a pay model in 2001 as well. . Despite the economic instability, fantasy sports started to become a mainstream hobby. In 2002, the NFL found that average male surveyed, for example, spent 6.6 hours a week watching the NFL on TV; fantasy players surveyed said they watched 8.4 hours of NFL per week. "This is the first time we've been able to demonstrate specifically that fantasy play drives TV viewing," said Chris Russo, the NFL's senior vice president. The NFL began running promotional television ads for fantasy football featuring current players for the first time. Previously fantasy sports had largely been seen in a negative light by the major sports leagues. Fantasy sports continued to grow with a 2003 FSTA survey showing 15 million people playing fantasy football and spending about $150 a year on average, making it a $1.5 billion industry. New fantasy game genres With the growth of the industry, fantasy has branched out to include non-sports related games focused on politics, celebrity gossip, movies, and reality TV. Notable games in these new categories include: Fantasy Congress Fantasy Mogul Legal Issues STATS, Inc. vs NBA In 1996, STATS, Inc., a major statistical provider to fantasy sports companies, won a court case, along with Motorola, on appeal against the NBA in which the NBA was trying to stop STATS from distributing in game score information via a special wireless device created by Motorola. The victory played a large part in defending other cases where sports leagues have tried to suppress live in-game information from their events being distributed by other outlets. NBA Lawsuit - AOL.com The victory also accelerated the market for real-time statistics which were largely fueled by the growth of the fantasy sports industry. Alan Schwarz: The Numbers Game : Baseball's Lifelong Fascination with Statistics Thomas Dunne Books p. 192, ISBN 0312322224 CDM vs. MLBAM The development of fantasy sports produced tension between fantasy sports companies and professional leagues and players associations over the rights to player profiles and statistics. The players associations of the major sports leagues believed that fantasy games using player names were subject to licensing due to the right of publicity of the players involved. Since the player names were being used as a group, the players had assigned their publicity rights to the players association who then signed licensing deals. During the 1980s and 1990s many companies signed licensing deals with the player associations, but companies did not. The issue came to a head with the lawsuit of Major League Baseball Advanced Media, MLB's Internet wing, vs. St. Louis-based CBC Distribution and Marketing Inc., the parent company of CDM Sports. When CBC was denied a new licensing agreement with MLBAM (they had acquired the rights from the baseball players' association ) for its fantasy baseball game, CBC filed suit. CBC argued that intellectual property laws and so-called "right of publicity" laws don't apply to the statistics used in fantasy sports. The FSTA filed an amicus curiae in support of CBC, also arguing that if MLBAM won the lawsuit it would have a dramatic impact on the industry, which was largely ignored by the major sports leagues for years while a number of smaller entrepreneurs grew it into a multi-billion dollar industry, and a ruling could allow the MLBAM to have a monopoly over the industry. "This will be a defining moment in the fantasy sports industry," said Charlie Wiegert, executive vice president of CBC. "The other leagues are all watching this case. If MLB prevailed, it just would have been a matter of time before they followed up. Their player unions are just waiting for the opportunity." CBC won the lawsuit as U.S. District Court Judge Mary Ann Medler ruled that statistics are part of the public domain and can be used at no cost by fantasy companies. "The names and playing records of major-league baseball players as used in CBC's fantasy games are not copyrightable," Medler wrote. "Therefore, federal copyright law does not pre-empt the players' claimed right of publicity." The 8th Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the decision in October 2007. "It would be strange law that a person would not have a First Amendment right to use information that is available to everyone," a three-judge panel said in its ruling. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the 8th Circuit Court's decision by declining to hear the case in June 2008. Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act of 2006 The Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act of 2006, which was an amendment to the larger and unrelated Safe Port Act, included "carve out" language that clarified the legality of fantasy sports. It was signed into law on October 13, 2006 by President George W. Bush. The Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act makes transactions from banks or similar institutions to online gambling sites illegal, with the notable exceptions of fantasy sports, online lotteries and horse/harness racing. The bill specifically exempts fantasy sports games, educational games, or any online contest that "has an outcome that reflects the relative knowledge of the participants, or their skill at physical reaction or physical manipulation (but not chance), and, in the case of a fantasy or simulation sports game, has an outcome that is determined predominantly by accumulated statistical results of sporting events, including any non-participant's individual performances in such sporting events..." Popular sports Fantasy baseball Fantasy cricket Fantasy football (American) Fantasy football (soccer) Fantasy basketball Fantasy golf Fantasy hockey Fantasy Auto Racing Fantasy Sports stock simulations Fantasy professional wrestling Fantasy Congress Associations The Fantasy Sports Trade Association was formed in 1999 to represent the growing industry. The Fantasy Sports Writers Association was formed in 2004 to represent the growing numbers of journalists covering fantasy sports exclusively. The Fantasy Sports Association was formed in 2006. Montana Lottery to offer Fantasy Sports Wagering In autumn 2008, the Montana Lottery, one of only four U.S. states to legalize sports betting, will offer sports wagering for the first time. See also Sports management video games References External links Fantasy Sports at the Open Directory Project | Fantasy_sport |@lemmatized fantasy:92 sport:68 also:9 know:2 rotisserie:11 roto:1 owner:6 simulation:4 game:28 build:1 team:6 compete:1 base:6 statistic:11 generate:3 individual:3 player:30 professional:5 probably:1 common:1 variant:2 convert:1 statistical:5 performance:3 point:3 compile:3 total:1 accord:2 roster:2 select:1 manager:2 make:6 system:1 typically:1 simple:1 enough:1 manually:1 calculate:2 league:32 commissioner:11 complex:1 use:10 computer:1 modeling:1 actual:1 input:1 ability:1 trade:6 cut:1 sign:4 like:1 real:5 size:1 hobby:9 estimate:3 association:11 million:10 people:7 age:3 u:8 canada:2 play:15 prior:1 study:3 fsta:3 show:4 ever:1 percent:1 adult:1 males:1 year:9 old:2 internet:11 access:1 billion:3 annual:4 economic:2 impact:3 across:1 industry:13 popular:2 throughout:2 world:2 soccer:2 australian:1 rule:3 football:11 cricket:2 non:3 history:2 early:5 pre:2 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4,331 | Common_buzzard | The Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) is a medium to large bird of prey, whose range covers most of Europe and extends into Asia. It is typically between 51-57 cm in length with a 110 to 130 cm (48-60 inch) wingspan, making it a medium-sized raptor. There are around 40,000 breeding pairs in Britain. It is usually resident all year except in the coldest parts of its range, and in the case of one subspecies. It breeds in woodland, usually on the fringes, but favours hunting over open land. It eats mainly small mammals, and will come to carrion. A great opportunist, it adapts well to a varied diet of pheasant, rabbit, other small mammals, snakes and lizards and can often be seen walking over recently ploughed fields looking for worms and insects. Buzzards do not normally form flocks, but several may be seen together on migration or in good habitat. The Victorian writer on Dartmoor, William Crossing, noted that he had on occasions seen flocks of 15 or more at some places. Though a rare occurrence as many as 20 buzzards can been spotted in one field area, approx 30 meters apart, so cannot be classed as a flock in the general term, consisting of those males (and females) without a mate or territory. They are fiercely territorial, and, though rare, fights do break out if one strays on another pair's territory, but dominant displays of aggression will normally see off the interloper. Pairs mate for life. To attract a mate (or impress his existing mate) the male performs a ritual aerial display before the beginning of Spring. This spectacular display is known as 'the roller coaster'. He will rise high up in the sky, to turn and plummet downward, in a spiral, twisting and turning as he comes down. To then rise immediately upward to repeat the exercise. This broad-winged raptor has a wide variety of plumages, and in Europe can be confused with the similar Rough-legged Buzzard (Buteo lagopus) and the only distantly related Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus), which mimics the Common Buzzard's plumage for a degree of protection from Goshawks. The plumage can vary in Britain from almost pure white to black, but is usually shades of brown, with a pale 'necklace' of feathers. The call is a plaintive peea-ay, similar to a cat's meow. Systematics This species was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758 as Falco buteo. Buzzard subspecies fall into two groups The western buteo group are mainly resident or short-distance migrants. They are: Buteo buteo buteo: most of Europe B. b. rothschildi: Azores B. b. insularum: Canary Islands B. b. arrigonii: Corsica and Sardinia B. b. menetriesi: Caucasus B. b. harterti: Madeira, doubtfully distinct from nominate buteo The eastern vulpinus group includes B. b. vulpinus (Steppe Buzzard): Eurasia: migrant breeder B. b. japonicus: Japan: resident B. b. trizonatus (Forest Buzzard): South Africa: resident Two resident forms of islands close to Africa are often assigned to the first group, but appear to be distinct species more closely related to the African Long-legged Buzzard, based on biogeography and preliminary mtDNA cytochrome b sequence data (Clouet & Wink 2000): Buteo (buteo) bannermani (Cape Verde Buzzard): Cape Verde Islands Buteo (buteo) socotrae (Socotra Buzzard): Socotra Steppe Buzzard The Steppe Buzzard, B. (b.) vulpinus breeds from eastern Europe eastward to the Far East, excluding Japan. It is a long-distance migrant, excepting some north Himalayan birds, and winters in Africa, India and south eastern Asia. In the open country favoured on the wintering grounds, Steppe Buzzards are often seen perched on roadside telephone poles. Steppe Buzzard is some times split as a separate species, B. vulpinus. Compared to the nominate form, Steppe Buzzard is slightly smaller (45-50 cm long), longer winged and longer tailed. There are two colour morphs; the rufous form which gives this subspecies its scientific name (vulpes is Latin for "fox"), and a dark grey form. The tail of vulpinus is paler than the nominate form, and often quite rufous, recalling North American Red-tailed Hawk. The upperwings have pale primary patches, and the primary flight feathers are also paler when viewed from below. Adults have a black trailing edge to the wings, and both morphs often have plain underparts, lacking the breast band frequently seen in B. b. buteo. Forest Buzzard The Forest Buzzard, B. (b.) trizonatus, is another form sometimes upgraded to a full species. This is a resident breeding species in woodlands in southern and eastern South Africa. It is very similar to the abundant summer migrant Steppe Buzzard, but the adult can be distinguished with a good view by its whiter underparts and unbarred flanks. The Juvenile differs from the same-age Steppe Buzzard by its white front and tear-shaped flank streaks. Forest Buzzard, as its name implies, is a species of evergreen woodlands including introduced eucalyptus and pines, whereas Steppe Buzzard prefers more open habitats. However, habitat alone is not a good indicator for these forms. References Clouet, Michel and Wink, Michael (2000): The Buzzards of Cape Verde (Buteo (buteo) bannermani) and Socotra (Buteo buteo spp.) - First results of a genetic analysis based on nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene. Alauda 68(1): 55-58. PDF fultlext Ferguson-Lees, Christie, Franklin, Mead and Burton Raptors of the World ISBN 0713680261 Mullarney, Svensson, Zetterstrom and Grant, Collins Bird Guide ISBN 0-00-219728-6 Ian Sinclair, Phil Hockey and Warwick Tarboton, SASOL Birds of Southern Africa (Struik 2002) ISBN 1-86872-721-1 External links Madeira Birds: Buzzard. Page about the controversial subspecies harterti. Retrieved 2006-NOV-28. Ageing and sexing (PDF) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta be-x-old:Звычайны канюк | Common_buzzard |@lemmatized common:2 buzzard:25 buteo:18 medium:2 large:1 bird:5 prey:1 whose:1 range:2 cover:1 europe:4 extend:1 asia:2 typically:1 cm:3 length:1 inch:1 wingspan:1 make:1 size:1 raptor:3 around:1 breeding:2 pair:3 britain:2 usually:3 resident:6 year:1 except:2 coldest:1 part:1 case:1 one:3 subspecies:4 breed:2 woodland:3 fringe:1 favour:2 hunt:1 open:3 land:1 eat:1 mainly:2 small:3 mammal:2 come:2 carrion:1 great:1 opportunist:1 adapt:1 well:1 varied:1 diet:1 pheasant:1 rabbit:1 snake:1 lizard:1 often:5 see:6 walk:1 recently:1 plough:1 field:2 look:1 worm:1 insect:1 normally:2 form:8 flock:3 several:1 may:1 together:1 migration:1 good:3 habitat:3 victorian:1 writer:1 dartmoor:1 william:1 crossing:1 note:1 occasion:1 place:1 though:2 rare:2 occurrence:1 many:1 spot:1 area:1 approx:1 meter:1 apart:1 cannot:1 class:1 general:1 term:1 consist:1 male:2 female:1 without:1 mate:4 territory:2 fiercely:1 territorial:1 fight:1 break:1 stray:1 another:2 dominant:1 display:3 aggression:1 interloper:1 life:1 attract:1 impress:1 exist:1 perform:1 ritual:1 aerial:1 beginning:1 spring:1 spectacular:1 know:1 roller:1 coaster:1 rise:2 high:1 sky:1 turn:2 plummet:1 downward:1 spiral:1 twist:1 immediately:1 upward:1 repeat:1 exercise:1 broad:1 wing:2 wide:1 variety:1 plumage:3 confuse:1 similar:3 rough:1 legged:2 lagopus:1 distantly:1 relate:2 honey:1 pernis:1 apivorus:1 mimic:1 degree:1 protection:1 goshawk:1 vary:1 almost:1 pure:1 white:2 black:2 shade:1 brown:1 pale:3 necklace:1 feather:2 call:1 plaintive:1 peea:1 ay:1 cat:1 meow:1 systematics:1 specie:6 first:3 describe:1 linnaeus:1 systema:1 naturae:1 falco:1 fall:1 two:3 group:4 western:1 short:1 distance:2 migrant:4 b:25 rothschildi:1 azores:1 insularum:1 canary:1 island:3 arrigonii:1 corsica:1 sardinia:1 menetriesi:1 caucasus:1 harterti:2 madeira:2 doubtfully:1 distinct:2 nominate:3 eastern:4 vulpinus:5 include:2 steppe:9 eurasia:1 breeder:1 japonicus:1 japan:2 trizonatus:2 forest:4 south:3 africa:5 close:1 assign:1 appear:1 closely:1 african:1 long:4 base:2 biogeography:1 preliminary:1 mtdna:1 cytochrome:2 sequence:2 data:1 clouet:2 wink:2 bannermani:2 cape:3 verde:3 socotrae:1 socotra:3 eastward:1 far:1 east:1 exclude:1 north:2 himalayan:1 winter:2 india:1 country:1 ground:1 perch:1 roadside:1 telephone:1 pole:1 time:1 split:1 separate:1 compare:1 slightly:1 longer:1 winged:1 tail:3 colour:1 morphs:2 rufous:2 give:1 scientific:1 name:2 vulpes:1 latin:1 fox:1 dark:1 grey:1 quite:1 recall:1 american:1 red:1 hawk:1 upperwings:1 primary:2 patch:1 flight:1 also:1 paler:1 view:2 adult:2 trailing:1 edge:1 plain:1 underpart:2 lack:1 breast:1 band:1 frequently:1 sometimes:1 upgrade:1 full:1 southern:2 abundant:1 summer:1 distinguish:1 whiter:1 unbarred:1 flank:2 juvenile:1 differs:1 age:1 front:1 tear:1 shape:1 streak:1 implies:1 evergreen:1 introduced:1 eucalyptus:1 pine:1 whereas:1 prefers:1 however:1 alone:1 indicator:1 reference:1 michel:1 michael:1 spp:1 result:1 genetic:1 analysis:1 nucleotide:1 gene:1 alauda:1 pdf:2 fultlext:1 ferguson:1 lee:1 christie:1 franklin:1 mead:1 burton:1 world:1 isbn:3 mullarney:1 svensson:1 zetterstrom:1 grant:1 collins:1 guide:1 ian:1 sinclair:1 phil:1 hockey:1 warwick:1 tarboton:1 sasol:1 struik:1 external:1 link:1 page:1 controversial:1 retrieved:1 nov:1 ageing:1 sexing:1 javier:1 blasco:1 zumeta:1 x:1 old:1 звычайны:1 канюк:1 |@bigram buteo_buteo:7 snake_lizard:1 male_female:1 roller_coaster:1 downward_spiral:1 distantly_relate:1 cat_meow:1 linnaeus_systema:1 systema_naturae:1 canary_island:1 steppe_buzzard:9 closely_relate:1 cape_verde:3 trailing_edge:1 ian_sinclair:1 external_link:1 |
4,332 | Economy_of_Namibia | The economy of Namibia is heavily dependent on the extraction and processing of minerals for export. Mining accounts for 20% of GDP. Rich alluvial diamond deposits make Namibia a primary source for gem-quality diamonds. Namibia is the fourth-largest exporter of nonfuel minerals in Africa, the world's fifth-largest producer of uranium, and the producer of large quantities of lead, zinc, tin, silver, and tungsten. The mining sector employs only about 3% of the population while about half of the population depends on subsistence agriculture for its livelihood. Namibia normally imports about 50% of its cereal requirements; in drought years food shortages are a major problem in rural areas. A high per capita GDP, relative to the region, hides the great inequality of income distribution; nearly one-third of Namibians had annual incomes of less than $1400 in constant 1994 dollars, according to a 1993 study. The Namibian economy is closely linked to South Africa with the Namibian dollar pegged to the South African rand. Privatisation of several enterprises in coming years may stimulate long-run foreign investment, although with the trade union movement opposed, so far most politicians have been reluctant to advance the issue. The Namibian economy has a modern market sector, which produces most of the country's wealth, and a traditional subsistence sector. Although the majority of the population engages in subsistence agriculture and herding, Namibia has more than 200,000 skilled workers, as well as a small, well-trained professional and managerial class. The country's sophisticated formal economy is based on capital-intensive industry and farming. However, Namibia's economy is heavily dependent on the earnings generated from primary commodity exports in a few vital sectors, including minerals, especially diamonds, livestock, and fish. Furthermore, the Namibian economy remains integrated with the economy of South Africa, as the bulk of Namibia's imports originate there. Since independence, the Namibian Government has pursued free-market economic principles designed to promote commercial development and job creation to bring disadvantaged Namibians into the economic mainstream. To facilitate this goal, the government has actively courted donor assistance and foreign investment. The liberal Foreign Investment Act of 1990 provides guarantees against nationalisation, freedom to remit capital and profits, currency convertibility, and a process for settling disputes equitably. Namibia also is addressing the sensitive issue of agrarian land reform in a pragmatic manner. In September 1993, Namibia introduced its own currency, the Namibia dollar, which is linked to the South African Rand. There has been widespread acceptance of the Namibia dollar throughout the country and, while Namibia remains a part of the Common Monetary Area, it now enjoys slightly more flexibility in monetary policy although interest rates have so far always moved very closely in line with the South African rates. Given its small domestic market but favourable location and a superb transport and communications base, Namibia is a leading advocate of regional economic integration. In addition to its membership in the Southern African Development Community (SADC), Namibia presently belongs to the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) with South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland. Within SACU, no tariffs exist on goods produced in and moving among the member countries. Ninety percent of Namibia's imports originate in South Africa, and many Namibian exports are destined for the South African market or transit that country. Namibia's exports consist mainly of diamonds and other minerals, fish products, beef and meat products, karakul sheep pelts, and light manufactures. In recent years, Namibia has accounted for about 5% of total SACU exports, and a slightly higher percentage of imports. Namibia is seeking to diversify its trading relationships away from its heavy dependence on South African goods and services. Europe has become a leading market for Namibian fish and meat, while mining concerns in Namibia have purchased heavy equipment and machinery from Germany, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. The Government of Namibia is making efforts to take advantage of the American-led African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA), which will provide preferential access to American markets for a long list of products. In the short term, Namibia is likely to see growth in the apparel manufacturing industry as a result of AGOA. In 1993, Namibia became a signatory of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) signatory, and the Minister of Trade and Industry represented Namibia at the Marrakech signing of the Uruguay Round Agreement in April 1994 . Namibia also is a member of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and has acceded to the European Union's Lomé Convention. Mining and energy Mining contributed 13.7% of GDP in 1999, of which diamond mining activities represented 9%. Diamond production totalled 1.5 million carats (300 kg) in 2000, generating nearly $500 million in export earnings. Other important mineral resources are uranium, copper, lead, and zinc. The country also is a source of gold, silver, tin, vanadium, semiprecious gemstones, tantalite, phosphate, sulfur, and salt. During the pre-independence period, large areas of Namibia, including off-shore, were leased for oil prospecting. Some natural gas was discovered in 1974 in the Kudu Field off the mouth of the Orange River, but the extent of this find is only now being determined. Fishing The clean, cold South Atlantic waters off the coast of Namibia are home to some of the richest fishing grounds in the world, with the potential for sustainable yields of 1.5 million metric tonnes per year. Commercial fishing and fish processing is the fastest-growing sector of the Namibian economy in terms of employment, export earnings, and contribution to GDP. The main species found in abundance off Namibia are pilchards (sardines), anchovy, hake, and horse mackerel. There also are smaller but significant quantities of sole, squid, deep-sea crab, rock lobster, and tuna. At the time of independence, fish stocks had fallen to dangerously low levels, due to the lack of protection and conservation of the fisheries and the over-exploitation of these resources. This trend appears to have been halted and reversed since independence, as the Namibian Government is now pursuing a conservative resource management policy along with an aggressive fisheries enforcement campaign. Manufacturing and infrastructure In 2000, Namibia's manufacturing sector contributed about 20% of GDP. Namibian manufacturing is inhibited by a small domestic market, dependence on imported goods, limited supply of local capital, widely dispersed population, small skilled labour force and high relative wage rates, and subsidised competition from South Africa. Walvis Bay is a well-developed, deepwater port, and Namibia's fishing infrastructure is most heavily concentrated there. The Namibian Government expects Walvis Bay to become an important commercial gateway to the Southern African region. Namibia also boasts world-class civil aviation facilities and an extensive, well-maintained land transportation network. Construction is underway on two new arteries-- the Trans-Caprivi Highway and Trans-Kalahari Highway--which will open up the region's access to Walvis Bay. The Walvis Bay Export Processing Zone operates in the key port of Walvis Bay. Labour While most Namibians are economically active in one form or another, the bulk of this activity is in the informal sector, primarily subsistence agriculture. In the formal economy, official estimates of unemployment range from 30% to 40% the work force. A large number of Namibians seeking jobs in the formal sector are held back due to a lack of necessary skills or training. The government is aggressively pursuing education reform to overcome this problem. Namibia's largest trade union federation, the National Union of Namibian Workers (NUNW) represents workers organised into seven affiliated trade unions. NUNW maintains a close affiliation with the ruling SWAPO party. 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4,333 | History_of_Morocco | The Capsian culture brought Morocco into the Neolithic about 8000 BC, at a time when the Maghreb was less arid than it is today. The Berber language probably was formed at roughly the same time as agriculture (see Berber), and was developed by the existing population and adopted the immigrants who arrived later. Modern DNA analysis (see link) has confirmed that various populations have contributed to the present-day gene pool of Morocco in addition to the main ethnic group which is the Amazighs/Berbers. Those other various populations are Arabs, Iberians, Phoenicians, Sephardic Jews and sub-Saharan Africans. Prehistoric Morocco In Mesolithic ages the geography of Morocco resembled to a savanna more than the present day arid landscape. D. Rubella, Environmentalism and Pi Paleolithic economies in the Maghreb (ca. 20,000 to 5000 B.P.), in, J.D. Clark & S.A. Brandt (eds.), From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 41-56 While little is known about Morocco settlement in these early times, excavations elsewhere in the Maghreb suggest an abundance of game and forests that would have been hospitable to Mesolithic Homo sapiens hunters and gatherers. The coastal regions of present-day Morocco shared in an early Neolithic culture that was common to the whole Mediterranean littoral. Archaeological remains point to the domestication of cattle and the cultivation of crops in the region during that period. Eight thousand years ago, south of the great mountain ranges in what is now the Sahara Desert, a vast savanna supported Neolithic hunters and herders whose culture flourished until the region began to desiccate as a result of climatic changes after 4000 B.C. The Berbers entered Moroccan history toward the end of the 2nd millennium B.C., when they made initial contact with oasis dwellers on the steppe who may have been the remnants of the earlier savanna people. Phoenician, Roman, and sub-Roman Morocco Phoenician traders, who had penetrated the western Mediterranean before the 12th century B.C., set up depots for salt and ore along the coast and up the rivers of the territory that is now Morocco. The arrival of Phoenicians heralded many centuries of rule by foreign powers for the north of Morocco. Major early substantial settlements of the Phoenicians were at Chellah, Lixus and Mogador, C. Michael Hogan, Mogador: Promontory Fort, The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham with Mogador being a Phoenician colony as early as the early 6th century BC. Sabatino Moscati, The Phoenicians, Tauris, ISBN 1850435332 Carthage developed commercial relations with the Berber tribes of the interior and paid them an annual tribute to ensure their cooperation in the exploitation of raw materials. By the 5th century B.C., Carthage had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa. By the 2nd century B.C., several large, although loosely administered, Berber kingdoms had emerged. The Berber kings ruled in the shadow of Carthage and Rome, often as satellites. After the fall of Carthage, the area was annexed to the Roman Empire in A.D. 40. One of the major Moroccan families to have been enslaved were the Jabrane royalty. Famous for their freckles and fair skin, the Berber kings felt uncomfortable for keeping hostages that are fairer in skin than themselves. Rome controlled the vast, ill-defined territory through alliances with the tribes rather than through military occupation, expanding its authority only to those areas that were economically useful or that could be defended without additional manpower. Hence, Roman administration never extended outside the restricted area of the coastal plain and valleys. This strategic region formed part of the Roman Empire, governed as Mauretania Tingitana. In the 5th century, the region fell to the Vandals, Visigoths, and then Byzantine Greeks in rapid succession. During this time, however, the high mountains of most of modern Morocco remained unsubdued, and stayed in the hands of their Berber inhabitants. Christianity was introduced in the second century and gained converts in the towns and among slaves and Berber farmers. By the end of the 4th century, the Romanized areas had been Christianized, and inroads had been made as well among the Berber tribes, who sometimes converted en masse. But schismatic and heretical movements also developed, usually as forms of political protest. The area had a substantial Jewish population as well. Early Islamic Morocco The Hassan Tower, an incomplete minaret in Rabat built during the Almohad dynasty Arabs conquered the region in the 7th century, bringing their civilization and Islam, to which many of the Berbers converted. While part of the larger Islamic Empire, client states such as the Kingdom of Nekor were formed. Arab conquerors converted the indigenous Berber population to Islam, but Berber tribes retained their customary laws. The Arabs abhorred the Berbers as barbarians, while the Berbers often saw the Arabs as only an arrogant and brutal soldiery bent on collecting taxes. Once established as Muslims, the Berbers shaped Islam in their own image and embraced schismatic Muslim sects, which in many cases were simply folk religion thinly disguised as Islam, as their way of breaking from Arab control. During 741-1058 the first Muslim country in the region was Barghawata. The region soon broke away from the control of the distant Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad under Idris ibn Abdallah who founded the Idrisid Dynasty. Morocco became a centre of learning and a major power. Morocco reached its height under a series of Berber dynasties, that arose south of the Atlas Mountains and expanded their rule northwards, replacing the Arab Idrisids. The 11th and 12th centuries witnessed the founding of several great Berber dynasties led by religious reformers and each based on a tribal confederation that dominated the Maghrib (also seen as Maghreb; refers to North Africa west of Egypt) and Al-Andalus for more than 200 years. The Berber dynasties (Almoravids, Almohads, and Marinids) gave the Berber people some measure of collective identity and political unity under a native regime for the first time in their history, and they created the idea of an “imperial Maghrib” under Berber aegis that survived in some form from dynasty to dynasty. But ultimately each of the Berber dynasties proved to be a political failure because none managed to create an integrated society out of a social landscape dominated by tribes that prized their autonomy and individual identity. In 1525, in this region was the Kingdom of Fez, Imanate of Sus, several city from Portugal, oasis of Figuig, Imanate of Sous and tribes Arabs and berber. In 1559, the region fell to successive Arab tribes claiming descent from the Prophet Muhammad: first the Saadi Dynasty who ruled from 1511 to 1659 and then the Alaouites, who founded a dynasty that has remained in power since the 17th century. The Republic of Bou Regreg (1627-1666) was a short-lived republic based in Rabat and Salé. The Alaouite Dynasty Aït Benhaddou at evening light The Alaouite Dynasty is the name of the current Moroccan royal family. The name Alaouite comes from the ‘Alī of its founder Moulay Ali Cherif who became Sultan of Tafilalt in 1631. His son Mulay r-Rshid (1664-1672) was able to unite and pacify the country. The Alaouite family claim descent from Muhammad through the line of Fāṭimah az-Zahrah, Muhammad's daughter, and her husband, the Fourth Caliph ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib. According to some legends the Alaouites entered Morocco at the end of the 13th century when Al Hassan Addakhil, who lived then in the town of Yanbu in the Hejaz, was brought to Morocco by the inhabitants of Tafilalet to be their imām. They were hoping that, as he was a descendant of Muhammad, his presence would help to improve their date palm crops thanks to his barakah "blessing", an Arabic term meaning a sense of divine presence or charisma. His descendants began to increase their power in southern Morocco after the death of the Saˤdī ruler Ahmad al-Mansur (1578-1603). In 1659, the last Saˤdī sultan was overthrown in the conquest of Marrakech by Mulay r-Rshid (1664-1672). After the victory over the zāwiya of Dila, who controlled northern Morocco, he was able to unite and pacify the country. The organization of the kingdom developed under Ismail Ibn Sharif (1672-1727), who, against the opposition of local tribes began to create a unified state. Because the Alaouites, in contrast to previous dynasties, did not have the support of a single Berber or Bedouin tribe, Isma'īl controlled Morocco through an army of black slaves. With these soldiers he drove the English from Tangiers (1684) and the Spanish from Larache (1689.) However, the unity of Morocco did not survive his death - in the ensuing power struggles the tribes became a political and military force once again. Only with Muhammad III (1757-1790) could the kingdom be pacified again and the administration reorganized. A renewed attempt at centralization was abandoned and the tribes allowed to preserve their autonomy. Under Abderrahmane (1822-1859) Morocco fell under the influence of the European powers. When Morocco supported the Algerian independence movement of the Emir Abd al-Qadir, it was heavily defeated by the French in 1844 and made to abandon its support. From Muhammad IV (1859-1873) and Hassan I (1873-1894) the Alaouites tried to foster trading links, above all with European countries and the United States. The army and administration were also modernized, to improve control over the Berber and Bedouin tribes. With the war against Spain (1859-1860) came direct involvement in European affairs - although the independence of Morocco was guaranteed in the Conference of Madrid (1880), the French gained ever greater influence. German attempts to counter this growing influence led to the First Moroccan Crisis of 1905-1906 and the Second Moroccan Crisis (1911.) Eventually the Moroccans were forced to recognise the French Protectorate through the Treaty of Fez, signed on December 3, 1912. At the same time the Rif area of northern Morocco submitted to Spain. Under the protectorate (1912-1956) the infrastructure was invested in heavily in order to link the cities of the Atlantic coast to the hinterland, thus creating a single economic area for Morocco. However the regime faced the opposition of the tribes - when the Berber were required to come under the jurisdiction of French courts in 1930 it marked the beginning of the independence movement. In 1944, the independence party Istiqlāl was founded, supported by the Sultan Muhammad V (1927-1961). Although banned in 1953, France was obliged to grant Morocco independence on March 2, 1956, leaving behind them a legacy of urbanisation and the beginnings of an industrial economy. European influence The French artillery at Rabat in 1911 Despite the weakness of its authority, the Alaouite dynasty distinguished itself in the 18th and 19th centuries by maintaining Morocco’s independence while other states in the region succumbed to Turkish, French, or British domination. However, in the latter part of the 19th century Morocco’s weakness and instability invited European intervention to protect threatened investments and to demand economic concessions. The first years of the 20th century witnessed a rush of diplomatic maneuvering through which the European powers and France in particular furthered their interests in North Africa. Disputes over Moroccan sovereignty were links in the chain of events that led to World War I. The successful Portuguese efforts to control the Atlantic coast in the 15th century did not affect the Mediterranean heart of Morocco. After the Napoleonic Wars, Egypt and the North African maghreb became increasingly ungovernable from Istanbul by the Ottoman Empire, the resort of pirates under local beys, and as Europe industrialized, an increasingly prized potential for colonization. The Maghreb had far greater proven wealth than the unknown rest of Africa and a location of strategic importance affecting the exit from the Mediterranean. For the first time, Morocco became a state of some import to the European Powers. France showed a strong interest in Morocco as early as 1830. Recognition by the United Kingdom in the 1904 Entente Cordiale of France's "sphere of influence" in Morocco provoked a German reaction; the "crisis" of 1905-1906 was resolved at the Algeciras Conference (1906), which formalized France's "special position" and entrusted policing of Morocco jointly to France and Spain. A second "Moroccan crisis" provoked by Berlin, increased European Great Power tensions, but the Treaty of Fez (signed on March 30, 1912) made Morocco a protectorate of France. By the same treaty, Spain assumed the role of protecting power over the northern and southern (Ifni) zones on November 27 that year. Spain was given control of pieces of Morocco in the far north (Protectorate of Tetuan) and south (Cape Juby). Tangier received special international status. From a strictly legal point of view, the treaty did not deprive Morocco of its status as a sovereign state. Theoretically, the sultan remained the sole source of sovereignty. He reigned, but he did not rule. Map of the Maghreb before the French invasion of Algeria Under the protectorate, French civil servants allied themselves with the French settlers (colons) and with their supporters in France to prevent any moves in the direction of Moroccan autonomy. As pacification proceeded, the French government promoted economic development, particularly the exploitation of Morocco’s mineral wealth, the creation of a modern transportation system, and the development of a modern agriculture sector geared to the French market. Tens of thousands of colons entered Morocco and bought up large amounts of the rich agricultural land. Interest groups that formed among these elements continually pressured France to increase its control over Morocco. Opposition to European control The separatist Republic of the Rif was declared on 18 September 1921, by the people of the Rif. It would be dissolved by Spanish and French forces on 27 May 1926. In December 1934, a small group of nationalists—members of the newly formed Moroccan Action Committee (Comité d’Action Marocaine—CAM)—proposed a Plan of Reforms that called for a return to indirect rule as envisaged by the Treaty of Fès, admission of Moroccans to government positions, and establishment of representative councils. The moderate tactics used by the CAM to obtain consideration of reform—petitions, newspaper editorials, and personal appeals to French officials—proved inadequate, and the tensions created in the CAM by the failure of the plan caused it to split. The CAM was reconstituted as a nationalist political party to gain mass support for more radical demands, but the French suppressed the party in 1937. Nationalist political parties, which subsequently arose under the French protectorate, based their arguments for Moroccan independence on such World War II declarations as the Atlantic Charter (a joint U.S.-British statement that set forth, among other things, the right of all people to choose the form of government under which they live). Many Moroccan Goumiere assisted the Americans in both World War I and World War II. During World War II, the badly divided nationalist movement became more cohesive, and informed Moroccans dared to consider the real possibility of political change in the post-war era. However, the nationalists were disappointed in their belief that the Allied victory in Morocco would pave the way for independence. In January 1944, the Istiqlal (Independence) Party, which subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement, released a manifesto demanding full independence, national reunification, and a democratic constitution. The sultan had approved the manifesto before its submission to the French resident general, who answered that no basic change in the protectorate status was being considered. The general sympathy of the sultan for the nationalists had become evident by the end of the war, although he still hoped to see complete independence achieved gradually. By contrast, the residency, supported by French economic interests and vigorously backed by most of the colons, adamantly refused to consider even reforms short of independence. Official intransigence contributed to increased animosity between the nationalists and the colons and gradually widened the split between the sultan and the resident general. In December 1952, a riot broke out in Casablanca over the murder of a Tunisian labor leader; this event marked a watershed in relations between Moroccan political parties and French authorities. In the aftermath of the rioting, the residency outlawed the new Moroccan Communist Party and the Istiqlal. Text used in this cited section originally came from: Morocco profile from the Library of Congress Country Studies project. France's exile of the highly respected Sultan Mohammed V to Madagascar in 1953 and his replacement by the unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa, whose reign was perceived as illegitimate, sparked active opposition to the French protectorate both from nationalists and those who saw the sultan as a religious leader. Two years later, faced with a united Moroccan demand for the sultan’s return, rising violence in Morocco, and the deteriorating situation in Algeria, the French government brought Mohammed V back to Morocco. The negotiations that led to Moroccan independence began the following year. Independence in 1956 Casablanca in 1950s The Mausoleum of Mohammed V in Rabat In late 1955, Mohammed V successfully negotiated the gradual restoration of Moroccan independence within a framework of French-Moroccan interdependence. The sultan agreed to institute reforms that would transform Morocco into a constitutional monarchy with a democratic form of government. In February 1956, Morocco acquired limited home rule. Further negotiations for full independence culminated in the Spanish-Moroccan Agreement signed in Paris on March 2, 1956. On April 7 of that year France officially relinquished its protectorate in Morocco. The internationalized city of Tangier was reintegrated with the signing of the Tangier Protocol on October 29, 1956. The abolition of the Spanish protectorate and the recognition of Moroccan independence by Spain were negotiated separately and made final in the Joint Declaration of April 1956. Through this agreements with Spain in 1956 and another in 1958, Moroccan control over certain Spanish-ruled areas was restored, though attempts to claim other Spanish possessions through military action were less successful. Almost all speakers of Judeo-Berber language left Morocco in the years following its independence. In the months that followed independence, Mohammed V proceeded to build a modern governmental structure under a constitutional monarchy in which the sultan would exercise an active political role. He acted cautiously, having no intention of permitting more radical elements in the nationalist movement to overthrow the established order. He was also intent on preventing the Istiqlal from consolidating its control and establishing a single-party state. In August 1957, Mohammed V assumed the title of king. The reign of Hassan II Hassan II became King of Morocco on March 3, 1961. His rule would be marked by political unrest, and the ruthless government response earned the period the name "the years of lead". The new king took personal control of the government as prime minister and named a new cabinet. Aided by an advisory council, he drew up a new constitution, which was approved overwhelmingly in a December 1962 referendum. Under its provisions, the king remained the central figure in the executive branch of the government, but legislative power was vested in a bicameral parliament, and an independent judiciary was guaranteed. In May 1963, legislative elections took place for the first time, and the royalist coalition secured a small plurality of seats. However, following a period of political upheaval in June 1965, Hassan II assumed full legislative and executive powers under a “state of exception,” which remained in effect until 1970. Subsequently, a reform constitution was approved, restoring limited parliamentary government, and new elections were held. However, dissent remained, revolving around complaints of widespread corruption and malfeasance in government. In July 1971 and again in August 1972, the regime was challenged by two attempted military coups. The atmosphere in the country remained tense. After neighbouring Algeria's 1962 independence from France, border skirmishes in the Tindouf area of south-western Algeria, escalated in 1963 into what is known as the Sand War. Morocco invaded to claim the areas for Greater Morocco, but the fighting stalemated within weeks, and Morocco was forced to retreat with no border adjustments. The border remained a contentious issue, but was later demarcated, and Morocco no longer makes any formal claim on Algerian territory. The Western Sahara conflict Morocco then annexed the entire territory and, in 1985, built a 2,500-kilometer sand berm around three-quarters of it. In 1988, Morocco and the Polisario Front finally agreed on a United Nations (UN) peace plan, and a cease-fire and settlement plan went into effect in 1991. Even though the UN Security Council created a peacekeeping force to implement a referendum on self-determination for Western Sahara, it has yet to be held, periodic negotiations have failed, and the status of the territory remains unresolved. More than any other issue since independence, the objective of securing Western Sahara had unified the Moroccan nation. Because of the firm stand the king had taken, it also enhanced his popularity in the country. But the war against the Polisario guerrillas put severe strains on the economy, and Morocco found itself increasingly isolated diplomatically. Successive governments showed little inclination to move seriously against pressing economic and social issues. As a result, popular discontent with social and economic conditions persisted. Political parties continued to proliferate but produced only a divided and weakly organized opposition or were suppressed. Through the force of his strong personality, the legacy of the monarchy, and the application of political repression, the king succeeded in asserting his authority and controlling the forces threatening the existing social order. See also Goumiere Moroccan Wall Imperial cities of Morocco Notes External links Z. Brakez et al., "Human mitochondrial DNA sequence variation in the Moroccan population of the Souss area" extract. A short history of Morocco Early Twentiethth Century Timelines: Moroccan crises, 1903 - 1914 The History of Morocco Historical map of Morocco - ca. 1600 | History_of_Morocco |@lemmatized capsian:1 culture:3 bring:4 morocco:58 neolithic:3 bc:2 time:8 maghreb:7 less:2 arid:2 today:1 berber:28 language:2 probably:1 form:9 roughly:1 agriculture:2 see:5 develop:4 exist:2 population:6 adopt:1 immigrant:1 arrive:1 later:3 modern:5 dna:2 analysis:1 link:5 confirm:1 various:2 contribute:2 present:3 day:3 gene:1 pool:1 addition:1 main:1 ethnic:1 group:3 amazighs:1 arabs:1 iberian:1 phoenician:7 sephardic:1 jew:1 sub:2 saharan:1 african:2 prehistoric:1 mesolithic:2 age:1 geography:1 resemble:1 savanna:3 landscape:2 rubella:1 environmentalism:1 pi:1 paleolithic:1 economy:3 ca:2 b:6 p:1 j:1 clark:1 brandt:1 eds:1 hunter:3 farmer:2 cause:2 consequence:1 food:1 production:1 africa:5 berkeley:1 university:1 california:1 press:2 pp:1 little:2 know:2 settlement:3 early:9 excavation:1 elsewhere:1 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4,334 | Object_database | An object database (also object-oriented database) is a database model in which information is represented in the form of objects as used in object-oriented programming. Example of an Object-Oriented Model. Data Integration Glossary, U.S. Department of Transportation, August 2001. Object databases are generally recommended when there is a business need for high performance processing on complex data. Overview When database capabilities are combined with object programming language capabilities, the result is an object database management system (ODBMS). An ODBMS makes database objects appear as programming language objects in one or more object programming languages. An ODBMS extends the programming language with transparently persistent data, concurrency control, data recovery, associative queries, and other capabilities. Some object-oriented databases are designed to work well with object-oriented programming languages such as Python, Perl, Java, C#, Visual Basic .NET, C++, Objective-C and Smalltalk; others have their own programming languages. ODBMSs use exactly the same model as object-oriented programming languages. History Object database management systems grew out of research during the early to mid-1970s into having intrinsic database management support for graph-structured objects. The term "object-oriented database system" first appeared around 1985. Three example references from 1985 that use the term: T. Atwood, "An Object-Oriented DBMS for Design Support Applications," Proceedings of the IEEE COMPINT 85, pp. 299-307, September 1985; N. Derrett, W. Kent, and P. Lyngbaek, "Some Aspects of Operations in an Object-Oriented Database," Database Engineering, vol. 8, no. 4, IEEE Computer Society, December 1985; D. Maier, A. Otis, and A. Purdy, "Object-Oriented Database Development at Servio Logic," Database Engineering, vol. 18, no.4, December 1985. Notable research projects included Encore-Ob/Server (Brown University), EXODUS (University of Wisconsin-Madison), IRIS (Hewlett-Packard), ODE (Bell Labs), ORION (Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation or MCC), Vodak (GMD-IPSI), and Zeitgeist (Texas Instruments). The ORION project had more published papers than any of the other efforts. Won Kim of MCC compiled the best of those papers in a book published by The MIT Press. Kim, Won. Introduction to Object-Oriented Databases. The MIT Press, 1990. ISBN 0-262-11124-1 Early commercial products included Gemstone (Servio Logic, name changed to GemStone Systems), Gbase (Graphael), and Vbase (Ontologic). The early to mid-1990s saw additional commercial products enter the market. These included ITASCA (Itasca Systems), Jasmine (Fujitsu, marketed by Computer Associates), Matisse (Matisse Software), Objectivity/DB (Objectivity, Inc.), ObjectStore (Progress Software, acquired from eXcelon which was originally Object Design), ONTOS (Ontos, Inc., name changed from Ontologic), O2 Bancilhon, Francois; Delobel,Claude; and Kanellakis, Paris. Building an Object-Oriented Database System: The Story of O2. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 1992. ISBN 1-55860-169-4. (O2 Technology, merged with several companies, acquired by Informix, which was in turn acquired by IBM), POET (now FastObjects from Versant which acquired Poet Software), Versant Object Database (Versant Corporation), VOSS (Logic Arts) and JADE (Jade Software Corporation). Some of these products remain on the market and have been joined by new open source and commercial products such as InterSystems CACHÉ (see the product listings below). Object database management systems added the concept of persistence to object programming languages. The early commercial products were integrated with various languages: GemStone (Smalltalk), Gbase (LISP), Vbase (COP) and VOSS (Virtual Object Storage System for Smalltalk). For much of the 1990s, C++ dominated the commercial object database management market. Vendors added Java in the late 1990s and more recently, C#. Starting in 2004, object databases have seen a second growth period when open source object databases emerged that were widely affordable and easy to use, because they are entirely written in OOP languages like Smalltalk, Java or C#, such as db4o (db4objects), DTS/S1 from Obsidian Dynamics and Perst (McObject), available under dual open source and commercial licensing. Adoption of object databases Object databases based on persistent programming acquired a niche in application areas such as engineering and spatial databases, telecommunications, and scientific areas such as high energy physics and molecular biology. They have made little impact on mainstream commercial data processing, though there is some usage in specialized areas of financial services. It is also worth noting that object databases held the record for the World's largest database (being the first to hold over 1000 terabytes at Stanford Linear Accelerator Center) "Lessons Learned From Managing A Petabyte" and the highest ingest rate ever recorded for a commercial database at over one Terabyte per hour. Another group of object databases focuses on embedded use in devices, packaged software, and real-time systems. Technical features Most object databases also offer some kind of query language, allowing objects to be found by a more declarative programming approach. It is in the area of object query languages, and the integration of the query and navigational interfaces, that the biggest differences between products are found. An attempt at standardization was made by the ODMG with the Object Query Language, OQL. Access to data can be faster because joins are often not needed (as in a tabular implementation of a relational database). This is because an object can be retrieved directly without a search, by following pointers. (It could, however, be argued that "joining" is a higher-level abstraction of pointer following.) Another area of variation between products is in the way that the schema of a database is defined. A general characteristic, however, is that the programming language and the database schema use the same type definitions. Multimedia applications are facilitated because the class methods associated with the data are responsible for its correct interpretation. Many object databases, for example VOSS, offer support for versioning. An object can be viewed as the set of all its versions. Also, object versions can be treated as objects in their own right. Some object databases also provide systematic support for triggers and constraints which are the basis of active databases. The efficiency of such a database is also greatly improved in areas which demand massive amounts of data about one item. For example, a banking institution could get the user's account information and provide them efficiently with extensive information such as transactions, account information entries etc. The Big O Notation for such a database paradigm drops from O(n) to O(1), greatly increasing efficiency in these specific cases. Standards The Object Data Management Group (ODMG) was a consortium of object database and object-relational mapping vendors, members of the academic community, and interested parties. Its goal was to create a set of specifications that would allow for portable applications that store objects in database management systems. It published several versions of its specification. The last release was ODMG 3.0. By 2001, most of the major object database and object-relational mapping vendors claimed conformance to the ODMG Java Language Binding. Compliance to the other components of the specification was mixed. Barry, Douglas and Duhl, Joshua. Object Storage Fact Books: Object DBMSs and Object-Relational Mapping. Barry & Associates, Inc., 2001. Pages showing the ODMG compliance for both object database and object-relational mapping products in 2001. In 2001, the ODMG Java Language Binding was submitted to the Java Community Process as a basis for the Java Data Objects specification. The ODMG member companies then decided to concentrate their efforts on the Java Data Objects specification. As a result, the ODMG disbanded in 2001. Many object database ideas were also absorbed into SQL:1999 and have been implemented in varying degrees in object-relational database products. In 2005 Cook, Rai, and Rosenberger proposed to drop all standardization efforts to introduce additional object-oriented query APIs but rather use the OO programming language itself, i.e., Java and .NET, to express queries. As a result, Native Queries emerged. Similarly, Microsoft announced Language Integrated Query (LINQ) and DLINQ, an implementation of LINQ, in September 2005, to provide close, language-integrated database query capabilities with its programming languages C# and VB.NET 9. In February 2006, the Object Management Group (OMG) announced that they had been granted the right to develop new specifications based on the ODMG 3.0 specification and the formation of the Object Database Technology Working Group (ODBT WG). The ODBT WG plans to create a set of standards that incorporates advances in object database technology (e.g., replication), data management (e.g., spatial indexing), and data formats (e.g., XML) and to include new features into these standards that support domains where object databases are being adopted (e.g., real-time systems). On January of 2007 the World wide web Consortium gave final recommendation status to the XQuery language. XQuery has enabled a new class of applications that managed hierarchical data built around the XRX web application architecture that also provide many of the advantages of object databases. In addition XRX applications benefit by transporting XML directly to client applications such as XForms without changing data structures. Advantages and disadvantages Benchmarks between ODBMSs and RDBMSs have shown that an ODBMS can be clearly superior for certain kinds of tasks. The main reason for this is that many operations are performed using navigational rather than declarative interfaces, and navigational access to data is usually implemented very efficiently by following pointers. Animation showing how an object database works Critics of navigational database-based technologies like ODBMS suggest that pointer-based techniques are optimized for very specific "search routes" or viewpoints; for general-purpose queries on the same information, pointer-based techniques will tend to be slower and more difficult to formulate than relational. Thus, navigation appears to simplify specific known uses at the expense of general, unforeseen, and varied future uses. However, with suitable language support, direct object references may be maintained in addition to normalised, indexed aggregations, allowing both kinds of access; furthermore, a persistent language may index aggregations on whatever its content elements return from a call to some arbitrary object access method, rather than only on attribute value, which allows a query to 'drill down' into complex data structures. Other things that work against ODBMS seem to be the lack of interoperability with a great number of tools/features that are taken for granted in the SQL world, including but not limited to industry standard connectivity, reporting tools, OLAP tools, and backup and recovery standards. Additionally, object databases lack a formal mathematical foundation, unlike the relational model, and this in turn leads to weaknesses in their query support. However, this objection is offset by the fact that some ODBMSs fully support SQL in addition to navigational access, e.g. Objectivity/SQL++, Matisse, and InterSystems CACHÉ. Effective use may require compromises to keep both paradigms in sync. In fact there is an intrinsic tension between the notion of encapsulation, which hides data and makes it available only through a published set of interface methods, and the assumption underlying much database technology, which is that data should be accessible to queries based on data content rather than predefined access paths. Database-centric thinking tends to view the world through a declarative and attribute-driven viewpoint, while OOP tends to view the world through a behavioral viewpoint, maintaining entity-identity independently of changing attributes. This is one of the many impedance mismatch issues surrounding OOP and databases. Although some commentators have written off object database technology as a failure, the essential arguments in its favor remain valid, and attempts to integrate database functionality more closely into object programming languages continue in both the research and the industrial communities. See also Comparison of object database management systems Enterprise Objects Framework Object Data Management Group Persistence (computer_science) Relational model References External links Object DBMS resource portal Benchmark for Databases (open source) | Object_database |@lemmatized object:75 database:57 also:9 oriented:1 model:5 information:5 represent:1 form:1 use:10 orient:12 programming:13 example:4 data:21 integration:2 glossary:1 u:1 department:1 transportation:1 august:1 generally:1 recommend:1 business:1 need:2 high:4 performance:1 processing:2 complex:2 overview:1 capability:4 combine:1 program:2 language:24 result:3 management:11 system:12 odbms:6 make:4 appear:3 one:4 extend:1 transparently:1 persistent:3 concurrency:1 control:1 recovery:2 associative:1 query:14 design:3 work:4 well:1 python:1 perl:1 java:9 c:7 visual:1 basic:1 net:3 objective:1 smalltalk:4 others:1 odbmss:3 exactly:1 history:1 grow:1 research:3 early:4 mid:2 intrinsic:2 support:8 graph:1 structured:1 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4,335 | Eureka_Rebellion | The 'Eureka Flag' The Eureka Stockade was the setting of a gold miners' revolt in 1854 near Ballarat, Victoria, Australia, against the officials supervising the mining of gold in the region. The revolt was prompted by grievances over heavily priced mining items, the expense of a Miner's Licence, taxation (via the license) without representation and the actions of the government and its agents (the police and military). "The government was forced to abandon the license and substitute it with a cheaper miner's right which also conferred on men the right to vote" The Victorians: Arriving; Richard Broome, 1984. P.92. Withers, WB History of Ballarat and some Ballarat Reminiscences, Facsimile Edition Published by Ballarat Heritage Services 1999, First Published 1870, Pp 63-64. While the events which sparked the rebellion were specific to the Ballarat gold fields, the underlying grievances had been the subject of public meetings, civil disobedience and deputations across the various Victorian gold fields for almost three years. The miners' demands included the right to vote and purchase land, and the reduction of License fees. Agitation for these demands commenced with the Forest Creek Monster Meeting of December 1851 and included the formation of the Anti-Gold License Association at nearby Bendigo in 1853. Although swiftly and violently put down, the Eureka rebellion was a watershed event in Australian politics. The preceding three years of agitation for the miners' demands, combined with mass public support in Melbourne for the captured 'rebels' when they were placed on trial, resulted in the introduction of full white-male suffrage for elections for the lower house in the Victorian parliament. "The government was forced to abandon the license and substitute it with a cheaper miner's right which also conferred on men the right to vote." The Victorians: Arriving; Richard Broome, 1984. P. 92 The role of the Eureka Stockade in generating public support for these demands beyond the goldfields resulted in Eureka being controversially identified with the birth of democracy in Australia. 'Dr. H.V. Evatt, leader of the ALP, wrote that "The Eureka Stockade was of crucial importance in the making of Australian democracy"; Robert Menzies, later Liberal Prime Minister, said that "the Eureka revolution was an earnest attempt at democratic government"; and, Ben Chifley, former ALP Prime Minister, wrote that "Eureka was more than an incident or passing phase. It was greater in significance than the short-lived revolt against tyrannical authority would suggest. The permanency of Eureka in its impact on our development was that it was the first real affirmation of our determination to be masters of our own political destiny." (from , quoting Historical Studies: Eureka Supplement, Melbourne University Press, Carlton, Vic., 1965, pages 125-6) Geoffrey Blainey commented in 1963 that "Eureka became a legend, a battlecry for nationalists. republicans, liberals, radicals, or communists, each creed finding in the rebellion the lessons they liked to see." ..."In fact the new colonies' political constitutions were not affected by Eureka, but the first Parliament that met under Victoria's new constitution was alert to the democratic spirit of the goldfields, and passed laws enabling each adult man in Victoria to vote at elections, to vote by secret ballot, and to stand for the Legislative Assembly." Protests, Chartism and the Ballarat Reform League Civil disobedience and protests began to grow as a result of several perceived injustices: Tuesday, 17 October 1854: At the Eureka Hotel where Scottish miner James Scobie had been murdered ten days previously, between 5,000 and 10,000 miners gathered to protest that James Bentley, the hotel proprietor and prime murder suspect had not been charged. Bentley and his wife Catherine fled for their lives as the hotel was burnt down; Sunday, 22 October 1854: Ballarat Catholics met to protest the treatment of Father Smyth; Monday, 23 October 1854: Arrests of miners McIntyre and Fletcher for the Eureka Hotel fire saw a mass meeting which attracted 4,000 miners. The meeting determined to establish a 'Digger's Right Society', to maintain their rights; Tuesday, 1 November 1854: 3,000 miners met once again at Bakery Hill. They were addressed by Kennedy, Holyoake, Black and Ross. The diggers were further incensed by the arrest of another seven of their number for the Eureka Hotel fire; Saturday, 11 November 1854: A crowd estimated at more than 10,000 miners gathered at Bakery Hill, directly opposite the government encampment. At this meeting, the Ballarat Reform League was created, under the chairmanship of Chartist John Basson Humffray. Several other Reform League leaders, including Thomas Kennedy and Henry Holyoake, had been involved with the Chartist movement in England. Many of the miners had past involvement in the Chartist movement and the social upheavals in Britain, Ireland, and continental Europe during the 1840s. In setting its goals, the Ballarat Reform League used the British Chartist movement's principles. The meeting passed a resolution "that it is the inalienable right of every citizen to have a voice in making the laws he is called on to obey, that taxation without representation is tyranny". The meeting also decided to leave open the possibility of secession from the United Kingdom if the situation did not improve. The demands of the Ballarat Reform League encompassed: Manhood suffrage (the right for all men to vote, excluding Aborigines); Abolition of the property qualifications for members of parliament; Payment of members of parliament; Voting by secret ballot;. Short term parliaments; Equal electoral districts; Abolition of diggers' and storekeepers' licenses; Reform of administration of the gold fields; Revision of laws relating to Crown land. Throughout the following weeks, the League sought to negotiate with Commissioner Robert Rede and Governor of Victoria, Sir Charles Hotham, both on the specific unsubstantiated matters relating to Bentley and the men being tried for the burning of the Eureka Hotel, and on the broader issues of abolition of the license, suffrage and democratic representation of the gold fields, and disbanding of the Gold Commission. Commissioner Rede's response has been attributed by many historians (most notably Manning Clark) to his belief in his right to exert authority over the "rabble." Rather than hear the grievances, he increased the police presence in the gold fields and summoned reinforcements from Melbourne. On Monday 6 November 1854, a delegation from the Ballarat Reform League — John Humffray, George Black and Thomas Kennedy — met with Governor Hotham. They attempted to negotiate the release of the miners arrested after the attack on Eureka Hotel, and presented the demands for universal suffrage as well as abolition of the miners' and storekeepers' licenses. The only concession Hotham was willing to make was for one digger's representative to be elected to the Legislative Council. The delegation rejected this, and returned to Ballarat empty-handed. The writings of Carboni Raffaello, who was present at the Stockade, make it clear that "amongst the foreigners ... there was no democratic feeling, but merely a spirit of resistance to the licence fee"; and he also disputes the accusations "that have branded the miners of Ballarat as disloyal to their QUEEN" (emphasis as in the original). RC:108,153 Escalation Swearing Allegiance to the Southern Cross on 1 December 1854 — watercolour by Charles Doudiet On 28 November 1854, the reinforcements marching from Melbourne were attacked by a crowd of miners. A number were injured and a drummer boy was allegedly killed. The rumour of the drummer boy's death was perpetuated, even with a memorial erected to him in Ballarat Cemetery for many years, although historical research has shown that the boy, John Egan, continued military service until dying in 1860. Drummer Boy John Egan (Regiment No. 3059) Eureka's first Military Casualty Retrieved 29 November 2006. At a meeting of about 12,000 'diggers' on the following day, (29 November), the Reform League delegation relayed its failure to achieve any success in negotiations with the authorities. The miners resolved on open resistance to the authorities and to burn the hated licences. Most notably, the Eureka Flag, a blue flag designed by a Canadian miner, "Captain" Henry Ross, and bearing nothing but the Southern Cross, was flown for the first (recorded) time. As a gesture of defiance , it deliberately excluded the British Union Flag, which is included in the official flag of Australia. The Argus newspaper, of 4 December 1854, reported that the Union Jack flag flew underneath the Southern Cross flag of the diggers at the Eureka Stockade. The original Eureka flag is now housed at the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery. At the meeting on Bakery Hill an oath of allegiance was sworn: "We swear by the Southern Cross to stand truly by each other and fight to defend our rights and liberties." Rede responded by ordering police to conduct a licence search on 30 November. Eight defaulters were arrested, and most of the military resources available had to be summoned to extricate the arresting officers from the angry mob that had assembled. This raid prompted a change in the leadership of the Reform League, to people who argued in favour of 'physical force' rather than the 'moral force' championed by Humffray and the old leadership. Reclaiming the Radical Spirit of the Eureka Rebellion in 1854 Retrieved 29 November 2006. In the rising tide of anger and resentment amongst the miners, a more militant leader, Peter Lalor, was elected. In swift fashion, a military structure was assembled. Brigades were formed, and captains were appointed. Licences were burned, the rebel "Eureka" flag was unfurled, and an oath of allegiance was sworn. The miners who encamped themselves around the flag vowed to defend themselves from licence hunts and harassment by the authorities. The celebrated stockade itself was a ramshackle affair hastily constructed over the following days from timber and overturned carts. The structure was never meant to be a military stockade or fortress. In the words of Lalor: "it was nothing more than an enclosure to keep our own men together, and was never erected with an eye to military defence". Lalor had already outlined a plan whereby, "if the government forces came to attack us, we should meet them on the Gravel Pits, and if compelled, we should retreat by the heights to the old Canadian Gully, and there make our final stand". Irish born people were strongly represented at the Eureka Stockade. C.H. Curry, 'The Irish at Eureka', Angus & Robertson, 1954 Eureka historians have discovered that as well as most of the miners inside the stockade, in the area where the defensive position was established, the miners were overwhelmingly Irish. Even the password used at the Eureka Stockade — Vinegar Hill — was the scene of an 1804 Irish convict uprising in New South Wales. During Saturday 2 December, some 1500 men trained in and around the stockade. A further two hundred Americans, the Independent Californian Rangers, under the leadership of James McGill, arrived about 4 pm. The Americans were armed with revolvers and Mexican knives, and possessed horses. In a fateful decision, McGill decided to take most of the Californian Rangers away from the stockade to intercept rumoured British reinforcements coming from Melbourne. Rede's spies observed these actions. That night many of the miners went back to their own tents after the traditional Saturday night carousing, with the assumption that the Queen's military forces would not be sent to attack on the Sabbath, Sunday. A small contingent of about 150 miners remained at the stockade overnight, which the spies reported to Rede. Peter Lalor Eureka leader Peter Lalor in later life as Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Victoria Lalor was the leader of the miners who fought at the Eureka Stockade, and the author of the oath of allegiance used by the miners at the Eureka Stockade which he swore to their affirmation. He was originally from Tinakill in County Laois, Ireland. He was the son of a member of the British House of Commons. According to Bert and Bon Strange "... it seems he became commander-in-chief almost by accident...He was 25 years of age, six feet tall and impulsive by nature. Their licence was 3 pounds per month" Ballarat historian Weston Bate says Lalor "...a positive, independent thinker, but no democrat, mounted the stump and proclaimed 'Liberty', and called for volunteers to form (military) companies. His initiative declared him leader." After the battle, Lalor wrote in a statement to the colonists of Victoria, "There are two things connected with the late outbreak (Eureka) which I deeply regret. The first is, that we should have been forced to take up arms at all; and the second is, that when we were compelled to take the field in our own defence, we were unable (through want of arms, ammunition and a little organisation) to inflict on the real authors of the outbreak the punishment they so richly deserved." Lalor was elected unopposed in the 1856 Victorian elections. As he was the Eureka hero his policies were not scrutinised at all before the election and his later voting record as a parliamentarian shows he once opposed a bill to introduce full white-male suffrage in the colony of Victoria. Cited in Weston Bate Lucky City page 133. During a speech in the Legislative Council in 1856 he said, "I would ask these gentlemen what they mean by the term 'democracy'. Do they mean Chartism or Communism or Republicanism? If so, I never was, I am not now, nor do I ever intend to be a democrat. But if a democrat means opposition to a tyrannical press, a tyrannical people, or a tyrannical government, then I have been, I am still, and will ever remain a democrat." Weston Bate wrote that the role of landowner and company director seemed to suit him more than that of rebel. Weston Bate in Lucky City at page 134 stated that Peter Lalor "disgraced himself in democratic eyes by trying to use Chinese as strike-breakers at the Clunes mine of which he was a director. He was absolutely ruthless in using low paid Chinese workers to get rid of Australians seeking better and safer working conditions. In parliament he supported a repressive land Bill in 1857 which favoured the rich. There were 17,745 Ballarat signatures to a petition against Lalor's land Bill. Lalor never represented Ballarat again and in the 1859 election, he stood for South Granville. Weston Bate ibid. p. 184 stated that Withers and others were puzzled and hurt that the folk hero should prove to be a better fighter for money and political position than for the people's rights. Battle/conflict Rede's inaction thus far did not reflect his true intent, and at 3 a.m. on Sunday, 3 December 1854, a party of 276 police and military personnel under the command of Captain J.W. Thomas approached the Eureka Stockade and a battle ensued. There is no agreement as to which side fired first, but the battle was fierce, brief, and terribly one-sided. The ramshackle army of miners was hopelessly outclassed by a military regiment and was routed in about 10 minutes. During the height of the battle, Lalor was shot in his right arm, took refuge under some timber and was smuggled out of the stockade and hidden. His arm was later amputated. Stories tell how women ran forward and threw themselves over the injured to prevent further indiscriminate killing. The Commission of Inquiry would later say that it was "a needless as well as a ruthless sacrifice of human life indiscriminate of innocent or guilty, and after all resistance had disappeared". According to Lalor's report, fourteen miners (mostly Irish) died inside the stockade and an additional eight died later from injuries they sustained. A further dozen were wounded but recovered. Three months after the Eureka Stockade, Peter Lalor wrote: "As the inhuman brutalities practised by the troops are so well known, it is unnecessary for me to repeat them. There were 34 digger casualties of which 22 died. The unusual proportion of the killed to the wounded, is owing to the butchery of the military and troopers after the surrender." Joseph Toscano, The Killing Times Reclaiming the Radical Spirit of the Eureka Rebellion in 1854, (2004) Accessed October 20, 2008 By 8am, Captain Pasley, the second in command of the British forces, sickened by the carnage, saved a group of prisoners from being bayoneted and threatened to shoot any police or soldiers who continued with the slaughter. One hundred and fourteen diggers, some wounded, were marched off to the Government camp about two kilometres away, where they were kept in an overcrowded lockup, before being moved to a more spacious barn on Monday morning. Among the soldiers and military police, six were killed, including one Captain Wise. Martial law was imposed, and all armed resistance collapsed. News of the massacre spread quickly to Melbourne and other gold field regions, turning a perceived Government military victory in repressing a minor insurrection into a public relations disaster, with widespread condemnation of the Government's action and support for the diggers' requested reforms. Exact numbers of deaths and injuries are difficult to determine as many miners "fled to the surrounding bush and it is likely a good many more died a lonely death or suffered the agony of their wounds, hidden from the authorities for fear of repercussions." according to Eureka researcher and author Dorothy Wickham. The official register of deaths in the Ballarat District Register shows 27 names associated with the Eureka revolt. Dorothy Wickham, Deaths at Eureka an extract from her book "Deaths at Eureka", 64pp, 1996 ISBN 0646302833 Aftermath A memorial stone As historian Geoffrey Blainey has commented, "Every government in the world would probably have counter-attacked in the face of the building of the stockade." For a few weeks it appeared that the status quo had been restored, and Rede ruled the camps with an iron fist. Trials for Sedition and High Treason The first trial relating to the rebellion was a charge of sedition against Henry Seekamp of the Ballarat Times. Seekamp was arrested in his newspaper office on 4 December 1854, for a series of articles that appeared in the Ballarat Times. Many of these articles were written by George Lang, the son of the prominent republican and Presbyterian Minister of Sydney, the Reverend John Dunmore Lang. He was tried and convicted of seditious libel by a Melbourne jury on 23 January 1855 and, after a series of appeals, sentenced to six months imprisonment on 23 March. He was released from prison on 28 June 1855, precisely three months early. A reward of 400 pounds was issued for Peter Lalor and George Black Of the approximately 120 'diggers' detained after the rebellion, thirteen were brought to trial. They were: Timothy Hayes, Chairman of the Ballarat Reform League, from Ireland James McFie Campbell, a black man from Kingston, Jamaica Raffaello Carboni, an Italian and trusted lieutenant who was in charge of the European diggers as he spoke a few European languages. Carboni self published his account of the Eureka Stockade a year after the Stockade, the only comprehensive eyewitness account. Jacob Sorenson, a Jew from Scotland John Manning, a Ballarat Times journalist, from Ireland John Phelan, a friend and business partner of Peter Lalor, from Ireland Thomas Dignum, born in Sydney John Joseph, a black American from New York City James Beattie, from Ireland William Molloy, from Ireland Jan Vennick, from the Netherlands Michael Tuohy, from Ireland Henry Reid, from Ireland The first trial started on 22 February 1855, with John Joseph being brought before the court on charges of high treason. Joseph was one of three Americans arrested at the stockade, with the US Consul intervening for the release of the other two Americans. The prosecution was handled by Attorney General William Stawell representing the Crown before Chief Justice William à Beckett. After hearing the evidence, the jury quickly returned a Not Guilty verdict with the court erupting in wild cheering. John Joseph was carried around the streets of Melbourne in a chair in triumph by over 10,000 people. Under the auspices of Victorian Chief Justice Redmond Barry, all the other 13 accused men were rapidly acquitted to great public acclaim. The trials have on several occasions been called a farce. John Molony, "Eureka", Ringwood 1989 Rede himself was quietly removed from the camps and reassigned to an insignificant position in rural Victoria. Commission of Enquiry Centenary anniversary commemoration in 1954Governor Hotham, on the 16 November 1854, appointed a Royal Commission on goldfields problems and grievances. According to Blainey, "It was perhaps the most generous concession offered by a governor to a major opponent in the history of Australia up to that time. The members of the commission were appointed before Eureka...they were men who were likely to be sympathetic to the diggers." When its report was handed down, it was scathing in its assessment of all aspects of the administration of the gold fields, and particularly the Eureka Stockade affair. It made several major recommendations, one of which was to restrict Chinese immigration. Its recommendations were only put into effect after the Stockade. The gold licences were then abolished, and replaced by an annual miner's right and an export fee based on the value of the gold. Mining wardens replaced the gold commissioners, and police numbers were cut drastically. The Legislative Council was expanded to allow representation to the major goldfields and Peter Lalor and John Basson Humffray were elected for Ballarat. After 12 months, all but one of the demands of the Ballarat Reform League had been granted. Lalor and Humffray both enjoyed distinguished careers as politicians, with Lalor later elected as Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Victoria. Commemoration 150th anniversary official commemoration, 3 December 2004 Dawn Lantern Walk, 2004 Over the next thirty years, press interest in the events that had taken place at the Eureka Stockade dwindled, but Eureka was kept alive at the campfires and in the pubs, and in memorial events in Ballarat. In addition, key figures such as Lalor and Humfray were still in the public eye. Eureka had not been forgotten: it was readily remembered, and a flag similar to the Eureka flag was flown above the Barcaldine strike camp in the 1891 Australian shearers' strike. The rebellion was also recalled in the poetry of Henry Lawson, such as Flag of the Southern Cross (1887), Eureka (A Fragment) (1889), The Fight at Eureka Stockade (1890), and Freedom on the Wallaby (1891), In 1889, Melbourne businessmen employed renowned American cyclorama artist Thaddeus Welch, who teamed up with local artist Izett Watson to paint 1000 square feet (90 m²) of canvas of the Eureka Stockade, wrapped around a wooden structure. When it opened in Melbourne, the exhibition was an instant hit. The Age reported in 1891 that "it afforded a very good opportunity for people to see what it might have been like at Eureka". The Australasian claimed "that many persons familiar with the incidents depicted, were able to testify to the fidelity of the painted scene". The people of Melbourne flocked to the cyclorama, paid up and had their picture taken before it. It was eventually dismantled and disappeared from sight. The writer Samuel Clemens, better known as Mark Twain, visited the Victorian Goldfields in 1895. Following his visit, he said of the Eureka Stockade: The materials used to build the stockade were rapidly removed to be used for the mines, and the entire area around the site was so extensively worked that the original landscape became unrecognisable, so identifying the exact location of the stockade is now virtually impossible. Memorials to soldiers and miners are location in the Ballarat Old Cemetery and the Eureka Stockade Memorial is located within the Eureka Stockade Gardens and is listed on the Australian National Heritage List. Eureka Today Pre dawn at the Eureka Monument, 3 December 2005 The Eureka Stockade (and the driving force of public opinion that followed) has been characterised as the "Birth of Democracy" within Australia. Its actual significance is uncertain; it has been variously mythologised by particular interest groups as a revolt of free men against imperial tyranny, of independent free enterprise against burdensome taxation, of labour against a privileged ruling class, or as an expression of republicanism. The Eureka Stockade was certainly the most prominent rebellion in Australia's history and, depending on how one defines rebellion, can be regarded as the only such event. (But see also Rum Rebellion, Vinegar Hill and more recently the New Guard.) Its significance, however, remains debatable. Some historians believe that the prominence of the event in the public record has come about because Australian history does not include a major armed rebellion phase equivalent to the French Revolution, the English Civil War, or the American War of Independence or any of the numerous rebellions in Ireland before the ultimate successful Irish War of Independence of 1919-1921 which led to Ireland (excluding 6 north east counties) achieving dominion status: in consequence (according to this view) the Eureka story tends to be inflated well beyond its real significance. Others, however, maintain that Eureka was a seminal event and that it marked a major change in the course of Australian history. In 1980, historian Geoffrey Blainey drew attention to the fact that many miners were temporary migrants from Britain and the United States, who did not intend to settle permanently in Australia. He wrote: "Nowadays it is common to see the noble Eureka flag and the rebellion of 1854 as the symbol of Australian independence, of freedom from foreign domination; but many saw the rebellion in 1854 as an uprising by outsiders who were exploiting the country's resources and refusing to pay their fair share of taxes. So we make history do its handsprings." Geoffrey Blainey, A Land Half Won, Melbourne: Sun Books, 1983 (first printed in 1980), ISBN 0-7251-0411-2, p.158 The debate remains active and may remain so as long as Eureka is remembered. On 13 December 2005, Premier Steve Bracks renamed Spencer Street Station as Southern Cross Station in order to commemorate the Eureka Stockade and promote Victoria's cultural heritage. Eureka on the Screen Eureka Stockade (1907) A black and white silent film Directed by Arthur and George Cornwell, Produced by the Australasian Cinematograph Company. The surviving 7 minute fragment (original length unknown) shows street scenes of Ballarat is believed to be part of the 1907 film, the second feature film made in Australia (after the 1906 production, The Story of the Kelly Gang). The film was first screened in the Athenaeum Hall, Melbourne on the 19th of October 1907. The film impressed critics of the time and was found to be a stirring portrayal of the events surrounding the Eureka Stockade, but failed to connect with Audiences during the two weeks it was screened. Other scenes in the lost reels of the film were believed to have included gold seekers leaving London, issuing of licenses, license hunting, diggers chained to logs and rescued by mates, diggers burning Bentley's Hotel, the Rebellion, building the stockade, troops storming the stockade and the stockade in ruins. The surviving 307 feet of the 35mm film (5 mins @ 18fps) is stored at the National Film and Sound Archive. Eureka Stockade (1949) A British film made in Australia in 1949 starring Chips Rafferty focused on Peter Lalor and Rafaello Carboni. Directed by Harry Watt, Produced by Leslie Norman and written by Walter Greenwood, Ralph Smart and Harry Watt. The cast included Chips Rafferty, Jane Barrett, Jack Lambert, Gordon Jackson, Peter Finch and Sydney Loder. An abridged version of the film was release in the United States of America under the title, Massacre Hill . Eureka Stockade (1984) An Australian two-part mini-series that aired on the Seven Network in 1984 starring Bryan Brown as Peter Lalor. Directed by Rod Hardy, Produced by Henry Crawford and written by Tom Hegarty. The cast included Bryan Brown, Carol Burns, Bill Hunter and Brett Cullen. See also Flag of Australia Eureka Flag History of Victoria Butler Cole Aspinall, one of the defence counsel. Darwin Rebellion Notes References The Eureka Encyclopaedia, Justin Corfield, Dorothy Wickham, Clare Gervasoni, Ballarat Heritage Services, (2004), ISBN 1-876478-61-6 Winner of Victorian Local History Award. Nominated for Prime Ministers Prize for History Massacre at Eureka - The Untold Story, Bob O'Brien, ISBN 0-909874-19-0 Eureka, John Molony, ISBN 0-522-84962-8 The Eureka Stockade by Raffaello Carboni, (1855). Title from Project Gutenberg Samuel Lazarus Diary of the Eureka uprising Eureka on Trial Eureka Stockade, Ballarat, Victoria, Australia Life on the Goldfields: Eureka Stockade 150th Anniversary of the Eureka Stockade The Australian Gold Rush Eureka Stockade "Time to reclaim this legend as our driving force" by Macgregor Duncan, Andrew Leigh, David Madden, Peter Tynan, Sydney Morning Herald, 29 November 2004, retrieved 7 May 2006 Bert and Bon Strange, Eureka, Gold Graft and Grievances, B&B Strange, Ballarat, 1973. Weston Bate, Lucky City: The First Generation at Ballarat 1851 - 1901, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1978, page 67. Peter Lalor, A Statement to the Colonists of Victoria, reprinted in Bob O’Brien, Massacre at Eureka: The Untold Story, Sovereign Hill Museums Association, 1998. Professor Geoffrey Blainey, Eureka - its many meanings, University of Ballarat, 26 November 2004. Peter Lalor's letter, The Argus 10 April 1885 Peter Lalor's letter, The Argus 10 April 1886 Eureka Stockade Saga 1854-2007 Catholics at the Stockade The 150th anniversary of Eureka Stockade Characters at the Eureka Stockade Tuohy NOT GUILTY of Treason External links The Eureka Centre Sovereign Hill | Eureka_Rebellion |@lemmatized eureka:86 flag:16 stockade:52 setting:1 gold:17 miner:33 revolt:5 near:1 ballarat:33 victoria:13 australia:11 official:4 supervise:1 mining:3 region:2 prompt:2 grievance:5 heavily:1 price:1 item:1 expense:1 licence:8 taxation:3 via:1 license:10 without:2 representation:4 action:3 government:11 agent:1 police:7 military:14 force:10 abandon:2 substitute:2 cheap:2 right:14 also:7 confer:2 men:9 vote:6 victorian:8 arriving:2 richard:2 broome:2 p:4 withers:2 wb:1 history:9 reminiscence:1 facsimile:1 edition:1 publish:3 heritage:4 service:3 first:12 pp:1 event:8 spark:1 rebellion:17 specific:2 field:8 underlying:1 subject:1 public:8 meeting:9 civil:3 disobedience:2 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4,336 | Beavis_and_Butt-head | Beavis and Butt-head is an American animated television series created by Mike Judge. After the success of Judge's short film entitled Frog Baseball, which starred the characters Beavis and Butt-head and was featured in an episode of Liquid Television, the cable television channel MTV signed Judge to create a series with the same characters. The series aired from March 8, 1993 to November 28, 1997. It is rated TV-14 in the United States. Reruns of the series are currently airing on MTV2. The show centers on a pair of teenagers, Beavis and Butt-head, who live in the fictional town of Highland, Texas. They while away their time in sarcastic conversation, fantasizing about sex and masculinity, although they have no real-world experience with either. They attend Highland High (based on a real high school in Albuquerque, New Mexico, where Judge grew up) and occasionally work at part-time jobs, putting as little effort as possible into everything they do. They both are extremely obnoxious and rude to almost every other character in the show and even to each other, and they don't seem to have any other friends. They survive their often hazardous misadventures without serious consequences, and with a generally contented, though critical (not apathetic) worldview. During each episode, Beavis and Butt-head watch and make fun of various music videos. In 1996, the series was spun off into an animated feature film, Beavis and Butt-head Do America. Characters The two characters often spend time around TV, junk food (usually nachos), Fruity Whips (a beverage similar to an ICEE) , shopping malls, heavy metal music, and utterly futile efforts at trying to "score with chicks". Beavis typically wears a blue Metallica T-shirt (in some earlier episodes, a Slayer T-shirt), while Butt-head is usually seen wearing a grey AC/DC T-shirt. (On some merchandising items these shirts were changed to read "Skull" and "Death Rock" due to trademark and licensing issues.) Their family names are never mentioned on the show individually, but in Beavis and Butt-head Do America, Butt-head comments that his first name is Butt and his surname is Head. Along similar lines, their parents are conspicuously absent, although Butt-head regularly comments on Beavis' mother, claiming she is "a slut". The film features a scene where they meet two middle-aged adult males who bear a strong resemblance to the duo and are most likely their fathers; the two men said they slept with two sluts from Highland (Beavis and Butt-head's hometown). The larger man insists he was the only one to "score" with "both of 'em!", corroborating Butt-Head's claim in the episode, "Scientific Stuff", that the duo share the same biological Father. The "family bush" in the first Beavis & Butt-head book, This Book Sucks, shows that the two boys have the same father, whom they never met. Beavis Has an underbite and a fixated stare on his face, which is almost always shown in profile. Beavis grunts when he laughs, has a grainy, guttural voice and has a penchant for picking his nose. The more excitable of the two, he is oblivious to what should be obvious and slightly nicer overall than Butt-head. He is often abused physically, either by Butt-head or various other characters whom he infuriates. He usually takes every beating and screams in pain before quickly reverting back to his trademark laugh. Before controversy erupted (see below) he exhibited an obsession with fire, as well as other psychotic tendencies (one episode showed that he has voices in his head telling him to engage in destructive activities); however, generally he has a passive demeanor in contrast to Butt-head's dominant personality. Beavis also has an alter ego named The Great Cornholio, who usually surfaces after he consumes large quantities of caffeine and/or sugar. Beavis was named after Bobby Beavis, a boy who lived in the same neighborhood as Mike Judge during Judge's time in college. Judge stated that he gave the name "Beavis" to the character, and that the real person Beavis was nothing like the character Beavis. Butt-head Wears dental braces and has squinty eyes and a drooping nose with prominent nostrils. His top gums are often exposed due to a small upper lip, and he speaks nasally with a deep voice and a slight lisp. He begins almost every statement with "Uhhhhhh..." and ends with his short trademark laugh "Uh huh huh huh". Calmer and cockier, Butt-head is oblivious to subtleties, but is usually 100% confident in everything he says and does, no matter how ridiculous or frivolous it is. The designated "leader" of the duo, he derives pleasure from being regularly abusive to Beavis. Mike Judge got the idea for the name Butt-head from two people he knew during his childhood called "Iron Butt" (who would encourage people to kick him in the butt to demonstrate his strength) and "Butt-head". Tom Anderson The nearsighted, elderly neighbor of Beavis and Butt-head. He often hires them to do chores, which results in them destroying his yard, home, or personal belongings. Due to his poor eyesight and mild senility, he never seems to recognize the two and he never remembers their names. He served in the Navy during World War II and the Korean War. His character is a big influence on the look and voice of the character Hank Hill from Judge's following series, King of the Hill, as both were based on the same person from Judge's youth. David Van Driessen A teacher at Highland High School, and arguably the only person who cares about Beavis and Butt-head. Van Driessen is a devoted hippie with a forgiving nature and gentle demeanor. His repeated attempts to teach the duo useful life lessons typically end in disaster, as they almost always deduce the wrong message. When explaining something, he ends almost every sentence with his trademark, "MMMMkay". He often plays songs on his acoustic guitar, which typically end in him being severely hurt, and in some cases almost killed. He has been shown teaching classes on biology, art, animation, economics, health, history, and literature, among others. Coach Bradley Buzzcut Another of the duo's high school teachers, and the antithesis of Van Driessen. Angry, impatient and short-tempered, Buzzcut is a veteran Marine and, with the possible exception of Principal McVicker, hates the duo more than any other character. He is shown substitute teaching regular classes, but usually teaches physical education. It has been implied that he has on occasion committed assault and battery against the duo, but he once defended them from an angry guest lecturer by saying "This is my class. I do the ass kicking around here!" Principal McVicker Principal of Highland High and, arguably, Beavis and Butt-head's arch-nemesis. The two have unintentionally ruined his life and have driven him to the edge of insanity, actually driving him insane in Breakdown. Many episodes begin with Beavis and Butt-head in his office. They refer to him as "McDicker." He is known for constantly trembling and stuttering out of anxiety over Beavis and Butt-head, their antics, and his inevitably futile attempts to punish them. In the series finale Beavis and Butt-head Are Dead, upon hearing the news of Beavis's and Butt-head's "deaths" he stops trembling and stuttering for the first time. When they show up to their own memorial services very much alive, he apparently suffers a heart attack and presumably dies. Daria Morgendorffer Daria is a sarcastic, vaguely alt-rockerish, nerdy girl who attends Highland High with Beavis and Butt-head, and she is one of the few people who sees the two for what they truly are. While not above taking jabs at them for their lack of intelligence, she also offers help and advice from time to time, and probably respects them more than most do. The duo nicknamed her "Diarrhea" but once said she was cool after she asked President Clinton a pointed question during a school assembly. She eventually went on to star in her own spinoff series, Daria. Todd Ianuzzi Todd is a twenty-something hoodlum who is rude, arrogant, and violent. Beavis and Butt-head look up to him and aspire to join his "gang". Todd despises the two, but will take advantage of them when he needs something, such as money, or a place to hide from other gangs or the police. He often refers to Beavis and Butt-head as "girls." Stewart Stevenson A nerdy, short kid who looks up to Beavis and Butt-head and believes they are his best friends. He typically wears a Winger shirt. Beavis and Butt-head actually think little of Stewart; essentially, they relate to him like Todd relates to them. Minor characters Recurring themes The series has a number of recurring elements. They cause havoc at their place of employment, Burger World, a fast-food joint modeled on McDonald's. The name and the employee uniforms are a tribute to the Weird Al Yankovic film UHF. Beavis and Butt-head spend little time genuinely working, and when they try to work they are usually too incompetent to carry out the task. They have been known to serve bugs and dead mice with orders. In Oil Change the duo are told to change the cooking oil but mistakenly use motor oil instead, starting a fire. Once Beavis caused an outbreak of food poisoning when he served burgers infected with a pathogen from genital itching he was enduring. The boys have also had brief stints as secretaries, telemarketers and radio personalities. They cause trouble at school. They are usually pitted against their teachers and other school officials. Principal McVicker is visibly agitated by the duo's antics, as is Coach Buzzcut. One of their most prominent goals in life is to "score" with chicks. Neither of them has any success. They occasionally spend Friday nights at Maxi-Mart, attempting to flirt with any female they encounter until the manager runs them off. Butt-head almost always approaches a woman by saying "Hey baby," which is met with disgust. They have come close on a few occasions, although they are too stupid to take advantage of the situation. In Vidiots they went to a video dating service where the woman behind the counter was completely enamored with Beavis (who gave the fake name Geraldo) while Butt-head recorded a video saying he was a "pleasure machine". Afterward they forgot about Geraldo and "pleasure machine" and ignored calls and visits from women who wanted to date them. In Another Friday Night the duo were mistaken for armed robbers when attempting to sell food for two attractive women at the Maxi-Mart while waiting for the manager to return to his till. The police come, and the duo subsequently ask for food to be delivered to the women. The women begin dancing with Beavis until the owner throws the duo out of his store. Beavis occasionally transforms into his alter ego, The Great Cornholio, after consuming large quantities of sugar, caffeine and other stimulants. His transformation is indicated by pulling the back of his T-shirt over the top of his head, and proclaiming largely nonsensical utterances in an exaggerated Spanish-sounding accent, such as "I am the Great Cornholio!", "Are you threatening me?", and "I need T.P. for my bunghole!" As Cornholio, Beavis once became a star beat poet (Buttniks), but he also got deported to Mexico after being mistaken for an illegal immigrant at Burger World (Vaya Con Cornholio). They cause trouble for neighbor Tom Anderson. They have sold most of his possessions, destroyed his house, put his poodle in the washing machine and even gotten him arrested by the ATF. Because his poor vision results in him being unable to consistently recognize them, he continues to hire the two for odd jobs. They love to eat nachos and other junk food snacks. They frequently point out double-entendres. A large part of the show's humor derives from their propensity to derive some crude or sexual reference from virtually any situation or verbiage. For example, in Beavis and Butt-head Do America, Mr. Van Driessen says "We don't need TV to entertain us", from which the boys extract the word "anus". Butt-head is usually the one who points these out, saying, "Huh-huh...you said (whatever crude or sexual reference applies)." In earlier episodes, they would sometimes try to find ways to obtain hallucinogenic or mind-altering substances or engage in an activity that would simulate the effect. An example of this can be seen in Sick, in which they attempt to obtain the leading prescription cough syrup after seeing an advertisement that says it is nearly 70% alcohol. The duo occasionally get involved with trends and fads such as self help gurus, cults, moneymaking schemes, and various forms of therapy and discipline visited upon them by school officials. They always make a disastrous botch of all of these. Holiday specials Four holiday specials were produced -- one for Halloween, two for Christmas and one for Thanksgiving. The Halloween special, entitled Bungholio: Lord of the Harvest (Butt-O-Ween), involved them attempting to trick-or-treat in ridiculous costumes--i.e. Beavis dressed up as a giant "nad" by wearing underpants on his head and Butt-head becoming nachos by pouring hot cheese-sauce over his head. (At one point, Beavis wore a Winger shirt and claims he is going out as a wuss. This scene was removed from all later airings of the Halloween episode and also all VHS and DVD releases.) When Beavis eats all of Tom Anderson's candy, his Cornholio persona emerges and embarks on a rampage to acquire more from other trick-or-treaters, while Butt-head is taken on a "ride" to the countryside in Todd's trunk, where he encounters a strangely pale old farmer. When Beavis finally comes down from his sugar high, he is hanging on a meathook in the farmer's barn, where the old man and a similarly pale Butt-head seemingly attack him with chainsaws as the episode fades to blood red. The first Christmas special featured the pair sitting in front of the television providing crude commentary on various aspects of Christmas, and commentating on Christmas-themed music videos from various artists. The second Christmas special was simply entitled Beavis and Butt-head Christmas Special, or alternately Beavis and Butt-head Do Christmas. It consisted of two segments that parodied A Christmas Carol directed by Tony Kluck and It's a Wonderful Life directed by former Dreamworks Animation director Mike deSeve, as well as Christmas-themed music videos and several segments in which Butt-head answered fan mail dressed as Santa Claus while whipping a reindeer-costumed Beavis. The MTV Thanksgiving Special "Beavis and Butt-head Do Thanksgiving" aired on November 27, 1997, the day before the series finale Beavis and Butt-head Are Dead written by Andy Rheingold and Scott Sanders. The bit featured Kurt Loder as the show's host, half-reluctantly and half-resigned, trying to teach the two characters the meaning of Thanksgiving as they report live from the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade in New York City, where they take more interest in people's butts and porn-shops than anything else. Amongst others, the special featured appearances by Adam Sandler, LL Cool J, Jay-Z, R.E.M., Ozzy Osbourne, Marilyn Manson, Ol' Dirty Bastard, Tori Amos, and the Beastie Boys. Also featured were two music videos ("Long Hard Road Out of Hell" by Marilyn Manson and "Criminal" by Fiona Apple) not included in any of the show's regular episodes. The Thanksgiving special only aired once, and its inclusion in the Mike Judge Collection DVD set shows it in a heavily edited format without the music videos or the celebrity appearances. Featured music videos One of the most well-known aspects of the series was the inclusion of music videos, which occurred between animated segments. The duo would watch and make humorous observations (about the band, a song's lyrics, and/or a video's visuals), or simply engage in nonsensical dialogs. Mike Judge improvised the video comments, and they were never scripted. Almost all the animations of Beavis and Butt-Head during the videos were re-used from earlier episodes. At times, the criticism reflected their young age and ignorance of music history. Upon seeing a video by Black Sabbath, they decided that the band's vocalist couldn't be Ozzy Osbourne, because "Ozzy's an old fart!" Beavis mistook their raw sound for grunge and inquired if they were from Seattle; Butthead replied "No, they're American," even though Seattle is located in Washington, one of the United States, and Black Sabbath's members were from England. During one episode, Butt-head remarked, "You know those asswipes The Beatles? Those guys ruined music." Similarly, the pair described Paul Simon as "that old dude from Africa who used to be in the Beatles," and Butt-head once observed of Frank Sinatra, "I think he used to be in the Eagles." However, at other times they seemed almost respectful and willing to learn about music. Video critiques When confronted with a song/video they did not like, they usually watched it anyway, commenting on how bad it was. However, if they could not stand it, their solution was to change the channel. Mostly, they came across a better video, but there have been instances where they found a video they perceived as worse than the previous one. One particularly memorable moment was when they were watching Frank Zappa's video, "You are what you is", and changed the channel during the video to come across The Europeans' "We Are Animals" video, which they perceived as even worse. Eventually, they forgot why they were watching it, and changed back to the Frank Zappa video, much to their chagrin ("This is still on? That pisses me off!"). The two react in horror to a Michael Jackson video. They showed a particular disdain for many generic 1980's "hair bands" (with the exception of Guns n' Roses, Mötley Crüe, Van Halen and a few select others). Their epitome of "wuss bands" was Winger, of which Stewart was a big fan. They had no tolerance for new wave or electronic music (except for industrial music, and Devo's "Whip It"). Nu metal bands such as Korn were criticized for lacking originality (although they did claim they sounded "kinda cool"). The duo were also very critical of death metal, particularly the vocal style of the genre, mocking it, and claiming that "it sounds like it would come out of Godzilla's butt". Bands who received considerably large amounts of criticism during the tenure of the show included Poison, Death, and Grim Reaper. Beavis and Butt-head had especially severe reactions when confronted with videos they found particularly awful. As soon as Butt-head realized he was watching a Michael Bolton video, he announced that he had soiled his pants. The famous pianist Yanni also earned a very harsh critique from the boys. Sometimes, while giving a harsh review for a video, the duo gives a review to another band or musician despite the video not belonging to them in the first place; this was the fate for Ace of Base while the boys were watching "Here We Go" by Stakka Bo. When confronted with Milli Vanilli's "Baby Don't Forget My Number", Vanilla Ice's "Ice Ice Baby", and Michael Jackson's "Bad", the pair looked at one another in horror and changed the channel without speaking a word; this was effectively amongst the harshest commentary they ever gave a music video. The Europeans's video for "The Animal Song" was the most critically trashed by the duo, as Butt-head claimed, "This sucks more than anything I have ever seen." Another video that could make this claim was King Diamond's "The Family Ghost," of which Butt-head claimed, "This could be the worst crap I've ever seen in my life." Another controversial video critique was of Winger Where Butt-Head states "Wow, this is some horrible stupid crap". To this, lead singer Kip Winger sued Mike Judge for Defamation of Character, the problem was resolved when Judge promised never to insult Winger again. He managed to slip through the cracks by having a Winger shirt worn by Stewart, to show that only dorky kids like him. Even bands they liked were not spared. They were disappointed by an AC/DC video despite being fans of the group. Also, during a Metallica video, Butt-head comments, telling Lars Ulrich, "Sit down, Lars, and drum like you're supposed to!" Judas Priest's video for "Breaking The Law" also drew a negative reaction ("I like Priest and everything, but this sucks!"), despite the fact that Beavis and Butt-head sang the song itself numerous times throughout the series. Soundgarden's Spoonman also got a negative review, despite the pair being fans of the band. Beavis was annoyed that Soundgarden did not appear in the video, and Butt-head interpreted the lyric "all my friends are brown and red" as stating that the singer hated his friends, referring to them as "turds". Beavis and Butt-head also shared a disdainful dislike of many bands from England, even dismissing legendary rock bands just upon their birthplace; While watching a Pink Floyd video, he claimed that they were "Just another bunch of wussies from England." Other bands, such as The Shamen and Blur, were mocked for their British accents. The duo also made fun of performers who were effeminate or androgynous, and often evinced disgust or fear towards notions of male homosexuality. Positive critiques Beavis and Butt-head rarely expressed complete enjoyment about any video; but a few bands did draw more favorable attention from the two than others. Their preference was heavy metal and 90's hard rock. They also had a deep admiration for Ozzy Osbourne and sang the Iron Man tune when they were excited about something or to celebrate. They also used Deep Purple's Smoke on the Water tune to a lesser extent to express excitement. They also liked funk, rock and rap. Nirvana's Kurt Cobain is said to have been ecstatic at having the video for "Smells Like Teen Spirit" praised by Beavis and Butt-head, and deemed it a great compliment. Indeed, even when drummer Dave Grohl's next band, Foo Fighters, was reviewed (the song was I'll Stick Around), the two were positive about the song because Grohl "was the drummer from that band, Nirvana" (though they repeatedly mispronounced their name as "Nivarna"). Aerosmith, Sonic Youth, White Zombie, Type O Negative, Onyx, the Ramones, Iron Maiden, Megadeth, the Violent Femmes, Anthrax, PJ Harvey, Crowbar, the Beastie Boys, Coolio, Danzig, Suicidal Tendencies, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Primus, Fishbone, 24-7 Spyz, the Didjits, Clutch, Tool, Slayer, Pantera, Dr. Dre, Iggy Pop and Deee-Lite were also among the groups for whom Beavis and Butt-head expressed appreciation, and the two groups that earned their fondest reviews were GWAR and the Butthole Surfers. Beavis is shown to get extremely excited before the "Sabotage" video of the Beastie Boys, and knows all the fictional credits. Butt-head continuously tells him to "shut up", although he is also a fan of video as shown by his famous "YES!" as the video began. Even hard-core heavy metal music critics have denounced the former as having tuneless reviews. Beavis voiced his estimation that every video should be like a GWAR video. Beavis and Butt-head lauded Bananarama's video for Venus, saying "these chicks should marry GWAR" and that "they would have offspring that would be the coolest people who ever lived." Butt-head once complimented Lou Reed after watching the video for No Money Down (dubbed "the coolest of all videos" by the boys) by stating that Lou belonged in GWAR. Butt-head stated that "if you wanna rule, you gotta be cool, like, all the time, like, even when you're taking a dump and stuff, like GWAR." Beavis has even claimed that Metallica was not as cool as GWAR, despite the fact that he wore a Metallica T-shirt. The video which the duo declared to be officially the "best ever" was Ministry's Just One Fix. The crass uber-metal video, The Damned by Wendy O Williams and The Plasmatics received obvious praise from the duo since it featured all the themes of their interest (loud metal music, a semi-naked woman, destruction and explosions). Interestingly the duo had mixed feelings about a rock band The Jesus Lizard, when Beavis exclaimed in response to a video, "If you're gonna suck, you might as well try to kick ass, like, Jesus Lizard, they suck, but they kick ass." Alice Cooper was another artist the duo regularly liked; they were very fond of "Lost in America," claiming they could relate to many of the song's lyrics. Beavis also thought he saw Alice Cooper in a Girlschool (An all-female band) video, to which Beavis then stated, "You couldn't put Alice Cooper in an all-chick band because the chicks would be all over him." The band often gave humorous critiques when they watched death metal videos. When they viewed "Plague Rages" by Napalm Death, they thought Mark "Barney" Greenway's voice sounded like it would "come out of his butt" or "Godzilla's butt". When a dead horse was featured in the video, the duo mentioned the time they jumped on the stomach on a dead horse and saw a lot of "gunk come out of its butt". They speculated what would happen if they pulled the same stunt on Godzilla. Butthead also thought David Vincent sounded like a bear on the video for "God of Emptiness". Beavis and Butt-Head seemed to be fans of most of the Seattle Grunge bands of the era; including Alice in Chains, Nirvana, and Soundgarden (but notably, they never viewed any Pearl Jam videos). Four videos by Alice in Chains and Soundgarden were featured on the show with notable praise from the duo, two Nirvana videos were also featured. Members of the Alice in Chains (most notably Sean Kinney) were fans of the show, and were flattered that the band received such a direct thumbs up from the show. Despite not understanding the lyrics to the Melvins "Hooch", they enjoyed it nonetheless. They even gave comical interpretations of what they thought the lyrics were such as "Done right like a belgy!", "Exit is my raging member, banging on a TV!", and "Like a steaming photographing on a wire relay in a state of!". Both Beavis and Butt-head seemed excited in the Smashing Pumpkins's video "Today" when they saw the people "making out," when the band painted the ice cream truck, and when the band started throwing things at Billy Corgan, the lead singer. They even praised Radiohead, a band that is usually not regarded as the duo's type of music; "Creep" got a positive review because of its heavy guitar riffs, while they claimed they liked to mellow out to Fake Plastic Trees (they usually hated soft songs). Beavis was also excited over the Replacements video "Bastards of Young", which ends with a stereo being destroyed. The duo showed favor towards the video for Milla Jovovich's "The Gentleman Who Fell", from her album The Divine Comedy, though it may have been due to the fact that Jovovich appeared in various stages of undress throughout the video. One of the strangest and most unexpected positive reviews they ever gave was for "Jive Talkin'" by the Bee Gees, which they mistook for the Black Crowes (in the end, they realized they were not the Black Crowes, but danced to the song anyway). Motörhead is also a band that they seemed to love, but they only seemed to compliment Lemmy. In fact, on a Ramones video where Lemmy makes an appearance, Beavis asked what Lemmy was doing there and Butt-head responded by saying, "He's Lemmy, dumbass. He can go into any damn video he wants." Despite heavy metal and hard rock being their favorite forms of music, Beavis and Butt-head have a fondness for hip-hop, especially gangsta rap. Rap groups and performers such as Snoop Dogg, The Beastie Boys, LL Cool J, Run DMC, Sir Mix-A-Lot and Dr. Dre received positive responses from the boys. This can be noted with Beavis's occasional mimicking of "gangsta" jargon ("We jus' kickin' it...in tha hang-outs," "I'm a G, a straight "G" (Butt-head responded, "Yeah, you're a "G" for "Gonad")," "Droppin' plates on yo ass, beotch". Beavis even went as far as to say, "You know when Coolio says, 'I can see myself in the pistol smoke?' He stole that from Snoop Dogg!" Funk music was likely another genre they liked. They were seen dancing to various funk songs, and especially liked some bands that incorporated elements of funk into their music. One of their oddest reviews was that of The Jon Spencer Blues Explosion's video for "Dang", where they endlessly praised it seemingly only because it was a music video—in particular, Butt-Head could be heard gasping for breath due to laughing uncontrollably. It was, however, implied at the very end of the review that they were both high on nutmeg, with Beavis remarking “Hey Butt-Head, you got any more nutmeg?” Although Beavis and Butt-head share the same musical tastes, there were some rare occasions where opinions largely conflicted. An obvious example can be seen during the video review for Something for the Pain by Bon Jovi (a musician whom the duo refer to as a "wuss band") in which Beavis claimed to enjoy the song causing Butt-head to smack him repeatedly, claiming to do it for "Beavis' own good." However, Beavis insisted on enjoying the song and singing along to the main lyrics, and eventually retaliated against Butt-head by kicking him in the testicles--twice--and praising Bon Jovi by spitting, "Damn it, Butt-head, Bon Jovi rules! I like this song, so blow it up your ass, damn it!" A less dramatic example can be seen during R.E.M.'s video for Shiny Happy People, where Beavis sings along to the lyrics provoking another repeated smacking by Butt-head. Also, during the video for Rush's Stick it Out, Beavis seemed to like them, even going so far as sing a bit of The Spirit of Radio, but Butt-head dismissed guitarist Alex Lifeson as a wuss. In another episode, during the review for Metallica's For Whom the Bell Tolls, Butt-head repeatedly claims that Metallica sucks, much to Beavis's annoyance. However, in an earlier review, Butt-head shares Beavis's love of Metallica. This can imply that by the time they were watching the former, Butt-head had either grown to dislike the band, or was just criticizing them to annoy Beavis. The duo also had a liking of vocalist Mike Patton and his band Faith No More. It can be assumed that the pair may have attempted to give some videos the ultimate compliment. The ultimate compliment would likely have been parallel to the ultimate put-down (see previous) and would have consisted of them simply being silent for the video's duration. An example of this happened very early on in the series when they watched a video by the Butthole Surfers and remained completely silent throughout (only giving quips of praise at the very beginning and end of the video, respectively). Another example is where they were watching the video California by Wax, made by Spike Jonze, which featured a man running around on fire. Butt-head praised the video, but Beavis, being a pyromaniac (and Mike Judge having been instructed by the MTV higher-ups to not say the word "fire"), chose to stare at the video and say nothing. Butt-head got annoyed by this, and tried to snap Beavis out of his seemingly catatonic state. Another example was the Ramones's I Wanna Be Sedated, where they did not praise the band verbally other than Beavis saying "YES!" when the video starts, but headbanged for the video's duration (along with occasionally humming the main riff). In other reviews, during particularly good videos, Butt-head has told Beavis to shut up because he wanted to see the video. Beavis once told Butt-head to shut up when Butt-head would not stop talking during a Rancid video. After Butt-head menacingly told Beavis to never ever tell him to shut up again, Beavis kicked Butt-head in the testicles, told him to shut up again, and left the room to get some food. Other antics The duo would occasionally engage in physical humor during the videos. These antics ranged from simple comic violence, such as slapping, punching, and kicking one another; one common act is when Beavis kicks Butt-head in the groin, after which a red-faced Butt-head lets out a pained groan. The most common acts are the duo's several memorable dances, which ranged from a few simple arm motions, to the dances listed below. Other antics included Butt-head masturbating, a card game, the pair sleeping, and Beavis getting seizures. A particularly memorable moment of their famous dance sessions can be seen during the viewing of the video for Step Down by the hardcore punk group Sick of it All, where the names of Beavis and Butt-head's dance moves are named on the screen in a blatant parody of the video itself. The dance moves included: Headbanging while making the sign of the beast/playing air guitar. Air drumming Jumping off the couch in imitation of stage-diving "The Dillhole" - Butt-head makes pelvic thrusts while Beavis punches and kicks in the air. "The Bunghole" - Butt-head shakes his butt while Beavis jumps up and down with a gyrating motion. "The Fartknocker Double Inverted Nad Twist" - Butt-head jumps back and forth across the room while Beavis sways his arms. "The Monkey Boy" - Beavis humps the couch while Butt-head just stares at him in shock. (note that this was not included in the Step Down video, but Beavis' reply when Butt-head was curious about what he was doing was "Doin' my monkey boy") Swaying their heads in unison to the beat of softer or slower songs. As well as dancing, they also sang during some music video reviews. This ranged from imitating the instrumentation, singing along with the lyrics, or even mocking the singing style of some singers (Butt-head particularly liked to imitate death metal vocalists). If they were not familiar with a song, but knew the band, they would sing one of the band's more famous songs (on one occasion Beavis noticed that they were watching a Primus video and sang a part of "My Name Is Mud"). If they were not familiar with the song or band at all, they would sing something that sounded similar to the song. One instance occurred when a video for "F-Sharp" by Nudeswirl came on, and Beavis started singing "Paradise City" by Guns N' Roses. Butt-head also sang along with Biz Markie during the song "Just A Friend." One example of singing was showcased in the music video for MC 900 Ft. Jesus' video for "If I Only Had a Brain", where Beavis sang along with the bassline for the song, and refused to break concentration. Butt-head was annoyed by this, but he achieved nothing by talking to or even hitting Beavis. Fed up, he began to sing along with the bassline as well. They showed some signs of intelligence when it came to some bands and artists, despite the fact that they did not know much about even their favorite bands. On one occasion, they claimed that "Pantera" had an abusive upbringing, but they meant lead singer Phil Anselmo, not the whole band. They knew practically nothing about the band Hole, and thought that Hole was the name of the lead singer. However, they could recognize James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich from Metallica, Flea from Red Hot Chili Peppers, Bono and The Edge from U2 (although they referred to Bono as "Boner") and Axl Rose from Guns N' Roses. During a Foo Fighters video review, Butt-head recognizes the lead singer as Dave Grohl, referring to him as "that dude from Nirvarna." Beavis thought Butt-head was referring to deceased Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain and said "Butt-head, I don't think that dude's with us anymore, you shouldn't say that." Butt-head patiently explained to Beavis that Grohl was the drummer with Nirvana and was playing guitar for the Foo Fighters. Sometimes they mistook some bands for others. They believed they were watching a Red Hot Chili Peppers video when they were really watching a Faith No More video (though this is probably a jab at Chili Peppers' frontman Anthony Kiedis accusing Mike Patton of ripping his style off). In another review, they were watching a video by a band called Sausage (a side project of Primus' Les Claypool). Beavis thought this band was actually Primus (ironically, he was close to correct, since Sausage was composed of the original members of Primus), while Butt-head believed they were a fictional band called the Seminiferous Tubloidial Buttnoids. It is implied that the duo did drugs during music video reviews, as evidenced by the Jon Spencer Blues Explosion's video for "Dang", where Beavis asks Butt-head if he has any nutmeg. Nutmeg can cause hallucinations in high doses, but there is no other evidence to suggest that they did drugs. There were times where critiques of the videos were minimal or even nonexistent. Some videos were praised or disparaged only once, usually at the start, after which they began discussing a subject in the video (such as with Green Day's "Basket Case" video, where they began talking about the film One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest). Some videos received no critiques at all, positive or negative. It can be assumed that they deliberately ignored some videos, citing Butt-head's comment during a Ween video ("Quit talking about this video and do something funny!") and some episodes in which they played a card game, slept, or even left the room rather than watch the video. On several occasions, the two mistook bandmates for other celebrities, such as The Clash guitarist Mick Jones as Jerry Seinfeld, a member of Japanese pop band Pizzicato Five as Ernie from "My Three Sons" and Yanni as Geraldo Rivera. They also sometimes made crude puns on the names of celebrities (believing the names they said were really the celebrities' names) who came to mind during a video they were watching; some of these included Connie Chung as Connie Schlong, Bette Midler as Butt Midler and Steffi Graf as Stiffie Graf. They even mistook Rosie O'Donnell, in the video "(Meet) The Flinstones" by The B-52's, for Roseanne and called her Buttseanne. Bands and videos were not the only subjects of which they were critical. They also engaged in conversation about films, television shows, certain people and other pop culture references. Sometimes they praised the subject, but were more often derisive. Critical assessments and controversy Over its run, Beavis and Butt-head drew a notable amount of both positive and negative reactions from the public with its combination of lewd humor and implied criticism of society. It became the focus of criticism from social conservatives, such as Michael Medved, while others, such as David Letterman, and the conservative magazine National Review, defended it as a cleverly subversive vehicle for social criticism and a particularly creative and intelligent comedy. Either way, the show captured the imaginations of many young television viewers in the United States and abroad and is often considered a classic piece of 1990s youth culture and the MTV generation. In 1997 Dan Tobin of The Boston Phoenix praised the series for its humor, stating that the series transformed "stupidity into a crusade, forcing us to acknowledge how little it really takes to make us laugh." "Butting out," The Boston Phoenix In 1997 Ted Drozdowski of The Boston Phoenix described the 1997 Beavis and Butt-head state as "reduced to self-parody of their self-parody." "Eye pleasers," The Boston Phoenix. In December 2006, TV Guide ranked the duo's distinct laughing at #66 on their list of the 100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catchphrases. The 100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catchphrases, tvland.com. Retrieved on 2008-04-02. Actor Patrick Stewart, in an interview with Conan O'Brien, professed his affection for the show, stating "it will go down in history as one of the great cultural icons of the 20th century". Fire! Fire! Early episodes gave them a juvenile obsession with fire and dangerous behavior (summed up with Beavis' chant of "Fire! Fire!"). The show was blamed for a two year old's death which occurred in Moraine, Ohio in October 1993 in which a five year old boy set fire to his mother's mobile home killing his two year old sister. New York Times article: http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE2DF143EF933A25753C1A965958260 CARTOON ON MTV BLAMED FOR FIRE]". The mother later claimed that her son had watched one of the fire-related segments shortly before he burned down the home. As a result, the references were excised from further broadcastings, being replaced by silly stunts, bad pick-up lines, etc. The creators took delight in sometimes making Beavis scream things that sounded very similar to his previous "Fire! Fire!", such as "Fryer! Fryer!" (when he and Butt-head are working late shift at Burger World) and also having him almost say the forbidden word, such as one time when he sang "Liar, liar, pants on...WHOA!". References to fire were cut from earlier episodes - even the original tapes were altered permanently. Other episodes MTV opted not to rerun (Examples include "Stewart's House" and "Way Down Mexico Way"). Early episodes with the controversial content intact are rare, and are traded on homemade tapes made from the original broadcasts. In an interview included with the recent Mike Judge Collection DVD set, Judge denied being certain if some of the earlier episodes still existed in their uncensored form. In February 1994, watchdog group Morality in Media claimed that the death of 8-month-old Natalia Rivera struck by a bowling ball thrown from an overpass onto a Jersey City, New Jersey highway near the Holland Tunnel by 18-year-old Calvin J. Settle was partially inspired by Beavis and Butthead. New York Times article: "http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9400EEDF1538F933A25751C0A962958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all Youth Is Held In Death From Bowling Ball]". The group said that Settle was influenced by the episode entitled "Ball Breakers", in which Beavis and Butt-head loaded a bowling ball with explosives and dropped it from a rooftop. Though Morality in Media believed that the show inspired Settle's actions, the case's prosecutors did not. In one episode, the show parodied blaming actions on youth culture. When asked by a reporter why they were flying a kite in a rainstorm, the duo, correctly, say they were inspired by a documentary about Benjamin Franklin. Not satisfied, the reporter continued asking them questions until they said they watched some rock videos earlier in the day. The following scene is the reporter on TV blaming the music videos on the duo's actions. MTV also responded by broadcasting the program after 11:00 P.M., and changing the original disclaimer to a new one, reminding viewers that: Beavis and Butt-head are not role models. They're not even human. They're cartoons. Some of the things they do could cause a person to get hurt, expelled, arrested, possibly deported. To put it another way: Don't try this at home. This disclaimer also appears before the opening of their Sega Genesis and Super Nintendo game. They were famously lambasted by Democratic senator Fritz Hollings as "Buffcoat and Beaver," which would subsequently become a running gag on the show of adults mispronouncing their names, as well as in the movie, where an old lady consistently calls them "Travis" and "Bob-head". Beavis and Butt-head have been compared to idiot savants, because of their creative and subversively intelligent observations of music videos. This part of the show was mostly improvised by Mike Judge and is considered by many to be the show's highlight. With regard to criticisms of the two as "idiots," Judge responded that a show about straight-A students would not be funny (Ironically, the spin-off Daria, about the straight-A getting foil to the duo, enjoys a loyal cult following to this day). Films In 1996, Mike Judge released a full-length movie featuring the duo entitled Beavis and Butt-head Do America. The movie features the voices of Bruce Willis, Demi Moore, Cloris Leachman, Robert Stack, Eric Bogosian, Richard Linklater, Greg Kinnear (in an uncredited role), and David Letterman (credited as Earl Hofert). It gained mostly positive reviews from movie critiques and a two thumbs up from Siskel and Ebert. The film earned over $60 million at the domestic box office, a strong return for a film that cost only $5 million to produce. Also, in recent interviews, Judge claims that he is interested in doing a live action spin-off movie. He said that previously he despised the idea, but now he thinks "maybe there's something there" 'Beavis And Butthead' To Make A Big Screen Return - Starpulse Entertainment News Blog . Related media A CD, The Beavis and Butt-Head Experience, was released featuring many hard rock and heavy metal bands, such as Megadeth, Primus, Nirvana and White Zombie. Moreover, Beavis and Butt-head do a duet with Cher on "I Got You Babe" and a track by themselves named "Come to Butt-head". The track with Cher also resulted in a music video. In 1995 an adventure game based on the series was released, called Beavis and Butt-head in Virtual Stupidity on the PC, with a PlayStation port being released in Japan. A CD-i port was planned but was canceled due to falling sales of the console. Atari also made an arcade game in 1996, but it was never released. Marvel Comics release a comic book series about Beavis and Butt-head, which was later successfully republished in by Marvel UK where it ran for several years, repeating the original strip and creating new editorial material. Many video games, like Beavis and Butt-head, Beavis and Butt-head in Virtual Stupidity, Beavis and Butt-head: Bunghole in One, Calling All Dorks, Little Thingies, Wiener Takes All, and Beavis and Butt-head Do U exist. For AC/DC's 1996 tour, they had an intro film made with Beavis and Butt-head attempting to score with girls who are going backstage to meet the band. After a of couple unsuccessful attempts, one of them bangs on the door and a cartoon version of Angus Young and whistles for the Ballbreaker woman to chase them away. It was used for all the shows, and was eventually released officially on AC/DC's DVD box set Plug Me In. Beavis and Butt-head have appeared on several shows besides their own. In 1994, to promote their upcoming movie, Beavis and Butt-head appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman. Prior to this, creator Mike Judge was a guest on the same show, and showed a brief short in which Beavis & Butt-head were drawn with the physical characteristics of Paul Shaffer and Letterman, respectively. The short was later used in the episode "Late Night With Butt-head". Butt-head had a cameo on the MTV Oddities series The Head, as a courier with a video tape. Upon being kicked in the rear by an F.B.I. agent, he said, "That sucked." Also in 1994, the duo appeared (voices only) in the movie Airheads, starring Brendan Fraser, during the scene where disc jockey Ian the Shark (Joe Mantegna) was taking calls from listeners. Beavis and Butt-head appeared on the air and made the comment that the Lone Rangers (the central characters' rock band) sucked. In the 1995 film Clueless, Alicia Silverstone's character is watching the show before Paul Rudd's character mocks it and changes to a news channel. And in 1996 they appeared in the intro clip of the AC/DC BALLBREAKER TOUR and for this mini-clip they where facing the guitar god Angus Young. In the 1997 film Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery, Dr. Evil, after offering his ultimatum, means to end the video communication with the United Nations with a remote control, but instead turns to an episode of Beavis and Butthead in which Beavis says to Butthead, "Check it out Butthead, this chick has three boobs," to which Butthead replies, "How many butts does she have?" On the show Friends, Joey and Chandler are seen laughing stupidly at a Beavis and Butt-head episode, during a show where they have gotten new Barcaloungers and stayed in them to eat and watch TV for days on end, which is of course the sort of thing B&B did most of the time on MTV. On the show Step By Step, Dana and Karen are forced to go out with two friends of Richie, who are exact copies of Beavis and Butt-head On two episodes of Full House, in the season 7 episode "The Last Dance", Kimmy refers Joey and Danny as Beavis and Boat-Head. In the season 8 episode "Stephanie's Wild Ride", D.J. refers to the two 16 year old boys, that Stephanie rides with, "You got in the car with Beavis & Butt-Head". Several years later, the characters were presenters during the 1997 Academy Awards telecast. They presented the Oscar for Best Sound Editing. Beavis and Butt-head have also appeared in several MTV Video Music Awards, most recently in the 2005. In the Computer Game Police Quest: Open Season, you are told at the impound lot that the password is Beavis and Butthead In 2008, Beavis and Butt-head also appeared during the MTV Jackass 24 Take Over. In the clip, Beavis and Butt-head were watching Steve-O's music video for "Poke That Puss" and commenting. When Beavis suggests that they might like this video better if they were black, in a dream sequence, Butt-Head imagines themselves as being black, Butt-Head being "Black-Head" drinking a 40 oz. bottle of malt liquor and Beavis being "Cephus," making pseudo-intellectual comments about racial equality and such. Butt-head ultimately decides that the video shows that Steve-O sucks regardless of skin color. Beavis and Butt-head appear in the episode "Fandemonium 2000" of Celebrity Deathmatch, Beavis wins the match by chopping Butthead to pieces with a knife and tongs that were replacements for his arms that he lost earlier while in his Cornholio persona. In the PBS show Arthur, "Peabrain and Nuthead" are two existing characters in a couple of episodes that resemble Beavis and Butt-head in the form of nuts. Some kids in the show that are known to be bullies enjoy watching "Peabrain and Nuthead" while parents disapprove of it. In the sketch show Robot Chicken Beavis and Butt-Head join the Teen Titans in their battle against evil. However it goes horribly wrong when they don't do their "ass-signment" and don't use the "knob" which powers up the suits. Spin-offs In 1997, a spin-off show based on their classmate Daria Morgendorffer, Daria, was created. Mike Judge was not credited as a producer of this series and said he was not involved with it at all, except to give permission for the use of the character. The Daria character had been created for Beavis and Butt-head by Glenn Eichler, who became a producer for Daria. In the first episode of Daria, Daria and her family move from Beavis and Butt-head's hometown of Highland to Lawndale. None of the other characters from Beavis and Butt-head ever appear on Daria. Videos and DVDs The first official home video releases of Beavis and Butt-head were two VHS tapes entitled There Goes The Neighborhood and Work Sucks!, distributed by Sony Music Video and MTV Home Video in 1994. Each tape contained approximately eight episodes, each selected from the first four seasons. Although most of the episodes were presented complete (but without music video segments), a handful of episodes from Seasons 2 and 3 were edited for content similar to their broadcast runs. Nine more VHS compilations were released from 1995 to 1999 for a total of 11, containing episodes from every season of the show except the first. The Contents of the Work Sucks! and There Goes The Neighborhood VHS compilations were combined into a single LaserDisc compilation entitled Beavis and Butt-head: The Essential Collection, which was also released by Sony Music Video in 1994. This was the sole release of Beavis and Butt-head in the LaserDisc format (other than the feature-film). All VHS collections of episodes are out of print. They were compiled into two sets of three multi-episode Time-Life DVD releases called The Best of Beavis and Butt-head, which are also no longer available. A set of three DVDs from Time-Life containing the same content as 6 of the VHS editions was released in December 2002. The remaining 5 VHS programs were also released on DVD soon afterwards but were not equally advertised (if at all) and are subsequently rarer. Several more VHS compilations were also released exclusively in the United Kingdom, between 1997 and 2002, in addition to PAL versions of the eleven American tapes. Some UK-only compilations include a three-part series entitled History of Beavis which contained the all of the Season 1 episodes, as well as a "Too Dumb For TV" compilation dedicated to some of the banned episodes such as "Stewart's House" and "Way Down Mexico Way". A fourth volume of History of Beavis was scheduled, but pulled from release at the last minute. Unlike the American tapes, some of the UK-only tapes contained music videos. A two-disc DVD set titled The History of Beavis and Butt-head was scheduled for release in September 2002 containing the program content of four of the UK-exclusive VHS tapes. However, its release was cancelled at the last moment at the demand of Judge, who owns approval rights for video releases of the series. Many copies were mistakenly put on store shelves on the scheduled release date, only to be immediately recalled. The set started selling on eBay at very high prices, sometimes over $300 USD. According to Judge, the History set was made up of episodes that he had previously rejected for home video release and was prepared without his knowledge or consent. Mike Judge | The A.V. Club On November 8, 2005, MTV and Paramount Home Entertainment released a three-disc DVD compilation titled Beavis and Butt-head: The Mike Judge Collection, Volume 1. The DVD set includes 40 episodes and 11 music video segments from the original shows. All prior VHS and DVD releases have lacked these segments except for the VHS release of Beavis and Butt-head Do Christmas, and the last disc of the second Time-Life set. 23 of the 40 episodes included on the Mike Judge Collection were advertised to have been director's cuts containing "previously censored material". However, the majority of the "Director's Cut" episodes are actually missing footage from their original broadcast versions, although two episodes ("Home Improvement" and "Lawn and Garden") did indeed have excised footage reinstated. The reason for these edits is unknown, although Mike Judge stated in a Houston Chronicle article on the release that he corrected certain animation mistakes on the DVD that he found to be troublesome. The following (known to date) edits were all made in Vol. 1 in order to correct "animation mistakes" according to Mike Judge: Lawn & Garden: The part where Butt-Head holds the chainsaw and screams "Welcome to the Jungle...you're gonna die" while headbanging has been removed. 1-900-BEAVIS: The lines "She said something", "I think I just inoculated" and "Hey, maybe we'll hear some butt wind" have been removed. Madame Blavatsky: Beavis and Butt-head's fighting scene at the end is cut short, also Madam Blavatsky's line, when she says "The end of the world" has been edited. Late Night With Butt-head: First minute and a half of this episode has been removed, instead it starts with Beavis and Butt-head pitching the idea for their talk show. Letterman's cameo voice appearance has been removed. Also, Beavis and Butt-head celebrating with an air guitar chant after successfully pitching their show has been removed. Right On: A scene where Beavis and Butt-head are doing their air guitar chant, after they found out they will be on the Gus Baker show has been removed. Also, at the very end, the part where Butt-head tells Beavis that it wouldn't hurt to wipe once in while has been removed. Date Bait: Scene where Beavis & Butt-head are on the couch with a cold and Butt-head doing the "Handbanging-Sneeze" (also showing the Metal sign) has been removed. Figure Drawing: Teachers comment about teaching a class on Aroma Therapy is removed. Three or four lines have also then been cut after Beavis and Butt-head rearrange the letters on the sign. Several other dialogue cuts were made throughout. Teen Talk: Scene where Beavis and Butt-head do their air guitar chant, after Lolita and Tanqueray ask if they want to make out behind the risers has been removed. Held Back: In the scene where Beavis and Butt-head are in 3rd grade and won't fit in the chairs, the lines "This desk is giving me a stiffie" and "I don't even have room for a stiffie" have been removed. Safe House: A scene with Beavis, Butt-head and Todd watching a funny "World of Bikini Sports" segment has been removed, when the bikini girl tells the sports anchor to take his hands off her ass. Tainted Meat: Middle section of news broadcast talking about "a fierce new parasite" has been removed. It, much like the deleted scene in "Manners Suck" (See below) was included as an Easter Egg on Disc 2. Manners Suck: The ending where Beavis and Butt-head are in the stalls politely defecating is removed. It was, however, included as an Easter Egg on Disc 1. Dream On: The duo sings and makes up their own Brady Bunch theme song lyrics. The Mike Judge Collection, Volume 2 was released on June 13, 2006. This compilation features 40 additional episodes, 13 music videos, and a Brokeback Mountain parody featuring Beavis and Butt-head, which uses a similar score and format as Brokeback's movie trailer. The parody functions as a commercial for the DVD release of Mike Judge Collection, Volume 3. Also included are segments from the Beavis and Butt-head "Butt Bowl" specials, traditionally aired during halftime of the Super Bowl; parodies of Calvin Klein advertisements are also featured. In Volume 2, edits on previous VHS/DVD releases of the episode "Bungholio - Lord of the Harvest" (then called "Butt-o-Ween") have not been reinstated. The edit deleted a scene where the boys are trying out Halloween costumes in their bathroom and Beavis appears dressed up like Stewart, i.e. wearing a Winger T-shirt saying "Look...I'm a Wuss". The Mike Judge Collection, Volume 3 was released on August 1, 2006. 42 episodes are featured, as well as 15 music video segments. Bonus features include the original, uncut "Frog Baseball" episode, and many (if not all) of the Christmas-related clips. Despite the criticism received over severe episode censorship in Vol. 1, edits were again made on at least two episodes - a scene where Beavis & Butt-head cut their teacher's chair in half was removed in "Woodshop", and a short line from Beavis in "Impotence". On January 26, 2006, MTV and Apple released Beavis and Butt-head, Vol. 1 on the iTunes Store. Books Reading Sucks: The Collected Works of Beavis and Butt-head (published December 2005). This collection is a bundle of the four books listed above which are no longer in print separately. Sun, Douglas. [August 1998] “'Change It! This Sucks!': Beavis and Butt-head, Idiot Savants of Cultural Criticism.” in David E.E. Sloane (Ed.) New Directions in American Humor. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-0910-1 See also List of Beavis and Butt-Head episodes List of minor characters in Beavis and Butt-Head Daria, an MTV spin-off revolving around Daria Morgendorffer. References External links Beavis and Butt-head VIP-Hole at MTV.com Beavis and Butt-head at EpisodeWorld.com Beavis and Butt-head at the Big Cartoon DataBase The Onion A.V. Club interview with Mike Judge in which the History of Beavis and Butt-head DVD recall is discussed Houston Chronicle article featuring Mike Judge Beavis and Butt-head episode guide | Beavis_and_Butt-head |@lemmatized beavis:181 butt:193 head:187 american:5 animated:2 television:6 series:21 create:5 mike:25 judge:35 success:2 short:8 film:13 entitle:7 frog:2 baseball:2 star:4 character:23 feature:21 episode:52 liquid:1 cable:1 channel:5 mtv:16 sign:5 air:12 march:1 november:3 rat:1 tv:10 united:5 state:15 rerun:2 currently:1 show:53 center:1 pair:7 teenager:1 live:5 fictional:3 town:1 highland:7 texas:1 away:2 time:22 sarcastic:2 conversation:2 fantasize:1 sex:1 masculinity:1 although:10 real:3 world:7 experience:2 either:4 attend:2 high:11 base:5 school:7 albuquerque:1 new:11 mexico:4 grow:2 occasionally:6 work:7 part:7 job:2 put:6 little:5 effort:2 possible:2 everything:3 extremely:2 obnoxious:1 rude:2 almost:10 every:6 even:23 seem:8 friend:6 survive:1 often:11 hazardous:1 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4,337 | Erinyes | Two Furies, from an ancient vase. In Greek mythology the Erinyes (Ἐρινύες, pl. of Ἐρίνυς Erinys; lit. "the angry ones") or Eumenides (Εὐμενίδες, pl. of Εὐμενής; lit. "the gracious ones") or Furies in Roman mythology were female, chthonic deities of vengeance or supernatural personifications of the anger of the dead. They represent regeneration and the potency of creation, which both consumes and empowers. A formulaic oath in the Iliad (iii.278ff; xix.260ff) invokes them as "those who beneath the earth punish whosoever has sworn a false oath." Burkert suggests they are "an embodiment of the act of self-cursing contained in the oath". Burkert 1985, p. 198 When the Titan Cronus castrated his father Uranus and threw his genitalia into the sea, the Erinyes emerged from the drops of blood, while Aphrodite was born from the seafoam. According to a variant account, they issued from an even more primordial level—from Nyx, "Night". Their number is usually left indeterminate. Virgil, probably working from an Alexandrian source, recognized three: Alecto ("unceasing," who appeared in Virgil's Aeneid), Megaera ("grudging"), and Tisiphone ("avenging murder"). Dante followed Virgil in depicting the same three-charactered triptych of Erinyes. The heads of the Erinyes were wreathed with serpents (compare Gorgon) and their eyes dripped with blood, rendering their appearance rather horrific. Sometimes they had the wings of a bat or bird and the body of a dog. Erinyes in Mythology Clytemnestra trying to awake the Erinyes while her son is being purified by Apollo, Apulian red-figure krater, 480–470 BC, Louvre (Cp 710) The Furies, from Dante's Inferno IX, in a wood engraving by Gustave Doré, 1861 The Erinyes often stood for the rightness of things within the standard order; for example, Heraclitus declared that if Helios decided to change the course of the Sun through the sky, they would prevent him from doing so. Predominantly, they were understood as the persecutors of mortal men and women who broke natural laws. In particular, those who broke ties of kinship through murdering a mother (matricide), murdering a father (patricide), murdering a brother (fratricide), or other such familial killings brought special attention from the Erinyes. It was believed in early epochs that human beings might not have the right to punish such crimes, instead leaving the matter of retribution to the dead person's Erinyes. The Erinyes were connected with Nemesis as enforcers of a just balance in human affairs. The goddess Nike originally held a similar role as the bringer of a just victory. When not stalking victims on Earth, the Furies were thought to dwell in Tartarus where they applied their tortures to the souls of the damned. The Erinyes are particularly known for the persecution of Orestes for the murder of his mother, Clytemnestra. Since Apollo had told Orestes to kill the murderer of his father, Agamemnon, and that person turned out to be his mother, Orestes prayed to him. Athena intervened and the Erinyes turned into the Eumenides ("kindly ones"), as they were called in instances portraying their more positive, beneficial qualities. Nonetheless, many scholars believe that when they were originally referred to as the Eumenides, it was not to reference their good sides but as a euphemism to avoid the wrath that would ensue from calling them by their true name. The taboo in speaking the names of certain uncanny spirits included Persephone, and there are parallels in many cultures (for instance, the tendency to refer to faeries as "the fair folk" or "the little people"). The Erinyes might also be recognized as Semnai ("the venerable ones"), the Potniae ("the Awful Ones"), the Maniae ("the Madnesses") the Praxidikae ("the Just-doers") and Kampesigounoi ("bending the knees"). Another myth says that the Erinyes struck the magical horse Xanthus dumb for rebuking Achilles. The Furies (their Roman name) or Dirae ("the terrible") typically had the effect of driving their victims insane, hence their Latin name furor. Contemporary and 20th-21st Century references In T. S. Eliot's play The Family Reunion, the protagonist Harry is haunted by the Eumenides for killing his wife. In Jean-Paul Sartre's play The Flies, the Erinyes (who represent remorsefulness) chase Orestes and Electra for the murder of their mother Clytemnestra and her husband, King Aegistheus. Tisiphone appears and is a major character (and the others are mentioned) in David Weber's book Path of the Fury and its expanded version In Fury Born. In George Eliot's Daniel Deronda, Gwendolen Harleth is haunted by the Furies because of her betrayal of Lydia Glasher. The sixth book of Anthony Powell's A Dance to the Music of Time is entitled The Kindly Ones. The Erinyes are the main subject of the comic book The Kindly Ones from comic book series Sandman and also appear in earlier volumes. in the book series T*Witches, three girls looking to murder Cam and Alex call themselves "The Furies", as they live in underground caves. They are monsters in the series Percy Jackson and the Olympians. The Furies also feature in the television series Xena: Warrior Princess. In the fourth season of the TV show Charmed, Piper interferes with the Furies' business and becomes one herself. When a fury turns a witch it causes a portal of unexpressed rage to manifest itself, in this case, that of Piper's inner rage towards her sister Prue's death the previous season. In the computer game Freespace 2, the Erinyes class is a playable advanced assault fighter for the GTVA. It is considered one of the more advanced ships. In Stephen King's novel Rose Madder, Erinyes is the name of the blind bull which guards Rose Madder's baby at the heart of a labyrinth. Trivium's (American Thrash Metal band) fourth studio album Shogun features a song named "He Who Spawned the Furies" which lyrically deals with the tale of Cronos castrating his father and then eating his children. Roger Zelazny wrote a novelette entitled The Furies. In the tale the furies were three humans of unnatural power that set about to restore balance in the universe. It was published in his book Four For Tomorrow in 1967. In the computer games City of Heroes and City of Villains, two humans drink from the Well of the Furies and gain godly superpowers. They also open Pandora's Box, releasing the potential of human endeavour, heralding a golden age of superheroes. A song, "The Chorus of the Furies", sung in Latin by Faith and the Muse on the album Evidence of Heaven (Neue Ästhetik Multimedia) (1999). Francis Bacon: Seated Figure 1974. Painting. In the Harry Potter series, Alecto Carrow is a Death Eater who takes part in the attack on Dumbledore and later serves as a teacher at Hogwarts under Severus Snape. Helene Cixous wrote the play: 'La Ville parjure ou le réveil des Erinyes' which was performed by Theatre du Soleil (director - Ariane Mnoushkine) in 1994/5. See also Nemesis (mythology) Karma Lilith References Iliad xiv.274-9; xix.259f. Virgil, Aeneid vii, 324, 341, 415, 476. Burkert, Walter, 1977 (tr. 1985). 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4,338 | Commelinales | Commelinales is the botanical name of an order of flowering plants. It's considered that the Commelinales together with Zingiberales evolved in the Late Cretaceous around 80 millions of years ago. Two of the best-known genera in the order are Commelina and Tradescantia. In the APG II system, of 2003, the order is placed in the clade commelinids, in the monocots, and comprises the families Commelinaceae (the spiderwort family, about 650 species), Haemodoraceae (about 75 species of mostly southern hemisphere plants), Hanguanaceae (two species of tropical Asian plants), Philydraceae (five species of tropical Asian plants) and Pontederiaceae (about three dozen species of aquatic plants including water hyacinth). This represents a change from the APG system, of 1998, which had not included family Hanguanaceae in this order. In the Cronquist system, of 1981, this order was placed in subclass Commelinidae of class Liliopsida and copmrised the families Commelinaceae, Mayacaceae, Rapateaceae and Xyridaceae. External links NCBI Taxonomy Browser | Commelinales |@lemmatized commelinales:2 botanical:1 name:1 order:5 flower:1 plant:5 consider:1 together:1 zingiberales:1 evolve:1 late:1 cretaceous:1 around:1 million:1 year:1 ago:1 two:2 best:1 know:1 genus:1 commelina:1 tradescantia:1 apg:2 ii:1 system:3 place:2 clade:1 commelinids:1 monocot:1 comprise:1 family:4 commelinaceae:2 spiderwort:1 specie:5 haemodoraceae:1 mostly:1 southern:1 hemisphere:1 hanguanaceae:2 tropical:2 asian:2 philydraceae:1 five:1 pontederiaceae:1 three:1 dozen:1 aquatic:1 include:2 water:1 hyacinth:1 represent:1 change:1 cronquist:1 subclass:1 commelinidae:1 class:1 liliopsida:1 copmrised:1 mayacaceae:1 rapateaceae:1 xyridaceae:1 external:1 link:1 ncbi:1 taxonomy:1 browser:1 |@bigram southern_hemisphere:1 external_link:1 ncbi_taxonomy:1 |
4,339 | Library | Vancouver's public library. A library is a collection of sources, resources, and services, and the structure in which it is housed: it is organized for use and maintained by a public body, an institution, or a private individual. In the more traditional sense, a library is a collection of books. The term can mean the collection, the building that houses such a collection, or both. Public and institutional collections and services may be intended for use by people who choose not to — or cannot afford to — purchase an extensive collection themselves, who need material no individual can reasonably be expected to have, or who require professional assistance with their research. However, with the sets and collection of media and of media other than books for storing information, many libraries are now also repositories and access points for maps, prints, or other documents and various storage media such as microform (microfilm/microfiche), audio tapes, CDs, cassettes, videotapes, and DVDs. Libraries may also provide public facilities to access CD-ROMs, subscription databases, and the Internet. Thus, modern libraries are increasingly being redefined as places to get unrestricted access to information in many formats and from many sources. In addition to providing materials, they also provide the services of specialists, librarians, who are experts at finding and organizing information and at interpreting information needs. More recently, libraries are understood as extending beyond the physical walls of a building, by including material accessible by electronic means, and by providing the assistance of librarians in navigating and analyzing tremendous amounts of knowledge with a variety of digital tools. The term "library" has itself acquired a secondary meaning: "a collection of useful material for common use," and in this sense is used in fields such as computer science, mathematics and statistics, electronics and biology. Early history Antiquity The first two libraries were composed for the most part, of published records, a particular type of library called archives. Archaeological findings from the ancient city-states of Sumer have revealed temple rooms full of clay tablets in cuneiform script. These archives were made up almost completely of the records of commercial transactions or inventories, with only a few documents touching theological matters, historical records or legends. Things were much the same in the government and temple records on papyrus of Ancient Egypt. The earliest discovered private archives were kept at Ugarit; besides correspondence and inventories, texts of myths may have been standardized practice-texts for teaching new scribes. There is also evidence of libraries at Nippur about 1900 B.C. and those at Nineveh about 700 B.C. showing a library classification system. The American International Encyclopedia, J.J. Little & Ives, New York 1954, Volume IX Over 30,000 clay tablets from the Library of Ashurbanipal have been discovered at Ninevah http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/research_projects/ashurbanipal_library_phase_1.aspx "Assurbanipal Library Phase 1", British Museum One , providing archaeologists with an amazing wealth of Mesopotamian literary, religious and administrative work. Among the findings were the Enuma Elish , also known as the Epic of Creation, Epic of Creation in Dalley, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia. Oxford, 1989: pg.233-81 which depicts a traditional Babylonian view of creation, the Epic of Gilgamesh Epic of Gilgamesh in Dalley, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia. Oxford, 1989: pg.50-135 , a large selection of “omen texts” including Enuma Anu Enlil which “contained omens dealing with the moon, its visibility, eclipses, and conjunction with planets and fixed stars, the sun, its corona, spots, and eclipses, the weather, namely lightning, thunder, and clouds, and the planets and their visibility, appearance, and stations.” Van De Mieroop, Marc. A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000-323 BC. Oxford,UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2007: pg. 263 , and astronomic/astrological texts, as well as standard lists used by scribes and scholars such as word lists, bilingual vocabularies, lists of signs and synonyms, and lists of medical diagnoses. Libraries in Persian Empire During the Achaemenid Persian Empire (558–330 BC) the religious and scientific books of Persia since Zoroaster, were archived in the libraries of "Ganj-i-hapigan" in Takht-i-Suleiman and "Dez-i-Napesht" in Persepolis. Denkard (4:15) link These books were probably in the fields of philosophy, astronomy, alchemy and medical sciences, the fields in which Magus of Persia were master in. After the invasion of Persia by Alexander the Great all these books were burned. It has been mentioned in the book Arda Viraf that Arda Viraf (1:1:4-8) link : "He came to Persia with severe cruelty and war and devastation... and destroyed the metropolis and empire, and made them desolate... all the avesta and zand, written upon prepared cow-skins and with gold ink, was deposited in the archives... he burned them up." Libraries in the Hellenic world and Rome Private or personal libraries made up of non-fiction and fiction books (as opposed to the state or institutional records kept in archives) appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC. The celebrated book collectors of Hellenistic Antiquity were listed in the late second century in Deipnosophistae: Epitome of Book I Polycrates of Samos and Pisistratus who was tyrant of Athens, and Euclides who was himself also an Athenian Not the familiar Euclid. and Nicorrates of Samos and even the kings of Pergamos, and Euripides the poet and Aristotle the philosopher, and Nelius his librarian; from whom they say our countryman The writer was Alexandrian; the sophisticates in Deipnosophistae were at a banquet in Rome. Ptolemæus, surnamed Philadelphus, bought them all, and transported them, with all those which he had collected at Athens and at Rhodes to his own beautiful Alexandria. See Library of Alexandria. All these libraries were Greek; the cultivated Hellenized diners in Deipnosophistae pass over the libraries of Rome in silence. By the time of Augustus there were public libraries near the forums of Rome: there were libraries in the Porticus Octaviae near the Theatre of Marcellus, in the temple of Apollo Palatinus, and in the Biblioteca Ulpiana in the Forum of Trajan. The state archives were kept in a structure on the slope between the Roman Forum and the Capitoline Hill. Private libraries appeared during the late republic: Seneca inveighed against libraries fitted out for show by non-reading owners who scarcely read their titles in the course of a lifetime, but displayed the scrolls in bookcases (armaria) of citrus wood inlaid with ivory that ran right to the ceiling: "by now, like bathrooms and hot water, a library is got up as standard equipment for a fine house (domus). Seneca, De tranquillitate animi ix.4-7. Libraries were amenities suited to a villa, such as Cicero's at Tusculum, Maecenas's several villas, or Livy the Younger's, all described in surving letters. At the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, apparently the villa of Caesar's father-in-law, the Greek library has been partly preserved in volcanic ash; archaeologists speculate that a Latin library, kept separate from the Greek one, may await discovery at the site. In the West, the first public libraries were established under the Roman Empire as each succeeding emperor strove to open one or many which outshone that of his predecessor. Unlike the Greek libraries, readers had direct access to the scrolls, which were kept on shelves built into the walls of a large room. Reading or copying was normally done in the room itself. The surviving records give only a few instances of lending features. As a rule Roman public libraries were bilingual: they had a Latin room and a Greek room. Most of the large Roman baths were also cultural centers, built from the start with a library, with the usual two room arrangement for Greek and Latin texts. Libraries were filled with parchment scrolls as at Library of Pergamum and on papyrus scrolls as at Alexandria: export of prepared writing materials was a staple of commerce. There were a few institutional or royal libraries which were open to an educated public (like the Library of Alexandria, once the largest library in the ancient world), but on the whole collections were private. In those rare cases where it was possible for a scholar to consult library books there seems to have been no direct access to the stacks. In all recorded cases the books were kept in a relatively small room where the staff went to get them for the readers, who had to consult them in an adjoining hall or covered walkway. In the sixth century, at the very close of the Classical period, the great libraries of the Mediterranean world remained those of Constantinople and Alexandria. Cassiodorus, minister to Theodoric, established a monastery at Vivarium in the heel of Italy with a library where he attempted to bring Greek learning to Latin readers and preserve texts both sacred and secular for future generations. As its unofficial librarian, Cassiodorus not only collected as many manuscripts as he could, he also wrote treatises aimed at instructing his monks in the proper uses of reading and methods for copying texts accurately. In the end, however, the library at Vivarium was dispersed and lost within a century. Through Origen and especially the scholarly presbyter Pamphilus of Caesarea, an avid collector of books of Scripture, the theological school of Caesarea won a reputation for having the most extensive ecclesiastical library of the time, containing more than 30,000 manuscripts: Gregory Nazianzus, Basil the Great, Jerome and others came to study there. With education firmly in Christian hands, however, many of the works of classical antiquity were no longer considered useful. Old texts were washed off the valuable parchment and papyrus, which were reused, forming palimpsests. As scrolls gave way to the new book-form, the codex, which was universally used for Christian literature, old manuscript scrolls were cut apart and used to stiffen leather bindings. Ancient Chinese libraries Little is known about early Chinese libraries, save what is written about the imperial library which began with the Qin Dynasty. One of the curators of the imperial library in the Han Dynasty is believed to have been the first to establish a library classification system and the first book notation system. At this time the library catalog was written on scrolls of fine silk and stored in silk bags. Islamic libraries In Persia many libraries were established by the Zoroastrian elite and the Persian Kings. Among the first ones was a royal library in Isfahan. One of the most important public libraries established around 667 AD in south-western Iran was the Library of Gundishapur. It was a part of a bigger scientific complex located at the Academy of Gundishapur. Upon the rise of Islam, libraries in newly Islamic lands knew a brief period of expansion in the Middle East, North Africa, Sicily and Spain. Like the Christian libraries, they mostly contained books which were made of paper, and took a codex or modern form instead of scrolls; they could be found in mosques, private homes, and universities. In Aleppo, for example the largest and probably the oldest mosque library, the Sufiya, located at the city's Grand Umayyad Mosque, contained a large book collection of which 10,000 volumes were reportedly bequeathed by the city's most famous ruler, Prince Sayf al-Dawla. Some mosques sponsored public libraries. Ibn al-Nadim's bibliography Fihrist demonstrates the devotion of medieval Muslim scholars to books and reliable sources; it contains a description of thousands of books circulating in the Islamic world circa 1000, including an entire section for books about the doctrines of other religions. Unfortunately, modern Islamic libraries for the most part do not hold these antique books; many were lost, destroyed by Mongols, or removed to European libraries and museums during the colonial period. By the 8th century first Iranians and then Arabs had imported the craft of papermaking from China, with a paper mill already at work in Baghdad in 794. By the 9th century completely public libraries started to appear in many Islamic cities. They were called "halls of Science" or dar al-'ilm. They were each endowed by Islamic sects with the purpose of representing their tenets as well as promoting the dissemination of secular knowledge. The 9th century Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil of Iraq, even ordered the construction of a ‘zawiyat qurra literally an enclosure for readers which was `lavishly furnished and equipped.' In Shiraz Adhud al-Daula (d. 983) set up a library, described by the medieval historian, al-Muqaddasi, as`a complex of buildings surrounded by gardens with lakes and waterways. The buildings were topped with domes, and comprised an upper and a lower story with a total, according to the chief official, of 360 rooms.... In each department, catalogues were placed on a shelf... the rooms were furnished with carpets...'. The libraries often employed translators and copyists in large numbers, in order to render into Arabic the bulk of the available Persian, Greek, Roman and Sanskrit non-fiction and the classics of literature. This flowering of Islamic learning ceased centuries later when learning began declining in the Islamic world, after many of these libraries were destroyed by Mongol invasions. Others were victim of wars and religious strife in the Islamic world. However, a few examples of these medieval libraries, such as the libraries of Chinguetti in West Africa, remain intact and relatively unchanged even today. Another ancient library from this period which is still operational and expanding is the Central Library of Astan Quds Razavi in the Iranian city of Mashhad, which has been operating for more than six centuries.A number of distinct features of the modern library were introduced in the Islamic world, where libraries not only served as a collection of manuscripts as was the case in ancient libraries, but also as a public library and lending library, a centre for the instruction and spread of sciences and ideas, a place for meetings and discussions, and sometimes as a lodging for scholars or boarding school for pupils. The concept of the library catalogue was also introduced in medieval Islamic libraries, where books were organized into specific genres and categories. in The contents of these Islamic libraries were copied by Christian monks in Muslim/Christian border areas, particularly Spain and Sicily. From there they eventually made their way into other parts of Christian Europe. These copies joined works that had been preserved directly by Christian monks from Greek and Roman originals, as well as copies Western Christian monks made of Byzantine works. The resulting conglomerate libraries are the basis of every modern library today. Medieval Christian libraries With the retrenchment of literacy in the Roman west during the fourth and fifth centuries, fewer private libraries were maintained, and those in unfortified villas proved to be among their most combustible contents. In the Early Middle Ages, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and before the rise of the large Western Christian monastery libraries beginning at Montecassino, libraries were found in scattered places in the Christian Middle East. Medieval library design reflected the fact that these manuscripts —created via the labor-intensive process of hand copying— were valuable possessions. Library architecture developed in response to the need for security. Librarians often chained books to lecterns, armaria (wooden chests), or shelves, in well-lit rooms. Despite this protectiveness, many libraries were willing to lend their books if provided with security deposits (usually money or a book of equal value). Monastic libraries lent and borrowed books from each other frequently and lending policy was often theologically grounded. For example, the Franciscan monasteries loaned books to each other without a security deposit since according to their vow of poverty only the entire order could own property. In 1212 the council of Paris condemned those monasteries that still forbade loaning books, reminding them that lending is "one of the chief works of mercy." Lending meant more than just having another work to read to librarians; while the work was in their possession, it could be copied, thus enriching the library's own collecion. The book lent as a counter effort was often copied in the same way, so both libraries ended up having an additional title. The early libraries located in monastic cloisters and associated with scriptoria were collections of lecterns with books chained to them. Shelves built above and between back-to-back lecterns were the beginning of bookpresses. The chain was attached at the fore-edge of a book rather than to its spine. Book presses came to be arranged in carrels (perpendicular to the walls and therefore to the windows) in order to maximize lighting, with low bookcases in front of the windows. This stall system (fixed bookcases perpendicular to exterior walls pierced by closely spaced windows) was characteristic of English institutional libraries. In Continental libraries, bookcases were arranged parallel to and against the walls. This wall system was first introduced on a large scale in Spain's El Escorial. Early modern libraries Johannes Gutenberg's movable type innovation in the 1400s revolutionized bookmaking. From the 15th century in central and northern Italy, the assiduously assembled libraries of humanists and their enlightened patrons provided a nucleus around which an "academy" of scholars congregated in each Italian city of consequence. Cosimo de Medici in Florence established his own collection, which formed the basis of the Laurentian Library. Survivor: The History of the Library In Rome, the papal collections were brought together by Pope Nicholas V, in separate Greek and Latin libraries, and housed by Pope Sixtus IV, who consigned the Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana to the care of his librarian, the humanist Bartolomeo Platina in February 1475. This section on Roman Renaissance libraries follows Kenneth M. Setton, "From Medieval to Modern Library" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 104.4, Dedication of the APS Library Hall, Autumn General Meeting, November, 1959 (August 1960:371-390) p372ff. In the 16th century Sixtus V bisected Bramante's Cortile del Belvedere with a cross-wing to house the Apostolic Library in suitable magnificence. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw other privately-endowed libraries assembled in Rome: the Vallicelliana, formed from the books of Saint Filippo Neri, with other distinguished libraries such as that of Cesare Baronio, the Biblioteca Angelica founded by the Augustinian Angelo Rocca, which was the only truly public library in Counter-Reformation Rome; the Biblioteca Alessandrina with which Pope Alexander VII endowed the University of Rome; the Biblioteca Casanatense of the Cardinal Girolamo Casanate; and finally the Biblioteca Corsiniana founded by the bibliophile Clement XII Corsini and his nephew Cardinal Neri Corsini, still housed in Palazzo Corsini in via della Lungara. A lot of factors combined to create a "golden age of libraries" between 1600 and 1700: The quantity of books had gone up, as the cost had gone down, there was a renewal in the interest of classical literature and culture, nationalism was encouraging nations to build great libraries, universities were playing a more prominent role in education, and renaissance thinkers and writers were producing great works. Some of the more important libraries include the Bodleian Library at Oxford, the Library of the British Museum, the Mazarine Library in Paris, and the National Central Library in Italy, the Prussian State Library, the M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin State Public Library of St. Petersburg, and many more. Public libraries The Public Library of Police County in Police, a town in Pomerania, Poland The earliest example in England of a library to be endowed for the benefit of users who were not members of an institution such as a cathedral or college was the Francis Trigge Chained Library in Grantham, Lincolnshire, established in 1598. The library still exists and can justifiably claim to be the forerunner of later public library systems.The beginning of the modern, free, open access libraries really got its start in the U.K. in 1847. Parliament appointed a committee, led by William Ewart, on Public Libraries to consider the necessity of establishing libraries through the nation: In 1849 their report noted the poor condition of library service, it recommended the establishment of free public libraries all over the country, and it led to the Public Libraries Act in 1850, which allowed all cities with populations exceeding 10,000 to levy taxes for the support of public libraries. Another important act was the 1870 Public School Law, which increased literacy, thereby the demand for libraries, so by 1877, more than 75 cities had established free libraries, and by 1900 the number had reached 300. This finally marks the start of the public library as we know it. And these acts led to similar laws in other countries, most notably the U.S. 1876 is a well known year in the history of librarianship in the United States. The American Library Association was formed, as well as The American Library Journal, Melvil Dewey published his decimal based system of classification, and the United States Bureau of Education published its report, "Public libraries in the United States of America; their history, condition, and management." During the post-Civil War years, there was a rise in the establishment of public libraries, a movement led chiefly by newly formed women's clubs. They contributed their own collections of books, conducted lengthy fundraising campaigns for buildings, and lobbied within their communities for financial support for libraries, as well as with legislatures and the Carnegie Library Endowment founded in the 20th century. Paula D. Watson, “Founding Mothers: The Contribution of Women’s Organizations to Public Library Development in the United States”, Library Quarterly, Vol. 64, Issue 3, 1994, p.236 They led the establishment of 75-80 percent of the libraries in communities across the country. Teva Scheer, “The “Praxis” Side of the Equation: Club Women and American Public Administration”, Administrative Theory & Praxis, Vol. 24, Issue 3, 2002, p.525 The American Library Association continues to play a major role in libraries to this day, and Dewey's classification system, although under heavy criticism of late, still remains the prevailing method of classifing used in the United States. As the number of books in libraries increased, so did the need for compact storage and access with adequate lighting, giving birth to the stack system, which involved keeping a library's collection of books in a space separate from the reading room. This arrangement arose in the 19th century. Book stacks quickly evolved into a fairly standard form in which the cast iron and steel frameworks supporting the bookshelves also supported the floors, which often were built of translucent blocks to permit the passage of light (but were not transparent, for reasons of modesty). The introduction of electrical lighting had a huge impact on how the library operated. The use of glass floors was largely discontinued, though floors were still often composed of metal grating to allow air to circulate in multi-story stacks. As more space was needed, a method of moving shelves on tracks (compact shelving) was introduced to cut down on otherwise wasted aisle space. Library 2.0, a term coined in 2005, is the library's response to the challenge of Google and an attempt to meet the changing needs of users by using web 2.0 technology. Some of the aspects of Library 2.0 include, commenting, tagging, bookmarking, discussions, using social software, plug-ins, and widgets. Inspired by web 2.0, it is an attempt to make the library a more user-driven institution. Types of libraries The William and Anita Newman Library, the library of Baruch College features multiple floors with Wi-Fi access and "studypods" (personal seating and an AC outlet for laptops, all for studying). Located in Manhattan, New York City. Smaller libraries can sometimes be found in private homes. A college library at the University of Florida. Libraries can be divided into categories by several methods: by the entity (institution, municipality, or corporate body) that supports or perpetuates them academic libraries corporate libraries government libraries historical society libraries private libraries public libraries school libraries special libraries by the type of documents or materials they hold data libraries digital libraries picture (photograph) libraries slide libraries tool libraries by the subject matter of documents they hold architecture libraries fine arts libraries law libraries medical libraries theological libraries (See: Theological Libraries and Librarianship) by the users they serve military communities users who are blind or visually/physically handicapped (see National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped) by traditional professional divisions Academic libraries — These libraries are located on the campuses of colleges and universities and serve primarily the students and faculty of that and other academic institutions. Some academic libraries, especially those at public institutions, are accessible to members of the general public in whole or in part. Public libraries or public lending libraries — These libraries provide service to the general public and make at least some of their books available for borrowing, so that readers may use them at home over a period of days or weeks. Typically, libraries issue library cards to community members wishing to borrow books. Many public libraries also serve as community organizations that provide free services and events to the public, such as reading groups and toddler story time. Research libraries — These libraries are intended for supporting scholarly research, and therefore maintain permanent collections and attempt to provide access to all necessary material. Research libraries are most often academic libraries or national libraries, but many large special libraries have research libraries within their special field and a very few of the largest public libraries also serve as research libraries. School libraries — Most public and private primary and secondary schools have libraries designed to support the school's curriculum. Special libraries — All other libraries fall into this category. Many private businesses and public organizations, including hospitals, museums, research laboratories, law firms, and many government departments and agencies, maintain their own libraries for the use of their employees in doing specialized research related to their work. Special libraries may or may not be accessible to some identified part of the general public. Branches of a large academic or research libraries dealing with particular subjects are also usually called "special libraries": they are generally associated with one or more academic departments. Special libraries are distinguished from special collections, which are branches or parts of a library intended for rare books, manuscripts, and similar material. The final method of dividing library types is also the simplest. Many institutions make a distinction between circulating libraries (where materials are expected and intended to be loaned to patrons, institutions, or other libraries) and collecting libraries (where the materials are selected on a basis of their natures or subject matter). Many modern libraries are a mixture of both, as they contain a general collection for circulation, and a reference collection which is often more specialized, as well as restricted to the library premises. Also, the governments of most major countries support national libraries. Three noteworthy examples are the U.S. Library of Congress, Canada's Library and Archives Canada, and the British Library. A typically broad sample of libraries in one state in the U.S. can be explored at Every Library In Illinois. Organization Libraries usually contain long aisles with rows of books. Libraries have materials arranged in a specified order according to a library classification system, so that items may be located quickly and collections may be browsed efficiently. Some libraries have additional galleries beyond the public ones, where reference materials are stored. These reference stacks may be open to selected members of the public. Others require patrons to submit a "stack request," which is a request for an assistant to retrieve the material from the closed stacks. Larger libraries are often broken down into departments staffed by both paraprofessionals and professional librarians. Circulation - Handles user accounts and the loaning/returning and shelving of materials. Collection Development - Orders materials and maintains materials budgets. Reference - Staffs a reference desk answering user questions (using structured reference interviews), instructing users, and developing library programming. Reference may be further broken down by user groups or materials; common collections are children's literature, young adult literature, and genealogy materials. Technical Services - Works behind the scenes cataloguing and processing new materials and deaccessioning weeded materials. Stacks Maintenance - Reshelves materials that have been returned to the library after patron use and shelves materials that have been processed by Technical Services. Stacks Maintenance also shelf reads the material in the stacks to ensure that it is in the correct library classification order. Library use The Vietnam Center and Archive, which contains the largest collection of Vietnam War-related holdings outside the U.S. federal government, catalogs much of its material on the Internet. Patrons may not know how to fully use the library's resources. This can be due to some individuals' unease in approaching a staff member. Ways in which a library's content is displayed or accessed may have the most impact on use. An antiquated or clumsy search system, or staff unwilling or untrained to engage their patrons, will limit a library's usefulness. In United States public libraries, beginning in the 19th century, these problems drove the emergence of the library instruction movement, which advocated library user education. One of the early leaders was John Cotton Dana. The basic form of library instruction is generally known as information literacy. Libraries inform their users of what materials are available in their collections and how to access that information. Before the computer age, this was accomplished by the card catalog — a cabinet containing many drawers filled with index cards that identified books and other materials. In a large library, the card catalog often filled a large room. The emergence of the Internet, however, has led to the adoption of electronic catalog databases (often referred to as "webcats" or as online public access catalogs, OPACs), which allow users to search the library's holdings from any location with Internet access. This style of catalog maintenance is compatible with new types of libraries, such as digital libraries and distributed libraries, as well as older libraries that have been retrofitted. Electronic catalog databases are criticized by some who believe that the old card catalog system was both easier to navigate and allowed retention of information, by writing directly on the cards, that is lost in the electronic systems. This argument is analogous to the debate over paper books and e-books. While libraries have been accused of precipitously throwing out valuable information in card catalogs, most modern ones have nonetheless made the move to electronic catalog databases. Large libraries may be scattered within multiple buildings across a town, each having multiple floors, with multiple rooms housing the resources across a series of shelves. Once a user has located a resource within the catalog, they must then use navigational guidance to retrieve the resource physically; a process that may be assisted through signage, maps, GPS systems or RFID tagging. Finland has the highest number of registered book borrowers per capita in the world. Over half of Finland's population are registered borrowers. The humble Number One: Finland — Virtual Finland In the U.S., public library users have borrowed roughly 15 books per user per year from 1856 to 1978. From 1978 to 2004, book circulation per user declined approximately 50%. The growth of audiovisuals circulation, estimated at 25% of total circulation in 2004, accounts for about half of this decline. Statistics on Book Circulation Per User of U.S. Public Libraries Since 1856 Library management Basic tasks in library management include the planning of acquisitions (which materials the library should acquire, by purchase or otherwise), library classification of acquired materials, preservation of materials (especially rare and fragile archival materials such as manuscripts), the deaccessioning of materials, patron borrowing of materials, and developing and administering library computer systems. More long-term issues include the planning of the construction of new libraries or extensions to existing ones, and the development and implementation of outreach services and reading-enhancement services (such as adult literacy and children's programming). See public library for funding issues for public libraries. Famous libraries Library of Alençon (built c. 1800) Some of the greatest libraries in the world are research libraries. The most famous ones include The Humanities and Social Sciences Library of the New York Public Library in New York City, the National Library of Russia in St Petersburg, the British Library in London, Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris, National Library of Spain in Madrid, and the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.. Abbey library of St. Gallen founded in 612 and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Ambrosian Library in Milan opened to the public, December 8, 1609. Baghdad's House of Wisdom, founded in 8th century AD. Bibliothèque Nationale de France (BNF) in Paris, 1720. Bodleian Library at University of Oxford 1602, books collection begin around 1252. Boston Public Library in Boston, 1826. British Library in London created in 1973 by the British Library Act of 1972 (Originally part of the British Museum founded 1753). British Library of Political and Economic Science in London, 1896. Butler Library at Columbia University, 1934 Cairo - Egypt's library of Cairo, founded in the 10th century Cambridge University Library at University of Cambridge, 1931. Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh in Pittsburgh, 1895. Carnegie library Total of 2,509, between 1883 and 1929. Carolina Rediviva at Uppsala University, 1841. Chetham's Library in Manchester, the oldest surviving public library in England Dutch Royal Library in The Hague, 1798. Egypt's Library of Alexandria (founded in 3rd century BC) and modern Bibliotheca Alexandrina. Firestone Library at Princeton University, 1948 Fisher Library at the University of Sydney (largest in the Southern Hemisphere), 1908 Franklin Public Library in Franklin, Massachusetts (the first public library in the U.S.; original books donated by Benjamin Franklin in 1731) Free Library of Philadelphia in Philadelphia established February 18, 1891. Garrison Library in Gibraltar, 1793. Geisel Library of UCSD, part of University of California, San Diego. Harold B. Lee Library at Brigham Young University, 1924. Haskell Free Library and Opera House, which straddles the Canada-US border. House of Commons Library, Westminster, London. Established 1818. Islamic Spain's library of Cordoba, founded in 9th century. Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh, founded between 669-631 BC. The European Library, 2004 Tripoli's Dar il-'ilm, destroyed in 1109. ITU Mustafa Inan Library. Established 1795. The largest collection on technical (science and engineering) materials in Turkey. Jagiellonian Library at Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Poland, 1364. Jenkins Law Library in Philadelphia founded 1802. John Rylands Library in Manchester 1899 Leiden University Library at Leiden University in Leiden began at 1575 with confiscated monastery books. Officially open in October 31, 1587. Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. 1800 Library of Sir Thomas Browne, 1711 Mitchell Library in Glasgow (one of the largest public references libraries in Europe) Multnomah County Library in Oregon, largest public library west of the Mississippi River, 1864. National Library of Australia in Canberra, Australia National Library of Belarus in Minsk, 1922 National Library of Iran, 1937 National Library of Ireland in Dublin, 1877 National library of Israel (formerly: Jewish National and University Library) in Jerusalem, Israel, 1892. National Library of Scotland in Edinburgh, 1925 National Library of Spain in Madrid, 1711 National Library of Wales in Aberystwyth, 1907 New York Public Library in New York Osler Library of the History of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Canada Powell Library at UCLA, part of the UCLA Library. Regenstein Library at the University of Chicago, one of the largest repositories of books in the world. Royal Library in Copenhagen, 1793. Russian State Library in Moscow, 1862. Sassanid's ancient Library of Gondishapur around 489. Seattle Central Library Staatsbibliothek in Berlin State Library of New South Wales in Sydney State Library of Victoria in Melbourne Sterling Memorial Library at Yale University, 1931. St. Mary's Church, Reigate, Surrey houses the first public lending library in England. Opened 14 March 1701. The St. Philip's Church Parsonage Provincial Library, established in 1698 in Charleston, South Carolina, was the first public lending library in the American Colonies. See also Benjamin Franklin's free public library in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Trinity College Library, in Trinity College, Dublin, the largest library in Ireland. Since 1592. Vatican Library in Vatican City, 1448 (but existed before). Wellcome Library in London Widener Library at Harvard University (Harvard University Library including all branches has the largest academic collection overall.) Some libraries devoted to a single subject: Chess libraries Esperanto libraries Family History Library in Salt Lake City, Utah, the world's largest genealogy library. For more extensive lists, see List of libraries that are the subject of a Wikipedia article List of libraries List of national libraries Standardization ISO has published several standards regarding the management of libraries. The following is the list of, but not limited to, some of them. ISO 2789:2006 Information and documentation — International library statistics ISO 11620:1998 Information and documentation — Library performance indicators ISO 11799:2003 Information and documentation — Document storage requirements for archive and library materials ISO 14416:2003 Information and documentation — Requirements for binding of books, periodicals, serials and other paper documents for archive and library use — Methods and materials ISO/TR 20983:2003 Information and documentation — Performance indicators for electronic library services See also American Library Association Angus Snead Macdonald Archive Bookend Bookcase Digital library Carnegie library Chinese Library Classification (CLC) Controlled vocabulary Dewey Decimal Classification Digital reference services Document management system Federal depository library Friends of Libraries Green library Harvard-Yenching Classification Interlibrary loan International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions Librarian Library 2.0 Library science Library catalog Library of Congress Classification Library of Congress Subject Headings Library Services and Construction Act Literature National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped One Person Library Open access (publishing) Paper Printmaking Public Library of Science Research library Slide library Special library Special Libraries Association Tool-lending Libraries References External links Directories of libraries American Library Association's list of largest US libraries lib-web-cats: A directory of over 39,000 worldwide libraries spanning 139 countries maintained by Marshall Breeding LibLinks - Directory of library resource links organized by US states LibWeb - Directory of library servers via WWW Libraries of the World and their Catalogues compiled by a retired librarian National libraries of Europe UNESCO Libraries Portal - Over 14000 links worldwide Other resources Centre for the History of the Book Wikisource, The Free Library'' Libraries: Frequently Asked Questions International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions Professional Library Associations from Jenkins Law Library A Library Primer, by John Cotton Dana, 1903, setting out the basics of organizing and running a library Memory’s Library explores the origins of the modern library A Compendium of Beautiful Libraries be-x-old:Бібліятэка | Library |@lemmatized vancouver:1 public:60 library:377 collection:28 source:3 resource:7 service:15 structure:3 house:10 organize:5 use:20 maintain:5 body:2 institution:10 private:11 individual:3 traditional:3 sense:2 book:54 term:4 mean:3 building:6 institutional:4 may:15 intend:4 people:1 choose:1 cannot:1 afford:1 purchase:2 extensive:3 need:6 material:35 reasonably:1 expect:2 require:2 professional:4 assistance:2 research:12 however:5 set:3 medium:3 store:3 information:13 many:19 also:19 repository:2 access:14 point:1 map:2 print:1 document:7 various:1 storage:3 microform:1 microfilm:1 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4,340 | Kurt_Schwitters | Kurt Hermann Eduard Karl Julius Schwitters (20 June 1887 - 8 January 1948) was a German painter who was born in Hanover, Germany. Schwitters worked in several genres and media, including Dada, Constructivism, Surrealism, poetry, sound, painting, sculpture, graphic design, typography and what came to be known as installation art. He is most famous for his collages, called Merz Pictures. Early influences and the beginnings of Merz Das Undbild, 1919, Staatsgalerie Stuttgart Hanover Kurt Schwitters was born on 20 June 1887, at No.2 Rumannstraße, Hanover, the only child of Edward Schwitters and his wife Henriette (née Beckemeyer). His parents were propietors of a ladies' clothes shop. They sold the business in 1898, using the money to buy five properties in Hanover which they rented out, allowing the family to live off the income for the rest of Schwitter's life in Germany. In 1901 the family moved to Waldstraße (later Waldhausenstraße) 5, future site of the Merzbau. The same year, Schwitters suffered his first epileptic seizure, a condition that would exempt him from military service in World War I until the last stages of the conflict, when conscription began to be applied to a far wider section of the population. After studying art at the Dresden Academy alongside Otto Dix and George Grosz, (although Schwitters seems to have been unaware of their work, or indeed of contemporary Dresden artists Die Brücke Dada, Leah Dickerman, National Gallery of Art, Washington p158 ), 1909-14, Schwitters returned to Hanover and started his artistic career as a post-impressionist. As the First World War progressed, however, his work became darker, gradually developing a distinctive expressionist tone. Expressionism was a predominantly German artistic movement best exemplified by Die Brücke, and by the paintings of Emil Nolde and Ernst Kirchner in particular. In 1918, his art was to change dramatically as a direct consequence of Germany's economic, political and military collapse at the end of the First World War. "In the war, things were in terrible turmoil. What I had learned at the academy was of no use to me and the useful new ideas were still unready.... Everything had broken down and new things had to be made out of the fragments; and this is Merz. It was like a revolution within me, not as it was, but as it should have been." The Collages of Kurt Schwitters, Dietrich, Cambridge University Press 1993, p6-7 Der Sturm Schwitters was to come into contact with Herwarth Walden after exhibiting expressionist paintings at the Hanover Secession in February 1918. He showed two Abstraktionen (semi-abstract expressionist landscapes) at Walden's gallery Der Sturm, Berlin, June 1918 Dada, Leah Dickerman, National Gallery of Art, Washington p432 , which led directly to meetings with members of the Berlin Avant-garde, including Raoul Hausmann, Hannah Höch and Hans Arp in the autumn of 1918. Kurt and Ernst Schwitters Archive . Whilst Schwitters still created work in an expressionist style into 1919 (and would continue to paint realist pictures up to his death in 1948), the first abstract collages, influenced in particular by recent works by Hans Arp, would appear in late 1918, which Schwitters dubbed Merz after a fragment of found text from the sentence Commerz Und Privatbank in his picture Das Merzbild, Winter 1918-19. Kur Schwitters, Center George Pompidou, 1994, p47 The Merzbild can be seen in the centre of the Entartete Kunst (Degenerate Art) exhibition, 1937, directly below the phrase 'Nehmen Sie Dada Ernst', and was presumably destroyed by the Nazis shortly afterwards. By the end of 1919 he'd become famous, after his first one-man exhibition at Der Sturm gallery, June 1919, and the publication that August of the poem An Anna Blume (usually translated as 'To Anna Flower', or 'To Eve Blossom'), a dadaist non-sensical love poem. Schwitters spent most of the war working as a technical draftsman in a factory just outside Hanover. He was drafted into the 73rd Hanoverian Regiment in March 1917, but exempted as unfit in June of the same year. By his own account, his time as a draftsman influenced his later work, using Machines as metaphors of human activity. "In the war [at the machine factory at Wülfen] I discovered my love for the wheel and recognized that machines are abstractions of the human spirit." Quoted in The Collages of Kurt Schwitters, Dietrich, Cambridge University Press 1993, p86 He married his cousin Helma Fischer on 5 October 1915. Their first son, Gerd, died within a week of birth, 9 September 1916; their second, Ernst, was born on 16 November 1918, and was to remain close to his father for the rest of his life, up to and including a shared exile in London together. Dada and Merz Cover of Anna Blume, Dichtungen, 1919 Schwitters asked to join Berlin Dada either in late 1918 or early 1919; According to Raoul Hausmann, Richard Huelsenbeck rejected the application because of Schwitters' links to Der Sturm and to Expressionism in general, which was seen by the Dadaists as hopelessly romantic and obsessed with Aesthetics. note 23 Ridiculed by Huelsenbeck as ‘the Caspar David Friedrich of the Dadaist Revolution’ quoted in The Grove Dictionary of Art, Oxford University Press, 1996, Essay on Kurt Schwittters by Richard Humphreys , he would reply with an absurdist short story Franz Mullers Drahtfrühling, Ersters Kapitel: Ursachen und Beginn der grossen glorreichen Revolution in Revon published in Der Sturm (xiii/11, 1922), which featured an innocent bystander who started a revolution 'merely by being there'. Richard Humphreys, quoted in Though not a direct participant in Berlin Dada's activities, he employed Dadaist ideas in his work, used the word itself on the cover of Anna Blume, and would later give Dada recitals throughout Europe on the subject with Theo Van Doesburg, Tristan Tzara, Hans Arp and Raoul Hausmann. In many ways his work was more in tune with Zürich Dada's championing of performance and abstract art than Berlin Dada's agit-prop approach, and indeed examples of his work were published in the last Zürich dada publication, der Zeltweg, Dada, Leah Dickerman, National Gallery of Art Washington, p167 November 1919, alongside the work of Arp and Sophie Tauber. Whilst his work was far less political than key figures in Berlin Dada, such as George Grosz and John Heartfield, he would remain close friends with various members, including Hannah Hoch and Raoul Hausmann for the rest of his career. Merz has been called 'Psychological Collage'. Most of the works attempt to make coherent aesthetic sense of the world around Schwitters, using fragments of found objects. These fragments often make witty allusions to current events. (Merzpicture 29a, Picture with Turning Wheel, 1920 In the Beginning Was Merz, Mayer-Buser, Orchard, Hatje Cantz, p55 for instance, combines a series of wheels that only turn clockwise, alluding to the general drift Rightwards across Germany after the Spartacist Uprising in January that year, whilst Mai 191(9), The Collages Of Kurt Schwitters, Dietrich, Cambridge, 1993, p111 alludes to the strikes organized by the Bavarian Workers' and Soldiers' Council.) Autobiographical elements also abound; test prints of graphic designs; bus tickets; ephemera given by friends. Later collages would feature proto-pop mass media images. (En Morn, 1947, for instance, has a print of a blonde young girl included, prefiguring the early work of Eduardo Paolozzi, In The Beginning Was Merz, Meyer-Buser, Orchard, Hatje Cantz, p186 whilst many works seem to have directly influenced Robert Rauschenberg, who said after seeing an exhibition of Schwitters' work at the Sidney Janis Gallery, 1959, that "I felt like he made it all just for me.") Quoted in Rauschenberg/Art and Life, Mary Lynn Kotz, Harry N Abrams, p91 He was to use the term Merz for the rest of his career. Whilst these works were usually collages incorporating found objects, such as bus tickets, old wire and fragments of newsprint, Merz also included artist's periodicals, sculptures, sound poems and what would later be called "installations". Internationalism 1922-37 Untitled (Oval Construction), c.1925, Yale University Art Gallery Merz (Periodical) As the political climate in Germany became more liberal and stable, Schwitters' work became less influenced by Cubism and Expressionism. He started to organise and participate in lecture tours with other members of the international avant-garde, such as Hans Arp, Raoul Hausmann and Tristan Tzara, touring Czechoslovakia, Holland, and Germany with provocative evening recitals and lectures. Schwitters published a periodical, also called Merz, between 1923-32, in which each issue was devoted to a central theme. Merz 5, 1923, for instance, was a portfolio of prints by Hans Arp, Merz 8/9, 1924, was edited and typeset by El Lissitsky, Merz 14/15, 1925, was a typographical children's story entitled The Scarecrow by Schwitters, Kätte Steinitz and Theo Van Doesburg. The last edition, Merz 24, 1932, was a complete transcription of the final draft of the Ursonate, with typography by Jan Tschichold. His work in this period became increasingly Modernist in spirit, with far less overtly political context and a cleaner style, in keeping with contemporary work by Hans Arp and Piet Mondrian. His friendship around this time with El Lissitzky proved particularly influential, and Merz pictures in this period show the direct influence of Constructivism. Thanks to Schwitters' lifelong patron and friend Katherine Dreier, his work was exhibited regularly in the US from 1920 onwards. In the late 1920s he became a well-known typographer; his best-known work was the catalogue for the Dammerstocksiedlung in Karlsruhe. After the demise of Der Sturm Gallery in 1924 he ran an advertising agency called Merzwerbe, which held the accounts for Pelikan inks and Bahlsen biscuits, amongst others, and became the official typographer for Hannover town council between 1929 and 1934. Oxford Art Online, Subscription Only Many of these designs, as well as test prints and proof sheets, were to crop up in contemporary Merz pictures. In a manner similar to the typographic experimentation by Herbert Bayer at the Bauhaus, and Jan Tschichold's Die neue Typographie, Schwitters experimented with the creation of a new more phonetic alphabet in 1927. Some of his types were cast and used in his work. A digital revival of Schwitters' 1927 typeface called Architype Schwitters was released in 1997 . In the late 1920s Schwitters joined the Deutscher Werkbund (German Work Federation). The Merzbau The Merzbau, Hanover, 1933 Alongside his collages, Schwitters also dramatically altered the interiors of a number of spaces throughout his life. The most famous was The Merzbau, the transformation of six (or possibly more) rooms of the family house in Hannover, Waldhausenstrasse 5. This took place very gradually; work started in about 1923, the first room was finished in 1933, and Schwitters subsequently extended the Merzbau to other areas of the house until he fled to Norway in early 1937. Most of the house was let to tenants, so that the final extent of the Merzbau was less than is normally assumed. On the evidence of Schwitters' correspondence, by 1937 it had spread to two rooms of his parents' apartment on ground floor, the adjoining balcony, the space below the balcony, one or two rooms of the attic and possibly part of the cellar. In 1943 it was destroyed in a bombing raid. Early photos show the Merzbau with a grotto-like surface and various columns and sculptures, possibly referring to similar pieces by Dadaists, including the Great Plasto-Dio-Dada-Drama by Johannes Baader, shown at the first International Dada Fair, Berlin, 1920. Work by Hannah Höch, Raoul Hausmann and Sophie Tauber, amongst others, were incorporated into the fabric of the installation. By 1933, it had been transformed into a sculptural environment, and three photos from this year show a series of angled surfaces aggressively protruding into a room painted largely in white, with a series of Tableaux spread across the surfaces. In his essay 'Ich und meine Ziele' in Merz 21, Schwitters referred to the first column of his work as the Cathedral Of Erotic Misery. There is no evidence that he used this name after 1930, however. The first use of the word 'Merzbau' occurs in 1933. Photos of the Merzbau were reproduced in the journal of the Paris-based group abstraction-création in 1933-4, and were exhibited in MoMA in New York in late 1936. The Sprengel Museum in Hanover has a reconstruction of the first room of the 'Merzbau, Kurt Schwitters Merzbau in Hannover 1933 . Schwitters later created a similar environment in the garden of his house in Lysaker, near Oslo, known as the Haus am Bakken (the house on the slope). This was almost complete when Schwitters left Norway for England in 1940. It burnt down in 1951 and no photos survive. The last Merzbau, in Elterwater, Cumbria, England, remained incomplete on Schwitters' death in January 1948. A further environment that also served as living space can still be seen on the island of Hjertoya near Molde, Norway. It is sometimes described as a fourth Merzbau, although Schwitters himself only ever referred to three. The Ursonate Schwitters composed and performed an early example of sound poetry, Ursonate (1922-32; a translation of the title is Original Sonata or Primeval Sonata). The poem was influenced by Raoul Hausmann's poem "fmsbw" which Schwitters' heard recited by Hausmann in Prague, 1921. UbuWeb; Sound Schwitters performed the piece regularly, developing and extending it, until finally publishing his notations for the recital in the last Merz periodical, 1932. Exile Norway and Great Britain The political situation in Germany under the Nazis continued to deteriorate throughout the 1930s; he lost his contract with Hanover City Council in 1934 and examples of his work in German museums were confiscated and publicly ridiculed in 1935. By the time his close friends Christof and Luise Spengemann and their son Walter were arrested by the Gestapo in August 1936 Schwitters Archive Online the situation had clearly become perilous. On 2 January 1937 Schwitters, wanted for an 'interview' with the Gestapo, Stunned Art fled Hanover to join his son Ernst in Norway, who had already left Germany on the 26th December, 1936. His wife Helma decided to remain in Hanover, to manage their four properties. Kurt and Ernst Schwitters Archive In the same year, his Merz pictures were included in the Nazi exhibition titled "entartete Kunst" in Munich, making his return impossible. Helma visited for a few months each year up to the outbreak of World War II. The joint celebrations for his mother Henriette's 80th birthday and his son Ernst's engagement, held in Oslo on 2 June 1939, would be the last time the two met. Schwitters started a second Merzbau while in exile in Lysaker nearby Oslo, Norway in 1937 but abandoned it in 1940 when the Nazis invaded; this Merzbau was subsequently destroyed in a fire in 1951. His hut on the Norwegian island of Hjertoya, near Molde, is also frequently regarded as a Merzbau. This building has been more or less left to rot since 1940. After a short period of internment on the Lofoten Islands, Schwitters fled to Scotland with his son on the icebreaker Fridtjof Nansen between 8th and 18th June 1940. By now an enemy alien, he was moved between various internment camps in Scotland and England before ending up spending a year and a half in Douglas Camp, Isle of Man. Whilst there, he staged regular Merz recitals, including a performance of Silence, his first poem in English, but was apparently seen as a somewhat pathetic irrelevant figure by other artists at the camp. Oxford Art Online, Subscription only "I am now the last artist here- all the others are free. But all things are equal. If I stay here, then I have plenty to occupy myself. If I am released, then I will enjoy freedom. If I manage to leave for the U.S., then I will be over there. You carry your own joy with you wherever you go." Letter to Helma Schwitters, April 1941. quoted in Kurt Schwitters, Cntre George Pompidou, 1995, p310 After intervention from Alexander Dorner, Rhode Island School of Design, Schwitters was finally released on the 21st November 1941. He spent time in London, then in 1945 moved to the Lake District, where, in August 1947, he began work on the last Merzbau, which he called the Merzbarn. Made possible by a grant from MOMA that had originally been intended to help restore the Hannover original, one wall of this last structure is now in the Hatton Gallery in Newcastle; the shell of the barn remains in Elterwater, near Ambleside. The site has now been purchased from its former owners and will house a digital replica of the wall in Newcastle, and, eventually, a Kurt Schwitters study centre. His wife Helma died of cancer on 29 October 1944, although Schwitters only heard of her death in December; at about the same time, he discovered that the Merzbau had been destroyed during an allied air raid. After his son returned to Norway, he left London with his new companion, Edith Thomas, (known as 'Wantee' for her habit of always asking guests if they'd like a cup of tea) for the Lake District on 27 June 1945. The last years For Käte, 1947 Private Collection Cut off from the centres of the European Avant-Garde, and with International Modernism beleaguered by rising tides of nationalism across Europe, Schwitters' work in exile became increasingly organic, with natural forms and muted colours replacing the mass produced ephemera of previous years. Pictures such as Small Merzpicture With Many Parts 1945-6 In The Beginning Was Merz, Meyer-Buser, Orchard, Hatje Kantz, p163 used objects found on a beach, including pebbles and smooth shards of porcelain. After the war, his friend Käte Steinitz started to send letters back to Schwitters from the United States, where she had emigrated in 1936. She described life in the emerging consumer society, and wrapped the letters in pages of comics to give a flavour of the new world. In The Beginning Was Merz, Meyer-Buser, Orchard, Hatje Kantz, p292 She encouraged Schwitters to 'Merz' this ephemera, the result of which was a sequence of proto-pop art pictures such as For Käte, 1947. Plagued by health problems in his remaining years, including temporary blindness in 1946 and a number of strokes, Schwitters died in Kendal, England, January 8th, 1948, of a heart attack, and was buried in Ambleside. His grave was unmarked until 1966 when a stone was erected with the inscription Kurt Schwitters – Creator of Merz. The stone remains as a memorial even though his body was later disinterred and reburied in Hanover, Germany, the grave being marked with a marble copy of his 1929 sculpture Die Herbstzeitlose. Posthumous reputation Influences Many artists have cited Schwitters as a major influence, including Ed Ruscha, Interview by Richard Prince of Ed Ruscha Robert Rauschenberg, Exhibition at the Centre Pompidou Damien Hirst, Tate Online; See under The Artist>Biography Al Hansen, Catalogue by claudia zanfi, exhibition Milan 2003 and Arman. Grove Online Dictionary of Art, available subscription only "The language of Merz now finds common acceptance and today there is scarcely an artist working with materials other than paint who does not refer to Schwitters in some way. In his bold and wide-ranging experiments he can be seen as the grandfather of Pop Art, Happenings, Concept Art, Fluxus, multimedia art and post-modernism." Gwendolyn Webster Artchive Online Marlborough Gallery controversy Schwitters' son, Ernst, largely entrusted the artistic estate of his father to Gilbert Lloyd, director of the Marlborough Gallery. However, Ernst fell victim to a crippling stroke in 1995, moving control of the estate as a whole to Kurt's grandson, Bengt Schwitters. Controversy erupted when Bengt, who has said he has "no interest in art and his grandfather's works", terminated the standing agreement between the family and the Marlborough Gallery. The Marlborough Gallery filed suit against the Schwitters estate in 1996, after confirming Ernst Schwitters' desire to have Mr. Lloyd continue to administer the estate in his will. Professor Henrick Hanstein, an auctioneer and art expert, provided key testimony in the case, stating that Schwitters was virtually forgotten after his death in exile in England in 1948, and that the Marlborough Gallery had been vital in ensuring the artist's place in art history. The verdict, which was eventually upheld by Norway's highest court, awarded the gallery USD 2.6 million in damages. Alexander, Leslie. "Marlborough Vindicated". Art & Antiques April 2001: 38. Archival and forgeries Schwitters' visual work has now been completely catalogued in the Catalogue Raisonné. Forgeries of collages by Schwitters turn up almost weekly on eBay. Before purchasing any work supposedly by Schwitters, it is best to consult the Kurt Schwitters Archive at the Sprengel Museum in Hannover, Germany. Legacy Brian Eno sampled Schwitters recording of Ursonate for the "Kurt's Rejoinder" track on his 1977 album, Before and after Science. Japanese musician Merzbow took his name from Schwitters. A fictionalised account of Schwitters time in London is the subject of an opera by Michael Nyman and Michael Hastings, Man and Boy: Dada. The German hip-hop band Freundeskreis quoted from his poem "An Anna Blume" in their hit single "ANNA". The krautrock band Faust have a song entitled "Dr. Schwitters snippet". Billy Childish made a short film on Schwitters life, titled "The Man with Wheels", (1980, directed by Eugean Doyan). External links Gallery of his works, with information on each (German) Kurt Schwitters Archive, Sprengel Museum, Hanover (a mine of information about Schwitters and his work, at present only in German) Kurt and Ernst Schwitters Archive, with an excellent biography. A good essay on the Merzbau by Elizabeth Burns Gamard Schwitters in the Lake District The Reception of the Merzbau, Lecture by Gwendolen Webster, pdf document. Merzbau 3D Scans of Schwitters' publication Merz Littoral Arts Projects Short biography Guggenheim Museum Cut & Paste: A History of Photomontage Information on copyright from the Kurt Schwitters Foundation. Sound art UbuWeb: Cut and Paste: Collage and the art of Sound by Kevin Concannon UbuWeb Sound Poetry: Kurt Schwitters Voices of Dada CD: Kurt Schwitters Notes Further reading Burns Gamard, Elizabeth. Kurt Schwitters' Merzbau: The Cathedral of Erotic Misery, Princeton Architectural Press 2000, ISBN 1-5689-8136-8 Crossley, Barbara. The Triumph of Kurt Schwitters, Armitt Trust Ambleside, 2005. Elderfield, John. Kurt Schwitters, Thames and Hudson, London 1985. Elsner, John and Roger Cardinal (ed.), The Cultures of Collecting, Reaktion Books, London 1994. Feaver, William. "Alien at Ambleside", The Sunday Times Magazine, 18 Aug 1974, 27-34, [also http://fp.armitt.plus.com/alien_at_ambleside.htm]. Germundson, Curt. "Montage and Totality: Kurt Schwitters’ relationship to tradition and avant-garde", in Dafydd Jones (ed.), Dada Culture: Critical Texts on the Avant-Garde, Rodopi, Amsterdam/New York 2006, 156-186. Notz, Adrian and Obrist, Hans Ulrich (ed.), 'Processing the Complicated Order. The Merzbau Today'. With contributions by Peter Bissegger, Stefano Boeri, Dietmar Elger, Yona Friedman, Thomas Hirschhorn, Karin Orchard, Gwendolen Webster. Ramade, Bénédicte. (2005) Dada: L'exposition/The Exhibition, Union-Distribution. ISBN 2844262783. Reichardt, Jasia (ed.) Raoul Hausmann and Kurt Schwitters, PIN, Anabas-Verlag, Giessen 1986. Rothenberg, Jerome and Pierre Joris (ed.) Kurt Schwitters, poems, performance, pieces, proses, play poetics, Temple University Press, Philadelphia 1993. Schwitters, Kurt (ed.) Merz 1923-32. Hanover, 1923-1932 [numbered 1-24; nos. 10, 22-23 never published: see also the University of Iowa Dada archive. Uhlman, Fred. The Making of an Englishman, Gollancz (1960). Webster, Gwendolen. Kurt Schwitters' Merzbau unpublished doctoral dissertation, Open University 2007. Webster, Gwendolen. Kurt Merz Schwitters, a Biographical Study, University of Wales Press 1997, ISBN 0708314384 Webster, Gwendolen. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1468-0483.00145Kurt Schwitters and Katherine Dreier] in German Life and Letters 1999, vol. 52, no. 4, 443-56. Exhibition catalogue, In the Beginning was Merz – From Kurt Schwitters to the Present Day, Sprengel Museum Hannover, Hatje Cantz, Ostfildern, 2000. 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4,341 | Alexander_Mackenzie | Alexander Mackenzie, PC (January 28, 1822 – April 17, 1892), a building contractor and newspaper editor, was the second Prime Minister of Canada from November 7, 1873 to October 9, 1878. Biography He was born in Vernon, Perthshire, Scotland to Alexander Mackenzie, Sr. and Mary Stewart Fleming. He was the third of ten children. At the age of 13, Mackenzie's father died, and he was forced to end his formal education in order to help support his family. At the age of 16 he apprenticed as a stone mason and by the age of 20 he had reached journeyman status in this field. Mackenzie immigrated to Canada in 1842 in order to seek a better life as well as to follow his sweetheart, Helen Neil. Shortly thereafter, he converted from Presbyterianism to Baptist beliefs. Mackenzie's faith was to link him to the increasingly influential temperance cause, particularly strong in Ontario where he lived, a constituency of which he was to represent in the Parliament of Canada. Mackenzie married Helen Neil (1826-1852) in 1845 and with her had three children, with only one girl surviving infancy. In 1853, he married Jane Sym (1825-1893). 1875 Canadian Illustrated News cartoon shows Mackenzie the Mason and Governor General Lord Dufferin the Overseer In Canada, Mackenzie continued his career as a stone mason, building many structures that still stand today. He began working as a general contractor, earning a reputation for being a hard working, honest man as well as having a working man's view on fiscal policy. Mackenzie involved himself in politics almost from the moment he arrived in Canada. He campaigned relentlessly for George Brown, owner of the Reformist paper The Globe in the 1851 election, helping him to win a seat in the assembly. In 1852 Mackenzie became editor of another reformist paper, the Lampton Shield. As editor, Mackenzie was perhaps a little too vocal, leading the paper to a suit of law for libel against the local conservative candidate. The paper lost the suit and was forced to fold due to financial hardship. He was elected to the Legislative Assembly as a supporter of George Brown in 1861. When the Macdonald government fell due to the Pacific scandal in 1873, the Governor General, Lord Dufferin, called upon Mackenzie, who had been chosen as the leader of the Liberal Party a few months earlier, to form a new government. Mackenzie formed a government and then asked the Governor General to call an election for January 1874. The Liberals won, and Mackenzie remained prime minister until the 1878 election when Macdonald's Conservatives returned to power with a majority government. It was unusual for a man of Mackenzie's humble origins to attain such a position in an age which generally offered such opportunity only to the privileged. Lord Dufferin, the current Governor General, expressed early misgivings about a stonemason taking over government. But on meeting Mackenzie, Dufferin revised his opinions: "However narrow and inexperienced Mackenzie may be, I imagine he is a thoroughly upright, well-principled, and well-meaning man." Mackenzie also served as Minister of Public Works and oversaw the completion of the Parliament Buildings. While drawing up the plans, he included a circular staircase leading directly from his office to the outside of the building which allowed him to escape the patronage-seekers waiting for him in his ante-chamber. Proving Dufferin's reflections on his character to be true, Mackenzie disliked intensely the patronage inherent in politics. Nevertheless, he found it a necessary evil in order to maintain party unity and ensure the loyalty of his fellow Liberals. In keeping with his democratic ideals, Mackenzie refused the offer of a knighthood three times, and was thus the only one of Canada's first eight Prime Ministers not to be knighted. His pride in his working-class origins never left him. Once, while touring Fort Henry as prime minister, he asked the soldier accompanying him if he knew the thickness of the wall beside them. The embarrassed escort confessed that he didn't and Mackenzie replied, "I do. It is five feet, ten inches. I know, because I built it myself!" Canada's Prime Ministers, 1867 - 1994: Biographies and Anecdotes. [Ottawa]: National Archives of Canada, [1994]. 40 p. As Prime Minister, Alexander Mackenzie strove to reform and simplify the machinery of government. He introduced the secret ballot; created the Supreme Court of Canada; established the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston in 1874; created the Office of the Auditor General in 1878; and struggled to continue progress on the national railway. After his government's defeat, Mackenzie remained Leader of the Opposition until 1880, when he relinquished the party leadership to Edward Blake. However, he remained as a Member of Parliament until his death in 1892 from a stroke that resulted from hitting his head during a fall. He died in Toronto and was buried in Lakeview Cemetery in Sarnia, Ontario. In their 1999 study of the Prime Ministers of Canada, which included the results of a survey of Canadian historians, J.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer found that Mackenzie was in the #11 place just after John Sparrow David Thompson. Namesakes Mackenzie Building at the Royal Military College of Canada The following are named in honour of Alexander Mackenzie: The Mackenzie Mountain Range in the Yukon & Northwest Territories. The Mackenzie building at the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, Ontario Mackenzie Hall in Windsor, Ontario. Alexander MacKenzie Park in Sarnia, Ontario. Alexander Mackenzie High School in Sarnia, Ontario. Alexander MacKenzie Housing Co-Operative Inc. in Sarnia, Ontario. A monument is dedicated to his tomb in Lakeview Cemetery, Sarnia, Ontario. Supreme Court appointments A painting of Mackenzie. Mackenzie chose the following jurists to sit as justices of the Supreme Court of Canada: Sir William Buell Richards (Chief Justice) September 30, 1875 Télesphore Fournier September 30, 1875 William Alexander Henry September 30, 1875 Sir William Johnstone Ritchie September 30, 1875 Sir Samuel Henry Strong September 30, 1875 Jean-Thomas Taschereau September 30, 1875 Sir Henri Elzear Taschereau October 7, 1878 References J.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders''. Toronto: HarperCollinsPublishersLtd, A Phyllis Bruce Book, 1999. P. 29 - 36. ISBN 0-00-200027-X. 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4,342 | LaGrand_case | The LaGrand case Federal Republic of Germany v. United States, General List No. 104 (March 3 1999) was a legal action heard before the International Court of Justice (ICJ) which concerned the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations. In the case the ICJ found that its own temporary court orders were legally binding and that the rights contained in the convention could not be denied by the application of domestic legal procedures. Background On January 7, 1982, brothers Karl and Walter Bernhard LaGrand bungled an armed bank robbery in Marana, Arizona, killing a man and severely injuring a woman in the process. They were subsequently charged and convicted of murder and sentenced to death. The LaGrands were German nationals, having been born in Germany and while they had both lived in the United States since they were three, neither had acquired U.S. citizenship. As foreigners the LaGrands should have been informed of their right to consular assistance, under the Vienna Convention, from their state of nationality, Germany. However the United States authorities (the State of Arizona) failed to do this even after they became aware that the LaGrands were German nationals. The LaGrand brothers later contacted the German consulate of their own accord, having learned of their right to consular assistance. They appealed their sentences and convictions on the grounds that they were not informed of their right to consular assistance, and that with consular assistance they might have been able to mount a better defense. The federal courts rejected their argument on grounds of procedural default, which provides that issues cannot be raised in federal court appeals unless they have first been raised in state courts. Diplomatic efforts, including pleas by German ambassador Jürgen Chrobog and German Member of Parliament Claudia Roth, and the recommendation of the Arizona's clemency board, failed to sway Arizona Governor Jane Dee Hull, who insisted that the executions be carried out. Mark Shaffer, "No reprieve for German killer: International focus on Arizona case", The Arizona Republic, p. 1A, February 24, 1999 Karl LaGrand was subsequently executed by the State of Arizona on February 24, 1999, by lethal injection. Walter LaGrand was then executed March 3, 1999, by Gas Chamber http://www.executedtoday.com/2008/03/03/1999-walter-lagrand/ . The case Germany then initiated legal action in the International Court of Justice against the United States regarding Walter LaGrand. Hours before Walter LaGrand was due to be executed, Germany applied for the Court to grant a provisional court order, requiring the United States to delay the execution of Walter LaGrand, which the court granted. Germany then initiated action in the U.S. Supreme Court for enforcement of the provisional order. In its judgment, (Federal Republic of Germany et al. vs. United States et al., 526 U.S. 111, per curiam) the U.S. Supreme Court held that it lacked jurisdiction with respect to Germany's complaint against Arizona due to the eleventh amendment of the U.S. constitution, which prohibits federal courts from hearing lawsuits of foreign states against a U.S. state. With respect to Germany's case against the United States, it held that the doctrine of procedural default was not incompatible with the Vienna Convention, and that even if procedural default did conflict with the Vienna Convention it had been overruled by later federal law—the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996, which explicitly legislated the doctrine of procedural default. (Subsequent federal legislation overrides prior self-executing treaty provisions, Whitney v. Robertson, ). The U.S. Solicitor-General sent a letter to the Supreme Court, as part of these proceedings, arguing that provisional measures of the International Court of Justice are not legally binding. The United States Department of State also conveyed the ICJ's provisional measure to the Governor of Arizona without comment. The Arizona clemency board recommended a stay to the governor, on the basis of the pending ICJ case; but the governor of Arizona ignored the recommendation and Walter LaGrand was executed on March 3, 1999. As of 2009 this was the last use of the gas chamber in the U.S. Germany then modified its complaint in the case before the ICJ, alleging furthermore that the U.S. violated international law by failing to implement the provisional measures. In opposition to the German submissions, the United States argued that the Vienna Convention did not grant rights to individuals, only to states; that the convention was meant to be exercised subject to the laws of each state party, which in the case of the United States meant subject to the doctrine of procedural default; and that Germany was seeking to turn the ICJ into an international court of criminal appeal. ICJ decision On June 27, 2001, the ICJ, rejecting all of the United States' arguments, ruled in favor of Germany. The ICJ held that the Vienna Convention granted rights to individuals on the basis of its plain meaning, and that domestic laws could not limit the rights of the accused under the convention, but only specify the means by which those rights were to be exercised. The ICJ also found that its own provisional measures were legally binding. The nature of provisional measures has been a subject of great dispute in international law; the English text of the Statute of the International Court of Justice implies they are not binding, while the French text implies that they are. Faced with a contradiction between two equally authentic texts of the statute, the court considered which interpretation better served the objects and purposes of the statute, and hence found that they are binding. This was the first time in the court's history it had ruled as such. The court also found that the United States violated the Vienna Convention through its application of procedural default. The court was at pains to point out that it was not passing judgment on the doctrine itself, but only its application to cases involving the Vienna Convention. See also List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 526 External links Judgements of the International Court of Justice Judgement of U.S. Supreme Court, Federal Republic of Germany vs. United States ASIL Insight article on LaGrand case Federal Republic of Germany v. United States, 526 U.S. 111 (1999) The opinion by the Supreme Court in the matter referenced in the article. Stewart v. LaGrand, 526 U.S. 115 (1999) The Companion Case Breard v. Greene, 523 U.S. 317 (1997) The earlier case of the execution of a Paraguayan on which the LaGrand decisions rest. 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4,343 | Chiapas | Chiapas is the southernmost state of Mexico, located towards the southeast of the country. Chiapas is bordered by the states of Tabasco to the north, Veracruz to the northwest, and Oaxaca to the west. To the east Chiapas borders Guatemala, and to the south the Pacific Ocean. Chiapas has an area of about . The 2005 Mexican census population was 4,293,459 people. In general Chiapas has a humid, tropical climate. In the north, in the area bordering Tabasco, near Teapa, rainfall can average more than per year. In the past, natural vegetation at this region was lowland, tall perennial rainforest, but this vegetation has been destroyed almost completely to give way to agriculture and ranching. Rainfall decreases moving towards the Pacific Ocean, but it is still abundant enough to allow the farming of bananas and many other tropical crops near Tapachula. On the several parallel "sierras" or mountain ranges running along the center of Chiapas, climate can be quite temperate and foggy, allowing the development of cloud forests like those of the Reserva de la Biosfera el Triunfo, home to a handful of Resplendent Quetzals and Horned Guans. The state capital city is Tuxtla Gutiérrez; other cities and towns in Chiapas include San Cristóbal de las Casas, Comitán, and Tapachula. Chiapas is home to the ancient Mayan ruins of Palenque, Yaxchilán, Bonampak, Chinkultic, and Toniná. As of the mid 1990s, most people in Chiapas were poor, rural small farmers. Collier, George A pg 16 About one quarter of the population were of full or predominant Maya descent, and in rural areas many did not speak Spanish. The state suffers from the highest rate of malnutrition in Mexico, estimated to affect more than 40% of the population. "Without roads, cities or even small towns, eastern Chiapas is a kind of dumping ground for the marginalized, in which all of the hardships peasants confront in the highlands are exacerbated." Collier, George A pg 11 The increasing presence of Central American gangs known as Maras, and illegal immigration from Central America in general (mostly immigrants on their way to the United States), stresses an already poor state. These immigrants are subject to human rights violations from Mexican authorities. In 1994, violence erupted between the Mexican Government and the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN). There are currently 32 Rebel Autonomous Zapatista Municipalities (MAREZ), affiliated with the EZLN in Chiapas. History Pre-Columbian Chiapa de Corzo, in the central lowlands of Chiapas, shows evidence of periodic occupations throughout pre-history, and of continual occupation since 1400 BCE. The oldest Maya long count date yet discovered, equivalent to December 36 BCE in the Gregorian calendar, was found on one of several monument shards there. In approximately 800 CE, Mangue-speaking Chiapaneca peoples from the north conquered the native Zoque and Maya towns. The mounds and plazas at Chiapas de Corvo date to approximately 700 BCE with the temple and palace constructed during the Late Formative, perhaps 400 BCE to 200 CE. Lowe, p. 122–123. The Maya city of Palenque was founded in the early Preclassic, with the first large structures constructed around 600 CE. The Conquest through the 19th century See also: Spanish conquest of Yucatán, Captaincy General of Guatemala, Porfirio Díaz Chiapas was conquered by Spain in the early 16th century, and became part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, administered as part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala (what is now Central America), from Santiago de Guatemala. Its was named for Cheops, perhaps due to a perceived similarity between the native Mayan architecture and that of the Old Kingdom of ancient Egypt. When Central America achieved independence from Mexico in 1823, western Chiapas was annexed to Mexico. More of current day Chiapas was transferred after the disintegration of the Central American Federation in 1842. The remainder of the current state taken from Guatemala in the early 1880s by President Porfirio Díaz. Chiapas remained one of the parts of Mexico least affected by change, with the descendants of the Spanish continuing to control indigenous peoples through such institutions as debt peonage, despite attempts by the central government to abolish those practices. In 1868, an armed native rebellion, led by the Tzotzil Maya, and also including Tzeltal, Tojolabal, and Ch’ol, nearly captured San Cristóbal, then the state capital, before it was suppressed by the Mexican army. Late 20th century: indigenous disaffection In the late 20th century, indigenous peasant farmers felt that their poor and largely agricultural region had been too long ignored by the Mexican government. A chief complaint was that many indigenous farmers were required to pay absentee landlords, despite repeated government promises of agrarian reform. Article 27 of the constitution of 1917 guaranteed indigenous peoples the right to an ejido or communal land. After the financial crisis of 1982, Mexico restructured its economy and de-prioritized land reform (long since completed in most of the country). The government of President Carlos Salinas de Gortari sought to liberalize Mexico’s closed economy. As part of this process, Mexico repealed the constitutional guarantee of communally owned ejidos for rural communities. As the North American Free Trade Agreement came into effect on in 1994, indigenous Chiapanecos felt increasingly left behind. Zapatista National Liberation Army Such disaffection led to the rise of the Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (EZLN, “Zapatista National Liberation Army”, commonly called the Zapatistas), which began an armed rebellion against the federal government on January 1, 1994 as a response to the implementation of the NAFTA. Zapatista rebels are mostly Tzotzil and some Tzeltal Maya, from the central highlands of the state, and the group’s spokesman, the Sub-Comandante Marcos, gained it international attention. The group is named after Emiliano Zapata, iconic general in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, who is lionized for having defended the rights of poor farmers. Although the EZLN was in principle a peaceful movement forced to arms by the Mexican government, to guarantee the right to ejidos, there were a number of violent episodes in its history. The movement began in 1994 with the seizure of four cities (most notably San Cristóbal de las Casas), over 600 ranches, and control over about a quarter of the state. After pushing the Zapatistas out of San Cristóbal, the Mexican army kept them bottled up in their jungle strongholds, cutting them off economically and politically. The Mexican government installed a solidarity program which while “ostensibly designed to alleviate poverty, […] instead became an instrument for rewarding political loyalty and contributed to the anger and frustration expressed through the Zapatista rebellion.” Collier, George A pg 12 In 1996, both sides signed a peace accord. Meanwhile, landowner-funded paramilitaries sporadically repressed indigenous communities. A series of massacres ensued, typified by the 1997 Acteal massacre, where 47 indigenous refugees, mainly women and children, were killed in a church. In 2000, the EZLN renewed its resistance, autonomizing a number of jungle villages and sending a delegation to Mexico City. While the delegation did not obtain everything it sought, despite some support from President Vicente Fox, the villages remain under Zapatista control. In August 2003, the EZLN declared all Zapatista territory an autonomous government independent of the Mexican state. The armed EZLN has mostly eschewed armed conflict, in favor of political efforts to build health clinics and schools in their communities. Anti-Zapatista paramilitary and military activity continues on the part of the Mexican government, however, threatening of re-escalation. Zapatista action continues now with the implementation of the Sixth Declaration of the Lacandon Jungle and the launching of The Other Campaign. Social development policies In order to mitigate the problems with the increasingly disaffected and rebellious population in Chiapas' Lacandon region, the federal and state government designed multiple social development programs. Many of these were criticized for being counter-insurgency projects, aimed at controlling and pacifying the indigenous population, rather than investing in their development and listening to their demands. Some of these programs include Plan Cañadas, PIDSS, and Prodesis. Geography Chiapas is geographically divided into five zones. These are the rainforest, the highlands, the central valley, the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, and the Soconusco. Rainforest The tropical rainforest of Chiapas, which includes the Selva Lacandona, is quickly being deforested. This is due to population pressures forcing highlanders into the rainforest. These include ladino (Spanish-speaking) landowners, indigenous and mestizo campesinos of the Ch'ol, Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Tojolabal and other groups. Migrants from Chiapas are being joined by Guatemalans fleeing the Civil War. These colonists constantly compete with one another for land, with the campesinos seizing or squatting on claimed land while landowners respond with the military or police. The economic activities of both groups contribute to the massive deforestation of the Lacandón. Rain falling on the forest drains into the Usumacinta river, which forms the border between Chiapas and the Petén department of Guatemala. The river flows into the sea in Tabasco, and deforestation may be a cause of the floods which inundated Villahermosa in 2007. Washington Post Nov. 19, 2007: A12 Highlands The Central Highlands have been the population center of Chiapas since the Conquest. European epidemics were hindered by the tierra fría climate, allowing the indigenous peoples in the highlands to retain their large numbers. Indigenous peoples provided labor for Spanish conquistadors, who also heavily settled the highlands. Indigenous highlanders were conscripted into labor service on plantations, drafted into debt servitude, which was so widely practiced that Chiapas earned the illustrious title of "Mexico's slave state" in the late 19th century. Benjamin, Thomas. A Rich Land, a Poor People: Politics and Society in Modern Chiapas. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. 1996. Since World War Two, the highlands have benefitted from a boom in the energy and petroleum sectors. However, economic growth in these industries did not reach the subsistence farmers of the highlands. High population and land reform pressured the poor and rich alike to move into the eastern rainforest. The highlands are home to the cities of San Cristóbal de las Casas and Comitán. Close to the rainforest, San Cristóbal was one of the first sites seized by the Zapatista army in their attack on January 1, 1994. Central valley The Sierra Madre de Chiapas is cut through the middle by the Río Grande de Chiapas, known outside of Chiapas as Río Grijalva. The river flows from southwest to northeast. This area contains six of Chiapas' seven hydroelectric plants. The construction of these dams flooded hundreds of thousands of hectares, making lakes out of former ejido lands. The capital of Tuxtla Gutiérrez is located in the Central Valley, which enjoys a roughly tierra templada climate. Sierra Madre de Chiapas A continuation of the Sierra Madre del Sur, the Sierra Madre de Chiapas runs from northwest to southeast along the Pacific Ocean coast. It is extremely volcanic, resulting in high peaks, occasional eruptions and earthquakes, and rich soils. The mountains partially block rain clouds from the Pacific, a process known as Orographic lift, which creates a particularly rich coastal region called the Soconusco. The largest city in the Soconusco is Tapachula, site of the seventh Chiapaneco hydroelectric plant, José Cecilio del Valle. Comisión Federal de Electricidad Soconusco The Soconusco lies in the southernmost corner of Chiapas. It shares many ties with Guatemala, which claimed the territory until 1882. Since it was a part of the Aztec empire, Soconusco has been known for its agricultural products. Then it was cacao, now the main product is coffee, which is grown on large plantations. These plantations were owned by German-Guatemalans and employed indigenous peoples of the Mam group. The tierra caliente climate of Soconusco allowed plantation agriculture to succeed, and in addition to coffee also grows sugar cane, rice, maize, and plantains. Energy The energy resources of Chiapas include the seven hydroelectric plants on Grijalva and its tributaries and petroleum in the north. Six out of these seven are located in the Central Valley, including the Manuel Moreno Torres plant in Chicoasén, the most productive in Mexico. All of the hydroelectric plants are owned and operated by the Federal Electricity Commission (Comisión Federal de Electricidad, CFE), while the petroleum resources are owned by Petróleos Mexicanos, PEMEX. Demographics The state’s population is about 55% Mestizo, and 40% Indigenous, mostly of Maya ancestry. Around 35% of the indigenous population does not speak Spanish as a first language. The 20th century saw massive population growth in Chiapas. From less than one million inhabitants in 1940, the state had about two million in 1980, and over 4 million in 2005. Website of the National Institute of Statistics, Geography, and Data Processing Overcrowded land in the highlands was relieved when the rainforest to the east was subject to land reform. Cattle ranchers, loggers, and subsistence farmers migrated to the rain forest. The population of the Lacandón was only one thousand people in 1950, but by the mid-1990s this had increased to 200 thousand. Benjamin, Thomas. A Time of Reconquest: History, the Maya Revival, and the Zapatista Rebellion. The American Historical Review, Vol. 105, no. 2 (April 2000): 417-450. Chiapas is only 3% of Mexican population. They produce 13% of country's maize, 54% of its hydroelectric power, 5% of the nation's timber, 4% of its beans, 13% of its gas, and 4% of its oil. Collier, George A Despite its rich supply of natural resources, Chiapas is an economically underdeveloped state, suffering chronic unemployment, below average literacy, and a high infant mortality rate. “Only 11 percent of adults earn what the government calls moderate incomes of at least $3,450 per year (versus 24 percent nationally); less than 50 percent of households have running water (versus 67% nationally); and only 14 percent have televisions (versus 45% nationally).” Landmarks The Sumidero Canyon is occupied by an artificial lake, the dam , which produces a large percent of the electricity in Mexico. The sides of the cañon are covered with tropical vegetation. The Alvarez del Toro Zoo, ZOOMAT, Instituto de Historia Natural y Ecología in Tuxtla Gutierrez, featuring local, native fauna. The Lagunas de Montebello, near Comitan. The Cataratas de Agua Azul (Blue Waterfalls), near Palenque. The Maya ruins of Bonampak, in the Lacandon rainforest (La Selva Lacandona), feature probably the finest and better-known Maya murals. These are very realistic, depicting human sacrifices, music players and life at the royal court. The Lacandon Jungle is an important biodiversity spot, which recently yielded one of the newest and unique plant family discovered, represented by the plant Lacandonia schismatica. The Soconusco, the south-eastern coastal region bordering Guatemala, is a tropical agricultural area devoted to the intensive production of bananas and coffee, for the national and international markets. Chiapas is part of the Ruta Maya or Gringo Trail that links Cancun, Belice, Tikal, Lake Atitlan, San Cristobal de las Casas, Palenque and other Maya archeological sites. San Cristóbal de las Casas is a favorite international tourist destination due to its colorful First Nations traditions and customs. According to the limited geography model of the Book of Mormon, Chiapas is the most plausible location of the land of Zarahemla. Municipalities Chiapas is subdivided into 118 municipalities (municipios). See municipalities of Chiapas Major communities Chiapa de Corzo Cintalapa Comitán de Domínguez Huixtla Ocosingo Ocozocoautla de Espinosa Palenque San Cristóbal de las Casas Tapachula Tonalá Tuxtla Gutiérrez Villaflores See also Chiapas conflict Notes References Benjamin, Thomas. A Rich Land, a Poor People: Politics and Society in Modern Chiapas. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. 1996. Benjamin, Thomas. A Time of Reconquest: History, the Maya Revival, and the Zapatista Rebellion. The American Historical Review, Vol. 105, no. 2 (April 2000): pp. 417–450. Collier, George A, and Elizabeth Lowery Quaratiello. Basta! Land and the Zapatista Rebellion in Chiapas. Oakland: The Institute for Food and Development Policy, 1994. Collier, George A. The Rebellion in Chiapas and the Legacy of Energy Development. Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, Vol. 10, no. 2 (Summer 1994): pp. 371–382 Lowe, G. W., “Chiapas de Corzo”, in Evans, Susan, ed., Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America, Taylor & Francis, London. Whitmeyer, Joseph M. and Hopcroft, Rosemary L. Community, Capitalism, and Rebellion in Chiapas. Sociological Perspectives Vol. 39, no. 4 (Winter 1996): pp. 517–538. 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4,344 | Microsoft_Word | Microsoft Word is Microsoft's word processing software. It was first released in 1983 under the name Multi-Tool Word for Xenix systems. Versions were later written for several other platforms including IBM PCs running DOS (1983), the Apple Macintosh (1984), SCO UNIX, OS/2 and Microsoft Windows (1989). It is a component of the Microsoft Office system; however, it is also sold as a standalone product and included in Microsoft Works Suite. Beginning with the 2003 version, the branding was revised to emphasize Word's identity as a component within the Office suite; Microsoft began calling it Microsoft Office Word instead of merely Microsoft Word. The latest releases are Word 2007 for Windows and Word 2008 for Mac OS X. History Word 1981 to 1989 Concepts and ideas of Word were brought from Bravo, the original GUI word processor developed at Xerox PARC. On February 1, 1983, development on what was originally named Multi-Tool Word began. Richard Brodie renamed it Microsoft Word, and Microsoft released the program October 25, 1983, for the IBM PC. Free demonstration copies of the application were bundled with the November 1983 issue of PC World, making it the first program to be distributed on-disk with a magazine. Andrew Pollack: "Computerizing Magazines", New York Times, 25th Aug., 1983, http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20813FF3F5C0C768EDDA10894DB484D81&scp=1&sq=microsoft+word&st=nyt (pay link) However, it was not well received, and sales lagged behind those of rival products such as WordPerfect. Although MS-DOS was a character-based system, Microsoft Word was the first word processor for the IBM PC that showed actual line breaks and typeface markups such as bold and italics directly on the screen while editing, although this was not a true WYSIWYG system because available displays did not have the resolution to show actual typefaces. Other DOS word processors, such as WordStar and WordPerfect, used simple text only display with markup codes on the screen or sometimes, at the most, alternative colors. The first WYSIWYG version of WordPerfect was 6.0, released in 1993: http://www.columbia.edu/~em36/wpdos/chronology.html As with most DOS software, each program had its own, often complicated, set of commands and nomenclature for performing functions that had to be learned. For example, in Word for MS-DOS, a file would be saved with the sequence Escape-T-S: pressing Escape called up the menu box, T accessed the set of options for Transfer and S was for Save (the only similar interface belonged to Microsoft's own Multiplan spreadsheet). As most secretaries had learned how to use WordPerfect, companies were reluctant to switch to a rival product that offered few advantages. Desired features in Word such as indentation before typing (emulating the F4 feature in WordPerfect), the ability to block text to copy it before typing, instead of picking up mouse or blocking after typing, and a reliable way to have macros and other functions always replicate the same function time after time, were just some of Word's problems for production typing. Word for Macintosh, despite the major differences in look and feel from the DOS version, was ported by Ken Shapiro with only minor changes from the DOS source code, which had been written with high-resolution displays and laser printers in mind although none were yet available to the general public. Following the precedents of LisaWrite and MacWrite, Word for Macintosh attempted to add closer WYSIWYG features into its package. After Word for Mac was released in 1985, it gained wide acceptance. There was no Word 2.0 for Macintosh. Instead, the second release of Word for Macintosh, shipped in 1987, was named Word 3.0; this was Microsoft's first attempt to synchronize version numbers across platforms. Word 3.0 included numerous internal enhancements and new features including the first implementation of the Rich Text Format (RTF) specification, but was plagued with bugs. Within a few months Word 3.0 was superseded by Word 3.01, which was much more stable. All registered users of 3.0 were mailed free copies of 3.01, making this one of Microsoft's most expensive mistakes up to that time. Word 1990 to 1995 Microsoft Word 5.1a (Macintosh) The first version of Word for Windows was released in 1989 at a price of 500 US dollars. With the release of Windows 3.0 the following year, sales began to pick up (Word for Windows 1.0 was designed for use with Windows 3.0, and its performance was poorer with the versions of Windows available when it was first released). The failure of WordPerfect to produce a Windows version proved a fatal mistake. It was version 2.0 of Word, however, that firmly established Microsoft Word as the market leader. After MacWrite, Word for Macintosh never had any serious rivals, although programs such as Nisus Writer provided features such as non-contiguous selection which were not added until Word 2002 in Office XP. In addition, many users complained that major updates reliably came more than two years apart, too long for most business users at that time. Word 5.1 for the Macintosh, released in 1992, was a very popular word processor due to its elegance, relative ease of use, and feature set. However, version 6.0 for the Macintosh, released in 1994, was widely derided, unlike the Windows version. It was the first version of Word based on a common codebase between the Windows and Mac versions; many accused it of being slow, clumsy and memory intensive. In response to user requests, Microsoft offered a free "downgrade" to Word 5.1 for dissatisfied Word 6.0 purchasers. With the release of Word 6.0 in 1993 Microsoft again attempted to synchronize the version numbers and coordinate product naming across platforms; this time across the three versions for DOS, Macintosh, and Windows (where the previous version was Word for Windows 2.0). There may have also been thought to matching the current version 6.0 of WordPerfect for DOS and Windows, Word's major competitor. However, this wound up being the last version of Word for DOS. As well, subsequent versions of Word were no longer referred to by version number, and were instead named after the year of their release (e.g. Word 95 for Windows, synchronizing its name with Windows 95, and Word 98 for Macintosh), once again breaking the synchronization. When Microsoft became aware of the Year 2000 problem, it released the entire version of DOS port of Microsoft Word 5.5 instead of getting people to pay for the update. As of May 2009, it is still available for download from Microsoft's web site. Word 6.0 was actually the second attempt to develop a common codebase version of Word. The first, code-named Pyramid, had been an attempt to completely rewrite the existing Word product. It was abandoned when it was determined that it would take the development team too long to rewrite and then catch up with all the new capabilities that could have been added in the same time without a rewrite. Proponents of Pyramid claimed it would have been faster, smaller, and more stable than the product that was eventually released for Macintosh, which was compiled using a beta version of Visual C++ 2.0 that targets the Macintosh, so many optimizations have to be turned off (the version 4.2.1 of Office is compiled using the final version), and sometimes use the Windows API simulation library included. Buggin' My Life Away : Mac Word 6.0 Pyramid would have been truly cross-platform, with machine-independent application code and a small mediation layer between the application and the operating system. More recent versions of Word for Macintosh are no longer ported versions of Word for Windows although some code is often appropriated from the Windows version for the Macintosh version. Later versions of Word have more capabilities than just word processing. The Drawing tool allows simple desktop publishing operations such as adding graphics to documents. Collaboration, document comparison, multilingual support, translation and many other capabilities have been added over the years. Word 97 Word 95 & 97 icon Word 97 had the same general operating performance as later versions such as Word 2000. This was the first copy of Word featuring the Office Assistant, "Clippy," which was an animated helper used in all Office programs. This was a take over from the earlier launched concept in Microsoft Bob. Word 98 Word 98 for the Macintosh gained many features of Word 97, and was bundled with the Macintosh Office 98 package. Document compatibility reached parity with Office 97 and Word on the Mac became a viable business alternative to its Windows counterpart. Unfortunately, Word on the Mac in this and later releases also became vulnerable to future Macro viruses that could compromise Word (and Excel) documents, leading to the only situation where viruses could be cross-platform. A Windows version of this was only bundled with the Japanese/Korean Microsoft Office 97 Powered By Word 98 and could not be purchased separately. Word 2000 A screenshot of Word 2000 For most users, one of the most obvious changes introduced with Word 2000 (and the rest of the Office 2000 suite) was a clipboard that could hold multiple objects at once. Another noticeable change was that the Office Assistant, whose frequent unsolicited appearance in Word 97 had annoyed many users, was changed to be less intrusive. Word 2001/Word X Word 2001 was bundled with the Macintosh Office for that platform, acquiring most, if not all, of the feature set of Word 2000. Released in October 2000. Word 2001 was also sold individually apart from the Office suite. The Macintosh version, Word X, released in 2001, was the first version to run natively on (and require) Mac OS X. Word 2002/XP Word 2002 was bundled with Office XP and was released in 2001. It had many of the same features as Word 2000 but had a major new feature called the 'Task Panes', which gave quicker information and control to a lot of features that were only available in modal dialog boxes before. One of the key advertising strategies for the software was the removal of the Office Assistant in favor of a new help system, although it was simply disabled by default. Word 2003 Office Word 2003 For the 2003 version, the Office programs, including Word, were rebranded to emphasize the unity of the Office suite, so that Microsoft Word officially became Microsoft Office Word. Word 2004 A new Macintosh version of Office was released in May 2004. Substantial cleanup of the various applications (Word, Excel, PowerPoint) and feature parity with Office 2003 (for Microsoft Windows) created a very usable release. Microsoft released patches through the years to eliminate most known Macro vulnerabilities from this version. While Apple released Pages and the open source community created NeoOffice, Word remains the most widely used word processor on the Macintosh. Word 2007 The release includes numerous changes, including a new XML-based file format, a redesigned interface, an integrated equation editor and bibliographic management. Additionally, an XML data bag was introduced, accessible via the object model and file format, called Custom XML - this can be used in conjunction with a new feature called Content Controls implement structured documents. It also has contextual tabs, which are functionality specific only to the object with focus, and many other features like Live Preview (which enables you to view the document without making any permanent changes), Mini Toolbar, Super-tooltips, Quick Access toolbar, SmartArt, etc. Word 2007 uses a new file format called docx. Word 2000-2003 users on Windows systems can install a free add-on called the "Microsoft Office Compatibility Pack" to be able to open, edit, and save the new Word 2007 files. http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?familyid=941B3470-3AE9-4AEE-8F43-C6BB74CD1466&displaylang=en Microsoft Office Compatibility Pack for Word, Excel, and PowerPoint 2007 File Formats Alternatively, Word 2007 can save to the old doc format of Word 97-2003. http://techrepublic.com.com/5208-6230-0.html?forumID=102&threadID=218738&messageID=2212198 How to save as doc in Word 2007 http://www.walterglenn.com/2007/01/13/save-as-doc-instead-of-docx-in-word-2007/ How to configure Word 2007 to always save as doc Word 2008 Word 2008 is the most recent version of Microsoft Word for the Mac, released on January 15, 2008. It includes some new features from Word 2007, such as a ribbon-like feature that can be used to select page layouts and insert custom diagrams and images. Word 2008 also features native support for the new Office Open XML format, although the old .doc format can be set as a default. The default format can be changed under preferences --> save--> dropdown menu File formats File extension Microsoft Word's native file formats are denoted either by a .doc or .docx file extension. Although the ".doc" extension has been used in many different versions of Word, it actually encompasses five distinct file formats: Word for DOS Word for Windows 1 and 2; Word 4 and 5 for Mac Word 6 and Word 95 for Windows; Word 6 for Mac Word 97, 2000, 2002 and 2003 for Windows; Word 98, 2001, X, and 2004 for Mac Word 2007 for Windows; Word 2008 for Mac The newer ".docx" extension signifies the Office Open XML international standard for office documents and is used by Word 2007 for Windows, Word 2008 for the Macintosh, as well as by a growing number of applications from other vendors. Microsoft does not guarantee the correct display of the document on different workstations, even if the two workstations use the same version of Microsoft Word. This means it is possible the document the recipient sees might not be exactly the same as the document the sender sees. Binary formats (Word 97-2003) As Word became the dominant word processor in the late 1990s and early 2000s, its default Word document format (.DOC) became a de facto standard of document file formats for Microsoft Office users. Though usually just referred to as "Word Document Format", this term refers primarily to the range of formats used by default in Word version 97-2003. Word document files using the Word 97-2003 Binary File Format implement OLE (Object Linking and Embedding) structured storage to manage the structure of its file format. OLE behaves rather like a conventional hard drive file system, and is made up of several key components. Each word document is composed of so-called "big blocks" which are almost always (but do not have to be) 512-byte chunks; hence a Word document's file size will in most cases be a multiple of 512. "Storages" are analogues of the directory on a disk drive, and point to other storages or "streams" which are similar to files on a disk. The text in a Word document is always contained in the "WordDocument" stream. The first big block in a Word document, known as the "header" block, provides important information as to the location of the major data structures in the document. "Property storages" provide metadata about the storages and streams in a .doc file, such as where it begins and its name and so forth. The "File information block" contains information about where the text in a word document starts, ends, what version of Word created the document, and other attributes. Microsoft Office Open XML (Word 2007 and above) Word 2007 uses Office Open XML (DOCX) as its default format, but retains the older binary format for compatibility reasons. Office Open XML used in Word 2007 is not identical to approved ISO/IEC 29500:2008 Office Open XML because of changes in format specification during standardization process. Microsoft has declared that Office Open XML is already partially supported in Office 2007, but the company plans to update that support to full ISO standard in the next major version release of the Microsoft Office system, named "Microsoft Office 2010". http://www.microsoft.com/Presspass/press/2008/may08/05-21ExpandedFormatsPR.mspx Microsoft has published specifications for the Word 97-2007 Binary File Format and the Office Open XML format. Microsoft has moved towards an XML-based file format for their office applications with Office 2007: Office Open XML. This format does not conform fully to standard XML. It is, however, publicly documented as Ecma International standard 376. Public documentation of the default file format is a first for Word, and makes it considerably easier, though not trivial, for competitors to interoperate. During standardization process of Office Open XML was specification of this format changed after submitting some of proposed changes from ISO members. It's been approved as an international standard by ISO (ISO/IEC 29500:2008), but the approval is under review following objections by ISO members South Africa, Brazil, India and Venezuela . Another XML-based, public file format supported by Word 2003 and upwards is the Microsoft Office Word 2003 XML Format. Attempts at cross-version compatibility Opening a Word Document file in a version of Word other than the one with which it was created can cause incorrect display of the document. The document formats of the various versions change in subtle and not so subtle ways; formatting created in newer versions does not always survive when viewed in older versions of the program, nearly always because that capability does not exist in the previous version. Rich Text Format (RTF), an early effort to create a format for interchanging formatted text between applications, is an optional format for Word that retains most formatting and all content of the original document. Later, after HTML appeared, Word supported an HTML derivative as an additional full-fidelity roundtrip format similar to RTF, with the additional capability that the file could be viewed in a web browser. Third party formats It is possible to write plugins permitting Word to read and write formats it does not natively support, such as international standard OpenDocument format (ODF), ISO/IEC 26300:2006. Word does not natively support reading or writing ODF documents without such a plugin - SUN ODF Plugin or OpenXML/ODF Translator. The ODF format 1.1 will be natively supported with the release of Microsoft Office 2007 Service Pack 2 (SP2) scheduled for the first half of 2009, as Microsoft announced on May 21, 2008. Microsoft Expands List of Formats Supported in Microsoft Office, May 21, 2008 next Office 2007 service pack will include ODF, PDF support options, May 21, 2008 Microsoft Office 2007 to Support ODF - and not OOXML, May 21 2008 Microsoft: Why we chose ODF support over OOXML, 23 May 2008 In October 2005, one year before the Microsoft Office 2007 suite was released, Microsoft declared, that there is not sufficient demand from Microsoft customers for international standard OpenDocument format support and therefore it will not be included in Microsoft Office 2007. This statement was repeated also in next months. Office 12 to support PDF creation, 03 Oct 2005, Microsoft 'must support OpenDocument', 06 Oct 2005 23 March 2006, Gates: Office 2007 will enable a new class of application May 08, 2006 - Microsoft Office to get a dose of OpenDocument As an answer, on October 20, 2005 an online petition was created to demand ODF support from Microsoft. OpenDocument Support: Tell Microsoft You Want It!, 20 October 2005 The petition was signed by cca 12000 people. ODF Fellowship Petition In May 2006, ODF plugin for Microsoft Office was released by OpenDocument Foundation. Coming soon: ODF for MS Office, May 04, 2006 Microsoft declared, that the company did not work with the developers of the plug-in. Microsoft Office to get a dose of OpenDocument, May 5, 2006 In July 2006 Microsoft announced the creation of the Open XML Translator project - tools to build a technical bridge between the Microsoft Office Open XML Formats and the OpenDocument Format (ODF). This work was started in response to government requests for interoperability with ODF. The goal of project is not to implement ODF direct to Microsoft Office, but only to create plugin and external tools. Microsoft Expands Document Interoperability, July 5, 2006 Open XML Translator project announced (ODF support for Office), July 05, 2006 In February 2007, this project released first version of ODF plug-in for Microsoft Word. February 1, 2007, Microsoft to release ODF document converter In February 2007 SUN released initial version of SUN ODF plugin for Microsoft Office. Sun to release ODF translator for Microsoft Office Version 1.0 was released in July 2007. Sun releases ODF Plugin 1.0 for Microsoft Office, July 07, 2007 Word 2007 (Service pack 1) supports (for output only) PDF and XPS format, but only after manual installation of Microsoft Save as PDF or XPS Add-in. http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?displaylang=en&FamilyID=4d951911-3e7e-4ae6-b059-a2e79ed87041 Microsoft to remove PDF support from Office 2007 in wake of Adobe dispute, Friday, June 02, 2006 With OpenXML/ODF Translator Add-in for Office developed with support from Microsoft it also supports import and export of ODF. Features and flaws Word has a built-in spell checker, thesaurus, dictionary and Office Assistant. Normal.dot Normal.dot is the master template from which all Word documents are created. It is one of the most important files in Microsoft Word. It determines the margin defaults as well as the layout of the text and font defaults. Although normal.dot is already set with certain defaults, the user can change normal.dot to new defaults. This will change other documents that were created using the template and saved with the option to automatically update the formatting styles. Macros Like other Microsoft Office documents, Word files can include advanced macros and even embedded programs. The language was originally WordBasic, but changed to Visual Basic for Applications as of Word 97. This extensive functionality can also be used to run and propagate viruses in documents. The tendency for people to exchange Word documents via email, USB key, and floppy makes this an especially attractive vector. A prominent example is the Melissa worm, but countless others have existed in the wild. Some anti-virus software can detect and clean common macro viruses, and firewalls may prevent worms from transmitting themselves to other systems. These Macro viruses are the only known cross-platform threats between Windows and Macintosh computers and they were the only infection vectors to affect any Mac OS X system up until the advent of video codec trojans in 2007. Microsoft's released patches for Word X and Word 2004 effectively eliminated the Macro problem on the Mac by 2006. Word's macro security setting, which regulates when macros may execute, can be adjusted by the user, but in the most recent versions of Word, is set to HIGH by default, generally reducing the risk from macro-based viruses, which have become uncommon. Layout issues As of Word 2007 for Windows (and Word 2004 for Macintosh), the program has been unable to handle ligatures defined in TrueType fonts: those ligature glyphs with Unicode codepoints may be inserted manually, but are not recognized by Word for what they are, breaking spellchecking, while custom ligatures present in the font are not accessible at all. Other layout deficiencies of Word include the inability to set crop marks or thin spaces. Various third-party workaround utilities have been developed. Such as WordSetter (shareware) Similarly, combining diacritics are handled poorly: Word 2003 has "improved support", but many diacritics are still misplaced, even if a precomposed glyph is present in the font. Additionally, as of Word 2002, Word does automatic font substitution when it finds a character in a document that does not exist in the font specified. It is impossible to deactivate this, making it very difficult to spot when a glyph used is missing from the font in use. Also irritating: If "Mirror margins" or "Different odd and even" are enabled, Word will not allow you to freshly begin page numbering an even page after a section break (and vice versa). Instead it inserts a mandatory blank page which can't be removed. How to delete a blank page in Word. In Word 2004 for Macintosh, complex scripts support was inferior even to Word 97, and Word does not support Apple Advanced Typography features like ligatures or glyph variants. TidBITS : Word Up! Word 2004, That Is Bullets and numbering Users report that Word's bulleting and numbering system is highly problematic. Particularly troublesome is Word's system for restarting numbering. Methods for restarting list numbering However, the Bullets and Numbering system has been significantly overhauled for Office 2007, which is intended to reduce the severity of these problems. For example, Office 2007 cannot align tabs for multi-leveled numbered lists, although this is a basic functionality in OpenOffice.org. Often, items in a list will be inexplicably separated from their list number by one to three tabs, rendering outlines unreadable. These problems cannot be resolved even by expert users. Even basic dragging and dropping words is usually impossible. Bullet and numbering problems in Word include: bullet characters are often changed and altered, indentation is changed within the same list, and bullet point or number sequence can belong to an entirely different nests within the same sequence. Creating tables Users can also create tables in MS Word. Depending on the version, Word can perform simple calculations. Formulae are supported as well. AutoSummarize AutoSummarize highlights passages or phrases that it considers valuable. The amount of text to be retained can be specified by the user as a percentage of the current amount of text. According to Ron Fein of the Word 97 team, Auto Summarize cuts wordy copy to the bone by counting words and ranking sentences. First, AutoSummarize identifies the most common words in the document (barring "a" and "the" and the like) and assigns a "score" to each word--the more frequently a word is used, the higher the score. Then, it "averages" each sentence by adding the scores of its words and dividing the sum by the number of words in the sentence--the higher the average, the higher the rank of the sentence. "It's like the ratio of wheat to chaff," explains Fein. Cognito Auto Sum AutoCorrect In Microsoft Office 2003, AutoCorrect items added by the user cease working when text from sources outside the document are pasted in. Sub and superscript issues In any of the Microsoft word packages, it is impossible to display superscript exactly lying above subscript. It can only be done using the equation editor. Versions Microsoft Word 5.5 for DOS Versions for MS-DOS include the following: 1983 November — Word 1 1985 — Word 2 1986 — Word 3 1987 — Word 4 aka Microsoft Word 4.0 for the PC 1989 — Word 5 1991 — Word 5.1 1991 — Word 5.5 1993 — Word 6.0 Versions for the Macintosh (Mac OS and Mac OS X) include the following: 1985 January — Word 1 for the Macintosh 1987 — Word 3 1989 — Word 4 1991 — Word 5 1993 — Word 6 1998 — Word 98 2000 — Word 2001, the last version compatible with Mac OS 9 2001 — Word v.X, the first version for Mac OS X only 2004 — Word 2004, part of Office 2004 for Mac 2008 — Word 2008, part of Office 2008 for Mac Microsoft Word 1.0 for Windows 3.x Versions for Microsoft Windows include the following: 1989 November — Word for Windows 1.0 for Windows 2.x, code-named Opus 1990 March — Word for Windows 1.1 for Windows 3.0, code-named Bill the Cat 1990 June — Word for Windows 1.1a for Windows 3.1 1991 — Word for Windows 2.0, code-named Spaceman Spiff 1993 — Word for Windows 6.0, code-named T3 (renumbered 6 to bring Windows version numbering in line with that of DOS version, Macintosh version and also WordPerfect, the main competing word processor at the time; also a 32-bit version for Windows NT only) 1995 — Word 95 (version 7.0) - included in Office 95 1997 — Word 97 (version 8.0) included in Office 97 1998 — Word 98 (version 8.5) only included in Office 97 Powered By Word 98—only released in Japan and Korea 1999 — Word 2000 (version 9.0) included in Office 2000 2001 — Word 2002 (version 10) included in Office XP 2003 — Word 2003 (officially "Microsoft Office Word 2003") - (ver. 11) included in Office 2003 2006 — Word 2007 (officially "Microsoft Office Word 2007") - (ver. 12) included in Office 2007; released to businesses on November 30, 2006, released worldwide to consumers on January 30, 2007 Versions for SCO UNIX include the following: Microsoft Word for UNIX Systems Release 5.1 Versions for OS/2 include the following: 1992 — Microsoft Word for OS/2 version 1.1B See also List of word processors Comparison of word processors Microsoft Word Viewer Further reading Tsang, Cheryl. Microsoft: First Generation. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-33206-2. Liebowitz, Stan J. & Margolis, Stephen E. WINNERS, LOSERS & MICROSOFT: Competition and Antitrust in High Technology Oakland: Independent Institute. ISBN 0-945999-80-1. References External links Microsoft Word home page The Word Object Model Ms Word Files Generation using .net framework Changing the Normal.dot file in Microsoft templates Microsoft Word keyboard shortcuts | Microsoft_Word |@lemmatized microsoft:93 word:235 processing:2 software:4 first:19 release:40 name:13 multi:3 tool:5 xenix:1 system:15 version:72 later:3 write:5 several:2 platform:7 include:26 ibm:3 pc:5 run:3 apple:3 macintosh:28 sco:2 unix:3 os:5 window:39 component:3 office:78 however:7 also:14 sell:2 standalone:1 product:6 work:4 suite:6 begin:6 branding:1 revise:1 emphasize:2 identity:1 within:4 call:8 instead:7 merely:1 late:4 mac:20 x:12 history:1 concept:2 idea:1 bring:2 bravo:1 original:2 gui:1 processor:9 develop:3 xerox:1 parc:1 february:4 development:2 originally:2 richard:1 brodie:1 rename:1 program:9 october:5 free:4 demonstration:1 copy:5 application:9 bundle:5 november:4 issue:3 world:1 make:7 distribute:1 disk:3 magazine:2 andrew:1 pollack:1 computerize:1 new:17 york:2 time:8 aug:1 http:7 select:2 nytimes:1 com:7 gst:1 abstract:1 html:5 res:1 scp:1 sq:1 st:1 nyt:1 pay:2 link:2 well:5 receive:1 sale:2 lag:1 behind:1 rival:3 wordperfect:8 although:10 ms:1 character:3 base:6 show:2 actual:2 line:2 break:4 typeface:2 markup:2 bold:1 italic:1 directly:1 screen:2 edit:2 true:1 wysiwyg:3 available:5 display:6 resolution:2 dos:5 wordstar:1 use:26 simple:3 text:11 code:9 sometimes:2 alternative:2 color:1 www:5 columbia:1 edu:1 wpdos:1 chronology:1 often:4 complicate:1 set:8 command:1 nomenclature:1 perform:2 function:3 learn:2 example:3 file:30 would:4 save:10 sequence:3 escape:2 pressing:1 menu:2 box:2 access:2 option:3 transfer:1 similar:3 interface:2 belong:2 multiplan:1 spreadsheet:1 secretary:1 company:3 reluctant:1 switch:1 offer:2 advantage:1 desire:1 feature:20 indentation:2 type:3 emulate:1 ability:1 block:5 pick:2 mouse:1 blocking:1 reliable:1 way:2 macro:11 always:6 replicate:1 problem:6 production:1 typing:1 despite:1 major:6 difference:1 look:1 feel:1 port:2 ken:1 shapiro:1 minor:1 change:17 source:3 high:6 laser:1 printer:1 mind:1 none:1 yet:1 general:2 public:3 follow:2 precedent:1 lisawrite:1 macwrite:2 attempt:6 add:10 close:1 package:3 gain:2 wide:1 acceptance:1 second:2 ship:1 synchronize:3 number:13 across:3 numerous:2 internal:1 enhancement:1 implementation:1 rich:2 format:46 rtf:3 specification:4 plague:1 bug:1 month:2 supersede:1 much:1 stable:2 register:1 user:15 mail:1 one:7 expensive:1 mistake:2 price:1 u:1 dollar:1 following:6 year:7 design:1 performance:2 poorer:1 failure:1 produce:1 windows:2 prove:1 fatal:1 firmly:1 establish:1 market:1 leader:1 never:1 serious:1 nisus:1 writer:1 provide:3 non:1 contiguous:1 selection:1 xp:4 addition:1 many:10 complain:1 update:4 reliably:1 come:2 two:2 apart:2 long:2 business:3 popular:1 due:1 elegance:1 relative:1 ease:1 widely:2 deride:1 unlike:1 common:4 codebase:2 accuse:1 slow:1 clumsy:1 memory:1 intensive:1 response:2 request:2 downgrade:1 dissatisfied:1 purchaser:1 coordinate:1 three:2 previous:2 may:15 think:1 match:1 current:2 competitor:2 wound:1 last:2 subsequent:1 longer:2 refer:3 e:2 g:1 synchronization:1 become:7 aware:1 entire:1 get:3 people:3 still:2 download:1 web:2 site:1 actually:2 pyramid:3 completely:1 rewrite:3 exist:4 abandon:1 determine:2 take:2 team:2 catch:1 capability:5 could:6 without:3 proponent:1 claim:1 fast:1 small:2 eventually:1 compile:2 beta:1 visual:2 c:1 target:1 optimization:1 turn:1 final:1 api:1 simulation:1 library:1 buggin:1 life:1 away:1 truly:1 cross:4 machine:1 independent:2 mediation:1 layer:1 operating:2 recent:3 ported:1 appropriate:1 draw:1 allow:2 desktop:1 publish:2 operation:1 graphic:1 document:37 collaboration:1 comparison:2 multilingual:1 support:27 translation:1 icon:1 assistant:4 clippy:1 animated:1 helper:1 early:3 launched:1 bob:1 compatibility:5 reach:1 parity:2 viable:1 counterpart:1 unfortunately:1 vulnerable:1 future:1 virus:7 compromise:1 excel:3 lead:1 situation:1 japanese:1 korean:1 power:2 purchase:1 separately:1 screenshot:1 obvious:1 introduce:2 rest:1 clipboard:1 hold:1 multiple:2 object:5 another:2 noticeable:1 whose:1 frequent:1 unsolicited:1 appearance:1 annoy:1 less:1 intrusive:1 acquire:1 individually:1 natively:4 require:1 task:1 pane:1 give:1 quicker:1 information:4 control:2 lot:1 modal:1 dialog:1 key:3 advertising:1 strategy:1 removal:1 favor:1 help:1 simply:1 disable:1 default:12 rebranded:1 unity:1 officially:3 substantial:1 cleanup:1 various:3 powerpoint:2 create:12 usable:1 patch:2 eliminate:2 known:1 vulnerability:1 page:7 open:16 community:1 neooffice:1 remain:1 xml:20 redesigned:1 integrated:1 equation:2 editor:2 bibliographic:1 management:1 additionally:2 data:2 bag:1 accessible:2 via:2 model:2 custom:3 conjunction:1 content:2 implement:3 structured:1 contextual:1 tab:3 functionality:3 specific:1 focus:1 like:7 live:1 preview:1 enable:3 view:3 permanent:1 mini:1 toolbar:2 super:1 tooltips:1 quick:1 smartart:1 etc:1 docx:5 install:1 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4,345 | Educational_perennialism | Perennialists believe that one should teach the things that one deems to be of everlasting importance to all people everywhere. They believe that the most important topics develop a person. Since details of fact change constantly, these cannot be the most important. Therefore, one should teach principles, not facts. Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, not machines or techniques. Since people are people first, and workers second if at all, one should teach liberal topics first, not vocational topics. A particular strategy with modern perennialists is to teach scientific reasoning, not facts. They may illustrate the reasoning with original accounts of famous experiments. This gives the students a human side to the science, and shows the reasoning in action. Most importantly, it shows the uncertainty and false steps of real science. Although perennialism may appear similar to essentialism, perennialism focuses first on personal development, while essentialism focuses first on essential skills. Essentialist curricula thus tend to be much more vocational and fact-based, and far less liberal and principle-based. Both philosophies are typically considered to be teacher-centered, as opposed to student-centered philosophies of education such as progressivism. However, since the teachers associated with perennialism are in a sense the authors of the Western masterpieces themselves, these teachers may be open to student criticism through the associated Socratic method, which, if carried out as true dialogue, is a balance between students, including the teacher promoting the discussion. Secular perennialism The word perennial in secular perennialism suggests something that lasts an indefinitely long time, recurs again and again, or is self-renewing. As promoted primarily by Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler, a universal curriculum based upon the common and essential nature of all human beings is recommended. This form of perennialism comprises the humanist and scientific traditions. Hutchins and Adler implemented these ideas with great success at the University of Chicago, where they still strongly influence the curriculum. Other notable figures in the movement include Stringfellow Barr and Scott Buchanan (who together initiated the Great Books program at St. John's College in Annapolis, Maryland), Mark Van Doren, Alexander Meiklejohn, and Sir Richard Livingstone, an English classicist with an American following. Secular perennialists espouse the idea that education should focus on the historical development of a continually developing common western base of human knowledge and art, the timeless value of classic thought on central human issues by landmark thinkers, and revolutionary ideas critical to historical western paradigm shifts or changes in world view. A program of studies which is highly general, nonspecialized, and nonvocational is advocated. Paul D. Travers and Ronald W. Rebore: Foundations of Education, Becoming a Teacher, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1990, p. 66 They firmly believe that exposure of all citizens to the development of thought by those most responsible for the evolution of the Western tradition is integral to the survival of the freedoms, human rights and responsibilities inherent to a true Democracy. Adler states: ...our political democracy depends upon the reconstitution of our schools. Our schools are not turning out young people prepared for the high office and the duties of citizenship in a democratic republic. Our political institutions cannot thrive, they may not even survive, if we do not produce a greater number of thinking citizens, from whom some statesmen of the type we had in the 18th century might eventually emerge. We are, indeed, a nation at risk, and nothing but radical reform of our schools can save us from impending disaster... Whatever the price... the price we will pay for not doing it will be much greater. Mortimer J. Adler: Reforming Education — No Quick Fix, The Radical Academy Hutchins writes in the same vein: The business of saying... that people are not capable of achieving a good education is too strongly reminiscent of the opposition of every extension of democracy. This opposition has always rested on the allegation that the people were incapable of exercising the power they demanded. Always the historic statement has been verified: you cannot expect the slave to show the virtues of the free man unless you first set him free. When the slave has been set free, he has, in the passage of time, become indistinguishable from those who have always been free... There appears to be an innate human tendency to underestimate the capacity of those who do not belong to "our" group. Those who do not share our background cannot have our ability. Foreigners, people who are in a different economic status, and the young seem invariably to be regarded as intellectually backward... Robert Maynard Hutchins: Great Books: The Foundation of a Liberal Education, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1954 As with the essentialists, perennialists are educationally conservative in the requirement of a curriculum focused upon fundamental subject areas, but stress that the overall aim should be exposure to history's finest thinkers as models for discovery. The student should be taught such basic subjects as English, languages, history, mathematics, natural science, philosophy, and fine arts. George F. Kneller: Introduction to the Philosophy of Education, John Wiley & Sons, 1971 Adler states: "The three R's, which always signified the formal disciplines, are the essence of liberal or general education." Adler: op. cit., p. 62 Secular perennialists agree with progressivists that memorization of vast amounts of factual information and a focus on second-hand information in textbooks and lectures does not develop rational thought. They advocate learning through the development of meaningful conceptual thinking and judgement by means of a directed reading list of the profound, aesthetic, and meaningful great books of the Western canon. These books, secular perennialists argue, are written by the world's finest thinkers, and cumulatively comprise the "Great Conversation" of mankind with regard to the central human questions. Their basic argument for the use of original works (abridged translations being acceptable as well) is that these are the products of "genius". Hutchins remarks: Great books are great teachers; they are showing us every day what ordinary people are capable of. These books come out of ignorant, inquiring humanity. They are usually the first announcements for success in learning. Most of them were written for, and addressed to, ordinary people." It is important to note that the Great Conversation is not static, which is the impression that one might obtain from some descriptions of perennialism, a confusion with religious perennialism, or even the term perennialism itself. The Great Conversation and the set of related great books changes as the representative thought of man changes or progresses, and is therefore representative of an evolution of thought, but is not based upon the whim or fancy of the latest cultural fads. Hutchins makes this point very clear: In the course of history... new books have been written that have won their place in the list. Books once thought entitled to belong to it have been superseded; and this process of change will continue as long as men can think and write. It is the task of every generation to reassess the tradition in which it lives, to discard what it cannot use, and to bring into context with the distant and intermediate past the most recent contributions to the Great Conversation. ...the West needs to recapture and reemphasize and bring to bear upon its present problems the wisdom that lies in the works of its greatest thinkers and in the discussion that they have carried on. Perennialism was a solution proposed in response to what was considered by many to be a failing educational system. Again Hutchins writes: The products of American high schools are illiterate; and a degree from a famous college or university is no guarantee that the graduate is in any better case. One of the most remarkable features of American society is that the difference between the "uneducated" and the "educated" is so slight. In this regard John Dewey and Hutchins were in agreement. Hutchins's book The Higher Learning in America deplored the "plight of higher learning" that had turned away from cultivation of the intellect and toward anti-intellectual practicality due in part, to a lust for money. In a highly negative review of the book, Dewey wrote a series of articles in The Social Frontier which began by applauding Hutchins' attack on "the aimlessness of our present educational scheme. Thomas Erlich: "Dewey versus Hutchins: The Next Round," Education and Democracy: Re-imagining Liberal Learning in America, ed. Robert Orril, College Entrance Examination Board, New York, 1997 Perennialists believe that reading is to be supplemented with mutual investigations (between the teacher and the student) and minimally-directed discussions through the Socratic method in order to develop a historically oriented understanding of concepts. They argue that accurate, independent reasoning distinguishes the developed or educated mind and they thus stress the development of this faculty. A skilled teacher would keep discussions on topic and correct errors in reasoning, but it would be the class, not the teacher, who would reach the conclusions. While not directing or leading the class to a conclusion, the teacher may work to accurately formulate problems within the scope of the texts being studied. While the standard argument for utilizing a modern text supports distillation of information into a form relevant to modern society, perennialists argue that many of the historical debates and the development of ideas presented by the great books are relevant to any society, at any time, and thus that the suitability of the great books for instructional use is unaffected by their age. Perennialists freely acknowledge that any particular selection of great books will disagree on many topics; however, they see this as an advantage, rather than a detriment. They believe that the student must learn to recognize such disagreements, which often reflect current debates. The student becomes responsible for thinking about the disagreements and reaching a reasoned, defensible conclusion. This is a major goal of the Socratic discussions. They do not advocate teaching a settled scholarly interpretation of the books, which would cheat the student of the opportunity to learn rational criticism and to know his own mind. Religious perennialism Perennialism was originally religious in nature, developed first by Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth century in his work De Magistro (The Teacher). In the nineteenth century, John Henry Newman presented a detailed defense of educational perennialism in The Idea of a University. Discourse 5 of that work, Knowledge its Own End, is still relevant as a clear statement of a Christian educational perennialism. According to modern Shi'ite scholars, perennialism - due to its acceptance of religious pluralism, is rejected from being permissible in Islam. Colleges exemplifying this philosophy The University of Chicago's Common Core, established by Mortimer Adler and Robert Maynard Hutchins, is probably the best-known example of educational perennialism. It is a rare example of perennialist pedagogy at a research university. The Core Curriculum of Columbia College of Columbia University is another well-known example of educational perennialism. St. John's College, U.S. is a well-known secular liberal-arts college with an undergraduate program described as "an all-required course of study based on the great books of the Western tradition." Integral Program at Saint Mary's College of California is a Great Books major at the Lasallian Catholic liberal-arts college in Moraga, California. The program was designed with the assistance of faculty from St. John's College, U.S. Thomas Aquinas College in Santa Paula, California is a Catholic Christian college with a Great Books curriculum. The college was founded by a group of graduates and professors of the Integral Program at Saint Mary's College of California, who were discouraged by the liberalism that became common place among the faculty and administration on Saint Mary's campus shortly after Vatican II. Gutenberg College in Eugene, Oregon provides "a broad-based liberal arts education in a Protestant Christian environment", with a "great books" curriculum emphasizing "the development of basic learning skills (reading, writing, mathematics, and critical thinking) and the application of these skills to profound writings of the past" Shimer College in Chicago grants a Bachelor of Arts to students who complete a program composed of humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, integrative studies and a capstone senior thesis. The Torrey Honors Institute at Biola University is a Christian Great Books program. George Wythe College in Cedar City, Utah, a liberal education college headed by Oliver DeMille, author of A Thomas Jefferson Education. Criticism See also Great Conversation Mortimer Adler Philosophy of Education education reform External links John Searle, "The Storm Over the University", The New York Review of Books, December 6, 1990 the great books References | Educational_perennialism |@lemmatized perennialists:9 believe:5 one:7 teach:7 thing:1 deem:1 everlasting:1 importance:1 people:10 everywhere:1 important:3 topic:5 develop:5 person:1 since:4 detail:1 fact:4 change:5 constantly:1 cannot:5 therefore:2 principle:2 human:9 first:8 machine:1 technique:1 worker:1 second:2 liberal:9 vocational:2 particular:2 strategy:1 modern:4 scientific:2 reasoning:3 may:5 illustrate:1 reason:3 original:2 account:1 famous:2 experiment:1 give:1 student:10 side:1 science:5 show:4 action:1 importantly:1 uncertainty:1 false:1 step:1 real:1 although:1 perennialism:17 appear:2 similar:1 essentialism:2 focus:5 personal:1 development:7 essential:2 skill:3 essentialist:1 curriculum:7 thus:3 tend:1 much:2 base:7 far:1 less:1 philosophy:6 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4,346 | Northwest_Territories | The Northwest Territories () (NWT or NT; French, les Territoires du Nord-Ouest, TNO) is a federal territory of Canada. Located in northern Canada, the territory borders Canada's two other territories, Yukon to the west and Nunavut to the east, and three provinces: British Columbia to the southwest, Alberta and Saskatchewan to the south. It has a land area of and a population of 41,464 as of the 2006 census, an increase of 11.0% from 2001. Its capital has been Yellowknife since 1967. Geographical features include Great Bear Lake, the largest lake entirely within Canada, Great Bear Lake Keller Lake and Great Slave Lakes, as well as the Mackenzie River and the canyons of the Nahanni National Park Reserve, a national park and UNESCO World Heritage Site. Territorial islands in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago include Banks Island, Borden Island, Prince Patrick Island, and parts of Victoria Island and Melville Island. The highest point is Mount Nirvana near the border with Yukon at an elevation of . While Nunavut is mostly arctic tundra, the Northwest Territories has a slightly warmer climate and is mostly boreal forest. History The present-day territory was created in June 1870, when the Hudson's Bay Company transferred Rupert's Land and North-Western Territory to the government of Canada. This immense region comprised all of non-confederation Canada except British Columbia, the coast of the Great Lakes, the Saint Lawrence River valley and the southern third of Quebec, the Maritimes, Newfoundland, and the Labrador coast. It also excluded the Arctic Islands except the southern half of Baffin Island; these remained under direct British claim until 1880. After the transfer, the territories were gradually whittled away. The province of Manitoba was created on 15 July 1870, a tiny square around Winnipeg, and then enlarged in 1881 to a rectangular region composing the modern province's south. By the time British Columbia joined Confederation on 20 July 1871, it had already (1866) been granted the portion of North-Western Territory south of 60 degrees north and west of 120 degrees west, an area that had comprised most of the Stikine Territory. In 1882, Regina in the District of Assiniboia became the territorial capital; after Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905, Regina became the provincial capital of Saskatchewan. In 1876, the District of Keewatin, at the centre of the territory, was separated from it. In 1882 and again in 1896, the remaining portion was divided into the following districts (corresponding to the following modern-day areas): Alberta (southern Alberta); Assiniboia (southern Saskatchewan); Athabasca (northern Alberta and Saskatchewan); Franklin (the Arctic islands and Boothia and Melville Peninsulas); Mackenzie (mainland NWT and western Nunavut); Saskatchewan (central Saskatchewan); Ungava (modern-day northern Quebec and inland Labrador, as well as an offshore area in Hudson Bay); Yukon (modern Yukon Territory). Keewatin was returned to NWT in 1905. In the meantime, Ontario was enlarged northwestward in 1882. Quebec was also extended, in 1898, and Yukon was made a separate territory in the same year to deal with the Klondike Gold Rush and to remove the NWT government from administering the sudden boom of population, economic activity and influx of non-Canadians. The provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were created in 1905, and Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec acquired the last of their modern territories from NWT in 1912. This left only the districts of Mackenzie, Franklin (which absorbed the remnants of Ungava in 1920), and Keewatin. In 1925, the boundaries of NWT were extended all the way to the North Pole on the sector principle, vastly expanding its territory onto the northern ice cap. The reduced Northwest Territories was not represented in the Canadian House of Commons from 1907 until 1947 when the electoral district of Yukon—Mackenzie River was created. This riding only included the District of Mackenzie. The rest of the Northwest Territories had no representation in the House of Commons until 1962, when the Northwest Territories electoral district was created in recognition of the Inuit having been given the right to vote in 1953. In 1912 the Government of Canada renamed the territory to Northwest Territories, dropping the hyphenated form. Between 1925 and 1999, the Northwest Territories measured – larger than India. Finally, on April 1, 1999, the eastern three-fifths of the Northwest Territories (including all of the District of Keewatin and much of the Mackenzie and Franklin) became a separate territory called Nunavut. There was some discussion of changing the name of the Northwest Territories after the separation of Nunavut, possibly to a term from an Aboriginal language. One proposal was "Denendeh" ("our land" in Dene). The idea was advocated by former premier Stephen Kakfwi, among others. One of the most popular proposals for a new name—to name the territory Bob—started out as a prank, but for a time was at or near the top in opinion polls. Northwest Territories looking for new name - 'Bob' need not apply Western Arctic to Northwest Territories: MP calls for riding name change In the end, as a poll conducted prior to division showed, strong support remained for retaining the name "Northwest Territories". This name arguably became more appropriate following division than it was when the territory extended far into Canada's northeast. Tundra for two: dividing Canada's far-north is no small task What about Bob, Water-Lou? In Inuktitut, the Northwest Territories are referred to as ᓄᓇᑦᓯᐊᖅ (Nunatsiaq), "beautiful land." Climate The Northwest Territories reaches for over so there is a large climate variant from south to north. The southern part of the Territory has a subarctic climate while the north has a polar climate. Summers in the south are short but warm with daytime high's reaching on average the low with overnight lows around . Winters are long and cold with daytime high's in the and lows in the . Summers in the north are short and cool with daytime highs in the mid teens and lows in the single degrees. Winters are long and harsh, daytime highs in the mid and lows around . Extremes are common with summer highs in the south reaching and lows reaching into the negatives. In winter in the south its not uncommon for the temperatures to reach the 's but can also reach the low teens during the day. In the north temperatures can reach the low , and lows can reach into the low negatives. In winter in the north its not uncommon for the temperatures to reach the but can also reach the single digits during the day. Thunderstorms are not rare in the south, but in the north they are very rare but do occur. Tornadoes are extremely rare but have happened with the most notable one happening just out side of Yellowknife that destroyed a communications tower. The Territory has a fairly dry climate due to the mountains in the west. Tree line About half of the territory is above the tree line, while the other half is below it. There are no trees in most of the eastern areas of the territory, or the north islands. Publications & Maps Demographics According to the 2001 Canadian census the 10 major ethnic groups were: First Nations - 36.0% Canadian - 19.6% English - 16.6% Scottish - 14.0% Irish - 12.0% Inuit - 11.2% French - 10.4% German - 8.1% Métis - 8.0% Ukrainian - 3.4% Population of Northwest Territories since 1871 Population urban and rural, by province and territory (Northwest Territories). Statistics Canada, 2005. Canada's population. Statistics Canada. Last accessed September 28, 2006. Year Population five-year% change ten-year% change Rank among provincesand territories 1871 48,000 n/a n/a 6 1881 56,446 n/a 17.6 7 1891 98,967 n/a 75.3 7 1901 20,1291 n/a -79.7 11 1911 6,5072 n/a -67.7 11 1921 8,143 n/a 25.1 10 1931 9,316 n/a 14.4 10 1941 12,028 n/a 29.1 10 1951 16,004 n/a 33.1 11 1956 19,313 20.7 n/a 11 1961 22,998 19.1 43.7 11 1966 28,738 25.0 48.8 11 1971 34,805 21.1 51.3 11 1976 42,610 22.4 48.3 11 1981 45,740 7.3 31.4 11 1986 52,235 14.2 22.6 11 1991 57,649 10.3 26.0 11 1996 64,402 11.7 23.2 11 2001 37,3603 -42.0 -35.2 11 2006 41,4644 12.0 -35.0 11 Yukon Territory was ceded from the Northwest Territories in 1898. Alberta and Saskatchewan were created from parts of the Northwest Territories in 1905. Data through 1996 includes Nunavut. 2001 data does not include Nunavut. 2006 census data. Religion The largest denominations by number of adherents according to the 2001 census were the Roman Catholic Church with 16,940 (46 %); the Anglican Church of Canada with 5,510 (15 %); and the United Church of Canada with 2,230 (6 %). Selected Religions, for Canada, Provinces and Territories - 20% Sample Data Language French was made an official language in 1877 by the appointed government, after lengthy and bitter debate resulting from a speech from the Throne in 1888 by Lt. Governor Joseph Royal. The members voted on more than one occasion to nullify and make English the only language used in the assembly. After some conflict with Ottawa and a decisive vote on January 19 1892, the assembly members voted for an English-only territory. In the early 1980s, the federal government pressured the government of the Northwest Territories to reintroduce French as an official language. Some Native members walked out of the assembly, protesting that they were not be permitted to speak their own language. The executive council appointed a special committee to study the matter , which decided that if French was to be an official language, then the other languages in the territories must also be allowed. The Northwest Territories' Official Languages Act recognizes the following eleven official languages, which are more than in any other political division in the Americas: Chipewyan Cree English French Gwich’in Inuinnaqtun Inuktitut Inuvialuktun North Slavey South Slavey Tłįchǫ formerly known as Dogrib NWT residents have a right to use any of the above languages in a territorial court and in debates and proceedings of the legislature. However, laws are legally binding only in their French and English versions, and the government only publishes laws and other documents in the territory's other official languages when the legislature asks it to. Furthermore, access to services in any language is limited to institutions and circumstances where there is significant demand for that language or where it is reasonable to expect it given the nature of the services requested. In practical terms, English language services are universally available, and there is no guarantee that other languages, including French, will be used by any particular government service except for the courts. Mother tongue The 2006 census returns showed a population of 41,464. Of the 40,680 singular responses to the census question regarding 'mother tongue', the most reported languages were: 1 English 31,545 77.5% 2 Dogrib 1,950 4.8% 3 South Slavey 1,285 3.2% 4 French 975 2.4% 5 North Slavey 835 2.1% 6 Inuktitut 695 1.7% 7 Tagalog 505 1.2% 8 Chipewyan 390 1.0% 9 Vietnamese 305 0.8% 10 Chinese 260 0.6% 11= Cree 190 0.5% 11= German 190 0.5% 11= Gwich'in 190 0.5% There were also 320 responses of both English and a 'non-official language'; 15 of both French and a 'non-official language'; 45 of both English and French, and about 400 people who either did not respond to the question, or reported multiple non-official languages, or else gave some other unenumerated response. The Northwest Territories' official languages are shown in bold. (Figures shown are for the number of single language responses and the percentage of total single-language responses) Economy The NWT's geological resources include gold, diamonds, natural gas and petroleum. In particular, NWT diamonds are touted as an ethical alternative that allays risks of supporting conflicts by purchasing blood diamonds. However, their exploitation has raised environmental concerns, including the potential havoc that a spill from tailings ponds could cause to unspoiled wilderness areas. The vast natural resources and relatively low population give the Northwest Territories the highest per capita GDP of all provinces or territories in Canada. In fact, its per capita GDP of C$97,923 would rank it first in the world if it were considered as its own country, well ahead of Luxembourg (at approximately C$83,000 (nominal GDP)). Major territorial mines Eldorado Mine - 1933-1940, 1942-1960, 1976-1982 (radium, uranium, silver, copper) Con Mine - 1938-2003 (gold) Negus Mine - 1939-1952 (gold) Ptarmigan and Tom Mine - 1941-1942, 1986-1997 (gold) Thompson-Lundmark Mine - 1941-1943, 1947-1949 (gold) Giant Mine - 1948-2004 (gold) Discovery Mine - 1950-1969 (gold) Rayrock Mine - 1957-1959 (uranium) Camlaren Mine - 1962-1963, 1980-1981 (gold) Cantung Mine - 1962-1986, 2002-2003, 2005-current (tungsten) Echo Bay Mines Limited - 1964-1975 (silver and copper) Pine Point Mine - 1964-1988 (lead and zinc) Tundra Mine - 1964-1968 (gold) Terra Mine - 1969-1985 (silver and copper) Salmita Mine - 1983-1987 (gold) Colomac Mine - 1990-1992, 1994-1997 (gold) Ekati Diamond Mine - 1998-current (diamonds) Diavik Diamond Mine - 2003-current (diamonds) De Beers Snap Lake Diamond Mine - 2007-current (diamonds) Government As a territory, the NWT has fewer rights than the provinces. During his term, Premier Kakfwi pushed to have the federal government accord more rights to the territory, including having a greater share of the returns from the territory's natural resources go to the territory. NWT Premier asks provincial leaders for backing Devolution of powers to the territory was an issue in the 20th general election in 2003, and has been ever since the territory began electing members in 1881. The commissioner of the NWT is the chief executive and is appointed by the Governor-in-Council of Canada on the recommendation of the federal Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. The position used to be more administrative and governmental, but with the devolution of more powers to the elected assembly since 1967, the position has become symbolic. Since 1985 the commissioner no longer chairs meetings of the Executive Council (or cabinet), and the federal government has instructed commissioners to behave like a provincial lieutenant governor. Unlike lieutenant governors, the commissioner of the Northwest Territories is not a formal representative of the Queen of Canada. Unlike provincial governments and the Yukon, the government of the Northwest Territories does not have political parties, except for the period between 1898 and 1905. It is a consensus government called the Legislative Assembly. This group is composed of one member elected from each of the nineteen constituencies. After each general election, the new parliament elects a premier and speaker by secret ballot. Seven MLAs are also chosen as cabinet ministers, with the remainder forming the opposition. The territory's most recent general election was on October 1 2007. The head of state for the territories is a Commissioner appointed by the federal government. The Commissioner had full governmental powers until 1980 when the territories were given greater self government. The legislature then began electing a cabinet and Government Leader later known as the Premier. The Premier of the Northwest Territories is Floyd Roland. The member of Parliament for Western Arctic, the riding that comprises the Northwest Territories, is Dennis Bevington (New Democratic Party). The Commissioner of the Northwest Territories is Tony Whitford. Culture Aboriginal issues in the Northwest Territories include the fate of the Dene who, in the 1940s, were employed to carry radioactive uranium ore from the mines on Great Bear Lake. Of the thirty plus miners who worked at the Port Radium site, at least fourteen have died due to various forms of cancer. A study was done in the community of Deline, called A Village of Widows by Cindy Kenny-Gilday, which indicated that the number of people involved were too small to be able to confirm or deny a link. A Village of Widows Echoes of the Atomic Age Report into former N.W.T. uranium mine recommends immediate remediation Uranium exposure insufficient to cause cancer in Deline workers: report There is historic racial tension based on the bloody history between the Dene and the Inuit, Relations with their Southern Neighbours who have now taken recent steps towards reconciliation. Land claims in the NWT culminated with the creation of the Inuit homeland of Nunavut, the result of the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement, the largest land claim in Canadian history. Another land claims agreement with the Dogrib nation created a region within NWT called Tli Cho, between Great Bear and Great Slave Lakes, which will give the Dogrib their own legislative bodies, taxes, resource royalties, and other affairs, though NWT will still maintain control over such areas as health and education. This area includes two of Canada's three diamond mines at Ekati and Diavik. Government of the NWT news release on land claims signing See also Northwest Territories lists: Airports;· Lieutenant-Governors;· Commissioners;· General elections;· Premiers;· Plebiscites;· Highways;· Capital cities;· Legislative Assemblies;· Communities; Symbols of the Northwest Territories List of National Parks of Canada Scouting in the Northwest Territories Notes References Ecosystem Classification Group, and Northwest Territories. Ecological Regions of the Northwest Territories Taiga Plains. Yellowknife, NWT: Dept. of Environment and Natural Resources, Govt. of the Northwest Territories, 2007. ISBN 0-7708-0161-7 External links Government of the Northwest Territories Northwest Territories Tourism Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre Aurora College NWT Archives NWT Historical Timeline NWT Literacy Council Language Commissioner of the Northwest Territories Lessons From the Land: interactive journeys of NWT traditional Aboriginal trails CBC Digital Archives - Northwest Territories: Voting in Canada's North | Northwest_Territories |@lemmatized northwest:38 territory:75 nwt:21 nt:1 french:11 les:1 territoires:1 du:1 nord:1 ouest:1 tno:1 federal:6 canada:21 locate:1 northern:6 border:2 two:3 yukon:8 west:4 nunavut:9 east:1 three:3 province:9 british:4 columbia:3 southwest:1 alberta:7 saskatchewan:9 south:10 land:10 area:8 population:8 census:6 increase:1 capital:4 yellowknife:3 since:5 geographical:1 feature:1 include:12 great:9 bear:4 lake:9 large:5 entirely:1 within:2 keller:1 slave:2 well:3 mackenzie:6 river:3 canyon:1 nahanni:1 national:3 park:3 reserve:1 unesco:1 world:2 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4,347 | Indian_massacre | In the history of the European colonization of North America, the term "Indian massacre" was often used to describe either mass killings of Europeans by indigenous people of the North American continent ("Indians") or mass killings of indigenous peoples by Europeans (or occasionally mass killings between different groups of indigenous peoples, as in the Cutthroat Gap Massacre). In theory, massacre applied to the killing of civilian noncombatants or to the summary execution of prisoners-of-war. In practice, the label was often haphazardly applied, rarely without bias, and was sometimes used to describe an overwhelming (though lawful) military defeat. Similarly, massacres were sometimes mislabeled "battles" in an attempt to give legitimacy to what would today be considered a war crime. Some incidents remain disputed as to whether they were massacres or battles. Overview Determining how many people died in these massacres overall is difficult. In the book The Wild Frontier: Atrocities during the American-Indian War from Jamestown Colony to Wounded Knee, amateur historian William M. Osborn sought to tally every recorded atrocity in the area that would eventually become the continental United States, from first contact (1511) to the closing of the frontier (1890), and determined that 9,156 people died from atrocities perpetrated by Native Americans, and 7,193 people died from retaliations perpetrated by whites. Osborn defines an atrocity as the murder, torture, or mutilation of civilians, the wounded, and prisoners. Different definitions would obviously produce different totals. The Wild Frontier: Atrocities During The American-Indian War This aspect of Indian culture is what is referred to in that passage of the Declaration of Independence which complains of the King of Great Britain that: "He...has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions." List of massacres This is a listing of some of the events reported then or referred to now as "Indian massacres": From 1500 up to 1830 Year Date Name Description Claimants 1540 October 18, 1540 Mabila Massacre Hernando de Soto’s expedition ambushed by Choctaws, Biography - Hernando de Soto - by Dr. Lawrence A. Clayton killing horses/pigs & 200 Spaniards, who burned down Mabila compound & killed c.2,500 warriors who had hid in houses as fake village. De Soto's Trail: Courage and Cruelty Come Alive Duncan, E., Hernando de Soto, pp. 376–384; Steele, I., Warpaths, p. 15. 1598 Acoma Massacre In retaliation for the killing of 11 Spanish soldiers, Juan de Oñate led punitive expedition to slaughter the natives in a three-day battle at the Acoma mesa. Approx. 800 dead. Spain's King later punished Oñate for his excesses. Conquistador Statue Stirs Hispanic Pride and Indian Rage Weber, D., The Spanish Frontier in North America, pp. 85–86. 1622 March 22 Jamestown Massacre Powhatans (Pamunkey) killed 347 English men, women and children throughout the Virginia colony, almost one-third of the English population of Jamestown colony. Around 347 people were massacred in the attack 1623 Pamunkey Peace Talks The English poisoned the wine at a "peace conference" with Powhatan leaders, killing ca. 200 and another 50 by hand in retaliation for the Jamestown Massacre.Steele, I., Warpaths, p. 47. 1637 May 26 Mystic Massacre English colonists commanded by Captain John Underhill, with Mohegan and Narragansett allies, launched a night attack a large Pequot village on the Mystic River in what is now Connecticut, burning the inhabitants alive and killing the survivors, with about 600-700 killed. Cave, A., The Pequot War, pp. 144–154. 1643 Wappinger Massacre In 1643 an Iroquois tribe, the Mohawks, attacked a band of Wappingers. The Wappingers fled to Manhattan Island seeking protection of Dutch governor, who had hired John Underhill. The sleeping village was slaughtered with about 80 deaths, and the group was exterminated. Churchill, W., A Little Matter of Genocide, p. 198. 1644 English Massacre of sleeping village At New Amsterdam (present day New York), John Underhill, hired by the Dutch, reproduced successful Fort Mystic strategy of burning sleeping village and slaughtering about 500 people. Steele, I., Warpaths, p. 116. 1680 August 10 Pueblo Revolt Pueblo warriors killed 380 Spanish settlers, counting men, women and children, and drove the other Spaniards from New Mexico. By 1690s sedentary Pueblo farmers wanted the Spanish to come back to protect them against Apache and Navajo raiders. Resistance and Accommodation in New Mexico 1689 August 5 Lachine massacre Fifteen hundred Mohawk warriors attacked the small settlement of Lachine, New France and killed more than ninety of the village's three-hundred seventy-five French residents. 1690 February 8 Schenectady Massacre French and Algonquins destroyed Schenectady, Province of New York, killing 60 settlers, including ten women and at least twelve children. Konstantin, P., This day in North American Indian history, p. 33 1704 February 29 Deerfield Massacre A force composed of Abenaki, Kanienkehaka, Wyandot and Pocumtuck Indians, led by a small contingent of French-Canadian militia, sacked the town of Deerfield, Massachusetts, killing 56 civilians and taking dozens more as captives. Konstantin, P., This day in North American Indian history, p. 48 1757 August 9 Fort William Henry Massacre Following the fall of Fort William Henry, between 70 and 180 British and colonial prisoners were killed by Indian allies of the French. Konstantin, P., This day in North American Indian history, p. 224 1759 October 4 Rogers Raid on Odanak Village In retaliation to the rumored murder of a captured Stockbridge man and detainment of Rogers Ranger Captain Quinten Kennedy - Major Robert Rogers led a party of approximately 150 English regulars, volunteers and Mohican Tribe Natives into the village of Odanak where reports of up to 30 deaths, among them women and children, have been confirmed via conflicting reports. Bruchac M., Reading Abenaki Traditions and European Records of Rogers Raid, p.3-4 http://www.vermontfolklifecenter.org/childrens-books/malians-song/additional_resources/rogers_raid_facts.pdf 1763September 14Devil's Hole Massacre Seneca double ambush of a British supply train and soldiers, just South of Fort Niagara. Konstantin, P., This day in North American Indian history, p. 2601763DecemberKillings by the Paxton Boys Pennsylvania settlers killed 20 peaceful Susquehannock in response to Pontiac's Rebellion. 1764July 26Enoch Brown School MassacreFour Delawares killed a schoolmaster, 10 pupils and a pregnant woman. {Two pupils scalped but survive} 1774April 30Yellow Creek MassacreMembers of Chief Logan's family were killed by Daniel Greathouse. Konstantin, P., This day in North American Indian history, p. 106 1778 July 3 Wyoming Valley Massacre Following a battle with rebel defenders of Forty Fort, Iroquois allies of the Loyalist forces hunted and killed those who fled, then tortured to death those who surrendered. Konstantin, P., This day in North American Indian history, p. 181 August 31 Stockbridge Massacre A battle of the American Revolutionary War that rebel propaganda portrayed as a massacre. Konstantin, P., This day in North American Indian history, p. 246 November 11 Cherry Valley Massacre More than 30 settlers were killed. Konstantin, P., This day in North American Indian history, p. 321 1781 September 1 Dietz Massacre The home of Johannes Dietz, Berne, New York, was attacked by Indians during the Revolution. Johannes, his wife, their daughter-in-law (wife of their son, Capt. William Dietz), four children of their son's family, and a servant girl were killed and scalped. Priest, Josiah, "Stories of the Revolution", first published 1836 1782 March 8 Gnadenhütten massacre Nearly 100 non-combatant Christian Delaware (Lenape) Indians, mostly women and children, were killed with hammer blows to the head by Pennsylvania militiamen. Konstantin, Phil, This day in North American Indian history, p. 57 1782 May 10 Corbly Family Massacre John Corbly, whose wife and five children were massacred in western Pennsylvania [Daughters of the American Revolution Magazine By Daughters of the American Revolution, Published by R.R. Bowker Co., 1925 Item notes: v.59 1925 January-June page234] 1812 August 15 Fort Dearborn Massacre American settlers and soldiers were killed in ambush near Fort Dearborn (site of present-day Chicago, Illinois) In all, the massacred were twenty-six soldiers, two officers (Captain Wells and Surgeon Van Voorhees), two women and twelve children, and twelve trappers and settlers hired as scouts. Konstantin, P., This day in North American Indian history, p. 231 September 10 Zimmer Massacre 4 Settlers killed. Ambush/attack in Ashland County, Ohio. Howe, Henry., "Howe's Historical Collections of Ohio, Volume 1 .pp.257–258, 1907 September 15 Copus Massacre 3 Militiamen and 1 settler killed; 2 militiamen and settler's daughter are wounded. Two Indians killed. Ambush/attack in Ashland County, Ohio. Howe, Henry., "Howe's Historical Collections of Ohio, Volume 1 .pp.258–259, 1907 1813 January 22 River Raisin Massacre Between 30 and 60 Kentucky militia were killed after surrendering. Konstantin, P., This day in North American Indian history, p. 20 August 18 Dilbone MassacreThree settlers (David Garrard and Henry Dilbone and wife) were killed in Miami County, Ohio. {A local Indian who killed the 3 settlers was later shot and killed} Sutton, R., "The History of Shelby County Ohio", p.122 published 1883 August 30 Fort Mims Massacre Following defeat at the Battle of Burnt Corn, a band of Red Sticks sacked Fort Mims, Alabama, killing 400 civilians and taking 250 scalps. This action precipitated the Creek War. Konstantin, P., This day in North American Indian history, p. 245 1817 Spring Battle of Claremore Mound Cherokee Indians wiped out Osage Indians led by Chief Clermont at Claremore Mound, Indian Territory. 1818 April 22 Chehaw Affair U.S. troops attacked a non-hostile village during the First Seminole War, killing an estimated 10 to 50 men, women and children. 1824 March 22 Fall Creek Massacre Six settlers in Madison County Indiana killed and robbed 8 Seneca Indians. One escaped trial and one was a witness at subsequent trial. One was hanged January 12, 1825 and two were hanged June 2, 1825. The last defendant was pardoned at the last minuiteWikipedia Article From 1830 through 1911 Year Date Name Description Citations1832 May 18 orMay 19 Execution of Lucy and James Sample Indians, mainly Potawatomi, torture and burn alive two captives Lucy and James Sample. See article Execution of Lucy and James SampleMay 20 Indian Creek Massacre Indians, mainly Potawatomi, kidnapped two girls and killed fifteen men, women and children. Konstantin, P., This day in North American Indian history, p. 128 August 1 Battle of Bad Axe Around 150 Indian men, women and children were killed in Wisconsin by soldiers under General Henry Atkinson and armed volunteers. Konstantin, P., This day in North American Indian history, p. 213 1833 Spring Cutthroat Gap Massacre Osage Indians wiped out a Kiowa Indian village in Indian Territory. 1835 Winter Dade Massacre Seminole Indians wiped out a command of 108 American Soldiers in Central Florida. Axelrod, Alan, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, p.146 1836 May 19 Fort Parker Massacre Seven men were killed by Comanches in Limestone County, Texas. Konstantin, P., This day in North American Indian history, p. 127 1838 October 5 Killough Massacre Indians massacred eighteen members and relatives of the Killough family in Texas. 1840 August 7 Indian Key Massacre Florida Indians attacked and destroyed Indian Key settlement, killing 13 inhabitants including noted horticulturist Dr. Henry Perrine. Knetsch, Joe. Florida's Seminole Wars 1817-1858, p. 128 1847 November 29 Whitman massacre The murder of missionaries Dr. Marcus Whitman, Mrs. Narcissa Whitman and twelve others at Walla Walla, Washington by Cayuse and Umatilla Indians, triggering the Cayuse War. Konstantin, P., This day in North American Indian history, p. 336. 1850 May 15 Bloody Island Massacre The murder of 60-100 Pomo people on Bo-no-po-ti island near Clear Lake, (Lake Co., California), by Nathaniel Lyon and his U. S. Army detachment, in retribution for the killing of two Clear Lake settlers who had been abusing and murdering Pomo people. (The Island Pomos had no connections to the enslaved Pomos). This incident led to a general mass killing of native people all over Northern California. Letter, Brevet Capt. N. Lyon to Major E.R.S. Canby, May 22, 1850, cited in Heizer, Robert F., The Destruction of California Indians, pp. 244–246. 1853 Before December 31 "Ox" incident Unreported number of Indians were killed in the Four Creeks area (Tulare Co., California) in "our little difficulty" and "the chastisement they have received" Letter, Bvt. 2nd Lieut. John Nugens to Lieut T. Wright, December 31, 1853, quoted in Heizer, pp. 12–13. 1854 August 17 Kaibai Creek Massacre Forty-two Winnemem Wintu men, women and children were killed by white settlers at Kaibai Creek, California. August 19 Grattan Massacre Twenty-nine U.S. soldiers killed by Brulé Lakota Sioux Indians in Nebraska Territory. Michno, Gregory, Encyclopedia of Indian Wars, p. 27 August 20 Ward Massacre Eighteen of the 20 members of the Alexander Ward party were killed by Shoshoni Indians while traveling on the Oregon Trail in western Idaho. This event led to the eventual abandonment of Fort Boise and Fort Hall, in favor of the use of military escorts. Michno, Gregory, Encyclopedia of Indian Wars, pp. 28–29 1855 January 22 Klamath River massacres In retaliation for the murder of 6 white people and stealing of some cattle, "whites" commenced a "war of extermination against the Indians" in Humboldt Co., California Crescent City Herald, quoted in Sacramento newspaper, cited in Heizer, pp. 35–36. 1860 February 26 Gunther Island Massacre About 188 Wiyot Indians, mostly women and children, were killed by white settlers in Humboldt County, California, during one of three simultaneous assaults on the Wiyot Michno, Gregory, Encyclopedia of Indian Wars, pp. 72–73; Heizer 1862 August-September Dakota War of 1862 300-800 white settlers were killed throughout Minnesota as part of the U.S.-Dakota War October 24 Tonkawa Massacre Accompanied by Caddo allies, a detachment of irregular Union Indians, mainly Kickapoo, Delaware and Shawnee, attempted to destroy the Tonkawa tribe in Indian Territory. One hundred and fifty of 390 Tonkawa survived. Michno, Gregory, Encyclopedia of Indian Wars, pp. 105–106 1863 January 29 Bear River Massacre Col. Patrick Connor led a regiment killing at least 200 Indian men, women and children near Preston, Idaho. See main article April 19 Keyesville Massacre White settlers killed 35 Tehachapi men in Kern County, California . Official accounts found at 1864 November 29 Sand Creek Massacre Militiamen killed at least 160 Cheyenne Indians at Sand Creek, Colorado. Michno, Gregory, Encyclopedia of Indian Wars, pp. 157–159 1865-1871 Yahi Massacres Several massacres of native encampments by American settlers exterminated the 200 members of the Yahi tribe, such as the first in 1865 (74 killed), the 1866 Three Knolls (40 killed) and Dry Camp (33 killed) massacres, ending with the Kingsley Cave/Morgan Camp massacre (30 killed) in 1871. The Yahi were Ishi’s tribe.Cook, S., The Conflict between the California Indian and White Civilization. 1867 July 2 Kidder Massacre Cheyenne and Sioux Indians ambushed and killed a 2nd US Cavalry detachment of eleven men and Indian guide near Beaver Creek in Sherman County, Kansas . Michno, Gregory, Encyclopedia of Indian Wars, pp. 201–202 1870 January 23 Marias Massacre White Americans killed 173 Piegans, mainly women, children and the elderly. Michno, Gregory, Encyclopedia of Indian Wars, p. 241 1871 Camp Grant Massacre Led by ex-Tucson mayor, William Oury, a vigilante band from Tucson slaughtered Apache women and children while the men were doing their spring planting. More than 100 dead. Terrell, J., Land Grab, pp. 4–10. 1879 January 8 Ft Robinson Massacre Northern Cheyenne under Dull Knife attempted to escape from confinement in Fort Robinson, Nebraska; about fifty survived. The remains of those killed were repatriated in 1994. Michno, Gregory, Encyclopedia of Indian Wars, pp. 322–323 1879 September 30 Meeker Massacre Indian Agent Nathan Meeker and 10 others killed by Utes; likewise a military unit is ambushed and 13 killed and 43 wounded. The Beginning of the Ute War Wikipedia Article Nathan Meeker 1880 April 28 Alma Massacre Settlers were killed by Apaches led by Victorio at Alma, New Mexico. Likewise on December 19, 1885, an officer and four enlisted men of the 8th Cavalry Regiment were killed by Apaches near Alma, New Mexico. See P.Reed, Albuquerque Tribune story 12/22/2005 listed under References of Bibliography under article Alma, New Mexico {Reference only} 1890 December 29 Wounded Knee Massacre 128 Sioux men, women and children are massacred by US soldiers at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. Michno, Gregory, Encyclopedia of Indian Wars, p. 351 1911 January 19 Bannock Indians kill 4 ranchersWashoe County, Nevada. {On February 26, 1911 8 of 12 Indians involved killed by posse; 4 captured} Wikipetia article Footnotes Reference Materials Heizer, Robert F., The Destruction of California Indians, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, 1993. ISBN 0-8032-7262-6. 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4,348 | Foreign_relations_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia | The Government of the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) conducts its own foreign relations. Since independence, the FSM has established diplomatic relations with a number of nations, including most of its Pacific neighbors. Regional cooperation through various multilateral organizations is a key element in its foreign policy. The FSM became a member of the United Nations in 1991. United States For more, see Micronesia-United States relations. The Governments of the FSM and the U.S. signed the final version of the Compact of Free Association on October 1, 1982. The Compact went into effect on November 3, 1986, and the FSM became a sovereign nation in free association with the United States. Under the Compact, the U.S. has full authority and responsibility for the defense of the FSM. This security relationship can be changed or terminated by mutual agreement. The Compact provides U.S. grant funds and federal program assistance to the FSM. The basic relationship of free association continues indefinitely, but certain economic and defense provisions of the Compact expire in 2001, subject to renegotiation. Negotiations on extending the Compact began in November 1999. Israel FSM is one of the most consistent supporters of Israel (along with the United States) in international affairs. Throughout the history of the United Nations General Assembly, it is claimed by some there has always been an "automatic majority" against Israel. The United States has consistently opposed what it perceives as "unbalanced" "anti-Israel" resolutions and, in recent years, one other nation has joined Israel’s defense — Micronesia. The foreign policy goals of the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) are primarily linked to achieving economic development and protecting their vast marine environment. Israel was one of the first to welcome the FSM into the family of nations, even before the FSM became a member of the U.N. According to the FSM U.N. deputy ambassador, Micronesia has since sought close bilateral relations with Israel in areas such as agriculture, technical training and health care training. Israel has assisted the FSM in its early development. As one Micronesian diplomat said, "We need Israeli expertise, so I don’t see a change in our policy anytime soon." Cuba Micronesia was one of ten Pacific countries to send a government member to the first Cuba-Pacific Islands ministerial meeting, held in Havana in September 2008. "Cuban Foreign Minister Opens Cuba-Pacific Islands Meeting", Cuban News Agency, September 16, 2008 "Pacific and Cuba meet to discuss co-operation", Radio New Zealand International, September 17, 2008 The aim of the meeting was to "strengthen cooperation" between Micronesia and Cuba, notably on addressing the impact of climate change. "Cuba and Pacific strengthen co-operation", Radio New Zealand International, September 18, 2008 See also Micronesian diplomatic missions List of diplomatic missions in the Federated States of Micronesia References | Foreign_relations_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia |@lemmatized government:3 federated:3 state:8 micronesia:8 fsm:13 conduct:1 foreign:4 relation:4 since:2 independence:1 establish:1 diplomatic:3 number:1 nation:6 include:1 pacific:6 neighbor:1 regional:1 cooperation:2 various:1 multilateral:1 organization:1 key:1 element:1 policy:3 become:3 member:3 united:7 see:3 u:5 sign:1 final:1 version:1 compact:6 free:3 association:3 october:1 go:1 effect:1 november:2 sovereign:1 full:1 authority:1 responsibility:1 defense:3 security:1 relationship:2 change:3 terminate:1 mutual:1 agreement:1 provide:1 grant:1 fund:1 federal:1 program:1 assistance:1 basic:1 continue:1 indefinitely:1 certain:1 economic:2 provision:1 expire:1 subject:1 renegotiation:1 negotiation:1 extend:1 begin:1 israel:8 one:5 consistent:1 supporter:1 along:1 international:3 affair:1 throughout:1 history:1 general:1 assembly:1 claim:1 always:1 automatic:1 majority:1 consistently:1 oppose:1 perceive:1 unbalanced:1 anti:1 resolution:1 recent:1 year:1 join:1 goal:1 primarily:1 link:1 achieve:1 development:2 protect:1 vast:1 marine:1 environment:1 first:2 welcome:1 family:1 even:1 n:2 accord:1 deputy:1 ambassador:1 seek:1 close:1 bilateral:1 area:1 agriculture:1 technical:1 training:2 health:1 care:1 assist:1 early:1 micronesian:2 diplomat:1 say:1 need:1 israeli:1 expertise:1 anytime:1 soon:1 cuba:6 ten:1 country:1 send:1 islands:2 ministerial:1 meeting:2 hold:1 havana:1 september:4 cuban:2 minister:1 open:1 meet:2 news:1 agency:1 discuss:1 co:2 operation:2 radio:2 new:2 zealand:2 aim:1 strengthen:2 notably:1 address:1 impact:1 climate:1 also:1 mission:2 list:1 reference:1 |@bigram diplomatic_relation:1 health_care:1 diplomatic_mission:2 |
4,349 | Dipole | The Earth's magnetic field, which is approximately a magnetic dipole. However, the "N" and "S" (north and south) poles are labeled here geographically, which is the opposite of the convention for labeling the poles of a magnetic dipole moment In physics, there are two kinds of dipoles (Hellènic: di(s)- = two- and pòla = pivot, hinge): An electric dipole is a separation of positive and negative charge. The simplest example of this is a pair of electric charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign, separated by some, usually small, distance. A permanent electric dipole is called an electret. A magnetic dipole is a closed circulation of electric current. A simple example of this is a single loop of wire with some constant current flowing through it. Dipoles can be characterized by their dipole moment, a vector quantity. For the simple electric dipole given above, the electric dipole moment would point from the negative charge towards the positive charge, and have a magnitude equal to the strength of each charge times the separation between the charges. For the current loop, the magnetic dipole moment would point through the loop (according to the right hand grip rule), with a magnitude equal to the current in the loop times the area of the loop. In addition to current loops, the electron, among other fundamental particles, is said to have a magnetic dipole moment. This is because it generates a magnetic field which is identical to that generated by a very small current loop. However, to the best of our knowledge, the electron's magnetic moment is not due to a current loop, but is instead an intrinsic property of the electron. It is also possible that the electron has an electric dipole moment, although this has not yet been observed (see electron electric dipole moment for more information). Contour plot of an electrical dipole, with equipotential surfaces indicated A permanent magnet, such as a bar magnet, owes its magnetism to the intrinsic magnetic dipole moment of the electron. The two ends of a bar magnet are referred to as poles (not to be confused with monopoles), and are labeled "north" and "south." The dipole moment of the bar magnet points from its magnetic south to its magnetic north pole—confusingly, the "north" and "south" convention for magnetic dipoles is the opposite of that used to describe the Earth's geographic and magnetic poles, so that the Earth's geomagnetic north pole is the south pole of its dipole moment. (This should not be difficult to remember; it simply means that the north pole of a bar magnet is the one which points north if used as a compass.) The only known mechanisms for the creation of magnetic dipoles are by current loops or quantum-mechanical spin since the existence of magnetic monopoles has never been experimentally demonstrated. Physical dipoles, point dipoles, and approximate dipoles Electric dipole field lines A physical dipole consists of two equal and opposite point charges: literally, two poles. Its field at large distances (i.e., distances large in comparison to the separation of the poles) depends almost entirely on the dipole moment as defined above. A point (electric) dipole is the limit obtained by letting the separation tend to 0 while keeping the dipole moment fixed. The field of a point dipole has a particularly simple form, and the order-1 term in the multipole expansion is precisely the point dipole field. Although there are no known magnetic monopoles in nature, there are magnetic dipoles in the form of the quantum-mechanical spin associated with particles such as electrons (although the accurate description of such effects falls outside of classical electromagnetism). A theoretical magnetic point dipole has a magnetic field of the exact same form as the electric field of an electric point dipole. A very small current-carrying loop is approximately a magnetic point dipole; the magnetic dipole moment of such a loop is the product of the current flowing in the loop and the (vector) area of the loop. Any configuration of charges or currents has a 'dipole moment', which describes the dipole whose field is the best approximation, at large distances, to that of the given configuration. This is simply one term in the multipole expansion; when the charge ("monopole moment") is 0 — as it always is for the magnetic case, since there are no magnetic monopoles — the dipole term is the dominant one at large distances: its field falls off in proportion to , as compared to for the next (quadrupole) term and higher powers of for higher terms, or for the monopole term. Molecular dipoles Many molecules have such dipole moments due to non-uniform distributions of positive and negative charges on the various atoms. For example: (positive) H-Cl (negative) A molecule with a permanent dipole moment is called a polar molecule. A molecule is polarized when it carries an induced dipole. The physical chemist Peter J. W. Debye was the first scientist to study molecular dipoles extensively, and dipole moments are consequently measured in units named debye in his honor. With respect to molecules there are three types of dipoles: Permanent dipoles: These occur when two atoms in a molecule have substantially different electronegativity—one atom attracts electrons more than another becoming more negative, while the other atom becomes more positive. See dipole-dipole attractions. Instantaneous dipoles: These occur due to chance when electrons happen to be more concentrated in one place than another in a molecule, creating a temporary dipole. See instantaneous dipole. Induced dipoles These occur when one molecule with a permanent dipole repels another molecule's electrons, "inducing" a dipole moment in that molecule. See induced-dipole attraction. The definition of an induced dipole given in the previous sentence is too restrictive and misleading. An induced dipole of any polarizable charge distribution (remember that a molecule has a charge distribution) is caused by an electric field external to . This field may, for instance, originate from an ion or polar molecule in the vicinity of or may be macroscopic (e.g., a molecule between the plates of a charged capacitor). The size of the induced dipole is equal to the product of the strength of the external field and the dipole polarizability of . Typical gas phase values of some chemical compounds in debye units: carbon dioxide: 0 carbon monoxide: 0.112 ozone: 0.53 phosgene: 1.17 water vapor: 1.85 hydrogen cyanide: 2.98 cyanamide: 4.27 potassium bromide: 10.41 These values can be obtained from measurement of the dielectric constant. When the symmetry of a molecule cancels out a net dipole moment, the value is set at 0. The highest dipole moments are in the range of 10 to 11. From the dipole moment information can be deduced about the molecular geometry of the molecule. For example the data illustrate that carbon dioxide is a linear molecule but ozone is not. Quantum mechanical dipole operator Consider a collection of N particles with charges and position vectors . For instance, this collection may be a molecule consisting of electrons, all with charge -e, and nuclei with charge , where is the atomic number of the i th nucleus. The physical quantity (observable) dipole has the quantum mechanical operator: Atomic dipoles A non-degenerate (S-state) atom can have only a zero permanent dipole. This fact follows quantum mechanically from the inversion symmetry of atoms. All 3 components of the dipole operator are antisymmetric under inversion with respect to the nucleus, where is the dipole operator and is the inversion operator. The permanent dipole moment of an atom in a non-degenerate state (see degenerate energy level) is given as the expectation (average) value of the dipole operator, where is an S-state, non-degenerate, wavefunction, which is symmetric or antisymmetric under inversion: . Since the product of the wavefunction (in the ket) and its complex conjugate (in the bra) is always symmetric under inversion and its inverse, it follows that the expectation value changes sign under inversion. We used here the fact that , being a symmetry operator, is unitary: and by definition the Hermitian adjoint may be moved from bra to ket and then becomes . Since the only quantity that is equal to minus itself is the zero, the expectation value vanishes, In the case of open-shell atoms with degenerate energy levels, one could define a dipole moment by the aid of the first-order Stark effect. This only gives a non-vanishing dipole (by definition proportional to a non-vanishing first-order Stark shift) if some of the wavefunctions belonging to the degenerate energies have opposite parity; i.e., have different behavior under inversion. This is a rare occurrence, but happens for the excited H-atom, where 2s and 2p states are "accidentally" degenerate (see this article for the origin of this degeneracy) and have opposite parity (2s is even and 2p is odd). Field from a magnetic dipole Magnitude The far-field strength, B, of a dipole magnetic field is given by where B is the strength of the field, measured in teslas; r is the distance from the center, measured in metres; λ is the magnetic latitude (90°−θ) where θ = magnetic colatitude, measured in radians or degrees from the dipole axis (Magnetic colatitude is 0 along the dipole's axis and 90° in the plane perpendicular to its axis.); m is the dipole moment (VADM=virtual axial dipole moment), measured in ampere square-metres (A·m2), which equals joules per tesla; μ0 is the permeability of free space, measured in henries per metre. Conversion to cylindrical coordinates is achieved using and where ρ is the perpendicular distance from the z-axis. Then, Vector form The field itself is a vector quantity: where B is the field; r is the vector from the position of the dipole to the position where the field is being measured; r is the absolute value of r: the distance from the dipole; is the unit vector parallel to r; m is the (vector) dipole moment; μ0 is the permeability of free space; is the three-dimensional delta function. ( = 0 except at r = (0,0,0), so this term is ignored in multipole expansion.) This is exactly the field of a point dipole, exactly the dipole term in the multipole expansion of an arbitrary field, and approximately the field of any dipole-like configuration at large distances. Magnetic vector potential The vector potential A of a magnetic dipole is with the same definitions as above. Field from an electric dipole The electrostatic potential at position due to an electric dipole at the origin is given by: where is a unit vector in the direction of ; p is the (vector) dipole moment; ε0 is the permittivity of free space. This term appears as the second term in the multipole expansion of an arbitrary electrostatic potential Φ(r). If the source of Φ(r) is a dipole, as it is assumed here, this term is the only non-vanishing term in the multipole expansion of Φ(r). The electric field from a dipole can be found from the gradient of this potential: where E is the electric field and is the 3-dimensional delta function. ( = 0 except at r = (0,0,0), so this term is ignored in multipole expansion.) Notice that this is formally identical to the magnetic field of a point magnetic dipole; only a few names have changed. Torque on a dipole Since the direction of an electric field is defined as the direction of the force on a positive charge, electric field lines point away from a positive charge and toward a negative charge. When placed in an electric or magnetic field, equal but opposite forces arise on each side of the dipole creating a torque τ: for an electric dipole moment p (in coulomb-meters), or for a magnetic dipole moment m (in ampere-square meters). The resulting torque will tend to align the dipole with the applied field, which in the case of an electric dipole, yields a potential energy of . The energy of a magnetic dipole is similarly . Dipole radiation Real-time evolution of the electric field of an oscillating electric dipole. The dipole is located at (60,60) in the graph, oscillating at 1 rad/s (~0.16 Hz) in the vertical direction In addition to dipoles in electrostatics, it is also common to consider an electric or magnetic dipole that is oscillating in time. In particular, a harmonically oscillating electric dipole is described by a dipole moment of the form where ω is the angular frequency. In vacuum, this produces fields: Far away (for ), the fields approach the limiting form of a radiating spherical wave: which produces a total time-average radiated power P given by This power is not distributed isotropically, but is rather concentrated around the directions lying perpendicular to the dipole moment. Usually such equations are described by spherical harmonics, but they look very different. A circular polarized dipole is described as a superposition of two linear dipoles. See also Magnetic dipole models Electret Indian Ocean Dipole (an oceanographic phenomenon) Magnetic dipole-dipole interaction Magnetic dipole moment Spin magnetic moment Monopole Solid harmonics Axial multipole moments Cylindrical multipole moments Spherical multipole moments Laplace expansion References External links USGS Geomagnetism Program Fields of Force: a chapter from an online textbook Electric Dipole Potential by Stephen Wolfram and Energy Density of a Magnetic Dipole by Franz Krafft. Wolfram Demonstrations Project. The inverse cube law The inverse cube law for dipoles (PDF file) by Eng. Xavier Borg be-x-old:Электрычны дыполь | Dipole |@lemmatized earth:3 magnetic:41 field:35 approximately:3 dipole:116 however:2 n:2 north:7 south:5 pole:10 label:3 geographically:1 opposite:7 convention:2 moment:38 physic:1 two:7 kind:1 hellènic:1 di:1 pòla:1 pivot:1 hinge:1 electric:27 separation:4 positive:7 negative:6 charge:19 simple:4 example:4 pair:1 equal:8 magnitude:4 sign:2 separate:1 usually:2 small:3 distance:9 permanent:7 call:2 electret:2 closed:1 circulation:1 current:11 single:1 loop:13 wire:1 constant:2 flowing:2 characterize:1 vector:12 quantity:4 give:8 would:2 point:15 towards:1 strength:4 time:5 accord:1 right:1 hand:1 grip:1 rule:1 area:2 addition:2 electron:11 among:1 fundamental:1 particle:3 say:1 generate:2 identical:2 best:2 knowledge:1 due:4 instead:1 intrinsic:2 property:1 also:3 possible:1 although:3 yet:1 observe:1 see:7 information:2 contour:1 plot:1 electrical:1 equipotential:1 surface:1 indicate:1 magnet:5 bar:4 owe:1 magnetism:1 end:1 refer:1 confuse:1 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4,350 | Gradient | In the above two images, the scalar field is in black and white, black representing higher values, and its corresponding gradient is represented by blue arrows. Gradient on 3D surface - red arrows = quicker growth, blue arrows = slower growth. On the top there are both growth and gradient zero. In vector calculus, the gradient of a scalar field is a vector field which points in the direction of the greatest rate of increase of the scalar field, and whose magnitude is the greatest rate of change. A generalization of the gradient for functions on a Euclidean space which have values in another Euclidean space is the Jacobian. A further generalization for a function from one Banach space to another is the Fréchet derivative. Interpretations of the gradient For instance, consider a room in which the temperature is given by a scalar field , so at each point the temperature is (we will assume that the temperature does not change in time). Then, at each point in the room, the gradient of at that point will show the direction in which the temperature rises most quickly. The magnitude of the gradient will determine how fast the temperature rises in that direction. Consider a hill whose height above sea level at a point is . The gradient of at a point is a vector pointing in the direction of the steepest slope or grade at that point. The steepness of the slope at that point is given by the magnitude of the gradient vector. The gradient can also be used to measure how a scalar field changes in other directions, rather than just the direction of greatest change, by taking a dot product. Consider again the example with the hill and suppose that the steepest slope on the hill is 40%. If a road goes directly up the hill, then the steepest slope on the road will also be 40%. If, instead, the road goes around the hill at an angle (the gradient vector), then it will have a shallower slope. For example, if the angle between the road and the uphill direction, projected onto the horizontal plane, is 60°, then the steepest slope along the road will be 20%, which is 40% times the cosine of 60°. This observation can be mathematically stated as follows. If the hill height function is differentiable, then the gradient of dotted with a unit vector gives the slope of the hill in the direction of the vector. More precisely, when is differentiable, the dot product of the gradient of with a given unit vector is equal to the directional derivative of in the direction of that unit vector. Definition The gradient (or gradient vector field) of a scalar function is denoted or where (the nabla symbol) denotes the vector differential operator, del. The notation is also used for the gradient. The gradient of f is defined to be the vector field whose components are the partial derivatives of . That is: Here the gradient is written as a row vector, but it is often taken to be a column vector. When a function also depends on a parameter such as time, the gradient often refers simply to the vector of its spatial derivatives only. Expressions for the gradient in 3 dimensions The form of the gradient depends on the coordinate system used. In Cartesian coordinates, the above expression expands to which is often written using the standard versors : In cylindrical coordinates, the gradient is given by : where is the azimuthal angle, is the axial coordinate, and eρ, eθ and ez are unit vectors pointing along the coordinate directions. In spherical coordinates : where is the azimuth angle and is the zenith angle. Example For example, the gradient of the function in Cartesian coordinates is: The gradient and the derivative or differential Linear approximation to a function The gradient of a function from the Euclidean space to at any particular point x0 in characterizes the best linear approximation to f at x0. The approximation is as follows: for close to , where is the gradient of f computed at , and the dot denotes the dot product on . This equation is equivalent to the first two terms in the multi-variable Taylor Series expansion of f at x0. The differential or (exterior) derivative The best linear approximation to a function at a point in is a linear map from to which is often denoted by or and called the differential or (total) derivative of at . The gradient is therefore related to the differential by the formula for any . The function , which maps to , is called the differential or exterior derivative of and is an example of a differential 1-form. If is viewed as the space of (length ) column vectors (of real numbers), then one can regard as the row vector so that is given by matrix multiplication. The gradient is then the corresponding column vector, i.e., . Gradient as a derivative Let U be an open set in Rn. If the function f:U → R is differentiable, then the differential of f is the (Fréchet) derivative of f. Thus is a function from U to the space R such that where • is the dot product. As a consequence, the usual properties of the derivative hold for the gradient: Linearity The gradient is linear in the sense that if f and g are two real-valued functions differentiable at the point a∈Rn, and α and β are two constants, then αf+βg is differentiable at a, and moreover Product rule If f and g are real-valued functions differentiable at a point a∈Rn, then the product rule asserts that the product (fg)(x) = f(x)g(x) of the functions f and g is differentiable at a, and Chain rule Suppose that f:A→R is a real-valued function defined on a subset A of Rn, and that f is differentiable at a point a. There are two forms of the chain rule applying to the gradient. First, suppose that the function g is a parametric curve; that is, a function g : I → Rn maps a subset I ⊂ R into Rn. If g is differentiable at a point c ∈ I such that g(c) = a, then More generally, if instead I⊂Rk, then the following holds: where (Dg)T denotes the transpose Jacobian matrix. For the second form of the chain rule, suppose that h : I → R is a real valued function on a subset I of R, and that h is differentiable at the point c = f(a) ∈ I. Then Transformation properties Although the gradient is defined in term of coordinates, it is contravariant under the application of an orthogonal matrix to the coordinates. This is true in the sense that if A is an orthogonal matrix, then which follows by the chain rule above. A vector transforming in this way is known as a contravariant vector, and so the gradient is a special type of tensor. The differential is more natural than the gradient because it is invariant under all coordinate transformations (or diffeomorphisms), whereas the gradient is only invariant under orthogonal transformations (because of the implicit use of the dot product in its definition). Because of this, it is common to blur the distinction between the two concepts using the notion of covariant and contravariant vectors. From this point of view, the components of the gradient transform covariantly under changes of coordinates, so it is called a covariant vector field, whereas the components of a vector field in the usual sense transform contravariantly. In this language the gradient is the differential, as a covariant vector field is the same thing as a differential 1-form. Unfortunately this confusing language is confused further by differing conventions. Although the components of a differential 1-form transform covariantly under coordinate transformations, differential 1-forms themselves transform contravariantly (by pullback) under diffeomorphism. For this reason differential 1-forms are sometimes said to be contravariant rather than covariant, in which case vector fields are covariant rather than contravariant. Further properties and applications Level sets If the partial derivatives of f are continuous, then the dot product of the gradient at a point x with a vector v gives the directional derivative of f at x in the direction v. It follows that in this case the gradient of f is orthogonal to the level sets of f. Because the gradient is orthogonal to level sets, it can be used to construct a vector normal to a surface. Consider any manifold that is one dimension less than the space it is in (e.g., a surface in 3D, a curve in 2D, etc.). Let this manifold be defined by an equation e.g. F(x, y, z) = 0 (i.e., move everything to one side of the equation). We have now turned the manifold into a level set. To find a normal vector, we simply need to find the gradient of the function F at the desired point. Conservative vector fields The gradient of a function is called a gradient field. A gradient field is always a conservative vector field: line integrals through a gradient field are path-independent and can be evaluated with the gradient theorem (the fundamental theorem of calculus for line integrals). Conversely, a conservative vector field in a simply connected region is always the gradient of a function. The gradient on Riemannian manifolds For any smooth function f on a Riemannian manifold (M,g), the gradient of f is the vector field such that for any vector field , where denotes the inner product of tangent vectors at x defined by the metric g and (sometimes denoted X(f)) is the function that takes any point x∈M to the directional derivative of f in the direction X, evaluated at x. In other words, in a coordinate chart from an open subset of M to an open subset of Rn, is given by: where Xj denotes the jth component of X in this coordinate chart. So, the local form of the gradient takes the form: Generalizing the case M=Rn, the gradient of a function is related to its exterior derivative, since . More precisely, the gradient is the vector field associated to the differential 1-form df using the musical isomorphism (called "sharp") defined by the metric g. The relation between the exterior derivative and the gradient of a function on Rn is a special case of this in which the metric is the flat metric given by the dot product. See also Curl Divergence Electrochemical gradient Fall line (skiing) Grade (slope) Gradient descent Gradient pattern analysis Laplace operator Level set Musical isomorphism Nabla Slope Sobel operator Surface gradient References . . External links Gradients at Wolfram MathWorld Berkeley Mathematics lecture on gradient vectors be-x-old:Градыент | Gradient |@lemmatized two:6 image:1 scalar:6 field:21 black:2 white:1 represent:2 high:1 value:6 corresponding:2 gradient:61 blue:2 arrow:3 surface:4 red:1 quick:1 growth:3 slow:1 top:1 zero:1 vector:37 calculus:2 point:21 direction:12 great:3 rate:2 increase:1 whose:3 magnitude:3 change:5 generalization:2 function:26 euclidean:3 space:7 another:2 jacobian:2 one:4 banach:1 fréchet:2 derivative:16 interpretation:1 instance:1 consider:4 room:2 temperature:5 give:9 assume:1 time:3 show:1 rise:2 quickly:1 determine:1 fast:1 hill:7 height:2 sea:1 level:6 steep:4 slope:9 grade:2 steepness:1 also:5 use:8 measure:1 rather:3 take:4 dot:9 product:11 example:5 suppose:4 road:5 go:2 directly:1 instead:2 around:1 angle:5 shallow:1 uphill:1 project:1 onto:1 horizontal:1 plane:1 along:2 cosine:1 observation:1 mathematically:1 state:1 follow:4 differentiable:10 unit:4 precisely:2 equal:1 directional:3 definition:2 denote:8 nabla:2 symbol:1 differential:15 operator:3 del:1 notation:1 f:24 define:6 component:5 partial:2 write:2 row:2 often:4 column:3 depend:2 parameter:1 refer:1 simply:3 spatial:1 expression:2 dimension:2 form:11 coordinate:14 system:1 cartesian:2 expands:1 standard:1 versors:1 cylindrical:1 azimuthal:1 axial:1 eρ:1 eθ:1 ez:1 spherical:1 azimuth:1 zenith:1 linear:5 approximation:4 particular:1 characterize:1 best:2 close:1 compute:1 equation:3 equivalent:1 first:2 term:2 multi:1 variable:1 taylor:1 series:1 expansion:1 exterior:4 map:3 call:5 total:1 therefore:1 related:1 formula:1 view:2 length:1 real:5 number:1 regard:1 matrix:4 multiplication:1 e:4 let:2 u:3 open:3 set:6 rn:9 r:6 thus:1 consequence:1 usual:2 property:3 hold:2 linearity:1 sense:3 g:13 α:1 β:1 constant:1 αf:1 βg:1 moreover:1 rule:6 assert:1 fg:1 x:13 chain:4 subset:5 apply:1 parametric:1 curve:2 c:3 generally:1 rk:1 following:1 dg:1 transpose:1 second:1 h:2 transformation:4 although:2 contravariant:5 application:2 orthogonal:5 true:1 transform:5 way:1 know:1 special:2 type:1 tensor:1 natural:1 invariant:2 diffeomorphisms:1 whereas:2 implicit:1 common:1 blur:1 distinction:1 concept:1 notion:1 covariant:5 covariantly:2 contravariantly:2 language:2 thing:1 unfortunately:1 confusing:1 confuse:1 far:1 differ:1 convention:1 pullback:1 diffeomorphism:1 reason:1 sometimes:2 say:1 case:4 continuous:1 v:2 construct:1 normal:2 manifold:5 less:1 etc:1 z:1 move:1 everything:1 side:1 turn:1 find:2 need:1 desired:1 conservative:3 always:2 line:3 integral:2 path:1 independent:1 evaluate:2 theorem:2 fundamental:1 conversely:1 connected:1 region:1 riemannian:2 smooth:1 inner:1 tangent:1 metric:4 word:1 chart:2 xj:1 jth:1 local:1 generalize:1 relate:1 since:1 associate:1 df:1 musical:2 isomorphism:2 sharp:1 relation:1 flat:1 see:1 curl:1 divergence:1 electrochemical:1 fall:1 ski:1 descent:1 pattern:1 analysis:1 laplace:1 sobel:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 wolfram:1 mathworld:1 berkeley:1 mathematics:1 lecture:1 old:1 градыент:1 |@bigram banach_space:1 fréchet_derivative:2 steep_slope:4 directional_derivative:3 cartesian_coordinate:2 exterior_derivative:4 α_β:1 subset_rn:2 parametric_curve:1 jacobian_matrix:1 blur_distinction:1 riemannian_manifold:2 electrochemical_gradient:1 external_link:1 wolfram_mathworld:1 |
4,351 | Armoured_fighting_vehicle | An armoured fighting vehicle (AFV) is a military vehicle, protected by armour and armed with weapons. Most AFVs are equipped for driving in rugged terrain. Armoured fighting vehicles are classified according to their intended role on the battlefield and characteristics. This classification is not absolute; at different times different countries will classify the same vehicle in different roles. For example, armoured personnel carriers were generally replaced by infantry fighting vehicles in a very similar role, but the latter has some capabilities lacking in the former. Successful general-purpose armoured fighting vehicles often also serve as the base of a whole family of specialised vehicles, for example, the M113 and MT-LB tracked carriers, and the Mowag Piranha wheeled AFV. Tank A T-72 main battle tank clad in reactive armour bricks, in Georgian service. The tank is an all terrain AFV designed primarily to engage enemy forces by the use of direct fire in the frontal assault role. Though several configurations have been tried, particularly in the early experimental days of tank development, a standard, mature design configuration has since emerged to a generally accepted pattern. This features a main artillery gun, mounted in a fully rotating turret atop a tracked automotive hull, with various additional machine guns throughout. Philosophically, the tank is, by its very nature, a purely offensive weapon. Being a protective encasement with at least one gun position, it is essentially a pill box or small fortress (though these are static fortifications of a purely defensive nature) that can move toward the enemy - hence its offensive utility. Historically, tanks are divided into 3 categories: Light Tanks (small, thinly armoured, weakly gunned, but highly mobile tanks intended for the armoured reconnaissance role) Medium Tanks (mid-sized, adequately armoured, respectably gunned, fairly mobile tanks intended to provide an optimum balance of characteristics for manoeuvre combat, primarily against other tanks) Heavy Tanks (large, thickly armoured, powerfully gunned, but barely mobile tanks intended for the breakthrough role against fortified lines, particularly in support of infantry formations) Other designations (such as Cavalry Tank, Cruiser Tank, Infantry Tank) have been used by various countries to denote similar roles. A modern main battle tank incorporates advances in automotive, artillery, and armour technology to combine the best characteristics of all three historic types into a single, all around type. It is distinguished by its high level of firepower, mobility and armour protection relative to other vehicles of its era. It can cross comparatively rough terrain at high speeds, but is fuel, maintenance, and ammunition-hungry which makes it logistically demanding. It has the heaviest armour of any vehicle on the battlefield, and carries a powerful weapon that may be able to engage a wide variety of ground targets. It is among the most versatile and fearsome weapons on the battlefield, valued for its shock action against other troops and high survivability. Infantry fighting vehicle An infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) is an armoured personnel carrier which allows the infantry to fight from inside, and can provide significant fire support. The first IFV was the Soviet BMP-1, which surprised the western intelligence analysts when it appeared in a military parade in 1967. Swedish Combat Vehicle 90, a modern IFV. Modern IFVs are well-armed infantry carriers that allow the infantry inside to fight from within the vehicle. They are different from earlier APCs by their heavier armament allowing them to give direct-fire support during an assault, firing ports allowing the infantry to fire personal weapons while mounted, and improved armour. They are typically armed with a twenty millimetre or larger autocannon, and possibly with ATGMs. IFVs are usually tracked, but some wheeled vehicles fall into this category, too. Specially-equipped IFVs have taken on some of the roles of light tanks; they are used by reconnaissance organizations, and light IFVs are used by airborne units which must be able to fight without the heavy firepower of tanks. Tank destroyer Norwegian NM142, a modern tank destroyer armed with antitank missiles. Self-propelled anti-tank guns, or tank destroyers, are used primarily to provide antitank support for infantry or tank units, in defensive or withdrawal operations. They may mount a high-velocity anti-tank gun or sometimes an antitank guided missile launcher, or ATGM. Tank destroyers cannot fulfil the many roles of tanks; they are much less flexible, and usually lacking in anti-infantry capability, but they are much less expensive to manufacture, maintain, and resupply than tanks. Gun-armed tank destroyers have been largely supplanted by the more general-purpose tanks and ATGM launchers since Second World War, with lightly-armoured ATGM carriers used for supplementary long-range antitank capabilities, and to replace tanks in light or airborne forces. Tankette Polish TK-3 A tankette is a small armoured fighting vehicle with a crew of one or two, similar to a tank, intended for infantry support or reconnaissance. Most had no turret and were armed with one or two machine guns, or rarely with a heavier gun or grenade launcher. Tankettes were produced between about 1930 and 1941, but the concept was abandoned because of its limited utility and vulnerability to anti-tank weapons. Their role was largely taken over by armoured cars. A classic design was the British Carden Loyd tankette—many others were modelled after it. Japan was among the most prolific users of tankettes, producing a number of designs, which they found useful for jungle warfare. Other tankettes are the British Universal carrier and the Polish TKS. See also Self-propelled anti-aircraft Aerosan Armoured car (valuables) Armoured car (military) Armoured train Armoured recovery vehicle Armoured vehicle-launched bridge Armoured warfare Combat engineering vehicle List of main battle tanks by country Lists of armoured fighting vehicles Non-military armoured vehicles Katyusha Tachanka Tank classification Technical (fighting vehicle) Universal carrier Vehicle armour Vehicle markings of the United States military | Armoured_fighting_vehicle |@lemmatized armoured:9 fighting:4 vehicle:23 afv:3 military:5 protect:1 armour:18 arm:6 weapon:6 afvs:1 equip:2 drive:1 rugged:1 terrain:3 classify:2 accord:1 intend:5 role:10 battlefield:3 characteristic:3 classification:2 absolute:1 different:4 time:1 country:3 example:2 personnel:2 carrier:7 generally:2 replace:2 infantry:12 fight:8 similar:3 latter:1 capability:3 lack:2 former:1 successful:1 general:2 purpose:2 often:1 also:2 serve:1 base:1 whole:1 family:1 specialised:1 mt:1 lb:1 track:2 mowag:1 piranha:1 wheel:2 tank:35 main:4 battle:3 clad:1 reactive:1 brick:1 georgian:1 service:1 design:4 primarily:3 engage:2 enemy:2 force:2 use:6 direct:2 fire:5 frontal:1 assault:2 though:2 several:1 configuration:2 try:1 particularly:2 early:2 experimental:1 day:1 development:1 standard:1 mature:1 since:2 emerge:1 accept:1 pattern:1 feature:1 artillery:2 gun:11 mount:3 fully:1 rotate:1 turret:2 atop:1 tracked:1 automotive:2 hull:1 various:2 additional:1 machine:2 throughout:1 philosophically:1 nature:2 purely:2 offensive:2 protective:1 encasement:1 least:1 one:3 position:1 essentially:1 pill:1 box:1 small:3 fortress:1 static:1 fortification:1 defensive:2 move:1 toward:1 hence:1 utility:2 historically:1 divide:1 category:2 light:4 thinly:1 weakly:1 highly:1 mobile:3 reconnaissance:3 medium:1 mid:1 size:1 adequately:1 respectably:1 fairly:1 provide:3 optimum:1 balance:1 manoeuvre:1 combat:3 heavy:5 large:2 thickly:1 powerfully:1 barely:1 breakthrough:1 fortified:1 line:1 support:5 formation:1 designation:1 cavalry:1 cruiser:1 denote:1 modern:4 incorporate:1 advance:1 technology:1 combine:1 best:1 three:1 historic:1 type:2 single:1 around:1 distinguish:1 high:4 level:1 firepower:2 mobility:1 protection:1 relative:1 era:1 cross:1 comparatively:1 rough:1 speed:1 fuel:1 maintenance:1 ammunition:1 hungry:1 make:1 logistically:1 demand:1 carry:1 powerful:1 may:2 able:2 wide:1 variety:1 ground:1 target:1 among:2 versatile:1 fearsome:1 value:1 shock:1 action:1 troop:1 survivability:1 ifv:3 allow:4 inside:2 significant:1 first:1 soviet:1 bmp:1 surprise:1 western:1 intelligence:1 analyst:1 appear:1 parade:1 swedish:1 ifvs:4 well:1 within:1 apc:1 armament:1 give:1 port:1 personal:1 improve:1 typically:1 twenty:1 millimetre:1 autocannon:1 possibly:1 atgms:1 usually:2 fall:1 specially:1 take:2 organization:1 airborne:2 unit:2 must:1 without:1 destroyer:5 norwegian:1 antitank:4 missile:2 self:2 propel:2 anti:5 withdrawal:1 operation:1 velocity:1 sometimes:1 guide:1 launcher:3 atgm:3 cannot:1 fulfil:1 many:2 much:2 less:2 flexible:1 expensive:1 manufacture:1 maintain:1 resupply:1 largely:2 supplant:1 second:1 world:1 war:1 lightly:1 supplementary:1 long:1 range:1 tankette:3 polish:2 tk:1 crew:1 two:2 rarely:1 grenade:1 tankettes:3 produce:2 concept:1 abandon:1 limited:1 vulnerability:1 car:3 classic:1 british:2 carden:1 loyd:1 others:1 model:1 japan:1 prolific:1 user:1 number:1 find:1 useful:1 jungle:1 warfare:2 universal:2 tks:1 see:1 aircraft:1 aerosan:1 valuable:1 train:1 recovery:1 launch:1 bridge:1 engineering:1 list:2 non:1 katyusha:1 tachanka:1 technical:1 marking:1 united:1 state:1 |@bigram rugged_terrain:1 frontal_assault:1 rough_terrain:1 armoured_personnel:1 self_propel:2 grenade_launcher:1 |
4,352 | Croquet | Winslow Homer: Croquet, 1864 Croquet is a game played both as a recreational pastime and as a competitive sport which involves hitting wooden or plastic balls with a mallet through hoops embedded into the grass playing arena. History In the book Queen of Games: The History of Croquet author Nicky Smith presents two theories of the origin of the game that took England by storm in the 1860s. The first theory is that the game was French, and was introduced to England during the reign of Charles II, when it was played under the name of Pall Mall or Paille Maille, perhaps suggesting ball and mallet. This was the explanation given in the ninth edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica, dated 1877. Many writers have accepted this theory but there seems to be little evidence that the game either resembled croquet or influenced its rules; indeed, there is apparently a publication by one Dr Richard Prior dated 1872 that concludes that the two games are very different. The second theory, which seems to have stronger credentials, is that croquet arrived from Ireland during the 1850s, perhaps after being brought there from Brittany where a similar game was played on the beaches. John Jaques, of the manufacturer Jaques of London that still supplies a significant share of croquet equipment used today, apparently claimed in a letter to Arthur Lillie in 1873 that he had himself seen the game played there and, "I made the implements and published directions (such as they were) before Mr Spratt [who is also claimed to have first written down the rules] introduced the subject to me". Whatever the truth of the matter, Jaques certainly played an important role in popularising the game, producing editions of the laws in 1857, 1860, and 1864. The game became highly popular as a social pastime in England during the 1860s; by 1867, Jaques had printed 65,000 copies of his Laws and Regulations. It quickly spread to other Anglophile countries, including Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States. No doubt one of the attractions was that the game could be played by both sexes; this also ensured a certain amount of adverse comment. By the late 1870s, however, croquet had been eclipsed by another fashionable game, tennis, and many of the newly-created croquet clubs, including the All-England club at Wimbledon, converted some or all of their lawns into tennis courts. There was a revival in the 1890s, but from then onwards, croquet was always a minority sport, with national individual membership amounting to a few thousand players. The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club still has a croquet lawn, but is not able to host any significant tournaments. The English headquarters for the game is now in Cheltenham. Competitive croquet There are several variations of croquet currently played, differing in the scoring systems, order of shots, and layout (particularly in social games where play must be adapted to smaller-than-standard playing courts). Two forms of the game, Association Croquet and Golf Croquet, have rules that are agreed internationally and are played in many countries around the world. The United States has its own set of rules for domestic games. More unusual variations of the game include Mondo Croquet, eXtreme Croquet, and Bicycle Croquet. Gateball, played mainly in the Far East, can also be regarded as a croquet variant. As well as club-level games, there are regular world championships and international matches between croquet-playing countries. The sport has particularly strong followings in the UK, USA, New Zealand and Australia; every four years, these countries play the MacRobertson Shield tournament. Many other countries also play. The current world rankings http://www.wcfcroquet.org/Rankings/teamranking.php show England in top place for Association Croquet, followed by Australia and New Zealand sharing second place, with the United States in fourth position; the same four countries appear in the top six of the Golf Croquet league table, below Egypt in top position, and with South Africa at number five. Croquet is popularly believed to be viciously competitive. "So they left the subject and played croquet, which is a very good game for people who are annoyed at each other, giving many opportunities for venting rancour." —Rose Macaulay, The Towers of Trebizond This may derive from the fact that (unlike golf) players will often attempt to move their opponents' balls to unfavourable positions. However, purely negative play is rarely a winning strategy: successful players (in all versions other than Golf Croquet) will use all four balls to set up a break for themselves, rather than simply making life as difficult as possible for their opponents. At championship standard Association Croquet, players can often make all 26 points (13 for each ball) in two turns. Croquet was an event at the 1900 Summer Olympics and roque, a variation on croquet (see below), an event at the 1904 Summer Olympics. Association croquet Croquet being played at a club in the UK Association Croquet is the proper name of the game of croquet that is most widely played throughout the world and at international level. In Association Croquet one player (or in doubles, one team) takes the black and blue balls, the other takes red and yellow. On each turn, the player can choose to play either of his balls, and must continue to play that ball for the rest of the turn. Each turn initially consists of one stroke, but the turn continues if the player either hits the ball through the correct hoop ("runs" a hoop), or hits another ball (a "roquet"). Upon hitting another ball, the player must pick up their own ball and play their next shot with the two balls touching: this is the "croquet stroke" from which the game takes its name. After the croquet stroke, the player is allowed a further "continuation" stroke, during which the player must again attempt to make a roquet or run a hoop. Each of the other three balls may be roqueted at most once until a hoop is run, at which point they become available again. The winner is the first player who, with both balls, completes a prescribed circuit of twelve hoops and then strikes the centre peg (making a total of 13 points per ball). Good players will often make "breaks" of several hoops in a single turn, and the best players routinely take a ball round the full circuit in one turn. As long breaks became more common, "Advanced Play" (a variant of Association play for expert players) was introduced. This gives penalties to a player who runs certain hoops in the same turn. In response, feats of skill such as triple peels and even sextuple peels, in which the partner ball (or occasionally an opponent ball) is caused to run a number of hoops in a turn by the striker's ball, became more common in order to avoid the penalties. Here is video footage showing Ben Rothman, a leading player in the United States, making a break on the third turn of the game, before the yellow ball has entered the game. The sequence starts after the striker has made the second hoop, and shows him running hoops 3, 4, 5, 6, 1-back, 2-back, and 3-back before laying up in a position where his opponent will find it difficult to make a roquet. As often happens, the break ends before 4-back, because if it continued any further, yellow would be allowed to start as if a roquet had been made, by taking croquet from any other ball on the lawn. Success in Association Croquet depends on a combination of physical skill and careful strategy, and perhaps most of all on cool assessment of risks and probabilities. A handicap system ensures that less experienced players always have a chance of winning even against formidable opponents. Players of all ages and both sexes compete on level terms. The current (May 18 2009) Association Croquet World Champion is Reg Bamford (South Africa). The world championships are organised by the World Croquet Federation (WCF) and usually take place every 2 or 3 years. The next world championships are to take place in late 2011 or early 2012 in Cairnlea, Melbourne, Australia. The Great Britain team won the last MacRobertson International Croquet Shield tournament, which is the major international test tour trophy in Association Croquet. It is contested every 3 to 4 years between Australia, Great Britain, United States and New Zealand. Historically England/Great Britain have been the dominant force winning 13 times out of the 19 times it has been held. The world's top 10 Association Croquet players as of 27 December 2008 were Chris Clarke (England), Robert Fulford (England), Reg Bamford (South Africa), Rutger Beijderwellen (Netherlands), David Maugham (England), Samir Patel (England), Paddy Chapman (New Zealand), Ian Lines (England), Keith Aiton (Scotland), and Aaron Westerby (New Zealand) http://butedock.demon.co.uk/cgs/rank.php . Unlike most sports, men and women compete and are ranked together. Three women have won the British Open Championship: Lily Gower in 1905, Dorothy Steel in 1925, 1933, 1935 and 1936, and Hope Rotherham in 1960. While male players are in the majority at club level in England, the opposite is the case in Australia and New Zealand. The highest-ranked female player in the world is currently (August 2008) Jenny Clarke of New Zealand. http://www.croquetrecords.com/rank/currentworld.htm The governing body in Britain is The Croquet Association, which has been the driving force of the development of the game. The laws and tournament regulations are now maintained by the International Laws Committee, established by the croquet associations of England and Wales (CA), Australia (ACA), New Zealand (CNZ) and the United States (USCA). Golf croquet In Golf Croquet each player takes turns trying to hit a ball through the same hoop, the winner being the player who manages to hit the ball through the most hoops first. Golf Croquet has the advantage of being easier to learn and play, but its critics claim that the lack of croquet strokes in the game means that it is less intellectually demanding. There are other variations popular in other croquet-playing nations. Golf Croquet is the fastest-growing version of the game http://www.croquet.org.uk/ca/survey/2007/CA_Survey_Report-2007.pdf , owing largely to its simplicity and fierce competitiveness. Egyptian players overwhelmingly dominate the game http://www.croquet.org.uk/news/newsdb.asp?NewsID=2766 . In comparison with Association Croquet, play is faster and balls are much more likely to be lifted off the ground, as seen in this video footage. The current (March 6 2008) Golf Croquet World Champion is Mohammed Nasr (Egypt). An extreme variant of Golf Croquet is played in South Hero, Vermont, called EC Golf Croquet. Every summer there are 6 weeks of Golf Croquet tournaments with 32 teams participating each week. American six-wicket croquet The American rules version of croquet - another six-wicket-layout game - is the dominant version of the game in the United States and is also widely played in Canada and is governed by the United States Croquet Association. Its genesis is mostly in Association Croquet, but it differs in a number of important ways that reflect the home-grown traditions of American "backyard" croquet. Two of the most notable differences are that the balls are always played in the same sequence (blue, red, black, yellow) throughout the game, and that a ball's "deadness" on other balls is carried over from turn to turn until the ball has been "cleared" by scoring its next hoop. Tactics are simplified on the one hand by the strict sequence of play, and complicated on the other hand by the continuation of deadness. a further difference is the more restrictive boundary line rules of American-rules croquet. In the American-rules game, croqueting a ball out of bounds or running a hoop out of bounds causes the turn to end, and balls that go out of bounds are replaced only nine inches from the boundary rather than a yard as in Association Croquet. "Attacking" balls on the boundary line to bring them into play is thus far more challenging than in order. Croquet terms For a more complete list of terms used in Croquet, both official and unofficial, see The Croquet Association jargon list Backward ball: The ball of a side that has scored fewer hoops (compare with 'forward ball'). Ball in hand: Laws of Association Croquet, 6th Edition, Amended 2008, published by the Croquet Association. Available online at http://www.croquet.org.uk/association/6th/index.html : A ball that the striker can pick up to change its position, for example: any ball when it leaves the court has to be replaced on the yard-line the striker’s ball after making a roquet must be placed in contact with the roqueted ball the striker’s ball when the striker is entitled to a lift. Ball in play: A ball after it has been played into the game, which is not a ball in hand or pegged out. Baulk: An imaginary line on which a ball is placed for its first shot in the game, or when taking a lift. The A-baulk coincides with the western half of the yard line along the south boundary; the B-baulk occupies the eastern half of the north boundary yard line. Bisque, half-bisque: A bisque is a free turn in a handicap match. A half-bisque is a restricted handicap turn in which no point may be scored. Break down: To end a turn by making a mistake. Continuation stroke: Either the bonus stroke played after running a hoop in order or the second bonus stroke played after making a roquet. Croquet stroke: A stroke taken after making a roquet, in which the striker's ball and the roqueted ball are placed together in contact. Double-banking: Playing two games on one croquet lawn at once. One game uses the secondary colours: green and brown versus pink and white. Double tap: A fault in which the mallet makes more than one audible sound when it strikes the ball. Forward ball: The ball of a side that has scored more hoops (compare with 'backward ball'). Hoop: Metal U-shaped gate pushed into ground. (Also called a 'wicket' in the US). Leave: The position of the balls after a successful break, in which the striker is able to leave the balls placed so as to make life as difficult as possible for the opponent. Lift: A turn in which the player is entitled to remove the ball from its current position and play instead from either baulk line. A lift is permitted when a ball has been placed by the opponent in a position where it is wired from all other balls, and also in advanced play when the opponent has completed a break that includes hoops 1-back or 4-back. Object ball: A ball which is going to be rushed. Peg out: To cause a rover ball to strike the peg and conclude its active involvement in the game. Peel: To send a ball other than the striker’s ball through its target hoop. Primary colours or First colours: The main croquet ball colours used which are blue, red, black and yellow (in order of play). Blue and black, and red and yellow, are played by the same player or pair. Push: A fault when the mallet pushes the striker’s ball, rather than making a clean strike. Roquet: (Second syllable rhymes with "play") When the striker’s ball hits a ball that he is entitled to then take a croquet shot with. At the start of a turn, the striker is entitled to roquet all the other three balls once. Once the striker's ball goes through its target hoop, it is again entitled to roquet the other balls once. Rover ball: A ball that has run all twelve hoops and can be pegged out. Rover hoop: The last hoop, indicated by a red top bar. The first hoop has a blue top. Run a hoop: To send the striker’s ball through a hoop. If the hoop is the hoop in order for the striker’s ball, the striker earns a bonus stroke. Rush: A roquet when the roqueted ball is sent to a specific position on the court, such as the next hoop for the striker’s ball or close to a ball that the striker wishes to roquet next. Scatter shot: A continuation stroke used to hit a ball which may not be roqueted in order to send it to a less dangerous position. Secondary colours or second colours: (Also known as Alternate colours) The colours of the balls used in the second game played on the same court in double-banking, green, pink, brown and white (in order of play). Green and brown, and pink and white, are played by the same player or pair. Sextuple peel (SXP): To peel the partner ball through its last six hoops in the course of a single turn. Very few players have achieved this feat, but it is being seen increasingly at championship level. Tice: A ball sent to a location that will entice an opponent to shoot at it but miss. Triple peel (TP): To send a ball other than the striker’s ball through its last three hoops, and then peg it out. See also Triple Peel on Opponent (TPO). The significance of this manoevre is that in advanced play, making a break that includes the tenth hoop (called 4-back) is penalized by granting the opponent a lift (entitling him to take the next shot from either baulk line). Therefore many breaks stop voluntarily with three hoops and the peg still to run. Wired: When a hoop or the peg impedes the path of a striker's ball, or the swing of the mallet. A player will often endeavour to finish a turn with the opponent's balls wired from each other. Yard line: An imaginary line one yard from the boundary. Balls that go off the boundary are generally replaced on the yard line (but if this happens on a croquet stroke, the turn ends). Art and literature The way croquet is depicted in paintings and books says much about popular perceptions of the game, though little about the reality of modern play. The Croquet Game, Édouard Manet, 1873. Winslow Homer, Édouard Manet, Louise Abbéma and Pierre Bonnard all have paintings titled The Croquet Game. Norman Rockwell often depicted the game, including in his painting Croquet. A favorite subject of Edward Gorey, a croquet reference often appeared in the first illustration of his books. The Epiplectic Bicycle opens with two illustrations of the main characters playing with croquet mallets. H. G. Wells wrote The Croquet Player, which uses croquet as a metaphor for the way in which man confronts the very problem of his own existence. Lewis Carroll featured a surreal version of the game in the popular children's novel Alice in Wonderland, A hedgehog was used as the ball, a flamingo the mallet, and playing cards as the wickets. In the Thursday Next series of novels, notably Something Rotten, Jasper Fforde depicts an alternative world in which croquet is a brutal mass spectator sport. In the final of the Superhoop '88, Thursday Next leads the Swindon Mallets to victory over their arch-rivals, the Reading Whackers, by engaging the services of a group of Neanderthals, thereby saving the world from imminent destruction. Politics On 25 May 2006, the then British Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott was photographed by the The Mail on Sunday playing croquet at his official residence, Dorneywood. Following shortly after a sexual scandal that had forced Prescott to resign his ministerial responsibilities while retaining his salary and privileges, the incident was portrayed as evidence that Prescott had little real responsibility for running the country during the absence of the Prime Minister. Shortly afterwards, Prescott announced that he would no longer make use of the Dorneywood residence. It was also reported that the incident led to a 300% increase in sales of croquet equipment at Asda, while the TV Five announced that they would be running a series featuring croquet matches played at country houses pitting "rich" against "poor" players. Croquet clubs About 200 croquet clubs across the United States are members of the United States Croquet Association http://www.croquetamerica.com/usca/directory/clubs/ . USCA-affiliated clubs in major US cities include the New York, Chicago, Beverly Hills, Denver, San Francisco, Oakland Houston, Boston, Detroit, Louisville, Seattle, and Portland (Oregon) Croquet Clubs. Many colleges have croquet clubs, as well, such as Bates College and Harvard University. Notably, St. John's College and the U.S. Naval Academy engage in a yearly match in Annapolis, Maryland. Both schools also compete at the collegiate level, and the rivalry continues to be an Annapolis tradition. See, for example: University of British Columbia Croquet Society Arizona Croquet Club Cambridge University Association Croquet Club Oxford University Association Croquet Club The Croquet Association's Clubs and Federations for UK clubs. See also Gateball, a sports originated in Japan, under the influence of croquet. Lawn game Croquet Hall of Fame Croquet Association Jaques of London References External links Links to all national associations, where to play, rules, history, court layouts, online store Jaques history, rules of the game and online store A Synopsis of the Laws of Association Croquet from Oxford Croquet The Laws of Association Croquet from the International Laws Committee of the Croquet Associations of the England and Wales (CA), Australia (ACA), New Zealand (CNZ) and the United States (USCA) Synopsis of American Croquet from the United States Croquet Association The Rules of Garden Croquet or nine-wicket croquet The Laws of Golf Croquet World Croquet Federation Golf Croquet Laws as adopted by the CA Council History of Croquet Croquet Rules and Regulations United States Croquet Association | Croquet |@lemmatized winslow:2 homer:2 croquet:115 game:44 play:48 recreational:1 pastime:2 competitive:3 sport:6 involve:1 hit:8 wooden:1 plastic:1 ball:85 mallet:8 hoop:36 embed:1 grass:1 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4,353 | Hip_hop | KRS-One in concert. KRS-One is a long-time activist, performer and promoter of hip hop culture. Hip hop is a music genre and cultural movement which developed in New York City in the early 1970s primarily among African Americans and Latin Americans. . Hip hop's four main elements are MCing (often called rapping), DJing, graffiti writing, and breakdancing. Other elements include beatboxing, hip hop fashion, and slang. Since first emerging in the Bronx, the lifestyle of hip hop culture has spread around the world. When hip hop music began to emerge, it was based around disc jockeys who created rhythmic beats by looping breaks (small portions of songs emphasizing a percussive pattern) on two turntables. This was later accompanied by "rapping" (a rhythmic style of chanting). An original form of dancing, and particular styles of dress, arose among followers of this new music. These elements experienced considerable refinement and development over the course of the history of the culture. The relationship between graffiti and hip hop culture arises from the appearance of new and increasingly elaborate and pervasive forms of the practice in areas where other elements of hip hop were evolving as art forms, with a heavy overlap between those who wrote graffiti and those who practiced other elements of the culture. Beatboxing is a vocal technique mainly used to imitate percussive elements of the music and various technical effects of hip hop DJs. Etymology The word "hip" was used as African American Vernacular English (AAVE) as early as 1898. The colloquial language meant "informed" or "current," and was likely derived from the earlier form hep http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=h&p=8 . The term "hip hop" also followed logically the previous African-American music culture of "Bebop". Keith "Cowboy" Wiggins, a rapper with Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five has been credited with the coining of the term hip hop in 1978 while teasing a friend who had just joined the US Army, by scat singing the words "hip/hop/hip/hop" in a way that mimicked the rhythmic cadence of marching soldiers. Cowboy later worked the "hip hop" cadence into a part of his stage performance. Keith Cowboy - The Real Mc Coy The group frequently performed with disco artists who would refer to this new type of MC/DJ produced music by calling them "those hip-hoppers". The name was originally meant as a sign of disrespect, but soon come to identify this new music and culture. Other artists quickly copied the Furious Five and began using the term in their music; for example the opening of the song "Rapper's Delight" by The Sugarhill Gang in addition the verse found on Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five's own "Superrappin'", both released in 1979. Lovebug Starski, a Bronx DJ who put out a single called "The Positive Life" in 1981, and DJ Hollywood then began using the term when referring to this new disco rap music. Hip hop pioneer and South Bronx community leader Afrika Bambaataa also credits Lovebug Starski as the first to use the term "Hip Hop," as it relates to the culture. Bambaataa, a former Black Spades gang member also did much to further popularize the term. Zulu Nation: History of Hip-Hop http://www.zulunation.com/hip_hop_history2.htm (cached) History Jamaican born DJ Clive "Kool Herc" Campbell is credited as being highly influential in the pioneering stage of hip hop music http://www.stantondj.com/v2/cartridge/artists_herc.php , in the Bronx, New York, after moving to New York at the age of thirteen. Herc created the blueprint for hip hop music and culture by building upon the Jamaican tradition of toasting, or boasting impromptu poetry and sayings over music, which he witnessed as a youth in Jamaica. . Herc and other DJs would tap into the power lines to connect their equipment and perform, at venues such as public basketball courts and the historic building "where hip hop was born," 1520 Sedgwick Avenue, Bronx, New York. Their equipment was composed of numerous speakers, turntables, and one or more microphones. Kenner, Rob. "Dancehall," In The Vibe History of Hip-hop, ed. Alan Light, 350-7. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1999. In late 1979, Debbie Harry of Blondie took Chic co-founder and lead guitarist Nile Rodgers to such an event, as the main backing track used was the break from Chic's Good Times. Kool DJ Herc is considered the founder of hip hop. Herc was also the developer of break-beat deejaying, where the breaks of funk songs—the part most suited to dance, usually percussion-based—were isolated and repeated for the purpose of all-night dance parties. This breakbeat DJing, using hard funk, rock, and records with Latin percussion, formed the basis of hip hop music. Campbell's announcements and exhortations to dancers would lead to the syncopated, rhymed spoken accompaniment we now know as rapping. He dubbed his dancers break-boys and break-girls, or simply b-boys and b-girls. According to Herc, "breaking" was also street slang for "getting excited" and "acting energetically". Kool Herc, in Israel (director), The Freshest Kids: A History of the B-Boy, QD3, 2002. Herc's terms b-boy, b-girl and breaking became part of the lexicon of hip hop culture, before that culture itself had developed a name. Later DJs such as Grand Wizard Theodore, Grandmaster Flash and Jazzy Jay refined and developed the use of breakbeats, including cutting and scratching. History of Hip Hop - Written by Davey D The approach used by Herc was soon widely copied, and by the late 1970s DJs were releasing 12" records where they would rap to the beat. Popular tunes included Kurtis Blow's "The Breaks", and The Sugar Hill Gang's "Rapper's Delight". Emceeing is the rhythmic spoken delivery of rhymes and wordplay, delivered over a beat or without accompaniment. Rapping is derived from the griots (folk poets) of West Africa, and Jamaican-style toasting. Rap developed both inside and outside of hip hop culture, and began with the street parties thrown in the Bronx neighborhood of New York in the 1970s by Kool Herc and others. It originated as MCs would talk over the music to promote their DJ, promote other dance parties, take light-hearted jabs at other lyricists, or talk about problems in their areas and issues facing the community as a whole. Melle Mel, a rapper/lyricist with The Furious Five, is often credited with being the first rap lyricist to call himself an "MC". Article about MelleMel (Melle Mel) at AllHipHop.com By the late 1970s, the culture had gained media attention, with Billboard magazine printing an article titled "B Beats Bombarding Bronx", commenting on the local phenomenon and mentioning influential figures such as Kool Herc Forman M; Neal M “That’s the joint! The hip-hop studies reader”, Routledge, 2004. p.2 . Hip hop as a culture was further defined in 1982, when Afrika Bambaataa and the Soulsonic Force released the seminal electro-funk track "Planet Rock." Instead of simply rapping over disco beats, Bambaataa created an electronic sound, taking advantage of the rapidly improving drum machine, synthesizer technology as well as sampling from Kraftwerk SamplesDB - Afrika Bambaataa's Track . The appearance of music videos changed entertainment: they often glorified urban neighborhoods. . The music video for "Planet Rock" showcased the subculture of hip hop musicians, graffiti artists and breakdancers. Many hip hop-related films were released between 1982 and 1985, among them Wild Style, Beat Street, Krush Groove, Breakin, and the documentary Style Wars. These films expanded the appeal of hip hop beyond the boundaries of New York. By 1985, youth worldwide were embracing the hip hop culture. The hip hop artwork and "slang" of US urban communities quickly found its way to Europe and Asia, as the culture's global appeal took root. The 1980s also saw many artists make social statements through hip hop. In 1982, Melle Mel and Duke Bootee recorded "The Message" (officially credited to Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five) http://www.prefixmag.com/features/grandmaster-flash/interview/26354/ , a song that foreshadowed the socially conscious statements of Run-DMC's "It's like That" and Public Enemy's "Black Steel in the Hour of Chaos". . During the 1980s, hip hop also embraced the creation of rhythm by using the human body, via the vocal percussion technique of beatboxing. Pioneers such as Doug E. Fresh http://www.jamaicans.com/news/announcements/IRAWMAdougefresh.shtml , Biz Markie, and Buffy from the Fat Boys made beats, rhythm, and musical sounds using their mouth, lips, tongue, voice, and other body parts. "Human Beatbox" artists would also sing or imitate turntablism scratching or other instrument sounds. American society Early hip hop has often been credited with helping to reduce inner-city gang violence by replacing physical violence with dance and artwork battles. In the early 1970s, Kool DJ Herc began organizing dance parties in his home in the Bronx. The parties became so popular they were moved to outdoor venues to accommodate more people. City teenagers, after years of gang violence, were looking for new ways to express themselves. . These outdoor parties, hosted in parks, became a means of expression and an outlet for teenagers, where "Instead of getting into trouble on the streets, teens now had a place to expend their pent-up energy." . Afrika Bambaataa with DJ Yutaka of Zulu Nation Japan, 2004. Tony Tone, a member of the pioneering rap group the Cold Crush Brothers, noted that "Hip-hop saved a lot of lives." Hip hop culture became an outlet and a way of dealing with the hardships of life as minorities within America, and an outlet to deal with violence and gang culture. MC Kid Lucky mentions that “people used to break-dance against each other instead of fighting.” metro Inspired by Kool DJ Herc, once-gang leader of the Black Spades, Afrika Bambaataa created a street organization called Universal Zulu Nation, centered around hip hop, as a means to draw teenagers out of gang life and violence. Contrary to popular belief, the hip hop movement was not centered around violence, drugs, and weapons in the early days. Many people used hip hop in positive ways. The lyrical content of many early rap groups concentrated on social issues, most notably in the seminal track "The Message", which discussed the realities of life in the housing projects. "Young black Americans coming out of the civil rights movement have used hip hop culture in the 1980s and 1990s to show the limitations of the movement." . Hip hop gave young African Americans a voice to let their issues be noticed. It also gave young blacks a chance for financial gain by "reducing the rest of the world to consumers of its social concerns." Hip hop's social impacts on the country have not been all negative. It has positively affected many youth and encouraged them to voice their opinions on world and personal issues. "Like rock-and-roll, hip hop is vigorously opposed by conservatives because it romanticises violence, law-breaking, and gangs". Both hip hop and rock-and-roll were musical movements used by teens in order to express how they felt about certain issues. Now hip hop and rock-and-roll are combined in many ways including rewriting songs where a rapper or rock band play with the other. With the emergence of commercial and crime-related rap during the early 1990s, however, an emphasis on violence was incorporated, with many rappers boasting about drugs, weapons, misogyny, and violence. While hip hop music now appeals to a broader demographic, media critics argue that socially and politically conscious hip hop has long been disregarded by mainstream America in favor of gangsta rap. Media coverage of the Hip-Hop Culture - By Brendan Butler, Ethics In Journalism, Miami University Department of English Though created in the United States by African Americans and Latinos, hip hop culture and music is now global in scope. Youth culture and opinion is meted out in both Israeli hip hop and Palestinian hip hop, while France, Germany, the U.K., Brazil, Japan, Africa, Australia and the Caribbean have long-established hip hop followings. According to the U.S. Department of State, hip hop is "now the center of a mega music and fashion industry around the world," that crosses social barriers and cuts across racial lines. Hip-Hop Culture Crosses Social Barriers - US Department of State National Geographic recognizes hip hop as "the world's favorite youth culture" in which "just about every country on the planet seems to have developed its own local rap scene." Hip Hop: National Geographic World Music Through its international travels, hip hop is now considered a “global musical epidemic,” CNN.com - WorldBeat - Hip-hop music goes global - January 15, 2001 and has diverged from its ethnic roots by way of globalization and localization. Although some non-American rappers may still relate with young black Americans, hip hop now transcends its original culture, and is appealing because it is “custom-made to combat the anomie that preys on adolescents wherever nobody knows their name.” village voice > music > Rock&Roll&: Planet Rock by Robert Christgau Hip hop is attractive in its ability to give a voice to disenfranchised youth in any country, and as music with a message it is a form available to all societies worldwide. Even in the face of growing global popularity, or perhaps because of it, hip hop has come under fire for being too commercial, too commodified. Artist Nas said it himself in his 2006 album Hip Hop is Dead. While this of course stirs up controversy, a documentary called The Commodification of Hip Hop directed by Brooke Daniel interviews students at Satellite Academy in New York City. One girl talks about the epidemic of crime that she sees in urban black and Latino communities, relating it directly to the hip hop industry saying “When they can’t afford these kind of things, these things that celebrities have like jewelry and clothes and all that, they’ll go and sell drugs, some people will steal it…” The Commodification of Hip Hop, Brooke Daniel and Kellon Innocent, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LiCo_uUD2SY Many students see this as a negative side effect of the hip hop industry, and indeed, hip hop has been widely criticized for inciting notions of crime, violence, and American ideals of consumerism although much of the hip-hop dancing community still chooses to refer back to more "oldschool" types of hip-hop music that does not preach violence and drugs. In an article for Village Voice, Greg Tate argues that the commercialization of hip hop is a negative and pervasive phenomenon, writing that "what we call hiphop is now inseparable from what we call the hiphop industry, in which the nouveau riche and the super-rich employers get richer". Ironically, this commercialization coincides with a decline in rap sales and pressure from critics of the genre. Rap Criticism Grows Within Own Community, Debate Rages Over It's Effect On Society As It Struggles With Alarming Sales Decline - The ShowBuzz However, in his book In Search Of Africa, Manthia Diawara explains that hip hop is really a voice of people who are down and out in modern society. He argues that the "worldwide spread of hip-hop as a market revolution" is actually global "expression of poor people’s desire for the good life," and that this struggle aligns with "the nationalist struggle for citizenship and belonging, but also reveals the need to go beyond such struggles and celebrate the redemption of the black individual through tradition." . This connection to "tradition" however, is something that may be lacking according to one Satellite Academy staff member who says that in all of the focus on materialism, the hip hop community is “not leaving anything for the next generation, we’re not building.” The Commodification of Hip Hop, Brooke Daniel and Kellon Innocent, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LiCo_uUD2SY As the hip hop genre turns 30, a deeper analysis of the music’s impact is taking place. It has been viewed as a cultural sensation which changed the music industry around the world, but some believe commercialization and mass production have given it a darker side. Tate has described its recent manifestations as a marriage of “New World African ingenuity and that trick of the devil known as global-hypercapitalism” Tate, Greg. “Hip-hop Turns 30: Whatcha Celebratin’ For?” Village Voice. 4 January 2005. , arguing it has joined the “mainstream that had once excluded its originators.” While hip hop's values may have changed over time, the music continues to offer its followers and originators a shared identity which is instantly recognizable and much imitated around the world. Global innovations From its early spread to Europe and Japan to an almost worldwide acceptance through Asia and South American countries such as Brazil, the musical influence has been global. Hip hop sounds and styles differ from region to region, but there is also a lot of crossbreeding. In each separate hip hop scene there is also constant struggle between "old school" hip hop and more localized, newer sounds. Christgau, Robert. "The World's Most Local Pop Music Goes International", The Village Voice, 7 May 2002. Retrieved on 16 Apr 2008. Regardless of where it is found, the music often targets local disaffected youth. Hip hop has given people a voice to express themselves, from the "Bronx to Beirut, Kazakhstan to Cali, Hokkaido to Harare, Hip Hop is the new sound of a disaffected global youth culture." Though on the global scale there is a heavy influence from US culture, different cultures worldwide have transformed hip hop with their own traditions and beliefs. "Global Hip Hop succeeds best when it showcases ... cultures that reside outside the main arteries of the African Diaspora." Not all countries have embraced hip hop, where "as can be expected in countries with strong local culture, the interloping wildstyle of hip hop is not always welcomed". Schwartz, Mark. "Planet Rock: Hip Hop Supa National" in . As hip hop becomes globally-available, it is not a one-sided process that eradicates local cultures. Instead, global hip hop styles are often synthesized with local styles. Hartwig Vens argues that hip hop can also be viewed as a global learning experience. Hartwig Vens. “Hip-hop speaks to the reality of Israel”. WorldPress. 20 November 2003. 24 March 2008. Hip hop from countries outside the United States is often labeled "world music" for the American consumer. Author Jeff Chang argues that "the essence of hip hop is the cipher, born in the Bronx, where competition and community feed each other." . Hip hop has impacted many different countries culturally and socially in positive ways. "Thousands of organizers from Cape Town to Paris use hip hop in their communities to address environmental justice, policing and prisons, media justice, and education." . While hip hop music has been criticized as a music which creates a divide between western music and music from the rest of the world, a musical "cross pollination" has taken place, which strengthens the power of hip hop to influence different communities. Hip hop's impact as a "world music" is also due to its translatability among different cultures in the world. Hip hop's messages allow the under-privileged and the mistreated to be heard. These cultural translations cross borders. While the music may be from a foreign country, the message is something that many people can relate to- something not "foreign" at all. Wayne Marshall, "Nu Whirl Music, Blogged in Translation?" Even when hip hop is transplanted to other countries, it often retains its "vital progressive agenda that challenges the status quo." Global hip hop is the meeting ground for progressive local activism, as many organizers use hip hop in their communities to address environmental injustice, policing and prisons, media justice, and education. In Gothenburg, Sweden, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) incorporate graffiti and dance to engage disaffected immigrant and working class youths. Indigenous youths in countries as disparate as Bolivia, Chile, Indonesia, New Zealand, and Norway use hip hop to advance new forms of identity. Cultural pillars DJing DJ Hypnotize and Baby Cee, two Disc jockeys Turntablism refers to the extended boundaries and techniques of normal DJing innovated by hip hop. One of the few first hip hop DJ's was [[Kool DJ Herc, who created hip hop through the isolation of "breaks" (the parts of albums that focused solely on the beat). In addition to developing Herc's techniques, DJs Grandmaster Flash, Grand Wizard Theodore, and Grandmaster Caz made further innovations with the introduction of scratching. Traditionally, a DJ will use two turntables simultaneously. These are connected to a DJ mixer, an amplifier, speakers, and various other pieces of electronic music equipment. The DJ will then perform various tricks between the two albums currently in rotation using the above listed methods. The result is a unique sound created by the seemingly combined sound of two separate songs into one song. A DJ should not be confused with a producer of a music track (though there is considerable overlap between the two roles). In the early years of hip hop, the DJs were the stars, but their limelight has been taken by MCs since 1978, thanks largely to Melle Mel of Grandmaster Flash's crew, the Furious Five. However, a number of DJs have gained stardom nonetheless in recent years. Famous DJs include Grandmaster Flash, Afrika Bambaataa, Mr. Magic, DJ Jazzy Jeff, DJ Scratch from EPMD, DJ Premier from Gang Starr, DJ Scott La Rock from Boogie Down Productions, DJ Pete Rock of Pete Rock & CL Smooth, DJ Muggs from Cypress Hill, Jam Master Jay from Run-DMC, Eric B., DJ Screw, Funkmaster Flex, Tony Touch, DJ Clue, and DJ Q-Bert. The underground movement of turntablism has also emerged to focus on the skills of the DJ. Mixtape DJs have also emerged creating mixtapes with different artist and getting exclusive songs and putting them on one disc, djs such as DJ White Owl, DJ Skee, DJ Drama, and DJ Whoo Kid Rapping Rapper Busta Rhymes performs in Las Vegas for a BET party. Rapping, also known as Emceeing, MCing, Rhyme spitting, Spitting, or just Rhyming, is the rhythmic delivery of rhymes, one of the central elements of hip hop music and culture. Although the word rap has sometimes been claimed to be a backronym of the phrase "Rhythmic American Poetry", "Rhythm and Poetry", "Rhythmically Applied Poetry", or "Rhythmically Associated Poetry", use of the word to describe quick and slangy speech or repartee long predates the musical form. Oxford English Dictionary One early example includes the spoken word group The Last Poets. Ankeny, Jason, Allmusic.com profile of Last Poets; URL accessed February 01, 2007 Rapping can be delivered over a beat or without accompaniment. Graffiti An aerosol paint can, common tool for modern graffiti In America around the late 1960s, graffiti was used as a form of expression by political activists, and also by gangs such as the Savage Skulls, La Familia, and Savage Nomads to mark territory. Towards the end of the 1960s, the signatures—tags—of Philadelphia graffiti writers Top Cat, . Cool Earl and Cornbread started to appear. Around 1970-71, the centre of graffiti innovation moved to New York City where writers following in the wake of TAKI 183 and Tracy 168 would add their street number to their nickname, "bomb" a train with their work, and let the subway take it—and their fame, if it was impressive, or simply pervasive, enough—"all city". Bubble lettering held sway initially among writers from the Bronx, though the elaborate Brooklyn style Tracy 168 dubbed "wildstyle" would come to define the art. David Toop, Rap Attack, 3rd ed., London: Serpent's Tail, 2000. The early trendsetters were joined in the 70s by artists like Dondi, Futura 2000, Daze, Blade, Lee, Zephyr, Rammellzee, Crash, Kel, NOC 167 and Lady Pink. The relationship between graffiti and hip hop culture arises both from early graffiti artists practicing other aspects of hip hop, and its being practiced in areas where other elements of hip hop were evolving as art forms. Graffiti is recognized as a visual expression of rap music, just as breakdancing is viewed as a physical expression. The book Subway Art (New York: Henry Holt & Co, 1984) and the TV program Style Wars (first shown on the PBS channel in 1984) were among the first ways the mainstream public were introduced to hip hop graffiti. Breakdancing Breaking, an early form of hip hop dance, often involves battles, showing off skills without any physical contact with the adversaries. Breakdancing, also breaking or B-boying, is a dynamic style of dance which developed as part of the hip hop culture. Breaking began to take form in the South Bronx alongside the other elements of hip hop. The "B" in B-boy stands for break, as in break-boy (or girl). The term "B-boy" originated from the dancers at DJ Kool Herc's parties, who saved their best dance moves for the break section of the song, getting in front of the audience to dance in a distinctive, frenetic style. According to the documentary film The Freshest Kids: A History of the B-Boy, DJ Kool Herc describes the "B" in B-boy as short for breaking which at the time was slang for "going off", also one of the original names for the dance. However, early on the dance was known as the "boiong" (the sound a spring makes). Breaking was briefly documented for release to a world wide audience for the first time in Style Wars, and was later given a little more focus in the fictional film Beat Street. Early acts include the Rock Steady Crew and New York City Breakers. B-boying is one of the major elements of hip hop culture, commonly associated with, but distinct from, "popping", "locking", "hitting", "ticking", "boogaloo", and other funk styles that evolved independently during the late 1960s in California. It was common during the 1980s to see a group of people with a radio on a playground, basketball court, or sidewalk performing a B-boy show for a large audience. Beatboxing Beatboxing, popularized by Doug E. Fresh, is the vocal percussion of hip hop culture. It is primarily concerned with the art of creating beats, rhythms, and melodies using the human mouth. The term beatboxing is derived from the mimicry of the first generation of drum machines, then known as beatboxes. As it is a way of creating hip-hop music, it can be categorized under the production element of hip-hop, though it does sometimes include a type of rapping intersected with the human-created beat. The art form enjoyed a strong presence in the '80s with artists like the Darren "Buffy, the Human Beat Box" Robinson of the Fat Boys and Biz Markie showing their beatboxing skills. Beatboxing declined in popularity along with break dancing in the late '80s, and almost slipped even deeper than the underground. Beatboxing has been enjoying a resurgence since the late '90s, marked by the release of "Make the Music 2000." by Rahzel of The Roots (known for even singing while beatboxing). As it grew and developed into a multi-billion dollar industry, the scope of hip hop culture grew beyond the boundaries of its traditional four elements. KRS-ONE, a rapper from the golden age of hip hop, names nine elements of hip hop culture: the traditional four and beatboxing, plus hip hop fashion, hip hop slang, street knowledge, and street entrepreneurship. He also suggests that hip hop is a cultural movement and that the word itself had to reflect this. He spells it Hiphop (one word, capital "h") and this is reflected in his Temple of Hiphop. Social impact Effects Street breakdancing in San Francisco, California Hip hop has made considerable social impacts since its inception in the 1970s. Orlando Patterson, a sociology professor at Harvard University helps describe the phenomenon of how hip hop spread rapidly around the world and diffusion of Global. Professor Patterson argues that mass communication is controlled by the wealthy, government, and businesses in Third World nations and countries around the world. Patterson, Orlando. "Global Culture and the American Cosmos." The Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts Paper Number 21994 01Feb2008 <http://www.warholfoundation.org/paperseries/article2.htm>. Professor Patterson believes that mass communication created a global cultural hip hop scene. As a result, the youth absorb and are influenced by the American hip hop scene and start their own form of hip hop. Professor Patterson believes that revitalization of hip hop music will occur around the world as traditional values are mixed with American hip hop musical forms, and ultimately a global exchange process will develop that brings youth around the world to listen to a common musical form known as hip hop. It has also been argued that rap music formed as a "cultural response to historic oppression and racism, a system for communication among black communities throughout the United States" http://www.america.gov/st/arts-english/2008/August/20080814205112eaifas0.7286246.html . This is due to the fact that the culture reflected the social, economic and political realities of the disenfranchised youth. Alridge D, Steward J. “Introduction: Hip Hop in History: Past, Present, and Future”, Journal of African American History 2005. pp.190 . Language Hip hop has a distinctive slang http://www.csupomona.edu/~rrreese/HIPHOP.HTML . Due to hip hop's commercial success in the late nineties and early 21st century, many of these words have been assimilated into many different dialects across America and the world and even to non-hip hop fans (the word dis for example is remarkably prolific). There are also words like homie which predate hip hop but are often associated with it. Sometimes, terms like what the dilly, yo are popularized by a single song (in this case, "Put Your Hands Where My Eyes Could See" by Busta Rhymes) and are only used briefly. One particular example is the rule-based slang of Snoop Dogg and E-40, who add -izz to the middle of words. This practice, with origins in Frankie Smith's nonsensical language from his 1980 single "Double Dutch Bus", has spread to even non-hip hop fans, who may be unaware of its derivation. As a genre of music popular all over the world, World hip hop, in which African-American English is not the dialect used, is as prevalent as ever. Censorship A graffiti artist uses his artwork to make a satirical social statement on censorship: "Don't blame yourself... blame hip-hop." Hip hop has probably encountered more problems with censorship than any other form of popular music in recent years, due to the frequency of expletives used in lyrics. It also receives flak for being anti-establishment, and many of its songs depict wars and coup d'états that in the end overthrow the government. For example, Public Enemy's "Gotta Give the Peeps What They Need" was edited without their permission, removing the words "free Mumia". After the attack on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, Oakland, California group The Coup was under fire for the cover art on their Party Music, which featured the group's two members holding a detonator as the Twin Towers exploded behind them. Ironically, this art was created months before the actual event. The group, having politically radical and Marxist lyrical content, said the cover meant to symbolize the destruction of capitalism. Their record label pulled the album until a new cover could be designed. The use of profanity as well as graphic depictions of violence and sex creates challenges in the broadcast of such material both on television stations such as MTV, in music video form, and on radio. As a result, many hip hop recordings are broadcast in censored form, with offending language "bleeped" or blanked out of the soundtrack (though usually leaving the backing music intact), or even replaced with "clean" lyrics. The result – which sometimes renders the remaining lyrics unintelligible or contradictory to the original recording – has become almost as widely identified with the genre as any other aspect of the music, and has been parodied in films such as Austin Powers in Goldmember, in which Mike Myers' character Dr. Evil – performing in a parody of a hip hop music video ("Hard Knock Life" by Jay-Z) – performs an entire verse that is blanked out. In 1995 Roger Ebert wrote: In a way to circumvent broadcasting regulations BET has created a late-night segment called "Uncut" to air uncensored videos. Not only has this translated into greater sales for mainstream artists, it has also provided an outlet for undiscovered artists to grab the spotlight with graphic but low production quality videos, often made cheaply by non-professionals. Perhaps the most notorious video aired, which for many came to exemplify BET's program Uncut, was "Tip Drill" by Nelly. While no more explicit than other videos, its exploitative depiction of women, particularly of a man swiping a credit card between a stripper's buttocks, was seized upon by many social activists for condemnation. The segment was discontinued in mid 2006. Product placement Foodstuffs emblazoned with hip hop images Critics such as Businessweek's David Kiley argue that the discussion of many products within hip hop music and culture may actually be the result of undisclosed product placement deals. Such critics allege that shilling or product placement takes place in commercial rap music, and that lyrical references to products are actually paid endorsements. Kiley, David. Hip Hop Two-Step Over Product Placement BusinessWeek Online, April 6, 2005, accessed January 5, 2007 In 2005, a proposed plan by McDonalds, which would have paid rappers to advertise McDonalds food in their music, was leaked to the press. After Russell Simmons made a deal with Courvoisier to promote the brand among hip hop fans, Busta Rhymes recorded the song "Pass The Courvoisier". Simmons insists that no money changed hands in the deal. The symbiotic relationship has also stretched to include car manufacturers, clothing designers and sneaker companies, and many other companies have used the hip-hop community to make their name or to give the credibility. One such beneficiary was Jacob the Jeweler, a diamond merchant from New York, Jacob Arabo's clientèle included Sean Combs, Lil Kim and Nas. He created jewelry pieces from precious metals that were heavily loaded with diamond and gemstones. As his name was mentioned in the song lyrics of his hip hop customers, his profile quickly rose. Arabo expanded his brand to include gem-encrusted watches that retail for hundreds of thousands of dollars, gaining so much attention that Cartier filed a trademark-infringement lawsuit against him for putting diamonds on the faces of their watches and reselling them without permission. Arabo's profile increased steadily until his June, 2006 arrest by the FBI on money laundering charges. While some brands welcome the support of the hip-hop community, one brand that did not was Cristal champagne maker Louis Roederer. A 2006 article from The Economist magazine featured remarks from managing director Frederic Rouzaud about whether the brand's identification with rap stars could affect their company negatively. His answer was dismissive in tone: "That's a good question, but what can we do? We can't forbid people from buying it. I'm sure Dom Pérignon or Krug would be delighted to have their business." In retaliation, many hip hop icons such as Jay-Z and Sean Combs who previous included references to "Cris", ceased all mentions and purchases of the champagne. Media Hip-hop culture is intrinsically related to television; there have been a number of television shows devoted to or about hip-hop. For a long time, BET was the only television channel likely to play much hip hop, but in recent years the mainstream channels VH1 and MTV have added a significant amount of hip hop to their play list. With the emergence of the Internet a number of online sites have also begun to offer Hip Hop related video content. Hip hop films have been related since hip-hop's conception and have become even more related in the 21st century. During the early 1990s, African-Americans experienced a film renassiance, sparked by the popularity of hood films, in-depth looks at urban life, focusing on violence, family, friends and hip-hop. There have also been a number of hip hop films, movies which focused on hip-hop as a subject. Hip hop magazines have a large place in hip hop lifestyle, including Hip Hop Connection, XXL, Scratch, The Source and Vibe. . Many individual cities have produced their own local hip hop newsletters, while hip hop magazines with national distribution are found in a few other countries. The 21st century also ushered in the rise of online media, and hip hop fan sites now offer comprehensive hip hop coverage on a daily basis. Diversification Breakdance in Ljubljana, Slovenia. Hip hop has spawned dozens of sub-genres which incorporate a domineering style of music production or rapping, and it exhibits elements of trifunctionalism. Hip-Hop has now expanded and gone on a global scale, millions of rap albums are sold in foreign countries, some are not English speaking countries, yet people go out of their way and purchase these albums even thought they don’t understand the message the song carries, and manage to memorize the lyrics and sing along not knowing what they are saying. In foreign countries Hip-Hop has influenced natives to pursue rap careers and do what is being done in the United States such as following the trends, in their country. This is a product of globalization and it explains how popular culture can be interwoven with the everyday life of individuals that follow it, and how it can affect them in many ways. Like jazz, hip-hop is one of the few musical genres that scholars see as entirely American. Here, it is important to note the varying social influences that affect hip-hop's message in different nations. Frequently a musical response to political and/or social injustices, the face of hip-hop varies greatly from nation to nation. For example, in South Africa the largest form of hip hop is called Kwaito, which has had a growth similar to American hip hop. Kwaito is a direct reflection of a post apartheid South Africa and is a voice for the voiceless; a term that U.S. hip hop is often referred to. Kwaito has become much more than just music, it has evolved into a lifestyle, encompassing all aspects of life including language and fashion. TIMEeurope Magazine | Viewpoint The music of Kwaito is both politically and party driven. The politically fuelled music gives a voice to oppressed people that have no other way to voice their concerns and find music to be very accessible, not only to themselves but also to the audiences they are trying to reach. On the other hand the club driven music can also be seen as political in the sense that the artists couldn't care less about the post apartheid life they live and are more concerned about having a good time and not how their access to this life came about. Kwaito is a music that came from a once hated and oppressed people, but it is now sweeping the nation. The main consumers of Kwaito are adolescents and half of the South African population is under 21. Some of the large Kwaito artists have sold over 100,000 albums, and in an industry where 25,000 albums sold is considered a gold record, those are impressive numbers. Kwaito: much more than music - SouthAfrica.info Kwaito allows the participation and creative engagement of otherwise socially excluded peoples in the generation of popular media. . In Jamaica the sounds of hip hop are derived from American and Jamaican influences. Jamaican hip hop is defined both through dancehall and Reggae music. Jamaican Kool Herc brought the sound systems, technology, and techniques of Reggae music to New York during the 1970s. Jamaican hip hop artists often rap in both Brooklyn and Jamaican accents. Jamaican hip hop subject matter is often influenced by outside and internal forces. Outside forces such as the bling-bling era of today's modern hip hop and internal influences coming from the use of anti colonialism and marijuana or "Ganja" references which Rastafarians believe bring them closer to God. Bling-bling for Rastafari: How Jamaicans deal with hip-hop by Wayne Marshall http://https://moodle.brandeis.edu/file.php/3404/pdfs/marshall-bling-bling.pdf/ Reggae Music 101 - Learn More About Reggae Music - History of Reggae Author Wayne Marshall argues that "Hip hop, as with any number of African-American cultural forms before it, offers a range of compelling and contradictory significations to Jamaican artist and audiences. From "modern blackness" to foreign mind", transnational cosmopolitanism to militant pan-Africanism, radical remixology to outright mimicry, hip-hop in Jamaica embodies the myriad ways that Jamaicans embrace, reject, and incorporate foreign yet familiar forms." Marshall, Wayne Bling-Bling ForRastafari: How Jamaicans Deal With Hip-HopSocial and Economic Studies 55:1&2 (2006):49-74 In the developing world hip hop has made a considerable impact in the social context. Despite the lack of resources, hip hop has made considerable inroads. Because funds are limited, hip hop artists are forced to use very basic tools, and even graffiti, an important aspect of the hip hop culture, is constrained because it is not available to the average person. Many hip hop artists that make it out of the developing world come to places like the United States in search of an identity and place that fits them specifically. Maya Arulpragasm is a Sri Lankan born hip hop artist in this situation. She claims, "I'm just trying to build some sort of bridge, I'm trying to create a third place, somewhere in between the developed world and the developing world." Legacy Having its roots from reggae, disco, funk, hip hop has since exponentially expanded into a widely accepted form of representation world wide. It expansion includes events like Afrika Bambaataa releasing "Planet Rock" in 1982 which tried to establish a more global harmony in hip hop. In the 1990s MC Solaar became an international hit that was not from America, the first of his kind. From the 80s onward, television became the major source of widespread outsourcing of hip hop to the global world. From Yo! MTV Raps (a television show that was shown in many countries) to Public Enemy's world tour, hip hop spread further to Latin America and became highly mainstream. Ranging from countries like France, Spain, England, the US and many many other countries world wide, voices want to be heard, and hip hop allows them to do so. As such, hip hop has been cut mixed and changed to the areas that adapt to it. Watkins, S. Craig. "Why Hip-Hop Is Like No Other" in . Early hip hop has often been credited with helping to reduce inner-city gang violence by replacing physical violence with hip hop battles of dance and artwork. However, with the emergence of commercial and crime-related rap during the early 1990s, an emphasis on violence was incorporated, with many rappers boasting about drugs, weapons, misogyny, and violence. While hip hop music now appeals to a broader demographic, media critics argue that socially and politically conscious hip hop has long been disregarded by mainstream America in favor of its media-baiting sibling, gangsta rap. template Many artists are now considered to be alternative/underground hip hop when they attempt to reflect what they believe to be the original elements of the culture. Artists/groups such as Lupe Fiasco, Talib Kweli, Mos Def, Dilated Peoples, dead prez, Blackalicious, Jurassic 5, Immortal Technique and newly added Ghana Force may emphasize messages of verbal skill, unity, or activism instead of messages of violence, material wealth, and misogyny. Authenticity is often a serious debate within hip hop culture. Dating back to its origins in the 1970s in the Bronx, hip hop revolved around a culture of protest and freedom of expression in the wake of oppression. As hip hop has become less of an underground culture, it is subject to debate whether or not the spirit of hip hop is embodied in protest, or whether it can evolve to exist in a marketable integrated version. See for instance . In "Authenticity Within Hip-Hop and Other Cultures Threatened with Assimilation," Commentator Kembrew McLeod argues that hip hop culture is actually threatened with assimilation by a larger, mainstream culture. . In support of this position, editors of magazines such as the Village Voice have said that hip hop is slowly losing its edge due to the genre's involvement in the mainstream, hyper-capitalist world. Believing that hip hop should be utilized as a voice for social justice, Tate points out that in the marketable version of hip hop, there isn't a role for this evolved genre in context of the original theme hip hop originated from (freedom from oppression). The problem with Black progressive political organizing isn't that hip hop, but that the No. 1 issue on the table needs to be poverty, and nobody knows how to make poverty sexy. Tate, Greg. "Hip-hop Turns 30: Whatcha Celebratin’ For?" Village Voice. 4 January 2005. Tate discusses how the dynamic of progressive Black politics cannot apply to the genre of hip hop in the current state today due to the genre's heavy involvement in the market. In his article he discusses Hip Hop's 30th birthday and its evolution has been a devolution due to its capitalistic endeavors. Both Tate and McLeod argue that hip hop has lost its authenticity due to its losing sight of the revolutionary theme and humble "folksy" beginnings the music originated from. "This is the first time artists from around the world will be performing in an international context. The ones that are coming are considered to be the key members of the contemporary underground hip-hop movement." This is how the music landscape has broadened around the world over the last ten years. The maturation of Hip Hop has gotten older with the genres age, but the initial reasoning of why Hip Hop has started will always be intact. Expression and oppression will always be at the root of any Hip Hop movement. Though born in the United States, the reach of hip hop is global. Youth culture and opinion is meted out in both Israeli hip hop and Palestinian hip hop, while France, Germany, the U.K., Africa and the Caribbean have long-established hip hop followings. According to the U.S. Department of State, hip hop is "now the center of a mega music and fashion industry around the world", that crosses social barriers and cuts across racial lines. National Geographic recognizes hip hop as "the world's favorite youth culture" in which "just about every country on the planet seems to have developed its own local rap scene." See also Rapping Hip hop dance List of hip hop albums List of hip hop genres Notes References External links be-x-old:Гіп-гоп | Hip_hop |@lemmatized kr:1 one:20 concert:1 krs:2 long:7 time:8 activist:3 performer:1 promoter:1 hip:237 hop:234 culture:54 music:71 genre:12 cultural:8 movement:9 develop:10 new:25 york:13 city:9 early:20 primarily:2 among:8 african:12 american:23 latin:3 four:3 main:4 element:15 mcing:2 often:16 call:10 rap:30 djing:2 graffiti:16 writing:1 breakdancing:5 include:15 beatboxing:11 fashion:5 slang:7 since:6 first:10 emerge:4 bronx:13 lifestyle:3 spread:6 around:17 world:37 begin:7 base:3 disc:3 jockey:2 create:17 rhythmic:6 beat:14 loop:1 break:18 small:1 portion:1 song:14 emphasize:2 percussive:2 pattern:1 two:8 turntable:3 later:4 accompany:1 style:15 chant:1 original:6 form:24 dancing:2 particular:2 dress:1 arise:3 follower:2 experience:3 considerable:5 refinement:1 development:1 course:2 history:10 relationship:3 appearance:2 increasingly:1 elaborate:2 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4,354 | Louis_Riel | Louis David Riel (22 October 1844 – 16 November 1885, in English) was a Canadian politician, a founder of the province of Manitoba, and leader of the Métis people of the Canadian prairies. He led two resistance movements against the Canadian government and its first post-Confederation Prime Minister, Sir John A. Macdonald. Riel sought to preserve Métis rights and culture as their homelands in the Northwest came progressively under the Canadian sphere of influence. He is regarded by many as a Canadian folk hero today. The first resistance was the Red River Rebellion of 1869–1870. The provisional government established by Riel ultimately negotiated the terms under which the modern province of Manitoba entered the Canadian Confederation. Riel was forced into exile in the United States as a result of the controversial execution of Thomas Scott during the rebellion. Despite this, he is frequently referred to as the "Father of Manitoba". While a fugitive, he was elected three times to the Canadian House of Commons, although he never assumed his seat. During these years, he was frustrated by having to remain in exile despite his growing belief that he was a divinely chosen leader and prophet, a belief which would later resurface and influence his actions. He married in 1881 while in exile in Montana, and fathered two children. Riel returned to what is now the province of Saskatchewan to represent Métis grievances to the Canadian government. This resistance escalated into a military confrontation known as the North-West Rebellion of 1885. It ended in his arrest, trial, and execution on a charge of high treason. Riel was viewed sympathetically in francophone regions of Canada, and his execution had a lasting influence on relations between the province of Quebec and English-speaking Canada. Whether seen as a Father of Confederation or a traitor, he remains one of the most complex, controversial, and ultimately tragic figures in the history of Canada. Early life Louis Riel, age 14 The Red River Settlement was a community in Rupert's Land nominally administered by the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), and largely inhabited by First Nations tribes and the Métis, an ethnic group of mixed Cree, Ojibwa, Saulteaux, French Canadian, Scottish, and English descent. Louis Riel was born there in 1844, near modern Winnipeg, Manitoba, to Louis Riel Sr. and Julie Lagimodière. Riel was the eldest of eleven children in a locally well-respected French Canadian-Métis family. His father had gained prominence in this community by organizing a group that supported Guillaume Sayer, a Métis imprisoned for challenging the HBC's historical trade monopoly. Sayer's eventual release as a result of agitations by Louis Sr.'s group effectively ended the monopoly, and the name Riel was therefore well known in the Red River area. His mother was the daughter of Jean-Baptiste Lagimodière and Marie-Anne Gaboury, one of the earliest white families to settle in the Red River Settlement in 1812. The Riels were noted for their devout Catholicism and strong family ties. Stanley (1963), pp. 13–20 Riel was first educated by Roman Catholic priests at St. Boniface. At age 13 he came to the attention of Alexandre Taché, the suffragan Bishop of St. Boniface, who was eagerly promoting the priesthood for talented young Métis. In 1858 Taché arranged for Riel to attend the Petit Séminaire of the Collège de Montréal in Montreal, Quebec under the direction of the Sulpician order. Descriptions of him at the time indicate that he was a fine scholar of languages, science, and philosophy, but exhibited a frequent and unpredictable moodiness. Stanley (1963), pp. 26–28 Following news of his father's premature death in 1864, Riel lost interest in the priesthood and he withdrew from the college in March 1865. For a time he continued his studies as a day student in the convent of the Grey Nuns, but was soon asked to leave following breaches of discipline. He remained in Montreal over a year, living at the home of his aunt, Lucie Riel. Impoverished by the death of his father, Riel took employment as a law clerk in the Montreal office of Rodolphe Laflamme. During this time he was involved in a failed romance with a young woman named Marie-Julie Guernon. This progressed to the point of Riel having signed a contract of marriage, but his fiancée's family opposed her involvement with a Métis, and the engagement was soon broken. Compounding this disappointment, Riel found legal work unpleasant, and by early 1866 he had resolved to leave Quebec. Stanley (1963), pg. 33 Some of his friends said later that he worked odd jobs in Chicago, Illinois while staying with poet Louis-Honoré Fréchette, and wrote poems himself in the manner of Lamartine; also that he was then for a time employed as a clerk in St. Paul, Minnesota prior to returning to the Red River Settlement on 26 July 1868. for this section, see Stanley, Louis Riel, pp. 13–34. Red River Rebellion The majority population of the Red River had historically been Métis and First Nation people. But upon his return, Riel found that religious, nationalistic, and racial tensions were exacerbated by an influx of Anglophone Protestant settlers from Ontario. The political situation was also uncertain, as ongoing negotiations for the transfer of Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company to Canada had not addressed the political terms of transfer. Finally, despite warnings to the Macdonald government from Bishop Taché and the HBC governor William Mactavish that any such activity would precipitate unrest, the Canadian minister of public works, William McDougall, ordered a survey of the area. The arrival on 20 August 1869 of a survey party headed by Colonel John Stoughton Dennis increased anxiety among the Métis. The Métis did not possess title to their land, which was in any case laid out according to the seigneurial system rather than in English-style square lots. Riel emerges as a leader In late August, Riel denounced the survey in a speech, and on 11 October 1869, the survey's work was disrupted by a group of Métis that included Riel. This group organized itself as the "Métis National Committee" on 16 October, with Riel as secretary and John Bruce as president. When summoned by the HBC-controlled Council of Assiniboia to explain his actions, Riel declared that any attempt by Canada to assume authority would be contested unless Ottawa had first negotiated terms with the Métis. Nevertheless, the non-bilingual McDougall was appointed the lieutenant governor-designate, and attempted to enter the settlement on 2 November. McDougall's party was turned back near the American border, and on the same day, Métis led by Riel seized Fort Garry. On 6 November, Riel invited Anglophones to attend a convention alongside Métis representatives to discuss a course of action, and on 1 December he proposed to this convention a list of rights to be demanded as a condition of union. Much of the settlement came to accept the Métis point of view, but a passionately pro-Canadian minority began organizing in opposition. Loosely constituted as the Canadian Party, this group was led by John Christian Schultz, Charles Mair, Colonel John Stoughton Dennis, and a more reticent Major Charles Boulton. McDougall attempted to assert his authority by authorizing Dennis to raise a contingent of armed men, but the Anglophone settlers largely ignored this call to arms. Schultz, however, attracted approximately fifty recruits and fortified his house and store. Riel ordered Schultz's home surrounded, and the outnumbered Canadians soon surrendered and were imprisoned in Upper Fort Garry. Provisional government The Métis provisional government Hearing of the unrest, Ottawa sent three emissaries to the Red River, including HBC representative Donald Alexander Smith. While they were en route, the Métis National Committee declared a provisional government on 8 December, with Riel becoming its president on 27 December. Meetings between Riel and the Ottawa delegation took place on January 5 and 6, 1870, but when these proved fruitless, Smith chose to present his case in a public forum. Smith assured large audiences of the Government's goodwill in meetings on 19 January and 20 January, leading Riel to propose the formation of a new convention split evenly between French and English settlers to consider Smith's instructions. On 7 February, a new list of rights was presented to the Ottawa delegation, and Smith and Riel agreed to send representatives to Ottawa to engage in direct negotiations on that basis. The provisional government established by Louis Riel published its own newspaper titled New Nation and established the Legislative Assembly of Assiniboia to pass laws. Canadian resistance and the execution of Scott Despite the apparent progress on the political front, the Canadian party continued to plot against the provisional government. However, they suffered a setback on 17 February, when forty eight men, including Boulton and Thomas Scott, were arrested near Fort Garry. The execution of Thomas Scott Boulton was tried by a tribunal headed by Ambroise-Dydime Lépine and sentenced to death for his interference with the provisional government. He was pardoned, but Scott interpreted this as weakness on the part of the Métis, whom he regarded with open contempt. After Scott repeatedly quarreled with his guards, they insisted that he be tried for insubordination. At his trial, he was found guilty of defying the authority of the provisional government and was sentenced to death. Riel was repeatedly entreated to commute the sentence, but Donald Smith reported that Riel responded to his pleas by saying: Scott was executed by firing squad on 4 March. Riel's motivations for allowing the execution have been the cause of much speculation, but his own justification was that he felt it necessary to demonstrate to the Canadians that the Métis must be taken seriously. Creation of Manitoba and the Wolseley expedition The delegates representing the provisional government departed for Ottawa in March. Although they initially met with legal difficulties arising from the execution of Scott, they were soon able to enter into direct talks with Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier. An agreement enshrining the demands in the list of rights was quickly reached, and this formed the basis for the Manitoba Act of 12 May 1870, which formally admitted Manitoba into the Canadian confederation. However, the negotiators were unable to secure a general amnesty for the provisional government. As a means of exercising Canadian authority in the settlement and dissuading American expansionists, a Canadian military expedition under Colonel Garnet Wolseley was dispatched to the Red River. Although the government described it as an "errand of peace", Riel learned that Canadian militia elements in the expedition meant to lynch him, and he fled as the expedition approached the Red River. The arrival of the expedition on 20 August marked the effective end of the Red River Rebellion. Intervening years Amnesty question It was not until 2 September 1870 that the new lieutenant-governor Adams George Archibald arrived and set about the establishment of civil government. In the absence of an amnesty, and with the Canadian militia beating and intimidating his sympathisers, Riel fled to the safety of the St. Joseph's mission across the border in the Dakota Territory. However the results of the first provincial election in December 1870 were promising for Riel, as many of his supporters came to power. Nevertheless, stress and financial troubles precipitated a serious illness—perhaps a harbinger of his future mental afflictions—that prevented his return to Manitoba until May 1871. Louis Riel circa 1875The settlement now faced another threat, this time from cross-border Fenian raids coordinated by his former associate William Bernard O'Donoghue. While the threat proved overstated, Archibald proclaimed a general call to arms on 4 October. Companies of armed horsemen were raised, including one led by Riel. When Archibald reviewed the troops in St. Boniface, he made the significant gesture of publicly shaking Riel's hand, signaling that a rapprochement had been effected. But this was not to be—when this news reached Ontario, Mair and members of the Canada First movement whipped up a significant resurgence of anti-Riel (and anti-Archibald) sentiment. With Federal elections coming in 1872, Macdonald could ill afford further rift in Quebec-Ontario relations. He therefore quietly arranged for Taché to offer Riel what amounted to a bribe of $1,000 to enter voluntary exile. This was supplemented by an additional £600 from Smith for the care of Riel's family. Riel accepted, arriving in St. Paul on 2 March 1872. However, by late June Riel was back in Manitoba and was soon convinced to run as a member of parliament for the electoral district of Provencher. However, following the early September defeat of Cartier in his home riding in Quebec, Riel stood aside so that Cartier—on record as being in favour of amnesty for Riel—might secure a seat. Cartier won by acclamation, but Riel's hopes for a swift resolution to the amnesty question were dashed following Cartier's death on 20 May 1873. In the ensuing by-election in October 1873, Riel ran unopposed as an Independent, although he had once again fled, a warrant having been issued for his arrest in September. Lépine was not so lucky; he was captured and faced trial. Riel made his way to Montreal and, fearing arrest or assassination, vacillated as to whether he should attempt to take up his seat in the House of Commons—Edward Blake, the Premier of Ontario, had announced a bounty of $5,000 for his arrest. Famously, Riel was the only Member of Parliament who was not present for the great Pacific Scandal debate of 1873 that led to the resignation of the Macdonald government in November. Liberal leader Alexander Mackenzie became the interim prime minister, and a general election was held in January 1874. Although the Liberals under Mackenzie formed the new government, Riel easily retained his seat. Formally, Riel had to sign a register book at least once upon being elected, and he did so under disguise in late January. He was nevertheless stricken from the rolls following a motion supported by Schultz, who had become the member for the electoral district of Lisgar. Undeterred, Riel prevailed once again in the resulting by-election, and although once again expelled, his symbolic point had been made and public opinion in Quebec was strongly tipped in his favour. Exile and mental illness During this period, Riel had been staying with priests of the Oblate order in Plattsburgh, New York who introduced him to Father Fabien Martin dit Barnabé in the nearby village of Keeseville. It was here that he received news of Lépine's fate: following his trial for the murder of Scott, which had begun on 13 October 1874, Lépine was found guilty and sentenced to death. This sparked outrage in the sympathetic Quebec press, and calls for amnesty for both Lépine and Riel were renewed. This presented a severe political difficulty for Mackenzie, who was hopelessly caught between the demands of Quebec and Ontario. However, a solution was forthcoming when, acting on his own initiative, the Governor General Lord Dufferin commuted Lépine's sentence in January 1875. This opened the door for Mackenzie to secure from parliament an amnesty for Riel, on that the condition that he remain in exile for five years. During his time of exile, he was primarily concerned with religious rather than political matters. Spurred on by a sympathetic Roman Catholic priest in Quebec, he was increasingly influenced by his belief that he was a divinely chosen leader of the Métis. Modern biographers have speculated that he may have suffered from the psychological condition megalomania. His mental state deteriorated, and following a violent outburst he was taken to Montreal, where he was under the care of his uncle, John Lee, for a few months. But after Riel disrupted a religious service, Lee arranged to have him committed in an asylum in Longue-Pointe on 6 March 1876 under the assumed name "Louis R. David".<ref name="LouisRielCE"> Fearing discovery, his doctors soon transferred him to the Beauport Asylum near Quebec City under the name "Louis Larochelle". While he suffered from sporadic irrational outbursts, he continued his religious writing, composing theological tracts with an admixture of Christian and Judaic ideas. He consequently began calling himself Louis "David" Riel, prophet of the new world, and he would pray (standing) for hours, having servants help him to hold his arms in the shape of a cross. Nevertheless, he slowly recovered, and was released from the asylum on 23 January 1878 with an admonition to lead a quiet life. He returned for a time to Keeseville, where he became involved in a passionate romance with Evelina Martin dit Barnabé, sister of his friend, the oblate father Fabien Barnabé. But with insufficient means to propose marriage, Riel returned to the west, hoping that she might follow. However, she decided that she would be unsuited to prairie life, and their correspondence soon ended. Montana and family life Jean-Louis and Marie-Angélique Riel, children of Louis Riel In the fall of 1878, Riel returned to St. Paul, and briefly visited his friends and family. This was a time of rapid change for the Métis of the Red River—the buffalo on which they depended were becoming increasingly scarce, the influx of settlers was ever-increasing, and lots of land were sold to unscrupulous land speculators. Like other Red River Métis who had left Manitoba, Riel headed further west in order to start a new life. Travelling to the Montana Territory, he became a trader and interpreter in the area surrounding Fort Benton. Observing rampant alcoholism and its detrimental impact on the Native American and Métis people, he engaged in an unsuccessful attempt to curtail the whisky trade. In 1881, he married Marguerite Monet dit Bellehumeur (1861–1886), a young Métis, "in the fashion of the country" on 28 April, an arrangement that was solemnized on 9 March 1882. They were to have three children: Jean-Louis (1882–1908); Marie-Angélique (1883–1897); and a boy who was born and died on 21 October 1885, less than one month before Riel was hanged. Riel soon became involved in the politics of Montana, and in 1882, actively campaigned on behalf of the Republican Party. He brought a suit against a Democrat for rigging a vote, but was then himself accused of fraudulently inducing British subjects to take part in the election. In response, Riel applied for United States citizenship and was naturalized on 16 March 1883. With two young children, he had by 1884 settled down and was teaching school at the St. Peter's Jesuit mission in the Sun River district of Montana. The North-West Rebellion Grievances in the Saskatchewan territory Following the Red River Rebellion, Métis travelled west and settled in the Saskatchewan Valley, especially along the south branch of the river in the country surrounding the Saint-Laurent mission (near modern St. Laurent de Grandin, Saskatchewan). But by the 1880s, it had become clear that westward migration was no panacea for the troubles of the Métis and the plains Indians. The rapid collapse of the buffalo herd was causing near starvation among the Plains Cree and Blackfoot First Nations. This was exacerbated by a reduction in government assistance in 1883, and by a general failure of Ottawa to live up to its treaty obligations. The Métis were likewise obliged to give up the hunt and take up agriculture—but this transition was accompanied by complex issues surrounding land claims similar to those that had previously arisen in Manitoba. Moreover, settlers from Europe and the eastern provinces were also moving into the Saskatchewan territories, and they too had complaints related to the administration of the territories. Virtually all parties therefore had grievances, and by 1884 English settlers, Anglo-Métis and Métis communities were holding meetings and petitioning a largely unresponsive government for redress. In the electoral district of Lorne, a meeting of the south branch Métis was held in the village of Batoche on 24 March, and thirty representatives voted to ask Riel to return and represent their cause. On 6 May a joint "Settler's Union" meeting was attended by both the Métis and English-speaking representatives from Prince Albert, including William Henry Jackson, an Ontario settler sympathetic to the Métis and known to them as Honoré Jackson, and James Isbister of the Anglo-Métis. It was here resolved to send a delegation to ask Riel's assistance in presenting their grievances to the Canadian government. Return of the Riel The head of the delegation to Riel was Gabriel Dumont, a respected buffalo hunter and leader of the Saint-Laurent Métis who had known Riel in Manitoba. James Isbister was the lone Anglo-Métis delegate. Riel was easily swayed to support their cause—which was perhaps not surprising in view of Riel's continuing conviction that he was the divinely selected leader of the Métis and the prophet of a new form of Christianity. Riel also intended to use the new position of influence to pursue his own land claims in Manitoba. The party departed 4 June, and arrived back at Batoche on 5 July. Upon his arrival Métis and English settlers alike formed an initially favourable impression of Riel following a series of speeches in which he advocated moderation and a reasoned approach. During June 1884, the Plains Cree leaders Big Bear and Poundmaker were independently formulating their complaints, and subsequently held meetings with Riel. However, the Indians' grievances were quite different from those of the settlers, and nothing was then resolved. Inspired by Riel, Honoré Jackson and representatives of other communities set about drafting a petition, and Jackson on 28 July released a manifesto detailing grievances and the settler's objectives. A joint English-Métis central committee with Jackson acting as secretary worked to reconcile proposals from different communities. In the interim, Riel's support began to waver. As Riel's religious pronouncements became increasingly removed from Roman Catholicism, the clergy began to distance themselves, and father Alexis André cautioned Riel against mixing religion and politics. Also, in response to bribes by territorial lieutenant-governor and Indian commissioner Edgar Dewdney, local English-language newspapers adopted an editorial stance critical of Riel. Nevertheless, the work continued, and on 16 December Riel forwarded the committee's petition to the government, along with the suggestion that delegates be sent to Ottawa to engage in direct negotiation. Receipt of the petition was acknowledged by Joseph-Adolphe Chapleau, Macdonald's Secretary of State, although Macdonald himself would later deny having ever seen it. Break with the church While Riel awaited news from Ottawa he considered returning to Montana, but had by February resolved to stay. In the absence of a productive course of action, Riel began to engage in obsessive prayer, and was, in fact, experiencing a significant relapse of his mental agitations. This led to a deterioration in his relationship with the Catholic hierarchy, as he publicly espoused an increasingly heretical doctrine. On 11 February 1885, a response to the petition was received. The government proposed to take a census of the North-West Territories, and to form a commission to investigate grievances. This angered the Métis, who interpreted this as a mere delaying tactic—a faction emerged that favoured taking up arms at once. This was not supported by the Church, the majority of the English-speaking community, or, indeed, by the Métis faction supporting local leader Charles Nolin. But Riel, undoubtedly influenced by his messianic delusions, became increasingly supportive of this course of action. In the church at Saint-Laurent on 15 March, Riel disrupted a sermon to argue for this position, following which he was barred from receiving the sacraments, and increasingly frequently discussed his "divine revelations". But disenchanted with the status quo, and swayed by Riel's charisma and eloquent rhetoric, Métis remained loyal to Riel, despite his proclamations that Bishop Ignace Bourget should be accepted as pope, and that "Rome has fallen". At his trial, Riel denied allegations that his religious beliefs were as irrational as were being (and continue to be) alleged. He explained as follows: "I wish to leave Rome aside, inasmuch as it is the cause of division between Catholics and Protestants. I did not wish to force my views...If I could have any influence in the new world it would be to help in that way, even if it takes 200 years to become practical...so my children's children can shake hands with the Protestants of the new world in a friendly manner. I do not wish those evils which exist in Europe to be continued, as much as I can influence it, among the (Metis). I do not wish that to be repeated in America. http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/riel/rieltrialstatement.html Open rebellion On 18 March it became known that the North-West Mounted Police garrison at Battleford was being reinforced. Although only 100 men had been sent in response to warnings from father Alexis André and NWMP superintendent L.N.F. Crozier, a rumour soon began to circulate that 500 heavily armed troops were advancing on the territory. Métis patience was exhausted, and Riel's followers seized arms, took hostages, and cut the telegraph lines between Batoche and Battleford. The Provisional Government of Saskatchewan was declared at Batoche on 19 March, with Riel as the political and spiritual leader and with Dumont assuming responsibility for military affairs. Riel formed a council called the Exovedate (a neologism meaning "those who have left the flock"), and sent representatives to court Poundmaker and Big Bear. On 21 March, Riel's emissaries demanded that Crozier surrender Fort Carlton, but this was refused. The situation was becoming critical, and on 23 March Dewdney sent a telegraph to Macdonald indicating that military intervention might be necessary. Scouting near Duck Lake on 26 March, a force led by Gabriel Dumont unexpectedly chanced upon a party from Fort Carlton. In the ensuing Battle of Duck Lake, the police were routed, and the Indians also rose up once the news became known. The die was cast for a violent outcome, and the North-West Rebellion was begun in earnest. Louis Riel imprisoned in Middleton's camp at Batoche, 16 May, 1885 Riel had counted on the Canadian government being unable to effectively respond to another uprising in the distant North-West Territories, thereby forcing them to accept political negotiation. This was essentially the same strategy that had worked to such great effect during the 1870 rebellion. But in that instance, the first troops did not arrive until three months after Riel seized control. However, Riel had completely overlooked the significance of the nascent Canadian Pacific Railway. Despite major gaps in railway construction, the first Canadian regular and militia units, under the command of Major-General Frederick Dobson Middleton, arrived in Duck Lake less than two weeks after Riel had made his demands. Knowing that he could not defeat the Canadians in direct confrontation, Dumont had hoped to force the Canadians to negotiate by engaging in a long-drawn out campaign of guerrilla warfare; Dumont realised a modest success along these lines at the Battle of Fish Creek on 24 April 1885. Riel, however, insisted on concentrating forces at Batoche in order to defend his "city of God". The outcome of the ensuing Battle of Batoche which took place from 9 May – 12 May was never in doubt, and on 15 May a disheveled Riel surrendered to Canadian forces. Although Big Bear's forces managed to hold out until the Battle of Loon Lake on 3 June, the rebellion was a dismal failure for Métis and Indian alike, with most surrendering or fleeing. Trial for treason Several individuals closely tied to the government requested that the trial be held in Winnipeg in July 1885. There are historians who contend that the trials was moved to Regina due to concerns with the possibility of an ethnically mixed and sympathetic jury. Tom Flanagan states that an amendment of the North-West Territories Act (which dropped the provision that trials with crimes punishable by death should be tried in Manitoba) meant that the trial could be convened within the North-West Territories and did not have to be held in Winnipeg. Louis Riel testifies at his trial Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald ordered the trial to be convened in Regina, where Riel was tried before a jury of six English and Scottish Protestants, all from the area surrounding the city. The trial began on 28 July 1885, and lasted only five days. Riel delivered two long speeches during his trial, defending his own actions and affirming the rights of the Métis people. He rejected his lawyer's attempt to argue that he was not guilty by reason of insanity, asserting, The jury found him guilty but recommended mercy; nonetheless, Judge Hugh Richardson sentenced him to death, with the date of his execution initially set for 18 September 1885. Fifty years later one of the jurors, Edwin Brooks, said that Riel was tried for treason but hanged for the execution of Thomas Scott. Execution Boulton writes in his memoirs that, as the date of his execution approached, Riel regretted his opposition to the defence of insanity and vainly attempted to provide evidence that he was not sane. Requests for a retrial and an appeal to the Privy Council in England were denied. Sir John A. Macdonald, who was instrumental in upholding Riel's sentence, is famously quoted as saying: Prior to his execution, Riel was reconciled with the Catholic Church, and assigned Father André as his spiritual advisor. He was also given writing materials so that he could employ his time in prison to write a book. Louis Riel was hanged for treason on 16 November 1885. Riel's tombstone at the St. Boniface Cathedral Boulton writes of Riel's final moments, Following the execution, Riel's body was returned to his mother's home in St. Vital, where it lay in state. On 12 December 1885, his remains were laid in the churchyard of the Saint-Boniface Cathedral following the celebration of a requiem mass. Legacy Political The Saskatchewan Métis' requested land grants were all provided by the government by the end of 1887, and the government resurveyed the Métis river lots in accordance with their wishes. The Métis did not understand the long term value of their new land, however, and it was soon bought by speculators who later turned huge profits from it. Riel's worst fears were realised—following the failed rebellion, the French language and Roman Catholic religion faced increasing marginalisation in both Saskatchewan and Manitoba, as exemplified by the controversy surrounding the Manitoba Schools Question. The Métis themselves were increasingly forced to live on undesirable land or in the shadow of Indian reserves (as they did not themselves have treaty status). Saskatchewan did not attain provincehood until 1905. Riel's execution and Macdonald's refusal to commute his sentence caused lasting upset in Quebec, and led to a fundamental alteration in the Canadian political order. In Quebec, Honoré Mercier exploited discontent over Riel's execution to reconstitute the Parti National. This party, which promoted Quebec nationalism, won a majority in the 1886 Quebec election by winning a number of seats formerly controlled by the Quebec Conservative Party. The federal election of 1887 likewise saw significant gains by the federal Liberals, again at the expense of the Conservatives. This led to the victory of the Liberal party under Sir Wilfrid Laurier in the federal election of 1896, which in turn set the stage for the domination of Canadian federal politics by the Liberal party in the 20th century. That Riel's name still has resonance in Canadian politics was evidenced on 16 November 1994, when Suzanne Tremblay, a Bloc Québécois member of parliament, introduced private members' bill C-228, "An Act to revoke the conviction of Louis David Riel". The unsuccessful bill was widely perceived in English Canada as an attempt to arouse support for Quebec nationalism prior to the 1995 referendum on Quebec sovereignty. Riel reconsidered The formerly widespread perception of Louis Riel as an insane traitor, especially outside of the Métis and French Canadian community, weakened considerably since the late 20th century. Riel is regarded by some as a heroic freedom fighter who stood up for his people in the face of a racist government, and those who question his sanity still view him as an essentially honourable figure. Riel nevertheless presents an enigma, although as historian J.M.S. Careless has observed, it is possible that Riel was both a murderer and a hero. It is also possible that his rash decision to execute Scott drastically altered the history of his people. For example, shortly after the Red River Rebellion the Canadian government began a programme that speculators and other non-Métis exploited to dispossess the Métis of their land; had Scott not been executed, the government might well have supervised the program more rigorously, given the prior good relations between Canada and the Métis. Métis scholars have noted that Riel is a more important figure to non-Métis than to Métis, perhaps because he is often the only Métis figure most non-Métis are aware of. Political scientists such as Thomas Flanagan have pointed out certain parallels between Riel's following during the North-West Rebellion and millenarian cults. Others have embraced his image as a revolutionary—in the 1960s, the Quebec terrorist group, the Front de libération du Québec, went so far as to adopt the name "Louis Riel" for one of its terrorist cells. Bill C-213 or Louis Riel Day Act and Bill C-417 Louis Riel Act are the more notable acts which have gone through parliament. Bill C-297 to revoke the conviction of Louis Riel was introduced to the House of Commons October 21 and November 22, 1996, however the motion lacked unanimous consent from the House and was dropped. Bill C-213 or the Louis Riel Day Act of 1997 attempted to revoke the conviction of Louis Riel for high treason and establish a National Day in his honour on November 16. Bill C-417 or the Louis Riel Act which also had a first reading in parliament to revoke the conviction of Louis Riel, and establish July 15 as Louis Riel Day was tabled. Bills pertaining to Louis Riel Bill Parliament Session First Reading YearC-216 38 1 Oct 2004C-411 37 1 January 2001C-324 37 2 Sept 2002S-35 37 1 January 2001C-324 37 3 Feb 2004C-297 Nov 2006C-258 May 2006C-288 March 1995C-417 June 1998C-380 35 2 March 1997C-258 36 1 1997C-257 36 2 1999 On 18 February 2008, the province of Manitoba officially recognized the first Louis Riel Day as a general provincial holiday. It will now fall on the third Monday of February each year in the Province of Manitoba. Commemorations "Tortured" Louis Riel statue at the Collège universitaire de Saint-Boniface A resolution was passed by Parliament on 10 March 1992 citing that Louis Riel was the founder of Manitoba. Two statues of Riel are located in Winnipeg. One of the Winnipeg statues, the work of architect Étienne Gaboury and sculptor Marcien Lemay, depicts Riel as a naked and tortured figure. It was unveiled in 1970 and stood in the grounds of the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba for 23 years. After much outcry (especially from the Métis community) that the statue was an undignified misrepresentation, the statue was removed and placed at the Collège universitaire de Saint-Boniface. It was replaced in 1994 with a statue designed by Miguel Joyal depicting Riel as a dignified statesman. The unveiling ceremony was on 16 May 1996, in Winnipeg. Statue of Louis Riel by Miguel Joyal in Winnipeg, Manitoba. A statue of Riel on the grounds of the Saskatchewan legislative building in Regina was installed and later removed for similar reasons. In numerous communities in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and even in Ontario, Riel is commemorated in the names of streets, schools, and other buildings (such as the Louis Riel School Division in Winnipeg). The student centre and campus pub at the University of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon are named after Riel. Highway 11, stretching from Regina to just south of Prince Albert, has been named Louis Riel Trail by the province; the roadway passes near locations of the 1885 rebellion. One of the student residences at Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, British Columbia is named Louis Riel House. On 26 September 2007, Manitoba legislature passed a bill establishing a statutory holiday on the third Monday in February as Louis Riel Day, the same day some other provinces celebrate Family Day, beginning in 2008. The first Louis Riel Day was celebrated on 18 February 2008. This new statutory holiday coincides with the celebration, on 15-24 February of the Festival du Voyageur. Arts, literature and popular culture In 1925, the French writer Maurice Constantin-Weyer who lived 10 years in Manitoba published in French a fictionalized biography of Louis Riel titled La Bourrasque. An English translation/adaptation was published in 1930 : A Martyr's Folly (Toronto, The Macmillan Company), and a new version in 1954, The Half-Breed (New York, The Macaulay Compagny) and . Portrayals of Riel's role in the Red River Rebellion include the 1979 CBC television film Riel and Canadian cartoonist Chester Brown's acclaimed 2003 graphic novel Louis Riel: A Comic-Strip Biography. An opera about Riel entitled Louis Riel was commissioned for Canada's centennial celebrations in 1967. It was an opera in three acts, written by Harry Somers, with an English and French libretto by Mavor Moore and Jacques Languirand. The Canadian Opera Company produced and performed the first run of the opera in September and October, 1967. From the late 1960s until the early 1990s, the city of Saskatoon hosted "Louis Riel Day", a summer celebration that included a relay race that combined running, backpack carrying, canoeing, hill climbing, and horseback riding along the South Saskatchewan River in the city's downtown core. Traditionally, the event also included a cabbage roll eating contest and tug-of-war competition, as well as live musical performances. Although not affiliated with the Saskatoon Exhibition, for years Louis Riel Day was scheduled for the day prior to the start of the fair, and as such came to be considered the Exhibition's unofficial kick-off (the scheduling of the two events was separated in later years). The event was discontinued when major sponsors pulled out. Billy Childish wrote a song entitled "Louis Riel", which was performed by Thee Headcoats. Texas musician Doug Sahm wrote a song entitled "Louis Riel," which appeared on the album S.D.Q. '98. Discography In the song, Sahm likens the lore surrounding Riel to Davey Crockett's legend in his home state, spinning an abridged tale of Riel's life as a revolutionary: "...but you gotta respect him for what he thought was right... And all around Regina they talk about him still – why did they have to kill Louis Riel?" Album review by Eugene Chadbourne On 22 October 2003, the Canadian news channel CBC Newsworld and its French-language equivalent, Réseau de l'information, staged a simulated retrial of Riel. Viewers were invited to enter a verdict on the trial over the internet, and more than 10,000 votes were received—87% of which were "not guilty". The results of this straw poll led to renewed calls for Riel's posthumous pardon. Also on the basis of a public poll, the CBC's Greatest Canadian project ranked Riel as the 11th "Greatest Canadian". An episode of the TV-series How the West Was Won from 1979 was named L'Affaire Riel, featuring Louis Riel while in exile in the United States. In 2001, Canadian sketch comedy troupe Royal Canadian Air Farce featured Riel in its send-up of the CBC documentary series Canada: A People's History. Significant parallels were drawn between Riel's actions and those of modern-day Québécois separatists, and the comedian who portrayed Riel was made up to look like then-Premier Lucien Bouchard. Footnotes References Barkwell, Lawrence J., Leah Dorion and Darren Prefontaine. Metis Legacy: A Historiography and Annotated Bibliography. Winnipeg: Pemmican Publications Inc. and Saskatoon: Gabriel Dumont Institute, 2001. ISBN 1-894717-03-1 Boulton, Charles A. (1886) Reminiscences of the North-West Rebellions. Toronto. Online text. A first person account of the rebellions. A biography of Riel in the form of a graphic novel. A survey of Canadian history. A short work highlighting the complexity of Riel's character. Interpretations are available. An influential work suggesting parallels between Riel's following and Millenarianism. A critical legal and political analysis of Riel's 1885 high treason trial. Online text. "[T]he first reasonably accurate biography of Louis Riel to be written.", an exhaustive, "objective" yet sympathetic scholarly account. Riel's own writings and letters. A sympathetic reevaluation of Riel drawing heavily on his own writings. A standard Riel biography, covering most of the material in this article; source where no other is cited. External links Biography of Louis Riel from the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Biography of Louis Riel from the Société historique de Saint-Boniface CBC Digital Archives: Rethinking Riel Heritage Minutes: Historica Minutes (History by the Minute): Louis Riel Louis Riel's Poésies religieuses et politiques published by La Bibliothèque électronique du Québec (PDF) Parliamentary discussion of Tremblay's private members' bill to pardon Riel Synopsis of federal political experience from the Library of Parliament Louis Riel – University of Saskatchewan library Louis Riel, The Amnesty, Translation of L’Amnistie, Bureau du Nouveau Monde, Montreal, 1874. | Louis_Riel |@lemmatized louis:55 david:4 riel:190 october:10 november:8 english:15 canadian:43 politician:1 founder:2 province:9 manitoba:24 leader:10 métis:60 people:7 prairie:2 lead:12 two:7 resistance:4 movement:2 government:31 first:18 post:1 confederation:4 prime:3 minister:4 sir:4 john:8 macdonald:11 seek:1 preserve:1 right:6 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4,355 | Lars_von_Trier | Lars von Trier (born Lars Trier, April 30, 1956) is an Academy Award-nominated Danish film director and screenwriter. He is closely associated with the Dogme 95 collective, although his own films have taken a variety of different approaches. Biography Lars Trier was born in Copenhagen to Ulf and Inger Trier, who both worked for Denmark's social services. His parents considered themselves both communists and committed nudists, In "Trier on von Trier", by Stig Bjorkman, 2005 and the young Lars went on several childhood holidays to nudist camps. They regarded the disciplining of children as hopelessly reactionary. Trier notes that he was brought up in an atheist family, and that although his stepfather was Jewish, he was not religious. His parents did not allow much room in their household for "feelings, religion, or enjoyment," and also refused to make any rules for their children, with complex results for von Trier's personality and development. See here. An article by Karen Durbin in the Good Weekend, entitled "Every Dane has his Dogma," and dated June 17, 2000, states (p. 35): "Von Trier is a red-nappy baby. His mother was a Communist, his father a Social Democrat, and both worked in Denmark's social services ministry. They met during World War II in Sweden after fleeing the Nazi occupation of Denmark, 'my father because he was Jewish and my mother because she was in the Resistance.' They were also dedicated nudists (although less so than the relative von Trier describes who kept his apartment warm and 'was always completely naked, on principle'). His childhood included occasional holidays at nudist camps. 'It was very strange,' he says. 'Kind of charming'." In the book, Lars von Trier: Interviews (edited by Jan Lumholdt), von Trier makes numerous references to his "culturally radical" upbringing and its consequences, for instance the following (p. 109): "Religion was totally forbidden, and it has always interested me. At the same time I'm a neurotic person and my biggest problem in life is control or the lack of control. [...] As a child, you create all kinds of rituals to maintain control. I was very scared of the atom bomb, so every night when I went to bed I had to perform all these rituals to save the world. And from a psychological point of view, religion is a continuation of these childhood rituals, which are there to prevent everything from reverting back to chaos." And (on p. 116), von Trier explains the consequences of his unusual upbringing for his adult and professional life: "I think that these ideas about control and chaos stem from my upbringing, which was unbelievably lax. There were no rules whatsoever, which creates a lot of problems, like deciding when you should go to the dentist, because everything's up to you yourself. And in that case, you end up not getting things done and that creates a lot of anxiety. I also had to force myself to do my homework, because no one told me when I had to do it. When there's nobody to enforce discipline upon you, then you have to enforce it from within. That, in return, has made me incredibly disciplined at my work today—I work all the time. But at the same time it's a tremendous source of anxiety that everything is your decision. Of course this has given me great faith in my own creativity—almost like a christening gift." The young Lars found in cinema an outlet to the outside world through which he could learn about subjects otherwise forbidden from his study by his parents. He began making his own films at the age of 11 after receiving a Super-8 camera as a gift and continued to be involved in independent moviemaking throughout his high school years. Starpulse.com Biography In 1979 he was enrolled in the Danish Film School. The Tomb: Lars von Trier Interview During his time as a student at the school he made the films Nocturne (Nocturne, 1980) and Image of Liberation (Befrielsesbilleder, 1982), both of which won Best Film awards at the Munich Film Festival, along with The Last Detail (Den sidste detalje 1981). His peers at the film school nicknamed him "von Trier." The name is sort of an inside-joke with the von part suggesting nobility, while Lars and Trier are quite common names in Denmark. He reportedly kept the "von" name in homage to Erich von Stroheim and Josef von Sternberg. He graduated from the film school in 1983. The Europa trilogy After his graduation he began work on the Europe-trilogy, which started with a cerebral serial killer drama, The Element of Crime (Forbrydelsens element 1984). The film, which won a technical award at the Cannes Film Festival, was extremely stylized and marked a radical departure from normal Danish cinema. This film was followed by Epidemic (1987), which was also shown as part of the official programme at Cannes. The film is partly a dark science fiction-tale of a future plague epidemic, and partly chronicles two filmmakers (played by Lars von Trier and screenwriter Niels Vørsel) preparing that film, with the two storylines ultimately colliding. For television von Trier directed Medea (1988), which won the Jean d'Arcy prize in France. It was based on a screenplay by Carl Th. Dreyer and starred Udo Kier. He completed the Europe-trilogy in 1991 with Europa (released as Zentropa in the U.S.), which won the Prix du Jury at the Cannes Film Festival and picked up awards at other major festivals. In 1990 he also directed the music video for the worldwide hit "Bakerman" by Laid Back. This video was reused in 2006 by the English DJ and artist Shaun Baker who did a remake of Bakerman. Zentropa and The Kingdom In 1992 he co-founded together with producer Peter Aalbæk Jensen the movie production company Zentropa Entertainment, named after their most recent film at the time. The reason for doing this was to achieve financial independence and to have total creative control. The production company has produced many movies other than von Trier's own as well as television series. It is also the world's only mainstream film studio to have produced hardcore sex films: Constance (1998), Pink Prison (1999), HotMen CoolBoyz (2000) and All About Anna (2005). In order to make money for his newly founded company, Lars von Trier fan site biography he made The Kingdom (Riget, 1994) and The Kingdom II (Riget II, 1997), a pair of miniseries recorded in the Danish national hospital, the name "Riget" being a colloquial name for the hospital known as Rigshospitalet (lit. The Kingdom's Hospital) in Danish. A projected third installment in the series has been derailed due to the death of Ernst-Hugo Järegård, who played Helmer, one of the major characters. Dogme95 In 1995, von Trier's mother revealed on her deathbed that the man who he thought was his father was not. After one meeting with his real father, the man refused further contact. Stranger than fiction Sydney Morning Herald, December 22, 2003 The revelations led von Trier to attempt to "erase" the connections with his stepfather by converting to Catholicism, and to rework his filmmaking into a style emphasizing "honesty". In 1995, Lars von Trier and Thomas Vinterberg presented their manifesto for a new cinematic movement which they called Dogme 95. It would however take a while before the first of these films appeared, and at this point many thought of the concept mainly as a radical idea with no future. Von Trier's next film, Breaking the Waves (1996) which won the Grand Prix at Cannes, features Emily Watson, who was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress. Its grainy images and hand-held photography pointed towards Dogme95. Breaking the Waves is the first film in von Trier's 'Golden Heart Trilogy' which also includes The Idiots (1998) and Dancer in the Dark (2000). Also in 1996, von Trier conducted an unusual theatrical experiment in Copenhagen involving 53 actors, which he entitled Psychomobile 1 – The World Clock. A documentary chronicling the project was directed by Jesper Jargil, and was released in 2000 with the title De Udstillede (The Exhibited). Lars von Trier made his own contribution to the Dogme95-movement with The Idiots (Idioterne, 1998), and even overcame his dislike of traveling to present it in person at the Cannes Film Festival, where it was nominated for a Golden Palm. As originator of the Dogme95-concept, which has led to international interest in Danish film as a whole, he has inspired filmmakers all over the world. Explicit images Lars von Trier's use of sexually explicit images in The Idiots (1998) started a wave of arthouse mainstream films with unsimulated sex, such as Romance X (Romance) (1999), Baise-Moi (2000), Intimacy (2001), Vincent Gallo's The Brown Bunny (2003) and Michael Winterbottom's 9 Songs (2004). In 1998, Lars von Trier also made history by having his company Zentropa be the world's first mainstream film company to produce hardcore pornographic films. Three of these films, Constance (1998), Pink Prison (1999) and the adult/mainstream crossover-feature All About Anna (2005), were made primarily for a female audience, and were extremely successful in Europe, with the two first being directly responsible for the March 2006 legalizing of pornography in Norway Norwegian Media Authority none-censorship decision . Lars von Trier's initiative spearheaded a European wave of female-friendly porn films from directors such as Anna Span, Erika Lust and Petra Joy, while von Trier's company Zentropa was forced to abandon the experiment due to pressure from English business partners. Thomas Vilhelm: Filmbyen (Ekstra Bladets Forlag, 2003), ISBN 978-87-7731-274-8, page 74 The 2000s In 2000, von Trier premiered a musical featuring Icelandic musician Björk, Dancer in the Dark. The film won the Palme d'Or at Cannes. The song "I've Seen It All" (which Trier co-wrote) received an Academy Award nomination for Best Song. The Five Obstructions (2003), made by Lars von Trier and Jørgen Leth, is a documentary, but also incorporates lengthy sections of experimental films. The premise is that Lars von Trier challenges director Jørgen Leth, his friend and mentor, to remake his old experimental filmThe Perfect Human (1967) five times, each time with a different 'obstruction' (or obstacle) specified by von Trier. The Five Obstructions (2003) | FILM REVIEW; A Cinematic Duel of Wits For Two Danish Directors He then directed two films in his announced 'U.S. trilogy': Dogville (2003), starring Nicole Kidman as gangster daughter Grace, and Manderlay (2005), starring Bryce Dallas Howard in the same role. Both films are extremely stylized, with the actors playing their parts on a nearly empty soundstage with little but chalk marks on the floor to indicate the sets. Both films had huge casts of major international actors (Harriet Andersson, Lauren Bacall, James Caan, Danny Glover, Willem Dafoe, etc.), and questioned various issues relating to American society, such as intolerance in Dogville and slavery in Manderlay. The U.S. was also the scene for Dear Wendy (2005), a feature film directed by von Trier's "Dogme-brother" Thomas Vinterberg from a script by von Trier. It starred Jamie Bell and Bill Pullman and dealt with gun worship. Both Manderlay and Dear Wendy failed to attract much of an audience, and were along with other simultaneous flops from important local directors perceived as confirmation of a creative crisis in Danish cinema Børsen: 1990'ernes filmfest er forbi . In 2006 von Trier released a Danish-language comedy film, The Boss of it All. It was shot using a process that von Trier has called Automavision, which involves the director choosing the best possible fixed camera position and then allowing a computer to randomly choose when to tilt, pan or zoom. It was followed by an autobiographical film, De unge år: Erik Nietzsche sagaen del 1 (2007), scripted by von Trier but directed by Jacob Thuesen, which tells the story of von Trier's years as a student at the National Film School of Denmark. It stars Jonatan Spang as von Trier's alter ego, called "Erik Nietzsche", and is narrated by von Trier himself. All main characters in the film are based on real people from the Danish film industry, with the thinly veiled portrayals including Jens Albinus as director Nils Malmros, Dejan Cukic as screenwriter Mogens Rukov and Søren Pilmark in an especially unflattering portrayal as sex obsessed school principal Henning Camre. Lars von Trier's latest feature film is a horror movie, Antichrist, about "a grieving couple who retreat to their cabin in the woods, hoping a return to Eden will repair their broken hearts and troubled marriage; but nature takes its course and things go from bad to worse." The film, which has sexually explicit content, features only two actors, Willem Dafoe and Charlotte Gainsbourg. It premiered in competition at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival, Tod Hunter at Xbiz: Zentropa Gets Explicit Movie Into Cannes where the festival's jury honoured the movie by giving the Best Actress award to Charlotte Gainsbourg. Cannes jury gives its heart to works of graphic darkness Phobias Von Trier suffers from multiple phobias, including an intense fear of flying. As the director once put it, "Basically, I'm afraid of everything in life, except filmmaking." His fear of air travel frequently places severely limiting constraints on him and his crew, necessitating that virtually all of his films be shot in either Denmark or Sweden, even those set in the United States or other foreign countries. Von Trier has had a number of his films featured at the Cannes Film Festival over the course of his career, and each time has insisted on driving from Denmark to France for the festival and back. On numerous occasions von Trier has also stated that he suffers from occasional depression which renders him incapable of performing his work and unable to uphold social relations. Filming techniques Lars von Trier has said that “a film should be like a stone in your shoe”. In order to create original art he feels that filmmakers must distinguish themselves stylistically from other films, often by placing restrictions on the filmmaking process. The most famous restriction is the cinematic "vow of chastity" of the Dogme95 movement with which he is associated, though only one of his films, The Idiots, is an actual Dogme 95 film. In Dancer in the Dark, dramatically-different color palettes and camera techniques were used for the "real world" and musical portions of the film, and in Dogville everything was filmed on a sound stage with no set where the walls of the buildings in the fictional town were marked as a line on the floor. Von Trier often shoots his scenes for longer periods than most directors to encourage actors to stay in character. In Dogville he let actors stay in character for hours, in the style of method acting. These techniques often put great strain on actors, most famously with Björk during the filming of Dancer in the Dark. Like many auteurs, he uses the same regular group of actors in many of his films. Some of his frequently used actors are Jean-Marc Barr, Udo Kier and Stellan Skarsgård. He is heavily influenced by the work of Carl Theodor Dreyer and the film The Night Porter. He was so inspired by the short film The Perfect Human directed by Jørgen Leth that he challenged Leth to redo the short five times in feature film The Five Obstructions. Trilogies Von Trier has on occasion referred to his films as falling into thematic and stylistic trilogies. This pattern began with his first feature film, marking the beginning of The Europe Trilogy, though he claims a trilogy was not initially planned, instead being applied to the films in retrospect. The Europe trilogy illuminated the traumas of Europe in the past and future. This trilogy includes The Element of Crime (1984), Epidemic (1988) and Europa (1991). The Golden Heart trilogy was about naive heroines who maintain their 'golden hearts' despite the tragedies they experience. This trilogy includes Breaking the Waves (1996), The Idiots (1998) and Dancer in the Dark (2000). While all three films are sometimes associated with the Dogme 95 movement, only The Idiots is a certified Dogme 95 film. The USA - Land of Opportunities trilogy follows the character of Grace, and is set in a stylized American past. Von Trier has stated he was inspired to make a trilogy about the United States as a reaction to Americans at the Cannes film festival who said he had no right to make the Dancer in the Dark, which was often viewed as being critical of a country he has never been to (and has no intention of ever visiting, due to his phobia of travel); however, von Trier himself has stated in interviews he did not intend it to be a criticism of America, saying the film takes place in a "fictional America." Lars von Trier proposed the films as ‘a series of sermons on America’s sins and hypocrisy’, inspired by the fact that American movie makers have made many movies about places across the world to which they have not travelled. All three movies will be shot in the same distinctive style, on a bare sound stage with no set and buildings marked by lines on the floor. This style is inspired by 1970s televised theatre. The trilogy consists of Dogville (2003), Manderlay (2005) and Washington (in production). The Kingdom (Riget) was planned as a trilogy of three seasons with 13 episodes in total, but the third season was not filmed due to death of star Ernst-Hugo Järegård shortly after completion of the second season. Feature filmography The Element of Crime (1984, part one of the "Europe" trilogy) Epidemic (1987, part two of the "Europe" trilogy) Europa / Zentropa (1991, part three of the "Europe" trilogy) Breaking the Waves''' (1996, part one of the "Golden Heart" trilogy)Idioterne / The Idiots (1998, part two of the "Golden Heart" trilogy)Dancer in the Dark (2000, part three of the "Golden Heart" trilogy)Dogville (2003, part one of the "USA: Land of Opportunity" trilogy)De fem benspænd / The Five Obstructions (2003)Manderlay (2005, part two of the "USA: Land of Opportunity" trilogy)Direktøren for det hele / The Boss of It All (2006)De unge år: Erik Nietzsche sagaen del 1 (2007, scripted by von Trier, directed by Jacob Thuesen)Antichrist (2009)Wasington (shelved indefinitely, part three of the "USA: Land of Opportunity" trilogy) Television filmographyMedea (Telefilm, 1988)Riget / The Kingdom (TV miniseries, 1994)Riget II / The Kingdom II (TV miniseries, 1997)D-Dag (segment: Lise) (Telefilm, 2000) Short filmographyThe Orchid Gardener (1977)Menthe - La bienheureuse (1979) Nocturne (1980) Den sidste detalje / The Last Detail (1981)Befrielsesbilleder / Images of a Relief (1982)Chacun son cinéma / To Each His Own Cinema (segment: "Occupations") (2007) References External links Lars from 1-10 Production Company The Director Interviews: Lars von Trier, The Boss of It All at Filmmaker Magazine'' Entry at filmreference.com Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database The Independent Weekly: ''Does Lars von Trier hate America? Or does he just hate America's movies? Lars von Trier bibliography (via UC Berkeley) "I am an American woman" English translation of interview of Lars von Trier in the newspaper Die Zeit Ware Filme - essay in German language about von Triers "Europe Trilogy" 'I'm a control freak - but I was not in control' – interview Slave to cinema - interview SiouxWIRE - interview compilation The Age Interview The Cinema of Lars von Trier: Authenticity and Artifice - book-length study of the director's films by Caroline Bainbridge Playing the Waves: Lars von Trier's Game Cinema - book-length study that argues von Trier's films incorporate elements of game theory and the grammar of new media such as video games. | Lars_von_Trier |@lemmatized lars:27 von:60 trier:63 born:1 april:1 academy:3 award:7 nominated:1 danish:10 film:68 director:12 screenwriter:3 closely:1 associate:3 dogme:6 collective:1 although:3 take:4 variety:1 different:3 approach:1 biography:3 bear:1 copenhagen:2 ulf:1 inger:1 work:8 denmark:7 social:4 service:2 parent:3 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4,356 | Mark_Bingham | Bingham played for the San Francisco Fog RFC, a rugby union team. Mark Kendall Bingham (May 22, 1970 in Phoenix, Arizona – September 11, 2001 in Shanksville, Pennsylvania) was an American public relations executive who founded his own company, the Bingham Group. He died at age 31 in the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack on board United Airlines Flight 93. Biography Bingham is believed to have been among the passengers who attempted to storm the cockpit to try to prevent the hijackers from using the plane to kill hundreds or thousands of additional victims. He made a brief airphone call to his mother, Alice Hoglan, shortly before the plane went down. Hoglan, a former flight attendant with United Airlines, later left a voice mail message on his cell phone, instructing Bingham to reclaim the aircraft after it became apparent that Flight 93 was to be used in a suicide mission. Bingham was survived by his former boyfriend of six years, Paul Holm, who says this was not the first time Bingham risked his life to protect the lives of others. He had twice successfully protected Holm from attempted muggings, one of which was at gunpoint. Holm describes Bingham as a brave, competitive man, saying, "He hated to lose — at anything." He was even known to proudly display a scar he received after being gored at the running of the bulls in Pamplona. Bingham attended Los Gatos High School. He was a graduate of the University of California, Berkeley, where he was also president of his fraternity, Chi Psi. In college, he played for the UC Berkeley rugby team and helped them win a string of national championships. Apparently, he got on board Flight 93 at the last minute, going on with the flight attendant. A large athlete at and , he also played for the San Francisco Fog RFC, a rugby union team. Memorials John McCain and Barbara Boxer honored him on September 17, 2001 in a ceremony for San Francisco Bay Area 9/11 victims, presenting a folded American flag to Paul Holm. The California Alumni Association of the University of California, Berkeley now annually awards the outstanding achievement of a young alumnus or alumna with the Mark Bingham Award for Excellence in Achievement at its Charter Gala each spring. The Mark Kendall Bingham Memorial Tournament (Bingham Cup), a biannual international rugby union competition predominantly for gay and bisexual men, was established in 2002 in his memory. Bingham was posthumously awarded the Arthur Ashe Courage Award in 2002. Singer Melissa Etheridge dedicated the song "Tuesday Morning" in 2004 to his memory. Is portrayed in the 2004 solo musical ICONS: The Lesbian and Gay History of the World, Vol. 2 starring Jade Esteban Estrada. Is portrayed in the 2006 movie United 93 by Cheyenne Jackson. Is portrayed in the 2006 movie Flight 93 by Ty Olsson. Is portrayed in the 2005 movie The Flight That Fought Back by Jason LeGrande. References Jon Barrett. Hero of Flight 93: Mark Bingham, Advocate Books, 2002. Biography. ISBN 1-55583-780-8. UNITED FLIGHT 93: On Doomed Flight, Passengers Vowed to Perish Fighting, New York Times, 9/13/2001. External links Mark Bingham: a Tribute to a Wonderful Man, a Great Friend, a Loving Brother, and an American Hero. SFFOG.ORG Mark's rugby team, the S.F. Fog (Mark's Memorial page). Advocate Magazine article on Bingham. Daily Cal Article referencing Mark attacking Stanfurd tree. Mark Bingham Scholarship Fund. Official Website of The Bingham Cup. Team Bingham - Mark Bingham Scholarship fundraising Organization. Mark Bingham on the Internet Movie Database. 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4,357 | Freeman_Dyson | Freeman John Dyson FRS (born December 15, 1923) is a British theoretical physicist and mathematician, famous for his work in quantum field theory, solid-state physics, and nuclear engineering. Dyson is a member of the Board of Sponsors of The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Dyson lives in Princeton, New Jersey, where he has been for over fifty years. Biography Personal Dyson's father was the English composer George Dyson. Despite sharing a last name, he is not related to early 20th century astronomer Frank Watson Dyson. However, as a small boy, Freeman Dyson was aware of Frank Watson Dyson; Freeman credits the popularity of someone with the same last name with inadvertently helping to spark his interest in science. Dyson received an honorary Sc.D. from Bates College in 1990. Dyson's mother was trained as a lawyer but worked, after Dyson was born, as a social worker. Wild River Review Interview by Joy E. Stocke Dyson has six children, two of them (Esther and George) with his first wife, mathematician Verena Huber-Dyson, and the other four with his second wife, Imme Dyson, a masters runner who married him in 1958.” Dawidoff, Nicholas. The Civil Heretic. The New York Times. March 25, 2009 His eldest daughter is Esther Dyson, the noted digital technology consultant. His son is digital technology historian George Dyson. See excerpt from Digerati: Encounters with the Cyber Elite by John Brockman (HardWired Books, 1996) ; one of whose books is Project Orion: The Atomic Spaceship 1957–1965. Friends and colleagues describe him as shy and self-effacing with a contrarian streak that his friends find refreshing but his intellectual opponents find exasperating. "I have the sense that when consensus is forming like ice hardening on a lake, Dyson will do his best to chip at the ice," Nobel physics laureate Steven Weinberg said of him. His friend, the neurologist and author Oliver Sacks, said: "A favorite word of Freeman's about doing science and being creative is the word 'subversive.' He feels it's rather important not only to be not orthodox, but to be subversive, and he's done that all his life." Career Although Dyson has won numerous scientific awards, he has never won a Nobel Prize, which has led Nobel physics laureate Steven Weinberg to state that the Nobel committee has "fleeced" Dyson. Dyson has said that “I think it’s almost true without exception if you want to win a Nobel Prize, you should have a long attention span, get hold of some deep and important problem and stay with it for 10 years. That wasn’t my style.” Dyson worked as an analyst for RAF Bomber Command at RAF Wyton during World War II, where he would come to create what would be later known as operational research. "A Failure of Intelligence", Essay in Technology Review (November–December 2006) After the war, he obtained a BA in mathematics from Cambridge University (1945) and was a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge from 1946 to 1949. In 1947 he moved to the US, on a fellowship at Cornell University and thence joined the faculty there as a physics professor in 1951 without a PhD. He was elected a FRS in 1952 Royal Society directory entry In 1953, he took up a post at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, NJ. In 1957, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. Dyson is best known for demonstrating in 1949 the equivalence of the formulations of quantum electrodynamics that existed by that time — Richard Feynman's diagrammatic path integral formulation and the operator method developed by Julian Schwinger and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga. A by-product of that demonstration was the invention of the Dyson series. F. J. Dyson, Phys. Rev. 75, 486, 1736 (1949) Dyson also did work in a variety of topics in mathematics, such as topology, analysis, number theory and random matrices. From 1957 to 1961 he worked on the Orion Project, which proposed the possibility of space-flight using nuclear pulse propulsion. A prototype was demonstrated using conventional explosives, but a treaty which he was involved in and supported, banned the testing of nuclear weapons other than underground, and this caused the project to be abandoned. In 1958 he led the design team for the TRIGA, a small, inherently safe nuclear reactor used throughout the world in hospitals and universities for the production of isotopes. A seminal work by Dyson came in 1966 when, together with A. Lenard and independently of Elliott H. Lieb and Walter Thirring, he proved rigorously that the exclusion principle plays the main role in the stability of bulk matter F. J. Dyson, A. Lenard, J. Math. Phys. 8, 3, 423-434 (1967); F. J. Dyson, A. Lenard, J. Math. Phys., 9, 5, 698-711 (1968); E. H. Lieb, W. Thirring, Phys. Rev. Lett. 35, 687-689 (1975). . Hence, it is not the electromagnetic repulsion between electrons and nuclei that is responsible for two wood blocks that are left on top of each other not coalescing into a single piece, but rather it is the exclusion principle applied to electrons and protons that generates the classical macroscopic normal force. In condensed matter physics, Dyson also did studies in the phase transition of the Ising model in 1 dimension and spin waves See F. J. Dyson, E. H. Lieb, Selected papers by Freeman Dyson, AMS (1996). Dyson was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 1966 and Max Planck medal in 1969. In 1977, Dyson supervised Princeton undergraduate John Aristotle Phillips in a term paper that outlined a credible design for a nuclear weapon. This earned Phillips the nickname The A-Bomb Kid. In the 1984–85 academic year he gave the Gifford lectures at Aberdeen, which resulted in the book Infinite In All Directions. In 1989, Dyson taught at Duke University as a Fritz London Memorial Lecturer. In the same year, he was elected as an Honorary Fellow of Trinity College, University of Cambridge. Dyson has published a number of collections of speculations and observations about technology, science, and the future. In 1996 he was awarded the Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science. In 1998, Dyson joined the board of the Solar Electric Light Fund In 2000, Dyson was awarded the Templeton Prize for Progress in Religion. , Dyson is the president of the Space Studies Institute, the space research organization founded by Gerard K. O'Neill. In 2003, Dyson was awarded the Telluride Tech Festival Award of Technology in Telluride, Colorado. Dyson is a long-time member of the JASON defense advisory group. Concepts Biotechnology and genetic engineering Dyson cheerfully admits his record as a prophet is mixed, but "it is better to be wrong than to be vague." Dyson, 1999, The Sun, the Genome, and the Internet Dyson sphere In 1960 Dyson wrote a short paper for the journal Science, entitled "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infrared Radiation". In it, he theorized that a technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilization might completely surround its native star with artificial structures in order to maximize the capture of the star's available energy. Eventually, the civilization would completely enclose the star, intercepting electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths from visible light downwards and radiating waste heat outwards as infrared radiation. Therefore, one method of searching for extraterrestrial civilizations would be to look for large objects radiating in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Dyson conceived that such structures would be clouds of asteroid-sized space habitats, though science fiction writers have preferred a solid structure: either way, such an artifact is often referred to as a Dyson sphere, although Dyson himself used the term "shell". Dyson says that he used the term "artificial biosphere" in the article meaning a habitat, not a shape. 20 minutes into a video Dyson tree Dyson has also proposed the creation of a Dyson tree, a genetically-engineered plant capable of growing on a comet. He suggested that comets could be engineered to contain hollow spaces filled with a breathable atmosphere, thus providing self-sustaining habitats for humanity in the outer solar system. Space colonies Freeman Dyson has been interested in space travel since he was a child, reading such science fiction classics as Olaf Stapledon's Star Maker. As a young man, he worked for General Atomics on the nuclear-powered Orion spacecraft. He hoped Project Orion would put men on Mars by 1965, Saturn by 1970. He's been unhappy for a quarter-century on how the government conducts space travel: He still hopes for cheap space travel, but is resigned to waiting for private entrepreneurs to develop something new—and cheap. Space exploration Dyson's transform Dyson also has some credits in pure mathematics. His concept "Dyson's transform" led to one of the most important lemmas of Olivier Ramaré's theorem that every even integer can be written as a sum of no more than six primes. Dyson series The Dyson series, the formal solution of an explicitly time-dependent Schrödinger equation by iteration, and the corresponding Dyson time-ordering operator an entity of basic importance in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics, are also called after him. Views Global warming Dyson agrees that anthropogenic global warming exists, and has written However, he has argued that existing simulation models of climate fail to account for some important factors, and hence the results will contain too much error to reliably predict future trends. He is among signatories of a letter to the UN criticizing the IPCC , Wiggles, Open Mind, 16 December, 2007 GISS Surface Temperature Analysis, Global Temperature Trends: 2005 Summation, Goddard Institute for Space Studies and has also argued against the ostracization of scientists whose views depart from the acknowledged mainstream of scientific opinion on climate change, stating that heretics have historically been an important force in driving scientific progress. More recently, he has endorsed the now common usage of "global warming" as synonymous with global anthropogenic climate change, referring to recent but has argued that political efforts to reduce the causes of climate change, distract from other global problems that should take priority. Warfare and weapons On hearing the news of the bombing of Hiroshima: At the British Bomber Command, Dyson and colleagues proposed ripping out two gun turrets from the RAF Lancaster bombers, to cut the catastrophic losses to German fighters in the Battle of Berlin. A Lancaster without turrets could fly faster and be much more maneuverable. Dyson opposes the Vietnam war, the Gulf War, and the invasion of Iraq. He supported Barack Obama during the election and The New York Times has described him as a political liberal. The role of failure On English academics Science and religion Dyson strongly opposes reductionism. He is a non-denominational Christian and has attended various churches from Presbyterian to Roman Catholic. Regarding doctrinal or christological issues, he has said "I am neither a saint nor a theologian. To me, good works are more important than theology." Templeton Prize Lecture Dyson disagrees with the famous remark by his fellow-physicist Steven Weinberg that "Good people will do good things, and bad people will do bad things. But for good people to do bad things—that takes religion." NYRB June 22, 2006 Popular culture As noted above, the Dyson sphere is a favorite of science-fiction authors. See Dyson spheres in fiction. The protagonist in the Half-Life video game series, Gordon Freeman, is named after Dyson. GameSpy: Half-Life 10th Anniversary Interview Dyson makes an appearance in Greg Benford's Timescape. Criticism Dyson's views on global warming have been criticized as failing to understand the amount of carbon sequestration needed. Dyson has proposed that whatever inflammations the climate was experiencing might be a good thing because carbon dioxide helps plants of all kinds grow. His caveat is that if CO2 levels soar too high, they could be soothed by the mass cultivation of specially bred “carbon-eating trees". He calculates that it would take a trillion trees to remove all carbon from the atmosphere, which he believes in principle is quite feasible. See also The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll A.I. Shlyakhter Dyson's eternal intelligence Astrochicken Dyson tree List of science and religion scholars Dyson conjecture Dyson number Bibliography By Dyson Symmetry Groups in Nuclear and Particle Physics, 1966 (Academic-oriented text) Disturbing the Universe, 1979. Review Weapons and Hope, 1984 (Winner of the National Book Critics Circle Award). Review Origins of Life, 1986. Second edition, 1999. Review Infinite in All Directions, 1988. Review From Eros to Gaia, 1992 Selected Papers of Freeman Dyson, 1996 Imagined Worlds, Harvard University Press 1997, ISBN 978-0-674-53908-2. Review The Sun, The Genome and The Internet, 1999. Review L'mportanza di essere imprevedibile, Di Renzo Editore, 2003 The Scientist as Rebel, 2006. Review Advanced Quantum Mechanics, World Scientific, 2007, ISBN 978-9812706614. (Dyson's 1951 Cornell lecture notes transcribed by David Derbes.) A Many-Colored Glass: Reflections on the Place of Life in the Universe, University of Virginia Press, 2007. Review About Dyson Brower, Kenneth, 1978. The Starship and the Canoe, Holt Rinehart and Winston. Schweber, Sylvan S., 1994. QED and the Men Who Made It : Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga, Princeton University Press, ISBN 9780691033273. References External links By Dyson Freeman J. Dyson's homepage "The Question of Global Warming", by Freeman Dyson, June 12, 2008 Comments on "The Question of Global Warming", with a reply by Dyson, September 25, 2008 "Our Biotech Future", essay by Freeman Dyson, July 19, 2007 Comments on "Our Biotech Future", with a reply by Dyson,September 27, 2007 Another comment on "Our Biotech Future", with a reply by Dyson, October 11, 2007 "In Praise of Open Thinking", audio from a panel discussion with his son George Dyson , recorded 07-29-2004 TED Talks: Freeman Dyson says: let's look for life in the outer solar system at TED in 2003 (video) Templeton Prize acceptance lecture 2000, by Freeman Dyson Imagined Worlds by Freeman Dyson, 1996: Chapter 1 About Dyson "The Civil Heretic ", profile at the New York Times Magazine by Nicholas Dawidoff, March 25, 2009 , biography, circa 2000 Dyson biographical outline, circa 2005 Dyson author page and archive, from The New York Review of Books "The Scientist as Rebel", 2005 interview at Wild River Review NPR interview of Freeman Dyson, audio, All Things Considered, November 2, 2004 Google video: interviewer: Robert Wright, video, 44:55, June 30, 2001 Freeman Dyson wins $1m religion prize, 9 May 2000 "Freeman Dyson's Brain", interview by Stewart Brand at Wired, 1998 Oral History interview transcript with Freeman J. Dyson 17 December 1986, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives "Disturbing the Universe": BBC interview with Freeman Dyson, audio, 18 January 1980 | Freeman_Dyson |@lemmatized freeman:19 john:3 dyson:97 fr:2 born:1 december:4 british:2 theoretical:1 physicist:2 mathematician:2 famous:2 work:8 quantum:4 field:1 theory:2 solid:2 state:4 physic:7 nuclear:7 engineering:2 member:2 board:2 sponsor:1 bulletin:2 atomic:3 scientist:5 life:7 princeton:4 new:6 jersey:1 fifty:1 year:4 biography:2 personal:1 father:1 english:2 composer:1 george:4 despite:1 share:1 last:2 name:3 relate:1 early:1 century:2 astronomer:1 frank:2 watson:2 however:2 small:2 boy:1 aware:1 credit:2 popularity:1 someone:1 inadvertently:1 help:2 spark:1 interest:1 science:10 receive:1 honorary:2 sc:1 bates:1 college:3 mother:1 train:1 lawyer:1 bear:1 social:1 worker:1 wild:2 river:2 review:12 interview:7 joy:1 e:3 stocke:1 six:2 child:2 two:3 esther:2 first:1 wife:2 verena:1 huber:1 four:1 second:2 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4,358 | Gluten | Wheat seed, sectioned to reveal endosperm and embryo Wheat, a prime source of gluten Gluten is a composite of the proteins gliadin and glutenin. These exist, conjoined with starch, in the endosperms of some grass-related grains, notably wheat, rye, and barley. Gliadin and glutenin compose about 80% of the protein contained in wheat seed. Being insoluble in water, they can be purified by washing away the associated starch. Worldwide, gluten is an important source of nutritional protein, both in foods prepared directly from sources containing it, and as an additive to foods otherwise low in protein. The seeds of most flowering plants have endosperms with stored protein to nourish embryonic plants during germination, but true gluten, with gliadin and glutenin, is limited to certain members of the grass family. The stored proteins of maize and rice are sometimes called glutens, but their proteins differ from wheat gluten by lacking gliadin. The glutenin in wheat flour gives kneaded dough its elasticity, allows leavening and contributes chewiness to baked products like bagels. Although wheat supplies much of the world's dietary protein and food supply, as much as 0.5% to 1% of the population of the United States has celiac disease, a condition which results from an inappropriate immune system response to gluten. Hill, I. D., Horvath, K., and Fasano, A., Epidemiology of Coeliac disease. 1: Am J Gastroenterol. 1995 Jan;90(1):163-4 The manifestations of celiac disease range from no symptoms to malabsorption of nutrients with involvement of multiple organ systems. The only effective treatment is a lifelong gluten-free diet. Extraction Legend attributes the discovery of gluten to Buddhist monks in 7th century China who sought meat-like ingredients for use in their vegetarian diet. With easily available wheat flour and water they made a dough which they submerged in cold water and kneaded. The water dissolved the starchy components of the dough and left behind an insoluble, gummy mass, 70% to 80% of which was gluten. Gluten is still extracted from flour by washing out the starch by means not fundamentally different from the ancient way; this exploited the fact that starch is water-soluble while gluten is not, and also that gluten binds together strongly, while starch dissolved in cold water is mobile. If a saline solution is used instead of water a purer protein is obtained, with certain harmless impurities going into solution with the starch. However, on an industrial scale, starch is the prime product, so cold water is the favored solvent. To effect the separation, a slurry of wheat flour is stirred vigorously by machinery until the starch dissolves and the gluten consolidates into a mass, which is collected by centrifugation, then carried, by complex machinery, through several stages combined into a continuous process: Approximately 65% of the water in the wet gluten is removed by means of a screw press, and the residue is sprayed through an atomizing nozzle into a drying chamber, where it remains at an elevated temperature only long enough to evaporate the water without denaturing the gluten. This yields a flour-like powder with a 7% moisture content, which is quickly air-cooled and pneumatically transported to a receiving vessel. In the final step, the collected gluten is sifted and milled to make the product uniform. http://www.barr-rosin.com/applications/wheat.asp Wheat, GEA Barr-Rosin, Accessed 2007-09-04 Uses When dough made with wheat flour is kneaded, gluten forms when glutenin molecules cross-link to make a sub-microscopic network and associates with gliadin, which contributes viscosity and extensibility to the mix. Woychick, J.H., et al. (1961). http://www.friedli.com/research/PhD/gluten/chap2.html. The Gluten Proteins and Deamidated Soluble Wheat Protein (SWP). Retrieved on 10 November, 2007. If such dough is leavened with yeast, sugar fermentation produces bubbles of carbon dioxide which, trapped by the gluten network, cause the dough to swell or rise. Baking coagulates the gluten, which, along with starch, stabilizes the shape of the final product. Gluten content has been implicated as a factor in the staling of bread, possibly because it binds water by hydration. Sahlstrom, S. & Brathen, E. (1997). Effects of enzyme preparations for baking, mixing time and resting time on bread quality and bread staling. Food Chemistry, 58, 1, 75-80. Effects of wheat variety and processing conditions in experimental bread baking studied by univariate and multivariate analyses. The development of gluten (i.e., enhancing its elasticity) affects the texture of the baked goods. Gluten's attainable elasticity is proportional to its content of glutenins with low molecular weights because that fraction contains the preponderance of the sulfur atoms responsible for the cross-linking in the network. More development leads to chewier products like pizza and bagels, while less development yields tender baked goods. In general, bread flours are high in gluten while cake flours are low. Kneading promotes the formation of gluten strands and cross-links, so a baked product is chewier in proportion to how much the dough is worked. Increased wetness of the dough also enhances gluten development. Shortening inhibits formation of cross-links, so it is used, along with diminished water and minimal working, when a tender and flaky product, such as pie crust, is desired. Gluten, dried and milled to powder and added to ordinary flour dough, improves rising and increases the bread's structural stability and chewiness, Amendola, J., Rees, N., & Lundberg, D. E. (2002). Understanding Baking . Such doughs must be worked vigorously if they are to rise to their full capacity, so a bread machine or food processor may be required for their kneading. Echkardt, LW & Butts, DC. (1997). Rustic European Breads from your Bread Machine The added gluten provides supplemental protein to what would otherwise be high-carbohydrate preparations. The protein content of pet foods is also enhanced by adding gluten. When cooked in broth, gluten absorbs some of the surrounding liquid (including the taste) and becomes firm to the bite, so is widely used in vegetarian, vegan and Buddhist cuisines as a meat substitute. In China, as miàn jin, it is the basis for imitation meats resembling chicken, duck, fish, pork and beef. The Japanese variants, called namafu, yakifu, and seitan, are used in the same way. Gluten as an additive The "Codex Alimentarius" set of international standards for food labeling has a standard relating to the labelling of products as "gluten free", however this standard does not apply to "foods which in their normal form do not contain gluten". Gluten is used as a stabilizing agent in products like ice-cream and ketchup, where it may be unexpected. Foods of this kind present a problem because the hidden gluten constitutes a hazard for people with celiac disease: In the United States, at least, gluten may not be listed on the labels of such foods because the U.S, Food and Drug Administration has classified gluten as GRAS (Generally recognized as safe). Requirements for proper labeling are being formulated by the USDA. In the United Kingdom, only cereals currently need to be labelled, while other products are voluntary. In fact, in the UK most gluten free food is clearly labelled so, as is non-gluten-free food. Adverse reactions Between 0.5 and 1.0 percent of people in the United States are sensitive to gluten due to Coeliac disease (or celiac disease, also called gluten sensitive enteropathy (GSE)). "http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/celiac/index.htm" National Digestive Disease Clearing House, NIH (2004) Celiac Disease Accessed 28-Aug-2006 Coeliac disease is caused by an abnormal immune reaction to partially digested gliadin. It probably occurs with comparable frequencies among all wheat-eating populations in the world. Certain allergies and neuropathies are also caused by gluten consumption and inhalation. Note that wheat allergy and gluten intolerance are not the same thing. See also Textured vegetable protein Zein Triticeae glutens References Further reading be-x-old:Глютэн | Gluten |@lemmatized wheat:16 seed:3 section:1 reveal:1 endosperm:2 embryo:1 prime:2 source:3 gluten:46 composite:1 protein:14 gliadin:6 glutenin:5 exist:1 conjoin:1 starch:9 grass:2 related:1 grain:1 notably:1 rye:1 barley:1 compose:1 contain:4 insoluble:2 water:12 purify:1 wash:2 away:1 associate:2 worldwide:1 important:1 nutritional:1 food:13 prepare:1 directly:1 additive:2 otherwise:2 low:3 flowering:1 plant:2 endosperms:1 stored:2 nourish:1 embryonic:1 germination:1 true:1 limit:1 certain:3 member:1 family:1 maize:1 rice:1 sometimes:1 call:3 differ:1 lack:1 flour:9 give:1 knead:4 dough:10 elasticity:3 allow:1 leaven:2 contributes:1 chewiness:2 bake:5 product:10 like:5 bagel:2 although:1 supply:2 much:3 world:2 dietary:1 population:2 united:4 state:3 celiac:6 disease:9 condition:2 result:1 inappropriate:1 immune:2 system:2 response:1 hill:1 horvath:1 k:1 fasano:1 epidemiology:1 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4,359 | Joseph_Haydn | (Franz) Joseph Haydn Although he is sometimes called "Franz Joseph Haydn", the name "Franz" was not used in the composer's lifetime and is avoided by scholars. (Webster, James: "Haydn, Joseph", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed 18 January 2007), http://www.grovemusic.com) ; (March 31 1732 – May 31 1809) was an Austrian composer. He was one of the most important, prolific and prominent composers of the classical period. He is often called the "Father of the Symphony" and "Father of the String Quartet" because of his important contributions to these genres. He was also instrumental in the development of the piano trio and in the evolution of sonata form. Basil Smallman, The Piano Trio: Its History, Technique, and Repertoire (Oxford University Press, 1992), 16-19 A life-long resident of Austria, Haydn spent much of his career as a court musician for the wealthy Hungarian aristocratic Esterházy family on their remote estate. Isolated from other composers and trends in music until the later part of his long life, he was, as he put it, "forced to become original". At the time of his death, he was one of the most celebrated composers across Europe. Bernard Harrison, Haydn, the "Paris" symphonies, Cambridge University Press, 1998, 20ff. Joseph Haydn was the brother of Michael Haydn, himself a highly regarded composer, and Johann Evangelist Haydn, a tenor. He was also a close friend of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and a teacher of Ludwig van Beethoven. Life Childhood Joseph Haydn was born in Rohrau, Austria, a village near the border with Hungary. His father was Mathias Haydn, a wheelwright who also served as "Marktrichter", an office akin to village mayor. Haydn's mother, the former Maria Koller, had previously worked as a cook in the palace of Count Harrach, the presiding aristocrat of Rohrau. Neither parent could read music; Haydn reported this in his 1776 Autobiographical sketch. however, Mathias was an enthusiastic folk musician, who during the journeyman period of his career had taught himself to play the harp. According to Haydn's later reminiscences, his childhood family was extremely musical, and frequently sang together and with their neighbours. Haydn's parents had noticed that their son was musically talented and knew that in Rohrau he would have no chance to obtain any serious musical training. It was for this reason that they accepted a proposal from their relative Johann Matthias Frankh, the schoolmaster and choirmaster in Hainburg, that Haydn be apprenticed to Frankh in his home to train as a musician. Haydn therefore went off with Frankh to Hainburg (seven miles away) and never again lived with his parents. He was six years old. Life in the Frankh household was not easy for Haydn, who later remembered being frequently hungry as well as constantly humiliated by the filthy state of his clothing. However, he did begin his musical training there, and soon was able to play both harpsichord and violin. The people of Hainburg were soon hearing him sing treble parts in the church choir. There is reason to think that Haydn's singing impressed those who heard him, because he was soon Probably in 1739; brought to the attention of Georg von Reutter, the director of music in St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna, who was touring the provinces looking for talented choirboys. Haydn passed his audition with Reutter, and in 1740 moved to Vienna, where he worked for the next nine years as a chorister, after 1745 in the company of his younger brother Michael. Haydn lived in Reutter's home with the other five choirboys. He was instructed in Latin and other school subjects as well as voice, violin, and keyboard. Reutter was of little help to Haydn in the areas of music theory and composition, giving him only two lessons in his entire time as chorister. However, since St. Stephen's was one of the leading musical centers in Europe, Haydn was able to learn a great deal simply by serving as a professional musician there. Like Franck before him, Reutter did not always bother to make sure Haydn was properly fed. As he later told his biographer Albert Christoph Dies, Haydn was motivated to sing very well, in hopes of gaining more invitations to perform before aristocratic audiences—where the singers were usually served refreshments. Struggles as a freelancer By 1749, Haydn had finally matured physically to the point that he was no longer able to sing high choral parts. On a weak pretext, he was summarily dismissed from his job. He was sent into the streets with no home to go to. However, he had the good fortune to be taken in by a friend, Johann Michael Spangler, who for a few months shared with Haydn his family's crowded garret room. Haydn was able to begin immediately his pursuit of a career as a freelance musician. During this arduous time, Haydn worked at many different jobs: as a music teacher, as a street serenader, and eventually as valet–accompanist for the Italian composer Nicola Porpora, from whom he later said he learned "the true fundamentals of composition". When he was a chorister, Haydn had not received serious training in music theory and composition, which he perceived as a serious gap. To fill it, he worked his way through the counterpoint exercises in the text Gradus ad Parnassum by Johann Joseph Fux, and carefully studied the work of Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, whom he later acknowledged as an important influence. As his skills increased, Haydn began to acquire a public reputation, first as the composer of an opera, Der krumme Teufel "The Limping Devil", written for the comic actor Johann Joseph Felix Kurz, whose stage name was "Bernardon". The work was premiered successfully in 1753, but was soon closed down by the censors. Haydn also noticed, apparently without annoyance, that works he had simply given away were being published and sold in local music shops. With the increase in his reputation, Haydn eventually was able to obtain aristocratic patronage, crucial for the career of a composer in his day. Countess Thun, Various individuals bore the title "Countess Thun" over time. Candidates for the countess who engaged Haydn are (a) "the elder Countess Maria Christine Thun", ; (b) Maria Wilhelmine Thun (later a famous salon hostess and patroness of Mozart), (Volkmar Braunbehrens, 1990, Mozart in Vienna). having seen one of Haydn's compositions, summoned him and engaged him as her singing and keyboard teacher. . Webster expresses doubts, since the source is the early biography of Nicolas-Étienne Framery, judged the least reliable of Haydn's early biographers. Baron Carl Josef Fürnberg employed Haydn at his country estate, Weinzierl, where the composer wrote his first string quartets. Fürnberg later recommended Haydn to Count Morzin, who in 1757 This date is uncertain, since the early biography of gives 1759. For the evidence supporting the earlier date see and . became his first full time employer. Source for this paragraph: The years as Kapellmeister Haydn's job title under Count Morzin was Kapellmeister, that is, music director. He led the count's small orchestra and wrote his first symphonies for this ensemble. In 1760, with the security of a Kapellmeister position, Haydn married. His wife was the former Maria Anna Aloysia Apollonia Keller (1729–1800), the sister of Therese (b. 1733), with whom Haydn had previously been in love. Haydn and his wife had a completely unhappy marriage, See, e.g., from which the laws of the time permitted them no escape; and they produced no children. Both took lovers. Mrs. Haydn's paramour (1770) was Ludwig Guttenbrunn, an artist who produced the portrait of Haydn seen above . Joseph Haydn had a long relationship, starting in 1779, with the singer Luigia Polzelli, and was probably the father of her son Antonio . Count Morzin soon suffered financial reverses that forced him to dismiss his musical establishment, but Haydn was quickly offered a similar job (1761) as Vice Kapellmeister to the Esterházy family, one of the wealthiest and most important in the Austrian Empire. When the old Kapellmeister, Gregor Werner, died in 1766, Haydn was elevated to full Kapellmeister. As a "house officer" in the Esterházy establishment, Haydn wore livery and followed the family as they moved among their various palaces, most importantly the family's ancestral seat Schloss Esterházy in Eisenstadt and later on Eszterháza, a grand new palace built in rural Hungary in the 1760s. Haydn had a huge range of responsibilities, including composition, running the orchestra, playing chamber music for and with his patrons, and eventually the mounting of operatic productions. Despite this workload, the job was in artistic terms a superb opportunity for Haydn. This view is given, for instance, by and . The Esterházy princes (first Paul Anton, then most importantly Nikolaus I) were musical connoisseurs who appreciated his work and gave him daily access to his own small orchestra. During the nearly thirty years that Haydn worked at the Esterházy court, he produced a flood of compositions, and his musical style continued to develop. His popularity in the outside world also increased. Gradually, Haydn came to write as much for publication as for his employer, and several important works of this period, such as the Paris symphonies (1785–1786) and the original orchestral version of The Seven Last Words of Christ (1786), were commissions from abroad. Haydn also gradually came to feel more isolated and lonely, particularly as the court came to spend most of the year at Esterháza, far from Vienna, rather than the closer-by Eisenstadt. Haydn particularly longed to visit Vienna because of his friendships there. For details see Of these, a particularly important one was with Maria Anna von Genzinger (1750–93), the wife of Prince Nikolaus's personal physician in Vienna, who began a close, platonic, relationship with the composer in 1789. Haydn wrote to Mrs. Genzinger often, expressing his loneliness at Eszterháza and his happiness for the few occasions on which he was able to visit her in Vienna; later on, Haydn wrote to her frequently from London. Her premature death in 1793 was a blow to Haydn, and his F minor variations for piano, Hob. XVII:6, may have been written in response to her death. , citing Robbins Landon Another friend in Vienna was Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, whom Haydn met sometime around 1784. According to later testimony by Michael Kelly and others, the two composers occasionally played in string quartets together. Haydn was hugely impressed with Mozart's work and praised it unstintingly to others. Mozart evidently returned the esteem, as seen in his dedication of a set of six quartets, now called the "Haydn" quartets, to his friend. For further details see Haydn and Mozart. The London journeys In 1790, Prince Nikolaus died and was succeeded by a thoroughly unmusical prince who dismissed the entire musical establishment and put Haydn on a pension. Freed of his obligations, Haydn was able to accept a lucrative offer from Johann Peter Salomon, a German impresario, to visit England and conduct new symphonies with a large orchestra. The visit (1791–1792), along with a repeat visit (1794–1795), was a huge success. Audiences flocked to Haydn's concerts; Haydn augmented his fame and made large profits, thus becoming financially secure. Charles Burney reviewed the first concert thus: "Haydn himself presided at the piano-forte; and the sight of that renowned composer so electrified the audience, as to excite an attention and a pleasure superior to any that had ever been caused by instrumental music in England." From Burney's memoirs; quoted from Musically, the visits to England generated some of Haydn's best-known work, including the Surprise, Military, Drumroll, and London symphonies, the Rider quartet, and the "Gypsy Rondo" piano trio. The only misstep in the venture was an opera, Orfeo ed Euridice, also called L'Anima del Filosofo, which Haydn was contracted to compose, but whose performance was blocked by intrigues. The premier performance occurred only in 1951, at the Florence May Festival with Maria Callas in the role of Euridice. The opera and its history are discussed in . Haydn made many new friends and was involved for a time in a romantic relationship with Rebecca Schroeter. Between visits, Haydn taught Ludwig van Beethoven. Beethoven found him unsatisfactory as a teacher and sought help from others; the relationship between the two was sometimes rather tense. For discussion of their relationship, see Beethoven and his contemporaries. Final years in Vienna Haydn returned to Vienna in 1795, moved into a large house in the suburb of Gumpendorf, The house, at Haydngasse 19, has since 1899 been a Haydn museum (, ). and turned to the composition of large religious works for chorus and orchestra. These include his two great oratorios (The Creation and The Seasons) and six masses for the Eszterházy family, which by this time was once again headed by a musically-inclined prince. Haydn also composed instrumental music: the popular Trumpet Concerto and the last nine in his long series of string quartets, including the Fifths, Emperor, and Sunrise quartets. In 1802, an illness from which Haydn had been suffering for some time had increased in severity to the point that he became physically unable to compose. This was doubtless very difficult for him because, as he acknowledged, the flow of fresh musical ideas waiting to be worked out as compositions did not cease. Haydn was well cared for by his servants, and he received many visitors and public honours during his last years, but they could not have been very happy years for him. During his illness, Haydn often found solace by sitting at the piano and playing Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser, which he had composed himself as a patriotic gesture in 1797. This melody later was used for the Austrian and German national anthems. Haydn died at the end of May in 1809, shortly after an attack on Vienna by the French army under Napoleon. He was 77. Among his last words was his attempt to calm and reassure his servants when cannon shot fell in the neighborhood. "My children, have no fear, for where Haydn is, no harm can fall." Two weeks later, a memorial service was held in the Schottenkirche on June 15, 1809, at which Mozart's Requiem was performed. Character and appearance James Webster writes of Haydn's public character thus: "Haydn's public life exemplified the Enlightenment ideal of the honnête homme (honest man): the man whose good character and worldly success enable and justify each other. His modesty and probity were everywhere acknowledged. These traits were not only prerequisites to his success as Kapellmeister, entrepreneur and public figure, but also aided the favourable reception of his music." Haydn was especially respected by the Eszterházy court musicians whom he supervised, as he maintained a cordial working atmosphere and effectively represented the musicians' interests with their employer; see Papa Haydn and the tale of the "Farewell" Symphony. Haydn had a robust sense of humor, evident in his love of practical jokes ; and often apparent in his music, and he had many friends. For much of his life he benefited from a "happy and naturally cheerful temperament", but in his later life, there is evidence for periods of depression, notably in the correspondence with Mrs. Genzinger and in Dies's biography, based on visits made in Haydn's old age. Haydn was a devout Catholic who often turned to his rosary when he had trouble composing, a practice that he usually found to be effective. He normally began the manuscript of each composition with "in nomine Domini" ("in the name of the Lord") and ended with "Laus Deo" ("praise be to God"). Haydn was short in stature, perhaps as a result of having been underfed throughout most of his youth. He was not handsome, and like many in his day he was a survivor of smallpox, his face being pitted with the scars of this disease. His biographer Dies wrote, "he couldn't understand how it happened that in his life he had been loved by many a pretty woman. 'They couldn't have been led to it by my beauty'". ; translation taken from Robbins Landon and Jones 1988 Haydn also suffered from nasal polyposis for much of his adult life; this was an agonizing and debilitating disease in the 18th century, and at times it prevented him from writing music. Discussed in "The Agony of Nasal Polyps and the Terror of Their Removal 200 Years Ago" by Jack Cohen, MD. This article appeared in The Laryngoscope, 108(9): 1311-1313, September 1998. No free online text available. Works James Webster summarizes Haydn's role in the history of classical music as follows: Online edition, article "Joseph Haydn"; downloaded Feb. 3, 2007 "He excelled in every musical genre… He is familiarly known as the 'father of the symphony' and could with greater justice be thus regarded for the string quartet; no other composer approaches his combination of productivity, quality and historical importance in these genres." Structure and character of the music A central characteristic of Haydn's music is the development of larger structures out of very short, simple musical motifs, often derived from standard accompanying figures. The music is often quite formally concentrated, and the important musical events of a movement can unfold rather quickly. mentions this in a criticism of contemporary Haydn performance practice: "[Haydn's] music sometime seems to 'live on its nerves' ... It is above all in this respect that Haydn performances often fail, whereby most interpreters lack the mental agility to deal with the ever-changing 'physiognomy' of Haydn's music, subsiding instead into an ease of manner and a concern for broader effects that they have acquired in their playing of Mozart." Haydn's work was central to the development of what came to be called sonata form. His practice, however, differed in some ways from that of Mozart and Beethoven, his younger contemporaries who likewise excelled in this form of composition. Haydn was particularly fond of the so-called "monothematic exposition", in which the music that establishes the dominant key is similar or identical to the opening theme. Haydn also differs from Mozart and Beethoven in his recapitulation sections, where he often rearranges the order of themes compared to the exposition and uses extensive thematic development. writes: "Having begun to 'develop', he could not stop; his recapitulations begin to take on irregular contours, sometimes sharply condensed, sometimes surprisingly expanded, losing their first tame symmetry to regain a balance of a far higher and more satisfying order." Haydn's formal inventiveness also led him to integrate the fugue into the classical style and to enrich the rondo form with more cohesive tonal logic (see sonata rondo form). Haydn was also the principal exponent of the double variation form – variations on two alternating themes, which are often major- and minor-mode versions of each other. Perhaps more than any other composer's, Haydn's music is known for its humor. See, for instance, , which focuses on the humor of Haydn and Beethoven. The most famous example is the sudden loud chord in the slow movement of his "Surprise" symphony; Haydn's many other musical jokes include numerous false endings (e.g., in the quartets Op. 33 No. 2 and Op. 50 No. 3), and the remarkable rhythmic illusion placed in the trio section of the third movement of Op. 50 No. 1. Much of the music was written to please and delight a prince, and its emotional tone is correspondingly upbeat. This tone also reflects, perhaps, Haydn's fundamentally healthy and well-balanced personality. Occasional minor-key works, often deadly serious in character, form striking exceptions to the general rule. Haydn's fast movements tend to be rhythmically propulsive and often impart a great sense of energy, especially in the finales. Some characteristic examples of Haydn's "rollicking" finale type are found in the "London" symphony No. 104, the string quartet Op. 50 No. 1, and the piano trio Hob XV: 27. Haydn's early slow movements are usually not too slow in tempo, relaxed, and reflective. Later on, the emotional range of the slow movements increases, notably in the deeply felt slow movements of the quartets Op. 76 Nos. 3 and 5, symphony No. 102, and piano trio Hob XV: 23. The minuets tend to have a strong downbeat and a clearly popular character. As early as Op. 33 (1781) Haydn turned some of his minuets into "scherzi" which are much faster, at one beat to the bar. Evolution of Haydn's style Haydn's early work dates from a period in which the compositional style of the High Baroque (seen in Bach and Handel) had gone out of fashion. This was a period of exploration and uncertainty, and Haydn, born 18 years before the death of Bach, was himself one of the musical explorers of this time. writes, "the period from 1750 to 1775 was penetrated by eccentricity, hit-or-miss experimentation, resulting in works which are still difficult to accept today because of their oddities." Similar remarks are made by An older contemporary whose work Haydn acknowledged as an important influence was Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach. Tracing Haydn's work over the six decades in which it was produced (roughly, 1749 to 1802), one finds a gradual but steady increase in complexity and musical sophistication, which developed as Haydn learned from his own experience and that of his colleagues. Several important landmarks have been observed in the evolution of Haydn's musical style. In the late 1760s and early 1770s Haydn entered a stylistic period known as "Sturm und Drang" (storm and stress). This term is taken from a literary movement of about the same time, though it appears that the musical development actually preceded the literary one by a few years. See : "the term has been criticized: taken from the title of a play of 1776 by Maximilian Klinger, it properly pertains to a literary movement of the middle and late 1770s rather than a musical one of about 1768–1772." The musical language of this period is similar to what went before, but it is deployed in work that is more intensely expressive, especially in the works in minor keys. James Webster describes the works of this period as "longer, more passionate, and more daring." Some of the most famous compositions of this time are the "Farewell" Symphony No. 45, the piano sonata in C minor (Hob. XVI/20, L. 33), and the six string quartets of Op. 20 (the "Sun" quartets), all from 1772. It was also around this time that Haydn became interested in writing fugues in the Baroque style, and three of the Op. 20 quartets end with such fugues. Following the climax of the "Sturm und Drang", Haydn returned to a lighter, more overtly entertaining style. There are no quartets from this period, and the symphonies take on new features: the first movements now sometimes contain slow introductions, and the scoring often includes trumpets and timpani. These changes are often related to a major shift in Haydn's professional duties, which moved him away from "pure" music and toward the production of comic operas, which were very popular in 18th Century Italy. Several of the operas were Haydn's own work (see List of operas by Joseph Haydn); these are seldom performed today. Haydn sometimes recycled his opera music in symphonic works, Webster and Feder 2001, section 3.iii which helped him continue his career as a symphonist during this hectic decade. In 1779, an important change in Haydn's contract permitted him to publish his compositions without prior authorization from his employer. This may have encouraged Haydn to rekindle his career as a composer of "pure" music. The change made itself felt most dramatically in 1781, when Haydn published the six string quartets of Opus 33, announcing (in a letter to potential purchasers) that they were written in "a completely new and special way". Charles Rosen has argued that this assertion on Haydn's part was not just sales talk, but meant quite seriously; and he points out a number of important advances in Haydn's compositional technique that appear in these quartets, advances that mark the advent of the Classical style in full flower. These include a fluid form of phrasing, in which each motif emerges from the previous one without interruption, the practice of letting accompanying material evolve into melodic material, and a kind of "Classical counterpoint" in which each instrumental part maintains its own integrity. These traits continue in the many quartets that Haydn wrote after Opus 33. Rosen's case that Opus 33 represents a "revolution in style" (1971 and 1997, 116) can be found in chapter III.1 of (Rosen 1971 and 1997). For dissenting views, see and . In the 1790s, stimulated by his England journeys, Haydn developed what Rosen calls his "popular style", a way of composition that, with unprecedented success, created music having great popular appeal but retaining a learned and rigorous musical structure. Rosen discusses the popular style in ch. VI.1 of Rosen (1971 and 1997). An important element of the popular style was the frequent use of folk or folk-like material, as discussed in the article Haydn and folk music. Haydn took care to deploy this material in appropriate locations, such as the endings of sonata expositions or the opening themes of finales. In such locations, the folk material serves as an element of stability, helping to anchor the larger structure. Rosen (1997 and 2001), 333–337 Haydn's popular style can be heard in virtually all of his later work, including the twelve London symphonies, the late quartets and piano trios, and the two late oratorios. The return to Vienna in 1795 marked the last turning point in Haydn's career. Although his musical style evolved little, his intentions as a composer changed. While he had been a servant, and later a busy entrepreneur, Haydn wrote his works quickly and in profusion, with frequent deadlines. As a rich man, Haydn now felt he had the privilege of taking his time and writing for posterity. This is reflected in the subject matter of The Creation (1798) and The Seasons (1801), which address such weighty topics as the meaning of life and the purpose of humankind, and represent an attempt to render the sublime in music. Haydn's new intentions also meant that he was willing to spend much time on a single work: both oratorios took him over a year to complete. Haydn once remarked that he had worked on The Creation so long because he wanted it to last. The change in Haydn's approach was important in the history of music, as other composers soon were following his lead. Notably, Beethoven adopted the practice of taking his time and aiming high. For discussion, see Antony Hopkins (1981) The Nine Symphonies of Beethoven, Heinemann, London, pp. 7–8. Identifying Haydn's works Haydn's works are listed in a comprehensive catalogue prepared by Anthony van Hoboken. This Hoboken catalogue provides each work with an identifying number, called its Hoboken number (abbreviation: H. or Hob.). The string quartets also have Hoboken numbers, but are usually identified instead by their opus numbers, which have the advantage of indicating the groups of six quartets that Haydn published together; thus for example the string quartet Opus 76, No. 3 is the third of the six quartets published in 1799 as Opus 76. Media See also Works List of concertos by Joseph Haydn List of masses by Joseph Haydn List of operas by Joseph Haydn List of piano trios by Joseph Haydn List of solo piano compositions by Joseph Haydn List of string quartets by Joseph Haydn List of symphonies by Joseph Haydn Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser (God save Franz, the Emperor; the melody was later used in Das Lied der Deutschen, which is still Germany's national anthem). The Creation The Seasons Baryton, for the baryton trios Haydn wrote for prince Nikolaus Esterházy Contemporaries Marianne von Martinez — as a child one of Haydn's first students; as an adult a friend and an eminent musician in her own right Johann Peter Salomon - organizer of the London journeys Gottfried van Swieten - the librettist of *The Creation and The Seasons List of Austrians in music Other topics Haydn and folk music Haydn's head - how it was stolen after his death Joseph Haydn's ethnicity - an old controversy: was Haydn a Croatian? "Papa" Haydn Mannersdorf am Leithagebirge - where Haydn visited and built his career during summer 1753 Notes References Biography A translation from the original German: "Biographische Nachrichten von Joseph Haydn nach mündlichen Erzählungen desselben entworfen und herausgegeben" ("Biographical accounts of Joseph Haydn, written and edited from his own spoken narratives") (1810). Camesinaische Buchhandlung, Vienna. One of the first biographies of Haydn, written on the basis of 30 interviews carried out during the composer's old age. Highly detailed discussion of life and work; in German. A translation from the original German: "Biographische Notizen über Joseph Haydn" (1810). Leipzig. Like Dies's, a biography produced from interviews with the elderly Haydn. Originally published in 1950. Gives a sympathetic and witty account of Haydn's life, along with a survey of the music. An extensive compilation of original sources in five volumes. Biography chapters by Robbins Landon, excerpted from Robbins Landon (1976-1980) and rich in original source documents. Analysis and appreciation of the works by Jones. Published separately as Published separately as a book: Up-to-date scholarship with little subjective interpretation. Criticism and analysis On jokes in Haydn and Beethoven. Covers each of the genres Haydn composed in as well as stylistic and interpretive contexts and performance and reception. A brief (55 page) introduction to Haydn's string quartets. First edition published in 1971. Covers much of Haydn's output and seeks to explicate Haydn's central role in the creation of the classical style. The work has been influential, provoking both positive citation and work (e.g., Webster 1991) written in reaction. Covers not just Op. 50 but also its relevance to Haydn's other output as well as his earlier quartets. This book focuses on a single work, but contains many observations and opinions about Haydn in general. </div> External links Albert Christoph Dies: (German) Biographische Nachrichten von Joseph Haydn. Wien: Camesinaische Buchhandlung, 1810. Haydn's Late Oratorios: The Creation and The Seasons by Brian Robins Full text of the biography Haydn by J. Cuthbert Hadden, 1902, from Project Gutenberg. The end of book contains documentary material including a number of Haydn's letters. Alternatively scanned copy Haydn at archive.org. No Royal Directive: Joseph Haydn and the String Quartet by Ron Drummond musicologie.org, with biography Haydn Cello Concerto in C - last movement 'Haydn - Quartet in F minor, Op.20 No.5', Lecture by Professor Roger Parker, with the Badke Quartet, Gresham College, 8 April 2008 (available for video, audio and text download). Haydn Franz Joseph: listen tracks on Magazzini-Sonori Scores and Recordings www.kreusch-sheet-music.net - Free Scores by Haydn Kunst der Fuge: Franz Joseph Haydn - Hundreds of MIDI files The Joke (op. 33 no. 2) rights cleared extract Missa Brevis Sancti Johannis de Deo MP3 Creative Commons Recording Haydn's page at Classical Archives Franz Joseph Haydn on Naxos Records | Joseph_Haydn |@lemmatized franz:9 joseph:26 haydn:180 although:2 sometimes:6 call:8 name:3 use:5 composer:19 lifetime:1 avoid:1 scholar:1 webster:7 james:4 grove:1 music:35 online:3 ed:2 l:3 macy:1 accessed:1 january:1 http:1 www:2 grovemusic:1 com:1 march:1 may:5 austrian:4 one:14 important:13 prolific:1 prominent:1 classical:7 period:11 often:14 father:5 symphony:16 string:13 quartet:30 contribution:1 genre:4 also:19 instrumental:4 development:5 piano:12 trio:9 evolution:3 sonata:5 form:8 basil:1 smallman:1 history:4 technique:2 repertoire:1 oxford:1 university:2 press:2 life:12 long:6 resident:1 austria:2 spent:1 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4,360 | Architect | An architect is trained and licensed in planning and designing buildings, and participates in supervising the construction of a building. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, itself derived from the Greek arkhitekton (arkhi-, chief + tekton, builder), i.e. chief builder. Online Etymology of the term "architect" A looser usage of Architect is: the translator of the building user's requirements of and from a building into an inhabitable environment. Moreover, the words architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of engineering, e.g. computer software architect; however, in some of the world's jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of these etymologic variants, are legally protected from such loose denotations. Professionally, an architect's decisions affect public safety, and thus must undergo specialized training and education, and a practicum for practical experience in order to qualify for and earn a licence to practice architecture; the practical, technical, and academic requirements for being a licenced architect vary (see below). Professional requirements in the English speaking world Australia In Australia the title of architect is legally protected but architects are registered through state boards. These boards are affiliated through the Architects Accreditation Council of Australia (AACA) Architect Registration . The Architect Registration also provides accreditation for schools and assessments for architects with overseas qualifications for the purposes of migration. There are three key requirements for registration: a professional degree from a school of architecture accredited by the AACA; at least two years of practical experience, and; the completion of the architectural practice examination. Architects may also belong to the Australian Institute of Architects (formerly the Royal Australian Institute of Architects) which is the professional organization and members use the suffix AIA after their name. Most States have legislation which covers the use of the title "architect" and makes it an offence for abusers of the title. As this can vary, it is essential to check the relevant legislation applicable in each State. Canada At Canada, architects are required to meet three common requirements for registration: education, experience, and examination. Educational requirements generally consist of an M.Arch. degree and are certified by the Canadian Architectural Certification Board (CACB). For degreed candidates, the experience requirement is typically the Intern Architect Program (IAP). The provincial associations of architects, by the authority granted under their respective provincial Architects Act, require that Interns gain a minimum of 5,600 hours of work experience. The fundamental purpose of the pre-registration/licensing employment period is to ensure that the Intern is provided with sufficient experience to meet the standards of practical skill and level of competence required to engage in the practice of architecture. This experience is diversified into four main categories and 16 sub-categories, and must be completed working under the direct supervision of a registered architect. At present, all jurisdictions use the Architect Registration Examination (ARE), a series of nine computerized exams administered by the National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB). As well, all jurisdictions except British Columbia recognize the Examination for Architects in Canada (ExAC), administered by the Pan Canadian ExAC Committee. Upon completion of the educational requirements, IAP, and examinations, one can apply for registration/license. An annual fee must be paid, and continuing education requirements met, in order to maintain a license to practice. The Royal Architectural Institute of Canada (RAIC) was established in 1907 and is a voluntary national association representing more than 3,600 architects and Faculty and graduates of accredited Canadian Schools of Architecture. Architectural Institute of Canada The RAIC aims to be "the voice of Architecture and its practice in Canada". Members are permitted to use the suffix MRAIC after their names. The suffix FRAIC (Fellow of the RAIC) is used by members of the RAIC College of Fellows. Not all members of the RAIC hold accredited degrees in architecture, and not all Canadian architects are members of the RAIC. Ireland The main body for Architecture in Ireland is the Royal Institute of Architects in Ireland, RIAI. Members may use the affix MRIAI and are registered to use the title "Architect" in company stationary. The title has only recently been protected. It usually takes 5 years full time study in the recognised schools of Architecture. More details can be found on the [RIAI] website Singapore In Singapore, university study is required (such as the 5 year course of study at the National University of Singapore or certain approved foreign universities). Upon completion of university, additional training by working for a minimum of two years under a registered architect is required in order to become registered. Singaporean law governs the use of the term "architect" and prescribes the requirements to be listed in the Register of Architects. Membership in the Singapore Institute of Architects is a voluntary professional credential. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom practicing under the name, style or title "architect" is restricted by law to those registered at the Architects Registration Board. It usually takes a minimum of seven years to obtain the necessary qualifications and experience for registration. Those wishing to become registered must first study at a recognized university-level school of architecture. Though there are some variations from university to university, the basic principle is that in order to qualify as an architect a candidate must pass through three stages which are administered by the Royal Institute of British Architects: On completing an initial degree in architecture (usually 3 or 4 years, usually either a B.A, BSc, or B.Arch) the candidate receives exemption from RIBA Part I. There then follows a period of a minimum of one year which the candidate spends in an architect's office gaining work experience. The candidate must then complete a post-graduate university course, usually two years, to receive either a Post Graduate Diploma (Dip. Arch), Masters (M.Arch) or B(Arch). On completing that course, the candidate receives exemption from Part II of the RIBA process. The candidate must then spend a further period of at least one year gaining experience before being allowed to take the RIBA Part III examination in Professional Practice and Management. United States In the United States, people wishing to become licensed architects are required to meet the requirements of their respective state. Each state has a registration board to oversee that state's licensure laws. In 1919, the National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB) was created to ensure parity between the states' often conflicting rules. The registration boards of each of the 50 states (and 5 territories), are NCARB member boards. Requirements vary between jurisdictions, and there are three common requirements for registration: education, experience and examination. About half of the States require a professional degree from a school accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB) to satisfy their education requirement; this would be either a B.Arch or M.Arch degree. The experience requirement for degreed candidates is typically the Intern Development Program (IDP), a joint program of NCARB and the American Institute of Architects (AIA). IDP creates a framework to identify for the intern architect base skills and core-competencies. The intern architect needs to earn 700 training units (TUs) diversified into 16 categories; each TU is equivalent to 8 hours of experience working under the direct supervision of a licensed Architect. The states that waive the degree requirement typically require a full 10 years experience in combination with the I.D.P diversification requirements before the candidate is eligible to sit for the examination. California requires C-IDP (Comprehensive Intern Development Program) which builds upon the seat time requirement of IDP with the need to document learning having occurred. All jurisdictions use the Architect Registration Examination (ARE), a series of seven (formerly nine) computerized exams administered by NCARB. The NCARB also has a certification for those architects meeting NCARB's model standard: NAAB degree, IDP and ARE passage. This certificate facilitates reciprocity between the member boards should an architect desire registration in a different jurisdiction. All architects licensed by their respective states have professional status as Registered Architects (RA). Depending on the policies of the registration board for the state in question, it is sometimes possible to become licensed as an Architect in other ways: reciprocal licensure for over-seas architects and working under an architect as an intern for an extended period of time. Professionals engaged in the design and supervision of construction projects prior to the 20th century were not necessarily trained in a separate architecture program in an academic setting. Instead, they usually carried the title of Master Builder, or surveyor, after serving a number of years as an apprentice (such as Sir Christopher Wren). The formal study of architecture in academic institutions played a pivotal role in the development of the profession as a whole, serving as a focal point for advances in architectural technology and theory. Earnings Earnings for architects range widely, depending on where and how they work. Salaries also vary depending on the size and location of the practice. Earnings have traditionally been dependent on the local economic conditions but, with rapid globalization, this is becoming less of a factor for larger international firms. Some architects become real estate (property) developers or specialized roles where they can earn a significantly higher income than the industry median. Canada earnings In 2005, a typical salary for those employed in the architecture category in Canada was $49,595 to $73,684 ($CDN). "Architecture" includes architects, architectural technologists, interior designers, landscape architects and structural technologists. According to the 2007 Alberta Wage and Salary Survey, Albertans in the Architects occupational group working part-time or full-time earned from $37,200 to $107,800 a year. The average salary was $61,000 a year. US earnings According to the 2006–2007 Occupation Outlook Handbook published by the US Department of Labor, the median salary of architects was $62,960 with the middle 50% earning between $46,690 and $79,770. This was slightly above accountants (median income $50,770), college professors (median income $51,800) and on par with most branches of engineering (median income of roughly $60,000). Some architects could earn up to $150,000 a year. However, those lacking experience, can earn as little as $30,000 a year. Intern architects typically earn between $35,000 and $58,000 depending on experience prior to licensure. Architects that have completed the internship period can expect an average starting salary of between $51,709 and $64,519. For 10 years' experience, the base compensation level increases significantly to an average range of $62,608–$79,919; that range reaches $72,678–$96,928 for architects with 15 years' experience. Senior architects and partners typically have earnings that exceed $100,000 annually. It is not unusual for an officer or equity partner to earn a base salary of $235,000, with a bonus of $200,000. Due to the major stake in ownership that equity partners may have, they can earn incomes approaching, and occasionally surpassing, seven figures. Architect Magazine UK earnings The Royal Society of Architects in Wales (RSAW) publishes a guide to the salaries typical of the various stages of qualification: Beginning level candidates (part one) can expect between £11,000 and £18,500. Recent graduates (part two) earn between £19,000 - £29,000. Newly registered architects (part three) earn £29,000 - £32,000; part three, three to five years post-registration £34,000 - £40,000 (salary data collected 6 May). The range of typical salaries at senior levels (after 10–15 years in role) is £32,000 to £80,000, depending on the seniority of the position. Finland earnings The average salary for a Finnish architect starting out in a private office is roughly 33,000€. Architects working for the municipalities are paid according to the Finnish governments salary system, in which the salary is determined by the level of stringency and expertise needed and how well a person copes with the requirements. The average base salary is about 35,000€ The profession database of Finnish Ministry of Employment and the Economy Bolivia earnings With the actual economic situation in Bolivia, experienced architects earn an average of $10,000 a year, and recent graduates earn an average of $1,000 a year. Sweden earnings Employment salaries: An Architect with 20 years' experience, earn an average of 400,000 SeK, (roughly $50,000 or €37,000) a year. Recent graduates earn an average of 300,000 Sek, (roughly $37,000 or €28,000) a year. About 65% is left to the employee after governmental taxes are deducted. In average 3-4 % of the production cost of any building project are architects fees. (salary data collected 4 April 2009) Professional organizations Refer to the international list of professional architecture organizations for groups created to promote career and business development in architecture. A wide variety of prizes are awarded to architects to acknowledge superior buildings, structures and professional careers. Prizes and awards The most prestigious award a living architect can receive is the Pritzker Prize, often termed the "Nobel Prize for architecture." Other awards for excellence in architecture are given by national professional associations such as the American Institute of Architects (AIA) and Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA). Architects who have made outstanding contributions to the profession through design excellence, contributions in the field of architectural education, or to the advancement of the profession are elected to the College of Fellows of the American Institute of Architects and are given the postnomial FAIA after their name. Other prestigious architectural awards are the Alvar Aalto Medal (Finland) and the Carlsberg Architecture Prize (Denmark). See also Architectural designer Architectural engineering Architectural technologist Building officials Construction engineering Civil engineering Construction manager Earthquake engineering International Building Code Landscape architect List of notable architects List of architects of supertall buildings Real Estate (Property) Developer Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) Starchitect Structural engineering Urban designer Urban planner References Further reading Roger K. Lewis, Architect? A Candid Guide to the Profession. MIT Press, Cambridge, 1998. David Chappell, J. Andrew Willis, The Architect in Practice. Blackwell Publishing, London, 2005. Blythe Camenson, Careers in Architecture. McGraw-Hill; New York, 2001. Lee W. Waldrep, Becoming an Architect: A Guide to Careers in Design, John Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2006. American Institute of Architects, The Architect's Handbook of Professional Practice, Student Edition, John Wiley, Chichester, 2001. Peter Piven, Bradford Perkins, Architect's Essentials of Starting a Design Firm (The Architect's Essentials of Professional Practice), John Wiley, Chichester, 2003. James R. Franklin, Architect's Professional Practice Manual. McGraw-Hill Professional, New York, 2000. James P. Cramer; Scott Simpson, The Next Architect: A New Twist on the Future of Design. Greenway Communications, 2006 James P. Cramer, How Firms Succeed: A Field Guide to Design Management. Greenway Communications; 2nd Illus edition, 2004. Gerald Morosco, Edward Massery, How to Work With an Architect, Gibbs Smith, Publisher, 2006. Pat Guthrie, Architect's Portable Handbook. McGraw-Hill Professional; 3 edition, 2003. Charlotte Baden-Powell, Architect's Pocket Book. Architectural Press, London, 2001. Dr. Eisenmenger, Mathias, Architect's er Architekt: Das zukünftige Berufsbild unter Berücksichtigung seiner Verantwortung als Baumeister. kassel university press, Kassel, 2007, (PDF-Version) External links Mexican Architecture at Lake Chapala American Institute of Architects American Institute of Architecture Students ARCHcareers.org ArchiQuotes.info Architects Registration Board-UK (ARB) Architectural Record Magazine arch-library Bureau of Labor Statistics Human-Assisted Design (HAD) Netherlands Architecture Institute Pakistan Council of Architects and Town Planners Royal Architectural Institute of Canada Royal Australian Institute of Architects Royal Institute of British Architects UK Architecture & Designs Irish domestic Architecture Royal Institute of Architects in Ireland | Architect |@lemmatized architect:99 train:3 license:5 planning:1 designing:1 building:9 participates:1 supervise:1 construction:4 etymologically:1 derives:1 latin:1 architectus:1 derive:1 greek:1 arkhitekton:1 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4,361 | Dachau | Dachau: Church of St Jakob Dachau is a town in Upper Bavaria, in the southern part of Germany. It is a major district town—a Große Kreisstadt—of the administrative region of Upper Bavaria, about 20 km north-west of Munich. It is now a popular residential area for people working in Munich with roughly 40,000 inhabitants. The town contains a historic town centre with a 18th century castle. Dachau was founded in the 8th century. It was home to many artists during the late 19th and early 20th century; for instance, Ludwig Thoma was born here. History Prehistoric times and Early Middle Ages There are signs of settlement as far back as the Stone Age. The earliest known reference to Dahauua Dahauua: possibly meaning "clayey wetland" dates back to 805 AD: on August 15, on the Feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, during Charlemagne's reign, the lady Erchana of the Aribons bequeathed all her landed property in "Dahauua", consisting of 5 Colonenhöfe and some serfs, to the Diocese of Freising upon her death. The deed on which this is recorded represents the earliest known reference to Dachau. 2005 was the 1200th anniversary of this occasion. Middle Ages From the 12th century, Dachau was a summer residence for several Bavarian princes. Between 1240 and 1270, Dachau was granted market privileges, first by Duke Otto II, and then by his son, Duke Ludwig II der Strenge. 16th century Between 1546 and 1577, the House of Wittelsbach built Dachau Palace in the Renaissance style. From June 1715 to Autumn 1717, Joseph Effner converted the Palace to a more modern style. Second World War In 1933, the Dachau concentration camp was built east of the city by the German government and was operated until 1945. It became the prototype for all other camps. 190,591 prisoners died or were exterminated. The liberation of Dachau is featured in a documentary by Franklin Springs Family Media called An American Adventure: The Living Legacy of Jimmy Gentry. The scene where Mr. Gentry is taken back to Dachau is a powerful reminder of what took place here during WWII. Geography Geographical location Dachau is located just 20 km northwest of Munich. It is situated by the river Amper, with a boundary demarcated by lateral moraines formed during the last ice age and the Amper glacial valley. It is also close to a large marshy area called Dachauer Moos. Neighbouring municipalities Adjacent municipalities are Bergkirchen to the West, Schwabhausen and Hebertshausen to the north and Karlsfeld to the south. To the east, Dachau is bordered by the municipality of Oberschleißheim, which is part of the rural district of Munich. Parts of the town Dachau consists of three central divisions: The old town: Altstadt, Mitterndorf, Udlding, Etzenhausen, Unterer Markt Dachau East: Oberaugustenfeld, Unteraugustenfeld, Polln, Obergrashof, parts of Prittlbach Dachau South: Himmelreich, Holzgarten, parts of Gröbenried The areas Pellheim, Pullhausen, Assenhausen, Lohfeld and Viehhausen were incorporated into Dachau in 1972. Transport The city is served by Munich S-Bahn (S2) and Deutsche Bahn via Dachau railway station located in the South of the town. The station is also annexed to the central bus terminal. The town is also served by Dachau Stadt Railway Station which serves the local A line with the rural vicinity. There are five bus lines which are operated by Stadtwerke Dachau: 719, 720, 722, 724 and 726. There is no tramway transport. Dachau has a well developed road infrastructure for regional transportation. The city is connected to Bundesautobahn 8 (via Fürstenfeldbruck) with Munich-Pasing southbound, and westbound terminating in Karlsruhe. Dachau is connected to Bundesautobahn 92 via Oberschleißheim connector which is located east of Dachau. Bundesautobahn 99 is connected with Dachau via Karlsfeld which is located south of Dachau. Bundesstraße No. 471 (via Rothschwaige) connects eastbound towns such as the neighboring city Fürstenfeldbruck and westbound towns such as Oberschleißheim. Bundesstraße No. 304 starts in the south of the city and connects southbound towns until the German-Austrian border. Additionally, several Staatsstraßen connect Dachau with surrounding towns and villages. Sights Dachau in autumn 2002 Dachau Palace: A medieval castle which became the favourite residence of the Bavarian dukes in the 16th century. It was renovated into an enormous four-wing complex. Only one wing exists today. Palace garden: a landscape garden. Church of St Jakob (St James), built in the 17th century (Stadtpfarrkirche) Old town Town hall Dachauer Moos: a wetland area. Church of St Nicolas, Mitterndorf (1496) Dachau Concentration Camp memorial Site: Dachau is best known for its proximity to the relatively well-preserved site of the infamous Dachau concentration camp, the first large-scale concentration camp in Germany, converted from an old gunpowder factory by the Nazi regime in 1933. Twin towns Klagenfurt, Austria Comune di Fondi, Italy Dachau is a member of Euroart, the European Federation of Artists' Colonies http://euroartcities.eu/ . People Famous people who lived, worked or were born in Dachau include Roman Herzog Ludwig Thoma Adolf Hölzel Christian Morgenstern Carl Spitzweg Ernst Toller Joseph Effner Leonhard von Hohenhausen Lovis Corinth Jesse Martin Sigmund Rascher References Literature Hans-Günther Richardi: Dachauer Zeitgeschichtsführer. Stadt Dachau, Dachau 1998 External links Town Web site http://www.dachau.info/cont/index.php?LANG=EN An American Adventure Trailer Jimmy Gentry i think that Dachau was in Poland. | Dachau |@lemmatized dachau:36 church:3 st:4 jakob:2 town:15 upper:2 bavaria:2 southern:1 part:5 germany:2 major:1 district:2 große:1 kreisstadt:1 administrative:1 region:1 km:2 north:2 west:2 munich:6 popular:1 residential:1 area:4 people:3 work:2 roughly:1 inhabitant:1 contain:1 historic:1 centre:1 century:7 castle:2 found:1 home:1 many:1 artist:2 late:1 early:4 instance:1 ludwig:3 thoma:2 bear:2 history:1 prehistoric:1 time:1 middle:2 age:4 sign:1 settlement:1 far:1 back:3 stone:1 know:3 reference:3 dahauua:3 possibly:1 mean:1 clayey:1 wetland:2 date:1 ad:1 august:1 feast:1 assumption:1 bless:1 virgin:1 mary:1 charlemagne:1 reign:1 lady:1 erchana:1 aribons:1 bequeath:1 landed:1 property:1 consisting:1 colonenhöfe:1 serf:1 diocese:1 freising:1 upon:1 death:1 deed:1 record:1 represent:1 anniversary:1 occasion:1 summer:1 residence:2 several:2 bavarian:2 prince:1 grant:1 market:1 privilege:1 first:2 duke:3 otto:1 ii:2 son:1 der:1 strenge:1 house:1 wittelsbach:1 build:3 palace:4 renaissance:1 style:2 june:1 autumn:2 joseph:2 effner:2 convert:2 modern:1 second:1 world:1 war:1 concentration:4 camp:5 east:4 city:5 german:2 government:1 operate:2 become:2 prototype:1 prisoner:1 die:1 exterminate:1 liberation:1 feature:1 documentary:1 franklin:1 spring:1 family:1 medium:1 call:2 american:2 adventure:2 live:2 legacy:1 jimmy:2 gentry:3 scene:1 mr:1 take:2 powerful:1 reminder:1 place:1 wwii:1 geography:1 geographical:1 location:1 locate:4 northwest:1 situate:1 river:1 amper:2 boundary:1 demarcate:1 lateral:1 moraine:1 form:1 last:1 ice:1 glacial:1 valley:1 also:3 close:1 large:2 marshy:1 dachauer:3 moo:2 neighbour:1 municipality:3 adjacent:1 bergkirchen:1 schwabhausen:1 hebertshausen:1 karlsfeld:2 south:5 border:2 oberschleißheim:3 rural:2 consist:1 three:1 central:2 division:1 old:3 altstadt:1 mitterndorf:2 udlding:1 etzenhausen:1 unterer:1 markt:1 oberaugustenfeld:1 unteraugustenfeld:1 polln:1 obergrashof:1 prittlbach:1 himmelreich:1 holzgarten:1 gröbenried:1 pellheim:1 pullhausen:1 assenhausen:1 lohfeld:1 viehhausen:1 incorporate:1 transport:2 serve:3 bahn:2 deutsche:1 via:5 railway:2 station:3 annex:1 bus:2 terminal:1 stadt:2 local:1 line:2 vicinity:1 five:1 stadtwerke:1 tramway:1 well:2 developed:1 road:1 infrastructure:1 regional:1 transportation:1 connect:5 bundesautobahn:3 fürstenfeldbruck:2 pasing:1 southbound:2 westbound:2 terminating:1 karlsruhe:1 connector:1 bundesstraße:2 rothschwaige:1 eastbound:1 neighboring:1 start:1 connects:1 austrian:1 additionally:1 staatsstraßen:1 surround:1 village:1 sight:1 medieval:1 favourite:1 renovate:1 enormous:1 four:1 wing:2 complex:1 one:1 exist:1 today:1 garden:2 landscape:1 james:1 stadtpfarrkirche:1 hall:1 nicolas:1 memorial:1 site:3 best:1 proximity:1 relatively:1 preserve:1 infamous:1 scale:1 gunpowder:1 factory:1 nazi:1 regime:1 twin:1 towns:1 klagenfurt:1 austria:1 comune:1 di:1 fondi:1 italy:1 member:1 euroart:1 european:1 federation:1 colony:1 http:2 euroartcities:1 eu:1 famous:1 include:1 roman:1 herzog:1 adolf:1 hölzel:1 christian:1 morgenstern:1 carl:1 spitzweg:1 ernst:1 toller:1 leonhard:1 von:1 hohenhausen:1 lovis:1 corinth:1 jesse:1 martin:1 sigmund:1 rascher:1 literature:1 hans:1 günther:1 richardi:1 zeitgeschichtsführer:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 www:1 info:1 cont:1 index:1 php:1 lang:1 en:1 trailer:1 think:1 poland:1 |@bigram bless_virgin:1 virgin_mary:1 dachau_concentration:3 concentration_camp:4 deutsche_bahn:1 comune_di:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 index_php:1 |
4,362 | Lawrencium | Lawrencium () is a radioactive synthetic element with the symbol Lr (formerly Lw) and atomic number 103. Its most stable known isotope is 262Lr, with a half-life of approximately 3.6 hours. Little is known of the chemistry but there is strong evidence for the formation of a trivalent ion in aqueous solution, confirming lawrencium's place as the last member of the actinoids. Although lawrencium is often placed as the last member of the 5f-block, it can also be regarded as the first member of the 6d-block (see extended periodic table). Official discovery Lawrencium was made by Albert Ghiorso, Torbjørn Sikkeland, Almon Larsh, and Robert M. Latimer on February 14, 1961 at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (now called Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) on the University of California, Berkeley campus. It was produced by bombarding a three milligram target composed of three isotopes of californium with boron-10 and B-11 ions in the Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator (HILAC). The Berkeley team reported that the isotope 257103 was detected in this manner and decayed by emitting an 8.6 MeV alpha particle with a half-life of ~8 seconds. The assignment was later corrected to 258Lr. The team suggested the name lawrencium (Lw) for the new element. In 1967, researchers in Dubna, Russia reported that they were not able to confirm an alpha emitter with a half-life of 8 seconds as 257103. This assignment has since been changed to 258Lr. Instead, they reported a 45s activity assigned to 256Lr. Further work in 1969 indicated an actinoid chemistry for the new element founded by Travis Anselm in 8B. In 1971, the team at the University of California performed a whole series of experiments aimed at measuring the decay properties of lawrencium isotopes with mass numbers from 255-260. In 1992, The IUPAC/IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) officially recognised the Dubna and Berkeley teams as co-discoverers of lawrencium. Naming The origin of the name, preferred by the American Chemical Society, is in reference to Ernest O. Lawrence, inventor of the cyclotron. The symbol Lw originally was used but in 1963 it was changed to Lr. In August 1997 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) ratified the name lawrencium and symbol Lr during a meeting in Geneva. Lawrencium has also been referred to as eka-lutetium. Contrary to some suggestions, the systematic element name unniltrium has never been used for this element. Electronic structure Lawrencium is element 103 in the Periodic Table. The two forms of the projected electronic structure are: Bohr model: 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 9, 2 Quantum mechanical model: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d10 4p65s24d105p66s24f145d10 6p67s25f146d1 There has been a suggestion that the electron configuration could be [Rn]7s25f147p1: direct measurement is impossible, and calculations have given conflicting results. Physical characteristics The appearance of this element is unknown, however it is most likely silvery-white or gray and metallic. If sufficient amounts of lawrencium were produced, it would pose a radiation hazard. Contrary to some sources, bulk properties of this element, such as the melting point, have not been possible to measure to date. However, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd ionization energies have been measured. Periodic classification A strict correlation between periodic table blocks and electron configuration for neutral atoms would describe lawrencium as a transition metal because it should be classed as a d-block element. However, it is classified as an actinoid according to IUPAC recommendations. IUPAC "Provisional Recommendations for the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (2004)" Experimental chemistry Gas phase chemistry The first gas phase studies were reported in 1969 by a team at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions (FLNR). They used the reaction 243Am+18O to produce lawrencium nuclei which reacted with a stream of chlorine gas to form a volatile chloride component. The product was assigned to 256LrCl3 and confirmed that lawrencium was a typical actinide. Aqueous phase chemistry The first liquid phase studies were reported in 1970 by the team at the LBNL. They used the reaction 249Cf+11B to produce lawrencium nuclei. They were able to show that lawrencium formed a trivalent ion, similar to other actinides but in stark contrast to nobelium. Further work in 1988 confirmed the formation of a trivalent lawrencium(III) ion using anion-exchange chromatography using α-hydroxyisobutyrate (α-HIB) complex. Comparison of the elution time with other actinides allowed a determination of 88.6 pm for the ionic radius for Lr3+. Attempts to reduce Lr(III) to Lr(I) using the potent reducing agent hydroxylamine hydrochloride were unsuccessful. Summary of compounds and complex ions Formula Names(s) LrCl3 lawrencium trichloride ; lawrencium(III) chloride Isotopes Twelve isotopes of lawrencium have been synthesized with 262Lr being the longest-lived and heaviest, with a half-life of 216 minutes. 252Lr is the lightest isotope known to date. History of synthesis of isotopes by cold fusion 205Tl(50Ti,xn)255-xLr (x=2?) This reaction was studied in a series of experiments in 1976 by Yuri Oganessian and his team at the FLNR. Evidence was provided for the formation of 253Lr in the 2n exit channel. 203Tl(50Ti,xn)253-xLr This reaction was studied in a series of experiments in 1976 by Yuri Oganessian and his team at the FLNR. 208Pb(48Ti,pxn)255-xLr (x=1?) This reaction was reported in 1984 by Yuri Oganessian at the FLNR. The team was able to detect decays of 246Cf, a descendant of 254Lr. 208Pb(45Sc,xn)253-xLr This reaction was studied in a series of experiments in 1976 by Yuri Oganessian and his team at the FLNR. Results are not readily available. 209Bi(48Ca,xn)257-xLr (x=2) This reaction has been used to study the spectroscopic properties of 255Lr. The team at GANIL used the reaction in 2003 and the team at the FLNR used it between 2004-2006 to provide further information for the decay scheme of 255Lr. The work provided evidence for an isomeric level in 255Lr. History of synthesis of isotopes by hot fusion 243Am(18O,xn)261-xLr (x=5) This reaction was first studied in 1965 by the team at the FLNR. They were able to detect a 45s activity assigned to 256Lr or 257Lr. Later work suggests an assignment to 256Lr. Further studies in 1968 produced an 8.35-8.60 MeV alpha activity with a half-life of 35s. This activity was also initially assigned to 256Lr or 257Lr and later to solely 256Lr. 243Am(16O,xn)259-xLr (x=4) This reaction was studied in 1970 by the team at the FLNR. They were able to detect an 8.38 MeV alpha activity with a half-life of 20s. This was assigned to 255Lr. 248Cm(15N,xn)263-xLr (x=3,4,5) This reaction was studied in 1971 by the team at the LBNL in their large study of lawrencium isotopes. They were able to assign alpha activities to 260Lr,259Lr and 258Lr from the 3-5n exit channels. 248Cm(18O,pxn)265-xLr (x=3,4) This reaction was studied in 1988 at the LBNL in order to assess the possibility of producing 262Lr and 261Lr without using the exotic 254Es target. It was also used to attempt to measure an EC branch in 261mRf from the 5n exit channel. After extraction of the Lr(III) component, they were able to measure the spontaneous fission of 261Lr with an improved half-life of 44 minutes. The production cross-section was 700 pb. On this basis, a 14% EC branch was calculated if this isotope was produced via the 5n channel rather than the p4n channel. A lower bombarding energy (93 MeV c.f. 97 MeV) was then used to measure the production of 262Lr in the p3n channel. The isotope was successfully detected and a yield of 240 pb was measured. The yield was lower than expected compared to the p4n channel. However, the results were judged to indicate that the 261Lr was most likely produced by a p3n channel and an upper limit of 14% for the EC branch of 261mRf was therefore suggested. 246Cm(14N,xn)260-xLr (x=3?) This reaction was studied briefly in 1958 at the LBNL using an enriched 244Cm target (5% 246Cm). They observed a ~9 MeV alpha activity with a half-life of ~0.25 seconds. Later results suggest a tentative assignment to 257Lr from the 3n channel 244Cm(14N,xn)258-xLr This reaction was studied briefly in 1958 at the LBNL using an enriched 244Cm target (5% 246Cm). They observed a ~9 MeV alpha activity with a half-life of ~0.25s. Later results suggest a tentative assignment to 257Lr from the 3n channel with the 246Cm component. No activities assigned to reaction with the 244Cm component have been reported. 249Bk(18O,αxn)263-xLr (x=3) This reaction was studied in 1971 by the team at the LBNL in their large study of lawrencium isotopes. They were able to detect an activity assigned to 260Lr. The reaction was further studied in 1988 to study the aqueous chemistry of lawrencium. A total of 23 alpha decays were measured for 260Lr, with a mean energy of 8.03 MeV and an improved half-life of 2.7 minutes. The calculated cross-section was 8.7 nb. 252Cf(11B,xn)263-xLr (x=5,7??) This reaction was first studied in 1961 at the University of California by Albert Ghiorso by using a californium target (52% 252Cf). They observed three alpha activities of 8.6 MeV, 8.4 MeV and 8.2 MeV, with half-lives of ~8s and 15s, respectively. The 8.6 MeV activity was tentatively assigned to 257Lr. Later results suggest a reassignment to 258Lr, resulting from the 5n exit channel. The 8.4 MeV activity was also assigned to 257Lr. Later results suggest a reassignment to 256Lr. This is most likely from the 33% 250Cf component in the target rather than from the 7n channel. The 8.2 MeV was subsequently associated with nobelium. 252Cf(10B,xn)262-xLr (x=4,6) This reaction was first studied in 1961 at the University of California by Albert Ghiorso by using a californium target (52% 252Cf). They observed three alpha activities of 8.6 MeV, 8.4 MeV and 8.2 MeV, with half-lives of ~8s and 15s, respectively. The 8.6 MeV activity was tentatively assigned to 257Lr. Later results suggest a reassignment to 258Lr. The 8.4 MeV activity was also assigned to 257Lr. Later results suggest a reassignment to 256Lr. The 8.2 MeV was subsequently associated with nobelium. 250Cf(14N,αxn)260-xLr (x=3) This reaction was studied in 1971 at the LBNL. They were able to identify a 0.7s alpha activity with two alpha lines at 8.87 and 8.82 MeV. This was assigned to 257Lr. 249Cf(11B,xn)260-xLr (x=4) This reaction was first studied in 1970 at the LBNL in an attempt to study the aqueous chemistry of lawrencium. They were able to measure a Lr3+ activity. The reaction was repeated in 1976 at Oak Ridge and 26s 256Lr was confirmed by measurement of coincident X-rays. 249Cf(12C,pxn)260-xLr (x=2) This reaction was studied in 1971 by the team at the LBNL. They were able to detect an activity assigned to 258Lr from the p2n channel. 249Cf(15N,αxn)260-xLr (x=2,3) This reaction was studied in 1971 by the team at the LBNL. They were able to detect an activities assigned to 258Lr and 257Lr from the α2n and α3n and channels. The reaction was repeated in 1976 at Oak Ridge and the synthesis of 258Lr was confirmed. 254Es + 22Ne - transfer This reaction was studied in 1987 at the LLNL. They were able to detect new SF activities assigned to 261Lr and 262Lr, resulting from transfer from the 22Ne nuclei to the 254Es target. In addition, a 5 ms SF activity was detected in delayed coincidence with nobelium K X-rays and was assigned to 262No, resulting from the EC of 262Lr. Synthesis of isotopes as decay products Isotopes of lawrencium have also been identified in the decay of heavier elements. Observations to date are summarised in the table below: Evaporation Residue Observed Lr isotope 267Bh, 263Db 259Lr 278Uut, 274Rg, 270Mt, 266Bh, 262Db 258Lr 261Db 257Lr 272Rg, 268Mt, 264Bh, 260Db 256Lr 259Db 255Lr 266Mt, 262Bh, 258Db 254Lr 261Bh, 257Dbg,m 253Lrg,m 260Bh , 256Db 252Lr Chronology of isotope discovery Isotope Year discovered discovery reaction 252Lr 2001 209Bi(50Ti,3n) 253Lrg 1985 209Bi(50Ti,2n) 253Lrm 2001 209Bi(50Ti,2n) 254Lr 1985 209Bi(50Ti,n) 255Lr 1970 243Am(16O,4n) 256Lr 1961? 1965? 1968? 1971 252Cf(10B,6n) 257Lr 1958? 1971 249Cf(15N,α3n) 258Lr 1961? 1971 249Cf(15N,α2n) 259Lr 1971 248Cm(15N,4n) 260Lr 1971 248Cm(15N,3n) 261Lr 1987 254Es + 22Ne 262Lr 1987 254Es + 22Ne Isomerism in lawrencium nuclides 255Lr Recent work on the spectroscopy of 255Lr formed in the reaction 209Bi(48Ca,2n)255Lr has provided evidence for an isomeric level. 253Lr A study of the decay properties of 257Db (see dubnium) in 2001 by Hessberger et al. at the GSI provided some data for the decay of 253Lr. Analysis of the data indicated the population of two isomeric levels in 253Lr from the decay of the corresponding isomers in 257Db. The ground state was assigned spin and parity of 7/2-, decaying by emission of an 8794 KeV alpha particle with a half-life of 0.57s. The isomeric level was assigned spin and parity of 1/2-, decaying by emission of an 8722 KeV alpha particle with a half-life of 1.49s. Chemical yields of isotopes Cold fusion The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for cold fusion reactions producing rutherfordium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents an observed exit channel. Projectile Target CN 1n 2n 3n 48Ca 209Bi 257Lr References Notes Los Alamos National Laboratory's Chemistry Division: Periodic Table - Lawrencium Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition, Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1 External links WebElements.com - Lawrencium | Lawrencium |@lemmatized lawrencium:28 radioactive:1 synthetic:1 element:11 symbol:3 lr:7 formerly:1 lw:3 atomic:1 number:2 stable:1 know:3 isotope:20 half:14 life:14 approximately:1 hour:1 little:1 chemistry:10 strong:1 evidence:4 formation:3 trivalent:3 ion:6 aqueous:4 solution:1 confirm:6 place:2 last:2 member:3 actinoid:3 although:1 often:1 block:4 also:7 regard:1 first:7 see:2 extend:1 periodic:5 table:6 official:1 discovery:3 make:1 albert:4 ghiorso:3 torbjørn:1 sikkeland:1 almon:1 larsh:1 robert:1 latimer:1 february:1 lawrence:3 radiation:2 laboratory:4 call:1 berkeley:4 national:2 university:5 california:4 campus:1 produce:9 bombard:1 three:4 milligram:1 target:9 compose:1 californium:3 boron:1 b:1 heavy:3 linear:1 accelerator:1 hilac:1 team:18 report:7 detect:10 manner:1 decay:10 emit:1 mev:21 alpha:14 particle:3 second:3 assignment:5 later:2 correct:1 suggest:9 name:6 new:3 researcher:1 dubna:2 russia:1 able:13 emitter:1 since:1 change:2 instead:1 activity:22 assign:19 work:6 indicate:3 found:1 travis:1 anselm:1 perform:1 whole:1 series:4 experiment:4 aim:1 measure:9 property:4 mass:1 iupac:4 iupap:1 transfermium:1 group:1 twg:1 officially:1 recognise:1 co:1 discoverer:1 origin:1 prefer:1 american:1 chemical:2 society:1 reference:2 ernest:1 inventor:1 cyclotron:1 originally:1 use:17 august:1 international:1 union:1 pure:1 applied:1 ratify:1 meeting:1 geneva:1 refer:1 eka:1 lutetium:1 contrary:2 suggestion:2 systematic:1 unniltrium:1 never:1 electronic:2 structure:2 two:3 form:4 projected:1 bohr:1 model:2 quantum:1 mechanical:1 electron:2 configuration:2 could:1 rn:1 direct:1 measurement:3 impossible:1 calculation:1 give:1 conflict:1 result:12 physical:1 characteristic:1 appearance:1 unknown:1 however:4 likely:3 silvery:1 white:1 gray:1 metallic:1 sufficient:1 amount:1 would:2 pose:1 hazard:1 source:1 bulk:1 melting:1 point:1 possible:1 date:3 ionization:1 energy:4 classification:1 strict:1 correlation:1 neutral:1 atom:1 describe:1 transition:1 metal:1 class:1 classify:1 accord:1 recommendation:2 provisional:1 nomenclature:1 inorganic:1 experimental:1 gas:3 phase:4 study:27 flerov:1 nuclear:1 reaction:30 flnr:8 nucleus:3 react:1 stream:1 chlorine:1 volatile:1 chloride:2 component:5 product:2 typical:1 actinide:3 liquid:1 lbnl:10 show:1 similar:1 stark:1 contrast:1 nobelium:4 iii:4 anion:1 exchange:1 chromatography:1 α:2 hydroxyisobutyrate:1 hib:1 complex:2 comparison:1 elution:1 time:1 allow:1 determination:1 pm:1 ionic:1 radius:1 attempt:3 reduce:2 potent:1 agent:1 hydroxylamine:1 hydrochloride:1 unsuccessful:1 summary:1 compound:1 formula:1 trichloride:1 twelve:1 synthesize:1 long:1 live:1 minute:3 light:1 history:2 synthesis:4 cold:3 fusion:4 xn:12 xlr:18 x:17 yuri:4 oganessian:4 provide:6 exit:5 channel:15 pxn:3 descendant:1 readily:1 available:1 spectroscopic:1 ganil:1 information:1 scheme:1 isomeric:4 level:4 hot:1 late:7 initially:1 solely:1 large:2 order:1 assess:1 possibility:1 without:1 exotic:1 ec:4 branch:3 extraction:1 spontaneous:1 fission:1 improved:2 production:2 cross:3 section:3 pb:2 basis:1 calculate:1 via:1 rather:2 low:2 bombarding:1 c:1 f:1 successfully:1 yield:3 expect:1 compare:1 judge:1 upper:1 limit:1 therefore:1 briefly:2 enriched:2 observe:5 tentative:2 αxn:3 total:1 mean:1 calculated:1 nb:1 respectively:2 tentatively:2 reassignment:4 subsequently:2 associate:2 identify:2 line:1 repeat:2 oak:2 ridge:2 coincident:1 ray:2 transfer:2 llnl:1 sf:2 addition:1 delayed:1 coincidence:1 k:1 observation:1 summarise:1 evaporation:1 residue:1 chronology:1 year:1 discover:1 n:1 isomerism:1 nuclides:1 recent:1 spectroscopy:1 dubnium:1 hessberger:1 et:1 al:1 gsi:1 data:3 analysis:1 population:1 corresponding:1 isomer:1 ground:1 state:1 spin:2 parity:2 decaying:2 emission:2 kev:2 excitation:2 rutherfordium:1 directly:1 bold:1 represent:2 maximum:1 derive:1 function:1 observed:1 projectile:1 cn:1 note:1 los:1 alamos:1 division:1 guide:1 revise:1 edition:1 stwertka:1 oxford:1 press:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 webelements:1 com:1 |@bigram aqueous_solution:1 periodic_table:4 albert_ghiorso:3 mev_alpha:5 alpha_emitter:1 ernest_lawrence:1 pure_applied:1 quantum_mechanical:1 silvery_white:1 inorganic_chemistry:1 team_lbnl:5 stark_contrast:1 cold_fusion:3 xn_xlr:12 xlr_x:15 yuri_oganessian:4 team_flnr:6 isomeric_level:4 spontaneous_fission:1 alpha_decay:1 mev_mev:4 oak_ridge:2 et_al:1 al_gsi:1 los_alamos:1 alamos_national:1 albert_stwertka:1 stwertka_oxford:1 external_link:1 link_webelements:1 webelements_com:1 |
4,363 | Chambered_cairn | A chambered cairn is a burial monument, usually constructed during the Neolithic, consisting of a cairn of stones inside which a sizeable (usually stone) chamber was constructed. Some chambered cairns are also passage-graves. Typically, the chamber is larger than a cist, and will contain a larger number of interments, which are either excarnated bones or inhumations (cremations). Most were situated near a settlement, and served as that community's "graveyard". Chambered cairns in Scotland Cairn Holy II - a chambered cairn near Newton Stewart. Scotland has a particularly large number of chambered cairns, many of radically different type. Because of the lack of other remains (the only other significant remains we have are Hut circles and field systems), they are perhaps the most important clue we have to what civilisation in Scotland was like in the Neolithic. Here is a short description of each type as the classification currently stands: Clyde-Carlingford The Clyde-Carlingford group are to be found in both Scotland and Northern Ireland. On the Scottish side, they are mainly found in Argyll and Dumfries and Galloway, both in the south-west of the country (a small outlying group can be found near Perth). They are not passage-graves since they lack any significant passage and are properly termed gallery graves. The burial chamber (although usually blocked after use) is of very basic design and is normally located at one end of the cairn. As a result, it could be immediately accessed from the outside. An open, semi-circular forecourt at the entrance gives them their alternate name of Court cairns. They are generally considered to be the earliest in Scotland, dating from 4000 BC and were probably brought to Scotland from Ireland. Hebridean Sharing some features with the Clyde-Carlingford group is the Hebridean group. As their name suggests they are normally found in the Hebrides, and have a crude polygonal chamber and a very short passage to one end of the cairn. Orkney-Cromarty Entrance to Unstan Chambered Cairn, Orkney The Orkney-Cromarty group is by far the largest and most diverse. It has been subdivided into Yarrows, Camster and Cromarty subtypes but the differences are extremely subtle. In general, they all have dividing slabs at either side of a rectangular chamber, separating it into compartments. The number of these compartments ranges from 4 in the earliest examples to over 24 in an extreme example on Orkney. The actual shape of the cairn varies from simple circular designs to elaborate 'forecourts' protruding from each end, creating what look like small Amphitheatres. It is likely that these are the result of cultural influences from mainland Europe, as they are similar to designs found in France and Spain. Bookan The Bookan type is thought to be the earliest to be found on Orkney. Because of Orkney's archaeological richness, Bookan type tombs are very hard to find. They are extremely unusual, some being double-deckered! They all seem to have features which suggest some early stage in the development of Maeshowe type tombs. Maeshowe The Maeshowe group, named after the famous monument on Orkney, is among the most elaborate. Like their counterparts on Shetland, they are unlike anything else in Scotland, so it is possible these were the result of local development, or influences from Scandinavia. They consist of a central chamber from which lead small compartments, into which burials would be placed. Shetland A final category is the Shetland group, of which little is known. On plan, they do look similar to the Maeshowe group although the whole chamber is cross-shaped and there are no small compartments. | Chambered_cairn |@lemmatized chambered:5 cairn:12 burial:3 monument:2 usually:3 construct:2 neolithic:2 consist:2 stone:2 inside:1 sizeable:1 chamber:8 also:1 passage:4 graf:3 typically:1 large:4 cist:1 contain:1 number:3 interment:1 either:2 excarnated:1 bone:1 inhumation:1 cremation:1 situate:1 near:3 settlement:1 serve:1 community:1 graveyard:1 scotland:7 holy:1 ii:1 newton:1 stewart:1 particularly:1 many:1 radically:1 different:1 type:5 lack:2 remains:1 significant:2 remain:1 hut:1 circle:1 field:1 system:1 perhaps:1 important:1 clue:1 civilisation:1 like:3 short:2 description:1 classification:1 currently:1 stand:1 clyde:3 carlingford:3 group:8 find:7 northern:1 ireland:2 scottish:1 side:2 mainly:1 argyll:1 dumfries:1 galloway:1 south:1 west:1 country:1 small:4 outlying:1 perth:1 since:1 properly:1 term:1 gallery:1 although:2 block:1 use:1 basic:1 design:3 normally:2 locate:1 one:2 end:3 result:3 could:1 immediately:1 access:1 outside:1 open:1 semi:1 circular:2 forecourt:2 entrance:2 give:1 alternate:1 name:3 court:1 generally:1 consider:1 early:4 date:1 bc:1 probably:1 bring:1 hebridean:2 share:1 feature:2 suggest:2 hebrides:1 crude:1 polygonal:1 orkney:7 cromarty:3 unstan:1 far:1 diverse:1 subdivide:1 yarrow:1 camster:1 subtypes:1 difference:1 extremely:2 subtle:1 general:1 divide:1 slab:1 rectangular:1 separate:1 compartment:4 range:1 example:2 extreme:1 actual:1 shape:2 varies:1 simple:1 elaborate:2 protrude:1 create:1 look:2 amphitheatre:1 likely:1 cultural:1 influence:2 mainland:1 europe:1 similar:2 france:1 spain:1 bookan:3 think:1 archaeological:1 richness:1 tomb:2 hard:1 unusual:1 double:1 deckered:1 seem:1 stage:1 development:2 maeshowe:4 famous:1 among:1 counterpart:1 shetland:3 unlike:1 anything:1 else:1 possible:1 local:1 scandinavia:1 central:1 lead:1 would:1 place:1 final:1 category:1 little:1 know:1 plan:1 whole:1 cross:1 |@bigram chambered_cairn:5 dumfries_galloway:1 orkney_orkney:2 anything_else:1 |
4,364 | Mariculture | Fish cages containing salmon in Loch Ailort, Scotland. Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater. An example of the latter is the farming of marine fish, including finfish and shellfish e.g.prawns, or oysters and seaweed in saltwater ponds. Non-food products produced by mariculture include: fish meal, nutrient agar, jewelries (e.g. cultured pearls), and cosmetics. Sea ranching The Japanese have developed a process for free ranching marine fish, called sea ranching. The principle is based on behavioral conditioning and the migratory nature of certain species of marine fish. The fishermen first raise fish hatchlings in a closely knitted net in a harbor. They sound an underwater horn before each feeding. When the young fish are old enough they are freed from the net to mature in the open sea. During spawning season, about 80% of these fish return to their birthplace. The fishermen harvest the fish by sounding the horn and then raising the net. Kelp farming Kelp can be farmed in at least two ways. They can be grown around a rope that is anchored to the sea floor so that they do not drift away. Off the coast of California, the top few feet of natural kelp beds are harvested by boats with mowers. Kelp provides alginin, an edible material used in ice cream and cosmetics. The industry also supplies the dietary supplement industry Species farmed Fish Grouper Seabass Snapper Pompano Shellfish/Crustaceans Abalone Prawn Scientific literature Scientific literature on mariculture can be found in the following journals: Applied and Environmental Microbiology Aquaculture (Journal) Aquaculture Research Journal of Marine Science Marine Resource Economics Ocean Shoreline Management Journal of Applied Phycology Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology Journal of Phycology Journal of Shellfish Research Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries ''Reviews in Fisheries Science]]. See also Aquaculture Fish farming Hydroponics Algaculture Oyster farming References Megakelp.com J. G. Ferreira, A.J.S. Hawkins, S.B. Bricker (2007) Management of productivity, environmental effects and profitability of shellfish aquaculture – The Farm Aquaculture Resource Management (FARM) model. Aquaculture, 264, 160-174. External links Longline Environment Worldfishcenter -provides info on cultivating certain marine organisms Web based aquaculture simulations for shellfish in estuaries and coastal systems: Simulation modelling for mussels, oysters and clams. Mariculture guidelines and best practices: A coastal management perspective on mariculture development by the University of Rhode Island Coastal Resources Center. | Mariculture |@lemmatized fish:12 cage:1 contain:1 salmon:1 loch:1 ailort:1 scotland:1 mariculture:5 specialized:1 branch:1 aquaculture:8 involve:1 cultivation:1 marine:8 organism:2 food:2 product:2 open:2 ocean:3 enclosed:1 section:1 tank:1 pond:2 raceway:1 fill:1 seawater:1 example:1 latter:1 farming:2 include:2 finfish:1 shellfish:5 e:2 g:3 prawn:2 oyster:3 seaweed:1 saltwater:1 non:1 produce:1 meal:1 nutrient:1 agar:1 jewelry:1 culture:1 pearls:1 cosmetic:2 sea:4 ranch:2 japanese:1 develop:1 process:1 free:2 call:1 ranching:1 principle:1 base:2 behavioral:1 conditioning:1 migratory:1 nature:1 certain:2 specie:2 fisherman:2 first:1 raise:2 hatchling:1 closely:1 knitted:1 net:3 harbor:1 sound:2 underwater:1 horn:2 feeding:1 young:1 old:1 enough:1 mature:1 spawn:1 season:1 return:1 birthplace:1 harvest:2 kelp:4 farm:6 least:1 two:1 way:1 grow:1 around:1 rope:1 anchor:1 floor:1 drift:1 away:1 coast:1 california:1 top:1 foot:1 natural:1 bed:1 boat:1 mower:1 provide:2 alginin:1 edible:1 material:1 use:1 ice:1 cream:1 industry:2 also:2 supply:1 dietary:1 supplement:1 grouper:1 seabass:1 snapper:1 pompano:1 crustaceans:1 abalone:1 scientific:2 literature:2 find:1 following:1 journal:7 apply:1 environmental:2 microbiology:1 research:2 science:2 resource:3 economics:1 shoreline:1 management:4 applied:1 phycology:2 experimental:1 biology:2 ecology:1 review:2 fishery:2 see:1 hydroponics:1 algaculture:1 reference:1 megakelp:1 com:1 j:2 ferreira:1 hawkins:1 b:1 bricker:1 productivity:1 effect:1 profitability:1 model:2 external:1 link:1 longline:1 environment:1 worldfishcenter:1 info:1 cultivate:1 web:1 simulation:2 estuary:1 coastal:3 system:1 mussel:1 clam:1 guideline:1 best:1 practice:1 perspective:1 development:1 university:1 rhode:1 island:1 center:1 |@bigram ice_cream:1 dietary_supplement:1 environmental_microbiology:1 external_link:1 rhode_island:1 |
4,365 | Emma_Goldman | Emma Goldman, circa 1911 Emma Goldman (June 27, 1869 – May 14, 1940) was an anarchist known for her political activism, writing and speeches. She played a pivotal role in the development of anarchist political philosophy in North America and Europe in the first half of the twentieth century. Born in Kovno in the Russian Empire (now Kaunas in Lithuania), Goldman emigrated to the US in 1885 and lived in New York City, where she joined the burgeoning anarchist movement. University of Illinois at Chicago Biography of Emma Goldman. UIC Library Emma Goldman Collection. Retrieved on December 13, 2008. Attracted to anarchism after the Haymarket affair, Goldman became a writer and a renowned lecturer on anarchist philosophy, women's rights, and social issues, attracting crowds of thousands. She and anarchist writer Alexander Berkman, her lover and lifelong friend, planned to assassinate Henry Clay Frick as an act of propaganda of the deed. Though Frick survived the attempt on his life, Berkman was sentenced to twenty-two years in prison. Goldman was imprisoned several times in the years that followed, for "inciting to riot" and illegally distributing information about birth control. In 1906, Goldman founded the anarchist journal Mother Earth. In 1917, Goldman and Berkman were sentenced to two years in jail for conspiring to "induce persons not to register" for the newly instated draft. After their release from prison, they were arrested—along with hundreds of others—and deported to Russia. Initially supportive of that country's Bolshevik revolution, Goldman quickly voiced her opposition to the Soviet use of violence and the repression of independent voices. In 1923, she wrote a book about her experiences, My Disillusionment in Russia. While living in England, Canada, and France, she wrote an autobiography called Living My Life. After the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, she traveled to Spain to support the anarchist revolution there. She died in Toronto on May 14, 1940. During her life, Goldman was lionized as a free-thinking "rebel woman" by admirers, and derided by critics as an advocate of politically motivated murder and violent revolution. Her writing and lectures spanned a wide variety of issues, including prisons, atheism, freedom of speech, militarism, capitalism, marriage, free love, and homosexuality. Although she distanced herself from first-wave feminism and its efforts toward women's suffrage, she developed new ways of incorporating gender politics into anarchism. After decades of obscurity, Goldman's iconic status was revived in the 1970s, when feminist and anarchist scholars rekindled popular interest in her life. Biography Family Emma Goldman's Orthodox Jewish family lived in the Lithuanian city of Kaunas (called Kovno at the time, part of the Russian Empire). Goldman, Living, p. 24. Goldman's mother Taube Bienowitch had been married before, to a man with whom she had two daughters – Helena in 1860 and Lena in 1862. When her first husband died of tuberculosis, Taube was devastated. Goldman later wrote: "Whatever love she had had died with the young man to whom she had been married at the age of fifteen." Goldman, Living, p. 447. Emma Goldman was born in Kaunas, part of modern-day Lithuania. Taube's second marriage was arranged by her family and, as Goldman puts it, "mismated from the first." Her second husband, Abraham Goldman, invested Taube's inheritance in a business that quickly failed. The ensuing hardship combined with the emotional distance of husband and wife to make the household a tense place for the children. When Taube became pregnant, Abraham hoped desperately for a son; a daughter, he believed, would serve as one more sign of failure. Drinnon, Rebel, p. 5. They eventually had three sons, but their first child together was a girl, Emma. The order of birth is unclear; Wexler (in Intimate, p. 13) notes that although Goldman writes of herself as her mother's fourth child, her brother Louis (who died at the age of six) was probably born after her. Emma Goldman was born on June 27, 1869. Her father used violence to punish his children, beating them when they disobeyed him. He used a whip only on Emma, the most rebellious of them. Chalberg, p. 13. Her mother provided scarce comfort, calling only rarely on Abraham to tone down his beatings. Drinnon, Rebel, p. 12. Goldman later speculated that her father's furious temper was at least partly a result of sexual frustration. Goldman's relationships with her sisters Lena and Helena were a study in contrasts. Helena, the oldest, provided the comfort they lacked from their mother; she filled Goldman's childhood with "whatever joy it had". Goldman, Living, p. 11. Lena, however, was distant and uncharitable. Wexler, Intimate, p. 12. The three sisters were joined by brothers Louis (who died at the age of six), Herman (in 1872), and Moishe (in 1879). Wexler, Intimate, pp. 13–14. Adolescence When Emma was a young girl, the Goldman family moved to the village of Papilė, where her father ran an inn. While her sisters worked, she became friends with a servant named Petrushka, who excited her "first erotic sensations". Goldman, Living, p. 20. Later in Papilė she witnessed a peasant being whipped with a knout in the street. This event traumatized her and contributed to her lifelong distaste for violent authority. Goldman, Living, p. 28. At the age of seven, Goldman moved with her family to the Prussian city of Königsberg (then part of the German Empire), and she enrolled in a Realschule. One teacher punished disobedient students – targeting Goldman in particular – by beating their hands with a ruler. Another teacher tried to molest his female students and was fired when Goldman fought back. She found a sympathetic mentor, however, in her German teacher, who loaned her books and even took her to an opera. A passionate student, Goldman passed the exam for admission into a gymnasium, but her religion teacher refused to provide a certificate of good behavior and she was unable to attend. Drinnon, Rebel, pp. 6–7. Nikolai Chernyshevsky's novel What Is to Be Done? was a powerful lifelong inspiration for Goldman. The family moved to the Russian city of Saint Petersburg, where her father opened one unsuccessful store after another. Their poverty forced the children to work, and Goldman took an assortment of jobs including one in a corset shop. Chalberg, p. 15. As a teenager Goldman begged her father to allow her to return to school, but instead he threw her French book into the fire and shouted: "Girls do not have to learn much! All a Jewish daughter needs to know is how to prepare gefilte fish, cut noodles fine, and give the man plenty of children." Goldman, Living, p. 12. Goldman pursued an independent education on her own, however, and soon began to study the political turmoil around her, particularly the Nihilists responsible for assassinating Alexander II of Russia. The ensuing turmoil intrigued Goldman, even though she did not fully understand it at the time. When she read Nikolai Chernyshevsky's novel What Is to Be Done? (1863), however, she found a role model in the protagonist Vera, who adopts a Nihilist philosophy and escapes her repressive family to live freely and organize a sewing cooperative. The book enthralled Goldman and remained a source of inspiration throughout her life. Wexler, Intimate, pp. 23–26. Her father, meanwhile, continued to insist on a domestic future for her, and he tried to arrange for her to be married at the age of fifteen. They fought about the issue constantly: he complained that she was becoming a "loose" woman, and she insisted that she would marry for love alone. Chalberg, p. 16. At the corset shop, she was forced to fend off unwelcome advances from Russian officers and other men. One persistent suitor took her into a hotel room and committed what Goldman called "violent contact"; Goldman, Living, p. 22. two biographers call it rape. Falk, Love, p. 14. She was stunned by the experience, overcome by "shock at the discovery that the contact between man and woman could be so brutal and painful." Goldman, Living, p. 23. Goldman felt that the encounter forever soured her interactions with men. Rochester In 1885 Helena made plans to move to New York to join her sister Lena and her husband. Goldman wanted to join her sister, but their father refused to allow it. Despite Helena's offer to pay for the trip, Abraham turned a deaf ear to their pleas. Desperate, Goldman threatened to throw herself into the Neva River if she could not go. He finally agreed, and on December 29, 1885, Helena and Emma arrived at New York's Castle Garden. Wexler, Intimate, p. 27. They moved into the Rochester home Lena had made with her husband Samuel. Fleeing the rising antisemitism of Saint Petersburg, their parents and brothers joined them a year later. Goldman began working as a seamstress, sewing overcoats for more than ten hours a day, earning two and a half dollars a week. She asked for a raise and was denied; she quit and took work at a smaller shop nearby. Wexler, Intimate, pp. 30–31. At her new job, Goldman met a fellow worker named Jacob Kershner, who shared her love for books, dancing, and traveling, as well as her frustration with the monotony of factory work. After four months they married in February 1887. Falk, Love, pp. 15–16. Once he moved in with Goldman's family, however, their relationship faltered. On their wedding night she discovered that he was impotent; they became emotionally and physically distant. Before long he became jealous and suspicious. She, meanwhile, was becoming more engaged with the political turmoil around her – particularly the fallout of the 1886 Haymarket affair in Chicago and the anti-authoritarian political philosophy of anarchism. Less than a year after the wedding, they were divorced; he begged her to return and threatened to poison himself if she did not. They reunited, but after three months she left once again. Her parents considered her behavior "loose" and refused to allow Goldman into their home. Drinnon, Rebel, pp. 15–17. Carrying her sewing machine in one hand and a bag with five dollars in the other, she left Rochester and headed southeast to New York City. Chalberg, p. 27. Most and Berkman On her first day in the city, Goldman met two men who would forever change her life. At Sachs's Café, a gathering place for radicals, she was introduced to Alexander Berkman, an anarchist who invited her to a public speech that evening. They went to hear Johann Most, editor of a radical publication called Die Freiheit and an advocate of "propaganda of the deed" – the use of violence to instigate change. Chalberg, pp. 27–28. She was impressed by his fiery oration, and he took her under his wing, training her in methods of public speaking. He encouraged her vigorously, telling her that she was "to take my place when I am gone." Goldman, Living, p. 40. One of her first public talks in support of "the Cause" was in Rochester. After convincing Helena not to tell their parents of her speech, Goldman found her mind a blank once on stage. Suddenly, something strange happened. In a flash I saw it—every incident of my three years in Rochester: the Garson factory, its drudgery and humiliation, the failure of my marriage, the Chicago crime.… I began to speak. Words I had never heard myself utter before came pouring forth, faster and faster. They came with passionate intensity…. The audience had vanished, the hall itself had disappeared; I was conscious only of my own words, of my ecstatic song. Goldman, Living, p. 51. Goldman enjoyed a decades-long relationship with her lover Alexander Berkman. Enchanted by the experience, she refined her public persona during subsequent engagements. Quickly, however, she found herself arguing with Most over her independence. After a momentous speech in Cleveland, she felt as though she had become "a parrot repeating Most's views" Goldman, Living, p. 52. and resolved to express herself on the stage. Upon her return in New York, Most became furious and told her: "Who is not with me is against me!" Goldman, Living, p. 54. She left Die Freiheit and joined with another publication, Die Autonomie. Wexler, Intimate, p. 53. Meanwhile, she had begun a friendship with Berkman, whom she affectionately called Sasha. Before long they became lovers and moved into a communal apartment with his cousin Modest "Fedya" Stein and Goldman's friend, Helen Minkin in rural Woodstock, Illinois. Wexler, Intimate, p. 57. Although their relationship had numerous difficulties, Goldman and Berkman would share a close bond for decades, united by their anarchist principles and commitment to personal equality. Wexler, Intimate, pp. 57–58. Homestead plot One of the first political moments that brought Berkman and Goldman together was the Homestead Strike. In June 1892, a steel plant in Homestead, Pennsylvania owned by Andrew Carnegie became the focus of national attention when talks between the Carnegie Steel Company and the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (AA) broke down. The factory's manager was Henry Clay Frick, a fierce opponent of the union. When a final round of talks failed at the end of June, management closed the plant and locked out the workers, who immediately went on strike. Strikebreakers were brought in and the company hired Pinkerton guards to protect them. On July 6 a fight broke out between three hundred Pinkerton guards and a crowd of armed union workers. During the twelve-hour gunfight, seven guards and nine strikers were killed. Wexler, Intimate, pp. 61–62. Goldman and Berkman believed that a retaliatory assassination of Carnegie Steel Company manager Henry Clay Frick (pictured) would "strike terror into the soul of his class" and "bring the teachings of Anarchism before the world". Quoted in Wexler, Intimate, p. 63. When a majority of the nation's newspapers came out in support of the strikers, Goldman and Berkman resolved to assassinate Frick, an action they expected would inspire the workers to revolt against the capitalist system. Berkman chose to carry out the assassination, and ordered Goldman to stay behind in order to explain his motives after he went to jail. He would be in charge of the deed; she of the word. Wexler, Intimate, pp. 63–65. Berkman tried and failed to make a bomb, then set off for Pittsburgh to buy a gun and a suit of decent clothes. Goldman, meanwhile, decided to help fund the scheme through prostitution. Remembering the character of Sonya in Fyodor Dostoevsky's novel Crime and Punishment (1866), she mused: "She had become a prostitute in order to support her little brothers and sisters…. Sensitive Sonya could sell her body; why not I?" Goldman, Living, p. 91. Once on the street, she caught the eye of a man who took her into a saloon, bought her a beer, gave her ten dollars, informed her she did not have "the knack", and told her to quit the business. She was "too astounded for speech". She wrote to Helena, claiming illness, and asked her for fifteen dollars. Drinnon, Rebel, p. 45. When he arrived in Homestead on July 23, Berkman gained access to Frick's office with a concealed handgun and shot Frick three times, then stabbed him in the legs. A group of workers – far from joining in his attentat – beat Berkman unconscious, and he was carried away by the police. Chalberg, pp. 42–43; Falk, Love, p. 25; Wexler, Intimate, p. 65. Berkman was convicted of attempted murder and sentenced to twenty-two years in prison; Goldman, Living, p. 106. his absence from her life was very difficult for Goldman. Wexler, Intimate, p. 65. Convinced Goldman was involved in the plot, police raided her apartment and – finding no evidence – pressured her landlord into evicting her. Worse, the attentat had failed to rouse the masses: workers and anarchists alike condemned Berkman's action. Johann Most, their former mentor, lashed out at Berkman and the assassination attempt. Furious at these attacks, Goldman brought a toy horsewhip to a public lecture and demanded, onstage, that Most explain his betrayal. He dismissed her, whereupon she struck him with the whip, broke it on her knee, and hurled the pieces at him. Wexler, Intimate, pp. 65–66. Goldman, Living, p. 105. She later regretted her assault, confiding to a friend: "At the age of twenty-three, one does not reason." Quoted in Wexler, Intimate, p. 66. "Inciting to riot" When the Panic of 1893 struck in the following year, the United States suffered one of its worst economic crises ever. By year's end, the unemployment rate was higher than twenty percent, "Panic of 1893". Ohio History Central. Ohio Historical Society, 2007. Retrieved on December 18, 2007. and "hunger demonstrations" sometimes gave way to riots. Goldman began speaking to crowds of frustrated men and women in New York. On August 21, she spoke to a crowd of nearly 3,000 people in Union Square, where she encouraged unemployed workers to take immediate action. Her exact words are unclear: undercover agents insist she ordered the crowd to "take everything … by force", Quoted in Chalberg, p. 46. while Goldman later recounted this message: "Well then, demonstrate before the palaces of the rich; demand work. If they do not give you work, demand bread. If they deny you both, take bread." Goldman, Living, p. 123. Later in court, Detective-Sergeant Charles Jacobs offered yet another version of her speech. Drinnon, Rebel, pp. 58–59. Goldman (shown here in Union Square, New York in 1916) urged unemployed workers to take direct action rather than depend on charity or government aid. A week later she was arrested in Philadelphia and returned to New York City for trial, charged with "inciting to riot". Wexler, Intimate, p. 76. During the train ride, Jacobs offered to drop the charges against her if she would inform on other radicals in the area. She responded by throwing a glass of ice water in his face. Drinnon, Rebel, p. 57. As she awaited trial, Goldman was visited by Nellie Bly, a reporter for the New York World. She spent two hours talking to Goldman, and wrote a positive article about the woman she described as a "modern Joan of Arc". Nellie Bly, "Nelly Bly Again: She Interviews Emma Goldman and Other Anarchists", New York World, September 17, 1893. Despite this positive publicity, the jury was persuaded by Jacobs' testimony and scared by Goldman's politics. The assistant District Attorney questioned Goldman about her anarchism, as well as her atheism; the judge spoke of her as "a dangerous woman". Drinnon, Rebel, p. 60. She was sentenced to one year in the Blackwell's Island Penitentiary. Once inside she suffered an attack of rheumatism and was sent to the infirmary; there she befriended a visiting doctor and began studying medicine. She also read dozens of books, including works by the American activist-writers Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau; novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne; poet Walt Whitman, and philosopher John Stuart Mill. Wexler, Intimate, p. 78. When she was released after ten months, a raucous crowd of nearly three thousand people greeted her at the Thalia Theater in New York City. She soon became swamped with requests for interviews and lectures. Wexler, Intimate, pp. 78–79. To make money, Goldman decided to pursue the medical work she had studied in prison. However, her preferred fields of specialization – midwifery and massage – were not available to nursing students in the US. Thus, she sailed to Europe, lecturing in London, Glasgow, and Edinburgh. She met with renowned anarchists like Errico Malatesta, Louise Michel, and Peter Kropotkin. In Vienna she received two diplomas and put them immediately to use back in the US. Alternating between lectures and midwifery, she conducted the first cross-country tour by an anarchist speaker. In November 1899 she returned to Europe, where she met the anarchist Hippolyte Havel, with whom she began a relationship. Together they went to France and helped organize the International Anarchist Congress on the outskirts of Paris. Wexler, Intimate, pp. 84–89. McKinley assassination On September 6, 1901, Leon Czolgosz, an unemployed factory worker and registered Republican with a history of mental illness, shot US President William McKinley twice during a public speaking event in Buffalo, New York. McKinley was hit in the breastbone and stomach; eight days later, he died. Chalberg, pp. 65–66. Czolgosz was arrested and interrogated around the clock. During interrogation he claimed to be an Anarchist and said he had been inspired to his action after attending a speech by Goldman. The authorities used this pretext to charge that she had planned the action. They tracked her to a residence in Chicago she shared with Havel and Abe and Mary Isaak, an anarchist couple. Drinnon, Rebel, p. 68. Chalberg, p. 73. Goldman was arrested, along with Abe Isaak, Havel, and ten other anarchists. Wexler, Intimate, p. 104. Leon Czolgosz insisted that Goldman had not guided his plan to assassinate US President William McKinley, but she was arrested and held for two weeks. Earlier, Czolgosz had tried but failed to become friends with Goldman and her companions. During a talk in Cleveland, Ohio, Czolgosz had approached Goldman and asked her advice on which books he should read. In July 1901, he had appeared at the Isaak house, asking a series of unusual questions. They assumed he was an infiltrator, like a number of police agents sent to spy on radical groups. They had remained distant from him, and Abe Isaak sent a notice to associates warning of "another spy". Wexler, Intimate, pp. 103–104. Although Czolgosz repeatedly denied Goldman's involvement, the police held her in close custody, subjecting her to what she called the "third degree". Goldman, Living, p. 300. She explained their distrust of him, and it was clear she had not had any significant contact with Czolgosz. No evidence was found linking Goldman to the attack, and she was eventually released after two weeks of detention. Before McKinley died, Goldman offered to provide nursing care, referring to him as "merely a human being". Quoted in Chalberg, p. 76. Czolgosz, despite considerable evidence of mental illness, was convicted of murder and executed. Drinnon, Rebel, p. 74. Throughout her detention and after her release, Goldman steadfastly refused to condemn Czolgosz' action, standing virtually alone in doing so. Friends and supporters – including Berkman – urged her to quit his cause. But Goldman defended Czolgosz as a "supersensitive being" Chalberg, p. 78. and chastised other anarchists for abandoning him. Many newspapers, meanwhile, declared the anarchist movement responsible for the murder. Wexler, Intimate, pp. 106–112. In the wake of these events, socialism gained support over anarchism among US radicals. McKinley's successor Theodore Roosevelt declared his intent to crack down "not only against anarchists, but against all active and passive sympathizers with anarchists". Quoted in Chalberg, p. 81. Mother Earth and Berkman's release After Czolgosz's execution, Goldman withdrew from the world. Scorned by her fellow anarchists, vilified by the press, and separated from her love, she retreated into anonymity and nursing. "It was bitter and hard to face life anew," she wrote later. Goldman, Living, p. 318. Using the name E. G. Smith, she vanished from public life and took on a series of private nursing jobs. Wexler, Intimate, p. 115. When the US Congress passed the Anarchist Exclusion Act, however, a new wave of activism rose to oppose it, carrying Goldman back into the movement. A coalition of people and organizations across the left end of the political spectrum opposed the law on grounds that it violated freedom of speech, and she had the nation's ear once again. When an English anarchist named John Turner was arrested under the Anarchist Exclusion Act and threatened with deportation, Goldman joined forces with the Free Speech League to champion his cause. Falk, Making Speech Free, p. 557. The league enlisted the aid of Clarence Darrow and Edgar Lee Masters, who took Turner's case to the US Supreme Court. Although Turner and the League lost, Goldman considered it a victory of propaganda. Chalberg, pp. 84–87. She had returned to anarchist activism, but it was taking its toll on her. "I never felt so weighed down," she wrote to Berkman. "I fear I am forever doomed to remain public property and to have my life worn out through the care for the lives of others." Quoted in Chalberg, p. 87. Goldman's Mother Earth magazine became a home to radical activists and literary free thinkers around the US. In 1906 Goldman decided to start a publication of her own, "a place of expression for the young idealists in arts and letters". Goldman, Living, p. 377. Mother Earth was staffed by a cadre of radical activists, including Hippolyte Havel, Max Baginski, and Leonard Abbott. In addition to publishing original works by its editors and anarchists around the world, Mother Earth reprinted selections from a variety of writers. These included the French philosopher Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Russian anarchist Peter Kropotkin, German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, and British writer Mary Wollstonecraft. Goldman wrote frequently about anarchism, politics, labor issues, atheism, sexuality, and feminism. Chalberg, pp. 88–91. Wexler, Intimate, pp. 121–130. On May 18 of the same year, Alexander Berkman was released from prison. Carrying a bouquet of roses, she met him on the platform and found herself "seized by terror and pity" Goldman, Living, p. 384. as she beheld his gaunt, pale form. Neither was able to speak; they returned to her home in silence. For weeks he struggled to readjust to life on the outside; an abortive speaking tour ended in failure, and in Cleveland he purchased a revolver with the intent of killing himself. Chalberg, p. 94. Drinnon, Rebel, pp. 97–98. He returned to New York, however, and learned that Goldman had been arrested with a group of activists meeting to reflect on Leon Czolgosz. Invigorated anew by this violation of freedom of assembly, he declared "My resurrection has come!" Quoted in Goldman, Living, p. 391. and set about securing their release. Drinnon, Rebel, p. 98. Berkman took the helm of Mother Earth in 1907, while Goldman toured the country to raise funds to keep it functional. Editing the magazine was a revitalizing experience for Berkman; his relationship with Goldman faltered, however, and he had an affair with a fifteen-year-old anarchist named Becky Edelsohn. Goldman was pained by his rejection of her, but considered it a consequence of his prison experience. Chalberg, p. 97. Later that year she served as a delegate from the US to the International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam. Anarchists and syndicalists from around the world gathered to sort out the tension between the two ideologies, but no decisive agreement was reached. Goldman returned to the US and continued speaking to large audiences. Wexler, Intimate, pp. 135–137. Reitman, essays, and birth control For the next ten years, Goldman traveled around the country nonstop, delivering lectures and agitating for anarchism. The coalitions formed in opposition to the Anarchist Exclusion Act had given her an appreciation for reaching out to those of other political persuasions. When the US Justice Department sent spies to observe, they reported the meetings as "packed". Wexler, Intimate, p. 166. Writers, journalists, artists, judges, and workers from across the spectrum spoke of her "magnetic power", her "convincing presence", her "force, eloquence, and fire". Wexler, Intimate, p. 168. In the spring of 1908 Goldman met and fell in love with Ben Reitman, the so-called "Hobo doctor". Having grown up in Chicago's tenderloin district, Reitman spent several years as a drifter before attaining a medical degree from the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Chicago. As a doctor, he attended to people suffering from poverty and disease – particularly venereal disease. He and Goldman began an affair; they shared a commitment to free love, but whereas Reitman took a variety of lovers, Goldman did not. She tried to reconcile her feelings of jealousy with a belief in freedom of the heart, but found it difficult. Wexler, Intimate, pp. 140–147. Goldman joined Margaret Sanger in crusading for women's access to birth control; both women were arrested for violating the Comstock Law. Two years later Goldman began feeling frustrated with lecture audiences. She yearned to "reach the few who really want to learn, rather than the many who come to be amused". Goldman, Anarchism, p. 49. Thus she collected a series of speeches and items she had written for Mother Earth and published a book called Anarchism and Other Essays. Covering a wide variety of topics, Goldman tries to represent "the mental and soul struggles of twenty-one years". In addition to a comprehensive look at anarchism and its criticisms, the book includes essays on patriotism, women's suffrage, marriage, and prisons. When Margaret Sanger, an advocate of access to contraception, coined the term "birth control" and disseminated information about various methods in the June 1914 issue of her magazine The Woman Rebel, she received aggressive support from Goldman. Sanger was arrested in August under the Comstock Law, which prohibited the dissemination of "obscene, lewd, or lascivious articles" Quoted in Wexler, Intimate, p. 210. – including information relating to birth control. Although they later split from Sanger over charges of insufficient support, Goldman and Reitman distributed copies of Sanger's pamphlet Family Limitation (along with a similar essay of Reitman's). In 1915 Goldman conducted a nationwide speaking tour in part to raise awareness about contraception options. Although the nation's attitude toward the topic seemed to be liberalizing, Goldman was arrested in February 1916 and charged with violation of the Comstock Law. Choosing not to pay a hundred-dollar fine, she spent two weeks in a prison workhouse, which she saw as an "opportunity" to reconnect with those rejected by society. Wexler, Intimate, pp. 211–215. World War I Although US President Woodrow Wilson was re-elected in 1916 under the slogan "He kept us out of the war", at the start of his second term he decided that Germany's continued deployment of unrestricted submarine warfare was sufficient cause for the US to enter World War I. Shortly afterward, Congress passed the Selective Service Act of 1917, which required all males aged 21–30 to register for military conscription. Goldman saw the decision as an exercise in militarist aggression, driven by capitalism. She declared in Mother Earth her intent to resist conscription, and to oppose US involvement in the war. Drinnon, Rebel, pp. 186–187; Wexler, Intimate, p. 230. Goldman was imprisoned for two years after opposing conscription in the US during World War I. To this end, she and Berkman organized the No Conscription League of New York, which proclaimed: "We oppose conscription because we are internationalists, antimilitarists, and opposed to all wars waged by capitalistic governments." Berkman, p. 155. The group became a vanguard for anti-draft activism, and chapters began to appear in other cities. When police began raiding the group's public events to find young men who had not registered for the draft, however, Goldman and others focused their efforts on spreading pamphlets and other written work. Drinnon, Rebel, pp. 186–187. In the midst of the nation's patriotic fervor, many elements of the political left refused to support the League's efforts. The Women's Peace Party, for example, ceased its opposition to the war once the US entered it. The Socialist Party of America took an official stance against US involvement, but supported Wilson in most of his activities. Chalberg, p. 129. On June 15, 1917, Goldman and Berkman were arrested during a raid of their offices which yielded "a wagon load of anarchist records and propaganda" for the authorities. The New York Times reported that Goldman asked to change into a more appropriate outfit, and emerged in a gown of "royal purple". Quoted in Wexler, Intimate, p. 232. The pair were charged with conspiracy to "induce persons not to register" Quoted in Chalberg, p. 134. under the newly enacted Espionage Act, and were held on US$25,000 bail each. Defending herself and Berkman during their trial, Goldman invoked the First Amendment, asking how the government could claim to fight for democracy abroad while suppressing free speech at home. We say that if America has entered the war to make the world safe for democracy, she must first make democracy safe in America. How else is the world to take America seriously, when democracy at home is daily being outraged, free speech suppressed, peaceable assemblies broken up by overbearing and brutal gangsters in uniform; when free press is curtailed and every independent opinion gagged? Verily, poor as we are in democracy, how can we give of it to the world? Trial and Speeches of Alexander Berkman and Emma Goldman in the United States District Court, in the City of New York, July, 1917 (New York: Mother Earth Publishing Association, 1917). The jury saw it differently, and found them guilty; Judge Julius Marshuetz Mayer imposed the maximum sentence two years' imprisonment, a $10,000 fine each, and the possibility of deportation after their release from prison. As she was transported to Missouri State Penitentiary (now Jefferson City Correctional Center), Goldman wrote to a friend: "Two years imprisonment for having made an uncompromising stand for one's ideal. Why that is a small price." Wexler, Intimate, p. 235–244. In prison she was assigned once again to work as a seamstress, under the eye of a "miserable gutter-snipe of a twenty-one-year-old boy paid to get results". Quoted in Chalberg, p. 141. She met the socialist Kate Richards O'Hare, who had also been imprisoned under the Espionage Act. Although they differed on political strategy – O'Hare believed in voting to achieve state power – the two women came together to agitate for better conditions among prisoners. Chalberg, pp. 141–142. Goldman also met and became friends with Gabriella Segata Antolini, an anarchist and follower of Luigi Galleani. Antolini had been arrested transporting a satchel filled with dynamite on a Chicago-bound train. She had refused to cooperate with authorities, and was sent to prison for fourteen months. Working together to make life better for the other inmates, the three women became known as "The Trinity". Goldman was released on September 27, 1919. Wexler, Intimate, p. 253–263. Russia When Goldman and Berkman were released, the first US Red Scare was in full swing; the Bolshevik-led Russian Revolution of 1917 had combined with wartime anxiety to produce a climate of hostility toward radicals and non-citizens. The US Department of Justice's General Intelligence Division, headed by J. Edgar Hoover and under the direction of Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer, conducted a series of raids to arrest radicals. In a memorandum prepared while they were in prison, Hoover wrote: "Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman are, beyond doubt, two of the most dangerous anarchists in this country and [a] return to the community will result in undue harm." Quoted in Drinnon, Rebel, p. 215. Although her marriage to Jacob Kershner arguably provided her with legitimate US citizenship, the government invoked the 1918 Anarchist Exclusion Act and deported both Goldman and Berkman to Russia, along with over two hundred others. Wexler, Intimate, pp. 266–274. Goldman was so disenchanted by her experiences in the Soviet Union that in 1923 she wrote My Disillusionment in Russia. Goldman had viewed the Bolshevik revolution as a positive step when it first took place. She wrote in Mother Earth that despite its dependence on Communist government, it represented "the most fundamental, far-reaching and all-embracing principles of human freedom and of economic well-being". Quoted in Wexler, Intimate, p. 243. By the time she and her fellow deportees neared Europe, however, she expressed fears about what was to come. She was worried about the ongoing Russian Civil War, and the possibility of being seized by anti-Bolshevik forces. The state, anti-capitalist though it was, also posed a threat. "I could never in my life work within the confines of the State," she wrote to her niece, "Bolshevist or otherwise." Quoted in Wexler, Exile, p. 17. These fears were justified, as she quickly discovered. Days after returning to Petrograd (Saint Petersburg), she was shocked to hear a party official refer to free speech as a "bourgeois superstition". Quoted in Chalberg, p. 150. As she and Berkman traveled around the country, they found repression, mismanagement, and corruption instead of the equality and worker empowerment they had dreamed of. Those who questioned the government were demonized as counter-revolutionaries, and workers labored under severe conditions. They met with Vladimir Lenin, who assured them that government suppression of press liberties was justified. He told them: "There can be no free speech in a revolutionary period." Quoted in Drinnon, Rebel, p. 235. Berkman was more willing to forgive the government's actions in the name of "historical necessity", but he eventually joined Goldman in opposing the Soviet state's authority. Drinnon, Rebel, pp. 236–237. In March 1921, strikes erupted in Petrograd when workers took to the streets demanding better food rations and more union autonomy. Goldman and Berkman felt a responsibility to support the strikers, stating: "To remain silent now is impossible, even criminal." Quoted in Drinnon, Rebel, p. 237. The unrest spread to the port town of Kronstadt, where a military response was ordered. In the fighting that ensued, six hundred sailors were killed; two thousand more were arrested; and thousands of Soviet troops died. In the wake of these events, Goldman and Berkman decided there was no future in the country for them. "More and more," she wrote, "we have come to the conclusion that we can do nothing here. And as we can not keep up a life of inactivity much longer we have decided to leave." Wexler, Exile, pp. 47–49. In December 1921 they left the country and went to the Latvian capital city of Riga. The US commissioner in that city wired officials in Washington DC, who began requesting information from other governments about the couple's activities. After a short trip to Stockholm, they moved to Berlin for several years; during this time she agreed to write a series of articles about her time in Russia for Joseph Pulitzer's newspaper, the New York World. These were later collected and published in book form as My Disillusionment in Russia (1923) and My Further Disillusionment in Russia (1924). The titles of these books were added by the publishers to be scintillating and Goldman protested, albeit in vain. Wexler, Exile, pp. 56–58. England, Canada, and France Goldman found it difficult to acclimate to the German leftist community. Communists despised her outspokenness about Soviet repression; liberals derided her radicalism. While Berkman remained in Berlin helping Russian exiles, she moved to London in September 1924. Upon her arrival, the novelist Rebecca West arranged a reception dinner for her, attended by philosopher Bertrand Russell, novelist H. G. Wells, and more than two hundred others. When she spoke of her dissatisfaction with the Soviet government, the audience was shocked. Some left the gathering; others berated her for prematurely criticizing the Communist experiment. Chalberg, pp. 161–162. Later, in a letter, Russell declined to support her efforts at systemic change in the Soviet Union and ridiculed her anarchist idealism. Quoted in Wexler, Exile, p. 96. The 1927 executions of Italian anarchists Nicola Sacco (left) and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were troubling for Goldman, living alone in Canada at the time. In 1925, the spectre of deportation loomed again, but a Scottish anarchist named James Colton offered to marry her and provide British citizenship. Although they were only distant acquaintances, she accepted and they were married on June 27, 1925. Her new status gave her peace of mind, and allowed her to travel to France and Canada. Falk, Love, pp. 209–210. Life in London was stressful for Goldman; she wrote to Berkman: "I am awfully tired and so lonely and heartsick. It is a dreadful feeling to come back here from lectures and find not a kindred soul, no one who cares whether one is dead or alive." Quoted in Wexler, Exile, p. 111. She worked on analytical studies of drama, expanding on the work she had published in 1914. But the audiences were "awful" and she never finished her second book on the subject. Wexler, Exile, p. 115. Goldman traveled to Canada in 1927, just in time to receive news of the impending executions of Italian anarchists Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti in Boston. Angered by the many irregularities of the case, she saw it as another travesty of justice in the US. She longed to join the mass demonstrations in Boston; memories of the Haymarket affair overwhelmed her, compounded by her isolation. "Then," she wrote, "I had my life before me to take up the cause for those killed. Now I have nothing." Quoted in Chalberg, p. 164. Wexler, Exile, p. 122. In 1928 she began writing her autobiography, with the support of a group of admirers, including journalist H. L. Mencken, poet Edna St. Vincent Millay, novelist Theodore Dreiser and art collector Peggy Guggenheim, who raised $4,000 for her. Mary V. Dearborn, Mistress of Modernism: The Life of Peggy Guggenheim, Houghton Mifflin, 2004, pp.61-62 She secured a cottage in the French coastal city of Saint-Tropez and spent two years recounting her life. Berkman offered sharply critical feedback, which she eventually incorporated at the price of a strain on their relationship. Wexler, Exile, p. 135. Goldman intended the book, Living My Life, as a single volume for a price the working class could afford (she urged no more than $5.00); her publisher Alfred A. Knopf, however, released it as two volumes sold together for $7.50. Goldman was furious, but unable to force a change. Due in large part to the Great Depression, sales were sluggish despite keen interest from libraries around the US. Chalberg, pp. 165–166. Critical reviews were generally enthusiastic; the New York Times, New Yorker, and Saturday Review of Literature all listed it as one of the year's top non-fiction books. Wexler, Exile, p. 154. In 1933 Goldman received permission to lecture in the United States under the condition that she speak only about drama and her autobiography – but not current political events. She returned to New York on February 2, 1934 to generally positive press coverage – except from Communist publications. Soon she was surrounded by admirers and friends, besieged with invitations to talks and interviews. Her visa expired in May, and she went to Toronto in order to file another request to visit the US. However, this second attempt was denied. She stayed in Canada, writing articles for US publications. Wexler, Exile, pp. 158–164. In February and March 1936 Berkman underwent a pair of prostate gland operations. Recuperating in Nice and cared for by his companion, Emmy Eckstein, he missed Goldman's sixty-seventh birthday in Saint-Tropez in June. She wrote in sadness, but he never read the letter; she received a call in the middle of the night that Berkman was in great distress. She left for Nice immediately but when she arrived that morning, Goldman found that he had shot himself and was in a nearly comatose paralysis. He died the next day. Drinnon, Rebel, pp. 298–300. Spanish Civil War In July 1936, the Spanish Civil War started after an attempted coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of the Second Spanish Republic. At the same time, the Spanish anarchists, fighting against the fascist forces, started an anarchist revolution. Goldman was invited to Barcelona and in an instant, as she wrote to her niece, "the crushing weight that was pressing down on my heart since Sasha's death left me as by magic". Drinnon, Rebel, pp. 301–302. She was welcomed by the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI) organizations, and for the first time in her life lived in a community run by and for anarchists, according to true anarchist principles. "In all my life," she wrote later, "I have not met with such warm hospitality, comradeship and solidarity." Quoted in Wexler, p. 232. After touring a series of collectives in the province of Huesca, she told a group of workers: "Your revolution will destroy forever [the notion] that anarchism stands for chaos." Quoted in Drinnon, Rebel, p. 303. She began editing the weekly CNT-FAI Information Bulletin and responded to English-language mail. Wexler, Exile, p. 205. Goldman edited the English-language Bulletin of the Anarcho-syndicalist organizations Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI) during the Spanish Civil War. Goldman began to worry about the future of Spain's anarchism when the CNT-FAI joined a coalition government in 1937 – against the core anarchist principle of abstaining from state structures – and, more distressingly, made repeated concessions to Communist forces in the name of uniting against fascism. She wrote that cooperating with Communists in Spain was "a denial of our comrades in Stalin's concentration camps". Quoted in Wexler, Exile, p. 209. Russia, meanwhile, refused to send weapons to anarchist forces, and disinformation campaigns were being waged against the anarchists across Europe and the US. Her faith in the movement unshaken, Goldman returned to London as an official representative of the CNT-FAI. Wexler, Exile, pp. 209–210. Delivering lectures and giving interviews, Goldman enthusiastically supported the Spanish anarcho-syndicalists. She wrote regularly for Spain and the World, a biweekly newspaper focusing on the civil war. In May 1937, however, Communist-led forces attacked anarchist strongholds and broke up agrarian collectives. Newspapers in England and elsewhere accepted the timeline of events offered by the Second Spanish Republic at face value. British journalist George Orwell, present for the crackdown, wrote: "[T]he accounts of the Barcelona riots in May … beat everything I have ever seen for lying." Quoted in Wexler, Exile, p. 216. Goldman returned to Spain in September, but the CNT-FAI appeared to her like people "in a burning house". Worse, anarchists and other radicals around the world refused to support their cause. Wexler, Exile, p. 222. The Nationalist forces declared victory in Spain just before she returned to London. Frustrated by England's repressive atmosphere – which she called "more fascist than the fascists" Quoted in Wexler, p. 226. – she returned to Canada in 1939. Her service to the anarchist cause in Spain was not forgotten, however. On her seventieth birthday, the former Secretary-General of the CNT-FAI, Mariano Vàzquez, sent a message to her from Paris, praising her for her contributions and naming her as "our spiritual mother". She called it "the most beautiful tribute I have ever received". Both quoted in Wexler, Exile, p. 232. Final years Goldman's grave in German Waldheim Cemetery, near those of the anarchists executed for the Haymarket affair. The year on the stone (1939) is incorrect. As the events preceding World War II began to unfold in Europe, Goldman reiterated her opposition to wars waged by governments. "[M]uch as I loathe Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin and Franco," she wrote to a friend, "I would not support a war against them and for the democracies which, in the last analysis, are only Fascist in disguise." Quoted in Wexler, Exile, p. 236. She felt that England and France had missed their opportunity to oppose fascism, and that the coming war would only result in "a new form of madness in the world". This position was vastly unpopular, as Hitler's attacks on Jewish communities reverberated throughout the Jewish diaspora. Death On Saturday, February 17, 1940, Goldman suffered a debilitating stroke. She became paralyzed on her right side, and although her hearing was unaffected, she could not speak. As one friend described it: "Just to think that here was Emma, the greatest orator in America, unable to utter one word." Quoted in Wexler, Exile, p. 240. For three months she improved slightly, receiving visitors and on one occasion gesturing to her address book to signal that a friend might find friendly contacts during a trip to Mexico. She suffered another stroke on May 8, however, and on May 14 she died in Toronto, Canada. Wexler, pp. 240–241. The US Immigration and Naturalization Service allowed her body to be brought back to the United States, and she was buried in Chicago's German Waldheim Cemetery with other labor activists and radicals, near the graves of those executed after the Haymarket affair. Drinnon, Rebel, pp. 312–313. Philosophy Goldman spoke and wrote extensively on a wide variety of issues. While she rejected orthodoxy and fundamentalist thinking, she was an important contributor to several fields of modern political philosophy. She was influenced by many diverse thinkers and writers, including Mikhail Bakunin, Henry David Thoreau, Peter Kropotkin, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nikolai Chernyshevsky, and Mary Wollstonecraft. Another philosopher who influenced Goldman was Friedrich Nietzsche. In her autobiography she wrote: "Nietzsche was not a social theorist, but a poet, a rebel, and innovator. His aristocracy was neither of birth nor of purse; it was the spirit. In that respect Nietzsche was an anarchist, and all true anarchists were aristocrats." Goldman, Living, 194. Anarchism Anarchism was central to Goldman's view of the world and she is today considered one of the most important figures in the history of anarchism. First drawn to it during the persecution of anarchists after the 1886 Haymarket affair, she wrote and spoke regularly on behalf of anarchism. In the title essay of her book Anarchism and Other Essays, she wrote:Anarchism, then, really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion; the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property; liberation from the shackles and restraint of government. Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth; an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life, according to individual desires, tastes, and inclinations. Goldman, Anarchism, p. 62. Goldman's anarchism was intensely personal. She believed it was necessary for anarchist thinkers to live their beliefs, demonstrating their convictions with every action and word. "I don't care if a man's theory for tomorrow is correct," she once wrote. "I care if his spirit of today is correct." Quoted in Wexler, Intimate, p. 92. Anarchism and free association were to her logical responses to the confines of government control and capitalism. "It seems to me that these are the new forms of life," she wrote, "and that they will take the place of the old, not by preaching or voting, but by living them." At the same time, she believed that the movement on behalf of human liberty must be staffed by liberated humans. While dancing among fellow anarchists one evening, she was chided by an associate for her carefree demeanor. In her autobiography Goldman wrote:I told him to mind his own business, I was tired of having the Cause constantly thrown in my face. I did not believe that a Cause which stood for a beautiful ideal, for anarchism, for release and freedom from conventions and prejudice, should demand denial of life and joy. I insisted that our Cause could not expect me to behave as a nun and that the movement should not be turned into a cloister. If it meant that, I did not want it. "I want freedom, the right to self-expression, everybody's right to beautiful, radiant things." Goldman, Living, p. 56. Capitalism Goldman believed that the economic system of capitalism was inimical to human liberty. "The only demand that property recognizes," she wrote in Anarchism and Other Essays, "is its own gluttonous appetite for greater wealth, because wealth means power; the power to subdue, to crush, to exploit, the power to enslave, to outrage, to degrade." Goldman, Anarchism, p. 54. She also argued that capitalism dehumanized workers, "turning the producer into a mere particle of a machine, with less will and decision than his master of steel and iron." Originally opposed to anything less than complete revolution, Goldman was challenged during one talk by an elderly worker in the front row. In her autobiography, she wrote:He said that he understood my impatience with such small demands as a few hours less a day, or a few dollars more a week.… But what were men of his age to do? They were not likely to live to see the ultimate overthrow of the capitalist system. Were they also to forgo the release of perhaps two hours a day from the hated work? That was all they could hope to see realized in their lifetime.Goldman realized that smaller efforts for improvement such as higher wages and shorter hours could be part of a social revolution. Tactics Among the tactics that Goldman endorsed was targeted violence. Early in her career Goldman believed that the use of violence, while distasteful, could be effective in achieving a greater good. She advocated propaganda of the deed – attentat, or violence carried out to encourage the masses to revolt. She supported her partner Alexander Berkman's attempt to kill industrialist Henry Clay Frick, and even begged him to allow her to participate. Goldman, Living, p. 88. She believed that Frick's actions during the Homestead strike were reprehensible and that his murder would produce a positive result for working people. "Yes," she wrote later in her autobiography, "the end in this case justified the means." While she never gave explicit approval of Leon Czolgosz's assassination of U.S. President William McKinley, she defended his ideals and believed actions like his were a natural consequence of repressive institutions. As she wrote in "The Psychology of Political Violence": "the accumulated forces in our social and economic life, culminating in an act of violence, are similar to the terrors of the atmosphere, manifested in storm and lightning." Goldman, Anarchism, p. 79. Her experiences in Russia led her to reassess her earlier belief that revolutionary ends justified violent means. The repression and authoritarian control of the Soviet Union caused a radical shift in her perspective. Indeed, by 1923 she had nearly reversed her position. In the afterword to My Disillusionment in Russia, she wrote: "There is no greater fallacy than the belief that aims and purposes are one thing, while methods and tactics are another.… The means employed become, through individual habit and social practice, part and parcel of the final purpose…." Goldman, Disillusionment, pp. 260–261. Nevertheless, she viewed the state as essentially and inevitably a tool of control and domination. As a result, Goldman believed that voting was useless at best and dangerous at worst. Voting, she wrote, provided an illusion of participation while masking the true structures of decision-making. Instead, Goldman advocated targeted resistance in the form of strikes, protests, and "direct action against the invasive, meddlesome authority of our moral code". Wexler, Intimate, p. 91. She maintained an anti-voting position even when many anarcho-syndicalists in 1930s Spain voted for the formation of a liberal republic. Goldman wrote that any power anarchists wielded as a voting bloc should instead be used to strike across the country. Wexler, Exile, p. 167. She disagreed with the movement for women's suffrage, which demanded the right of women to vote. In her essay "Woman Suffrage", she ridicules the idea that women's involvement would infuse the democratic state with a more just orientation: "As if women have not sold their votes, as if women politicians cannot be bought!" Goldman, Anarchism, p. 205. She agreed with the suffragists' assertion that women are equal to men, but disagreed that their participation alone would make the state more just. "To assume, therefore, that she would succeed in purifying something which is not susceptible of purification, is to credit her with supernatural powers." Goldman, Anarchism, p. 198. Feminism Although she was hostile to first-wave feminism and its suffragist goals, Goldman advocated passionately for the rights of women, and is today heralded as a founder of anarcha-feminism, which challenges patriarchy as a hierarchy to be resisted alongside state power and class divisions. Marshall, p. 409. In 1897 she wrote: "I demand the independence of woman, her right to support herself; to live for herself; to love whomever she pleases, or as many as she pleases. I demand freedom for both sexes, freedom of action, freedom in love and freedom in motherhood." Quoted in Wexler, Intimate, p. 94. A nurse by training, she was an early advocate for educating women concerning contraception. Like many contemporary feminists, she saw abortion as a tragic consequence of social conditions, and birth control as a positive alternative. Goldman was also an advocate of free love, and a strong critic of marriage. She saw early feminists as confined in their scope and bounded by social forces of Puritanism and capitalism. She wrote: "We are in need of unhampered growth out of old traditions and habits. The movement for women's emancipation has so far made but the first step in that direction." Goldman, Anarchism, p. 224. See generally Haaland; Goldman, "The Traffic in Women"; Goldman, "On Love". Other issues As an anarchist, Goldman championed numerous human rights causes, particularly the issue of free speech. Widely persecuted for her advocacy of anarchism and opposition to World War I, Goldman was active in the early 20th century free speech movement, seeing freedom of expression as a fundamental necessity for achieving social change. See generally Living My Life. See Geoffrey R. Stone, Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime, From the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism (2004), pp. 139–152 (discussing persecution of Goldman and other anti-war activists, and the passage of the Espionage Act of 1917). Falk, Making Speech Free. David M. Rabban, Free Speech In Its Forgotten Years (1997). Her outspoken championship of her ideals, in the face of persistent arrests, inspired Roger Baldwin, one of the founders of the American Civil Liberties Union. Christopher M. Finan, From the Palmer Raids to the Patriot Act: A History of the Fight for Free Speech in America, p.18. Another issue that Goldman frequently addressed was criminal justice. She was a passionate critic of the prison system and viewed crime as a natural outgrowth of an unjust economic system. In her essay "Prisons: A Social Crime and Failure", she quotes liberally from the nineteenth-century authors Fyodor Dostoevsky and Oscar Wilde, and writes: "Year after year the gates of prison hells return to the world an emaciated, deformed, will-less, shipwrecked crew of humanity, with the Cain mark on their foreheads, their hopes crushed, all their natural inclinations thwarted. With nothing but hunger and inhumanity to greet them, these victims soon sink back into crime as the only possibility of existence." Goldman, Anarchism, p. 120. Goldman was also an outspoken critic of prejudice against homosexuals. Her belief that social liberation should extend to gays and lesbians was virtually unheard of at the time, even among anarchists. As Magnus Hirschfeld wrote, "she was the first and only woman, indeed the first and only American, to take up the defense of homosexual love before the general public." Goldman, Emma (1923). "Offener Brief an den Herausgeber der Jahrbücher über Louise Michel" with a preface by Magnus Hirschfeld. Jahrbuch für sexuelle Zwischenstufen 23: 70. Translated from German by James Steakley. Goldman's original letter in English is not known to be extant. In numerous speeches and letters she defended the right of gays and lesbians to love as they pleased and condemned the fear and stigma associated with homosexuality. As Goldman wrote in a letter to Hirschfeld, "It is a tragedy, I feel, that people of a different sexual type are caught in a world which shows so little understanding for homosexuals and is so crassly indifferent to the various gradations and variations of gender and their great significance in life." A committed atheist, Goldman viewed religion as another instrument of control and domination. Her essay "The Philosophy of Atheism" quotes Bakunin at length on the subject, and adds:Consciously or unconsciously, most theists see in gods and devils, heaven and hell, reward and punishment, a whip to lash the people into obedience, meekness and contentment.… The philosophy of Atheism expresses the expansion and growth of the human mind. The philosophy of theism, if we can call it a philosophy, is static and fixed. In essays like "The Hypocrisy of Puritanism" and a speech entitled "The Failure of Christianity", Goldman made more than a few enemies among religious communities by attacking their moralistic attitudes and efforts to control human behavior. She blamed Christianity for "the perpetuation of a slave society", arguing that it dictated individuals' actions on Earth and offered poor people a false promise of a plentiful future in heaven. Goldman, "The Failure of Christianity". Mother Earth, April 1913. She was also critical of Zionism, which she saw as another failed experiment in state control. Wexler, Exile, p. 41. Legacy Goldman was well-known during her life, described as—among other things—"the most dangerous woman in America". After her death and through the middle part of the 20th century, her fame faded. Scholars and historians of anarchism viewed her as a great speaker and activist, but did not regard her as a philosophical or theoretical thinker on par with, for instance, Kropotkin. Marshall, pp. 396–401. Goldman's image, often accompanying a popular paraphrase of her ideas—"If I can't dance, I don't want to be in your revolution"—has been reproduced on countless walls, garments, stickers, and posters as an icon of freedom. In 1970, Dover Press reissued Goldman's biography, Living My Life, and in 1972, feminist writer Alix Kates Shulman issued a collection of Goldman's writing and speeches, Red Emma Speaks. These works brought Goldman's life and writings to a larger audience, and she was in particular lionized by the women's movement of the late twentieth century. In 1973 Shulman was asked by a printer friend for a quotation by Goldman for use on a t-shirt. She sent him the selection from Living My Life about "the right to self-expression, everybody's right to beautiful, radiant things"; the printer created a paraphrase that has become one of Goldman's most famous quotations, even though she herself probably never said or wrote it: "If I can't dance I don't want to be in your revolution." Shulman, Alix Kates. "Dances with Feminists". Women's Review of Books, Vol. IX, no. 3. December 1991. Available at the Emma Goldman Papers. Retrieved on December 13, 2007. Variations of this saying have appeared on thousands of t-shirts, buttons, posters, bumper stickers, coffee mugs, hats, and other items. Wexler, Exile, p. 1. Although the words are not explicitly Goldman's own, they capture the spirit of her belief in personal liberty and self-expression. The women's movement of the 1970s that "rediscovered" Goldman was accompanied by a resurgent anarchist movement, beginning in the late 1960s, which also reinvigorated scholarly attention to earlier anarchists. The growth of feminism also initiated some reevaluation of Goldman's philosophical work, with scholars pointing out the significance of Goldman's contributions to anarchist thought in her time. Goldman's belief in the value of aesthetics, for example, can be seen in the later influences of anarchism and the arts. Similarly, Goldman is now given credit for significantly influencing and broadening the scope of anarchist activism to sexual liberty, reproductive rights, and freedom of expression. Marshall, pp. 408–409. Goldman has been depicted in numerous works of fiction over the years, perhaps most notably by Maureen Stapleton, who won an Academy Award for her role as Goldman in Reds. Plays depicting Goldman's life include Howard Zinn's Emma; Martin Duberman's Mother Earth (1991); Jessica Litwak's Emma Goldman: Love, Anarchy, and Other Affairs (Goldman's relationship with Berkman and her arrest in connection with McKinley's assassination); Lynn Rogoff's Love Ben, Love Emma (Goldman's relationship with Reitman); Lynn Rogoff at doollee.com: The Playwrights Database and Carol Bolt's Red Emma. Wexler, Exile, p. 249. Ethel Mannin's 1941 novel Red Rose is also based on Goldman's Life. Goldman has been honored by a number of organizations named in her memory. The Emma Goldman Clinic, a women's health center located in Iowa City, Iowa selected Goldman as a namesake "in recognition of her challenging spirit." "About Us". The Emma Goldman Clinic. 2007. Retrieved on December 15, 2007. Red Emma's Bookstore Coffeehouse, an infoshop in Baltimore, Maryland adopted her name out of their belief "in the ideas and ideals that she fought for her entire life: free speech, sexual and racial equality and independence, the right to organize in our jobs and in our own lives, ideas and ideals that we continue to fight for, even today". Works Goldman was a prolific author, penning countless pamphlets and articles on a diverse range of subjects. She also authored six books, including her autobiography, Living My Life, and a biography of fellow anarchist Voltairine de Cleyre. Books by Goldman Anarchism and Other Essays. New York: Mother Earth Publishing Association, 1910. The Social Significance of the Modern Drama. Boston: Gorham Press, 1914. My Disillusionment in Russia. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1923. My Further Disillusionment in Russia. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1924. Living My Life. New York: Knopf, 1931. Voltairine de Cleyre. Berkeley Heights, N.J.: Oriole Press, 1932. Edited collections Red Emma Speaks: Selected Writings and Speeches. New York: Random House, 1972. ISBN 0-394-47095-8 Emma Goldman: A Documentary History Of The American Years, Volume 1 - Made for America, 1890-1901. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003. ISBN 0-520-08670-8. Emma Goldman: A Documentary History Of The American Years, Volume 2 - Making Speech Free, 1902-1909. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. ISBN 0-520-22569-4. Notes References Avrich, Paul. The Haymarket Tragedy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984. ISBN 0-691-04711-1. Berkman, Alexander. Life of an Anarchist: The Alexander Berkman Reader. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows Press, 1992. ISBN 1-888363-17-7. Chalberg, John. Emma Goldman: American Individualist. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 1991. ISBN 0-673-52102-8. Drinnon, Richard. Rebel in Paradise: A Biography of Emma Goldman. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. . Drinnon, Richard and Anna Maria, eds. Nowhere At Home: Letters from Exile of Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman. New York: Schocken Books, 1975. . Falk, Candace, et al. Emma Goldman: A Documentary History Of The American Years, Volume 1 - Made for America, 1890-1901. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003. ISBN 0-520-08670-8. Falk, Candace, et al. Emma Goldman: A Documentary History Of The American Years, Volume 2 - Making Speech Free, 1902-1909. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. ISBN 0-520-22569-4. Falk, Candace Serena. Love, Anarchy, and Emma Goldman. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-8135-1512-2. Glassgold, Peter, ed. Anarchy! An Anthology of Emma Goldman's Mother Earth. Washington, D.C.: Counterpoint, 2001. ISBN 1-58243-040-3. Goldman, Emma. Anarchism and Other Essays. 3rd ed. 1917. New York: Dover Publications Inc., 1969. ISBN 0-486-22484-8. Goldman, Emma. Living My Life. 1931. New York: Dover Publications Inc., 1970. ISBN 0-486-22543-7. Goldman, Emma. My Disillusionment in Russia. 1923. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1970. . Goldman, Emma. Red Emma Speaks. ed. Alix Kates Shulman. New York: Random House, 1972. ISBN 0-394-47095-8. Goldman, Emma. The Social Significance of Modern Drama. 1914. New York: Applause Theatre Book Publishers, 1987. ISBN 0-936839-61-9. Goldman, Emma. The Traffic in Women, and Other Essays on Feminism. Albion, CA: Times Change Press, 1970. ISBN 0-878-10001-6. Goldman, Emma. The Tragedy of Woman's Emancipation. New York: Mother Earth Publishing Association, 1906. Goldman, Emma. Vision on Fire: Emma Goldman on the Spanish Revolution. ed. David Porter. New Paltz, NY: Commonground Press, 1983. ISBN 0-9610348-2-3. Haaland, Bonnie. Emma Goldman: Sexuality and the Impurity of the State. Montréal, New York, London: Black Rose Books, 1993. ISBN 1-895431-64-6. Marsh, Margaret S. Anarchist Women 1870-1920. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1981. ISBN 0-877-22202-9. Marshall, Peter. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: HarperCollins, 1992. ISBN 0-00-217855-9. Moritz, Theresa. The World's Most Dangerous Woman: A New Biography of Emma Goldman. Vancouver: Subway Books, 2001. ISBN 0-9681660-7-5. Solomon, Martha. Emma Goldman. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1987. ISBN 0-8057-7494-7. Weiss, Penny A. and Loretta Kensinger, eds. Feminist Interpretations of Emma Goldman. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2007. ISBN 0271029765. Wexler, Alice. Emma Goldman: An Intimate Life. New York: Pantheon Books, 1984. ISBN 0-394-52975-8. Republished as Emma Goldman in America. Boston: Beacon Press, 1984. ISBN 0-8070-7000-3. Wexler, Alice. Emma Goldman in Exile: From the Russian Revolution to the Spanish Civil War. Boston: Beacon Press, 1989. ISBN 0-8070-7004-1. External links Emma Goldman Papers Project at UC Berkeley My Disillusionment in Russia by Emma Goldman Emma Goldman "Women of Valor" exhibit at the Jewish Women's Archive Extracts from My Further Disillusionment with Russia (1924) Emma Goldman Papers. 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4,366 | Momentum | Title page of the 1st edition of Isaac Newton's Principia defining the laws of motion. In classical mechanics, momentum (pl. momenta; unit kg·m/s, or, equivalently, N·s) is the product of the mass and velocity of an object (p = mv). For more accurate measures of momentum, see the section "modern definitions of momentum" on this page. It is sometimes referred to as linear momentum to distinguish it from the related subject of angular momentum. Linear momentum is a vector quantity, since it has a direction as well as a magnitude. Angular momentum is a pseudovector quantity because it gains an additional sign flip under an improper rotation. The total momentum of any group of objects remains the same unless outside forces act on the objects (law of conservation of momentum). Momentum is a conserved quantity, meaning that the total momentum of any closed system (one not affected by external forces) cannot change. This law is also true in special relativity. History of the concept mōmentum was not merely the motion, which was mōtus, but was the power residing in a moving object, captured by today's mathematical definitions. A mōtus, "movement", was a stage in any sort of change, while velocitas, "swiftness", captured only speed. The Romans, due to limitations inherent in the Roman numeral system, were unable to go further with the perception. The concept of momentum in classical mechanics was originated by a number of great thinkers and experimentalists. The first of these was Ibn Sina (Avicenna) circa 1000, during the Islamic Renaissance who referred to impetus as proportional to weight times velocity. A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), p. 477–482: René Descartes later referred to mass times velocity as the fundamental force of motion. Galileo in his Two New Sciences used the Italian word "impeto." The question has been much debated as to what Isaac Newton's contribution to the concept was. The answer is apparently nothing, except to state more fully and with better mathematics what was already known. The first and second of Newton's Laws of Motion had already been stated by John Wallis in his 1670 work, Mechanica slive De Motu, Tractatus Geometricus: "the initial state of the body, either of rest or of motion, will persist" and "If the force is greater than the resistance, motion will result". Wallis uses momentum and vis for force. Newton's Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, when it was first published in 1686, showed a similar casting around for words to use for the mathematical momentum. His Definition II Newton placed his definitions up front as did Wallis, with whom Newton can hardly fail to have been familiar. defines quantitas motus, "quantity of motion", as "arising from the velocity and quantity of matter conjointly", which identifies it as momentum. Thus when in Law II he refers to mutatio motus, "change of motion", being proportional to the force impressed, he is generally taken to mean momentum and not motion. It remained only to assign a standard term to the quantity of motion. The first use of "momentum" in its proper mathematical sense is not clear but by the time of Jenning's Miscellanea in 1721, four years before the final edition of Newton's Principia Mathematica, momentum M or "quantity of motion" was being defined for students as "a rectangle", the product of Q and V where Q is "quantity of material" and V is "velocity", s/t. Some languages, such as French and Italian, still lack a single term for momentum, and use a phrase such as the literal translation of "quantity of motion". Linear momentum of a particle Newton's apple in Einstein's elevator, a frame of reference. In it the apple has no velocity or momentum; outside, it does. If an object is moving in any reference frame, then it has momentum in that frame. It is important to note that momentum is frame dependent. That is, the same object may have a certain momentum in one frame of reference, but a different amount in another frame. For example, a moving object has momentum in a reference frame fixed to a spot on the ground, while at the same time having 0 momentum in a reference frame attached to the object's center of mass. The amount of momentum that an object has depends on two physical quantities: the mass and the velocity of the moving object in the frame of reference. In physics, the usual symbol for momentum is a uppercase Halliday & Resnick,3rd Ed, p 187 bold P (bold because it is a vector, uppercase to avoid confusion with pressure); so this can be written where P is the momentum, m is the mass and v is the velocity. Example: a model airplane of 1 kg travelling due north at 1 m/s in straight and level flight has a momentum of 1 kg m/s due north measured from the ground. To the dummy pilot in the cockpit it has a velocity and momentum of zero. According to Newton's second law, the rate of change of the momentum of a particle is proportional to the resultant force acting on the particle and is in the direction of that force. In the case of constant mass, and velocities much less than the speed of light, this definition results in the equation or just simply where F is understood to be the resultant. Example: a model airplane of 1 kg accelerates from rest to a velocity of 1 m/s due north in 1 s. The thrust required to produce this acceleration is 1 newton. The change in momentum is 1 kg m/s. To the dummy pilot in the cockpit there is no change of momentum. Its pressing backward in the seat is a reaction to the unbalanced thrust, shortly to be balanced by the drag. Linear momentum of a system of particles Relating to mass and velocity The linear momentum of a system of particles is the vector sum of the momenta of all the individual objects in the system: where P is the total momentum of the particle system, mi and vi are the mass and the velocity vector of the i-th object, and n is the number of objects in the system. It can be shown that, in the center of mass frame the momentum of a system is zero. Additionally, the momentum in a frame of reference that is moving at a velocity vcm with respect to that frame is simply: where: . This is known as Euler's first law. Relating to force - General equations of motion Motion of a material body The linear momentum of a system of particles can also be defined as the product of the total mass of the system times the velocity of the center of mass This is commonly known as Newton's second law. For a more general derivation using tensors, we consider a moving body (see Figure), assumed as a continuum, occupying a volume at a time , having a surface area , with defined traction or surface forces acting on every point of the body surface, body forces per unit of volume on every point within the volume , and a velocity field prescribed throughout the body. Following the previous equation, The linear momentum of the system is: By definition the stress vector is , then Using the Gauss's divergence theorem to convert a surface integral to a volume integral gives (we denote as the differential operator): Now we only need to take care of the right side of the equation. We have to be careful, since we cannot just take the differential operator under the integral. This is because while the motion of the continuum body is taking place (the body is not necessarily solid), the volume we are integrating on can change with time too. So the above integral will be: Performing the differentiation in the first part, and applying the divergence theorem on the second part we obtain: Now the second term inside the integral is: . Plugging this into the previous equation, and rearranging the terms, we get: We can easily recognize the two integral terms in the above equation. The first integral contains the Convective derivative of the velocity vector, and the second integral contains the change and flow of mass in time. Now lets assume that there are no sinks and sources in the system, that is mass is conserved, so this term is zero. Hence we obtain: putting this back into the original equation: For an arbitrary volume the integrand itself must be zero, and we have the Cauchy's equation of motion As we see the only extra assumption we made is that the system doesn't contain any mass sources or sinks, which means that mass is conserved. So this equation is valid for the motion of any continuum, even for that of fluids. If we are examining elastic continuums only then the second term of the convective derivative operator can be neglected, and we are left with the usual time derivative, of the velocity field. If a system is in equilibrium, the change in momentum with respect to time is equal to 0, as there is no acceleration. or using tensors, These are the equilibrium equations which are used in solid mechanics for solving problems of linear elasticity. In engineering notation, the equilibrium equations are expressed in Cartesian coordinates as Conservation of linear momentum A Newton's cradle demonstrates conservation of momentum. The law of conservation of linear momentum is a fundamental law of nature, and it states that the total momentum of a closed system of objects (which has no interactions with external agents) is constant. One of the consequences of this is that the center of mass of any system of objects will always continue with the same velocity unless acted on by a force from outside the system. Conservation of momentum is a mathematical consequence of the homogeneity (shift symmetry) of space (position in space is the canonical conjugate quantity to momentum). So, momentum conservation can be philosophically stated as "nothing depends on location per se". In analytical mechanics the conservation of momentum is a consequence of translational invariance of Lagrangian in the absence of external forces. It can be proven that the total momentum is a constant of motion by making an infinitesmial translation of Lagrangian and then equating it with non translated Lagrangian. This is a special case of Noether's theorem . In an isolated system (one where external forces are absent) the total momentum will be constant: this is implied by Newton's first law of motion. Newton's third law of motion, the law of reciprocal actions, which dictates that the forces acting between systems are equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign, is due to the conservation of momentum. Since position in space is a vector quantity, momentum (being the canonical conjugate of position) is a vector quantity as well - it has direction. Thus, when a gun is fired, the final total momentum of the system (the gun and the bullet) is the vector sum of the momenta of these two objects. Assuming that the gun and bullet were at rest prior to firing (meaning the initial momentum of the system was zero), the final total momentum must also equal 0. In an isolated system with only two objects, the change in momentum of one object must be equal and opposite to the change in momentum of the other object. Mathematically, Momentum has the special property that, in a closed system, it is always conserved, even in collisions and separations caused by explosive forces. Kinetic energy, on the other hand, is not conserved in collisions if they are inelastic. Since momentum is conserved it can be used to calculate an unknown velocity following a collision or a separation if all the other masses and velocities are known. A common problem in physics that requires the use of this fact is the collision of two particles. Since momentum is always conserved, the sum of the momenta before the collision must equal the sum of the momenta after the collision: where: u signifies vector velocity before the collision. v signifies vector velocity after the collision. Usually, we only know the velocities either before or after a collision and would like to also find out the opposite. Correctly solving this problem means you have to know what kind of collision took place. There are two basic kinds of collisions, both of which conserve momentum: Elastic collisions conserve kinetic energy as well as total momentum before and after collision. Inelastic collisions don't conserve kinetic energy, but total momentum before and after collision is conserved. Elastic collisions A collision between two pool balls is a good example of an almost totally elastic collision; a totally elastic collision exists only in theory. In addition to momentum being conserved when the two balls collide, the sum of kinetic energy before a collision must equal the sum of kinetic energy after: Since the 1/2 factor is common to all the terms, it can be taken out right away. Head-on collision (1 dimensional) In the case of two objects colliding head on we find that the final velocity obey Special case: m1>>m2 Now consider the case when the mass of one body, say m1, is far greater than that of the other, m2 (m1>>m2). In that case, both m1+m2 and m1-m2 are approximately equal to m1. Using these approximations, the above formula reduces to Its physical interpretation is that in the case of a collision between two bodies, one of which is much more massive than the other, the lighter body ends up moving in the opposite direction with twice the original speed of the more massive body. Special case: m1=m2 Another special case is when the collision is between two bodies of equal mass. Say body m1 moving at velocity v1 strikes body m2. Putting this case in the equation derived above we will see that after the collision, the body that was moving (m1) will start moving with velocity v2 and the mass m2 will start moving with velocity v1. So there will be an exchange of velocities. Now suppose one of the masses, say m2, was at rest. In that case after the collision the moving body, m1, will come to rest and the body that was at rest, m2, will start moving with the velocity that m1 had before the collision. That is Note that all of these observations are for an elastic collision. This phenomenon is demonstrated by Newton's cradle, one of the best known examples of conservation of momentum, a real life example of this special case. Multi-dimensional collisions In the case of objects colliding in more than one dimension, as in oblique collisions, the velocity is resolved into orthogonal components with one component perpendicular to the plane of collision and the other component or components in the plane of collision. The velocity components in the plane of collision remain unchanged, while the velocity perpendicular to the plane of collision is calculated in the same way as the one-dimensional case. For example, in a two-dimensional collision, the momenta can be resolved into x and y components. We can then calculate each component separately, and combine them to produce a vector result. The magnitude of this vector is the final momentum of the isolated system. Inelastic collisions A common example of a perfectly inelastic collision is when two snowballs collide and then stick together afterwards. This equation describes the conservation of momentum: It can be shown that a perfectly inelastic collision is one in which the maximum amount of kinetic energy is converted into other forms. For instance, if both objects stick together after the collision and move with a final common velocity, one can always find a reference frame in which the objects are brought to rest by the collision and 100% of the kinetic energy is converted. This is true even in the relativistic case and utilized in particle accelerators to efficiently convert kinetic energy into new forms of mass-energy (i.e. to create massive particles). In case of inelastic collision, there is a parameter attached called coefficient of restitution (denoted by small 'e' or 'c' in many text books). It is defined as the ratio of relative velocity of separation to relative velocity of approach. It is a ratio hence it is a dimensionless quantity. When we have an elastic collision the value of e (= coefficient of restitution) is 1, i.e. the relative velocity of approach is same as the relative velocity of separation of the colliding bodies. In an elastic collision the Kinetic energy of the system is conserved. When a collision is not elastic (e<1) it is an inelastic collision. In case of a perfectly inelastic collision the relative velocity of separation of the centre of masses of the colliding bodies is 0. Hence after collision the bodies stick together after collision. In case of an inelastic collision the loss of Kinetic energy is maximum as stated above. In all types of collision if no external force is acting on the system of colliding bodies, the momentum will always be preserved. Explosions An explosion occurs when an object is divided into two or more fragments due to a release of energy. Note that kinetic energy in a system of explosion is not conserved because it involves energy transformation (i.e. kinetic energy changes into heat and acoustic energy). See the inelastic collision page for more details. Modern definitions of momentum Momentum in relativistic mechanics In relativistic mechanics, in order to be conserved, momentum must be defined as: where is the invariant mass of the object moving, is the Lorentz factor is the relative velocity between an object and an observer is the speed of light. Relativistic momentum can also be written as invariant mass times the object's proper velocity, defined as the rate of change of object position in the observer frame with respect to time elapsed on object clocks (i.e. object proper time). Relativistic momentum closely approximates Newtonian momentum: at low speed . The diagram can serve as a useful mnemonic for remembering the above relations involving relativistic energy , invariant mass , and relativistic momentum . Please note that in the notation used by the diagram's creator, the invariant mass is subscripted with a zero, . Relativistic four-momentum as proposed by Albert Einstein arises from the invariance of four-vectors under Lorentzian translation. The four-momentum is defined as: where is the component of the relativistic momentum, is the total energy of the system: The "length" of the vector is the mass times the speed of light, which is invariant across all reference frames: Momentum of massless objects Objects without a rest mass, such as photons, also carry momentum. The formula is: where is Planck's constant, is the wavelength of the photon, is the energy the photon carries and is the speed of light. Generalization of momentum Momentum is the Noether charge of translational invariance. As such, even fields as well as other things can have momentum, not just particles. However, in curved space-time which is not asymptotically Minkowski, momentum isn't defined at all. Momentum in quantum mechanics In quantum mechanics, momentum is defined as an operator on the wave function. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle defines limits on how accurately the momentum and position of a single observable system can be known at once. In quantum mechanics, position and momentum are conjugate variables. For a single particle with no electric charge and no spin, the momentum operator can be written in the position basis as where: is the gradient operator; is the reduced Planck constant; , defined as , is the imaginary unit. This is a commonly encountered form of the momentum operator, though not the most general one. Momentum in electromagnetism Electric and magnetic fields possess momentum regardless of whether they are static or they change in time. It is a great surprise for freshmen who are introduced to the well known fact of the pressure of an electrostatic (magnetostatic) field upon a metal sphere, cylindrical capacitor or ferromagnetic bar: where , , , are the electromagnetic energy density, electric field, and magnetic field respectively. The electromagnetic pressure may be sufficiently high to explode the capacitor. Thus electric and magnetic fields do carry momentum. Light (visible, UV, radio) is an electromagnetic wave and also has momentum. Even though photons (the particle aspect of light) have no mass, they still carry momentum. This leads to applications such as the solar sail. Momentum is conserved in an electrodynamic system (it may change from momentum in the fields to mechanical momentum of moving parts). The treatment of the momentum of a field is usually accomplished by considering the so-called energy-momentum tensor and the change in time of the Poynting vector integrated over some volume. This is a tensor field which has components related to the energy density and the momentum density. The definition canonical momentum corresponding to the momentum operator of quantum mechanics when it interacts with the electromagnetic field is, using the principle of least coupling: , instead of the customary , where: is the electromagnetic vector potential the charged particle's invariant mass its velocity its charge. See also Conservation law Force Impulse Kinetic energy Moment map Noether's theorem Velocity Planck momentum Notes References Serway, Raymond; Jewett, John (2003). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6 ed.). Brooks Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7 Stenger, Victor J. (2000). Timeless Reality: Symmetry, Simplicity, and Multiple Universes. Prometheus Books. Chpt. 12 in particular. Tipler, Paul (1998). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 1: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-492-6 'H C Verma' 'Concepts of Physics, Part 1' 'Bharti Bhawan' For numericals refer 'IE Irodov','Problems in General Physics' External links Conservation of momentum - A chapter from an online textbook Planck units expressed as geometry of momentum | Momentum |@lemmatized title:1 page:3 edition:2 isaac:2 newton:15 principia:3 define:11 law:14 motion:21 classical:2 mechanic:11 momentum:114 pl:1 unit:4 kg:5 equivalently:1 n:2 product:3 mass:31 velocity:43 object:32 p:6 mv:1 accurate:1 measure:2 see:6 section:1 modern:2 definition:8 sometimes:1 refer:5 linear:10 distinguish:1 related:1 subject:1 angular:2 vector:17 quantity:14 since:6 direction:4 well:5 magnitude:3 pseudovector:1 gain:1 additional:1 sign:2 flip:1 improper:1 rotation:1 total:12 group:1 remain:3 unless:2 outside:3 force:18 act:6 conservation:12 conserved:1 mean:5 closed:3 system:30 one:15 affect:1 external:6 cannot:2 change:16 also:8 true:2 special:7 relativity:1 history:1 concept:4 mōmentum:1 merely:1 mōtus:2 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4,367 | Hogshead | A hogshead is a large cask of liquid (less often, of a food commodity). More specifically, it refers to a specified volume, measured in either Imperial units or U.S. customary units, primarily applied to alcoholic beverages such as wine, ale, or cider. A tobacco hogshead was used in American colonial times to transport and store tobacco. It was a very large wooden barrel. A standardized hogshead measured 48 inches (1220 mm) long and 30 inches (760 mm) in diameter at the head (at least 550 L, depending on the width in the middle), Fully packed with tobacco, it weighed about 1000 pounds (450 kg). The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) notes that the hogshead was first standardized by an act of Parliament in 1423, though the standards continued to vary by locality and content. For example, the OED cites an 1897 edition of Whitaker's Almanack, which specified the number of gallons of wine in a hogshead varying by type of wine: claret 46 (presumably imperial) gallons, port 57, sherry 54; and Madeira 46. (209, 259, 245, and 209 L) The American Heritage Dictionary claims that a hogshead can consist of anything from 62.5 to 140 (presumably U.S.) gallons (235-530 L). Eventually, a hogshead of wine came to be 63 wine/US gallons or 52.5 imperial gallons (both ~238.5 L), while a hogshead of beer or ale is 54 gallons (250 L if old beer/ale gallons, 245 L if imperial). A hogshead was also used as unit of measurement for sugar in Louisiana for most of the 19th century. Plantations were listed in sugar schedules as having produced x number of hogsheads of sugar or molasses. | Hogshead |@lemmatized hogshead:10 large:2 cask:1 liquid:1 less:1 often:1 food:1 commodity:1 specifically:1 refer:1 specified:1 volume:1 measure:2 either:1 imperial:4 unit:3 u:3 customary:1 primarily:1 apply:1 alcoholic:1 beverage:1 wine:5 ale:3 cider:1 tobacco:3 use:2 american:2 colonial:1 time:1 transport:1 store:1 wooden:1 barrel:1 standardized:1 inch:2 mm:2 long:1 diameter:1 head:1 least:1 l:6 depend:1 width:1 middle:1 fully:1 pack:1 weigh:1 pound:1 kg:1 oxford:1 english:1 dictionary:2 oed:2 note:1 first:1 standardize:1 act:1 parliament:1 though:1 standard:1 continue:1 vary:1 locality:1 content:1 example:1 cite:1 edition:1 whitaker:1 almanack:1 specify:1 number:2 gallon:7 varying:1 type:1 claret:1 presumably:2 port:1 sherry:1 madeira:1 heritage:1 claim:1 consist:1 anything:1 eventually:1 come:1 beer:2 old:1 also:1 measurement:1 sugar:3 louisiana:1 century:1 plantation:1 list:1 schedule:1 produce:1 x:1 molasses:1 |@bigram alcoholic_beverage:1 inch_mm:2 weigh_pound:1 pound_kg:1 imperial_gallon:2 beer_ale:2 ale_gallon:2 |
4,368 | Marriage | Marriage is a social, religious, spiritual and/or legal union of individuals that creates kinship. This union may also be called matrimony, while the ceremony that marks its beginning is usually called a wedding and the married status created is sometimes called wedlock. Marriage is an institution in which interpersonal relationships (usually intimate and sexual) are acknowledged by the state, by religious authority, or both. It is often viewed as a contract. Civil marriage is the legal concept of marriage as a governmental institution, in accordance with marriage laws of the jurisdiction. If recognized by the state, by the religion(s) to which the parties belong or by society in general, the act of marriage changes the personal and social status of the individuals who enter into it. People marry for many reasons, but usually one or more of the following: legal, social, emotional, and economic stability; the formation of a family unit; procreation and the education and nurturing of children; legitimizing sexual relations; public declaration of love. Excerpt - page 335: '... at the wedding; hence the importance of including in the marriage ceremony the words, "With all my worldly goods I thee endow."...' Marriage may take many forms: for example, a union between one man and one woman as husband and wife is a monogamous heterosexual marriage; polygamy in which a person takes more than one spouse is common in some societies. See also: Kaingang. Some jurisdictions Arce, Rose. Massachusetts court upholds same-sex marriage. Feb. 6, 2004. CNN. Retrieved Feb. 17, 2007. and religious denominations recognize same-sex marriage, uniting people of the same sex. A marriage is often formalized by a ceremony called a wedding, which in modern times is usually performed by a religious minister or a civil officer. The act of marriage usually creates normative or legal obligations between the individuals involved and, in many societies, their extended families. Definitions Anthropologists have documented a diverse variety of marriage practices across different cultures. Many competing definitions of marriage have been proposed to capture its essential, cross-cultural characteristics. In his three volume The History of Human Marriage (1921), Edward Westermarck defined marriage as "a more or less durable connection between male and female, lasting beyond the mere act of propagation till after the birth of the offspring." The anthropological handbook Notes and Queries (1951) defined marriage as "a union of a man and a woman such that children of the woman are recognized as legitimate by both parents." . Because the Nuer of Sudan allow for female-female marriage, Kathleen Gough suggested "a woman and one or more other persons." . Nuer female-female marriage is done to keep property within a family that has no sons; It's not a form of lesbianism. A legitimacy-based definition has been criticized as not being universal and as being circular. Edmund Leach argued that no one definition of marriage applied to all cultures. . He offered a list of ten rights associated with marriage, including sexual monopoly and rights with respect to children, with specific rights differing across cultures. Duran Bell proposed that marriage has traditionally been characterized by sexual access rights, suggesting that modern societies which do not provide for such rights have moved toward a distinct institution. History The way in which a marriage is conducted has changed over time, as has the institution itself. Although the institution of marriage pre-dates reliable recorded history, many cultures have legends or religious beliefs concerning the origins of marriage. The origin of marriage may lie in a man's need for assurance as to paternity of his children. He might therefore be willing to pay a bride price or provide for a woman in exchange for exclusive sexual access. Hanlon & White, p. 120. Legitimacy is the consequence of this transaction rather than its motivation. In Comanche society, married women work harder, lose sexual freedom, and do not seem to obtain any benefit from marriage. Hanlon & White, p. 119. But nubile women are a source of jealousy and strife in the tribe, so they are given little choice other than to get married. "In almost all societies, access to women is institutionalized in some way so as to moderate the intensity of this competition." Hanlon & White, p. 116. European marriages For most of European history, marriage was more or less a business agreement between two families who arranged the marriages of their children. Romantic love, and even simple affection, were not considered essential. psychology today on the history of marriage Historically, the perceived necessity of marriage has been stressed. Magnus Hirschfeld Archive of Sexology In Ancient Greece, no specific civil ceremony was required for the creation of a marriage - only mutual agreement and the fact that the couple must regard each other as husband and wife accordingly. history for kids Greek Marriage Men usually married when they were in their 20s or 30s historylink102.com Ancient Greek Marriage and expected their wives to be in their early teens. It has been suggested that these ages made sense for the Greek because men were generally done with military service by age 30, and marrying a young girl ensured her virginity. richeast.org Greek Marriage Married Greek women had few rights in ancient Greek society and were expected to take care of the house and children. Greek Marriage from ancienthistory.about.com Time was an important factor in Greek marriage. For example there were superstitions that being married during a full moon was good luck and, according to Robert Flacelière, Greeks married in the winter. Like with the Greeks, Roman marriage and divorce required no specific government or religious approval. Both marriage and divorce could happen by simple mutual agreement. There were several types of marriages in Roman society. The traditional ("conventional") form called conventio in manum required a ceremony with witnesses and was also dissolved with a ceremony. In this type of marriage, a woman lost her family rights of inheritance of her old family and gained them with her new one. She now was subject to the authority of her husband. roman empire.net marriage There was the free marriage known as sine manu. In this arrangement, the wife remained a member of her original family; she stayed under the authority of her father, kept her family rights of inheritance with her old family and did not gain any with the new family. A law in the Theodosian Code (C. Th. 9.7.3) issued in 342 CE prohibited same-sex marriage, but the exact intent of the law and its relation to social practice is unclear, as only a few examples of same-sex marriage in ancient Rome exist. A woodcut of a medieval wedlock ceremony from Germany.From the early Christian era (30 to 325 CE), marriage was thought of as primarily a private matter, with no religious or other ceremony being required. Until 1545, Christian marriages in Europe were by mutual consent, declaration of intention to marry and upon the subsequent physical union of the parties. upenn.edu Excerpt from Marriage, Sex, and Civic Culture in Late Medieval London "the sacramental bond of marriage could be made only through the freely given consent of both parties" marriage.about.com The couple would promise verbally to each other that they would be married to each other; the presence of a priest or witnesses was not required. ExploreGenealogy.co.uk Marriage Records This promise was known as the "verbum." If freely given and made in the present tense (e.g., "I marry you"), it was unquestionably binding; if made in the future tense ("I will marry you"), it would constitute a betrothal. One of the functions of churches from the Middle Ages was to register marriages, which was not obligatory. There was no state involvement in marriage and personal status, with these issues being adjudicated in ecclesiastical courts. In the 12th century, aristocrats believed love was incompatible with marriage and sought romance in adultery. Troubadors invented courtly love which involved secret but chaste trysts between a lover and a beloved. The average age of marriage in the late 1200s into the 1500s was around 25 years of age. Schofield, Phillipp R. 2003. Peasant and community in Medieval England, 1200-1500. Medieval culture and society. New York: Palgrave-Macmillan. p 98. Beginning in the 1500s it was unlawful for a woman younger than 20 years of age to marry. As part of the Counter-Reformation, in 1545 the Council of Trent decreed that a Roman Catholic marriage would be recognized only if the marriage ceremony was officiated by a priest with two witnesses. The Council also authorized a Catechism, issued in 1566, which defined marriage as, "The conjugal union of man and woman, contracted between two qualified persons, which obliges them to live together throughout life." This change did not extend to the regions affected by the Protestant Reformation, where marriage by consent continued to be the norm. As part of the Reformation, the role of recording marriages and setting the rules for marriage passed to the state. By the 1600s many of the Protestant European countries had a state involvement in marriage. State recognition In the early modern period, John Calvin and his Protestant colleagues reformulated Christian marriage by enacting the Marriage Ordinance of Geneva, which imposed "The dual requirements of state registration and church consecration to constitute marriage" for recognition. In England and Wales, Lord Hardwicke's Marriage Act 1753 required a formal ceremony of marriage, thereby curtailing the practice of Fleet Marriage. These were clandestine or irregular marriages performed at Fleet Prison, and at hundreds of other places. From the 1690s until the Marriage Act of 1753 as many as 300,000 clandestine marriages were performed at Fleet Prison alone. The Act required a marriage ceremony to be officiated by an Anglican priest in the Anglican Church with two witnesses and registration. The Act did not apply to Jewish marriages or those of Quakers, whose marriages continued to be governed by their own customs. In England and Wales, since 1837, civil marriages have been recognised as a legal alternative to church marriages under the Marriage Act 1836. In Germany, civil marriages were recognised in 1875. This law permitted a declaration of the marriage before an official clerk of the civil administration, when both spouses affirm their will to marry, to constitute a legally recognised valid and effective marriage, and allowed an optional private clerical marriage ceremony. Chinese marriage The mythological origin of Chinese marriage is a story about Nüwa and Fu Xi who invented proper marriage procedures after becoming married. In ancient Chinese society, people of the same surname were not supposed to marry and doing so was seen as incest. However, because marriage to one's maternal relatives was not thought of as incest, families sometimes intermarried from one generation to another. Over time, Chinese people became more geographically mobile. Couples were married in what is called an extra-clan marriage , better known as antithetic marriage. This occurred around 5000 BC. According to modern Chinese scholars of a Marxist persuasion, society supported a matrilineal family model, therefore husbands needed to move to, and live with, their wives’ families. Yet individuals remained members of their biological families. When a couple died, the husband and the wife were buried separately in the respective clans’ graveyard. In a maternal marriage, a male would become a son-in-law who lived in the wife’s home. This happened in the transformation of antithetic marriage into monogamy, which signifies the decline of matriarchy and the growing dominance of patriarchy in the ancient China. Selection of a partner An arranged marriage between Louis XIV of France and Maria Theresa of Spain The selection of a marriage partner may involve either the couple going through a selection process of courtship or the marriage may be arranged by the couple's parents or an outside party, a matchmaker. A pragmatic (or 'arranged') marriage is made easier by formal procedures of family or group politics. A responsible authority sets up or encourages the marriage; they may, indeed, engage a professional matchmaker to find a suitable spouse for an unmarried person. The authority figure could be parents, family, a religious official, or a group consensus. In some cases, the authority figure may choose a match for purposes other than marital harmony. Some of the most popular uses of arranged marriage are for dowry or immigration. In rural Indian villages, child marriage is also practiced, with parents at times arranging the wedding, sometimes even before the child is born. This practice is now illegal under the Child Marriage Restraint Act. In some societies ranging from Central Asia to the Caucasus to Africa, the custom of bride kidnapping still exists, in which a woman is captured by a man and his friends. Sometimes this covers an elopement, but sometimes it depends on sexual violence. In previous times, raptio was a larger-scale version of this, with groups of women captured by groups of men, sometimes in war; the most famous example is The Rape of the Sabine Women, which provided the first citizens of Rome with their wives. Other marriage partners are more or less imposed on an individual. For example, widow inheritance provides a widow with another man from her late husband's brothers. Marriage ceremony Couple married in a Shinto ceremony in Takayama, Gifu prefecture. A marriage is usually formalised at a wedding or marriage ceremony. The ceremony may be officiated either by a religious official, by a government official or by a state approved celebrant. In many European and some Latin American countries, any religious ceremony must be held separately from the required civil ceremony. Some countries such as Belgium, Bulgaria, the Netherlands, Romania and Turkey (p. 18) require that a civil ceremony take place before any religious one. In some countries notably the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Norway and Spain both ceremonies can be held together; the officiant at the religious and civil ceremony also serving as agent of the state to perform the civil ceremony. To avoid any implication that the state is "recognizing" a religious marriage (which is prohibited in some countries) the "civil" ceremony is said to be taking place at the same time as the religious ceremony. Often this involves simply signing a register during the religious ceremony. If the civil element of the religious ceremony is omitted, the marriage is not recognised by government under the law. While some countries, such as Australia, permit marriages to be held in private and at any location, others, including England and Wales, require that the civil ceremony be conducted in a place open to the public and specially sanctioned by law. In England, the place of marriage need no longer be a church or register office, but could also be a hotel, historic building or other venue that has obtained the necessary licence. An exception can be made in the case of marriage by special emergency license, which is normally granted only when one of the parties is terminally ill. Rules about where and when persons can marry vary from place to place. Some regulations require that one of the parties reside in the locality of the registry office. Within the parameters set by the law of the jurisdiction in which a marriage or wedding takes place, each religious authority has rules for the manner in which weddings are to be conducted by their officials and members. Cohabitation Marriage is an institution which can join together people's lives in a variety of emotional and economic ways. In many Western cultures, marriage usually leads to the formation of a new household comprising the married couple, with the married couple living together in the same home, often sharing the same bed, but in some other cultures this is not the tradition. Among the Minangkabau of West Sumatra, residency after marriage is matrilocal, with the husband moving into the household of his wife's mother. Residency after marriage can also be patrilocal or avunculocal. Also, in southwestern China, walking marriages, in which the husband and wife do not live together, have been a traditional part of the Mosuo culture. Walking marriages have also been increasingly common in modern Beijing. Guo Jianmei, director of the center for women's studies at Beijing University, told a Newsday correspondent, "Walking marriages reflect sweeping changes in Chinese society." A similar arrangement in Saudi Arabia, called misyar marriage, also involves the husband and wife living separately but meeting regularly. Conversely, marriage is not a prerequisite for cohabitation. In some cases couples living together do not wish to be recognised as married, such as when pension or alimony rights are adversely affected, or because of taxation consideration, or because of immigration issues, and for many other reasons. In modern western societies some couples cohabitate before marriage to test whether such an arrangement might work in the long term. In some cases cohabitation may constitute a common-law marriage, and in some countries the laws recognise cohabitation in preference to the formality of marriage for taxation and social security benefits. This is the case, for example, in Australia. Income Tax Assessment Act 1997 - Sect 995.1(1): ""spouse" of a person includes a person who, although not legally married to the person, lives with the person on a genuine domestic basis as the person's husband or wife." Sex and procreation Marriage typically requires consummation by sexual intercourse, and non-consummation (that is, failure or refusal to engage in sex) may be grounds for an annulment. For example, John Ruskin’s failed marriage to Effie Gray. There are some married couples who remain childless either by choice or due to infertility or other factors preventing conception or bearing of children. In some cultures, marriage imposes an obligation on women to bear children. In northern Ghana, for example, payment of bridewealth signifies a woman's requirement to bear children, and women using birth control face substantial threats of physical abuse and reprisals. On the other hand, marriage is not a prerequisite for having children, and having children outside of marriage is today not as uncommon as it used to be. In the United States, the National Center for Health Statistics reported that in 1992, 30.1 percent of births were to unmarried women. In 2006, that number had risen to 38.5 percent. Until recently, children born outside of marriage were termed illegitimate and suffered legal disadvantages and social stigma. In recent years the legal relevance of illegitimacy has declined and social acceptance increased, especially in western countries. Many of the world's major religions look with disfavor on sexual relations outside of marriage. Sexual relations by a married person with someone other than his/her spouse is normally called adultery, and is also frequently disapproved by the major world religions (some calling it a sin), and has often been - in some jurisdictions continues to be - a crime and grounds for divorce. (See adultery.) Marriage law Rights and obligations A Ketubah in Aramaic, a Jewish marriage-contract outlining the duties of each partner. A marriage, by definition, bestows rights and obligations on the married parties, and sometimes on relatives as well, being the sole mechanism for the creation of affinal ties (in-laws). These may include: giving a husband/wife or his/her family control over a spouse’s sexual services, labor, and property. giving a husband/wife responsibility for a spouse’s debts. giving a husband/wife visitation rights when his/her spouse is incarcerated or hospitalized. giving a husband/wife control over his/her spouse’s affairs when the spouse is incapacitated. establishing the second legal guardian of a parent’s child. establishing a joint fund of property for the benefit of children. establishing a relationship between the families of the spouses. These rights and obligations vary considerably between societies, and between groups within society. Right to marriage Article 16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights declares that "Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses." The Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam gives men and women the "right to marriage" regardless of their race, colour or nationality, but not religion. Marriage restrictions Marriage is an institution that is historically filled with restrictions. From age, to gender, to social status, restrictions are placed on marriage by society for reasons of benefiting the children, passing on healthy genes, to keep property concentrated, or (in some cases) because of prejudice and fear. Some legal, social, or religious restrictions apply in some countries on the genders of the couple. In response to changing social and political attitudes, some jurisdictions and religious denominations now recognize marriages between people of the same sex. In some jurisdictions these are sometimes called civil unions or domestic partnerships, while some others explicitly prohibit same-sex marriages. Societies have often placed restrictions on marriage to relatives, though the degree of prohibited relationship varies widely. In most societies, marriage between brothers and sisters has been forbidden. All mainstream religions prohibit some marriages on the basis of the consanguinity (lineal descent) and affinity (kinship by marriage) of the prospective marriage partners, though the standards vary. There have been countless restrictions placed on marriage by different societies throughout human history, including recently. Restrictions against polygamy and marrying within a particular group or race have been common. Many societies, even some with a cultural tradition of polygamy, recognize monogamy as the only valid form of marriage. Many societies have also adopted other restrictions on whom one can marry, such as prohibitions of marrying persons with the same surname, or persons with the same sacred animal. Societies have also at times required marriage from within a certain group. Anthropologists refer to these restrictions as endogamy. An example of such restrictions would be a requirement to marry someone from the same tribe. State recognition In many jurisdictions, a civil marriage may take place as part of the religious marriage ceremony, although they are theoretically distinct. Some jurisdictions allow civil marriages in circumstances which are notably not allowed by particular religions, such as same-sex marriages or civil unions. Marriage relationships may also be created by the operation of the law alone, as in common-law marriage, sometimes called "marriage by habit and repute." The status in the eyes of one authority may not be the same as for another, e.g., a marriage may be recognised civilly, but not by a church, and vice versa. Marriage and religion All mainstream religions have strong views relating to marriage. Most religions perform a wedding ceremony to solemnize the beginning of a marriage. Some regard marriage as simply a contract, while others regard it as a sacred institution. Buddhism Christianity Christian wedding in Kyoto, Japan. Liturgical Christian communions - notably Anglicanism, Catholicism, and Orthodoxy - consider marriage (sometimes termed holy matrimony) to be an expression of divine grace, termed a sacrament or mystery. In Western ritual, the ministers of the sacrament are the husband and wife themselves, with a bishop, priest, or deacon merely witnessing the union on behalf of the church, and adding a blessing. In Eastern ritual churches, the bishop or priest functions as the actual minister of the Sacred Mystery (Eastern Orthodox deacons may not perform marriages). Western Christians commonly refer to marriage a vocation, while Eastern Christians consider it an ordination and a martyrdom, though the theological emphases indicated by the various names are not excluded by the teachings of either tradition. Marriage is commonly celebrated in the context of a Eucharistic service (a nuptial Mass or Divine Liturgy). The sacrament of marriage is indicative of the relationship between Christ and the Church (), yet most Reformed Christians would deny the elevation of marriage to the status of a sacrament, nevertheless it is considered a covenant between spouses before God. (cf. Ephesians 5:31-33) In Catholicism, a principle objective of marriage is procreation: "[e]ntering marriage with the intention of never having children is a grave wrong and more than likely grounds for an annulment." Sacrament of Holy Matrimony, by P.McLachlan http://www.catholic-pages.com/marriage/sacrament.asp Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that "marriage between a man and a woman is ordained of God and that the family is central to the Creator's plan for the eternal destiny of His children." The LDS belief is that marriage between a man and a woman can last beyond death and into eternity. http://www.lds.org/library/display/0,4945,161-1-11-1,00.html Judaism A Jewish wedding, painting by Jozef Israëls, 1903. In Judaism, marriage is viewed as a contractual bond commanded by God in which a man and a woman come together to create a relationship in which God is directly involved. () Though procreation is not the sole purpose, a Jewish marriage is also expected to fulfill the commandment to have children. () The main focus centers around the relationship between the husband and wife. Kabbalistically, marriage is understood to mean that the husband and wife are merging together into a single soul. This is why a man is considered "incomplete" if he is not married, as his soul is only one part of a larger whole that remains to be unified. Islam A Muslim couple being wed alongside the Tungabhadra River at Hampi, India. Islam also commends marriage, with the age of marriage being whenever the individuals feel ready, financially and emotionally. In Islam, polygamy is allowed for men, with the specific limitation that they can only have up to four wives at any one time, given the religious requirement that they are able to and willing to partition their time and wealth equally among the respective wives. For a Muslim wedding to take place, the bride and her guardian must both agree on the marriage. Should either the guardian or the girl disagree on the marriage, it may not legally take place. In essence, while the guardian/father of the girl has no right to force her to marry, he has the right to stop a marriage from taking place, given that his reasons are valid. The professed purpose of this practice is to ensure that a woman finds a suitable partner whom she has chosen not out of sheer emotion. From an Islamic (Shari'Ah) law perspective, the minimum requirements and responsibilities in a Muslim marriage are that the groom provide living expenses (housing, clothing, food, maintenance) to the bride, and in return, the bride must be a partner (sexually) to the husband. All other rights and responsibilities are to be decided between the husband and wife, and may even be included as stipulations in the marriage contract before the marriage actually takes place, so long as they do not go against the minimum requirements of the marriage (for example: the woman marries the man with the condition that she will not sleep with him). In Shia Islam marriage must take place in the presence of at least two reliable witnesses, with the consent of the guardian of the bride and the consent of both spouses (including the girl). Following the marriage, the couple is immediately allowed to consummate the marriage. does require witnesses or official statement or presence in a definite place. Witnesses for Marriage To create a religious contract between them, it is sufficient that a man and a woman indicate an intention to marry each other and recite the requisite words in front of a Muslim priest The wedding party can be held days, or months later, whenever the couple and their families want to announce the marriage in public.. The method of pronouncing the marriage formula Marriage formula Conditions of pronouncing Nikah Women with whom matrimony is Haraam In Sunni Islam, marriage must take place in the presence of witnesses, with consent bride and the consent of both spouses (including the girl). Following the marriage they may consummate their marriage. Bahá'í In the Bahá'í Faith marriage is encouraged and viewed as a mutually strengthening bond, but is not obligatory. A Bahá'í marriage requires the couple to choose each other, and then the consent of all living parents. Hinduism Hindu marriage ceremony from a Rajput wedding. Hinduism sees marriage as a sacred duty that entails both religious and social obligations. Old Hindu literature in Sanskrit gives many different types of marriages and their categorization ranging from "Gandharva Vivaha" (instant marriage by mutual consent of participants only, without any need for even a single third person as witness) to normal (present day) marriages, to "Rakshasa Vivaha" (marriage performed by abduction of one participant by the other participant, usually, but not always, with the help of other persons). Sikhism In a Sikh marriage, the couple make rounds around the holy book called Guru Granth Sahib four times and the holy man speaks some words from the Guru Granth Sahib in the form of kirtan. Same sex marriage For the most part, religious traditions in the world reserve marriage to heterosexual unions, but there are exceptions including Unitarian Universalist, Metropolitan Community Church, Quaker, United Church of Canada, United Church of Christ and Reform Jewish congregations. "World Religions and Same Sex Marriage", Marriage Law Project, Columbus School of Law at The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC, July 2002 revision Affirming Congregations, The Episcopal Church and Ministries of the United Church of Canada Financial considerations The financial aspects of marriage vary between cultures and have changed over time. In some cultures, dowries and bride prices continue to be required today. In both cases, the financial arrangements are usually made between the groom (or his family) and the bride's family; with the bride in many cases not being involved in the arrangement, and often not having a choice in whether to participate in the marriage. In Early Modern Britain, the social status of the couple was supposed to be equal. After the marriage, all the property (called "fortune") and expected inheritances of the wife belonged to the husband. Dowry A dowry was not an unconditional gift, but was usually a part of a wider marriage settlement. For example, if the groom had other children, they could not inherit the dowry, which had to go to the bride's children. In the event of her childlessness, the dowry had to be returned to her family, but sometimes not until the groom's death or remarriage. Often the bride was entitled to inherit at least as much as her dowry from her husband's estate. In some cultures, dowries continue to be required today, while some countries impose restrictions on the payment of dowry. Bride price and dower In other cultures, the groom or his family were expected to pay a bride price to the bride's family for the right to marry the daughter, or dower, which was payable to the bride. This required the groom to work for the bride's family for a set period of time. In the Jewish tradition, the rabbis in ancient times insisted on the marriage couple entering into a marriage contact, called a ketubah. Besides other things, the ketubah provided for an amount to be paid by the husband in the event of a divorce or his estate in the event of his death. This amount was a replacement of the biblical dower or bride price, which was payable at the time of the marriage by the groom to the bride or her parents. See also This innovation was put in place because the biblical bride price created a major social problem: many young prospective husbands could not raise the bride price at the time when they would normally be expected to marry. So, to enable these young men to marry, the rabbis, in effect, delayed the time that the amount would be payable, when they would be more likely to have the sum. It may also be noted that both the dower and the ketubah amounts served the same purpose: the protection for the wife should her support cease, either by death or divorce. The only difference between the two systems was the timing of the payment. It is the predecessor to the wife's present-day entitlement to maintenance in the event of the breakup of marriage, and family maintenance in the event of the husband not providing adequately for the wife in his will. Another function performed by the ketubah amount was to provide a disincentive for the husband contemplating divorcing his wife: he would need to have the amount to be able to pay to the wife. Morning gifts, which might also be arranged by the bride's father rather than the bride, are given to the bride herself; the name derives from the Germanic tribal custom of giving them the morning after the wedding night. She might have control of this morning gift during the lifetime of her husband, but is entitled to it when widowed. If the amount of her inheritance is settled by law rather than agreement, it may be called dower. Depending on legal systems and the exact arrangement, she may not be entitled to dispose of it after her death, and may lose the property if she remarries. Morning gifts were preserved for many centuries in morganatic marriage, a union where the wife's inferior social status was held to prohibit her children from inheriting a noble's titles or estates. In this case, the morning gift would support the wife and children. Another legal provision for widowhood was jointure, in which property, often land, would be held in joint tenancy, so that it would automatically go to the widow on her husband's death. Islamic tradition has similar practices. A 'mahr', either immediate or deferred, is the woman's portion of the groom's wealth (divorce) or estate (death). These amounts are usually set based on the groom's own and family wealth and incomes, but in some parts these are set very high so as to provide a disincentive for the groom exercising the divorce, or the husband's family 'inheriting' a large portion of the estate, especially if there are no male offspring from the marriage. In some countries, including Iran, the mahr or alimony can amount to more than a man can ever hope to earn, sometimes up to US$ 1000,000 (4000 official Iranian gold coins). If the husband cannot pay the mahr, either in case of a divorce or on demand, according to the current laws in Iran, he will have to pay it by installments. Failure to pay the mahr might even lead to imprisonment. A translation of some parts of the Civil Code of Iran Modern customs In many countries today, each marriage partner has the choice of keeping his or her property separate or combining properties. In the latter case, called community property, when the marriage ends by divorce each owns half. In many legal jurisdictions, laws related to property and inheritance provide by default for property to pass upon the death of one party in a marriage firstly to the spouse and secondly to the children. Wills and trusts can make alternative provisions for property succession. In some legal systems, the partners in a marriage are "jointly liable" for the debts of the marriage. This has a basis in a traditional legal notion called the "Doctrine of Necessities" whereby a husband was responsible to provide necessary things for his wife. Where this is the case, one partner may be sued to collect a debt for which they did not expressly contract. Critics of this practice note that debt collection agencies can abuse this by claiming an unreasonably wide range of debts to be expenses of the marriage. The cost of defence and the burden of proof is then placed on the non-contracting party to prove that the expense is not a debt of the family. The respective maintenance obligations, both during and eventually after a marriage, are regulated in most jurisdictions; alimony is one such method. Some have attempted to analyse the institution of marriage using economic theory; for example, anarcho-capitalist economist David Friedman has written a lengthy and controversial study of marriage as a market transaction (the market for husbands and wives). The Economics of Love and Marriage Taxation In some countries, spouses are allowed to average their incomes; this is advantageous to a married couple with disparate incomes. To compensate for this somewhat, many countries provide a higher tax bracket for the averaged income of a married couple. While income averaging might still benefit a married couple with a stay-at-home spouse, such averaging would cause a married couple with roughly equal personal incomes to pay more total tax than they would as two single persons. This is commonly called the marriage penalty. Moreover, when the rates applied by the tax code are not based on averaging the incomes, but rather on the sum of individuals' incomes, higher rates will definitely apply to each individual in a two-earner households in progressive tax systems. This is most often the case with high-income taxpayers and is another situation where some consider there to be a marriage penalty. Conversely, when progressive tax is levied on the individual with no consideration for the partnership, dual-income couples fare much better than single-income couples with similar household incomes. The effect can be increased when the welfare system treats the same income as a shared income thereby denying welfare access to the non-earning spouse. Such systems apply in Australia and Canada, for example. Other considerations Sometimes people marry for purely pragmatic reasons, sometimes called a marriage of convenience or sham marriage. For example, according to one publisher of information about "green card" marriages, "Every year over 450,000 United States citizens marry foreign-born individuals and petition for them to obtain a permanent residency (Green Card) in the United States." United States Immigration Support.org - Green Card Through Marriage While this is likely an over-estimate, in 2003 alone 184,741 immigrants were admitted to the U.S. as spouses of U.S. citizens. Some people want to marry a person with higher or lower status than them. Others want to marry people who have similar status. Hypergyny refers to the act of seeking out those who are of slightly higher social status. In most cases, hypergyny refers to women wanting men of higher status. Isogyny refers to the act of seeking out those who are of similar status. Termination In most societies, the death of one of the partners terminates the marriage, and in monogamous societies this allows the other partner to remarry, though sometimes after a waiting or mourning period. Many societies also provide for the termination of marriage through divorce. Marriages can also be annulled in some societies, where an authority declares that a marriage never happened. In either event the people concerned are free to remarry (or marry). After divorce, one spouse may have to pay alimony. Several cultures have practiced temporary and conditional marriages. Examples include the Celtic practice of handfasting and fixed-term marriages in the Muslim community. Pre-Islamic Arabs practiced a form of temporary marriage that carries on today in the practice of Nikah Mut'ah, a fixed-term marriage contract. Muslim controversies related to Nikah Mut'ah have resulted in the practice being confined mostly to Shi'ite communities. Post-marital residence Early theories explaining the determinants of postmarital residence (e.g., Lewis Henry Morgan, Edward Tylor, or George Peter Murdock) connected it with the sexual division of labor. However, to date, cross-cultural tests of this hypothesis using worldwide samples have failed to find any significant relationship between these two variables. However, Korotayev's tests show that the female contribution to subsistence does correlate significantly with matrilocal residence in general; however, this correlation is masked by a general polygyny factor. Although an increase in the female contribution to subsistence tends to lead to matrilocal residence, it also tends simultaneously to lead to general non-sororal polygyny which effectively destroys matrilocality. If this polygyny factor is controlled (e. g., through a multiple regression model), division of labor turns out to be a significant predictor of postmarital residence. Thus, Murdock's hypotheses regarding the relationships between the sexual division of labor and postmarital residence were basically correct, though, as has been shown by Korotayev, the actual relationships between those two groups of variables are more complicated than he expected. Korotayev A. Form of marriage, sexual division of labor, and postmarital residence in cross-cultural perspective: A reconsideration. Journal of anthropological research ISSN 0091-7710. 2003, Vol. 59, No. 1, pp. 69-89 Korotayev A. Division of Labor by Gender and Postmarital Residence in Cross-Cultural Perspective: A Reconsideration. Cross-Cultural Research. 2003, Vol. 37, No. 4, pp.335-372 DOI: 10.1177/1069397103253685) In modern societies we observe a trend toward the neolocal residence. Marriage, Family, and Kinship: Comparative Studies of Social Organization, by Melvin Ember and Carol R. Ember. New Haven: HRAF Press, 1983) Contemporary views on marriage Criticisms Many people have proposed arguments against marriage for various reasons. These include political and religious criticisms, pragmatic reference to the divorce rate, as well as celibacy for religious or philosophical reasons. Controversial views Some views about marriage are controversial. Advocates of same-sex rights criticize the exclusion of homosexual relationships from legal and social recognition and the rights and obligations it provides. At the same time advocates of the traditional marriage movement oppose any attempt to define marriage to include anything other than the union of one man and one woman, claiming that to do so would "deprive the term of its fundamental and defining meaning." See also Age at first marriage Age disparity in sexual relationships Feminism List of people with longest marriages Marriage privatization Men's Rights Misandry Radical Feminism Same-Sex Marriage Sexual conflict Types of marriages Related concepts Adultery - Sexual intercourse between a married person and a partner other than the lawful spouse. Alimony - obligation of support. Annulment - legal procedure for declaring a marriage null and void. Aufruf - A ceremony in which Jews pelt the couple to be married with candy on the Shabbat before the wedding. Betrothal - formal state of engagement to be married. Brideservice Child marriage Chinese marriage Christian views of marriage - views of Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant, and others Civil marriage - marriages which are constituted by a government official and not a religious congregation. Divorce - ending of a marriage. Engagement Family therapy/Relationship counseling Free love - a social movement opposed to marriage Head and Master laws Husband/Wife Human sexuality Human-animal marriage - ceremonial ritual practice in some cultures, with no legal standing Human sexual behavior Hypergamy Inheritance Islamic marital jurisprudence Living apart together Mail-order bride Marriage (conflict) Marriage gap Marriage in the United States Marriage law Marriageable age Monogamy/Polygamy Nikah urfi Ondertrouw in the Netherlands and Belgium Separation - a step in the ending of a marriage. Social unit Wedding Wedding ring References External links African Marriage Rituals 'Forever and a Day' or 'Just One Night'? On Adaptive Functions of Long-Term and Short-Term Romantic Relationships "Marriage – its various forms and the role of the State" on BBC Radio 4’s In Our Time featuring Janet Soskice, Frederik Pedersen and Christina Hardyment Recordings & Photos from a College Historical Society debate on the role of marriage in modern life, featuring Senator David Norris and Senator Ronan Mullen. 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4,369 | History_of_Egypt | Hathor The history of Egypt is the longest continuous history, as a unified state, of any country in the world. The Nile valley forms a natural geographic and economic unit, bounded to the east and west by deserts, to the north by the sea and to the south by the Cataracts of the Nile. The need to have a single authority to manage the waters of the Nile led to the creation of the world's first state in Egypt in about 3000 BC. Egypt's peculiar geography made it a difficult country to attack, which is why Pharaonic Egypt was for so long an independent and self-contained state. The Nubians and Hyksos were among the earliest foreign rulers of Egypt, but the ancient Egyptians regained control of their country soon after their invasions. The Neo-Assyrian Empire also controlled Egypt for a while before native Egyptians regained control. Once Egypt did succumb to foreign rule, however, it proved unable to escape from it, and for 2,400 years, Egypt was governed by a series of foreign powers: the Persians, Macedonians, Romans, Byzantines, Rashidun, Umayyads, Abbasids, Ottomans, French, and British. At certain periods during these 2,400 years, Egypt was independently governed under the Ptolemies, Ikhshidids, Fatimids, Ayyubids, Mamluks and Muhammad Ali. The founders and rulers of these governments, however, were not native to Egypt. When Gamal Abdel Nasser (President of Egypt) (1954–1970) remarked that he was the first native Egyptian to exercise sovereign power in the country since Pharaoh Nectanebo II, deposed by the Persians in 343 BC, he was exaggerating only slightly. In this encyclopedia, Egyptian history has been divided into eight periods: History of ancient Egypt: 3100 BC to 525 BC History of Achaemenid Egypt: 525 BC to 332 BC History of Ptolemaic Egypt: 332 BC to 30 BC History of Roman Egypt: 30 BC to AD 639 History of Arab Egypt: 639 to 1517 History of Ottoman Egypt: 1517 to 1805 History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty: 1805 to 1882 History of modern Egypt: since 1882 Upper Paleolithic: 30,000 - 10,000 BC Ancient Egypt Upper Paleolithic: 30,000 - 10,000 BC was one of the places in Africa where Civilization began. The Upper Paleolithic region of Egypt happens to be one of the locations where archeologists have found ancient tools and technologies, but there are many other places in Africa where these things were found, predating 10,000 BC. Qadan and Sebilian Cultures (Late Paleolithic) Twenty some archaeological sites in upper Nubia evidence a grain-grinding Neolithic culture called the Qadan Culture, which practiced wild grain harvesting along the Nile during the beginning of the Sahaba Daru Nile phase, when desiccation in the Sahara caused residents of the Libyan oases to retreat into the Nile valley. Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.21. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 3004 See also Ancient Egypt Aegyptus Egyptian mythology Egyptians History of Africa History of the Middle East Pharaoh History of Ancient Egypt Coptic history References External links Ancient Egyptian Civilization - Aldokkan Ancient Egyptian History - A comprehensive & concise educational website focusing on the basic and the advanced in all aspects of Ancient Egypt Egypt.. the past and the present WWW-VL: History: Ancient Egypt Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends in Egypt | History_of_Egypt |@lemmatized hathor:1 history:18 egypt:28 long:2 continuous:1 unified:1 state:3 country:4 world:2 nile:6 valley:2 form:1 natural:1 geographic:1 economic:1 unit:1 bound:1 east:2 west:1 desert:1 north:1 sea:1 south:1 cataract:1 need:1 single:1 authority:1 manage:1 water:1 lead:1 creation:1 first:2 bc:12 peculiar:1 geography:1 make:1 difficult:1 attack:1 pharaonic:1 independent:1 self:1 contain:1 nubian:1 hyksos:1 among:1 early:1 foreign:3 ruler:2 ancient:11 egyptian:8 regain:2 control:3 soon:1 invasion:1 neo:1 assyrian:1 empire:1 also:2 native:3 succumb:1 rule:1 however:2 prove:1 unable:1 escape:1 year:2 govern:2 series:1 power:2 persian:2 macedonian:1 roman:2 byzantine:1 rashidun:1 umayyad:1 abbasids:1 ottoman:2 french:1 british:1 certain:1 period:2 independently:1 ptolemy:1 ikhshidids:1 fatimids:1 ayyubids:1 mamluks:1 muhammad:2 ali:2 founder:1 government:1 gamal:1 abdel:1 nasser:1 president:1 remark:1 exercise:1 sovereign:1 since:2 pharaoh:2 nectanebo:1 ii:1 depose:1 exaggerate:1 slightly:1 encyclopedia:1 divide:1 eight:1 achaemenid:1 ptolemaic:1 ad:1 arab:1 dynasty:1 modern:1 upper:4 paleolithic:4 one:2 place:2 africa:3 civilization:2 begin:1 region:1 happens:1 location:1 archeologist:1 find:2 tool:1 technology:1 many:1 thing:1 predate:1 qadan:2 sebilian:1 culture:3 late:1 twenty:1 archaeological:1 site:1 nubia:1 evidence:1 grain:2 grinding:1 neolithic:1 call:1 practice:1 wild:1 harvesting:1 along:1 beginning:1 sahaba:1 daru:1 phase:1 desiccation:1 sahara:1 cause:1 resident:1 libyan:1 oasis:1 retreat:1 grimal:1 nicolas:1 p:1 librairie:1 arthéme:1 fayard:1 see:1 aegyptus:1 mythology:1 middle:1 coptic:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 aldokkan:1 comprehensive:1 concise:1 educational:1 website:1 focus:1 basic:1 advance:1 aspect:1 past:1 present:1 www:1 vl:1 secular:1 cycle:1 millennial:1 trend:1 |@bigram neo_assyrian:1 muhammad_ali:2 gamal_abdel:1 abdel_nasser:1 ptolemaic_egypt:1 upper_paleolithic:3 external_link:1 |
4,370 | Codex | First page of the Codex Argenteus A codex (Latin for block of wood, book; plural codices) is a book in the format used for modern books, with separate pages normally bound together and given a cover. It was a Roman invention that replaced the scroll, which was the first form of book in all Eurasian cultures. Although technically any modern paperback is a codex, the term is now used only for manuscript (hand-written) books, produced from Late Antiquity through the Middle Ages. The scholarly study of manuscripts from the point of view of the bookbinding craft is called codicology. The study of ancient documents in general is called paleography. Among the experiments of earlier centuries scrolls were sometime unrolled horizontally, as a succession of columns. This made it possible to fold the scroll as an accordion. The next step was then to cut the folios, sew and glue them at their centers, making it easier to use the papyrus or velum recto verso. In traditional bookbinding, these assembled folios trimmed and curved were called "codex" in order to differentiate it from the "Case" which we now know as "Hard cover". Binding the Codex was clearly a different procedure from binding the "Case". This terminology still in use some 50 or 60 years ago has been nearly abandoned. Some commercial bookbinders may refer to the cover and the inside of the book instead, but, a few others, attached to their traditions still use the terms Codex and Case. New World codices were written as late as the 16th century (see Maya codices and Aztec codices). Those written before the Spanish conquests seem all to have been single long sheets folded concertina-style, sometimes written on both sides of the local amatl paper. So, strictly speaking they are not in codex format, but they more consistently have "Codex" in their usual names than do other types of manuscript. The codex was an improvement upon the scroll, which it gradually replaced, first in the West, and much later in Asia. The codex in turn became the printed book, for which the term is not used. In China books were already printed but only on one side of the paper, and there were intermediate stages, such as scrolls folded concertina-style and pasted together at the back. International Dunhuang Project - Several intermediate Chinese bookbinding forms from the C10th. Collection of early-Christian Gnostic texts discovered in Nag Hammadi (Egypt) in 1945. History The basic form of the codex was invented in Pergamon in the third century BCE. Rivalry between the Pergamene and Alexandrian libraries had resulted in the suspension of papyrus exports from Egypt. In response the Pergamenes developed parchment from sheepskin; because of the much greater expense it was necessary to write on both sides of the page. The Romans used similar precursors made of reusable wax-covered tablets of wood for taking notes and other informal writings; while codices of parchment or papyrus appear to have been widely used as personal notebooks, for instance in recording copies of letters sent (Cicero Fam. 9.26.1). The pages of such notebooks were commonly washed or scraped for re-use; and consequently writings on codex were considered informal and impermanent. The first recorded Roman use of the codex for publishing and distributing literary works dates from the late first century AD, when Martial experimented with the format. At that time the scroll was the dominant medium for literary works and would remain dominant for secular works until the fourth century. Julius Caesar, traveling in Gaul, found it useful to fold his scrolls concertina-style for quicker reference, as the Chinese also later did. As far back as the early 2nd century, there is evidence that the codex—usually of papyrus—was the preferred format among Christians: in the library of the Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum (buried in AD 79), all the texts (Greek literature) are scrolls; in the Nag Hammadi "library", secreted about AD 390, all the texts (Gnostic Christian) are codices. The earliest surviving fragments from codices come from Egypt and are variously dated (always tentatively) towards the end of the 1st century or in the first half of the 2nd. This group includes the Rylands Library Papyrus P52, containing part of St John's Gospel, and perhaps dating from between 125 and 160. Turner The Typology of the Early Codex, U Penn 1977, and Roberts & Skeat The Birth of the Codex (Oxford University 1983). From Robert A Kraft (see link): "A fragment of a Latin parchment codex of an otherwise unknown historical text dating to about 100 CE was also found at Oxyrhynchus (POx 30; see Roberts & Skeat 28). Papyrus fragments of a "Treatise of the Empirical School" dated by its editor to the centuries 1-2 CE is also attested in the Berlin collection (inv. # 9015, Pack\2 # 2355) - Turner, Typology # 389, and Roberts & Skeat 71, call it a "medical manual."" In Western culture the codex gradually replaced the scroll. From the fourth century, when the codex gained wide acceptance, to the Carolingian Renaissance in the eighth century, many works that were not converted from scroll to codex were lost to posterity. The codex was an improvement over the scroll in several ways. It could be opened flat at any page, allowing easier reading; the pages could be written on both recto and verso; and the codex, protected within its durable covers, was more compact and easier to transport. Aztec warriors as shown in the Florentine Codex. The codex also made it easier to organize documents in a library because it had a stable spine on which the title of the book could be written. The spine could be used for the incipit, before the concept of a proper title was developed, during medieval times. Although most early codices were made of papyrus, papyrus was fragile and supplies from Egypt, the only place where papyrus grew and was made into paper, became scanty; the more durable parchment and vellum gained favor, despite the cost. The codices of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica had the same form as the European codex, but were instead made with long folded strips of either fig bark (amatl) or plant fibers, often with a layer of whitewash applied before writing. In Asia, the scroll remained standard for far longer than in the West. The Jewish religion still retains the Torah scroll, at least for ceremonial use. Notes See also Lists: List of codices List of New Testament papyri List of New Testament uncials Specific traditions: Aztec codices Traditional Chinese bookbinding Maya codices References K.C. Hanson, Catalogue of New Testament Papyri & Codices 2nd—10th Centuries External links Centre for the History of the Book The Codex and Canon Consciousness - Draft paper by Robert Kraft on the change from scroll to codex The Construction of the Codex In Classic- and Postclassic-Period Maya Civilization Maya Codex and Paper Making Encyclopaedia Romana: "Scroll and codex" Further reading David Diringer, The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental, Courier Dover Publications, New York 1982, ISBN 0486242439 C. H. Roberts – T. C. Skeat, The Birth of the Codex, Oxford University Press, New York – Cambridge 1983. L. W. Hurtado, The Earliest Christian Artifacts: Manuscripts and Christian Origins, Cambridge 2006. | Codex |@lemmatized first:6 page:6 codex:44 argenteus:1 latin:2 block:1 wood:2 book:11 plural:1 format:4 use:12 modern:2 separate:1 normally:1 bound:1 together:2 give:1 cover:4 roman:3 invention:1 replace:3 scroll:15 form:4 eurasian:1 culture:2 although:2 technically:1 paperback:1 term:3 manuscript:4 hand:1 write:8 produce:1 late:3 antiquity:1 middle:1 age:1 scholarly:1 study:2 point:1 view:1 bookbinding:4 craft:1 call:4 codicology:1 ancient:2 document:2 general:1 paleography:1 among:2 experiment:2 early:7 century:11 sometime:1 unrolled:1 horizontally:1 succession:1 column:1 make:7 possible:1 fold:5 accordion:1 next:1 step:1 cut:1 folio:2 sew:1 glue:1 center:1 easy:4 papyrus:11 velum:1 recto:2 verso:2 traditional:2 assemble:1 trim:1 curve:1 order:1 differentiate:1 case:3 know:1 hard:1 bind:2 clearly:1 different:1 procedure:1 terminology:1 still:3 year:1 ago:1 nearly:1 abandon:1 commercial:1 bookbinder:1 may:1 refer:1 inside:1 instead:2 others:1 attach:1 tradition:2 new:6 world:1 see:4 maya:4 aztec:3 spanish:1 conquest:1 seem:1 single:1 long:3 sheet:1 concertina:3 style:3 sometimes:1 side:3 local:1 amatl:2 paper:5 strictly:1 speak:1 consistently:1 usual:1 name:1 type:1 improvement:2 upon:1 gradually:2 west:2 much:2 later:2 asia:2 turn:1 become:2 printed:1 china:1 already:1 print:1 one:1 intermediate:2 stage:1 paste:1 back:2 international:1 dunhuang:1 project:1 several:2 chinese:3 collection:2 christian:5 gnostic:2 text:4 discover:1 nag:2 hammadi:2 egypt:4 history:2 basic:1 invent:1 pergamon:1 third:1 bce:1 rivalry:1 pergamene:1 alexandrian:1 library:5 result:1 suspension:1 export:1 response:1 pergamenes:1 develop:2 parchment:4 sheepskin:1 great:1 expense:1 necessary:1 similar:1 precursor:1 reusable:1 wax:1 covered:1 tablet:1 take:1 note:2 informal:2 writing:2 appear:1 widely:1 personal:1 notebook:2 instance:1 record:2 copy:1 letter:1 send:1 cicero:1 fam:1 commonly:1 wash:1 scrap:1 consequently:1 consider:1 impermanent:1 publishing:1 distributing:1 literary:2 work:4 date:5 ad:3 martial:1 time:2 dominant:2 medium:1 would:1 remain:2 secular:1 fourth:2 julius:1 caesar:1 travel:1 gaul:1 find:2 useful:1 quicker:1 reference:2 also:5 far:2 evidence:1 usually:1 preferred:1 villa:1 herculaneum:1 bury:1 greek:1 literature:1 secrete:1 survive:1 fragment:3 come:1 variously:1 always:1 tentatively:1 towards:1 end:1 half:1 group:1 include:1 rylands:1 contain:1 part:1 st:1 john:1 gospel:1 perhaps:1 turner:2 typology:2 u:1 penn:1 roberts:2 skeat:4 birth:2 oxford:2 university:2 robert:4 kraft:2 link:2 otherwise:1 unknown:1 historical:1 ce:2 oxyrhynchus:1 pox:1 treatise:1 empirical:1 school:1 editor:1 attest:1 berlin:1 inv:1 pack:1 medical:1 manual:1 western:1 gain:2 wide:1 acceptance:1 carolingian:1 renaissance:1 eighth:1 many:1 convert:1 lose:1 posterity:1 way:1 could:4 open:1 flat:1 allow:1 reading:2 protect:1 within:1 durable:2 compact:1 transport:1 warrior:1 show:1 florentine:1 organize:1 stable:1 spine:2 title:2 incipit:1 concept:1 proper:1 medieval:2 fragile:1 supply:1 place:1 grow:1 scanty:1 vellum:1 favor:1 despite:1 cost:1 pre:1 columbian:1 mesoamerica:1 european:1 strip:1 either:1 fig:1 bark:1 plant:1 fiber:1 often:1 layer:1 whitewash:1 apply:1 standard:1 jewish:1 religion:1 retain:1 torah:1 least:1 ceremonial:1 list:4 testament:3 papyri:1 uncial:1 specific:1 k:1 c:3 hanson:1 catalogue:1 external:1 centre:1 canon:1 consciousness:1 draft:1 change:1 construction:1 classic:1 postclassic:1 period:1 civilization:1 making:1 encyclopaedia:1 romana:1 david:1 diringer:1 printing:1 oriental:1 courier:1 dover:1 publication:1 york:2 isbn:1 h:1 press:1 cambridge:2 l:1 w:1 hurtado:1 artifact:1 origin:1 |@bigram discover_nag:1 nag_hammadi:2 julius_caesar:1 villa_papyrus:1 hammadi_library:1 papyrus_fragment:1 carolingian_renaissance:1 florentine_codex:1 pre_columbian:1 columbian_mesoamerica:1 torah_scroll:1 external_link:1 maya_civilization:1 courier_dover:1 dover_publication:1 |
4,371 | North_Carolina | A map of the State of North Carolina North Carolina () is a state located on the Atlantic Seaboard in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties and its capital is Raleigh. North Carolina was one of the original Thirteen Colonies, originally known as Carolina. Joara, a native village near present-day Morganton, was the site in 1567 of Fort San Juan, the first Spanish colonial settlement in the interior of what became the United States. Constance E. Richards, "Contact and Conflict", American Archaeologist, Spring 2008, p.14, accessed 26 June 2008 A colony was later established at Roanoke Island, the first attempt by the English to found a settlement in the Americas. On May 20, 1861, North Carolina was one of the last of the Confederate states to declare secession from the Union, to which it was restored on July 4, 1868. The state was the location of the first successful controlled, powered and sustained heavier-than-air flight, by the Wright brothers, at Kill Devil Hills, about 6.4 miles from Kitty Hawk in 1903. Today, it is a fast-growing state with an increasingly diverse economy and population. As of July 1, 2007, the population was estimated to be 9,061,032 (a 12% increase since April 1, 2000). Recognizing eight Native American tribes, North Carolina has the largest population of Native Americans of any state east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has a wide range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to almost 6,700 feet (2,042 m) in the mountains. The climate also ranges widely. The coastal plains are strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the state falls in the humid subtropical zone. More than from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a subtropical highland climate. As of 2008 (the most current numbers available), North Carolina is the fourth-fastest growing state in the United States and the fastest growing state east of the Mississippi River. http://www.census.gov/popest/states/NST-pop-chg.html Geography North Carolina topographic map North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, and the Atlantic Ocean on the east. The United States Census Bureau classifies North Carolina as a southern state in the subcategory of being one of the South Atlantic States. North Carolina consists of three main geographic sections: the coastal plain, which occupies the eastern 45% of the state; the Piedmont region, which contains the middle 35%; and the Appalachian Mountains and foothills. The extreme eastern section of the state contains the Outer Banks, a string of sandy, narrow islands which form a barrier between the Atlantic Ocean and inland waterways. The Outer Banks form two sounds—Albemarle Sound in the north and Pamlico Sound in the south. They are the two largest landlocked sounds in the United States. Immediately inland, the coastal plain is relatively flat, with rich soils ideal for growing tobacco, soybeans, melons, and cotton. The coastal plain is North Carolina's most rural section, with few large towns or cities. Agriculture remains an important industry. The major rivers of the coastal plain: the Neuse, Tar, Pamlico, and Cape Fear, tend to be slow-moving and wide. Stream within a Linville community The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the "fall line", a line which marks the elevation at which waterfalls first appear on streams and rivers. The Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the state's most urbanized and densely populated section - all five of the state's largest cities are located in the Piedmont. It consists of gently rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. A number of small, isolated, and deeply eroded mountain ranges and peaks are located in the Piedmont, including the Sauratown Mountains, Pilot Mountain, the Uwharrie Mountains, Crowder's Mountain, King's Pinnacle, the Brushy Mountains, and the South Mountains. The Piedmont ranges from about 300–400 feet (90–120 m) elevation in the east to over 1,000 feet (300 m) in the west. Due to the rapid population growth of the Piedmont, many of the farms and much of the rural countryside in this region is being replaced by suburbanization: shopping centers, housing developments, and large corporate office parks. Agriculture is steadily declining in importance in this region. The major rivers of the Piedmont, such as the Yadkin and Catawba, tend to be fast-flowing, shallow, and narrow. The Western North Carolina mountains as seen from Sunset Rock in Highlands, North Carolina. The western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, Great Balsam Mountains, and the Black Mountains. The Black Mountains are the highest in the Eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet (2,037 m). It is the highest point east of the Mississippi River. Although agriculture remains important, tourism has become the dominant industry in the mountains. One agricultural pursuit which has prospered and grown in recent decades is the growing and selling of Christmas Trees. Due to the higher altitude of the mountains, the climate often differs markedly from the rest of the state. Winters in western North Carolina typically feature significant snowfall and subfreezing temperatures more akin to a midwestern state than a southern one. North Carolina has 17 major river basins. Five of the state's river basins: the Hiwassee, Little Tennessee, French Broad, Watauga and New, are part of the Mississippi River Basin, which drains to the Gulf of Mexico. All the others flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins, 11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the state's borders - the Cape Fear, Neuse, White Oak and Tar-Pamlico. Climate The geographical divisions of North Carolina are useful when discussing the climate of the state. The coastal plain is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean which keeps temperatures mild in winter and moderate in the summer. Daytime high temperatures on the coast average less than 89 °F (31.6 °C) during the summer. In the winter, the coast has the mildest temperatures in the state, with daytime temperatures rarely dropping below 40 °F (4.4 °C); the average daytime winter temperature in the coastal plain is usually in the mid-60's. Temperatures in the coastal plain rarely drop below freezing even at night. The coastal plain usually receives only one inch (2.5 cm) of snow and/or ice annually, and in some years there may be no snow or ice at all. Bodie Island Lighthouse, one of the Outer Banks attractions. The Atlantic Ocean has less influence on the Piedmont region, and as a result the Piedmont has hotter summers and colder winters than the coast. Daytime highs in the Piedmont often average over 90 °F (32.2 °C) in the summer. While it is not common for temperatures to reach over 100 °F (37.8 °C) in North Carolina, when it happens, the highest temperatures are to be found in the lower areas of the Piedmont, especially around the city of Fayetteville. Additionally, the weaker influence of the Atlantic Ocean means that temperatures in the Piedmont often fluctuate more widely than the coast. In the winter, the Piedmont is much less mild than the coast, with daytime temperatures that are usually in the mid 50's, and temperatures often drop below freezing at night. The region averages from 3–5 inches of snowfall annually in the Charlotte area to 6–8 inches in the Raleigh–Durham area. The Piedmont is especially notorious for sleet and freezing rain. It can be heavy enough in some storms to snarl traffic and collapse trees and power lines. Annual precipitation and humidity is lower in the Piedmont than either the mountains or the coast, but even at its lowest, the precipitation is a generous 40 in (102 cm) per year. The Blue Ridge Mountains in the foreground with Grandfather Mountain in the extreme background as seen from Blowing Rock, NC. The Appalachian Mountains are the coolest area of the state, with daytime temperatures averaging in the low 40's and upper 30's for highs in the winter and often falling into the teens (−9 °C) or lower on winter nights. Relatively cool summers have temperatures rarely rising above 80 °F (26.7 °C). Snowfall in the mountains is usually 14–20 in (36–51 cm) per year, but it is often greater in the higher elevations. For example, during the Blizzard of 1993 more than of snow fell on Mount Mitchell over a period of three days. Severe weather occurs regularly in North Carolina. On average, the state receives a direct hit from a hurricane once a decade. Tropical storms arrive every 3 or 4 years. In some years, several hurricanes or tropical storms can directly strike the state or brush across the coastal areas. Only Florida and Louisiana are hit by hurricanes more often. Although many people believe that hurricanes menace only coastal areas, the rare hurricane which moves inland quickly enough can cause severe damage. In 1989 Hurricane Hugo caused heavy damage in Charlotte and even as far inland as the Blue Ridge Mountains in the northwestern part of the state. On average, North Carolina has 50 days of thunderstorm activity per year, with some storms becoming severe enough to produce hail, flash floods, and damaging winds. North Carolina averages fewer than 20 tornadoes per year. Many of these are produced by hurricanes or tropical storms along the coastal plain. Tornadoes from thunderstorms are a risk, especially in the eastern part of the state. The western piedmont is often protected by the mountains breaking storms up as they try to cross over them. The storms will often reform farther east. Also a weather feature known as "cold air damming" occurs in the western part of the state. This can also weaken storms but can also lead to major ice events in winter." Monthly normal high and low temperatures (Fahrenheit) for various North Carolina cities. City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Asheville 46/26 50/28 58/35 66/42 74/51 80/58 83/63 82/62 76/55 67/43 57/35 49/29 Cape Hatteras 54/39 55/39 60/44 68/52 75/60 82/68 85/73 85/72 81/68 73/59 65/50 57/43 Charlotte 51/32 56/34 64/42 73/49 80/58 87/66 90/71 88/69 82/63 73/51 63/42 54/35 Fayetteville 52/31 56/33 64/39 73/47 80/56 87/65 90/70 89/69 83/63 74/49 65/41 56/34 Greensboro 47/28 52/31 60/38 70/46 77/55 84/64 88/68 86/67 79/60 70/48 60/39 51/31 Raleigh 50/30 54/32 62/39 72/46 79/55 86/64 89/68 87/67 81/61 72/48 62/40 53/33 Wilmington 56/36 60/38 66/44 74/51 81/60 86/68 90/72 88/71 84/66 76/54 68/45 60/38| History Native Americans, Lost Colonies and Permanent Settlement North Carolina was originally inhabited by many different native peoples, including those of the ancient Mississippian culture established by 1000 A.D. in the Piedmont. Historically documented tribes included Cherokee, Tuscarora, Cheraw, Pamlico, Meherrin, Coree, Machapunga, Cape Fear Indians, Waxhaw, Saponi, Tutelo, Waccamaw, Coharie, and Catawba. Spanish explorers traveling inland encountered the last of the Mississippian culture at Joara, near present-day Morganton. Records of Hernando de Soto attested to his meeting with them in 1540. In 1567 Captain Juan Pardo led an expedition into the interior of North Carolina on a journey to claim the area for the Spanish colony, as well as establish another route to protect silver mines in Mexico (the Spanish did not realize the distances involved.) Pardo made a winter base at Joara, which he renamed Cuenca. The expedition built Fort San Juan and left 30 men, while Pardo traveled further, establishing five other forts. He returned by a different route to Santa Elena on Parris Island, South Carolina, then a center of Spanish Florida. In the spring of 1568, natives killed all the soldiers and burned the six forts in the interior, including the one at Fort San Juan. The Spanish never returned to the interior to press their colonial claim, but this marked the first European attempt at colonization of the interior of what became the United States. A journal by Pardo's scribe Bandera and archaeological findings at Joara have confirmed the settlement. David G. Moore, Robin A. Beck, Jr., and Christopher B. Rodning, "Joara and Fort San Juan: culture contact at the edge of the world", Antiquity, Vol.78, No. 229, March 2004, accessed 26 June 2008 Constance E. Richards, "Contact and Conflict" , American Archaeologist, Spring 2008, accessed 26 June 2008 Sir Walter Raleigh returns to find the colony abandoned In 1584, Elizabeth I, granted a charter to Sir Walter Raleigh, for whom the state capital is named, for land in present-day North Carolina (then Virginia). Raleigh established two colonies on the coast in the late 1580s, both ending in failure. It was the second American territory the British attempted to colonize. The demise of one, the "Lost Colony" of Roanoke Island, remains one of the great mysteries of American history. Virginia Dare, the first English child to be born in North America, was born on Roanoke Island on August 18, 1587. Dare County is named for her. As early as 1650, colonists from the Virginia colony moved into the area of Albemarle Sound. By 1663, King Charles II of England granted a charter to start a new colony on the North American continent which generally established its borders. He named it Carolina in honor of his father Charles I. http://statelibrary.dcr.state.nc.us/NC/HISTORY/HISTORY.HTM North Carolina State Library - North Carolina History By 1665, a second charter was issued to attempt to resolve territorial questions. In 1710, due to disputes over governance, the Carolina colony began to split into North Carolina and South Carolina. The latter became a crown colony in 1729. Colonial Period and Revolutionary War The first permanent European settlers of North Carolina were British colonists who migrated south from Virginia, following a rapid growth of the colony and the subsequent shortage of available farmland. Nathaniel Batts was documented as one of the first of these Virginian migrants. He settled south of the Chowan River and east of the Great Dismal Swamp in 1655. Fenn and Wood, Natives and Newcomers, pp. 24-25 By 1663, this northeastern area of the Province of Carolina, known as the Albemarle Settlements, was undergoing full-scale British settlement. Powell, North Carolina Through Four Centuries, p. 105 During the same period, the English monarch Charles II gave the province to the Lords Proprietors, a group of noblemen who had helped restore Charles to the throne in 1660. The new province of "Carolina" was named in honor and memory of King Charles I (Latin: Carolus). In 1712, North Carolina became a separate colony. With the exception of the Earl Granville holdings, it became a royal colony seventeen years later. Lefler and Newsome, (1973) Differences in the settlement patterns of eastern and western North Carolina, or the low country and uplands, affected the political, economic, and social life of the state from the eighteenth until the twentieth century. The Tidewater in eastern North Carolina was settled chiefly by immigrants from England and the Scottish Highlands. The upcountry of western North Carolina was settled chiefly by Scots-Irish and German Protestants, the so-called "cohee". Arriving during the mid-to-late 18th century, the Scots-Irish from Ireland were the largest immigrant group before the Revolution. During the Revolutionary War, the English and Highland Scots of eastern North Carolina tended to remain loyal to the British Crown, because of longstanding business and personal connections with Great Britain. The Scots-Irish and German settlers of western North Carolina tended to favor American independence from Britain. Most of the English colonists arrived as indentured servants, hiring themselves out as laborers for a fixed period to pay for their passage. In the early years the line between indentured servants and African slaves or laborers was fluid. Some Africans were allowed to earn their freedom before slavery became a lifelong status. Most of the free colored families formed in North Carolina before the Revolution were descended from relationships or marriages between free white women and enslaved or free African or African-American men. Many had migrated or were descendants of migrants from colonial Virginia. Paul Heinegg, Free African Americans in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware, Accessed 15 February 2008 As the flow of indentured laborers to the colony decreased with improving economic conditions in Great Britain, more slaves were imported and the state's restrictions on slavery hardened. The economy's growth and prosperity was based on slave labor, devoted first to the production of tobacco. On April 12, 1776, the colony became the first to instruct its delegates to the Continental Congress to vote for independence from the British crown, through the Halifax Resolves passed by the North Carolina Provincial Congress. The dates of both of these independence-related events are memorialized on the state flag and state seal. Throughout the Revolutionary War, fierce guerilla warfare erupted between bands of pro-independence and pro-British colonists. In some cases the war was also an excuse to settle private grudges and rivalries. A major American victory in the war took place at King's Mountain along the North Carolina–South Carolina border. On October 7, 1780 a force of 1000 mountain men from western North Carolina (including what is today the State of Tennessee) overwhelmed a force of some 1000 British troops led by Major Patrick Ferguson. Most of the British soldiers in this battle were Carolinians who had remained loyal to the British Crown (they were called "Tories"). The American victory at Kings Mountain gave the advantage to colonists who favored American independence, and it prevented the British Army from recruiting new soldiers from the Tories. The road to Yorktown and America's independence from Great Britain led through North Carolina. As the British Army moved north from victories in Charleston and Camden, South Carolina, the Southern Division of the Continental Army and local militia prepared to meet them. Following General Daniel Morgan's victory over the British Cavalry Commander Banastre Tarleton at the Battle of Cowpens on January 17, 1781, southern commander Nathanael Greene led British Lord Charles Cornwallis across the heartland of North Carolina, and away from Cornwallis's base of supply in Charleston, South Carolina. This campaign is known as "The Race to the Dan" or "The Race for the River." Generals Greene and Cornwallis finally met at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse in present-day Greensboro on March 15, 1781. Although the British troops held the field at the end of the battle, their casualties at the hands of the numerically superior American Army were crippling. Following this "Pyhrric victory", Cornwallis chose to move to the Virginia coastline to get reinforcements, and to allow the Royal Navy to protect his battered army. This decision would result in Cornwallis's eventual defeat at Yorktown, Virginia later in 1781. The Patriots' victory there guaranteed American independence. Antebellum Period On November 21, 1789, North Carolina became the twelfth state to ratify the Constitution. In 1840, it completed the state capitol building in Raleigh, still standing today. Most of North Carolina's slave owners and large plantations were located in the eastern portion of the state. Although North Carolina's plantation system was smaller and less cohesive than those of Virginia, Georgia or South Carolina, there were significant numbers of planters concentrated in the counties around the port cities of Wilmington and Edenton, as well as suburban planters around the cities of Raleigh, Charlotte and Durham. Planters owning large estates wielded significant political and socio-economic power in antebellum North Carolina, often to the derision of the generally non-slave holding "yeoman" farmers of Western North Carolina. In mid-century, the state's rural and commercial areas were connected by the construction of a 129–mile (208 km) wooden plank road, known as a "farmer's railroad," from Fayetteville in the east to Bethania (northwest of Winston-Salem). In addition to slaves, there were a number of free people of color in the state. Most were descended from free African Americans who had migrated along with neighbors from Virginia during the eighteenth century. After the Revolution, Quakers and Mennonites worked to persuade slaveholders to free their slaves. Enough were inspired by their efforts and the language of men's rights, and arranged for manumission of their slaves. The number of free people of color rose in the first couple of decades after the Revolution. John Hope Franklin, Free Negroes of North Carolina, 1789-1860, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941, reprint, 1991 On October 25, 1836 construction began on the Wilmington and Raleigh Railroad NC Business History to connect the port city of Wilmington with the state capital of Raleigh. In 1849 the North Carolina Railroad was created by act of the legislature to extend that railroad west to Greensboro, High Point, and Charlotte. During the Civil War the Wilmington-to-Raleigh stretch of the railroad would be vital to the Confederate war effort; supplies shipped into Wilmington would be moved by rail through Raleigh to the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia. During the antebellum period North Carolina was an overwhelmingly rural state, even by Southern standards. In 1860 only one North Carolina town, the port city of Wilmington, had a population of more than 10,000. Raleigh, the state capital, had barely more than 5,000 residents. While slaveholding was slightly less concentrated than in some Southern states, according to the 1860 census, more than 330,000 people, or 33% of the population of 992,622 were enslaved African-Americans. They lived and worked chiefly on plantations in the eastern Tidewater. In addition, 30,463 free people of color lived in the state. They were also concentrated in the eastern coastal plain, especially at port cities such as Wilmington and New Bern where they had access to a variety of jobs. Free African Americans were allowed to vote until 1835, when the state rescinded their suffrage. American Civil War In 1860, North Carolina was a slave state, in which about one-third of the population of 992,622 were enslaved African Americans. This was a smaller proportion than many Southern states. In addition, the state had a substantial number of Free Negroes, just over 30,000. Historical Census Browser, 1860 US Census, University of Virginia, accessed 21 March 2008 The state did not vote to join the Confederacy until President Abraham Lincoln called on it to invade its sister-state, South Carolina, becoming the last or second to last state to officially join the Confederacy. The title of "last to join the Confederacy" has been disputed because Tennessee informally seceded on May 7,1861, making North Carolina the last to secede on May 20, 1861. http://www.civiced.org/index.php?page=timeline_lincoln http://docsouth.unc.edu/highlights/secession.html However, the Tennessee legislature did not formally vote secede until June 8, 1861. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun08.html North Carolina was the site of few battles, but it provided at least 125,000 troops to the Confederacy— far more than any other state. Approximately 40,000 of those troops never returned home, dying of disease, battlefield wounds, and starvation. North Carolina also supplied about 15,000 Union troops. http://www.classbrain.com/artstate/publish/NC_civil_war_facts.shtml Elected in 1862, Governor Zebulon Baird Vance tried to maintain state autonomy against Confederate President Jefferson Davis in Richmond. Even after secession, some North Carolinians refused to support the Confederacy. This was particularly true of non-slave-owning farmers in the state's mountains and western Piedmont region. Some of these farmers remained neutral during the war, while some covertly supported the Union cause during the conflict. Approximately 2,000 North Carolinians from western North Carolina enlisted in the Union Army and fought for the North in the war, and two additional Union Army regiments were raised in the coastal areas of the state that were occupied by Union forces in 1862 and 1863. Even so, Confederate troops from all parts of North Carolina served in virtually all the major battles of the Army of Northern Virginia, the Confederacy's most famous army. The largest battle fought in North Carolina was at Bentonville, which was a futile attempt by Confederate General Joseph Johnston to slow Union General William Tecumseh Sherman's advance through the Carolinas in the spring of 1865. In April 1865 after losing the Battle of Morrisville, Johnston surrendered to Sherman at Bennett Place, in what is today Durham, North Carolina. This was the last major Confederate Army to surrender. North Carolina's port city of Wilmington was the last Confederate port to fall to the Union. It fell in the spring of 1865 after the nearby Second Battle of Fort Fisher. Bennett Place historic site in Durham, North Carolina. The first Confederate soldier to be killed in the Civil War was Private Henry Wyatt, a North Carolinian. He was killed in the Battle of Big Bethel in June 1861. At the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, the 26th North Carolina Regiment participated in Pickett/Pettigrew's Charge and advanced the farthest into the Northern lines of any Confederate regiment. During the Battle of Chickamauga the 58th North Carolina Regiment advanced farther than any other regiment on Snodgrass Hill to push back the remaining Union forces from the battlefield. At Appomattox Court House in Virginia in April 1865, the 75th North Carolina Regiment, a cavalry unit, fired the last shots of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in the Civil War. For many years, North Carolinians proudly boasted that they had been "First at Bethel, Farthest at Gettysburg and Chickamauga, and Last at Appomattox." Demographics With two thirds of North Carolina's population residing in the middle one third of its landmass, the middle third of the state is about four times more densely populated than the remaining two thirds. The United States Census Bureau, as of July 1, 2008, estimated North Carolina's population at 9,222,414, which represents an increase of 1,175,914, or 14.6%, since the last census in 2000. This exceeds the rate of growth for the United States as a whole. The growth comprises a natural increase since the last census of 412,906 people (that is 1,015,065 births minus 602,159 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 783,382 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 192,099 people, and migration within the country produced a net gain of 591,283 people. Between 2005 and 2006, North Carolina passed New Jersey to become the 10th most populous state. Table 1: Estimates of Population Change for the United States and States, and for Puerto Rico and State Rankings: July 1, 2005 to July 1, 2006. United States Census Bureau. December 22, 2006. Last accessed December 22, 2006. The state's population reported as under 5 years old was 6.7%, 24.4% were under 18, and 12.0% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 51% of the population. Metropolitan Areas North Carolina has three major Metropolitan Combined Statistical Areas with populations of more than 1 million: The Metrolina: Charlotte-Gastonia-Salisbury, NC-SC - population 2,277,074 The Triangle: Raleigh-Durham-Chapel Hill, NC- population of 1,635,974 The Piedmont Triad: Greensboro—Winston-Salem—High Point, NC - population of 1,513,576 North Carolina has eight municipalities with populations of more than 100,000 (U.S. Census Bureau 2007 estimates): All data taken from the U.S. Census bureau's 2007 population estimates, GCT-T1-R. Population Estimates (geographies ranked by estimate) Data Set: 2008 Population Estimates at www.census.gov] Charlotte: Mecklenburg County - population 671,588 Raleigh: Wake County - population 375,806 Greensboro: Guilford County - population 258,671 Winston-Salem: Forsyth County - population 224,889 Durham: Durham County - population 222,472 Fayetteville: Cumberland County - population 203,100 Cary: Wake County - population 121,796 High Point: Guilford County - population 100,432 Racial makeup and population trends +AncestryPercentageMain article:African(21.6%) Of Total)See African AmericanAmerican (13.9%)See United StatesEnglish(9.5%)See English American German(9.5%)See German American Irish(7.4%)See Irish AmericanScots-Irish(3.2%)See Scots-Irish American Italian(2.3%)See Italian American Scottish(2.2%)See Scottish American County Seat 2010 Projection Mecklenburg Charlotte 936,874 Wake Raleigh 920,298 Guilford Greensboro 480,028 Forsyth Winston-Salem 352,810 Cumberland Fayetteville 317,094 Durham Durham 267,086 Buncombe Asheville 234,800 Union Monroe 207,738 Gaston Gastonia 207,696 New Hanover Wilmington 202,411 In 2007, the U.S. Census estimated that the racial makeup of North Carolina was as follows: 70% White American, 25.3% African-American, 1.2% American Indian, and the remaining 6.5% are Hispanic or Latino (of any race). North Carolina has historically been a rural state, with most of the population living on farms or in small towns. However, over the last 30 years the state has undergone rapid urbanization, and today most of North Carolina's residents live in urban and suburban areas, as is the case in most of the United States. In particular, the cities of Charlotte and Raleigh have become major urban centers, with large, diverse, mainly affluent and rapidly growing populations. Most of this growth in diversity has been fueled by immigrants from Latin America, India, and Southeast Asia. African Americans African Americans make up nearly a quarter of North Carolina's population. The number of middle-class blacks has increased since the 1970s. African Americans are concentrated in the state's eastern Coastal Plain and in parts of the Piedmont Plateau, where they had historically worked and where the most new job opportunities are. African-American communities number by the hundreds in rural counties in the south-central and northeast, and in predominantly black neighborhoods in the cities: Charlotte, Raleigh, Durham, Greensboro, Fayetteville, Wilmington and Winston-Salem. Asian Americans The state has a rapidly growing proportion of Asian Americans, specifically those of Indian and Vietnamese descent; these groups nearly quintupled and tripled, respectively, between 1990 and 2002, as people arrived in the state for new jobs in the growing economy. Recent estimates suggest that the state's Asian-American population has increased significantly since 2000. European Americans Settled first, the coastal region attracted primarily English immigrants of the early migrations, including indentured servants transported to the colonies and descendants of English who migrated from Virginia. In addition, there were waves of Protestant European immigration, including the British, many Scots Irish, French Huguenots, North Carolina-Colonization-The Southern Colonies and Swiss Germans who settled New Bern; many Pennsylvania Germans came down the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia on the Great Wagon Road and settled in the western Piedmont and the foothills of the Blue Ridge. A concentration of Welsh (usually included with others from Britain and Ireland) settled east of present Fayetteville in the 18th century. For a long time the wealthier, educated planters of the coastal region dominated state government. Hispanics/Latinos Since 1990 the state has seen an increase in the number of Hispanics/Latinos. Once chiefly employed as migrant labor, Hispanic residents of the 1990s and early 2000s have been attracted to low-skilled jobs that are the first step on the economic ladder. As a result, growing numbers of Hispanic immigrants are settling in the state. Native Americans North Carolina has the highest American Indian population of states on the East Coast. The estimated population figures for Native Americans in North Carolina (as of 2004) is 110,198. To date, North Carolina recognizes eight Native American tribal nations within its state borders. Those tribes are the Coharie, Eastern Band of the Cherokee, Haliwa-Saponi, Lumbee, Meherrin, Sappony, Occaneechi Band of the Saponi Nation and Waccamaw-Siouan. Religion Religious affiliationChristian82%Evangelical Protestant41%Mainline Protestant21%Other Protestant11%Roman Catholic 9%Jewish1%Buddist1%Other religions4%Non-religious12%Data as of 2001 http://religions.pewforum.org/maps North Carolina, like other Southern states, has traditionally been overwhelmingly Protestant. By the late 19th century, the largest Protestant denomination was the Southern Baptists. However, the rapid influx of northerners and immigrants from Latin America is steadily increasing the number of Roman Catholics and Jews in the state. The Baptists remain the single largest church in the state, however. The religious affiliations of the people of North Carolina, as of 2001, are shown in the chart. Economy According to the Bureau of Economic Analysis, the state's 2007 total gross state product was $399 billion. http://www.bea.gov/regional/gsp/action.cfm Its 2007 per capita personal income was $33,735, placing 36th in the nation. North Carolina's agricultural outputs include poultry and eggs, tobacco, hogs, milk, nursery stock, cattle, sweet potatoes, and soybeans. However, North Carolina has recently been affected by offshoring and industrial growth in countries like China; one in five manufacturing jobs in the state has been lost to overseas competition. Fishman, China, Inc.: How the Rise of the Next Superpower Challenges America and the World, p. 179 There has been a distinct difference in the economic growth of North Carolina's urban and rural areas. While large cities such as Charlotte, Raleigh, Greensboro, and others have experienced rapid population and economic growth over the last thirty years, many of the state's small towns have suffered from loss of jobs and population. Most of North Carolina's small towns historically developed around textile and furniture factories. As these factories closed and moved to low-wage markets in Asia and Latin America, the small towns that depended upon them have suffered. The first gold nugget found in the U.S. was found in Cabarrus County in 1799. The first gold dollar minted in the U.S. was minted at the Bechtler Mint in Rutherford County. Agriculture and Manufacturing Over the past century, North Carolina has grown to become a national leader in agriculture, financial services, and manufacturing. The state's industrial output—mainly textiles, chemicals, electrical equipment, paper and pulp/paper products—ranked eighth in the nation in the early 1990s. The textile industry, which was once a mainstay of the state's economy, has been steadily losing jobs to producers in Latin America and Asia for the past 25 years, though the state remains the largest textile employer in the United States. http://www.soc.duke.edu/NC_GlobalEconomy/textiles/overview.php Over the past few years, another important Carolina industry, furniture production, has also been hard hit by jobs moving to Asia (especially China). Tobacco, one of North Carolina's earliest sources of revenue, remains vital to the local economy, although concerns about whether the federal government will continue to support subsidies for tobacco farmers has led some growers to switch to other crops like wine or leave farming altogether. NC Department of Commerce Wine and Grape Industry web site. North Carolina is the leading producer of tobacco in the country. Agriculture in the western counties of North Carolina (particularly Buncombe and surrounding counties) is presently experiencing a revitalization coupled with a shift to niche marketing, fueled by the growing demand for organic and local products. Finance, Technology and Research Charlotte's growing skyline Charlotte, North Carolina's largest city, continues to experience rapid growth, in large part due to the banking & finance industry. Charlotte is now the second largest banking center in the United States (after New York), and is home to Bank of America and Wells Fargo subsidiary, Wachovia. The Charlotte metro area is also home to 5 other Fortune 500 companies. BB&T (Branch Banking & Trust), one of America's largest banks, was founded in Wilson, NC in 1872. Today, BB&T's headquarters is in Winston-Salem, although some operations still take place in Wilson. The information and biotechnology industries have been steadily on the rise since the creation of the Research Triangle Park (RTP) in the 1950s. Located between Raleigh and Durham (mostly in Durham County), its proximity to local research universities has no doubt helped to fuel growth. Raleigh, the growing capital of North Carolina The North Carolina Research Campus underway in Kannapolis (approx. northeast of Charlotte) promises to enrich and bolster the Charlotte area in the same way that RTP changed the Raleigh-Durham region. Encompassing , the complex is a collaborative project involving Duke University, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and N.C. State University, along with private and corporate investors and developers. The facility incorporates corporate, academic, commercial and residential space, oriented toward research and development (R&D) and biotechnology. Similarly, in downtown Winston-Salem, the Piedmont Triad Research Park is undergoing an expansion. Approximately thirty miles to the east of Winston Salem's research park, the University of North Carolina at Greensboro and North Carolina A&T State University have joined forces to create the Gateway University Research Park, a technology-based research entity which will focus its efforts on areas such as nanotechnology, biotechnology & biochemistry, environmental sciences, and genetics among other science-based disciplines. Film and the Arts Film studios are located in Shelby, Raleigh, Durham, Charlotte, Asheville, Wilmington, and Winston-Salem. Some of the best-known films and television shows filmed in the state include: All the Real Girls, Being There, Blue Velvet, Bull Durham, A Walk to Remember, Glory, The Color Purple, Cabin Fever, Super Mario Bros., Cape Fear, Children of the Corn, The Crow, Dawson's Creek, Dirty Dancing, Evil Dead 2, The Fugitive, The Green Mile, Hannibal, The Last of the Mohicans, Nell, One Tree Hill, Patch Adams, Shallow Hal, Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby, Leatherheads, Nights in Rodanthe and 28 Days. Half of Steven King's movies were filmed in North Carolina. The television show most associated with North Carolina is The Andy Griffith Show, which aired on CBS-TV from 1960 to 1968. The series is set in the fictional small town of Mayberry, North Carolina, and was based on the real-life town of Mount Airy, North Carolina, although it was filmed in California. Mount Airy is the hometown of actor Andy Griffith. The show is still popular in reruns and is frequently shown in syndication around the nation. North Carolina is also home to some of the Southeast's biggest film festivals, including the National Black Theatre Festival and the RiverRun International Film Festival in Winston-Salem, and the Full Frame Documentary Film Festival in Durham, North Carolina. Tourism Tourism destinations in the state include amusement parks, golf, wineries, beaches, meetings and conventions and sports venues. The North Carolina tourism industry employs more than 190,000 people. The state is the 6th most visited in the country (preceded by Florida, California, New York, Nevada and Pennsylvania). The North Carolina Department of Commerce maintains a Tourism Services providing matching funds and consultation for development tourism in the state including rural tourism. Tax Revenue North Carolina personal income tax is slightly progressive, with four incremental brackets ranging from 6.0% to 8.25%. The base state sales tax is 4.25%. Most taxable sales or purchases are subject to the state tax as well as the 2.5% local tax rate levied by all counties, for a combined 6.75%. Mecklenburg County has an additional 0.5% local tax for public transportation, bringing sales taxes there to a total 7.25%. The total local rate of tax in Dare County is 3.5%, producing a combined state and local rate there of 7.75%. Change in Dare County Sales and Use Tax Rate In addition, there is a 30.2¢ tax per gallon of gas, a 30¢ tax per pack of cigarettes, a 79¢ tax on wine, and a 48¢ tax on beer. There are also additional taxes levied against food and prepared foods, normally totaling 2% and 8% respectively. The property tax in North Carolina is locally assessed and collected by the counties. The three main elements of the property tax system in North Carolina are real property, motor vehicles and personal property (inventories and household personal property are exempt). Estimated at 10.5% of income, North Carolina’s state/local tax burden percentage ranks 23rd highest nationally (taxpayers pay an average of $3,526 per-capita), just below the national average of 10.6%. North Carolina ranks 40th in the Tax Foundation's State Business Tax Climate Index with neighboring states ranked as follows: Tennessee (18th), Georgia (19th), South Carolina (26th) and Virginia (13th). Transportation International/Major regional airports Albert J Ellis Airport (Jacksonville) Asheville Regional Airport (Asheville) Charlotte/Douglas International Airport (Charlotte) Coastal Carolina Regional Airport (New Bern) Fayetteville Regional Airport (Fayetteville) Hickory Regional Airport (Hickory) Kinston Regional Jetport (Kinston) Moore County Airport (Pinehurst/Southern Pines) Piedmont Triad International Airport (Greensboro/Winston-Salem/High Point) Pitt-Greenville Airport (Greenville) Raleigh-Durham International Airport (Raleigh/Durham) Smith Reynolds Airport (Winston-Salem) Wilmington International Airport (Wilmington) Rail Amtrak operates The Palmetto with service from New York to Florence to Savannah Georgia, as well as Silver Star from New York to Florence to Tampa via Raleigh, Cary, Southern Pines and Hamlet N.C., and Silver Meteor from New York to Florence to Miami via Rocky Mount N.C and Fayetteville N.C. The state subsidizes both the Piedmont and Carolinian intercity rail serving the research triangle. Amtrak has announced a third subsidized train that will run between Raleigh and Charlotte. This train will run midday to complement the Piedmont and Carolinian and include stops in Greensboro, Burlington, and High Point. There is also the Crescent which runs from New York to Atlanta during the early morning before dawn. Mass transit LYNX light rail car in Charlotte Several cities are served by mass transit systems. The Charlotte Area Transit System (CATS) operates a historical trolley line and 76 bus and shuttle routes serving Charlotte and its satellite cities. In 2007 it opened the LYNX light rail line connecting Charlotte with suburban Pineville. There are future plans to expand LYNX Light Rail as well as implementation of Commuter Rail and Streetcar. The Fayetteville Area System of Transit (FAST) serves the city with ten bus routes and two shuttle routes. The Triangle Transit Authority operates buses that serve the Triangle region and connect to municipal bus systems in Raleigh, Durham, and Chapel Hill; recent efforts to build a light rail from downtown Raleigh to downtown Durham failed as TTA's projected ridership did not meet federal standards. Greensboro is serviced by the Greensboro Transit Authority (GTA), which operates 14 bus routes. Additionally, the Higher Education Area Transit (HEAT) system provides service to students who attend the following institutions: Bennett College, Elon University School of Law, Greensboro College, Guilford College, Guilford Technical Community College, North Carolina A&T State University, and University of North Carolina at Greensboro. The HEAT service provides transportation between campuses and various other destinations, including downtown Greensboro. Winston-Salem Transit Authority (WSTA) operates 30 bus routes around the city of Winston-Salem; additionally, WSTA recently completed construction of a central downtown mult-modal transportation center with 16 covered bus bays adjacent to a large enclosed lobby/waiting area. There are future plans being discussed for a $52 million streetcar system connecting Piedmont Triad Research Park/Downtown with Wake Forest University Baptist Medical Center. Piedmont Authority for Regional Transportation (PART) is the Triad's 10-county regional organization with the goal of enhancing all forms of transportation through regional cooperation. PART Express Bus provides express shuttle service to each major Triad city from Piedmont Triad International Airport, while Connections Express connects the Triad to Duke and UNC Medical Centers. PART is also administering and developing several rail service studies that include both commuter and intercity rail. Wilmington's Wave Transit operates six bus lines within the city as well as five shuttles to nearby areas and a downtown trolley. In July 2008, Western Piedmont Regional Transit Authority began serving Burke, Caldwell, Catawba and Alexander counties in the region just west of Charlotte. Western Piedmont Regional Transit Authority Jacksonville recently began a trial bus system called the LOOP, which runs two routes through the city and nearby Camp Lejeune. Major highways The North Carolina Highway System consists of a vast network of Interstate highways, U.S. routes, and state routes. North Carolina has the largest state maintained highway network in the United States. Major highways include: Interstate 26 Interstate 40 Interstate 73 Interstate 74 Interstate 77 Interstate 85 Interstate 95 U.S. Highway 1 U.S. Highway 15 U.S. Highway 17 U.S. Highway 19 U.S. Highway 52 U.S. Highway 64 U.S. Highway 70 U.S. Highway 74 Politics and government North Carolina State Legislative Building The governor, lieutenant governor, and eight elected executive department heads form the Council of State. Ten other executive department heads appointed by the governor form the North Carolina Cabinet. The state's current governor is Democrat Bev Perdue, the first female governor of the state. The North Carolina General Assembly, or Legislature, consists of two houses: a 50-member Senate and a 120-member House of Representatives. For the 2007–2008 session, the current President Pro Tempore of the Senate is Democrat Marc Basnight (the Lieutenant Governor of North Carolina is the President of the Senate); The House Speaker is Democrat Joe Hackney. The Supreme Court of North Carolina is the state's highest appellate court; it numbers seven justices. The North Carolina Court of Appeals is the only intermediate appellate court in the state; it consists of fifteen judges who rule in rotating panels of three. Together, the Supreme Court and Court of Appeals constitute the appellate division of the court system. The trial division includes the Superior Court and the District Court. All felony criminal cases, civil cases involving more than $10,000 and misdemeanor and infraction appeals from District Court are tried in Superior Court. A jury of 12 hears the criminal cases. Civil cases—such as divorce, custody, child support, and cases involving less than $10,000—are heard in District Court, along with criminal cases involving misdemeanors and lesser infractions. The trial of a criminal case in District Court is always without a jury. The District Court also hears juvenile cases involving children under the age of 16 who are delinquent and children under the age of 18 who are undisciplined, dependent, neglected, or abused. Magistrates accept guilty pleas for minor misdemeanors, accept guilty pleas for traffic violations, and accept waivers of trial for worthless-check cases among other things. In civil cases, the magistrate is authorized to try small claims involving up to $4,000 including landlord eviction cases. Magistrates also perform civil marriages. State constitution The state constitution governs the structure and function of the North Carolina government. It is the highest legal document for the state and subjugates North Carolina law. Like all state constitutions in the United States, this constitution is subject to federal judicial review. Any provision of the state constitution can be nullified if it conflicts with federal law and the United States Constitution. North Carolina has had three constitutions: 1776: Ratified December 18, 1776, as the first constitution of the independent state. The Declaration of Rights was ratified the preceding day. 1868: Framed in accordance with the Reconstruction Acts after North Carolina was readmitted into the Union. It was a major reorganization and modification of the original into fourteen articles. It also introduced townships which each county was required to create, the only southern state to do so. 1971: Minor consolidation of the 1868 constitution and subsequent amendments. Federal apportionments North Carolina currently has 13 congressional districts, which, when combined with its two U.S. Senate seats, gives the state 15 electoral votes. In the 111th Congress, the state is represented by eight Democratic and five Republican members of congress, plus one Republican and one Democratic Senator. Politics North Carolina State Capitol North Carolina is politically dominated by the Democratic and Republican political parties. Since the 19th century, third parties, such as the Green Party and Libertarian Party, have had difficulty making inroads in state politics. They have both run candidates for office with neither party's winning a state office. After engaging in a lawsuit with the state over ballot access, the Libertarian Party qualified to be on the ballot after submitting more than 70,000 petition signatures NC Libertarians release candidate slate Historically, North Carolina was politically divided between the eastern and western parts of the state. Before the Civil War, the eastern half of North Carolina supported the Democratic Party, primarily because the region contained most of the state's planter slaveholders who profited from large cash crops. Yeomen farmers in the western Piedmont and mountains were not slaveholders and tended to support the Whig party, seen as more moderate on slavery and more supportive of business interests. Following the Civil War, Republicans, including newly enfranchised freedmen, controlled the state government during Reconstruction. When federal troops were removed in the national compromise of 1877, the Democratic Party gained control of the state government, partly through white paramilitary groups conducting a campaign of violence against blacks to discourage them from voting, especially in the Piedmont counties. Despite that, the number of black officeholders peaked in the 1880s as they were elected to local offices in black-majority districts. Michael J. Klarman, From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality, New York: Oxford University Press, 2006, p.30 Following a downturn in food prices, in 1892 many of the nation's farmers created the Populist Party to represent their interests. The party was strengthened by the Panic of 1893 and subsequent nationwide economic depression. In North Carolina, the Republican and Populist parties formed an interracial alliance, called an electoral fusion, in 1894 which resulted in control of the state legislature. In 1896 the Republican-Populist alliance took control of the governorship and many state offices. In response, many white Democrats began efforts to reduce voter rolls and turnout. Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", Constitutional Commentary, Vol.17, 2000, p. 27, accessed 10 March 2008 During the late 1890s, white Democrats began to pass legislation to restrict voter registration and reduce voting by blacks and poor whites. With the first step accomplished in 1896 by making registration more complicated and reducing black voter turnout, in 1898 the state's Democratic Party regained control of the state government. Contemporary observers described the election as a "contest unquestionably accompanied by violence, intimidation and fraud - to what extent we do not know - in the securing of a majority of 60,000 for the new arrangement". Albert Shaw, The American Monthly Review of Reviews, Vol. XXII, July-December 1900, pp. 273-274, accessed 27 March 2008 Using the slogan, "White Supremacy", and backed by influential newspapers such as the Raleigh News and Observer under publisher Josephus Daniels, the Democrats ousted the Populist-Republican majority. Encouraged by the U.S. Supreme Court ruling that upheld the Mississippi disfranchising constitution in Williams v. Mississippi (1898), North Carolina legislators passed similar provisions in 1900, as did eight other states. Provisions included imposition of poll taxes, residency requirements, and literacy tests. Initially the grandfather clause was used to exempt illiterate whites from the literacy test, but many were gradually disfranchised as well. By these efforts, by 1904 white Democratic legislators had completely eliminated black voter turnout in North Carolina. Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", Constitutional Commentary, Vol.17, 2000, pp. 12-13, accessed 10 March 2008 Although African Americans mounted litigation and the U.S. Supreme Court began to find specific provisions unconstitutional (as in Guinn v. United States (1915) which struck down the grandfather clause), state legislatures responded with new mechanisms for restricting voter registration. Disfranchisement lasted until the mid-1960s. With some notable exceptions, North Carolina then became a part of the "Solid Democratic South". The Solid South was based on disfranchisement of most African Americans and tens of thousands of poor whites. Southern states managed to keep Congressional apportionment based on total population, despite having deprived about half the citizens of the power to vote. However, some counties in North Carolina's western Piedmont and Appalachian Mountains continued to vote Republican, continuing a tradition that dated from their yeoman culture and opposition to secession before the Civil War. In 1952, aided by the presidential candidacy of popular war hero Dwight Eisenhower, the Republicans were successful in electing a U.S. Congressman, Charles R. Jonas. In the mid-20th century Republicans began to attract white voters in North Carolina and other Southern states. This was after passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 under Democratic President Lyndon Johnson, which extended Federal protection and enforcement of civil rights for all American citizens. Because the Democratic Party had supported civil rights at the national level, most black voters (just under 25% of North Carolina's population in the 1960 census) initially aligned with the Democrats when they regained their franchise. Historical Census Browser, 1960 US Census, University of Virginia, accessed 13 March 2008 In 1972, aided by the landslide re-election of Richard Nixon, Republicans in North Carolina elected their first governor and U.S. senator of the twentieth century. Senator Jesse Helms played a major role in renewing the Republican Party and turning North Carolina into a two-party state. Under his banner, many conservative white Democrats in the central and eastern parts of North Carolina began to vote Republican, at least in national elections. In part, this was due to dissatisfaction with the national Democratic Party's stance on issues of civil rights and racial integration. In later decades, conservatives rallied to Republicans over social issues such as prayer in school, gun rights, abortion rights, and gay rights. Except for regional son Jimmy Carter's election in 1976, North Carolina voted Republican in every presidential election from 1968 to 2004. At the state level, however, the Democrats still control most of the elected offices, and as large numbers of out-of-state residents moved to the state in the 1990s and 2000's the Republican dominance in presidential elections has eroded. President George W. Bush carried North Carolina with 56% of the vote in 2004, but in 2008 Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama narrowly defeated Republican candidate John McCain in North Carolina; he was the first Democratic presidential nominee to win the state in 32 years. The Democratic Party's strength is increasingly centered in densely-populated urban counties such as Mecklenburg, Wake, and Guilford, where the bulk of the state's population growth has occurred. However, the Republicans maintain a strong presence in many of North Carolina's rural and small-town counties, which have become heavily Republican. The suburban areas around the state's larger cities usually hold the balance of power and can vote both ways, although in 2008 they trended towards the Democratic Party. State and local elections have become highly competitive compared to the previous one-party decades of the 20th century. For example, eastern North Carolina routinely elects numerous Republican sheriffs and county commissioners, a shift that did not happen until the 1980s. Currently, Democrats retained the two senatorial seats, governorship, majorities in both houses of the state legislature, state supreme court, and an 8 to 5 majority of U.S. House seats, as of January 2009. Two Presidents of the United States were born and raised in North Carolina, but both men began their political careers in neighboring Tennessee, and were elected President from that state. The two men were James K. Polk and Andrew Johnson. A third U.S. President, Andrew Jackson, may also have been born in North Carolina. However, as he was born almost precisely on the state line with South Carolina, both states claim him as a native son, and historians have debated for decades over the precise site of Jackson's birthplace. On the grounds of the old state capitol building in Raleigh is a statue dedicated to the Presidents who were born in the state; Jackson is included in the statue. Jackson himself stated that he was born in what later became South Carolina, but at the time of his birth, the line between the states had not been surveyed. North Carolina remains a control state. This is probably due to the state's strongly conservative Protestant heritage. Five of the state's counties - Alexander, Clay, Graham, Mitchell, and Yancey, which are all located in rural areas - remain "dry" (the sale of alcoholic beverages is illegal). However, the remaining 95 North Carolina counties allow the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages, as is the case in most of the United States. Even in rural areas, the opposition to selling and drinking alcoholic beverages is declining, as the decreasing number of "dry" counties indicates. In 2005, following substantial political maneuvering, the state legislature voted to implement a state lottery, thus altering North Carolina's reputation as the "anti-lottery" state, where owning a lottery ticket from another state was once a felony. By 2005, every state surrounding North Carolina had a lottery in operation. The North Carolina Education Lottery began selling tickets on March 31, 2006. The lottery has had unexpectedly low sales since its inception. Lottery commissioner says games are doing well despite low sales | WWAY NewsChannel 3 | Wilmington NC News Education Elementary and secondary education Elementary and secondary public schools are overseen by the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction. The North Carolina Superintendent of Public Instruction is the secretary of the North Carolina State Board of Education, but the board, rather than the superintendent, holds most of the legal authority for making public education policy. In 2009, the board's chairman also became the "chief executive officer" for the state's school system. News & Observer: Perdue's choice to lead state's school system takes office North Carolina has 115 public school systems, each of which is overseen by a local school board. A county may have one or more systems within it. The largest school systems in North Carolina are the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools, Wake County Public School System, Guilford County Schools, Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools, and Cumberland County Schools. In total there are 2,338 public schools in the state, including 93 charter schools. The Old Well on the UNC-Chapel Hill campus The Duke Chapel Colleges and universities For more details on this topic, see List of colleges and universities in North Carolina In 1795, North Carolina opened the first public university in the United States--the University of North Carolina (currently named the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). More than 200 years later, the University of North Carolina system encompasses 17 public universities including North Carolina State University, UNC-Chapel Hill, East Carolina University, Western Carolina University, UNC Charlotte, UNC Greensboro, UNC Wilmington and Appalachian State University. The system also supports several well-known historically black colleges and universities such as North Carolina A&T State University, North Carolina Central University, Winston-Salem State University, Elizabeth City State University, and Fayetteville State University. Along with its public universities, North Carolina has 58 public community colleges in its community college system. Some of North Carolina's most prestigious private universities and colleges include: Wake Forest University, Duke University, Elon University, Queens University of Charlotte, Belmont Abbey College, Campbell University, Shaw University, Davidson College, Lenoir-Rhyne University, Guilford College, Gardner-Webb University, High Point University, Salem College, Meredith College and Saint Augustine's College. Sports and recreation Professional sports Motorsports The state is also a center of American motorsports, with more than 80% of NASCAR racing teams and related industries located in the Piedmont region. The largest race track in North Carolina is Lowe's Motor Speedway in Concord where the Sprint Cup Series holds three major races each year. The NASCAR Hall of Fame, located in Charlotte, is due to open in 2010. Many of NASCAR's most famous driver dynasties, the Pettys, Earnhardts, Allisons, Jarretts and Waltrips all live within an hour of Charlotte. In off-road motocycle racing, the Grand National Cross Country series makes two stops in North Carolina, Morganton and Yadkinville; the only other state to host two GNCC events is Ohio. For sport amateurs, the state holds the State Games of North Carolina each year. Football Despite having over nine million people, North Carolina's population being spread out over three major metropolitan areas precluded attracting any major professional sports league teams until 1974, when the New York Stars of the World Football League was relocated to Charlotte in the middle of the season and renamed the Charlotte Hornets (although the team was referred to as the Charlotte Stars for the first game in Charlotte). The National Football League (NFL) is represented by the Carolina Panthers, who began play in 1995, and call Charlotte's Bank of America Stadium home. In 2004, the NBA returned to the state with the Charlotte Bobcats who play their home games in Time Warner Cable Arena. The Carolina RailHawks are a men's professional soccer team in the United Soccer Leagues, and their home field is the WakeMed Soccer Park in Cary. The American Indoor Football Association (AIFA) is represented by the Fayetteville Guard who plays at Crown Coliseum. North Carolina was home to the Charlotte Rage and the Carolina Cobras of the Arena Football League. Basketball Time Warner Cable Arena, home to the Charlotte Bobcats of the NBA.Prior to that, the Carolina Cougars of the American Basketball Association played in various North Carolina cites (playing in the ABA for five seasons, ending in the spring of 1974). Current Charlotte Bobcats coach Larry Brown started his coaching career as head coach of the Cougars. The first successful franchise from a major professional sports league to be created in North Carolina were the Charlotte Hornets of the National Basketball Association (NBA), which began play in the 1987–88 season. The state remains without a Major League Baseball franchise despite numerous efforts to attract a team (including the 2006 push to relocate the Florida Marlins to Charlotte). Hockey Stanley Cup awards ceremony at the RBC CenterOn June 19, 2006, the Carolina Hurricanes, a National Hockey League (NHL) franchise based in Raleigh, won the Stanley Cup. The Hurricanes, who call the RBC Center home, are the first professional sports team from North Carolina to win their sport's highest championship. The team moved to the state in 1996 and played their games at the Greensboro Coliseum for their first 2 seasons in North Carolina before moving to their current home at the Entertainment and Sports Arena (later named the RBC Center) in Raleigh. Baseball North Carolina is a state known for minor league sports, notably the setting of the 1987 comedy Bull Durham about the Durham Bulls of the Carolina League. The state boasts over 30 minor league baseball teams in six different minor leagues, including the Triple-A International League teams in Charlotte and Durham. There is a number of indoor football, indoor soccer, minor league basketball, and minor league ice hockey teams throughout the state. North Carolina has become a top golf destination for players across the nation, notably in Pinehurst, and the community of Southern Pines of Moore County which is home to over 50 golf courses, as well as the coastal corridor between historic Wilmington, North Carolina and Myrtle Beach, South Carolina with over 110 golf courses. Wrestling From the 1930s to the early 1990s, the Mid Atlantic Championship Wrestling professional wrestling promotion, under the Crockett family, operated almost entirely out of Charlotte. Mid Atlantic was a long-time member of the National Wrestling Alliance and many of their top stars appeared on national television on NWA and later WCW events. Many retired or still-current wrestlers live in the Charlotte/Lake Norman area, including Ric Flair, Ricky Steamboat, Matt and Jeff Hardy, Stan Lane, and Shannon Moore. Rodeo North Carolina has become a hot bed for professional bull riding (PBR). It is the home of the 1995 PRCA World Champion Bull Rider Jerome Davis. It is also home to several professional stock contractors and bull owners including Thomas Teague of Teague Bucking Bulls. The Southern Extreme Bull Riding Association SEBRA headquarters are located in Archdale. College sports Tip-off of a Duke-UNC basketball game at the Dean Smith Center Although North Carolina did not have a major-league professional sports franchise until the 1980s, the state has long been known as a hotbed of college basketball. Since the formation of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) in 1953, the conference's North Carolina member schools have excelled in conference play. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC), Duke University, and North Carolina State University are all located within of one another, creating fierce rivalries. Wake Forest University, another ACC member, is located less than to the west of these schools in Winston-Salem. UNC has won five NCAA national championships in basketball: 1957, 1982, 1993, 2005, and 2009. Duke has won three NCAA championships: 1991, 1992, and 2001. NC State has won two: 1974 and 1983. The Duke-UNC basketball rivalry has been called one of the best rivalries in sports and the two schools are often contenders for the national title. In addition to the ACC schools, the University of North Carolina at Charlotte went to the NCAA's Final Four in 1977, and Davidson College near Charlotte went to the NCAA's "Elite Eight" in 1968, 1969, and 2008. In 2007 Barton College in Wilson won the NCAA Division II championship in men's basketball. Although basketball remains the dominant college sport in North Carolina, several schools have also enjoyed success in football and other sports. In 2005, 2006, and 2007 Appalachian State University won the NCAA Division I Football Championship Subdivision championship; they are the first university to win the Division I Football Championship Subdivision championship three times in a row. Wake Forest University has also enjoyed substantial success in football; in 2007 they won the ACC football championship and participated in the 2007 Orange Bowl in Miami, Florida. This was the first major bowl berth for a North Carolina-based team since Duke defeated Arkansas in the 1961 Cotton Bowl (game). Recreation The Blue Ridge Mountains of the Shining Rock Wilderness Area Due to geography, rich history, and growing industry, North Carolina provides a large range of recreational activities from swimming at the beach to skiing in the mountains. North Carolina offers fall colors, freshwater and saltwater fishing, hunting, birdwatching, agritourism, ATV trails, ballooning, rock climbing, biking, hiking, skiing, boating and sailing, camping, canoeing, caving (spelunking), gardens, and arboretums. North Carolina has theme parks, aquariums, zoos, museums, historic sites, lighthouses, elegant theaters, concert halls, and fine dining. North Carolinians enjoy outdoor recreation utilizing numerous local bike paths, 34 state parks, and 14 national parks which are the Appalachian National Scenic Trail, the Blue Ridge Parkway, Cape Hatteras National Seashore, Cape Lookout National Seashore, Carl Sandburg Home National Historic Site at Flat Rock, Croatan National Forest in Eastern North Carolina, Fort Raleigh National Historic Site at Manteo, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Guilford Courthouse National Military Park in Greensboro, Moores Creek National Battlefield near Currie, the Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail, Old Salem National Historic Site in Winston-Salem, the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail, Wright Brothers National Memorial in Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, Uwharrie National Forest. Other information Famous food and drinks from North Carolina 2008 Lexington Barbecue Festival A nationally-famous cuisine from North Carolina is pork barbecue. However, there are strong regional differences and rivalries over the sauces and method of preparation used in making the barbecue. Eastern North Carolina pork barbecue uses a vinegar-based sauce and the "whole hog" is cooked, thus using both white and dark meat. The "capital" of eastern Carolina barbecue is usually considered to be the town of Wilson, near Raleigh. Western North Carolina pork barbecue uses a pepper and vinegar based sauce and only the pork shoulder (dark meat) is used. The "capital" of western Carolina barbecue is usually considered to be the Piedmont Triad town of Lexington, home of the Lexington Barbecue Festival which brings in over 100,000 visitors each October. North Carolina is the birthplace of Pepsi-Cola, first produced in 1890 in New Bern. Regional soft drinks created and still based in the state are Cheerwine. Krispy Kreme, a popular chain of doughnut stores, was started in North Carolina; the company's headquarters are in Winston-Salem. Despite its name, the hot sauce Texas Pete was created in North Carolina; its headquarters are also in Winston-Salem. The Hardees fast-food chain was started in Rocky Mount. Another fast-food chain, Bojangles', was started in Charlotte, and has its corporate headquarters there. A popular North Carolina restaurant chain is Golden Corral. Started in 1973, the chain was founded in Fayetteville. Popular pickle brand Mount Olive Pickle Company was founded in Mount Olive in 1926. Cook Out, a popular fast food chain featuring burgers, hot dogs, and milkshakes in a wide variety of flavors, was founded in Greensboro in 1989 and operates exclusively in North Carolina. Ships named for the state Several ships have been named for the state. Most famous is the USS North Carolina, a World War II battleship. The ship served in several battles against the forces of Imperial Japan in the Pacific theater during the war. Now decommissioned, it is part of the USS North Carolina Battleship Memorial in Wilmington. Another USS North Carolina, a nuclear attack submarine, was commissioned in Wilmington, NC on May 3, 2008. Cardinal, North Carolina state bird Dogwood, North Carolina state flower State symbols State motto: Esse quam videri ("To be, rather than to seem") (1893) State song: "The Old North State" (1927) State flower: Dogwood (1941) State bird: Cardinal (1943) State colors: the red and blue of the N.C. and U.S. flags (1945) State toast: "The Tar Heel Toast" (1957) State tree: Longleaf Pine (1963) State shell: Scotch bonnet (1965) State mammal: Eastern Gray Squirrel (1969) State salt water fish: Red Drum (also known as the Channel bass) (1971) State insect: European honey bee (1973) State gemstone: Emerald (1973) State reptile: Eastern Box Turtle (1979) State rock: Granite (1979) State beverage: Milk (1987) State historical boat: Shad boat (1987) State language: English (1987) State dog: Plott Hound (1989) State military academy: Oak Ridge Military Academy (1991) State tartan: Carolina tartan (1991) Secretary of State of North Carolina. State vegetable: Sweet potato (1995) State red berry: Strawberry (2001) State blue berry: Blueberry (2001) State fruit: Scuppernong grape (2001) State wildflower: Carolina Lily (2003) State Christmas tree: Fraser Fir (2005) State carnivorous plant: Venus Flytrap (2005) State folk dance: Clogging (2005) State popular dance: Shag (2005) State freshwater trout: Southern Appalachian Brook Trout (2005) State birthplace of traditional pottery: the Seagrove area (2005) Armed Forces installations According to former Governor Easley, North Carolina is the "most military friendly state in the nation." Fort Bragg, near Fayetteville is the largest and most comprehensive military base in the United States and is the headquarters of the XVIII Airborne Corps, 82nd Airborne Division, and the U.S. Army Special Operations Command. Serving as the airwing for Fort Bragg is Pope Air Force Base also located near Fayetteville. Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune which, when combined with nearby bases Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) Cherry Point, MCAS New River, Camp Geiger, Camp Johnson, Stone Bay and Courthouse Bay, makes up the largest concentration of Marines and sailors in the world. MCAS Cherry Point is home of the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing. Located in Goldsboro, Seymour Johnson Air Force Base is home of the 4th Fighter Wing and 916th Air Refueling Wing. One of the busiest air stations in the United States Coast Guard is located at the Coast Guard Air Station in Elizabeth City. Also stationed in North Carolina is the Military Ocean Terminal at Sunny Point in Southport. See also Index of North Carolina-related articles References Further reading William S. Powell and Jay Mazzocchi, eds. Encyclopedia of North Carolina (2006) 1320pp; 2000 articles by 550 experts on all topics; ISBN 0-8078-3071-2 James Clay and Douglas Orr, eds., North Carolina Atlas: Portrait of a Changing Southern State (University of North Carolina Press, 1971). Crow; Jeffrey J. and Larry E. Tise; Writing North Carolina History University of North Carolina Press, (1979) online Fleer; Jack D. North Carolina Government & Politics University of Nebraska Press, (1994) online political science textbook Marianne M. Kersey and Ran Coble, eds., North Carolina Focus: An Anthology on State Government, Politics, and Policy, 2d ed., (Raleigh: North Carolina Center for Public Policy Research, 1989). Lefler; Hugh Talmage. A Guide to the Study and Reading of North Carolina History University of North Carolina Press, (1963) online Hugh Talmage Lefler and Albert Ray Newsome, North Carolina: The History of a Southern State University of North Carolina Press (1954, 1963, 1973), college textbook Paul Luebke, Tar Heel Politics: Myths and Realities (University of North Carolina Press, 1990). William S. Powell, North Carolina through Four Centuries University of North Carolina Press (1989), college textbook. Primary sources Hugh Lefler, North Carolina History Told by Contemporaries (University of North Carolina Press, numerous editions since 1934) H. G. Jones, North Carolina Illustrated, 1524-1984 (University of North Carolina Press, 1984)North Carolina Manual'', published biennially by the Department of the Secretary of State since 1941. External links General Government and education North Carolina state government North Carolina State Databases - Annotated list of searchable databases produced by North Carolina state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. North Carolina Department of Commerce North Carolina state library Energy & Environmental Data for North Carolina USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of North Carolina North Carolina facts from US Department of Agriculture ERS North Carolina Court System official site North Carolina facts from US Census Bureau North Carolina Travel and Tourism Website NC ECHO - North Carolina Exploring Cultural Heritage Online North Carolina Collection, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Green 'N' Growing: The History of Home Demonstration and 4-H Youth Development in North Carolina - hosted by NCSU Libraries Special Collections Research Center NC Office of Archives and History NC Museum of History Other Old Growth Forest Wilderness Areas in Western North Carolina Old Growth Forest Wilderness Areas in Eastern North Carolina The Appalachian Trail Updates of statewide trends since publication of The North Carolina Atlas in 2000 Lost Colony Blog Sketches of North Carolina 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4,372 | Microeconomics | The supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability at each price (supply) and the desires of those with purchasing power at each price (demand). The graph depicts a right-shift in demand from D1 to D2 along with the consequent increase in price and quantity required to reach a new market-clearing equilibrium point on the supply curve (S). Microeconomics (from Greek: μικρό-ς // small, little and οικονομία /ikono΄mia/ economy) is a branch of economics that studies how individuals, households and firms and some states make decisions to allocate limited resources, typically in markets where goods or services are being bought and sold. Microeconomics examines how these decisions and behaviours affect the supply and demand for goods and services, which determines prices; and how prices, in turn , determine the supply and demand of goods and services. This is a contrast to macroeconomics, which involves the "sum total of economic activity, dealing with the issues of growth, inflation and unemployment, and with national economic policies relating to these issues". Macroeconomics also deals with the effects of government actions (such as changing taxation levels) on them. Particularly in the wake of the Lucas critique, much of modern macroeconomic theory has been built upon 'microfoundations' — i.e. based upon basic assumptions about micro-level behaviour. One of the goals of microeconomics is to analyze market mechanisms that establish relative prices amongst goods and services and allocation of limited resources amongst many alternative uses. Microeconomics analyzes market failure, where markets fail to produce efficient results, as well as describing the theoretical conditions needed for perfect competition. Significant fields of study in microeconomics include general equilibrium, markets under asymmetric information, choice under uncertainty and economic applications of game theory. Also considered is the elasticity of products within the market system. Assumptions and definitions The theory of supply and demand usually assumes that markets are perfectly competitive. This implies that there are many buyers and sellers in the market and none of them has the capacity to significantly influence prices of goods and services. In many real-life transactions, the assumption fails because some individual buyers or sellers have the ability to influence prices. Quite often a sophisticated analysis is required to understand the demand-supply equation of a good model. However, the theory works well in simple situations. Mainstream economics does not assume a priori that markets are preferable to other forms of social organization. In fact, much analysis is devoted to cases where so-called market failures lead to resource allocation that is suboptimal by some standard (highways are the classic example, profitable to all for use but not directly profitable for anyone to finance). In such cases, economists may attempt to find policies that will avoid waste directly by government control, indirectly by regulation that induces market participants to act in a manner consistent with optimal welfare, or by creating "missing markets" to enable efficient trading where none had previously existed. This is studied in the field of collective action. It also must be noted that "optimal welfare" usually takes on a Paretian norm, which in its mathematical application of Kaldor-Hicks Method, does not stay consistent with the Utilitarian norm within the normative side of economics which studies collective action, namely public choice. Market failure in positive economics (microeconomics) is limited in implications without mixing the belief of the economist and his or her theory. The demand for various commodities by individuals is generally thought of as the outcome of a utility-maximizing process. The interpretation of this relationship between price and quantity demanded of a given good is that, given all the other goods and constraints, this set of choices is that one which makes the consumer happiest. Modes of operation It is assumed that all firms are following rational decision-making, and will produce at the profit-maximizing output. Given this assumption, there are four categories in which a firm's profit may be considered. A firm is said to be making an economic profit when its average total cost is less than the price of each additional product at the profit-maximizing output. The economic profit is equal to the quantity output multiplied by the difference between the average total cost and the price. A firm is said to be making a normal profit when its economic profit equals zero. This occurs where average total cost equals price at the profit-maximizing output. If the price is between average total cost and average variable cost at the profit-maximizing output, then the firm is said to be in a loss-minimizing condition. The firm should still continue to produce, however, since its loss would be larger if it were to stop producing. By continuing production, the firm can offset its variable cost and at least part of its fixed cost, but by stopping completely it would lose the entirety of its fixed cost. If the price is below average variable cost at the profit-maximizing output, the firm should go into shutdown. Losses are minimized by not producing at all, since any production would not generate returns significant enough to offset any fixed cost and part of the variable cost. By not producing, the firm loses only its fixed cost. By losing this fixed cost the company faces a challenge. It must either exit the market or remain in the market and risk a complete loss. Market failure In microeconomics, the term "market failure" does not mean that a given market has ceased functioning. Instead, a market failure is a situation in which a given market does not efficiently organize production or allocate goods and services to consumers. Economists normally apply the term to situations where the assumptions of the First Welfare Theorem fail leading to the market outcome no longer being on the Pareto frontier. On the other hand, in a political context, stakeholders may use the term market failure to refer to situations where market forces do not serve the public interest. The four main types or causes of market failure are: Monopolies or other cases of abuse of market power where a "single buyer or seller can exert significant influence over prices or output". Abuse of market power can be reduced by using antitrust regulations. Externalities, which occur in cases where the "market does not take into account the impact of an economic activity on outsiders." There are positive externalities and negative externalities. Positive externalities occur in cases such as when a television program on family health improves the public's health. Negative externalities occur in cases such as when a company’s processes pollutes air or waterways. Negative externalities can be reduced by using government regulations, taxes, or subsidies, or by using property rights to force companies and individuals to take the impacts of their economic activity into account. Public goods are goods that have the characteristics that they are non-excludable and non-rivalrous and include national defense and public health initiatives such as draining mosquito-breeding marshes. For example, if draining mosquito-breeding marshes was left to the private market, far fewer marshes would probably be drained. To provide a good supply of public goods, nations typically use taxes that compel all residents to pay for these public goods (due to scarce knowledge of the positive externalities to third parties/social welfare); and Cases where there is asymmetric information or uncertainty (information inefficiency). Information asymmetry occurs when one party to a transaction has more or better information than the other party. For example, used-car salespeople may know whether a used car has been used as a delivery vehicle or taxi, information that may not be available to buyers. Typically it is the seller that knows more about the product than the buyer, but this is not always the case. An example of a situation where the buyer may have better information than the seller would be an estate sale of a house, as required by a last will and testament. A real estate broker buying this house may have more knowledge about the house than the family members of the deceased. This situation was first described by Kenneth J. Arrow in a seminal article on health care in 1963 entitled "Uncertainty and the Welfare Economics of Medical Care," in the American Economic Review. George Akerlof later used the term asymmetric information in his 1970 work The Market for Lemons. Akerlof noticed that, in such a market, the average value of the commodity tends to go down, even for those of perfectly good quality, because the buyer has no way of knowing whether the product they are buying will turn out to be a "lemon" (a defective product). Opportunity cost Although opportunity cost can be hard to quantify, the effect of opportunity cost is universal and very real on the individual level. In fact, this principle applies to all decisions, not just economic ones. Since the work of the Austrian economist Friedrich von Wieser, opportunity cost has been seen as the foundation of the marginal theory of value. Opportunity cost is one way to measure the cost of something. Rather than merely identifying and adding the costs of a project, one may also identify the next best alternative way to spend the same amount of money. The forgone profit of this next best alternative is the opportunity cost of the original choice. A common example is a farmer that chooses to farm her or his land rather than rent it to neighbors, wherein the opportunity cost is the forgone profit from renting. In this case, the farmer may expect to generate more profit alone. Similarly, the opportunity cost of attending university is the lost wages a student could have earned in the workforce, rather than the cost of tuition, books, and other requisite items (whose sum makes up the total cost of attendance). The opportunity cost of a vacation in the Bahamas might be the down payment money for a house. Note that opportunity cost is not the sum of the available alternatives, but rather the benefit of the single, best alternative. Possible opportunity costs of the city's decision to build the hospital on its vacant land are the loss of the land for a sporting center, or the inability to use the land for a parking lot, or the money that could have been made from selling the land, or the loss of any of the various other possible uses—but not all of these in aggregate. The true opportunity cost would be the forgone profit of the most lucrative of those listed. One question that arises here is how to assess the benefit of dissimilar alternatives. We must determine a dollar value associated with each alternative to facilitate comparison and assess opportunity cost, which may be more or less difficult depending on the things we are trying to compare. For example, many decisions involve environmental impacts whose dollar value is difficult to assess because of scientific uncertainty. Valuing a human life or the economic impact of an Arctic oil spill involves making subjective choices with ethical implications. Applied microeconomics Applied microeconomics includes a range of specialized areas of study, many of which draw on methods from other fields. Applied work often uses little more than the basics of price theory, supply and demand. Industrial organization and regulation examines topics such as the entry and exit of firms, innovation, role of trademarks. Pricing Science employs basic price theory in the context of decision support technology. Law and economics applies microeconomic principles to the selection and enforcement of competing legal regimes and their relative efficiencies. Labor economics examines wages, employment, and labor market dynamics. Public finance (also called public economics) examines the design of government tax and expenditure policies and economic effects of these policies (e.g., social insurance programs). Political economy examines the role of political institutions in determining policy outcomes. Health economics examines the organization of health care systems, including the role of the health care workforce and health insurance programs. Urban economics, which examines the challenges faced by cities, such as sprawl, air and water pollution, traffic congestion, and poverty, draws on the fields of urban geography and sociology. The field of financial economics examines topics such as the structure of optimal portfolios, the rate of return to capital, econometric analysis of security returns, and corporate financial behavior. The field of economic history examines the evolution of the economy and economic institutions, using methods and techniques from the fields of economics, history, geography, sociology, psychology, and political science. References Further reading Colander, David. Microeconomics. McGraw-Hill Paperback, 7th Edition: 2008. Eaton, B. Curtis; Eaton, Diane F.; and Douglas W. Allen. Microeconomics. Prentice Hall, 5th Edition: 2002. Frank, Robert A.; Microeconomics and Behavior. McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 6th Edition: 2006. Friedman, Milton. Price Theory. Aldine Transaction: 1976 Jehle, Geoffrey A.; and Philip J. Reny. Advanced Microeconomic Theory. Addison Wesley Paperback, 2nd Edition: 2000. Hicks, John R. Value and Capital. Clarendon Press. [1939] 1946, 2nd ed. Katz, Michael L.; and Harvey S. Rosen. Microeconomics. McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 3rd Edition: 1997. Kreps, David M. A Course in Microeconomic Theory. Princeton University Press: 1990 Landsburg, Steven. Price Theory and Applications. South-Western College Pub, 5th Edition: 2001. Mankiw , N. Gregory. Principles of Microeconomics. South-Western Pub, 2nd Edition: 2000. Mas-Colell, Andreu; Whinston, Michael D.; and Jerry R. Green. Microeconomic Theory. Oxford University Press, US: 1995. McGuigan, James R.; Moyer, R. Charles; and Frederick H. Harris. Managerial Economics: Applications, Strategy and Tactics. South-Western Educational Publishing, 9th Edition: 2001. Nicholson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. South-Western College Pub, 8th Edition: 2001. Perloff, Jeffrey M. Microeconomics. Pearson - Addison Wesley, 4th Edition: 2007. Perloff, Jeffrey M. Microeconomics: Theory and Applications with Calculus. Pearson - Addison Wesley, 1st Edition: 2007 Pindyck, Robert S.; and Daniel L. Rubinfeld. Microeconomics. Prentice Hall, 7th Edition: 2008. Ruffin, Roy J.; and Paul R. Gregory. Principles of Microeconomics. Addison Wesley, 7th Edition: 2000. Varian, Hal R. (1987). "microeconomics," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 461-63. Varian, Hal R. Intermediate Microeconomics. W.W. Norton & Company, 7th Edition. Varian, Hal R. Microeconomic Analysis. W. W. Norton & Company, 3rd Edition. External links Open Source Introduction to Microeconomics (see wiki article) by R. Preston McAfee - California Institute of Technology Amosweb.com homepage - online economics dictionary BasicEconomics.info - Introduction to Economics - main subject matters relating to the study of microeconomics X-Lab: A Collaborative Micro-Economics and Social Sciences Research Laboratory Micro Economics - the role of micro economics in supporting the social fabric of macro economies www.econphd.net - Lecture notes on economics online Simulations in Microeconomics | Microeconomics |@lemmatized supply:9 demand:10 model:2 describe:3 price:21 vary:1 result:2 balance:1 product:6 availability:1 desire:1 purchase:1 power:3 graph:1 depict:1 right:2 shift:1 along:1 consequent:1 increase:1 quantity:3 require:3 reach:1 new:2 market:32 clear:1 equilibrium:2 point:1 curve:1 microeconomics:23 greek:1 μικρό:1 ς:1 small:1 little:2 οικονομία:1 ikono:1 mia:1 economy:4 branch:1 economics:20 study:6 individual:5 household:1 firm:11 state:1 make:7 decision:7 allocate:2 limited:2 resource:3 typically:3 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4,373 | Marathi_language | Marathi ( ) is spoken by the Marathi people of south western India. It is the official language of the state of Maharashtra. There are 90 million fluent speakers worldwide. Marathi is the 4th most spoken language in India Abstract of Language Strength in India: 2001 Census and the 15th most spoken language in the world. Marathi is the oldest of the regional literatures in Indo-Aryan languages, dating from about AD 1000. arts, South Asian." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica 2007 Ultimate Reference Suite. Marathi is estimated to be more than 1300 years old, evolving from Sanskrit through Prakrit and Apabhramsha. Its grammar and syntax derive from Pali and Prakrit. In ancient times, Marathi was called Maharashtri, Marhatti, Mahratti etc. Peculiar features of Marathi linguistic culture include Marathi drama, with its unique flavour of 'Sangeet Natak' (musical dramas), scholarly discourses called 'Vasant Vyakhyanmala' (Lectures in Spring), Marathi folk dance called 'Lavani', and special editions of magazines for Diwali called 'Diwali anka'. Geographic distribution Maharashtra, the State in India where Majority of Marathi speakers live Marathi is primarily spoken in Maharashtra and parts of neighboring states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Chattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh, union-territories of Daman-diu and Dadra Nagar Haveli. The cities of Baroda, Surat, Ahmedabad and Belgaum(Karnataka) Indore, Gwalior (Madhya Pradesh) Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh) and Tanjore (Tamil Nadu) each have sizable Marathi-speaking communities. Marathi is also spoken by Maharashtrian émigrés worldwide, in the United States, UAE, South Africa, Singapore, Germany, , Australia, Japan and New Zealand. The Ethnologue states that Marathi is spoken in Israel and Mauritius. Official status Marathi is an official language of the Indian state of Maharashtra, and a co-official language or used for official purposes in Goa, union territory of Daman and Diu The Goa, Daman and Diu Official Language Act, 1987 makes Konkani the sole official language, but provides that Marathi may also be used for "for all or any of the official purposes". The Government also has a policy of replying in Marathi to correspondence received in Marathi. Commissioner Linguistic Minorities, 42nd report: July 2003 - June 2004, pp. para 11.3 and Dadra Nagar haveli. Marathi is an official language of Dadra and Nagar HaveliAdministration's profile. The Constitution of India recognizes Marathi as one of India's 22 official languages. Official Languages Resolution, 1968, para.2 In addition to all universities in Maharashtra, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda (Gujarat), Dept. of Marathi, M.S. University of Baroda Osmania University (Andhra Pradesh), Dept. of Marathi, Osmania University, Hyderabad Gulbarga university (Karnataka), Dept. of Marathi, Gulbarga University Devi Ahilya University of Indore LIST OF STATUTES (Devi Ahilya University of Indore and Goa University (Panaji) Dept.of Marathi, Goa University all have special departments for higher studies in Marathi linguistics. Jawaharlal Nehru University (New Delhi) has announced plans to establish a special department for Marathi. Jawaharlal Nehru University History The Prakrit vernacular languages, including Maharashtri Prakrit, were originally derived from Vedic Sanskrit. Further change led to apabhraṃśa languages like Marathi, which may be described as being a re-Sanskritised, developed form of Maharashtri Apabhraṃśa. However it is believed that Marathi is actually a language combining the old Dravidian vernacular of the region which would have been close to Kannada and Telugu and the actual Maharashtri Prakrit and Sanskrit. The more recent influence of Persian, Arabic or Urdu has also made this language seem close to mainstream Hindi. Maharashtri Prakrit was commonly spoken until 875 AD and was the official language of the Sātavāhana empire. It had risen to a high literary level, and works like Karpurmanjari and Saptashati (150 BC) were written in it. Maharashtri Prakrit was the most widely used Prakrit language in western and southern India, spoken from Malwa and Rajputana in the north to Krishna and Tungabhadra in the south. 1994, Kolarkar Today's Marathi- and Kannada- speaking parts spoke Maharashtri Prakrit for centuries. C.V. Vaidya, History of medieval Hindu India (Being a history of Indian from 600 to 1200 AD), Vol. I, p. 317 Maharashtri Apabhraṃśa remained in use for several hundred years until at least 500 AD. Apabhraṃśa was used widely in Jain literature and formed an important link in the evolution of Marathi. This form of Apabhraṃśa was re-Sanskritised and eventually became Marathi. According to the written forms and historical attestations and evidences, Marathi is said to date to the 8th century. Khodade, 2004 Pre-13th century Earliest forms The first written attestation of Marathi, a document found in Karnataka, dates from 700 AD. The earliest known written form is on the copperplate of Vijayaditya found in Satara, dated 739 AD. The stone inscription at the feet of Shravanabelagola Gomateshwar in South Karnataka, whose first line reads as "Chavundarajen Karaviyalen" (, meaning Built by Chavundaraja, the son of Gangaraja), is another old specimen, constructed in 983 AD. Also, an interesting couplet is found in the Jain monk Udyotan Suri's Kuvalayamala in the 8th century, referring to a bazaar where the Marhattes speak Didhale (Dile - given), Gahille (Ghetale - taken). The Marathi translation of Panchatantra is also considered very old. Marathyancha Itihaas by Dr. Kolarkar (pg.3) By 983, therefore, Marathi was one of the distinctly different current languages widely used by the people of the area from North Maharashtra to South Karnataka. Six extant inscriptions dating from 979 to 1270 and placed in distant parts like Mysore, Khandesh and Mumbai are an index of the large area over which Marathi was spoken. 1966, Deshpande It is because the language was spoken so widely that the deeds of charitable gifts like the one at Patan recording the maintenance grants given by King Soidev to Changdev's University and the imperial mandates expected to be obeyed by all, like the Edict of King Aparaditya (1183), were inscribed in Marathi. The Pandharpur inscription (1273) of the days of Raja Shiromani Ramdev Rao is in flawless Marathi. Marathi was now spoken by all classes and castes. 12th century to 1905 Yadava Marathi literature began and grew thanks to the rise of both the Yadava dynasty of Devgiri (who adopted Marathi as the court language and patronized Marathi scholars) and two religious sects - Mahanubhav Panth and Warkari Panth, who adopted Marathi as the medium for preaching their doctrines of devotion. Marathi had attained a venerable place in court life by the time of the Yadava kings. During the reign of the last three Yadava kings, a great deal of literature in verse and prose, on astrology, medicine, Puranas, Vedanta, kings and courtiers were created. Nalopakhyan, Rukmini swayamvar and Shripati's Jyotishratnamala (1039 AD) are a few examples. The oldest book in prose form in Marathi, Vivekasindhu (), was written by Mukundaraj, a yogi of Natha Pantha and arch-poet of Marathi. Mukundaraj bases his exposition of the basic tenets of the Hindu philosophy and Yoga Marga on the utterances or teachings of Shankaracharya. Mukundaraj's other work, Paramamrita, is considered the first systematic attempt to explain the Vedanta in the Marathi language. One of the famous saints of this period is Sant Dnyaneshwar (1275–1296) who wrote Bhavarthadeepika, popularly known as Dnyaneshwari (1290), Dnyaneshwari and Amritanubhava. He also composed devotional songs called abhangas. Dnyaneshwar gave a higher status to Marathi by bringing the sacred Bhagavad Gita from Sanskrit to Marathi. Mahanubhav sect Notable examples of Marathi prose are "" (), events and anecdotes from the miracle filled life of Chakradhar Swami of the Mahanubhav sect compiled by his close disciple, Mahimabhatta, in 1238. The Mahanubhav sect made Marathi a vehicle for the propagation of religion and culture. Warkari sect The Mahanubhav sect were followed by the Warkari saint-poet Eknath ((1528–1599). Eknath's Bhavarth Ramayana brought the message of the Bhagvat cult to the people. Mukteswar translated the epic Mahabharata into Marathi. Social reformers like saint-poet Tukaram transformed Marathi into a rich literary language. Saint Tukaram’s(1608-49) poetry contained his inspirations. He was a radical reformer. Tukaram wrote over 3000 Abhangas .He was followed by Ramadas. Writers of the Mahanubhav sect contributed to Marathi prose while the saint-poets of Warkari sect composed Marathi poetry. However, the latter group is regarded as the pioneers and founders of Marathi literature. Jainism too enriched Marathi during Bahamani period. Maratha period Since 1630, Marathi regained prominence with the rise of the Maratha empire beginning with the reign of Chhatrapati Shivaji (1627–1680). Subsequent rulers extended the empire northwards to Delhi, eastwards to Orissa, and southwards to Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu. These excursions by the Marathas helped to spread Marathi over broader geographical regions. This period also saw the use of Marathi in transactions involving land and other business. Documents from this period, therefore, give a better picture of life of common people - who spoke the language - than the documents in Persian which was used previously but understood only by the elites of the Islamic rulers. At the time, Saint Tukaram made important contributions to Marathi poetic literature in Warkari Pantha. He was also 'Guru'(mentor) of 'Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj'. But by the late 18th century, the Maratha Empire's influence over a large part of the country was on the decline. 18th century In the 18th century, some well-known works such as Yatharthadeepika by Vaman Pandit, Naladamayanti Swayamvara by Raghunath Pandit, Pandava Pratap, Harivijay, Ramvijay by Shridhar Pandit and Mahabharata by Moropanta were produced. Krishnadayarnava and Sridhar were the leading poets during the Peshwa period. New literary forms were successfully experimented with during the period and classical styles were revived, especially the Mahakavya and Prabandha forms. After 1800 The British colonial period (also known as the Modern Period) saw standardization of Marathi grammar through the efforts of the Christian missionary William Carey. Christian missionaries played an important role in the production of scientific dictionaries and grammars. The late 19th century in Maharashtra was a period of colonial modernity. Like the corresponding periods in other Indian languages, this was the period dominated by English-educated intellectuals. It was the age of prose and reason. It was the period of reformist activism and a great intellectual ferment. The first Marathi translation of an English book was published in 1817, and the first Marathi newspaper was started in 1835. Newspapers provided a platform for sharing literary views, and many books on social reforms were written. The Marathi language flourished as Marathi drama gained popularity. Musicals known as 'Sangit Natak' also evolved. Keshavasut, the father of modern Marathi poetry published his first poem in 1885. First Marathi periodical Dirghadarshan was started in 1840 while first Marathi newspaper Durpan was started by Balshastri Jambhekar in 1832. 20th century to present A few popular Marathi newspapers The first half of 20th century was marked by new enthusiasm in literary pursuits, and socio-political activism helped achieve major milestones in Marathi literature, drama, music and film. Modern Marathi prose flourished through various new literary forms like the essay, the biographies, the novels, prose, drama etc. Chiplunkar's Nibandhmala (essays), N.C.Kelkar's biographical writings, novels of Hari Narayan Apte, Phadke and V.S.Khandekar, and plays of Mama Varerkar and Kirloskar's are particularly worth noting. Similarly Khandekar's Yayati which has won for him, the Jnanpith Award is a very noteworthy novel. Vijay Tendulkar and C.T.Dhanolkar have written and produced a good number of plays which have earned a reputation beyond the border of Maharashtra during the last quarter of a century. After Indian independence, Marathi was accorded the status of a scheduled language on the national level. By May 1, 1960, Maharashtra emerged re-organised on linguistic lines adding Vidarbha and Marathwada region in its fold and bringing major chunks of Marathi population socio-politically together. With state and cultural protection, Marathi made great strides by the 1990s. A literary event called Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Sahitya Sammelan (All-India Marathi Literature Meet) is held every year. In addition, the Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Natya Sammelan (All-India Marathi Theatre Meet) is also held annually. Both events are very popular amongst Maharashtrians. While Marathi literature is still being written, the importance of English has been underscored by Indian strides after 1990 in the global IT market, rapid techno-educational growth and widening economic opportunities. Therefore, the Government of Maharashtra decided that English should be taught as a second language from the first standard (first grade) in schools where the medium of teaching was Marathi. This decision has been controversial and has caused many Marathi people to worry about the fate of their language, a concern which is compounded by the Marathi middle class's increasing preference for English-medium schools. Recently Government of Maharashtra made Marathi language compulsory in CBSE/ICSE boards are controlled by Central government. Marathi is already a compulsory subject in Maharashtra state board. Marathi to be compulsory in CBSE, ICSE curricula schools At the same time, the spread of spoken Marathi has increased beyond its regular boundaries due to the increase of its élite, well-educated global Maharashtrian diaspora. Several Marathi mandals have flourished (especially in the United States, Europe and Gulf countries) for meetings and cultural events by them. Dialects Marathi language edition of Wikipedia Standard Marathi is based on dialects used by academics and the print media, and is influenced by the educated élite of the Pune region. Maharashtra Sahitya Parishad (MSP) is the apex guiding body for literary institutions of Marathi language. From time to time, MSP helps out in discourses on various aspects of Marathi and in laying down precedents by framing rules whenever required. Indic scholars distinguish 42 dialects of spoken Marathi. Dialects bordering other major language areas have many properties in common with those languages, further differentiating them from standard spoken Marathi. The bulk of the variation within these dialects is primarily lexical and phonological (e.g. accent placement and pronunciation). Although the number of dialects is considerable, the degree of intelligibility within these dialects is relatively high. Historically, the major dialect divisions have been Ahirani, Khandeshi, Varhadi, Wadvali, Samavedi and Are Marathi. Ahirani Ahirani is spoken in the west Khandesh North Maharashtara region. Ahirani is a language today spoken in the western and southern parts of Jalgaon (Chalisgaon, Bhadgaon, Pachora, Erandol, Dharangaon, Parola, Amalner talukas), Nandurbar(Shahada, Maharashtra,Taloda,Navapur), Dhule and eastern Nashik (Baglan, Malegaon and Kalwan talukas) districts of Maharashtra. It is further divided into dialects, such as the Chalisgaon, Malegaon and Dhule groups. Amalner is considered the cultural capital of Khandesh. Amalner has witnessed Akhil Bhartiya Marathi Sahitya Sammelan. Adapting and bending the words from Hindi and Gujarati, Ahirani has created its own words which are not found in these languages. Ahirani is a colloquial form and uses the Modi script for its writing. Dr. D.G. Borase, Dr. Ramesh Suryawanshi, Dr.Vijaya Chitnis have studed Ahirani with linguistic point of view. Ahirani Bhasha Vadnyanic Ahyas, Mhani Kosha and Ahirani Shabdkosha (First dictionary of Ahirani language Pub.1997), Khandeshatil Krushak jivan Sachitra Kosha (Pictorial Dictionary Pub-2000) of Dr. Ramesh Suryawanshi are basic books on Ahirani language. Khandeshi Khandesh was old district of Bombay presidency. Later it was devided in East Khandesh and West Khandesh. Now East Khandesh is known as Jalgaon Districtand West Khandesh is knownas Dhule district. The Ahirani is languages of Ahiras. They lived in Khandesh. Their affected the people livingin Khandesh. The Khandesh territory as a dich, was surrounded by ranges of satpura and Sanhydri (Known as Chandwad and Ajanta ) and the river Waghur. The language spoken by the people in Khandesh, which is affected by Ahiras'Ahirani is known as Khandeshi. Ahirani is base language. Khandeshi is the wide concept than the Ahirani. Khandeshi has social based and taritorial based dailects. Taptayngi, Varlyangi, Khallyangi, Baglani, Nandurbari, Ghatoi, Dhakani, Jamneri are tetorial based dailects of khandeshi. Ahirani, Bhilli, Rajputi, Pardeshi, Ladsikkiwani, Tavadi, Levapatidari, Gujari etc are social based dailects of Khandeshi spoken all over in Khandesh. Dr. Ramesh Suryawanshi and Dr. D.G.Borse had studied the Khandeshi and Ahirani and explained in their books in detail. In Khandeshi Language there are six vowel sounds and 34 consonantal sounds. Out of 34 consonants 14 are voiced. There are three genders and eight cases. Verbs are of both type transitive and intranstive. they are formed according to tense, person, gender and number Varhadi Varhādi or Vaidarbhi is spoken in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. In Marathi, the retroflex lateral approximant () is common, while in the Varhadii dialect, it corresponds to the palatal approximant y (IPA: [j]), making this dialect quite distinct. Such phonetic shifts are common in spoken Marathi, and as such, the spoken dialects vary from one region of Maharashtra to another. Konkani Konkani refers to the collection of dialects of Marathi language spoken in the Konkan region. It is often mistakenly extended to cover Goan Konkani which is an independent language. Grierson has referred to this dialect as the Konkan Standard of Marathi in order to differentiate it from Konkani language. Konkani Detailed Description — . The sub-dialects of Konkani gradually merge from standard Marathi into Goan Konkani from north to south Konkan. The various sub dialects are: Parabhi, Koli, Kiristanv, Kunbi, Agari, Dhangari, Thakri, Karadhi, Sangameshwari, Bankoti and Maoli. Konkani Detailed Description — Wadvali This dialect may not necessarily be named thus. It was primarily spoken by Wadvals, which essentially means agricultural plot owners, of the Naigaon, Vasai to Dahanu region. Somavamshi Kshatriyas speak this dialect. This language is preserved mostly by the Roman Catholics native to this region, since they are a closely knit community here and have very few relatives outside this region. It was also widely spoken among the Hindus native to this region, but due to external influences, ordinary Marathi is now more popular among the Hindus. There are many songs in this language. Recently a book was published by Nutan Patil containing around 70 songs. The songs are about marriage, pachvi etc. The dialect of the Kolis (fisherfolk) of Vasai and neighbouring Mumbai resembles this dialect closely, though they speak with a heavier accent. Samavedi Samavedi is spoken in the interiors of the Nala Sopara and Virar regions to the north of Mumbai in the Vasai Taluka, Thane District of Maharashtra. The name of this language correctly suggests that its origins lie with the Samavedi Brahmins native to this region. This language, too, finds more speakers among the Roman Catholic converts native to the region (who are known as East Indians), but nevertheless is popular among the Samavedi Brahmins. This dialect is very different from the other Marathi dialects spoken in other regions of Maharashtra, but resembles Wadvali very closely. Both Wadvali and Samavedi have relatively high proportions of words imported from Portuguese as compared to ordinary Marathi, because of direct influence of the Portuguese who colonized this region till 1739. Are Marathi Are Marathi, written in Devanagari script as , is another dialect spoken mostly in Andhra Pradesh. Thanjavur Marathi and Namdev Marathi Thanjavur Marathi, Namdev Marathi and Bhavsar Marathi are spoken by many Southern Indians. This dialect evolved from the time of occupation of the Marathas in Thanjavur in southern Tamil Nadu. It has speakers in parts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Others Thakri (Spoken in Raigad....Maharashtra) The Thakri language spoken by one of the Adivasi community found in District- Raigad (Maharashtra). This language is just like Marathi with some deviations in pronunciations. Dangii (spoken near the Maharashtra-Gujarat border) Judæo-Marathi (spoken by the Bene Israel Jews) Kadodii (spoken near Vasai) Other dialects of Marathi include Warli of Thane District, Dakshini (Marathwada), Deshi (Eastern Konkan Ghats), Deccan, Nagpuri, Ikrani and Gowlan. Other languages having considerable Marathi influence Dakhini and Hyderabadi Urdu spoken in Hyderabad and some parts of Deccan are considerably influenced by Marathi. The grammar of Hyderabadi Urdu is adapted from Marathi. In fact, it is also called a creole between Marathi and Urdu with some Telugu words. Sounds The phoneme inventory of Marathi is similar to that of many other Indo-Aryan languages, specially that of the Konkani language. An IPA chart of all contrastive sounds in Marathi is provided below. +Consonants LabialDentalAlveolarRetroflexAlveopalatalVelarGlottalVoicelessstops Voicedstops Voicelessfricatives Nasals Liquids +Vowels FrontCentralBackHigh MidLow Vowels Like other abugidas, Devanagari writes out syllables by adding vowel diacritics to consonant bases. The table below includes all the vowel symbols used in Marathi, along with a transliteration of each sound into the Roman alphabet and IPA. There are two more vowels in Marathi to denote the pronunciations of English words such as of a in act and a in all. These are written as and . The IPA signs for these are and , respectively. Consonants The table below includes all the consonant bases onto which vowel diacritics are placed. The lack of a vowel diacritic can either indicate the lack of a vowel, or the existence of the default, or "inherent", vowel, which in the case of Marathi is the schwa. Writing Modi script was used to write Marathi Written Marathi first appeared during the 11th century in the form of inscriptions on stones and copper plates. From the 13th century until the mid 20th century, it was written with the Modi alphabet. Since 1950 it has been written with the Devanāgarī alphabet. Marathi language, alphabet and pronunciation Devanagari script Marathi is written in the Devanagari script, an alphasyllabary or abugida consisting of 16 vowel letters and 36 consonant letters making a total of 52 letters. It is written from left to right. Devnagari used to write Marathi is slightly different than that of Hindi or other languages. Marathi Devnagari script is called Balbodh () script. Modi script Marathi was written in Modi script — a cursive script designed for minimising the lifting of pen from paper while writing. Modi lipi Most writings of the Maratha empire are in Modi script. However, Persian-based scripts were also used for court documentation. With the advent of large-scale printing, Modi script fell into disuse, as it proved very difficult for type-setting. Currently, due to the availability of Modi fonts and the enthusiasm of the younger speakers, the script is far from disappearing. (See Reference Links). Consonant clusters In Marathi, the consonants by default come with a schwa. Therefore, will be 'təyāce', not 'tyāce'. To form 'tyāce', you will have to add + , giving . When two or more consecutive consonants are followed by a vowel then a jodakshar (consonant cluster) is formed. Some examples of consonant clusters are shown below: - tyāce - "his" - prastāv-"proposal" - vidyā - "knowledge" - myān "Sword Cover" - tvarā "immediate/Quick" - mahattva - "importance" - "only" - "dolls" Marathi has a few consonant clusters that are rarely seen in the world's languages, including the so-called "nasal aspirates" (, nh, and mh) and liquid aspirates (rh, , lh, and vh). Some examples are given below. - - "a shrub known for flowers" - - "bath" - - "because" - - "different way of behaving" - kolhā - "fox" - "when" Grammar Rajya Marathi Vikas Sanstha was established by Government of Maharashtra Marathi grammar shares similarities with other modern Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi, Gujarati, Punjabi, etc. The first modern book exclusively concerning Marathi Grammar was printed in 1805 by William Kerry. Maharashtra times article Sanskrit Grammar used to be referred more till late stages of Marathi Language. The contemporary grammatical rules described by Maharashtra Sahitya Parishad and endorsed by the Government of Maharashtra are supposed to take precedence in standard written Marathi. Traditions of Marathi Linguistics and the above mentioned rules give special status to 'Tatsam' (Without Change) words adapted from the Sanskrit language. This special status expects the rules for 'Tatsam' words to be followed as in Sanskrit grammar. While this supports Marathi Language with a larger treasure of Sanskrit words to cope with demands of new technical words whenever needed; maintains influence over Marathi. An unusual feature of Marathi, as compared to other Indo-European languages, is that it displays the inclusive and exclusive we feature, common to the Dravidian languages, Rajasthani, and Gujarati. Unlike its related languages, Marathi preserves all three grammatical genders (Linga) from Sanskrit, masculine, feminine and neuter. Marathi contains three grammatical voices (prayog) i.e. Kartari, Karmani and Bhave. Detailed analysis of grammatical aspects of Marathi language are covered in Marathi grammar. Marathi organisations Many government and semi-government organisations exist which work for the regulation, promotion and enrichment of the Marathi language. These are either initiated or funded by Government of Maharashtra. Few prominent Marathi organisations are given below: Encyclopaedia of Indian literature Volume I, Published by Sahitya Akademi ISBN 8126018038 Rajya Marathi Vikas Sanstha Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Sahitya Mahamandal (Central confederation of all Marathi organisations) Mumbai Marathi Sahitya Sangh Maharashtra Sahitya Parishad, Pune Marathi Vishwakosh (encyclopedia) project Vidarbha Sahitya Sangh, Nagpur Marathwada Sahitya Parishad, Aurangabad Outside Maharashtra state Gomantak Marathi academy Madhya Pradesh Sahitya Parishad, Jabalpur Andhra Pradesh Sahitya Paraishad, Hyderabad Marathi Sahitya Parishad, Karnataka Vocabulary Sharing of linguistic resources with other languages A signboard in Marathi Over a period of many centuries the Marathi language and people came into contact with many other languages and dialects. The primary influence of Prakrit, Maharashtri, Apbhramsha and Sanskrit is understandable. Day-to-day Marathi includes a higher number of Sanskrit-derived (tatsam) words than sister languages like Hindi. Some Sanskrit words that are common in day-to-day spoken Marathi include nantar (from nantaram or after), ( or complete, full, or full measure of something), anna (annam or food), ( or cause) kadāchit (kadāchit or perhaps) satat (satatam or always), abhyās (abhyāsam or study), vichitra (vichitram or strange), svatah (svatah or himself/herself), prayatna (prayatnam or effort), bhiti (from bhiti, or fear) and vishesh (vishesham or special), amongst others. Marathi has also shared directions, vocabulary and grammar with languages such as Indian Dravidian languages, and a few foreign languages like Persian, Arabic, English and a little from Portuguese. While recent genome studies suggest some amount of political and trade relations between the Indian subcontinent and East Africa, Middle East, Central Asia over a millennium, these studies are still not conclusive about the exact effect on linguistcs. Influence of foreign languages Usage of punctuation marks was one of the major contributions to Indic script by foreign languages. Previously, due to Sanskritised poetry, textual punctuation requirements of many texts may have been less. Word formation and origin Marathi has taken words from and given words to Sanskrit, Kannada, Hindi, Urdu, Arabic, Persian, and Portuguese. At least 50% of the words in Marathi are either taken or derived from Sanskrit. Adakitta "nutcracker" directly borrowed from Kannada Khurchii "chair" is derived from Arabic kursi Jaahiraat "advertisement" is derived from Persian zaahiraat See Note 1 Shiphaaras "recommendation" is derived from Persian sifarish Marjii "wish" is derived from Persian "marzi" Batataa "potato", is derived from Portuguese Ananas "pineapple", is derived from Portuguese See Note 2 Niga "looking after" is derived from Persian nîgâh "sight-vision" Hajeri Attendance from Hajiri Urdu A lot of English words are commonly used in conversation, and are considered to be totally assimilated into the Marathi vocabulary. These include "pen" (native Marathi ), "shirt" (sadaraa). Forming complex words Marathi uses many morphological processes to join words together, forming complex words. These processes are traditionally referred to as sandhi (from Sanskrit, "combination"). For example, ati + uttam gives the word atyuttam. Another method of combining words is referred to as samaas (from Sanskrit, "margin"). There are no reliable rules to follow to make a samaas. When the second word starts with a consonant, a sandhi can not be formed, but a samaas can be formed. For example, miith-bhaakar ("salt-bread"), udyog-patii ("businessman"), ("eight-hands", name of a Hindu goddess), and so on. There are different names given to each type of samaas. Counting Like many other languages, Marathi uses distinct names for the numbers 1 to 20 and each multiple of 10, and composite ones for those greater than 20. As with other Indic languages, there are distinct names for the fractions , , and . They are paava, ardhaa, and , respectively. For most fractions greater than 1, the prefixes savvaa-, , are used. There are special names for and . The powers of ten are as follows: 100: shambhar (also constructed with number prefix and "-she" suffix) 1,000: hazaar (or sahasra, a word close to the Sanskrit version) 100,000: laakh (or laksha) 10,000,000: koti 1,000,000,000: abja 10,000,000,000: kharva 100,000,000,000: nikharva 100,000,000,000,000,000: parardha A positive integer is read by breaking it up from the tens digit leftwards, into parts each containing two digits, the only exception being the hundreds place containing only one digit instead of two. For example, 1,234,567 is read as 12 laakh 34 hazaar 5 she 67. Every two-digit number after 18 (11 to 18 are predefined) is read backwards. For example, 21 is read एक-वीस (1-twenty). Also, a two digit number that ends with a 9 is considered to be the next tens place minus one. For example, 29 is एकुणतीस (Thirty minus one). Two digit numbers used before hazaar, etc. are written in the same way Example short phrases Words/phrases Transliteration Meaning Namaskār. Hi/Hello. Tumhī kase āhāt? How do you do? Tū kasā āhes? How are you? (to a male) Tū kaśī āhes? How are you? (to a female) How are you? (formal) . Pleased to meet you. Goodbye. (Lit.: "We will meet again.") Dhanyavād. Thank you. Ho. Yes. Nāhī. No. Nako. No, thank you. Kitī? How much?/How many? Kuthe? Where? Kase? How? Kevha? When? Kon? Who? Kaay? What? Śhubh Ratri. Good night. Marathi on computers and the Internet Historically Marathi has suffered from weak support by computer operating systems and Internet services, as have other Indian languages. But recently, with the introduction of language localisation projects and new technologies, various software and Internet applications have been introduced. Shrilipi, Shivaji and Kiran fonts were used prior to the introduction of Unicode standard for Devanagari script. Various Marathi typing software is widely used and display interface packages are now available on both Windows and Linux. Many Marathi websites, including prominent Marathi newspapers, have become popular especially with Maharashtrians outside India. Online projects such as the Marathi language Wikipedia, the Marathi blogroll and Marathi blogs have gained immense popularity. Voyager Golden Record The Golden Record carries greetings from earth to the Universe in 55 Different Languages, Marathi is one of them. The words are "Namaskar! Hya prithvitil lok tumhala tyanche shubhavichar pathavitat, ani tyanchi iccha ahe ki tumhi hya janmi dhanya vha" http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/languages/marathi.html See also Devanagari Languages of India List of Indian languages by total speakers List of national languages of India Maharashtra Marathi literature Marathi people Modi script Marathi Newspapers References Marathi: The Language and its Linguistic Traditions - Prabhakar Machwe, Indian and Foreign Review, 15 March 1985. 'Atyavashyak Marathi Vyakaran' (Essential Marathi Grammar) - Dr. V. L. Vardhe 'Marathi Vyakaran' (Marathi Grammar) - Moreshvar Sakharam More. 'Marathi Vishwakosh, Khand 12 (Marathi World Encyclopedia, Volume 12), Maharashtra Rajya Vishwakosh Nirmiti Mandal, Mumbai 'Marathyancha Itihaas' by Dr. Kolarkar, Shrimangesh Publishers, Nagpur 'History of Medieval Hindu India from 600AD to 1200 AD, by C. V. Vaidya Marathi Sahitya (Review of the Marathi Literature up to I960) by Kusumavati Deshpande, Maharashtra Information Centre, New Delhi External links Dictionaries Shabdabandha an online Marathi-Marathi dictionary Marathi-English (J.T.Molesworth) Marathi-English (Aryabhusan) Newspapers Sakal Maharashtra Times Loksatta Lokmat | Marathi_language |@lemmatized marathi:192 speak:33 people:9 south:7 western:3 india:14 official:12 language:85 state:10 maharashtra:33 million:1 fluent:1 speaker:6 worldwide:2 spoken:7 abstract:1 strength:1 census:1 world:3 old:7 regional:1 literature:12 indo:4 aryan:3 date:5 ad:9 art:1 asian:1 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 ultimate:1 reference:3 suite:1 estimate:1 year:3 evolve:3 sanskrit:17 prakrit:10 apabhramsha:1 grammar:13 syntax:1 derive:11 pali:1 ancient:1 time:9 call:9 maharashtri:9 marhatti:1 mahratti:1 etc:6 peculiar:1 feature:3 linguistic:6 culture:2 include:10 drama:5 unique:1 flavour:1 sangeet:1 natak:2 musical:2 scholarly:1 discourse:2 vasant:1 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4,374 | Bruno_of_Querfurt | Saint Bruno of Querfurt (c. 970 – February 14 1009) (also known as Brun and Boniface ) is a sainted missionary bishop and martyr, who was beheaded near the border of Kievan Rus and Lithuania while trying to spread Christianity in Eastern Europe. He is also called the second Apostle of the Prussians (Old Prussians). Biography Early life Bruno was from a noble family of Querfurt, Saxony. He is rumored to have been a relative of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III. At the age of six he was sent to be educated in Magdeburg, seat of Adalbert of Magdeburg, the teacher and namesake of Saint Adalbert. While still a youth he was made a canon of Magdeburg cathedral. The fifteen-year-old Otto III made Bruno a part of his royal court. While in Rome for Otto's imperial coronation, Bruno met Saint Adalbert of Prague, the first Apostle of the Prussians, killed a year later, which inspired Bruno to write a biography of St Adalbert when he reached the recently Christianized and consolidated Kingdom of Hungary himself. Bruno spent much time at the monastery where Adalbert had become a monk and where abbot John Canaparius may have written a life of Saint Adalbert. Later, Bruno entered a monastery near Ravenna, founded by Otto, and underwent severe ascetic training under the guidance of St. Romuald. Missionary life The lands given St. Bruno in 1003 were in the region shown on left bank of the Oder, Hither Pomerania along the coast, or the future Margraviate of Brandenburg to its south. In Otto III hoped to open a monastery between the Elbe and the Oder (somewhere in the pagan lands that became Brandenburg or Western Pomerania) to help convert the local population into Christianity. In 1003 Pope Sylvester II appointed Bruno, at the age of 33, to head a mission amongst the pagan peoples of Eastern Europe. Owing to a regional conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II and Duke Boleslaus I of Poland he delayed the plans for the monastery, and so Bruno set out for Hungary. There he went to the places that Saint Adalbert of Prague had attended. Bruno tried to convert Ahtum, the Duke of Banat, who was an Eastern Orthodox Christian to Catholicism, but this precipitated a large controversy leading to organized opposition from Orthodox monks. Bruno elected to gracefully exit the region after he first finished his book, the famous "Life of St. Adalbert," a literary memorial of much worth giving a history of the (relatively recent) conversion of the Hungarians. After this diplomatic failure, Bruno went to Kiev, where Grand Duke Vladimir I authorized him to make Christian converts among the Pechenegs, semi-nomadic Turkic peoples living between the Danube and the Don rivers. Bruno spent five months there and baptized some thirty adults. He helped to bring about a peace treaty between them and the ruler of Kiev. Before leaving for Poland, Bruno consecrated a bishop for the Pechenegs. While in Poland he consecrated the first Bishop of Sweden and is said to have sent emmissaries to baptize the king of Sweden Bruno of Querfurt, baptizm of king of Sweden , whose mother had come from Poland. Bruno found out that his friend Benedict and four companions had been killed by robbers in 1003. Bruno took eyewitness accounts and wrote down a touching history of the so-called Five Martyred Brothers. Mission to Prussia and death In the autumn or at the end of 1008 Bruno and eighteen companions set out to found a mission among the Prussians; they succeeded in converting Netimer, a "king of Lithuanians", and then traveled to the east, heading very likely towards Yotvingia. Yotvingia was a Prussian region, then subordinate to Kievan Rus (since 983), that intersected the borders of what was then Prussia, Kievan Rus and the Duchy of Lithuania. According to the "Annals of Magdeburg" (c. 1170) and some other sources. Saint Bruno was beheaded on February 14, 1009, whereas most of his companions were hanged the same day (according to Bruno's companion Wibert, Bruno was killed by "a duke of some part of Prussia.") Duke Boleslaus the Brave brought the bodies to Poland (it was supposed that they were laid to rest in Przemyśl, where some historians place Bruno's diocese; such localization of the Bruno's burial place is hardly probable because Przemyśl then belonged to Orthodox Kievan Rus through 1018). The "Annals of Magdeburg," "Thietmar of Merseburg's Chronicle," various works of Magdeburg Bishops, the "Annals of Quedlinburg" and many other written sources of XI-XV centuries record this story. Soon after his death, Bruno and his companions were venerated as martyrs and Bruno was soon after canonized. It was said that Braunsberg was named after St Bruno. See also Name of Lithuania References Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Bruno of Querfurt be-x-old:Бруна Квэрфурцкі | Bruno_of_Querfurt |@lemmatized saint:6 bruno:28 querfurt:4 c:2 february:2 also:3 know:1 brun:1 boniface:1 sainted:1 missionary:2 bishop:4 martyr:2 behead:2 near:2 border:2 kievan:4 ru:4 lithuania:3 try:1 spread:1 christianity:2 eastern:3 europe:2 call:2 second:1 apostle:2 prussian:5 old:3 biography:2 early:1 life:4 noble:1 family:1 saxony:1 rumor:1 relative:1 holy:2 roman:2 emperor:2 otto:5 iii:3 age:2 six:1 send:2 educate:1 magdeburg:6 seat:1 adalbert:8 teacher:1 namesake:1 still:1 youth:1 make:3 canon:1 cathedral:1 fifteen:1 year:2 part:2 royal:1 court:1 rome:1 imperial:1 coronation:1 meet:1 prague:2 first:3 kill:3 later:2 inspire:1 write:4 st:6 reach:1 recently:1 christianize:1 consolidated:1 kingdom:1 hungary:2 spent:2 much:2 time:1 monastery:4 become:2 monk:2 abbot:1 john:1 canaparius:1 may:1 enter:1 ravenna:1 found:1 underwent:1 severe:1 ascetic:1 training:1 guidance:1 romuald:1 land:2 give:2 region:3 show:1 left:1 bank:1 oder:2 hither:1 pomerania:2 along:1 coast:1 future:1 margraviate:1 brandenburg:2 south:1 hop:1 open:1 elbe:1 somewhere:1 pagan:2 western:1 help:2 convert:4 local:1 population:1 pope:1 sylvester:1 ii:2 appoint:1 head:2 mission:3 amongst:1 people:2 owe:1 regional:1 conflict:1 henry:1 duke:5 boleslaus:2 poland:5 delay:1 plan:1 set:2 go:2 place:3 attend:1 tried:1 ahtum:1 banat:1 orthodox:3 christian:2 catholicism:1 precipitate:1 large:1 controversy:1 lead:1 organize:1 opposition:1 elect:1 gracefully:1 exit:1 finish:1 book:1 famous:1 literary:1 memorial:1 worth:1 history:2 relatively:1 recent:1 conversion:1 hungarian:1 diplomatic:1 failure:1 kiev:2 grand:1 vladimir:1 authorize:1 among:2 pechenegs:2 semi:1 nomadic:1 turkic:1 live:1 danube:1 river:1 five:2 month:1 baptize:2 thirty:1 adult:1 bring:2 peace:1 treaty:1 ruler:1 leave:1 consecrate:2 sweden:3 say:2 emmissaries:1 king:3 baptizm:1 whose:1 mother:1 come:1 find:2 friend:1 benedict:1 four:1 companion:5 robber:1 take:1 eyewitness:1 account:1 touching:1 martyred:1 brother:1 prussia:3 death:2 autumn:1 end:1 eighteen:1 succeed:1 netimer:1 lithuanian:1 travel:1 east:1 likely:1 towards:1 yotvingia:2 subordinate:1 since:1 intersect:1 duchy:1 accord:2 annals:3 source:2 whereas:1 hang:1 day:1 wibert:1 brave:1 body:1 suppose:1 lay:1 rest:1 przemyśl:2 historian:1 diocese:1 localization:1 burial:1 hardly:1 probable:1 belong:1 thietmar:1 merseburg:1 chronicle:1 various:1 work:1 quedlinburg:1 many:1 xi:1 xv:1 century:1 record:1 story:1 soon:2 venerate:1 canonize:1 braunsberg:1 name:2 see:1 reference:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 x:1 бруна:1 квэрфурцкі:1 |@bigram bruno_querfurt:3 kievan_ru:4 adalbert_magdeburg:1 saint_adalbert:4 adalbert_prague:2 margraviate_brandenburg:1 pope_sylvester:1 eastern_orthodox:1 semi_nomadic:1 nomadic_turkic:1 consecrate_bishop:1 eyewitness_account:1 duchy_lithuania:1 xi_xv:1 |
4,375 | Multiple-image_Network_Graphics | Multiple-image Network Graphics (MNG, ) is a public graphics file format for animated images. MNG is closely related to the PNG image format. When PNG development started in early 1995, developers decided not to incorporate support for animation, not least because this feature of GIF was seldom used at the time. However, work soon started on MNG as an animation-supporting version of PNG. Version 1.0 of the MNG specification was released on January 31 2001. Software that supports MNG MNG is currently not as widely supported as PNG. Nonetheless, Konqueror has native MNG support, and MNG plugins are available for most other web browsers. Mozilla browsers and Netscape 6.0, 6.01 and 7.0 included native support for MNG until the code was removed in 2003 due to code size and little actual usage Bug 195280 – Removal of MNG/JNG support , causing complaints on the Mozilla development site Bug 18574 – restore support for MNG animation format and JNG image format . As a result, a MNGzilla project was started to offer patched Mozilla and Firefox browsers. Neither Internet Explorer, Opera, nor Safari currently support MNG. Recent Sony Ericsson phones support MNG files in their themes. The Sphere game engine supports the use of MNG files for animations From Tutorials and Reference section of site . The MNG developers hope that in time MNG will begin to replace GIF for animated images on the World Wide Web, just as PNG has already begun to do for still images. MNG (Multiple-image Network Graphics) Home Page However, with the expiration of LZW patents and existence of alternative file formats such as Flash and SVG, combined with lack of MNG supporting viewers, web usages were far less than expected. Technical details The structure of MNG files is essentially the same as that of PNG files, differing only in the slightly different signature (8A 4D 4E 47 0D 0A 1A 0A in hexadecimal, where 4D 4E 47 is ASCII for "MNG" – see Portable Network Graphics: File header) and the use of a much greater variety of chunks to support all the animation features that it provides. Images to be used in the animation are stored in the MNG file as encapsulated PNG or JNG images. Two versions of MNG of reduced complexity are also defined: MNG-LC (low complexity) and MNG-VLC (very low complexity). These allow applications to include some level of MNG support without having to implement the entire MNG specification, just as the SVG standard offers the "SVG Basic" and "SVG Tiny" subsets. MNG does not yet have a registered MIME media type, but video/x-mng or image/x-mng can be used. MNG animations may be included in HTML pages using the <object> tag. MNG can either be lossy or lossless, depending whether the frames are encoded in PNG (lossless) or JNG (lossy). Alternatives GIF is often used. APNG is an alternative to MNG. Yet another alternative would be using animated SVG images with embedded PNG or JPEG graphics. Another option for the Web is to write JavaScript code that loads still PNG or JPEG images of each frame, and displays them one by one for a specified time interval. Apart from requiring the user to have JavaScript support and choose to enable it, this method can be CPU and bandwidth intensive for pages with more than one image, large images, or high framerates. References External links MNG Home Page List of browsers that support MNG images MNGzilla - An attempt to create a Mozilla variant that has MNG support included MNG testcases | Multiple-image_Network_Graphics |@lemmatized multiple:2 image:15 network:3 graphic:5 mng:36 public:1 file:8 format:5 animated:3 closely:1 relate:1 png:10 development:2 start:3 early:1 developer:2 decide:1 incorporate:1 support:17 animation:7 least:1 feature:2 gif:3 seldom:1 use:8 time:3 however:2 work:1 soon:1 version:3 specification:2 release:1 january:1 software:1 currently:2 widely:1 nonetheless:1 konqueror:1 native:2 plugins:1 available:1 web:4 browser:4 mozilla:4 netscape:1 include:4 code:3 remove:1 due:1 size:1 little:1 actual:1 usage:2 bug:2 removal:1 jng:4 cause:1 complaint:1 site:2 restore:1 result:1 mngzilla:2 project:1 offer:2 patched:1 firefox:1 neither:1 internet:1 explorer:1 opera:1 safari:1 recent:1 sony:1 ericsson:1 phone:1 theme:1 sphere:1 game:1 engine:1 tutorial:1 reference:2 section:1 hope:1 begin:2 replace:1 world:1 wide:1 already:1 still:2 home:2 page:4 expiration:1 lzw:1 patent:1 existence:1 alternative:4 flash:1 svg:5 combine:1 lack:1 viewer:1 far:1 less:1 expect:1 technical:1 detail:1 structure:1 essentially:1 differ:1 slightly:1 different:1 signature:1 hexadecimal:1 ascii:1 see:1 portable:1 header:1 much:1 great:1 variety:1 chunk:1 provide:1 store:1 encapsulated:1 two:1 reduced:1 complexity:3 also:1 define:1 lc:1 low:2 vlc:1 allow:1 application:1 level:1 without:1 implement:1 entire:1 standard:1 basic:1 tiny:1 subset:1 yet:2 registered:1 mime:1 medium:1 type:1 video:1 x:2 may:1 html:1 object:1 tag:1 either:1 lossy:2 lossless:2 depend:1 whether:1 frame:2 encode:1 often:1 apng:1 another:2 would:1 embedded:1 jpeg:2 option:1 write:1 javascript:2 load:1 display:1 one:3 specified:1 interval:1 apart:1 require:1 user:1 choose:1 enable:1 method:1 cpu:1 bandwidth:1 intensive:1 large:1 high:1 framerates:1 external:1 link:1 list:1 attempt:1 create:1 variant:1 testcases:1 |@bigram closely_relate:1 web_browser:1 browser_mozilla:1 mozilla_firefox:1 firefox_browser:1 internet_explorer:1 sony_ericsson:1 lzw_patent:1 lossy_lossless:1 external_link:1 |
4,376 | Labia_minora | The labia minora (singular: labium minus) or nymphae nymphae. Dictionary.com. Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Inc. (accessed: November 24, 2007). are two longitudinal cutaneous folds on the human vulva. They are situated between the labia majora, and extend from the clitoris obliquely downward, laterally, and backward on either side of the vulval vestibule, ending between bottom of the vulval vestibule and the labia majora. In the virgin the posterior ends of the labia minora are usually joined across the middle line by a fold of skin, named the frenulum labiorum pudendi or fourchette. Labia minora may vary widely in size from woman to woman. On the front, each labium minus (nympha) divides into two portions: the upper division passes above the clitoris to meet the labium minus of the opposite side—which may not be equal in size—forming a fold which overhangs the glans clitoridis; this fold is named the preputium clitoridis. The lower division passes beneath the glans clitoridis and becomes united to its under surface, forming, with the labium minus of the opposite side—which also may not be equal in size—the frenulum clitoridis. On the opposed surfaces of the labia minora are numerous sebaceous follicles. Additional images See also Labium Cleft of venus Labia stretching References External links | Labia_minora |@lemmatized labium:10 minora:4 singular:1 minus:4 nymphae:2 dictionary:2 com:1 merriam:2 webster:2 medical:1 inc:1 accessed:1 november:1 two:2 longitudinal:1 cutaneous:1 fold:4 human:1 vulva:1 situate:1 majora:2 extend:1 clitoris:2 obliquely:1 downward:1 laterally:1 backward:1 either:1 side:3 vulval:2 vestibule:2 end:2 bottom:1 labia:2 virgin:1 posterior:1 usually:1 join:1 across:1 middle:1 line:1 skin:1 name:2 frenulum:2 labiorum:1 pudendi:1 fourchette:1 may:3 vary:1 widely:1 size:3 woman:2 front:1 nympha:1 divide:1 portion:1 upper:1 division:2 pass:2 meet:1 opposite:2 equal:2 form:2 overhang:1 glans:2 clitoridis:4 preputium:1 low:1 beneath:1 becomes:1 united:1 surface:2 also:2 opposed:1 numerous:1 sebaceous:1 follicle:1 additional:1 image:1 see:1 cleft:1 venus:1 stretch:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram labium_minora:3 merriam_webster:2 labia_majora:1 labia_minora:1 external_link:1 |
4,377 | Björn_Ulvaeus | Björn Kristian Ulvaeus (, born 25 April 1945) is a Swedish musician, composer, a former member of the Swedish musical group ABBA (1972-1982), and co-composer of the musicals Chess, Kristina från Duvemåla, and Mamma Mia!. He has recently coproduced the film Mamma Mia! with ex-ABBA member and close-friend Benny Andersson. During the last years Björn Ulvaeus has stepped forward as a frontline critic against the free file sharing of copyrighted material on the internet. Biography Early life Ulvaeus was born in Gothenburg, but as a child he moved with his family to Västervik. Ulvaeus studied business and law at Lund University after doing his military service with stand-up comedian Magnus Holmström. Career Prior to gaining international recognition with ABBA, Björn was a member of the Swedish folk/schlager band Hootenanny Singers who had an enormous following in Scandinavia. While on the road in southern Sweden in 1966, they encountered the Hep Stars, and Björn quickly became friends with the group’s keyboard player, Benny Andersson. The two musicians shared a passion for songwriting, and each found a composing partner in the other. On meeting again that summer, they composed their first song together: "Isn't It Easy To Say"; a song soon to be recorded by Andersson's group. The two continued teaming up for music, helping out each other's bands in the recording studio, and adding guitar or keyboards respectively to the recordings. In 1968, they composed two songs together: "A Flower In My Garden", recorded by Hep Stars, and their first 'real' hit "Ljuva Sextiotal", for which Stig Anderson wrote lyrics. The latter - a cabarét-style ironic song about the 1960s - was submitted for the 1969 Swedish heats for Eurovision Song Contest, but was rejected; it was later recorded by diva Brita Borg. Another hit came in 1969 with "Speleman", also recorded by Hep Stars. While filming a nostalgic schlager special for television in March 1969, Björn met eighteen-year-old singer/songwriter Agnetha Fältskog. Benny had himself met his future spouse, 24-year old jazz and schlager vocalist Anni-Frid Lyngstad, only weeks before. Björn Ulvaeus continued recording and touring with Hootenanny Singers to great acclaim while working as in-house producer at Polar Record Company (headed by future manager Stig Andersson), with Benny as his new partner. The twosome produced records by other artists and continued writing songs together. Polar artist Arne Lamberts Swedish version of "A Flower In My Garden" - "Fröken Blåklint" - was one of Björn & Bennys first in-house productions. In December 1969, they recorded the new song "She's My Kind Of Girl", which became their first single as a duo. It was released in March 1970, giving them a minor hit in Sweden (and by chance a top-ten hit in Japan two years later). The Hootenanny Singers entered Svensktoppen, the Swedish radio charts, in 1970 with "Omkring Tiggarn Från Luossa", a cover of an old folk/schlager song. It remained on the charts for 52 consecutive weeks, a record which endured until 1990; the song was produced by Björn and Benny, and had Björn's solo vocal and Benny's piano. After ABBA, Ulvaeus, together with Andersson, created the musicals Chess, Kristina från Duvemåla (based on The Emigrants novels by Swedish writer Vilhelm Moberg), and Mamma Mia! (based on ABBA songs). Together with Andersson, Ulvaeus was nominated for the Drama Desk Award in the category "Outstanding Music" (for the musical Chess), and for a Tony Award in a category "Best Orchestrations" (for musical Mamma Mia!). Original cast recordings of both musicals were nominated for a Grammy Award. Bjorn also produced the 1984 musical, 'Eating A Snake'. For the 2004 semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest, staged in Istanbul thirty years after ABBA had won the contest in Brighton, Björn appeared briefly in a special comedy video made for the interval act, entitled "Our Last Video". Each of the four members of the group appeared briefly in cameo roles, as did others such as Cher and Rik Mayall. The video was not included in the official DVD release of the Eurovision Contest, but was issued as a separate DVD release. It was billed as the first time the four had worked together since the group split. In fact, they each filmed their appearances separately. Ulvaeus also shared with Andersson "The Special International Ivor Novello Award" from 'The British Academy of Composers and Songwriters', "The Music Export Prize" from the Swedish Ministry of Industry and Trade (2008) "The Government's Music Export Prize for 2008 goes to..." , and "Lifetime Achievement Award" from the Swedish Music Publishers Association (SMFF). Personal life On 6 July 1971, Björn married Fältskog; the marriage resulted in two children: Linda Elin Ulvaeus (born 23 February 1973), and Peter Christian Ulvaeus (born 4 December 1977). In July 1980, Björn and Agnetha divorced, although they both agreed to remain in ABBA. Björn then married music journalist Lena Kallersjö on 6 January 1981. This marriage produced another two daughters: Emma (born in 1982) and Anna (born in 1986). Ulvaeus and Kallersjö currently live in Stockholm. From 1984 to 1990 they resided in the UK where Ulvaeus founded an IT-business together with his brother. He is also one of four people (also including Per Gessle) who own NoteHeads, a Swedish company which publishes the music notation program Igor Engraver. Ulvaeus is a member of the International Humanist and Ethical Union's Swedish member organisation Humanisterna, and was awarded their annual prize, Hedenius-priset, in 2006. Ulvaeus has revealed that he suffers from severe memory loss and now no longer remembers many important events in his life. He now has little memory of some of the critical events in his professional history and has resorted to images of his past and even hypnotism to try and bring back his memory. Accusations of tax fiddling Björn Ulvaeus is facing a bill of 87 million kronor (12 million dollars) in back taxes, interest and charges from the Swedish Tax Board, which has accused him of 'laundering' his music income through the offshore tax haven Isle of Man. http://www.thelocal.se/3672/20060428/ http://di.se/Nyheter/?page=/Avdelningar/Artikel.aspx%3Fstat%3D0%26ArticleID%3D2009%255C03%255C16%255C328954%26SectionId%3DEttan%26menusection%3DStartsidan%3BHuvudnyheter http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/6233761.stm References External links Interview in "Humanisten" Chronology: Björn Ulvaeus See also List of Swedes in music Mamma Mia! | Björn_Ulvaeus |@lemmatized björn:15 kristian:1 ulvaeus:16 born:3 april:1 swedish:12 musician:2 composer:3 former:1 member:6 musical:7 group:5 abba:7 co:2 chess:3 kristina:2 från:3 duvemåla:2 mamma:5 mia:5 recently:1 coproduced:1 film:3 ex:1 close:1 friend:2 benny:7 andersson:7 last:2 year:5 step:1 forward:1 frontline:1 critic:1 free:1 file:1 sharing:1 copyright:1 material:1 internet:1 biography:1 early:1 life:3 bear:3 gothenburg:1 child:2 move:1 family:1 västervik:1 studied:1 business:2 law:1 lund:1 university:1 military:1 service:1 stand:1 comedian:1 magnus:1 holmström:1 career:1 prior:1 gain:1 international:3 recognition:1 folk:2 schlager:4 band:2 hootenanny:3 singer:4 enormous:1 following:1 scandinavia:1 road:1 southern:1 sweden:2 encounter:1 hep:3 star:3 quickly:1 become:2 keyboard:2 player:1 two:6 share:2 passion:1 songwriting:1 find:1 composing:1 partner:2 meeting:1 summer:1 compose:2 first:5 song:11 together:7 easy:1 say:1 soon:1 record:9 continue:3 team:1 music:9 help:1 recording:3 studio:1 add:1 guitar:1 respectively:1 flower:2 garden:2 real:1 hit:4 ljuva:1 sextiotal:1 stig:2 anderson:1 write:2 lyric:1 latter:1 cabarét:1 style:1 ironic:1 submit:1 heat:1 eurovision:3 contest:4 reject:1 later:2 diva:1 brita:1 borg:1 another:2 come:1 speleman:1 also:6 nostalgic:1 special:3 television:1 march:2 meet:2 eighteen:1 old:3 songwriter:2 agnetha:2 fältskog:2 future:2 spouse:1 jazz:1 vocalist:1 anni:1 frid:1 lyngstad:1 week:2 tour:1 great:1 acclaim:1 work:2 house:2 producer:1 polar:2 company:2 head:1 manager:1 new:2 twosome:1 produce:4 artist:2 arne:1 lambert:1 version:1 fröken:1 blåklint:1 one:2 production:1 december:2 kind:1 girl:1 single:1 duo:1 release:3 give:1 minor:1 chance:1 top:1 ten:1 japan:1 enter:1 svensktoppen:1 radio:1 chart:2 omkring:1 tiggarn:1 luossa:1 cover:1 remain:2 consecutive:1 endure:1 solo:1 vocal:1 piano:1 create:1 base:2 emigrant:1 novel:1 writer:1 vilhelm:1 moberg:1 nominate:2 drama:1 desk:1 award:6 category:2 outstanding:1 tony:1 best:1 orchestration:1 original:1 cast:1 grammy:1 bjorn:1 eat:1 snake:1 semi:1 final:1 stag:1 istanbul:1 thirty:1 win:1 brighton:1 appear:2 briefly:2 comedy:1 video:3 make:1 interval:1 act:1 entitle:1 four:3 cameo:1 role:1 others:1 cher:1 rik:1 mayall:1 include:2 official:1 dvd:2 issue:1 separate:1 bill:2 time:1 since:1 split:1 fact:1 appearance:1 separately:1 ivor:1 novello:1 british:1 academy:1 export:2 prize:3 ministry:1 industry:1 trade:1 government:1 go:1 lifetime:1 achievement:1 publisher:1 association:1 smff:1 personal:1 july:2 married:1 marriage:2 result:1 linda:1 elin:1 february:1 peter:1 christian:1 divorce:1 although:1 agree:1 marry:1 journalist:1 lena:1 kallersjö:2 january:1 daughter:1 emma:1 anna:1 currently:1 live:1 stockholm:1 reside:1 uk:2 found:1 brother:1 people:1 per:1 gessle:1 noteheads:1 publish:1 notation:1 program:1 igor:1 engraver:1 humanist:1 ethical:1 union:1 organisation:1 humanisterna:1 annual:1 hedenius:1 priset:1 reveal:1 suffer:1 severe:1 memory:3 loss:1 long:1 remembers:1 many:1 important:1 event:2 little:1 critical:1 professional:1 history:1 resort:1 image:1 past:1 even:1 hypnotism:1 try:1 bring:1 back:2 accusation:1 tax:4 fiddle:1 face:1 million:2 kronor:1 dollar:1 interest:1 charge:1 board:1 accuse:1 launder:1 income:1 offshore:1 isle:1 man:1 http:3 www:1 thelocal:1 se:2 di:1 nyheter:1 page:1 avdelningar:1 artikel:1 aspx:1 news:1 bbc:1 hi:1 entertainment:1 stm:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 interview:1 humanisten:1 chronology:1 see:1 list:1 swede:1 |@bigram chess_kristina:2 kristina_från:2 från_duvemåla:2 mamma_mia:5 benny_andersson:2 björn_ulvaeus:4 hootenanny_singer:3 hep_star:3 stig_anderson:1 eurovision_song:2 singer_songwriter:1 agnetha_fältskog:1 anni_frid:1 frid_lyngstad:1 manager_stig:1 björn_benny:2 andersson_ulvaeus:1 drama_desk:1 musical_mamma:1 nominate_grammy:1 grammy_award:1 rik_mayall:1 ivor_novello:1 novello_award:1 lifetime_achievement:1 http_www:1 uk_hi:1 external_link:1 |
4,378 | Ninja_Tune | Ninja Tune is a London-based independent record label started in 1993 by DJs Matt Black and Jonathan More, better known as Coldcut, with a strong leaning towards electronic, alternative hip hop, instrumental hip hop, nu jazz, drum and bass, and chillout music. The label has developed a number of DJs, producers, and live acts. Ninja Tune's sister imprints, Ntone (now defunct) and Big Dada, specialise in experimental electronic music and hip-hop, respectively. The label has a satellite office in Montreal, Quebec, owned and managed by Jeff Waye. In 1994 Matt Black's close friend Mixmaster Morris introduced Matt to Openmind - a DJ & design collective in Camberwell - at the Telepathic Fish chill-out club they were running. Openmind included Kevin Foakes aka Strictly Kev of DJ Food. After submitting a re-styled company logo he was employed by Ninja Tune in the capacity of overall design consultant. Xen Cuts booklet In 1995 Shadow Records start to collaborate with Ninja Tune. This partnership introduced the likes of Funki Porcini, DJ Food, 9 Lazy 9, Up, Bustle and Out, Hedfunk, London Funk Allstars to US audiences. In 2006, a new imprint, Counter Records, was set up to release the début album of Pop Levi (of Super Numeri), with artists to follow in a rock music vein. The first release on the imprint was Pop Levi's single "Blue Honey" in September 2006, which was followed by Pop Levi's first LP The Return To Form Black Magick Party in February 2007. Subsequent releases have included cross genre, punk rockers The Death Set. In May 2008 Mr. Scruff launched a new project: Ninja Tuna. The first release was Donkey Ride, a collaboration with Quantic, which came out on May 12. Artists 9 Lazy 9 Airborn Audio Ammoncontact Amon Tobin Animals On Wheels Antibalas Afrobeat Orchestra The Bug Blockhead Bonobo Chris Bowden Cabbageboy Chocolate Weasel The Cinematic Orchestra Clifford Gilberto Coldcut Daedelus The Death Set DJ Food DJ Toolz DJ Kentaro DJ Vadim DK The Dragons Dwight Trible Dynamic Syncopation East Flatbush Project Fink Flanger Fog Funki Porcini Ghislain Poirier The Heavy The Herbaliser Hex Hexstatic Hint Homelife The Irresistible Force Jaga Jazzist Kid Koala King Cannibal king-cannibal-joins-ninja-tune full-metal-ninja King Cannibal's MySpace Loka London Funk Allstars The Long Lost Max & Harvey Mr. Scruff Neotropic One Self Pest The Qemists Rainstick Orchestra Roots Manuva Sixtoo Skalpel Spank Rock Super Numeri The Poets of Rhythm T Love Treva Whateva Up, Bustle and Out Wagon Christ Yppah Zero db Ninja Tune Compilations The Original Sampler (July 1993, BS001) Ninja Cuts Funkjazztical Tricknology (March 1995, ZENCD15) Ninja Cuts Flexistentialism (24 March 1996, ZENCD22) ColdKrushCuts - Mixed by Coldcut / DJ Food & DJ Krush (February 1997, ZENCD26) Ninja Cuts Funkungfusion (28 April 1998, ZENCD33) Zentonedada (sampler from Ninja Tune, Ntone and Big Dada) (1999, ZENTONEDADA 001) Xen Cuts / Xen Cuts Missed Flipped and Skipped (September 2000, ZENCD49, ZENCD49X, ZEN49) A three-disc version of Xen Cuts was also released (ZENCD 049X) which included Xen Cuts Missed Flipped and Skipped. Solesides Greatest Bumps (31 October, 2000) Urban Renewal Program (August 2002, ZENCD72) Zentertainment 2002 (August 2002, ZEN2002) ZENtvDVD - Video Retrospective (2003, DVD containing 2 hours of Ninja Tune videos, ZENDV85) ZEN CD - A Ninja Tune Retrospective (January 2004, ZENCD85) ZEN RMX - A Retrospective of Ninja Tune Remixes (January 2004, ZENCD85R) Zentertainment 2004 (March 2004, ZEN2004) Zentertainment 2006 (July 2006, ZENCD2006) You Don't Know: Ninja Cuts (March 2008) Former Employees Alastair Nicholson - Head of Legal Affairs Solid Steel Solid Steel is the title of a series of DJ mix CDs, a radio show, weekly podcast and live nightclub events showcasing the talents of a number of Ninja Tune artists. Footnotes Reviews bbc.co.uk ukhh.com Bio at Scaruffi.com External links Official site Ninja Obsession Ninja Tune feature from iDJ magazine March 2008 featuring interviews with Jonathan More and Peter Quicke. Ping Pong Promotion agency of Ninja Tune in France. solipsistic NATION No. 72: Ninja Tune Podcast. Interview with Jonathan Shedletzky on Ninja Tune and a mix of new and old music from the record label. Mafiagato's Ninja Obsession The Complete Digital Discography Discography at Rolldabeats.com Discography & Review at Djouls.com (Fr) See also List of record labels List of electronic music record labels List of independent UK record labels Quannum Projects List of Quebec record labels | Ninja_Tune |@lemmatized ninja:23 tune:15 london:3 base:1 independent:2 record:8 label:8 start:2 dj:12 matt:3 black:3 jonathan:3 good:1 know:2 coldcut:3 strong:1 leaning:1 towards:1 electronic:3 alternative:1 hip:3 hop:3 instrumental:1 nu:1 jazz:1 drum:1 bass:1 chillout:1 music:5 develop:1 number:2 producer:1 live:2 act:1 sister:1 imprint:3 ntone:2 defunct:1 big:2 dada:2 specialise:1 experimental:1 respectively:1 satellite:1 office:1 montreal:1 quebec:2 manage:1 jeff:1 waye:1 close:1 friend:1 mixmaster:1 morris:1 introduce:2 openmind:2 design:2 collective:1 camberwell:1 telepathic:1 fish:1 chill:1 club:1 run:1 include:3 kevin:1 foakes:1 aka:1 strictly:1 kev:1 food:4 submit:1 style:1 company:1 logo:1 employ:1 capacity:1 overall:1 consultant:1 xen:5 cuts:1 booklet:1 shadow:1 collaborate:1 partnership:1 like:1 funki:2 porcini:2 lazy:2 bustle:2 hedfunk:1 funk:2 allstars:2 u:1 audience:1 new:3 counter:1 set:3 release:5 début:1 album:1 pop:3 levi:3 super:2 numeri:2 artist:3 follow:2 rock:2 vein:1 first:3 single:1 blue:1 honey:1 september:2 lp:1 return:1 form:1 magick:1 party:1 february:2 subsequent:1 cross:1 genre:1 punk:1 rocker:1 death:2 may:2 mr:2 scruff:2 launch:1 project:3 tuna:1 donkey:1 ride:1 collaboration:1 quantic:1 come:1 airborn:1 audio:1 ammoncontact:1 amon:1 tobin:1 animal:1 wheel:1 antibalas:1 afrobeat:1 orchestra:3 bug:1 blockhead:1 bonobo:1 chris:1 bowden:1 cabbageboy:1 chocolate:1 weasel:1 cinematic:1 clifford:1 gilberto:1 daedelus:1 toolz:1 kentaro:1 vadim:1 dk:1 dragon:1 dwight:1 trible:1 dynamic:1 syncopation:1 east:1 flatbush:1 fink:1 flanger:1 fog:1 ghislain:1 poirier:1 heavy:1 herbaliser:1 hex:1 hexstatic:1 hint:1 homelife:1 irresistible:1 force:1 jaga:1 jazzist:1 kid:1 koala:1 king:3 cannibal:3 join:1 full:1 metal:1 myspace:1 loka:1 long:1 lose:1 max:1 harvey:1 neotropic:1 one:1 self:1 pest:1 qemists:1 rainstick:1 root:1 manuva:1 sixtoo:1 skalpel:1 spank:1 poet:1 rhythm:1 love:1 treva:1 whateva:1 wagon:1 christ:1 yppah:1 zero:1 db:1 compilation:1 original:1 sampler:2 july:2 cut:8 funkjazztical:1 tricknology:1 march:5 flexistentialism:1 coldkrushcuts:1 mixed:1 krush:1 funkungfusion:1 april:1 zentonedada:2 miss:2 flipped:2 skip:2 three:1 disc:1 version:1 also:2 zencd:1 solesides:1 great:1 bump:1 october:1 urban:1 renewal:1 program:1 august:2 zentertainment:3 zentvdvd:1 video:2 retrospective:3 dvd:1 contain:1 hour:1 zen:2 cd:2 january:2 rmx:1 remixes:1 former:1 employee:1 alastair:1 nicholson:1 head:1 legal:1 affair:1 solid:2 steel:2 title:1 series:1 mix:2 radio:1 show:1 weekly:1 podcast:2 nightclub:1 event:1 showcasing:1 talent:1 footnote:1 review:2 bbc:1 co:1 uk:2 ukhh:1 com:4 bio:1 scaruffi:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 obsession:2 feature:2 idj:1 magazine:1 interview:2 peter:1 quicke:1 ping:1 pong:1 promotion:1 agency:1 france:1 solipsistic:1 nation:1 shedletzky:1 old:1 mafiagato:1 complete:1 digital:1 discography:3 rolldabeats:1 djouls:1 fr:1 see:1 list:4 quannum:1 |@bigram ninja_tune:15 hip_hop:3 montreal_quebec:1 urban_renewal:1 external_link:1 ping_pong:1 |
4,379 | Kwame_Nkrumah | Kwame Nkrumah (21 September, 1909 - 27 April, 1972) , was an influential 20th century advocate of Pan-Africanism, and the leader of Ghana and its predecessor state, the Gold Coast, from 1952 to 1966. Early life and education In 1909, Kwame Nkrumah was born to Madam Nyaniba. in Nkroful, Gold Coast. Nkrumah graduated from the prestigious Achimota School in Accra in 1930, studied at a Roman Catholic Seminary, and taught at a Catholic school in Axim. In 1935 he left Ghana for the United States, receiving a BA from Lincoln University, Pennsylvania in 1939, where he pledged the Mu Chapter of Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc., and received an STB (Bachelor of Sacred Theology) in 1942. Nkrumah earned a Master of Science in education from the University of Pennsylvania in 1942, and a Master of Arts in philosophy the following year. While lecturing in political science at Lincoln he was elected president of the African Students Organization of America and Canada. As an undergraduate at Lincoln he participated in at least one student theater production and published an essay on European government in Africa in the student newspaper,The Lincolnian. Special Collections and Archives, Lincoln University. During his time in the United States, Nkrumah preached at black Presbyterian Churches in Philadelphia and New York City. He read books about politics and divinity, and tutored students in philosophy. Nkrumah encountered the ideas of Marcus Garvey, and in 1943 met and began a lengthy correspondence with Trinidadian Marxist C.L.R. James, Russian expatriate Raya Dunayevskaya, and Chinese-American Grace Lee Boggs, all of whom were members of a US based Trotskyist intellectual cohort. Nkrumah later credited James with teaching him 'how an underground movement worked'. He arrived in London in May 1945 intending to study at the LSE. After meeting with George Padmore, he helped organize the Fifth Pan-African Congress in Manchester, England. Then he founded the West African National Secretariat to work for the decolonization of Africa. Nkrumah served as Vice-President of the West African Students' Union (WASU). Over his lifetime, Nkrumah was awarded honorary doctorates by Lincoln University, Moscow State University; Cairo University in Cairo, Egypt; Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland; Humboldt University in the former East Berlin; and other universities. Return to the Gold Coast In the autumn of 1947, Nkrumah was invited to serve as the General Secretary to the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) under Joseph B. Danquah. This political convention was exploring paths to independence. Nkrumah accepted the position and sailed for the Gold Coast. After brief stops in Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the Ivory Coast, he arrived in the Gold Coast in December 1947. In February 1948, police fired on African ex-servicemen protesting the rising cost of living. The shooting spurred riots in Accra, Kumasi, and elsewhere. The government suspected the UGCC was behind the protests and arrested Nkrumah and other party leaders. Realizing their error, the British soon released the convention leaders. After his imprisonment by the colonial government, Nkrumah emerged as the leader of the youth movement in 1948. After his release, Nkrumah hitchhiked around the country. He proclaimed that the Gold Coast needed "self-government now", and built a large power base. Cocoa farmers rallied to his cause because they disagreed with British policy to contain swollen shoot disease. He invited women to participate in the political process at a time when women's suffrage was new to Africa. The trade unions also allied with his movement. By 1949, he organized these groups into a new political party: The Convention People's Party. The British convened a selected commission of middle class Africans to draft of a new constitution that would give Ghana more self-government. Under the new constitution, only those with sufficient wage and property would be allowed to vote. Nkrumah organized a "People's Assembly" with CPP party members, youth, trade unionists, farmers, and veterans. They proposed called universal franchise without property qualifications, a separate house of chiefs, and self-governing status under the Statute of Westminster. These amendments, known as the Constitutional Proposals of October 1949, were rejected by the colonial administration. When the colonial administrator's rejected the People's Assembly's recommendations, Nkrumah organized a "Positive Action" campaign in January 1950, including civil disobedience, non-cooperation, boycotts, and strikes. The colonial administration arrested Nkrumah and many CPP supporters, and he was sentenced to three years in prison. Facing international protests and internal resistance, the British decided to leave the Gold Coast. Britain organized the first general election to be held under universal franchise on 5-10 February 1951. Though in jail, Nkrumah's CPP was elected by a landslide taking 34 out of 38 elected seats in the Legislative Assembly. Nkrumah was released from prison on 12 February, and summoned by the British Governor Charles Arden-Clarke, and asked to form a government on the 13th. The new Legislative Assembly met on 20 February, with Nkrumah as Leader of Government Business, and E.C. Quist as President of the Assembly. A year later, the constitution was amended to provide for a Prime Minister on 10 March 1952, and Nkrumah was elected to that post by a secret ballot in the Assembly, 45 to 31, with eight abstentions on 21 March. He presented his "Motion of Destiny" to the Assembly, requesting independence within the British Commonwealth "as soon as the necessary constitutional arrangements are made" on 10 July 1953, and that body approved it. Independence |||Nkrumah and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. As a leader of this government, Nkrumah faced three serious challenges: first, to learn to govern; second, to unify the nation of Ghana from the four territories of the Gold Coast; third, to win his nation’s complete independence from the United Kingdom. Nkrumah was successful at all three goals. Within six years of his release from prison, he was the leader of an independent nation. At 12 a.m. on 6 March, 1957, Nkrumah declared Ghana independent. Nkrumah was hailed as "Osagyefo" - which means "redeemer" in the Twi language. On 6 March, 1960, Nkrumah announced plans for a new constitution which would make Ghana a republic. The draft included a provision to surrender Ghanaian sovereignty to a union of African states. On 19, 23, and 27 April 1960 a presidential election and plebiscite on the constitution were held. The constitution was ratified and Nkrumah was elected president over J. B. Danquah, the UP candidate, 1,016,076 to 124,623. In 1961, Nkrumah laid the first stones in the foundation of the Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute created to train Ghanaian civil servants as well as promote Pan-Africanism. In 1963, Nkrumah was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize by the Soviet Union. Ghana became a charter member of the Organization of African Unity in 1963. The Gold Coast had been among the wealthiest and most socially advanced areas in Africa, with schools, railways, hospitals, social security and an advanced economy. Under Nkrumah’s leadership, Ghana adopted some socialistic policies and practices. Nkrumah created a welfare system, started various community programs, and established schools. He ordered the construction of roads and bridges to further commerce and communication. To improve public health in villages, tap water systems were installed, and concrete drains for latrines were constructed. Politics He generally took a non-aligned Marxist perspective on economics, and believed capitalism had malignant effects that were going to stay with Africa for a long time. Although he was clear on distancing himself from the African socialism of many of his contemporaries; Nkrumah argued that socialism was the system that would best accommodate the changes that capitalism had brought, while still respecting African values. He specifically addresses these issues and his politics in a 1967 essay entitled "African Socialism Revisited": Billboard in Zambia with Nkrumah's non-alignment quote: "We face neither East nor West; We face forward" (Taken in May 2005) "We know that the traditional African society was founded on principles of egalitarianism. In its actual workings, however, it had various shortcomings. Its humanist impulse, nevertheless, is something that continues to urge us towards our all-African socialist reconstruction. We postulate each man to be an end in himself, not merely a means; and we accept the necessity of guaranteeing each man equal opportunities for his development. The implications of this for socio-political practice have to be worked out scientifically, and the necessary social and economic policies pursued with resolution. Any meaningful humanism must begin from egalitarianism and must lead to objectively chosen policies for safeguarding and sustaining egalitarianism. Hence, socialism. Hence, also, scientific socialism." African Socialism Revisited by Kwame Nkrumah 1967 Nkrumah was also perhaps best known politically for his strong commitment to and promotion of Pan-Africanism. Having been inspired by the writings and his relationships with black intellectuals like Marcus Garvey, W. E. B. Du Bois, and George Padmore; Nkrumah went on to himself inspire and encourage Pan-Africanist positions amongst a number of other African independence leaders such as Edward Okadjian, and activists from the Eli Nrwoku's African diaspora. With perhaps Nkrumah's biggest success in this area coming with his significant influence in the founding of the Organization of African Unity. Economics Nkrumah attempted to rapidly industrialize Ghana's economy. He reasoned that if Ghana escaped the colonial trade system by reducing dependence on foreign capital, technology, and material goods, it could become truly independent. Unfortunately, industrialization hurt the country’s cocoa sector. Many economic projects he initiated were unsuccessful, or with delayed benefits. The Akosombo Dam was expensive, but today produces most of Ghana's hydroelectric power. Nkrumah's policies did not free Ghana from dependence on Western imports. By the time he was deposed in 1966, Ghana had fallen from one of the richest countries in Africa, to one of the poorest. Decline and fall The year 1954 was a pivotal year during the Nkrumah era. In that year's independence elections, he tallied some of the independence election vote. However, that same year saw the world price of cocoa rise from £150 to £450 per ton. Rather than allowing cocoa farmers to maintain the windfall, Nkrumah appropriated the increased revenue via federal levies, then invested the capital into various national development projects. This policy alienated one of the major constituencies that helped him come to power. In 1958 Nkrumah introduced legislation to restrict various freedoms in Ghana. After the Gold Miners' Strike of 1955, Nkrumah introduced the Trade Union Act, which made strikes illegal. When he suspected opponents in parliament of plotting against him, he wrote the Preventive Detention Act that made it possible for his administration to arrest and detain anyone charged with treason without due process of law in the judicial system. When the railway workers went on strike in 1961, Nkrumah ordered strike leaders and opposition politicians arrested under the Trade Union Act of 1958. While Nkrumah had organized strikes just a few years before, he now opposed industrial democracy because it conflicted with rapid industrial development. He told the unions that their days as advocates for the safety and just compensation of miners were over, and that their new job was to work with management to mobilize human resources. Wages must give way to patriotic duty because the good of the nation superseded the good of individual workers, NKrumah's administration contended. ||Nkrumah Hall at the University of Dar es Salaam in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The Detention Act led to widespread disaffection with Nkrumah’s administration. Some of his associates used the law to arrest innocent people to acquire their political offices and business assets. Advisers close to Nkrumah became reluctant to question policies for fear that they might be seen as opponents. When the clinics ran out of pharmaceuticals, no one notified him. Some people believed that he no longer cared. Police came to resent their role in society. Nkrumah disappeared from public view out of a justifiable fear of assassination. In 1964, he proposed a constitutional amendment making the CPP the only legal party and himself president for life of both nation and party. The amendment passed with over 99 percent of the vote — an implausibly high total that could have only been obtained through fraud. In any event, Ghana had effectively been a one-party state since becoming a republic, but the amendment transformed Nkrumah's presidency into a de facto legal dictatorship. Nkrumah's advocacy of industrial development at any cost, with help of longtime friend and Minister of Finance, Komla Agbeli Gbedema, led to the construction of a hydroelectric power plant, the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River in eastern Ghana. American companies agreed to build the dam for Nkrumah, but restricted what could be produced using the power generated. Nkrumah borrowed money to build the dam, and placed Ghana in debt. To finance the debt, he raised taxes on the cocoa farmers in the south. This accentuated regional differences and jealousy. The dam was completed and opened by Nkrumah amidst world publicity on 22 January, 1966. Nkrumah appeared to be at the zenith of his power, but the end of his regime was only days away. Nkrumah wanted Ghana to have modern armed forces, so he acquired aircraft and ships, and introduced conscription. He also gave military support to those fighting the Smith administration in Zimbabwe, then called Rhodesia. In February 1966, while Nkrumah on a state visit to Vietnam, his government was overthrown in a military coup, which some claim was backed by the CIA. Botwe-Asamoah, Kwame. Kwame Nkrumah's Politico-Cultural Thought and Politics: An African-centered Paradigm for the Second Phase of the African Revolution. Page 16. Carl Oglesby and Richard Shaull. Containment and Change. Page 105. Interview with John Stockwell in Pandora's Box: Black Power (Adam Curtis, BBC Two, 22 June 1992) Today, Nkrumah is one of the most respected leaders in African history. In 2000, he was voted Africa's man of the millennium by listeners to the BBC World Service. Exile, death and tributes ||||Memorial to Kwame Nkrumah in Accra Nkrumah never returned to Ghana, but he continued to push for his vision of African unity. He lived in exile in Conakry, Guinea, as the guest of President Ahmed Sékou Touré, who made him honorary co-president of the country. He read, wrote, corresponded, gardened, and entertained guests. Despite retirement from public office, he was still frightened of western intelligence agencies. When his cook died, he feared that someone would poison him, and began hoarding food in his room. He suspected that foreign agents were going through his mail, and lived in constant fear of abduction and assassination. In failing health, he flew to Bucharest, Romania, for medical treatment in August 1971. He died of skin cancer in April 1972 at the age of 62. ||||Accra Memorial Close Up Nkrumah was buried in a tomb in the village of his birth, Nkroful, Ghana. While the tomb remains in Nkroful, his remains were transferred to a large national memorial tomb and park in Accra. Works by Kwame Nkrumah "Negro History: European Government in Africa," The Lincolnian, 12 April, 1938, p. 2 (Lincoln University, Pennsylvania) - see Special Collections and Archives, Lincoln University Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah (1957) ISBN 0-901787-60-4 Africa Must Unite (1963) ISBN 0-901787-13-2 African Personality (1963) Neo-Colonialism: the Last Stage of Imperialism (1965) ISBN 0-901787-23-X Axioms of Kwame Nkrumah (1967) ISBN 0-901787-54-X African Socialism Revisited (1967) Voice From Conakry (1967) ISBN 90-17-87027-3 Handbook for Revolutionary Warfare (1968) - first introduction of Pan-African pellet compass Consciencism: Philosophy and Ideology for De-Colonisation (1970) ISBN 0-901787-11-6 Class Struggle in Africa (1970) ISBN 0-901787-12-4 The Struggle Continues (1973) ISBN 0-901787-41-8 I Speak of Freedom (1973) ISBN 0-901787-14-0 Revolutionary Path (1973) ISBN 0-901787-22-1 Further reading Birmingham, David. Kwame Nkrumah: The Father of African Nationalism (Athens: Ohio University Press), 1998. Tuchscherer, Konrad. "Kwame Francis Nwia Kofie Nkrumah", Encyclopedia of Modern Dictators, ed. by Frank J. Coppa (New York: Peter Lang), 2006, pp. 217–220. Davidson, Basil. "Black Star - A View of the Life and Times of Kwame Nkrumah" (James Currey Publishers, Oxford UK) 1973. Mwakikagile, Godfrey. Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era, Third Edition (Pretoria, South Africa: New Africa Press), 2006, Chapter Twelve, "Nyerere and Nkrumah: Towards African Unity," pp. 347–355. Poe, D. Zizwe. Kwame Nkrumah's Contribution to Pan-African Agency (New York: Routledge), 2003. References See also Nkrumah government List of Ghana Heads of state by age Fathia Nkrumah External links Ghana-pedia webpage - Dr. Kwame Nkrumah Dr Kwame Nkrumah Excerpt from Commanding Heights by Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw Timeline of events related to the overthrow of Kwame Nkruma The Kwame Nkrumah Lectures at the University of Cape Coast, Ghana, 2007 Dr Kwame Nkrumah's Midnight Speech on the day of Ghana's independence - 6 March 1957 Kwame Nkrumah Information and Resource Site | Kwame_Nkrumah |@lemmatized kwame:20 nkrumah:80 september:1 april:4 influential:1 century:1 advocate:2 pan:7 africanism:3 leader:10 ghana:25 predecessor:1 state:8 gold:11 coast:12 early:1 life:3 education:2 bear:1 madam:1 nyaniba:1 nkroful:3 graduate:1 prestigious:1 achimota:1 school:4 accra:5 study:2 roman:1 catholic:2 seminary:1 taught:1 axim:1 leave:2 united:4 receive:2 ba:1 lincoln:7 university:14 pennsylvania:3 pledge:1 mu:1 chapter:2 phi:1 beta:1 sigma:1 fraternity:1 inc:1 stb:1 bachelor:1 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4,380 | Arithmeticâ%80%93geometric_mean | In mathematics, the arithmetic-geometric mean (AGM) of two positive real numbers x and y is defined as follows: First compute the arithmetic mean of x and y and call it a1. Next compute the geometric mean of x and y and call it g1; this is the square root of the product xy: Then iterate this operation with a1 taking the place of x and g1 taking the place of y. In this way, two sequences (an) and (gn) are defined: These two sequences converge to the same number, which is the arithmetic-geometric mean of x and y; it is denoted by M(x, y), or sometimes by agm(x, y). This can be used for algorithmic purposes as in the AGM method. Example To find the arithmetic-geometric mean of a0 = 24 and g0 = 6, first calculate their arithmetic mean and geometric mean, thus: and then iterate as follows: etc. The first four iterations give the following values: {| class="wikitable" |- ! n ! an ! gn |- | 0 | 24 | 6 |- | 1 | 15 | 12 |- | 2 | 13.5 | 13.41640786500... |- | 3 | 13.45820393250... | 13.45813903099... |- | 4 | 13.45817148175... | 13.45817148171... |} The arithmetic-geometric mean of 24 and 6 is the common limit of these two sequences, which is approximately 13.45817148173. Properties The geometric mean of two positive numbers is never bigger than the arithmetic mean (see inequality of arithmetic and geometric means); as a consequence, (gn) is an increasing sequence, (an) is a decreasing sequence, and gn ≤ M(x,y) ≤ an. These are strict inequalities if x≠y. M(x, y) is thus a number between the geometric and arithmetic mean of x and y; in particular it is between x and y. If r > 0, then M(rx, ry) = r M(x, y). There is a closed form expression for M(x,y): where K(m) is the complete elliptic integral of the first kind: Indeed, since the arithmetic-geometric process converges so quickly, it provides an effective way to compute elliptic integrals via this formula. The reciprocal of the arithmetic-geometric mean of 1 and the square root of 2 is called Gauss's constant. named after Carl Friedrich Gauss. The geometric-harmonic mean can be calculated by an analogous method, using sequences of geometric and harmonic means. The arithmetic-harmonic mean can be similarly defined, but takes the same value as the geometric mean. See also Inequality of arithmetic and geometric means References Jonathan Borwein, Peter Borwein, Pi and the AGM. A study in analytic number theory and computational complexity. Reprint of the 1987 original. Canadian Mathematical Society Series of Monographs and Advanced Texts, 4. A Wiley-Interscience Publication. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1998. xvi+414 pp. ISBN 0-471-31515-X | Arithmeticâ%80%93geometric_mean |@lemmatized mathematics:1 arithmetic:13 geometric:15 mean:18 agm:4 two:5 positive:2 real:1 number:5 x:15 define:3 follow:2 first:4 compute:3 call:3 next:1 square:2 root:2 product:1 xy:1 iterate:2 operation:1 take:3 place:2 way:2 sequence:6 gn:4 converge:1 denote:1 sometimes:1 use:2 algorithmic:1 purpose:1 method:2 example:1 find:1 calculate:2 thus:2 etc:1 four:1 iteration:1 give:1 following:1 value:2 class:1 wikitable:1 n:1 common:1 limit:1 approximately:1 property:1 never:1 big:1 see:2 inequality:3 consequence:1 increase:1 decrease:1 strict:1 particular:1 r:2 rx:1 ry:1 closed:1 form:1 expression:1 k:1 complete:1 elliptic:2 integral:2 kind:1 indeed:1 since:1 process:1 converges:1 quickly:1 provide:1 effective:1 via:1 formula:1 reciprocal:1 gauss:2 constant:1 name:1 carl:1 friedrich:1 harmonic:3 analogous:1 similarly:1 also:1 reference:1 jonathan:1 borwein:2 peter:1 pi:1 study:1 analytic:1 theory:1 computational:1 complexity:1 reprint:1 original:1 canadian:1 mathematical:1 society:1 series:1 monograph:1 advanced:1 text:1 wiley:2 interscience:1 publication:1 john:1 son:1 inc:1 new:1 york:1 xvi:1 pp:1 isbn:1 |@bigram arithmetic_geometric:8 class_wikitable:1 elliptic_integral:2 carl_friedrich:1 friedrich_gauss:1 computational_complexity:1 wiley_interscience:1 wiley_son:1 |
4,381 | Nintendo | is a multinational corporation located in Kyoto, Japan founded on September 23, 1889 by Fusajiro Yamauchi to produce handmade hanafuda cards. By 1963, the company had tried several small niche businesses, such as a cab company and a love hotel. Eventually, Nintendo developed into a video game company, becoming one of the most influential in the industry and Japan's third most valuable listed company, with a market value of over US$85 billion. Reuters: Nintendo sets $85 bln high score, thanks to Wii, Nintendo DS In 2007, Nintendo ranked eighth on the list of largest software companies in the world. Software Top 100: "The World's Largest Software Companies" Besides video games, Nintendo is also the majority owner of the Seattle Mariners, a Major League Baseball team in Seattle, Washington. According to Nintendo's Touch! Generations website, the name "Nintendo" translated from Japanese to English means "Leave luck to Heaven". Touch! Generations As of October 2, 2008, Nintendo has sold over 470 million hardware units and 2.7 billion software units. Video game consoles Nintendo has produced several home and portable video game consoles since 1977. Home consoles include the Color TV Game (1977), Nintendo Entertainment System/Famicom (NES, 1983), Super Nintendo Entertainment System/Super Famicom (SNES, 1990), Nintendo 64 (N64, 1996), Nintendo GameCube (GCN, 2001) and Wii (2006). Portable consoles include the Game & Watch line (1980), Game Boy line (1989), Virtual Boy (1995), Nintendo DS (2004) and Nintendo DSi (2009). History As a card company (1889–1956) Nintendo was founded as a Japanese business by Fusajiro Yamauchi in late 1889, originally named "Nintendo Koppai". Based in Kyoto, Japan, the business produced and marketed a playing card game called Hanafuda. The handmade cards soon became popular, and Yamauchi hired assistants to mass produce cards to satisfy demand. New ventures (1956–1975) In 1956, Hiroshi Yamauchi (the grandson of Fusajiro Yamauchi) visited the U.S. to talk with the United States Playing Card Company, the dominant playing card manufacturer in that country. He found that the world's biggest company in his business was only using a small office. This was a turning point, where Yamauchi realized the limitations of the playing card business. He then gained access to Disney's characters and put them on the playing cards to drive sales. In 1963, Yamauchi renamed Nintendo Playing Card Company Limited to Nintendo Company, Limited. The company then began to experiment in other areas of business using the newly injected capital. During this period of time between 1963 and 1968, Nintendo set up a taxi company, a "love hotel" chain, a TV network and a food company (trying to sell instant rice, similar to instant noodles). All these ventures eventually failed, and after the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, playing card sales dropped, leaving Nintendo with 60 yen in stocks. In 1966, Nintendo moved into the Japanese toy industry with the Ultra Hand, an extending arm developed by its maintenance engineer Gunpei Yokoi in his free time. Yokoi was moved from maintenance to the new "Nintendo Games" department as a product developer. Nintendo continued to produce popular toys, including the Ultra Machine, Love Tester and the Kousenjuu series of light gun games. Despite some successful products, Nintendo struggled to meet the fast development and manufacturing turnaround required of the toy market, and fell behind the well-established companies such as Bandai and Tomy. In 1973, the focus shifted to family entertainment venues with the Laser Clay Shooting System, using the same light gun technology used in Nintendo's Kousenjuu series of toys, and set up in abandoned bowling alleys. Following some success, Nintendo developed several more light gun machines for the emerging arcade scene. While the Laser Clay Shooting System ranges had to be shut down following excessive costs, Nintendo had found a new market. Electronic era (1975–present) In 1974, Nintendo secured the rights to distribute the Magnavox Odyssey home video game console in Japan. In 1977, Nintendo began producing its own Color TV Game home video game consoles. Four versions of these consoles were produced, each playing variations on a single game (for example, Color TV Game 6 featured six versions of Light Tennis). A student product developer named Shigeru Miyamoto was hired by Nintendo at this time. He worked for Yokoi, and one of his first tasks was to design the casing for several of the Color TV Game consoles. Miyamoto went on to create some of Nintendo's most famous video games and become one of the most recognizable faces in the video game industry. In 1978, Nintendo moved into the video arcade game industry with Computer Othello, and several more titles followed. Nintendo had some small success with this venture, but the release of Donkey Kong in 1981, designed by Miyamoto, changed Nintendo's fortunes dramatically. The success of the game and many licensing opportunities (such as ports on the Atari 2600, Intellivision and ColecoVision) gave Nintendo a huge boost in profit. In 1980, Nintendo launched Game & Watch, a handheld video game series developed by Yokoi, to worldwide success. In 1983, Nintendo launched the Family Computer (commonly called by its shortened name "Famicom") home video game console in Japan alongside ports of its most popular arcade titles. In 1985, the console launched in North America as the Nintendo Entertainment System, and was accompanied by Super Mario Bros., the best-selling video game of all time as of 2009. In 1989, Yokoi developed the Game Boy handheld video game console. Nintendo is the longest-surviving video game console manufacturer to date. The Nintendo Entertainment System was superseded by the Super Famicom, known outside Japan as the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES). The Nintendo 64, most notable for its 3D graphics capabilities, introduced the analog stick and built-in multiplayer for up to four players, instead of two. The Nintendo GameCube followed, and was the first Nintendo console to use optical disc storage instead of cartridges. The most recent home console, the Wii, uses motion sensing controllers and has online functionality (although the GameCube did also have some basic online capabilities), used for services such as Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, Virtual Console and WiiWare. After the Game & Watch, the handheld development continued with the Game Boy, the Game Boy Pocket and Game Boy Color, each differing in minor aspects. The Game Boy continued for more than a decade until the release of the Game Boy Advance, featuring technical specifications similar to the SNES. The Game Boy Advance SP, a frontlit, flip-screen version, introduced a rechargeable, built-in battery, instead of using AA batteries like its predecessors. The Game Boy Micro was released in 2005, after the Nintendo DS's release, but did not sell as well as its predecessors. The most recent Nintendo handheld console is the Nintendo DS, using two screens, the bottom of which is a touchscreen, with online functionalities and technical power similar to that of the Nintendo 64. The Nintendo DS Lite, a remake of the DS, improved several features of the original model, including the battery life and screen brightness. On April 5, 2009, Nintendo released the Nintendo DSi, featuring larger screens, improved sound quality, an AAC music player and two cameras—one on the outside and one facing the user. Offices and locations Nintendo Company, Limited (NCL) is based in Minami-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto Prefecture, Japan (). Its pre-2000 office, now its research and development building, is located in Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto Prefecture, Japan (). Its original Kyoto headquarters can still be found at (). Nintendo of America, Incorporated (NOA), its American division, is based in Redmond, Washington. It has distribution centers in Atlanta, Georgia (Nintendo Atlanta) and North Bend, Washington (Nintendo North Bend). Nintendo of Canada, Limited (NOCL) is based in Richmond, British Columbia, with its own distribution centre in Toronto, Ontario. Nintendo Australia Pty Ltd (NAL) is based in Melbourne, Victoria. It handles the distribution, sales and marketing of Nintendo products in Australia and New Zealand. It also manufactures some of the Wii games locally. Nintendo of Europe is based in Großostheim, Germany and holds a subsidiary company in South Africa and trades as Core Gaming Systems which serves as a distribution and sales company for NOE. iQue, Ltd., a Chinese joint venture between its founder, Doctor Wei Yen, and Nintendo, manufactures and distributes official Nintendo consoles and games for the mainland Chinese market, under the iQue brand. Nintendo also established Nintendo of Korea (NoK) on July 7, 2006. Policy Emulation Nintendo is known for a "no tolerance" stance against emulation of its video games and consoles. It claims that copyright-like rights in mask works protect its games from the exceptions that United States copyright law otherwise provides for backup copies. Nintendo uses the claim that emulators running on personal computers have no use other than to play pirated video games, contested by some who say these emulators have been used to develop and test independently produced "homebrew" software on Nintendo's platforms, and that Nintendo's efforts fudge the truth about copyright laws, mainly that ROM image copiers are illegal (they actually are legal if used to dump unprotected ROM images on to a user's computer for personal use, per 17 USC 117(a)(1) and foreign counterparts U.S. Copyright Law, Title 17, Chapter 1 § 117 ) and that emulators are illegal (if they do not use copyrighted BIOS, or use other methods to run the game, they are legal). This stance is largely apocryphal, however; Nintendo remains the only modern console manufacturer which has not sued an emulator manufacturer (the most public example being Sony vs. the bleem company). Emulators have been used by Nintendo and licensed third party companies as a means to re-release older games. Content guidelines For many years, Nintendo had a policy of strict content guidelines for video games published on its consoles. Although Nintendo Japan allowed graphic violence in its video games, nudity and sexuality were strictly prohibited. Former Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi believed that if the company allowed the licensing of pornographic games, the company's image would be forever tarnished.<ref>Game Over, David Sheff, 1993.</ref> Nintendo of America and Nintendo of Europe went further in that games released for Nintendo consoles could not feature nudity, sexuality, profanity (including racism, sexism or slurs), blood, graphic or domestic violence, drugs, political messages or religious symbols (with the exception of widely unpracticed religions, such as the Greek Pantheon). Nintendo of America Content Guidelines The Japanese parent company was concerned that it may be viewed as a "Japanese Invasion" if it introduced adult content to North American and European children. U.S. Senator Joe Lieberman praised this zero tolerance policy, but others criticized the policy, claiming that gamers should be allowed to choose the content they want to see. Despite the strict guidelines, some exceptions have occurred: Bionic Commando, Smash TV and Golgo 13: Top Secret Episode contained blood and violence, the latter also contained implied sexuality and tobacco use; River City Ransom and Taboo: The Sixth Sense contained nudity, and the latter also contained religious images, as did Castlevania II and III. A known side effect of this policy was the Sega Genesis version of Mortal Kombat selling over double the number of Nintendo's Super NES version, mainly because Nintendo had forced publisher Acclaim to recolor the red blood to look like white sweat and replace some of the more gory attacks in its release of the game. By contrast, Sega allowed blood and gore to remain in the Genesis version (though the Genesis version of the game required a code to unlock the gore). Nintendo allowed the Super NES version of Mortal Kombat II to ship uncensored the following year with a content warning on the packaging. Mortal Kombat II cover artwork at MobyGames In 1994, when the ESRB video game ratings system was introduced, Nintendo chose to abolish some of these policies in favor of consumers making their own choices about the content of the games they played. Today, changes to the content of games are done primarily by the game's developer or, occasionally, at the request of Nintendo. The only clear-set rule is that ESRB AO-rated games will not be licensed on Nintendo consoles in North America, Nintendo of America Customer Service – Nintendo Buyer's Guide a practice which is also enforced by Sony and Microsoft. Nintendo has since allowed several mature-content games to be published on its consoles, including: Perfect Dark, Conker's Bad Fur Day, Doom and Doom 64, BMX XXX, the Resident Evil series, killer7, Eternal Darkness: Sanity's Requiem, BloodRayne, Geist and Dementium: The Ward. Certain games have continued to be modified, however. For example, Konami was forced to remove all references to cigarettes in the 2000 Game Boy Color game Metal Gear Solid, and maiming and blood were removed from the Nintendo 64 port of Cruis'n USA. Another example is in the Game Boy Advance game Mega Man Zero 3, in which one of the bosses, Hellbat Schilt in the Japanese and European releases, was renamed Devilbat Schilt in the U.S. localization. In the U.S. releases of the Mega Man Zero games, bosses killed with a saber attack would not gush blood as they do in the Japanese versions. However, the release of the Wii has ensued in a number of even more controversial, mature titles, such as Manhunt 2, No More Heroes, The House of the Dead: Overkill and MadWorld, the latter three of which are published exclusively for the console. License guidelines Nintendo of America also had guidelines for its licensees for them to make games for the Nintendo Entertainment System, in addition to the above content guidelines: Game Over, David Sheff, 1993.</ref> Licensees were not permitted to release the same game for a competing console until two years had passed. Nintendo would decide how many cartridges would be supplied to the licensee. Nintendo would decide how much space would be dedicated for articles, advertising, etc. in Nintendo Power. There was a minimum number of cartridges which had to be ordered by the licensee from Nintendo. There was a yearly limit of five games that a licensee may produce for a Nintendo console. This rule was made due to caution of over saturation which caused the North American video game crash of 1983. Konami wanted to produce more games for Nintendo consoles, yet the last rule restricted them. As a result, Konami formed both Ultra Games and, later, Palcom to produce more games.<ref>Game Over, David Sheff, 1993. This disadvantaged smaller or beginning companies, as they could not form additional companies at will. Also, Square (now Square Enix) executives have suggested that the price of publishing games on the Nintendo 64, along with the degree of censorship and control, Nintendo enforced over its games—most notably Final Fantasy VI—were factors in moving its games to Sony's PlayStation console. See also History of video games History of NintendoLewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc.List of divisions of Nintendo List of franchises established on Nintendo consoles List of Nintendo characters List of Nintendo developers List of Nintendo games List of video games published by Nintendo Multinational corporation Nintendo Seal of Quality Nintendo World Store Player's ChoiceUniversal City Studios, Inc. v. Nintendo Co., Ltd.'' Video games censored by Nintendo of America References External links Nintendo official website English business site (developers only) Nintendo Power Official Nintendo Magazine (UK) | Nintendo |@lemmatized multinational:2 corporation:2 locate:2 kyoto:7 japan:9 found:2 september:1 fusajiro:3 yamauchi:8 produce:11 handmade:2 hanafuda:2 card:11 company:25 try:2 several:7 small:4 niche:1 business:7 cab:1 love:3 hotel:2 eventually:2 nintendo:112 develop:6 video:23 game:77 become:3 one:6 influential:1 industry:4 third:2 valuable:1 list:8 market:5 value:1 u:6 billion:2 reuters:1 set:4 bln:1 high:1 score:1 thanks:1 wii:5 rank:1 eighth:1 large:3 software:5 world:4 top:2 besides:1 also:10 majority:1 owner:1 seattle:2 mariner:1 major:1 league:1 baseball:1 team:1 washington:3 accord:1 touch:2 generation:2 website:2 name:4 translate:1 japanese:7 english:2 mean:2 leave:2 luck:1 heaven:1 october:1 sell:4 million:1 hardware:1 unit:2 console:29 home:6 portable:2 since:2 include:6 color:6 tv:6 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4,382 | Diedrich_Hermann_Westermann | Westermann's 1911 Die Sudansprachen.Diedrich Hermann Westermann (June 24, 1875–May 31, 1956) was a German missionary, Africanist, and linguist. He substantially extended and revised the work of Carl Meinhof, his teacher, although he rejected some of Meinhof's theories only implicitly. Westermann is seen as one of the founders of modern African linguistics. He carried out extensive linguistic and anthropological research in the area ranging from Senegal eastwards to the Upper Nile. His linguistic publications cover a wide range of African languages, including the Gbe languages, Nuer, Kpelle, Shilluk, Hausa, and Guang. Westermann's comparative work, begun in 1911, initially brought together much of today's Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan language phyla under the name Sudanic languages. His most important later publication 'Die westlichen Sudansprachen' 1927a divided these into East and West Sudanic languages and laid the basis for what would become Niger-Congo. In this book and a series of associated articles between 1925 and 1928, Westermann both identified a large number of roots that form the basis of our understanding of Niger-Congo and set out the evidence for the coherence of many of the families that constitute it. Much of the classification of African languages associated with Joseph Greenberg actually derives from the work of Westermann. In 1927 Westermann published a Practical Orthography of African Languages which became later known as the Westermann script. Subsequently he published the influential and oft-reprinted Practical Phonetics for Students of African Languages in collaboration with Ida Ward (1933). He was born in Baden near Bremen and also died there. Bibliography Westermann, Diedrich H. (1911) Die Sudansprachen [The Sudanic languages]. Westermann, Diedrich H. (1912) The Shilluk People. Berlin. Westermann, Diedrich H. (1925) Das Tschi und Guang. Ihre Stellung innerhalb der Ewe-Tschi Gruppe. MSOS, 28:1-85. Westermann, Diedrich H. (1926a) Das Ibo in Nigerien. Seine Stellung innerhalb der Kwa-Sprachen. MSOS, 29:32-60. Westermann, Diedrich H. (1926b) Das Edo in Nigerien. Seine Stellung innerhalb der Kwa-Sprachen. MSOS, 29:1-31. Westermann, Diedrich H. (1927a) 'Die westlichen Sudansprachen und ihre Beziehungen zum Bantu' Berlin: de Gruyter. Westermann, Diedrich H. (1927b) Das Nupe in Nigerien. Seine Stellung innerhalb der Kwa-Sprachen. MSOS, 30:173-207. Westermann, Diedrich H. (1928) Die westatlantische Gruppe der Sudansprachen. MSOS, 31:63-86. Westermann, Diedrich Hermann & Ward, Ida C. (1933) Practical phonetics for students of African languages. London: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute. Westermann, Diedrich H. (1948). The missionary and anthropological research. Oxford University Press for the International African Institute. Westermann, Diedrich H. (1949). Sprachbeziehungen und Sprachverwandtschaft in Afrika. Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse, 1948 (Nr. 1). Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. Westermann, Diedrich H. (1952). The languages of West Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Westermann, Diedrich H. (1964). Practical phonetics for students of African languages (4th improvement). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 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4,383 | Major_depressive_disorder | For other depressive disorders, see Types of psychological depression. Major depressive disorder (also known as clinical depression, major depression, unipolar depression, or unipolar disorder) is a mental disorder characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem, and loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities. The term "major depressive disorder" was selected by the American Psychiatric Association to designate this symptom cluster as a mood disorder in the 1980 version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) classification, and has become widely used since. The general term depression is often used to describe the disorder, but as it can also be used to describe other types of psychological depression, more precise terminology is preferred for the disorder in clinical and research use. Major depression is a disabling condition which adversely affects a person's family, work or school life, sleeping and eating habits, and general health. In the United States, approximately 3.4% of people with major depression commit suicide, and up to 60% of all people who commit suicide have depression or another mood disorder. The diagnosis of major depressive disorder is based on the patient's self-reported experiences, behavior reported by relatives or friends, and a mental status exam. There is no laboratory test for major depression, although physicians generally request tests for physical conditions that may cause similar symptoms. The most common time of onset is between the ages of 30 and 40 years, with a later peak between 50 and 60 years. Major depression is reported about twice as frequently in women as in men, although men are at higher risk for suicide. Most patients are treated in the community with antidepressant medication and some with psychotherapy or counseling. Hospitalization may be necessary in cases with associated self-neglect or a significant risk of harm to self or others. A minority are treated with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), under a short-acting general anaesthetic. The course of the disorder varies widely, from one episode lasting months to a lifelong disorder with recurrent major depressive episodes. Depressed individuals have shorter life expectancies than those without depression, in part because of greater susceptibility to medical illnesses. Current and former patients may be stigmatized. The understanding of the nature and causes of depression has evolved over the centuries, though many aspects of depression remain incompletely understood and are the subject of discussion and research. Psychological, psycho-social, evolutionary and biological causes have been proposed. Psychological treatments are based on theories of personality, interpersonal communication, and learning theory. Most biological theories focus on the monoamine chemicals serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine that are naturally present in the brain and assist communication between nerve cells. Monoamines have been implicated in depression, and most antidepressants work to increase the active levels of at least one. Symptoms and signs Major depression is a serious illness that affects a person's family, work or school life, sleeping and eating habits, and general health. Its impact on functioning and well-being has been equated to that of chronic medical conditions such as diabetes. A person suffering a major depressive episode usually exhibits a very low mood that pervades all aspects of life and an inability to experience pleasure in activities that formerly were enjoyed. Depressed people may be preoccupied with, or ruminate over, thoughts and feelings of worthlessness, inappropriate guilt or regret, helplessness, hopelessness, and self hatred. Other symptoms include poor concentration and memory, withdrawal from social situations and activities, reduced sex drive, and thoughts of death or suicide. Insomnia is common: in the typical pattern, a person wakes very early and is unable to get back to sleep. Hypersomnia, or oversleeping, is less common. Appetite often decreases, with resulting weight loss, although increased appetite and weight gain occasionally occur. The person may report multiple physical symptoms such as fatigue, headaches, or digestive problems; physical complaints are the most common presenting problem in developing countries according to the World Health Organization's criteria of depression. Family and friends may notice that the person's behavior is either agitated or lethargic. Older depressed persons may have cognitive symptoms of recent onset, such as forgetfulness, and a more noticeable slowing of movements. In severe cases, depressed people may have symptoms of psychosis such as delusions or, less commonly, hallucinations, usually of an unpleasant nature. Depressed children often display an irritable rather than a depressed mood, and show varying symptoms depending on age and situation. Most exhibit a loss of interest in school and a decline in academic performance. They may be described as clingy, demanding, dependent, or insecure. Diagnosis may be delayed or missed when symptoms are interpreted as normal moodiness. Depression may also coincide with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, complicating the diagnosis and treatment of both. Causes The biopsychosocial model proposes that biological, psychological, and social factors all play a role to varying degrees in causing depression. The diathesis–stress model posits that depression results when a preexisting vulnerability, or diathesis, is activated by stressful life events. The preexisting vulnerability can be either genetic, implying an interaction between nature and nurture, or schematic, resulting from views of the world learned in childhood. These interactive models have gained empirical support. For example, a prospective, longitudinal study uncovered a moderating effect of the serotonin transporter (5-HTT) gene on stressful life events in predicting depression. Specifically, depression may follow such events, but is more likely to appear in people with one or two short alleles of the 5-HTT gene. A Swedish study estimated the heritability of depression—the degree to which individual differences in occurrence are associated with genetic differences—to be approximately 40 percent for women and 30 percent for men, and evolutionary psychologists have proposed that the genetic basis for depression lies deep in the history of naturally selected adaptations. A substance-induced mood disorder resembling major depression has been causally linked to long-term drug use or abuse or withdrawal from certain sedative and hypnotic drugs. Biological Monoamine hypothesis Most antidepressant medications work by increasing the levels of one or more of the monoamines—the neurotransmitters serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine—in the synaptic cleft between neurons. Some medications affect the monoamine receptors directly. Serotonin is hypothesized to help regulate other neurotransmitter systems; decreased serotonin activity may allow these systems to act in unusual and erratic ways. According to this "permissive hypothesis", depression arises when low serotonin levels promote low levels of norepinephrine, another monoamine neurotransmitter. Some antidepressants enhance the levels of norepinephrine directly, whereas others raise the levels of dopamine, a third monoamine neurotransmitter. These observations gave rise to the monoamine hypothesis of depression. In its contemporary formulation, the monoamine hypothesis postulates that a deficiency of certain neurotransmitters is responsible for the corresponding features of depression: "Norepinephrine may be related to alertness and energy as well as anxiety, attention, and interest in life; [lack of] serotonin to anxiety, obsessions, and compulsions; and dopamine to attention, motivation, pleasure, and reward, as well as interest in life." The proponents of this theory recommend the choice of an antidepressant with mechanism of action that impacts the most prominent symptoms. Anxious and irritable patients should be treated with SSRIs or norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, and those experiencing a loss of energy and enjoyment of life with norepinephrine- and dopamine-enhancing drugs. Schematic of a synapse between an axon of one neuron and a dendrite of another. Synapses are specialized gaps between neurons. Electrical impulses arriving at the axon terminal trigger release of packets of chemical messengers (neurotransmitters), which diffuse across the synaptic cleft to receptors on the adjacent dendrite temporarily affecting the likelihood that an electrical impulse will be triggered in the latter neuron. Once released the neurotransmitter is rapidly metabolised or pumped back into a neuron. Antidepressants influence the overall balance of these processes. In the past two decades, research has revealed multiple limitations of the monoamine hypothesis, and its explanatory inadequacy has been criticized within the psychiatric community. Intensive investigation has failed to find convincing evidence of a primary dysfunction of a specific monoamine system in patients with major depressive disorders. The medications tianeptine and opipramol have long been known to have antidepressant properties despite lacking any effect on the monoamine system. Experiments with pharmacological agents that cause depletion of monoamines have shown that this depletion does not cause depression in healthy people nor does it worsen symptoms in depressed patients—although an intact monoamine system is necessary for antidepressants to achieve therapeutic effectiveness. According to an essay published by the Public Library of Science (PLoS), the monoamine hypothesis, already limited, has been further oversimplified when presented to the general public. Other theories MRI scans of patients with depression have reported a number of differences in brain structure compared to those without the illness. Although there is some inconsistency in the results, meta-analyses have shown there is strong evidence for smaller hippocampal volumes and increased numbers of hyperintensive lesions. Hyperintensities have been associated with patients with a late age of onset, and have led to the development of the theory of vascular depression. There may be a link between depression and neurogenesis of the hippocampus, a center for both mood and memory. Loss of hippocampal neurons is found in some depressed individuals and correlates with impaired memory and dysthymic mood. Drugs may increase serotonin levels in the brain, stimulating neurogenesis and thus increasing the total mass of the hippocampus. This increase may help to restore mood and memory. Similar relationships have been observed between depression and an area of the anterior cingulate cortex implicated in the modulation of emotional behavior. One of the neurotrophins responsible for neurogenesis is the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). The level of BDNF in the blood plasma of depressed subjects is drastically reduced (more than threefold) as compared to the norm. Antidepressant treatment increases the blood level of BDNF. Although decreased plasma BDNF levels have been found in many other disorders, there is some evidence that BDNF is involved in the cause of depression and the mechanism of action of antidepressants. Major depression may also be caused in part by an overactive hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) that is similar to the neuro-endocrine response to stress. Investigations reveal increased levels of the hormone cortisol and enlarged pituitary and adrenal glands, suggesting disturbances of the endocrine system may play a role in some psychiatric disorders, including major depression. Oversecretion of corticotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus is thought to drive this, and is implicated in the cognitive and arousal symptoms. Depression may be related to the same brain mechanisms that control the cycles of sleep and wakefulness. Depression may be related to abnormalities in the circadian rhythm, or biological clock. For example, the REM stage of sleep, the one in which dreaming occurs, may be quick to arrive, and intense, in depressed people. REM sleep depends on decreased serotonin levels in the brain stem, and is impaired by compounds, such as antidepressants, that increase serotoninergic tone in brain stem structures. Overall, the serotonergic system is least active during sleep and most active during wakefulness. Prolonged wakefulness due to sleep deprivation activates serotonergic neurons, leading to processes similar to the therapeutic effect of antidepressants, such as the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Depressed individuals can exhibit a significant lift in mood after a night of sleep deprivation. SSRIs may directly depend on the increase of central serotonergic neurotransmission for their therapeutic effect, the same system that impacts cycles of sleep and wakefulness. Research on the effects of light therapy on treating seasonal affective disorder suggests that light deprivation is related to decreased activity in the serotonergic system and to abnormalities in the sleep cycle, particularly insomnia. Exposure to light also targets the serotonergic system, providing more support for the important role this system may play in depression. Sleep deprivation and light therapy both target the same brain neurotransmitter system and brain areas as antidepressant drugs, and are now used clinically to treat depression. Light therapy, sleep deprivation and sleep time displacement (sleep phase advance therapy) are being used in combination quickly to interrupt a deep depression in hospitalized patients. The hormone estrogen has been implicated in depressive disorders due to the increase in risk of depressive episodes after puberty, the antenatal period, and reduced rates after menopause. Conversely, the premenstrual and postpartum periods of low estrogen levels are also associated with increased risk. The use of estrogen has been under-researched, and although some small trials show promise in its use to prevent or treat depression, the evidence for its effectiveness is not strong. Estrogen replacement therapy has been shown to be beneficial in improving mood in perimenopause, but it is unclear if it is merely the menopausal symptoms that are being reversed. Other research has explored potential roles of molecules necessary for overall cellular functioning: cytokines and essential nutrients. Major depressive disorder is nearly identical to sickness behavior, the response of the body when the immune system is fighting an infection. Hart, B. L. (1988) "Biological basis of the behavior of sick animals". Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 12: 123-137. This raises the possility that depression can result from a maladaptive manifestation of sickness behavior as a result of abnormalities in circulating cytokines. Charlton, B. G. (2000) "The malaise theory of depression: major depressive disorder is sickness behavior and antidepressants are analgesic". Med Hypotheses. 54: 126-130 Dantzer, R., O'Connor, J. C., Freund, G. G., Johnson, R. W. Kelley, K. W. (2008) "From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain". Nat Rev Neurosci. 9: 46-56 Maes, M. (2008) "The cytokine hypothesis of depression: inflammation, oxidative & nitrosative stress (IO&NS) and leaky gut as new targets for adjunctive treatments in depression". Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 29: 287-291 Deficiencies in certain essential dietary nutrients, particularly vitamin B12 and folic acid, have been associated with depression; other agents such as the elements copper and magnesium, and vitamin A have also been implicated. Psychological Various aspects of personality and its development appear to be integral to the occurrence and persistence of depression. Although depressive episodes are strongly correlated with adverse events, a person's characteristic style of coping may be correlated with their resilience. Additionally, low self-esteem and self-defeating or distorted thinking are related to depression. Depression may be less likely to occur, as well as quicker to remit, among those who are religious. It is not always clear which factors are causes or which are effects of depression; however, depressed persons who are able to make corrections in their thinking patterns often show improved mood and self-esteem. American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck developed what is now known as a cognitive model of depression in the early 1960s. He proposed three concepts which underlie depression: a triad of negative thoughts comprising cognitive errors about oneself, one's world, and one's future; recurrent patterns of depressive thinking, or schemas; and distorted information processing. From these principles, he developed the structured technique of cognitive behavioral therapy. According to American psychologist Martin Seligman, depression in humans is similar to learned helplessness in laboratory animals, who remain in unpleasant situations when they are able to escape, but do not because they initially learned they had no control. Depressed individuals often blame themselves for negative events, and—as reflected in a study of hospitalized adolescents with self-reported depression—those who do this may not take credit for positive outcomes. This tendency is characteristic of a depressive attributional, or pessimistic explanatory style. According to Albert Bandura, a Canadian social psychologist associated with social cognitive theory, depressed individuals have negative beliefs about themselves, based on experiences of failure, observing the failure of social models, a lack of social persuasion that they can succeed, and their own somatic and emotional states including tension and stress. These influences may result in a negative self-concept and a perceived lack of self-efficacy; that is, they do not believe they can influence events or achieve personal goals. An examination of depression in women indicates that vulnerability factors—such as early maternal loss, lack of a confiding relationship, responsibility for the care of several young children at home, and unemployment—can interact with life stressors to increase the risk of depression. For older adults, the factors are often health problems, changes in relationships with a spouse or adult children due to the transition to a care-giving or care-needing role, the death of a significant other, or a change in the availability or quality of social relationships with older friends because of their own health-related life changes. The understanding of depression has also received contributions from the psychoanalytic, existential, and humanistic branches of psychology. From the classical psychoanalytic perspective of Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, depression, or melancholia, may be related to interpersonal loss and early life experiences. Existential psychologists have connected depression to the lack of both meaning in the present and a vision of the future. The founder of humanistic psychology, American psychologist Abraham Maslow, suggested that depression could arise when people are unable to attain their needs or to self-actualize, to realize their full potential. Social Poverty and social isolation are associated with increased risk of psychiatric problems in general. Child abuse (physical, emotional, sexual, or neglect) is also associated with increased risk of developing depressive disorders later in life. Disturbances in family functioning, such as parental (particularly maternal) depression, severe marital conflict or divorce, death of a parent, or other disturbances in parenting are additional risk factors. In adulthood, stressful life events are strongly associated with the onset of major depressive episodes; a first episode is more likely to be immediately preceded by stressful life events than are recurrent ones. The relationship between stressful life events and social support has been a matter of some debate; the lack of social support may increase the likelihood that life stress will lead to depression, or the absence of social support may constitute a form of strain that leads to depression directly. There is evidence that neighborhood social disorder, for example, due to crime or illicit drugs, is a risk factor, and that a high neighborhood socioeconomic status, with better amenities, is a protective factor. Kim D. (2008) Blues from the Neighborhood? Neighborhood Characteristics and Depression. Epidemiol Rev Aug 27 PMID 18753674 Adverse conditions at work, particularly demanding jobs with little scope for decision-making, are associated with depression, although diversity and confounding factors make it difficult to confirm that the relationship is causal. Evolutionary From the standpoint of evolutionary theory, major depression is hypothesized, in some instances, to increase an individual's ability to reproduce. Evolutionary approaches to depression and evolutionary psychology posit specific mechanisms by which depression may have been genetically incorporated into the human gene pool, accounting for the high heritability and prevalence of depression by proposing that certain components of depression are adaptations, such as the behaviors relating to attachment and social rank. Current behaviors can be explained as adaptations to regulate relationships or resources, although the result may be maladaptive in modern environments. From a counseling psychology viewpoint, the therapist may see depression, not as a biochemical illness or disorder, but as "a species-wide evolved suite of emotional programmes that are mostly activated by a perception, almost always over-negative, of a major decline in personal usefulness, that can sometimes be linked to guilt, shame or perceived rejection". This suite may have manifested in aging hunters in humans' foraging past, who were marginalized by their declining skills, and may continue to appear in alienated members of today's society. The feelings of uselessness generated by such marginalization could hypothetically prompt support from friends and kin. Additionally, in a manner analogous to that in which physical pain has evolved to hinder actions that may cause further injury, "psychic misery" may have evolved to prevent hasty and maladaptive reactions to distressing situations. Drug use The DSM precludes a diagnosis of major depressive disorder for those presenting with "the direct physiological effects of a substance" because sedative hypnotic drugs such as alcohol and benzodiazepines increase the risk of a syndrome that is similar to major depression. This increased risk may be due in part to the effects of drugs on neurochemistry, such as decreased levels of serotonin and norepinephrine. Alcoholism or excessive alcohol consumption significantly increases the risk of developing this syndrome. Chronic use of benzodiazepines, a class of medication that is commonly used to treat insomnia, anxiety and muscular spasms, also increases the risk. Chronic, severe depression can develop as a result of chronic use of benzodiazepines or as part of a protracted withdrawal syndrome. Diagnosis Clinical assessment A diagnostic assessment may be conducted by a general practitioner, licensed clinical social worker, or by a psychiatrist or psychologist, who records the person's current circumstances, biographical history and current symptoms, and a family medical history to see if other family members have suffered from a mood disorder, and discuss the person's alcohol and drug use. The assessment also includes a mental state examination, which is an assessment of the person's current mood and thought content, in particular the presence of themes of hopelessness or pessimism, self-harm or suicide, and an absence of positive thoughts or plans. Specialist mental health services are rare in rural areas, and thus diagnosis and management is largely left to primary care clinicians. This issue is even more marked in developing countries. The score on a rating scale alone is not sufficient to diagnose depression, but it provides an indication of the severity of symptoms for a time period, so a person who scores above a given cut-off point can be more thoroughly evaluated for a depressive disorder diagnosis. Several rating scales are used for this purpose. Screening programs have been advocated to improve detection of depression, but there is evidence that they do not improve detection rates, treatment, or outcome. Before diagnosing a major depressive disorder, a doctor generally performs a medical examination and selected investigations to rule out other causes of symptoms. These include blood tests measuring TSH and thyroxine to exclude hypothyroidism; basic electrolytes and serum calcium to rule out a metabolic disturbance; and a full blood count including ESR to rule out a systemic infection or chronic disease. Adverse affective reactions to medications or alcohol misuse are often ruled out, as well. Testosterone levels may be evaluated to diagnose hypogonadism, a cause of depression in men. Subjective cognitive complaints appear in older depressed people, but they can also be indicative of the onset of a dementing disorder, such as Alzheimer's disease. Depression is also a common initial symptom of dementia. Cognitive testing and brain imaging can help distinguish depression from dementia. A CT scan can exclude brain pathology in those with psychotic, rapid-onset or otherwise unusual symptoms. No biological tests confirm major depression. Investigations are not generally repeated for a subsequent episode unless there is a medical indication. DSM-IV-TR and ICD-10 criteria The most widely used criteria for diagnosing depressive conditions are found in the American Psychiatric Association's revised fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR), and the World Health Organization's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10) which uses the name recurrent depressive disorder. The latter system is typically used in European countries, while the former is used in the US and many other non-European nations, and the authors of both have worked towards conforming one with the other. Major depressive disorder is classified as a mood disorder in DSM-IV-TR. The diagnosis hinges on the presence of a single or recurrent major depressive episode. Further qualifiers are used to classify both the episode itself and the course of the disorder. The category Depressive disorder not otherwise specified is diagnosed if the depressive episode's manifestation does not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode. The ICD-10 system does not use the term Major depressive disorder, but lists very similar criteria for the diagnosis of a depressive episode (mild, moderate or severe); the term recurrent may be added if there have been multiple episodes without mania. Major depressive episode A major depressive episode is characterized by the presence of a severely depressed mood that persists for at least two weeks. Episodes may be isolated or recurrent and are categorized as mild (few symptoms in excess of minimum criteria), moderate, or severe (marked impact on social or occupational functioning). An episode with psychotic features—commonly referred to as psychotic depression—is automatically rated as severe. If the patient has had an episode of mania or markedly elevated mood, a diagnosis of bipolar disorder is made instead. Depression without mania is sometimes referred to as unipolar because the mood remains at one emotional state or "pole". DSM-IV-TR excludes cases where the symptoms are a result of bereavement, although it is possible for normal bereavement to evolve into a depressive episode if the mood persists and the characteristic features of a major depressive episode develop. The criteria have been criticized because they do not take into account any other aspects of the personal and social context in which depression can occur. In addition, some studies have found little empirical support for the DSM-IV cut-off criteria, indicating they are a diagnostic convention imposed on a continuum of depressive symptoms of varying severity and duration: excluded are a range of related diagnoses, including dysthymia which involves a chronic but milder mood disturbance, Recurrent brief depression which involves briefer depressive episodes, minor depressive disorder which involves only some of the symptoms of major depression, and adjustment disorder with depressed mood which involves low mood resulting from a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor. Subtypes The DSM-IV-TR recognizes five further subtypes of MDD, called specifiers, in addition to noting the length, severity and presence of psychotic features: Melancholic depression is characterized by a loss of pleasure in most or all activities, a failure of reactivity to pleasurable stimuli, a quality of depressed mood more pronounced than that of grief or loss, a worsening of symptoms in the morning hours, early morning waking, psychomotor retardation, excessive weight loss (not to be confused with anorexia nervosa), or excessive guilt. Atypical depression is characterized by mood reactivity (paradoxical anhedonia) and positivity, significant weight gain or increased appetite (comfort eating), excessive sleep or sleepiness (hypersomnia), a sensation of heaviness in limbs known as leaden paralysis, and significant social impairment as a consequence of hypersensitivity to perceived interpersonal rejection. Catatonic depression is a rare and severe form of major depression involving disturbances of motor behavior and other symptoms. Here the person is mute and almost stuporose, and either remains immobile or exhibits purposeless or even bizarre movements. Catatonic symptoms also occur in schizophrenia or in manic episodes, or may be caused by neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Postpartum depression (Mild mental and behavioral disorders associated with the puerperium, not elsewhere classified in ICD-10 ) refers to the intense, sustained and sometimes disabling depression experienced by women after giving birth. Postpartum depression, which has incidence rate of 10–15% among new mothers, typically sets in within three months of labor, and lasts as long as three months. Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a form of depression in which depressive episodes come on in the autumn or winter, and resolve in spring. The diagnosis is made if at least two episodes have occurred in colder months with none at other times, over a two-year period or longer. Differential diagnoses To confer major depressive disorder as the most likely diagnosis, other potential diagnoses must be considered, including dysthymia, adjustment disorder with depressed mood or bipolar disorder. Dysthymia is a chronic, milder mood disturbance in which a person reports a low mood almost daily over a span of at least two years. The symptoms are not as severe as those for major depression, although people with dysthymia are vulnerable to secondary episodes of major depression (sometimes referred to as double depression). Adjustment disorder with depressed mood is a mood disturbance appearing as a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor, in which the resulting emotional or behavioral symptoms are significant but do not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode. Bipolar disorder, previously known as manic-depressive disorder, is a condition in which depressive phases alternate with periods of mania or hypomania. Although depression is currently categorized as a separate disorder, there is ongoing debate because individuals diagnosed with major depression often experience some hypomanic symptoms, indicating a mood disorder continuum. Treatment For a fuller discussion of standard, rarely used, and more experimental treatments, see Treatment for depression. The three most common treatments for depression are psychotherapy, medication, and electroconvulsive therapy. Psychotherapy is the treatment of choice for people under 18, while electroconvulsive therapy is only used as a last resort. Care is usually given on an outpatient basis, while treatment in an inpatient unit is considered if there is a significant risk to self or others. A significant number of recent studies have indicated that physical exercise has beneficial effects. Treatment options are much more limited in developing countries, where access to mental health staff, medication, and psychotherapy is often difficult. Development of mental health services is minimal in many countries; depression is viewed as a phenomenon of the developed world despite evidence to the contrary, and not as an inherently life-threatening condition. Psychotherapy Psychotherapy can be delivered, to individuals or groups, by mental health professionals, including psychotherapists, psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social workers, counselors, and psychiatric nurses. With more complex and chronic forms of depression, a combination of medication and psychotherapy may be used. In children and young people under 18, medication should only be offered in conjunction with a psychological therapy, such as CBT, interpersonal therapy, or family therapy. Psychotherapy has been shown to be effective in older people. Successful psychotherapy appears to reduce the recurrence of depression even after it has been terminated or replaced by occasional booster sessions. The most studied form of psychotherapy for depression is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), thought to work by teaching clients to learn a set of useful cognitive and behavioral skills. Earlier research suggested that CBT was not as effective as antidepressant medication; however, research in 1996 suggests that it can perform as well as antidepressants in patients with moderate to severe depression. Overall, evidence shows CBT to be effective in depressed adolescents, although one systematic review noted there was insufficient evidence for severe episodes. Combining fluoxetine with CBT appeared to bring no additional benefit, or, at the most, only marginal benefit. Several variants have been used in depressed patients, most notably rational emotive behavior therapy, and more recently mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Interpersonal psychotherapy focuses on the social and interpersonal triggers that may cause depression. The therapy takes a structured course with a set number of weekly sessions (often 12) that focus on relationships with others. Therapy can be used to foster interpersonal skills that allow people to communicate more effectively and to reduce stress. (Page number needed) Psychoanalysis, a school of thought founded by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes the resolution of unconscious mental conflicts, is used by its practitioners to treat clients presenting with major depression. A more widely practiced, eclectic technique, called psychodynamic psychotherapy, is loosely based on psychoanalysis and has an additional social and interpersonal focus. In a meta-analysis of three controlled trials of Short Psychodynamic Supportive Psychotherapy, this modification was found to be as effective as medication for mild to moderate depression. Logotherapy, a form of existential psychotherapy developed by Austrian psychiatrist Viktor Frankl, addresses the filling of an "existential vacuum" associated with feelings of futility and meaninglessness. This type of psychotherapy may be particularly useful for depressed adolescents. Antidepressants Prescription antidepressants are as effective as psychotherapy, although more patients cease medication than cease psychotherapy, most likely due to side effects from the medication. To find the most effective antidepressant medication with tolerable or fewest side effects, the dosages can be adjusted, and if necessary, combinations of different classes of antidepressants can be tried. Response rates to the first antidepressant administered range from 50–75%, and it can take at least six to eight weeks from the start of medication to remission, when the patient is back to their normal self. Antidepressant medication treatment is usually continued for 16 to 20 weeks after remission, to minimise the chance of recurrence. People with chronic depression may need to take medication indefinitely to avoid relapse. The terms refractory depression or treatment-resistant depression are used to describe cases that do not respond to adequate courses of least two antidepressants. Any antidepressant can cause low serum sodium levels (also called hyponatremia); nevertheless, it has been reported more often with SSRIs. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as sertraline, escitalopram, fluoxetine, paroxetine, and citalopram are the primary medications prescribed owing to their effectiveness, relatively mild side effects, and because they are less toxic in overdose than other antidepressants. Patients who do not respond to one SSRI can be switched to another, and this results in improvement in almost 50% of cases. Another option is to switch to the atypical antidepressant bupropion. Venlafaxine, an antidepressant with a different mechanism of action, may be modestly more effective than SSRIs. However, venlafaxine is not recommended in the UK as a first-line treatment because of evidence suggesting its risks may outweigh benefits, and it is specifically discouraged in children and adolescents. It is not uncommon for SSRIs to cause or worsen insomnia; the sedating antidepressant mirtazapine can be used in such cases. For adolescent depression, fluoxetine and escitalopram are the two recommended choices. Antidepressants have not been found to be beneficial in children. Amitriptyline is a tricyclic antidepressant, so called because there are three rings in its molecular structure. Tricyclic antidepressants have more side effects than SSRIs and are usually reserved for the treatment of inpatients, for whom the tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline, in particular, appears to be more effective. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors, an older class of antidepressants, have been plagued by potentially life-threatening dietary and drug interactions. They are still used only rarely, although newer and better tolerated agents of this class have been developed. Pharmacological augmentation A doctor may add a medication with a different mode of action to bolster the effect of an antidepressant in cases of treatment resistance. Medication with lithium salts has been used to augment antidepressant therapy in those who have failed to respond to antidepressants alone. Furthermore, lithium dramatically decreases the suicide risk in recurrent depression. Addition of a thyroid hormone, triiodothyronine may work as well as lithium, even in patients with normal thyroid function. Addition of atypical antipsychotics when the patient has not responded to an antidepressant is also known to increase the effectiveness of antidepressant drugs, albeit offset by increased side effects. Criticism The effectiveness of antidepressants continues to be questioned. Their effectiveness has been shown to increase with the severity of the depression, and to reach clinical significance only in studies involving the most severely depressed, perhaps because the very severely depressed had a decreased response to the placebo effect rather than an increased response to the medication. An editorial in the BMJ drew attention to bias in the publication of studies showing antidepressant efficacy compared to unpublished studies where the data did not support efficacy. Though these unpublished studies might have suffered methodological or other problems, the article called attention to the possibility that sponsor or journal bias might have inflated or created the apparent efficacy of antidepressants over placebo. A black box warning was introduced in the United States in 2007 on SSRI and other antidepressant medications due to increased risk of suicidality in patients younger than 24 years old. Electroconvulsive therapy Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a procedure whereby pulses of electricity are sent through the brain via two electrodes, usually one on each temple, to induce a seizure while the patient is under a short general anaesthetic. Hospital psychiatrists may recommend ECT for cases of severe major depression which have not responded to antidepressant medication or, less often, psychotherapy or supportive interventions. ECT can have a quicker effect than antidepressant therapy and thus may be the treatment of choice in emergencies such as catatonic depression where the patient has stopped eating and drinking, or where a patient is severely suicidal. ECT is probably more effective than pharmacotherapy for depression in the immediate short-term, although a landmark community-based study found much lower remission rates in routine practice. Used on its own the relapse rate within the first six months is very high; early studies put the rate at around 50%, while a more recent controlled trial found rates of 84% even with placebos. The early relapse rate may be reduced by the use of psychiatric medications or further ECT (although the latter is not recommended by some authorities ) but remains high. Common initial adverse effects from ECT include short and long-term memory loss, disorientation and headache. Although objective psychological testing shows memory disturbance after ECT has mostly resolved by one month post treatment, ECT remains a controversial treatment, and debate on the extent of cognitive effects and safety continues. Physical exercise Physical exercise is recommended by U.K. health authorities, and a systematic review of 23 studies indicated a "large clinical effect". Among these, three studies employing intention to treat analysis and other bias-reducing measures were inconclusive. Over-the-counter compounds St John's wort is available over-the-counter as a herbal remedy in some parts of the world; however, the evidence of its effectiveness for the treatment of major depression is varying and confusing. Its safety can be compromised by inconsistency in pharmaceutical quality and in the amounts of active ingredient in different preparations. Further, it interacts with numerous prescribed medicines including antidepressants, and it can reduce the effectiveness of hormonal contraception. The issue of efficacy of omega-3 fatty acids for major depression is controversial, with controlled studies and meta-analyses supporting both positive and negative conclusions. Reviews of short-term clinical trials of S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) indicate that it may be effective in treating major depression in adults. A 2002 review reported that tryptophan and 5-hydroxytryptophan appear to be better than placebo, but it did not recommend their widespread use owing to lack of conclusive evidence on efficacy and safety, and generally preferred the use of safer antidepressants instead. Other somatic treatments Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) utilizes powerful magnetic fields which are applied to the brain from outside the head. Multiple controlled studies support the use of this method in treatment-resistant depression; it has been approved for this indication in Europe, Canada, Australia, and the US. rTMS appeared similarly effective for both uncomplicated depression and depression resistant to medication; however, it was inferior to ECT in a side-by-side randomized trial. Vagus nerve stimulation was approved by the FDA in the United States in 2005 for use in treatment-resistant depression, although it failed to show short-term benefit in the only large double-blind trial when used as an adjunct on treatment-resistant patients; a 2008 systematic review concluded that despite the promising results reported mainly in open studies, further clinical trials are needed to confirm its efficacy in major depression. Poor diet or medical disorders leading to deficiency in certain nutrients have been linked to major depression disorder. Thus improved diet or correction of nutritional deficiency may be of value in some cases of major depression. Prevention and prognosis A 2008 meta-analysis found that behavioral interventions are effective at preventing new onset depression. Because such interventions appear to be most effective when delivered to individuals or small groups, it has been suggested, they may be able to reach their large target audience most efficiently through the Internet. However, an earlier meta-analysis found preventive programs with a competence-enhancing component to be superior to behaviorally oriented programs overall, and found behavioral programs to be particularly unhelpful for older people, for whom social support programs were uniquely beneficial. Additionally, the programs that best prevented depression comprised more than eight sessions, each lasting between 60 and 90 minutes; were provided by a combination of lay and professional workers; had a high-quality research design; reported attrition rates; and had a well-defined intervention. Major depressive episodes often resolve over time whether or not they are treated. Outpatients on a waiting list show a 10–15% reduction in symptoms within a few months, with approximately 20% no longer meeting the full criteria for a depressive disorder. The median duration of an episode has been estimated to be 23 weeks, with the highest rate of recovery in the first three months. General population studies indicate around half those who have a major depressive episode (whether treated or not) recover and remain well, while 35% will have at least one more, and around 15% experience chronic recurrence. Studies recruiting from selective inpatient sources suggest lower recovery and higher chronicity, while studies of mostly outpatients show that nearly all recover, with a median episode duration of 11 months. Around 90% of those with severe or psychotic depression, most of whom also meet criteria for other mental disorders, experience recurrence. Recurrence is more likely if symptoms have not fully resolved with treatment. Current guidelines recommend continuing antidepressants for four to six months after remission to prevent relapse. Evidence from many randomized controlled trials indicates continuing antidepressant medications after recovery can reduce the chance of relapse by 70% (41% on placebo vs. 18% on antidepressant). The preventive effect probably lasts for at least the first 36 months of use. Depressed individuals have a shorter life expectancy than those without depression, in part because depressed patients are at risk of dying by suicide. However, they also have a higher rate of dying from other causes, being more susceptible to medical conditions such as heart disease. Up to 60% of people who commit suicide have a mood disorder such as major depression, and the risk is especially high if a person has a marked sense of hopelessness or has both depression and borderline personality disorder. The lifetime risk of suicide associated with a diagnosis of major depression in the US is estimated at 3.4%, which averages two highly disparate figures of almost 7% for men and 1% for women (although suicide attempts are more frequent in women). The estimate is substantially lower than a previously accepted figure of 15% which had been derived from older studies of hospitalized patients. Epidemiology Depression is a major cause of morbidity worldwide. Lifetime prevalence varies widely, from 3% in Japan to 17% in the US. In most countries the number of people who would suffer from depression during their lives falls within an 8–12% range. In North America the probability of having a major depressive episode within a year-long period is 3–5% for males and 8–10% for females. Population studies have consistently shown major depression to be about twice as common in women as in men, although it is unclear why this is so, and whether factors unaccounted for are contributing to this. The relative increase in occurrence is related to pubertal development rather than chronological age, reaches adult ratios between the ages of 15 and 18, and appears associated with psychosocial more than hormonal factors. People are most likely to suffer their first depressive episode between the ages of 30 and 40, and there is a second, smaller peak of incidence between ages 50 and 60. The risk of major depression is increased with neurological conditions such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis and during the first year after childbirth. It is also more common after cardiovascular illnesses, and is related more to a poor outcome than to a better one. Studies conflict on the prevalence of depression in the elderly, but most data suggest there is a reduction in this age group. Depression is often associated with unemployment and poverty. Major depression is currently the leading cause of disease burden in North America and other high-income countries, and the fourth-leading cause worldwide. In the year 2030, it is predicted to be the second-leading cause of disease burden worldwide after HIV, according to the World Health Organization. Delay or failure in seeking treatment after relapse, and the failure of health professionals to provide treatment, are two barriers to reducing disability. The World Health Organization updated its report The global burden of disease in 2004. Their "Years Lost due to Disability", or YLD, is a measurement of the equivalent years of healthy life lost through time spent in states of less than full health, and they state that in all regions, "neuropsychiatric conditions are the most important causes of disability, accounting for around one third of YLD among adults aged 15 and over." Specifically, unipolar depressive disorders are the leading cause in both males and females, in high-income countries and in low- and middle-income countries. Comorbidity Major depression frequently co-occurs with other psychiatric problems. The 1990–92 National Comorbidity Survey (US) reports that 51% of those with major depression also suffer from lifetime anxiety. Anxiety symptoms can have a major impact on the course of a depressive illness, with delayed recovery, increased risk of relapse, greater disability and increased suicide attempts. American neuroendocrinologist Robert Sapolsky similarly argues that the relationship between stress, anxiety, and depression could be measured and demonstrated biologically. There are increased rates of alcohol and drug abuse and particularly dependence, and around a third of individuals diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder develop comorbid depression. Post-traumatic stress disorder and depression often co-occur. Depression and pain often co-occur. One or more pain symptoms is present in 65% of depressed patients, and anywhere from five to 85% of patients with pain will be suffering from depression, depending on the setting; there is a lower prevalence in general practice, and higher in specialty clinics. The diagnosis of depression is often delayed or missed, and the outcome worsens. History The Ancient Greek physician Hippocrates described a syndrome of melancholia as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical symptoms; he characterized all "fears and despondencies, if they last a long time" as being symptomatic of the ailment. Hippocrates, Aphorisms, Section 6.23 It was a similar but far broader concept than today's depression; prominence was given to a clustering of the symptoms of sadness, dejection, and despondency, and often fear, anger, delusions and obsessions were included. The term depression itself was derived from the Latin verb deprimere, "to press down". depress. (n.d.). Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved June 30, 2008, from Dictionary.com From the 14th century, "to depress" meant to subjugate or to bring down in spirits. It was used in 1665 in English author Richard Baker's Chronicle to refer to someone having "a great depression of spirit", and by English author Samuel Johnson in a similar sense in 1753. The term also came in to use in physiology and economics. An early usage referring to a psychiatric symptom was by French psychiatrist Louis Delasiauve in 1856, and by the 1860s it was appearing in medical dictionaries to refer to a physiological and metaphorical lowering of emotional function. Since Aristotle, melancholia had been associated with men of learning and intellectual brilliance, a hazard of contemplation and creativity. The newer concept abandoned these associations and through the 19th century, became more associated with women. Although melancholia remained the dominant diagnostic term, depression gained increasing currency in medical treatises and was a synonym by the end of the century; German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin may have been the first to use it as the overarching term, referring to different kinds of melancholia as depressive states. Sigmund Freud likened the state of melancholia to mourning in his 1917 paper Mourning and Melancholia. He theorized that objective loss, such as the loss of a valued relationship through death or a romantic break-up, results in subjective loss as well; the depressed individual has identified with the object of affection through an unconscious, narcissistic process called the libidinal cathexis of the ego. Such loss results in severe melancholic symptoms more profound than mourning; not only is the outside world viewed negatively, but the ego itself is compromised. The patient's decline of self-perception is revealed in his belief of his own blame, inferiority, and unworthiness. He also emphasized early life experiences as a predisposing factor. Meyer put forward a mixed social and biological framework emphasizing reactions in the context of an individual's life, and argued that the term depression should be used instead of melancholia. The first version of the DSM (DSM-I, 1952) contained depressive reaction and the DSM-II (1968) depressive neurosis, defined as an excessive reaction to internal conflict or an identifiable event, and also included a depressive type of manic-depressive psychosis within Major affective disorders. In the mid-20th century, researchers theorized that depression was caused by a chemical imbalance in neurotransmitters in the brain, a theory based on observations made in the 1950s of the effects of reserpine and isoniazid in altering monoamine neurotransmitter levels and affecting depressive symptoms. The term Major depressive disorder was introduced by a group of US clinicians in the mid-1970s as part of proposals for diagnostic criteria based on patterns of symptoms (called the "Research Diagnostic Criteria", building on earlier Feighner Criteria), and was incorporated in to the DSM-III in 1980. To maintain consistency the ICD-10 used the same criteria, with only minor alterations, but using the DSM diagnostic threshold to mark a mild depressive episode, adding higher threshold categories for moderate and severe episodes. Gruenberg, A.M., Goldstein, R.D., Pincus, H.A. (2005) Classification of Depression: Research and Diagnostic Criteria: DSM-IV and ICD-10 (PDF). Wiley.com. Retrieved on October 30, 2008. The ancient idea of melancholia still survives in the notion of a melancholic subtype. The new definitions of depression were widely accepted, albeit with some conflicting findings and views. There have been some continued empirically based arguments for a return to the diagnosis of melancholia. There has been some criticism of the expansion of coverage of the diagnosis, related to the development and promotion of antidepressants and the biological model since the late 1950s. Sociocultural aspects Even today, people's conceptualizations of depression vary widely, both within and among cultures. "Because of the lack of scientific certainty," one commentator has observed, "the debate over depression turns on questions of language. What we call it—'disease,' 'disorder,' 'state of mind'—affects how we view, diagnose, and treat it." There are cultural differences in the extent to which serious depression is considered an illness requiring personal professional treatment, or is an indicator of something else, such as the need to address social or moral problems, the result of biological imbalances, or a reflection of individual differences in the understanding of distress that may reinforce feelings of powerlessness, and emotional struggle. The diagnosis is less common in some countries, such as China. It has been argued that the Chinese traditionally deny or somatize emotional depression (although since the early 1980s the Chinese denial of depression may have modified drastically). Alternatively, it may be that Western cultures reframe and elevate some expressions of human distress to disorder status. Australian professor Gordon Parker and others have argued that the Western concept of depression "medicalizes" sadness or misery. Similarly, Hungarian-American psychiatrist Thomas Szasz and others argue that depression is a metaphorical illness that is inappropriately regarded as an actual disease. There has also been concern that the DSM, as well as the field of descriptive psychiatry that employs it, tends to reify abstract phenomena such as depression, which may in fact be social constructs. American archetypal psychologist James Hillman writes that depression can be healthy for the soul, insofar as "it brings refuge, limitation, focus, gravity, weight, and humble powerlessness." Hillman argues that therapeutic attempts to eliminate depression echo the Christian theme of resurrection, but have the unfortunate effect of demonizing a soulful state of being. American president Abraham Lincoln appears to have had at least two major depressive episodes. Historical figures were often reluctant to discuss or seek treatment for depression due to social stigma about the condition, or due to ignorance of diagnosis or treatments. Nevertheless, analysis or interpretation of letters, journals, artwork, writings or statements of family and friends of some historical personalities has led to the presumption that they may have had some form of depression. People who may have had depression include English author Mary Shelley, American-British writer Henry James, and American president Abraham Lincoln. Some well-known contemporary people with possible depression include Canadian songwriter Leonard Cohen and American playwright and novelist Tennessee Williams. Some pioneering psychologists, such as Americans William James and John B. Watson, dealt with their own depression. There has been a continuing discussion of whether neurological disorders and mood disorders may be linked to creativity, a discussion that goes back to Aristotelian times. British literature gives many examples of reflections on depression. English philosopher John Stuart Mill experienced a several-months-long period of what he called "a dull state of nerves", when one is "unsusceptible to enjoyment or pleasurable excitement; one of those moods when what is pleasure at other times, becomes insipid or indifferent". He quoted English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge's "Dejection" as a perfect description of his case: "A grief without a pang, void, dark and drear, / A drowsy, stifled, unimpassioned grief, / Which finds no natural outlet or relief / In word, or sigh, or tear." English writer Samuel Johnson used the term "the black dog" in the 1780s to describe his own depression, and it was subsequently popularized by depression sufferer former British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill. Social stigma of major depression is widespread, and contact with mental health services reduces this only slightly. Public opinions on treatment differ markedly to those of health professionals; alternative treatments are held to be more helpful than pharmacological ones, which are viewed poorly. In the UK, the Royal College of Psychiatrists and the Royal College of General Practitioners conducted a joint Five-year Defeat Depression campaign to educate and reduce stigma from 1992 to 1996; a MORI study conducted afterwards showed a small positive change in public attitudes to depression and treatment. See also Types of psychological depression References Cited texts External links DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder – DSM-IV-TR text from mindsite.com National Alliance on Mental Illness – National Alliance on Mental Illness Depression, out of the shadows – Public Broadcasting Service, a USA television program broadcast in May 2008 | Major_depressive_disorder |@lemmatized depressive:57 disorder:66 see:5 type:5 psychological:11 depression:181 major:63 also:25 know:7 clinical:9 unipolar:4 mental:16 characterize:5 encompass:1 low:15 mood:33 accompany:1 self:16 esteem:3 loss:15 interest:4 pleasure:5 normally:1 enjoyable:1 activity:6 term:17 select:3 american:13 psychiatric:9 association:3 designate:1 symptom:38 cluster:1 version:2 diagnostic:10 statistical:3 manual:2 dsm:17 iii:2 classification:3 become:3 widely:7 use:46 since:4 general:11 often:19 describe:6 precise:1 terminology:1 prefer:2 research:11 disable:2 condition:11 adversely:1 affect:6 person:16 family:8 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4,384 | Geography_of_Burkina_Faso | Map Of Burkina Faso Topography of Burkina Faso Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) is a landlocked Sahel country that shares borders with six nations. It lies between the Sahara Desert and the Gulf of Guinea, south of the loop of the Niger River. The land is green in the south, with forests and fruit trees, and desert in the north. Most of central Burkina Faso lies on a savanna plateau, 198-305 meters (650-1,000 ft.) above sea level, with fields, brush, and scattered trees. Burkina Faso's game preserves--the most important of which are Arly, Nazinga, and W National Park--contain lions, elephants, hippopotamus, monkeys, warthogs, and antelopes. Tourism is not well developed. Annual rainfall varies from about 100 centimeters (40 in.) in the south to less than 25 centimeters (10 in.) in the extreme north and northeast, where hot desert winds accentuate the dryness of the region. Burkina Faso has three distinct seasons: warm and dry (November-March), hot and dry (March-May), and hot and wet (June-October). Rivers are not navigable. Location: Western Africa, north of Ghana Geographic coordinates: Map references: Africa Area: total: 274,200 km² land: 273,800 km² water: 400 km² Area - comparative: slightly larger than Colorado Land boundaries: total: 3,192 km border countries: Benin 306 km, Côte d'Ivoire 584 km, Ghana 548 km, Mali 1,000 km, Niger 628 km, Togo 126 km Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) Maritime claims: none (landlocked) Climate: tropical; warm, dry winters; hot, wet summers Terrain: mostly flat to dissected, undulating plains; hills in west and southeast Elevation extremes: lowest point: Mouhoun (Black Volta) River 200 m highest point: Tena Kourou 749 m Natural resources: manganese, limestone, marble; small deposits of gold, antimony, copper, nickel, bauxite, lead, phosphates, zinc, silver Land use: arable land: 13% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 22% forests and woodland: 50% other: 15% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 250 km² (2003 est.) Natural hazards: Recurring droughts Environment - current issues: recent droughts and desertification severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy; overgrazing; soil degradation; deforestation Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban Geography - note: Burkina Faso is landlocked. See also Soil Maps of Burkina Faso European Digital Archive on the Soil Maps of the world | Geography_of_Burkina_Faso |@lemmatized map:4 burkina:8 faso:8 topography:1 formerly:1 upper:1 volta:2 landlocked:4 sahel:1 country:2 share:1 border:2 six:1 nation:1 lie:2 sahara:1 desert:3 gulf:1 guinea:1 south:3 loop:1 niger:2 river:3 land:6 green:1 forest:2 fruit:1 tree:2 north:3 central:1 savanna:1 plateau:1 meter:1 ft:1 sea:2 level:1 field:1 brush:1 scatter:1 game:1 preserve:1 important:1 arly:1 nazinga:1 w:1 national:1 park:1 contain:1 lion:1 elephant:1 hippopotamus:1 monkey:1 warthog:1 antelope:1 tourism:1 well:1 develop:1 annual:1 rainfall:1 varies:1 centimeter:2 less:1 extreme:2 northeast:1 hot:4 wind:1 accentuate:1 dryness:1 region:1 three:1 distinct:1 season:1 warm:2 dry:3 november:1 march:2 may:1 wet:2 june:1 october:1 navigable:1 location:1 western:1 africa:2 ghana:2 geographic:1 coordinate:1 reference:1 area:2 total:2 water:1 comparative:1 slightly:1 large:1 colorado:1 boundary:1 km:8 benin:1 côte:1 ivoire:1 mali:1 togo:1 coastline:1 maritime:1 claim:1 none:1 climate:2 tropical:1 winter:1 summer:1 terrain:1 mostly:1 flat:1 dissect:1 undulate:1 plain:1 hill:1 west:1 southeast:1 elevation:1 low:1 point:2 mouhoun:1 black:1 high:1 tena:1 kourou:1 natural:2 resource:1 manganese:1 limestone:1 marble:1 small:1 deposit:1 gold:1 antimony:1 copper:1 nickel:1 bauxite:1 lead:1 phosphate:1 zinc:1 silver:1 use:1 arable:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 woodland:1 est:2 irrigated:1 hazard:1 recur:1 drought:2 environment:2 current:1 issue:1 recent:1 desertification:2 severely:1 affect:1 agricultural:1 activity:1 population:1 distribution:1 economy:1 overgrazing:1 soil:3 degradation:1 deforestation:1 international:1 agreement:1 party:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 endanger:1 specie:1 hazardous:1 waste:1 marine:1 life:1 conservation:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 wetland:1 sign:1 ratify:1 law:1 nuclear:1 test:1 ban:1 geography:1 note:1 see:1 also:1 european:1 digital:1 archive:1 world:1 |@bigram burkina_faso:8 faso_burkina:1 upper_volta:1 sahara_desert:1 meter_ft:1 annual_rainfall:1 geographic_coordinate:1 côte_ivoire:1 coastline_km:1 landlocked_maritime:1 none_landlocked:1 copper_nickel:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 hazardous_waste:1 ozone_layer:1 protection_wetland:1 |
4,385 | Little_Boy | Little Boy was the codename of the atomic bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 by the B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay, piloted by Colonel Paul Tibbets in the 393d Bombardment Squadron, Heavy of the United States Army Air Forces. The name Little Boy is alleged on a BBC web site to be a reference to former President Roosevelt. It was the first atomic bomb ever used as a weapon, and was dropped three days before the "Fat Man" bomb was used against Nagasaki. The weapon was developed by the Manhattan Project during World War II. It derived its explosive power from the nuclear fission of uranium 235. The Hiroshima bombing was the second artificial nuclear explosion in history (the first was the "Trinity" test), and it was the first uranium-based detonation. Approximately 600 milligrams of mass were converted into energy. It exploded with a destructive power equivalent to between 13 and 18 kilotons of TNT (estimates vary) and killed approximately 140,000 people. Its design was never tested at the Trinity test site, unlike the more complex plutonium bomb (Fat Man), which was tested. The available supply of enriched uranium was very small at that time, and it was felt that the simple design of a uranium "gun" type bomb was so sure to work that there was no need to test it. Basic weapon design The "gun" assembly method. When the hollow uranium projectile was driven onto the target spike, a nuclear explosion resulted. The Mk I "Little Boy" was 10 feet (3.0 m) in length, 28 inches (71 cm) in diameter and weighed 8,900 lb (4 000 kg). The design used the gun method to explosively force a hollow sub-critical mass of uranium-235 and a solid target spike together into a super-critical mass, initiating a nuclear chain reaction. This was accomplished by shooting one piece of the uranium onto the other by means of chemical explosives. It contained 64 kg of uranium, of which 0.7 kg underwent nuclear fission, and of this mass only 0.6 g was transformed into energy. No full test of a gun-type nuclear weapon had occurred before the "Little Boy" device was dropped over Hiroshima. The only test explosion of a nuclear weapon had been of an implosion-type weapon using plutonium as its fissionable material, on July 16, 1945 at the Trinity test. There were several reasons for not testing the "Little Boy" device. Primarily, scarcity of uranium-235 compared with the relatively large amount of plutonium which, it was expected, could be produced by the Hanford reactors. Additionally, the weapon design was simple enough that it was only deemed necessary to do laboratory tests with the gun-type assembly (known during the war as "tickling the dragon's tail"). Unlike the implosion design, which required sophisticated coordination of shaped explosive charges, the gun-type design was considered almost certain to work. Although occasionally used in later experimental devices, the design was only used once as a weapon because of the danger of accidental detonation. Little Boy's design was unsafe when compared to modern nuclear weapons, which incorporate safety features to endure various accident scenarios. The main objective of Little Boy was to create a weapon that was absolutely guaranteed to work. As a result, Little Boy incorporated only basic safety mechanisms, so an accidental detonation could easily occur during one or more of the following scenarios: a crash could drive the hollow "bullet" onto the "target" spike resulting in a massive release of radiation, or possibly nuclear detonation. an electrical short circuit of some sort. the danger of misfire was greater over water. If the force of a crash did not trigger the bomb, water leakage into the system could short it out, possibly leading to detonation. The British Red Beard nuclear weapon also suffered from this design flaw. Fire. Lightning strike. None of the other five Mark I bombs built on the model of Little Boy were used by the U.S. Army. Assembly details The exact specifications of the "Little Boy" bomb remain classified because they could still be used to create a viable nuclear weapon. Even so, many sources have speculated as to the design, relying on limited photographic evidence, interviews with former Manhattan Project personnel, and piecing together information from declassified sources to reconstruct its internal dimensions. According to the website Nuclear Weapon Archive, Much of this account is taken from the description of the "Little Boy" by Carey Sublette in Section 8 of his "Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions", available online at http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq8.html. The most recent updates come from John Coster-Mullen's Atom Bombs: The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man, 2003 (first printed in 1996), a self-published account based largely on oral histories but which contains, in its extensive appendix, a declassified U.S. government document detailing the exact mass and configuration of the U-235 rings. inside the weapon, the uranium-235 material was divided into two parts, following the gun principle: the "projectile" and the "target". The projectile was a hollow cylinder with 60% of the total mass (38.5 kg). It consisted of a stack of 9 uranium rings, each in diameter with a 4-inch-diameter hole in the center, pressed together into a thin-walled canister long. At detonation, it was pushed down a short smooth-bore gun barrel by a tungsten carbide and steel plug. The target was a 4-inch-diameter solid spike, 7 inches long, with 40% of the total mass (25.6 kg). Composed of a stack of 6 washer-like uranium rings somewhat thicker than the projectile rings, it was secured by a 1-inch-diameter bolt through the rings, that protruded out the front of the bomb casing. When the projectile and plug reached the target, the assembled super-critical mass of uranium would be completely surrounded by a tamper and neutron reflector of tungsten carbide and steel. Neutron generators at the base of the spike would be activated by the impact. The projectile rings were delivered to Tinian Island on July 26, 1945, by the USS Indianapolis. The target rings arrived two days later by air. Counter-intuitive design For the first fifty years after 1945, every published description and drawing of the Little Boy mechanism assumed that a small, solid projectile was fired into the center of a larger target. Critical mass considerations dictated that in Little Boy the larger, hollow piece would be the projectile. For the assembled fissile core to have more than two critical masses of U-235, one of the two pieces would need to have more than one critical mass, and to avoid criticality by means of shape. A hole in the center increased the surface area, allowing more fission neutrons to escape and not cause more fission. It was also important for the larger piece to have minimal contact with the neutron-reflecting tungsten carbide tamper until detonation. As the projectile, only its back end would be in contact with tungsten carbide (see drawing above). The rest of the tungsten carbide surrounded the target spike (called the "insert" by designers) with air space between it and the insert. This packs the maximum amount of fissile material into a gun-assembly design. This information appeared in 2002 in Racing for the Bomb, by Robert S. Norris, Steerforce Press, p. 409, with the 2001 printing of John Coster-Mullen's Atom Bombs, p. 24, cited as its source. Physical effects of the bomb Hiroshima was spared conventional bombing to serve as a pristine target, where the effects of a nuclear bomb on an undamaged city could be observed. Leslie Groves, Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project, 1962. In April 1945, General Groves was instructed to pick targets for the nuclear bombs. Page 267, "To enable us to assess accurately the effects of the bomb, the targets should not have been previously damaged by air raids." Four cities were chosen, including Hiroshima and Kyoto. War Secretary Stimson vetoed Kyoto, and Nagasaki was substituted. Page 275, "When our target cities were first selected, an order was sent to the Army Air Force in Guam not to bomb them without special authority from the War Department." While damage could be studied later, the energy yield of the untested Little Boy design could be determined only at the moment of detonation, using instruments dropped by parachute from a plane flying in formation with the one that dropped the bomb. Radio-transmitted data from these instruments indicated a yield of about 12 kilotons. Comparing this yield to the observed damage produced a rule of thumb called the 5 psi lethal area rule. The number of prompt fatalities will approximately equal the number of people inside the lethal area. The damage came from three main effects: blast, fire, and radiation. Samuel Glasstone and Philip Dolan, The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, Third Edition, 1977, U.S. Dept of Defense and U.S. Dept of Energy. Blast The blast from a nuclear bomb is the result of X-ray-heated air (the fireball) sending a shock/pressure wave in all directions at a velocity greater than the speed of sound, analogous to thunder generated by lightning. Studies of Little Boy at Hiroshima provided most of the knowledge about nuclear weapon urban blast destruction. Nagasaki was less useful in that respect, since hilly terrain deflected the blast and generated a more complicated pattern of destruction. Frame house in 1953 nuclear test, 5 psi overpressure. At Hiroshima, severe structural damage to buildings extended about from ground zero, making a circle of destruction in diameter. The blast sent out a hyper intensified shock wave which travelled at (slightly above) the speed of sound, turning everyday windows and buildings into shrapnel. There was little or no structural damage outside of this one-mile radius. At one mile, the force of the blast wave was 5 psi, with enough duration to implode houses and reduce them to kindling. Later test explosions of nuclear weapons with houses and other test structures nearby confirmed that is an important threshold. Ordinary urban buildings experiencing it will be crushed, toppled, or gutted by the force of air pressure. The picture at right shows the effects of a nuclear-bomb-generated 5 psi pressure wave on a test structure in Nevada in 1953. The most important effect of this kind of structural damage was that it created fuel for a firestorm. For this reason, the 5 psi contour defines the lethal area for blast and fire. Fire The first effect of the explosion was blinding light, accompanied by radiant heat from the fireball. The Hiroshima fireball was in diameter, with a temperature of . Near ground zero, everything inflammable burst into flame, glass products and sand melted into molten glass, and any humans were killed and their bodies cremated in the ensuing firestorm. One famous, anonymous Hiroshima victim left only a shadow, permanently etched into stone steps near a bank building. Photograph in the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum."Photo" Hiroshima blast and fire damage, U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey map. Some of the fires started by the fireball's heat were probably blown out by the blast wave. The blast wave would have started additional fires through overturned stoves, wrecked vehicles, electrical shorts, etc. These numerous small fires merged into a single firestorm which consumed everything inside the 5 psi lethal area. The Hiroshima firestorm was thus two miles (3 km) in diameter, corresponding closely to the severe blast damage zone. (See the USSBS http://www.anesi.com/ussbs01.htm United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific War), July 1, 1946, pp. 22-25. map, right.) Blast-damaged buildings provided fuel for the fire. Structural lumber and furniture were splintered and scattered about. Debris-choked roads obstructed fire fighters. Broken gas pipes fueled the fire, and broken water pipes rendered hydrants useless. As the map shows, the firestorm jumped natural firebreaks (river channels), as well as prepared firebreaks. The spread of fire stopped only when it reached the edge of the blast-damaged area, encountering less available fuel. Accurate casualty figures are impossible to determine, because many victims were cremated by the firestorm. For the same reason, the proportion of firestorm victims who survived the blast and died of fire can never be known. Casualty figures are based on population estimates inside the lethal area when the bomb detonated. Radiation Local fallout is dust and ash from a bomb crater, contaminated with radioactive fission products. It falls to earth downwind of the crater and can produce, with radiation alone, a lethal area much larger than that from blast and fire. With an air burst, the fission products rise into the stratosphere, where they dissipate and become part of the global environment. Because Little Boy was an air burst above the ground, there was no bomb crater and no local radioactive fallout. Glasstone and Dolan, The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, p. 409. "An air burst, by definition, is one taking place at such a height above the earth that no appreciable quantities of surface material are taken up into the fireball. . . the deposition of early fallout from an air burst will generally not be significant. An air burst, however, may produce some induced radioactive contamination in the general vicinity of ground zero as a result of neutron capture by elements in the soil." From p. 36, "at Hiroshima . . . injuries due to fallout were completely absent." However, intense neutron and gamma radiation came directly from the fireball. Most people close enough to receive lethal doses of direct radiation died in the firestorm before their radiation injuries would have become apparent. Survivors on the edge of the lethal area and beyond suffered injuries from radiation, in addition to those caused by blast and fire. Some temporary survivors died soon afterward due to acute radiation sickness, but most of the radiation effects are evident only statistically, as increases in the incidence rates of cancer, leukemia and certain non-cancer diseases over the lifetimes of the survivors and their children who were exposed in utero. To date, no radiation-related evidence of heritable diseases have been observed among the survivors' children http://rerf.or.jp/general/qa_e/qa7.html . Development of the bomb Uranium for "Little Boy" was enriched in calutrons and by gaseous diffusion at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The "Little Boy" bomb was constructed through the Manhattan Project during World War II. Because enriched uranium was known to be fissionable, it was the first approach to bomb development pursued. The vast majority of the work in constructing "Little Boy" came in the form of the isotope enrichment of the uranium necessary for the weapon. Enrichment at Oak Ridge, Tennessee began in February 1943, after many years of research. The development of the first prototypes and the experimental work started in early 1943, at the time when the Los Alamos Design Laboratory became operational in the framework of the Manhattan Project. Originally gun-type designs were pursued for both a uranium and plutonium weapon (the "Thin Man" design), but in April 1944 it was discovered that the spontaneous fission rate for plutonium was too great to use in a gun-type weapon. In July 1944, almost all research at Los Alamos was redirected to the implosion plutonium weapon. In contrast, the uranium bomb was almost trivial to design. As part of Project Alberta, Commander A. Francis Birch (left) numbers the bomb while physicist Norman Ramsey watches. This is one of the rare photos where the inside of the bomb can be seen. With plutonium found unsuitable for the gun-type design, the team working on the gun weapon (led by A. Francis Birch), faced another problem: the bomb was simple, but they lacked the quantity of uranium-235 necessary for its production. Enough fissile material was not going to be available before mid-1945. Despite this, Birch managed to convince others that this concept was worth pursuing, so that in case of a failure of the plutonium bomb, it would still be possible to use the gun principle. In February 1945, the specifications were completed (model 1850). The bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945. Most of the uranium necessary for the production of the bomb came from the Shinkolobwe mine and was made available thanks to the foresight of the CEO of the High Katanga Mining Union, Edgar Sengier, who had 1000 tons of uranium ore transported to a New York warehouse in 1939. A small amount may have come from a captured German submarine, U-234, after the German surrender in May 1945. The majority of the uranium for Little Boy was enriched in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, primarily by means of electromagnetic separation in calutrons and through gaseous diffusion plants, with a small amount contributed by the cyclotrons at Ernest O. Lawrence's Radiation Laboratory. The core of Little Boy contained 64 kg of uranium, of which 50 kg were enriched to 89%, and the remaining 14 kg at 50%. With enrichment averaging 80%, it could reach about 2.5 critical masses. "Fat Man" and the Trinity "gadget", by way of comparison, had five critical masses. Construction and delivery Little Boy in the bomb pit on Tinian, before being loaded into Enola Gay's bomb bay. A section of the bomb bay door is visible on the top right On July 14, 1945 a train left Los Alamos carrying several "bomb units" (the major non-nuclear parts of a gun-type bomb) together with a single completed uranium projectile; the uranium target was still incomplete. The consignment was delivered to the San Francisco Naval Shipyard at Hunters Point in San Francisco, California. There, two hours before the successful test of Little Boy's plutonium-implosion brother at the Trinity test in New Mexico, the bomb units and the projectile were loaded aboard the heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis. Indianapolis steamed at record speed to the airbase at Tinian island in the Mariana Islands, delivering them ten days later on the 26th. While returning from this mission Indianapolis was sunk by a Japanese submarine, with great loss of life due to delayed rescue. Also on the 26th the three sections of the uranium target assembly were shipped from Kirtland Air Force Base near Albuquerque, New Mexico in three C-54 Skymaster aircraft operated by the 509th Composite Group's Green Hornet squadron "Victory", Los Alamos National Laboratory's history of the atomic bomb project "The Story of the Atomic Bomb", USAF Historical Studies Office . With all the necessary components delivered to Tinian, bomb unit L11 was chosen, and the final Little Boy weapon was assembled and ready by August 1. Handling the completed Little Boy was particularly dangerous. Once cordite was loaded in the breech, any firing of the explosive would at worst cause a nuclear chain reaction and at best a contamination of the explosion zone. The mere contact of the two uranium masses could have caused an explosion with dire consequences, from a simple "fizzle" explosion to an explosion large enough to destroy Tinian (including the 500 B-29s based there, and their supporting infrastructure and personnel). Water was also a risk, since it could serve as a moderator between the fissile materials and cause a violent dispersal of the nuclear material. The uranium projectile could only be inserted with an apparatus that produced a force of 300,000 newtons (67,000 lbf, over 30 tons). For safety reasons, the weaponeer, Captain William Sterling Parsons, decided to load the bags of cordite only after take-off. Fuze system The bomb employed a fuzing system that was designed to detonate at the most destructive altitude. Calculations showed that for the largest destructive effect, the bomb should explode at an altitude of 580 meters (1,900 feet). The resultant fuze design was a three-stage interlock system: Nuclear Bomb Fusing "Little Boy and Fat Man", citing The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945, Chuck Hansen, September 4, 1995, vol. VIII, pp. 3-45. A timer ensured that the bomb would not explode until at least fifteen seconds after release, one-quarter of the predicted fall time, to ensure safety of the aircraft. The timer was activated when the electrical pullout plugs connecting it to the airplane were pulled loose as the bomb fell, switching it to internal (24V battery) power and starting the timer. At the end of the 15 seconds the batteries then powered the radar system and passed responsibility to the barometric stage. Nuclear Bomb Fusing "Little Boy and Fat Man", citing The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945, Chuck Hansen, September 4, 1995, vol. VIII, pp. 3-45. The purpose of the barometric stage was to delay activating the radar altimeter firing command circuit until near detonation altitude. A thin metallic membrane was gradually deformed as ambient air pressure increased during descent. The barometric fuze was not considered accurate enough to detonate the bomb at the precise ignition height, because air pressure varies with local conditions. When the bomb reached the design height for this stage (reportedly 2,000 meters) the membrane closed a circuit, activating the circuit between the radar altimeter and the projectile gun. The barometric stage was added because of a worry that external radar signals might detonate the bomb too early. Nuclear Bomb Fusing "Little Boy and Fat Man", citing The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945, Chuck Hansen, September 4, 1995, vol. VIII, pp. 3-45. The doubly-redundant radar system employed four radar altimeters Nuclear Bomb Fusing "Little Boy and Fat Man" that independently detected altitude by radar reflections from the ground. When any two of the four altimeters sensed the correct height, the firing switch closed, igniting the cordite charge. This launched the uranium projectile towards the opposite end of the gun barrel at an eventual muzzle velocity of 1000 feet per second (300 meters per second). Approximately 10 milliseconds later the chain reaction occurred, lasting less than 1 μs. The radar altimeters used were modified U.S. Army Air Corps APS-13 fighter tail warning radars, nicknamed "Archie", originally designed to warn a pilot of another plane approaching from behind. Nuclear Bomb Fusing "Little Boy and Fat Man", citing The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945, Chuck Hansen, September 4, 1995, vol. VIII, pp. 3-45 and letter dated 7 June 1944 to Maj. Gen. L. R. Groves from Robert B. Brode. The bombing of Hiroshima The mushroom cloud over Hiroshima after the dropping of "Little Boy". The bomb was armed in flight above the city, then dropped at approximately 8:15 a.m. (JST). The detonation happened at an altitude of . With a power of 13 to 16 kilotons, it was less powerful than "Fat Man," which was dropped on Nagasaki (21–23 kt). The official yield estimate of "Little Boy" was about 15 kilotons of TNT equivalent in explosive force, i.e. 6.3 × 1013 joules = 63 TJ (terajoules). Los Alamos National Laboratory report LA-8819, The yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki nuclear explosions by John Malik, September 1985. Available online at http://www.mbe.doe.gov/me70/manhattan/publications/LANLHiroshimaNagasakiYields.pdf However, the damage and the number of victims at Hiroshima were much higher, as Hiroshima was on flat terrain, while the hypocenter of Nagasaki lay in a small valley. According to published US Army figures 66,000 people were killed as a direct result of the Hiroshima blast, and 69,000 were injured to varying degrees. The U.S. Department of Energy gives this account of the death toll of the bombing of Hiroshima: "By the end of 1945, because of the lingering effects of radioactive fallout and other after effects, the Hiroshima death toll was probably over 100,000. The five-year death total may have reached or even exceeded 200,000, as cancer and other long-term effects took hold." "THE ATOMIC BOMBING OF HIROSHIMA." United States Department of Energy. The success of the bombing was reported with great enthusiasm in the United States in the days following the attacks. See Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki for discussion of contemporary opposition to the bombings, on both moral and military grounds. See also White Light/Black Rain: The Destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Enola Gay Fat Man Thin Man nuclear bomb Manhattan Project Trinity test The gadget Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki List of nuclear weapons Nuclear weapon design Upshot-Knothole Grable References The Manhattan Project (book) External links White Light/Black Rain official website documentary film about the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Little Boy description at Carey Sublette's NuclearWeaponArchive.org Nuclear Files.org Definition and explanation of 'Little Boy' The Nuclear Weapon Archive History of Enola Gay A little known episode of the Manhattan Project Factitious tests of bombs and problems in aerodynamism Development of Little Boy and Fat Man (translated from French) Functioning de Little Boy et Fat Man (in French) Little Boy : a macabre irony (in French) Little Boy 3D Model Hiroshima & Nagasaki Remembered information about preparation and dropping the Little Boy bomb Models of Hiroshima city center before and after In the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum Atomic John: A truck driver uncovers secrets about the first nuclear bombs. Essay and interview with John Coster-Mullen by David Samuels in the New Yorker, December 15, 2008 issue. Coster-Mullen is the author of Atom Bombs: The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man, 2003 (first printed in 1996, self-published), considered a definitive text about Little Boy; illustrations from which are used in the Assembly details section above. | Little_Boy |@lemmatized little:44 boy:42 codename:1 atomic:9 bomb:62 drop:8 hiroshima:29 august:2 b:3 superfortress:1 enola:4 gay:4 pilot:2 colonel:1 paul:1 tibbets:1 bombardment:1 squadron:2 heavy:2 united:4 state:4 army:5 air:16 force:9 name:1 allege:1 bbc:1 web:1 site:2 reference:2 former:2 president:1 roosevelt:1 first:11 ever:1 use:12 weapon:32 three:5 day:4 fat:14 man:16 nagasaki:11 develop:1 manhattan:9 project:10 world:2 war:6 ii:2 derive:1 explosive:5 power:5 nuclear:41 fission:7 uranium:30 bombing:10 second:5 artificial:1 explosion:10 history:4 trinity:6 test:18 base:6 detonation:10 approximately:5 milligram:1 mass:14 convert:1 energy:6 explode:3 destructive:3 equivalent:2 kiloton:4 tnt:2 estimate:3 vary:3 kill:3 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4,386 | Nursery_rhyme | "Hey Diddle Diddle" is a popular nursery rhyme. The term nursery rhyme is used for ‘traditional’ songs for young children in Britain and many English speaking countries, but usage only dates from the nineteenth century and in North America the older ‘Mother Goose Rhymes’ is still often used. H. Carpenter and M. Prichard, The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature (Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 383. History Lullabies The oldest children's songs of which we have records are lullabies, intended to help a child sleep. Lullabies can be found in every human culture. I. Opie and P. Opie, The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1951, 2nd edn., 1997), p. 6. The English term lullaby is thought to come from 'lu, lu' or 'la la' sound made by mothers or nurses to calm children, and 'by by' or 'bye bye', either another lulling sound, or a term for good night. H. Carpenter and M. Prichard, The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature (Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 326. Until the modern era lullabies were usually only recorded incidentally in written sources. The Roman nurses' lullaby, 'Lalla, Lalla, Lalla, aut dormi, aut lacte', is recorded in a scholium on Persius and may be the oldest to survive. I. Opie and P. Opie, The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (Oxford University Press, 1951, 2nd edn., 1997), p. 6. Many medieval English verses associated with the birth of Jesus take the form of a lullaby, including 'Lullay, my liking, my dere son, my sweting' and may be versions of contemporary lullabies. H. Carpenter and M. Prichard, The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature (Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 326. However, most of those used today date from the seventeenth century onwards. Probably the most famous 'Rock-a-bye, baby on a tree top' is not recorded until the late eighteenth century. H. Carpenter and M. Prichard, The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature (Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 326. Early nursery rhymes From the later middle ages we have records of short children's rhyming songs, often as marginalia. S. Lerer, Children's Literature: a Reader's History, from Aesop to Harry Potter (University of Chicago Press, 2008), pp. 69-70. From the mid-sixteenth century they begin to be recorded in English plays. A. Fox, Oral and Literate Culture in England, 1500-1700 (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 202. Most nursery rhymes were not written down until the eighteenth century, when the publishing of children's books began to move from polemic and education towards entertainment, but we have evidence for many rhymes existing before this, including 'To market, to market' and 'Cock a doodle doo', which date from at least the late sixteenth century. I. Opie and P. Opie, The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (Oxford University Press, 1951, 2nd edn., 1997), pp. 30-1, 47-8, 128-9 and 299. The first English collections were Tommy Thumb's Song Book and a sequel, Tommy Thumb's Pretty Song Book, are both thought to have been published before 1744, and at this point such songs were known as 'Tommy Thumb's songs'. H. Carpenter and M. Prichard, The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature (Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 382-3. The publication of John Newbery's, Mother Goose's Melody, or, Sonnets for the Cradle (c.1785), is the first record we have of many classic rhymes, still in use today. H. Carpenter and M. Prichard, The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature (Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 363-4. These rhymes seem to have come from a variety of sources, including traditional riddles, proverbs, ballads, lines of Mummers' plays, drinking songs, historical events, and, it has been suggested, ancient pagan rituals. H. Carpenter and M. Prichard, The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature (Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 383. Roughly half of the current body recognised 'traditional' English rhymes were known by the mid-eighteenth century. I. Opie and P. Opie, The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (Oxford University Press, 1951, 2nd edn., 1997). The nineteenth century In the early nineteenth century printed collections of rhymes began to spread to other countries, including Robert Chambers's Popular Rhymes of Scotland (1826) and in the United States, Mother Goose's Melodies (1833). H. Carpenter and M. Prichard, The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature (Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 383. From this period we sometimes know the origins and authors of rhymes, like 'Twinkle Twinkle Little Star', which combined an eighteenth-century French tune with a poem by English writer Jane Taylor and 'Mary Had a Little Lamb', written by Sarah Josepha Hale of Boston in 1830. H. Carpenter and M. Prichard, The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature (Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 383. Early folk song collectors also often collected (what were now known as) nursery rhymes, including in Scotland Sir Walter Scott and in Germany Clemens Brentano and Achim von Arnim in Des Knaben Wunderhorn (1806-8). H. Carpenter and M. Prichard, The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature (Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 384. The first, and possibly the most important academic collection to focus in this area was James Orchard Halliwell's, The Nursery Rhymes of England (1842) and Popular Rhymes and Tales in 1849, in which he divided rhymes into: antiquities (historical), fireside stories, game-rhymes, alphabet-rhymes, riddles, nature-rhymes, places and families, proverbs, superstitions, customs, and nursery songs (lullabies). R. M. Dorson, The British Folklorists: a History (Taylor & Francis, 1999), p. 67. By the time of Sabine Baring-Gould's A Book of Nursery Songs (1895), folklore was an academic study, full of comments and foot-notes. A professional anthropologist, Andrew Lang (1844-1912) produced The Nursery Rhyme Book in 1897. The early years of the twentieth century are notable for the illustrations to children's books including Caldecott's Hey Diddle Diddle Picture Book (1909) and Arthur Rackham's Mother Goose (1913). The definitive study of English rhymes remains the work of Iona and Peter Opie. I. Opie and P. Opie, The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (Oxford University Press, 1951, 2nd edn., 1997). Meanings of nursery rhymes Hidden meanings and origins of nursery rhymes have often asserted, but are usually speculative and frequently obviously erroneous, often failing to take into account the known history and early versions of a rhyme. A number of these theories have their origins in the writings of John Bellenden Ker (?1765-1842), who argued in four volumes that English nursery rhymes were actually written in 'Low Dutch', a medieval language of his own invention. He then 'translated' them back into English, revealing particularly a strong tendency to anti-clericalism. H. Carpenter and M. Prichard, The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature (Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 290. Many of the ideas about the links between rhymes and historical persons, or events, can be traced back to Katherine Elwes, The Real Personages of Mother Goose (1930), which found identities for (then famous) characters in nursery rhymes on little or no evidence in any historical source, assuming that children's songs are a peculiar form of coded historical narrative, propaganda or covert protest, and rarely considering that they could be just entertainments. I. Opie, 'Playground rhymes and the oral tradition', in P. Hunt, S. G. Bannister Ray, International Companion Encyclopedia of Children's Literature (London: Routledge, 2004), p. 179. Title Supposed origin Earliest Date Known Meaning supported by evidenceBaa, Baa, Black SheepThe slave trade; medieval wool taxc. 1744 (Britain)Medieval taxes were much lower than two thirds. There is no evidence of a connection with slavery. I. Opie and P. Opie, The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1951, 2nd edn., 1997). Doctor FosterEdward I of England1844 (Britain)Given the recent recording the medieval meaning is unlikely. Grand old Duke of YorkRichard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York in the Wars of the Roses; James II of England, or Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany Flanders campaign of 1794-5.1913 (Britain)The more recent campaign is more likely, but first record is very late. The song may be based on a song about the king of France. E. Knowles, Oxford Dictionary of Quotations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1941, 6th edn., 2004). Humpty DumptyRichard III of England; Cardinal Wolsey and a cannon from the English Civil War1797 (Britain) No evidence that it refers to any historical character and is originally a riddle found in many European cultures. The story about the cannon is based on a spoof verse written in 1956. I. Opie, 'Playground rhymes and the oral tradition', in P. Hunt, S. G. Bannister Ray, International Companion Encyclopedia of Children's Literature (London: Routledge, 2004), p. 176. Jack and JillNorse mythology; Louis XVI of France and Marie Antoinette1765 (Britain) No evidence that it stretches back to early medieval era and poem predates the French Revolution. Little Boy BlueThomas Wolseyc. 1760 (Britain) Unknown, the identification is speculative. Little Jack HornerDissolution of the Monasteries1725 (Britain) but story known from c. 1520The rhyme may have been adapted to satirise Thomas Horner who benefited from the Dissolution, but the connection is speculative. London Bridge is falling downBurial of children in foundations; burning of wooden bridge by Vikings1659 (Britain)Unknown, but verse exists in many cultures and may have been adapted to London when it reached England. Mary, Mary, quite contraryMary Queen of Scots or Mary I of Englandc. 1744 (Britain)Unknown, all identifications are speculative. Old King ColeVarious early medieval kings and Richard Cole-brook a Reading clothier1708-9 (Britain)Richard Cole-brook was widely known as King Cole in the seventeenth century. Ring a Ring o' RosesBlack Death (1348) or The Great Plague (1665)1790 (USA)No evidence that the poem has any relation to the plague. The 'plague' references are not present in the earliest versions. D. Wilton, I. Brunetti, Word myths: debunking linguistic urban legends (Oxford: Oxford University Press US, 2004), pp. 24-5. Rock-a-bye BabyThe Egyptian god Horus; Native American childcare; anti-Jacobite satirec. 1765 (USA)Unknown, all identifications are speculative. There was an Old Woman Who Lived in a ShoeQueen Caroline of Ansbach; Elizabeth Vergoose of Boston; Margery Buttwhistle an eighteenth century prostitute.1784 (Britain)Unknown, all identifications are speculative. Three Blind MiceMary I of Englandc. 1609 (Britain)Unknown, the identification is speculative. Who Killed Cock Robin?Norse mythology; Robin Hood; William Rufus; Robert Walpole; Ritual bird sacrificec. 1744 (Britain)The story, and perhaps rhyme, dates from at least the later medieval era, but all identifications are speculative. </noinclude> Nursery rhyme revisionism There have been several attempts, across the world, to revise nursery rhymes (along with fairy tales and popular songs). Even in the late eighteenth century we can sometimes see how rhymes like 'Little Robin Redbreast' were cleaned up for a young audience. I. Opie and P. Opie, The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1951, 2nd edn., 1997), pp. 371-2. In the late nineteenth century the major concern seems to have been violence and crime, which led leading children's publishers in America like Jacob Abbot and Samuel Goodrich to 'improve' mother goose rhymes. S. Wadsworth, In the Company of Books: Literature and Its "classes" in Nineteenth-century America (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2006), p. 22. In the early and mid-twentieth century this was a form of bowdlerisation, concerned with some of the more violent elements of nursery rhymes and led to the formation of organisations like the British 'Society for Nursery Rhyme Reform'. N. E. Dowd, D. G. Singer, R. F. Wilson. Handbook of children, culture, and violence (Sage, 2005), p. 136. Psychoanalysts such as Bruno Bettelheim strongly criticized this revisionism, on the grounds that it weakened their usefulness to both children and adults as ways of symbolically resolving issues and it has been argued that revised versions may not perform the functions of catharsis for children, or allow them to imaginatively deal with violence and danger. Jack Zipes, The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to the Modern World, p. 48, ISBN 0-312-29380-1. In the late twentieth century revisionism of nursery rhymes became associated with the idea of political correctness. Most attempts to reform nursery rhymes on this basis appear to be either very small scale, light-hearted updating, like Felix Dennis' When Jack Sued Jill - Nursery Rhymes for Modern Times (2006), or satires written as if from the point of view of political correctness in order to condemn reform. F. Dennis, When Jack Sued Jill - Nursery Rhymes for Modern Times (Ebury, 2006). The controversy over changing the language of 'Baa Baa Black Sheep' in Britain from 1986, because, it was alleged in the popular press, it was seen as racially dubious, was, Curran, Pently and Gaber indicate, based only on a rewriting of the rhyme one private nursery, as an exercise for the children. J. Curran, J. Petley, I. Gaber, Culture wars: the media and the British left (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2005), pp. 85-107. Nursery rhymes and education It has been argued that nursery rhymes set to music aid in a child's development. R. Bayley, Foundations of Literacy: A Balanced Approach to Language, Listening and Literacy Skills in the Early Years, 2004. Research also supports the assertion that music and rhyme increase a child's ability in spatial reasoning which leads to greater success in school in the subjects of mathematics and science. Associated Press, "Study says preschool music lessons may aid math skills", Chicago Tribune, August 14, 1994. Continued popularity Starting in the mid-1980’s Warner Brothers Records and Together Again Productions launched a project to create new music and video recordings of over three hundred children's songs and nursery rhymes set to music, Kidsongs. This updated and modernized collection was featured on the Kidsongs TV Show which ran in the USA in syndication and on PBS for fourteen years and in the Kidsongs videos and CDs which have sold over fourteen million units. R. DeRosa, "'Kidsongs' funding adds new episodes to mix", USA Today Life section, page 1 http://kidsongs.com/aboutkidsongs.html. External links Nursery Rhymes from Around the World Notes See also Fingerplays Folklore Lullaby List of nursery rhymes in English It's Raining, It's Pouring Children's song Oral tradition Kidsongs | Nursery_rhyme |@lemmatized hey:2 diddle:4 popular:5 nursery:34 rhyme:52 term:3 use:4 traditional:3 song:17 young:2 child:32 britain:15 many:7 english:12 speaking:1 country:2 usage:1 date:5 nineteenth:5 century:18 north:1 america:3 old:6 mother:7 goose:6 still:2 often:5 h:11 carpenter:11 prichard:11 oxford:45 companion:13 literature:15 university:24 press:26 p:25 history:4 lullabies:1 record:10 lullaby:9 intend:1 help:1 sleep:1 find:3 every:1 human:1 culture:6 opie:17 dictionary:8 edn:8 think:2 come:2 lu:2 la:2 sound:2 make:1 nurse:2 calm:1 bye:4 either:2 another:1 lulling:1 good:1 night:1 pp:9 modern:4 era:3 usually:2 incidentally:1 write:6 source:3 roman:1 lalla:3 aut:2 dormi:1 lacte:1 scholium:1 persius:1 may:7 survive:1 medieval:8 verse:3 associate:2 birth:1 jesus:1 take:2 form:3 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4,387 | Fair_use | Fair use is a doctrine in United States copyright law that allows limited use of copyrighted material without requiring permission from the rights holders, such as use for scholarship or review. It provides for the legal, non-licensed citation or incorporation of copyrighted material in another author's work under a four-factor balancing test. The term "fair use" originated in the United States, but has been added to Israeli law as well; a similar principle, fair dealing, exists in some other common law jurisdictions. Civil law jurisdictions have other limitations and exceptions to copyright. Fair use under United States law The legal concept of "Test copyright" was first ratified by the Kingdom of Great Britain's Statute of Anne of 1709. As room was not made for the authorized reproduction of copyrighted content within this newly formulated statutory right, the courts gradually created a doctrine of "fair abridgment," which later became "fair use," that recognized the utility of such actions. The doctrine only existed in the U.S. as common law until it was incorporated into the Copyright Act of 1976, , reprinted here: The four factors of analysis for fair use set forth above derive from the classic opinion of Joseph Story in Folsom v. Marsh, 9 F.Cas. 342 (1841), in which the defendant had copied 353 pages from the plaintiff's 12-volume biography of George Washington in order to produce a separate two-volume work of his own. The court rejected the defendant's fair use defense with the following explanation: Once these factors were codified as guidelines in , they were not rendered exclusive. The section was intended by Congress to restate, but not replace, the prior judge-made law. Courts are still entitled to consider other factors as well. Fair use tempers copyright's exclusive rights to serve the purpose of copyright law, which the U.S. Constitution defines as the promotion of "the Progress of Science and useful Arts" (Art. I, § 8, cl. 8). This principle applies particularly well to the case of criticism and also sheds light on various other limitations on copyright's exclusive rights, particularly the scenes à faire doctrine. Purpose and character The first factor is about whether the use in question helps fulfill the intention of copyright law to stimulate creativity for the enrichment of the general public, or whether it aims to only "supersede the objects" of the original for reasons of personal profit. To justify the use as fair, one must demonstrate how it either advances knowledge or the progress of the arts through the addition of something new. A key consideration is the extent to which the use is interpreted as transformative, as opposed to merely derivative. When Tom Forsythe appropriated Barbie dolls for his photography project "Food Chain Barbie," Mattel lost its claims of copyright and trademark infringement against him because his work effectively parodies Barbie and the values she represents. Mattel, Inc. v. Walking Mountain Productions, No. 01-56695, 9th Circuit, December 29, 2003: http://www.ca9.uscourts.gov/coa/newopinions.nsf/6205C146C29519CC88256E0B005D8100/$file/0156695.pdf But when Jeff Koons tried to justify his appropriation of Art Rogers' photograph "Puppies" in his sculpture "String of Puppies" with the same parody defense, he lost because his work was not presented as a parody of Rogers' photograph in particular, but of society at large, which was deemed insufficiently justificatory. Art Rogers v. Jeff Koons, 960 F.2d 301 However, since this case, courts have begun to emphasize the first fair use factor—assessing whether the alleged infringement has transformative use as described by the Hon. Judge Pierre N. Leval. More recently, Koons was involved in a similar case with commercial photographer Andrea Blanch, Blanch v. Koons, No. 05-6433, 2nd Circuit, October 26, 2006: http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/data2/circs/2nd/056433p.pdf regarding his use of her photograph for a painting, whereby he appropriated a central portion of an advertisement she had been commissioned to shoot for a magazine. In this case, Koons won; the case sets a favorable precedent for appropriation art where the use is deemed transformative. The subfactor mentioned in the legislation above, "whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes," has recently been deemphasized in some Circuits "since many, if not most, secondary uses seek at least some measure of commercial gain from their use." American Geophysical Union, 60 F.3d at 921 More important is whether the use fulfills any of the "preamble purposes" also mentioned in the legislation above, as these have been interpreted as paradigmatically "transformative." Although Judge Pierre Leval has distinguished the first factor as "the soul of fair use," it alone is not determinative. For example, not every educational usage is fair. see the 1914 case, Macmillan Co. v. King, although this case has only limited application since it was decided many years before the modern fair use provision became a part of the legislation Nature of the copied work Although the Supreme Court of the United States has ruled that the availability of copyright protection should not depend on the artistic quality or merit of a work, fair use analyses consider certain aspects of the work to be relevant, such as whether it is fictional or non-fictional. RDR v. Rowling, 575 F. Supp. 2d 513 (S.D.N.Y. 2008) To prevent the private ownership of work that rightfully belongs in the public domain, facts and ideas are separate from copyright—only their particular expression or fixation merits such protection. On the other hand, the social usefulness of freely available information can weigh against the appropriateness of copyright for certain fixations. The Zapruder film of the assassination of President Kennedy, for example, was purchased and copyrighted by Time magazine. Yet their copyright was not upheld, in the name of the public interest, when they tried to enjoin the reproduction of stills from the film in a history book on the subject in Time Inc. v. Bernard Geis Associates. Time Inc. v. Bernard Geis Associates, 293 F. Supp. 130 Following the decisions of the Second Circuit in Salinger v. Random House, Inc. Salinger v. Random House, Inc., 650 F. Supp. 413 (S.D.N.Y. 1986) and in New Era Publications Int'l v. Henry Holt & Co., New Era Publications Int'l v. Henry Holt & Co., 695 F. Supp. 1493 (S.D.N.Y. 1988) the aspect of whether the copied work has been previously published suddenly trumped all other considerations because of, in the words of one commentator, "the original author's interest in controlling the circumstances of the first public revelation of his work, and his right, if he so chooses, not to publish at all." Yet some view this importation of certain aspects of France's droit moral d'artiste (moral rights of the artist) into American copyright law as "bizarre and contradictory" because it sometimes grants greater protection to works that were created for private purposes that have little to do with the public goals of copyright law, than to those works that copyright was initially conceived to protect. This is not to claim that unpublished works, or, more specifically, works not intended for publication, do not deserve legal protection, but that any such protection should come from laws about privacy, rather than laws about copyright. The statutory fair use provision was amended in response to these concerns by adding a final sentence: "The fact that a work is unpublished shall not itself bar a finding of fair use if such finding is made upon consideration of all the above factors." Amount and substantiality The third factor assesses the quantity or percentage of the original copyrighted work that has been imported into the new work. In general, the less that is used in relation to the whole, e.g., a few sentences of a text for a book review, the more likely that the sample will be considered fair use. Yet see Sony Corp. v. Universal City Studios for a case in which substantial copying—entire programs for private viewing—was upheld as fair use. Likewise, see Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corporation, where the Ninth Circuit held that copying an entire photo to use as a thumbnail in online search results did not weigh against fair use, "if the secondary user only copies as much as is necessary for his or her intended use." Conversely, in Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enters, Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enters., (1985) the use of less than 400 words from President Ford's memoir by a political opinion magazine was interpreted as infringement because those few words represented "the heart of the book" and were, as such, substantial. Before 1991, sampling in certain genres of music was accepted practice and such copyright considerations as these were viewed as largely irrelevant. The strict decision against rapper Biz Markie's appropriation of a Gilbert O'Sullivan song in the case Grand Upright Music, Ltd. v. Warner Bros. Records, Inc. Grand Upright Music, Ltd. v. Warner Bros. Records, Inc., 780 F. Supp. 182 (S.D.N.Y. 1991) changed practices and opinions overnight. Samples now had to be licensed, as long as they rose "to a level of legally cognizable appropriation." Bridgeport Music Inc. v. Dimension Films, 230 F. Supp.2d at 841 In other words, de minimis sampling was still considered fair and free because, traditionally, "the law does not care about trifles." The recent Sixth Circuit Court decision in the appeal to Bridgeport Music has reversed this standing, eliminating the de minimis defense for samples of recorded music, but stating that the decision did not apply to fair use. Effect upon work's value The fourth factor measures the effect that the allegedly infringing use has had on the copyright owner's ability to exploit his original work. The court not only investigates whether the defendant's specific use of the work has significantly harmed the copyright owner's market, but also whether such uses in general, if widespread, would harm the potential market of the original. The burden of proof here rests on the defendant for commercial uses, but on the copyright owner for noncommercial uses. See Sony Corp. v. Universal City Studios, Sony Corp. v. Universal City Studios, 464 U.S. 417, 451 (1984) where the copyright owner, Universal, failed to provide any empirical evidence that the use of Betamax had either reduced their viewership or negatively impacted their business. In the aforementioned Nation case regarding President Ford's memoirs, the Supreme Court labeled this factor "the single most important element of fair use" and it has indeed enjoyed some level of primacy in fair use analyses ever since. Yet the Supreme Court's more recent announcement in Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc. Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., (1994) that "all [four factors] are to be explored, and the results weighed together, in light of the purposes of copyright" has helped modulate this emphasis in interpretation. In evaluating the fourth factor, courts often consider two kinds of harm to the potential market of the original work: First, courts consider whether the use in question acts as a direct market substitute for the original work. In the judgement of the Supreme Court in Acuff-Rose Music they decisively stated that, "when a commercial use amounts to mere duplication of the entirety of the original, it clearly supersedes the object of the original and serves as a market replacement for it, making it likely that cognizable market harm to the original will occur." In one instance, a court ruled that this factor weighed against a defendant who had made unauthorized movie trailers for video retailers, since his trailers acted as direct substitutes for the copyright owner's official trailers. Video Pipeline v. Buena Vista, 342 F.3d 191 (3d Cir. 2003) Second, courts also consider whether potential market harm might exist beyond that of direct substitution, such as in the potential existence of a licensing market. This consideration has weighed against commercial copy shops that make copies of articles in course-pack for college students, when a market already existed for the licensing of course-pack copies. Princeton Univ. Press v. Michigan Document Services, 99 F.3d 1381 (6th Cir. 1999) Courts recognize that certain kinds of market harm do not oppose fair use, such as when a parody or negative review impairs the market of the original work. Copyright considerations may not shield a work against adverse criticism. Fair use and professional communities Courts when deciding fair use cases, in addition to looking at context, amount and value of the use, also look to the standards and practices of the professional communities where the case comes from. Documentary filmmakers organized and created the Documentary Filmmakers' Statement of Best Practices in Fair Use, which has had a dramatic effect on fair use practice in documentary film. Since the release of the Statement in 2005, PBS, ITVS and IFC use it. Furthermore, four out of seven of the national errors and omissions insurers now issue fair use coverage routinely. Several documentary films have also used it, allowing both theatrical and television releases. Other professional communities are beginning to plan their own best practices standards in fair use as well. On November 11, 2008, media literacy educators released the Code of Best Practices for Fair Use in Media Literacy Education, which is authored by the leading educational membership organizations of this professional community. The Code asserts five principles and limitations for the use of copyrights materials for teaching and learning. Practical effect of fair use defense The practical effect of this law and the court decisions following it is that it is usually possible to quote from a copyrighted work in order to criticize or comment upon it, teach students about it, and possibly for other uses. Certain well-established uses cause few problems. A teacher who prints a few copies of a poem to illustrate a technique will have no problem on all four of the above factors (except possibly on amount and substantiality), but some cases are not so clear. All the factors are considered and balanced in each case: a book reviewer who quotes a paragraph as an example of the author's style will probably fall under fair use even though he may sell his review commercially. But a non-profit educational website that reproduces whole articles from technical magazines will probably be found to infringe if the publisher can demonstrate that the website affects the market for the magazine, even though the website itself is non-commercial. Free Republic, LLC, owner of the political website freerepublic.com, was found liable for copyright infringement in L.A. Times v. Free Republic for reproducing and archiving full-text versions of plaintiffs' news articles even though the judge found the website minimally commercial. She held that "while defendants' do not necessarily 'exploit' the articles for commercial gain, their posting to the Free Republic site allows defendants and other visitors to avoid paying the 'customary price' charged for the works." The April 2000 opinion ruled concerning the four factors of fair use that 1) "defendants' use of plaintiffs' articles is minimally, if at all, transformative," 2) the factual content of the articles copied "weighs in favor of finding of fair use of the news articles by defendants in this case," though it didn't "provide strong support" 3) concerning the amount and substantiality prong, "the wholesale copying of plaintiffs' articles weighs against the finding of fair use," and 4) the plaintiffs showed that they were trying to exploit the market for viewing their articles online and defendants didn't rebut their showing by proving an absence of usurpation harm to plaintiffs. Ultimately the court found "that the defendants may not assert a fair use defense to plaintiffs' copyright infringement claim." Fair use as a defense The Supreme Court of the United States described fair use as an affirmative defense in Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.. This means that, in litigation on copyright infringement, the defendant bears the burden of raising and proving that his use was "fair" and not an infringement. Thus, fair use need not even be raised as a defense unless the plaintiff first shows (or the defendant concedes) a "prima facie" case of copyright infringement. If the work was not copyrightable, the term had expired, or the defendant's work borrowed only a small amount, for instance, then the plaintiff cannot make out a prima facie case of infringement, and the defendant need not even raise the fair use defense. Because of the defendant's burden of proof, some copyright owners frequently make claims of infringement even in circumstances where the fair use defense would likely succeed in hopes that the user will refrain from the use rather than spending resources in his defense. This type of lawsuit is part of a much larger problem in First Amendment law; see Strategic lawsuit against public participation. Because paying a royalty fee may be much less expensive than having a potential copyright suit threaten the publication of a completed work in which a publisher has invested significant resources, many authors may seek a license even for uses that copyright law ostensibly permits without liability. The frequent argument over whether fair use is a "right" or a "defense" http://www.eff.org/IP/eff_fair_use_faq.php Eff.org Retrieved on 05-21-07 is generated by confusion over the use of the term "affirmative defense." An affirmative defense is simply a term of art from litigation reflecting the timing in which the defense is raised. It does not distinguish between "rights" and "defenses," and so it does not characterize the substance of the defendant's actions as "not a right but a defense." The First Amendment, for instance, is generally raised as an affirmative defense in litigation, but is clearly a "right." Similarly, while fair use is characterized as a defense in terms of the litigation posture, Section 107 defines fair use as a "limitation" on copyright law and states clearly that "the fair use of a copyrighted work … is not an infringement of copyright." 17 U.S.C. 107. In response to perceived over-expansion of copyrights, several electronic civil liberties and free expression organizations began in the 1990s to add fair use cases to their dockets and concerns. These include the Electronic Frontier Foundation ("EFF"), the American Civil Liberties Union, the National Coalition Against Censorship, the American Library Association, numerous clinical programs at law schools, and others. The "Chilling Effects" archive was established in 2002 as a coalition of several law school clinics and the EFF to document the use of cease and desist letters. Most recently, in 2006, Stanford University began an initiative called "The Fair Use Project" (FUP) to help artists, particularly filmmakers, fight lawsuits brought against them by large corporations. The economic benefit of fair use A balanced copyright law provides an economic benefit to many high tech businesses such as search engines and software developers and Fair Use is also crucial to non-technology industries such as insurance, legal services, and newspaper publishers. On September 12, 2007, the Computer and Communications Industry Association (CCIA), a group representing companies including Google Inc., Microsoft Inc., Wall Street Journal. "Google, Others Contest Copyright Warnings" by Sarah McBride and Adam Thompson. August 1, 2007. Oracle Corporation, Sun Microsystems, Yahoo Computer and Communications Industry Association. "CCIA Members." and other high tech companies, released a study that found that Fair Use exceptions to US copyright laws were responsible for more than $4,500 Billion dollars in annual revenue for the United States economy representing one-sixth of the total U.S. GDP. Computer and Communications Industry Association. "Fair Use Economy Represents One-Sixth of U.S. GDP." September 12, 2007. The study was conducted using a methodology developed by the World Intellectual Property Organization. The study found that fair use dependent industries are directly responsible for more than 18% of U.S. economic growth and nearly 11 million American jobs. “As the United States economy becomes increasingly knowledge-based, the concept of fair use can no longer be discussed and legislated in the abstract. It is the very foundation of the digital age and a cornerstone of our economy,” said Ed Black, President and CEO of CCIA. “Much of the unprecedented economic growth of the past ten years can actually be credited to the doctrine of fair use, as the Internet itself depends on the ability to use content in a limited and nonlicensed manner." Fair use and parody Producers or creators of parodies of a copyrighted work have been sued for infringement by the targets of their ridicule, even though such use may be protected as fair use. These fair use cases distinguish between parodies (using a work in order to poke fun at or comment on the work itself) and satires (using a work to poke fun at or comment on something else). Courts have been more willing to grant fair use protections to parodies than to satires, but the ultimate outcome in either circumstance will turn on the application of the four fair use factors. In Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc. Supreme Court recognized parody as a fair use, even when done for profit. Roy Orbison's publisher, Acuff-Rose Music Inc., had sued 2 Live Crew in 1989 for their use of Orbison's "Oh, Pretty Woman" in a mocking rap version with altered lyrics. The Supreme Court viewed 2 Live Crew's version as a ridiculing commentary on the earlier work, and ruled that when the parody was itself the product rather than used for mere advertising, commercial sale did not bar the defense. The Campbell court also distinguished parodies from satire, which they described as a broader social critique not intrinsically tied to ridicule of a specific work, and so not deserving of the same use exceptions as parody because the satirist's ideas are capable of expression without the use of the other particular work. A number of appellate decisions have recognized parody as a protected fair use, including both the Second (Leibovitz v. Paramount Pictures Corp.) and Ninth Circuits (Mattel v. Walking Mountain Productions). Most recently, Suntrust v. Houghton Mifflin, a suit was brought unsuccessfully against the publication of The Wind Done Gone, which reused many of the characters and situations from Gone with the Wind, but told the events from the point of view of the slaves rather than the slaveholders. The Eleventh Circuit, applying Campbell, recognized that The Wind Done Gone was a protected parody, and vacated the district court's injunction against its publication. Fair use on the Internet A US court case in 2003, Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corporation, provides and develops the relationship between thumbnails, inline linking and fair use. In the lower District Court case on a motion for summary judgment, Arriba Soft was found to have violated copyright without a fair use defense in the use of thumbnail pictures and inline linking from Kelly's website in Arriba's image search engine. That decision was appealed and contested by Internet rights activists such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation, who argued that it is clearly covered under fair use. On appeal, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals found in favor of the defendant. In reaching its decision, the court utilized the above-mentioned four-factor analysis. First, it found the purpose of creating the thumbnail images as previews to be sufficiently transformative, noting that they were not meant to be viewed at high resolution like the original artwork was. Second, the fact that the photographs had already been published diminished the significance of their nature as creative works. Third, although normally making a "full" replication of a copyrighted work may appear to violate copyright, here it was found to be reasonable and necessary in light of the intended use. Lastly, the court found that the market for the original photographs would not be substantially diminished by the creation of the thumbnails. To the contrary, the thumbnail searches could increase exposure of the originals. In looking at all these factors as a whole, the court found that the thumbnails were fair use and remanded the case to the lower court for trial after issuing a revised opinion on July 7, 2003. The remaining issues were resolved with a default judgment after Arriba Soft had experienced significant financial problems and failed to reach a negotiated settlement. In August 2008 U.S. District Judge Jeremy Fogel of San Jose, California ruled that copyright holders cannot order a deletion of an online file without determining whether that posting reflected "fair use" of the copyrighted material. The case involved Stephanie Lenz, a writer and editor from Gallitzin, Pennsylvania, who made a home video of her 13-month-old son dancing to Prince's song Let's Go Crazy and posted the 29-second video on YouTube. Four months later, Universal Music, the owner of the copyright to the song, ordered YouTube to remove the video enforcing the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. Lenz notified YouTube immediately that her video was within the scope of fair use, and demanded that it be restored. YouTube complied after six weeks, not two weeks as required by the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. Lenz then sued Universal Music in California for her legal costs, claiming the music company had acted in bad faith by ordering removal of a video that represented fair-use of the song. Warner Music Group has followed suit, ignoring fair-use and deleting any video with music that they have rights over—no matter how big or small the audio clip is. Common misunderstandings Fair use is commonly misunderstood because of its deliberate ambiguity. Here are some of the more common misunderstandings with explanations of why they are wrong: Any use that seems fair is fair use. In the law, the term "fair use" has a specific meaning that only partly overlaps the plain-English meaning of the words. While judges have much leeway in deciding how to apply fair use guidelines, not every use that is commonly considered "fair" counts as fair use under the law. Fair use interpretations, once made, are static forever. Fair use is decided on a case by case basis, on the entirety of circumstances. The same act done by different means or for a different purpose can gain or lose fair use status. Even repeating an identical act at a different point in time can make a difference due to changing social, technological, or other surrounding circumstances. If it's not fair use, it's copyright infringement. Fair use is only one of many limitations, exceptions, and defenses to copyright infringement. For instance, the Audio Home Recording Act establishes that it is legal in some circumstances to make copies of audio recordings for non-commercial personal use. It's copyrighted, so it can't be fair use. On the contrary, fair use applies only to copyrighted works, describing conditions under which copyrighted material may be used without permission. If a work is not copyrighted, fair use does not come into play, since public-domain works can legally be used for any purpose. Note: In some countries (including the United States of America), the mere creation of a work establishes copyright over it, and there is no legal requirement to register or declare copyright ownership. Acknowledgment of the source makes a use fair. Giving the name of the photographer or author may help, but it is not sufficient on its own. While plagiarism and copyright violation are related matters—-both can, at times, involve failure to properly credit sources—-they are not identical. Copyright law protects exact expression, not ideas: for example, a distant paraphrase that lays out the same argument as a copyrighted essay is in little danger of being deemed a copyright violation, but it could still be plagiarism. On the other hand, one can plagiarize even a work that is not protected by copyright, such as trying to pass off a line from Shakespeare as one's own. Plagiarism—using someone's words, ideas, images, etc. without acknowledgment—is a matter of professional ethics. Copyright is a matter of law. Citing sources generally prevents accusations of plagiarism, but is not a sufficient defense against copyright violations (otherwise, anyone could legally reprint an entire copyrighted book just by citing who wrote it). Noncommercial use is invariably fair. Not true, though a judge may take the profit motive or lack thereof into account. In L.A. Times v. Free Republic, the court found that the noncommercial use of L.A. Times content by the Free Republic Web site was in fact not fair use, since it allowed the public to obtain material at no cost that they would otherwise pay for. Strict adherence to fair use protects you from being sued. Fair use is a defense against an infringement suit; it does not restrain anyone from suing. The copyright holder may legitimately disagree that a given use is fair, and they have the right to have the matter decided by a court. Thus, fair use is not a deterrent to SLAPP. The lack of a copyright notice means the work is public domain. Not usually true. United States law in effect since March 1, 1989 has made copyright the default for newly created works. For a recent work to be in the public domain the author must specifically opt-out of copyright. For works produced between January 1, 1923 and March 1, 1989, copyright notice is required; however, registration was not required Copyright Office Basics and between January 1, 1978 and March 1, 1989 lack of notice is not necessarily determinative, if attempts were made immediately to correct the lack of notice. Any American works that did not have formal registration or notice fell into the Public Domain if registration was not made in a timely fashion. For international works, the situation is even more complex. International authors who failed to provide copyright notice or register with the U.S. copyright office are given additional contemporary remedies that may restore American copyright protection given certain conditions. International authors/corporations who fail to meet these remedies forfeit their copyright. An example of a company who failed to prove copyright was Roland Corporation and their claimed copyright on the sounds contained in their MT-32 synthesizer. It's okay to quote up to 300 words. The 300-word limit is reported to be an unofficial agreement, now long obsolete, among permissions editors in the New York publishing houses: 'I'll let you copy 300 words from our books if you let us copy 300 words from yours.' It runs counter to the substantiality standard. As explained above, the substantiality of the copying is more important than the actual amount. For instance, copying a complete short poem is more substantial than copying a random paragraph of a novel; copying an 8.5×11-inch photo is more substantial than copying a square foot of an 8×10-foot painting. In 1985, the U.S. Supreme Court held that a news article's quotation of approximately 300 words from former President Gerald Ford's 200,000 word memoir was sufficient to constitute an infringement of the exclusive publication right in the work. Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enterprises, 105 S.Ct. 2218 (1985) You can deny fair use by including a disclaimer. Fair use is a right granted to the public on all copyrighted work. Fair use rights take precedence over the author's interest. Thus the copyright holder cannot use a non-binding disclaimer, or notification, to revoke the right of fair use on works. However, binding agreements such as contracts or license agreements may take precedence over fair use rights. Wall Data v. Los Angeles County Sheriff's Dept. (9th Cir. May 17, 2006) (PDF at Ninth Circuit). If you're copying an entire work, it's not fair use. While copying an entire work may make it harder to justify the amount and substantiality test, it does not make it impossible that a use is fair use. For instance, in the Betamax case, it was ruled that copying a complete television show for time-shifting purposes is fair use. If you're selling for profit, it's not fair use. While commercial copying for profit work may make it harder to qualify as fair use, it does not make it impossible. For instance, in the 2 Live Crew—Oh, Pretty Woman case, it was ruled that commercial parody can be fair use. Influence internationally The doctrine of fair use is no longer exclusive to the United States, with other jurisdictions having either implemented such a doctrine or considering its introduction. While influential in some quarters, other countries often have drastically different fair use criteria to the US, and in some countries there is little or no fair use defense available. Even within Europe, rules vary greatly between countries. Some countries have the concept of fair dealing instead of fair use. However many countries have some reference to an exemption for educational use, although the extent of this exemption may vary wildly. International exemptions for education with links to relevant laws Fair use in Canada CCH Canadian Ltd. v. Law Society of Upper Canada [2004] 1 S.C.R. 339, is the landmark Supreme Court of Canada case that establishes the bounds of fair dealing in Canadian copyright law. The Law Society of Upper Canada was sued for copyright infringement for providing photocopy services to researchers. The Court unanimously held that the Law Society's practice fell within the bounds of fair dealing. Fair use in Israel In November 2007, Israel passed a new Copyright Law that included a US style fair use exception. The law, which took effect in May 2008, permits the fair use of copyrighted works for purposes such as private study, research, criticism, review, news reporting, quotation, or instruction or testing by an educational institution. The Jerusalem Post Retrieved on 05-5-08 The law sets up four factors, similar to those of section 107 under American law, to determine whether a use is fair use. Fair use in South Korea Korean Copyright Act article 1 rules that this law's two purposes are: To protect copyright. To promote fair use. See also Berne three-step test Defenses and Exceptions section of United States copyright law Copyfraud Fair dealing Fair use (US trademark law) Fair dealing (the equivalent of "fair use" in the UK, though more restrictive than US fair use) Fair Use Project Glossary of legal terms in technology Limitations and exceptions to copyright Electronic Frontier Foundation Right to quote References Further reading External links and sources Statute & case law resources Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use—from the US Copyright Office Some more key fair use cases—from IPWatchdog website Economic Benefits of Fair Use Computer and Communications Industry Association. "Economic Contribution of Industries Relying on Fair Use." September 2007 Resources to learn about fair use "Best Practices in Fair Use". American University Center for Social Media. November 18, 2005. Fair Use Network by the NYU Brennan Center for Justice, Free Expression Policy Project Fair Use of Copyrighted Materials by Georgia Harper, The Copyright Crash Course, University of Texas at Austin Libraries Bound by Law by Duke University's Center for the Study of the Public Domain Fair Use: Copyright Management Center, with Copyright Essentials including a fair use checklist. Copyright and Fair Use—from Stanford University Libraries Electronic Frontier Foundation. Electronic Frontier Foundation YouTube video "A Fair(y) Use Tail". Eric Faden, produced by Media Education Foundation Checklist for fair use Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis A Practical Guide to Fair Use Doctrine. Signal or Noise 2K5. Harvard University A guide to the circumstances of fair use. University of Texas Systems Dept. Fair Use chart. A concise summary "Parody and Fair Use". James S. Huggins. "Will fair use survive? Free Expression in the Age of Copyright Control". Brennan Center for Justice. Code of Best Practices in Fair Use for Online Video - American University Center for Social Media. July 7, 2008. 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4,388 | Ketone | Ketone group In organic chemistry, a ketone ( KEE-toan) (less often referred to as an alkanone) is a type of compound which contains a carbonyl group (C=O) bonded to two other carbon atoms in the form: R1(CO)R2 Neither of the substituents R1 and R2 may be equal to hydrogen (H). Where either R group is a hydrogen atom, the compound is known as an aldehyde. A carbonyl carbon bonded to two carbon atoms distinguishes ketones from carboxylic acids, aldehydes, esters, amides, and other oxygen-containing compounds. The double-bond of the carbonyl group distinguishes ketones from alcohols and ethers. The simplest ketone is acetone, CH3-CO-CH3 (systematically named propanone The position of the carbonyl group is usually denoted by a number; in propanone there can only be one position. While propanone or propan-2-one is how the molecule should be named according to systematic nomenclature, the name "acetone" is retained in official IUPAC nomenclature ). The carbon atom adjacent to a carbonyl group is called the α-carbon. Hydrogens attached to this carbon are called α-hydrogens. In the presence of an acid catalyst the ketone is subjected to so-called keto-enol tautomerism. The reaction with a strong base gives the corresponding enolate. A diketone is a compound containing two ketone groups. Nomenclature Acetone, the simplest ketoneIn general, ketones are named using IUPAC nomenclature by changing the suffix -e of the parent alkane to -one. For common ketones, some traditional names such as acetone and benzophenone predominate, and these are considered retained IUPAC names List of retained IUPAC names retained IUPAC names Link , although some introductory chemistry texts use names such as propanone. Oxo is the formal IUPAC nomenclature for a ketone functional group. However, other prefixes are also used by various books and journals. For some common chemicals (mainly in biochemistry), keto or oxo is the term used to describe the ketone (also known as alkanone) functional group. Oxo also refers to a single oxygen atom coordinated to a transition metal (a metal oxo). Structure and properties Keto-enol tautomerism. 1 is the keto form; 2 is the enol.The ketone carbon is sp2 hybridized. Ketones are trigonal planar about the ketone carbon, with bond angles distorted from an ideal 120°. The carbonyl group is polar, making ketones polar compounds. The carbonyl groups interact with water by hydrogen bonding, and ketones are soluble in water. It is a hydrogen-bond acceptor, but not a hydrogen-bond donor, and cannot hydrogen-bond to itself. This makes ketones more volatile than alcohols and carboxylic acids of similar molecular weight. Ketones undergo keto-enol tautomerization; the tautomer is an enol. Tautomerization may be catalyzed by both acids and bases. Ketones are more stable than the enol. This allows ketones to be prepared by synthesizing the corresponding enols from alkynes. The α-hydrogen of a ketone is far more acidic (pKa ≈ 20) than the hydrogen of a regular alkane (pKa ≈ 50). This is due to resonance stabilization of the enolate ion that is formed through dissociation. The relative acidity of the α-hydrogen is important in the enolization reactions of ketones and other carbonyl compounds. The acidity of the α-hydrogen also allows ketones and other carbonyl compounds to undergo nucleophilic reactions at that position, with either stoichiometric or catalytic base. Characterization Ketones and aldehydes will display a significant peak in infrared spectroscopy, at around 1700 cm−1 (slightly higher or lower, depending on the chemical environment). While 1H NMR is generally not useful for revealing the presence of a ketone, 13C NMR spectra exhibit (typically relatively weak) signals somewhat downfield of 200 ppm depending on structure. Since aldehydes resonate at similar chemical shifts, multiple different NMR experiments are required to definitively distinguish aldehydes and ketones spectrometrically. Ketones give positive results in Brady's test, the reaction with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine to give the corresponding hydrazone. Ketones may be distinguished from aldehydes by giving a negative result with Tollens' reagent. In particular, methyl ketones give positive results for the iodoform test. Synthesis Many methods exist for the preparation of ketones in the laboratory or on industrial scale, including: Ketones can be created by oxidation of secondary alcohols, as in the oxidation of propan-2-ol to acetone: H3C-CH(OH)-CH3 → H3C-CO-CH3. Classically, such reactions required a strong oxidant such as potassium permanganate or a Cr(VI) compound. In modern organic synthesis, much milder conditions such as use of the Dess-Martin periodinane or the Moffatt-Swern oxidation are commonly employed. Ketones can be prepared by geminal halide hydrolysis. Alkynes can be turned into enols through a hydration reaction in the presence of an acid and HgSO4, and subsequent enol-keto tautomerization gives a ketone. This always produces a ketone, even with a terminal alkyne, and disiamylborane is needed to get an aldehyde from an alkyne Aromatic ketones can be prepared in the Friedel-Crafts acylation, the related Houben-Hoesch reaction and the Fries rearrangement. Ozonolysis, and related dihydroxylation/oxidative sequences, cleave alkenes to give aldehydes and/or ketones, depending on alkene substitution pattern. In the Kornblum–DeLaMare rearrangement ketones are prepared from peroxides and base. In the Ruzicka cyclization, cyclic ketones are prepared from dicarboxylic acids. In the Nef reaction, ketones form by hydrolysis of salts of secondary nitro compounds. In the Fukuyama coupling, ketones form from a thioester and an organozinc compound. Ketones can be prepared by the reaction of an acid chloride with organocadmium compounds or organocopper compounds. The Dakin-West reaction provides an efficient method for preparation of certain methyl ketones from carboxylic acids. Reactions Ketones engage in many organic reactions: Nucleophilic addition. The reaction of a ketone with a nucleophile gives a tetrahedral carbonyl addition compound. the reaction with the anion of a terminal alkyne gives a hydroxyalkyne the reaction with ammonia or a primary amine gives an imine + water the reaction with secondary amine gives an enamine + water the reaction with a Grignard reagent gives a magnesium alkoxide and after aqueous workup a tertiary alcohol the reaction with an organolithium reagent also gives a tertiary alcohol the reaction with an alcohol, an acid or base gives a hemiketal + water and further reaction with an alcohol gives the ketal + water. This is a carbonyl-protecting reaction. reaction of RCOR' with sodium amide results in cleavage with formation of the amide RCONH2 and the alkane R'H, a reaction called the Haller-Bauer reaction (1909) Haller-Bauer Reaction Electrophilic addition, reaction with an electrophile gives a resonance stabilized cation. the reaction with phosphonium ylides in the Wittig reaction gives alkenes reaction with water gives geminal diols reaction with thiols gives a thioacetal reaction with hydrazine or derivatives of hydrazine gives hydrazones reaction with a metal hydride gives a metal alkoxide salt and then with water an alcohol reaction of an enol with halogens to form α-haloketone a reaction at an α-carbon is the reaction of a ketone with heavy water to give a deuterated ketone-d. fragmentation in photochemical Norrish reaction reaction with halogens and base of methyl ketones in the Haloform reaction reaction of 1,4-aminodiketones to oxazoles by dehydration in the Robinson-Gabriel synthesis reaction of aryl alkyl ketones with sulfur and an amine to amides in the Willgerodt reaction Biochemistry Acetone, acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate are ketones (or ketone bodies) generated from carbohydrates, fatty acids and amino acids in humans and most vertebrates. Ketones are elevated in blood after fasting including a night of sleep, and in both blood and urine in starvation, hypoglycemia due to causes other than hyperinsulinism, various inborn errors of metabolism, and ketoacidosis (usually due to diabetes mellitus). Although ketoacidosis is characteristic of decompensated or untreated type 1 diabetes, ketosis or even ketoacidosis can occur in type 2 diabetes in some circumstances as well. Acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate are an important fuel for many tissues, especially during fasting and starvation. The brain, in particular, relies heavily on ketone bodies as a substrate for lipid synthesis and for energy during times of reduced food intake. At the NIH, Dr. Richard Veech refers to ketones as "magic" in their ability to increase metabolic efficiency, while decreasing production of free radicals, the damaging byproducts of normal metabolism. His work has shown that ketone bodies may treat neurological diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, and the heart and brain operate 25% more efficiently using ketones as a source of energy. Research has also shown ketones play a role in reducing epileptic seizures with the so-called high-fat, near-zero carbohydrate Ketogenic Diet. Applications Ketones are often used in perfumes and paints to stabilize the other ingredients so that they don't degrade as quickly over time. Other uses are as solvents and intermediates in chemical industry. Examples of ketones are acetone, acetophenone, and methyl ethyl ketone. References | Ketone |@lemmatized ketone:59 group:11 organic:3 chemistry:2 kee:1 toan:1 less:1 often:2 refer:2 alkanone:2 type:3 compound:13 contain:3 carbonyl:11 c:1 bond:7 two:3 carbon:9 atom:5 form:6 co:3 neither:1 substituents:1 may:4 equal:1 hydrogen:12 h:2 either:2 r:2 know:2 aldehyde:8 distinguishes:1 carboxylic:3 acid:11 ester:1 amide:4 oxygen:2 double:1 distinguish:3 alcohol:8 ether:1 simple:2 acetone:7 systematically:1 name:9 propanone:4 position:3 usually:2 denote:1 number:1 one:3 propan:2 molecule:1 accord:1 systematic:1 nomenclature:5 retain:2 official:1 iupac:6 adjacent:1 call:5 α:7 attach:1 presence:3 catalyst:1 subject:1 keto:6 enol:10 tautomerism:2 reaction:41 strong:2 base:6 give:22 corresponding:2 enolate:2 diketone:1 ketonein:1 general:1 use:7 change:1 suffix:1 e:1 parent:1 alkane:3 common:2 traditional:1 benzophenone:1 predominate:1 consider:1 retained:2 list:1 link:1 although:2 introductory:1 text:1 oxo:4 formal:1 functional:2 however:1 prefix:1 also:6 various:2 book:1 journal:1 chemical:4 mainly:1 biochemistry:2 term:1 describe:1 single:1 coordinate:1 transition:1 metal:4 structure:2 property:1 hybridize:1 trigonal:1 planar:1 angle:1 distort:1 ideal:1 polar:2 make:2 interact:1 water:9 bonding:1 soluble:1 acceptor:1 donor:1 cannot:1 volatile:1 similar:2 molecular:1 weight:1 undergo:2 tautomerization:3 tautomer:1 catalyze:1 stable:1 allow:2 prepare:6 synthesize:1 alkyne:5 far:1 acidic:1 pka:2 regular:1 due:3 resonance:2 stabilization:1 ion:1 dissociation:1 relative:1 acidity:2 important:2 enolization:1 nucleophilic:2 stoichiometric:1 catalytic:1 characterization:1 display:1 significant:1 peak:1 infrared:1 spectroscopy:1 around:1 cm:1 slightly:1 higher:1 low:1 depend:3 environment:1 nmr:3 generally:1 useful:1 reveal:1 spectra:1 exhibit:1 typically:1 relatively:1 weak:1 signal:1 somewhat:1 downfield:1 ppm:1 since:1 resonate:1 shift:1 multiple:1 different:1 experiment:1 require:2 definitively:1 spectrometrically:1 positive:2 result:4 brady:1 test:2 dinitrophenylhydrazine:1 correspond:1 hydrazone:1 negative:1 tollens:1 reagent:3 particular:2 methyl:4 iodoform:1 synthesis:4 many:3 method:2 exist:1 preparation:2 laboratory:1 industrial:1 scale:1 include:2 create:1 oxidation:3 secondary:3 ol:1 ch:1 oh:1 classically:1 oxidant:1 potassium:1 permanganate:1 cr:1 vi:1 modern:1 much:1 mild:1 condition:1 des:1 martin:1 periodinane:1 moffatt:1 swern:1 commonly:1 employ:1 geminal:2 halide:1 hydrolysis:2 turn:1 hydration:1 subsequent:1 always:1 produce:1 even:2 terminal:2 disiamylborane:1 need:1 get:1 aromatic:1 friedel:1 craft:1 acylation:1 related:2 houben:1 hoesch:1 fry:1 rearrangement:2 ozonolysis:1 dihydroxylation:1 oxidative:1 sequence:1 cleave:1 alkene:3 substitution:1 pattern:1 kornblum:1 delamare:1 peroxide:1 ruzicka:1 cyclization:1 cyclic:1 dicarboxylic:1 nef:1 salt:2 nitro:1 fukuyama:1 coupling:1 thioester:1 organozinc:1 chloride:1 organocadmium:1 organocopper:1 dakin:1 west:1 provide:1 efficient:1 certain:1 engage:1 addition:3 nucleophile:1 tetrahedral:1 anion:1 hydroxyalkyne:1 ammonia:1 primary:1 amine:3 imine:1 enamine:1 grignard:1 magnesium:1 alkoxide:2 aqueous:1 workup:1 tertiary:2 organolithium:1 hemiketal:1 ketal:1 protect:1 rcor:1 sodium:1 cleavage:1 formation:1 haller:2 bauer:2 electrophilic:1 electrophile:1 stabilize:2 cation:1 phosphonium:1 ylides:1 wittig:1 diol:1 thiols:1 thioacetal:1 hydrazine:2 derivative:1 hydrazones:1 hydride:1 halogen:2 haloketone:1 heavy:1 deuterated:1 fragmentation:1 photochemical:1 norrish:1 haloform:1 aminodiketones:1 oxazoles:1 dehydration:1 robinson:1 gabriel:1 aryl:1 alkyl:1 sulfur:1 willgerodt:1 acetoacetate:2 beta:2 hydroxybutyrate:2 body:3 generate:1 carbohydrate:2 fatty:1 amino:1 human:1 vertebrate:1 elevate:1 blood:2 fast:2 night:1 sleep:1 urine:1 starvation:2 hypoglycemia:1 cause:1 hyperinsulinism:1 inborn:1 error:1 metabolism:2 ketoacidosis:3 diabetes:3 mellitus:1 characteristic:1 decompensated:1 untreated:1 ketosis:1 occur:1 circumstance:1 well:1 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4,389 | Heavy_water | Heavy water is water that contains a higher proportion than normal of the isotope deuterium, as deuterium oxide, D2O or ²H2O, or as deuterium protium oxide, HDO or ¹H²HO. Its physical and chemical properties are somewhat similar to those of water, H2O. Heavy water may contain as much as 100% D2O, and usually the term refers to water that is highly enriched in deuterium. The isotopic substitution with deuterium alters the bond energy of the hydrogen-oxygen bond in water, altering the physical, chemical, and especially biological properties of the pure or highly-enriched substance to a larger degree than is found in most isotope-substituted chemical compounds. Relatively pure heavy water was produced in 1933, soon after the discovery of deuterium, the stable heavy isotope of hydrogen. With the discovery of nuclear fission in late 1938 and the need for a neutron moderator which captured few neutrons, heavy water soon achieved importance in relation to early nuclear programs during World War II. Due in part to German reliance on scarce heavy water for reactor research in this war, Germany did not succeed in producing a functioning reactor during World War II. Since this war, heavy water has played a part in a number of reactor designs, both in designs for power and for nuclear weapon-making. Reactors which use enriched uranium, however, are able to use normal “light-water” for neutron moderation, and remain the most common type of reactor in use today. Heavy water itself is not radioactive, and has physical properties similar to water save for being about 11% more dense. However, as commercially made, heavy water contains whatever tritium was present in the water from which it was isolated. When the water in eukaryotic organisms is replaced by more than about 25 to 50% heavy water, they experience toxicity due to interference by the deuterium with the mitotic apparatus of these cells. Higher organisms, including mammals, if given only heavy water, soon become ill and die at the point that about half their body water has been replaced. Bacteria, however, are able to grow slowly in pure heavy water. Small concentrations of heavy water are nontoxic. The adult human body naturally contains deuterium equivalent to the amount in about 5 grams of heavy water, and comparable doses of heavy water are still used as safe non-radioactive tracers for metabolic experiments in humans and other animals. Other meanings Semiheavy water Semiheavy water, HDO, exists whenever there is water with hydrogen-1 (or protium) and deuterium present in the mixture. This is because hydrogen atoms (hydrogen-1 and deuterium) are rapidly exchanged between water molecules. Water containing 50% H and 50% D in its hydrogen actually contains about 50% HDO and 25% each of H2O and D2O, in dynamic equilibrium. Semiheavy water, HDO, occurs naturally in regular water at a proportion of about 1 molecule in 3,200 (each hydrogen has a probability of 1 in 6,400 of being D). Heavy water, D2O, by comparison, occurs naturally at a proportion of about 1 molecule in 41 million (i.e., 1 in 6,4002). This makes semiheavy water actually far more prevalent than 'normal' heavy water. Heavy-oxygen water A common type of heavy-oxygen water H218O is available commercially for use as a non-radioactive isotopic tracer (see doubly-labeled water for discussion), and qualifies as "heavy water" insofar as having a higher density than normal water (in this case, similar density to deuterium oxide). At higher expense (due to the greater difficulty in separation of O-17, a less common heavy isotope of oxygen), water is available in which the oxygen is enriched to varying degrees with 17O. However, these types of heavy-isotope water are rarely referred to as "heavy water", as they do not contain the deuterium which gives D2O its characteristically different nuclear and biological properties. Heavy-oxygen waters with normal hydrogen, for example, would not be expected to show any toxicity whatsoever (see discussion of toxicity below). Physical properties (with comparison to light water) Property D2O (Heavy water) H2O (Light water) Freezing point (°C) 3.82 0.0 Boiling point (°C) 101.4 100.0 Density (at 20°C, g/mL) 1.1056 0.9982 Temp. of maximum density (°C) 11.6 4.0 Viscosity (at 20°C, mPa·s) 1.25 1.005 Surface tension (at 25°C, μJ) 7.193 7.197 Heat of fusion (cal/mol) 1,515 1,436 Heat of vaporisation (cal/mol) 10,864 10,515 pH (at 25°C) 7.41 (sometimes "pD") 7.00 No physical properties are listed for "pure" semi-heavy water, because it cannot be isolated in bulk quantities. In the liquid state, a few water molecules are always in an ionised state, which means the hydrogen atoms can exchange among different oxygen atoms. A sample of hypothetical "pure" semi-heavy water would rapidly transform into a dynamic mixture of 25% light water, 25% heavy water, and 50% semi-heavy water. Physical properties obvious by inspection: Heavy water is 10.6% denser than ordinary water, a difference which is difficult to notice in a sample of it (although it looks like water, it reportedly tastes slightly sweet ). One of the few ways to demonstrate heavy water's physically different properties without equipment, is to freeze a sample and drop it into normal water. Ice made from heavy water sinks in normal water. If the normal water is ice-cold this phenomenon may be observed long enough for a good demonstration, since heavy-water ice has a slightly higher melting-temperature (3.8 °C) than normal ice, and thus holds up very well in ice-cold normal water. History Harold Urey discovered the isotope deuterium in 1931 and was later able to concentrate it in water. Urey's mentor Gilbert Newton Lewis isolated the first sample of pure heavy water by electrolysis in 1933. George de Hevesy and Hoffer used heavy water in 1934 in one of the first biological tracer experiments, to estimate the rate of turnover of water in the human body. The history of large-quantity production and use of heavy water in early nuclear experiments is given below. Effect on biological systems Heavy isotopes of chemical elements have slightly different chemical behaviors, but for most elements the differences in chemical behavior between isotopes are far too small to use, or even detect. For hydrogen, however, this is not true. The larger chemical isotope-effects seen with deuterium and tritium manifest because bond energies in chemistry are determined in quantum mechanics by equations in which the quantity of reduced mass of the nucleus and electrons appears. This quantity is altered in heavy-hydrogen compounds (of which deuterium oxide is the most common and familiar) more than for heavy-isotope substitution in other chemical elements. This isotope effect of heavy hydrogen is magnified further in biological systems, which are very sensitive to small changes in the solvent properties of water. Heavy water is the only known chemical substance that affects the period of circadian oscillations, consistently increasing them. The effect is seen in unicellular organisms, green plants, isopods, insects, birds, mice, and hamsters. The mechanism is unknown. To perform their tasks, enzymes rely on their finely tuned networks of hydrogen bonds, both in the active center with their substrates, and outside the active center, to stabilize their tertiary structures. As a hydrogen bond with deuterium is slightly stronger than one involving ordinary hydrogen, in a highly deuterated environment, some normal reactions in cells are disrupted. Particularly hard-hit by heavy water are the delicate assemblies of mitotic spindle formation necessary for cell division in eukaryotes. Plants stop growing and seeds do not germinate when given only heavy water, because heavy water stops eukaryotic cell division. It has been proposed that low doses of heavy water can slow the aging process by helping the body resist oxidative damage via the isotope effect. A team at the Institute for the Biology of Ageing, located in Moscow, conducted an experiment to determine the effect of heavy water on longevity using fruit flies and found that while large amounts were deadly, smaller quantities increased lifespans by up to 30%. Effect on animals Experiments in mice, rats, and dogs have shown that a degree of 25% deuteration causes (sometimes irreversible) sterility, because neither gametes nor zygotes can develop. High concentrations of heavy water (90%) rapidly kill fish, tadpoles, flatworms, and drosophila. Mammals, such as rats, given heavy water to drink die after a week, at a time when their body water approaches about 50% deuteration. The mode of death appears to be the same as that in cytotoxic poisoning (such as chemotherapy) or in acute radiation syndrome (though deuterium is not radioactive), and is due to deuterium's action in generally inhibiting cell division. It is more toxic to malignant cells than normal cells but the concentrations needed are too high for regular use. As in chemotherapy, deuterium-poisoned mammals die of a failure of bone marrow (bleeding and infection) and intestinal-barrier functions (diarrhea and fluid loss). Notwithstanding the problems of plants and animals in living with too much deuterium, prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria, which do not have the mitotic problems induced by deuterium, may be grown and propagated in fully deuterated conditions, resulting in replacement of all hydrogen atoms in the bacterial proteins and DNA with the deuterium isotope. Full replacement with heavy atom isotopes can be accomplished in higher organisms with other non-radioactive heavy isotopes (such as carbon-13, nitrogen-15, and oxygen-18), but this cannot be done for the stable heavy isotope of hydrogen. Deuterium oxide is used to enhance boron neutron capture therapy, but this effect does not rely on the biological effects of deuterium per se, but instead on deuterium's ability to moderate (slow) neutrons without capturing them. Toxicity in humans Because it would take a very large amount of heavy water to replace 25% to 50% of a human being's body water (which in turn is 70% of body weight) with heavy water, accidental or intentional poisoning with heavy water is unlikely to the point of practical disregard. For a poisoning, large amounts of heavy water would need to be ingested without significant normal water intake for many days to produce any noticeable toxic effects (although in a few tests, volunteers drinking large amounts of heavy water have reported dizziness, a possible effect of density changes in the fluid in the inner ear ). For example, a 70 kg human containing 50 kg of water and drinking 3 litres of pure heavy water per day, would take almost 5 days to reach 25% deuteration and about 11 days to approach 50% deuteration. Thus, it would take a week of drinking nothing but pure heavy water for a human to begin to feel ill, and 10 days to 2 weeks (depending on water intake) for severe poisoning and death. In the highly unlikely event that a human were to receive a toxic dose of heavy water, the treatment would involve the use of intravenous water replacement (due to possible intestinal dysfunction and problems with absorption of fluids). This would be done via 0.9% (normal physiologic) saline solution with other salts as needed, perhaps in conjunction with diuretics. Oral doses of heavy water in the multi-gram range, along with heavy oxygen 18O, are routinely used in human metabolic experiments. See doubly-labeled water testing. Since 1 in every 6400 hydrogen atoms is deuterium, a 50 kg human containing 32 kg of body water would normally contain enough deuterium (about 1.1 gram) to make 5.5 grams of pure heavy water, so roughly this dose is required to double the amount of deuterium in the body. The US issued patent for use of heavy water to treat hypertension (high blood pressure). A loss of blood pressure may partially explain the reported incidents of dizziness upon ingestion. Confused report of a "heavy water" contamination incident In 1990, a disgruntled employee at the Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station in Canada obtained a sample (estimated as about a "half cup") of heavy water from the primary heat transport loop of the nuclear reactor, and loaded it into the employee water cooler. Eight employees drank some of the contaminated water. The incident was discovered when employees began leaving bioassay urine samples with elevated tritium levels. The quantity of heavy water involved was far below levels that could induce heavy water toxicity, but several employees received elevated radiation doses from tritium and neutron-activated chemicals in the water. This was not an incident of heavy water poisoning, but rather radiation poisoning from other isotopes in the heavy water. Some news services were not careful to distinguish these points, and some of the public was left with the impression that heavy water is normally radioactive and more severely toxic than it is. Even if pure heavy water had been used in the water cooler indefinitely, it is not likely the incident would have been detected or caused harm, since no employees would be expected to get as much as 25% of their daily drinking water from such a source. Production On Earth, semiheavy water, HDO, occurs naturally in regular water at a proportion of about 1 molecule in 3200. This means that 1 in 6400 hydrogen atoms is deuterium, which is 1 part in 3200 by weight (hydrogen weight). The HDO may be separated from regular water by distillation or electrolysis and also by various chemical exchange processes, all of which exploit a kinetic isotope effect. (For more information about the isotopic distribution of deuterium in water, see Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water.) The difference in mass between the two hydrogen isotopes translates into a difference in the zero-point energy and thus into a slight difference in the speed at which the reaction proceeds. Once HDO becomes a significant fraction of the water, heavy water will become more prevalent as water molecules trade hydrogen atoms very frequently. To produce pure heavy water by distillation or electrolysis requires a large cascade of stills or electrolysis chambers, and consumes large amounts of power, so the chemical methods are generally preferred. The most important chemical method is the Girdler sulfide process. United States In 1953, the United States began using heavy water in plutonium production reactors at the Savannah River Site. The first of the five heavy water reactors came online in 1953, and the last was placed in cold shutdown in 1996. The SRS reactors were heavy water reactors so that they could produce both plutonium and tritium for the US nuclear weapons program. The U.S. developed the Girdler Sulfide chemical exchange production process which was first demonstrated on a large scale at the Dana, Indiana plant in 1945 and at the Savannah River Plant, South Carolina in 1952. The SRP was operated by DuPont for the USDOE until April 1, 1989 at which time the operation was taken over by Westinghouse. Norway In 1934, Norsk Hydro built the first commercial heavy water plant at Vemork, Tinn, with a capacity of 12 tonnes per year. From 1940 and throughout World War II, the plant was under German control and the allies decided to destroy the plant and its heavy water to inhibit German development of nuclear weapons. In late 1942, a planned raid by British airborne troops failed, both gliders crashing. The raiders were killed in the crash or subsequently executed by the Germans. But in the night of 27 February 1943 Operation Gunnerside succeeded. Norwegian commandos and local resistance managed to demolish small but key parts of the electrolytic cells, dumping the accumulated heavy water down the factory drains. Had the German nuclear program followed similar lines of research as the U.S. Manhattan Project, such heavy water would have been crucial to obtaining plutonium from a nuclear reactor. The Norsk Hydro operation is one of the great commando/sabotage operations of the war. On 16 November 1943, the allied air forces dropped more than 400 bombs on the site. The allied air raid prompted the Nazi government to move all available heavy water to Germany for safekeeping. On 20 February 1944, a Norwegian partisan sank the ferry M/F Hydro carrying the heavy water across Lake Tinn, at the cost of 14 Norwegian civilians, and most of the heavy water was presumably lost. A few of the barrels were only half full, and therefore could float, and may have been salvaged and transported to Germany. (These events were dramatized in the 1965 movie, The Heroes of Telemark.) However, recent investigation of production records at Norsk Hydro and analysis of an intact barrel that was salvaged in 2004 revealed that although the barrels in this shipment contained water of pH 14 — indicative of the alkaline electrolytic refinement process — they did not contain high concentrations of D2O. Despite the apparent size of shipment, the total quantity of pure heavy water was quite small, most barrels only containing between 1/2–1% pure heavy water. The Germans would have needed a total of about 5 tons of heavy water to get a nuclear reactor running. The manifest clearly indicated that there was only half a ton of heavy water being transported to Germany. The Hydro was carrying far too little heavy water for even one reactor, let alone the 10 or more tons needed to make enough plutonium for a nuclear weapon. The Hydro shipment on 20 February 1944 was probably destined for an experimental reactor project . Canada As part of its contribution to the Manhattan Project, Canada built and operated a 6 tonnes per year electrolytic heavy water plant at Trail, BC, which started operation in 1943. The Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) design of power reactor requires large quantities of heavy water to act as a neutron moderator and coolant. AECL ordered two heavy water plants which were built and operated in Atlantic Canada at Glace Bay (by Deuterium of Canada Limited) and Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia (by General Electric Canada). These plants proved to have significant design, construction and production problems and so AECL built the Bruce Heavy Water Plant, which it later sold to Ontario Hydro, to ensure a reliable supply of heavy water for future power plants. The two Nova Scotia plants were shut down in 1985 when their production proved to be unnecessary. The Bruce Heavy Water Plant in Ontario was the world's largest heavy water production plant with a capacity of 700 tonnes per year. It used the Girdler sulfide process to produce heavy water, and required 340,000 tonnes of feed water to produce one tonne of heavy water. It was part of a complex that included 8 CANDU reactors which provided heat and power for the heavy water plant. The site was located at Douglas Point in Bruce County on Lake Huron where it had access to the waters of the Great Lakes. The Bruce plant was commissioned in 1979 to provide heavy water for a large increase in Ontario's nuclear power generation. The plants proved to be significantly more efficient than planned and only three of the planned four units were eventually commissioned. In addition, the nuclear power programme was slowed down and effectively stopped due to a perceived oversupply of electricity, later shown to be temporary, in 1993. Improved efficiency in the use and recycling of heavy water plus the over-production at Bruce left Canada with enough heavy water for its anticipated future needs. Also, the Girdler process involves large amounts of hydrogen sulfide, raising environmental concerns if there should be a release. The Bruce heavy-water plant was shut down in 1997, after which the plant was gradually dismantled and the site cleared. Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) is currently researching other more efficient and environmentally benign processes for creating heavy water. This is essential for the future of the CANDU reactors since heavy water represents about 20% of the capital cost of each reactor. India India is the world's second largest producer of heavy water through its Heavy Water Board. Iran On August 26, 2006, Iranian President Ahmadinejad inaugurated an expansion of the country's heavy-water plant near Arak. Iran has indicated that the heavy-water production facility will operate in tandem with a 40 MW research reactor that has a scheduled completion date in 2009. In an interview which aired on the Iranian News Channel (IRINN) on August 27, 2006, Iranian Nuclear Chief Mohammad Sa'idi claimed that heavy water could be used to treat AIDS and cancer. Daily consumption was recommended. "Iranian Nuclear Chief Mohammad Sa'idi Explains Why Iran Produces Heavy Water: Drinking It Helps Fight Cancer and AIDS" aired on the Iranian News Channel (IRINN) on August 27, 2006. Pakistan The 50 MWt, heavy water and natural uranium research reactor at Khushab, in Punjab province, is a central element of Pakistan's program for production of plutonium, deuterium and tritium for advanced compact warheads.Pakistan succeeded in illicitly acquiring a tritium purification and storage plant, and deuterium and tritium precursor materials from two German firms.Khushab Heavy Water Plant Other countries Argentina is another declared producer of heavy water, using an ammonia/hydrogen exchange based plant supplied by Switzerland's Sulzer company. Romania also produces heavy water at the Drobeta Girdler Sulfide plant and is exporting it from time to time. France operated a small plant during the 1950s and 1960s. Applications Nuclear magnetic resonance Deuterium oxide is used in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy when the solvent of interest is water and the nuclide of interest is hydrogen. This is because the signal from the water solvent would interfere with the signal from the molecule of interest. Deuterium has a different magnetic moment from hydrogen and therefore does not contribute to the NMR signal at the hydrogen resonance frequency. Organic Chemistry Deuterium oxide is often used as the source of deuterium for preparing specifically-labelled isotopologs of organic compounds. For example, C-H bonds adjacent to ketonic carbonyl groups can be replaced by C-D bonds, using acid or base catalysis. Trimethylsulfoxonium iodide, made from dimethylsulfoxide and methyl iodide can be recrystallized from deuterium oxide, and then dissociated to regenerate methyl iodide and dimethylsulfoxide, both deuterium labeled. In cases where specific double labelling by deuterium and tritium is contemplated, the researcher needs to be aware that deuterium oxide, depending upon age and origin, can contain some tritium. Fourier Transform Spectroscopy Deuterium oxide is often used instead of water when collecting FTIR spectra of proteins in solution. H2O creates a strong band that overlaps with the amide I region of proteins. The band from D2O is shifted away from the amide I region. Neutron moderator Heavy water is used in certain types of nuclear reactors where it acts as a neutron moderator to slow down neutrons so that they can react with the uranium in the reactor. The CANDU reactor uses this design. Light water also acts as a moderator but because light water absorbs more neutrons than heavy water, reactors using light water must use enriched uranium rather than natural uranium, otherwise criticality is impossible. The use of heavy water essentially increases the efficiency of the nuclear reaction. Because of this, heavy water reactors will be more efficient at breeding plutonium (from uranium-238) or uranium-233 (from thorium-232) than a comparable light-water reactor, leading them to be of greater concern in regards to nuclear proliferation. The breeding and extraction of plutonium can be a relatively rapid and cheap route to building a nuclear weapon, as chemical separation of plutonium from fuel is easier than isotopic separation of U-235 from natural uranium. Heavy water moderated research reactors or specifically-built plutonium breeder reactors have been used for this purpose by most, if not all, states which possess nuclear weapons, although historically the first nuclear weapons were produced without it. (Pure carbon may be used as a moderator, even in unenriched uranium nuclear reactors. Thus, in the U.S., the first experimental atomic reactor (1942), as well as the Manhattan Project Hanford production reactors which produced the plutonium for the Trinity test and Fat Man bombs, all used pure carbon neutron moderators and functioned with neither enriched uranium nor heavy water). There is no evidence that civilian heavy water power reactors, such as the CANDU or Atucha designs, have been used for military production of fissile materials. In states which do not already possess nuclear weapons, the nuclear material at these facilities is under IAEA safeguards to discourage any such diversion. Due to its potential for use in nuclear weapons programs, the possession or import/export of large industrial quantities of heavy water are subject to government control in several countries. Suppliers of heavy water and heavy water production technology typically apply IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) administered safeguards and material accounting to heavy water. (In Australia, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation (Safeguards) Act 1987.) In the U.S. and Canada, non-industrial quantities of heavy water (i.e., in the gram to kg range) are routinely available through chemical supply dealers, and directly commercial companies such as the world's former major producer Ontario Hydro, without special license. Current (2006) cost of a kilogram of 99.98% reactor-purity heavy water, is about $600 to $700. Smaller quantities of reasonable purity (99.9%) may be purchased from chemical supply houses at prices of roughly $1 per gram. Neutrino detector The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) in Sudbury, Ontario used 1000 tonnes of heavy water on loan from Atomic Energy of Canada Limited. The neutrino detector is 6800 feet underground in a deep mine, in order to shield it from muons produced by cosmic rays. SNO was built to answer the question of whether or not electron-type neutrinos produced by fusion in the Sun (the only type the Sun should be producing directly, according to theory) might be able to turn into other types of neutrinos on the way to Earth. SNO detects the Čerenkov radiation in the water from high-energy electrons produced from electron-type neutrinos as they undergo reactions with neutrons in deuterium, turning them into protons and electrons (only the electrons move fast enough to be detected in this manner). SNO also detects the same radiation from neutrino↔electron scattering events, which again produces high energy electrons. These two reactions are produced only by electron-type neutrinos. The use of deuterium is critical to the SNO function, because all three "flavours" (types) of neutrinos may be detected in a third type of reaction, neutrino-disintegration, in which a neutrino of any type (electron, muon, or tau) scatters from a deuterium nucleus (deuteron), transferring enough energy to break up the loosely-bound deuteron into a free neutron and proton. This event is detected when the free neutron is absorbed by 35Cl− present from NaCl which has been deliberately dissolved in the heavy water, causing emission of characteristic capture gamma rays. Thus, in this experiment, heavy water not only provides the transparent medium necessary to produce and visualize Čerenkov radiation, but it also provides deuterium to detect exotic mu type (μ) and tau (τ) neutrinos, as well as a non-absorbent moderator medium to preserve free neutrons from this reaction, until they can be absorbed by an easily-detected neutron-activated isotope. Metabolic rate testing in physiology/biology Heavy water is employed as part of a mixture with H218O for a common and safe test of mean metabolic rate in humans and animals undergoing their normal activities. This metabolic test is usually called the doubly-labeled water test. Tritium production Tritium is an important material in nuclear weapon design for boosted fission weapons and initiators, and also has civilian industrial applications. Some is created in heavy water moderated reactors when deuterium captures a neutron. This reaction has a small cross-section and produces only small amounts of tritium, although enough so that cleaning tritium from the moderator may be desirable after several years to reduce the risk of tritium escape and radiation exposure. Production of large amounts of tritium in this way would require reactors with very high neutron fluxes, or with a very high proportion of heavy water to nuclear fuel and very low neutron absorption by other reactor material. The tritium would then have to be recovered by isotope separation from a much larger quantity of deuterium, unlike tritium production from lithium-6 (the present method of tritium production), where only chemical separation is needed. Deuterium's absorption cross section for thermal neutrons is .52 millibarns, while oxygen-16's is .19 millibarns and oxygen-17's is .24 barn. 17O makes up .038% of natural oxygen, which has an overall absorption cross section of .28 millibarns. Therefore in D2O with natural oxygen, 21% of neutron captures are on oxygen, a proportion that may rise further as 17O accumulates from neutron capture on 16O. Also, 17O emits an alpha particle on capture, producing radioactive carbon-14. See also Norwegian heavy water sabotage Cold fusion Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water Deuterium References External links Thermodynamic Properties of liquid heavy water Heavy Water Production, Federation of American Scientists Heavy Water: A Manufacturer’s Guide for the Hydrogen Century Is "heavy water" dangerous? 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4,390 | Glen_or_Glenda | Glen or Glenda is a 1953 exploitation film written, directed by and starring Ed Wood, and featuring Bela Lugosi, and Wood's then-girlfriend Dolores Fuller. The movie is a docudrama about cross-dressing and transsexuality, and is semi-autobiographical in nature. Wood himself was a crossdresser, and the movie is a plea for tolerance. However, it has become a cult film due to its low-budget production values and idiosyncratic style. Origin The sex reassignment surgery of Christine Jorgensen made national headlines in the U.S. in 1952, and this was the inspiration for George Weiss, a Hollywood producer of low-budget films, to commission a movie to exploit it. Wood persuaded Weiss that his own transvestism made him the perfect director despite his modest resume. Wood was given the job and took the money, but instead made a movie about transvestism. When the finished movie was deemed too short and too divergent from what was requested, Wood tacked on a few extra scenes about sexual reassignment. The producer spliced in two unrelated soft-core sequences, one with some mild bondage, cutting in reaction shots of Wood and Lugosi. The film received a release only because it had been pre-sold to a number of theatres before it was made. Behind the scenes This was the only movie Wood directed but did not also produce. He persuaded Lugosi, at the time poor and drug-addicted, to appear in the movie. Wood himself played the eponymous character, but under the pseudonym "Daniel Davis". His girlfriend, Dolores Fuller, played Glen's girlfriend. Fuller was not aware of Wood's transvestism at the time: the nature of the film was not fully explained to her, and Wood rarely wore women's clothing when she was on set. Only at a screening of the finished product was the truth revealed, and Fuller claims to have been humiliated by the experience. In the theatrical trailer, included in laserdisc and DVD editions, the concluding scene of the film, in which Fuller hands over her angora sweater, is a different take than the one in the release version — in the trailer, she tosses it to Wood in a huff, while the release version shows her handing it over more acceptingly. There is also a shot of Wood in drag, mouthing the word "Cut!" Plot Glen or Glenda The first part of the film begins with a narrator named The Scientist (Bela Lugosi) making cryptic comments about humanity. The film proper opens with Inspector Warren finding the corpse of a male transvestite named Patrick/Patricia, who has committed suicide. Wanting to know more about cross-dressing, Warren seeks out Dr. Alton, who narrates for him the story of Glen/Glenda. However, at several points Alton appears to address the viewer rather than Inspector Warren, and the unclear role of the Scientist as narrator makes things even more confusing. Glen is shown studying women's clothes in a shop window. Dr. Alton points out that men's clothes are dull and restrictive, whereas women can adorn themselves with attractive clothing. He also makes some bizarre statements, such as that baldness is caused by hats. Glen reads about sex change operations in a newspaper, then meets with Barbara, his girlfriend, who asks if Glen's secret problem is another woman. The film then cuts to the (in)famous shot of the Scientist shouting "Pull the string!" as bison stampede onscreen. It is not clear what this is meant to mean; perhaps that Glen should act as puppeteer, controlling his own life instead of letting others dictate it. Another transvestite friend of his, John, tells Glen how cross-dressing ended his marriage. A bizarre dream sequence, containing some BDSM pornography, follows. Glen then decides to tell Barbara the truth. She proffers her angora sweater as a sign of acceptance. Alan or Anne The second part is much shorter, and was made to meet the distributor's demand for a sex change film. Alan is a pseudohermaphrodite who fights in the Second World War wearing women's underwear. After "his" return, Alan becomes the woman she always was through surgery. Idiosyncrasies Béla Lugosi shouting "Pull the string!" amid stampeding bison. Leonard Maltin's Movie and Video Guide names this film as "possibly the worst movie ever made," a dubious honor previously held by another Wood film, Plan 9 from Outer Space. Lugosi is credited as "The Scientist", a character whose purpose is unclear. He acts as a sort of narrator but gives no narration relevant to the plot; that job is reserved for the film's primary narrator, Timothy Farrell. The Scientist is surrounded by horror movie trappings such as skulls and test tubes as he exhorts the audience to "beware of the big green dragon that sits on your doorstep". Stock footage of rampaging bison are superimposed over The Scientist's face at one point for no obvious reason. There are also various long, surreal dream sequences during which Glen is haunted by a devil-like character. DVD cover for Glen or Glenda? In popular culture Another transvestite character named Glen with a female persona of "Glenda" appears in Wood's novel Killer in Drag and is executed in the sequel Death of a Transvestite after a struggle for the right to go to the electric chair dressed as Glenda. Tim Burton's movie Ed Wood depicts the making of the film and includes reconstructions of several scenes with Johnny Depp in the role of Ed Wood. Glen or Glenda was reissued with six minutes of additional footage in 1982. Restored scenes include Glen's rejection of a pass made by a gay man. A pornographic remake of the film entitled Glen & Glenda was made in 1994 featuring much of the same script as the original film, but with explicit sex scenes added. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0137784/ Comes 50th on The 50 Worst Movies Ever Made. (Wood's film Plan 9 from Outer Space is ranked the #4 on the same list) The original "Glen or Glenda" now resides in public domain. In Seed of Chucky, Chucky and Tiffany's child who lacks genitalia is decided to be called "Glen or Glenda". See also Transgender in film and television Cross-dressing in film and television Films considered the worst ever List of films in the public domain References The Haunted World of Edward D. Wood, Jr. (documentary, dir. Brett Thompson, 1996). External links Theatrical trailer for the film (Windows and Real Media formats) Glen or Glenda on Google Video | Glen_or_Glenda |@lemmatized glen:19 glenda:11 exploitation:1 film:22 write:1 direct:2 star:1 ed:3 wood:19 feature:2 bela:2 lugosi:6 girlfriend:4 dolores:2 fuller:5 movie:12 docudrama:1 cross:4 dressing:4 transsexuality:1 semi:1 autobiographical:1 nature:2 crossdresser:1 plea:1 tolerance:1 however:2 become:2 cult:1 due:1 low:2 budget:2 production:1 value:1 idiosyncratic:1 style:1 origin:1 sex:4 reassignment:2 surgery:2 christine:1 jorgensen:1 make:12 national:1 headline:1 u:1 inspiration:1 george:1 wei:2 hollywood:1 producer:2 commission:1 exploit:1 persuade:2 transvestism:3 perfect:1 director:1 despite:1 modest:1 resume:1 give:2 job:2 take:2 money:1 instead:2 finish:1 deem:1 short:2 divergent:1 request:1 tack:1 extra:1 scene:6 sexual:1 splice:1 two:1 unrelated:1 soft:1 core:1 sequence:3 one:3 mild:1 bondage:1 cut:3 reaction:1 shot:3 receive:1 release:3 pre:1 sell:1 number:1 theatre:1 behind:1 also:5 produce:1 time:2 poor:1 drug:1 addict:1 appear:3 play:2 eponymous:1 character:4 pseudonym:1 daniel:1 davis:1 aware:1 fully:1 explain:1 rarely:1 wear:2 woman:6 clothe:1 set:1 screening:1 finished:1 product:1 truth:2 reveal:1 claim:1 humiliate:1 experience:1 theatrical:2 trailer:3 include:3 laserdisc:1 dvd:2 edition:1 conclude:1 hand:2 angora:2 sweater:2 different:1 version:2 toss:1 huff:1 show:2 acceptingly:1 drag:2 mouth:1 word:1 plot:2 first:1 part:2 begin:1 narrator:4 name:3 scientist:6 cryptic:1 comment:1 humanity:1 proper:1 open:1 inspector:2 warren:3 find:1 corpse:1 male:1 transvestite:4 patrick:1 patricia:1 commit:1 suicide:1 want:1 know:1 seek:1 dr:2 alton:3 narrate:1 story:1 several:2 point:3 address:1 viewer:1 rather:1 unclear:2 role:2 thing:1 even:1 confusing:1 study:1 clothes:2 shop:1 window:2 men:1 dull:1 restrictive:1 whereas:1 adorn:1 attractive:1 clothing:1 bizarre:2 statement:1 baldness:1 cause:1 hat:1 read:1 change:2 operation:1 newspaper:1 meet:2 barbara:2 ask:1 secret:1 problem:1 another:4 famous:1 shout:2 pull:2 string:2 bison:3 stampede:2 onscreen:1 clear:1 mean:2 perhaps:1 act:2 puppeteer:1 control:1 life:1 let:1 others:1 dictate:1 friend:1 john:1 tell:2 end:1 marriage:1 dream:2 contain:1 bdsm:1 pornography:1 follow:1 decide:2 proffer:1 sign:1 acceptance:1 alan:3 anne:1 second:2 much:2 distributor:1 demand:1 pseudohermaphrodite:1 fight:1 world:2 war:1 underwear:1 return:1 always:1 idiosyncrasy:1 béla:1 amid:1 leonard:1 maltin:1 video:2 guide:1 names:1 possibly:1 bad:3 ever:3 dubious:1 honor:1 previously:1 hold:1 plan:2 space:2 credit:1 whose:1 purpose:1 sort:1 narration:1 relevant:1 reserve:1 primary:1 timothy:1 farrell:1 surround:1 horror:1 trapping:1 skull:1 test:1 tube:1 exhort:1 audience:1 beware:1 big:1 green:1 dragon:1 sit:1 doorstep:1 stock:1 footage:2 rampage:1 superimpose:1 face:1 obvious:1 reason:1 various:1 long:1 surreal:1 haunt:1 devil:1 like:1 cover:1 popular:1 culture:1 female:1 persona:1 novel:1 killer:1 execute:1 sequel:1 death:1 struggle:1 right:1 go:1 electric:1 chair:1 dress:1 tim:1 burton:1 depict:1 making:1 reconstruction:1 johnny:1 depp:1 reissue:1 six:1 minute:1 additional:1 restore:1 rejection:1 pas:1 gay:1 man:1 pornographic:1 remake:1 entitle:1 script:1 original:2 explicit:1 add:1 http:1 www:1 imdb:1 com:1 title:1 come:1 rank:1 list:2 reside:1 public:2 domain:2 seed:1 chucky:2 tiffany:1 child:1 lack:1 genitalia:1 call:1 see:1 transgender:1 television:2 consider:1 reference:1 haunted:1 edward:1 jr:1 documentary:1 dir:1 brett:1 thompson:1 external:1 link:1 real:1 medium:1 format:1 google:1 |@bigram glen_glenda:9 bela_lugosi:2 dolores_fuller:2 cross_dressing:4 semi_autobiographical:1 sex_reassignment:1 reassignment_surgery:1 drug_addict:1 theatrical_trailer:2 laserdisc_dvd:1 commit_suicide:1 béla_lugosi:1 tim_burton:1 johnny_depp:1 http_www:1 www_imdb:1 imdb_com:1 external_link:1 |
4,391 | Esbat | An esbat is a ritual observance of the full moon within Wicca and other Wiccan-influenced forms of Neopaganism. Some groups extend these celebrations to include the dark moon, or even the first and last quarters. Traditionally, the eight festivals of the Wheel of the Year are times of celebration, while "magical work" is done at the esbats. The term esbat in this sense is due to Margaret Murray. Margaret Murray, 1921, Witch Cult in Western Europe: A Study in Anthropology, ISBN 9780766144552 (2003 reprint), pp. 112-123; 1933, The God of the Witches, Sampson Law, Marston & Co., Ltd. Murray (1921) claimed that "The Esbat differed from the Sabbat by being primarily for business. ... very often the Esbat was for sheer enjoyment only". Murray used 16th to 17th century French sources on supposed Witches' Sabbaths in the context of the European witch trials to "reconstruct" a Witch Cult in Western Europe. In 16th century French, the term esbat (Modern French ébat) meant roughly "frolic, romp, disport". In The Witches' Goddess, Janet and Stewart Farrar note that the Babylonians considered the new moon to be the time when the Goddess was menstruating, and it was bad luck to do work on that day. In Jewish culture, this is the first day of the month, called Rosh Chodesh. Notes | Esbat |@lemmatized esbat:5 ritual:1 observance:1 full:1 moon:3 within:1 wicca:1 wiccan:1 influenced:1 form:1 neopaganism:1 group:1 extend:1 celebration:2 include:1 dark:1 even:1 first:2 last:1 quarter:1 traditionally:1 eight:1 festival:1 wheel:1 year:1 time:2 magical:1 work:2 esbats:1 term:2 sense:1 due:1 margaret:2 murray:4 witch:6 cult:2 western:2 europe:2 study:1 anthropology:1 isbn:1 reprint:1 pp:1 god:1 sampson:1 law:1 marston:1 co:1 ltd:1 claim:1 differ:1 sabbat:1 primarily:1 business:1 often:1 sheer:1 enjoyment:1 use:1 century:2 french:3 source:1 supposed:1 sabbath:1 context:1 european:1 trial:1 reconstruct:1 modern:1 ébat:1 meant:1 roughly:1 frolic:1 romp:1 disport:1 goddess:2 janet:1 stewart:1 farrar:1 note:2 babylonian:1 consider:1 new:1 menstruate:1 bad:1 luck:1 day:2 jewish:1 culture:1 month:1 call:1 rosh:1 chodesh:1 |@bigram wicca_wiccan:1 stewart_farrar:1 bad_luck:1 rosh_chodesh:1 |
4,392 | Field_(mathematics) | In abstract algebra, a field is an algebraic structure with notions of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, satisfying certain axioms. The most commonly used fields are the field of real numbers, the field of complex numbers, and the field of rational numbers, but there are also finite fields, fields of functions, various algebraic number fields, p-adic fields, and so forth. Any field may be used as the scalars for a vector space, which is the standard general context for linear algebra. The theory of field extensions (including Galois theory) involves the roots of polynomials with coefficients in a field; among other results, this theory leads to impossibility proofs for the classical problems of angle trisection and squaring the circle with a compass and straightedge, as well as a proof of the Abel–Ruffini theorem on the insolubility of quintic equations. In modern mathematics, the theory of fields (or field theory) plays an essential role in number theory and algebraic geometry. As an algebraic structure, every field is a ring, but not every ring is a field. The most important difference is that fields allow for division (though not division by zero), while a ring may not possess multiplicative inverses. In addition, the multiplication operation in a field is required to be commutative. A ring in which division is possible but commutativity is not assumed (such as the quaternions) is called a division ring or skew field. (Historically, division rings were sometimes referred to as fields, while fields were called “commutative fields”.) As a ring, a field may be classified as a specific type of integral domain, and can be characterized by the following (not necessarily exhaustive) chain of class inclusions: commutative rings ⊃ integral domains ⊃ unique factorization domains ⊃ principal ideal domains ⊃ Euclidean domains ⊃ fields ⊃ finite field Definition and illustration An example of a field is the set Q of rational numbers. In Q, there are four essential operations: addition together with subtraction, and multiplication with division. Intuitively, a field is a set of numbers which has four such operations. In order to qualify as a field, these operations have to satisfy certain axioms. A field is a set together with two operations, usually called addition and multiplication, and denoted by + and ·, respectively, such that the following axioms hold: Closure of F under addition and multiplication For all a, b in F, both a + b and a · b are in F (or more formally, + and · are binary operations on F). Associativity of addition and multiplication For all a, b, and c in F, the following equalities hold: a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c. Commutativity of addition and multiplication For all a and b in F, the following equalities hold: a + b = b + a and a · b = b · a. Additive and multiplicative identity There exists an element of F, called the additive identity element and denoted by 0, such that for all a in F, a + 0 = a. Likewise, there is an element, called the multiplicative identity element and denoted by 1, such that for all a in F, a · 1 = a. For technical reasons, the additive identity and the multiplicative identity are required to be distinct. Additive and multiplicative inverses For every a in F, there exists an element −a in F, such that a + (−a) = 0. Similarly, for any a in F other than 0, there exists an element a−1 in F, such that a · a−1 = 1. (The elements a + (−b) and a · b−1 are also denoted a − b and a/b, respectively.) In other words, subtraction and division operations exist. Distributivity of multiplication over addition For all a, b and c in F, the following equality holds: a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c). First example: rational numbers The easiest example for a field are the rational numbers consisting of fractions a/b, where a and b are integers, and b ≠ 0. The additive inverse of such a fraction is simply −a/b, and the multiplicative inverse—provided that a ≠ 0, as well—is b/a. To see the latter note that The abstractly required field axioms reduce to standard properties of rational numbers, such as the law of distributivity or the law of commutativity and law of associativity. Second example: a field with four elements + O I A B O O I A B I I O B A A A B O I B B A I O · O I A B O O O O O I O I A B A O A B I B O B I A In addition to familiar number systems such as the rationals, there are other, less immediate examples of fields. The following example is a field consisting of four elements called O, I, A and B. The notation is chosen such that O plays the role of the additive identity element (denoted 0 in the axioms), and I is the multiplicative identity (denoted 1 above). Checking that all field axioms are indeed satisfied is easy, if tedious. For example: A · (B + A) = A · I = A, which equals A · B + A · A = I + B = A, as required by the distributivity. The above field is called a finite field with four elements, denoted F4. Field theory is concerned with understanding the reasons for the existence of this field, defined in a fairly ad-hoc manner, and with describing its inner structure. For example, from a glance at the multiplication table, it can be seen that any non-zero element, i.e., I, A, and B, is a power of A. Indeed A = A1, B = A2 = A · A, and finally I = A3 = A · A · A. This is no coincidence, but one of the starting points of a deeper understanding of (finite) fields. Related algebraic structures Ring and field axioms Abelian group Ring Commutativering Skew field or Division ring Field Abelian (additive) group structure Multiplicative structure and distributivity – Commutativity of multiplication – Multiplicative inverses – The axioms imposed above resemble the ones familiar from other algebraic structures. For example, the existence of the binary operation "·", together with its commutativity, associativity, (multiplicative) identity element and inverses are precisely the axioms for an abelian group. In other words, for any field, the subset of nonzero elements F \ {0}, also often denoted F×, is an abelian group (F×, ·) usually called multiplicative group of the field. Likewise is an abelian group. The structure of a field is hence the same as specifying such two group structures (on the same set), obeying the distributivity. Important other algebraic structures such as rings arise when requiring only part of the above axioms. For example, if the requirement of commutativity of the multiplication operation · is dropped, one gets structures usually called division rings or skew fields. Remarks By elementary group theory, applied to the abelian groups (F×, ·), and , the additive inverse −a and the multiplicative inverse a−1 are uniquely determined by a. Similar direct consequences from the field axioms include −(a · b) = (−a) · b = a · (−b), in particular −a = (−1) · a as well as a · 0 = 0. Both can be shown by replacing b or c with 0 in the distributive property History The concept of field was used implicitly by Niels Henrik Abel and Évariste Galois in their work on the solvability of polynomial equations with rational coefficients of degree 5 or higher. In 1871, Richard Dedekind called a set of real or complex numbers which is closed under the four arithmetic operations a "field". He used the German word Körper – "body" for this notion, hence the common use of the letter K to denote a field. He also defined rings (then called order or order-modul), but the term "a ring" (Zahlring) was invented by Hilbert. J J O'Connor and E F Robertson, The development of Ring Theory, September 2004. In 1881, Leopold Kronecker defined what he called a "domain of rationality", which is indeed a field of polynomials in modern terms. In 1893, Heinrich M. Weber gave the first clear definition of an abstract field. In 1910 Ernst Steinitz published the very influential paper Algebraische Theorie der Körper (). In this paper he axiomatically studies the properties of fields and defines many important field theoretic concepts like prime field, perfect field and the transcendence degree of a field extension. Emil Artin developed the relationship between groups and fields in great detail during 1928-1942. Examples Rationals and algebraic numbers The field of rational numbers Q has been introduced above. A related class of fields very important in number theory are algebraic number fields. We will first give an example, namely the field Q[ζ3] consisting of expressions a + b · ζ + c · ζ2, a, b, c ∈ Q where ζ is a third root of unity, i.e., a complex number satisfying ζ3 = 1, , can be used to prove a special case of Fermat's last theorem, which asserts the non-existence of rational nonzero solutions to the equation x3 + y3 = z3. In the language of field extensions detailed below, Q[ζ3] is a field extension of degree 3. Algebraic number fields are by definition finite field extensions of Q, that is, fields containing Q having finite dimension as a Q-vector space. Reals, complex numbers, and p-adic numbers Take the real numbers R, under the usual operations of addition and multiplication. When the real numbers are given the usual ordering, they form a complete ordered field; it is this structure which provides the foundation for most formal treatments of calculus. The complex numbers C consist of expressions a + bi where i is the imaginary unit, i.e., a (non-real) number satisfying i2 = −1. Addition and multiplication of real numbers are defined in such a way that all field axioms hold for C. For example, the distributive law enforces (a + bi)·(c + di) = ac + bci + adi + bdi2, which equals ac−bd + (bc + ad)i. The real numbers can be constructed by completing the rational numbers, i.e., filling the "gaps": for example √2 is such a gap. By a formally very similar procedure, another important class of fields, the field of p-adic numbers Qp is built. It is used in number theory and p-adic analysis. Hyperreal numbers and superreal numbers extend the real numbers with the addition of infinitesimal and infinite numbers. Constructible numbers In antiquity, several geometric problems concerned the (in)feasibility to construct certain numbers with compass and straightedge. For example it was unknown to the Greeks that it is in general impossible to trisect a given angle. Using the field notion and field theory allows to settle these problems. To do so, the field of constructible numbers is considered. It contains, on the plane, the points 0 and 1, and all complex numbers that can be constructed from these two by a finite number of construction steps using only compass and straightedge. This set, endowed with the usual addition and multiplication of complex numbers does form a field. For example, multiplying two (real) numbers r1 and r2 that have already been constructed can be done using construction at the right, based on the intercept theorem. This way, the obtained field F contains all rational numbers, but is bigger than Q, because for any f ∈ F, the square root of f is also a constructible number. Finite fields Finite fields (also called Galois fields) are fields with finitely many elements. The above introductory example F4 is a field with four elements. Highlighted in the multiplication and addition tables above is the field F2 consisting of two elements O and I. This is the smallest field, because by definition a field has at least two distinct elements 1 ≠ 0. Interpreting the addition and multiplication in this latter field as XOR and Logical AND operation, this field finds applications in computer science, especially in cryptography and coding theory. In a finite field there is necessarily an integer n such that 1 + 1 + ... + 1 (n repeated terms) equals 0. It can be shown that the smallest such n must be a prime number, called the characteristic of the field. If a (necessarily infinite) field has the property that 1 + 1 + ... + 1 is never zero, for any number of summands, such as in Q, for example, the characteristic is said to be zero. A basic class of finite fields are the fields Fp with p elements (p a prime number): Fp = Z/pZ = {0, 1, ..., p − 1}, where the operations are defined by performing the operation in the set of integers Z, dividing by p and taking the remainder; see modular arithmetic. A field K of characteristic p necessarily contains Fp, and therefore may be viewed as a vector space over Fp, of finite dimension if K is finite. Thus a finite field K has prime power order, i.e., K has q = pn elements (where n > 0 is the number of elements in a basis of K over Fp). By developing more field theory, in particular the notion of the splitting field of a polynomial f over a field K, which is the smallest field containing K and all roots of f, one can show that two finite fields with the same number of elements are isomorphic, i.e., there is a one-to-one mapping of one field onto the other that preserves multiplication and addition. Thus we may speak of the finite field with q elements, usually denoted by Fq or GF(pn). Field of functions Given a geometric object X, one can consider functions on such objects. Adding and multiplying them pointwise, i.e., (f·g)(x) = f(x) · g(x) this leads to a field. However, due to the presence of possible zeros, i.e., points x ∈ X where f(x) = 0, one has to take poles into account, i.e., formally allowing f(x) = ∞. If X is an algebraic variety over F, then the rational functions V → F, i.e., functions defined almost everywhere, form a field, the function field of V. Likewise, if X is a Riemann surface, then the meromorphic functions S → C form a field. Under certain circumstances, namely when S is compact, S can be reconstructed from this field. Local and global fields Another important distinction in the realm of fields, especially with regard to number theory, are local fields and global fields. Morally, local fields are completions of global fields at a given place. For example, Q is a global field, and the attached local fields are Qp and R (Ostrowski's theorem). Algebraic number fields and function fields over Fq are further global fields. Studying arithmetic questions in global fields may sometimes be done by looking at the corresponding questions locally – this technique is called local-global principle. Some first theorems Every finite subgroup of the multiplicative group F× is cyclic. This applies in particular to Fq×, it is cyclic of order . In the introductory example, a generator of F4× is the element A. From the point of view of algebraic geometry, fields are points, because the spectrum Spec F has only one point, corresponding to the 0-ideal. This entails that a commutative ring is a field if and only if it has no ideals except {0} and itself. Equivalently, an integral domain is field if and only if its Krull dimension is 0. Isomorphism extension theorem Constructing fields Closure operations Assuming the axiom of choice, for every field F, there exists a field , called the algebraic closure of F, which contains F, is algebraic over F, which means that any element x of satisfies a polynomial equation fnxn + fn−1xn−1 + ... + f1x + f0 = 0, with coefficients fn, ..., f0 ∈ F, and is algebraically closed, i.e., any such polynomial does have at least one solution in . The algebraic closure is unique up to isomorphism inducing the identity on F. However, in many circumstances in mathematics, it is not appropriate to treat as being uniquely determined by F, since the isomorphism above is not itself unique. In these cases, one refers to such a as an algebraic closure of F. A similar concept is the separable closure, containing all roots of separable polynomials, instead of all polynomials. For example, if F=Q, the algebraic closure is also called field of algebraic numbers. The field of algebraic numbers is an example of an algebraically closed field of characteristic zero; as such it satisfies the same first-order sentences as the field of complex numbers C. In general, all algebraic closures of a field are isomorphic. However, there is in general no preferable isomorphism between two closures. Likewise for separable closures. Subfields and field extensions A subfield is, informally, a small field contained in a bigger one. Formally, a subfield E of a field F is a subset containing 0 and 1, closed under the operations + , −, · and multiplicative inverses and with its own operations defined by restriction. For example, the real numbers contain several interesting subfields: the real algebraic numbers, the computable numbers. The notion of field extension lies at the heart of field theory, and as such is crucial to many other algebraic domains. A field extension F / E is simply a field F and a subfield E ⊂ F. Constructing such a field extension F / E can be done by "adding new elements" or adjoining elements to the field E. For example, given a field E, the set F = E(X) of rational functions, i.e., equivalence classes of expressions of the kind where p(X) and q(X) are polynomials with coefficients in E, and q is not the zero polynomial, forms a field. This is the simplest example of a transcendental extension of F. If one allows formal power series (also called Laurent series) in both denominator and numerator, one also gets a field, denoted E((X)). In the above two cases, one is just adding a new symbol, namely X, which does not interact with elements of E. The following construction is different in this respect. This idea will first be exemplified by R vs. C. As explained above, C is a extension of R. The essential new element of C, in comparison to R is the imaginary unit i. It satisfies i2 = −1, or equivalently i2 + 1 = 0. Yet equivalently phrased, i is a zero of the polynomial p(X) = X2 + 1. For any field F, the ring of polynomials with coefficients in F is denoted by F[X]. The corresponding quotient C = R[X] / (X2 + 1) contains all real numbers and a variable X. In C, however, the relation X2 + 1 = 0 holds. In other words, the element X ∈ C satisfies exactly the property that i does. Therefore, the abstractly constructed C is isomorphic to the field C of complex numbers. The above construction generalises to any irreducible polynomial in the polynomial ring E[X], i.e., a polynomial p(X) that cannot be written as a product of non-constant polynomials. The quotient F = E[X] / (p(X)), where (p(X)) denotes the ideal generated by p(X), is again a field. Alternatively, constructing such field extensions can also be done, if a bigger container is already given. Suppose given a field E, and a field G containing E as a subfield, for example G could be the algebraic closure of E. Let x be an element of G not in E. Then there is a smallest subfield of G containing E and x, denoted F = E(x) and called field extension F / E generated by x in G. Such extensions are also called simple extensions. Many extensions are of this type, see the primitive element theorem. For instance, Q(i) is the subfield of C consisting of all numbers of the form a + bi where both a and b are rational numbers. One distinguishes between extensions having various qualities. For example, an extension K of a field k is called algebraic, if every element of K is a root of some polynomial with coefficients in k. Otherwise, the extension is called transcendental. The aim of Galois theory is the study of algebraic extensions of a field. Rings vs. fields Adding multiplicative inverses to an integral domain R yields the field of fractions of R. For example, the field of fractions of the integers Z is just Q. Also, the field F(X) is the quotient field of the ring of polynomials F[X]. Getting back the ring from the field is sometimes possible; see discrete valuation ring. Another method to obtain a field from a commutative ring R is taking the quotient , where m is any maximal ideal of R. The above construction of F = E[X] / (p(X)), is an example, because the irreducibility of the polynomial p(X) is equivalent to the maximality of the ideal generated by this polynomial. Another example are the finite fields Fp = Z / pZ. Ultraproducts If I is an index set, U is an ultrafilter on I, and Fi is a field for every i in I, the ultraproduct of the Fi with respect to U is a field. For example, a non-principal ultraproduct of finite fields is a pseudo finite field, i.e., a PAC field having exactly one extension of any degree. This construction is important to the study of the elementary theory of finite fields. Galois theory Galois theory aims to study the algebraic extensions of a field by studying the symmetry in the arithmetic operations of addition and multiplication. The fundamental theorem of Galois theory shows that there is a strong relation between the structure of the symmetry group and the set of algebraic extensions. In the case where F / E is a finite (Galois) extension, Galois theory studies the algebraic extensions of E that are subfields of F. Such fields are called intermediate extensions. Specifically, the Galois group of F over E, denoted Gal(F/E), is the group of field automorphisms of F that are trivial on E (i.e., the bijections σ : F → F that preserve addition and multiplication and that send elements of E to themselves), and the fundamental theorem of Galois theory states that there is a one-to-one correspondence between subgroups of Gal(F/E) and the set of intermediate extensions of the extension F/E. The theorem, in fact, gives an explicit correspondence and further properties. To study all (separable) algebraic extensions of E at once, one must consider the absolute Galois group of E, defined as the Galois group of the separable closure, Esep, of E over E (i.e., Gal(Esep/E). It is possible that the degree of this extension is infinite (as in the case of E = Q). It is thus necessary to have a notion of Galois group for an infinite algebraic extension. The Galois group in this case is obtained as a "limit" (specifically an inverse limit) of the Galois groups of the finite Galois extensions of E. In this way, it acquires a topology As an inverse limit of finite discrete groups, it is equipped with the profinite topology, making it a profinite topological group . The fundamental theorem of Galois theory can be generalized to the case of infinite Galois extensions by taking into consideration the topology of the Galois group, and in the case of Esep/E it states that there this a one-to-one correspondence between closed subgroups of Gal(Esep/E) and the set of all separable algebraic extensions of E (technically, one only obtains those separable algebraic extensions of E that occur as subfields of the chosen separable closure Esep, but since all separable closures of E are isomorphic, choosing a different separable closure would give the same Galois group and thus an "equivalent" set of algebraic extensions). Generalizations There are also proper classes with field structure, which are sometimes called Fields, with a capital F: The surreal numbers form a Field containing the reals, and would be a field except for the fact that they are a proper class, not a set. The set of all surreal numbers with birthday smaller than some inaccessible cardinal form a field. The nimbers form a Field. The set of nimbers with birthday smaller than 22n, the nimbers with birthday smaller than any infinite cardinal are all examples of fields. In a different direction, differential fields are fields equipped with a derivation. For example, the field R(X), together with the standard derivative of polynomials forms a differential field. These fields are central to differential Galois theory. Exponential fields, meanwhile, are fields equipped with an exponential function that provides a homomorphism between the additive and multiplicative groups within the field. The usual exponential function makes the real and complex numbers exponential fields, denoted Rexp and Cexp respectively. Generalizing in a more categorical direction yields the field with one element and related objects. Applications The concept of a field is of use, for example, in defining vectors and matrices, two structures in linear algebra whose components can be elements of an arbitrary field. Finite fields are used in number theory, Galois theory and coding theory, and again algebraic extension is an important tool. Binary fields, fields of characteristic 2, are useful in computer science. See also Glossary of field theory for more definitions in field theory. Ring Vector space Category of fields Vector spaces without fields Notes References , especially Chapter 13 . See especially Book 3 (ISBN 0-521-27288-2) and Book 6 (ISBN 0-521-27291-2). James Ax (1968), The elementary theory of finite fields, Ann. of Math. (2), 88, 239–271 External links Field Theory Q&A Fields at ProvenMath definition and basic properties. | Field_(mathematics) |@lemmatized abstract:2 algebra:3 field:197 algebraic:35 structure:15 notion:6 addition:18 subtraction:3 multiplication:19 division:10 satisfy:7 certain:4 axiom:13 commonly:1 use:12 real:15 number:63 complex:10 rational:15 also:14 finite:26 function:11 various:2 p:17 adic:4 forth:1 may:6 scalar:1 vector:6 space:5 standard:3 general:4 context:1 linear:2 theory:32 extension:38 include:2 galois:23 involve:1 root:6 polynomial:21 coefficient:6 among:1 result:1 lead:2 impossibility:1 proof:2 classical:1 problem:3 angle:2 trisection:1 square:2 circle:1 compass:3 straightedge:3 well:3 abel:2 ruffini:1 theorem:11 insolubility:1 quintic:1 equation:4 modern:2 mathematics:2 play:2 essential:3 role:2 geometry:2 every:7 ring:25 important:8 difference:1 allow:4 though:1 zero:8 possess:1 multiplicative:16 inverse:12 operation:18 require:4 commutative:5 possible:4 commutativity:6 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4,393 | Consul | Ancient Rome During the time of ancient Rome as a Republic, the consuls were the highest civil and military magistrates, serving as the heads of government for the Republic. Other uses in antiquity Other city's States While in many cities (as in Gaul) there was a double-headed chief magistracy, often another title was used, such as Duumvir or native styles such as Meddix, but Consul was used in some. Private sphere It was not uncommon for various organisations under Roman private law to copy the terminology of state and city institutions for its own statutory agents (the very founding statute or contract was also called lex, 'law') In Feudal times In various Italian city states, the republican regimes (elsewhere or in other periods, the presiding bishop or a hereditary prince or lord was in charge) gave its chief magistrates the title of Consul; thus there have been governments lead by consuls in Bologna, Novara (with one Maggiore as head of state), Trani, Treviso. The same happened in some cities in France, especially in the Mediterranean south, e.g., Avignon, Limoges. The city-state of Genoa, unlike ancient Rome, bestowed the title of Consul on various state officials, not necessarily restricted to the highest. Among these were Genoese officials stationed in various Mediterranean ports, whose role included helping Genoese merchants and sailors in difficulties with the local authorities. This institution, with its name, was eventually emulated by other powers and eventually led to the modern meaning of consul — see Consul (representative). In England, the clerks of Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester made a practice of using the Latin word consul rather than the more common comes when translating his title of 'Earl' — though he was not, and made no pretence of being, an elected magistrate of any sort. Modern historians sometimes call him, for that reason, "Robert the Consul", though he himself and his contemporaries did not use that name. Modern republics French republican consuls In 1799, revolutionary France enacted a constitution that conferred supreme executive powers upon three officials that bore the title Consul as chief magistracy of the republic. In reality, however, the state was de facto under personal control of the First Consul, general Napoleon Bonaparte, so in political terms it was more like a re-edition of Julius Caesar's and Octavian's triumvirates. Originally the consuls were to hold office for a period of ten years, but in 1802 Bonaparte was declared First Consul for life (lifetime consulate was introduced for Second and Third Consuls as well). The French consulate ceased to exist when Bonaparte was declared Emperor of the French in 1804. Roman republican consuls Since on 15 February 1798 – 23 June 1800 the Roman Republic was declared, it was headed by multiple (not just two-member) consulate, which 27 November 1798 – 12 December 1798 occupied by "Sicily" (Naples); since 11 July 1799 – 28 September 1799 the republic was occupied by France, 30 September 1799 – 23 June 1800 occupied by "Sicily" (i.e. the kingdom of Naples), later one of the home-realms of the Italian kingdom. The members of the Consulates were: 15 February 1798 – 20 March 1798 there were Provisional Consuls: Briganti, Carlo Luigi Costantini, Pio Camillo, duca Bonelli-Crescenzi, Gioacchino Pessuti, Antonio Bassi & Maggi, Stampa & Liborio Angelucci 20 March 1798 – September 1798 the first regular Consuls: Liborio Angelucci, Giacomo De Mattheis, Panazzi, Reppi & Ennio Quirino Visconti September 1798 – 27 November 1798 again Consuls: Brigi (1st time), Calisti (1st time), Francesco Pierelli (1st time), Giuseppe Rey (1st time) & Federico Maria Domenico Michele Zaccaleoni (1st time) (b. 1760 – d. 18..) After the 29 November 1798 – 12 December 1798 Provisional Government of five (Princes Giambattista Borghese, Paolo-Maria Aldobrandini & Prince Gibrielli, Marchese Camillo Massimo & Giovanni Ricci), the 12 December 1798 – 24 July 1799 Consuls: Brigi (2nd time), Calisti (2nd time), Francesco Pierelli (2nd time), Giuseppe Rey (2nd time), Federico Maria Domenico Michele Zaccaleoni (2nd time) Bolognese Republic The short-lived Bolognese Republic, proclaimed in 1796 as a French client republic in the Central Italian city of Bologna, had a government consisting of nine consuls and its head of state was the Presidente del Magistrato, i.e., Chief Magistrate, a presiding office held for four months by one of the consuls. As noted above, Bologna already had Consuls at some parts of its Medieval history. Paraguay In between series of juntas (and various other short-lived regimes), the young republic was governed by Consuls of the Republic in power (2 consuls alternating in power every 4 months): 12 October 1813 – 12 February 1814 José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco (1st time) 12 February 1814 – 12 June 1814 Fulgencio Yegros y Franco de Torres 12 June 1814 – 3 October 1814 José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco (2nd time); he stayed on as Supreme Dictator 3 October 1814 – 20 September 1840 (from 6 June 1816 styled Perpetual Supreme Dictator) After a few Presidents of the Provisional Junta, there were again Consuls of the Republic, 14 March 1841 – 13 March 1844 (ruling jointly, but occasionally styled First Consul, Second Consul): Carlos Antonio López Ynsfrán (b. 1792 – d. 1862) + Mariano Roque Alonzo Romero (d. 1853) (the lasts of the aforementioned juntistas, Commandant-General of the Army) Thereafter all republican rulers were styled President Revolutionary Greece Among the many petty local republics that were formed during the first year of the Greek Revolution, prior to the creation of a unified Provisional Government at the First National Assembly at Epidaurus, were: The Consulate of Argos (from 26 May 1821, under the Senate of the Peloponnese) had a single head of state, styled consul, 28 March 1821 – 26 May 1821: Stamatellos Antonopoulos The Consulate of East Greece (Livadeia) (from 15 November 1821, under the Areopagus of East Greece) was headed 1 April 1821 – 15 November 1821 by three Consuls: Lambros Nakos, Ioannis Logothetis & Ioannis Filon Note: in Greek, the term for "consul" is "ypatos", which translates as "supreme one", and hence does not necessarily imply a joint office. See also Consularis (Roman gubernatorial style) Captain Regent (similar modern position in San Marino's government) List of topics related to ancient Rome Political institutions of Rome Chronological listings of Roman consuls (in law always republican Magistrates): List of Roman Consuls Sources and references Pauly–Wissowa WorldStatesmen—see each present country | Consul |@lemmatized ancient:4 rome:5 time:14 republic:13 consul:32 high:2 civil:1 military:1 magistrate:4 serve:1 head:7 government:6 us:1 antiquity:1 city:7 state:9 many:2 gaul:1 double:1 chief:4 magistracy:2 often:1 another:1 title:5 use:4 duumvir:1 native:1 style:6 meddix:1 private:2 sphere:1 uncommon:1 various:5 organisation:1 roman:6 law:3 copy:1 terminology:1 institution:3 statutory:1 agent:1 founding:1 statute:1 contract:1 also:2 call:2 lex:1 feudal:1 italian:3 republican:5 regime:2 elsewhere:1 period:2 preside:2 bishop:1 hereditary:1 prince:3 lord:1 charge:1 give:1 magistrates:1 thus:1 lead:2 bologna:3 novara:1 one:4 maggiore:1 trani:1 treviso:1 happen:1 france:3 especially:1 mediterranean:2 south:1 e:3 g:1 avignon:1 limoges:1 genoa:1 unlike:1 bestow:1 official:3 necessarily:2 restrict:1 among:2 genoese:2 station:1 port:1 whose:1 role:1 include:1 help:1 merchant:1 sailor:1 difficulty:1 local:2 authority:1 name:2 eventually:2 emulate:1 power:4 modern:4 meaning:1 see:3 representative:1 england:1 clerk:1 robert:2 earl:2 gloucester:1 make:2 practice:1 latin:1 word:1 rather:1 common:1 come:1 translate:2 though:2 pretence:1 elected:1 sort:1 historian:1 sometimes:1 reason:1 contemporary:1 french:4 revolutionary:2 enact:1 constitution:1 confer:1 supreme:4 executive:1 upon:1 three:2 bore:1 reality:1 however:1 de:5 facto:1 personal:1 control:1 first:6 general:2 napoleon:1 bonaparte:3 political:2 term:2 like:1 edition:1 julius:1 caesar:1 octavian:1 triumvirate:1 originally:1 hold:2 office:3 ten:1 year:2 declare:3 life:1 lifetime:1 consulate:6 introduce:1 second:2 third:1 well:1 cease:1 exist:1 emperor:1 since:2 february:4 june:5 multiple:1 two:1 member:2 november:5 december:3 occupy:3 sicily:2 naples:2 july:2 september:5 kingdom:2 later:1 home:1 realm:1 march:5 provisional:4 briganti:1 carlo:1 luigi:1 costantini:1 pio:1 camillo:2 duca:1 bonelli:1 crescenzi:1 gioacchino:1 pessuti:1 antonio:2 basso:1 maggi:1 stampa:1 liborio:2 angelucci:2 regular:1 giacomo:1 mattheis:1 panazzi:1 reppi:1 ennio:1 quirino:1 visconti:1 brigi:2 calisti:2 francesco:2 pierelli:2 giuseppe:2 rey:2 federico:2 maria:3 domenico:2 michele:2 zaccaleoni:2 b:2 five:1 giambattista:1 borghese:1 paolo:1 aldobrandini:1 gibrielli:1 marchese:1 massimo:1 giovanni:1 ricci:1 bolognese:2 short:2 live:2 proclaim:1 client:1 central:1 consist:1 nine:1 presidente:1 del:1 magistrato:1 four:1 month:2 noted:1 already:1 consuls:1 part:1 medieval:1 history:1 paraguay:1 series:1 junta:2 young:1 govern:1 alternate:1 every:1 october:3 josé:2 gaspar:2 rodríguez:2 francia:2 velasco:2 fulgencio:1 yegros:1 franco:1 torres:1 stay:1 dictator:2 perpetual:1 president:2 rule:1 jointly:1 occasionally:1 carlos:1 lópez:1 ynsfrán:1 mariano:1 roque:1 alonzo:1 romero:1 last:1 aforementioned:1 juntistas:1 commandant:1 army:1 thereafter:1 ruler:1 greece:3 petty:1 form:1 greek:2 revolution:1 prior:1 creation:1 unified:1 national:1 assembly:1 epidaurus:1 argo:1 may:2 senate:1 peloponnese:1 single:1 stamatellos:1 antonopoulos:1 east:2 livadeia:1 areopagus:1 april:1 lambros:1 nakos:1 ioannis:2 logothetis:1 filon:1 note:1 ypatos:1 hence:1 imply:1 joint:1 consularis:1 gubernatorial:1 captain:1 regent:1 similar:1 position:1 san:1 marino:1 list:2 topic:1 relate:1 chronological:1 listing:1 always:1 source:1 reference:1 pauly:1 wissowa:1 worldstatesmen:1 present:1 country:1 |@bigram de_facto:1 napoleon_bonaparte:1 julius_caesar:1 antonio_lópez:1 san_marino:1 pauly_wissowa:1 |
4,394 | Al_Capp | "I do Li'l Abner!!", a self-portrait by Al Capp, excerpted from theApril 16-17, 1951 Li'l Abner strips. Note reference to Milton Caniff. Alfred Gerald Caplin (September 28, 1909–November 5, 1979), better known as Al Capp, was an American cartoonist and humorist best known for the satirical comic strip Li'l Abner. He also wrote the comic strips Abbie an' Slats and Long Sam. He won the National Cartoonists Society's Reuben Award in 1947 for Cartoonist of the Year, and their 1979 Elzie Segar Award (posthumously) for his “unique and outstanding contribution to the profession of cartooning”. Early life Born of Russian Jewish heritage, Capp was the eldest child of Otto Philip and Matilda (Davidson) Caplin. Capp's parents were both natives of Latvia whose families had migrated to New Haven, Connecticut in the 1880s. "My mother and father had been brought to this country from Russia when they were infants," wrote Capp. "Their fathers had found that the great promise of America was true—it was no crime to be a Jew." The Caplins were dirt poor, and Capp later recalled stories of his mother going out in the night to sift through ash barrels for reusable bits of coal. Capp lost his left leg in a trolley accident at the age of nine. This childhood tragedy likely helped shape Capp’s cynical worldview — which, funny as it was, was certainly darker and more sardonic than that of the average newspaper cartoonist. Inhuman Man - TIME Feb. 6, 1950 “I was indignant as hell about that leg,” he would reveal in a November 1950 interview in Time Magazine. "The secret of how to live without resentment or embarrassment in a world in which I was different from everyone else," Capp philosophically wrote (in Life Magazine on May 23, 1960) "was to be indifferent to that difference." It was the prevailing opinion among his friends that Capp's Swiftian satire was, to some degree, a creatively channeled, compensatory response to his disability. Capp's father, a failed businessman and reportedly an amateur cartoonist, introduced him to drawing as a form of therapy. He became quite proficient, learning mostly on his own. Among his earliest influences were Punch cartoonist / illustrator Phil May, and American comic strip cartoonists Cliff Sterrett, Rube Goldberg, Rudolph Dirks, Fred Opper, Billy DeBeck, George McManus and Milt Gross. At about this same time, Capp became a voracious reader. According to Capp's brother Elliot, Alfred had finished all of Shakespeare and George Bernard Shaw by the time he turned 13. Among his childhood favorites were Dickens, Smollett, Mark Twain, Booth Tarkington, and later, Robert Benchley and S.J. Perelman. Capp spent five years at Bridgeport High School in Bridgeport, Connecticut without receiving a diploma. The cartoonist liked to joke about how he failed geometry for nine straight terms. Web page at Bridgeport Central High School devoted to Al Capp His formal training came from a series of art schools in the New England area. Attending three of them in rapid succession, the impoverished Capp was thrown out of each for nonpayment of tuition: the Boston Museum School of Fine Arts, the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and Designers Art School in Boston - the last before launching his amazing career. Capp had already decided to become a cartoonist. "I heard that Bud Fisher (creator of Mutt and Jeff ) got $3,000 a week and was constantly marrying French countesses," Capp said. "I decided that was for me." At age 19, Capp hitchhiked to New York City. He lived in "airless rat holes" in Greenwich Village, turned out advertising strips at $2 apiece and scoured the city hunting for jobs. He eventually found work drawing Colonel Gilfeather, a one-panel, AP-owned property, drawn until 1927 by Dick Dorgan. Only 20 Some sources say Capp was 19 years old at the time. at the time, he was the youngest syndicated cartoonist in America. He grew to hate the feature, however. Before leaving abruptly, he met Milton Caniff, and the two became lifelong friends. He moved to Boston and married Catherine Wingate Cameron, whom he had met earlier in art class. She died in 2006 at the age of 96. Leaving his new wife with her parents in Amesbury, Massachusetts, he subsequently returned to New York in 1932, in the midst of the Great Depression. "I was 23, I carried a mass of drawings, and I had nearly five dollars in my pocket. People were sleeping in alleys then, willing to work at anything." There he met Ham Fisher, who hired him to "ghost" on Joe Palooka. During one of Fisher's extended vacations, Capp's Joe Palooka story arc introduced a stupid, coarse, oafish mountaineer named "Big Leviticus", a crude prototype. (Leviticus was actually much closer to Capp's later villains Lem and Luke Scragg, than to the much more appealing and innocent Abner.) Also during this period, Capp was working at night on samples for the strip that would eventually become Li'l Abner. He based his cast of characters on the authentic mountain-dwellers he met while hitchhiking through rural West Virginia and the Cumberland Valley as a teenager. (This was years before the Tennessee Valley Authority Act brought basic utilities like electricity to the region.) Leaving Joe Palooka, Capp sold Li'l Abner to United Feature Syndicate (now known as United Media). The feature was launched on Monday, August 13, 1934 in 8 North American newspapers - including the New York Mirror - and was an immediate success. Alfred G. Caplin became "Al Capp" in 1934 because the syndicate felt the original would not fit in a cartoon frame. Capp had it changed legally in 1949. His younger brother Elliot Caplin also became a comic strip creator, best known for co-creating the soap opera strip The Heart of Juliet Jones with artist Stan Drake, and conceiving the comic strip character Broom Hilda with cartoonist Russell Myers. Elliott also authored several off-Broadway plays, including A Nickel for Picasso (1981), which was based on and dedicated to his mother and his famous brother. New York Times Theater column by Alvin Klein - November 8, 1987 Li'l Abner What began as a hillbilly burlesque soon evolved into one of the most imaginative, popular, and well-drawn strips of the 20th century. Featuring vividly outlandish characters, bizarre situations, and equal parts suspense, slapstick, irony, satire, black humor and biting social commentary, Li'l Abner is considered a classic of the genre. The comic strip starred one Li'l Abner Yokum, the loutish, simple, but good-natured hayseed who lived with his parents - scrawny but superhuman Mammy Yokum, and shiftless, childlike Pappy Yokum. "Yokum" was a combination of yokel and hokum, although Capp established a deeper meaning for the name during a series of visits around 1965 -1970 with comics historians George E. Turner and Michael H. Price. “It’s phonetic Hebrew – that’s what it is, all right – and that’s what I was getting at with the name Yokum, more so than any attempt to sound hickish," said Capp. "That was a fortunate coincidence, of course, that the name should pack a backwoods connotation. But it’s a godly conceit, really, playing off a godly name – Joachim means 'God’s determination', something like that – that also happens to have a rustic ring to it." Li'l Abner Lost In Hollywood by Michael H. Price The Yokums lived in the backwater hamlet of Dogpatch, Kentucky. Described by its creator as "an average stone-age community", Dogpatch mostly consisted of hopelessly ramshackle log cabins, pine trees, "tarnip" fields and hog wallows. Whatever energy Abner had went into evading the marital goals of Daisy Mae Scragg, his sexy, well-endowed (but virtuous) girlfriend - until Capp finally gave in to reader pressure and allowed the couple to marry. This newsworthy event made the cover of Life on March 31, 1952. Capp peopled his comic strip with an assortment of memorable characters, including Marryin' Sam, Hairless Joe, Lonesome Polecat, Evil-Eye Fleegle, General Bullmoose, Lena the Hyena, Senator Jack S. Phogbound (Capp's caricature of the anti-New Deal Dixiecrats), the (shudder!) Scraggs, Washable Jones, Nightmare Alice, Earthquake McGoon, and a host of others. Most notably, certainly from a G.I. point of view, were the beautiful, full-figured women like Daisy Mae, Wolf Gal, Stupefyin' Jones and Moonbeam McSwine (a caricature of his wife Catherine, aside from the dirt) - all of whom found their way onto the painted noses of bomber planes during World War II and the Korean War. Perhaps Capp's most popular creations were the Shmoos, creatures whose incredible usefulness and generous nature made them a threat to civilization as we know it. Another famous character was Joe Btfsplk, who wanted to be a loving friend but was "the world's worst jinx," bringing bad luck to all those nearby. Btfsplk (his name was "pronounced" by simply blowing a Bronx cheer) always had an iconic dark cloud over his head. Dogpatch residents regularly combatted the likes of city slickers, business tycoons, government officials, and intellectuals with their homespun stupidity. Situations often took the characters to other destinations, including New York City, Washington D.C., Hollywood, tropical islands, the Moon, Mars, and some purely fanciful worlds of Capp's invention. The latter included El Passionato, Kigmyland, The Republic of Crumbumbo, Skonk Hollow, The Valley of the Shmoon, Planets Pincus Number 2 and 7, and a miserable frozen wasteland known as Lower Slobbovia, a pointedly political satire of backward nations and foreign diplomacy that remains a contemporary reference. The strip's popularity grew from an original eight papers, to ultimately more than 900. At its peak, Li'l Abner was read daily by 70 million Americans (the U.S. population at the time was only 180 million), with adult readers far outnumbering children. Many communities, high schools, and colleges staged Sadie Hawkins dances, patterned after the similar annual event in the strip. According to comics historian Richard Marschall, Li'l Abner gradually evolved into a broad satire of human nature. In his book America's Great Comic Strip Artists (1997), Marschall's analysis of Li'l Abner revealed a decidedly misanthropic subtext: "Capp was calling society absurd, not just silly; human nature not simply misguided, but irredeemably and irreducibly corrupt. Unlike any other strip, and indeed unlike many other pieces of literature, Li'l Abner was more than a satire of the human condition. It was a commentary on human nature itself." Li'l Abner was also the subject of the first book-length, scholarly assessment of an American comic strip ever published. Li'l Abner: A Study in American Satire by Arthur Asa Berger (Twayne, 1969) contained serious analyses of Capp's narrative technique, his use of dialogue, self-caricature and grotesquerie, the place of "Li'l Abner" in American satire, and the significance of social criticism and the graphic image. It was reprinted by the University Press of Mississippi in 1994. Over the years, Li'l Abner has been adapted to radio, animated cartoons, stage production, motion pictures and television. Capp has been compared, at various times, to Mark Twain, Dostoevski, Jonathan Swift, Lawrence Sterne and Rabelais. The Road to Hokum - The Rise and Fall of Dogpatch USA Fans of the strip ranged from novelist John Steinbeck, who called Capp "the best writer in the world" in 1953, and even earnestly recommended him for the Nobel Prize in literature - to media critic and theorist Marshall McLuhan, who considered Capp "the only robust satirical force in American life." Charlie Chaplin, John Updike, William F. Buckley, Al Hirschfeld, Harpo Marx, Russ Meyer, John Kenneth Galbraith, Ralph Bakshi, Hugh Downs, Gene Shalit, Frank Cho, and (reportedly) even Queen Elizabeth have confessed to being fans of Li'l Abner. Li'l Abner also featured a comic strip-within-the-strip: Fearless Fosdick was a parody of Chester Gould's Dick Tracy. It first appeared in 1942, and proved so popular that it ran intermittently over the next 35 years. Gould was also personally parodied in the series as cartoonist Lester Gooch - the diminutive, much-harassed and occasionally deranged creator of Fosdick. The style of the Fosdick sequences closely mimicked Tracy, including the urban setting, the outrageous villains, the galloping mortality rate, the thick square panels, and even the lettering style. That same year, Fosdick was also the star of his own short-lived puppet show on NBC, featuring the Mary Chase marionettes. Besides Dick Tracy, Capp parodied other comic strips in Li'l Abner - including Steve Canyon, Superman, (at least twice; first as "Jack Jawbreaker" (1947), and again in 1966 as "Chickensouperman") Mary Worth, Peanuts, Little Annie Rooney and Little Orphan Annie (in which Punjab became "Punjbag", an oleaginous slob). Capp did not shrink from parodying himself; his self-caricature made frequent, tongue-in-cheek appearances in Li'l Abner. The gag was often at his own expense, as in the above 1951 sequence showing Capp's interaction with "fans" (see excerpt), or in his 1955 Disneyland parody, "Hal Yappland". Capp's sardonic parodies were almost certainly an inspiration for Harvey Kurtzman's Mad Magazine, which began in 1952 as a comic book that specifically parodied other comics in the same distinctive style and subversive manner. Capp also spoofed popular recording idols of the day, such as Elvis Presley ("Hawg McCall", 1957), Liberace ("Loverboynik", 1956), the Beatles ("the Beasties", 1964) - and in 1944, Frank Sinatra. "Sinatra was the first great public figure I ever wrote about," Capp once said. "I called him Hal Fascinatra. I remember my news syndicate was so worried about what his reaction might be, and we were all surprised when he telephoned and told me how thrilled he was with it. He always made it a point to send me champagne whenever he happened to see me in a restaurant..." (from Frank Sinatra, My Father by Nancy Sinatra, 1985). On the other hand Liberace was "cut to the quick" over Loverboynik, according to Capp, and even threatened legal action - as would Joan Baez later, over "Joanie Phoanie" in 1966. Li'l Abner has one odd design quirk that has puzzled readers for decades: the part in his hair always faces the viewer, no matter which direction Abner is facing. In response to the question “Which side does Abner part his hair on?", Capp would answer, “Both.” In addition to creating Li'l Abner, Capp would also co-create two other newspaper strips: Abbie an' Slats with magazine illustrator Raeburn van Buren in 1937 - and later, Long Sam with cartoonist Bob Lubbers in 1954. Sadie Hawkins Day and double whammy are two terms attributed to Al Capp that have entered the English language. Less-ubiquitous Cappisms include Lower Slobbovia, skunk works, shmooing (a biological term for the "budding" process in yeast reproduction), and shmoo plot (a technical term in the field of electrical engineering). Capp also had a fondness for certain uncommon terms, such as druthers, schmooze and nogoodnik, neatnik, etc. (In his book The American Language, H.L. Mencken credits the postwar mania for adding "-nik" to the ends of adjectives to create nouns as beginning, not with beatnik or Sputnik, but earlier - in the pages of Li'l Abner.) The 1940s and 1950s During World War II and for many years afterward, Capp worked tirelessly going to hospitals to entertain patients, especially to cheer recent amputees and explain to them that the loss of a limb did not mean an end to a happy and productive life. Making no secret of his own disability, Capp openly joked about his prosthetic leg his whole life. In 1946 Capp created a special full color comic book, Al Capp By Li'l Abner, to be distributed by the Red Cross to encourage the thousands of amputee veterans returning from the war. Capp was also involved with the Sister Kenny Foundation, which pioneered new treatments for polio in the 1940s. Serving in his capacity as honorary chairman, Capp made public appearances on its behalf for years, contributed free artwork for its annual fund-raising appeals, and entertained crippled and paraplegic children in children's hospitals with inspirational pep talks, humorous stories and sketches. In 1940, an RKO movie adaptation starred Granville Owen (later known as Jeff York) as Li'l Abner, with Buster Keaton taking the role of Lonesome Polecat, and featuring a title song with lyrics by Milton Berle. A successful musical comedy adaptation of the strip opened on Broadway at the St. James Theater on November 15, 1956 and had a long run of 693 performances, followed by a nationwide tour. The stage musical, with music and lyrics by Gene de Paul and Johnny Mercer, was adapted into a Technicolor motion picture at Paramount in 1959 by producer Norman Panama and director Melvin Frank - with several performers repeating their Broadway roles, most memorably Julie Newmar as Stupefyin' Jones, and Stubby Kaye as Marryin' Sam. The Screen 'Li'l Abner' - New York Times Review Other highlights of the forties included the 1942 debut of Fearless Fosdick as Abner's "ideel" (hero); the Lena the Hyena Contest in 1946 - in which a hideous Lower Slobbovian gal was ultimately revealed in the harrowing winning entry, (as judged by Frank Sinatra, Boris Karloff and Salvador Dali) drawn by noted cartoonist Basil Wolverton; and an ill-fated Sunday parody of Gone With The Wind that aroused anger and legal threats from author Margaret Mitchell, and led to a printed apology within the strip. In October of 1947, Li'l Abner met Rockwell P. Squeezeblood, head of the abusive and corrupt Squeezeblood Comic Strip Syndicate. The resulting sequence, "Jack Jawbreaker Fights Crime!", was a devastating satire of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's notorious exploitation by DC Comics. It was later reprinted in The World Of Li'l Abner (1953). In 1947 Capp earned a Newsweek cover story. That same year the New Yorker's profile on him was so long that it ran in consecutive issues. In 1948, Capp reached a creative peak with the introduction of the Shmoos, lovable and innocent fantasy creatures who reproduced at amazing speed and brought so many benefits that, ironically, the world economy was endangered. The much-copied storyline was a parable that was metaphorically interpreted in many different ways at the outset of the Cold War. Following his close friend Milton Caniff's lead (with Steve Canyon), Capp had recently fought a successful battle with the syndicate to gain complete ownership of his feature when the Shmoos debuted. As a result, he reaped enormous financial rewards from the unexpected (and almost unprecedented) merchandising phenomenon that followed. As in the strip, Shmoos suddenly appeared to be everywhere in 1949 and 1950 - including a Time cover story, and a paperback collection of the original story, The Life and Times of the Shmoo, became a bestseller for Simon & Shuster. Shmoo dolls, clocks, watches, jewelry, earmuffs, wallpaper, fishing lures, air fresheners, soap, ice cream, balloons, ashtrays, beanies, comic books, records, sheet music, toys, games, Halloween masks, salt and pepper shakers, decals, pinbacks, tumblers, coin banks, greeting cards, planters, neckties, suspenders, belts, curtains, fountain pens, and other shmoo paraphernalia were produced. A garment factory in Baltimore turned out a whole line of shmoo apparel, including "Shmooveralls." The original sequence and its 1959 sequel, The Return of the Shmoo, have been collected in print many times since, most recently in 2002, always to high sales figures. The Shmoos would later have their own animated series. Capp followed this success with other allegorical fantasy critters, including the bulbous-nosed and masochistic Kigmies, who craved abuse (a story that began as a veiled comment on racial and religious oppression), the dreaded Nogoodniks (or bad shmoos), and the irresistible Bald Iggle, a guileless creature whose sad-eyed countenance compelled involuntary truthfulness - with predictably disastrous results. Li'l Abner was censored for the first, but not the last time in September 1947, and was pulled from papers by Scripps-Howard. The controversy, as reported in Time, centered around Capp's portrayal of the US Senate. Said Edward Leech of Scripps, "We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks... boobs and undesirables." Tain't Funny - TIME At about this same time, Capp was an outspoken pioneer in favor of diversifying the National Cartoonists Society by admitting women cartoonists. The NCS disallowed female members before 1949. According to Tom Roberts, author of Alex Raymond: His Life And Art (2007), Al Capp authored a stirring monologue that was instrumental in changing that rule. The Society finally accepted female members the following year. Highlights of the 1950s included the much-heralded marriage of Abner and Daisy Mae in 1952, the birth of their son, "Honest Abe" Yokum in 1953, and in 1954, the introduction of Abner's enormous, long lost kid brother Tiny Yokum, who filled Abner's place as a bachelor in the annual Sadie Hawkins Day race. In 1952 Capp and his characters graced the covers of both Life and TV Guide. 1956 saw the debut of the Bald Iggle, considered by some Abner enthusiasts to be the creative high point of the strip, as well as Mammy's revelatory encounter with the "Square Eyes" Family - Capp’s thinly veiled appeal for racial tolerance. (This fable-like story was collected into an educational comic book called Mammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery!, and distributed by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith later that year.) In 1959, Capp recorded and released an album on Folkways Records, (now owned by the Smithsonian) on which he described "The Mechanics of the Comic Strip". An Interview With Al Capp - Smithsonian Folkways Capp had often parodied corporate greed - pork tycoon J. Roaringham Fatback had figured prominently in wiping out the Shmoos. But in 1952, when General Motors president Charles E. Wilson, nominated for a cabinet post, told Congress that "...what was good for the country was good for General Motors and vice versa", he inspired one of Capp's greatest satires - the introduction of General Bullmoose, the robust, ruthless, and ageless business tycoon. The blustering Bullmoose, who seemed to own and control nearly everything, justified his far-reaching and mercenary excesses by saying "What's good for General Bullmoose is good for everybody!" Bullmoose's corrupt interests were often pitted against those of the pathetic Lower Slobbovians in a classic mismatch of haves versus have-nots. This character, along with the Shmoos, helped cement Capp's favor with the Left, and would increase their outrage a decade later when Capp, a former Franklin D. Roosevelt liberal, switched targets. Nonetheless, General Bullmoose continued to appear, undaunted and unredeemed, during the strip's final right-wing phase and into the 1970s. Feud with Ham Fisher After Capp quit his ghosting job on Ham Fisher's Joe Palooka in 1934 to launch his own strip, Fisher badmouthed him to colleagues and editors, claiming that Capp had "stolen" his idea. For years, Fisher would bring the characters back to his strip, billing them as "The ORIGINAL Hillbilly Characters" and advising readers not to be "fooled by imitations." (In fact, Fisher's brutish hillbilly character - Big Leviticus, created by Capp in Fisher's absence - bore little resemblance to Li'l Abner.) According to a November 1950 Time article, "Capp parted from Fisher with a definite impression, (to put it mildly) that he had been underpaid and unappreciated. Fisher, a man of Roman self esteem, considered Capp an ingrate and a whippersnapper, and watched his rise to fame with unfeigned horror." Die Monstersinger - TIME "Fisher repeatedly brought Leviticus and his clan back, claiming their primacy as comics' first hillbilly family — but he was missing the point. It wasn't the setting that made Capp's strip such a huge success. It was Capp's finely tuned sense of the absurd, his ability to milk an outrageous situation for every laugh in it and then, impossibly, to squeeze even more laughs from it, that found such favor with the public," (from Don Markstein's Toonopedia.) Don Markstein's Toonopedia / Li'l Abner The Capp-Fisher feud was well-known in cartooning circles, and it grew more personal as Capp's strip eclipsed Joe Palooka in popularity. Fisher hired away Capp's top assistant, Moe Leff. After Fisher underwent plastic surgery, Capp included a racehorse in Li'l Abner named "Ham's Nose-Bob". In 1950, a cartoonist character named Happy Vermin - a caricature of Fisher - hired Li'l Abner to draw his comic strip in a dimly lit closet. (Instead of using Vermin's tired characters, Abner had inventively peopled the strip with hillbillies. A bighearted Vermin told his slaving assistant: "I'm proud of having created these characters!! They'll make millions for me!! And if they do—I'll get you a new light bulb!!") Traveling in the same social circles, the two men engaged in a 20-year mutual vendetta, as described by the Daily News in 1998: "They crossed paths often, in the midtown watering holes and at National Cartoonists Society banquets, and the city's gossip columns were full of their snarling public donnybrooks." SPITTING ON PICTURES FUNNY PAPERS, 1955 In 1950, Capp wrote a nasty article for The Atlantic entitled "I Remember Monster". The article recounted Capp's days working for an unnamed "benefactor" with a miserly, swinish personality, whom Capp claimed was a never-ending source of inspiration when it came time to create a new unregenerate villain for his comic strip. The thinly veiled boss was understood to be Ham Fisher. Fisher retaliated clumsily, doctoring photostats of Li'l Abner and falsely accusing Capp of sneaking obscenities into his comic strip. Fisher submitted examples of Li'l Abner to Capp's syndicate and to the New York courts, in which Fisher had identified pornographic images that were hidden in the background art. However, the X-rated material had actually been drawn there by Fisher himself. Capp was able to refute the accusation by simply showing the original artwork. In 1954, when Capp was applying for a Boston television license, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) received an anonymous packet of pornographic Li'l Abner drawings. The National Cartoonists Society (NCS) convened an ethics hearing, and Fisher was expelled for the forgery from the same organization that he had helped found; Fisher's scheme had backfired in spectacular fashion. Around the same time, his mansion in Wisconsin was destroyed by a nor'easter. On September 7, 1955, Fisher committed suicide in his studio. Such was his professional isolation that his body was not discovered until December 27 of that year. The feud and Fisher's suicide were used as the basis for a fictional murder mystery, Strip for Murder by Max Allan Collins. Another "feud" seemed to be looming when, in one run of Sunday strips in 1957, Capp lampooned the comic strip Mary Worth as "Mary Worm." The title character was depicted as a nosy, interfering busybody. Allen Saunders, the creator of the Mary Worth strip, returned Capp's fire with the introduction of the character "Hal Rapp," a foul-tempered, ill-mannered, and (ironically) inebriated cartoonist (Capp was a teetotaler). Later, it was revealed to be a collaborative hoax that Capp and his longtime pal Saunders had cooked up together. The Capp-Saunders "feud" fooled both editors and readers, generated plenty of free publicity for both strips, and Capp and Saunders had a good laugh when all was revealed. Rap for Capp - TIME Personality Volatile, contentious, cynical, sarcastic, contradictory, iconoclastic, misanthropic, curmudgeonly, controversial, and sardonically funny. According to Capp’s longtime friend Milton Caniff, Capp was “charming” when he chose to be, but added that “he could be very difficult if he didn’t like you.” Frank Frazetta described Capp as "exasperating, infuriating, domineering, obnoxious, loud, lots of fun, acidic and lovable." Frazetta's freewheeling description typifies the many conflicting firsthand accounts of Capp's complex personality. "He could be a real s.o.b. sometimes. Other times he was a lot of fun to be around. He was a brilliant guy - but a little screwed up," Frazetta has said (from The Comic Art Of Frank Frazetta, 2008). Capp's persona has long since eclipsed his work, complicating critical analysis and objective assessment of Li'l Abner to this day. Capp is often associated with two other giants of the medium: Milton Caniff (Terry and the Pirates, Steve Canyon) and Walt Kelly (Pogo). The three cartoonists were close personal friends and professional associates throughout their adult lives, and occasionally referenced each other in their strips. According to one anecdote, (from Al Capp Remembered, 1994) Capp and his brother Elliot ducked out of a dull party at Capp's home - leaving Walt Kelly alone to fend for himself entertaining a group of Argentine envoys who didn't speak English. Kelly retaliated by giving away Capp's baby grand piano. According to Capp, who loved to relate the story, Kelly's two perfectly logical reasons for doing so were: a. to cement diplomatic relations between Argentina and the United States, and b. "Because you can't play the piano, anyway." Milton Caniff related another anecdote (from Phi Beta Pogo, 1989) involving Capp and Walt Kelly, "two boys from Bridgeport, Connecticut, nose to nose," onstage at a meeting of the Newspaper Comics Council in the sixties. "Walt would say to Al, 'Of course, Al, this is really how you should draw Daisy Mae, I'm only showing you this for your own good.' Then Walt would do a sketch. Capp, of course, got ticked off by this, as you can imagine! So he retaliated by doing his version of Pogo. Unfortunately, the drawings are long gone; no recording was made. What a shame! Nobody anticipated there'd be this dueling back and forth between the two of them...." Production methods Like many cartoonists, Capp made extensive use of assistants (notably Andy Amato, Harvey Curtis, Walter Johnson and Frank Frazetta). During the extended peak of the strip, the workload grew to include advertising, merchandising, promotional work, public service comics and other specialty work - in addition to the regular six dailies and one Sunday strip per week. From the early forties to the late fifties, there were scores of Sunday strip-style magazine ads for Cream of Wheat using the Abner characters, and in the fifties Fearless Fosdick became a spokesman for Wildroot Cream-Oil hair tonic in a series of daily strip-style print ads. The characters also sold chainsaws, underwear, ties, detergent, candy, soft drinks - including a licensed version of Capp's moonshine creation, "Kickapoo Joy Juice" - and General Electric and Proctor and Gamble products, all requiring special artwork. There was also a separate line of comic book titles- mostly adapted strip reprints- by the Caplin family-owned Toby Press, which published Shmoo Comics (featuring Washable Jones). (Mell Lazarus, creator of Miss Peach and Momma, wrote a comic novel in 1963 titled The Boss Is Crazy, Too which was partly inspired by his apprenticeship days working with Capp at Toby. In a seminar at the Charles Schulz Museum on November 8, 2008, Lazarus called his experience at Toby "the five funniest years of my life". Lazarus went on to cite Capp as one of the "four essentials" in the field of newspaper cartoonists, along with Walt Kelly, Charles Schulz and Milton Caniff.) No matter how much help he had, Capp insisted on drawing and inking the characters' faces and hands - especially of Abner and Daisy Mae - himself, and his distinctive touch is often discernible. "He had the touch," Frazetta said of Capp in 2008. "He knew how to take an otherwise ordinary drawing and really make it pop. I'll never knock his talent." As is usual with collaborative efforts in comic strips, his name was the only one credited— although, sensitive to his own experience working on Joe Palooka, Capp frequently drew attention to his assistants in interviews and publicity pieces. A 1950 cover story in Time even included photos of two of his employees, whose roles in the production were detailed by Capp. Ironically, this highly irregular policy (along with the subsequent fame of Frank Frazetta) has led to the misconception that his strip was "ghosted" by other hands. The production of Li'l Abner has been well documented, however. In point of fact, Capp maintained creative control over every stage of production for virtually the entire run of the strip. Capp himself originated the stories, wrote the dialogue, designed the major characters, rough penciled the preliminary staging and action of each panel, oversaw the finished pencils, and drew and inked the hands and faces of the characters. Capp also detailed his approach to writing and drawing the stories in an instructional course book for the Famous Artists School. Frazetta, later famous as a fantasy artist, assisted on the strip from 1954 to December, 1961. Fascinated by Frazetta's abilities, Capp initially gave him a free hand in an extended daily sequence (about a biker named "Frankie", a caricature of Frazetta) to experiment with the basic look of the strip by adding a bit more realism and detail (particularly to the inking). After editors complained about the stylistic changes, the strip's previous look was restored. During most of his tenure with Capp, Frazetta's primary responsibility—along with various specialty art, such as a series of Li'l Abner greeting cards—was tight-penciling the Sunday pages from studio roughs. This work was collected by Dark Horse Comics in a four-volume hardcover series entitled Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Frazetta Years. In 1961, Capp, complaining of declining revenue, wanted to have Frazetta continue with a 50% pay cut. "[Capp] said he would cut the salary in half. Goodbye. That was that. I said goodbye." (Frazetta: Painting with Fire). However, Frazetta returned briefly a few years later to draw a public service comic book called Li'l Abner and the Creatures from Drop-Outer Space, distributed by the Job Corps in 1965. Public figure In the golden age of the American comic strip, successful cartoonists received a great deal of attention; their professional and private lives were reported in the press, and their celebrity was often nearly sufficient to rival their creations. As Li'l Abner reached its peak years, and following the success of the Shmoos and other high moments in his work, Al Capp achieved a public profile that is still unparalleled in his profession, and arguably exceeded the fame of his strip. "Capp was the best known, most influential and most controversial cartoonist of his era," writes publisher (and leading Shmoo collector) Denis Kitchen. "His personal celebrity transcended comics, reaching the public and influencing the culture in a variety of media. For many years he simultaneously produced the daily strip, a weekly syndicated newspaper column, and a 500-station radio program...." He even briefly considered running for a Massachusetts Senate seat in 1968, versus incumbent Ted Kennedy. Besides his use of the comic strip to voice his opinions and display his humor, Capp was a popular speaker at universities and on television. He remains the only cartoonist to be embraced by TV; no other comic artist to date has come close to Capp's televised exposure. Capp appeared as a regular on The Author Meets the Critics (1948-'54). He was also a periodic panelist on ABC and NBC's Who Said That? (1948-'55) and co-hosted DuMont's What's The Story? (1953). Between 1952 and 1972, he hosted at least five television shows - three different talk shows called The Al Capp Show (1952 and 1968) and Al Capp (1971 to '72), Al Capp's America (a live "chalk talk", with Capp providing a barbed commentary while sketching cartoons, 1954), and a CBS game show called Anyone Can Win (1953). He also hosted similar vehicles on the radio - and was a familiar celebrity guest on various other broadcast programs, including the long-running NBC radio series, Monitor. His frequent appearances on NBC's The Tonight Show spanned three emcees (Steve Allen, Jack Paar and Johnny Carson) from the 1950s to the 1970s. One memorable story, as recounted to Johnny Carson, was about his meeting with then-President Dwight D. Eisenhower. As he was ushered into the Oval Office, his prosthetic leg suddenly collapsed into a pile of disengaged parts and hinges on the floor. The President immediately turned to an aide and said, "Call Walter Reed (Hospital), or maybe Bethesda," to which Capp replied, "Hell no, just call a good local mechanic!" (Capp also spoofed Carson in his strip, in a 1967 episode called "The Tommy Wholesome Show".) Capp portrayed himself in a cameo role in the Bob Hope film That Certain Feeling (for which he also provided promotional art). He appeared as himself on The Ed Sullivan Show, Sid Caesar's Your Show of Shows, The Merv Griffin Show, The Mike Douglas Show, and was even featured on This Is Your Life in 1961. Capp also maintained a busy schedule of public speaking, and freelanced very successfully as a magazine writer and newspaper columnist in a wide variety of publications, including Life, Show, Pageant, The Atlantic, Esquire, Coronet, and The Saturday Evening Post. Capp was impersonated by comedians Rich Little and David Frye. Although Capp's endorsement activities never rivaled Li'l Abner's or Fearless Fosdick's, he was a celebrity spokesman in print ads for Sheaffer Snorkel fountain pens (along with colleagues and close friends Milton Caniff and Walt Kelly), and- with an irony that would become apparent later- a brand of cigarettes, (Chesterfield). Capp would resume visiting war amputees in veterans hospitals during the conflicts in Korea and Vietnam. He served as chairman of the Cartoonist's Committee in President Dwight D. Eisenhower's People-to-People program in 1954 (although Capp had actually supported Adlai Stevenson for president in 1952 and 1956), Al Capp's biography card from the National Cartoonists Society which was organized to promote Savings Bonds for the U.S. Treasury. Capp had earlier provided the Shmoo for a special Children's Savings Bond in 1949, accompanying President Harry S. Truman at the bond's unveiling ceremony. During the Soviet Union's blockade of West Berlin in 1948, the commanders of the Berlin airlift had cabled Capp, requesting inflatable shmoos as part of "Operation: Little Vittles". Candy-filled shmoos were air-dropped to hungry West Berliners by America's 17th Military Airport Squadron during the humanitarian effort. "When the candy-chocked shmoos were dropped, a near-riot resulted," (reported in Newsweek - October 11, 1948). In addition to his public service work for charitable organizations for the handicapped, Capp also served on the National Reading Council, which was organized to combat illiteracy. He published a column ("Wrong Turn Onto Sesame Street") challenging federally funded Public Television endowments in favor of educational comics - which, according to Capp, "didn't cost a dime in taxes and never had. I pointed out that a kid could enjoy Sesame Street without learning how to read, but he couldn't enjoy comic strips unless he could read; and that a smaller investment in getting kids to read by supplying them with educational matter in such reading form might make better sense." "Comics,” wrote Capp in 1970, “can be a combination of the highest quality of art and text, and many of them are.” Capp would produce many giveaway educational comic books and public services pamphlets, spanning several decades, for the Red Cross, the Dept. of Civil Defense, the Dept. of the Navy, the U.S. Army, the Anti-Defamation League, the Department of Labor, Community Chest (a forerunner of United Way), and the Job Corps. Capp's studio provided special artwork for various civic groups and non-profit organizations as well. Dogpatch characters were used in national campaigns for the Cancer Foundation, the March of Dimes, the National Heart Fund, the Boy Scouts of America, the National Amputation Foundation, and Disabled American Veterans, among others. In August 1967 Capp was the narrator and host of a network special called Do Blonds Have More Fun? In 1970, he was the subject of a provocative NBC documentary called This Is Al Capp. Capp was the Playboy interview subject in the December 1965 issue of that magazine. The 1960s and 1970s Capp, who by all accounts was contrary and contentious by nature, was a maverick politically. He characteristically went against the grain. He was a liberal during the conservative 1950s, only to switch to conservative during the liberal, hippie-era 1960s. Capp and his family lived in Cambridge, Massachusetts near Harvard during the entire Vietnam protest era. The turmoil that Americans were watching on their TV sets was happening live - right in his own neighborhood. Campus radicals and “hippies” inevitably became one of Capp’s favorite targets in the sixties. Alongside his long-established caricatures of right-wing, big business types such as General Bullmoose and J. Roaringham Fatback, Capp began spoofing counterculture icons such as Joan Baez (in the character of Joanie Phoanie, a wealthy folksinger who offers an impoverished orphanage ten thousand dollars' worth of "protest songs".) Which One Is the Phoanie? - Time The sequence implicitly labeled Baez a limousine liberal, a charge she took to heart, as detailed years later in her 1987 autobiography, And A Voice To Sing With. Another target was Senator Ted Kennedy, parodied as "Senator O. Noble McGesture", resident of "Hyideelsport." The town name is a play on Hyannisport, Massachusetts, where a number of the Kennedy clan have lived. He also satirized student political groups. The Youth International Party (YIP) and Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) emerged in Li'l Abner as "Students Wildly Indignant about Nearly Everything!" (SWINE). Capp became a popular public speaker on college campuses, where he reportedly relished hecklers. He attacked militant antiwar demonstrators, both in his personal appearances and in his strip. In an April 1969 letter to Time, Capp insisted, "The students I blast are not the dissenters, but the destroyers—the less than 4% who lock up deans in washrooms, who burn manuscripts of unpublished books, who make combination pigpens and playpens of their universities. The remaining 96% detest them as heartily as I do". Letters page April 18, 1969 - TIME Capp's increasingly controversial remarks at his campus speeches and during TV appearances cost him his semi-regular spot on the Tonight Show. His contentious public persona during this period was captured on a late sixties comedy LP called Al Capp On Campus. The album features his interaction with students at Fresno State College (now California State University, Fresno) on such topics as "sensitivity training", "humanitarianism", "abstract art" (Capp hated it), and of course "student protest". The cover features a cartoon drawing by Capp of wildly dressed, angry hippies carrying protest signs with slogans like "End Capp Brutality", "Abner and Daisy Mae Smoke Pot", "Capp Is Over [30, 40, 50- all crossed out] the Hill!!", and "If You Like Crap, You'll Like Capp!" The cartoonist visited John Lennon and Yoko Ono at their Bed-In for Peace, and their testy exchange later appeared in the documentary film Imagine. Introducing himself with the words "I'm a dreadful Neanderthal fascist. How do you do?", Capp sardonically congratulated Lennon and Ono on their Two Virgins nude album cover: "I think that everybody owes it to the world to prove they have pubic hair. You've done it, and I tell you that I applaud you for it." Lennon sang an impromptu version of his The Ballad of John and Yoko song with a slightly revised, but nonetheless prophetic lyric: "Christ, you know it ain't easy / You know how hard it can be / The way things are going / They're gonna crucify Capp! " Imagine: John Lennon Script - transcript from the screenplay and/or documentary movie about John Lennon According to an apocryphal tale from this era, in a televised face-off, either Capp (on the Dick Cavett Show) or (more commonly) conservative talk show host Joe Pyne (on his own show) is supposed to have taunted iconoclastic musician Frank Zappa about his long hair, asking Zappa if he thought he was a girl. Zappa is said to have replied, "You have a wooden leg; does that make you a table?" (Both Capp and Pyne had wooden legs). The story is considered an urban legend. In 1968, a theme park called Dogpatch USA opened at Marble Falls, Arkansas, based on Capp's work and with his support. The park was a popular attraction during the 1970s, but was abandoned in 1993 due to financial difficulties. As of late 2005, the area once devoted to a live-action facsimile of Dogpatch (including a lifesize statue in the town square of Dogpatch "founder", General Jubilation T. Cornpone) has been heavily stripped by vandals and souvenir hunters, and is today slowly being reclaimed by the surrounding Arkansas wilderness. In 1971, syndicated columnists Jack Anderson and Brit Hume published an article alleging instances of sexual harassment by Al Capp of students on his lecture tour. Lil Abner & Al Capp History Capp soon became involved in a scandal after allegedly propositioning a married student from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in Capp’s Eau Claire hotel room. After being charged in the incident, Capp pleaded nolo contendere to "attempted adultery” (Adultery was, and as of 2008 still is considered a felony in Wisconsin) and was fined $500. Adultery Wisconsin Law | Adultery is a crime in Wisconsin | Law Offices of criminal defense attorney Christopher Van Wagner criminal defense attorney Tracey Wood Madison WI The resulting publicity led to hundreds of papers dropping his comic strip Dogpatch confidential - Salon.com , and Capp, already in failing health, withdrew from public speaking. Years later, on Inside the Actor's Studio, Goldie Hawn claimed that Capp had sexually propositioned her during her auditions for the 1964 New York World's Fair; other actresses who have made similar allegations include Grace Kelly (unsubstantiated) and Edie Adams. "From beginning to end, Capp was acid-tongued toward the targets of his wit, intolerant of hypocrisy, and always wickedly funny. After about 40 years, however, Capp's interest in Abner waned, and this showed in the the strip itself," according to Don Markstein's Toonopedia. On November 13, 1977, Capp retired with an apology to his fans for the recently declining quality of the strip, which he said had been the best he could manage due to declining health. "If you have any sense of humor about your strip - and I had a sense of humor about mine - you knew that for three or four years Abner was wrong. Oh hell, it's like a fighter retiring. I stayed on longer than I should have," he admitted, Mr. Dogpatch - 1979 TIME obituary adding "I can't breathe anymore." "When he retired Li'l Abner, newspapers ran expansive articles and television commentators talked about the passing of an era. People magazine ran a substantial feature, and even the comics-free New York Times devoted nearly a full page to the event," wrote publisher Denis Kitchen. Capp's final years were marked by advancing illness and by family tragedy, with the unexpected deaths of one of his two daughters and a beloved granddaughter. A lifelong chain smoker, Capp died in 1979 from emphysema at his home in South Hampton, New Hampshire. Capp is buried in Mount Prospect Cemetery in Amesbury, Massachusetts. Neither the strip's shifting political leanings nor the slide of its final few years had any bearing on its status as a classic, and in 1995, Li'l Abner was recognized as such by the United States Postal Service. Li'l Abner was one of 20 classic American comic strips honored with a USPS commemorative postage stamp. Al Capp, an inductee into the National Cartoon Museum, (formerly the International Museum of Cartoon Art) is one of only 31 artists selected to their Hall Of Fame. Capp was also inducted into the Will Eisner Award Hall Of Fame in 2004. For further reading Since his death in 1979, Al Capp and his work have been the subject of close to 40 books, including three biographies. Underground cartoonist and Li'l Abner expert Denis Kitchen has published, co-published, edited, or otherwise served as consultant on nearly all of them. Capp, Al, LI’L ABNER IN NEW YORK (1936) Whitman Publishing Capp, Al, LI’L ABNER AMONG THE MILLIONAIRES (1939) Whitman Publishing Capp, Al, LI’L ABNER AND SADIE HAWKINS DAY (1940) Saalfield Publishing Capp, Al, LI’L ABNER AND THE RATFIELDS (1940) Saalfield Publishing Sheridan, Martin, COMICS AND THEIR CREATORS (1942) R.T. Hale & Co, (1977) Hyperion Press Waugh, Coulton, THE COMICS (1947) Macmillan Publishers Capp, Al, NEWSWEEK Magazine (November 24, 1947) "Li'l Abner's Mad Capp" Capp, Al, THE LIFE AND TIMES OF THE SHMOO (1948) Simon & Shuster Capp, Al, COSMOPOLITAN Magazine (June 1949) "I Don't Like Shmoos" Capp, Al, ATLANTIC Monthly (April 1950) "I Remember Monster" Capp, Al, TIME Magazine (November 6, 1950) "Die Monstersinger" Capp, Al, LIFE Magazine (March 31, 1952) "It's Hideously True!!..." Capp, Al, THE WORLD OF LI'L ABNER (1953) Farrar, Straus & Young Mikes, George, EIGHT HUMORISTS (1954) Allen Wingate, (1977) Arden Library Capp, Al, AL CAPP'S FEARLESS FOSDICK: His Life And Deaths (1956) Simon & Shuster Capp, Al, AL CAPP'S BALD IGGLE: The Life It Ruins May Be Your Own (1956) Simon & Shuster Capp, Al, LIFE Magazine (January 14, 1957) "The Dogpatch Saga: Al Capp's Own Story'Brodbeck, Arthur J, et al. "How To Read Li'l Abner Intelligently" from MASS CULTURE: The Popular Arts In America (1957) The Free Press Capp, Al, THE RETURN OF THE SHMOO (1959) Simon & Shuster White, David Manning, ed. FROM DOGPATCH TO SLOBBOVIA: The (Gasp!) World Of Li'l Abner (1964) Beacon Press Capp, Al, LIFE INTERNATIONAL Magazine (June 14, 1965) "My LIfe As An Immortal Myth" Capp, Al, PLAYBOY Magazine (December 1965) Interview with Al Capp Berger, Arthur Asa, LI'L ABNER: A Study In American Satire (1969) Twayne Publishers, (1994) University Press of Mississippi Capp, Al, THE HARDHAT'S BEDTIME STORY BOOK (1971) Harper & Row Robinson, Jerry, THE COMICS: An Illustrated History Of Comic Strip Art (1974) G.P. Putnam's Sons Horn, Maurice, THE WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA OF COMICS (1976) Chelsea House Marschall, Richard, CARTOONIST PROfiles #37 (March 1978) Capp, Al, THE BEST OF LI'L ABNER (1978) Holt, Rinehart & Winston Van Buren, Raeburn, ABBIE AN' SLATS - 2 Volumes (1983) Ken Pierce Books Blackbeard, Bill, THE SMITHSONIAN COLLECTION OF NEWSPAPER COMICS (1984) Smithsonian Inst. Press Capp, Al, LI'L ABNER: Reuben Award Winner Series Book 1 (1985) Blackthorne Marschall, Richard, NEMO Magazine #18 (April 1986) Capp, Al, LI'L ABNER DAILIES - 27 Volumes (1988 - 1999) Kitchen Sink Press Capp, Al, FEARLESS FOSDICK (1990) Kitchen Sink Press Capp, Al, MY WELL-BALANCED LIFE ON A WOODEN LEG (1991) John Daniel & Co. Capp, Al, FEARLESS FOSDICK: The Hole Story (1992) Kitchen Sink Press Caplin, Elliot, AL CAPP REMEMBERED (1994) Bowling Green State University Marschall, Richard, AMERICA'S GREAT COMIC STRIP ARTISTS (1997) Abbeville Press Theroux, Alexander, THE ENIGMA OF AL CAPP (1999) Fantagraphics Books Lubbers, Bob, GLAMOUR INTERNATIONAL #26: The Good Girl Art Of Bob Lubbers (2001) Capp, Al, THE SHORT LIFE AND HAPPY TIMES OF THE SHMOO (2002) Overlook Press Capp, Al, AL CAPP'S LI'L ABNER: The Frazetta Years - 4 Volumes''' (2003) Dark Horse Comics Kitchen, Denis, ed. AL CAPP'S SHMOO: The Complete Comic Books (2008) Dark Horse Comics Footnotes See alsoLi'l AbnerFearless Fosdick'' Shmoo External links Official Li'l Abner website Denis Kitchen's biography of Al Capp Al Capp's gravesite ASIFA-Hollywood Animation Archive tribute to Al Capp part I ASIFA / Capp part II ASIFA / Capp part III ASIFA / Capp part IV ASIFA / Capp part V Site devoted to the rise and fall of the Dogpatch USA amusement park. | Al_Capp |@lemmatized li:63 l:65 abner:79 self:4 portrait:1 al:62 capp:228 excerpt:2 theapril:1 strip:70 note:1 reference:3 milton:9 caniff:8 alfred:3 gerald:1 caplin:7 september:3 november:9 well:8 know:13 american:14 cartoonist:31 humorist:2 best:6 satirical:2 comic:56 also:24 write:11 abbie:3 slat:3 long:11 sam:4 win:3 national:10 society:8 reuben:2 award:4 year:27 elzie:1 segar:1 posthumously:1 unique:1 outstanding:1 contribution:1 profession:2 cartoon:8 early:4 life:23 born:1 russian:1 jewish:1 heritage:1 eldest:1 child:5 otto:1 philip:1 matilda:1 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4,395 | Henry_Moseley | Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley (23 November 1887–10 August 1915) was an English physicist. His main contributions to science were the quantitative justification of the previously empirical concept of atomic number, and Moseley's law. This law advanced chemistry by immediately sorting the elements of the periodic table in a more logical order. Moseley also advanced basic physics by providing independent support for the Bohr model of the Rutherford/Antonius Van den Broek nuclear atom containing positive nuclear charge equal to atomic number. With the outbreak of World War I, Moseley left Oxford University to enlist in the Royal Engineers. He was killed by a sniper during the Battle of Gallipoli in 1915, at the age of 27. Biography Henry Moseley was born in Weymouth, Dorset, on the south west coast of England in 1887. His father Henry Nottidge Moseley was a naturalist, a Professor of Anatomy and physiology at Oxford and a member of the Challenger Expedition. Brief biography of Moseley His mother was Amabel, daughter of the conchologist John Gwyn Jeffreys She later married William Johnson Sollas, Professor of Geology at Oxford. She was also the British Ladies' Chess Champion of 1913 . He attended Eton College on a King's scholarship. - JSTOR article; permission required In 1906, he entered Trinity College of the University of Oxford, and on graduation from that institution in 1910 went to Manchester University to work with Ernest Rutherford. During his first year at Manchester, he had a full teaching load, but after a year he was relieved of his teaching duties and began full-time research. In 1913, by using x-ray spectra obtained by diffraction in crystals, he found a systematic relation between wavelength and atomic number, Moseley's law. Previous to this, atomic numbers or elemental numbers had been thought of as a semi-arbitrary sequential ordering-number, based on sequence of atomic masses, but altered when necessary (for example, by Dimitri Mendeleev) to put an element in the appropriate place in the periodic table. For example, cobalt and nickel had been assigned atomic numbers of 27 and 28, respectively, based on their chemical properties, since they have nearly identical atomic mass (in fact, cobalt's atomic mass is larger than nickel's, which would have reversed them had they been placed in the periodic table strictly according to this criterion). Moseley's experiments were able to show directly that cobalt and nickel have clearly differing atomic numbers of 27 and 28, and are correctly placed in the periodic table by an objective measure. Moseley's discovery thus showed that atomic numbers were not arbitrary, but have an experimentally measurable basis. In addition, Moseley showed that there were gaps in the atomic number sequence at numbers 43, 61, 72, and 75. These spaces are now known, respectively, to be the places of the radioactive very rare elements technetium and promethium, and the last two discovered naturally-occurring stable elements hafnium (discovered 1923) and rhenium (discovered 1925). None were known in Moseley's time. Mendeleev had previously predicted technetium, and Bohuslav Brauner had previously predicted promethium; Moseley confirmed their predictions, predicted the two additional undiscovered elements, and argued that there were no other gaps in the periodic table between aluminium and gold. This last matter had been an issue, particularly with the rare earths. Moseley was able to demonstrate that the lanthanide series of rare-earth elements, i.e. lanthanum through lutetium inclusive, must have 15 members -- no more and no less. The number of lanthanides was an issue very far from being settled by the chemistry of that time, which could not yet provide pure samples of all the rare earth salts, and in some cases was chemically unable to tell mixtures of two very similar elements from pure materials. Moseley's instrument was able to sort out these problems, some of which had occupied chemists for years, almost immediately. He predicted the existence of element 61, a lanthanide whose existence was previously unsuspected.(Many years later element 61 i.e. promethium was created artificially.) American Chemical Society, "Separation of Rare Earth Elements" In 1914, Moseley resigned at Manchester to return to Oxford to pursue his research, but when World War I broke out, he turned down a job offer and enlisted in the Royal Engineers. He fought at Gallipoli, where he was killed in action by a sniper in 1915, shot through the head while in the act of telephoning an order. Isaac Asimov once wrote that "In view of what he [Moseley] might still have accomplished ... his death might well have been the most costly single death of the war to mankind generally." Many speculated that Moseley should have won the Nobel Prize, but it is not awarded posthumously. It also is speculated that because of Moseley's death in the War, the British and other world governments began a policy of no longer allowing their scientists to enlist for combat. Only twenty-seven years old at death, Moseley could in many scientists' opinions have contributed much to the knowledge of atomic structure had he lived. As Niels Bohr once said in 1962, "You see actually the Rutherford work [the nuclear atom] was not taken seriously. We cannot understand today, but it was not taken seriously at all. There was no mention of it any place. The great change came from Moseley." Contribution to our understanding Before Moseley and his law, atomic numbers had been thought of as a semi-arbitrary ordering number, vaguely increasing with atomic weight but not strictly defined by it. Moseley's discovery showed that atomic numbers were not arbitrary but have a physical basis. He redefined the idea of atomic numbers from its previous status as an around-about approximate numerical tag to help sorting, i.e. in the periodic table, into a real and objective whole-number quantity which was experimentally directly measurable. Furthermore, as noted by Bohr, Moseley's law provided a reasonably complete experimental set of data supporting the (at that time new from 1911) Ernest Rutherford/Antonius Van den Broek concept of the atom, in which atomic number is understood as representing physically exactly the number of positive charges (protons) in a central atomic nucleus (Moseley mentions these two scientists in his paper, but does not actually mention Bohr). A simple modification of Rydberg and Bohr's formula was found to give Moseley's empirically-derived law for measurement of atomic number. Use of X-ray spectrometer X-ray spectrometers as Moseley knew them worked as follows: a glass-bulb electron tube similar to that held by Moseley in the photo above, was used. Inside the evacuated tube, electrons were fired at a substance (i.e. a sample of pure element in Moseley's work), causing ionisation of a core electron. Decay of the core hole then led to emission of x-rays which were led out of the tube in a semi-beam, through an opening in the external X-ray shielding, then diffracted by a standard salt crystal, with angular results read out as lines by exposure of an X-ray film plate fixed outside the vacuum tube, at a known distance. Application of Bragg's law (after a guess at the mean distance between atoms in a crystal, based on density) then allowed the wavelength and thus frequency of the emitted x-rays to be determined. Moseley participated in the design and development of early X-ray specrometry equipment, learning some techniques from Sir W.H. Bragg at Leeds, and developing others himself. Many techniques were copied from principles used with light spectrometers, by substituting crystals, ionization chambers and photographic plates for the analogous equipment. In some cases Moseley was forced to modify the equipment to detect particularly soft X-rays which would not penetrate air and paper, by working with completely evacuated equipment, and in the dark. References and notes Further reading External links Moseley's original article, with illustration Some books related to Moseley and his work (from the Alsos Digital Library) Moseley plot of characteristic x-rays | Henry_Moseley |@lemmatized henry:3 gwyn:2 jeffreys:2 moseley:34 november:1 august:1 english:1 physicist:1 main:1 contribution:2 science:1 quantitative:1 justification:1 previously:4 empirical:1 concept:2 atomic:19 number:20 law:7 advance:2 chemistry:2 immediately:2 sort:2 element:11 periodic:6 table:6 logical:1 order:3 also:3 basic:1 physic:1 provide:3 independent:1 support:2 bohr:5 model:1 rutherford:4 antonius:2 van:2 den:2 broek:2 nuclear:3 atom:4 contain:1 positive:2 charge:2 equal:1 outbreak:1 world:3 war:4 leave:1 oxford:5 university:3 enlist:3 royal:2 engineer:2 kill:2 sniper:2 battle:1 gallipoli:2 age:1 biography:2 bear:1 weymouth:1 dorset:1 south:1 west:1 coast:1 england:1 father:1 nottidge:1 naturalist:1 professor:2 anatomy:1 physiology:1 member:2 challenger:1 expedition:1 brief:1 mother:1 amabel:1 daughter:1 conchologist:1 john:1 later:2 marry:1 william:1 johnson:1 sollas:1 geology:1 british:2 lady:1 chess:1 champion:1 attend:1 eton:1 college:2 king:1 scholarship:1 jstor:1 article:2 permission:1 require:1 enter:1 trinity:1 graduation:1 institution:1 go:1 manchester:3 work:6 ernest:2 first:1 year:5 full:2 teaching:1 load:1 relieve:1 teach:1 duty:1 begin:2 time:4 research:2 use:4 x:10 ray:10 spectrum:1 obtain:1 diffraction:1 crystal:4 find:2 systematic:1 relation:1 wavelength:2 previous:2 elemental:1 think:2 semi:3 arbitrary:4 sequential:1 base:3 sequence:2 mass:3 alter:1 necessary:1 example:2 dimitri:1 mendeleev:2 put:1 appropriate:1 place:5 cobalt:3 nickel:3 assign:1 respectively:2 chemical:2 property:1 since:1 nearly:1 identical:1 fact:1 large:1 would:2 reverse:1 strictly:2 accord:1 criterion:1 experiment:1 able:3 show:4 directly:2 clearly:1 differ:1 correctly:1 objective:2 measure:1 discovery:2 thus:2 experimentally:2 measurable:2 basis:2 addition:1 gap:2 space:1 know:3 radioactive:1 rare:5 technetium:2 promethium:3 last:2 two:4 discover:1 naturally:1 occur:1 stable:1 hafnium:1 discovered:2 rhenium:1 none:1 predict:4 bohuslav:1 brauner:1 confirm:1 prediction:1 additional:1 undiscovered:1 argue:1 aluminium:1 gold:1 matter:1 issue:2 particularly:2 earth:4 demonstrate:1 lanthanide:3 series:1 e:4 lanthanum:1 lutetium:1 inclusive:1 must:1 less:1 far:2 settle:1 could:2 yet:1 pure:3 sample:2 salt:2 case:2 chemically:1 unable:1 tell:1 mixture:1 similar:2 material:1 instrument:1 problem:1 occupy:1 chemist:1 almost:1 existence:2 whose:1 unsuspected:1 many:4 create:1 artificially:1 american:1 society:1 separation:1 resign:1 return:1 pursue:1 break:1 turn:1 job:1 offer:1 fight:1 action:1 shoot:1 head:1 act:1 telephone:1 isaac:1 asimov:1 write:1 view:1 might:2 still:1 accomplish:1 death:4 well:1 costly:1 single:1 mankind:1 generally:1 speculate:2 win:1 nobel:1 prize:1 award:1 posthumously:1 government:1 policy:1 longer:1 allow:2 scientist:3 combat:1 twenty:1 seven:1 old:1 opinion:1 contribute:1 much:1 knowledge:1 structure:1 live:1 niels:1 say:1 see:1 actually:2 take:2 seriously:2 cannot:1 understand:2 today:1 mention:3 great:1 change:1 come:1 ordering:1 vaguely:1 increase:1 weight:1 define:1 physical:1 redefine:1 idea:1 status:1 around:1 approximate:1 numerical:1 tag:1 help:1 sorting:1 real:1 whole:1 quantity:1 furthermore:1 note:2 reasonably:1 complete:1 experimental:1 set:1 data:1 new:1 understood:1 represent:1 physically:1 exactly:1 proton:1 central:1 nucleus:1 paper:2 simple:1 modification:1 rydberg:1 formula:1 give:1 empirically:1 derive:1 measurement:1 spectrometer:3 follow:1 glass:1 bulb:1 electron:3 tube:4 hold:1 photo:1 inside:1 evacuated:1 fire:1 substance:1 cause:1 ionisation:1 core:2 decay:1 hole:1 lead:2 emission:1 beam:1 opening:1 external:2 shielding:1 diffract:1 standard:1 angular:1 result:1 read:2 line:1 exposure:1 film:1 plate:2 fix:1 outside:1 vacuum:1 known:1 distance:2 application:1 bragg:2 guess:1 mean:1 density:1 frequency:1 emitted:1 determine:1 participate:1 design:1 development:1 early:1 specrometry:1 equipment:4 learn:1 technique:2 sir:1 w:1 h:1 leeds:1 develop:1 others:1 copy:1 principle:1 light:1 substitute:1 ionization:1 chamber:1 photographic:1 analogous:1 force:1 modify:1 detect:1 soft:1 penetrate:1 air:1 completely:1 evacuate:1 dark:1 reference:1 link:1 original:1 illustration:1 book:1 relate:1 alsos:1 digital:1 library:1 plot:1 characteristic:1 |@bigram periodic_table:6 van_den:2 den_broek:2 anatomy_physiology:1 challenger_expedition:1 eton_college:1 ernest_rutherford:2 cobalt_nickel:2 isaac_asimov:1 nobel_prize:1 niels_bohr:1 atomic_nucleus:1 ray_spectrometer:2 vacuum_tube:1 ionization_chamber:1 photographic_plate:1 external_link:1 alsos_digital:1 |
4,396 | List_of_laser_applications | There are many scientific, military, medical and commercial laser applications which have been developed since the invention of the laser in the 1958. The coherency, high monochromaticity, and ability to reach extremely high powers are all properties which allow for these specialized applications. Scientific In science, lasers are used in many ways, including: A wide variety of interferometric techniques Raman spectroscopy Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy. Atmospheric remote sensing Investigating nonlinear optics phenomena Holographic techniques employing lasers also contribute to a number of measurement techniques. Laser (LADAR) technology has application in geology, seismology, remote sensing and atmospheric physics. Lasers have been used aboard spacecraft such as in the Cassini-Huygens mission. In astronomy, lasers have been used to create artificial laser guide stars, used as reference objects for adaptive optics telescopes. Spectroscopy Most types of laser are an inherently pure source of light; they emit near-monochromatic light with a very well defined range of wavelengths. By careful design of the laser components, the purity of the laser light (measured as the "linewidth") can be improved more than the purity of any other light source. This makes the laser a very useful source for spectroscopy. The high intensity of light that can be achieved in a small, well collimated beam can also be used to induce a nonlinear optical effect in a sample, which makes techniques such as Raman spectroscopy possible. Other spectroscopic techniques based on lasers can be used to make extremely sensitive detectors of various molecules, able to measure molecular concentrations in the parts-per-trillion (ppt) level. Due to the high power densities achievable by lasers, beam-induced atomic emission is possible: this technique is termed Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). Lasers may also be indirectly used in spectroscopy as a micro-sampling system, a technique termed Laser ablation (LA), which is typically applied to ICP-MS apparatus resulting in the powerful LA-ICP-MS. The principles of laser spectroscopy are discussed by Demtroder W. Demtroder, Laser Spectroscopy, 3rd Ed. (Springer, 2003) and the use of tunable lasers in spectroscopy are described in Tunable Laser Applications. F. J. Duarte (Ed.), Tunable Laser Applications, 2nd Ed. (CRC, 2008) Chapter 2. Lunar laser ranging When the Apollo astronauts visited the moon, they planted retroreflector arrays to make possible the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment. Laser beams are focused through large telescopes on Earth aimed toward the arrays, and the time taken for the beam to be reflected back to Earth measured to determine the distance between the Earth and Moon with high precision. Material processing Laser cutting, laser welding, laser brazing, laser bending, laser engraving or marking, laser cleaning, weapons etc. Photochemistry Some laser systems, through the process of modelocking, can produce extremely brief pulses of light - as short as picoseconds or femtoseconds (10-12 - 10-15 seconds). Such pulses can be used to initiate and analyse chemical reactions, a technique known as photochemistry. The short pulses can be used to probe the process of the reaction at a very high temporal resolution, allowing the detection of short-lived intermediate molecules. This method is particularly useful in biochemistry, where it is used to analyse details of protein folding and function. Laser cooling A technique that has had recent success is laser cooling. This involves atom trapping, a method where a number of atoms are confined in a specially shaped arrangement of electric and magnetic fields. Shining particular wavelengths of laser light at the ions or atoms slows them down, thus cooling them. As this process is continued, they all are slowed and have the same energy level, forming an unusual arrangement of matter known as a Bose-Einstein condensate. Nuclear fusion Some of the world's most powerful and complex arrangements of multiple lasers and optical amplifiers are used to produce extremely high intensity pulses of light of extremely short duration. These pulses are arranged such that they impact pellets of tritium-deuterium simultaneously from all directions, hoping that the squeezing effect of the impacts will induce atomic fusion in the pellets. This technique, known as "inertial confinement fusion", so far has not been able to achieve "breakeven", that is, so far the fusion reaction generates less power than is used to power the lasers, but research continues. Microscopy Confocal laser scanning microscopy and Two-photon excitation microscopy make use of lasers to obtain blur-free images of thick specimens at various depths. Laser capture microdissection use lasers to procure specific cell populations from a tissue section under microscopic visualization. Additional laser microscopy techniques include harmonic microscopy, four-wave mixing microscopy F. J. Duarte (Ed.), Tunable Laser Applications, 2nd Ed. (CRC, 2008) Chapter 9. and interferometric microscopy. F. J. Duarte (Ed.), Tunable Laser Applications, 2nd Ed. (CRC, 2008) Chapter 12. Military Military uses of lasers include applications such as target designation and ranging, defensive countermeasures, communications and directed energy weapons. Directed energy weapons such as Boeing’s Airborne Laser which can be built inside a 747 jet can burn the skin off enemy missiles. ”Light Warfare”; by Matthew Swibel; 04.23.07; Forbes.com On March 18, 2009 Northrop Grumman announced that its engineers in Redondo Beach had successfully built and tested an electric laser capable of producing a 100-kilowatt ray of light, powerful enough to destroy cruise missiles, artillery, rockets and mortar rounds Joint High Power Solid-State Laser fact sheet, Northrop Grumman Corporation, April 22, 2008 . An electric laser is theoretically capable, according to Brian Strickland, manager for the United States Army's Joint High Power Solid State Laser program, of being mounted in an aircraft, ship, or vehicle because it requires much less space for its supporting equipment than a chemical laser. Pae, Peter, "Northrop Advance Brings Era Of The Laser Gun Closer", Los Angeles Times, March 19, 2009., p. B2. Defensive countermeasures Defensive countermeasure applications can range from compact, low power infrared countermeasures to high power, airborne laser systems. IR countermeasure systems use lasers to confuse the seeker heads on heat-seeking anti-aircraft missiles. High power boost-phase intercept laser systems use a complex system of lasers to find, track and destroy intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM). In this type of system a chemical laser, one in which the laser operation is powered by an energetic chemical reaction, is used as the main weapon beam (see Airborne Laser). The Mobile Tactical High-Energy Laser (MTHEL) is another defensive laser system under development; this is envisioned as a field-deployable weapon system able to track incoming artillery projectiles and cruise missiles by radar and destroy them with a powerful deuterium fluoride laser. Another example of direct use of a laser as a defensive weapon was researched for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI, nicknamed "Star Wars"), and its successor programs. This project would use ground-based or space-based laser systems to destroy incoming intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). The practical problems of using and aiming these systems were many; particularly the problem of destroying ICBMs at the most opportune moment, the boost phase just after launch. This would involve directing a laser through a large distance in the atmosphere, which, due to optical scattering and refraction, would bend and distort the laser beam, complicating the aiming of the laser and reducing its efficiency. Another idea to come from the SDI project was the nuclear-pumped X-ray laser. This was essentially an orbiting atomic bomb, surrounded by laser media in the form of glass rods; when the bomb exploded, the rods would be bombarded with highly-energetic gamma-ray photons, causing spontaneous and stimulated emission of X-ray photons in the atoms making up the rods. This would lead to optical amplification of the X-ray photons, producing an X-ray laser beam that would be minimally affected by atmospheric distortion and capable of destroying ICBMs in flight. The X-ray laser would be a strictly one-shot device, destroying itself on activation. Some initial tests of this concept were performed with underground nuclear testing; however, the results were not encouraging. Research into this approach to missile defense was discontinued after the SDI program was cancelled. The United States Air Force has experimented with using lasers combined with high-altitude airships as a potential means for a missile defense shield but also as a means to destroy enemy spacecraft or satellites in low-earth orbit. For more information, see Evolutionary Air and Space Global Laser Engagement. According to a 2005 report issued by the Pentagon, China is developing a laser that could blind low Earth orbit satellites. USATODAY.com - Report: China working on anti-satellite systems In the April 2008 edition of Popular Science, there is an article showcasing a new combat laser, the Boeing Advanced Tactical Laser Beam, which will be carried in a large aircraft (it is shown carried in a C-130) and fired at large targets (vehicles or buildings.) It is currently being tested at Kirtland Air Force Base in New Mexico. The laser itself is a chemical laser, and weighs 40,000 pounds. The range is reported to be 5 miles, and it can rapidly strike targets (it uses rapid-fire rather than a continuous beam to minimize the risk of friendly fire.) However, the prototype cost $200 million, making it doubtful that this will be put to widespread use. Barring the cost, it is expected to be in battle within five years. The recently introduced FIRESTRIKE laser system is small enough (400lbs) to fit into light vehicles. Targeting Ranging A laser rangefinder is a device consisting of a pulsed laser and a light detector. By measuring the time taken for light to reflect off a far object, and knowing the speed of light, the range to the object can be found. A laser rangefinder is thus a simple form of LIDAR. The distance to the target can then be used to aim a weapon such as a tank's main gun. Target designator A target designator Another military use of lasers is as a laser target designator. This is a low-power laser pointer used to indicate a target for a precision-guided munition, typically launched from an aircraft. The guided munition adjusts its flight-path to home in to the laser light reflected by the target, enabling a great precision in aiming. The beam of the laser target designator is set to a pulse rate that matches that set on the guided munition to ensure munitions strike their designated targets and do not follow other laser beams which may be in use in the area. The laser designator can be shone onto the target by an aircraft or nearby infantry. Lasers used for this purpose are usually infrared lasers, so the enemy cannot easily detect the guiding laser light. Firearms FTP Laser sight Revolver equipped with laser sight. The laser has in most firearms applications has been used as a tool to enhance the targeting of other weapon systems. For example, a laser sight is a small, usually visible-light laser placed on a handgun or rifle aligned to emit a beam parallel to the barrel. Since a laser beam by definition has low divergence, the laser light appears as a small spot even at long distances; the user places the spot on the desired target and the barrel of the gun is aligned (but not necessarily allowing for windage and the target moving while the bullet travels). Most laser sights use a red laser diode. Others use an infrared diode to produce a dot invisible to the naked human eye but detectable with night vision devices. The firearms adaptive target acquisition module LLM01 laser light module combines visible and infrared laser diodes. In the late 1990s, green diode pumped solid state laser (DPSS) laser sights (532 nm) became available. Modern laser sights are small and light enough for attachment to the firearms. In 2007, LaserMax, a company specializing in manufacturing lasers for military and police firearms, introduced the first mass-production green laser available for small arms. LaserMax Introduces the UniMax Green Laser for Firearms This laser mounts to the underside of a handgun or long arm on the accessory rail. The green laser is supposed to be more visible than the red laser in bright lighting conditions because, for the same wattage, green light appears brighter than red light. Eye-targeted lasers A non-lethal laser weapon was developed by the U.S. Air Force to temporarily impair an adversary’s ability to fire a weapon or to otherwise threaten enemy forces. This unit illuminates an opponent with harmless low-power laser light and can have the effect of dazzling or disorienting the subject or causing him to flee. There remains the possibility of using lasers to blind, since this requires much lower power levels, and is easily achievable in a man-portable unit. However, most nations regard the deliberate permanent blinding of the enemy as forbidden by the rules of war (see Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons). Although several nations have developed blinding laser weapons, such as China's ZM-87, none of these are believed to have made it past the prototype stage. In addition to the applications that crossover with military applications, a widely known law enforcement use of lasers is for lidar to measure the speed of vehicles. Medical Cosmetic surgery (removing tattoos, scars, stretch marks, sunspots, wrinkles, birthmarks, and hairs): see laser hair removal. Laser types used in dermatology include ruby (694 nm), alexandrite (755 nm), pulsed diode array (810 nm), Nd:YAG (1064 nm), Ho:YAG (2090 nm), and Er:YAG (2940 nm). Eye surgery and refractive surgery Soft tissue surgery: CO2, Er:YAG laser Laser scalpel (General surgery, gynecological, urology, laparoscopic) Dental procedures Photobiomodulation (i.e. laser therapy) "No-Touch" removal of tumors, especially of the brain and spinal cord. In dentistry for caries removal, endodontic/periodontic procedures, tooth whitening, and oral surgery. See laser scalpel. Industrial and commercial Lasers used for visual effects during a musical performance. (A laser light show.) Cutting and peening of metals and other material, welding, marking, etc Guidance systems (e.g., ring laser gyroscopes) Rangefinder / surveying, LIDAR / pollution monitoring, Digital minilabs Barcode readers Laser engraving of printing plate Laser bonding of additive marking materials for decoration and identification, Laser pointers Laser accelerometers Holography Bubblegrams Photolithography Optical communications (over optical fiber or in free space) Optical tweezers Writing subtitles onto motion picture films. Cinetyp Hollywood - film subtitles, video subtitles, DVD subtitles, film overlay, video, film, overlay, foreign subtitles, closed captioning, open captioning, spotting lists Space elevator, a possible solution transfer energy to the climbers by laser or microwave power beaming 3D laser scanners for accurate 3D measurement. Laser line levels are used in surveying and construction. Lasers are also used for guidance for aircraft. Extensively in both consumer and industrial imaging equipment. In laser printers: gas and diode lasers play a key role in manufacturing high resolution printing plates and in image scanning equipment. Diode lasers are used as a lightswitch in industry, with a laser beam and a receiver which will switch on or off when the beam is interrupted, and because a laser can keep the light intensity over larger distances than a normal light, and is more precise than a normal light it can be used for product detection in automated production. Laser alignment Additive manufacturing In consumer electronics, telecommunications, and data communications, lasers are used as the transmitters in optical communications over optical fiber and free space. To store and retrieve data in optical discs Laser lighting displays (pictured) accompany many music concerts. Images References See also Less-lethal weapon Laser capture microdissection External links The International Scientific Laboratory for Optical Diagnostics | List_of_laser_applications |@lemmatized many:4 scientific:3 military:6 medical:2 commercial:2 laser:146 application:12 develop:4 since:3 invention:1 coherency:1 high:14 monochromaticity:1 ability:2 reach:1 extremely:5 power:14 property:1 allow:3 specialized:1 science:2 use:41 way:1 include:4 wide:1 variety:1 interferometric:2 technique:11 raman:2 spectroscopy:10 induce:4 breakdown:2 atmospheric:3 remote:2 sense:2 investigate:1 nonlinear:2 optic:2 phenomena:1 holographic:1 employ:1 also:6 contribute:1 number:2 measurement:2 ladar:1 technology:1 geology:1 seismology:1 physic:1 aboard:1 spacecraft:2 cassini:1 huygens:1 mission:1 astronomy:1 create:1 artificial:1 guide:3 star:2 reference:2 object:3 adaptive:2 telescope:2 type:3 inherently:1 pure:1 source:3 light:29 emit:2 near:1 monochromatic:1 well:2 defined:1 range:7 wavelength:2 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4,397 | Telecommunications_in_Belarus | Communications in Belarus are dominated by the state which owns most of the corporations and infrastructure. Telephone system the Ministry of Telecommunications controls all telecommunications through its carrier Unitary enterprise Beltelecom which is a monopoly. The phone calling code for Belarus is +375. Domestic Belarus has 3 (velcom, MTS and life) GSM operators, the NMT-450 and CDMA-2000 operator. Mobile operators are experiencing rapid growth. Minsk has a digital metropolitan network; waiting lists for telephones are long; fixed line penetration is improving although rural areas continue to be undeserved; intercity - Belarus has developed fibre-optic backbone system presently serving at least 13 major cities (1998); Belarus's fibre optics form synchronous digital hierarchy rings through other countries' systems; an inadequate analogue system remains operational. International Belarus is a member of the Trans-European Line (TEL), Trans-Asia-Europe Fibre-Optic Line (TAE) and has access to the Trans-Siberia Line (TSL); three fibre-optic segments provide connectivity to Latvia, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine; worldwide service is available to Belarus through this infrastructure; additional analogue lines to Russia; Intelsat, Eutelsat, and Intersputnik earth stations Media Perestroika During the time of perestroika and after the collapse of the Soviet Union media expression flourished, with a wide variety of newspapers that presented a wide variety of points of view. Lukashenko period "Mass Media in Belarus" exhibition. "Mass Media for Diaspora" booth. May 5, 2005 During the first 10 years of Lukashenko's presidency, most of the Belarusian media outlets (newspapers, radio, television) were brought under the control of the state. The state-controlled media present pro-government points of view and interpretation of events as in the Soviet period. There are a number of privately owned media outlets, mostly small independent newspapers. They operate under a permanent threat of being closed down for violating various government regulations, such as mis-stating their corporate name on publications or operating out of an office not registered with the government (in fact, this is the situation for all private enterprises in Belarus). Television Television channels with news content and nationwide coverage are all either state-owned or state controlled (i.e. state bodies own more than 50 percent of the shares). There isn't a single privately owned TV channel with nationwide coverage. Licences for TV and radio broadcasters are issued by the Republican Commission on Television and Radio Broadcasting, the chair of which is the minister of information. Other regulatory functions are undertaken by the information ministry directly. The only producer of broadcast news is the Belarusian Television and Radio Company (BT). Regional channels produce 25-40 percent of their own programming. They do not produce their own news or current affairs programmes, relying instead on news from national channels. Some 400,000 homes in Belarus have satellite dishes. Radio According to the Ministry of Information, there are 151 radio channels in Belarus, 30 broadcast on FM frequencies. Newspapers There are two types of newspaper, divided into sharply contrasting camps, namely state-owned and privately-owned. State-owned newspapers make up some 80-85 percent of newspaper circulation. The state-owned newspapers have large circulations running into hundreds of thousands. In 1999, it became obligatory to register with the state press distributor. The most important of these is the daily Sovetskaya Belarussia – Belarus segodnya (Soviet Belarus – Belarus Today), published by the presidential administration, with a circulation of about 500,000. Other significant state-owned newspapers are the daily Respublika (The Republic), published by the Cabinet of Ministers, and the weeklies Sem’ Dnei (Seven Days) and Narodnaya Gazeta (The People’s Paper). Internet According to a 2006 survey of 1,500 adults by Satio, a third of Belarusians use the Internet—38% of the urban population and 16% of the rural population. Минский Курьер : №1096 Пятница 22 Декабря 2006г According to other data Internet penetration in Belarus is 35.1 % Europe Internet Usage Stats and Population Statistics - this indicates the highest level of penetration of all the CIS countries. The second closest being Russia with 16.5%. Yet another study by the UN indicates 56.5% of population are internet-users http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/sdteecb20071_en.pdf Free expression limited Many western human rights groups state that civil rights, and free expression are severely limited in Belarus, though there are some individuals and groups that refuse to be controlled and some [journalists have disappeared http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher,CPJ,,BLR,47c5669223,0.html ]. What makes the situation complex, is that the relatively free Russian media is allowed to transmit television programming, sell newspapers and conduct journalistic activities in Belarus (though some Russian journalists have been expelled by the Belarusian government) thus giving some members of the public, typically those in large cities with many Russian residents, access to an alternative point of view in the Russian language (nearly all Belarusians understand and most of them speak Russian). In 2004, media watchdog Reporters Without Borders ranked Belarus 144th out of 167 countries in regards to press freedom. By comparison, in the same index neighbouring Ukraine was 138th and Russia was 140th. The closest other European countries were Serbia at 77 and Romania at 70. Radio broadcast stations: AM 28, FM 37, shortwave 11 (1998) Radios: 3.02 million (1997) Television broadcast stations: 47 (plus 27 repeaters) (1995) Country code: BY Broadband Internet access The state Telecom monopoly Beltelecom, holds exclusive interconnection with internet providers outside of Belarus. Beltelecom owns all the backbone channels which are linked to the TeleGlobe, SprintLink and Peterstar ISP's. Until 2005-2006 broadband access (mostly using ADSL) was available only in a few major cities in Belarus. In Minsk there were a dozen of privately-owned ISP's and in some other big cities Beltelecom's broadband was available. Outside this area the only options for Internet access were dial-up from Beltelecom or GPRS/cdma2000 from mobile operators. In 2006 Beltelecom introduced a new trademark Byfly for its ADSL access. As of 2008 Byfly is available in all raicenter of Belarus. Other ISP's started expanding their network outside of Minsk too. References External links The Ministry of Information of the Republic of Belarus The Ministry of Communications and Informatization of the Republic of Belarus Media in Belarus Major telecommunications operators in Belarus: Beltelecom MTS (GSM) velcom (GSM) life (GSM) Diallog (CDMA) | Telecommunications_in_Belarus |@lemmatized communication:2 belarus:25 dominate:1 state:14 corporation:1 infrastructure:2 telephone:2 system:4 ministry:5 telecommunication:3 control:4 carrier:1 unitary:1 enterprise:2 beltelecom:7 monopoly:2 phone:1 call:1 code:2 domestic:1 velcom:2 mt:2 life:2 gsm:4 operator:5 nmt:1 cdma:2 mobile:2 experience:1 rapid:1 growth:1 minsk:3 digital:2 metropolitan:1 network:2 wait:1 list:1 long:1 fix:1 line:5 penetration:3 improve:1 although:1 rural:2 area:2 continue:1 undeserved:1 intercity:1 develop:1 fibre:4 optic:4 backbone:2 presently:1 serve:1 least:1 major:3 city:4 form:1 synchronous:1 hierarchy:1 ring:1 country:5 inadequate:1 analogue:2 remain:1 operational:1 international:1 member:2 trans:3 european:2 tel:1 asia:1 europe:2 tae:1 access:6 siberia:1 tsl:1 three:1 segment:1 provide:1 connectivity:1 latvia:1 poland:1 russia:4 ukraine:2 worldwide:1 service:1 available:4 additional:1 intelsat:1 eutelsat:1 intersputnik:1 earth:1 station:3 medium:10 perestroika:2 time:1 collapse:1 soviet:3 union:1 expression:3 flourish:1 wide:2 variety:2 newspaper:10 present:2 point:3 view:3 lukashenko:2 period:2 mass:2 exhibition:1 diaspora:1 booth:1 may:1 first:1 year:1 presidency:1 belarusian:5 outlet:2 radio:8 television:7 bring:1 controlled:1 pro:1 government:4 interpretation:1 event:1 number:1 privately:4 mostly:2 small:1 independent:1 operate:2 permanent:1 threat:1 close:2 violate:1 various:1 regulation:1 mis:1 corporate:1 name:1 publication:1 office:1 register:2 fact:1 situation:2 private:1 channel:6 news:4 content:1 nationwide:2 coverage:2 either:1 e:1 body:1 percent:3 share:1 single:1 tv:2 licence:1 broadcaster:1 issue:1 republican:1 commission:1 broadcasting:1 chair:1 minister:2 information:4 regulatory:1 function:1 undertake:1 directly:1 producer:1 broadcast:4 company:1 bt:1 regional:1 produce:2 programming:2 current:1 affair:1 programme:1 rely:1 instead:1 national:1 home:1 satellite:1 dish:1 accord:3 fm:2 frequency:1 two:1 type:1 divide:1 sharply:1 contrast:1 camp:1 namely:1 make:2 circulation:3 large:2 run:1 hundred:1 thousand:1 become:1 obligatory:1 press:2 distributor:1 important:1 daily:2 sovetskaya:1 belarussia:1 segodnya:1 today:1 publish:2 presidential:1 administration:1 significant:1 respublika:1 republic:3 cabinet:1 weekly:1 sem:1 dnei:1 seven:1 day:1 narodnaya:1 gazeta:1 people:1 paper:1 internet:8 survey:1 adult:1 satio:1 third:1 use:2 urban:1 population:4 минский:1 курьер:1 пятница:1 декабря:1 data:1 usage:1 stats:1 statistic:1 indicate:2 high:1 level:1 ci:1 second:1 closest:1 yet:1 another:1 study:1 un:1 user:1 http:2 www:2 unctad:1 org:2 en:1 doc:1 pdf:1 free:3 limit:2 many:2 western:1 human:1 right:2 group:2 civil:1 severely:1 though:2 individual:1 refuse:1 journalist:2 disappear:1 unhcr:1 refworld:1 publisher:1 cpj:1 blr:1 html:1 complex:1 relatively:1 russian:5 allow:1 transmit:1 sell:1 conduct:1 journalistic:1 activity:1 expel:1 thus:1 give:1 public:1 typically:1 resident:1 alternative:1 language:1 nearly:1 understand:1 speak:1 watchdog:1 reporter:1 without:1 border:1 rank:1 regard:1 freedom:1 comparison:1 index:1 neighbour:1 serbia:1 romania:1 shortwave:1 million:1 plus:1 repeater:1 broadband:3 telecom:1 hold:1 exclusive:1 interconnection:1 provider:1 outside:3 link:2 teleglobe:1 sprintlink:1 peterstar:1 isp:3 adsl:2 dozen:1 big:1 option:1 dial:1 gprs:1 introduce:1 new:1 trademark:1 byfly:2 raicenter:1 start:1 expand:1 reference:1 external:1 informatization:1 diallog:1 |@bigram fibre_optic:4 soviet_union:1 medium_outlet:2 hundred_thousand:1 http_www:2 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 plus_repeater:1 broadband_internet:1 external_link:1 |
4,398 | Ghost | A ghost has been defined as the disembodied spirit or soul of a deceased person, Merriam Webster dictionary, retrieved December 24, 2007 although in popular usage the term refers only to the apparition of such a person. http://www.parapsych.org/glossary_e_k.html#g Parapsychological Association, glossary of key words frequently used in parapsychology, Retrieved December 13 2006 Often described as insubstantial and partly transparent, ghosts are reported to haunt particular locations or people that they were associated with in life or at time of death. Phantom armies, ghost-animals, ghost trains and phantom ships have also been reported. Christina Hole (1950) Haunted England. London, Batsford: 150-163 Daniel Cohen (1994) Encyclopedia of Ghosts. London, Michael O' Mara Books: 8 A poll conducted in 2003 showed that more than half of adults in the United States believe in ghosts and/or demons. Ghosts or similar paranormal entities appear in film, theatre, and literature; legends and myths, and some religions. Etymology and Synonyms The English word ghost continues Old English gást, hypothetical Common Germanic *gaisto-z. It is common to West Germanic, but lacking in North and East Germanic (the equivalent word in Gothic is ahma, Old Norse has andi m., önd f.). The pre-Germanic form would have been , apparently from a root denoting "fury, anger", cognate to Sanskrit hedas "anger", reflected in Old Norse geisa "to rage". The Germanic word is recorded as masculine only, but likely continues a neuter s-stem. The original meaning of the Germanic word would thus have been an animating principle of the mind, in particular capable of excitation and fury (compare óðr). In Germanic paganism, "Germanic Mercury", and the later Odin, was at the same time the conductor of the dead and the "lord of fury" leading the Wild Hunt. Besides denoting the human spirit or soul, both of the living and the deceased, the Old English word is used as a synonym of Latin spiritus also in the meaning of "breath, blast" from the earliest (9th century) attestations. It could also denote any good or evil spirit, i.e. angels and demons; the Anglo-Saxon gospel refers to the demonic possession of Matthew 12:43 as se unclæna gast. Also from the Old English period, the word could denote the spirit of God, viz. the "Holy Ghost". The now prevailing sense of "the soul of a deceased person, spoken of as appearing in a visible form" emerges in Middle English (14th century) only. OED The synonym spook is a Dutch loanword, akin to Low German spôk (of uncertain etymology); it entered the English language via the United States in the 19th century. Askoxford.com. Retrieved 2009-05-12. Mencken, H. L. (1936, repr. 1980). The American Language: An Inquiry into the Development of English in the United States (4th edition). New York: Knopf, p. 108. Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, spook. Webster's New World College Dictionary (4th edition), Wiley, spook. Alternate words in modern usage include spectre (from Latin spectrum), the Scottish wraith (of obscure origin), phantom (via French ultimately from Greek phantasma, compare fantasy) and apparition. The term shade in classical mythology translates Greek σκιά, Liddell & Scott entry or Latin umbra, Lewis & Short in reference to the notion of spirits in the Greek underworld. A revenant is a deceased person returning from the dead to haunt the living, either as a disembodied ghost or alternatively as an animated ("undead") corpse. The term poltergeist is a German word, literally a "noisy ghost", for a spirit said to manifest itself by invisibly moving and influencing objects. Daniel Cohen (1994) Encyclopedia of Ghosts. London, Michael O' Mara Books: 137-56 Also related is the concept of a fetch, the visible ghost or spirit of a person yet alive, a notion widespread in shamanistic cultures. The word "ghost" may also refer to any spirit or demon. http://www.parapsych.org/glossary_e_k.html#g Parapsychological Association, glossary of key words frequently used in parapsychology, Retrieved December 13 2006 http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/ghost Merriam Webster dictionary, retrieved December 24, 2007 "a disembodied soul" http://www.thefreedictionary.com/ghost Retrieved December 13 2006 "The spirit of a dead person, especially one believed to appear in bodily likeness to living persons or to haunt former habitats." Typology Anthropological context A notion of the transcendent, supernatural or numinous, usually involving entities like ghosts, demons or deities, is a cultural universal shared by all human cultures. Donald Brown (1991) Human Universals. Philadelphia, Temple University Press (online summary). In pre-literate ethnic religions, these beliefs are often summarized under animism and ancestor worship. Some people believe the ghost or spirit never leaves Earth until there is no-one left to remember the one who died. Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology edited by J. Gordon Melton Gale Research, ISBN 0-8103-5487-X In many cultures malignant, restless ghosts are distinguished from the more benign spirits which are the subject of ancestor worship. Richard Cavendish (1994) The World of Ghosts and the Supernatural. Waymark Publications, Basingstoke: 5 Ancestor worship typically involves rites intended to prevent revenants, vengeful spirits of the dead, imagined as starving and envious of the living. Strategies for preventing revenants may either include sacrifice, i.e. the provision of the dead with food and drink in order to pacify them, or the magical banishment of the deceased, preventing them from returning by force. Ritual feeding of the dead is performed in traditions like the Chinese Ghost Festival or the Western All Souls' Day. Magical banishment of the dead is present in many of the world's burial customs. The bodies found in many tumuli (kurgan) had been ritually bound before burial, e.g. in graves of the Irish Bronze Age and the custom of binding the dead persists, for example, in rural Anatolia. "In the immediate aftermath of a death, the deceased is removed from the bed he died in and placed on the prepared floor, called a ‘comfort bed.’ His jaw is bound up and his feet tied together (usually at the big toes)." Nineteenth-century anthropologist James Frazer stated in his classic work, The Golden Bough, that souls were seen as the creature within that animated the body. "If a man lives and moves, it can only be because he has a little man or animal inside, who moves him. The animal inside the animal, the man inside the man, is the soul. And as the activity of an animal or man is explained by the presence of the soul, so the repose of sleep or death is explained by its absence; sleep or trance being the temporary, death being the permanent absence of the soul... " The Golden Bough, Project Gutenberg, accessed January 16, 2007 Ghosts and the afterlife Although the human soul was sometimes symbolically or literally depicted in ancient cultures as a bird or other animal, it was widely held that the soul was an exact reproduction of the body in every feature, even down to clothing the person wore. This is depicted in artwork from various ancient cultures, including such works as the Egyptian Book of the Dead, which shows deceased people in the afterlife appearing much as they did before death, including the style of dress. Common attributes Another widespread belief concerning ghosts is that they were composed of a misty, airy, or subtle material. Anthropologists speculate that this may also stem from early beliefs that ghosts were the person within the person, most noticeable in ancient cultures as a person's breath, which upon exhaling in colder climates appears visibly as a white mist. Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology edited by J. Gordon Melton Gale Research, ISBN 0-8103-5487-X This belief may have also fostered the metaphorical meaning of "breath" in certain languages, such as the Latin spiritus and the Greek pneuma, which by analogy became extended to mean the soul. In the Bible, God is depicted as animating Adam with a breath. In many traditional accounts, ghosts were often thought to be deceased people looking for vengeance, or imprisoned on earth for bad things they did during life. The appearance of a ghost has often been regarded as an omen or portent of death. Seeing one's own ghostly double or "fetch" is a related omen of death. Christina Hole (1950) Haunted England: 13-27 A White Lady were reported to appear in many rural areas, and supposed to have died tragically or suffered trauma in life. White Lady legends are found around the world. Common to many of them is the theme of losing or being betrayed by a husband or fiancé. They are often associated with an individual family line, as a harbinger of death. When one of these ghosts is seen it indicates that someone in the family is going to die, similar to a banshee. Legends of ghost ships have existed since the 18th century; most notable of these is the Flying Dutchman. This theme has been used in literature in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Coleridge. Locale A place where ghosts are reported is described as haunted, and often seen as being inhabited by spirits of deceased who may have been former residents or were familiar with the property. Supernatural activity inside homes is said to be mainly associated with violent or tragic events in the building's past such as murder, accidental death, or suicide — sometimes in the recent or ancient past. Amongst many cultures and religions it is believed that the essence of a being such as the 'soul' continues to exist. Some philosophical and religious views argue that the 'spirits' of those who have died have not 'passed over' and are trapped inside the property where their memories and energy are strong. History Antiquity King Hsuan (827-783 BC) according to Chinese legend executed his minister, Tu Po, on false charges even after being warned that Tu Po's ghost would seek revenge. Three years later, according to historical chronicles, Tu Po's ghost shot and killed Hsuan with a bow and arrow before an assembly of feudal lords. The Chinese philosopher, Mo Tzu (470-391 BC), is quoted as having commented: "If from antiquity to the present, and since the beginning of man, there are men who have seen the bodies of ghosts and spirits and heard their voices, how can we say that they do not exist? If none have heard them and none have seen them, then how can we say they do? But those who deny the existence of the spirits say: "Many in the world have heard and seen something of ghosts and spirits. Since they vary in testimony, who are to be accepted as really having heard and seen them?" Mo Tzu said: As we are to rely on what many have jointly seen and what many have jointly heard, the case of Tu Po is to be accepted." http://www.cic.sfu.ca/nacc/articles/legalmohist/mozi_mei/wadegiles/momei_31wg1.html The Ethical and Political Works of Motse [Mo-tzu] Book VIII, Chapter XXXI "On Ghosts (III) Electronic republication of the translation by W. P. Mei (London: Probsthain, 1929) Retrieved December 19, 2006 The Hebrew Torah and the Bible contain few references to ghosts, associating spiritism with forbidden occult activities cf. Deuteronomy 18:11. The most notable reference is in the First Book of Samuel (I Samuel 28:7-19 KJV), in which a disguised King Saul has the Witch of Endor summon the spirit of Samuel. In the New Testament, Jesus has to persuade the Disciples that he is not a ghost following the resurrection, Luke 24:37-39 (note that some versions of the Bible, such as the KJV and NKJV, use the term "spirit"). In a similar vein, Jesus' followers at first believe him to be a ghost (spirit) when they see him walking on water. A celebrated account of a haunted house, from the ancient classical world, is given by Pliny the Younger (c. (50 AD). Pliny describes, in a letter to a friend, how Athenodoros Cananites (c. 74 BC – 7 AD), a Stoic philosopher, decided to rent a large house in Athens, to investigate widespread rumors that it was haunted. Athenodoros staked out at the house that night, and, sure enough, a disheveled, aged spectre, bound at feet and hands with rattling chains, eventually appeared. The spirit then beckoned for Athenodoros to follow him; Athenodoros complied, but the ghost soon vanished. The philosopher marked the spot where the old man had disappeared, and, on the next day, advised the magistrates to dig there. The man's shackled bones were reportedly uncovered three years later. After a proper burial, the hauntings ceased. One of the first persons to express disbelief in ghosts was Lucian of Samosata in the 2nd century AD. In his tale "The Doubter" (circa 150 AD) he relates how Democritus "the learned man from Abdera in Thrace" lived in a tomb outside the city gates in order to prove that cemeteries were not haunted by the spirits of the departed. Lucian relates how he persisted in his disbelief despite practical jokes perpetrated by "some young men of Abdera" who dressed up in shrouds with skull masks in order to give him a fright. "The Doubter" by Lucian in Roger Lancelyn Green (1970) Thirteen Uncanny Tales. London, Dent: 14-21 Middle Ages From the medieval period an apparition of a ghost is recorded from 1211, at the time of the Albigensian Crusade Mark Gregory Pegg (2008) A Most Holy War. Oxford University Press, New York: 3-5, 116-117. ISBN 978-0-19-517131-0 . Gervase of Tilbury, Marshal of Arles, wrote that the image of Guilhem, a boy recently murdered in the forest, appeared in his cousin's home in Beaucaire, near Avignon. This series of "visits" lasted all of the summer. Through his cousin, who spoke for him, the boy allegedly held conversations with anyone who wished, until the local priest requested to speak to the boy directly, leading to an extended disquisition on theology. The boy narrated the trauma of death and the unhappiness of his fellow souls in Purgatory, and reported that God was most pleased with the ongoing Crusade against the Cathar heretics, launched three years earlier. The time of the Albigensian Crusade in southern France was marked by intense and prolonged warfare, this constant bloodshed and dislocation of populations being the context for these reported visits by the murdered boy. Renaissance to Romanticism Renaissance magic took a revived interest in the occult, including necromancy. The Child ballad Sweet William's Ghost (1868) recounts the story of a ghost returning to beg a woman to free him from his promise to marry her, as he obviously cannot being dead; her refusal would mean his damnation. This reflects a popular British belief that the dead would haunt their lovers if they took up with a new love without some formal release. Francis James Child, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, v 2, p 227, Dover Publications, New York 1965 The Unquiet Grave expresses a belief even more widespread, found in various locations over Europe: ghosts can stem from the excessive grief of the living, whose mourning interferes with the dead's peaceful rest. Francis James Child, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, v 2, p 234, Dover Publications, New York 1965 In many folktales from around the world, the hero arranges for the burial of a dead man. Soon after, he gains a companion who aids him and, in the end, the hero's companion reveals that he is in fact the dead man. Instances of this include the Italian fairy tale Fair Brow and the Swedish The Bird 'Grip'. Modern period In 1848, the Fox sisters of Hydesfield in New York State, claimed to have communication with the disembodied spirits of the dead and launched the Spiritualist movement, which claimed many adherents in the nineteenth century. John Fairley and Simon Welfare (1985) Arthur C Clarke's World of Strange Powers: 251 The claims of spiritualists and others as to the reality of ghosts were investigated by the Society for Psychical Research, founded in London in 1882. The Society set up a Committee on Haunted Houses and a Literary Committee which looked at the literature on the subject. John Fairley and Simon Welfare (1985) Arthur C Clarke's World of Strange Powers: 251 Apparitions of the recently deceased, at the moment of their death, to their friends and relations, were very commonly reported. John Fairley and Simon Welfare (1985) Arthur C Clarke's World of Strange Powers: 132-5 Christina Hole (1950) Haunted England: 13-27 One celebrated example was the strange appearance of Vice-Admiral Sir George Tryon, walking through the drawing room of his family home in Eaton Square, London, looking straight ahead, without exchanging a word to anyone, in front of several guests at a party being given by his wife on 22 June 1893 whilst he was supposed to be in a ship of the Mediterranean Squadron, manoeuvering of the coast of Syria. Subsequently it was reported that he had gone down with his ship, the HMS Victoria, that very same night, after it had collided with the HMS Camperdown following an unexplained and bizarre order to turn the ship in the direction of the other vessel. Christina Hole (1950) Haunted England: 21-22 Such crisis apparitions have received serious study by parapsychologists with various explanations given to account for them, including telepathy, as well as the traditional view that they represent disembodied spirits. Richard Cavendish (1994) The World of Ghosts and the Supernatural. Waymark Publications, Basingstoke: 35 Summoning or exorcising the shades of the departed is an item of belief and religious practice for spiritualists and practitioners of ritual magic. According to a poll conducted in 2005 by the Gallup Organization about 32% of Americans "believe in the existence of ghosts". By culture Asia are figures in Japanese folklore, analogous to Western legends of ghosts. The name consists of two kanji, (yū), meaning "faint" or "dim" and (rei), meaning "soul" or "spirit." Like their Western counterparts, they are thought to be spirits kept from a peaceful afterlife. See also Yokai, Obake. Ancestor worship is central to Chinese folk religion. Other than the Qingming and Chongyang festivals, descendants should pay tributes to ancestors during the Zhongyuanjie, more commonly known as the Ghost Festival. Traditionally, other than the tombstones or urn-covers, descendants are expected to install altar () in their homes to which they would pay homage regularly in the day, with joss sticks and tea. The ancestors, parents or grandparents, are worshiped or venerated as if they are still living. See also Chinese ghosts, Ghosts in Malay culture, ghost money, Hell bank note. The Hindu Garuda Purana discusses ghosts. Vedic cosmology, accessed February 27, 2007 Ghosts in Bengali culture are a recurrent motives both in fairy tales and in modern day Bengali literature as well, references to ghosts may be often found. It is believed that the spirits of those who cannot find peace in the afterlife or die unnatural deaths remain on Earth. The common word for ghosts in Bengali is bhut (). In Central and Northern Asia, Shaman spirit guides play a central role. Near East and Mediterranean The Greek underworld (Tartarus) from its Near Eastern templates (compare Hebrew Gehenna and Babylonian Kurnugia), depicts the spirits of the deceased as "shadows" languishing underground. They can be visited by heroes venturing a descent to the underworld, or they can be conjured as apparitions by seers or necromancers. The Christian Hell is a direct continuation of these underworlds. The Greek Hero cult involved the apotheosis of selected individuals after their death. Ishara was a Near Eastern goddess associated with the underworld. Her name may continue a Proto-Indo-European notion, cognate to Welsh (Irish , from Proto-Celtic "white ghost". Pre-Columbian Americas In Aztec mythology, the Cihuateteo were the spirits of human women who died in childbirth. They haunted crossroads at night, stealing children and causing sicknesses, especially seizures and madness, and seducing men to sexual misbehavior. European folklore and modern Western culture Belief in ghosts in European folklore is characterized by the recurring fear of "returning" or revenant deceased which may harm the living. This includes the Scandinavian gjenganger, the Romanian strigoi, the Serbian vampir, the Greek vrykolakas, etc. British folklore is particularly notable for its numerous haunted locations. Popular folklore has always been dismissed as superstition by the educated elite, but of course belief in the soul and an afterlife remained near universal until the emergence of atheism in the 18th century "Age of Enlightenment". 19th century spiritism resurrected "belief in ghosts" as the object of systematic inquiry and popular opinion in Western culture remains divided. Paul Chambers (2006) The Cock Lane Ghost. London, Sutton: 61-2 19th century Spiritism has exerted a lasting influence on the Western perception of ghosts. Spiritist séances together with pseudoscientific explanations like ectoplasm and spirit photography appeared to give a quality of scientific method to apparitions. Such approaches to the "paranormal" have become a familiar topos in Western popular culture. The Ghost Club, founded in London in 1862, was an early "ghost hunting" organization. Underwood, Peter (1978) "Dictionary of the Supernatural", Harrap Ltd., ISBN 0245527842, Page 144 Famous members of the club have included Charles Dickens, Sir William Crookes, Sir William Fletcher Barrett and Harry Price. In modern culture and fiction 19th century etching by John Leech of the Ghost of Christmas Present as depicted in Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol Ghosts are prominent in the popular cultures of various nations. The ghost story is ubiquitous across all cultures from oral folktales to works of literature. The 5th century BC play Oresteia contains the ghost of Agamemnon, one of the first ghosts to appear in a work of fiction. Legends about haunted houses have long appeared in literature. Haunting is used as a plot device in gothic or horror fiction or, more lately, paranormal-based fiction. Roman-era authors Plautus, Pliny the Younger and Lucian wrote stories about haunted houses, as did the Arabian Nights (such as the tale of "Ali the Cairene and the Haunted House in Baghdad"), Literature Perhaps the most recognizable ghost in English literature is the shade of Hamlet's murdered father in the play The Tragical History of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. In Hamlet, it is the ghost who demands that Prince Hamlet investigate his "murder most foul" and seek revenge upon his usurping uncle, King Claudius. In the play Macbeth, Banquo returns as a ghost to the dismay of the title character. One of the key early appearances by ghosts a gothic tale was The Castle of Otranto by Horace Walpole in 1764. Possibly the next most famous apparitions are the ghosts of A Christmas Carol, where the ghosts of his former colleague Jacob Marley, Christmas Past, Christmas Present and Christmas Yet to Come help Ebenezer Scrooge see the error of his ways. Oscar Wilde's comedy The Canterville Ghost has been adapted for film and television on several occasions. Henry James's The Turn of the Screw has also appeared in a number of adaptations, notably the film The Innocents and Benjamin Britten's opera The Turn of the Screw. Noël Coward's play Blithe Spirit, later made into a film, places a more humorous slant on the phenomenon of haunting of individuals and specific locations. Washington Irving's short story "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" (1820), based on an earlier German folktale, features a Headless Horseman. It has been adapted for film and television many times, most notably in Sleepy Hollow, a successful 1999 feature film. Sleepy Hollow at Box Office Mojo, accessed 29 January, 2009 Legends from further afield have been featured in literature; Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things is a 1904 collection of Japanese folk tales on ghosts by Lafcadio Hearn, and later made into a film. Ghost Stations is a series of books by the British military historian Bruce Barrymore Halpenny, containing ostensibly "true ghost and mystery stories" generally connected to the RAF, airfields and other military or war connected stories. Ghost Stations: An Interview with Bruce Barrymore Halpenny Peter Underwood, is also noted for his ghost books containing ostensibly "true ghost stories", such as, Ghosts of Borley and Patrick Lafcadio Hearn is widely respected for his work into Japanese ghost stories Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things (Forgotten Books) (Paperback) Film and television Films including or centering on ghosts are common, and span a variety of genres; the works of Shakespeare, Dickens and Wilde have all been made into cinematic versions. Novel-length tales have been difficult to adapt to cinema, although that of The Haunting of Hill House to The Haunting in 1963 is an exception. Film poster for "The Ghost and Mrs. Muir" Sentimental depictions have been more popular on cinema than horror, and include the 1947 film The Ghost and Mrs. Muir, which was later adapted to television with a successful 1968-70 TV series. A common theme in romance or drama is the ghost as a benign guide or messenger, often with unfinished business, such as 1989's Field of Dreams, the 1990 film Ghost, the 1993 comedy Heart and Souls, and the 2003 thriller Gothika. Genuine horror films include 1944's The Uninvited, 1945's Dead of Night, 1980's The Fog, and 1988s The Lady in White. Freddy Krueger of the A Nightmare on Elm Street series is a notable modern ghost. Asian cinema has been adept at producing horror films about ghosts, such as the 1998 Japanese film Ringu (remade in America as The Ring in 2002), and the Pang brothers' 2002 film The Eye. Ghosts can also be found in various television programs. Ghosts have been popular in children's media such as Casper the Friendly Ghost, created in the 1930s and appearing in comics, animated cartoons and a eventually 1995 feature film, his cousin Spooky and the Ghostly Trio. Popularised in such films as the 1983 comedy Ghostbusters, the ghost hunting theme has been utilised in reality television series particularly Ghost Hunters and Ghost Hunters International, but also Most Haunted, and A Haunting. It is also represented in children's television by such programmes as The Ghost Hunter and Canada's own ''Ghost Trackers'. Paranormal and scientific explanations Some researchers, such as Professor Michael Persinger (Laurentian University, Canada), have speculated that changes in geomagnetic fields (created, e.g., by tectonic stresses in the Earth's crust or solar activity) could stimulate the brain's temporal lobes and produce many of the experiences associated with hauntings. This theory has been tested in various ways. Some scientists have examined the relationship between the time of onset of unusual phenomena in allegedly haunted locations and any sudden increases in global geomagnetic activity. Others have investigated whether the location of alleged hauntings is associated with certain types of magnetic activity. Finally, a third strand of work has involved laboratory studies in which stimulation of the temporal lobe with transcerebral magnetic fields has elicited subjective experiences that strongly parallel phenomena associated with hauntings. All of this work is controversial; it has attracted a large amount of debate and disagreement. Sound is thought to be another cause of supposed sightings. Frequencies lower than 20 hertz are called infrasound and are normally inaudible, but scientists Richard Lord and Richard Wiseman have concluded that infrasound can cause humans to experience bizarre feelings in a room, such as anxiety, extreme sorrow, a feeling of being watched, or even the chills. Carbon monoxide poisoning, which can cause changes in perception of the visual and auditory systems, was recognized as a possible explanation for haunted houses as early as 1921. According to the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry to date, there is no credible scientific evidence that any location is inhabited by spirits of the dead. Critics of "eyewitness ghost sightings" suggest that limitations of human perception and ordinary physical explanations can account for such sightings; for example, air pressure changes in a home causing doors to slam, or lights from a passing car are reflected through a window at night. Pareidolia, an innate tendency to recognize patterns in random perceptions, is what some skeptics believe causes people to believe that they have seen ghosts. Reports of ghosts "seen out of the corner of the eye" may be accounted for by the sensitivity of human peripheral vision. According to skeptical investigator Joe Nickell: ...peripheral vision is very sensitive and can easily mislead, especially late at night, when the brain is tired and more likely to misinterpret sights and sounds. Nickell also states that a person's belief that a location is haunted may cause them to interpret mundane events as confirmations of a haunting: Once the idea of a ghost appears in a household . . . no longer is an object merely mislaid. . . . There gets to be a dynamic in a place where the idea that it's haunted takes on a life of its own. One-of-a-kind quirks that could never be repeated all become further evidence of the haunting. See also Exorcism List of ghost films References | Ghost |@lemmatized ghost:102 define:1 disembodied:5 spirit:33 soul:17 deceased:5 person:13 merriam:3 webster:5 dictionary:6 retrieve:6 december:6 although:3 popular:10 usage:2 term:4 refer:2 apparition:8 http:5 www:5 parapsych:2 org:2 html:3 g:4 parapsychological:2 association:2 glossary:2 key:3 word:13 frequently:2 use:6 parapsychology:4 often:8 describe:2 insubstantial:1 partly:1 transparent:1 report:9 haunt:22 particular:2 location:8 people:5 associate:8 life:4 time:6 death:13 phantom:3 army:1 animal:6 train:1 ship:5 also:17 christina:4 hole:4 england:4 london:9 batsford:1 daniel:2 cohen:2 encyclopedia:4 michael:3 mara:2 book:8 poll:2 conduct:2 show:2 half:1 adult:1 united:3 state:6 believe:9 demon:4 similar:3 paranormal:4 entity:2 appear:14 film:19 theatre:1 literature:9 legend:7 myth:1 religion:4 etymology:2 synonyms:1 english:10 continue:4 old:6 gást:1 hypothetical:1 common:7 germanic:8 gaisto:1 z:1 west:1 lack:1 north:1 east:2 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4,399 | Old_Norse | Old Norse is a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during the Viking Age, until about 1300. The changing processes that distinguish Old Norse from its older form, Proto-Norse, were mostly concluded around the 8th century, and another transitional period that led up to the modern descendants of Old Norse (i.e., the modern North Germanic languages) started in the mid- to late 14th century, thereby ending the language phase known as Old Norse. These dates, however, are not absolute. For instance, one can still find written Old Norse well into the 15th century. Torp, Arne, Lars S. Vikør (1993) Most speakers of Old Norse dialects spoke the Old East Norse dialect in what are present-day Denmark and Sweden. In texts which date from the Medieval Icelandic time, writers wrote with Old Icelandic and Old Norwegian dialects. These dialects derive from the Old West Norse dialect. No clear geographical boundary exists between the two dialects. Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway and Old West Norse traits were found in western Sweden. Old Gutnish is sometimes included in the Old East Norse dialect because it is the third, least known dialect. It shares traits with both Old West Norse and Old East Norse but had also developed on its own. The Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, dnsk tunga. Speakers of the eastern dialect, spoken in Sweden and Denmark, would have said dansk tunga ("Danish tongue") or norrønt mál ("Nordic language") to name their language. Gradually, Old Norse splintered into the modern North Germanic languages: Icelandic, Faroese, Norwegian (nynorsk), Norwegian (bokmål), Danish and Swedish. Of the modern languages, Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system. Contemporary Icelandic-speakers can understand written Old Norse, which differs slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the vowel phonemes, has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, and Gaelic (Scottish and/or Irish). Although Swedish, Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most, they still retain mutual intelligibility, although it is strongly asymmetric. J. Moberg, C. Gooskens, J. Nerbonne, N. Vaillette (2007). Conditional Entropy Measures Intelligibility among Related Languages, Proceedings of the 17th Meeting of Computational Linguistics in the Netherlands, pp. 51-66. This could be because these languages have been mutually affected by each other, as well as having a similar development influenced by Middle Low German. See, e.g., Harbert 7–10. Another language similar to Old Norse is Elfdalian, spoken in the Älvdalen municipality of Sweden, by about 1,000–5,000 speakers (various sources). Geographical distribution Old Icelandic was essentially identical to Old Norwegian, and together they formed the Old West Norse dialect of Old Norse and were also spoken in settlements in Ireland and Scotland. The Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark and Sweden and settlements in Russia, Article Nordiska språk, section Historia, subsection Omkring 800–1100, in Nationalencyklopedin (1994). England and Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in various settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language, ranging from Vinland in the West to the Volga in the East. In Russia, it survived the longest in Novgorod, probably lasting into the 13th century there. Modern descendants The modern descendants of the Old West Norse dialect are the West Scandinavian languages of Icelandic, Faroese, Norwegian and the extinct Norn language of the Orkney and the Shetland Islands; the descendents of the Old East Norse dialect are the East Scandinavian languages of Danish and Swedish. Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has been heavily influenced by East Norse, particularly during the Denmark-Norway union. Among these, Icelandic and the closely related Faroese have changed the least from Old Norse in the last thousand years, although with Danish rule of the Faroe Islands Faroese has also been influenced by Danish. Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and particularly Lowland Scots, which contains many Old Norse loanwords. It also influenced the development of the Norman language. Various other languages, which are not closely related, have been heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the Norman dialects, Scottish Gaelic and Waterford Irish Gaelic. Russian, Finnish and Estonian also have a number of Norse loanwords; the words Rus and Russia, according to one theory, may be named after the Rus, the name of a Norse tribe (see Etymology of Rus and derivatives). The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, respectively. Phonology Vowels The vowel phonemes mostly come in pairs of long and short. The standardized orthography marks the long vowels with an acute accent. In medieval manuscripts, it is variously marked with an accent, unmarked, or less frequently geminated. All phonemes have, more or less, the expected phonetic realization. + Vowels of Old Norse Front vowels Back vowels Unrounded Rounded Unrounded RoundedClose Mid Open () Some , , , , , and all , were obtained by i-mutation from , , , , , and respectively. Some , , , , and all , were obtained by u-mutation from , , , , and , respectively. The long open back rounded vowel does not appear in Old Norse texts of the classical period. It seems to have existed in an earlier stage of the language, and to have merged with before the classical period. See Old Norse Online, by Todd B. Krause and Jonathan Slocum. Consonants Old Norse has six stop phonemes. Of these is rare word-initially and and do not occur between vowels, because of the fricative allophones of the Proto-Germanic language (e.g. *b *[β] > v between vowels). The phoneme is realized as a voiced velar fricative inside words and wordfinally, except when it is geminated. Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Labiovelar Glottal Stop Nasal () Fricative () () () () Trill Approximant Lateral approximant The velar fricative is an allophone of and before and . Orthography The standardized Old Norse spelling was created in the 19th century, and is for the most part phonemic. The most notable deviation is that the non-phonemic difference between the voiced and the unvoiced dental fricatives is marked — the oldest texts as well as runic inscriptions use þ exclusively. Long vowels are denoted with acutes. Most other letters are written with the same glyph as the IPA phoneme, except as shown in the table below. There was no standardized orthography in use in the Middle Ages. A modified version of the letter wynn called vend was used briefly for the sounds , , and . Long vowels were sometimes marked with acutes, but also sometimes left unmarked or geminated. + Consonants Phoneme 9th-10th c. 11th-13th c. 12th-14th c. Standardized West Norse ᛒ ᛔ, ᛕ p p ᛒ ᛒ b b ᚠ ᚠ f f ᚠ ᚡ f, ff, u, ffu f ᛏ ᛐ t t ᛏ ᛑ d d ᚦ ᚦ þ, th þ ᚦ ᚧ þ, th ð ᛋ ᛌ s s ᛋ ᛌ s, z z ᚴ ᚴ k, c k ᚴ ᚵ g g ᚴ ᚵ g, gh g ᚼ ᚼ h h ᛘ ᛘ m m ᚾ ᚿ n n ᚱ ᚱ r r ᛦ ᛧ r r ᛚ ᛚ l l ᛁ ᛁ i j ᚢ ᚢ u, w, ƿ, ꝩ v + Vowels Phoneme 9th-10th c. 11th-13th c. 12th-14th c. Printed West Norse ᛁ ᛁ i, ii, í í ᛁ ᛁ i i (unstressed) ᛁ ᛁ , ᛅ i, e, æ i ᛁ ᚽ e, ee, é, æ, ææ é ᛁ, ᛁᚬ ᛅ e, æ e ᛅ, ᚬ ᛅ æ, ææ, ę æ ᛅ, ᚬ ᛅ e, ę e ᛅ, ᚬ ᛆ a, aa á ᛅ, ᚬ ᛆ a a (unstressed) ᛅ, ᚬ ᛆ a, æ a ᚢ ᚤ, ᛦ y, yy ý ᚢ ᚤ, ᛦ y y ᚢ ᚯ ø, øø, ǿ, ǫ œ ᚢ , ᛅᚢ ᚯ ø, ǫ ø ᚢ ᚢ u, uu, ú ú ᚢ ᚢ u u (unstressed) ᚢ ᚢ, ᚮ u, o u ᚢ ᚮ o, oo, ó ó ᚢ ᚮ o o ᛅ, ᛅᚢ ᛆ a, aa, á, ó á, ǫ́ ᛅ, ᛅᚢ ᛆ W ǫ, o / E a, ø ǫ ᛁ ᚢ ᛁ ᚢ iu, iú jú ᛁ ᚢ ᛁ ᚢ W io, ió / E iu jó ᛁ ᛅ ᛁ ᛆ W io, iǫ / E io, iø jǫ ᛁ ᛅ ᛁ ᛆ ia ja ᛅᛁ ᛅᛁ / ᚽ W ei / E e, ee e ᛅᚢ ᛆᚢ / ᚯ W au / E ø, øø au ᛅᚢ ᛆᚢ / ᚯ W ey / E ø, øø ey Grammar Old Norse was a highly inflected language. Most of the grammatical complexity is retained in modern Icelandic, whereas modern Norwegian has a very simplified grammatical system. Old Norse nouns could have three grammatical genders – masculine, feminine or neuter. Nouns, adjectives and pronouns were declined in four grammatical cases – nominative, accusative, genitive and dative, in singular and plural. Some pronouns (first and second person) could have dual number in addition to singular and plural. There were several classes of nouns within each gender, the following is an example of some typical inflectional paradigms: The masculine noun armr (English arm) Case Singular Plural Nominative armr armar Accusative arm arma Genitive arms arma Dative armi rmum/armum The feminine noun hll (OWN), hall (OEN) (English hall) Case Singular Plural Nominative hll/hall hallir/hallar (OEN) Accusative hll/hall hallir/hallar (OEN) Genitive hallar halla Dative hllu/hallu hllum/hallum The neuter noun troll (English troll): Case Singular Plural Nominative troll troll Accusative troll troll Genitive trolls trolla Dative trolli trollum The definite article was expressed as a suffix, e.g. troll (a troll) – trollit (the troll), hll ( a hall) – hllin (the hall), armr (an arm) – armrinn (the arm). Verb Verbs were conjugated in person and number, in present and past tense, in indicative, imperative and subjunctive mood. VERBS A. WEAK VERBS, i.e. Verbs in which the preterite is formed by adding a termination. 1st Conjugationcharacteristic vowel a 2nd Conjugationcharacteristic vowel i 3rd Conjugationcharacteristic vowel i 4th Conjugationcharacteristic vowel i INDIC. Pres. Sing. 1. boð-a kall-a dœm-i fylg-i gleð spyr vak-i dug-i 2. boð-ar kall-ar dœm-ir fylg-ir gleð-r spyr-r vak-ir dug-ir 3. boð-ar kall-ar dœm-ir fylg-ir gleð-r spyr-r vak-ir dug-ir Plur. 1. boð-um kǫll-um dœm-um fylg-jum gleð-jum spyr-jum vǫk-um dug-um 2. boð-ið (-it) kall-ið dœm-ið fylg-ið gleð-ið spyr-ið vak-ið dug-ið 3. boð-a kall-a dœm-a fylg-ja gleð-ja spyr-ja vak-a dug-a Pret. Sing. 1. boð-aða kall-aða dœm-da fylg-da glad-da spur-ða vak-ta dug-ða 2. boð-aðir kall-aðir dœm-dir fylg-dir glad-dir spur-ðir vak-tir dug-ðir 3. boð-aði kall-aði dœm-di fylg-di glad-di spur-ði vak-ti dug-ði Plur. 1. boð-uðum kǫll-uðum dœm-dum fylg-dum glǫd-dum spur-ðum vǫk-tum dug-ðum 2. boð-uðuð kǫll-uðuð dœm-duð fylg-duð glǫd-duð spur-ðuð vǫk-tuð dug-ðuð 3. boð-uðu kǫll-uðu dœm-du fylg-du glǫd-du spur-ðu vǫk-tu dug-ðu IMPERAT. boð-a kall-a dœm fylg gleð spyr vak (vak-i) dug (dug-i) SUBJ. Pres. Sing. 1. boð-a kall-a dœm-a fylg-ja gleð-ja spyr-ja vak-a dug-a 2. boð-ir kall-ir dœm-ir fylg-ir gleð-ir spyr-ir vak-ir dug-ir 3. boð-i kall-i dœm-i fylg-i gleð-i spyr-i vak-i dug-i Plur. 1. boð-im kall-im dœm-im fylg-im gleð-im spyr-im vak-im dug-im 2. boð-ið kall-ið dœm-ið fylg-ið gleð-ið spyr-ið vak-ið dug-ið 3. boð-i kall-i dœm-i fylg-i gleð-i spyr-i vak-i dug-i Pret. Sing. 1. boð-aða kall-aða dœm-da fylg-da gled-da spyr-ða vek-ta dyg-ða 2. boð-aðir kall-aðir dœm-dir fylg-dir gled-dir spyr-ðir vek-tir dyg-ðir 3. boð-aði kall-aði dœm-di fylg-di gled-di spyr-ði vek-ti dyg-ði Plur. 1. boð-aðim kall-aðim dœm-dim fylg-dim gled-dim spyr-ðim vek-tim dyg-ðim 2. boð-aðið kall-aðið dœm-dið fylg-dið gled-dið spyr-ðið vek-tið dyg-ðið 3. boð-aði kall-aði dœm-di fylg-di gled-di spyr-ði vek-ti dyg-ði INFIN. boð-a kall-a dœm-a fylg-ja gleð-ja spyr-ja vak-a dug-a PART. Act. boð-andi kall-andi dœm-andi fylg-jandi gleð-jandi spyr-jandi vak-andi dug-andi PART. Pass. Masc. boð-aðr kall-aðr dœm-dr glad-dr spur-ðr Fem. boð-uð kǫll-uð dœm-d glǫd-d spur-ð Neut. boð-at kall-at dœm-t fylg-t glat-t spur-t vak-at dug-at B. STRONG VERBS, i.e. Verbs in which the Preterite and Participle Passive are formed by changing the Root Vowel. 1st Class 2nd Class 3rd Class 4th Class 5th and 6th Class 7th Class Ablaut patterns i (e) : a : u í : ei : i jó : au : u. a : ó : a e : a : á : e / o á (a): é (e) : á (a)au : jó : au INDIC. Pres. Sing. 1. brenn rís býð fer gef ber græt hleyp 2. brenn-r rís-s býð-r fer-r gef-r ber-r græt-r hleyp-r 3. brenn-r rís-s býð-r fer-r gef-r ber-r græt-r hleyp-r Plur. 1. brenn-um rís-um bjóð-um fǫr-um gef-um ber-um grát-um hlaup-um 2. brenn-ið rís-ið bjóð-ið far-ið gef-ið ber-ið grát-ið hlaup-ið 3. brenn-a rís-a bjóð-a far-a gef-a ber-a grát-a hlaup-a Pret. Sing. 1. brann reis bauð fór gaf bar grét hljóp 2. brann-t reis-t baut-t fór-t gaf-t bar-t grét-st hljóp-t 3. brann reis bauð fór gaf bar grét hljóp Plur. 1. brunn-um ris-um buð-um fór-um gáf-um bár-um grét-um hljóp-um 2. brunn-uð ris-uð buð-uð fór-uð gáf-uð bár-uð grét-uð hljóp-uð 3. brunn-u ris-u buð-u fór-u gáf-u bár-u grét-u hljóp-u IMPERAT. brenn rís bjóð far gef ber grát hlaup SUBJ. Pres. Sing. 1 brenn-a rís-a bjóð-a far-a gef-a ber-a grát-a hlaup-a 2. brenn-ir rís-ir bjóð-ir far-ir gef-ir ber-ir grát-ir hlaup-ir 3. brenn-i rís-i bjóð-i far-i gef-i ber-i grát-i hlaup-i Plur. 1. brenn-im rís-im bjóð-im far-im gef-im ber-im grát-im hlaup-im 2. brenn-ið rís-ið bjóð-ið far-ið gef-ið ber-ið grát-ið hlaup-ið 3. brenn-i rís-i bjóð-i far-i gef-i ber-i grát-i hlaup-i Pret. Sing. 1. brynn-a ris-a byð-a fœr-a gæf-a bær-a grét-a hlyp-a 2. brynn-ir ris-ir byð-ir fœr-ir gæf-ir bær-ir grét-ir hlyp-ir 3. brynn-i ris-i byð-i fœr-i gæf-i bær-i grét-i hlyp-i Plur. 1. brynn-im ris-im byð-im fœr-im gæf-im bær-im grét-im hlyp-im 2. brynn-ið ris-ið byð-ið fœr-ið gæf-ið bær-ið grét-ið hlyp-ið 3. brynn-i ris-i byð-i fœr-i gæf-i bær-i grét-i hlyp-i INFIN. brenn-a rís-a bjóð-a far-a gef-a ber-a grát-a hlaup-a PART. Act. brenn-andi rís-andi bjóð-andi far-andi gef-andi ber-andi grát-andi hlaup-andi PART. Pass. Masc. brunn-inn ris-inn boð-inn far-inn gef-inn bor-inn grát-inn hlaup-inn Fem. brunn-in ris-in boð-in far-in gef-in bor-in grát-in hlaup-in Neut. brunn-it ris-it boð-it far-it gef-it bor-it grát-it hlaup-it THE VERB SUBSTANTIVE INDIC. Pres. Sing. 1. em Pret. var (vas) IMPERAT. SUBJ. Pres. sjá, sé Pret. vær-a INFIN. ver-a PAST PART. ver-it 2. er-t var-t ver (ver-tu) sé-r vær-ir 3. er (es) var (vas) sé vær-i Plur. 1. er-um vár-um sé-m vær-im 2. er-uð vár-uð verið sé-ð vær-ið 3 er-u vár-u sé vær-i TEN VERBS WITH PRESENT IN PRETERITE FORM. INDIC. Pres. Sing. 1. á kná má skal kann mun (mon) man þarf ann veit 2. á-tt kná-tt má-tt skal-t kann-t mun-t man-t þarf-t ann-t veiz-t 3. á kná má skal kann mun man þarf ann veit Plur. 1. eig-um kneg-um meg-um skul-um kunn-um mun-um mun-um þurf-um unn-um vit-um 2. eig-uð kneg-uð meg-uð skul-uð kunn-uð mun-uð mun-ið þurf-ið unn-ið vit-uð 3. eig-u kneg-u meg-u skul-u kunn-u mun-u mun-a þurf-a unn-a vit-u Pret. Sing. 1. á-tta kná-tta má-tta kunn-a mun-da mun-da þurf-a unn-a vis-sa as regular weak verbs IMPERAT. eig kunn mun unn vit SUBJ. Pres. Sing. 1. eig-a kneg-a meg-a skyl-a kunn-a myn-a mun-a þurf-a unn-a vit-a as regular weak verbs Pret. Sing. 1. ætt-a knætt-a mætt-a skyl-da kynn-a myn-da myn-da þyrf-ta ynn-a vis-sa as regular weak verbs INFIN. Pres. eig-a meg-a skyl-u kunn-a mun-u mun-a þurf-a unn-a vit-a Pret. knúttu skyl-du mun-du PART. Act. eig-andi meg-andi kunn-andi mun-andi þurf-andi unn-andi vit-andi PART</font>. Pass. Neut. ú-tt má-tt kunn-at mun-at þurf-t unn-(a)t vit-at EIGHT VERBS WITH THE PRETERITE IN -ra. INDIC. Pres. Sing. 3. rœ-r grœ-r sæ-r gný-r sný-r frý-r kýs-s slæ-r veld-r Plur. 3. ró-a gró-a sá gnú-a snú-a frjós-a kjós-a slá vald-a Pret. Sing. 3. rø-ri grø-ri sø-ri gnø-ri snø-ri frø-ri kø-ri slø-ri ol-li (or re-ri gre-ri se-ri gne-ri sne-ri fre-ri ke-ri sle-ri) IMPERAT. ró gró sá gnú snú frjó-s kjós slá vald SUBJ. Pret. Sing. 3. rø-ri grø-ri sø-ri gnø-ri snø-ri frø-ri kø-ri slø-ri yll-i INFIN. ró-a gró-a sá gnú-a snú-a frjós-a kjós-a slá vald-a PART. Pass. ró-inn gró-inn sá-inn gnú-inn snú-inn fros-inn kos-inn sleg-inn vald-it frør-inn kør-inn D. VERBS WITH THE REFLEXIVE OR RECIPROCAL SUFFIX -sk, -z, -st (-mk). Present. Preterite. Present. Preterite. Indic. Subj. Indic. Subj. Indic. Subj. Indic. Subj. Sing. 1. kalla-st kalli-st kallaði-st kallaði-st læzt láti-st lézt léti-st 2. kalla-st kalli-st kallaði-st kallaði-st læzt láti-st lézt léti-st 3. kalla-st kalli-st kallaði-st kallaði-st læzt láti-st lézt léti-st Plur. 1. kǫllu-mk kalli-mk kǫlluðu-mk kallaði-mk látu-mk láti-mk létu-mk léti-mk 2. kalli-zt kalli-zt kǫlluðu-zt kallaði-zt láti-zt láti-zt létu-zt léti-zt 3. kalla-st kalli-st kǫlluðu-st kallaði-st láta-st láti-st létu-st léti-st PART. Pass. Neut. kalla-zt, láti-zt, (glað-zt, gefi-zt, bori-zt,) etc. E. VERBS WITH THE NEGATIVE SUFFIX. Pres. Pret. Pres. Pret. Pres. Pret. Pres. Pret. INDIC. Sing. 1. em-k-at var-k-at(vas-k-at) skal-k-at skyldi-g-a mon-k-a mundi-g-a hyk-k-at átti-g-a 2. ert-at-tu vart-at-tu skalt-at-tu skyldir-a mont-at-tu mundir-a hyggr-at áttir-a 3. er-at (es-at) var-at (vas-at) skal-at skyldi-t mon-at mundi-t hyggr-at átti-t Plur. 3. eru-t váru-t skulu-t skyldu-t monu-t mundi-t hyggja-t áttu-t IMPERAT. ver-at-tu (be not thou!), lát-at-tu (let not thou!), grát-at-tu (weep not thou!), etc. Texts The earliest inscriptions in Old Norse are runic, from the 8th century. Runes continued to be commonly used until the 15th century and have been recorded to be in use in some form as late as the 19th century in some parts of Sweden. With the conversion to Christianity in the 11th century came the Latin alphabet. The oldest preserved texts in Old Norse in the Latin alphabet date from the middle of the 12th century. Subsequently, Old Norse became the vehicle of a large and varied body of vernacular literature, unique in medieval Europe. Most of the surviving literature was written in Iceland. Best known are the Norse sagas, the Icelanders' sagas and the mythological literature, but there also survives a large body of religious literature, translations into Old Norse of courtly romances, classical mythology, the Old Testament, as well as instructional material, grammatical treatises and a large body of letters and official documents. See, e.g., O'Donoghue 22–102. Relationship to English Old English and Old Norse were closely related languages, and it is therefore not surprising that many words in Old Norse look familiar to English speakers, e.g. armr (arm), fótr (foot), land (land), fullr (full), hanga (to hang), standa (to stand), etc. This is because both English and Old Norse date back to Proto-Germanic. In addition, a large number of common, everyday Old Norse words mainly of East Norse origin were adopted into the Old English language during the Viking age. A few examples of Old Norse loanwords in modern English are (English/Viking age Old East Norse): Nouns – anger (angr), bag (baggi), bait (bæit, bæita, bæiti), band (band), bark (brkR, stem bark-), birth (byrðr), dirt (drit), dregs (dræggiaR), egg (ægg, related to OE. cognate "æg" which became Middle English "eye"/"eai"), fellow (félagi), gap (gap), husband (húsbóndi), cake (kaka), keel (kilR, stem also kial-, kil-), kid (kið), knife (knífR), law (lg, stem lag-), leg (læggR), link (hlænkR), loan (lán), race (rs, stem rás-), root (rót), sale (sala), scrap (skrap), seat (sæti), sister (systir, related to OE. cognate "sweostor"), skill (skial/skil), skin (skinn), skirt (skyrta vs. the native English shirt of the same root), sky (ský), slaughter (slátr), snare (snara), steak (stæik), thrift (þrift), tidings (tíðindi), trust (traust), window (vindauga), wing (væ(i)ngR) Verbs – are (er, displacing OE "sind") blend (blanda), call (kalla), cast (kasta), clip (klippa), crawl (krafla), cut (possibly from ON kuta), die (døyia), gasp (gæispa), get (geta), give (gifa/gefa, related to OE. cognate "giefan"), glitter (glitra), hit (hitta), lift (lyfta), raise (ræisa), ransack (rannsaka), rid (ryðia), run (rinna, stem rinn-/rann-/runn-, related to OE. cognate "rinnan"), scare (skirra), scrape (skrapa), seem (søma), sprint (sprinta), take (taka), thrive (þrífa(s)), thrust (þrysta), want (vanta) Adjectives – flat (flatr), happy (happ), ill (illr), likely (líklígR), loose (lauss), low (lágR), meek (miúkR), odd (odda), rotten (rotinn/rutinn), scant (skamt), sly (sløgR), weak (væikR), wrong (vrangR) Adverbs – thwart/athwart (þvert) Prepositions – till (til), fro (frá) Conjunction – though/tho (þó) Interjection – hail (hæill), wassail (ves hæill) Personal pronoun – they (þæiR), their (þæiRa), them (þæim) (for which the Anglo-Saxons said híe, O'Donoghue 190-201; Lass 187-188. hiera, him) Prenominal adjectives – same (sami) In a simple sentence like "They are both weak" the extent of the Old Norse loanwords becomes quite clear (Old East Norse with archaic pronunciation: "ÞæiR eRu báðiR wæikiR" while Old English "híe syndon bégen (þá) wáce"). The words "they" and "weak" are both borrowed from Old Norse, and the word "both" might also be a borrowing, though this is still disputed by some. While the number of loanwords adopted from the Scandinavians wasn't as numerous as that of Norman French or Latin, their depth and every day nature make them a substantial and very important part of every day English speech as they are part of the very core of the modern English vocabulary. Words like "bull" and "Thursday" are more difficult when it comes to their origins. "Bull" may be from either Old English "bula" or Old Norse "buli" while "Thursday" may be a borrowing, or it could simply be from the Old English "Þunresdæg" which could have been influenced by the Old Norse cognate. The word "are" is from Old English "earun"/"aron" as well as the Old Norse cognates. Dialects As Proto-Norse evolved into Old Norse, in the 8th century, the effects of the umlauts seem to have been very much the same over the whole Old Norse area. But in later dialects of the language a split occurred mainly between west and east as the use of umlauts began to vary. The typical umlauts (for example fylla from *fullian) were better preserved in the West due to later generalizations in the east where many instances of umlaut were removed (many archaic Eastern texts as well as eastern runic inscriptions however portray the same extent of umlauts as in later Western Old Norse). All the while the changes resulting in breaking (for example hiarta from *hertō) were more influential in the East probably once again due to generalizations within the inflectional system. This difference was one of the greatest reasons behind the dialectalization that took place in the 9th and 10th centuries shaping an Old West Norse dialect in Norway and the Atlantic settlements and an Old East Norse dialect in Denmark and Sweden. A second difference was that Old West Norse lost certain combinations of consonants. The combinations -mp-, -nt-, and -nk- were assimilated into -pp-, -tt- and -kk- in Old West Norse, but this phenomenon was limited in Old East Norse. English Old West Norse Old East Norse mushroomsteepwidow s(v)pprbrattrekkja svamperbranterænkia However, these differences were an exception. The dialects were very similar and considered to be the same language, a language that they sometimes called the Danish tongue (dnsk tunga), sometimes Norse language (norrœnt mál), as evidenced in the following two quotes from Heimskringla by Snorri Sturluson: Móðir Dyggva var Drótt, dóttir Danps konungs, sonar Rígs er fyrstr var konungr kallaðr á danska tungu. Dyggve's mother was Drott, the daughter of king Danp, Ríg's son, who was the first to be called king in the Danish tongue. …stirt var honum norrœnt mál, ok kylfdi mJk til orðanna, ok hfðu margir menn þat mJk at spotti. …the Norse language was hard for him, and he often fumbled for words, which amused people greatly. Here is a comparison between the two dialects as well as Old Gutnish. It is a transcription from one of the Funbo Runestones (U990) meaning : Veðr and Thane and Gunnar raised this stone after Haursi, their father. God help his spirit: Veðr ok Þegn ok Gunnarr reistu stein þenna at Haursa, fður sinn. Guð hjalpi nd hans. (OWN) Veðr ok Þegn ok Gunnarr ræistu stæin þenna at Haursa, faður sinn. Guð hialpi and hans (OEN) Veðr ok Þegn ok Gunnarr raistu stain þenna at Haursa, faður sinn. Guð hialpi and hans (OG) The OEN original text above is transliterated according to traditional scholar methods meaning u-umlaut is not regarded in runic Old East Norse even though more recent studies have shown that the positions where it applies are the same as for runic Old West Norse. An alternative and probably more accurate transliteration would therefore render the text in OEN as such: Veðr ok Þegn ok Gunnarr ræistu stæin þenna at Haursa, fður sinn. Guð hialpi nd hans (OEN) Old West Norse Most of the innovations that appeared in Old Norse spread evenly through the Old Norse area, but some were geographically limited and created a dialectal difference between Old West Norse and Old East Norse. One difference was that Old West Norse and Old Gutnish did not take part in the monophthongization which changed æi (ei) into ē, øy (ey) and au into . An early difference was that Old West Norse had the forms bú (dwelling), kú (accusative for cow) and trú (faith) whereas Old East Norse had bō, kō and trō. Old West Norse was also characterized by the preservation of u-umlaut, which meant that for example Proto-Norse *tanþu (tooth) was pronounced tnn and not tann as in post runic Old East Norse (compare runic OEN (Swedish) gs (goose), OWN gs while post runic OEN gās). Moreoever, there were nasal assimilations as in bekkr (bench) from Proto-Norse *bankiR (OEN bænker). The earliest body of text appears in runic inscriptions and in poems composed ca 900 by Tjodolf of Hvin. The earliest manuscripts are from the period 1150-1200 and concern both legal, religious and historical matters. During the 12th and 13th centuries, Trøndelag and Vestlandet were the most important areas of the Norwegian kingdom and they shaped Old West Norse as an archaic language with a rich set of declensions. In the body of text that has come down to us from until ca 1300, Old West Norse had little dialect variation, and Old Icelandic does not diverge much more than the Old Norwegian dialects do from each other. Old Norwegian differentiated early from Old Icelandic by the loss of the consonant h in initial position before l, n and r, thus whereas Old Icelandic manuscripts might use the form hnefi (fist), Old Norwegian manuscripts might use nefi. From the late 13th century, old Icelandic and old Norwegian started to diverge more. After c. 1350, the Black Death and following social upheavals seem to have accelerated language changes in Norway. From the late 14th century, the language used in Norway is generally referred to as Middle Norwegian. Text example The following text is from Egils saga. The manuscript is the oldest known for that saga, the so called θ-fragment from the 13th century. The text clearly shows how little Icelandic has changed structurally. The last version is legitimate Modern Icelandic, although nothing has been altered but the spelling. The text also demonstrates, however, that a modern reader might have difficulties with the unaltered manuscript text, to say nothing of the lettering. The manuscript text, letter for letter The same text in normalized, Old Norse spelling The same text in Modern IcelandicÞorgeirr blundr, systursonr Egils, var þar á þinginu ok hafði gengit hart at liðveizlu við Þorstein. Hann bað Egil ok þá Þorstein koma sér til staðfestu út þangat á Mýrar; hann bjó áðr fyrir sunnan Hvítá, fyrir neðan Blundsvatn. Egill tók vel á því ok fýsti Þorstein, at þeir léti hann þangat fara. Egill setti Þorgeir blund niðr at Ánabrekku, en Steinarr fœrði bústað sinn út yfir Langá ok settisk niðr at Leirulæk. En Egill reið heim suðr á Nes eptir þingit með flokk sinn, ok skildusk þeir feðgar með kærleik.Þorgeir blundur, systursonur Egils, var þar á þinginu og hafði gengið hart að liðveislu við Þorstein. Hann bað Egil og þá Þorstein að koma sér til staðfestu út þangað á Mýrar; hann bjó áður fyrir sunnan Hvítá, fyrir neðan Blundsvatn. Egill tók vel á því og fýsti Þorstein, að þeir létu hann þangað fara. Egill setti Þorgeir blund niður að Ánabrekku, en Steinar færði bústað sinn út yfir Langá og settist niður að Leirulæk. En Egill reið heim suður á Nes eftir þingið með flokk sinn, og skildust þeir feðgar með kærleik. Old East Norse The Rök Runestone in Östergötland, Sweden, is the longest surviving source of early Old East Norse. It is inscribed on both sides. Old East Norse, between 800 and 1100, is in Sweden called Runic Swedish and in Denmark Runic Danish, but the use of Swedish and Danish is not for linguistic reasons as the differences between them are minute at best during the more ancient stages of this dialect group (though changes had a tendency to occur earlier in the Danish region and until this day many Old Danish changes have still not taken place in modern Swedish rendering Swedish as the more archaic out of the two concerning both the ancient as well as modern languages, sometimes by a profound margin but in all differences are still minute). They are called runic because the body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark, which only had 16 letters. Because of the limited number of runes, the rune for the vowel u was also used for the vowels o, ø and y, and the rune for i was used for e. Runic Old East Norse is characteristic of being archaic in form, especially Swedish (which is still true for modern Swedish compared to Danish). In essence it corresponds to or surpasses the archaic structure of post runic Old West Norse which in its turn is generally more archaic than post runic Old East Norse. While typically "Eastern" in structure many later post runic changes and trademarks of EON had yet to happen. At the end of the 10th and early 11th century initial -h before -l, -n and -r was still preserved in the middle and northern parts of Sweden, and is sporadically still preserved in some northern dialects as g-, e.g. gly (lukewarm), from hlýR. The phoneme -R (evolved during the Proto-Norse period from -z) was still clearly separated from -r in most positions, even when being geminated (while in OWN it had already merged with -r) and the monophthongization of æi and øy/au into and respectively had yet to take place: (runic OEN) fæigR (PN *faigiaz; bound to die; dead), gæiRR (PN *gaizaz; spear), haugR (PN *haugaz; mound, pile), møydōmR (PN *mawi- + dōmaz; virginity), diūR (PN *diuza; (wild) animal) while OWN feigr, geirr, haugr, meydómr, dýr (post runic OEN fēgher, gēr, hø̄gher, mø̄dōmber, diūr). The combinations -mp-, -nt-, and -nk- were often preserved while merging into -pp-, -tt- and -kk- in Old West Norse: (runic OEN) *krimpa, (Proto-Norse *krimpan) *sprinta, (PN *sprintan) *sænkva (PN *sankwian) while OWN kreppa, spretta and søkkva (modern Swedish krympa, sprinta (dialect), sänka, modern Danish krympe, sprinte, sænke; to shrink, to sprint, to sink (transitive; compare intransitive "*sionkva" while OWN "søkkva" for both variations)). Feminine o-stems often preserve the plural ending -aR while in OWN they more often merge with the feminine i-stems: (runic OEN) *sōlaR, *hafnaR/*hamnaR, *vāgaR while OWN sólir, hafnir and vágir (modern Swedish solar, hamnar, vågar; suns, havens, scales; Danish has mainly lost the distinction between the two stems with both endings now being rendered as -er or -e alternatively for the o-stems). OEN often preserves the original value of the vowel directly preceding runic R while OWN receives R-umlaut (resulting in the same change as with i-umlaut): (runic OEN) *glaR, *haRi and hrauR while OWN gler, heri (later héri) and hrøyrr/hreyrr (modern Swedish glar (older form), hare, rör; glass, hare, pile of rocks). u-umlaut is still preserved in both phonemic and allophonic positions like in post runic Old West Norse (while sparsely preserved in post runic OEN): fður (accusative), vrðr and rn (post runic Swedish faþur, varþer, örn (u-umlaut preserved); father, guardian/care taking, eagle). The plural ending of ja-stems were mostly preserved while those of OWN often acquired that of the i-stems: *bæðiaR, *bækkiaR, *væfiaR while OWN beðir, bekkir, vefir (modern Swedish bäddar, bäckar, vävar; beds, rivers, webs). Vice versa masculine i-stems with the root ending in either g or k tended to shift the plural ending to that of the ja-stems while OWN kept the original: drængiaR, *ælgiaR and *bænkiaR while OWN drengir, elgir and bekkir (modern Swedish drängar (new meaning), älgar, bänkar; lads (farmhands), elks, benches). Until the early 12th century, Old East Norse was very much a uniform dialect. It was in Denmark that the first innovations appeared that would differentiate Old Danish from Old Swedish as these innovations spread north unevenly (unlike the earlier changes that spread more evenly over the East Norse area) creating a series of isoglosses going from Zealand to Svealand. The word final vowels -a, -o and -e (Old Norse -a, -u and -i) started to merge into -ə, represented with the letter e. At the same time, the voiceless stop consonants p, t and k became voiced stops and even fricatives. These innovations resulted in that Danish has kage (cake), tunger (tongues) and gæster (guests) whereas (Standard) Swedish has retained older forms, kaka, tungor and gäster (OEN kaka, tungur, gæstir). Moreover, in Danish a tonal word accent distinction shared with Norwegian and Swedish changed into stød around this time. In modern Swedish and Norwegian there are two tone contours (acute accent and grave accent in Swedish terminology, Tone1 and Tone2 in Norwegian), in words having tone1 in Norwegian and acute accent in Swedish is found stød in Danish. Stød is a glottal gesture considered a kind of creaky voice, and it seems to have been documented by Swedish sources as early as the 14th century Microsoft PowerPoint - nyt_om_stoedet_hum-fest_2004 . The origin of Scandinavian word tones is unclear, they may have developed from a non-distinctive tonal feature thought to have existed in Proto-Norse which then became distinctive when the endings of words were reduced in continental Old Norse. There are tonal phenomena in neither Icelandic nor Faroese. Oskar Bandle, et al.;The Nordic Languages, An International Handbook on the History of the North Germanic Languages, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 2002 Text example This is an extract from the Westrogothic law (Västgötalagen). It is the oldest text written as a manuscript found in Sweden and from the 13th century. It is contemporaneous with most of the Icelandic literature. The text marks the beginning of Old Swedish. Dræpær maþar svænskan man eller smalenskæn, innan konongsrikis man, eigh væstgøskan, bøte firi atta ørtogher ok þrettan markær ok ænga ætar bot. […] Dræpar maþær danskan man allæ noræn man, bøte niv markum. Dræpær maþær vtlænskan man, eigh ma frid flyia or landi sinu oc j æth hans. Dræpær maþær vtlænskæn prest, bøte sva mykit firi sum hærlænskan man. Præstær skal i bondalaghum væræ. Varþær suþærman dræpin ællær ænskær maþær, ta skal bøta firi marchum fiurum þem sakinæ søkir, ok tvar marchar konongi.Translation: If someone slays a Swede or a Smålander, a man from the kingdom, but not a West Geat, he will pay eight örtugar and thirteen marks, but no wergild. [...] If someone slays a Dane or a Norwegian, he will pay nine marks. If someone slays a foreigner, he shall not be banished and have to flee to his clan. If someone slays a foreign priest, he will pay as much as for a fellow countryman. A priest counts as a freeman. If a Southerner is slain or an Englishman, he shall pay four marks to the plaintiff and two marks to the king.Old Gutnish The Gutasaga is the longest text surviving from Old Gutnish. It was written in the 13th century and dealt with the early history of the Gotlanders. This part relates of the agreement that the Gotlanders had with the Swedish king sometime before the 9th century: So gingu gutar sielfs wiliandi vndir suia kunung þy at þair mattin frir Oc frelsir sykia suiariki j huerium staþ. vtan tull oc allar utgiftir. So aigu oc suiar sykia gutland firir vtan cornband ellar annur forbuþ. hegnan oc hielp sculdi kunungur gutum at waita. En þair wiþr þorftin. oc kallaþin. sendimen al oc kunungr oc ierl samulaiþ a gutnal þing senda. Oc latta þar taka scatt sinn. þair sendibuþar aighu friþ lysa gutum alla steþi til sykia yfir haf sum upsala kunungi til hoyrir. Oc so þair sum þan wegin aigu hinget sykia. Gutasaga §§4–5. Translation: So, by their own volition, the Gotlanders became the subjects of the Swedish king, so that they could travel freely and without risk to any location in the Swedish kingdom without toll and other fees. Likewise, the Swedes had the right to go to Gotland without corn restrictions or other prohibitions. The king was to provide protection and aid, when they needed it and asked for it. The king and the jarl shall send emissaries to the Gutnish thing to receive the taxes. These emissaries shall declare free passage for the Gotlanders to all locations in the sea of the king at Uppsala (that is the Baltic Sea was under Swedish control) and likewise for everyone who wanted to travel to Gotland.Note here that the diphthong ai in aigu, þair and waita is not regressively umlauted to ei as in e.g. Old Icelandic eigu, þeir and veita. Notes See also History of the Icelandic language Proto-Norse Greenlandic Norse language Old Norse orthography Old Norse poetry An Introduction to Old Norse References Gutasagan. Lars Aronsson, ed. Project Runeberg, 1997. Harbert, Wayne. The Germanic Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007. Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993. Literature Introductions Gordon, Eric V. and A.R. Taylor. An Introduction to Old Norse. Second. ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981. O'Donoghue, Heather. Old Norse-Icelandic Literature: A Short Introduction (Blackwell Introductions to Literature) Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2004. Henry Sweet, An Icelandic Primer, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary (1895) Torp, Arne, Lars S. Vikør (1993), Hovuddrag i norsk språkhistorie (3.utgåve), Gyldendal Norsk Forlag AS 2003 Dictionaries Richard Cleasby and Gudbrand Vigfusson, An Icelandic-English Dictionary (1874) G. T. Zoëga, A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic (1910) Jan de Vries, Altnordisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch'' (1977) External links «Kulturformidlingen norrøne tekster og kvad» Indo-European Language Resources The resources in question are mostly Germanic, including two dictionaries of Old Icelandic (in English), two grammars of Old Icelandic (one in English, one in German) and a grammar of Old Swedish (in German). An English Dictionary of Runic Inscriptions of the Younger Futhark, at the university of Nottingham soundsample Old Norse for Beginners Old Norse Online, by Todd B. 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